^>^r. ®lif ®.l. Bill Stbrarg Nnrtb darolttta ^tat? QloUfg? NA7110 L7 1836 NA7110 Arch. Lib. 131160 L7 1836 PERMANENT RESERVE -*~ Tm^ ■i?^ nt:' Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2009 witii funding from NCSU Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/encyclopdiaofOOIoud ENCVCLOPHIDIA OF COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE AND FURNITURE. London : Printed by A. Spottiswoodk, New-Street-Sqaare. AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE AND FURNITURE; CONTAINING NUMEROUS DESIGNS FOR DWELIilNGS, FROM THE COTTAGE TO THE VILLA, INCLUDING FARM HOUSES, FARMERIES, AND OTHER AGRICULTURAL BUILDINGS ; SEVERAL DESIGNS FOR. COUNTRY INNS, PUBLIC HOUSES, AND PAROCHIAI. SCHOOLS; WITH THE REQUISITE FITTINGS-UP. FIXTURES, AND FURNITURE ; AND APPROPRIATE OFFICES, GARDENS, AND GARDEN SCENERY; EACH DESIGN ACCOMPANIED BY analptifal anD Ccitical 3Remacfe0, ILLUSTRATIVE OP THE PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE AND TASTE ON WHICH IT IS COMPOSED. By J. C. LOUDON, F.L.S. H.S. G.S. Z.S. &c. CONDUCTOR OF THE ARCHITECTURAL MAGAZINE, ETC. ILLUSTRATED BY MORE THAN TWO THOUSAND ENGRAVINGS: The Designs by upwards of fifty different Architects, Surveyors, Builders, Upholsterers, Cabinet makers Landscape-Gardeners, and others, of whom a List is given. A STB-W EBITIOHr, WITH NUMEROUS CORRECTIONS, AND WITH MANY OF THE PLATES RE-ENGRAVED. LONDON: LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMAN; AND SOLD BY JOHN WEALE, AT THE ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY, HIGH HOLBOHN. 1836 PREFACE, All the arts of life have had their origin in some simple natural want, supplied, in the first instance, by every man for liimself ; till, with the progress of civilisation, from these wants sprang those desires and wishes, which gave rise to that division of skill and labour in supplying them, which is one of the characteristics of civilised society. Hence the origin of all the different professions, most of which, in their first existence as such, were practised by distinct associations as mysteries, unknown to, or concealed from, general society. It is in the nature of all knowledge held as mystery, to remain in a great measure stationary, because the minds which are engaged in it are necessarily few ; and because the great object of such associations is, to keep their peculiar knowledge, and the exercise of their craft, among themselves. Hence the little progress which has been made in Domestic Architecture, the science and rules of which have been almost exclusively confined to Architects, from the earliest ages to the present time. On examining into the actual state of this art, it will be found that the improvements which have been made in it in modern times, are chiefly confined to those departments which are open to the understanding, and amertable to the judgment, of mankind generally ; we mean, such as relate to comfort and convenience in the arrangement, warming, lighting, heat- ing, &c., of rooms ; whereas the department of taste in building is little in advance of what it was two thousand years ago. To what can this be owing, but to the circtmstance, that the knowledge of Archi- tecture, as a fine art, is much less familiar to the public, than it is as an art of utility ; or, in other words, that the Architect is under the control of public opinion much more in matters of usefulness, than in matters of taste ? This is a state of things by no means peculiar to Architecture. The greater portion of mankind, in even the most civilised countries, has hitherto been kept in the dark with regard to what constitutes truth and excellence in all arts or professions, the prac- tice of which has been limited to certain associations or corporations of individuals. Hence the sciences of government, law, medicine, theology, education, &c., have been in all countries comparative mysteries, and have, consequently, like Architecture, remained nearly stationary for ages. The profound and exclusive attention, which is requisite to enable the professors of any art to become eminent in it, necessarily precludes them, while engaged in its pursuit, from acquiring a proportionate stoek of knowledge upon other subjects. Unless, therefore, this stock of knowledge has been previously laid in by a scientific education in early youth, professional men and artists are very apt to assign an undue importance to the facts and views connected with their professions ; and to regard as general tniths, those which are, in fact, only particular. Hence, universal principles and extended views are much more likely to be entertained by persons who have studied several arts and sciences, though perhaps none of them profoundly, than by those who have confined their attention to only one. Hence, also, we rarely find great reformations made in any art by its professors. Another cause which has retarded the progress of all arts and professions is, the prac- tice, common in most of them, of implicitly following precedents ; or of adhering rigidly to rules (made perhaps in a former age, and consequently adapted to a less advanced state of civilisation), instead of testing those precedents and rules by fundamental prin- ciples, and adapting the latter to the state of society for the time being. No art has had its progress more retarded by these means than Architecture ; whether by the old idea that the whole of its science was included in the knowledge of the five orders ; or by the modern one that Architecture, as an art of taste, is one of imitation, like those of sculp- ture and painting ; and that there is no manner of building worthy of the name of Architecture but the Grecian. According to our views of this subject, all arts, whether of design and taste, or of utility and convenience, like every thing else relative to man, are progressive, and change with the changing condition of society. In like manner, the knowledge of all arts, from being exclusive, is calculated, through the spread of education, ultimately to become universal ; and, the art of printing and the use of the steam-engine being discovered, the time will ultimately arrive, in every country, when all knowledge will be common to ali ISllGO vi PREFACE. mankind. No art or profession will then be a mystery ; but, each being reduced to the comprehension of youth, forming a part of that general education which will ultimately be every where established, and being consequently subject to the criticism of the whole of society, the improvement in it will be great, in proportion to the demand which there may be for its exercise and for its productions. Though scarcely any country has arrived at this stage in social progress, even in any one of the arts or pro- fessions, yet all countries are advancing towards it with different degrees of rapidity, according to the circumstances in which they are placed, geographical and political. In accordance with these views, our intention, in producing the work now submitted to the reader, is, to prepare the way for rendering general, a knowledge of Domestic Architecture ; for the immediate purpose of increasing the comforts of the great mass of society ; and for the more remote objects of improving the knowledge and the taste of the public in Architecture, and of inducing Architects to study their art on general principles, and on a theory formed on the nature of the human mind, and on the changing condition of .society, rather than on the precedents and rules of former ages, or on any hypothesis whatever. The means by which we have endeavoured to effect these objects will be found explained at length in our Introduction, to which we refer the reader. We have only been enabled to accomplish our purpose by the cooperation of a number of Architects, of scientific men, and of men of taste. Several of these we are proud to call our personal friends ; and others, who, before we received their contributions to this work, were known to us only by name, have proved themselves friends by tlieir actions. Before proceeding to return our sincere acknowledgments to the various artists and others, whose names will be found in the list, p. xix., it may be advisable to reply to an objection which has been made to us by some Architects, viz. that, by laying their profession open to the world, we were acting so as to injure their pecuniary interests. The same objection was made to Dr. Buchan many years ago, when he first published his Z)o?nes<«c Medicine; and to John Abercrombie, when he wrote his book entitled Every Man his own Gardener. Now, without going into details, we shall only ask, what have been the progress of medicine and gardening, and the prosperity of medical men and gardeners, since the time these works appeared, compared to what they were for a similar period previous to their publication? The answer, undoubtedly, is, that their improvement has been great beyond all former example. To what can this be owing, but to the more general diffusion of knowledge on these subjects ? The truth is, that public attention can never be turned to any art or science, without benefiting all its professors. A little knowledge of any given subject makes us desire to know more ; and, though we first apply to books to acquire this further knowledge, we must ulti- mately have recourse to living professors to carry it into effect. No book can be framed so as to suit the exigencies of every particular case : all that can be done by any author is, to lay down general principles, and to deduce rules from them. The application of these rules must be learned from experience : and it is evident that a knowledge of the principles from which they are deduced wili enable the amateur more thoroughly to appreciate and profit by the skill of the professor. Among the important uses of this work will be that of pointing out the various capa- cities for improvement in comfort and beauty, of which each class of building, and each kind of furniture, is susceptible. Now, so far fioni this having a tendency to injure Architects, it will not only enable those who wish either to build or to furnish, to express more clearly, to the Architect or upholsterer, those wants which they already have ; but it will elicit new ones, of which they had previously no idea, and which the Architect, the builder, and the upholsterer will be called upon to supply. In expressing our acknowledgments to our contributors, it was originally our in- tention to thank, in an especial manner, those who, by their early contributions, when the work was commenced in monthly parts, in April, 1832, encouraged us to proceed with it ; but, on due consideration, lest we might inadvertently ajjpear partial in our acknowledgments, we think it best to return our sincere thanks generally to the whole of our contributors as enumerated in the list, p. xix. to xx. How much we feel indebted to the Architects and others, whose names are included in that list, can be only understood by those who are duly aware that the value of a work consisting principally of graphic designs, depends upon those designs being the production of a number of different minds. For the liber lity which has been thus shown us, we have made the best return in our power, by publishing this work at such an unpreccdentedly low price, as must insure, to the names and talents of our contributors, an extensive circulation ; and, for our own labour, we have earned the consciousness of having produced a book, wliich miist inevitably have an important influence on the rural Architecture of the temperate regions of both hemispheres. Bayswater, June I. 18.'53. J. C. I CONTENTS. Preface List of Engravings V I List of Books quoted xii List of Contributors Page INTBODUCTION - - - - - >■ BOOK I. DESIGNS FOR LABOURERS' AND MECHANICS' COTTAGES, AND FOR DWELLINGS FOR GARDENERS AND BAILIFFS, AND OTHER UPPER SERVANTS, AND FOR SMALL FARMERS AND CULTIVATORS OF THEIR OWN LAND. Chap. I. Model Designs for Cottages, exhibiting in each Model all the Accommodations and Ar. rangements for Comfort and Convenience of which the smallest Dwellings of this Class are susceptible • - - - 8 I. A Cottage of One Story ; combining all the Accommodation and Conveniences of which human Dwellings of that Description are susceptible ... 9 II. A Cottage of One Story; combining the Accommodations and Conveniences of De. sign I., differently arranged, and with the Addition of a Veranda - - - 21 III. A Cottage of Two Stories; combining the Accommodations and Conveniences of De- sign I., differently arranged, and with an additional Bed-room - - - 23 Chap. II A miscellaneous Collection of Designs for Cot. tage Dwellings, with Critical and Analytical Remarks . - - - - 26 IV. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with- out Children - - . - 27 V. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Two or more Children, with a Cow-house and Pigsty . - . - - 31 VI. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with an Apprentice, Servant, or grown-up Son or Daughter - - - - 35 VII. A Dwelling of Two Rooms, and a Back Kitchen, for a Man and his Wife - - 35 VIII. A Dwelling of Two Rooms, for a Man and his Wife - - - - 44 IX. A Dwelling in the Swiss Style, for a mar- ried Couple and Family, with a Cow-house and Pigsty . - - - 44 X. A Dwelling for a married Couple and One Child, with a Pigsty . - - 48 XI. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, and One or Two Children, with a Cow-house and Pigsty . - - .52 XII. A Dwelling of Two Stories, for a Man and his Wife, with a Servant and Two or Three Children, with a Cow-house and Pigsty - 54 XIII. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Two or more Children . - - 5" XI\^ A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with One Servant, and a grown-up Son or Daughter - . - -58 XV. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with, out Children - . . .63 XVI. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children - - - 65 XVII. A Dwelling with Two Rooms and a Bed.closet, for a Man and his Wife, with an Apprentice or Servant . . . 71 XVIII. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children - . - . 74 XIX. A Dwelling of Two Rooms, for a Man and his Wife, without Children . - 80 XX. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Children, and having a Cow-house, Pigsty, &c., attached . . . . 83 XXI. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children • . - 87 XXII. A Dwelling for a Gardener, or other Servant, on a Gentleman's Estate, who has a Wife, but no Children - - .88 XXIII. A DwelUng of One Story, for a Man and his Wife with a Family of Children j having a Cow-house and Pigsty attached . 93 XXIV. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children, having Two Rooms, and other Conveniences - . .94 XXV. A Dwelling for a Working Man, with a . Family of Children - - - - 97 XXVI. A Cottage Dwelling in the German Swiss Style, for a Man and his Family, with Accommodation for two Horses and a Cow 98 XXVII. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Children, or a Servant, with the usual Conveniences in a detached Building . 101 XXVni. A Cottage in the Old English Man. ner, containing a Kitchen, Living Room, and Two Bed-rooms - - - 102 XXIX. A Cottage Dwelling of Three Rooms, with various Conveniences . . 105 XXX. A Cottage Dwelling with Five Rooms, and various Conveniences . . 107 XXXI. A DwelUng with Five Rooms, with Conveniences, in the Old English Style, where the building Material is chiefly Stone 108 XXXII. A Cottage DwelUng with Two Sitting- Rooms, in the Old English Manner, where Timber, Brick, and Slate are the Materials used for the Walls and Roof - . Ill XXXIII. Two Cottage DwelUngs, under the same Roof; each having Two Rooms and other Conveniences - - - 136 XXXIV. A Cottage DweUing of Two Rooms, intended as a Gate Lodge - - 137 XXXV. A Cottage Dwelling of Three Rooms, with Back Kitchen, Cow-house, and other Conveniences . . - . 138 XXXVI. A Dwelling with Four Rooms, a Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences - - 141 XXXVII. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences, intended as a Lodge, or a House for a Bailiff or Head Gardener 141 XXXVIII. A DwelUng of Three Rooms, with a Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences, intended as a Porter's Lodge, or Gardener's House . . - - . 143 XXXIX. Two DweUings for Country La. bourers, ':.nder One Roof, with Two Rooms in each, i-id other Conveniences . . 144 XL. Two Cottages of Three Rooms each^nder the same Roof, with Cow-house, Pigsty, and other Conveniences to each - . 146 XLI. Six Cottages grouped together, with a view to Economy in building them . 147 XLI I. A Cottage of Three Rooms, in the Eliza. bethan Style - - - .157 XLIII. A Cottage of Three Rooms, with Back CONTENTS Page Kitchen, Cow-house, and other Conve- niences .... 1;>8 XLIV. A Cottage of Tliree Rooms and a Back Kitchen on the Ground Floor, with various Conveniences .... 163 XLV. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences . - 163 XLV I. A Cottage DweUing of Four Rooms, with a Back Kitchen, Cellar, and other Conveniences .... li)4 XLVII. Two Cottages for Country Labourers, under One Roof, with Four Rooms in each. Back Kitchen, Pigsty, and other Con- veniences ... . - 168 XLV II I. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with a Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences . 175 XLIX. A Dwelling suitable for a Lodge or TolLhou-ie, having Three Rooms, and other Conveniences .... 176 L. A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences . - - 176 LI. A Cottage Dwelling of Six Rooms, with other Conveniences ... 179 LI I. Ideas for altering the Front of an old Cottage, at present in a dilapidated State - 181 LIU. A Cottage for a Village Tradesman . 182 LIV. Two Cottage Dwellings for Labourers, under One Roof .... 184 I^V. A Cottage of One Story, with Four Rooms, a Kitchen, and other Conveniences . 186 LVI. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences, and a large Rustic Portico . 190 LVII. Two Dwellings under One Roof, Two Stories high, with Four Rooms in each, and other Conveniences - - - 191 LVI II. A Labourer's Cottage of Two Rooms, with other Conveniences ... 192 LIX. Two Cottages of One Room and a Back Kitchen each, under the same Roof . 196 LX. Two Dwellings under One Roof, each containing Four Rooms, with a Back Kitchen and other Conveniences . . 196 LXI. A Dwelling of Three Rooms on the Ground Floor, with a Back Kitchen and other Conveniences ... 197 LXII. A Dwelling of Four Rooms on Two Floors, with various Conveniences . 201 LXII I. Two Dwellings of Two Rooms each, under One Roof . . . . 202 LXIV. Two Dwellings under One Roof, each Three Stoiies high, and having Three Rooms, and other Conveniences - . 202 LXV. A Dwelling of Three Rooms, with other Conveniences ... 205 LXVI. A Cottage Dwelling of Two Rooms, with a Smithy, Shoeing-shed, and Three- stalled Stable . - . - 205 LXV 1 1. A Cottage Dwelling of Five Rooms, in Two Floors 211 LXVIII. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences . . - 211 Page LXIX. A Cottage Dwelling, in the Old English Style, with Kitchen, Parlour, Business Room, Three Bedchamljers, and other Conveniences .... 212 LXX. A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences ... 211 LXXI. A Castellated Lodge, as a Dwelling for a Gardener or other Upper Servant, on a Gentleman's Estate - - . 214 LXXII. A Dwelling of Six Rooms, with vari. ous Conveniences .... 223 LXXI 1 1. A Dwelling, Three Stories high, with Four Rooms, and various Conveniences . 224 LXXIV, Design for a Cottage Dwelling, in the Old English Style, and of a Construction suitable for having Part of the Walls cover, ed with Weather Tiling . . . 227 LXXV. A Cottage in the Old English Manner, containing on the CJround Floor a Living- Room, Kitchen, and other Conveniences, with Two Bed.rooms over . . 2."I LXXVL A Cottage Dwelling One Story high, containing Six Rooms, a Wash-house, and other Conveniences ... 2;>6 LXXVII. The IVIodel Cottages of the La- bourer's Friend Society, as erected at Shooter's HiU, Kent . - - 237 LXXVIII. Six Cottage Dwellings, built at Abersychan, near Pontypool, in South Wales, with One common Wash-house and Bakehouse - ... 238 LXX IX. Twelve or more Cottages in a Row, with a Kitchen, Wash-house, and other Conveniences in common ; the whole heat, ed by the Fires in the Public Kitchen . 2U LXXX. Eighty Dwellings of the humblest Class, placed together, with a view of being heated by One common Fire, and enjoying other Benefits, on the Cooperative Sys. tem - 244 LXXXI. A portable Cottage for the Use of Emigrants and others - . - 251 Chap. Ill Designs and Directions for Exterior and Inte. rior Finishing, as connected with Furnish. ing, and for the Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of Cottage Dwellings . - 258 Sect. I. Designs and Directions for the Exterior Finishing of Cottage Dwellings - - 259 Sect. 1 1. Designs and Directions for the Inte- rior Finishing of Cottage Dwellings . 272 Sect. III. Designs and Directions for Internal Fittings-up for Cottage Dwellings . 281 Sect. IV. Designs and Directions for Fixtures for Cottage Dwellings . . - 282 Sect. V. Designs and Directions for Cottage Furniture and Furnishing . - 298 BOOK II. DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES, COUNTRY INNS AND PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS Chap. I. Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, ex- liibiting various Degrees of Accommo- dation, from the Farm of ,50 to that of 1000 Acres, suitable to different Kinds of Farm, ing, and in different Styles of Architec- ture . - - - - - 354 Sect. 1. General Principles and Model Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries . - 355 1. General Principles and Model Designs for the Arrangement of a Farm House - 355 2. Fundamental Principles, Directions, and Model Designs, for the Construction and Arrangement of the various Parts which compose a Farmery - . . 373 Chap. II. A Collection of miscellaneous Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, in different Styles of Architecture, and adapted to different Kinds of Farms ; with Specifica. tions, Estimates, and accompanying Re- marks - - - - - 418 Sect. I. Miscellaneous Designs . - 418 I. A Bailiff's Cottage, in thcOld English Style, intended for the Manager of a Farm in the Neighbourhood of London - . 418 II. A Farmery in the Old English Style, chiefly calculated for Dairy Husbandry, and con- ducted by a Bailiff, for the Proprietor of the Land .... - 434 III. A Farm House and Farmery suitable for a Farm of 600 Acres of Turnip Soil, ex. ecuted at Halstone, in Dumfriesshire - 441 IV. A Farm House and Farmery suitable for an extensive Turnip Farm, executed at Gatestack, in Dumfriesshire - - 445 V. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of 150 Acres of Arable and Pasture Land in Buckinghamshire . . . - 448 VI. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of 600 Acres of Turnip Soil, in Ayrshire, under a Rotation of Five Years, and em- CONTENTS. Page ployed partly in breeding and partly in feed- ing Stock - - - - - 45e VII. A Farm House and Farmery for Three Ploughs, erected at Iiigliston in Dumfries- shire ... - - 45t VIII. A Farm House and Farmery for Three Ploughs, erected at Alton, in Dumfries- shire ... - - 4-3/ IX. A Farm House and Farmery for a small Farm for breeding Sheep and Cattle, erected at Holecleugh, in Dumfriesshire - - 457 X. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of Two Ploughs, erected on the Giebten Es- tate, in Dumfriesshire - - - 459 XI. A Farm House and Farmery for Four Ploughs, designed, and in Part executed in Dumfriesshire - . . . 460 XII. The Villa Residence and Farmery of Rid- denwood, in the Parish of Kirkmahoe, Dumfriesshire, in the Occupation of the Proprietor, James Kerr, Esq. - - 4G2 XIII. A Farm House and Farmery for 100 Acres of Land, to be cultivated on the Norfolk System, with a Flour Mill driven by Wind 471 XIV. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of Two Ploughs, in the County of North- umberland ..... 475 XV. The Farm House and Offices at Cooklaw East Farm, on the Bcaufront Estate.North- umberland ... - 476 XVI. A Farm House and Farmery for Seven Ploughs, executed at N'ewnham Barns, in Northumberland . - - - 477 XVII. A Farm House and Farmery for Four- teen Ploughs, suited to the Northumbrian Husbandry . - - - 479 XV III. A Farm House and Farmery for Ten Ploughs, Ten Cows, Twenty Vouiig Cattle, and other Live Stock, adapted to the Hus- bandry of Northumberland - - 482 XIX. A Farmery of Five Ploughs, witli Cows, Cattle, and other Stock in Proportion, suitable for the Northumbrian Husban. dry . . - ... 484 XX. A Farm House and Farmery for Three Ploughs, adapted to the Northumbrian System of Culture . - - 485 XXI. The Farm House and Offices for-a Farm of Six Ploughs, called Hallington New Houses, on the Beaufront Estate, in North- umberland .... 486 XXII. The Farmery at Calley, in Kirkcud- brightshire, suitable for a Liailoway Crop and Pasture Farm of 4u0 Acres - . 496 XXIIL A Farmery for a small French Fami, as given by Morel-Vind£ - - - 497 XXIV. A Farm House and Farmery suitable for a Farm of from 300 to 5oO Acres in France ..... 499 XXV. For a Court of Feeding-houses, built for the late Thomas Hibbert, Esq., at Chalfont Lodge, Buckinghamshire . - - 508 XXVI. A Farmery for extensive Ironworks, erected at Abersychan, near Pontvpool, in South Wales - - '- - 5U XXV II. A Farmery for a Farm of 250 Acres, in the Valley of Strathmore, where a Rota- tion of Seven Crops is followed, the Grass Division being pastured the Second Year . 512 XXVIII. A Farmery for a particular Situation, suitable for 80 Acres of Arable Land, and 300 Acres of Pasture, in the Carse of Gowrie ..... 514 XXIX. The Farm House and Farmery of Starston Place, near Harleston, in Norfolk, suitable for a Farm of 3J0 Acres under the Norfolk System of Culture ... 516 XXX. A Farmery for a Farm of 300 Acres of Arable Land, and 500 of Pasture, in the West Highlands - . 519 XXXL A Farmery for 200 Acres of Arable Land, and 300 of Pasture, in the West of Scotland . . . . .520 XXXII. A Farm House and Farmery for 200 Acres of Arable Land, and 300 of Pasture, in Koss-shire .... 522 XXXIII. A Farm House and Farmery for 500 Acres, half Pasture andhalf Arable, erected at , in the Parish of Tarbat, Ross.shire ,'523 XXXIV. The Farmery at Greendykes, in Page Haddingtonshire, consisting of SCO Arable Acres under a Six-course Shift - - 528 XXXV. A Farm House and Farmery at Elcho Castle, Perthshire, adapted for a Farm of Six Ploughs, under the Turnip Husbandry 537 XXXVI. A Public House and Farmery; the Publican being, at the same time, a small Farmer and a Butcher ... 544 XXXVII. A House and Out-buildings for a Cheese Dairy Farm of from 300 to 350 Acres, in Cheshire - ... 545 XXXVIII. A Mixed Stock Farm, in a high (hilly) Country, employing only One Pair of Horses . . - . 54n XXXIX. A Farmery for a Garden Farm of 200 Acres, situated near a Town, employed wholly in Tillage, where no Stock is kept but Horses and Family Cows, and where the whole Produce is sold - . . 549 XL. A Farmery for a Farm of 500 Acres, kept in a Rotation of Corn Crops and Pasture, producing Turnips, and employed partly in breeding and partly in feeding Stock . 551 XLI. A Farmery for a Farm of 500 Acres of Arable Turnip Land, kept under alternate Corn and Pasture, and employed in breed, ing and in feeding Stock, as well as in sending Corn to Market ... 552 XLI I. A Dairy Farm of 5oO Acres, kept in a Rotation of Corn Crops and Grass ; One half being supposed to be in Hay or Pasture 552 XLIII. A Farmery for a Clay Land Arable Farm of 5t)0 Acres, not producing Turnips, and kept chiefly, or wholly, in Tillage - 55i XLIV. A Farmery for a Farm of 150 Acres, kept in a Rotation of Crops and Pasture, producing Turnips and Potatoes ; and em. ployed partly in feeding and partly in breeding Stock .... 555 XLV. A Farmery for a Cottage Farm of 25 Acres ..... 5y6 XLV I. A Farmery for a Cottage Farm of 30 Acres, with Remarks, showing how it mav be extended so as to serve for a Farm of50, 80, or 100 Acres - . .557 Sect. II. Examples showing the Manner of dis. playing Architectural Style in Farm Buiid. ings ..... 560 Sect. III. Onconstructing temporary, portable, and ambulatory Farmeries; and on altering Mansions, Monasteries, Manufactories, and other Buildings, so as to render them fit for Agricultural Purposes ... 566 Sect. IV. Designs for various Buildings, "such as Corn Jlills, Kilns, Malt-houses, Cider- houses, &c., connected with Agriculture and Rural Economy ... 568 I. The Construction of a Building for contain- ing the JIachinery of a Corn Mill to be impelled by Water, with introductory Ob- servations on Buildings for Mills generally, on Flnur Jlills, and on the difTerent Kinds of Water-wheels . - . . 568 II. The Construction of a Building for con- taining the Machinery and Apartments belonging to a Vertical Windmill, with Remarks on the different Kinds of Wind, mills . . . . .583 III. A Malt Kiln, with the requisite Append. ages, and Directions for their Use . .5*9 IV. A Hop-oast, or Kiln for drying Hops . 592 V. A Hop-kiln, or Oast, on an improved Prin- ciple, erected in 1832, at Teston, in Kent - 595 VI. An improved Limekiln . . - 600 VII. A Kiln for burning Bricks or Tiles, or other Earthenware used in the Construe tion of Buildings ; and which may also be used as a Kiln for burning Lime or Clay for Manure, or coking Coal or Peat, or charring Wood, impregnating Timber with Pyroligneous Acid, Kiln-drying Corn, or drying Corn in the Sheaf in Wet Seasons, and for other Agricultural Purposes . €05 VIII. A Cider house, Mill, and Press, according to the Plan most generally approved of in the Counties of Hereford and Worcester . 609 IX. A Cider-house, Mill, and Press, with the different Implements connected with Cider- making ..... 615 X. A House for breeding and fattening Poultry on a large Scale, with Remarks on their CONTEN Page Management, ami on the Suitabkiioss of Poultry as Live Stock for the Farm La- Dourer ; and Designs for altering or build- ing their Cottages accordingly - - 622 Sect. V. Designs for Farmery Dwellings for Ploughmen and other yearly Servants em- ployed on the Farm - - - 627 I. Two Ploughmen's Cottages, such as are in common Use in the Carse of Gowrie ; with a Notice of the Bothies, or Lodges for single Men, in the same District - - 629 II. Two Country Labourers' Cottages, built at Showerdowii Braes, on the Beaufront E-itate, in Northumberland . - 631 III. Two Ploughmen's Cottages, in a Village near Salisbury, Wiltshire - - 632 IV. A double Cottage for Farm Labourers, erected in Gloucestershire, on the Estate of William Lawrence, Esq., near Ciren- cester - - . - - 63i V. A double Cottage, intended for Farm La- bourers, in Gloucestershire - - eS.') VI. A Cottage for a Farm Labourer and hjs Wife, without Children . - - 639 VII. A Cottage for a Farm Labourer with several Children; or a Bothy (a Boothie, or little Booth) for three unmarried Plough, men . - - - - 642 VIII. The improved Farm Labourer's Cottage of France, as given by Morel-Vinde - 643 IX. A double Cottage for Farm Labourers, with Places between the Two Dwellings for hatching and fattening Poultry early in the Season - - - - 64 Sect. VI. Of the Exterior and Interior Finish- ing, and the Fittings-up and Furniture, of Farm Houses and Farmeries - - 630 1. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, and Furni- ture of the Farm House, and the OHices of the Kitchen Court - - - 650 2. Of the Finishing, Fixtures, Fittings-up, and Furniture of Farmeries - - - 662 Chap. III. Designs forCoinitry Inns and Public Houses of various Degrees of Accommodation, fiom the Hedge Alehouse to the Mansion Inn, with its Gardens, Farm, and Park - 675 Sect. I. General Principles for composing Model Designs for Country Inns and Pub- lic- Houses - - - - 676 Sect. U. Miscellaneous Designs for Country Inns and Public Houses . - . 678 1. A Country Inn in the Italian Style ; having. Page besides public Rooms, Thirty Bed-rooms, and Stabling for Twenty Horses - - 678 II. A small Country Inn, with Stabling, Skittle-ground, Tea-garden, and Bowling- green - - - - - 6S0 III. A small Village Inn, or Alehouse, in the Italian Gothic Manner ... fi82 IV. An Inn in the Italian Style . . fis.'i V. A Suburban Public House in the Old English Stylo .... - 686 VI. A Hedge Alehouse of the smallest Size - 690 VII. A Country Public House in the Italian Style - - . - 692 VIII. A small Inn or Public House in the Swiss Style . - - . 693 Sect. III. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fix. tures, and Furniture of Country Inns and Public Houses - . . . (;g5 1. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of the Bar of an Inn or Public House . - . . . . G95 2. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture for the other Offices of Inns - 698 3. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of the Inn generally . -702 4. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of the Kitchen and Scullery of Inns and Public Houses ... 707 Chap. TV. Designs for Parochial Schools - - . 726 Sect. I. Of the Fundamental Principles, and the Rules derived from these Principles, for designing and fitting up Schools for the Education of Children in Masses - . 727 1. Fundamental Principles, and General Rules deduced from then), for designing Schools for Infant Instruction - . . 727 2. Fundamental Principles, and Rules deduced from them, for designing Schools for Mutual Instruction - - - 730 Sect. II. Miscellaneous Designs for Paiochial Schools - - - . .740 I. A Parochial School, in two Stories, for 400 Children, with a House for the Master and Mistress . - . . . 740 II. A Parochial School, in One Story, for 100 Boys and SO Girls, including a Residence for the Master and Mistress . . 751 in. A Country School, in the Italian Style, in. eluding a Dwelling for the Master and Mistress - - . - . 757 Sect. HI. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fix- tures, and Furniture of Parochial Schools 753 BOOK III. DESIGNS FOR VILLAS, WITH VARIOUS DEGREES OF ACCOMMODATION, AND IN DIFFERENT STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. Chap. I. The Fundamental Principles of laying out a Villa, including the Hou.se and the Grounds 763 Sect. I. Of the Choice of a Situation for a Villa _ Resicwce - - - - - 763 Sect. II. Of tiie Position of the House, and the Arrangement of the Grounds of a Villa Residence . - . . - 767 Sect. III. Of adapting the Architectural Style and interior Arrangement of the House to the Character of the Situation - -773 CiTAP. 11. The Beau Ideal of.an English Villa - - 790 Sect. I. The Beau Ideal of an English Villa described - - - - * - 790 Sect. II. Map of the Demesne and Park, and Ground Plan and Elevations of the House of Beau Ideal Villa - - - 813 ClIAP. 111. Miscellaneous Designs for Villas, Avith various Degrees of Accommodation, and in differ- ent Styles of Architecture - . 821 I. A Grecian Villa, of a medium Size, for a Gentleman of Fortune - . - 821 II. The Ac ommod.itions of a Villa of moderate Size, exhibited in the Ground Plan of the House and Olticps, and their relative Con- nection with the Gardens and Grounds . 823 III. A Suburban Villa of Two Acres .and a half, the House and Grounds built and laid out by an Architect for his own Residence S2G IV. A Villa in the Anglo-Italian Style, with Three principal Rooms, and with a Stable and Coach-house ... 834 V. A Parsonage House for a particular Situ- ation in Somersetshire - - - 841 YI. A Cottage Villa in the Gothic Style - 844 VII. A Villa in the Old English Manner, adapted to a gently elevated .Situation, with good Views on three Sides - - 846 VIII. The Villa of Haiuiayfield, the Residence of Hannav^ Escj., in the Neighbourhood of Dumfries ' - - - - 850 IX. A small Villa, or Parsonage, in the Italian Style . - - . . S53 X. A Cottage Villa, showing how Advantage mav be taken of a sloping Bank - - 855 XI. A 'Villa in the Modern Style of Archi- tecture, Fire-proof, and suitable for a Ma- rine Residence, for the occasional Occu- pation or the i>crnianent .Vbode of a small JFamily of Fortune - - - 859 XII. A double Suburban Villa, adapted for a i)articular Situation in the Suburbs of Leicester - - . - 873 CONTENTS. Page XIII. A small Grecian Villa or Casino, to be placed on an Eminence, commanding ex- tensive Prospects in two Directions only - 877 XIV. A Villa in the Old Scotch Style, erected, in 183], at Springfield, near Glasgow - 879 XV. A Mansion in the Style of a Scotch Ba- ronial House of the Sixteenth Century, with the Accommodation and Arrange- ments suitable to a Villa of the Nineteenth Century . . - - . 885 XVI. A Cottage Villa, built at Chailey, in Sus- sex, for General St. John - - 890 XVII. A Villa in the Old English Style, the Idea taken from the Ruins of Berwick House in Wiltshire - - - 893 XVIII. A Villa Residence in the Tudor or Old English Style - - . .897 XIX A Villa in the Grecian Style, for a large Family, residing chiefly in the Country, with an Income of from 60(10/. to 10,000/. a Year . - . - 914 XX. A Villa for a small Family, in the cas. tellated Style of Gothic Architecture . 919 XXI. A Villa in the latest Style of pointed Architecture, with an Essay on the Appli- cation of that Style to domostic Purposes - 920 XXII. A Villa in the Gothic Style XXIII. An Italian Villa on a considerable Scale 94C Chap. IV. Designs for Appendages to Villas - - 963 Sect. I. Stable Offices - . - 963 Sect. II. Riding- Houses - - - 966 Sect. III. Dog-Kennels - - . - 971 Sect. IV. Ornamental Dairies and Poultry- Houses . . - - . 973 Sect. V. Aviaries and Slenagerics - . 975 Sect. VI. Architectural Conservatories - 975 Sect. VII. Terrace Parapets and other mural Ornaments - - - . 98'2 Sect. VIII. Ornamental Garden Structures - 98.> Sect. IX Entrance Lodges and Gates - 997 CUAP. V. Page Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, and Fixtures of Villas - - - . 1007 Sect. I. Of the Exterior Finishing of Villas - 1007 Sect. II. Of the Interior Finishing of Villas - 1010 Sect. III. Of the Fixtures and Fittings-up of Villas - - . . 1018 1. Of the Fittings-up and Fixtures of Villa Offices - - - . 1018 2. Of the Fittings-up and Fixtures cf the Dwelling-rooms of Villas - - 1027 Chap. VI. Of the Furniture of Villas - - -1039 Sect. I. Grecian and Modern Furniture for Villas - . . - - 1039 1. Furniture for Villa Offices - . 104(J 2. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Porch, Entrance Hall, and Billiard-room 1040 3. Grecian and ilodern Furniture for the Par. lour and Dining-rooms - . . 1043 4. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Library - - - . 1053 5. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Drawingroom and Mnsic-room - . 105$ 6. Grecian and Modern Furniture for Bed. rooms and Dressing-rooms - - 1079 7. Nursery Furniture . - - 1086 Sect. II. Gothic Furniture for Villas . 1088 1. Gothic Furniture for Halls - . 1088 2. Gothic Furniture for Parlours and Dining- rooms - - . - 1089 3. Gothic Furnituie for a Library . - 1092 4. Gothic Furniture for a Drawingroom . 10;»4 5. Gothic Furniture for Bed-rooms - . 1097 Sect. 111. Elizabethan and Mixed Ancient Furniture for Villas . . - 1098 BOOK IV THE PKIKCIPLES OF CRITICISM IN ARCHITECTURE. Chap. i. Of the Principle of Fitness as applied to Arihi- HOI! tecture - - - . Chap. IL Of the Expression of the End in View, iii Architecture . .1112 Chap. HI. Of the Expression of Architectural Stjie . lU-i .•Sect. I. Of the universal and inherent Beau- ties of Architectural Composition . 1114 Sect. II. Of the ditFerent Styles of Architec- ture .... 11?'. G[.os3AKnr. Inmek GE.Nt:UAI. I.\I)E\ 1125 1133 f LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. Model Cottages. Plans. Design I. p. 10; Og. 3; II. p. 22 ; fig. 21 ; 111. p. 21. Elevations. Figs. 6, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 26. St'clio?is. Figs. 5, 22. Cottages of One Story Plans. Design IV. p. 29 ; V.p.30; VI. p.33; VII. p. 34; VIII. p.«; XI. p. 50 ; XIV. p. 61 ; hg. •)9; iv. p. 69; XVI. p70; fig. llfi ; XVIII. p. 75; XIX. p. 70; XX. p. 85; fig. 154 ; XXI p. 8r>; XXII. p. S'J; XXIII. p. !»0 ; XXIV. p. i>5; XXVII. p. I(;0; XXIX. p. 104; figs. 193, 197,201; XXXIII. p. 103 ; figs. 249, 252, 253, 254,2.55; XL. p. 140 ; fig. 2.58 ; XLU. p. 159; XLIII. p. KiO; fig. 297; LI. p. 178; fig. 315; LV. p. 187; figs. 3-J8, 339, 340, 341, 342, 346; LXVI. p. 204; figs. Sod, 377; twelve cottages, 433; college for working men, 44f), 441, 442 ; portable cottage.-!, 445, 477 ; gardener's house, 1454 : for farm labourers' cottages, see p. Elevaltons. Design IV. p. 29 ; figs. 29, 30 ; V. p. 30 ; figs. 31, .35 ; VI. p. 33 ; VII. p. S-i ; fig.s. 38, 42, 79; VIII. p. 45; XI. p. .50; fig.8S; XIV. p. 61; figs. 112, 11.3, 114,115; XV I. p. 69; XVII. p. 70; figs. 117,125; XVIII. p 75; XIX. p. 76 ; figs. ];3,'5, 135, 144, 145, 1.57 ; XX. p. 85 ; XX I. p. 86 ; p. 140: XLII. p. 159; XLIII. p. 160; XLIV p. 165 ; XLV. p. 166 ; figs. 300, 301 ; LI. p. 178 ; fig. 316; LV. p. 187; LVIII. p. 194; LIX. p. 194 ; LX. p. IW ; LXVI. p. 204 ; LXX. p. 215; LX.WI, p. 226 ; twelve cottages, fig. 439 ; col- lege fir working men, 444 ; portable cottages, 454, 456 ; gardener's house, 1455. Sections. Design IV. p. 29 ; V. p. 30 ; VI. p.33; VII. p. 34; VIII. p45; XI. p. 50 ; fig. 136 ; XX. p. 85 ; XXIII. p. 90 ; XXIV. p. 95 ; XXIX. p. 104; XXXIII. p. 1.33; XL. p. 140; XLII. p. 159; XLIII. p. 160; LV. p. 187; LXVI. p. 204. Cottages of Two Stories. Plans. Design IX. p. 46; X. p. 49 ; XII. p. 55; XIIL p. 56; fig. 95; XV. p62; figs. 98, 10.5, 106,107; XXV!p. 96; XXVI II. p. 103; XXX. p. 109; XXXLp. 110; XXXII. p. 117; figs. 2,56, 261, 267, 292, 305; XLVI. p. 169; XLVII. p. 170; XLVIll. p. 173; XLIX. p. 174; L. p. 177; figs. 314, 319, .32.5, 327; LVI. p. 188 ; LVII. p. 193; figs. .336, 345; LXV. p. 203; LXVII. p. 209; LXVIII. p. 210; figs. 361, 362, 367 ; LXXII. p. 216 ; fig. ,368 ; LXXIII. p. 225 ; figs. 390, 391, 407, 408, 420, 421, 425, 427,429, 433. Elevations. In the Swiss style, Design IX. p. 46 ; Old English, X. p. 49 ; XII. p. .55 ; XII I. p. .56 ; fim 94, 97 ; XV. p 62 ; figs. 102, 108, 109, 138, 1.39, 140; XXV. p. 9S ; Old P:nglish, XXVIII. p. 103; fig. 203; XXX. p. 109 ; XXXI. p. 110; XXxil. p-ll-i; XXXVII. p. 1.39; XXXIX. p 1.-39: figs. 268, 291, 293; XLVI. p. 169; XLVII. p. 170; XLVIII. p. 173; XLIX. p. 174; L. p 177; figs. 317, 318, 320, 326, .328; LVI. p. 1K8; LVII. p. 193; fig. 337 ; LXII. p. 199; LXV. p. 203 ; LXVII. p. 209; LXVIII. p. 210 ; LXIX. p.2;5; castellated. LXXI.p.215;LXXU. p. 216; fig. .387.; LXXllI. p. 225; LXXIV. p. 226 ; LXXV. p. 226 ; figs. 423, 426, 428, 458, 459, 460. Sections Swiss, fig. 80; XXXII. p. 113 and 114; XLVI. p. 169; figs.363, 364, 365, 372, 403, 404, 40.5, 406, 412. Cottages op Three Stories. Plans. Design XXVI. p. 99; LXIV. p. 200. Elevations. C3erman cottage. Design XXV I. p. 99 ; LXIV. p. 200. Cottages for Farm LAnoimEns. l^ians. Figs. 1203, 1204, 1205, 1207, I'-'OS, 1211 1212, 1218, 1219, 1223, 1225, 1226, 1228, 1229, 1230, 1236, 1237. Elevations. Figs. 1206, 1209, 1210, 1213, 1214, 1215, 1220, 1224. 1227, 1232, 1235, 1241. Sections. Figs. 1231, 1233, 1234. Farm Houses and Farmeries. Plans. Figs. 749, 7.54, 7.57, 758; of ceiling joists, 759, 847, 848, 849, 899, 900, 901, 902, 906, 916, 918, 920, 922, 924, 925, 927, 931, 932, 936, 937, 948, 949, 9.52, 954, 956, 960, 963, 967, 971, 97.'J, 987, 997, 999, 1000 to 1002, 1008, 1009, 1034, 104.5, 1046, 1062 to loot, 1066, 1070, 1071. Elevations, and Perspective and Isometrical Views. Figs. 751, 752, 753, 756, 761, 703; Design I.; 850 to 8.53, 85.5, 856; Design III. p. 443; IV. p. 444; fig. 944, 917, 919, 921, 92.3, 926, 928, 929, 930, 933, 934, 935, 938, 939, 940, 943, 9r>5, 961, 962, 966, 970, 972, 988, 996, 998, 1004, 1006, 1012, 1033; with windmill, XIII. p. 473; XIV. . p 474; XV. p. 474; fig. 1041, 1049, 1051; XXXV. p. 535; XXXVI. p. 536; figs. 1065, 1007, 1068, 1069. Sections. Figs. 750, 735, 760, 762, 854, 903, 904, 909 to 911, 914, 915, 946, 950, 951, 953, 974, 1003, 1005, 1007, 1010, 1011, 1013, 1047, 1048. Farmeries alone. Plans. Figs. 887, 969, 989, 990, 991 , 1020, 1027, 1032, 1041, 1043. 1054, 1055, 1072, 1078, 1079, 1080, 1081, 1088, 1089, 1090, 1092, 1095. Elevations, and I'crspcctive and Isometrical Views. Figs. 886 to S94, '.168, 992, 995, 1018, 1026, 1029, 1031, 1040,1012, 1042, 10.53; Design XXXIV. p. 525; figs. 1077, 1091, 1093, 1094, 1096 to 1098. Sections. Figs. 895 to 897, 'iVo, 994, 1019, 1021, 1022, 1029, 1030, 10S4. Sheep Houses Plan. Fig. 803. Elevation. Fig. 806. Sections. Figs. 804, 805, 807. Barns and Granaries Plans. Figs. 808, 816, 817, 1085. Elevations Figs. 812, 820. Sections. Figs 809, 810, 811, 813, 814, 815, 818, SIP, 821, 1028, 1082, 1083, 1086. PlGGERV AND MeAL HoUSE. Fig. 912. Hovels. Circular Hovel for Cattle. Figs. 907, 908. Mills. Platis. Figs., Water, 1108 to 1111 ; Wind, 1114 to 1118; Cider, 1170,1173,1176. Elevations. Fig."., Water, 1104 to 1106; Wind, 1113, 1120, 1122, 1123; Cider, 1179, 1181, 1185; Portable Corn Mill, 1288. Sections. Figs., Water, 1107, 1112; Wind, 1119, 1121,1124; Cider, 1171,1172, 1174,1175,1176, 1177,1178. Cider Presses. Figs. 1179, 118.5. Cider Instruments. Figs. 1182 to 1184, 1186 to 1190. Malt Plough. Fig. 1126. Water Mill Wheels. Figs. 1101 to 1103. Kilns. Plans. Figs., Malt, 1129; Hop, 11,36 to 1158,114], 1142, 1143, 114S, 11.52,1153, 1158; Lime, 1161, Brick, 1101, 116.8. Elevations. Figs., Hop, 1139, 1140,1144, 1147, 1163. Sections. Figs., Malt, 1134 ; Hop, 114.5, 1149, 1150, 1151, 11.54, 11.5.5, 11.56; Lime, 11.57, 1159, 1160, 1162 ; Brick, 1165, 1166, 1167, 1169. Poultry Houses. Plans. Figs. 1191, 1197, 1191, 1199, 1200, 1201, 1723. Elevations. Figs. 1 192, 1 194, 1 195, 1723. Sections. Fig. UiU, 1196, 1198, 1199. LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. xiil Dairies. rian. Figs. 741, 1722. Elevation. Figs. 744, 745, 746, 1721. Sections. Figs. 742, 743. 1724. Icehouse. Plan. Fig. 74S. Section. Fig. 747. Stables. Plans. Figs. 774, 794 ; of flooring, 798, 1007, 10(J8, 1009, 1024, 1312, 1583, 1700; circular, 17U2. Elevations. Figs. 777, 778, 759, 1006, 1012, 1(23, 1025, 1584, 1613, 1699 ; Circular Italian, 1703 ; Gothic, 1704. Sections. Figs. 776, 779, 796, 797, 709, 957 to 959 ; 1010, 1011, 1013, 1050, 1087. Riding-house. Plan of that at Monaco, Fig. 1705. Sections of Roofs. Figs. 1705 to 1717. Dog Ke.nxels. Plan. 1718. Elevations. 1719, 1720. F.\RM FcRNmRE. Threshing-machine. Figs. 1285 to 1287. Barley- chopper. Fig. 1269. Turnip-cutter. Fig. 1291. Oat-crusher. Fig. 1290. Apparatus for steaming Potatoes. Fig. 1292. Sheep-racks. Figs. 802, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1283. Rack? and .Mangers for Stables. Figs. 770 to 773, 780 to 786, 942, 943, 944, 1014, 1015, 10J6, 1035. Draining-grating. Fig. 775. Corn Measure. Fig. 1701. Gruel-manger. Fig. 1272. Pig-troughs. Figs. 801, 913, 1281, 12S2. Rick-stanils. Figs. 825 to S37, 1039. Rack for Cattle. Fig. 1279. Tethering Stake. Fig. 1280. Rabbit-trough. Fig. 1284. Cow Trough. Fig. 1273. Cow Ties and Brechin. Figs. 1274 to 1278. Fodder Cribs. Fig 965. Saddle and Harness Pegs. Figs. 1269 to 1271. Gates. Figs. 359, 360, 841 to 848, 871 to 873, 898, 1076. Cheese-press. Fig. 1261. Weighing-machine. Fig. 1260. Sparrow-pot. Fig. 468. Pumps. Siebe's, figs. 9, 10 ; Cottam's, 1294. Ijquid Manure 'I'anks. Figs. 840, 1073 to 1075. Posts, &c. for Drying Clothes. Figs. 166 to 171, 1353. Inns and Public Houses. Plans. Figs. 1296, 1297, 1298, 1300, 1301, 1303, 1304 1310, 1312, 1313, 1314, 1319, 1322, 1323, 1324 Elevations. Figs. 1295, 1299, 1302, 1309, 1311, 1318 • Italian, 1321 ; Swiss, 1326. Section. Fig. 1320. Interior of a Liquor Shop. Figs. 1315, 1316. Schools. Plans. Figs. 1374, 1375, 1.376, 1.377, 1380, 13S2, 1383, 1384, 1385, 1387, 1389, 1395, 1399, 1403. Elevations. Figs. 1386, 1390, 1391, 1392, 1393, 1394, 1398. Sections. Figs. 1378, 1388, 1396, 1397. School Furniture. Figs. 1379, 1381, 1400 to 1411. Villas. Maps and Plans. Figs. 1435, 1439 to 1442, 1444 to 1448, 1450, 1451, 1453, 1456, 1457, 1459 to 1463, 1470, 1471, 1473, 1474, 1480 to 1482, 1488 to 1491, 1496, 1498, 1501, 1504, 1505, 1506, 1509, 1510, 1606, 1608, 1609, 1645, 1652, 1653, 1662. Elevations and J'ictrs. Figs. 1412 to 1434, 1436 to 14.38, 1443, 1449, 1452, 1458, 1464 to 1467, 1469, 1472, 1475, 1479, 1485, 1486, 1487, 1492, 1493, 1497, 1503, 1508, 1513 to 1516, 1539, 1544, 1546, 1547, 1351, 1552, 1366, 1568 to 1570, 1572, 1574, 1586, 1587, 1388, 1589, 1599, 1604, 1605, 1607, 1610, Ifill, 1612, 1646, 1658, 1659, 1660. 1661, 1663. Sectiotis. Figs. 1483, 1484, 149i, 1495, 1507, 1553 1593, 1614. Illustrations of Gothic Architecture. Figs. 1593 to 1396, 16)5 to 1644, 1647 to 1651. Illustrations of Italian Architecture. Figs. 1670 to 1698. Conservatories Plan. Fig. 1725. Elevations. Figs. 1729, 1730, 1731, 1732, 1733 Sectiotis. Figs. 1726, 1727. Cottage Gardens. Gardens. Design XIII. p. 56; XIV. p 61 ; XVI. p. 69; XVII. p. 70; XVUI. p. 76; XXI. p. 86 ; XXII. p. 69; XXVII. p. 100 ; figs. 247, 260, 289, 290 ; LI. p. 178 ; public house, figs. 1298, 1301. Villa Gardens and Scenery. Villa Scenery. Figs. 1441, 1445, 1480, 1489, 1800, 1543, 15/1, 1563, 1633. Gardens. Figs. 1448, 1452, 1456, 1496, 1632. Architectural Gardens. Figs. 1734, 1735, 1734. Temples and Covered Seats. Figs. 1758, 1739, 1760. Cascade. Fig. 1761 Fountains. Figs. 1762, 1763, 1764, 1765, 1766, 1767, 176& Ruins and Ancient Castles. Figs. 1769, 1770. Sundial. Fig. 1771. Vases. Figs. 1240, 1772 to 1777. Urns. Figs. 1778, 1779, 1780. Pedestal. Fig. 1781. CENOTAPnS AND ToMBS. Figs. 1/82, 1783, 1784. E.VTRANCE Lodges and Gates. Plans of Lodges. Figs. 1786, 1788, 1790, 1792, 1794, 1796, 1798. Elevations of Lodges and Gates. Figs. 1785, 1787, 1789, 1791, 1793, 1795, 1797. Gates and gateways. Figs. 1799 to 1805. Details of Construction. Roofs. Figs. 53, 54, 121 to 124, 226, 227, 2a9; of corrugated Iron, 348 to 354, 1670; for Riding. houses, 1705 to 1717, 1726, 1727, 1821, 1822. Eaves of Roofs and Gutters. Figs. 27, 36, 40, 55, 56, 59, 63, 77, 101, 103, 120, 127, 142, 155, 159, 160, 173,174; Design XXXU. p. 118; figs. 248, 263 to 265, 304, SSrv. 371, 3f^8, 389, 800, 864, 945, 1123, 1216, 1217, ia)6, 1468, 1670, 1672. Barge-boards and Gables. Figs. 181, 183, 299, 321, 378 to 385, 863, 863, 1476 to 1478, 1627. Pinnacles. Figs. 78, 1626. Water Trunks, or .Spouts. Figs. 60, 61. Thatching. Fig. 89. Tiles, Quarries, and Slating. Figs. 23, 24, 43, 146 163, 164, 434, 885, 947; Slating, 1099, 1100; Kiln, 1133, 1238, 1239, 1242, 1517 to 1529, 1670 to 1673, 1809 to 1813. Modes of Joining Pieces of Timber. Figs. 49, SO, 57, 238, 239, 376, 422, 447, 448, 450 to 433, 455. 595, 1180. Walls. Figs. 7, 39, 44, 48, 216, 306 to 312, 329 to 334, 4ft3, 975, 976, 1036, 1057, 1674. Partition Walls. Figs. 46, 38, 266. Weather Tiling. Figs. 392 to 402, 466. Mathematical Tiling. Figs. 461 to 465, 467. Chimney-tops. Figs. 32, 33, 84, 88, 91, 92, 100, 104, 131, 132, 141, 163, 172, 176, 190, 196, 202, 294, 303, 324, 3J3, S47, 373, 409 to 411 , 453, 436, 879 to 882, 1305, 1308, 1531 to 1537, 1379, 1675 to 1682 ; Slates for ditto, 430 to 432. Tessellated Pavements. Figs. 1517 to 1529 ; 1809 to 1813. Watchtowers and Bell.turretj>. Figs. 1692 to 1695. Windows. Figs. 28, 43, 73, 85, 90, 180, 188, 191, 192, 235, 237, 257, 262, 283 to 288, 322, 323, 344; Storm-head, 386, 478 to 489, 787, 876, 976, 977, 1307, 159.3, 1616, 1617, 1619 to 1624, 162S to 1635, 1647, 1684 to 1688, 1728. XIV LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. Canopies for Windows. Figs. •196 to 500. MuUions. Figs. 87, 177. Sash-bar. Fig. 12i). Doors and Porches. Figs, frt, 232 ; Corrugated Iron, -SoS to SBS, 469 to 476, 519, 875, 1575, 1576, 1593, 15M, 1596, 1616, 1689 to 1691, 1696 to 1698. Door Bracket. Fig. Al. Sills. Figs. 216, 218, 981. Gauge-box for hollow Walls. Figs. 1221, 1222 Curb for a Well. Figs. 229, 230. Verandas. Figs. 128 to 130. Stairs and Staircases. Figs. 137, 2H,242, 1613, 1644, 1648. Chimneys and Chimney-pieces. Figs. 47, 210 to 214, 219,' 2-20, 245, 518,541, 542, 1542, 1578, 1650, 1817, 1847, 1848. Chimneys for Steam-engines. Figs. 1267, 1268. Floors. Figs. 52, 62, 231, 446 ; Parqueted, 1814 to 1816. Modes of Heating Floors, &c. Figs. 4, 11, 276 to 282, 295, 296, 313, 1202. Ventilator. Fig. 1381. Finishings, Fittings- up, and Fixti'uks. Panels for Rooms. Figs. 518, 519, 1849, 1850. Ceilings. Figs. 1640 to 1642, 1651. Mouldings and Skirtings. Figs. 71, 195, 200 ; Dc- sign XXXII. p. 118; figs. 2)3, 2'H, 240, 418, 514 to 517, 859 to 861, 877, 1554 to 156-1,1618, 1625, 1636 to 1639, 1649. Window fasteners. Figs. 72, 238, 985. Plaster Ornaments for Ceilings. Figs 511 to 513. Cornices. Figs. 41, 93, 178, 179,182, 183,186,204; Design XXXII. p. 118; figs. 302, 501 to 510, 869, 1683. Filters. Figs. 8, 119, 275. Tanks for Water. Figs. 1, 118, 822 to 824. Water-closets. Figs. 13 to 16, 269, 413 to 415, 437, 438, 1325, 1336 to 1338. Stink-traps. Figs. 215, 222 to 224, 838, 839, 1499, 1500. Door-spring. Fig. 274. Cranks and Pulleys. Figs. 270 to 273, 520, 1818 Blinds. Figs. 788 to 793, 1806 to 1808. Breweries. Figs. 1830 to 18.33. Kitchen and different Apparatus. Figs. 1819 to 1829; Sinks for, figs. 416, 544, 1259, 1332; Holl- ers for Towels, figs. 546, 547 ; Dressers for, figs. 557 to 566 ; Cupboards, fi;;s. 567 to 572. Gas-pipes for Cooking. Figs. 1317, 1373, 1825 to 1829. Gas-pipes for Lighting. Figs. 1835 to 1837. Movable Cupboards. Figs. 1327 to 1.329. Nails and Wall-hooks. Figs. 51, 76, 221, 244, 246. Brackets. Figs. 81, 82, 161, 162, 553, .554, 556, 983, 1249, 1250, 1333, 1.3.39 to 1341, 1865, 1866, 1867. Balusters. Fig. 184; Design XXX II. p. 118 ; figs. 584, 858, 870, 874. Parai)ets. Figs. 83, 134, 147 to 154, 175, 1S9 ; De- sign XXXII. p. 119; figs. 862, 1330, 1577, 1737 to 1757. Ornamental Nails. Figs. 477, 1854, 185.5. Ornamental Shutters. Figs. 490 to 493. Locks. Figs. 69, 70. Bolts. Figs. 68, 494. Hinges. Figs. 37- 65, 66, 187, 298, 495, 606, 731. 982, 1058, 1059, 1060, 1061, 1851. Latch. Fig. 67. Handles for Doors. Figs. 1852, 185.3. Modes of hanging Pictures. Figs. 1856, 1857. Grates. Figs. 521 to 527, 533 to 539, 978, 979, 1243, 1244, 1245, 1252 to 1255, 1256, 12.57 ; American, 12.")8 ; Folding, 1330, 13.31, 1843 to 1848. Heating-Stoves. Figs. 1838 to 1842. Cooking-Stoves. Fig. 528 to 530, 1,354 to 1360. Ovens. Figs. 531, 532, 1361 to 1372. Ash-pan. Fig. 5V). Register. Fig. 543. iNTEBIORa Dining-rooms, Grecian. Fig. 1900; Gothic, fig- 2009 ; Elizabethan, fig. 2037. Drawingrooms, Grecian. Fig. 1980 ; Gothic, 2021 ; Klizatethan, 2038. Library, Gothic. Fig. 2012. Kitchen FuKNiTuiiii. Sinks. Figs. 544, 515, 1259, 1332. Rollers, &c. for Towels. Figs. 546, 547 Tables. Figs. .5.50 to .556, 596, 601, 13iS to 1350. Dressers. Figs. .557 to 56.5. Cupboards. Fig. 567 to 572. Kneading-trough. Fig. 593. Settles. Fig. 636, 1346. Chairs. Figs. ()43 to 650. Stools. Figs. 623 to 630, 1379. Clocks. Figs. 729, 730, 1247. Stand for brushing Clothes. Fig. 7,3.3. Washing-machines. Fig. 1262, 1.335. Wringing-niachines. P"ig. 1262, 185,8. Mangles. Figs. 1263, 126i, 1265, 1834. Knife-cleaner. Fig. 1266. Napkin-press. Fig. 1334. Cooking Apparatus. Figs. 1.354 to 1373, 1822 to 1829. Hall Furniture. Hat and Cloak Pins and Stands. Figs. 548, 549, 724 to 727. Benches. Figs. 632 to 635, 637 to 639, 1863, 1864, 2003. Table. Fig. 20.34. Chairs. Figs. 640 to m2, 651, 718, 1343 to 1347, 1859 to 1862, 20Ui. Mats and Scrapers. F'igs. 719 to 723. Dining-room Furniture. Sideboards. Figs. 573 to 575, 1868 to 1877, 1880, 2005, 2035. Tables. Figs. 602, 613 to 615, 1882 to 1890, 2006. Castors. Fig. 603; Table Flap-cases, 1878 to 1881. Screens. Figs. 732, 1896, 1899. Window-curtains. Figs. 705, 708, 710, 711. Chimney-pla.sses. Figs. 712, 71.3. Chairs. Figs. 1891 to 1895, 2007, 2008. Leg. rest. Fig. 1897 ; Candlestick.stand, 1898. Library Furniture. Bookcases and Writing-tables. Figs. 576 to 582, 1901 to 1904, 1906, 1907, 2010, 2fni. Library-table. Figs. 1905, 2014. Book. stands. Figs. 58.3, 584. Window-curtains. Figs. 705, 708, 710, 711. Chimney-glasses. Figs. 712, 713, 1914. Desks. Figs. 610, 1908, 1909. Chairs. Figs. 1911, 1912, 1913, 2013, 2029, 2033 Drawinoroom Furniture. Chimney-glass. Fig. 1975. Curtains. Fig. 1976 to 1979 Stool. Fig. 2(20. Tables. Fig. 604 to 619, 611, 612, 1938 to 1941, 1943, 194i, 1947 to 1958, 2019. Footstools. Figs. (Kl, 1921, 1922. Chairs. Figs. 652 to 660, 1923 to 1937, 2015 to 201S, 2 23 to 2028, 2030 to 2332 Fire-screens. Figs. 1972 to 1974. Chiffonier. Fig. 1942 Sofas, Couches, Ottomans, and Sofa Bedsteads. Figs. 674 to 680, 1915 to 1920. Dcvonports. Figs. 1945, 1946. Piano-fortes, Music-stands, &c. Figs. 1961 to 1966, 1908. Book-stands. Figs. .583, .581, 19.59, 1960. Portfolio-stand. Figs. 1967, 1969. Flower-stands. Fig. 1970, 1971. Nursery Furniture. Figs. 734 to 740, 1997 to 2002. School Furniturp Figs. 1404 to 1411. Bedrooji Furniture. Bedsteads. Figs. m\ to 699, 1981, 1982, 1984, 2022. Bed Pillars. Figs. 1983, 2f).36. Cribs, >1c. for Children. Figs. 700 to 703, 1997. Wardrobes. Figs. 585 to .591, 1987 to 1989. Looking-glasses. Figs. 714 to 717, 1991 to 1994. Chest of Drawers. Fig. .592. Towel-stands. Figs. 72S, 1351, 1352. Chairs. Figs. 661 to 673. Tables. Fig. 619 to 622, 1986. W'ashhand-stands. Figs. 616 to 018, 1910, 1995, 1996. Bed-steps. Fig. 1985. Dressing-table. Fig. 1990. LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED. Ihe Abhreviaicd Title, or the Name oftke Author, is given, irith the Number of the Paragraph where the LrkorthcAuthor^^ is first mentimed, and aftenvards the Titl ■ of the Books at lengh. All thenorks mtkhlist w"th"he exception of one or two which arc out ofmnt, vwy be had of Messrs Pr.estci, and We%c AreMtcctural Booksellers, High Street Bloomsbur!/, London, to whom we beg thus publicly to acknowledge our obligations fur tlie loan of several of the volumes enumerated. Aberdeen's Inquiry, ^e. 2222. An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Archi- tecture, with an Historical View of the Rise and Progress of the Art in Greece. By George, Earl of Aberdeen, K. T., &c. ; London, lSi2. small %vo. Alison's Essays, 190. Essav on the Nature and Principles of Taste. By Archibald Alison, LL.D. F.R.S. Edinburgh, ITiJO. 4to. 1811, 1815. 2 vols. Bvo. 1816. An Amateur's History and Analysis, Sfc, 22.31. A concise History and Analysis of all the prin- cipal Styles of Architecture, &C. By an Ama- teur. London, 1829. small 8vo. Anderson's Kecrealions, Sfc., 2i29. Recreations in Agriculture, Natural History, Arts, and Mis- cellaneous Literature. London, 17'J9 to 1802. 6 vols. 8vo. Arnott's Elements of Physics, 667. Elements of Physics or Natural Philosophy. By Neil Arnott, M. D. London, 1829. 2 vols. Bakciocll's Travels in the Tarentaise, Sfi+. Observ- ations on the Alps, Savoy, &c. By Robt. Bake- well. London, 182.5. 2 vols. 8vo. BartcU's Hints, 533. Hints for Picturesque Im- provements in ornamented Cottages, &e. By Edmund Bartell, junr. London, 1804. 8vo. Bath Societi/'s Papers, 1222. Letters and Papers on Agriculture and Planting, &c., selected from the Correspondence Book of the Bath Society. Bath, 8vo, 1780 to 1832. Betancourt's Description, &c., 1943. Description de la Salle d'Exercice de Moscow. Par M. de Bc- tancourt. St. Petersbourg. Folio, 1819. Borgnis, Traite,S{C., 1816. Traite EUmentaire de Construction appliquee a I'Architecture Civile. Par M. J. A. Borgnis, Ingenieur, et Membre de plusieurs Academies. Paris, 1823. 4to. Braidirood on Fire-engines, 1793. On the Con- struction of Fire-engines and Apparatus, &c. By James Braidwood, Edinburgh, 1830. 8vo. Brewster's Mechanics, 1261. Lectures on Me- chanics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, and Optics. By James Ferguson, F.R.S. A new Edition, by David Brewster, IyL.D. F.R.S. Edinburgh, 180,5. 2 vols. 8vo. Britton's Works. 2150. Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, 4 vols. 4to. ; Descriptive Sketches of Tunbridge Wells, Sec, 1 vol. 8vo. Architectural Dictionary, 1 vol. 8vo. and other works published from 1801 to 1833. Brown's Infant Mind, 1517. A Essay on the Culti- vation of the Infant Mind, &c. By J. R. Brown, Master of the Spitaltields Infant School. London, 1832. 12mo. Buchanan's Economy of Fuel, 600. Treatise on the Economy of Fuel in Dwellings and Manu- factories, &c. By R. Buchanan, Civil En- gineer. Glasgow, 1802. 8vo. Burnet on Colouring, S(c., 2012. Hints on Colour in Painting. London, 1830. 4to. Cab. Diet. 2100. The Cabinet Dictionary, con- taining an Explanation of all the Terms used in Upholstery in all its Branches, &c. By T. She- raton. London, 1803. 8vo. Cardonnel's Tieirs of Scotland, 1811. Picturesque Antiquities of Scotland. By Adam de Car- donnel, F.A.S. Edinburgh. London, 1788 and 1793. 2 vols. 'Ito. Carlisle's Hints, S;c., 2222. Hints on Rural Resi- dences. By Nicholas Carlisle. London, 1825. 4to. (Not published.) Carter, 2222. Ancient Architecture in England. Nos. 1 to 27. folio, 1780 to 1796. By John Carter, F.S.A. Caus, i;c., 1990. Hortus Palatinus a Heidelberga cxtructus. By Solomon Caus. Frankfort, fol. 1620. Chad. Chimneys, 602. A Treatise on the Form- ation of Flues of Chimneys, &c. By J. Chadlev. London, 1832. 8vo. Chappie's Sun'cy of Devon, 839. A Review of Kisdon's Survey of Devon, containing the ge. neral Description of that County, &c. By William Chappie. Exeter, 1788. 4to. Choi.v d'Edifices Publics, 1974. Choix d'Edifices Publics construits ou projetes en France; ex- trait des Archives du Conseil des Batimens Civils, &c. Par MM. Gourlier, Biet, Grillon, et Tardieu, Architectes, et gravid sous la direc tionde M.Clemence, Architecte. Paris, 1826. fol. C/ni'fWn?, 2191. A Essay on the Construction and building of Chimneys, including an Inquiry into the Cause of their Smoking, and the most effectual Remedies for removing so intolerable a Nuisance. With a Table to proportion Chim- neys to the Size of Rooms, illustrated with proper figures. By Robert Clavering, Builder. London, 1793, 8vo. Cottingham, 2222. Gothic Ornaments (working Drawings for) selected and composed from the best Examples. By L. N. Cottingham, Archi- tect Atlas folio, 1828, 38 plates. Cours Cornplel d'Agr. 1289. Nouveau Courscomplet d'Agriculture Theorique et Pratique, &c. Nouvelle edition. Paris, 1823. 16 vols. 8vo. Cousins' Genie d'Arch., 1974. Du G^nie d'Ar- chitecture, ouvrage ayant pour But de rendre cet Art accessible au Sentiment commun, en le rapellant k son Origine, il ses Proprieties, et a son GiJnie; et contenant une Doctrine Ge- n^rale puissee dans des Faits, &c. Par J. A. Cousins, Architecte, &c. Paris, 1822. 4to. Dearn's Hints, SfC., 25. Hints on an improved Method of Building, See. By Thomas D. W. Dearn. Architect. London, 1821. Svo. De Clarac, ^Sc, 1974. JIusee de Sculpture, &c. Par M. deClarac. Paris, 1811. 4to. De I.ille, Le? Jardiiis, poerae. Par Jacques De Lille. 1765, Paris. 12mo. Densoyi's Peasant's Voice, 123. A Peasant's ^'oice to Landowners, on the best Means of benefiting Agricultural Labourers, and of reducing the Poors' Rates. By John Dcnson of Waterbeach . Cambridge, 1830. pamph. 8vo. Des Etablissemens pour I'Education en Bavihe, S;c. 1573. Par J. C. Loudon. Paris, 1829. Svo. Des. of Tremont House, 1944. A Description of Tremont House, with Architectural Illustra- tions. Boston, 1830. 4to. Descriptions of the Lojidon Zoological Gardens, SfC., 1951. Eight Views in the Zoological Gardens in the Regent's Park. London, 1832. ob. fol. Illustrations of the Surrey Zoological Gardens. By W. H. Kearney. Loudon, 1832. In monthly parts, 4to. Dictionnaire Technologique, 1261. Dictionnaire Technologique, ou Nouveau Diqtionnaire Uni- XYl LIST or BOOKS QUOTED. versel des Arts et Metiers et de rEcoiiomie Industrielte et Commerciale. Par une Societe de Savans et d'Artistes. Tomo I. — XX. 8vo. et Planches 4to. Paris, 18J2— 32 Dietterlin's Architcctitra, ^c, 199U. Architectura de Constitutione, &c. Wendelino Dietterliii. Nuremberg. 1598. tbi. Donaldson's Gatcwai/s, Sfc, 1990. A Collection of the most approved Examples of Doors, from Ancient and Modern Kuilding.s in Greece and Italy. By Thomas I,everton Donaldson, Ar- chitect. London, lk3:i, 4to. Diippa, '.'214. Observations on France and Italy, made in 1S18. London, 1819. 8vo. Durand's Cours d' Arch., 22ol. Cours d' Archi- tecture faits a I'Ecolc Uoyale Polytcchnique, depuis sa Reorganisation ; precede d'lin Som- mairedes Lemons relatives Jlce nouveau Travail. Par J. N. L. Durand, Architecte, &c. Paris, 1821. 4to. Durand, Leqons, S,-c., 2231 . Legons d'Architec- ture. Par J. N. L. Durand, Architecte, &c. Paris, 1817. 2 vols. 8vo. Dwight's Trav., p. 3. Travels in America. By Dr. Dwight, 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1S2(). Eimes's Lectures, p. 5. Lectures on Architecture ; comprising the History of the Art from the earliest Times to the present Day. By James Elmes, Architect. London, 1823. 8vo. Emerson's Mechanics, S(C. 2181. Principles of Me- chanics ; explaining and demonstrating the generalLaws of Motion, theLaws of Gravity,&c. Motion of des ending Bodies, Projectiles, Me- chanic Powers, Pendulums, Centres of Gravity, &c.. Strength and Stress of Timber, Hydro- statics, and the Construction of Machines. By William Emerson. London, 1754. 8vo. Encyc. vf Dom. Econ., 711. The Domestic Encyclo- Wdia ; or, a Dictionary of Facts and Useful Knowledge, &c. London, 1802. 4 vols. 8vo. Epistle to Lord Lowtkcr, 476. On Planting and Buildings, in a Poetic Epistle to Lord Lowther. London, !77fi. 4to. Essat/ on Gothic Archttcctvre. An Essay on the Origin and Progress of Gothic Architecture, traced in and deduced from the Ancient Edifices of Germany, with references to those of Eng- land, &c. By Dr. George MoUer, first Archi- tect to the Duke of Hesse; translated from the Gei-man. London, 1824. 8vo. Facts and I/lustrations, S;c., 480. Facts and Illus- trations, demonstrating the important Benefits which have been and still may be derived by Labourers from possessing small Portions of Land, &c. London, pamph. 8vo. Monthly, continued. Fa/da's Fountains, S(c., 1973. contained in Nuova Teatro delle Fabriche et Edificii di Roma Mo- derna. Rome, 1665, Ito. ; and in Gli Giardini di Roma. Rome, fol. and Norib. fol. Farcy's Derltyshire, ^Til. General View of the Agriculture and Minerals of Derbyshire, jiub. by Order of the Board of Agr. By John Farey, Senr., Mineral Surveyor, vol. i. London, 1811. 8vo. voL ii. 1813. Maps and sections. Flaxman's ^schi/lus,S;c. 21G8. A Series of Engrav- ings from hi.s Compositions to illustrate the 1 had and Odyssey of Homer, 1793, 4to. Compositions from the Tragedies of jEschylus, 1809, fol. Fontaines de Farts, S(C., 1794. Les Fontaines de PL'.ris, Anciennes et Nouvelles. Par M. Moisy et M. A. Duval. Paris, 1812. fol. For. Quart. Rev., p. 2. Foreign Quarterly Review. I^ondon, 11 vols. 8vo. 1833. Continued. Forsyth's Beauties of Scotland, 1821. Beauties of Scotland, &c. By Robert Forsyth, Esq. Edin- burgh, 1809. 5 vols. 8vo. Forsyth's Remarks, S;c., 2212. Remarks on An- tiquities, Arts, and Letters, during an Ex- cursion in Italy, in 1802-3. London, 1813, Kvo. Franklin's Letter, SfC, 2181. Observations on smoky Chimneys, their Causes and Cure, &c. In a letter to Dr. Ingeiihaus/,. London, 1793, 8vo. Frend's Universal Education, 1613. A Plan of Universal Education. By William Frcnd, Esq. London, 1832. 12mo. Girardin, 1674. I^a Composition des Paysages sur le Terrein, on dcsmoyens d'embcllir ia Nature autour des habitations, en y joignant I'utile a I'agreable. Par L. R. GCrardin. Paris, 1777. 8vo. Gilpin's Practical Hints, S;c., 1987. Practical Hint J on Landscape Gardening, &c. By S. Gilpin, Esq. London, 1832. 8vo. Gilpin's Wye, 533. Observations on the River Wye, and several Parts of South Wales, relative chiefly to Picturesque Beauty, made in the Summer of 1770. London, 1783. 8vo. Gregory's Mechanical Dictionary, 1261. A Treatise on Mechanics, &c. By Olinthus Gregory, LL.D. of the Roy. Mil. Acad, Woolwich, and Teacher of Mathematics, Cambridge. London, 1806. 3 vols. 8vo. plates. Givilt's Architecture, 2181. Rudiments of Archi- tecture, Practical and Theoretical. By Joseph Gwilt, F.A.S. London, 1826 Large 8vo. Gwilt's Cham/jcrs, i^c, 2212. A 'Ireatise on the Decorative Part of Civil Architecture. Bv Sir William Chambers, K.P.S. F.R.S. F'S.A. F.S.S.S. ; with Notes, Sec, and an Examination of Grecian Architecture. I'y Joseph Gwilt, Architect, F.S. A. London, 1825. 2 vols. imp.8vo. Hall's Hypothesis, 2229. Essay on the Origin, Prin- ciples, and History of Gothic Architecture. Edinburgh, 181.3. 4to. Hasscl, 2012. The Speculum; or, the Art of Draw, ing in Water Colours; and Instructions for Sketching from Nature. London, 1809. 12mo. Hay's Laws of Coloming, 2012. The Laws of Har. monious Colouring, adapted to House Painting, and other Interior Decorations. By D. K. Hay, House Painter. Edinburgh, 8vo. 1829. High. Soc. Trans., 99. The Ouarterly Journal of Agriculture, and Prize Essays and Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland. Edin- burgh, 18,32. 8vo. Continued. Hiort's Chimneys, p. 2191. A Practical Treatise on the Construction of Chimneys, &c. By John William Hiort, Architect, liondon, 1826. 8\o. Hirschfeld's Theurie des Jar., 1674. Tht'orie de I'Art des Jardins. Par C. C. L. Hirschfeld. Leipzig, 1785. 5 vols. 4to. Hoare's Artist, ^e., SfC. A Collection of Essays relative to Painting, Poetry, Sculpture, Archi. tecture, &c. Edited by Prince Hoare. London, 18 la 2vols. 4to. Hoare's JViltshire, 1831. Historv of Ancient Wilt- shire. By Sir Richard Colt Hoare, Bart, F.R. and A.S.S. London, 1810. 3 vols. fol. Hofland's U'/iite Knights, S;c., 1969. A Descriptive Account of the Mansion and Gardens of \\ hite Knights, a S-at of his Grace the Duke of Marl- borough. By Mrs. Holland. London, 1811. I-arge 4to. Hogarth's Analysis of Beauty, 864. The Analysis of Beauty. By William Hogarth. London, 1754, 4to. Hope's Ess(n/ on Ornamental Gardening, 1649. Published in the Review of Art, and in Hof- land's M'hite Knights. Hope's Furniture, S;c., 2024. Household Furni. ture and Interior Decoration. Executed from l)esigns by Thomas Hope. I.,ondon, 1807. fol. Hope's Observations on Downing College, 2169. Observations on the Plans and Elevations, designed by James Wyatt, Architect, for Down, ing College, Cambridge, in a Letter to Francis Anneslev, Esq., M.P. By Thomas Hope, Esq. London,' 1804. 4to. Husking's Treatises, 2209. Treatises on Archi- tecture and Building, from the Encyclopailia Britannica, By William Hosking, Esq. London, 1832. 4to. Hunt's Tudor Architecture, 2148. Examples of Tudor Architecture, adapted to Modern Habit- ations, with Illustrative Details, selected from Ancient Edifices and Observations on the Fur. iiiture of the Tudor Period. By T. F, Hunt, Architect London, 1830. 4to. Jameson's Journal, 1980. The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal ; exhibiting a View of the progressive Discoveries and Improvements in the Sciences and the Arts. Conducted by Professor Jameson. Edinburgh, 1833, 14 vols. 8vo. continued. Kw'tiht's Inquiry, 117. An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste. By R. P. Knight, Esq. London, 1805. 8vo. Knight's Landscape, 117. The Landscape; a Di- dactic Poem, in Three Books. By Richard Payne Knight, Esq. London. 1794. 4to. Krc^'t, fiC., 1943. Plans, Coupes, et Elevations dc LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED. - xvn direrses Productions de 1' Art de la Charpente. Par Krafn. Paris, 1811, large fol. 202 plates. l.aing's Hints, 118. Hints tor Dwellings, consisting of Original Designs for Cottages, Farm Houses, and Villas, &c., including Ten Designs for Town Houses. By D. Laing, Architect and Surveyor. London, 1800. 4to. I.airesst', £01'i. The Art of Painting, in all its Branches, methodically demonstrated by Dis- courses and Plates, &c. By Gerard de Lairesse. London, 1738. 4to. Lamb, 2'221. Etchings of Gothic Ornaments. By Edward Buckton Lamb, Architect. London, 18.30. 6 numbers, fol. Landesvcrsclionerung, 1005. Monatsblatt fiir Bauwesen und Landesverschonerung. Munich, 3 vols. 4to. Continued monthly. Lasteyrie's Rural Architecture, W)5. Traits de la Construction Rurale, &c. Paris, 18U2. 4to ; and Recueil des Machines et Instruniens d' Agri- culture, SiC, de tous les Pays, &c. Par M. Le Comte Lasteyrie. Paris, 18i5. oblong 4to. La'igier's Essai, p. 5. Essai sur 1' Architecture, &c. Par le Pfere Laugier. Paris, 1755. 8vo. Latcrence's Practical Directions, 128. Directions for the Management of Cottage Gardens. By Charles Lawrence. London, 1831. pamph. Svo. Laxton's Builder's Price Book, 302. The improved Builder's Price Book. By W. Laxton, Sur. veyor. London, 1833. Svo. Le Jardinier des Fenfires, 1963. Le Jardinier des Fenetres,des Appartemens, etdespetits Jardins. Paris, 1825. 1 vol. 18mo. Library of the Fine Arts, lli64. Library of the Fine Arts. London, 1832. 2 vols. Svo. Loch's Improvements in Sutherland, 1047. An Ac- count of the Improvements made on the Mar- quess of Stafibrd's Estates in Sutherland, &c. By J. Loch, Esq. London, 1819. Svo. London Journal of Arts and Sciences, 685. Journal of the Arts and Sciences. London, 8 vols. Svo. Continued. Loudon, J. C. A Manual of Cottage Husbandry, Gardening, and Architecture. London, 1830. Svo. 2s. Supplement to Loudon's Cottage Manual, with 30 Designs, for Dwellings of from Five to Ten Rooms, on 24 Lithographic Plates. London, 1833 Svo. Is. Loudon's Treatise on Country Residences, 310. A Treatise on Forming, Improving, and Manag- ing Country Residences, &c. By J. C. Loudon. London, 1806. 4to. Malion's Works, 117. Essay on British Cottage Architecture, &c. By James Malton, Architect and Draughtsman. London, 1798. 4to. The Young Painter's Maul-stick. London, 1802. 4to. Marriage's Letters on the Agricultural Labourers, 1368. Letters on the Distressed State of the Agricultural Labourers, and suggesting a Remedy. By Joseph Marriage. Chelmsford, 1832. pamph. '8vo. Masoji, G., 1674. Essay on Design in Gardening. By George Mason, Esq. London, 1768. Svo. Mason, 1674. The English Garden, a Poem in Four Books. By the Rev. William Mason. London, 1772, 4to. Meason's Landscape Architecture of Italy, 330. The Landscape Architecture of the Ancient Painters of Italy. London, 1830. 4to. Mechanics' Magazine, 142. Mechanics' Magazine, London, 1832. 18 vols. Svo, continued. Milixia,p.5. Principi di Architettura Civile. Par Francesco Milizia. Bassano, 1785. 3 torn. Svo. Model Schools of the School Society, 15l7. Manual of Model Schools of the British and Foreign School Society. London, 1831. Svo. Morel, 1674. Theorie des Jardins, ou Part des Jardins de la Nature. Par N. Morel Paris, 1776, Svo. Morel Vinde, S. A., ^c, 743. Essai sur les Con- structions Rurales Economiques, contenant leurs Plans, Coupes, Elevations, Details, et Devis, etablis aux plus bas prix possibles. Par M. le Vicnmte de Morel Vinde. Les details par A.L Lussan, Architecte. Paris, 1824. folio. Morris, 2194. Lectures on Architecture. Two parts, 1734. Svo. Murphy, 2222. Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Views of the Church of Batalha, in Portugal. By J. Murphy. Fol, 1792. 27 plates. Kew Monthly Mag., 493. New Monthly Magazine. London, 37 vols. Svo, 1833. Continued. Newton's Vitruvius, 77. The Architecture of Vi. truvius Pollio, translated from the Latin by William Newton, Architect, London, 1791 — 1791, 2 vols, royal folio. Nicholson's Practical Builder, 2007. The New Practical Builder, &.C. By Peter Nicholson. London, 182i 4to. Papworth, 2222. Rural Residences, and Hints on Situation, &-c. By J. B. Papworth, Architect London, 1820. imp. Svo. Partington's Builder's Guide, 571. The Builder's complete Guide, comprehending the Theory and Practice of the various Branches of Archi- tecture, Bricklaying, &c. By C. F. Partington. London, 1825. Svo. Percier arid Fontaine, Decorations Intericures, 2005. Recueil de Dtcorations Interieures, &c. Paris, 1812. fol Pcrrault, 2169. Les dix Livres d'.'^rchitecture de Vitruve, corrigts et traduits nouvellement en Frangois ; avec des Notes et des Figures. Paris, 1673. fol. Plan for a National Education, ^c, 1573. Paro- chial Institutions, or a Plan for a National Sys- tem of Education, &c. London, 18.30, Svo. Price's Essays, 1674. Essays on the Picturesque, &c. By Uvedale Price, Esq. London, 1816. 3 vols. 8vo. Principles of Design, SfC, 2131. Principles of Design in Architecture, traced in Observations on Buildings, &c. In a Series of Letters to a Friend. London, 1809. Svo. Puckler-MUskau, SfC, 2126. Tour of a German Prince. London, 1832. 4 vols. Svo. Pugin's Works, 2222. Antiquities of Normandy, 4to. Gothic Examples, 4to. Gothic Ornaments, 4to, &c. London, 1828 to 1833. Quatremere de Quincy's Diet. p. 5. Diction- naire Historique d'Architecture ; comprenar.t dans son Plan les Notions historiques, descrip. tives, archa?ologiqups, biogr.iphiques, theo- rique.s, diriactiques et pratiques de cet Art : par M. Quatremere de Quincy, de I'Institut Royal de France (.^cadtmiedes Inscriptions et Belles. lettres\ et Secrt'tjiire perpttuel de I'Arademie des Beaux Arts. Paris. 2 vols. 4to. 1832. Quat. de Quincy's Essai sur I'Imitation, 2213. Essai sur 1,V Nature, le But, et les Moyens de I'Imitation dans les Beaux Arts. By M. Qua- tremtre de Quincy. Paris, 1825. Svo. Reade,H)V2. A Theory of Colours. Experimental Outlines for a new Theory of Colours, Light, and Vision ; with Critical Remarks on Sir Isaac Newton's Opinions, and some new Opinions on radiant Caloric. Dublin, 1816. Svo. Recueil des Fondations, S(C., 1990. Recueil des Fondations et Etablissemens faits par le Roi de Pologne, Due de Lorraine et de Ear. Luue- ville, 17Iecklenburgh Square. The account of his stove, 2057 ; figs. 1840 to 1842. Ogilvie, Alexander, Esq., of the Mere, near Knuts- ford, Cheshire. Design XXXVII. p. 435; fig. 1261. Pai-sons and Gill, Messrs., Architects, Leicester. Design XII. p. 870, with its conditions and specifications. Peake, Mr. Thomas, Tunstall Pottery, Newcastle under Line. The Tiles and Vase figured in p. 648. and fig. 1813. Prrry, Miss Elizabeth. The Fire-screen, p. 350. XX LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. Perry, Miss Sarah. The Lady's Wash-hand Stand, p. 311. Perry, John, Esq., Architect, Godalming. The Specification and Estimate, p. Sfi to 4.'3. The Stable in p 384, 385 ; I. p. 419, with the details, particulars, and estimates, p. 418 to 434, inclu- sive; II. p. 434, with the details, particular estimate, &c., to p. 441, inclusive; the Water- mill, p. 573, with i ts details, specification, and estimate, extending to p. 585. Prosser, Thomas, Esq., Architect, Worcester. De- sign VIII p. 409. Read, Mr. John, Regent Circus, London. Design V. p. 595. Kcid, William, Esq., Architect, Glasgow. Fig. 1267; Design XIV. p. 879. Robertson, John, Esq., Architect, Bayswater, near London. Design V. p. 30; VII. p. 35; VIII. p. 45 ; IX. p. 46 ; X. p. 49 ; XI. p. 50 ; XII. p. .55; XIII. p. 56; XIV. p. 61 ; XV. p. 62 ; XVII. p. 70 ; XVIII. p. 75 ; XIX. p. 76 ; XXIIL p. 90 ; XXIV. p. 95; XXV. p. 96; XXVL p. 99. XXVII. p. 100 ; XXVIII. p. 103 ; XXX. p. 109 ; XXXI. p. 110; XXXIII. p. 133; XXXIV., XXXV., and XXXVI. p. 134; XXXVII., XXXVIII., and XXXIX. p. 140 ; XLII. p. 159 ; XLIV. p. 165; XLV. p. 166; XLVL p. 169; XLVII. p. 170 ; XLVIII. p. 173 ; XLIX. p. 174; L. p. 177 ; LVI. p. 188 ; LVII. p. 193 ; LVIII., LIX.,andLX. p.l94; LXL, LXII,,and LXIII. p. 199; LXV. p. 203; LXVI. p. 204; LXVIII. p. 210; LXXII. p. 217; LXXIII. p. 225; IX. p. 646; I. p. 678; VUI. p. 693; figs. 1323 to 1326, and figs. 1348 to 1350. In general, all the explanatory diagrams, and all the Designs made from our suggestions, were drawn by Mr. Ro- bertson, who has been in our office, as Archi- tectural Draughtsman, since March, 1829. Robison, John, Esq., Secretary to the Royal Society, Edinburgh ; The Remarks in \ 1.334, p. 637 ; ^ 1373. Remarks on the introduction of cast iror. in building, in k, 1409, 144.5, 1793, &c. Ross, William, Esq., Architect, Pritchard Street, Bristol. Design XXX., XXXI., XXXII., and XXXIII. p. 519 to 523; the specification and estimate, p. 524 to ,528 ; II. p. 680 ; VI. p. 690. Rowe, James, Esq., Architect Design XII. p. 55; XXI. p. 86; XXII. p. 89 ; XXIX p. 104. Rowley, Mr. William, Fountain-maker, Howland Street, London. The Fountain, fig. 1767. Saul, Mr. Matthias, Cabinet Manufacturer and Joiner, Lancaster The Gates in p. 413 ; fig. 1247 ; fig. 1265. Selane, Mr., German Stove Builder, Vauxhall Road, London. Design for a Stove; figs. 1838 and 1839. Selim, an Amateur Architect, residing in Wiltshire. Design LII. p 181; LIII. p. 182; LIV. p. 184; III. p. 632 ; \ 1676 to 1734; figs. 1435 to 1440; XVII. p. 893. Skaiu, Henry, Esq, F.S.A., Percy Street, Bedford Square, London, Author of the History and Antiquities of Luton Park, and other Works. Some Designs for Ancient Furniture iti Chap. IV. p. 1099, and 1101. Sheriff, Patrick, Esq., Mungo's Wells, near Hao- dington. The Remarks in p. 534, 537. Siehe, Mr., Denmark Street, St. Giles's, London. The Rotatory Pump, figs. 9, 10. Stnnllwooil, William Frootne, Esq., Architect, Cam. berwell, London. Design VI. p. 844. Sylvester, Charles, Esq., Engineer, Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury, London. The Stove, figs. 1845, 1846. Swinton, James, Esq., Architect, Haddington. De. sign XXXIV. p. 528; and the specification, p. 529 to 534. T. S. T. Design III. p. 589. Taylor, Samuel, Esq., Amateur Architect, Stoke- ferry, Norfolk. Design LXXVI. p. 2226; XXVI. p. 411 ; XXIX. p. 516 ; fig. 1298. Thotnpson, Henry Augustus, Esq., Architect, I;i. verpool. Designs IV. p. 29; VI. p. 33; XVI. p. 69 ; XX. p. 8.5. Thorold, William, Esq., Architect and Engineer, Norwich. Design XIII p. 471 ; XIII. p. 473 ; XXXVI. p. 544; figs. 1288 to 1291; figs. 1715, 1716. Trotmnn, E., Esq., Architect, Fumival's Inn, London. Design X.\.I. p. 920, with the Essay on Gothic Architecture, extending to p. 943. Varden, Richard, Esq., Architect, Godalming. Design XXX IL p. 118, and the particular or specification. Ill ; LXIX. p. 215; LXXIV. p. 226; I. and the discussion on Mills, p. .')63 to .573 ; II. p. 583 ; IV. p. 592; IV. p. 834 ; XI. p. 859; ^ 1794 to 1798. Voktns, Charles, Esq., Architect, W'ilton Road, Pimlico, London. The Bookcase Front, p. 1246 ; XIX. p. 914; XX. p. 919. ; the Brew. ery, figs. 1830 and 1831 ; and the very ingenious mode of hanging pictures described in \ 2068, and illustrate*! by fig. 1856. Wright, Mr. S., Shelton, near Newcastle, Stafford- shire. Figs. 18U9, 1810, and 1811. ENCYCLOPAEDIA OP COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. INTRODUCTION. THE main object of this Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture, is to improve the dwellings of the great mass of society, in the temperate regions of both hemispheres : a secondary object is to create and diffuse among mankind, generally, a taste for architectural comforts and beauties. The means by which we propose to accomplish these objects are the following : — By submitting a series of Designs for human dwellings, embracing every appropriate comfort and the greatest variety of beauty ; and by accompanying these Designs with analytical and critical remarks, pointing out ia what this comfort and beauty consist, and on what principles both are founded. By submitting a series of Designs for the finishing, fittings up, fixtures, and furniture Buitable to the different descriptions of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Buildings ; and by ac- companying these with remarks on their fitness for the end in view, such as lighting, heating, ventilating, &c., as well as with analytical and critical remarks on their style or beauty ; thus showing the necessity of Architects including the study of furniture in that of their pro- fession, so as to be able to give Designs for furnishing a house, as well as for building one. By accompanying many of the Designs with gardens, as well small kitchen and flower gardens for the cottager, as pleasure ground and park scenery for the occupant of the villa ; and by explaining the connexion of Villa Architecture with Landscape Gardening, and pointing out the necessity which exists for Villa Architects possessing a considerable know- ledge of the art of laying out grounds. By avoiding, when it is not absolutely necessary, the use of terms peculiar to Architec- ture ; by explaining all such as are used, where they first occur ; and by adopting such a style, as will render the work easily understood by the uninitiated reader, as well as sub- servient to the purpose of educating young persons in Architecture as an art of taste, especially those of the female sex. To attain the end proposed, we commence our work with Designs, as rendering it more attractive to a general reader, as v.ell as of more immediate practical utility to persons intending to build or furnish, than it would be if commenced with abstract principles; and because, in the analytical and critical remarks, with which we mean to accompany these Designs, we intend to develope, as it were, incidentally, and by little and liltle, all the principles of Architecture, and also those of Landscape Gardening as connected with Buildings. We consider this mode of instruction best calculated for those practical men who have not had a sufficient education, or have not pursued such a course of reading in early youth, as to enable them to enter at once on the perusal of discussions, which must necessarily be, to a considerable extent, metaphysical. We also consider this mode by far the best adapted for initiating the general reader in the principles of architectural taste; and for enabling young persons, especially ladies, to educate themselves in Architecture as an elegant art. The improvement of the dwellings of the great mass of society throughout the world, appears to us an object of such vast importance, as to be well worth attempting, even though D. H. hi£l library 2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. we may not all at once succeed to our utmost wishes. In ameliorations necessarily involving considerable expense, much cannot be expected to be performed immediately ; yet, by making known the various particulars in which these ameliorations consist, to those who are to derive important benefits from them, we may rest certain, that, sooner or later, they will be effected. The efforts of Architects, in all ages and countries, have hitherto been, for the most part, directed to public buildings, and to the mansions of princes, noblemen, and men of wealth ; and what have hitherto been considered the inferior orders of society, have been, for the most part, left to become their own architects. Hence the tardiness with which the improvements made in the accommodation, arrangement, and exterior beauty of the mansions of the wealthy, have found their way to the dwellings of the poor. The great object of this work is, to show how the dwellings of the whole mass of society may be equalized in point of all essential comforts, conveniences, and beauties. By implanting in the minds of general readers, and especially of the youth of both sexes, some knowledge of the good and bad of Architecture, as an art of Design and Taste, it is evident that this main object will also be promoted. Teach the young what architectural beauty is, and they will admire it; show them how it may be produced in their dwellings, and they will desire to possess it. Whatever is generally and ardently desired, and unremittingly pursued, is certain of being ultimately obtained Independently of the usefulness of the study of Architecture, its pursuit, as a fine art, recommends itself, like the study of painting and sculpture, as a rational source of intellectual entertainment ; easily indulged in, since buildings occur every vs'here, and form one of the principal sources of interest in all towns and cities, and in travelling. The great use of the study of any of the fine arts is, to polish and refine the taste, and divest tlie mind of vulgac and common-place feeling. Architecture is the only fine art open to the inspection of all, and interesting to all ; and could we only succeed in raising the taste of the mass of society in this art, we should not only effect an universal improvement in Architecture, but materially contribute towards the universal adoption of correct and elegant liabits of thinking and acting generally. As the buildings of every country are open to all its inhabitants, it may be asked, why all have not already a correct and elegant taste in this art ? To this we answer, by asking how it happens that all persons have not a correct knowledge of their native language ; or a good taste in written compositions? The truth is, that but a very slight knowledge of any subject can be obtained without studying its first principles. There is a grammar in Architecture which must be taught, no less than the grammar of language ; and when that grammar is mastered empirically, there remains to be acquired the principles of human nature, upon which its rules are founded. It is on Architecture, as founded on these principles, that we chiefly rest our hopes of creating a general taste for the art, and of rendering architectural criticism as common among all classes of society, as the criticism of general literature. " It is not," says a clever architectural writer, (Foreign Quarterly Review, April, 1831,) when advocating the study of Architecture by women, " in order that they may be able to draw columns, for that is merely the means, not the end of the pursuit, that we would suggest the propriety of ladies applying themselves to what has hitherto never been included within the circle of female acquirements; but that they may thereby cultivate their taste, and ground it on something less baseless and shifting than mere feminine likings and dislikings. And when we consider how wide is the province, how influential the authority, which the sex are apt to claim in such matters; how much, in all that regards ornamental furniture and interior embellishments, depends on the refined or trivial taste of our fairer halves ; it must be acknow- ledged that to initiate them into such studies would not be an act of perfect disinterestedness." Independently of its subsequent advantages, the study of the Grammar of Architecture, or, in other words, " the elementary practice of architectural drawing, would be highly bene- ficial to the youthful pupils, inasmuch as it aflfords an immediate application of the simpler principles of geometry ; as it forms the hand to correctness, the eye to a scrupulous examina- tion of forms, and, consec^uently, implants habits of careful deliberation and attention, as well as the seeds of taste." We entirely agree with this writer in his opinions of the influence which women would have on the public taste in Architecture ; believing, as we do, that the improvement which, within the last fifty years, has taken place in landscape gardening, is, in a great measure, owing to the more general adoption of the art of sketching landscapes from nature, as a branch of female education. If the study of landscape drawing, by ladies, has led to the improvement of landscape gardening, why should not the study of architectural drawing, on their part, lead to the improvement of domestic Architecture? JNTRODUCTION. 3 The influence of Architecture on taste and morals has been argued, ina masterly manner, by Dr. Dwight, when speaking of what he saw of its influence in the towns of New England. Speaking of a city which had, when he saw it, in the beginning of the present century, been twice ravaged by fire, this admirable author observes, that though the tenants of the houses which were burned were, in many instances, sufferers, yet the town and the proprietors gained much. " The town," he says, " has already been improved not a little in its appearance, and will probably be much more improved hereafter. There are persons who will imagine this to be a matter of little consequence. I wish them to consider for a moment the following hints : — " There is a kind of symmetry in the thoughts, feelings, and efforts of the human mina. Its taste, intelligence, affections, and conduct, are so intimately related, that no preconcertion can prevent them from being mutually causes and effects. The first thing powerfully operated on, and, in its turn, proportionally operative, is the taste. The perception of beauty and de- formity, of refinement and grossness, of decency and vulgarity, of propriety and indecorum, is the first thing which influences man to attempt an escape from a grovelling, brutish cha- racter ; a character in which morality is effectually chilled, or absolutely frozen. In most persons, this perception is awakened by what may be called the exterior of society, particu- larly by the mode of building. Uncouth, mean, ragged, dirty houses, constituting the body of any town, will regularly be accompanied by coarse, grovelling manners. The dress, the furniture, the equipage, the mode of living, and the manners, will all correspond with the appearanceof the buildings, and will universally be, in every such case, of a vulgar and debased nature. On the inhabitants of such a town, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to wors a conviction, that intelligence is either necessary or useful. Generally, they will regard both learning and science only with contempt. Of morals, except in the coarsest form, and that which has the least influence on the heart, they will scarcely have any apprehensions. The rights enforced by municipal law they may be compelled to respect, and the corresponding duties they may be necessitated to perform ; but the rights and obligations which lie beyond the reach of magistracy, in which the chief duties of morality are found, and from which the chief enjoyments of society spring, will scarcely gain even their passing notice. They may pay their debts, but will neglect almost every thing of value in the education of their children. " The very fact, that men see good houses built around them, will, more than almost any- thing else, awaken in them a sense of superiority in those by whom such houses are inhabited. The same sense is derived, in the same manner, from handsomer dress, furniture, and equipage. The sense of beauty is necessarily accompanied by a perception of the superiority which it possesses over deformity ; and is instinctively felt to confer this superiority on those who can call it their own, over those who cannot. This, I apprehend, is the manner in which coarse society is first started towards improvement ; for no objects, but those which are sensible, can make any considerable impressions on coarse minds. On these grounds I predicted to my friends in this town a speedy change for the better in its appearance, and in the character and manners of its inhabitants. I have since seen this prediction extensively fulfilled." — (Travels in New England, vol. ii. p. 202.^ " The connexion of Architecture with the other fine arts," says the critic, in the Foreign Quarterly Review, " and the convenience of knowing at least as much of it as will enable us to judge how far the accessories in a picture are correct, where buildings are introduced, are too obvious to be insisted upon ; neither is it necessary to expatiate on the superior advan- tages possessed by the traveller who has qualified himself, by a competent study oi the subject, for enjoying the local beauties of the cities he visits. It might be conceived that the additional interest which an acquaintance with the various styles of Architecture imparts to historical studies, and the kind oi memoria technica furnished by the various reminiscences connected with celebrated buildings, would alone form a sufficient reason for directing the attention of the youthful pupil to such studies." — Foreign Quarterly Review, April, 1831. " He who criticises every fine building which he sees," observes one whom we consider the most philosophical of British architectural authors, " with a sincere desire to find out whatever in it is excellent, bringing everything to the test of his own unbiassed feelings and judgment, will form to himself a habit, profitable, not only when applied to Architecture, but to every subject on which the human understanding is exercised." — Wood's Letters of an Architect, Preface. By the principles of Architecture, many persons understand nothing more than certain established rules and precedents, drawn from the ancient buildings of Greece and Rome ; and, for the greater part, comprehended in the study of the orders used in Grecian and Roman temples. ' Are not those orders everything — the all in all of Architecture ?' say such persons. " Tlie whole science," observes the critic before quoted, " is commonly 4 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. thought to consist in knowing a few c:ibalistic words derived from the Greek, and a few mechanical rules for the proportioning of columns ; while, for those who would wish to acquire such a knowledge of Architecture, as would enable them to appreciate its beauties as they do those of its sister arts, there is hardly a single elementary work, that is not eithei too superficial, or merely technical. Instead of anything like generalization of principles, or originality of views, we meet with insulated rules, and the dull quackery of monotonous routine : while peurile trifling, or anile superstition, is suffered, in many cases, to exclude even a glimpse of common sense. In almost every other branch of knowledge, the student is able to provide himself with theoretical and critical, as well as practical, works ; but here, he ought to be endued with more than ordinary ardour and perseverance, if he would collect for himself the insulated scraps of criticism, and the few really useful, original remarks that, ' few and far between,' are scattered over a wide expanse of almost unvaried sameness." — Foreign QuarU'rhj Review, April, 1831. But a knowledge of the rules of Grecian Architecture, can no more be considered the principles of the science, than the art of mixing colours can be called the principles of paint- ing. " The great object of an Architect," says Wood, " is to detei-mine in what manner, with means always in some degree limited, either by the nature of the material to be employed, the customs of the country, the expense, or the taste or no taste of the employer, he can combine beauty with utility. The connexion of beauty, as an effect, with the composition of the parts of buildings, as the cause of that effect, is the great end and object of the Architect." — Letters of an Architect, Preface. After studying with care all the various opinions delivered by differetit architectural writers on the subject of the principles of their art, and divesting ourselves, as much as possible, of all accidental associations and temporary prejudices, we have arrived at the fol- lowing conclusion : — that the leading principle of Architecture, as a useful art, is fitness for the end in view ; as an art of design, expression of the end in view ; and, as an art of taste, expression of some particular Architectural style. Those beauties or effects which are the result of the first and second principles, are in their nature permanent ; those which are the result of the third principle, are in their nature temporary and accidental. All the various principles which come into operation, in the design and construction of buildings, easily range themselves under these three fundamental principles. The fitness of a design for the end in view, comprehends, not only the fitness of the size, shape, number, relative position, and other particulars of the interior divisions of a building, for the uses for which they are intended; but the fitness of the materials and construction, with reference to the strength and durability which may be required ; and the fitness of the expenditure for the means at the command of the builder. In like manner, the principle of the expression of the purpose, or end in view, applies not only to unity of expression in a building as a whole, but to the separate expression of all the different parts of a building for the purposes for which they are intended. So also the expression of architectural style applies, not only to the building taken as a whole, which must be in the same style throughout, but to all its component parts, which, even to the most minute details, must belong to that style, and exhibit its characteristics. Thus, as there are various uses to which buildings are devoted, so are there various kinds of beauty of which they can be rendered expressive. But, as all the uses to which buildings can be applied, all the arrangements which are requisite for convenience or hixury, and all mechanical or chemical processes which enter into their construction, are referable to the principle of fitness; so all the different kinds of beauty of which they are susceptible, are referable either to the expression of purpose, or to the expression of style. A cottage or a barn, which are recognized to be such at the first glance, are so far perfect, as to the expression of purpose ; but they may also be specimens of Grecian or Gothic Architecture, in which case, to the expression of purpose is added the expression of style. As fitness and the expression of purpose are principles applicable to all buildings whatever; so fitness, the expression of purpose, and the expression of architectural style, comprehend all the beauties of which buildings are susceptible. The principle of expression of purpose, is of universal application in Architecture ; and whatever building will bear the test of examination according to it, cannot but prove satisfactory to every unprejudiced mind, though it may not possess any of the beauties of architectural style. The minds of all men, however, are more or less subject to the prejudices of the age and country in which they live; and the prejudices of European Architects and their employers, seem long to have been in favour of the expression of architectural style in building, rather than of the expression of iise or purpose. This circumstance lias influenced the general taste ; and hence it is, that the critical observer, INTRODUCTION. 5 ■when looking at what is considered a fine building, instead of first examining whether it is expressive of the purpose for which it is applied, considers only whetlier it is intended to be in the Grecian, Roman, or Gothic style ; and, having determined to which of these styles it belongs, he next examines whether the details of the building are in strict conforniitv with the best practice and precedents in that style. But according to the principles we have laid down, it will be seen that the Grecian and Gothic styles are mere accident* in Architec- ture ; and are nothing more than the language which the Architect makes use of to convey his ideas. The expression of the purpose, for which every building is erected, is the first and most essential beauty; and should be obvious from its Architecture, altogether inde- pendently of any particular style; in the same manner as the reasons for things, are alto- gether independent of the language in which they are conveyed. As in literary compositions, no beauty of language can ever compensate for poverty of sense; so, in architectural compo- sition, no beauty of style can ever compensate for the want of expression of purpose. Every reasonable mind must feel this ; for, as we have said before, the foundation of all true and permanent beauty is utility. But though it is necessary to study the expression of purpose, as the first and fundamental beauty in all Architecture, it is by no means either necessary or advisable to neglect the study of style ; on the contrary, the judicious artist will take advantage of the prejudices in favour of this kind of beauty already fixed in the minds of mankind, and will emplov it, so as to co-operate with and heighten the expression of purpose ; because there are many persons who can admire the beauty of style, by whom the more simple and universal beauty of ex- pression of purpose, would neither be relished nor understood. Most authors, from Vitruvius to the present time, divide the subject of Architecture into use and decoration ; and, by decoration, it is evident that they mean what we denominate style ; though scientifically considered, style and decoration are essentially different. Any building may be decorated, by fixing on it ornamental objects of different descriptions; but for a building to be in a particular style, all its principal parts must be characteristic of that style, and must co-operate in producing one effect, or expression. Anotlier class of arcliitectural writers, Laugier, John Wood, Milizia, and especially Qua- tremere de Quincy (whose opinions have been adopted by a number of English writers, without the slightest acknowledgment), maintain, that Architecture, in so far as it is an art of taste, is to be considered an art of imiiation. According to this doctrine, the type of tlie Egyptian Architecture is a cavern; of the Chinese, a tent; of the Gothic, a grove of trees ; and of the Grecian, a rectangular hut. An opinion of this sort, adopted by such a profound metaphysical author as Quatremere de Quincy, deserves to be examined with the utmost attention. That there is truth in it, cannot be denied: man, whether in a state of barbarism or of civilisation, is alike an imitative animal ; that is, he cannot act otherwise than according to general laws, which have influenced all his predecessors from the earliest ages, and which will control all his posterity to the latest period. To say, however, that Architecture is an imitative art, hke the arts of Painting or of Sculpture ; that is " purely imitative," as Mr. Elmes calls it in his Lectures, strikes us to be by no means a correct use of language. That the more ancient of the different manners of building have had their origin in certain rude types, there is very little doubt ; at all events, this is sufficiently clear with respect to Grecian Architecture, all the principal members of which may be traced to the props and roof of a hut constructed of timber : but where is the type for the semicircular arch ? But why should a people, Uving in a country where stone was almost the only building material, be induced, by the instinct of imitation, to adopt a mode of building suited only for a material altogether different? May not a stone or mud hut serve as a model, as well as a wooden one ? If Egyptian or Indian Architecture may have had its origin in caves or excavations in the face of an upright rock, and Grecian Arcliitecture have taken its rise from a rectangular hut, why may not Gothic Architecture have had its type in the conical huts of turf and stone, or of sticks and mud, formed by the northern nations of Europe ? We think this, at all events, just as hkely to have given rise to Pointed Architecture, as a tent to that of the Chinese. The origin, however, of the different styles of art, appears to us a matter of very trifling importance. All Architecture maybe reduced essentially to two kinds; viz. that where the openings are covered with horizontal planks or blocks ; and that where they are covered with arches, either curved or pointed. Now, provided a system founded on any of these three principles be developed in a uniform, haiiuonious. and consistent manner, with reference to strength, durability, and fitness for the end in view, and to the general laws which govern all compositions of lines and forms, wiiat objection can there be to it, in any reasonable mind ? On the otiier hand, suj>i)04in;{ an Architect to fake any of the alleged 6 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. types as the foundation of his system, to what kind of result would he attain, without the exercise of reason at every step? Without reason, indeed, and that too continually exercised, Architecture would be an art of absurdity. As well, in our opinion, might agriculture an« gardening be called imitative arts, as the art of Architecture ; because there must have been some origin for cultivation as well as for building. The truth seems to us to be, that, viewed with reference to their origin, all arts are imitative; and, with reference to their adaptation to the state of man for the time being, all arts are founded on reason or human improvement. How far Architecture is to be considered one of the fine arts must, as it appears to us, (and our opinion is in consonance with that of Alison, Dugald Stewart, Sulzer, and other writers) depend, not on its being either an imitative or an inventive art, but on its powers of creating in the mind, emotions of sublimity or beauty. Notwithstanding the seeming difference of opinion on this subject among architectural writers, it appears to us in tlie highest degree probable, that, if the language of each writer were explained with reference to one fixed standard, they would all be found nearly to agree; the expressions, " art of imitation," and " art of imagination," being used by many of them as synonymous. A't all events, hypothetical differences of this kind should never prevent us from profiting by the excellent works of such writers as Quatremere de Quincy and Milizia. — But it is time to turn from a speculative digression to the main purpose of this introduction, which is, to explain the general nature of our work. L Our grand object being to intrcduce improvement into Cottage, Farm and Villa Architecture, in the temperate regions of both hemispheres, by numerous examples of Designs, with different degrees of accommodation, and in different styles of Architecture, we have adopted, as the first term in our ascending series, a simple dwelling of two rooms, suitable for a man and his wife, without children ; and, as the last term, the villa or country house of an English gentleman of wealth and refinement. We have fixed on the English villa, as com- bining more of the comforts and luxuries of life than the villa of a man of wealth and taste in any other country in the world. 2. The first step toivards the introduction of improvements in the practice of any art, is to familiarize the minds of the practitioners with the deviations from usual practice which con- stitute these improvements. In rural Architecture, almost the only means of doing this is by published Designs ; for no local builder can be supposed to have had either leisure or opportu- nities to inspect the various improvements which have taken place throughout his own country, and in other countries. Unless he has recourse to books of Designs, therefore, he can do little more than repeat himself, or copy what he has seen ; probably with some improvement — possibly with deterioration. To supply the country builder, therefore, with numerous Designs, at a moderate price, must be rendering him an acceptable service. 3. The use of published Designs to an experienced Architect is to furnish him with ideas for composition ; that is, with different modes of connecting the various parts of which a building is composed; of varying the forms of those parts; of devising new forms from them ; and, finally, of composing the exterior as well as the interior details ; subject always to the guiding principle of unity of expression, whether of purpose or of style. 4. Tiie same use of published Designs may be made by a young Architect; but in order that he may profit to the fullest extent, either from viewing buildings actually executed, or from studying published Designs, he should be able to analyze them, and to trace the cause of what- ever they may display of the beauties of fitness, of expression, or of style, to first principles of composition. To assist him in doing this is the object of the analytical remarks which we have made on each Design. The amateur Architect, and general reader, will also find these remarks uselul as a means for improving their taste, by enabling them to refer the beauties or defects of buildings to their true causes. This is, indeed, the chief use of Designs to a general reader ; but an Architect or builder may profit much from the careful inspection of a book of Designs, merely as a collection of models, without being able to analyze them; or to trace the causes of the pleasure or dislike, which he may receive from them, to first principles. Such an Architect, or builder, however, though he may be a very efficient empirical practitioner, can never be considered as possessing a scientific knowledge of his art. " The uneducated Architect," says Wood, "judges by his feelings ; the half-educated, by rule ; but the master, from feelings, trained and purified by study and reflection." 5. In delineating these Designs, we have, instead of geometrical elevations, given in every case, correct perspective views ; and we have not accompanied these views by trees, or landscape scenery of any kind, considering the practice of doing so as of no real use; and, on the contrary, as calculated to mislead the inexperienced eye. For, as the beauty of every whole, is necessarily made up of the beauties of all its component parts ; and as the size and shape of the trees, and the style of the scenery which form conspicuous parts in pictorial views COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 7 of Designs for buildings, are beyond the power of the Architect, whatever part of the effect of tlie picture depends on them, cannot be realized in the execution. In every landscape composed of a house surrounded by verdant scenery, the beauty or deformity of the house may easily be heightened or obscured, at the pleasure of the artist, by the management of the other parts ofthe picture ; but where a building is exhibited in perspective by itself, its beauties or deformities are more easily detected ; and the latter can be corrected before proceeding to carry the Design into execution. If, indeed, the introduction of verdant scenery in the picture, would serve as a guide for planting and arranging the ground about the house, tlien, indeed, it would not only be allowable, but advantageous ; but every landscape gardener knows that instruction in this department can only be conveyed graphicjdly, by plans and sections of the surrounding grounds, showing the disposition of the trees and shrubs to be planted, and enumerating their kinds. 6. The Details of Construction, or Specifications, as they are. technically called, which ac- company some of these Designs, are for the purpose of assisting the young Architect in making out similar Specifications for all the rest; and also for instructing the employers of Architects and builders, as to the sort of details which ought to be entered into and settled, before any building, however small, is undertaken to be executed. Engravings on wood, of the details on a large scale, are given with each Design, for the like purpose of facilitating execution. 7. The Estimates, with the exception of those cases, in which detailed Specifications are made out, can only be considered as approximations ; but as, in every case, the data are given from wliich the estimate has been made, an experienced builder, who knows the difference between the price of labour and materials in his own locality and that of London, will always be able to calculate from these data, so as to form an estimate sufficiently accurate for general guidance. Every builder, or even carpenter, when he has laid before him a plan, a perspective or isometrical elevation, and a section, such as we shall give, can make out a specification of the details of construction, on which he can form an estimate suitable for contract and actual execution. 8. In the Analytical and Critical Remarks on each Design, we nave illustrated all the different kinds of construction, and all the principles of architectural composition. In doing this, we have preferred, as the most useful mode, and as the one least likely to restrain the freedom and extent of our remarks, to give such details, and offer such criticisms, as naturally arose out of the subjects as they came successively under review, without much regard to the order of their succession. 9. In illustrating the Principles of Landscape Gardening, as connected with Buildings, we liave, in like manner, limited ourselves to the development of one principle at a time ; showing, in some cases, how the ground ought to be disposed in the neighbourhood of a building ; in others, how it ought to be approached by roads or walks ; sometimes, how fences ought to be disposed ; and, in various cases, not only how the trees or shrubs ought to be arranged, but the particular situations for different sorts, with the different heights to which they grow, the soils they require, their suitableness for particular climates, and their character as ornamental, useful, or fruit-bearing plants. 10. Plans of small Gardens have been given along with several of the humbler Designs ; and, in describing these, we have not only siiown how they may be planted, with fruit and ornamental trees and shrubs, to most advantage ; but, in some cases, we have given courses of cropping, labouring, and manuring. But as this subject is likely to be much more generally understood than Landscape Gardening, as connected with Architecture, we have taken care to restrain our remarks, so as to keep them within due limits. 11. In our Designs for Farm Buildings, we have always taken care to state the extent of the Farm, and the kind of culture, for which they are adapted; taking chiefly, as precedents, the climate and farming of the best districts of Great Britain ; but partly, also, the circum- stances of France, Holland, Belgium, and Germany. The same countries have been kept in view, in arranging our Designs for Country Inns and Public Houses, and for the Workshops of Country Tradesmen and Mechanics. 12. The Order in which we have arranged these Designs, is as follows : — Book I.— Designs of Cottages for Labourers, Mechanics, Country Tradesmen, and Small Farmers; of Lodges for Gardeners, Bailiffs, Land Stewards, and other Superin- tendanis on Landed Estates. Book II. — Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries; Country Inns, with Farm Buildings attached ; Fermes Ornees, and Villa Farms. Book III.— Designs for Cottage Villas, and Villas of the highest class, with their accom- panying Offices, and other Buildings. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. BOOK I. DESIGNS FOR LABOURERS AND MECHANICS* COTTAGES, AND FOR DWELLINGS FOR GARDENERS AND BAILIFFS, AND OTHER UPPER SERVANTS, AND FOR SMALL FARMERS AND CULTIVATORS OF THEIR OWN LAND. 13. The Designs of this Book are calculated for what, in countries having a privileged aristocracy, are called the lower and middling classes of society; but which, in self-governed democracies, like North America, or in newly-colonized countries, like Australia, constitute nearly the whole rural population. We have arranged these Designs in two chapters : the first contains three Designs of what may be called Model Cottages, as each combines all the accommodations and arrangements for comfort and convenience of which buildings of the lowest class are susceptible. Each of these Designs contains the same quantity of accommo- dation, but differently arranged to suit different situations and climates. The second chapter includes a miscellaneous assemblage of Designs, each combining more or less of the comforts and conveniencies of the Model Designs, joined to various kinds of architectural beauty and style. Chap. I. Model Designs for Cottages, exhibiting in each Model all the accommodations a7id arrangements for comfort and convenience of which the smallest dwellings of this class are susceptible. 14. The Accommodations and Arrangements of these Designs are presented as the beau ideal of what we think every married couple, having children of both sexes, and living in the country, should possess; while, at the same time, we have included in them all that is essentially requisite for health, comfort, and convenience, to even the most luxurious of mankind. In such dwellings every labourer ought to live, and any nobleman might live. All that in any dwelling exceeds the accommodation .ind arrangements here given, must either be required for a larger family and extended hospitality, or for the display of either superfluous wealth or highly refined taste. The necessaries, and even comforts of life, are contained in a small compass, and are within the reach of a far greater portion of mankind than is generally imagined. But one room can be used at a time, by either the poor man who has no other, or the rich man who has several; and that room can only be rendered comfortable by being warm, dry, light, well ventilated, and convenient: qualities which depend not so much upon the materials used in its construction, as on the manner of applying them. All that is wanting is knowledge ; first, of what is necessary and desirable ; and, secondly, of the means of obtaining it at a small expense. To communicate this knowledge is the main purpose of the present Book; but more especially of the Designs contained in this chapter. 15. In the composition of these Designs, we have, in every case, adopted the following arrangements : — First, We have placed every dwelling-house, or the floor containing its living- rooms, upon an elevated platform, with a view of keeping it drier, and consequently, warmer and healthier; as well as to procure greater dignity of effect, as an object in landscape, and as a station for the eye to survey the surrounding scenery. Secondly, We have placed the chimnies in the interior walls, rather than in the exterior ones ; because when the chinmies are so placed, a greater portion of heat is retained within the house ; and because, from the greater degree of heat contained in the mass of masonry through which the flues are carried up, the smoke always ascends faster, or, in common language, the flues draw better. Thirdly, We have, in every Design, kept in view the practicability of the most economical application of fuel ; of the collecting, filtering, and preserving the water which falls on the roofs ; and of the collecting and economizing the liquid and other manure pro- duced in or about the cottage. We have shown the various details for effecting these objects in plans, sections, and perspective elevations, with copious descriptions and various graphic illustrations ; and we wish the Architect to keep them continually in view in judging of the Designs in Chapter II., and to imagine them applied, more or less, to each Design given in that chapter, as circumstances may admit or require. We have before published these Model Designs of Cottages in our tract entitled, J Manual of Cottage Husbandry, Gardening, and Architecture ; but we consider the details which they exhibit as of so much importance, and all the Designs which are to follow in this work as depending so entirely upon many of MODEL COTTAGES. 9 • them for their chief excellencies in a useful point of view, that we have felt we should not be doing justice to our readers if we did not repeat these Designs, with their descriptions, in the present work. This we have now done in a much more clear and systematic form than was compatible with the plan of the pamphlet alluded to, and with very considerable additions both of descriptive matter and engravings. Design I.— A Cottage of One Story, combining all the Accommodation and Conveniencies of which human Dwellings of that description are susceptible. 16. In the Ground Plan of this Design, marked I. in page 10, a represents the kitchen, or living room. The floor of this apartment may be of tiles ; or paved ; or laid in a composition of lime, sharp sand, and Roman cement ; or of lime, sharp sand, and scoria from a smithy. Composition floors of this kind are nmch warmer than those of stones or tiles. In the ceiling, nearly over the hearth, is a trap-door to the loft ; vrhich door may, in summer, be partially opened to promote vent'lation, there being a false flue in the chimney for that purpose, which will hereafter be described. b, A small parlour, with a fire-place and boarded floor: as it will receive a good deal of heat from the kitchen fire, it will seldom require a fire made on purpose for it. It ought to have a small ventilator in the ceiling, near the stack of chumieys, communicating with the false or air flue, for summer use. c, Family bed-room ; the floor of tiles, or paved, or of the same material as that of the kitchen. d, Bed-room for girls ; the floor boarded. e, Bed-room for boys ; the floor boarded. There may be a door in the partition between these smaU rooms, which it may be convenient in some cases to use instead of the door be tween the girls' bed-room and the family bed-room. /, Water-closet for the mother, girls, and females, supplied by water as to be hereafter described. The basin may be of brown earthenware or of cast iron, so as to cost very little ; the door ought to open inwards, and the small window outwards, so that every movement of the door may act as a ventilator. There might also be a water-cock and wash-hand-basin. g. Tool-house, and man and boy's water-closet, with an opening to the loft for ventilation : supplied with water from the same source as the other water-closet. The basins of both closets communicate with an earthern pipe, which empties itself into the reservoir of the cess- pools for liquid manure. The liquid manure thus gained will be of so much value to the garden, as alone, independently of cleanliness and decency, to justify the expense of two closets, and both of these it'a^er-closets. h. Cow-house, with a tying-post and trough for food in one corner, and a loft for hay and straw over : this loft may be got at through a trap-door, by the use of a common ladder. i, House for fuel, lumber, or for various other purposes, such as roots or other food for the cow and pigs. In cases where the cottager grows corn, it may be made his barn ; and if it were desired to have this barn larger, it could easily be made so, by projecting the whole lean-to two or three feet farther from the main body of the house. k. Place for ducks or geese, with a small poultry-stair or ladder to hen-loft formed over / and g. This loft ought to be lined with straw on the top and sides, in order to keep the poultry warm in winter and cool in summer. /, Cistern for receiving half of the water which falls on the roof. m, A pump for pumping water from the tank below, either for use in the back yard or in the house, or for raising the water into the water-closet cistern above. Siebe's rotatory pump is the best adapted for these different purposes, being at once a lifting-pump and a forcing- pump. It costs no more than a common pump, may be worked in far less room, and with greater ease, by a female or a boy, and is much less likely to go out of order. n. The open yard, which should have a gentle inclination from all sides towards the dungpit {p). 0, Pigsty, with a rubbing-post in the open area or feeding-place. Two old barrels, for pigs' food, will require to be placed under cover, where they can be kept from freezing in winter, and from being extremely hot in summer. One of these ought to be filling while the other is emptying, and the contents should not be made use of before fermentation has commenced. The fuel-house, /, will be a very good situation for these tubs in summer, and a corner of the cow-house, /;, in winter. q, Shed for faggot-wood, o, p, and q, may be roofed with one lean-to, or pavilion roof of uniform height and width ; or, if corn be grown by the cottager, then, instead of a roof of slates, tiles, &c., may be substituted a floor of joists of the same width as required for the 10 COTTAGE, lARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURF,. MODEL COTTAGES, 11 1 K, roof; and on this floor may be laid, first, a layer of faggots, and on these built the com or hay as a stack or stacks, and thatched in the usual manner. This would save the expense of tiles or slates, and also the ground that would otherwise be requisite as a rick-stand. r r. Two cesspools for liquid manure, i. e. for all the drainings of the open yard after they have passed through the dung-pit, p, for the water of the two closets, and that pro- ceeding from the sink to be described hereafter, including soap-suds and all waste or foul water made on the piemises. As it is found advantageous that liquid manure should undergo fermentation before it is used, two cesspools become necessary, and also an arrangement by which the supplies from the different sources can be turned into either cess- pool at pleasure. s, The situation of two plug-holes, for regulating the admission of water to the cesspools. The well containing these plug-holes is, in horizontal dimensions, one foot square, and in depth, three feet. The sides are built of brick or stone, and the bottom is formed of one stone, containing the two holes, each of which is three inches in diameter ; the left hand hole communicating with the left hand cesspool, and the right hand hole with the other cesspool. A plug, with a handle four or five feet long, is to be used for stopping the communication with the cesspool which is filled and undergoing fermentation : and as these pools are alternately filled and emptied, the plug can be removed from the one hole in the regulating well to the other. These pools are placed without the open yard, in the supposed garden, for the greater convenience of emptying them. t t, The level part of the platform, or terrace, on which the house appears to stand, and which will be better understood by referring to figs. 6 and 17, or to Designs IV. and V. u, Point at which this platform commences to incline gradually till it terminates at v. w, Sloping sides of the platform ; the slope being 45° in stiff loamy soils, and 30° or less, in loose soils. The platform may be covered with turf, or ornamental plants, and finished with a parapet or low hedge, as will be afterwards described. X, Steps for ascending the platform, opposite the principal door of the cottage. y z, Entrance porch : y represents the steps leading up to the living floor, and z the steps leading down to the cellar floor. If the front of such a porch were to any other quarter than the south-east, the porch should be larger, with an exterior door ; if it fronted the south-west, the entrance to the porch ought to be on its south side, for the sake of protection from the weather. ^■, Shelves for bee-hives ; the upper part of which may be fitted up as a dove-cote, and the lower part as a dog- kennel. 17. The Section AB of Jig. 3, is represented in fig. 1. It shows the reserve tank, a ; the opening for inserting the cock for drawing supplies from it, b ; and the sink, c. 18. Tlie Section C D of fig. 3, is represented in fig. 2. with the open area before it, e, covered with a grating, /. 19. The Plan and Section of the Cellar floor, shewing the heating flue, and the foundations, are given in figs. 3 and 4. a, Steps of descent to the cellar. These steps are represented in Design I. by the letter z. b, Apartment serving as a back-kitchen, wash-house, brew-house, bake-house, &c., as well as for boiling or scalding food for the cow, pigs, and poultry. c, Store cellar and larder for potatoes, beer, home-made wines, fresh and salt meat, and similar articles of provision. d, Milk-house and pantry ; in the farther corner in the ceiling ought to be a small grated opening, communicating with the air-flue in the wall, to promote ventilation ; the exterior window ought to be of wire or hair cloth, which both excludes air and heat or cold. e, Copper for brewing, washing, heating water for the bath, &c., unless a copper pot or iron box is fixed over the oven, when a separate copper becomes unnecessary. /, Oven for baking, and also for heating the floor of the living-room and family bed-room. g, Termination of the double covering of the flue, commencing at the oven,/. (See also letter g, in fig 4.) k, Brick-on-edge work, for strengthening the sides of the flues. i, Loose round stones between the flues, for the purpose of retaining heat r It shows the cellar window, d, 12 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE k, Sunk area, before the cellar windows. /, A situa- tion in which a bath may be placed, to be supplied with hot water from the boiler, e, or thecast-ironbox over the oven, f, or with cold water from the reserve tank, g. m, The re- ceiving tank, which, in ad- dition to the pipe from the roof, has ano- ther pipe from the inside, with a funnel, into which a supply may be poured for filtration, from the pump (»i,in Design I.), in times of great drought, or at any time when the reserve tank is exhausted.- w. Waste pipe from this tank, communicating with the drain pipe. 0, Drain pipe, communicating with the well, with plug-holes connected with the cess- pools {s, in Design I). p, Filtering tank, consisting of sand and charcoal, placed on a false bottom, raised three or four inches above the bottom of the tank. q. Reserve tank for the filtered water, communicating by a cock with the sink, r, and the sink having a stink-trap (see fig. 13, d, in p. 18,) connected with a waste pipe, s, which joins the drain pipe, o. t, Foundations of the out-buildings, shown in Design I. by/, g, h, i, k, I, and m. u, Tank, or well of water for general purposes, and for supplying the filtering tank in times of extraordinary drought. 20. The Section showing the depth of tkeflttes and the cast-iron box over the oven for heating water, is represented in fig. 4. This section is taken in the line G H, in fig. 3, and the object is to show the depth of the flues ; the double cover and vacuity between the covers a.t g ; the cast-iron box of hot water, k ; the cock for draw- ing water from it, and for emptying and cleaning it, / ; the situation of (he small lid for filling it, m ; the oven, 7i ; the copper, o ; the natural sur- face of the ground, p ; and the surface of the platform, or terrace, q. 21. The Section showing the height of the rooms, and other particulars, is given infig.5. Thissection ifiUken in the direction of the line I K, in Design I, and it shows the following particulars:— MODEL COTTAGES. 13 a, Natural surface of the ground. b, Surface of the platform. c, Level of the foundation of the cellar. d, Foundations of the other walls. e, Foundation of the oven. /, Foundation of the partition wall between the living room and family bed-room. g, Well or tank. k, Siebe's pump, with an ascending pipe into the cistern, i. i, Cistern for the water-closets, and for supplying the yard. k, Place for ducks or geese beneath. /, Hen-house, with tool-house and man's water-closet under. r>!, Family bed-room. n, Loft, with ventilator, or trap-door, from the kitchen, and opening near the air or ventilating flue. 0, Kitchen. p, Porch. q, Cover to the air flue, which is only kept open during summer to prevent excessive heat at that season : it is simply a square paving tile supported by an iron shank, in order to exclude rain. r, Oven. s, Water-box over. i, Commencement of flue from oven. M, Continuation of flue. V, Cornice to chimney top, made large for the purpose of encouraging swallows to build their nests there ; these birds being of great importance to cultivators or possessors of gardens, as destroyers of winged insects, on which they live entirely. 22. The perspective elevation of the entrance front and south-east side of Design L is shown in fig. 6. The object of this elevation is to show the general appearance of this description of cottage. The steps to the level part of the platform are seen on the left, and the gradual inclination of the surface from the south corner to the south-east corner to the yard-wall. The shelves for bee-hives are shown with the dog-kennel under, but the dove- cote is placed, over the entrance porch. 23. General Form. The most economical form in which a house can be built, is well known to be the cube. Not only does this form afford the greatest quantity of accommo- dation, with the least quantity of walling and roofing, but it is easier warmed; and, when warmed, it retains the heat better than any other form, more especially when the chimneys are placed in the interior walls, the reason being that a smaller extent of surface is exposed to the exterior atmosphere. 24. Aspect. With reference to Britain, and to the flat countries of most parts of Europe, the mildest aspect is the south-east, and, therefore, the door of a cottage should, if possible, be placed on that side. The next best side is the south ; and the two worst are the north- east and the south-west. It is very desirable, in a cold moist climate, that the sun should 14 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 6 shine on all the exterior walls of the cottasre, and also in at all the windows, every fine day in the year, for the sake of keeping the walls dry, and the interior warm and cheerful. This object may be accomplished by placing any building, which is, or can be, resolved into a square, or parallelogram, on the ground plan, so as that a north and south line will form the diagonal figure. This being done, the out-offices should be placed on the north-west side of the square, or parallelogram, as in Design L The dairy and the pantry should always, if possible, be placed on the same side, or with a north-east aspect, for the sake of coolness. Tanks for water should also be on the same side, and under ground, for the same reason. 25. Construction. The walls of this cottage may be built of stone, or brick, or earth ; but either of the two former are, undoubtedly, preferable to the latter, both in point of strength and durability. In situations, however, where these materials are too expensive, or cannot be obtained, every part of the walls here shown above the platform, may be formed of earth, either in ihe pise manner, by compressed blocks, or by lumps of loam or mud mixed with straw. Each of these modes will be described hereafter. In Design I. we have shown the walls as if built of brick, eleven inches wide, with a vacuity in the centre. This we propose to be done by keeping the width of the wall at eleven inches, working the out- side fair (even) ; and, on the inside, keeping the headers or cross bricks, fig. 7, a, one inch within the line of the stretch- ^ iiig or lengthway bricks, b, and keeping these length- way bricks two inches apart along the centre of the wall, c. Walls built in this way are much handsomer on the fair side; at least equally strong with solid walls ; always dry, and less easily penetrated by the cold in winter, or the heat in summer. The inner surface, being uneven, is peculiarly favourable for receiving and retaining the plaster. Hollow cottage walls may also be built by placing the bricks, both headers and stretchers, on edge, as first practised by Mr. Silverlock, of Chichester. They may be also built with bricks halved lengthways, by cutting with a knife or wire before burning, as recommended by Mr. Dearne. {Hints on an improved Method of Building, SfC. London, 8vo. 1821.) Both these modes will be afterwards described. The roof may be covered with tiles, slates, thatch, &c., at pleasure or convenience. Other ordinary particulars of construction and arrange- ment have been incidentally mentioned in describing the ground plan, § 16, and in figs. 1 to 5, § 17 to 22. Some which are less common follow. 26. Platform, or Terrace. The principal use of this part of our plan, is to keep the living floor of the cottage dry, and to prevent the necessity, in moist situations, of much ex- cavation for the sunk apartments. Secondary advantages are, that it furnishes a neat and comfortable walk round the house, and adds to the dignity and stability of its appearance. To have the walls of so artificial and importatit an object as a house, rising abruptly from a plain flat surface, whether that surface be dug or covered with turf,— in short, whether it be a garden or a field, cannot be considered as either in harmony with nature or reason. Every work of art is recognised as such by the appearance which it displays of design ; and the MODEL COTTAGES. 15 preparatory terrace may be considered as enhancing this appearance, and raising its character. Independently, therefore, of the platform being useful, its importance on the principle of en- hancing the character and dignity of the design to be raised upon it, ought, in our opinion, to ensure its almost universal adoption in buildings erected in the country. The platform, in Design I, is five feet broad, and includes a border of one foot for wall-trees and flowers next the house, and a margin of one foot, which should be of turf, on the outer edge, leaving a walk between of three feet, which ought to be gravelled. The exterior sides of the plat- form may have different degrees of slope, according to the nature of the soil, and the culture or application of the slope. For a loamy soil, the platform may be covered with turf, with a furze or a box hedge, about two feet high, along its upper angle, and the slope may be 45° ; where a loamy soil is to be cultivated as a flower border, the slope may be from 35° to 30°; a sandy soil should have a still greater slope. AVhere stones are abundant, the slope may be formed into rock-work, with a small hedge at top, or a dwarf wall, or a row of rough stones. In some situations, it might be worth while to form a rough trellis over the roof, about a foot above it, and on this trellis to train either apples, pears, plums, or vines, for their fruit ; or, in severe climates, ivy, for the sake of retaining heat, by its evergreen leaves, in winter. On the side walls of the cottage there might be trained fruit trees, or vines, together with ever- flowering roses, honeysuckles, and a variety of climbing shrubs and flowers; but, at the saine time, there is danger of indulging in these to such an extent as to keep the walls damp, and to encourage flies, and other insects, which are disagreeable in the house. The small border of one foot wide, under the wall, may always be planted witli low flowers, and great might be their variety and beauty, if the taste of the occupant lay in this way ; but the number and kind of shrubs and trees to be planted among these, with a view of training up the walls, must depend on the climate, aspect, and other circumstances. We shall afterwards give a list of climbing shrubs, and fruit trees, suitable for the purposes in view, in different climates. 27. The outer margin of the platform may either be finished with or without a low hedge, or by a low parapet, or other fence of wood or iron. If with a hedge, the sameness of the line may be broken by small standard trees, four or five feet high, at the angles ; and we see no reason why these standards should not be cui (not clipped,) into shapes, as well as the hedge, if the cottager's taste inclines him to do so. The standards may either be of the same species of tree as the hedge, but in a state of variegation, — say a green box hedge, with variegated box standards, — or of a different species. Green, and variegated box, are among the best shrubs for this purpose, in point of utility ; because every time the box is pruned, the twigs may be used as a substitute for hops, in brewing. But, in most cases, an architectural parapet will have a better effect than a dwarf hedge, and this may always be made an object of great beauty at very little expense. We shall afterwards show in how many different ways common bricks and tiles, and stones, rough or hewn, may be formed into these para- pets. We shall sdso show various forms of iron and wooden parapets for the same purpose. 28. Entrance Porch. No edifice whatever, in our opinion, is complete, unless some dis- tinctive mark is placed on the opening by which it is entered. What a portico is to a palace or a public building, a porch is to a cottage. A porch is not only the distinctive mark of the entrance door, but, being a protection to it from the inclemency of the weather, it must tend to preserve the warmth of the apartment within. No cottage, therefore, ought to be without its porch. In many cases, the porch may be a wooden structure superadded to the cottage; in others, a vestibule within may serve the same purpose ; but, for stability, durability, and dignity of effect, the porch should always project from the main body of the edifice, and be built of the same materials, and in the same taste or style as the cottage itself. 29. Chimney Tops. In every human dwelUng, these ought to be conspicuous objects, because they are its essential characteristics. They distinguish apartments destined for human beings from those designed for lodging cattle. They also distinguish a dwelling- house from a manufactory or workshop, by their size, form, number, and disposition. Inde- pendently of these qualities, they ought, in dwellings, to be dignified by a greater attention to design, than the less important parts of the edifice. On this subject we shall have much to say in describing succeeding Designs, but we have deemed it necessary thus early to state our guiding principle with respect to this part of the cottage, in order that it may never be supposed, for a moment, that we approve of concealing chimney tops, or of leaving them in their present mean and trivial form. 30. Collecting and Filtering Water. Considering it to be desirable that every cottager should be perfectly independent in respect of water, and also that rain-water is the purest of all water, we propose to show the manner in 'which all the water which falls on any dwelling may be collected ; how to filter and preserve one part of it, in a tank, for cookery purposes ; IG COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. and to preserve the other part unfiltered, in a cistern and in a large tank, for the purposes of the water-closets, for the use of the cow and pigs, for washing and cleaning, and for the garden. It is calculated by Waistell, that the average quantity of water which falls on a square yard of surface in Britain, in a year, is 126 gallons; which, for this building, containing upwards of 100 square yards of roof, will give 12,000 gallons ; an ample quantity for the purposes mentioned. A cottage constructed on this principle, therefore, may be set down in any situation, without reference to a natural supply of water. The cistern, /, in Design I, may be of cast-iron; or of slabs grooved into each other, and made water-tight with Roman cement; or of plates of Welsh slate ; or of large flat paving tiles set in cement ; or it may be made of wood, plastered inside with cement ; or of bricks set in cement, and plastered within with the same material ; or in countries where timber is abundant, as in America, or Australia, it may be formed of thick planks, well pitched ; or it may be simply an old liquor cask. However constructed, it must have a waste-pipe ; which, when the cistern is full, will flow over into the tank or well below, shown in fig. 5. This well or tank is to be considered as the grand reservoir of the premises ; and if there should be a natural spring in it, so much the better. Should the culinary, or filtering tank, fig. 8, /, fail at any time, water may be drawn from this tank, and introduced into the filtering tank. 31. The mode of filtering is very simple, and will be easily understood from the section E F, of Design I. In this section, fig. 8, a, represents a vacant space of three inches from the bottom to b ; b, is a slate, stone, or board, pierced vvith numerous holes, say at the rate of three to an inch, of about the eighth of an inch in diameter ; c, is a mixture of clean coarse sand and powdered charcoal, or coarse burnt clay, with- out either sand or charcoal ; d, a filtering stone ; or in default of a stone of this porous nature, a plate of lead thickly pierced with holes, of one twentieth of an inch in diameter ; e, an opening by which the water of the receiving tank,/, communicates with a, at the bottom of the filtering tank ; g, an opening by which the water after it has ascended through the filter, runs over into the reserve tank, h. The filtering ot the water may be effected in a more simple manner, by placing a layer, about six inches thick, of round stones, about the size of eggs, in the bottom of the filtering tank, and over this either burnt clay, or sand and charcoal, covered by a pierced leaden plate, as before; or by a stratum of sponge, which may be substituted for the plate. It must be evident by inspecting the section (fig. 8), that when the water supplied from the roof to the receiving tank,/, rises above the level of d, it will run over, by g, into the reserve tank, h; and that the water in all the three tanks will always stand at the same level, provided the water in the tank,/, be above the level oi d. 32. The filtering material may he cleaned by having a large cock in the bottom of the receiving tank, com- municating with the waste drain ; by opening which, when the reserve cis- tern is full, the water in that cistern will rush through the filter in a con- trary direction to what it did before ; and will carry off all the impurities, either in the filter, or in the space at the bottom, a. The filtering might also be effected by placing the filter in the tank /, instead of in the centre tank ; and by introducing the water from the roof, direct to the space, a, by a pipe, through the filter; the water would then rise through the filter, and fill the tanks, e and h. A larger re- serve of filtered water would thus be obtained ; but the filter would require cleaning oftener. The great advantage of the mode we have recommended is, impurities in the bottom of the tank,/. that the water will deposit the greater part of iU MODEL COTTAGES. 17 33. For pumping up the water from the main tank or well, g, in fig. 5, we have recom- mended Siebe's rotatory pump. This pump, fig. 9, operates by the rotation of a roller, on its axis, a, having paddles or pistons, h, b, b, b, by which, when the roller is turned, a vacuum Hs produced within the barrel, c. In consequence of this vacuum the water flows up the rising trunk, rf, into the barrel, and as the paddles go round they force it into an opening which conducts it wherever it may be wanted, and by that means produces a continual stream. By having an ascending tube, e, this water may be forced to any height, and, by having a horizontal tube with a cock,/, it may be let out at pleasure, as in a common pump. By having several pipes branching from e as many cisterns or reservoirs might be supplied. The appearance of this pump is very neat and simple, fig. 10 ; but, as in the case of other pumps, the tubes must be covered with straw or matting, during frosty weather, otherwise the freezing of the water will make them burst. 34. The mode of heating by a fiue below the kitchen fio r we con- sider a most valuable plan for ensuring and economizing heat, particularly in cold countries, where fuel is scarce. Indeed, we shall afterwards show how, with this arrangement, and an extra quantity of land, say an acre, besides garden ground, every cot- tager may grow all his own fuel. 'Whenever there is a back kitchen adjoining the principal kitchen, or cottager's living room, and both are on the ground floor, this mode of heating the floor by a flue may be adopted. All that is necessary is to have a sunk area in the back kitchen for the oven, as will be shown in Design IV. When there are two rooms on the ground floor, and one of these rooms is over a cellar, as in Design I., then the oven or furnace can be made in the cellar. In either case the courses of the flue are to be so contrived, as to allow the covers, supposing them to be one-foot tiles, to form the floor of the two rooms which it heats. The flues may be of any convenient depth exceeding eighteen inches, their sides built of brick-on-edge not plastered, and the intervals between the flues filled up with loose stones or rough gravel. If the flues are made deep, which in some cases may be found cheaper than preparing a raised solid basis on which to build shallow flues, then the side walls may be tied together by brick-on- edge work, (Design I.,7i,) and the foundation of the partition wall, which separates the family bed-room from the kitchen, will contribute to the same end. To equalize the heat given out by the flue, and to prevent the kitchen floor from being too hot where tlie flue proceeds from the oven, a double covering is there shown, with a vacuity of six inches between the under cover and the floor, from the oven, /, to ^ ; a section of which may be seen in fig. 4, at g. — As faggots are intended to be burnt in the oven, the soot produced will be very trifling ; but the flues may be cleaned once a year by taking up a tile at each end of the different courses of the flue. Except when there is a fire in the oven, its door must be kept perfectly close, and a damper in the upright flue, nearly so. In many cases, instead of a flue, a vault may be made under the kitchen, and the smoke from the oven or furnace allowed to spend the principal part of its heat in this vault, and afterwards ascend a flue proceeding from near its bottom, fig. 11, a. As the walls, from the superincumbent weight, would form abutments of very great stability, the arch might be made very flat, and would thus cost less in execution than the flues. 35. The immense superiority of this mode of heating the air of a room, over any other whatever, will be obvious to every one acquainted with the nature of heat. By open fire-places, by stoves, steam-pipes, or water-pipes, (unless indeed these are in the floor,) and, by heated air, the coldest stratum of air is always found immediately on the floor, where, for the sake of the feet and the legs, the air ought to be hottest ; by the method of under-ground flues, or a smoke vault, as in fig. 11, the lowest stratum is necessarily the hottest, which must be preferable for the feet and legs of grown persons, and for the whole bodies of little children. The heat being diff'used over the whole surface of the floor, must contribute greatly to the equality of the temperature throughout the apartment, and the mass of loose stones, or the materials of the arch will con- tinue to give out heat for a day or two, according to the season of the year, after every time that the oven is heated. The heat from the floor, in its ascent to the roof, will warm what- ever it meets with ; but this is not the case with either raised stoves or open fires. In heating 13 COTTAGE FARM AND VILLA ARCHITECTURK. by open fires or common stoves, the heat ascends directly to the ceiling, and is there in a great measure wasted, as far as it respects the persons in tlie apartment ; but by this mode the ceiling will not in general be hotter than the floor. 36. Hot water for domestic purposes may always be obtained by a very simple arrangement connected with the oven and flues. Over the oven, and as a cover to it, instead of brick-work, might be placed, or built in, a cast-iron box or iron pot for heating water, as shown by the dotted lines in the plan fig. 3, and by k, in fig. 4. The upper surface of this box or pot might form a part of the kitchen floor, as at e, in fig. 22; and might have a properly secured flat lid on that side, to admit of putting in and taking out water ; or the box might be entirely buried in masonry, as in fig. 4, and in that case a part of it should project from the wall into the back kitchen, or cellar, and should have a lid to open, for the purpose of filling and cleaning out, and a cock, I, in fig. 4, for the purpose of drawing off the water. If this box were two feet, or two and a half feet square, and nine inches or ten inches deep, it would supersede the necessity of the copper, fig. 3, c, and in summer, when the heat of the flue was not wanted, a damper withdrawn would admit the smoke to ascend directly through a flue to the chimney top. A family with a pot or box of this kind over their oven, the box or pot either opening only from the kitchen above, or both from above and from the back kitchen, would, throughout the year, scarcely require any other fire than what was made in the oven ; all their roasting and baking would be done in the oven, and all their boiling in the pot or box over it. As it might not be always convenient or desirable to boil the large box or pot full of water, there might be a well of six inches diameter, and nine inches deep, cast in its bottom, and the small quantity of water which this well would contain would be boiled with very little fuel ; for tea, or any similar purpose, a tin jug of water might be set in among the water in the well, which would keep the former perfectly pure. A very small quantity of fuel consumed in such an oven will have a powerful effect in heating the water above it, from the difiiculty of the heat escaping by the sides. By this mode of heating and cooking a smaller quantity of fuel may be made to suffice for the wants of a family than by any other method that we are aware of; since no more can escape by the chimney than is absolutely necessary to carry up the soot. Water might easily be drawn out of the well, or out of the box or pot when in com- ] 9 mon use, from the upper kitchen, without stooping, by inserting a long tube, like a trumpet, fig. 12, made of tin, and open at both ends. When plunged in the water, if the thumb be placed on the upper orifice, a, and retained there, the water in the lower part, b, may be transferred to any other vessel. 37. Water-closets and tanks for liquid manure. A water-closet or privy ought to be attached to every human dwelling, and in all cold countries it should form part of the edifice, and be approachable under cover. No cottage is, therefore, in our eyes, complete without this appendage under the same roof, or under a lean-to. The well or tanks for liquid manure connected with it, are as advantageous, in point of profit, to every cottager who has a garden, as the water-closet or privy itself is essential to cleanliness and decency. 38. The Water-closets may be variously arranged ; but as one of the best and cheapest modes, and as one the least likely to go out of order, we give the following. The cistern, fig. 13, a, may be at any distance from the seat, b, provided it be on a higher level, by four or five feet The basin, c, may be an inverted hollow cone, truncated, and joined to a piece of cylindrical tube, inserted in a closed leaden vessel, technically called a stink-trap, d. In the side of c, at e, is a hole, or vertical slit, passing obliquely through the sides of the basin, and communicating with the cistern, a, by the pipe, /I The water in the cistern is prevented from run- ning off through this pipe, by the valve, g, shown in fig. 14, on a larger scale. When it is desired to allow the water to rush down into the basin, it is only necessary to pull the string, k ; which, if the cistern be at a distance, may pass over several puUies, according to the number of angles in its course. In order to ensure the descent of a quantity of water to the basin every time it has been used, a cord, t, may be joined to MODEL COTTAGES. 19 15 -j^i^^j"— i h, and passed over a pulley at k, and the end of this cord may be fixed to the upper part of the door of the water-closet, at such a distance from the hinge, say a foot, as will suffice to lift up the valve, g ; or the same purpose might be eflfected by a lever, fig. 15, /, which would be acted on every time the door was opened. 39. JVhen the cistern is unavoidably placed on a level with the basin, the opening for the admission of water must be much larger than in the first case. This opening may be closed by a valve, similar to that marked g, in fig. 13 ; but a better mode is to have a lever valve, fig. 16, 7n, which will also be operated upon by the door every time that it is either opened or shut. In every case in which it is intended that a common or lever valve should be operated on by a door, the latter ooght to have a spring bolt (a contrivance for shutting the door, which will be afterwards figured and described), to shut it, lest at any time it should be left open by neglect. There are different methods of constructing a privy to be used without water. One is, to have a basin, as in a water-closet ; and to continue down from it, a tube so far into the cesspool below, as to prevent the rising through it of air, and consequently of smell. If all the waste water of the house is, as it ought to be, poured into the basin, neither that nor the tube will ever be choked up ; and, in that case, this construction may be considered one of the best for preventing smell. The next mode is to have no basin ; but to take care that the surface of the cess- pool exposed to the air, is no larger than is necessary ; and that no crevices are left in the seat, so as to admit of a current of air passing over the surface of the cesspool. There ought, both in this case and in the other, to be two covers to the hole in the seat ; one of a circular form, to fit into the opening, and the other, larger and square, to be affixed by hinges to the back board, so as to shut down over the whole seat. The windows in all water-closets ought to be close to the ceiling ; both to prevent the persons within from being seen, and to admit of a more effectual ventilation. 40. General Estimate. What is called a general estimate of the expense of a building is calculated at a certain rate per cubic foot, while a specific estimate is made up of the separate estimates of each particular article. The rate or price at which a general estimate is calcu- lated, depends upon a vai-iety of circumstances ; but in every situation, the principal points by which it is affected (all others being the same) are, — first, the irregularity of the outline of the ground plan, and of the elevation ; secondly, the number of angles in the roof, or the number of separate roofs ; and thirdly, the ornamental or carved work, both within and without the building. Tiie nearer the whole mass of a building approximates to the form of a cube, and the nearer all its separate parts approach to that form, the lower will be the rate per foot. One roof of the simplest form may always be calculated at a lower price than a varied roof, or several roofs. In Britain, buildings are divided into three classes: called, first, second, and third-rate buildings. Cottages, and such dwellings as are contained in this Book, belong to the third-rate class, and are generally calculated at from four-pence to six- pence a foot for London. From the amount thus obtained, fifteen or tv.enty per cent, is generally deducted, and the total thus found is the amount of the general estimate. 41. The cubic contents of this htulding are 16,833 feet ; and the following is the manner in which these contents are calculated : — 20 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Length of the front of the main building 24 feet. Width of the main building 23 feet Height from tlie bottom of the foundations to the middle of the roof 23 feet Then, for the contents of the main building 24x23x23 = 12,696 feet. Length of the lean-to building 23 feet. Width of the lean-to 9 feet. Height, including cistern, pump, and well . . 16 feet. Then, for the contents of the lean-to 23x9x10 = 3,312 feet. Length of tanks 10 feet. Width 5 feet. Height 5 feet. Then, for the contents of the tanks, and yard walls 10x5x5 =: 250 feet Length of sheds and piggery 23 feet. Width of sheds, &c 5 feet Say five feet high, as the sheds have no fronts and include the yard wall 5 feet. Then, for the contents of the sheds, &c 23x5x5 = 575 feet Whole amount .... 16,833 feet 16,833 cubic feet, at 6d., £^20 : I6s : 6d. ; at 5d., £350 : 13s: 9 d.; at id., £280:114-. and at'M., £2lO:Ss:3d. 42. Expression. This dwelling has no pretensions to any particular style of Architecture, but it is obviously expressive of the subject or purpose in view ; and, as all its details are well adapted for their various uses, whether as respects the convenience of the occupant of the cottage, or as component parts of the structure, it is also expressive of fitness. This Design may be ornamented by the addition of pillars to the porch, by a vase over it, by ornamental chimneys, and by a parapet on the terrace, fig. 17 ; or, if an architectural parapet is considered too expensive, a low hedge, fig. 18, may be substituted. MODEL COTTAGES. HI Design II. — A Cottage of One Story, combining the Accommodations and Conveniences of Design I. differently arranged, and with the addition of a Veranda. 43. Accommodation and Construction. This Design contains the same number of rooms, and of the same dimensions, as Design I. The communication with the cellar, by means of the stair, a, in the lean-to, and the direct entrance to the yard, b, is, however, more con- venient. The size of the cow-house, c, though somewhat diminished, is still large enough for a small cow ; the space, d, for ducks or geese, and for a ladder to the hen-house, is not quite so commodious as in the other plan ; but, on the whole, notwithstanding these drawbacks, this plan exhibits what we think a better arrangement than the preceding one. Exteriorly the platform is level as far as the steps to the porch, c, and thence it forms an inclined plane to the natural surface. The veranda,/ (see fig. 19), which is supported by trunks of larch or spruce fir trees, with the bark on, set on plinths of stone, or brick, will add much to the com- fort and economical uses of this residence. 44. Aspect. The difference in the aspect of this cottage will be ascertained by observing the points of the compass marked in the ground plan ; the north and south line being in the direction of from left to right ; whereas, in Design I. it is from right to left. 45. General Estimate. Cubic contents 17,440 feet, at 6rf. a foot, jg436; at4rf.,£290: 13.s:4 four inches high, fig. 74, in the bed-room, with inch narrow bevelled grounds (slips of wood to fix the skirting to, having the upper edge bevelled back, in order to retain the margin of the plaster, fig. 75, r), plugged ©PI I ©_ 9 " Q 9 IU_ 69 a to the walls (nailed to plugs of wood driven into the walls). To put an inch deal seat riser (the front board on edge), and bearers (cross pieces), with water board hole and a cover, to the privy, and three quarters of an inch skirting at back of the seat, six inches high.— [We have before, in Chapter I., recommended a hinged flap, or lid, in addition to the round cover which fits into the hole, with a view the more completely to exclude smell ; an object which ought, if possible, to be effected, at whatever cost. For this reason, we would always recommend the introduction of a 71 ir smooth earthenware basin, with a tube, which may reach down into the soil, under the seat, COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 41 in order to diminish the evaporating surface, and prevent the possibility of a current of air rising through the opening.] — To put three tier of inch shelves in each of the recesses in the kitchen. The carpenter and joiner to find all materials, ironmongery, carriage, and labour for the com- pletion of his work, and to do the whole in a sound and workman- like manner. 85. Plumber's, Painter's, and Glazier's Work. To put flashings (strips) of milled lead (lead that is pressed out to the required thickness by a machine), eight inches wide, five pounds to the foot superficial, chased (let) into the brick-work, and fixed with wall- hooks, fig. 76, to the chimney shafts, with proper aprons (pieces of lead to overlap the flashings, fig. 77, s), and cover the gutters with lead seven pounds to the foot superficial. To cover the hips and ridges with milled lead, fifteen inches wide, five pounds to the foot superficial, properly lapped, dressed, and nailed with lead-headed nails (nails with their heads enveloped in lead, by dipping them in melted lead, in order to 74 prevent their rusting). To glaze and back putty, (to remove the putty pressed out of the rebate by the pane), all the sashes and casements with good second (second in quality) Newcastle crown glass. To paint the whole of the external wood- work, and the gutters, and shoots (spouts), inside four times in good white lead and oil ; the external doors to be finished in an oak, or in a stone colour. To paint the sashes, frames, shutters, linings, and skirting, inside the house, three times in oil. The plumber, painter, and glazier, to find all workmanship, materials, and % - 76 the carriage thereof; and every thing requisite for the performance of his work, and to do the same in a perfect and workmanlike manner. 86. Well, Pump, and Platform. The above specification is exclusive of a well and pump, also of a copper boiler, and setting it, and of the bringing of the earth, and forming the platform or terrace round the house. 87. Estimate. The following is the form of an estimate, framed on the above specification, as made by surveyors and builders. The architects about London and Edinburgh, as we have before observed, generally estimate by the cubic con- tents ; first making a calculation of what a cube of ten feet square will cost on each separate story ; but the surveyor, ^" whose business it is to measure buildings, and to estimate the value of ^ the labour and materials, goes into minute details. He does not, however, in giving in an estimate, specify to his employer the value which he puts on every particular item ; but only the total amounts of the diSerent works generally executed by separate tradesmen, in the following form : 88. Estimate of Bricklayer's Work. Nine cubic yards of digging, filling, and ramming ; seven cubic yards of wheeling in stones and gravel, to level the ground under the kitchen floor One hundred and ninety-seven feet of reduced brick-work, (in estimating the price of brick-work in Britain, the quantity, of whatever nature and thickness it may be, is always reduced to walls of one and a half brick in tliickness, two hundred and seventy-two and a quarter square feet of which form a rod of brick-work) One rod, eighty-two feet of reduced stone-work (the stone walls are re- duced to one and a half brick in thickness) Two rods, two hundred and twenty-five feet of reduced stone-work above ground, with brick coins and garreted joints Twenty-nine yards of brick Hogging flat Ten and a half yards of common stock paving in sand Sixteen yards of paving bricks bedded and jointed in mortar Eight feet run (lineal measure) of chasings for lead 4^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUIIK. Forty feet of cutting splays Four feet of twelve-inch hollow tile drain Digging and stcening in four-inch brick-work a cesspool, four feet diame- ter in the clear, and six feet deep Paved slope to the drain in the privy Two iron chimney bars Twelve common brick arches, set in cement Nine window and door frames, bedded and pointed £70 : 3 89. Estimate of Plasterer's Work. Thirty-two yards of whitewashing to new work Sixty-two yards of whitewashing twice over Forty-five yards of stone colouring twice over One hundred and twenty-one and a third yards of render-set plastering Thirty-two yards of latlilay set plastering £'10 : 7 90 Estimate of Slater's Work. Eight squares(one hundred square feet each) of Countess slating, with painted nails £lo: 12 91. Estimate of Stone- Mason's Work. Twelve feet four inches, superficial, of Yorkshire hearth-stone Twenty feet eight inches, superficial, of Portland stone chimney pieces Sixteen feet three inches, lineal measure, of quarry Yorkshire sills, eight inches wide, bevelled and throated £4 : 92. Estimate of Carpenter's and Joiner's Work. Sixteen cubic feet four inches of oak timber in lintels, plates, &c Thirteen cubic feet eleven inches of oak timber, framed in joists, &c. . . Ninety-one cubic feet one inch of Quebec red pine timber, framed in roof and ceiling floor Nine superficial feet of one-inch gutter-board and bearers Seventy-one superficial feet nine inches of one and a quarter inch feather- edged eaves board roimded Forty-eight superficial feet nine inches of one and a half inch yellow deal hips, and ridge rounded Four superficial feet of two inch oak sleepers Six squares and fifty-seven feet, superficial measure, of slips for Countess slates, two and a half inches wide Wooden bricks One hole cut, one water board, and one cover £30 : 15 93. Estimate of Joiner's Work. Six cubic feet seven inches fir timber in proper (according to specifica- tion) door-cases One cubic foot four inches of oak timber, in sills Ten cubic inches of oak, proper, in two light frames Seventeen superficial feet nine inches of three-quarters of an inch square skirting Ninety-three superficial feet ten inches of three-quarters of an inch splayed linings and soflits Thirteen superficial feet six inches of inch shelves Twelve superficial feet of inch seat and riser Twelve superficial feet nine inches of inch wrought and rounded window board Kighty-six superficial feet of inch clamped folding shutters and hinges.. Sixty-four superficial feet si.v inches of inch gutter, with false bottoms and bearers, put together with white lead .•..«• COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLr.S. 4J One square and fifty-seven superficial feet of inch yellow deal folding floor Forty-nine superficial feet four inches of one and quarter inch fascia wrought Fifty-three superficial feet three inches of one and a quarter inch proper ledged doors Fifty-eight superficial feet six inches of one and a quarter inch six-pa- nelled bead butt and square doors Twenty-one superficial feet of one and a half inch six-panelled bead, butt, and square door Eighty-one superficial feet ten inches of one and a half inch deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, with one and a half inch ovolo sashes, double- hung with white lines, iron weights and brass pulleys Thirty-nine lineal feet six inches of narrow grounds and plugging . . , . One hundred and fifty-seven lineal feet of ogee and fillet moulding .... Twenty-two lineal feet of three-quarters of an inch deal water trunk, four and a half inches square 94. Estimate of Ironmongery and Firings. Three pair of two and a half inch butt hinges, and screws for fixing them One pair of three-inch butt hinges, and screws for fixing them Three pair of sixteen-inch cross garnet hinges Four Norfolk latches Three eight-inch Stock locks Four eight-inch bright rod bolts Three six-inch iron rim brass knob locks , Four spring sash fastenings Two cast-iron casements Two stay-irons Five shutter bars , £38 : 8 : 7 95. Estimate of Plumber's, Painter's, and Glazier's Work. Four cwt. two quarters of milled lead Fifty-two superficial feet three inches of second Newcastle crown glass. . Fifty-one and a half yards three times painted in oil Twenty-eiglit yards four times painted in oil Eleven yards four times painted in oil, of a stone or oak colour Thirty-nine lineal feet six inches of inch skirting, four and a half inches wide Four dozen squares and frames, three times painted in oil One two-light square and frame, three times painted in oil Two casements, three times painted in oil Four dozen squares and frames, four times painted in oil One two-light frame, four times painted in oil Two casements, four times painted in oii Two stay-irons, four times painted in oil £14 : 13 : 4 96. Summary of Estimates. Bricklayer £70 : 3 : 3 Plasterer 10: 7: 2 Slater 13 : 12 : Stone-Mason 4: 0: 6 Carpenter, Joiner, and Ironmonger 69 : 3:11 Plumber, Painter, and Glazier 14 : 13 : 4 £182 : : 2 97. Estimate from the Cubic Contents. This dwelling contains 7,305 cubic feet, which, at £132 for the whole, is between old. and 6d. per foot; but, as before observed, contractors about London generally deduct a per centage from their estimates, according to the kind of building to be erected : this percentage, for ornamental buildings, is about ten per cent. ; but plain buildings, such as the one above given, may admit of a deduction from the estimate of fifteen per cent, which would reduce the amount to about £155. 44 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Design VIIL— ^ Dwelling of Two Rooms, for a Man and his Wife. 98. Accommodation. This dwelling, though small, will be found suitable for those situations where neatness, with some little appearance of improved design, is an object. It contains a kitchen, a, well lighted, and with two closets ; a bed-room, b, with a recess for a cupboard ; a porch, e ; a back-room, d, in which there might be a boiler and an oven, for baking, and also for healing water, and the flues in the floor ; a place for the fuel, e ; and a privy,/. The section, A H, shows that the kitchen floor, and that of the back kitchen and porch, are on abed of stones. The bed-room floor is of boards laid on joists, and hollow be- neath. The whole is surrounded by a platform, which may either be paved, or laid with gravel ; and along its outer margin, there may be a small parapet, with Gothic ornaments on it at the angles. 99. Construction. The walls may be built of stone or brick ; and the roof covered with slates, or flat tiles, projecting a few inches over the walls, so as to deliver the water which falls upon it into the gutter. The chimney tops are round, terminating with small capitals. The pediment over the entrance terminates in a small ornament or pinnacle, formed of oak (fig. 78, on a scale of half an inch to a foot), characteristic of old English cottages in districts abound- ing in timber. 100. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 7,430 feet, at 6rf. per foot, £185 : 15s. ; at Ad., £123 : 18s. ; and at Zd., £92 : 17s. 101. Expression. From the pointed top of the entrance- door, from the ornament on the summit of the pediment over it, and from the cylindrical chimney tops, it is evident that something more is intended than mere expression of the subject. Yet there is no great unity of style, for the tops of the windows are square, and there is nothing out of the usual course in the appearance of the roof. All that can be said of this elevation is, that it is pleasing nnd picturesque ; that is, very well calculated to look well in a picture, though it is not in any very marked architectural style. The space between the tops of the windows and the eaves of the roof, is sufficient to admit of a veranda ; and this, with a suitable parapet on the terrace, fig. 79, would render this cottage a very ornamental object. Placed in a garden, and surrounded by low and round-headed fruit trees, such a building would produce a better effect than in a forest of pines or firs ; as the pointed forms of those trees would not contrast so well with it, and they would overpower it by their size. In planting trees near dwellings of any kind, if it be desired to conceal the building, to diminish its importance in the land- scape, and to render it an unhealthy abode for its occupants, then tall evergreen shrubs and large trees ought to be planted close to the edifice ; but, if on the contrary, it be intended that the cottage should have some dignity of character, and that its occupants should keep their health, no tree, that under any circumstances, grows higher than the building itself, should be planted within the distance of several yards of it. Design \X.—A Dwelling in the Swiss style, for a Married Couple and Family ; with a Cow-house and Pigsty. 102. Accommodation. The rooms in this dwelling are of a good size, and there is a sufficient number of them for the comfort of the occupants. On the ground-floor, there is an entrance lobby, a, containing the staircase; a kitchen, b; a back kitchen, or wash- house, c; a parlour, d; a light closet, e ; a pantry, /; a coal closet, under the stairs, g; a cow-shed, h ; a piggery, i ; a wood-house, k ; and a water-closet, or privy, I. The windows and doors of all this lower range are protected by a far projecting balcony, which, in point of comfort and effect, is equal if not superior to a veranda. The bed-room floor contains one best bed-chamber, m ; a light closet, ?! ; staircase, o ; bed-room for boys, p ; and for girls, q. COTFAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. VIII. 45 46 C01TAGF., FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. LX. '^/•'/!mmy.)\ COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 47 The balcony is entered from a glass door on the landing of the staircase ; and in countries subject to snow and rain, is valuable for the protection which it gives to the windows and the boarded walls ; as a place in which children and invalids may take exercise ; to hang up corn seeds, herbs, tobacco, and various articles from the eaves ; and more especially, to dry clothes on lines during wet weather. 103. Construction. The foundations, as high as about two feet above the platform, and the two interior walls containing the flues and the chimney stacks, are of brick or stone. All the rest of the building is of wood, being framed work, covered with boards, outside and in. In Switzerland, the native country of such buildings, these boards are seldom painted, though those on the outside are sometimes tarred, in order to preserve them from the weather. The roofs in that country are generally covered with shingles (wooden tiles), usually of larch or oak, as being the most durable, six or eight inches broad, and a foot or eighteen inches long ; but in a country where slates or earthen tiles can be got, they are far preferable, not only on account of their durability, but because the shingles are very apt to be blown off by high winds. The bal- conies are supported by the continuation of the flooring joists, as appears by the cross section, fig. 80 ; under which are the further supports of brackets (fig. 81, to a scale of half an inch to a foot) The projecting part of the roof at the sides is supported by the continuation of the rafters, as may be observed in fig. 80 ; and the ends are supported by solid brackets (fig. 82, to a scale of half an inch to a foot). The railing is generally simple, and characterized by perpendi- 83 cular lines ; the ornaments may be notched with the axe and chisel, fig. 83. The chimney has a coping of tivo broad flat stones or tiles, to exclude the rain ; and the openings for the escape of the smoke are consequently lateral. The windows may be sashes hung in the English manner ; or they may be hinged, opening inwards, according to the Italian and French taste, and as they most commonly are in Switzerland, fflfilfilDlW 48 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 104. General Estimale. Cubic contents, 23,026 feet, at Crf. per foot, ^6575: I2s.; at 4d., £383 : 15s : 4rf. ; and at 'id., £287 : I65 : 6rf. 105. Expression^ This Design assumes a decided character or style, which no one, who has been in Switzerland, can doubt is in imitation of the timber-built dwellings of that country. As a picturesque object, it is most agreeable ; more especially in its native situation on the side of a hill, where it is frequently accompanied by firs, or pines, or other spiry topped trees, which contrast well with the long horizontal line of the roof. It frequently happens that cottages of this sort are placed on the side of a steep slope, so that while the lower end is entirely above the surface the upper end is half sunk into it. In this case, the sloping line of the hill contrasts admirably, both with the horizontal and perpendicular lines of the building, and the appearance of stability is heightened by the one end being sunk or bedded into the hill. The balcony in this case, terminating on the surface, may be entered on the outside. The same cottage placed across the slope would appear much less stable, as well as less picturesque. In imitating the style of any particular country, the Architect ought to take care not to imitate peculiarities or defects. It is common, both in Switzerland and in Kinsigthal, in the Duchy of Baden, to see the roofs of dwellings of this sort, loaded with stones, with turves, with planks, or with roots of trees, to keep on the shingles, and even, in some cases, to prevent the roof itself from being blown off by the wind. A landscape painter in taking views in Switzerland or Baden, would, very properly, copy these circumstances, and a moral traveller would describe them ; but for an Architect to introduce them as component parts of a Design in the Swiss style, would display a great want of discrimination, and would be, what Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his Lectures on Painting, calls, " imitating a peculiarity." It fre* quently happens, with such buildings in Switzerland, that being situated in narrow valleys, they are subject to partial inundations from sudden thaws ; and also to have the rain thrown more violently against some parts of the building than against others, when the wind is in a particular direction. To guard against these incidents, barriers of boards are put up in the first case, and an exterior protection of weather boarding (boards overlapping each other), in the latter. For an Architect to imitate these, would be to copy defects in the construction, rendered necessary by an error in the choice of situation, and would remind one of the story of the Chinese tailor, who imitated the patches on a coat sent him for a pattern. 106. The fitness of a building of this construction for a human dwelling may deserve some consideration. It is certain that wooden buildings of any kind are never erected (excepting now and then as a matter of fancy), by those who can afford to use stone or brick. Their liability to accidents by fire, is an objection for which no architectural or picturesque beauty can ever compensate. The balcony also surrounding the building, liable to be constantly used, and commanding the bed-room windows, takes away all idea of privacy from these apartments. We, therefore, by no means, recommend this style for any country. For our own part, indeed, rather than bestow so much labour on so perishable and combustible a material as wood, we would prefer walls of earth. Design X. — A Dwelling for a Married Couple and One Child, with a Pigsty. 107. Accommodation. This is a dwelling of the lowest class, consisting .of three rooms in two stories, and dif- fering only from the commonest cottages in England by the completeness of its appendages, and the architecture of its exterior. It contains, on the ground-floor, an entrance porch or lobby, a ; a wash-house, with a place for an oven to heat the kitchen-floor by a flue, b ; a kitchen or living room, c ; a large closet under the stair- case, rf; apantry, f; fuel-house,/; water-closet or privy, e ; and pigsty, li- The chamber-floor contains a bed- room, i ; a clothes or lumber-closet, A- ; child's bed-room, /; and the staircase, TH. 108. Construction. The walls, as high as the bed-room floor, may be built of stone or of brick, with a vacuity in the centre, as explained in describing Design I. Above, , the walls may be of brick nogging ; the principal timbers of which may be like those shown in the elevation. These walls should be plastered within and without. A much better plan of construction, however, is to carry up the brick walls to the roof; unless the object of the Architect be the imitation of an accident in COTTAGi: DMELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLKH. 49 X. 50 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XL COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. Ol II I III y\\ I 9 Style, rather than its essentials ; or economy, rather than strength, durability, and comfort. The roof may be covered with plain tiles ; and some care may be bestowed on the chimneys, fig. 84, (scale, a quarter of an inch to a foot). These 85 chimneys may be built of brick, and covered with cement; or be formed of cement only. The windows may have wooden muUions, fig. 85, and wooden case- ments ; but we cannot recommend these casements being filled in with lattice-work ; for that, like ex- terior walls of brick nogging, is an inferior mode of construction. 109. Situation. As this building admits of being viewed on every side, it is suitable for an open space. A few fruit trees are its appropriate accompaniments ; and at a distance of a hundred yards, it may have as a back ground, a wood of oak, or other round-headed trees, to contrast with its upright and angular lines. It is not meant by this remark, however, either that such a wood should be planted on purpose ; or that it is worth while to give up any point of utility or convenience, in order to place a cottage of this character near such a wood. The comfort of the occupant of the cottage should take precedence of every other object, either respecting it, or its accompaniments. It has been too much the practice, hitherto, for Architects and for their employers to set down cottages, more with a view to their effect in the landscape, than to any thing else whatever ; but the habitation of a human being, however humble, ought not to be trifled with, either in resped to its accommodations, or its locality. 110. Aspect. From what we have already advanced on this subject in Chapter I. it will be understood, that in all practicable cases, we intend that the dwelling should be so placed as to admit of the sun shining on all its walls every fine day in the year, with the exception of a few weeks at the winter solstice. This, we need hardly repeat (were it not for the great importance of the subject), is to be done by imagining the general form of the ground-plan reduced to a square, and letting its diagonal be a north and south line. In most parts of Europe the door should face the south-east. When cottages are detached, and built either singly, or in pairs, and set down in a garden, the adherence to this rule of position, with respect to the sun, will add to the picturesque beauty of a village ; whatever may be the direction of the road, along the sides of which the houses and gardens are built and laid out. This fact must never be forgotten ; and indeed it should be considered, like the introduction of the platform, as a law, which in building detached cottages, ought never to be violated. In building long lines of connected dwellings of this sort, this law cannot be applied; but if the lines be in the direction of south and north, the same advantages, in point of heat and dry- ness, are obtained as by the diagonal position of detached cottages ; for the sun will shine throughout the year on the east and west sides of every dwelling; and the south and north sides being party-walls (walls of division between different houses), will be necessarily both dry and warm. 111. General Estimate. Cubic contents 9,528 feet, ai6d. per foot, £238 :4s.; at id., £158 : 16*. ; and at 3^., £119 : '2s. 112. Expression. This cottage is in what is called the old English manner, which is characterized by windows not _ ^— -i^ much higher than they are °" Dlr-'*' broad, and divided perpendicu- larly by multions (vertical divi- sions) ; by high, conspicuous, and sometimes ornamented stacks of chimneys ; by steep roofs generally covered with plain tiles, projecting at the eaves, and sometimes also at the gable ends ; and, finally, by more or less of Gothic forms or mouldings in its details. In this imitation of the old English cot- tage, an erroneous manner of arrangement is conspicuous in the stacks of chimneys, which ought not to have been in the outside walls ; and the introduction into these outer walls of brick nogging, is an inferior 02 52 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. mode of construction, undeserving of imitation. A peculiarity, which in respect to use is a great deformity, is introduced in the principal window, in the form of the head of a Gothic arch supporting the umllion. This Gothic arch crosses the window in such a manner as to intercept the most valuable portion of the light. Nevertheless, we have given this Design a place, from its being characteristic of the style which it affects to exhibit ; but we shall after- wards give other Designs in the same style not liable to the same objections. It is also proper to remark, that in new countries, where building materials and labour are scarce and dear, this would be exactly the sort of cottage that would be most suitable for a dwelling in the English cottage style ; and in temperate climates rather milder than Britain, such, for example, as many parts of Australia, there could be no objection to the chimneys being in the outside walls. Their effect there, rising boldly into the air, and contrasting with the sloping surfiice and horizontal line of the roof, is excellent. A low box hedge, with standards at the angles, cut into architectural shapes, would be in perfect harmony with this style of cottage, fig. 86. Design XI. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, and One or Two Children, uilh a Cow-house and Pigsty. 113. Accommodation. This hermitage-looking dwelling contains a porch, o ; a work-room or parlour, 6 ; a bed-room communicating with it, c ; a kitchen, d ; and an outer kitchen or wash-house, with an oven, e ; communicating with a pantry and dairy,/. The wash-house has a back door, near which, in the lean-to, is a privy, g ; a. cow-house, /( ,- and a place for wood, or for a pig, i. In the section the floors are shown as laid over a bed of stones, and a gravelled terrace surrounds the whole building, on a level six inches lower than the floors of the rooms. In the bed of stones may be a flue connected with the oven placed in the angle of the back kitchen, e, as before described. 114. Construction. The walls are of stone, hewn at the coins (corners), and with the barge stones (a corruption of verge, and signifying the margin of any thing), also hewn. The roof is of a high pitch, in conformity with roofs in the Gothic style, and may be covered with pan (hollow) tiles, or plain tiles; it pro- 87 ^ jects a few inches at the eaves, so as to deliver ( the water into a gutter. The windows and the ' door are surrounded by plain architraves ; ) the principal windows have pointed tops, and \ are divided by muUions (fig. 87, k, to a scale \ of half an inch to the foot). The stack of ^ chimneys, fig. 88, may either be executed in free-stone, or what in Britain will cost much less and yet be sufficiently durable, cement. The door is formed of bead and batten with extei'ior hinges, similar to those in Design VI. The gable ends are surmounted by crosses, which may either be formed of stone or cement, and if a description of that article, used in forming stone ornaments by Austin, of the New Road, London, be employed, there can be no doubt of their durability. 115. Situation. It is evident that a building of this sort is erected chiefly with a view to its ornamental effect, and, therefore, wherever it is placed, it ought not to be obscured by trees. It may be considered as a sort of hermitage, and, in this point of view, it should be placed in a solitary situation. 116. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 1 1,700 feet, at 6rf., £292 : 10,?. ; at id., £195 ! and at 3^/., £l 16 : bs. 117. Expression. This being the first Design in which we have made a great departure from symmetry, that is, a correspondence of parts in the general form, it may be useful to offer a few remarks on ' the principle of irregularity in Architecture. It is evident that to introduce irregularity o. form in buildings, is an architectural refinement of the present age ; for, though in ancient buildings of every description, there is much more of irregularity than of symmetry, yet this irregularity has always been the result of accident ; of additions made from time tc time as they were required, or of subtractions or mutilations, according as certain parts might be done without, or as the ability to keep them in repair diminished. We find no ancient author on Architecture recommending irregularity ; and from this we may conclude tha' no ancient Architect ever designed a building of an irregular form when he could help it. The first in Britain who decidedly recommended irregularity in buildings, was Uvedale Price in the first edition of his admirable Essays on ^AePiciarM^uc, published in 1794; and he was COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 53 soon followed by Mr. Knight, in his poem The Landscape ; by Malton,in his works on Cottage Architecture, and subsequently by various others. Uvedale Price, who was a great admirer of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and of the works of the great painters of Italy, probably was strengthened in his ideas in favour of irregularity, by the following passage in one of Sir Joshua's Discourses : — " Architects may take advantage sometimes of the use of accidents to follow where they lead, and to improve them, rather than always trust to a regular plan. It often happens that additions have been made to houses at various times, for use or pleasure. As such buildings depart from regularity, they now and then acquire something of scenery by this accident, which I think might not unsuccessfully be adopted by an Architect in an original plan, if it does not too much interfere with convenience. Variety and intricacy is a beauty and excellence in every other of the arts which address the imagination ; and why not in Architecture ?" This passage is quoted by Knight, in his Jnalytkal Inquiry into the Principles of Taste, as an authority for the praise which he also has bestowed on irregularity in Architecture. The practice at present needs no recommendation ; being, as every one knows, followed in dwellings of every description, of extent, and of every kind of style. AIL that we are anxious to remark on the subject is, that irregularity can seldom or never be adopted in cottage dwellings where economy is a main object. On this subject we entirely agree with Laing, who, in the preface to his Hints on Dwellings, has the following remarks : 118. The nearer the plan of a building approaches to a square, says Laing, " the greater are its conveniences, and the cost proportionably less. A square, equal in superficial extent to a parallelogram, requires less external walling, and, consequently, less internal finishing. By compactness, convenience is produced, and expense is saved : when the apartments are scattered and lie wide from each other, with long passages between, much unpleasantness must be experienced ; and a much larger expense must be incurred from covering a larger space of ground than is absolutely necessary." This objection, he adds, " may fairly be urged against some schemes, which I have lately seen by an ingenious artist, in which his anxiety to produce variety and want of uniformity, has led him to devise plans void of convenience and economy ; how far void of taste, I will not say ; yet, surely, uniformity is essential to beauty. I say this merely to oppose a taste which I consider false, and an economy which is profusion." {Hints on Dwellings, Preface.) 119. Irregular Buildings please their admirers partly with reference to their picturesque effect ; and partly as being characteristic of some particular architectural style, as it is found to exist in ancient buildings. The castellated architecture of the present day is evidently more an imitative style, than one of picturesque beauty; and the irregular cottage style depends more on its picturesqueness, than on its being an imitation of any thing that has previously existed. Dugald Stewart, in one of his Essays on the Beautiful, has traced the progress of the taste for the several kinds of beauty from that of the rudest appearance of Design, to the greatest irregularities of form. He notices the pleasure which children very early manifest at the sight of regular forms and uniform arrangements. The same love of regular forms and of uniform arrangements, he says, " continues to influence powerfully in the maturity of reason and experience, the judgments we pronounce on all works of human art, whose regularity and uniformity do not interfere with purposes of utility. In recommending these forms and arrangements in the particular circumstances just mentioned, there is one principle which seems to me to have no inconsiderable influence, and which I shall take this opportunity of hinting at slightly, as I do not recollect to have seen it anywhere applied to questions of criticism. The principle I allude to is, that of the sufficient reason, of which so much use is made (and in my opinion sometimes very erroneously made), in the philosophy of Leibnitz. What is it that, in any thing which is merely ornamental, and which, at the same time, does not profess to be an imitation of nature, renders irregular forms displeasing ? Is it not, at least in part, that irregularities are infinite ; and that no circumstance can be imagined which should have decided the choice of the artist in favour of that particular figure which he has selected ? The variety of regular figures (it must be acknowledged) is infinite also ; but supposing the choice to be once fixed about the number of sides, no apparent caprice of the artist in adjusting their relative proportions, presents a disagreeable and inexplicable puzzle to the spectator. Is it not also owing, in part, to this, that in things merely ornamental, where no use, even the most trifling, is intended, the circular form possesses a superiority over all others ? 120. In a house, which is commonly detached from all other buildings, and which stands on a perfectly level foundation, why are we offended when the door is not placed exactly in the middle ; or when there is a window on one side of the door, and none corresponding to it on the other ? Is it not that we are at a loss to conceive how the choice of the Architect could be thus determined, where all circumstances appear to be so exactly alike ? Thi9 54 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. disagreeable eflfect la, in a great measure, removed, the moment any purpose of utility is discovered i or even when the contiguity of other houses, or some peculiarity in the shape of ground, allows us to imagine, that some reasonable motive may have existed in the artist's mind, though we may be unable to trace it. An irregular castellated edifice, set down on a dead flat, conveys an idea of whim or of folly in the designer ; and it would convey this idea still more strongly than it does, were it not that the imitation of something else, which we have previously seen with pleasure, makes the absurdity less revolting. The same, or yet greater irregularity, would not only satisfy, but delight the eye, in an ancient citadel, whose ground-work and elevations followed the rugged surface and fantastic projections of the rock on which it is built. The oblique position of a window in a house, would be intolerable ; but utility, or rather necessity, reconciles the eye to it at once, in the cabin of a ship." — Stewart's Philosophical Essays, p. 240. Design XII. — A Dwelling of Two Stories for a Man and his Wife, with a Servant and Two or Three Children, with a Cow-house and Pigsty. 121. /Accommodation. This may be considered a comfortable dwelling for a gardener or bailift' in Britain ; or for a small pro- 89 prietor in America, or Australia. It contains, on the ground-floor, an en- trance lobby, a ; staircase, b ; kitchen, c ; parlour, d ; tool-house or office for paying men, e ; pantry and dairy, /; back kitchen, g ; shed for wood and fuel, h ; dusthole, i ; privy. A- ; and cow-house, with hen-house over, /. The cow-house is connected with a court-yard, which contains a shed for hay and straw, piggeries, and dung- pit, with a manure well, connected with the privy. The platform, on three sides of this dwellino-, forms a handsome walk, from which there is a door into the court-yard. The bed-room floor contains a best bed- room, m ; a second bed-room, n ; a third bed-room, o ; and a stair, p. 122. Construction. The walls may be of brick, or stone, or of brick Hog- ging plastered externally, as shown in the elevation ; care being taken, what- ever material may be used, that the colour is neither a glaring red, nor a glaring white. The roof may be covered with reeds, or with combed wheat straw (straw from which the ears of grain have been cut, or combed off, in consequence of which, the culms are unbruised by the flail). The inter- secting lines shown at the ridge of the roof, and which may appear to many, not accustomed to see reed-covered buildings, as a mere ornament at the fancy of the thatcher, are formed by rods, generally of hazel, for the pur- pose of keeping down ''fhe layer of reeds, which are spread across the ridge tree of the roof. The intersecting rods, fig. 89, q, are kept in their places by the horizontal rods, r r ; and these are fastened to the thatch, by staples, or spits, or broaches, s, which are ^ 90 [^ nothing more than sliort pieces of rod, previously well steeped in water, to render them flexible, bent in the form of a staple hook, and stuck in the thatch or reeds. The forked piece of wood represented on the upper part of the gable end, should only be employed if the COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XII. .').') 56 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. xin. ^ €^ fe_ lUllllilllllM iliilii^iiiiil !;il|«',i|,'i/ iiiil^llini ^ b_ D ' ■ ■ -g il D » O !> K ' a i3 COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 57 walls are of brick nogging. The entrance door is ledged ; and the bed-room windows, which are broad rather tlian high, show two perpendicular and fixed bars or mullions ; the casements being hinged to open inwards. The small windows in the lean-to are round- headed, with Gothic labels over them, fig. 90. The chimney shafts may be executed in cement, in a decorated style, (fig. 91, to a scale of the fourth of an inch to a foot), such as is sometimes found in the better description of old cottages and farm-houses. 123. Situation. This dwelling being intended as an orna- mental object, should not be crowded with trees ; at the same time it is not calculated for a very exposed siti^ation. 124. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,904 feet, at 6d. per foot, £372 : 12*. ; at Ad., £248 : 8*. ; and at 3d., £\SG:6s. 125. Expression. The style aimed at here is some- thing of what is called the old English manner. Whatever interest may be excited by associations connected with this style, the specimen here represented, has evidently very little merit, taken by itself as a system of building. When a cottage is throughout in one system or style, all the parts of which it is composed, will seem to be the result of the mode of its construction ; and to follow each other so obviously, that the eye and the mind are naturally led from one to the other throughout the whole super- structure. This is Wood's doctrine ; and, tried by it, the Design before us will certainly be found wanting. There may be historical or accidental associations between the form of the door and that of the window over it ; that is, it may have been usual to have such doors and windows in the same building in some old English cottages ; but certainly the form of the one does not naturally arise out of the form of the other. Neither can it be said that the projection of part of the bed-room floor, as shown over the door-way, has any- thing to do with the mode of construction ; on the contrary, to the eye of reason, it appears an inferior method ; while, as a projection, it not only has not the merit of real utility, but the pretension which it might have had of forming a shelter to the entrance door, is destroyed, by that door having a small roof of its own ; a superfluity which ought to have been avoided, since the walls of the porch evidently do not stand out beyond the line of the projection ot the bed-room story. The small wing, or lean-to, shown below this last-mentioned window, seems to be in a different style from the rest of the building ; both as regards the projection of its roof, and the labels to its two small windows. On the whole, though we acknowledge the ensemble of this Design to present a picturesque appearance, yet as a piece of Archi- tecture, we consider it a deformity. Where the form of any one part of a building, says Wood, does not seem to depend upon that below it, but might as well be substituted by something different, the principle of arrangement is wanting. In looking at any building we endeavour to trace some simple principle of arrangement, the want of which can never be made up by good parts forced into service, or by superfluity of ornament. Profusion of parts, or of ornaments, without obvious connexion and propriety, produce confusion and absurdity. (Letters of an Architect SfC. vol. i. p. 6). We have presented this Design for the purpose of showing how easy it is to captivate the eye in matters of this kind, without in any one point completely satisfying the judgment. Design XIII. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Two or more Children. 126. Accommodation. Here we have a colonnade which serves as a porch ; a vestibule, a ; a parlour, b ; a kitchen, with a stair to two bed-rooms in the roof, c ,• a bed-room on the ground-floor, rf ; a pantry, e ; two closets, f, g ; and water-closet or pantry, h. The two bed-rooms over c and d may be lighted by dormer windows (windows made in the roof) and by the small opening seen in the upper part of the gable end. 127. Construction. The platform on which this dwelling is built, is sustained by masonry ; which, on three sides, supports the columns of the veranda or colonnade. These columns may either be of stone, of brick stuccoed, or of timber ; in either case, set on stone plinths, and with stone caps. The roof should be slated, with barge courses at the gable ends, terminating in pinnacles. The chimney tops (fig. 92, on a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot), are plain, like the columns. 5S COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 128. The Garden, containing about three fourt})s of an acre, is here shown surrounded by a hedge. This hedge might, in many cases, be formed of fruit-bearing slirubs, such as phims, apples, sloes, service or mountain ash, the berries of 92 which afford an excellent spirit ; or elders, the berries of ^^^ ^^^^^^ --^ which make a well-known wine. Whichever description of fruit-bearing plant is used, the branches must be pruned with a knife, and not clipped with shears ; because clipping, by producing an exuberance of weak, young shoots, pre- vents the plants from forming blossom buds. If it should be desirable to have a very formidable fence, the hedge might consist of two rows; the inner one of fruit-bearing plants, and the outer one of hawthorns or hollies. There is scarcely any situation, either on hills or by the sea-shore, in which the elder will not thrive, and its fruit is always valuable. The same may be said of the sloe, and the mountain ash, and service, in respect to all inland situ- ations. The mode of labouring and cropping the ground may be as follows : trench compartment i three spits deep, and plant with the cabbage tribe ; manure and dig k, and plant with potatoes ; trench / two spits deep, and sow with root crops, such as turnips, carrots, parsnips, onions, &c. ; manure and dig ?«, and crop with peas, beans, and kidney beans. According to this rotation, in the second year, i will be manured and dug only, and will be under potatoes ; k will be trenched two spits deep, and under root crops ; I will be manured, dug, and under leguminous plants ; and m will be trenched three spits deep, and under the cabbage tribe. Thus, a new stratum of soil will be brought up to the surface every other year : in the first year, what was the bottom becomes the top ; in the second, the top is turned over ; in the third, the middle becomes the top ; and, in the fourth, this middle is turned over. Manure is applied every second year. This is enough to give a general idea of how a garden ought to be laboured, manured, and cropped ; but more minute and accurate details will be found in our Cottage Manual; in Densons Peasant's Voice ; and in an excellent little work, by Mr. Charles Laurence, entitled Practical Directions for Cottage Gardens, ^-c. The smaller compartments may be cropped as follows: n, with gooseberries; o, with currants and raspberries ; p, with strawberries ; q, with asparagus ; r, with sea-kale ; s, with tart rhu- barb ; t, with Jerusalem artichokes ; and u, with perennial, or what is called Good Henry spinach (Chenopodium Bonus Henricus). The border which surrounds the garden may be devoted to the smaller crops, such as salads, herbs, &c. ; and to early crops, such as peas and potatoes. The space immediately surrounding the cottage should be ornamented with flowers and flowering shrubs. The trees at the corners of the compartments should be standard apples, pears, cherries, and plums. 129. Situation. It is evident that the main purpose of this building is effect ; and if placed, as shown, on a raised architectural platform, in the centre of a garden not over planted, it cannot fail to look well from every point of view. 130. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,568 feet, at 6d., £364 : is. ; at 4rf., £242 : I64'. ; and at 3d., £182 : 2s. 131. Expression. It can hardly be said that this edifice resembles a cottage dwelling; and, at all events, it is certainly not one of the humble class. There is an obvious desire for display ; and as this has produced a comfortable colonnade for the exercise of children, for hanging up Indian corn, tobacco, or seeds, and for drying clothes during rainy weather, it need not be much objected to. As far as respects style, the building is mixed ; but, as the mixture is agreeable, a whole of some merit is produced. Design XIV. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with One Servant and a grown-up Son or Daughter. 132. Accommodation. There is a kitchen, a ; a scullery and sink, b ; pantry, c ; closet, rf ; two bed-rooms, e and/; a closet, 5-; a water-closet for women, A; and a water-closet for men. i. These accommodations are surrounded by an uninterrupted arcade, for the sake of effect, and for air, exercise, and drying clothes during inclement weather. An arcade necessarily throws a much greater shadow on the windows than square pillars, or round columns ; but to compensate for this, it may be executed in brick-work, without the aid of lintels of stone or wood, or of cement. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 59 93 133. Construction. The arcade, which may support the roof independently of the inner wall, should be of brick or stone. The inner walls may be of earth, or brick, or clay nogging, or of stud-work (frame-work), lathed and plas- tered. The pitch or rise of the roof is low, and the cover- ing is supposed to be of slates of the largest size ; the slop- ing joints being covered with narrow strips of slate, in the manner known in Britain by the term Wyatt's Patent, to be afterwards described. The chimney stack has a far pro- jecting cornice (fig 93, to a scale of half an inch to a foot). 134. Situation. This dwelling is calculated for being placed on a platform supported by masonry, in the midst of a garden, on an elevated situation, because it will look well from every point of view. 135. Garden. Contents, two roods, thirty-five poles, and fifteen yards. The square in which the house stands is devoted to flowers and other ornamental plants. The com- partment to the left of this square, to the perennial crops, such as asparagus, k ; sea-kale, I ; rampion, m ; tart rhubarb, w, n ; strawberries, o, o; American cranberries, p; Jerusalem artichokes, q ; and common artichokes, or perennial spinach, as may be preferred, r. The two squares to the right are devoted, s, to gooseberries, and t, to currants and raspberries. The two long squares, u and v, may be subjected to four years' rotation, as described in the preceding Design. There may be a well, or a sun dial, at w, and a small court of offices beyond the garden for other conveniences. 136. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 26,824 feet, at 5d. per foot, £670 : \2s. ; at 4rf.. £447 : Is : 4rf. ; and at Zd., £335 : Gs. 137. Expression. Small dwellings in this manner of architecture are generally considered as belonging to the Italian style. There can be no question of the excellence of the general effect ; but we naturally ask how it happens, that in a building so studiously uniform, the entrance stairs should not have been placed in the centre of the front? If the answer be that there is not a central opening, the question occurs, why was not this provided in arranging the plan ? Here, then, we have the Architect setting out on a principle, viz., that of uniformity, pursuing it through the main body of the build- ing, and afterwards defeating all his labours by abandoning it in an im- portant feature. If we consider this 60 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 96 building as a human habitation, there is also an obvious absurdity in expending so much for appearance, and yet paying so little attention to internal comfort, as to almost exclude that essential requisite to every dwelling, light. It is evident that all the rooms in this house must be very much darkened ; not merely by the arcade, but by the great projection of the roof beyond it. No man, who exercises his reason for a moment, as to what he sees before him, can feel satisfaction on looking at a structure like this ; at least with reference to such a climate as that of Britain. Perhaps in Italy, so much shade as this Design would produce may be desirable ; and the want of light may not be so great an object in the present state of civilization in that country, since the people are not readers, and are far from being cleanly in eitlier their persons or houses. But even for Italy, this Design is bad; because, in the warmest climates there must be times when more light is desirable than can be ad- mitted into any of the apartments of this dwelling. Still the Design possesses a degree of simplicity and grandeur, and may afford useful hints for something better. The basement raised so as to include a sunk story, fig. 94, would be a great improvement, in point of convenience, and this would admit of lighting the rooms above from two sides instead of one, fig. 95 ; because, in that case, the back kitchen and store closet would be under ground. Another mode of improving this Design would be to retain the ground-floor in its present state, and to raise a bed-room story over it, roofing the arcade or veranda with glass, con- cealed by a parapet, and supporting the bed-room story on the inner walls. The removal of the projection of the roof would of itself admit more light ; but when to this is added the light which will pass through the glass roof of the veranda, fig. 96, the house will be rendered habitable in any climate. In proportion as the height of the verandas and their openings are increased, the more light will be admitted to the windows beneath them ; and if we imagine a veranda raised six or eight feet higher than the tops of the windows which it pro- tects, the rooms would be as light as if there were no veranda at all. In all cases, therefore, of introducing arcades, colonnades, or verandas, before living rooms, they ought either not to project far from the walls, or to have their openings carried up higher than the archi- traves of the windows. This last arrangement, however, can very seldom be carried into effect in buildings of more than one story, without violating some principle of utility or fitness. The arches in the Design before us being somewhat higher than the windows, a balcony might be formed over the veranda, which, by getting rid of the projection of the roof, would admit more light, and this, with a bed-room story added, would produce a good effect, fig. 97. There remains to be noticed another great defect in the expression of this Cf)TTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XIV. 01 sssasEs^sQDBscasnji 62 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XV. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 63 building as a human dwelling, and that is, the want of a porch. Independently of the addition which a porch would make to the expression of purpose, it would add to the actual comfort and propriety of the building; for, surely, there is a great inconsistency in forming so extensive a veranda, and yet leaving the steps of ascent to it not only uncovered, but without any architectural appendage to enhance their interest as a main entrance. To introduce a porch in the best manner in a building so entirely uniform, some alteration would be required in the position of the win- dows in the ground plan, so as to admit of preserving the character of symmetry, by having a porch in the centre of one side, fig. 98. Were this done, the width of the piers somewhat diminished, and some- thing added to their height, the building would not only have a much better effect, but become more ha- bitable, fig. 99. Edifices of this sort are much better calculated for ornamental purposes, such as a garden banqueting house ; in pleasure-grounds, with a fruit and wine cellar under ; or to be placed on a rock or small island, in a lake or river, as a place to fish from under cover. 100 Design XV. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children. 138. Accommodation. This cottage, though very small, con- tains a good many comforts and conveniences. The entrance, a, is by a lean-to at one end, which serves as a porch, and at b, may also be used as a place for fuel. There is a good kitchen, c ; a pantry, d ; back kitchen, e, with an oven and a flue to heat the floor of the principal kitchen ; a stair-case with a closet under, f ; water-closet, g ; and place for poultry, h. The upper story contains only one bed-room, i. There is a small yard behind, k, which may contain a cow-house and a pigsty, and which must include a manure well and dung-pit 139. Construction. The walls are here represented of rough stone plastered, and the roof as covered with Grecian or Italian tiles. The terrace is of masonry, and the chimney tops (fig. 100, on a scale of three-eighths of an inch to a foot), are of brick and cement. The pro- 64 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. jection of the roof is considerable, and it is finished with a gutter, supported by short pieces let into the wall, fig. 101, 1, and by cantilevers, m. The blocks supporting the sill of the kitchen window are of stone, and so is the sill. The mul- lions which divide the window are of wood, and the casements which fit into them are hinged so as to open inwards. The windows of the pantry and back kitchen are sash windows. The principal objectionwhich we have to the construc- tion of this cottage, is the placing the fire- places in the outside walls. For cold climates, this is always with us, a very great objection ; though, as this building is in the Italian style, it may be supposed to be adopted for the south of Europe, the most southern parts of North America, or for Australia. With a view to these countries, our objection falls to the ground ; and in truth, we have raised it chiefly for the, purpose of showing that some objections to buildings of this description, and indeed to all buildings, are relative. Of positive, or absolute objections, which have no relation to either country, climate, or situation, we see none in this Design. It is on a dry foundation, of sufficient strength in construction, and of sufiRcient durability in its materials. It is securely roofed ; the rooms are suflBciently lofty, well lighted, and may be, if the occupant think fit, well ventilated. 140. Situation. This building having no windows behind, is calculated for being placed upon the side of a hill, and viewed from below. If surrounded by a good garden, and with no trees within a hundred yards of it higher than fruit trees, it can hardly fail to have a good effect. In general, trees which stand close to any building, more especially to one of small size, should either be decidedly larger or decidedly smaller than the building itself. The chief reason for this is, that objects of the same size, or apparently so, do not co-operate well in forming a whole ; which always must consist of one principal or prominent part, and of two or more subordinate ones. 141. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 8,206 feet, at M., £205 : 3s. ; at 4^., £136 -.lbs: Ad.; and at 3(f., £102 : Us : 6d. 142. Expression. The style at- 1 02 tempted is evidently Italian; but why a deviation was made in the wings from the Italian Gothic win- dow, to the common English sash window, is not obvious. The fault is not a great one ; because so far from interfering with utility, a su- perior article is introduced instead of an inferior one. But in respect to appearance, these windows cer- tainly diminish the force of the style. Reduced to their proper form, and a parapet added to the terrace, fig. 102, 'his dwelling would produce a very good effect, and might serve for one of those which a recent writer in the Mechanic's Magazine, recommends to be substituted for mile-stones along the public roads of Great Britain. To the cottages so placed, he proposes to attach large gardens ; and those, with the cottage, are to serve as models for neatness and order in their appearance and management to the agricultural labourers in the vicinity. The occupier of the cottage is to sit rent-free, on condition of keeping the sides and fences of one mile of road neat and orderly, and as free from weeds and all obstructions as the approach road in a gentleman's park ; t labour which might occupy him fifty or sixty days in the vear. Mech. Mag. Vol. XVI. p. 410. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 65 Design XVI. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife without Children. 143. Accommodation. This building contains a commodious kitchen, twelve feet by six- teen feet ; and it has two windows, in order to admit of a tailor or shoemaker, with his ap- prentice, carrying on work at one window, while the woman's work is going on at the other. A large porch, a, which is lighted by a fanlight from the upper part of the doorway, forms both the entrance to the dwelling, and the passage of communication from the kitchen, b, to the bed-room, c. There is a pantry and store-closet, d, opening. from the kitchen, and a light closet, e, partitioned off the bed-room. The privy, and other conveniences, are sup- posed to be placed at a short distance from the house, and to be concealed by bushes. 144. Situation. This building, having one side with only a small window in it, may be placed against a wood, and so that the en- trance-door may front the south-east. The roof, being of thatch, indicates that it is not intended for a country subject to high winds. 145. Construction. The walls may be formed of stone or mud ; or, in a country where bricks are abundant and cheap, they may be built hollow of brick-work (see § 25). The thatched roof will project over the walls, as shewn in the accompanying sketch, fig. 103 ; in which is shewn the rafter, /, placed at an angle of 30°, and also a wooden moulding, g, imder the projecting thatch. The chimney- stack consists of two circular columns with plain heads, as in the annexed drawing (fig. 104» on a scale of half an inch to a foot). 146. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,328 feet, at 6d., £258 : is. ; at id., £172 : 2s : 8d. ; and at 3d., £129 : 2*. 147. The Garden contains two roods and a half, and is divided into eight compartments, with a surrounding border ; the boundary fence being a wall of mud, brick, or stone, against which may be planted fruit trees, or currants and gooseberries, according to the climate in which the design is executed. The compartment, /;, is intended for a plantation of goose- berries, surrounded by a row of dwarf apples ; i, is a plantation of currants and raspberries, surrounded by a row of pears, plums, and cherries ; k, a grrss plot ; /, strawberries ; m, pe- 104 r^ TV rennial spinach ; n, peas ; o, beans ; p, potatoes ; q, the cabbage tribe ; r, onions, turnips, carrots, and other surface and fusiform roots. In continuing the rotation, the compartments n and o, will, of course, be considered as one, and cropped, after (1) the leguminous vege- tables, with (2) potatoes, (3) the cabbage tribe, and (4) roots. The borders round this garden may be devoted to small crops, such as salading, annual spinach, pot-herbs, tart rhubarb, which ought never to be omitted in the cottager's garden, a few plants of hops for their tops as asparagus, and their flowers for putting in beer, and, near the house, flowers and flowering shrubs. 148. Remarks. This Design may be con- sidered as imperfect in point of accommoda- tion, but we introduce it because there are many persons who may be able or willing to build such cottages for themselves or their de- pendents, who, from particular opinions or want of means, might be unable or unwilling to build a dwelling of a better description. If at any future time it were desired to enlarge this cottage, two rooms under a lean-to roof might easily be joined to the wall, s, t, which has but one small window, a communication being opened to such rooms by changing the destina- tion of the kitchen closet. This will give the ground plan, fig. 105, whichmay be considered a tolerably commodious cottage ; not only two additional bed-rooms, u, v, being obtained, but I ,66 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 105 106 the closet, w, as a substitute for d, in it were desirable to add four rooms instead of two, a passage and staircase might be formed between the two rooms, and two bed-chambers obtained in the floor above. This might be easily eflTected by turning round the partition wall of w, to a line with the door of that closet, and by removing tlie centre division wall between u and v, to a line with the door of the right hand bed-room, v ; a space of seven feSt wide would then be left in the middle for the staircase, fig. 106, x. Sup- posing the party who had made these alterations to have in- creased in prosperity, and to be desirous of one handsome dining-room in which to re- ceive his friends, it might readHy be attained by extend- ing the building from the ex- tremity of the staircase passage, as in fig. 107, in which a hand- some room, y, is obtained ; and over this it would be easy to form a corresponding drawing- room, or two additional bed- rooms. As it would be no longer desirable to pass through the kitchen to such apartments, a porch, s, might be added, so as to enter the dining-room and the staircase direct from the terrace or platform. The elevation, in the case of such alterations, may very properly be in a somewhat different style of building from the ori- Design XVI., here, in fig. 105, turned into a passage. If 107 COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 67 ginal cottage, because the builder may justly be supposed to have become possessed, not only of superior means, but of a higher degree of taste, or of consciousness of deficiency in taste, and consequently have called in professional assistance since his former erection. But whether he employs another, or proceeds on his own opinion, he will be justified by historical truth, as well as by the natural love of mankind for variety of character, in building two different additions, at different times, in different styles, or substyles of architecture. The elevations in this case will, in our opinion, be in perfect good taste, either as in fig. 108, 110 which shows prtly the first addition ; or as in fig. 109, which shows the dining-room added, but not a drawing-room ; in lieu of this a flat roof is shown, over which an awning may be placed in the summer season, a practice particularly suitable for America and Australia. For the sake of variety, we have shown the centre building in a different style in fig. 109 to what it is in fig. 108. We have also shewn in fig. 109, three descriptions of .terrace parapets, with three styles of ornamental vases ; the vases for the original cottage may be stone pots, in shape not materially dif- ferent from the common flower- pot; those for the first addition may be as in fig. 110, manufactured by Mr. Peake, of Tunstall, in Staf- fordshire, and sold at 15s. each ; and those for the second addition may be a tazza (cup) vase, like fig. Ill, manufactured by the same potter, at 18*. The progressive improvement of cottages in this manner, we consider as particularly suitable for the inhabitants of new and prosperous countries. 149. Expression. The lofty proportions of the doors and windows, and the height of the G8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. walla from the platform to tlie roof, give a certain expression of dignity to the exterior of this dwelling which every one must feel. But this ex- pression is sadly counteracted by the mean, crouching appearance of the thatched roof, which, both as regards the material of which it is made, and the form in which it is disposed, is altogether unsuitable for the walls. In general, the truncated gable ends, such as are seen over the entrance- door, and at both ends of this cottage, convey the idea of imperfection of form, of restricted resources, and of meanness and lameness of character. If we suppose the pediment of the gable ends completed, even though the building continued H" to be covered with thatch, the effect (fig. 112) will be superior, and will leave much less to be wished for. But still the expression of a thatched cottage, as such cottages are gene- rally seen and formed in Britain, is not complete ; the walls continue to be too high, and the roof too low in the pitch, or not sufficiently steep on the sides ; that is, the proportion be- tween the walls and roof to which we are accustomed is violated. Lower the walls, and increase the surface of the roof, as in fig. 113, and the proportion is restored, the eye satisfied, and the ex- pression of a thatched cottage jj^ comparatively complete. Let it not be supposed, however, that we prefer these proportions to those given in fig. 112 with a view to the principle of use; but for the sake of maintaining the beauty of style, we would, with windows of these proportions, introduce the Italian or Grecian roof of low pitch, similar to that of Design XV, Cottages with truncated gable ends, and with roofs, sometimes thatched and . sometimes of slates, seem to be much approved of by many British architects ; and many of them have not only been built, but several Designs in this manner have been pub- 115 lisbed. We have no doubt they pleased at the time of their first introduction, from the no- velty of the form, and they still please some ; but we doubt much if the pleasure they communicate will stand the test of time. There is scarcely any architectural land- scape painter who, if he were left to his free choice, would introduce Design XVI. into his composition in preference to fig. 113; at the same time we COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XVI. ()f) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XVil. r» W«G<««sg';^^CSft®'t?<^«^a«C»'«i«i.ss>:::j«>WAS8 COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. all cases when walls, either of this class or of the former, are built, the foundations should be of stone or brick, and they should be carried up at least a foot above the upper surface of the platform. In the course of this work, we shall describe all the various methods of building earthern walls, and we shall here commence by giving one of the simplest modes of con- struction, from the work of a very excellent and highly estimable individual, Mr. Denson, of Waterbeach, Cambridgeshire, the author of The Peasant's Voice, who built his own cottage in the manner described below. 159. Mode of building the Mud Walls of Cottages in Cambridgeshire. After a labourer has dug a sufficient quantity of clay for his purpose, he works it up with straw ; he is then pro- vided with a frame eighteen inches in length, six deep, and from nine to twelve inches in diameter. In this frame he forms his lumps, in the same manner that a brickmaker forms his bricks ; they are then packed up to dry by the weather ; that done, they are fit for use, as 3 substitute for bricks. On laying the foundation of a cottage, a few layers of bricks are necessary, to prevent the lumps from contracting a damp from the earth. The fire-place is lined, and the oven is built with bricks. I have known cottagers, where they could get the grant of a piece of ground to build on for themselves, erect a cottage of this description at a cost of from £15 to £30. I examined one that was nearly completed, of a superior order; it contained two good lower rooms and a chamber, and was neatly thatched with straw. It is a warm, firm, and comfortable building ; far superior to the one I live in ; and my opinion is, that it will last for centuries. The lumps are laid with mortar, they are then plastered, and on the outside once rough cast, which is done by throwing a mixture of water, lime, and small stones against the walls before the plaster is dry, which gives them a very handsome appep.r- ance. The cottage I examined, cost £33, and took nearly one thousand lumps to complete it. I believe a labourer will make that number in two days : the roofs of cottages of this description are precisely the same as when built with bricks, or with a wooden frame. Cow- house sheds, garden walls, and partition fences, are formed with the same materials ; but in all cases the tops are covered with straw, which the thatchers perform in a very neat manner. — Benson's Peasant's Voice, p. 31. 131 160. The Roof of this cottage is shown 132 as if thatched with reeds or straw ; it pro- jects considerably on every side, and forms a truncated pyramid, terminating in the chimney-tops which are of stone, and of a very simple form, (fig. 131, to a scale of half an inch to a foot,) easily executed. Nearly the same form might be produced in well tempered clay, mixed with straw and gravel, and afterwards rough cast ; but it is evident that it would not be so durable. When chimney-tops are formed of clay, a shape should be adopted which admits of covering them with a flag stone, or a large slate, or tiles, in the Swiss manner, fig. 132. 161. Garden. The extent is about three-fourths of an acre. There are four large compartments, /, g, h, i, calculated for a four-fold succession of crops ; viz., potatoes, the leguminous tribe, the cabbage tribe, and turnips and other roots. Two small com- partments, fc and I, are devoted to currants, gooseberries, and raspberries ; and m, to straw- berries, asparagus, and sea-kale. The garden is surrounded by a wall, with a border for early and late crops, and for flowers. The rows of shrubs round the compartments, k and /, are chiefly ornamental, such as roses, honeysuckles, mezereons, Cydonia japonica, &c. The single fruit trees at the corners of the compartments are chiefly apples, with some pears, cherries, and plums. There is a small summer house at n, from which it may be supposed there is an extensive prospect 162. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,362 feet, at 6 <:> I ^v-y-A ^ A^;};[Pa^Ai^;.v VW' v^vw JE^ some parapet may be made by using small hollow draining tiles or tubes as balusters. To the Indian cottage, fig. 145, parapets may be contrived of appropriate Indian fonns, figs. 153 and 154. Design XX. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife with Children, and having a Cow •house Pigsty, Sfc. attached. 174. Accommodation. The ground plan consists of an entrance, a ; kitchen, b ; bed- closet, c ; wash-house, d ; bed-room, e ; dairy, /; linen closet, g ; pigsty, 7; ; privy, i ; pantry, k ; and cow-house or wood-house, /. In the roof, there is one large bed-room, which may be seen in the section A, B ; it is lighted froim one end, but can only be ascended to by means of a ladder through the trap-door in the ceiling of the entrance lobby, a. A hen- house might be formed over the piggery or the cow-house ; and rabbits, in hutches, might be kept in the latter building. 175. Construction. The inner walls are supposed to be of rubble stone, as being the cheapest material in the given locality ; the outer walls are of brick, and hollow ; the roof is thatched. The three-quarter columns shown in the front elevation, are supposed to be of wood ; and the manner in which they are attached to the walls may be seen in fig. 155, which. is a section through the lean-to from back to front. 176. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,142 feet, at firf. per foot, £278: lis. ; at 4rf., £185 : Us. ; and at Zd., £139 : 5s : 6d. 177. Expression. To the eye which looks only at picturesque effect, this cottage will not 8i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. be unpleasing; but strictly examined on scientific principles, it is full of faults. The three- quarter columns, supporting nothing but thatch, are absurdities : they are of no use as piers, because the wall is strong enough without them ; and they are the more superfluous, because they are attached to the walls at the angles, which, as we have beforeshown(§74), are the strongest parts of the wall. A column is the noblest member of the architectural body, because it effects, of itselt; and in a simple and striking manner, by one bold and independent form, what could otherwise be only effected by a great number of petty details of masonry or carpentry. As a support, it may be substituted for a wall ; as a monument, it will serve the purpose of either a cone, a pyramid, or a tower ; and placed horizontally over an opening, in the form of a beam, it takes the place of an arch. Of what other architectural member can so much be said ? A column may be considered in architecture what a timber tree is in the vegetable kingdom ; the first is one of the grandest objects of architectural art, and the second, one of the most imposing in the vegetable creation. It is the part of correct judgment always to adjust the means employed 15(J to the end to be attained ; and in attempting to gain any end, never to call forth more energy than the occa- sion requires. When a wall is employed to support a roof, no wise architect will ever join columns to this wall ; since, from what has been said of the uses of columns, it must be clear that, to place them there, would, in point of utility, be a mere waste of strength ; and in point of order and beauty, it would be to de- grade their character. To see a column misapplied in a building, is as offensive to a correct architectural eye, as it is to a well regulated mind to see misapplied wealth or power in the common affairs of life. capitals of the columns in the front of Design XX. they would have had some pretensions to fitness, by appearing to support it, and having thereby an air of completeness ; but merely set against the wall without any conspicuous superin- cumbent member of the roof, and immediately under the projecting thatch, they show an apparent disre- gard, not only of the prin- ciple of utility, but of that of congruity. A second fault is the placing of two false windows in the wings, which, in the elevation, are so shaded that it is impossible to detect them as such. This, in a drawing, is Had there been an architrave of any sort over the 157 COTTAGE DM ELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XX. 8.) 86 COTTAGE, FARM, AND \'ILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXI. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 8" liable to be considered as a deception practised on the inexperienced eye, and an arcliitect might thereby mislead his employer. Perhaps the architect may say that he intends glass to be put in these windows, in which case they would not be distinguishable from real ones, either in the drawing, or in the reality. If so, our objections are less strong ; but still we disapprove of the expense of false windows in such a building as a cottage. A third objection to this dwelling is, that sufficient consequence is not given to the entrance. So large a cottage, and one of so much pretension, ought sui-ely not to be entered as it were by stealth. One other objection, and we have done : — the window in the roof is too low, and not fit for ventilating sufficiently, so large a room as the one it opens into. 178. Improvement. We would remove the three-quarter columns and the false windows ; place a porch over the main door, fig. 156, m, and extend the roof of the back kitchen in such a manner as to form a covered fa-ea for drying clothes, fig. 156, n, which might also serve as a play-ground for children, or, in hot countries, for occasionally dining under. We would also enlarge and raise the window in the roof, because there can be no perfect ventilation unless windows reach nearly to the ceiling. This done, the ground plan would be as in fig. 156, and the elevation (chimney pots and a terrace parapet being added), as in fig. 157. Design XXI. — A Dwelling for a Man and Ids Wife, withoul Children. 179. Accommodation. We have here, in a compact form, and under a pavillion roof, a dwelling of the humblest class ; very well calculated for two persons, but not for more. It contains a kitchen, a, in which is an oven; a bed-room, b; two light closets from the bed-room, c and d ; and two from the kitchen, e and/. In this, as in most of the preceding Designs, some accommodation for lumber may be obtamed \n the roof, to which there should be an opening in the ceiling, closed by j -o a door, with a hinged ladder, for ascent and descent. This ladder when not in use, is easily kept suspended to the ~ ceiling, by a hook at one end. By '^ substituting hooks and staples, as in fig. 158, for hinges, the ladder may be taken off at pleasure, and used fot other purposes. The cow-house and yard, g ; and the pigsty, poultry-house, place between them for fuel, liquid manure tank, and privy, h, are supposed to be placed in the garden. 180. Construction. The walls may be of earth, rough stone, or whatever may be the cheapest material in the particular locality. If they are built of brick, they should be made hollow, either according to the method already mentioned (§ 25), or according to that of Silverlock or of Dearn ; both of which will be afterwards described. The roof in this dwelling is shown as covered with large slates. No gutter is added round the eaves, fig. 159, in this, as in many other of the Designs ; because this essential accompaniment is of the same form in most buildings of the cottage kind, and is easily added, either as a tinned, copper, zinc, or cast-iron half cylinder. The most durable, the most convenient, and, ultimately, the cheapest gutter, is a segment of a hoHow cast-iron pipe, fig. 160; supported by jgQ iron brackets, fig. 161. The brackets are nailed to the face of the eaves, as at fig. 159, k, and have sometimes rivetted to them tinned iron straps, fig. 162, I, the ends of which are folded over the gutter, to hold it in its place. Each length of gutter overlaps the other ; and when the slope, for giving a current to the water, is less than one inch in a yard, the one piece of gutter is bedded on the other in putty, or in white lead. If the water is not to be preserved for use, it may be conducted to a drain, by an upright pipe or tube, in one or two places (§ 84, figs. 60 and 61); but, if it is to be collected for filtration, the slope of the guttering, on all the sides of the house, ought to be directed to one point, where a descending tube should conduct the water to a receiving tank (see § 31). 88 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 181. The Garden has four main compartments, m, n, o, and p, for the usual four year rotation of kitchen crops; two small compartments, q, q, supposed to be used, the one, as a yard for faggot wood, &c., and the other as a rick-yard ; and four small compartments, r, s, t, and u, for fruits, shrubs, and flowers. 182. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,178 feet, at 6rf. per foot, £279:95.; at \d., £186 : 65. ; and at Zd., £139 : Us : 6d. 183. Expression. This Design, like the preceding one, aims at nothing more than the expression of the svihject. To both, might be given a character of elegance, as well as a solid addition in point of comfort, by a surrounding veranda. To fit both these Designs for receiving this addition, the tops of the windows are kept two or three feet under the eaves. If the veranda were formed with an opaque roof, it would merely serve as a shelter, and a cover under which to dry clothes, seeds, Indian corn, and tobacco, and to work or walk under in rainy weather ; but, if the roof were glazed, with a trellis under it, grapes and peaches might be grown all round the house (the diagonal of the square being a north and south line), and all the former advantages obtained in equal perfection. The architectural beauty of this Design, as well as its internal convenience, might be greatly heightened by a judicious porch, and by a window in the roof over the entrance door; but these improve- ments we leave to be contrived by our readers ; requesting them to take out their pencils and make the attempt; and assuring them, that nothing will contribute more to their improvement, as architectural designers. Design XXII. — A Dwelling for a Gardener, or other Servant, on a Gentleman's Estate, who has a Wife, but no Children. 184. The Accommodation of this cottage consists of a lobby, a ; a small kitchen, b, with an oven ; a light closet from the kitchen, c; and a bed-room, d, with a small light closet, e, which may be used as the gardener's library. This closet will be kept sufficiently dry and warm by its proximity to the oven. From the lobby, is portioned off a small closet for fuel, /. 185. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of common brick, or of flints, with piers and coins, in the form of pilasters, built of brick, of a superior description; or, if brick should not be the material employed, the plain part of the walls may | gg be composed of rubble stone, or random jointed ashlar work (free stone, rough as it comes from the quarry, laid in irregular courses), and the pilasters of tooled stone. The plain parts of the walls may also be of earth, and the pilasters of brick or stone ; or both the plain parts and pilasters may be built of earth ; the former being rough cast, and the latter covered with cement, scored (lined) in imitation of stone, and lime-whited. The roof is framed at a low pitch (low angle of the sides), and covered with Italian semi-cylindrical tiles, fig. 163, in the manner practised in the^neigh- bourhood of Florence, fig. 164. The chimney top, fig. 165, on a j^^ scale of half an inch to a foot, is built with a far projecting cornice, supported by blocks, with intervals between, suitable for swallows' nests. The windows would have been more in character with this manner of building, obviously somewhat Italian, if they had been foi-med of two frames, lengthways, the whole height of the window, and hinged at the sides, so as to open inwardly ; but the comfort of a sash window to a poor man, in a cold climate like that of Britain, is so great, that the British architect may well feel justified in adopting it in preference to the Italian form. In a building of a higher class, or for a warmer country, we should, probably, not so easily have formed an excuse for him, because there is a real advantage in being able to throw open the entire space occupied by the window ; and this never can be done in the case of suspended sash-windows, where no more can be opened than one-half. 186. Situation. If this dwelling be erected for a gardener, it should, of course, be placed near the garden ; and, if the health of the gardener, or that of his wife, be any object to the proprietor, it ought to be in a dry, open, airy situation ; and not placed, as such houses very frequently are in Britain, among dug ground, thickly planted with trees and shrubs, where there can be neither good 165 COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XXII. 89 fjO COTTAGE, FARM, AM) VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXIH. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 91 air, nor a free circulation of sucli air as there is. This Design is also well adapted for a lodge, and is worthy of being exposed to view on three sides, instead of being almost entirely covered with vegetation. The practice of almost entirely covering buildings in the country with creepers, can, by no means, be considered as in good taste : a few may be trained up a plain building, or a ruin ; but to cover a handsome piece of architecture in this way, is to defeat the very intention for which that architecture was produced. In the country, all is vegetation : w^hat beauty, therefore, can be expected from clothing with foliage an object, which, to produce any effect at all, must operate by contrast ? In the town, all is archi- tecture ; and there, the introduction of vegetation of any kind on a building, can, in point of effect, hardly be carried too far. In the country, the white or grey walls of-the plainest cottage, are a relief to the eye from the eternal monotony of green, by which such cottages are generally surrounded. In addition to this, it should never be forgotten that all vegetation near a house, especially that of deciduous plants, encourages damp and insects. 187. Garden. We have added a garden, on the supposition that this Design might be thought worth adoption, as a gate lodge, or by an independent labourer, or small farmer without children. We have shown in it a building, and yard, for two cows and two horses, g'; and another yard with a privy, a place for pigs, another for poultry, and a third between them for wood, h. It is of great consequence that the floors of these buildings should be raised at least one foot above the surface of the yard, and that their walls should be of such a thickness as to ensure warm.th to the animals. The necessity and advantage of this will appear in Book II. There are several small borders and angles, round the house and beneath its terrace or platform, which are supposed to be devoted to flowers and ornamental plants. There are two compartments, i and k, which, in the case of horses or cows being kept, might be devoted to lucerne, saintfoin, Hemerocallis, (see Gard. Mag. Vol. V. p. 451,) Symphytum, or some other perennial forage plant, according to the soil ; in order that they may always afford food at a short notice, when it may be inconvenient to send to a greater distance. To a family of two persons without a servant, in Britain, and to small farmers in America and Australia, where servants or helpers, are scarcely to be got at any price, arrangements of this sort should always be kept in view. The four compartments, I, I, and 166 m, m, may be used as a kitchen garden ; and the four larger compartments, n,o,p,q, for growing corn crops. But if the garden is supposed to be on a smaller scale, and to contain only a quarter of an acre, instead of five acres, then these four large compartments may be devoted to the usual rotation of culinary vegetables; and the four smaller ones to a grass- plot for drying clothes, and to strawberries ; either, or both. The two compartments, r and s, may serve for gooseberries, currants, and raspberries ; fruits that ought to be in every cottage garden, where the climate is suitable for them. 188. In forming Grass-plots for drying Clothes, where ap- pearance is an object, there ought always to be tubes built in or inserted in the ground, for the purpose of holding the posts, to which lines, for hanging the clothes on, are attached. These tubes, fig. 166, are generally about eighteen inches long and four inches wide 1(53 inside at top, and three inches at bottom, with a plug, t, to cover each when its post is taken out and laid in the dry. Posts for being so used have a shoulder at their lower end, fig. 167, u, for pre- venting them from being wedged too firmly into the receiving box. The top of such a line post has generally two pins, v, passed through it in opposite directions, for the purpose of fastening the lines. In some situations, instead of moveable posts, the lines may be tied to fixed posts, ornamented by creepers ; or to trees with narrow heads, such as the Lombardy poplar ; or for some description of clothes, cords may be stretched under the far projecting eaves of the roof all round the house. One end of the cord in this case is fixed, and the other passes over a pulley, and is made fast to a hook in the wall. The advantage of passing a cord over a pulley, fig. 168, w, is, that the line may be lowered to receive the articles to be dried, and then hoisted up again. This mode of drying nlothes is very common in Germany "'frf S 92 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURR. jind Switzerland, and has the advantage of never exposing the clothes to perpendicular rain; with the disadvantage lfi9 170 of running the risk of having the larger articles blown against the wall, and dirted and discoloured, in windy weather. Where very long lines are stretched from tree to tree, it is customary to support the line in the middle, or in one or two places by a prop, forked at one end, figs. 169, or 170; the weight of the clothes keeps these props steady. The clothes are kept fast on the lines by what are called clothes' pegs. These are commonly formed of a piece of cleft wood, held together by a fillet of tinned iron ; but an elegant improvement on them has lately been made by Mr. Stenning, of Haslemere, under the direction of our highly talented contributor, Mr. Perry, of Godalming, fig. 171, by which the fillet of tin is rendered unnecessary, and all risk of iron-mould on the linen avoided. 189. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 9,828 feet, at 6rf. per foot, £245 : Us. ; at 4d., £163 : 16s. ; and at 3fi., £122 : 17s. 190. Expression. It is clear that something more is intended in this elevation than mere expression of purpose; else why the pilasters, the far projecting 172 roof with its cantilevers, the semi-cylindrical tiles, and the swallow corniced chimney top ? The manner intended to be expressed is evidently of the Italian kind, which is only diminished a little by the English sash window. If it were desired to decorate this cottage, it might be done by placing four ornamental tulip-shaped chimney pots, fig. 172, on the chimney tops, raising a low wall or parapet in the Italian manner, in bricks and tiles, at a very trifling expense, round the outer margin of the platform ; and placing vases in harmony with the chimney pots, at the corners. An ornamental water-gutter, tig. 173, ought also to be used instead of a plain one. The dwelling might then be said to be in the enriched Italian style, and if no more trees were placed round it than what are shown in the ground plan of the garden, it could hardly fail to look well from every point of view. We leave our readers to embody 173 ^^l' ,&( these ideas in geo- metrical and per- spective sketches of - their own; and we 11 i 11 11"^^- may further suggest '^r' ^P ^^ ' that by increasing the width of the ter- race and veranda, and adding a second story, a very handsome elevation, and a tolerably comfortable habitation (the walls still of earth), might be produced. The Italian manner of building cottages must naturally have more charms for such as have been in Italy, or are conversant with the works of the great painters of that country, tlian for those who have never travelled, or paid much attention to prints or paintings ; but even to such persons an Italian cottage may please, when first erected, from its novelty ; and afterwards, this satisfaction may be con- tinued on the principle of contrast, or the difference between such a cottage and the generality of cottages in the neighbourhood. It is evident, however, that the great beauty of an Italian cottage, that in which the imagination is engaged, can only be fully realized by those minds in which it will call up associations connected with Italy. An old English cottage has this great beauty to every Englishman, educated or uneducated, that, in addition to all its comforts and conveniences, it operates upon his imagination, and recals to mind a thousand associations connected with his earlier years, with his parents, his kindred, his school companions, and, in short, with all the vivid feelings of his youth. It ought to be the business of the young architect, therefore, not only to inform himself on all that relates to actual fitness in a building, and to whatever contributes to the expression of purpose, but to those circumstances, in style, which are calculated to operate on the imagination. For this purpose, we recommend to him the careful and repeated perusal of Allison's Essays on Taste, Wood's Letters of an Architect, and Diigald Stewart s Philosophical Essatjs COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 93 Design XXIII. -A Dwelling of One Story, for a Man and hU Wife with a Family of Children ; having a Cow-house and Pigsty attached. 191. Accommodation. The plan consists of a long broud portico, a, well adapted for drying clothes under, and protecting the children from the sun or rain while at play ; an en- trance lobby, h ; a kitchen, c ; a wash-house, d ; three bed-rooms, e, /, and g ; a pantry, /* ; dairy, ( ; store-closet, A- ; pigsty, / ; privy, m ; cow-house, n ; and open shed for fuel, o. 192. Construction. The walls may be of earth ; the props of the portico, and of the open shed, trunks of trees with their bark on ; the roof is thatched with reeds, heath, straw, or the shavings and dressings of barrel hoops, made from greeti rods, as practised in various parts of England. In countries where timber is very abundant, and other materials dear, the roof may be covered , with shingles ; but materials so liable to be con- sumed by fire, should never be employed if it can ' be avoided. The rustic columns may be placed on stone plinths, and have square wooden caps, fig. 174, jD. In a country having a long winter, and liable to heavy falls of snow, it might be de- sirable to have the roof of such a cottage con- siderably steeper ; because the melting of snow on flat roofs, or even any roofs which are under an angle, or pitch, as the technical term is, of 45°, is generally attended by water penetrating to the interior. Thatched roofs in snowy countries, unless very steep, are of particularly short duration ; and the same may be said of roofs covered with bark, heath, moss, ferns, or spray. These kinds of roof occur often in Sweden and Norway, but they are never resorted to when the builder can afford slate, or flat stone, or iron. One of the best modes of con- structing flat roofs in a country Hable to heavy falls of snow, would be to employ flat brick arches, tying the abutments together with wrought-iron rods, in the manner which will be afterwards mentioned. In Italy, and in other countries where stucco, puzzulano earth, or any other cement is abundant and cheap, flat roofs are not uncommon. The joists, or rafters, are first covered with boards, then with tiles, or sometimes with reeds ; and after- wards, first with a coat of stucco, mixed with gravel, or very coarse sand ; and, lastly, with a finishing coat of finer material. 193. General Estimate. Cubic contents 14,622 feet, at Qd. per foot, £365:11*.; At Ad., £243 : 14s. ; and at M., £182 : 15s : Qd. 194. Expression. This cottage pretends to no- thing more than what it is ; a simple, humble dwelling, but not with- out comfort. In a cold country, we should pro- pose to heat all the floors by flues conducted from one fireplace in the back kitchen, d ; thereby rendering the dwelling, at a mere trifle of expense and trouble, as comfortable as even a first-rate mansion could possibly be (see § 34). This would also greatly diminish the expense of fuel, the labour attendant on keeping up fires, and that of cleaning fireplaces. As a finish to this cottage, the platform may be bordered with a neat hedge of box, or furze, or butcher's broom, or an ivied trellis ; or by a rustic fence, com- posed of the trunks of small pine or fir trees, driven into the ground at equal distances, sawn evenly over at the height of two feet and a half, and finished with a horizontal railing of the same material, or of worked timber painted, fig. 175, to a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot. Ornamental urn chimney pots, fig. 176, and one or two creepers, would complete all the ornaments proper for such a cottage. 17(5 94 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE Design XXIV. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife without Children, having Two Rooms and other conveniences. 195. Accommodation. For a 177 small family this may be considered a comfortable cottage. It contains a porch, within which is a lobby, a; kitchen, b ; bed-room, e; store-closet, d; back kitchen, from which the whole house may be heated, e ; pantry,/; dairy, §■; privy, h; root cellar, i ; and wood-house, k. 196. Construction. The walls may be of earth, or of any other convenient material ; the roof we have supposed to be 178 slated, and the gutter is not shown. The windows are in the French manner; that is, opening in the middle fiom top to bottom, and to render the junction as much as pos- sible air tight, the styles, fig. 177, half the full size, are made to fit into each other in the manner shown at /. In this, as in every case where the house is built of mud, or compressed earth, the chimney tops are supposed to be of stone, brick, or other material which will endure exposure to all weathers. We have said little hitherto of internal finishing ; but we would not on that account have any cottage without some sort of cornice, both to its living- rooms and sleeping-rooms. Ornament enhances comfort, and tends to refine the mind. For this cottage, which is somewhat in the Italian manner, fig. 178, to the scale of two inches and a half to a foot, may serve as the section of a cornice for the living-rooms, and fig. 179, to the same scale, for the bed-rooms. 197. General Estimate. Cubic contents 10,920 feet, at Gd. per foot, £273 ; at 4rf.,£"182 ; and at 3d., £136 : 10*. 198. Expression. Something more than a common cottage dwelling is here intended ; but there are, in our eyes, two conspicuous faults ; the first is the hipped or rather trun- cated angle of the pediment roof; and the second, the want of height and boldness in the chimney tops. These defects supplied, and a window added to show that some use was made of the garret, with a veranda and parapet or balustrade, the effect to us would be satisfactory. We again recom- mend our readers to attempt to realize these improvements on paper. The benefit they will derive from so doing, is far greater than may at first sight appear. The mere cir- cumstance of familiarizing the mind with orderly arrangement, regular figures, symmetry, means adapted to the end in view, either in buildings, in furniture, or in gardens, must have an influence on conduct. Order is the fundamental principle of all morals ; for what is immorality but a disturbance of the order of civilized society, a disturbance of the relations between man and man ? We do not say that all kinds of drawing have a tendency to pro- duce an orderly mind, but we do affinn that architectural drawing has that tendency in an eminent degree. Carpenters and stone-masons are a superior class of mechanics in all countries. 179 I OTTAGK DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XXIV. 95 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXV. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 97 Design XXV.— .^ Dwelling fur a f forking Man with a Family of Children. The ground plan exhibits a porch, a ; staircase and passage, b ; -room, with small closet, /; 180 may be built of brick stud- 199. Accommodation kitchen, c ; closet under the stair, d ; back kitchen, e ; sittin privy, g'; and wood-house, /i. The chamber floor con- tains a bed-room, i ; closet, /i ; another closet, /; abed- room, m; two closets, n amdo; and the staircase and landing, p. The defect in the accommodation here, is the want of a proper pantry ; but this might be easily obtained by enlarging h, turning its present door into a window, and opening a door to it from the kitchen. A substitute for h, may be provided adjoining g. 200. Construction. This cottage, its designer observes, " work, plastered outside, the roof to be thatched with reeds or straw. The entrance is to havealedgeddoor, and the windows are to be filled in with lattice-work, having oak mul- lions, or muUions of other timber, painted in imita- tion ofstone. The rabbet heads of the windows, fig. 180, q, to be back filled, (to project beyond the wall, in the manner of archi- traves, but without mouldings, as at r)." The chimney stacks to be form- ed of, or orna- mented with, Roman cement working drawing, fig. 181, made to a scale ,- of half an inch to a foot, in which s, s, are the barge boards, and t, the pendant. Fig. 182, shows a section of a suitable cornice for the living-rooms ; and fig. 183, one in the same style for the bedrooms ; both these sections are to a scale ' of two inches and a half to a foot 201. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,904 feet, at 6rf. per foot, £272 : 6*. ; at 4rf., £181 : 10* : 8rf. ; and at Zd., £136 : ■is. 202. TJie Expression is evidently that of an old English cottage. We should have preferred the chamber windows in the ends, which would have been less picturesque in effect, but cheaper to execute, and much easier to keep in repair. We should also prefer the ground floor windows to have six large panes in each frame, rather than to have them filled in with lattice-work. This done, and the alteration made in the accommodation, which we have suggested, § 199, a parapet on the platform, and pinnacles over the pendants, are all that are vranting to render this Design very much to our taste. The barge boards and the pendants to be finished as in the 182 183 98 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Design XXVI. — A Cottage Dwelling in tJie German Swiss Style fur a Man and his Family, uiih accovimodation for two Horses and a Cow. 203. Accommodation. This description of dwelling is common in the northern parts of the continent of Europe, and also in Switzerland. To economize heat, no less than to save expense in the first erection, the apartments for the domestic animals, and the places for carts, ploughs, and other country machines and implements, are all contained under the same roof. The occupier of such a dwelling is commonly a very small farmer, who joins to this occupation some description of trade or commerce ; such as a carrier, coach-driver, jobber in cattle, fisherman, hunter, &c. ' There is a great objection to having cattle and horses under the same roof with living rooms for human beings, on account of the smells and insects generated by the former ; but it must be recollected that in the warm season, the cattle are seldom in the house, and that during winter in the North of Europe, the great difficulty in human dwellings is to maintain heat. We have lodged in various dwellings of this descrip- tion, from Stockholm to Naples, both in summer and winter, and cannot recollect that we ever felt much inconvenience from smells, but certainly some from insects. We do not, however, recommend this Design, where the expense of erecting the offices apart from the dwellings is not an object. — In the ground plan of this building, we have a place for a cart, waggon, or other carriage, and for ploughs and other implements of agriculture or trade, a ; a three-stalled stable for two horses and a cow, 6; aback kitchen, c; a privy, d; and a pigsty, e. On the principal floor, we have an entrance under a porch, ascended to by an exterior stair, /; a sitting-room, g' ; pantry, h; light closet, i; kitchen, A' ; closet under the stairs, I; bed-room stairs, m; and three balconies, n, w, n. The chamber floor consists of two bed-rooms, and two bed-closets. 204. Construction. The foundations, and the first story, as high as the floor of the living-rooms, are supposed to be built of stone, or brick with rusticated stone corners; the upper part of the building is en- tirely of timber. The roof is shown as covered with thatch, and without gutters. In Switzerland, where timber is abundant, and labour not high, the railing for the stairs and balconies of such a building is commonly massive, and very curiously carved. We have given a specimen, fig. 184, on a scale of half an inch to a foot, of a suitable railing to such a balcony. 205. Situation. Were such a building to be erected in England, it could only be for the sake of its character, and therefore the proper situation for it would be in a romantic, woody vale, glen, or dingle, like those of the Soufli of Germany, and especially the valley of Kinzigthal, from a cottage in which, engraved and published, the idea of the present Design is taken. There are many situations in Wales, and in the West of England, and some in Scotland, where the appearance of such a cottage would raise up interesting associations in the mind of a continental traveller, and would fill the stationary inhabitants with surprise, and by exciting inquiry, might lead| to the improvement of their taste. We are naturally indifferent" about what we do not understand ; but the moment we begin to have a knowledge of any subject, we take an interest in it, which incites us to further inquiry, and ultimately brings us to an acquaintance with what is right or wrong, beautiful or deformed. To teach men to think is the grand object of every effiart for promoting human improvement. 206. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 16,980 feet, at Gd. per foot, £424 : IO5. ; at \d., £283; andat 3d., £212:5s. 207. Criticism. The effect of the walls of the ground story being of stone is good, by giving the idea of great solidity in itself, and of stability and security in the superstructure. The three balconies are calculated to be very useful, and are not liable to the same objection as those exhibited in Design IX. ; because they are not connected with any of the bed- room windows (see § 106). The outside stair, by artificially increasing the distance between the living-rooms and the stable, must in some measure diminish the quantity of effluvia from the cattle, conveyed thither by the clothes of those who attend on them. The eaves ought to have the addition of an ample gutter ; and for our own taste, we should have pre- ferred having two windows in each gable end, and none in the roof; dividing the garrets lengthways. We should not have truncated the gable, and we should have made a better preparation for the chimney stack, raising it higher, and in a bolder style. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XXVL 100 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXVH. 1*£^)ra56^(r^Sa/l^.5HC®5e¥^»'?cne?««0»^'?Sf5«;f COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 101 Design XXVIL — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Children, or a Servant, with the usual Conveniences in a detached Building. 208. Accommodation. This plan exhibits a porch, a ; kitchen, b ; back kitchen, c ; parlour, or family bed-room, d ; and children, or ser- vants' bed-room, e. The privy, pigsty, cow-house, and similar appendages are supposed to be placed in a small yard, opposite the entrance to the garden, /. If this were the case, a wash-house might also be erected there ; the apartment, c, being used as a kitchen, and 6, as a parlour. This cottage might then be suitable for a small farmer, or jobber. 209. Construction. The walls may be of rubble stone, small land stones, or flints, set in good mortar. They may be finished at the gable ends with summer stones (stones placed on a wall, or on piers, for the support of beams, or on the lower angle of gable ends, fig. 185, g, as an abutment of the 186 barge stones, h), having worked cornices, fig. 186, and stone pinnacles. — 1 The roof may be of plain tiles or slates ; the windows are shown s I as common sashes with large panes, hung in the usual manner. The door is ledged, with ornamental outside hinges, fig. 187, to a scale of three-quarters of an inch to a foot. The chimney tops may be of Austin's cement, or of soft stone. 210. The Garden contains two roods and a half; it is surrounded by a hedge of fruit trees, within which is a border, and walk ; and the interior is in four main compartments, i, k, I, m, for the usual rotation ; with two small plots, n, o, for fruit shrubs ; two still smaller, p, q, for flowers ; and three, r, s, t, for straw- berries, tart rhubarb, and perennial pot and sweet herbs. 211. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 9,024 feet, at 6d. per foot, £225 : 12*. ; at Ad., £150 : 8«. ; and at M. £112: \Gs. 212. Situation. The designer of this building states, that it will have a good effect as a gardener's house, placed in the garden, in cases where the gardener is a single man. The apartment, d, may be the gardener's library and ofl5ce ; and e, his bed-room. He also thinks that it might answer well for a small proprietor in North America ; the farm lands surrounding the garden ; or the garden placed near a public road. The house having windows on all sides, it ought evidently to be placed in an open, airy situation. 213. Expression. Something Gothic ; and, from the cross over the entrance front, bordering on the ecclesiastical style. This expression is coimteracted in a small degree by the modern windows ; but more is gained to the inhabitant in comfort by those windows, than is lost to the man of reasoning taste, by this deviation from the details of correct style. However 188 as the comfort of a single man, for example, a gardener in his garden, is of much less con- sequence than that of a family, we see no objection to completing the effect of such a building by intro- ducing mullions in the windows with lattice-work, and labels over them (a label, or hood moulding, is an outer moulding, crowning a door or window head, either plain or carved, and always returned at the ends, when straight, fig. 188) ; or, pointed topped win- dows may be employed ; and, instead of lattice- work, with those very small panes, called by glaziers quarries (perhaps from carre, French, square), large panes may be used. It would also be an im- 102 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUHE. provement to carry the chimney tops liigher, and to have a panelled entrance door, studded with cast-iron nails, substituted for the ledged one ; which, with a neat architectural parapet, fig. 189, would form a finish to the platform. The effect of the whole would thus be enriched, and rendered more characteristic of the style so obviously indicated ; and it may be tried by such of our readers as can use a pencil, for themselves. We may remark incidentally, that the mere circumstance of deviating from the straight line in a very small degree in the window opening, as in fig. 188, at ti, adds materially to the effect of that window, as a Gothic one. The more obvious forms of Gothic architecture are so universally known in this country, that the slightest line in a building which has an allusion to them, operates upon the imagination and at once gives the idea of style. Design XXV I IL — A Cottage in the Old English manner, containing a Kitchen, Living Room, and two Bed Rooms. 214. Accommodation. The ground floor contains an entrance-lobby, a ; back kitchen with oven, b; best kitchen or living-room, c ; closet under 190 the stair, d ; stair to the bed-rooms, e ; privy, /; and place for wood, pigs, or poultry, g. In the chamber floor, there are two bed-rooms ; the largest, /(, which is entered from the staircase, i, has a small closet, k ; the other bed-room, /, has a press near the fireplace ; and chests, and other articles, may stand in the passage, m. 215. Construction. The walls, as high as the bed- room floor, are of brick ; and from the bed-room floor to the roof, of stud-work, or brick nogging plastered. The chimneys, fig. 190, are of brick, covered with composition ; or they may be formed entirely of arti- ficial stone. The roof is supposed to be thatched ; the windows of lattice-work, and the doors ledged. The large projecting window in the centre of the gable end, is called an oriel, or bay, or compass window, and is constructed in the following manner, viz. heart of oak bearers, fig. 191, n, n, are projected from the walls at the given height in a horizontal position, and generally so as to form an angle with the wall of 45°. The ends of these beams are inserted in the walls, and the brick-work is carried up over them, so that they are retained in their places by the whole weight of the superincumbent structure. By these means the diagonal beams afford a sufficient support to a parallel beam, o, which is dovetailed into the 191 diagonal ones, as shown at /), p. The opening below the beams is covered in by the moulded boarding, 5, in fig. 192, to a scale of -three-eighths of an inch to a foot, and the section of the front, or parallel beam, 0, is covered by the weather-boarding, r. The beams, n, n, ought to be of strong sound timber, and not less than fourteen inches by twelve inches. Oriel windows are generally constructed of wood-work, as being lighter than any other material ; but beams of the above dimensions are sufficient to support a wall of brick or stone. The manner in which oriel windows of stone are carried up, is founded on the same principle, and will be described hereafter. Round the inside of these windows, are generally formed seats, which commonly open in front, at i ; or at the top, like a ship's locker ; so as to serve at the same time as a chest and a seat. Formerly these seats wer^ called binks, bins, or bunkers, possibly a corruption of the French word, banc. The barge COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XXVIII. KU 104. COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. X\IX. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 105 boards, and pendants, both for the gable ends and windows, may be varied at pleasure ; and they form very fit subjects of composition for exercising the ingenuity of our female readers. The enclosure to the pigsty is of oak pales. 216. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,544 feet, at 6rf. per foot, £203 : 12*. ; at 4d., £175 : 14* : M. ; and at Zd., £131 : Us. 217. Remarks. This cottage is dis- figured, rather than otherwise, by the two appendages, /, and g, at the end ; not but what these appendages are essentially re- quisite, but that they are given in a mean and common-place manner. The door of/, is also in too conspicuous a situation, and 193 is too nearly resembling the door of the main entrance. In other respects the building is pic- turesque ; expressive of what it pretends to be, an old English cot- tage ; and not uncomfortable with- in. The mean character of the lean-to at the end, and the naked- ness of the door of /, may very easily be remedied ; as a glance at the ground plan, in Design XXVIII., and another afterwards at the plan, fig. 193, and at the view of the end of the cottage, as so alter- ed, fig. 194, will sufficiently prove. Design XXIX. — A Cottage Dwelling qf Three Rooms, with various Conveniences 218. Accommodation. 195 196 "'V There is a good deal of convenience and com- fort about this cottage, and it must be allowed to be, externally, rather an elegant object. It contains an entrance under a handsome recess to a lobby, a, which opens, on the left hand, into a sitting-room, b, with a bed-closet, i, and, on the right, into the family bed-room, d. Directly in front is the kitchen, c ; the back kitchen, e ; dairy,/; place for fuel, g; privy, h; and place for poultry, or a cow, k. Where there is a small yard for a cow, poultry, fuel, &c., the apartment, k, may be enlarged, and turned into a green-house, heated by hot water from the back of the fireplace in the kitchen, c; and d, being changed into a sitting-room, may be connected, by double glass doors, with the green-house. 219. Construction. This building is well designed for having the walls executed in compressed earth, because these walls are thick, have few openings, and the dwelling is only one story high. The roof is of a low pitch, and should therefore be covered with some description of slate, tile, or metal, and not by any kind of thatch. Beneath the floors may be flues heated from a fire under the boiler in the back kitchen. The windows are shown in the French style, shutting by an air-tight joint, ipipl as exhibited in § 196, fig. 177. The panelled pilasters on each side of the door, and at the angles, a cross section of which is given in fig. 195, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, may bs finished in plaster or cement. Fig. 196 shows the plan and elevation of one end of the chimney stack, which may be executed in brick-work, and covered with cement. 220. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,212 feet, at 6d. per foot, £355 : 65. ; at 4rf, £236 : 17* : id. ; and at M., £177 : \Zs. 221. Remarks. The entrance front of this cottage is satisfactory, but the outline of the lOG COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, ground plan is by no means so. For what purpose are so many breaks and angles made, when a plain square, as in fig. 197, would have given the same accommodation, with increased dimensions, and at less expense ? The answer from the designer will probably be that the breaks are made to produce shade and variety in the elevation, as well as to mark the subordinate parts of the building, in order that an excuse may appear for their being executed in a cheaper manner than the rest. With respect to the first reason, we allow that some perpendicular shadows are by these means obtained ; but no shadows whatever will, in our eyes, justify so direct a deviation from the principle of utility. Here are no fewer than five apartments or appendages diminished in size for the sake of getting four breaks and four perpendicular shadows. Surely this will not bear the test of reason. But it may be said by the author of this Design, that the breaks are made to show that what is included in them are appendages or offices, and that they afford a reason why these appendages or offices are placed under lean-to roofs, and have smaller windows, and thinner and lower walls, than those of the main body of the house. Here we admit the architect has reason on his side ; for economy in building a cottage must ever be an important object, and indeed seems implied in the very name. The question, therefore, between the designer and us is, whether the superior simplicity and dignity of the exterior elevation that will be pro- duced by avoiding the breaks, and having the walls and roof of the offices of the same height and character as the main body of the building, will not compensate for the ad- ditional expense incurred ? We think it will ; for nothing, in our eyes, adds more to the dignity of a house, than a general simplicity of form, communicating grandeur to it as a whole, and giving an elevated character to its 197 appendages. By comparing the ground rn plan in Design XXIX. with fig. 197, the superior degree of simplicity of the latter figure, one would think alone sufficient to give it the preference over the other. 222. Improvement. A very suitable parapet for the terrace of this cottage might be formed by placing mignionette troughs of Austin's artificial stone, or of Peake's Staffordshire ware, such as fig. 198, on the top of a four-inch brick wall, formed of open or pigeon-hole brick-work, and car- ried to the height of eighteen or twenty inches. At the corner of this wall, solid square piers might be built, covered with plaster, and panelled like the pilasters at the end of the house, and these might be terminated by square mignionette boxes, fig. 199. This done, and corresponding terminations given to the chimneys, the design may then 198 be considered as tolerably complete. The mignionette boxes for mere admirers of flowers and lovers of sweet smells, may be filled with earth, and sown or planted with mignionette ; but for botanical amateurs, they may 199 be filled with alpines, or herbaceous plants in small pots. To a botanist, even if he had no other resource than the native plants of Britain, this would afford a perpetual source of enjoyment ; because the length of the four sides of the parapet being one hundred and sixty feet, the oblong and square troughs would contain six hundred and eighty pots of three inches in diameter, and of course as many species. These might be changed, arranged, and re-arranged, at pleasure. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 107 Design XXX. — A Cottage Dwelling with Five Roojns and various Conveniences. 223. Accommodation. This may be considered a commodious cottage ; and it might even be turned into two dwellings, by shutting up the door by which c communicates with e. The details of the ground floor are two open porches, a, a ; a shop, or business room, 6 ; a prin- cipal kitchen or living-room, c ; two bed-rooms on the ground floor, d and e ; dusthole, /; place for fuel, g ; privy, h ; back kitchen, i ; pantry, k ; and staircase, with closet under, /. The chamber floor contains two good bed-rooms, m and n, each with two small closets. We may observe here, that closets in the outer walls of bed-rooms are very apt to become damp ; and that, in general, it is much better to keep clean clothes in wooden presses, com- modes, or chests, and dirty clothes in bags. By these modes of keeping, also, less danger is incurred from the moth. 224. Construction. The walls may be of earth, of flints, or of bricks built hollow. All the floors may be heated by a flue from the back kitchen, u Two plain mouldings are in- troduced in the principal body of the front, which will be 200 easily understood from the rVc cross section, fig. 200, to a ^~ scale of three-eighths of an inch to a foot. The pro- jection over this ornament contains a sunk panel, the effect of which, as an architrave to the perpendicular mouldings, is satisfactory. The eaves of the roof ought to have gutters, as shown in the section, fig. 36, § 69 ; and the water may be conducted to a filtering tank under the pantry, from which it may be drawn up for use by one of Siebe's pumps. The roof may be of thatch- 201 225. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 20,762 feet, at &d. per foot, £511:15.; at 4rf., £340 : 15i. ; and at id., £255 : 10* : &d. 226. Remarks. The simplicity of this Design must, we should think, be generally pleasing. The ample sized windows, with their large panes, give the idea of abundance of light and of cheerfulness within ; and the circum- stance of their being brought down to the floor, shows that elegance has not been lost sight of. Such a building would answer well for a bachelor who had a man and his wife as servants. The former might live in h and e, removing the bed from the latter room, and sleeping in m or n. The servant and his wife could sleep in d. The apartment, e, being made the dining-room, it would be requisite to have double doors between it and the kitchen, in order ^F to exclude noise and smells ; and the proximity of these two apartments would be found highly favourable for economising labour, and for what constitutes the essence of all good eating, having things brought to table hot One little alteration in the plan would be requisite to answer the comfort of all parties, supposing the house turned to this use ; and that is, that the staircase, /, should enter from e, instead of from d. This would require no additional expense at the first erection of the house, but merely forethought. Supposing that the master were desirous of having a bed-room on the ground floor, it would only be requisite to join /, g, and h, to i, in a new form, and to open a door from e to o, as in fig. 201. The house would 202 108 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE be greatly improved by this arrangement, and it might be rendered still more commodious, by having two steps down to i, so as to get a floor over i, /, g, and h, in which to form a bed-room for the married servants, to be entered by a stair from i. This would allow of d being used as a drawing-room. In this way a very simple cottage might, at a very moderate expense, and what is of more consequence, without injury to its beauty or cha- racter, be changed into a cottage villa, fit for the residence of any gentleman whatever. It would then deserve some ornament; and what we should prefer would be to sur- round the whole by a glass veranda, placing a light iron fence on the outer margin of the stone parapet, and ornamental chimney pots, fig. 202, on the stacks of chimneys ; or a somewhat different style may be adopted, as in fig. 203. Design XXXI. — A Dwelling with Five Rooms, with Conveniences, in the Old English Style, where the building material is chiefly Stone. 227. Accommodation. There is more show than space in this building, from the cir- cumstance of there being only one room in width in the bed-room story. It is by no means recommended as a cheap Design, but as one ornamental and characteristic ; and suited for producing a great effect, at comparatively little cost, in a country where free-stone, soft and easily worked, is abundant, and the price of labour low. The ground floor consists of an entrance and staircase, a; a kitchen, 6; a wash-house, or back kitchen, c; a bed-closet, d ; a milk-room, e ; a closet under the stair, /; a bed-room, g ; parlour, h ; store cellar, i ; place for coals, k ; and privy, /. The chamber story contains two bed-rooms, m and o ; a dressing closet, p ; and a staircase and landing, n. 228. Construction. The walls should be of stone, in regular courses, or of brick ; and the jambs (sides) of the doors and windows, with their sills, and lintels (covering stones) of hewn stone. These may, or may not, be bevelled at the 204 angles. The mode of executing the summer stones and pinnacles, will be understood from figures already given, § 209, figs. 185 and 186. Great care should be taken in con- structing the guttering over the bay windows, so as com- pletely to carry oflF the water. These windows may have mul- lions, and iron casements made to open. The roof should be slated, and the chimneys may be of stone, and polygonal, or what are commonly called cannon chimneys. The chimney head cornice may be executed as in fig. 204. Some use may be made of the roof, to which light and air may be admitted by the small openings shown in the upper part of the gables. 229. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 23,024 feet, at 6d. per foot, £575 : 12*. ; at 4d., 16383 : 14s : 8d. ; and at 3d., £287 : 165. 230. Remarks. In England, this would be considered a ▼ery suitable house for a gardener or bailiff, where effect was an object ; and it might be adapted to a small family, in easy circumstances, by rendering g a sitting-room ; and by raising a floor over c, d, and e, for servant's sleeping-rooms ; and another over i, k, and /, for a family bed-room ; the dwelling would then be tolerably complete. A light stone parapet may be pkiced on the outer margin of the platform with ornaments at the corners somewhat analagous to those which terminate the gable ends. These, with the other variations and improvements of which this dwelling is susceptible, we leave to be designed by our readers. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XXX. lOf) 10 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXXI. A^/^y - /",;■::■■ ;:r-- l=im " , 77 i ■mmai COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. Ill Design XXXII.— .^ Cottage Dwelling with Two Sitting Rooms, in a mixed style, where Timber, Brick, and Slate are the materials used for the Walls and Roof. 231. Accommodation. This is a very commodious, convenient, and handsome dwelling exhibiting every thing requisite for a cottager, whether a gardener, a bailiff, or a small farmer. It contains three floors ;— for cellars, for living-rooms, and for bed-rooms. The cellar, or basement story, (see the plate forming page 117), contains a store-cellar, a; beer- cellar, b; coal-cellar, c; salting-room, d; and staircase, e. These are lighted by windows having sunk areas, /. The ground plan of the living-room floor (also in page 117) shews the principal entrance and staircase, g ; a sitting-room, h ; another sitting-room, i ; a stair- case, with a closet under it, * ; a kitchen, I ; a wash-house, in ; a pantry, n ; and a store room, o. This floor is surrounded by a terrace, part of which is covered by an extension ot the roof of the kitchen and wash-house, as may be seen by inspecting the plates in pages 113 and 114. The chamber floor contains a bed-room, p ; staircase and landing, q ; closet, r; bed-room, s ; closet, t ; closet from the passage, u; passage, v ; family bed-room, w; and nursery, or infant children's bed-room, x. 232. Construction. The walls are to be of brick ; the roof covered with slates ; the chimney shafts of cement, or artificial stone ; and the balconies, brackets, posts, and gallery railings, of oak timber. The details of construction are given in the plate, forming page 118, in which fig. 1 is the open truncated pediment in front of the house ; and shows the ends of the ceiling joists, a; the purlins, h ; the covering of the pediments, c, c ; the wall plate, d; and the bracket, e. Fig. 2 is a section at the eaves of the roof over the kitchen; in which is seen the rafter,/; the wall plate, g ; the brackets, h, h ; and the cross section of the post, i. Fig. 3 is the chimney top, in which is seen the chimney shaft, k. Fig. 4 is a cross section, or plan, of the chimney, in which one half, I, represents the plan of the base ; and the other half, m, the plan of the top. Fig. 5 represents the balcony, in which is shewn the corbel, n, which supports the bracket, e ; also the bracket, o, which supports the balcony ; and the wall of the house, p. Fig. 6 shows the gable brackets to support the roof, in which is seen the gable wall of the house, q ; and the section of the rafters, r, r. Fig. 7 shows the elevation of the lower part of the post ; in which is seen a balluster, s, with a section of the upper and under rails. Fig. 8 shows the end elevation of the flower balcony ; in which is seen the bracket, f, and the section of the wall, u. Fig. 9 shows the front elevation of the flower balcony. Fig. 10 is the section at the eaves of the front wall of the house ; in which is seen the rafter, v ; the section of the wall, w ; and the bracket, x. Fig. 11 is the section of the plaster cornice of the sitting rooms, &c. Fig. 12 shows the section of the grounds (ground work, or foundation plan) for forming the architraves round the doors, windows, &c. ; in which is seen the ground, y ; and the jamb lining, %. 233. Particulars, or Specification and Estimate. The contributor of this very elegant and judicious Design, has sent with it a no less copious and complete specification and estimate. We consider the former, together with its accompanying explanations of technical terms, of the greatest value to the young architect, and the amateur. To the general reader, they will show the manner in which business is done among architects and builders, and their employers in England. A Design being once agreed on, details similar to those in the following specification, are first made out by the architect ; and then the builder, who contracts for the work (either at the estimate made by the architect, or at one made by himself, after having had the plans and specification some days in his possession for that purpose), signs this particular, or specification ; and also an agreement made out, according to certain legal forms. This agreement binds him to execute the work, under a certain penalty, according to the specification, and to the satisfaction of the architect, or of a surveyor (for a surveyor, as clerk of the works, is often employed in addition to the architect). Security for the execution of the work is also sometimes required of the builder ; in which case, the guarantee also signs the agreement, or a bond for the amount of the penalty. The particular, or specification sent by our contributor, Mr. Richard Varden, as a fair specimen of the usual style, bears the following title : — " Particulars of the several works to be done in building a cottage residence, according to the annexed plans, elevations, sections, and details, and the conditions subjoined." The work is classed according to the trades employed to execute it ; and we shall give the specification, for each trade, in a separate paragraph. We may observe here, that the specifications and estimates of architects, surveyors, and builders, are frequently composed in a sort of professional, or abbreviated style, which, independently of its technical terms, is unintelligible to general readers from want of care in its grammatical construction The terms are unavoidable ; but the employers . of professional men should insist on at least readable language. Another point which we 112 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 207 should always require would be perspective views, undisguised by trees, or gaudy colouring, of the edifice to be erected, independently of the necessary geometrical plans, sections, and elevations ; and in works of importance, a model in unpainted wood should always be con- structed, and maturely considered before a Design is determined upon. 234. Specification of Excavator' s, Well-Digger' s, and Bricklayer' s Work. To dig out the earth for the basement story, together with the cesspools and drains, and the several trenches for the foundations of the whole of the building, of the respective depths and widths required ; and to fill in and well ram the earth round the work. The surplus earth arising from these excavations, and from the well, together with the rubbish made in the progress of the work, to be spread round the house so as to form the terrace, shewn in the Designs (if more earth is required for this purpose, it must be brought to the spot at the expense of the employer) ; and the whole to be well rammed and consolidated. — To dig a well four feet clear in diameter, and forty-five deep, and to steen the same in four-inch brick-work, with the top properly domed over in nine-inch brick-work ; leaving a manhole, twenty inches square, covered with a Yorkshire stone, having a strong iron ring on the top. If a greater depth than forty-five feet should be required, the additions must be paid for by the employer as an extra ; and, if a less depth is sufficient, a proportionate deduction must be made. To dig a cesspool four feet clear in diameter, and nine feet deep, and steen it with four-inch brick-work ; leaving a manhole, which is to be closed with a Yorkshire stone, the same as that used to close the well. All the bricks to be used in the building, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well burnt grey stocks (bricks made of marley clay ; that is, clay having a certain proportion of marl naturally, or chalk artificially, mixed with it) ; those to be used in the external parts of the building to be carefully picked of an uniform colour ; and the whole laid, and flushed solid (the joints filled up) in mor- tar, of the several heights and thicknesses, with the apertures specified in the draw- ings : none of the bricks to be brought upon the premises to be slack burnt (im- perfectly burned), or overburnt. The mortar to be composed of the best well burnt grey lime (grey lime-stone, not chalk lime-stone), and clean, sharp, pit, or river sand, well tempered together; and to be sifted through a screen, whose wires shall be at equal distances, and not less than thirty in every foot in breadth. — The walls of the foundations and cellars, up to the level of the platform, to be worked in brick-work, and grouted (fluid mortar poured into the middle joints) with hot lime and sand; the rest of the walls above ground to be of brick-work, and the external face to be worked with a neat flat ruled joint (a ruled joint is a joint struck flat with the trowel, with a line drawn in the centre by means of a small iron instru- ment, fig. 207, called a jointer, and an iron straight edge, or flat ruler). The terrace wall to be built battering (sloping inwards), from two feet three inches at bottom, to nine inches thick at top, with a nine-inch upright parapet, coped with bevelled bricks, and fourteen-inch brick piers, as shewn by the drawings ; fourteen common garden pots and pans, twenty inches high, to be provided and fixed thereon. Four- inch brick discharging arches (arches built over hntels to relieve them from part of the super- incumbent weight, fig. 208, in which is shown the discharging arch, a, and the lintel which it is intended to relieve, h), to be turned over all the openings in the interior of the walls ; twelve-inch guaged arches (bricks reduced by rubbing on free-stone laid on a table, called a banker, to the shape of truncated wedges, so as to form arch stones, fitting exactly with each other, according to the curve of the arch ; the faces of these bricks are also rubbed quite smooth), with eight-inch skewbacks (the space between c and d, in the guaged arch, fig. 209, is the skewback of that arch), and four-inch soflits (the under side of the arches) corresponding in width with the reveals (the outside jambs, or rabbets ; see q, in fig. 180), to be put over all the external openings, made of the best grey cutting bncks. 209 (OITAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. xxxn. 11. COrrAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTI RE. XXXU. Front Klevaiioii. wn Side Elevation. Back Elevation. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 115 210 /^ 21 i / 212 Nine-inch brick inverted arches, fig. 210 {fg being the level of tl>e ground, and h the window or opening over the arch), are to be turned, the whole thickness of the walls, under all the external openings and chimney jambs. Inverted arches are intended to equalise the pressure of the foundations on the earth, and thus to prevent the sinking of one part more than anotlier, or what are called settlements : it is evident that whatever carries down i i, fig. 210 must also carry down the point k. The chimney hearths, jambs (see § 79. fig. 47.), backs, breasts, and shafts, to be of brickwork. All tlie flues to be fourteen inches square in the clear, properly gathered (drawn in above the fireplace, till they are reduced to the proper size), and par- geted (plastered with mortar, mixed with cow- dung) ; and each flue to have a Roman cement chimney shaft (as shown by figs. 3 and 4, in the plate of details, page 118,) flanched up (sloped in "^^~-.__* --^^ a way to throw otf wet: in fig. 211, / is a section of the chimney shaft ; m, a section of the flue ; and n n, sections of the flanchings) with plam tiles set and rendered (plastered) in cement. A strong iron chimney bar (fig. 212, o o. in this figure, p is the breast; q q are the jambs ; r, the inverted arch under them ; and s, the footing, or firet course of the foundations), to be put to each of the fireplaces ; and four-inch brick trimmer arches to be turned where required. (Trimmer arches are made to support the hearth- stones, abutting at one extremity on the wall of the chimney, and at the other on trimming pieces. Trimmers are pieces of timber framed at right angles to the joists, against the ways (openings) for chimneys, and round the well-holes (openings left in floors for admitting the stair) of stairs, &c. Fig. 213 is a plan in which are seen the joists, t t; the trimming piece, u; and the fireplace, v. Fig. 214 is a section of the same plan, in I AL\ ^^^ 13 213 / 214 ,.^^^^^. 116 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITKCTURE. which the trimmer arcli, w, is shown abutting against the trimming piece, v, and tlie back of the chimney, v.) To build brick foundations for the sink, and for the stone steps ; and nine-inch brickwork to surround the areas in front of the basement windows, coped with brick on edge set in Roman cement, and paved with bricks, having sink holes and drains, to deliver the water into the main drain. To put 100 feet of hollow tile drain, twelve inches clear in the bore, where directed ; and to lay the whole of the drains with a proper ^all, and at a sufficient depth to deliver the water away from the lowest part of the builduig. To provide nine cast-iron stink-traps eight inches square, and fix one at each external aperture of the drain. (The construction and action of a stink-trap will be easily understood from the section, fig. 215. Water falling into this trap, through the cover, X, escapes by the funnel, y, the inverted se- 215 micircle over which prevents all air from ascend- ing. See figs. 222, 223, and 224. The terrace to be paved with pebbles laid insand,properly currented, and well rammed. To build foundations and enclo- sure walls, and an oven three feet six inches by three feet in the clear, properly domed, plastered, and paved ; and to find and fix the requisite iron work for the same, such as an iron door and frame, hinges, latches, &c., complete. To fill in the nogging partitions with brick nogging flat (brick on bed). To pave the wash-house, pantry, and store room, with dressed paving bricks (smoothed on one side by passing a cylindrical rule, wetted, over the soft brick when moulded) ; the kitchen to be paved with ten-inch tiles, bedded and jointed in mortar ; and the rest of the basement story, throughout, with common stock bricks laid flat in sand : the whole to be properly levelled and currented to the several drains. The openings of the fireplaces, in the sitting-rooms and in the chambers, to be three feet high by their respective widths ; and that of the kitchen to be four feet high. All the window and door frames to be properly bedded and pointed in good lime and hair mortar, and the sills underpinned. (When stone sills are built into any wall, they are generally made to bear on solid work only in those parts directly above which the wall is carried up. The reason is, that, in buildings of any height, the solid parts are apt to sink a slight degree more than those parts in which there are several openings one above another. Thus, in the sill, fig. 216, a and b represent those parts of the sili on which the jambs of the doors or windows are carried up. Now, if the sill were bedded on solid vi^alling throughout, from a to b, and especially towards c, it is evident that, if the walling sunk only half an inch at either a or [>, not having the same superincum- bent pressure, it would not sink to the same degree at c, and the consequence would be a rent in the stone at d- For this reason sills are left hollow between the two points of bearing, until the walling is completed ; and the filling up of the hollows after is called the underpinning. In brick buildings, the sills, whether of stone or oak, are not generally put in until the walls are carried up to their destined height, and they are then let in by cutting away part of the brickwork from the jambs. ) The bricklayer is to find scaffolding for the use of the carpenter, slater, plasterer, and other trades requiring the use thereof for the outside work ; and to allow the same to remain until the external part of the building shall be completed. The walls are to be earned up in an upright, substan- tial, workmanlike manner ; and, in the progress of the building, no part is to be raised more than four feet above the other (in order that the whole may settle, or sink equally, and at the same time), except in gables and chimney-shafts ; and the whole is to be built in a regular and equal manner. To fix the wooden bricks, and to bed all the plates, bond timbers, lintels, &c., in loam. To cut all the rakes and splays, and all the chasings required for the lead flashings (strips of lead to cover joints or joinings), and to make good and stop tlie same with Roman cement. To do all the wind-pinnings (filling in the angle between the wall-plate and the roof) and beam-filling (filling up with brick- work the interstices in the wall, between the ends of the beams) required. The brick- layer is to find all the materials, ropes, ladders, boards, tackle, tools, workmanship, and ironwork, for the completion of his work, and for the carriage thereof; and to do the 216 COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XXXH. ir ]I8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURF,. XXXII. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 119 217 wliole in the best and most workmanlike manner, subject to the general particulars at the end of this specification. •235. Specification of Plasterers U'ork. The cement chimney shafts to be coloured twice over, of a good warm stone tint. To lath, lay, float, set, and white the strings of the principal stairs, and the ceilings of the sitting-rooms, of the passage, and of the chamber floor throughout. The ceilings of the kitchen, wash-house, pantry, store- room, and the whole of the basement story, as well as the pediment in front of the house, to be lath-laid, set, and whited. (To lath, plaster, float, and set, is to give what is called three-coat work ; the first coat, given after nailing on the lath, is called pricking up ; the second, floating; and the third, setting or giving a coat of fine stuff'. The second coat is called floating, from the tool used in the operation, which is denominated a float. There are three sorts of these tools; viz., the hand float, the quirk float, and the Derby or two-handed float. The floated coat is brushed with a birch broom, to roughen the surface before the setting coat is applied. The first coat of two-coat work is called laying, when on lath, and rendering on brick. In three-coat work, the first coat on lath is called pricking up, and upon brick roughing in.) To lime white, twice over, the walls of wash-house, and the basement throughout. To lath, plaster, float, and set, for paper or colouring, the whole of the battening (pieces of wood fixed to the bond timber on the walls at regular distances, on which the lath is to be nailed) of the inside of the external walls, and partitions for lath of the principal and chamber floors (except the wash-house) ; and render-float (roughing in would be the more correct term here, but rendering is generally used, and is understood by the trade), and set, for paper or colouring, all the internal walls, and nogging partitions of both floors. All the external walls, with the exception of the wash-house, will be battened by the carpenter. All the timbers in the partitions, and the bond (the timber built into the walls), to be diagonally lathed. (Lathing diagonally lessens the risk of cracks in the plaster, in case the timber should shrink). The two sitting-rooms and passage to have plaster cornices, as shown in fig. 11, in the plate of details, page 118. The plasterer is to find all materials, tools, tressels (a sort of stool, sometimes five or six feet high, fig. 217, used for supporting scaffolding boards), boards, moulds, rules, car- riage, and workmanship required for the comple- tion of his work ; and to run (a term used by plasterers, meaning to form) such beads, quirks, arrises (projecting angles), &c., as may be neces- sary for the perfect execution of the same ; and to do the whole in the best and most workmanlike manner, subject to the general particular at the end of this specification. 236. Specification of S/aters Work. To cover the whole of the roofing with tlie best countess slates, nailed with stout wrought-copper nails; the eaves to be laid double, and the whole of the slates to have a sufficient overlap, and to be carefully sorted in courses consisting of slates of equal thickness, so as to exclude the weather effectually. The slater is to find all materials, tools, carriage, and workmanship required for the com- pletion of the above ; and to do the same in the best and most workmanlike manner, subject to the general particular at the end of this specification. 237. Specification of Stone-Mason's Work. All the windows to have York quarry stone sills, eight inches wide, beveled, throated (in the section of the stone sills, fig. 218, the throat is represented at e ; yis the bevel of the sill, and g the oak sill of the window frame, resting on the stone sill ; and also throated at/j), and tooled (see § 82). The entrance door to have a landing (a piece of pavement of larger dimensions than ordi- nary) over the area, of Yorkshire stone, four inches thick, rounded at the edges ; the terrace to have Yorkshire pavement laid the width of the stairs at the entrances ; the steps and the coping of the spandril (the space between an arch and the member . over it), together with the coping of the piers (the solid parts between any arches or openings) of the — ^ stairs, and those on the terrace wall, to be of York quarry stone. The coping of the spandrils to be twelve inches wide, and that of the piers seven- teen and a half inches square, properly cramped and nm with lead. Each parlour to have vein marble profile cliimney-pieces, not exceeding seven pounds in value, exclusive of hearths and slabs. (Profile chimney-pieces are such as have projecting jambs, with their sides covered by slips, 218 120 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 7i z I 1 1 fig. 219, a, of marble, stone, or whatever material the chimiiey-piece may consist of When there are two side slips, I i!l9 i i, and a slip in front, k, the chimney-piece is said to be in pro- file ; when there is only one piece in front, it is said to be not in pro- file, and the front slip, I, is called a jamb. Such chimneys have generally an inside slip, m; but this rests against the brick jamb of the fireplace, n, instead of the stone jamb, o, to which the slips of the chimney-piece are fixed. Fig. 220 is an elevation of a chamber fireplace chimney, in whicli p is the ^ shelf ; q, the mantel ; r r, the jambs ; and s s, the in- side slips.) All the fire- places to have Yorkshire stone hearths, and Portland stone slabs. The fireplaces of the front chambers to have plain Portland stone mantels, jambs, slips, and shelves with rounded corners. The kitchen to have one inch and three quarters thick Portland stone mantel and jambs. The kitchen, pantry, and store-room to have milled slate (milled slate is sawed out of blocks by machinery ; rooting slate is cleft into lamina; by wedges) skirting (a bordering to the wall) seven inches high, and one inch and a quarter thick, properly cramped (by an iron or copper hook, fig. 221, driven into the wall at one end, and le; 221 1 s 220 r s s T u into the slate at the other), backed up, and set in Roman cement. The wash-house to have a Yorkshire stone sink, five feet long and two feet three inches wide, with a proper hole for the bell-trap (a kind of stink-trap usually made of bell metal, about three inches across and round, figs. 222, 223, and 224). The mason is to find all cramps, lead, and 222 224 all the materials, as well as the carriage and workmanship required for the completion of the above ; and to do the same in the best, most substantial and workmanlike manner, subject to the conditions of the general particulars. 238. Specification of Car penlers Work, llie whole of the bearing timbers to be sound, well seasoned, yellow Dantzic or Memel fir timber, except where otherwise specified. The whole of the carpentry to be framed in a workmanlike manner ; and all the timber to be sawed square, and to be i'vi:^^ from sap (outside wood, not properly matured), wanes COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 121 •■2^:5 (deficiencies, as at t, in fig. 22.5, owing to marking the dimension too near tlie circum- ference, instead of making allowance for the sap wood, as at i/), shakes (fis- sures in the wood), large knots, or other defects, and of the several dimensions, scantlings, and descriptions, which follow ; and all the carpenter's as well as the joiner's work, to hold the several scantlings (the term scantling is gene- rally applied by carpenters to the depth and width of a piece of timber) and thicknesses when finished, such which are named in the particulars : this must be particularly attended to. The principal and chamber stories to have two tiers of oak bond, three inches by two inches and a half, to pass through the openings, and not to be cut out \ / until the work has become settled ; \^ /' and an oak wall-plate under eacli floor, \^^ ^,.-' four and a half inches by three inches, ' dovetailed at the angles, and halved and spiked at the laps. To put double oak lintels four inches thick, and of the width of the respective walls, except the reveals (properly revels, from revelo, to reveal or discover ; the two vertical sides of the aperture between the outside front of the wall and the window'', and to rest nine inches on the walls at each end. Wooden bricks of oak (see § 83), to be furnished to the bricklayer to be inserted in the jambs, not exceeding two feet apart, for fixing the linings to, where neces- sary. The entrance passage and the two sitting-rooms to have heart of oak joists six inches by four inches. The chamber floors to have fir joists nine inches by two inches and a half, not more than twelve inches apart ; and trimmed (see § 234, and fig. 213J, to the stairs and fireplaces, with trimmers and trimming joists nine inches by three inches and a half, with one inch and a quarter yellow deal keys (pieces of timber driven fast between each pair of joists, with their ends butting against the groin of the joists ; they are commonly called strutting pieces, and their use is to stiflTen the floor;, in each chamber. The back chambers and passage to have ceiling joists four inches by two inches, and thirteen inches apart, firmly spiked to the common rafters, as shown by the drawings. The front rooms to have ceiling joists four inches by two inches, not more than twelve inches apart, and framed into the tie beams. The penthouse (a roof projected from a wall, and not sup- ported by pillars) in front, to have ceiling joists three inches and a half by two inches, spiked to the rafters above the purlin. — Roof. Tie beams (see fig. 54 to be seven inches by four inches ; framed principal rafters six inches by two inches and a half at bottom, and four inches by two inches and a half at top ; purlins, five inches by three inches, to be framed to the principals; wall-plates, five inches by two inches and a half; pole-plates, four inches by two inches, supported by wTought curved brackets four inches and a half by four inches, as shown by the drawings ; common rafters to be four inches by two inches, not more than thirteen inches apart, and properly trimmed to the shafts. The feet of the rafters which project beyond the brickwork are to be five inches by three inches and a half, wrought, notched, and spiked to the wall-plate and pole-plates. The roofing of the back part will be vvithout principals or tie beams. The roof throughout to have one inch and a half yellow deal hips, nine inches wide ; and ridge pieces of the same width and thickness, rounded oflT for the lead ; the valleys to have one inch thick feather-edged flanch boards nine inches wide. (Hips and valleys are formed wherever 226 / a/ c C e roofing meets at a right or other angle ; the ex- ternal angles,fig. 226, a a a, form the hips ; the in- ternal angle, b, the valley ; c c, the ridge ; d, the gable ; ee e, the eaves ; f, the span ; and g, in fig. 227, which shows a double 227 122 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. roof, the gutter between the roofs.) The chimney shafts to have one inch gutter boards and bearers, with feather-edged flanch boards nine inches wide ; the eaves to have one inch and a quarter thick feather-edged eave boards, with wrought and roiuided edge, and a wrought fillet between the pole-plate and eave boards, nailed to tlie feet of the rafters : three-inch thick cut brackets to be put under the projection of the roof over the gables (as shown by fig. 6, in the plate of details, page 118). The rafters of the roof to be covered with three quarters of an inch thick deal slips two inches and a half wide, for countess slating, with such tilting fillets (see fig. 55), &c., as may be required. The penthouse in front to have wrought and curved chamfered (the angles planed off, as in tig. 228, in which h is the chamfer) brackets six inches by ten inches, to 228 support the plate, as shown by the drawings, firmly fixed at the lower end into the wall. Partitions for brick nogging flat (see fig. 58) to have heads and sills four inches by two inches ; puncheons (quarters) and braces, four inches by two inches and a quarter, and eighteen inches apart ; door-posts and principal quarters, four inches by three inches ; nogging pieces, four inches by two inches. Partitions for lath to have heads and sills, four inches and a quarter by three inches ; common quarters, three inches by two inches and a quarter, and twelve inches apart ; braces, three inches by two inches and a quarter ; door-posts and principal quarters, four inches by three inches. The whole of the external walls of the principal and chamber floors, except those of the wash-house, to be battened inside with one-inch thick yellow deal battens, two inches and a quarter wide, and twelve inches apart. The well to have a proper barrel curb, four feet high, boarded with one-inch thick boards, and oak stages to be placed in the well for fixing the suction pipe of the pump. (A barrel curb is formed of circular ribs, generally of elm, on the outside of which slips of deal, four feet long, are nailed so as to form a cylinder, fig. 229, on which the brick steening is placed ; the rest of the steening is built above it, as at i, in fig. 230 ; and, as the well is sunk, the curb 229 and superincumbent steening descend. When the well is in progress, the body of the earth, k, is dug out to the depth of two or three feet at a time, according as the soil may be more or less tenacious, and drawn to the surface in buckets ; a band or rim, I I, being left under the curb ; this band is afterwards dug out, when the curb descends, and several courses of steening are added above. The use of the curb is to keep the well perpendicular, and truly cylindrical during the work; it is left in the well, the interstices between the slips being filled in with brickwork. Oak stages are pieces of timber, with their ends fixed in the steening, which cross the centre of the well, at the distance of eight or ten feet from the bottom, and from each other ; to these the pipe of the pump is fixed, in order that they may support its weight, and keep it steady.) The carpenter to make, fix, and refix, when required, such centring (frames of timber by which the brick or stone work COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 123 2S1 of arched vaulting is supported during its erection) as may be necessary for tlie brick- layer's or well-digger's use, in forming arches, trimmers, &c. 239. Specification of Joiner s IFork. All the timber used by the joiner to be the best well-seasoned yellow deal listed (listing is cutting off a strip of such boards as are blue and sappy at the edges, so as to leave only the true wood), free from sap, shakes, and large or loose knots. The whole to be neatly wrought, framed, and finished off (rubbed after being planed) with firestone (a kind of soft stone, which serves to smooth the sur- face), in the most substantial and workmanlike manner. — Floors. To lay good one- inch thick yellow deal straight-jointed floors in the sitting-rooms and passage ; and one- inch thick yellow deal folding floors throughout the chamber story. (The term folding is applied to a peculiar manner of laying floors. The first and fourth boards are bradded down (tacked, or slightly nailed ; from brad, a small nail made without a head, so that the nail may be sunk into the wood', with an intervening space, w, fig. 231, something less than the breadth of the two boards, o o, that are to go between ; so that when these two last are placed with their edges coinciding with the edges of those fixed, as shown by the section, m o o m, they rest, as it were, folded toge- ther in the middle, forming a ridge ; on which ridge two or more workmen jump, till they force the boards down flat between the other two, they are then secured with brads. Theobjectof this process is toprocurevery close joints.) The whole of the rooms to have proper oorders (narrow slips forming a margin) to the hearth slabs, &c. — Doors of Chamber Floor. To put one inch and a quarter thick four- paneled doors throughout this story, framed square on both sides, and hung with two inch and a quarter butt hinges (see fig. 65) ; and to have good iron rim locks, with plain brass knob furniture, one inch and a quarter single-rebated jambs (in fig. 232, p is the jamb, q the door, and r the rebate), with one-inch framed wrought and sunk grounds, five inches wide, and with quirk ovolo and fillets laid on to form the architraves. — Doors of Ground Floor. The doors opening into the entrance passage to be one inch and a half thick, six-paneled, and hung with three inch and a half butt hinges ; having good mortised locks (locks which are inserted in a mortise, cut edgewise into the style of the door), with plain brass knob furniture ; one inch and a quarter deal single-rebated jamb linings, with grounds (see fig. 12, in page 118) and mouldings the same as those of the doors of the chamber floor. The doors that open into the sitting-rooms to be moulded inside. The door at the top of the cellar stair, together with all the other internal doors on the ground story, that have not been specified, to be finished in the same manner as those of the chamber floor The front entrance to have a two-inch deal sash door ; one inch and a quarter astragal and hollow sash bar, fig. 233 (fig. 234 is an ovolo sash bar), circular-headed, with double- margined and diminished styles, hung with three inch and a half butt hinges, and pro- 232 F- 233 vided with two six-inch bright rod-bolts (see fig. 68), and a ten-inch iron rim drawback lock (having a bolt which draws back from the inside by means of a knob), with brass knobs ; the bottom of the door to be framed with three reeds, flush on one side, and square on the back, one-inch thick clamped lifting shutters, with studs and plates and screw fastenings, and one inch and a half rebated jamb linings and grounds, with mouldings to match the others. (Double-margined and diminished styles will be understood from fig. 235; in which, s is the style of its full breadth ; t the style diminished ; u the inner margin, for the purpose of receiving the shutter ; v the sash ; and w the panel. The section of the diminished style is shown at x, and the shutter by the dotted lines, y. ) The back entrance door to be one inch and three quarters thick, six-pa- 234 124 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. neled, square on both sides ; and to be hung and fitted as the front entrance door, with jambs, lining, &c., to correspond : both of the entrance doors to have oak- framed door cases and sills, five inches by three inches and a half. — Basement. The basement story to have one-inch tiiick deal proper-ledged doors (a ledged door is called proper, when it is wrought, ploughed (grooved), tongued (slips which go into the grooves, so as to make perfect joints), and bedded), and good oak proper door-cases, five inches by three inches and a half, (a door-case is called proper, when it is wrought, framed, rebated, and beaded), hung with eighteen-inch cross garnet linings, with stock locks (see fig. 69;, and Norfolk latches (see fig. 67). The basement story to have solid oak proper two-light window frames, four inches by two inches and a half, with one-inch iron stanchion bars (properly, support- ing bars, but here placed for protection), four inches apart, wrought-iron casements, and strong hinges, latches, stay irons (fig. 236), saddle-bars (cross-bars to which the leadwork of the j 236 -1- 235 V 1 u a t ! 1 \ / / //' :lazins ^SSS^ is fixed), &c., complete. The other windows to have deal-cased frames, oak sunk sills, one inch and a half astragal and hollow sashes, double hung with iron weights, and best white lines, brass pulleys, and patent spring sash-fastenings. The sash windows, except the sitting-rooms, to have one-inch wrought hinges, and one inch and a quarter wrought and rounded window-boards. All the windows, except those of the basement, to have grounds and mouldings to match the doors. The kitchen, wash-house, store-room, and pantry to have one-inch thick square framed folding inside shutters, with rule joints, proper hinges, and iron bar fastenings. The sitting-rooms to have one inch and a quarter pro- per boxings (the frames which receive the architraves and the outer edges of the shutters are called proper boxings, when they are wrought, framed, rebated, splayed, and beaded), and architraves to matcli the doors ; one inch and a quarter ovolo flat baclcs and splayed elbows (in fig. 237, a a are the elbows ; 6 is the cap- ping, or, as it is called when of some width, the window-board), and soffits (the part of the architrave which projects over the columns, but the term is used generally for the under side of any horizontal pro- jection), with proper capping (the coping or covering to the elbows and backs of the windows ; viz., to a a, as shown at _^ b b b,in fig. 237) , one-inch bead and butt back linings ; one inch and a quarter ovolo flat shutters, with one inch bead and butt back flaps (framed in panels, witli a bead struck on the panel sides only), with proper hinges, strong wrought-iron spring shutter bars, and brass spring fastenings. (Fig. 238 is a section of part of a bead, butt, and square back door ; in which, c is the style, d the panel, e the bead on the front side of the panel, and / the square back of the panel. Fig. 239 is a section of part of COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 125 238 '[r\- 239 c J^ (In fig. 240, c is a torus ^ 240 a bead flush door, in wliidi the bead, g, is struck upon the styles, and returned on the rails, so as to surround the panel.) — Skirting. Chamber floor to have three quarters of an inch square skirting througliout, four inches and a half high. The sitting-rooms and entrance passage to have one-inch torus skirting, eight inches high ; all the skirting to have narrow beveled grounds. moulding on the skirting, (/, which is nailed to the beveled ground, e ,- f is the wall ; g, the plaster ; and /;, the floor of the room. The grounds are beveled, in order that they may retain the plastering better than by a horizontal joint.) Principal stair- case to have one-inch yellow deal steps, risers, and carriage (pieces which bear the brackets till the steps arefixedj, with moulded nosings to the steps to be housed (let in) into the close stringing, which is to be one and a quarter inch thick, sunk, and moulded with a moulded planceer (a moulded capping to the sti-inging into which the balusters are fixed) with one inch and a quarter raking (following a slope) torus wall string- housed to the steps and risers. To put deal turned newels (posts firmly framed to which the handrail is fixed) and moulded handrail, and ' three quarters of an inch square deal bar balusters, and one inch and a quarter square framed spandril to enclose the cellar stairs. (In fig. 241, i is the spandril of the stairs ; k; the string ; /, the planceer ; ?», the balusters ; n, the newel ; and o, the handrail. Fig. 242 represents the string board, in which the dotted lines show the housings.) The cellar stairs to have one-inch deal risers, one inch and a quarter oak treads with rounded nosings and proper carriage, a deal handrail, newel (turning) post, and one and a quarter inch string boards with steps housed in. The pump to have one inch and a half oak cheeks (sides) and silis, cased with one-inch deal, with proper cap, &c. ; which is to be fixed in the wash-house. The angles of the chimney breasts to have proper staff beads (upright corner beads put at the external angles of chimney jambs, and in similar situations. In fig. 243, p is the section of the staff bead ; q q, the plaster ; r r, what are called the quirks in the plastering; and s, the wall.) Two hundred feet (lineal) of one-inch thick wrought and rounded shelf board, twelve inches broad, to be prepared and fixed with brackets and iron hold-fasts in the pantrj-, store-room, and closets, or elsewhere, as may be directed by the employer. Yellow deal balconies to be put up to one of the front and two of the side windows, as shown by the drawings ; with moulded handrail, and turned balusters ; the floor wrought on both sides, moulded on the edge, and two inches and a quarter thick ; having four cut brackets three inches thick to support each : the whole to be firmly and securely fixed. Flower-stands of good yellow deal to be put up to the two front windows as shown by the drawings, and finished according to figs. 8 and 9, in plate of details, page 118. An oak moulded sill and a deal moulded handrail to be put round the back part of the building ; these are to be framed into the posts, and the 1'2G COTTAGE, FAU.M, AND VILLA ARCIIITLCTLTIE. '242 turned balusters housed into the same. The posts are to be vvrouglit, framed, and chamfered, seven inches square, with iron tenons (square 243 pieces of iron fitted into mortises, that is, into holes cut to receive them) at bottom ; and circular wrought framed braces at top, to support tlie eaves of the project- ing roof of the kitchen, wash-house, &c. The carpenter and joiner are to find all tools, labour, glue, nails, and every description of ironmongery, locks, bolts, bars, hinges, fastenings, and the fixing of the same, and every thing required for the completion of their works ; which must be done in the best and in the most substantial and workmanlike manner; and to prepare and fix all kind of beads, stops (a term variously applied, but chiefly to slips nailed on for doors or shutters to shut against, or for fixing work:, fillets, grounds, linings, and backings (back linings', required for the perfect execution of the above, whether the same may or may not be minutely specified in this particular ; the whole to be done, subject to the provisions in the general particular at the end hereof. 240. Specification of Plumbers Work. Flashings of milled lead ten inches wide, weighing five pounds a superficial foot, to be chased into the brickwork (see § 85), and fixed with wall-hooks (fig. 244.), where the roof abuts against the brick walls, as well as to each of the chimney shafts, which must have aprons (strips of ^^^^^~^~~^^==::--~_ '^ lead, to throw the wet from the jomt ^~~^~^^^^~^^^;r"~— -— _ it between the roof and the cliimney ~-^ ~~~~^ — '■ shaft) where they are required. The gutters against the chimney shafts to be covered with lead weighing seven pounds to the superficial foot. The hips, ridges, and valleys to be covered with milled lead, fifteen inches broad, weighing five pounds the superficial foot ; the whole to be properly lapped, dressed (smoothed), and nailed with lead-headed nails. The sink to have a six-inch brass grate and b'ell-trap (see figs. 222, 223, and 224), and a two and a half inch lead pipe. A good stout four-inch lead pump barrel, weighing 2 qrs. 14 lbs., witli bucket, sucker, and wrought-iron thandle, complete, and forty feet of two and a half inch lead suction pipe, to be put up in he wash-house. 241. Specification of Glaziers Work. The basement story windows to have lead lights, and Newcastle crown-glass (crown-glass is white or colourless, and is so called to distinguish it from green glass), in quarries. All the sashes, including that of the front door, to be glazed with good second Newcastle crown-glass ; the best squares to be selected for the sitting-rooms. 242. Specification of Painter's Work. To knot (cover the knots with paint, before the general painting), prime (give the first coat), and paint the whole of the external wood and iron work four times in oil, with good white lead, and to finish the same in a light stone colour ; with the" exception of the doors, which arc to be finished olive green. The whole of the joiner's work, internally, with the exception of the floors, shelves, and the risers and treads of the stairs, to be knotted, primed, and painted three times in good white lead and oil ; and the sitting-rooms to be flatted (the glossy appearance of the 244 COTTAGE DWELLINGS JN VARIOUS STYLES. 1^7 paint to be taken off by using turpentine in the last coat, instead of oil). The plumber, the painter, and the glazier to find all materials, workmansliip, and carriage, and every thing requisite for the performance of their works ; and to do the same in a perfect and workmanlike manner; subject to the conditions in the general particular at the end hereof. '243. General Particular. The whole of the foregoing works to be entirely finished and completed on or before the day of ; and the several portions to be performed in such order of succession as to insure the final completion of the whole by that time. Each contractor to be answerable for any damages that may be done to his respective work during its progress (fire excepted), whether by the inclemency of the weather, or otherwise ; and to make all good, and to leave the same perfect at the final completion of the work. The whole of the works are to be paid for within after the completion of the contract. If the contractor or contractors shall omit to complete the work by the time specified, a deduction of 1 per cent shall be made from the amount of his or their contracts, for every week the time shall be exceeded. The whole of the materials are to be of a sound and good description, and fit for their several purposes. The works are all to be done in a substantial and work- manlike manner ; and every thing is to be performed that is necessary for completing the whole of the work in the usual and customary manner, notwithstanding any omissions that may have occurred in the foregoing particulars : and if any alteration shall be made, by the direction of the employer, it shall not vitiate or annul the con- tract ; but the value of such alterations shall be ascertained at the customary prices of the neighbourhood, by of ; whose decision between the parties shall be final. And furtlier, if any or all of the works should be performed in any way inferior to the description and intention of the particulars and drawings, or shall be deteriorated below a fair standard of good quality or sound workmanship ; the same shall also be valued by as aforesaid, and the sum deducted from the amount of the contract by the employer : the decision in this case also shall be final. And further, if, in the course of two years from the completion of the said work, there should become manifest any latent defects, resulting from imperfect or careless workmanship, or from badly burnt bricks, unseasoned timber, or other materials, the contractor shall be held to make the same good, upon receiving notice from to do so ; and in case the said contractor shall neglect or refuse to make good such defects within one calendar month from the date of such notice, to the satis- faction of the proprietor, he shall be at liberty to employ such other persons to do the same as he may think proper ; the expense of which shall be borne by the said con- tractor or contractors. The contractor or contractors to sign an agreement to perform the work according to the foregoing particulars and conditions therein ; which agree- ment shall contain such additional clauses as the solicitor to the employer shall deem requisite to secure and enforce the fulfilment of the same. Satisfactory security for the performance of the work to be given by the contractor, if required. 244. Estimate in Detail of the expense of building a cottage residence according to the annexed plans and particulars of Design XXXII. 245. Estimate of Excavator's, JFell-Diggers, and Bricklayers Work. £ s. d. One hundred and sixty-eight cubic yards of digging, filling, and ramming, for the foundations, cellar story, and drains One cesspool, dug and steened in four-inch brickwork, nine feet deep, and four feet clear in diameter One well, dug and steened in four-inch brickwork, forty-five feet deep, and four feet clear in diameter Five rods two hundred and fourteen feet of reduced brickwork in foundations below the level of the plinth (grouted; Ten rods two hundred and eleven feet of brickwork above ground, flushed solid, with flat ruled joints Two thousand and twenty-seven feet six inches, supei-ficial measure, of extra-labour in picking stocks of equal colour for the facing.... One hundred and ninety feet seven inches of gauged arches Seventy-five yards and a half of nogging flat Fifty yards of stock brick paving, laid flat in sand Fourteen yards of paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar Twenty-four yards of ten-inch tile paving, bedded and jointed in mortar Seventy-six yards of pebble paving, laid in sand Thirty-four feet lineal of cuttings to rakes, &c Thirty-four feet lineal of chasings cut for lead flashings, and making them good with Roman cement • \'28 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Fifty feet extra, to the setting of brick on edge coping in cement (labour and cement) Ninety-six feet of beveled brick coping, and fixing the same One hundred feet of hollow tile drain, twelve inches clear in the bore (tube or tunnel), and setting the same Eight feet superficial of Yorksliire stone paving, to cover the well and the cess])ool Sundries- — Two iron rings to the cover stones of the well and the cesspool, and letting in and fixing the same Fourteen garden pots and pans for the piers of the parapet, twenty inches high Twenty-two window-frames bedded and pointed in lime and hair mortar Seven door-frames bedded and pointed in lime and hair mortar Eight Roman cement chimney shafts seven feet high (as shown by the details), and fixing and flanching up the same with cement and plain tiles Eight chimney bars A cast-iron door with wrought-iron hinges, latch, &c., to the oven, and fixing the same Five sink stones in the areas, with five holes cut in each Nine cast-iron eight-inch stink-traps, and setting them Bedding bond plates and lintels in loam (loam is used in bedding, because a bedding of lime is supposed to destroy the timber) £■•362 -.6:4 246. Estimate of Plasterer's Work. One hundred and fifty-eight yards of lime-whiting twice over Two hundred and nineteen yards of whiting to new work Forty-four yards of stone-colouring on cement One hundred and fifty-five yards of floated render set Eighty-seven yards of lath-layed and set Three hundred and eighty-five yards of lath plaster, floated and set One hundred and fifty feet lineal of plaster cornices, as per drawing Four extra mitres in the cornices £64 ; 9 : 10 247. Estimate of Slater-' s Work. Twenty-three squares and a quarter of countess slating, with wrought- copper nails £41 : 17 : O 248. Estimate of Stonemason's Work. Seven feet superficial of plain work to the Portland stone shelf, Twenty-eight feet of Portland stone chimney-pieces , Eight feet ten inches of Portland stone, one and three fourths of an inch thick Thirty-six feet seven inches of Portland stone slabs Twenty-five feet six inches of Yorkshire stone hearths Fifty-nine feet six inches of Yorkshire stone paving, and pier caps... Eight feet nine inches of four- inch Yorkshire stone landing, Eleven feet three inches of Yorkshire stone sink, six inches thick.... Forty-six feet five inches of one and a quarter inch milled slate skirting, fixed with cramps, and set in cement Ten feet two inches of lineal rounded edge to the Portland stone shelf Five feet lineal of rounded edge to the Yorkshire stone landing, four inches thick Seventy-three feet four inches of York quarry stone sills, eight inches wide, beveled, throated, and tooled (quarry stone is a term ap- plied to stones prepared at the quarry, for any particular purpose, such as sills, copings, steps, &c. ; without being very carefully tooled, or rubbed) Ten feet of York quarry stone coping, twelve inches wide Forty-five feet of Yorkshire stone steps Two veined maible chimney-pieces in the parlours, at £l each ... COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. Twelve chimney cramps One hole cut in the sink for a bell-trap 1'29 249. Estimate of Carpenter s and Joiner s Work. Four hundred and twelve feet eight inches cubic of Memel, or Dantzic fir, framed in the roof, the floors, and the partitions Twenty feet three inches of wrouglit and framed timber, in bracjcets, cut circular Six feet eight inches of wrought and framed timber, in brackets with chamfered edges One hundred and six feet ten inches of oak in the bond- plates and lintels Fifty-four feet eight inches of oak, framed in single flooring Sixty-six feet superficial of feather-edged valley-boards Sixty-seven feet eight inches of three-quarter inch wrought eaves fillet Nineteen squares sixty-eight feet of three-quarter inch slips, two and a half inches wide, for countess slating Twenty squares thirty-four feet of inch yellow deal battening, two and a quarter inches wide, and twelve inches apart Twenty-four feet superficial of inch gutters and bearers Ninety -four feet one inch superficial of one and a quarter inch keys Ninety feet nine inches of hips and ridges rounded One hundred and thirty-five feet four inches of feather-edged eave- boards, with wrought and rounded edges Fifty-three feet one inch of three-inch cut brackets, wrought and notched to the rafters Sixty feet of barrel curb to the well Sundries. — Oak wood bricks Twenty-three slip centres to the arches (a slip of deal cut to the intended line of the soffit of the arch, and supported by an upright piece against each jamb. In fig. 245, t is the slip centre ; u «, ^' 53 • 6 • 8 the upright pieces which support it ; v v, the jambs ; and iv, the arch i'810: 17:1 250. Estimate of Joiner s Work. Eighty-five feet cubic of fir, wrought, framed, and chamfered Two cubic inches of oak-fraraed pump sill. (This may seem a small quantity; but the fact is, that surveyors and builders divide the cubic foot, which contains 1728 cubic inches, into twelve parts, which they call inches ; so that the two cubic inches in this estimate are fjof 1728, or 288 cubic inches. This custom is adopted by sur- veyors, to save them the trouble in calculating the money value of fractional parts of cubic feet.) 130 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Thirteen feet eleven inches of oak proper door-cases Six feet six inches of oak proper tvvo-light window-frames Eighty-six feet superficial of three-quarter inch square skirting Ten feet four inches of latticing Two hundred feet of inch wrought shelves Thirty-five feet one inch of ditto l)ead and butt back linings Twenty-one feet eight inches of ditto pump casing Seventeen feet of ditto wrought lining tongued Five feet of ditto apron hning Fifty-eight feet six inches of ditto torus skirting Sixty-six feet of ditto proper ledged doors One hundred and twenty feet eight inches of ditto square framed folding shutters, with rule joints Eleven feet of ditto clamped lifting shutters, circular headed Two hundred and ninety-four feet six inches of ditto wrought, framed, and sunk grounds Fourteen feet seven inches of ditto deal risers and carriage Seventy feet one inch of ditto yellow deal steps, risers, and carriage (the piece which carries the steps), with moulded nosings (the edges of the steps which are exposed to view) Seven squai-es thirty-four feet of ditto yellow deal folding floors Three squares ninety-three feet of ditto yellow deal straight-jointed floor One foot of one and a quarter mch cap to the pump Fourteen feet eight inches of ditto square framed piers Nineteen feet six inches of ditto wrought and rounded window board One hundred and ninety-six feet four inches superficial of ditto four- paneled doors, both sides square One hundred and ten feet eiglit inches of ditto single-rebated jamb linings Twenty-four feet of ditto square framed spandril Thirty-four feet two inches of ditto proper boxings Twenty feet of ditto sunk and moulded close strings Fifty-two feet of ditto raking torus wall strings Twenty-five feet of ditto treads of oak, and rounded nosings Ninety-six feet six inches of ditto ovolo flat shutters, with inch bead and butt back flaps Forty-four feet nine inches of ditto ovolo flat backs, elbows, and soffits splayed Twenty-eight feet nine inches of one and a half inch single-rebated jambs, with circular heads Seventeen feet ten inches of ditto six-paneled doors, both sides square Thirty-five feet eight inches of ditto six-paneled doors, moulded on one side, and square on the backs Three hundred and eighty-six feet of ditto deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, one and a half inch astragal, and hollow sashes ; double- hung with iron weights, best white lines, and brass pulleys Nine feet four inches of ditto oak pump cheeks Twenty-two feet nine inches of one and three quarter inch six-pa- neled doors, square on both sides, and circular-headed Twenty feet of two-inch deal floor to the flower balconies Twenty-two feet nine inches of deal sash doors, one and a quarter inch astragals, and hollow sashes, circular headed, double-mar- gined and diminished styles, three reeds, flush fronts and square back at bottom Ninety feet of two and a quarter inch deal wrought floor to the baU conies One hundred and thirty-two feet nine inches of three-inch cut brackets, wrought Five hundred and nine feet superficial of mouldings Ninety-six feet superficial of oak mouldings Three hundred arid seventeen feet three inches lineal of inch narrow beveled skirting and grounds One hundred and five feet of staff beads Five hundred feet of quirked ovolo, and fillets Fifteen feet of moulded planceer Six feet of moulded nosings (on the staircase landing to form the edge) COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOL'S STYLES. 131 One hundred and eighty feet of three-quarter-inch square bar ba- lusters Twenty-one feet of deal moulded handrails Six feet of plain deal handrails £ ti5l. JEstimate of Ironmongery and Fixing with Screws and Nails. Four pair of eighteen-inch cross-garnet hinges Ten pair of rule-jointed hinges Twenty- four pair of shutter hinges Twenty-one pair of two and a half inch butt hinges Nine pair of three and a half inch butt hinges Four bright rod bolts six inches long Four stock locks eight inches long Two iron rim ten-inch drawback locks Seventeen patent spring sash fasteners Three mortise locks, with plain brass knob furniture Seven iron rim six-inch locks, with brass knobs Nine iron bar shutter fastenings Eight brass spring shutter fastenings Two studs and plates Two shutter lifts One plate and screw fastening Four Norfolk latches Five wrought-iron casements Five stay irons to the casements Twenty saddle bars of iron Twenty- iron tenons Thirty squai-e wrought-iron inch stanchion bars, three feet six inches long Forty holdfasts (fig. 246J to the shelves Twelve iron tie fastenings, to fix the brackets to the balconies Sundries. — Four elbow caps Thirty steps housed into the strings at both ends Four deal turned newels Four turned knobs and bases, one foot high, and four inciies in diameter Fifty-four turned balusters, three feet three inches high, and three inches in diameter One hundred and ninety-four housings to the balusters Forty ^vrought brackets to the shelves Forty-three turned balusters, three feet seven inches long irSeO ; 11 : 7 252. Estimate of Plumber' s, Painters, and Glazier's Works. Thirteen cwt. 8 lbs. of milled lead Forty-one superficial feet of lead lights and quarry glass Two hundred and forty feet seven inches of Newcastle second crown- glass in sashes Four feet lineal of two and a half inch lead pipe to sink Forty feet of two and a half inch lead suction pipe One six-inch brass grate and bell-trap One stout four-inch lead pump barrel, and fixing the same One iron handle, bucket, and sucker, for the pump One hundred and ninety-two yards, three times painted in oil Forty-eight yards, three times painted in oil and flatted Three hundred and twenty-three yards, four times painted in oil Five yards, four times painted in oil of an olive-green colour 132 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. One hundred and five feet lineal of staff" beads, three times painted in oil Twenty-seven feet of handrail, three times painted in oil Two hundred and twenty-nine feet six inches of skirting, four inches high, three times painted in oil Sixty-seven feet nine inches of torus skirting eight inches high, three times painted in oil and flatted Twenty feet of torus skirting, three times painted in oil Ten lights, five casements, three times painted in oil Twenty saddle-bars, three times painted in oil Nine shutter-bars, three times painted in oil Three newels, three times painted in oil Sixty balusters, three feet long, tliree times painted in oil Twelve dozen and a half of squares and frames three times, painted in oil Four dozen squares and frames, three times painted in oil, and flatted Sixteen dozen and a half of squares and frames four times, painted in oil Ten lights, five casements, and five stay irons, four times painted in oil £98: 8 : I '255. Summari/ of Estimates. Excavator, Well-digger, and Bricklayer 362 : 6 : 4 Plasterer 64: 9:10 Slater 41:17 : O Stone Mason 53 : 6 : 8 Carpenter, Joiner, and Ironmonger > 441 : 8 : 8 Plumber, Painter, and Glazier 98 : 8 : 1 i^'IOGl: 16 : 7 254. Architect's Fee. The above sum is exclusive of the Architect's fee, which, for small buildings, is generally 5 per cent on the amount, independently of a sum charged for the drawings ; say, in the case of a cottage, ^'10, or upwards. In the case of larger buildings, say such as amount to jflOOO, or upwards, the Architect is content with his commission and travelling expenses ; for whicli he supplies all the working drawings as the work is going on, and visits it from time to time. When plans are made for any building, and the work is not executed, a charge is made according to the value of the drawings. In many, perhaps in most, cases of very large buildings, a clerk of the ■works, resident on the spot, furnishes most or all of the working drawings, under the occasional direction of the architect, who in this case receives a smaller commission, or a certain sum per annum while the work is going forward. 255. An Estimate for this design, formed on the cubic contents, will serve in some measure as a guide for the price per cubic foot, at which dwellings so carefully finished and ornamented as the present, should be calculated. The number of cubic feet in De- sign XXXII. is about 32,000 ; which, at 7|rf. per foot, amounts to ^1060. If we add a fartiiing per foot for the Architect, we shall have about ^' II 30 as the cost of this cottage, and Sd. as the rate per cubic foot, at which such cottages should be calculated, in a general or guess estimate. 256. Remarks. This Design conveys the expression of a comfortable, and even ele- gant dwelling. There is much of style in its external details, and yet we cannot point to any particular manner as its type. Its contributor, says, " I do not know what style it can be said to be in ; it is of so complicated a nature in its details, that I know of no term which expresses their general result. Were I requested to analyse its component parts I should give it as my opinion that the gables resembled those of the Italian style ; the balustrading and galleries, the Flemish or German manner ; and that the large pro- jecting eaves partake of the Swiss character. I say this with due deference to Architects who have visited foreign countries, for my ideas are derived from books alone. The hood over the entrance door is somewhat similar to those made use of in the Berkshire farm buildings. Whatever may be said of the kind of style exhibited in Mr. Varden's Design, all our readers, we think, will agree in the praise which we have already (§231 and 233) bestowed on it. The effect of the whole is highly picturesque, and nothing seems wanting to render the dwelling complete. Considering the numl)er of rooms, the decorations, &c., it certainly cannot be considered an expensive structure, for the neighbourhood of London. A very good situation for it would be the north side of a public road, with a lawn in front, fig. 247 (on a scale of about forty feet to an COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XXXIII. 133 134 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHTTECTURE. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. COITAGE DWELLIN'GS IN VARIOUS STYLE 13.5 r; o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o c o r^ u f Q o r^ sy o o o o f u o o o o e o o inch), varied by groups of flowers, a a, and by scattered shrubs, and ornamental trees, b h ; with two small flower compartments, c c ; a narrow border at the base of the ter- race, d d; an orchard of gooseberries, currants, and raspberries, e ; a compartment for asparagus, sea-kale, tart rhubarb, strawberries, and other perennial crops, f; and another compartment for common culinar}- crops, surrounded on three sides by dwarf fruit trees, g. The boundary borders may be occupied with small and very early crops ; and the walls should be planted with fruit trees. The walks may have box edgings, and be gravelled j or, should the dwelling be in a neighbourhood where flag-stones are abundant, they may be paved, the pavement resting on stone piers, by which a great annual expense in keeping the walks and their edgings clean and in repair will be saved, and the ground underneath them rendered available for the roots of the fruit trees in the borders. Design XXXIII Two Cottage Dwellings, under the same Roof; each having Two Rooms and other Conveniences. 257. Accommodation. Each of these dwellings contains a porch, a ; kitchen, 6 ; and bed-room, c, which may be made a sitting-room, by placing the bed in the closet, e. There is also to each a back kitchen, y"; a pantrj', g ; and a privy, h. One of these dwellings has an extra bed-room, d ; and a verj- little change in the arrangement, as will be shown afterwards, would give a light bed-room to the other also. Some use may be made of the roof, by ha\-ing trap-doors and ladders, as recommended in § 179. fig. 15S. 258. Construction. This building having only one story, the walls may be made of earth, smoothed, and lime-whited externally ; and lathed and plastered inside. The columns of the porch may be portions of the trunks of fir or pine trees, with the bark re- moved, and the knots and other irregularities reduced. The roof may be of slate; and, as it is of considerable span, it may be constructed as in fig. 248, with principal and secondarv rafters. 136 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 259. General Estimate- Cubic contents of the two houses, 1 5,868 at 6d. per foot, £'396 : 14s. ; at 4rf., £264 : 95. : M. ; and at 3d., £198; 7s. 260. Remarks. Looking at the elevation, we should say that this is a simple and somewhat elegant Design ; and at the plan, that it appears convenient. When we examine it critically, however, we perceive that the windows are not sufficiently high for the pur- poses of ventilation ; and that their proportions are not such as are commonly received as elegant. On examining the section, it will be found, that the heads of these windows are not near so high as the ceiling, and that the window sill is more than the usual height from the floor. We must, therefore conclude that the designer of this cot- tage intended it for a warm climate, where it would be desirable to exclude the light; but even if that were the object, it might have been effected better, by having windows of the same form close under the eaves. The interior of such a cottage, in Britain, would be gloomy, and the ventilation bad ; but its appearance, as well as comfort, would be improved by changing the proportions of the windows. There is one great fault in delineating the elevation of this Design, which must not be passed over. It consists in representing the two false windows in the principal front exactly in the same manner as the real ones. Let the reader make a sketch without these false windows, or cut out a bit of white paper, and place it over them in our elevation, and he will see how different an effect will be produced. Wlienever the effect of any design depends mainly on any thing not essential to its use, the critic may always be certain that there is something wrong. In general, also, when imitations of the effect of time on buildings are introduced in architectural designs, they are to be looked on \\ith suspicion ; as well as all accompaniments of trees, clouds, and figures. A design for a building should always have a distinct and independent beauty in itself; a beauty which can be conveyed by lines in correct perspective, without any reference to either shading, colouring, or accompaniments. Examined by these tests, some of the most showy works on Cottage Architecture, of the present day, will be found to be little better than pictures for tlie eye ; or, as some would express it, to gratify the sense of the picturesque. The Design before us is capable of very great improvement; and, by altering the ground plan, as in fig. 249, two most comfortable 249 dwellings, of two rooms and two bed closets, with a back kitchen, pantry, and privy, to each, might be obtained under a very handsome exterior. Fig. 250 shows the perspective elevation of the principal front, in which a close porch, with square columns, is shown instead of an open one, with round columns. It is intended that the door shall be placed on whichever side of this portico may best suit the prevailing winds of the given situ- ation. If the building wtre to stand east and west, the door of the porch ought to be on COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 250 one side, and tliat, of course, the south ; if it stood north and south, then the door of the south porch ought to be on the south side ; and that of the north, on either the east or west, which ever may be considered the mildest aspect. Fig. 251 shows the back eleva- tion of these cottages, which will be found as handsome as that of the principal front, though differently composed. This also is a test of excellence in architecture. When- ever any one side of a building is not as good in architectural design as another side, it may infa.libly be considered as a proof of either poverty of invention or neglio-ence in the Architect ; or of want of means or of spirit in the employer. On the whole, for cheap and yet elegant cottages of the lowest degree of accommodation, we can recommend this improved version of Design XXXIII. as equal to any thing which has been yet given in this work. In a recent number of the Gardeiiers Magazine (vol. viii. p. 263), we have animadverted on the miserable hovels of one room, recently built on the Duke of Buccleugh's estate in Dumfriesshire ; and on some still more wretched habitations, built along the coast in Wigtonshire. We would recommend to the amiable Duchess of Buccleugh to advocate the substitution of dwellings like those before us, for the cottages to which we have referred, on her husband's estate. Design XXXIV A Cottage Dwelling of Tiro Rooms, intended as a Gale Lodge 261. Accommodation. In the ground plan of this Design, fig. 252, there is akitchen, a ; with a bed-room, b; a light 252 closet to the bed-room, c ; a bed closet from the kitchen, d ; and a pantrj', e, 262. Construction. The exterior walls may be of earth or stone ; and the interior of brick nogging flat, with the exception of the chimney stacks. The pitch of the roof being low, it must be covered with slates, or with Grecian or Tuscan tiles. 263. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 7770 feet, at 6d, per foot, j£ 194/. : 5s. ; at 4f/., j£'I29 : \0s. ; and at Sd., i.97 : 2s. : 6d. 264. Remar];s. The ex- pression is simple and api)ro- :nj 138 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. priate ; and it is heightened by the bench under the recess, which may be supposed to be placed opposite the gate which the occupant is expected to open, and gives an air of ease and attendance on his part, as a porter's chair does in the hall of a mansion. Design XXXV. — A Cottage Divelling of Three Rooms, ivith Back Kitchen, Coiu-houset and other Conveniences. 265. Accommodation. This is a commodious cottage, and all the accommodations being got within one roof, with the exception of two small lean-tos, it must be considered as promising to be economical in its erection. By the ground plan, fig. 253) it appears to contain an entrance, a, from under a projecting porch; a kitchen, b, with a bed- closet from it, c, for a child ; principal bed-room, d ; parlour, e ; back kitchen,/; shed for fuel, ^; cow-house, h; dairy, i; water-closet,^, with a cistern of water over it, supplied from the roof; and pantry, I. If the cow-house and dairy can be dispensed with, or removed to the yard, then g and k may be got out of /;, and the whole building included under one roof; always a most desirable object. This alteration effected, the back elevation may be rendered symmetrical, and altogether as handsome as the front or the ends, as exemplified in the improved plan, fig. 254. 254 COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XXXVII. XXXVI II. XXXIX. 140 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XL. • „„t,llJ,Ulljm„m,i,„„„t,Jll,JlllJJ>l>r,„n COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 14i 266. Construction. The walls are for the most part shown thick, as if built of earth or stone ; and the rocf is covered with Peake's Grecian terro-metallic tiles. These being heavy, require considerable strength of timber in the rafters ; but their durability we believe to be greater than even that of cast-iron. 267. General Estimate. Cubic contents 13,904 feet, at 6d. per foot, £'347 : 12s. ; at Ad., i;231 : 14s. : 8d. ; and at 3rf., £'1751 : 16s. 268. The expression is somewhat analogous to that of the Scotch stone cottage. Design VII. ; but the low pitch of the roof, the Grecian tiles, and the porch in front, are great improvements. Design XXXVI. — ^Dwelling, icitk Four Booms, a Back Kitchen, and other Con- veniences. 269. Accommodation. This is calculated to form a very comfortable habitation, and all the rooms being on the ground floor, the walls may be built of earth, and the apart- ments heated by flues in the floor from the back kitchen. The ground plan, fig. 255, 255 shows a porch, a , a kitchen, b ; parlour, c ; two bed-rooms, d and e ; a lobby, y (lighted from the dairy; ; a root-house, g ; wood or coal house, h; pantry, i; pri\-y, k; dairy, Z; and back kitchen, m. 270. Construction. The walls may be of stone, finished with blocking courses, after the manner of Design VII. ; the roof of slate, and the windows of sashes hung with weights and pulleys. The floors may either be of boards, or paved, and heated by flues from the back kitchen. 271. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 19,468 feet, at 6d. per foot, £486 : 14s. ; at 4d., £324 : 9s. ; 4d. ; and at 3d., £243 : 7s. 272. Bemarks. The expression is that of an humble but very comfortable dwelling ; though little care has been taken to create allusions to any particular style. The door in the porch, and also the entrance to the back kitchen, ought to be varied relatively to the position of the sun, and the prevailing winds. Design XXXVII. — A Dicelling of Four Booms, with other Coiiveniences, intended as a Lodge, or a House for a Bailiff, or Head- Gardener. 273. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 256, contains a kitchen, a, entered from under a veranda ; a parlour, b ; a small bed-room, c ; back kitchen, d, from which the whole may be heated; pantry, e ; dusthole, y; place for potatoes and other roots, and for fuel, g ; and privy, h. There is a closet under the staircase; and in the cham- ber floor two small bed-rooms, and a garret over the kitchen. 274. Construction. The walls of the main building are shown of extra-thickness, with a view to situations where the cheapest building material is compressed earth, or rubble 142 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. stone. In brick countries, 256 hollow brick walls will be found both the clieapest and the best, both for the main building and the lean-to, containing d, e,f, g, and h- The roof may be of slate ; the windows latticed ; and the pillars of the porch of squared wood ; or, in some countries, they would be cheaper and better of slate, or slate stone. It is not the custom to form such co- lumns of earthenware tubes, such as are made for flues in hot-houses, both in Bri- tain and on the continent of Europe ; but we have no doubt that such a mode would answer well, the weight being carried by a prop of wood, iron, or brick, in the centre of the tubes. The terro-metallic earth of Staffordshire would form admirable columns, lintels, summer stones, copings, ornamental chimney tops, and other component parts of buildings. Indeed, much might be done with common brick earth ; but, unfortunately for Britain, all articles formed of this material are heavily taxed, and, to save trouble to the exciseman, the brickmaker is only allowed to make his bricks of certain forms and dimensions; viz., for building bricks, nine inches by four inches and a half, and two inches and a half. If he deviates from these, and makes a brick either longer or broader than usual, or impresses a moulding on one end, or on one side, he renders himself liable to such an increase of duty as amounts to a prohibition of the article. Two or three centuries ago, bricks were made in every form, ornamental and useful, which the Architect could desire ; for a proof of which, we have only to look to the Elizabethan mansions which still exist in different parts of the country. Even so early as the time of Henry VIII., the art of making bricks to serve all the purposes of stone in the jambs and lintels of doors and windows, appears to have been carried to a great degree of perfection. At Sutton Place, near Ripley, in Surrey, built by this monarch's brewer, the piers, lintels, muUions, chimney tops, tracery in the wdndows of the chapel, and other parts, some highly ornamented, are formed of artificial stone or brick ; and are still in excellent repair. Fig. 257, in isome- trical perspective, on a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot, shows the manner in which the shelf is supported over the window in the gable end. 275. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,818 feet, at 6d. per foot, .£"270 : 9s., at 4rf,, £180 : 6s. ; and at 3rf., £135 : 4s. : 6d. 276. Remarks. What has the mental architect to say to this building ? What is the kind of mind discoverable in the elevation? Certainly it docs not exhibit a single feature of vulgarity. The pillars and cornice, and the brackets to one of the windows, have, on COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 143 the contrary, a simple and rather elegant appearance. The shapes of the three windows are different, and yet not opposed , and they are in three different positions relatively to the walls and the roof, forming an agreeable variety, or perhaps rather harmony. On the whole, we are satisfied with this elevation, and the plan is convenient. Design XXXVIII.— ^ Dwelling of Three Rooms, with a Back ITitclien, and other Con- veniences, intended as a Porter's Lodge, or Gardener's House. 277. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 258, shows an entrance lobby, a; kitchen, b) back kitchen, c; parlour, rf ; bed-room, e; closet,/; cellar, gj pantry, A; dusthole, i; privy, k; a place for fuel, roots, &c.,/; and another for bees, exterior to c, 2o8 278. Construction. The walls are shown of a thickness proper for earth or rubble stone. The roof is in two parts, fig. 259 ; one part, m n, covering tlie main body of the house ; and the other part, o p q, being a lean-to at the back. From this construction of the roof, the whole of the water might be easily, and with little expense, collected, and conveyed to a cistern over k, or to a tank under h or I. 279. General Estimate. 13,334 cubic feet, at 6d. per foot, ;f 333 : 7s.; at 4d., £-222 : 4s. : SiL ; and at 3d., £161:135. : 6d. 280. Bemarks. The effect of the front elevation is dignified, and the expression, with reference to use, is that of substantial comfort. There does not appear to be much attempt at style. A side or back view would not give so favourable an expression, because a great breadth of lean-to roof has always a mean effect. To counteract this, care must be taken in planting the garden, fig. 260, (drawn to a scale of a quarter of an inch to ten feet,) that trees be so placed as to break the horizontal lines from every point of view whence the lean-to part of the roof can be seen. The simplest mode of effecting this would be by planting a row of trees in the border below the terrace, commencing at r, and continued round s to t: but this would shade the windows, and stagnate the air about the house ; and, therefore, a better mode is, to place only a few trees in that situation, and scatter others throughout the garden (but always so as not to impede its 144 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. SCO 5. ; at 4d., £216 : 8s. : Sd. ; and at 3d., £162 : 6s. : 6d. 284. Eemarh- There is an appearance of comfort about these cottages, and yet there is something mean in the roof slouching down over the two bed-room windows. The manner of roofing the lean-tos is altogether bad ; a gutter against a gable-end wall Q 146 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. is almost certain to leak, or to become choked up, more especially when the roof is thatched. The building, however, is so far expressive of its purposes, that it can never oe mistaken for any thing else than a cottage ; and, on the whole, is ratlier picturesqu j than otherwise. Design XL. Two Cottages of Three Rooms each, under the same Roof, u'ith Cow-hou.<;, Pii'stu, ^ that shuts the door, in which h is a roller moving on the iron plate i, nailed to the door. It is almost superfluous to add that the whole of the water of the roof may be conveyed to the supply cistern, by connecting the outer eaves' gutters with the inner ones, by means of pipes carried along the party walls, immediately under the roof; that one of Siebe's pumps may be used for supplying this cistern in times of great drought ; or that the water, when filtered, mav be preserved cool in an underground tank. § 151, fig. 119. 304. Manure Tank. The importance of manure to a cottager's garden ought never to be lost sight of; every means ought to be made use of to collect it ; and for this purpose not a drop of soap-suds or of foul water ought to be lost ; but the cess-pool, provided in tliis design, is much too small, and very incon- veniently situated for being emptied ; not to speak of its proximity to the well of pure water. We would recommend a larger cess-pool in one of the gardens, connected with the one in the j'ard by a barrel drain, and conveniently situated for dis- tributing its contents among the difltrent gardens. We recommend attention to what we have before observed on this subject, when de- scribing Design I. 305. The Cistern in the wash- house should be raised at least eight feet from the floor; and, besides supplying the water-closets, it may communicate with a filter of a simple construction, from which water may be drawn at pleasure for the pur- poses of cookery or washing. This filtermay be thus constructed: — Fig. 275, k, represents the cistern ; /, a cask ; containing the filtering ma- terial at m, a space for the deposi- tion of impurities from the water to be filtered, at n, and for the filtered w-ater at o. This cask is connected with the supply cistern by the pipe 152 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. a. which, having a stopcock at /), water may be admitted to n at pleasure ; and this water, by the pressure from tliat in the cistern, will speedily rise through the filter, m, to the space, o ; from which it may be drawn off by the cock, r. There is also a cock, s, for drawing off the water from n, when it is desired to clean the filter, which may be done by allowing the water from o to descend. It may be observed, that if at any time, there should be a deficiency of water in the cistern, k, water from any other source maybe filtered from the barrel, /, by the following means: — First, the filter, m, may be cleaned by pouring in water at the top of the cask through the funnel, t ; and afterwards water from tlie well, or any other source, may be poured^ into o, and drawn off by s for use, till the cistern, k, is again supplied from the roof. A wooden or copper bath may be placed in the wash-house; which maybe supplied with cold water from the filtering cask, or with hot water from the cistern over the oven, or from the washing and brewing boiler. The brewing utensils may also be deposited in this part of the building, and may be used in common. 306. A Drying- Closet, by another slight arrangement, might be formed over the oven ; all that is necessary for this purpose, being to have the cast-iron box containing the water, fig. 276, made rather larger than the bottom of the closet ; that part of the cover of _/z.^rx- h '■^--■I-5--¥x- 9---ii- 4- — the boiler which forms the bottom of the closet being made perfectly watertight, and the boiler having an exterior opening at a, for the purpose of supplying it with water, and to admit of the escape of steam when the water boils. The portion of the cover of the boiler which forms the bottom of the closet may have grooves, b hbb, cast in it, or riveted to it, or to a false bottom, at sis inches' distance from each other ; in which grooves may slide clothes-horses, to hold the clothes to be dried. There should be a large cock for draw- ing off the water at c ; and, from the side which will be placed next the wall, a conducting or outgoing tube, d, and a returning one, e, for the circulation of tlie hot water round the building. The upper surface of the outgoing pipe will be on a level with the floors of the rooms, and form part of them ; and the projections of three inches on each side of this pipe are pierced with holes, to permit the heat from the sides of the tubes to rise into the rooms. Over the grooved surface of the boiler a closet may be formed, five or six feet or more in height, three feet wide, and four or five feet long. This would admit of four clothes-horses standing side by side, at six inches apart ; and by a small opening in the bottom of the door (say half an inch in depth, and the whole of its width), with a corresponding opening in the ceiling of the closet at the opposite end, a current of air will be produced, which will rapidly convey away the moisture from the clothes. This arrangement would not in the least interfere either with baking in the oven, heating all the dwellings with hot water, or supplying hot water for ordinary uses, as the following figures will show : — Fig. 277 is the foundation plan of the wash-house, in which the oven, f, is i-etained in the same position as in fig. 267, but varied in size, and sunk lower ; p, shows the steps down to it ; and h is the area for fuel. Fig. 278 is a surface plan, showing the drying-chamber, i, over the oven, and the boiler for wash- ing and brewing, k. Fig. 279 is a section on the line A B, of the plans figs. 277 and 278, in which are shown the steps down to the oven, /; the hot-water box, in, .ind hot- air closet over it, n. Fig. 280 is a section of fig. 278 on the line C D, in which are shown the oven, o ; the hot-water box over it, ^>; the hot-air closet, ^ ; the opening under the door, r ; and the other opening near the ceiling, s. Fig. 28 1 is a section on the line E F of fig. 278, showing the front of the hot-wattr plate, t, the cock for drawing COTTAGE DWELLINGS L\ VARIOUS STYLES. 153 A '>77 A 278 c .o IT] ^ c B B off' the water, u, and the two pipes for circulating it, v and w. The hot-water box may be either of cast-iron in one piece, or of riveted plates of iron or copper. It may be 279 280 mentioned, that it would be an improvement to have what may be called a false bottom to the closet, made of iron, or even of wood, to which the grooves might be attached, 281 282 W C-X cLjb and placed about an inch above the top of the boiler, with an opening (of about half an inch in depth, and the whole width of the closet), at the door, for the admission of the air to be heated, and another at the opposite end, about twice the size, for the escape of the hot air into the closet. The effect of this arrangement would be, to carry off more heat from the cover of the boiler, and consequently to make the closet hotter. The principle has been illustrated in Perkins's steam-generater, as described in the Mechanics' Magazine, vol. xvii. This pipe for circulating the water should be of iron ; and it would be an improvement to have the upper one square, or at least flat at top, about nine inches wide, with projecting flanches of grating, as in fig. 282, so that when the ■whole was laid down, painted of the colour of deal board, and completed, it might ap- pear ornamental rather than otherwise. The grating on each side of the pipe, x x, in fig. 282, it is almost needless to observe, is to admit heat from the under pipe. By having the upper surface of the outgoing pipe no higher than the level of the floor of the apartments, no interruption is offered to the opening of the different doors which pass from the dwelling-rooms into the yard or to the wash-house. The low position of the pipes will also heat the air of the rooms more efltctually than if they were higher ; and, 154 COTTAGE., FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. so placed, they will be found convenient for wanning the feet, and for keeping vessels of water or of food hot. Those who are acquainted with the mode of heating hot-houses by hot water will allow that there is not the slightest degree of difficulty either in erect- inu- such an apparatus, in the first instance ; or, when erected, in managing it, and keeping it in repair ; and further, that, by it, it would be easy, in the most severe weather of even a Russian winter, to maintain a temperature of 60" and upwards in all the rooms on both floors of this group of cottages. 307. Windows. We do not like latticed windows, because they are generally cold and gloomy ; but as they are much cheaper than sashes hung with cords and pulleys, where economy is a main object, recourse must either be had to them, or to iron vnndows. Windows of cast iron, very fit for cottages, are now made, of different forms, and very cheap. Fig. 283, which is one foot two inches and a lialf wide, and two feet four inches high, and weighs 8 lbs., costs in London, in 1832, by retail, only 35. 6d. Fig. 284, in the Gothic form, which is one foot four inches wide, and three feet 7 inches high, weighs 23 lbs., and costs 6s. Fig. 28.'), two feet six inches square, weighs 19 lbs., 284 283 ^ ll — J "■i-Jtir.— 285 .2' .6-:.. ._ J and costs 6s. 6d. Fig. 286 is one foot seven inches wide, and three feet high, \yeighs 1 li lbs., and costs 55. 6d. Fig. 287 is one foot seven inches wide, three feet four inches high, weighs 20 lbs., and costs 6s. 6d. These windows have each, either ears m the centre, as at a a, figs. 285, 286. 287, by which they may be suspended, so as to open out- wards at bottom, and inwards at top, or tlie contrary ; or they have side-ears, to which hinges may be riveted, as at b b, in figs. 283 and 284. Fig. 288 is a superior description of 287 286 h I II IP & / ^?t« 288 i^ t .f *• COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 155 cottage window : it is two feet six inches broad, three feet high, weighs 34 lbs., and costs 1 5s. This sash is calculated for being fixed in the masonry, having in the centre a square of six panes, which opens for the admission of air. As it requires no window frame or hinges, it must be a very cheap substitute for the sash window. Mr. Laxton appears to have chosen the cheapest of these casements ; but, where ornament or style is thought worthy of attention, the Gothic or Grecian headed iron sashes, figs. 284 and 288, would still be found economical. 308. Gardens. We do not think it desirable that there should be a walk round this building close under the windows, because it would have a tendency to destroy privacy. We would rather give a small flower-garden or grass-plot, to each house, separated by low walls, and forming separate entrances through each plot, as shown in fig. 289. We 289 CX/3Sm?,:SSK.5n::2rzCK»"Jr3."SE«KSeSf^£KCSKSE2;ffiri^ would by all means raise a terrace, two steps high, and four feet broad, round the whole, so as that the building might seem to stand elevated a little above the general surface; and this would give tlie grass-plots or flower-gardens a slope outwards towards the walks 156 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. c c, &c. As the floors in the original plan, figs. 267 and 268, are already two steps above the surrounding surface, this terrace will occasion no other expense than the proper disposal of the earth which comes out of the foundations, the well, and the cess- pools. The kitchen-gardens, d d, would remain in the same positions as in fig. 267. We have shown a walk, four feet broad, round each garden, under the hedge, which may be of fruit trees, and we have placed the liquid manure tanks, e, in a situation which will be central to all the gardens. The emptying of these tanks should belong to each occupier in rotation. Nothing but useful plants and fruits will require to be grown in the large gardens, d d, &c., because the borders round the grass plots will be sufficient for flowers and ornamental plants. In order that this building may have a proper aspect, the diagonal of the parallelogram should form a - T -„^ north and south line, fig. 289, s n, (see § 24) ; however much the line of the front of the building may diverge from the line of the j-oad. All that is necessary in tliis case is to include the building and its gardens in a parallelogram, one side of which coin- cides with the line of the road, as in fig. 290, in whichyis the public road, and g is the building, in a parallelo- gram of exactly the same size as in fig. 289. Here it will be observed that the north and south line is at right angles with the public road. 309. Ornament- This building might be decorated, by surrounding it with a veranda, or a penthouse roof, which would give to each dwelling a covered walk during rain, or a hot mid-day sun, or under which clothes, herbs, or Indian corn, might be dried. The roof of this veranda or penthouse might be slated like that of the dwell- ing ; and this would supersede the necessity of covering the entrance lobbies with slabs, as in fig. 267. Suppose the whole building sur- rounded by a penthouse roof; brackets placed vmder the eaves of the principal roof; Tuscan tiles used, and the common chimney pots supplanted by ornamental ones ; the effect of the 291 COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES, 157 whole would not be unpleasing, fig. 291. Or if, instead of a veranda, Gothic porches were added to eadi entrance, as in the plan, fig. -292, and Gothic labels were placed over the lower windows, a Gothic character given to the doors, and to the cast-iron grating, and Gothic chimney pots added to the chimney tops, something ornamental in a different stvle woidd be produced, fig. 293. '29-2 5294 Design XLII — ^ Cottage of Three Boojns, in the Elizabethan Style. 310. Accommodation. From a porch, a, there are two entrances; one to a kitchen, b, with two light closets, c, d; and the other to a parlour, e, and a bed-room, y, with a closet, "-. No out of door conveniences are shown ; and they must therefore be sup- posed to be placed in a yard, at a short distance from the dwelling. 311. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of stone, and the roof covered with grey slates. The openings of the windows are shown with plain architraves or facings ; the sashes are modern, and hung with weights and pulleys. The porch is supported by a wooden column, which rests upon a square stone plinth, and has a plain capital. The chimney pots may be formed of cement, agree- ably to fig. 294. The platform or terrace may either be finished with turf and gravel, or paved, as in Design XXXIL, as may be most convenient in the given situation. 312. General Estimate. Cubic con- tents, 13,615 feet, at 6d. per foot, £340:7s.:6d. ; at4d., ^226 :185.:4rf.; at 5d., £"170 : 3s. : 9rf. 313. Remarlcs. This is evidently an ornamental cottage, and certainly possesses some characteristics of the Elizabethan style. Were a cellar floor added, and the stair to it made in the closets c and g, the accom- modation and convenience would be greatly increased ; a small stair might be continued from the same situation to the roof, the space in which, as exhibited by the section, might be applied to various useful purposes. A garret, where there is a suflHcient number of openings for ventilation c; ...l; -A 158 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTLRE. may always be made use of in the winter season for drying clothes, and in summer for drying green herbs, or seeds in the pod. In the larger houses in many parts of France, and in both large houses and cottages in most parts of Germany, clothes are always dried in the garrets. A decided improvement to this cottage would be an alteration in the position of the kitchen fireplace ; by which means, by having a cast-iron back to it, it might be made to heat both the bed-room,^ and the parlour, e ; either, or both, at pleasure. We do not think this mode so effectual as that by a flue under the floor, which, if a cellar story were added to this cottage, might be most conveniently adopted ; but as it may be useful in the case of cottages with boarded floors, or with earthen or paved floors, so low, or otherwise so circumstanced, as that flues cannot be made in them, we shall show how the alteration may be made. 314. Heating from the Back of the Kitchen Fire. Suppose the fireplace of 6, in Design XLII., to have a cast-iron back, three feet square, and that six inches of each end are built into the brickwork, as at h h, in fig. 295, then it is evident that whenever there was a good fire at i, a great portion of heat would ^ _ . be communicated to the space behind o ; and that this heat might either be allowed to escape freely into both rooms, k and I, or confined by two doors, ?« and n (which may be wood), so as to admit the whole of the heat to either room at pleasure. By having a central door or movable partition in the situation of the dotted line marked o, the heat may either be equally divided between the two rooms, or half the heat may be admitted to one room, and none to the other, &c. By enlarging the size of the enclosure behind the cast-iron back, and by having an opening at the bottom of the doors, and another at the top, connected with an air flue in the wall, clothes may be dried in this closet with the greatest rapidity, and with very little labour. To increase the quantity of heat produced from these plates, when clothes are to be dried, or on other occasions when an extra-quantity of heat may be desirable, it is only necessary to place a plate of sheet iron, or a large slate, or even a well-seasoned board, at the back of the cast-iron plate, and separated from it about one inch ; the plate being raised from the floor at the bottom, so as to leave 3 vacuity of half an inch, and another vacuity of the same dimensions should be left at tlie top, as represented in the section through both plates, fig. 296. The use of this additional plate is to confine the heating power or radiation of the cast-iron plate js, in fig. 296, and thus create a current in the vacuity q, on the same principle that water is boiled with greater rapidity in one of Perkins's double-bottomed boilers than in a common kettle. It must not be forgotten, however, that the additional quantity of heat procmed by this means for the hot-air closet will increase the consumption of fuel in the kitchen fire; and also tend, by abstracting heat, to render the consumption of the fuel used there imperfect ; but these are minor evils, compared with the saving of labour and the comfort which the judicious use of these cast-iron plates is calculated to afford. These plates, which are common in the north of France, have been introduced in the cottages on the estate of Closeburn, in Dumfriesshire, by its enlightened and benevolent proprietor, J. C. Stuart Menteath, Esq., who, having observed them in use on the Continent some years ago, immediately adopted them on his return home, with a degree of success altogether equal to his expectations and wishes. Lw^- 296 Design XLIII. — A Cottage of Three Roojns, tvith Back Altc/ien, Coii'-Houie, and other Conveniences. 315. Accommodation. The plan exhibits an entrance porch, which serves also as a lobby, « ; with one door opening to a kitchen, b ; a back kitchen, c ; and kitchen closet, f; another door opening to a bed-room, e, and bed-closet, g; and a third to a parlour, d. In a lean-to behind is an open shed, from which is an entrance to the dairy, k ; and in the same lean-to there are a privy, h ; pigsty or dust-hole, i ; and cow-house, or root- cellar, I. There is a terrace shown round the building ; but if the cow-house and pig- sty are used as such, then the terrace may be limited to three sides, and the fourth enclosed as a yard. This is a very commodious and convenient dwelling, and would not COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XLII. 159 160 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XLIII. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. iGl be expensive or difiBcult to execute, either in earth or of rubble-stone. The parloiu-, d, might be verj- readily heated from the fireplace of the kitchen, b, by means of a cast- iron plate, as described § 314. The open shed behind ■will be found useful for various purposes, as well as being a passage of communication to the dairy, and having a place for fuel and lumber at the opposite end. 316. ^n elegant improvement would be, to remove the pigsty and the cow-house farther from the dwelling, and connect them by a covered way open at both sides, as in fig. 297, in which m is tlie dairy ; n, the cow-house ; o, the pantry ; p, the water-closet 297 u r HI 3 a a 1 ■u 298 for females ; q, that for males ; and r, the passage which connects this wing with the house ; s, a wcket gate, separating the yard from the passage, and from the platform on which the house stands ; t, the yard ; u u, tank for liquid manure and dung-pit ; v v, pigsties ; w w, inclined planes to the platform ; and x x, grass-plots, which in some situations may be varied with flower-beds. It will be observed, at ?/, that we have altered the position of the steps to the terrace, and placed an open porch over the entrance. One advantage of this arrangement would be, that the terrace might be con- tinued completely round the house ; and, if it were thought desirable, as we undoubtedly think it would, the eaves might be made to project three feet, which would give a dry walk for infirm persons, or children, during rain. 317. Construction. The walls may be of earth; and, if it is found desirable, the whole of the floors may be heated from a flue from under the boiler, in the back kitchen, c ; which, in this case, must have the space where the boiler is placed sunk three feet below the general level. The windows are shown with Gothic labels, and the door is ledged with ornamental hinges (fig. 298), on a scale of three fourths of an inch to a foot. The gable end is finished with a barge-board (fig. 299), to a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, but without a pendant or a pin- nacle. 318. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 15,232 feet, at 6d. per foot, irSSO : 16s. ; at 4d., £253 : 17s. : 4d. ; and at 3f/., ;£'190 : IRs. 162 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTLIIE. 319. Expression. Though we like the arrangement of this building in the interior, yet we by no means approve of the external expression. The projection of the roof at the eaves, which is here two feet, does not belong to the Gothic style ; and to place 299 labels over windows immediately under a far-projecting roof, is, in point of use, superfluous ; since the original intention of labels was to throw off the rain from the windows, which is here already done by the eaves. The pitch of the roof is much too low for the Gothic or old English cottage, and is by no means suited for the ornamental barge-boards at the gable ends, which are never seen but against the ends of steep roofs. The windows ought to be of more lofty proportions, more especially as it appears by the section that they might be carried at least one foot higher ; and, if they were lowered one foot, the window shelf would not be too low for use. The chimney tops rise out of the roof without any preparation, which is aways objectionable ; and we do not think the position of the steps to the terrace particularly fortunate. If we were to alter the ground plan, as in fig. 297, a very commodious and convenient cottage would be produced, and the elevation might then either be in the Italian, or modern style, as in fig. 300, or in the Gothic or old English manner, as in fig. 301. .301 COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. U)S Design XLIV. — ^ Cottage of Three Rooms ami a Back Kiichan on l/te Ground Flom, ivitk various Conveniences. 320. Accommodation. In the ground plan may be seen an entrance lobby, a; kitchen, b ; bed-room, c ; parlour, d ; closets, e andy ; back kitchen, g ; dairy or pantry, h ; pigstv or dusthole, i ; privy, k ; and cow-house or root-cellar, /. 321. 'Conslritcticn. The walls may be of brick or stone; the copings and finishings to the walls, windows, and chimney tops, to be of the latter material, or of Roman cement. The chimney head cornice may be finished, as n fig. 30:^, to a stale of one inch and a half to a foot The designer of this cottage recommends the roof to be covered with painted pantiles ; tlie windows to be divided into three parts by two mullions, and each compartment to have one iron frame filled in with latticework. The surrounding terrace appears by the section to be formed of earth, and the floors seem to be paved. 322. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 12,330 feet, at 6d. per foot, £'308 : 5s. ; at 4d., £205 : \0s. ; and at 3f/., £154: 2s. : 6d. 323. Remarks. The accommodations of this cottage are obtained at more than ordinary expense, on account of the numerous projections in the ground plan, and the consequent angles, hips, and valleys, in the roof. The style is somewhat Elizabethan ; but it is hardly justifi- able to raise the two pediments over the entrance door and riglit-hand window ; when, according to the section, there can be no use whatever made of the roof. It will also be observed by the section, that the doors, even of the dairy and back kite! en, are six-paneled, which is not very consistent with the entrance door, that being only ledged. While there is this attention paid to the style of the doors in the interior, no cornices to the rooms are shown, nor any shelf to the kitchen chimney. In short, not to waste criticism on a design scarcely worthy of it, though there is something of style in the elevation, and of accom- modation in the plan, yet the composition, taken as a whole, is not such as to be held up as an example for imitation, but rather as a beacon to be avoided. Design XLV. — A Divelling of Four Rooms, with Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences. 324. Accommodation. From the entrance passage, a, a door opens to the kitchen, b, which is connected witli the back kitchen, c, on the one hand, and with tlie bed-room, d, on the other. There is a parlour, e, and another bed-room,/! with a closet, g: and, in a lean-to, we have a cow-house or root-cellar, h ; pigsty, i ; and privy, k. Should the cow- house and pigsty be occupied as such, then it would be necessary to have a yard joined to that side of the house, and to alter the slope of the platform within it, as in similar cases. Some use may be made of the roof by a trapdoor in the ceiling of the kitchen, and the whole may be heated from a fireplace in the back kitchen. 325. Construction. The walls may be of brick or stone ; and the panels, shoivn in the elevation, either executed in the brickwork or formed in cement. The roof is low in pitch, and it is proposed to cover it with slates. The chimney stack is large, containing four vents or flues ; it has a sunk panel in the lower part, which, with the cornice at its termination, will be understood by the vertical section fig. 303, on a scale of half an inch to a foot. The section fig. 304, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, shows the projecting frieze, under the eaves of the roof, which is supported by the paneled pilasters. The door is paneled, and the windows are in the modern style, witti sashes hung by lines, weights, and pulleys, &c. 326. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 13,700 feet, at 6d. per foot, £342 : iOs. ; at 4rf. £228 : 6s. : Sd. ; and at 3d., £171 : 5s. 327. Remarks. There is a simplicity and grandeur in the elevation of this cottage, which raises it above the cha- racter of a dwelling of the humblest class. The massive chimney stack corresponds well with the simplicity of the roof; the effect of which is supported by the smaller, but similarly formed, roofs of the projections at the ends. The paneled pillars or pilasters, with the cornice over them, have 303 j \6i< COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. a massive and architectural effect, forming ? very complete system of vertical and hori- zontal bond or chain work, as tlie French term it ; and they are supported and har- monised by the horizontal panels in the cliimney stack. Where the perfection of architectural expression is aimed at, all walls should be built cither on the prin- ciple of vertical and horizontal bond, by projecting piers and horizontal bands; or, on that of squared stones or bricks, witli or without piers and bands. The preten- sions of a wall to strength would thus, at all times, be obvious at a single glance. By altering the destination of some of the parts of the ground-plan, tliis building might be rendered fit for the habitation of what is called a genteel family. Thus, h and i might be joined in one, and form a small bed-room or book-room, to the parlour, e ; and /i, in like manner, might be made a bed-room, or a dressing-room, connected with d. Tlie appendages, h, i, k, might be got in a separate building, con- nected by a lattice-roofed arcade, covered with ivy, from the door of c. Design XLVr, ^ A Cottage Dwelling, unth Fonr Rooms, with a Back Kitchen, Cellar, and other Conveniences. 328. The accommodations of this dwelling are, as usual, a kitchen, a, with closet under tlie stair, h ; back kitchen, b ; parlour, c ; bed-room d ; cellar, e ; dusthole, or place for fuel,y; and privy, g : there is a bed-room over the kitchen ; and two useful garrets, one over c, e,f, and the other over b, d, g, which may be lighted from the ends. The apartment e may, in this, as in most of the other Designs, be used either as a cellar or a cow-house, or a place for keeping fuel and lumber ; or as a receptacle for potatoes and other roots, or whatever may be most desirable in the given locality. We are of opinion that in most parts of Britain it will not be found profitable for the labourer to keep a single cow ; but we are aware that in most parts of Scotland and Ireland, as well as in the north of France, the cottager never thinks himself comfortable without one. We are aware, also, that there are objections to having a cow-house and pigsty too close to a dwelling ; but it will be recollected that much depends on tlie manner in which these animals are kept ; and that, by disposing of the liquid part of the manure in the manner we liave directed, and having the door of the cow-house so far apart from the door of the house as we have always shown it, the practical inconvenience would not be felt. We think the apartment for a cow ought to be added to all cottages not having a cellar, be- cause, if not used for the former purpose, it may be applied to the latter ; and a cellar is almost every where a great source of comfort to the cottager. .S29. Construction. The paneled piers may be built of stone in courses, or of brick ; or they may be framed of wood, and filled in with brick, and covered with cement. The same may be observed as to the architrave which rests on these piers or pilasters, and supports the roof. The interspaces between the pilasters may be formed of pis^, of brick or clay nogging, of rubble stone, of pebbles, of flint, or, in short, of any material which will support its own weight, and be of sufficient thickness to keep out the weather, and maintain a steady temperature ; for the weight of the roof in this Design, and in Design XLV., is supposed to be carried by tiie piers. As a good deal of the beauty of this, and indeed of most designs for cottages showing pilasters, depends on the materials with wliich the panels or cementitious part of the wall is filled up, we shall here introduce a few remarks on the materials for walls, with a view of directing the reader's attention to the subject. 330. Materials for ''«//.?. Tlie design, the style, the accompaniments, and all other circumstances, bein:f the same, the effect of the walls of a cottage being of squared stone, of rubble stone, of red, yellow, or white bricks, of flints, of pebbles, of mud, or of boards, will be very diflerent; and more so to the ordinary spectator than to the artist, or to the eye accustomed to study the effect of forms, shades, lines, and colours, in some measure, independently of materials. The nature of the material, therefore, of which the walls of a cottage are built, is a fertile source of variety, where several cottages are to be built on the same estate ; or where a village is to be formed, in which variety of character in the COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XLIV. 165 '^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ■=^^^MMMu^ 166 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XLV. COTTAGE DWEI.LINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 1 67 buildings is an object. As a general principle, it may be affirmed that the ma- terials of the walls of a cottage ought always to be such as are, or may be, furnished by the soil or vicinity where it is placed. In this point of view, mud, pis6, brick, and timber are the most universal materials for cottage walls ; and, next to these, small land stones, so far broken or squared as to incorporate in a wall built either on the bond or on the cemen- titious principle of construction. Among the land stones of a country are included the shale, scales, or shivery stone, of some districts, and the pebbles and flints of otliers. We shall here confine ourselves to giving short directions for forming a flint wall ; and we shall take them from the Landscape Architecture of Italy, by Gilbert Laing Meason. Be- fore we give this quotation, however, we wish particularly to impress on the minds of our readers the necessity of having coignes and other supports of the roof, which shall act on the principle of independent strength, in all cases where the walls are to be formed of pise, mud, pebbles, flint, or, in short, of any material, the strength of which depends upon the cementitious principle ; that is, on tlie plasticity, when used, of a part of the materials. This Design and the preceding one are examples of this mode of construction, and these remarks are introduced here incidentally; but in the systematic part of our work the sub- ject will be treated in detail, and it will then appear to be one of very great importance, though very little understood. 331. Flint Walls. " In the chalk countries of England, why may wc not renew the flint-built walls of our ancestors, seeing that the Roman circus at Toulouse has endured so long? Build up the flints in frames, and pour cement into the interstices; the found- ation should be on brick arches ; and the cement employed may be composed of tho- roughly burnt chalk, slacked with water, to reduce it to the finest dry powder ; and then sifted, and added to two parts of rough sharp sand, with small sharp gravel stones. The whole should be mixed together dry, and then a sufficient quantity of water should be poured upon it to make it into a liquid paste, which should be used immediately. The slacking of the lime, the mixture, and the application to the walling, should follow one another without delay. A quantity of the sand and powdered lime ought to be at hand to throw into the moulds, in case the mortar should appear too thin. By such manage- ment this cement requires not age to harden it. On examination of the oldest parts of the ancient castle at Hastings, we are satisfied that the mortar employed was so formed, and tlirown, in a vevy liquid state, into the centre of the thickest parts of the wall. Flint-built walls would produce an excellent effect in irregular buildings ; for the rough- ness of the surface, in towers, gives the impression of strength and stability." 305 168 COTTAGK, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 332. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 12,563 feet, at C to form one large panel, the size of the opening ; the foot of this gate rests in a as shown in the section, fig. 360, b, made of timber or stone, and embedded in the earth, so as to be level with the roadway. On the upper edge are two grooved wheels, which work on an iron ledge groove, a- Shutters to shops may be made of this description of sheet iron, as well as chests, and a variety of other objects which will easily occur to a practical man. The following are the prices at London in 1832: — Roofs, per square of 100 feet, £5: lOs. ; verandas, per square, £7; and doors of the ordinary size, in six panels, as in fig. 357, i;'2 : 10s. each. This description of roof is not particularly applicable for small-sized cottages, but may be used for large ones ; and, for smithies, carpenters' shops, and all manner of sheds, it seems particularly appropriate. Portable houses might be very readily made of it for exportation ; but, wherever such houses were erected, they should be covered with ivy, or some other evergreen creeper, to moderate the effect of changes in the exterior temperature. 421. Getiertil Estimate. Cubic contents, 28,636 feet, at 6d. per foot, £715 : 18s., at 4d., £477 : 5s. : 4d. ; and at M., jL357 : 19s. 422. Remarks. There is a simplicity and grandeur in the elevation of ihis Design, which by no means belongs to a common dwelling ; and, were the cliimney tops omitted, we shoul^So»> Qlh COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AllCIIITECTURE. Design LXX. — A Cottaiie Dwelling of pour Rooms, with other Conveniences. 435. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 366, shows a kitchen, a; parlour, bi best bed-room, c ; bed-room, d ; ggg closet, e; recess for books, _/"; two _ closets, g g ; pantry, h ; wasli- house, I ; potato cellar, and place for lumber, k ; coal-house, / ; and privy, m. 436. Construction. The walls, which have brick footings to the height of eighteen inches above the surface, are of stud-work, covered with weather-boarding without, and lath and plaster within ; the floors of a, b, c, and d, are of boards, and those of the passage and offices of tiles and bricks. The roof is covered with pantiles ; it is in two parts, the higher and wider part being over the living-rooms, and the low narrow division covering the passage and the offices. There is a rustic veranda along one front, constructed of barked oak branches, on which vin s and flowering slirubs are twined. 437. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,040 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^276; at 4^., ^184; and at 3d., £"133. 438. Remarks. This Design is executed at Chingford in Essex, and it has been sent us as being very economical in the erection, and very commodious and convenient in the occupation. We have improved the forms, and increased the height, of the chimneys, for the sake of effect, and also in order to make them draw better. Without high, bold, and carefully studied chimney tops, a cottage, to us, is without one of its chief beauties ; and it is, besides, very liable to smoke. Beauty, in this case, as in most others, goes hand in hand with utility. We by no means approve of the plan of having the outside walls of a cottage of wood ; but, in many cases, it cannot be avoided. When an old cottage, with walls of this description, is to be improved, the weather-boarding may be covered either with what is called weather-tiling, of which we shall give a variety of shapes in a .succeeding page, or with tiling so marked as, when put up, to resemble bricks, and known as brick weather-tiling, of which we shall also hereafter give specimens. Much of the effect of such a cottage will depend on the disposition of the flowering shrubs and trees on its veranda and trellised porch. Design LXX I. — A Castellated Lodge, as a Dwelling for a Gardener, or other upper Servant, on a Gentleman's Estate. 439. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 367, shows a porch, a ; kitchen, b ; living-room, c ; two light closets, d d ; staircase, with closet under, e ; place for /'~\ coals,/; for wood, g ; and water-closet, S f h. The chamber floor, fig. 368, contains two good bed-rooms, i, k ; and two bed- closets, I, m. 440. Construction. The contributors of this Design, Messrs. W. and H. Laxton, have sent the following details. Fig. 369 is a section across the window in the living-room, in which is shown the wall of brick, a ; label moulding over the window, b ; reveal, with splay, finished with cement, c ; frame to the casements, four inches by two inches, with hollow worked on the edge, rebated, and beaded, d ; inch and half Gothic bar casement, rebated on the lower edge, to shut against an iron tongue, let into an oak sill, e ; lintel, four inches and half by three inches and a half, f; platC; four inches and a half by five inches, g ; joists, seven inches by two inches and 867 iL^Jj a half, notched on to the plate, h ; ceiling, • ; (OTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. LXIX 2\r) 216 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. LXXII. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 217 V (^^ "i ■ — — — > -'"i ./ ^ /M'T'-Z^A' cornice, with flowers or bosses, fifteen inches apart, j ; rioor boards out of two cut battens, k ; skirting board, with hollow worked on the edge and a groove, / ; narrow ground, splayed for plaster, m ; small fillet nailed on the floor, for fastening the skirting, n ; wooden brick, four inches by two inches and a half, o ; plaster, p ; oak sill, q ; capping, or window board, r ; and window back, s. Fig. 370 is a section show- ing the construction of the embattle- mcnts, in which we have the wall of the ground floor a brick and a half thick, t ; the wall of the bed-room floor one brick thick, u ; tlie coping of the embattlements formed of Aus- tin's artificial stone, v v ; and the moulded string under the embattle- ments, w. Fig. 371 is a section, showing the gutter and the roof, in which the wall-plate is represented at a ; the ceiling joist, four inches by one inch and a half, is nailed to the side of the rafter at b ; the rafter, c, four inches by two inches, is notched on to the wall-plate ; the battens for tlie slates, three inches by three quarters of an inch, are shown at d ; three quarters of an inch feather-edged eaves- board at e ; a cast-iron gutter at f, moulded to form a cor- nice, and fastened by copper nails to the ends of the rafters ; Fig. 372 is an elevation of the Fig. 373 is an and slates at g. south-east end of this building elevation, to a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, of the chimney tops, formed of Austin's artificial stone. 441. Specification and Estimate. As the build- ing is small and simple, these are combined in what is technically called one particular. The prices are calculated at the prime cost of materials and labour, in London, in the year 1832. 442. Digger and Bricklayer's Work. ,£' s. courses of brickwork, one of which has dentils, formed by the ends 228 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 392 393 \^^ S97 ^ \ > V sWAiAd COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 229 of bricks projecting at equal and regular distances,) to finish with at top ; in order that the lower part of the weather-tiling, which is to cover the bed-room walls, may incline outwards, for the purpose of throwing off the water, and preventing it from running down the walls of the ground floor. The external partitions of the chamber floor should be formed of timber framing, lathed horizontally, to receive the tiling, which may be of any pattern, according to fancy. Our contributor has sent sketches, figs. 392 to 402, of all the different kinds which he recollects having seen ; but as two or three sorts are generally used together, arranged alternately, it would be fruitless, he says, " to attempt sending all their combinations. It is very common to have two, three, or more courses of ornamental tiles, separated by a row of plain ones, which has a good effect." For the present Design he recommends employing successive courses of figs. 393, 394, and 395, separated by a course of fig. 392, as shown in fig. 402, " which would produce an agree- able play of light and 402 shade, showing off some of the most pleasing alternations of straight and waved lines that this species of material is capable of producing." It will generally be found advisable to colour the whole of the weather- tiling a light stone or cream colour, and the brick or stone walls below may be left un- coloured, or not, accord- ing to whether the natural tint of the ma- terial employed is agree- able or otherwise. The roof is to be covered with the common plain tiles, and its picturesque beauty will be much improved if they are old ones that have lost the glaring hue which all tiles have when they are fresh from the kiln." With respect to colouring the materials of a building, it may be observed that it is not liable to the same objections as either plastering them over, or roughcasting or whitewashing them ; because colouring, being much thinner, does not, to the same extent, disguise the nature of the material, and thus either destroy the natural expression of, or give a false expression to, the wall. A wall may be said to have its true and natural expression, when, at the first glance, it shows the materials of which it has been constructed ; the manner in which these materials have been put together ; and the principles of construction on which it depends for its stability, strength, and duration. Now, a brick or stone wall, on the external face of which the distinct shapes of the bricks or stones are clearly discernible to the eye, is the same thing, in point of the useful qualities mentioned, whatever may be its colour ; but if the joints of the stones or bricks, and their surfaces, are covered with plaster or roughcast, or with such a thick coat of whitewash as to obliterate their forms and lines, the wall has lost its natural expression : it may be of brick, or it may be of hewn stone ; but as every body knows that whitewashing is generally applied for the pur- f i 403 pose of disguise or conceal- ment, it is fair to conclude that, wherever it occurs on the external walls of buildings, they are made of lath and plaster, or mud. To return to our Design, the general effect of the weather-tiling will be seen in the elevation of the entrance, or north-west front, fig. 404 ; in the south-west side, fig. 405 ; in the south-east end, fig. 406 ; and in the north-east side, fig. 407. The use of weather-tiling in England is chiefly confined to the marine 230 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. districts, where it is employed for casing the walls of buildings, whether formed of wood, brick, or stone, to protect them from driving winds that carry with them the spray of the sea, which, from the salt it contains, would otherwise render tlie walls damp. Weather-tiling is also used in some parts of the interior of the country, on the south- west and west sides of buildings, to protect them from the rains, which, in England, are not only more frequent from that quarter than from any other, but which are almost always accompanied by high driving winds. The most suitable weather-tiling, for this purpose, is that commonly called mathe- matical tiling, which is made to imitate bricks; but we shall defer our description of this kind of tiling till some future oc- ^^^^p^^^^^H^^^^S 460. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 18,749 feet, at 6(f. per foot, £"468 : 14s. 6d. ; at 4rf., £.'512 : 9s. : Bd. ; and at 3d., jg234 : 7s. : Sd. 461. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by our valuable contributor Mr. Varden, chiefly with a view of showing the applica- tion of weather-tiling, as practised in the neighbourhood of Guildford, in Surrey. Speaking of the Design before us, its author observes that " it is one of the largest erec- tions for which this manner is suitable. The effect generally pleases, from its homely and comfortable appearance. The masses are usually very irregular, convenience being more studied than uniformity ; nevertheless, sometimes combinations of form occur, that would be highly gratifying to a lover of the picturesque, and might even afford useful hints to the professional Architect. This manner of building requiring an economical plan, the Architect avoids all breaks that are not absolutely necessary, and never allows the roof to project more than is wanted to throw off" the water clear of the walls. Ornament is never intentionally introduced; and there is nothing in this style incompati- ble with the humble character of a cottage dwelling." The ground plan is compact, and the two principal fire-places are against the interior walls. It would have been easy to have changed the position of the oven and boiler in c, so as to have carried up the flues from them along with the others, and thus had only one stack of chimneys instead of two; but our contributor, in all pro- bability thought that the boiler would be more convenient adjoining the sink ; and, perhaps, also, he considered that two chim- neys in the elevation would be more pic- turesque than one. For our own part, we ^^^^ consider that a boiler and an oven, when '—'■'—■- - — — = placed in the interior of a house, add so much to its comfort by serving as reservoirs of heat, that we always regret to see them placed against outside walls. Many persons, we are persuaded, are not sufficiently aware of the great quantity of heat that is generated in an oven, by the consumption of the most worthless looking spray or brushwood, which no good housewife would ever think of burning in an open fire-place. It is only by having an oven, surrounded by a mass of brickwork, that this spray can be properly turned to account; burned in an open fire, its heat is dispersed in the atmosphere, and speedily lost to the apartment; but burned in an oven, and the more rapidly the better, jts heat is absorbed by the brickwork, and continues to be given out slowly diu-ing many COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 231 hours afterwards, to whatever surrounds it. If the oven has a horizontal flue proceeding from it, either under the floor as in our model cottages, or above it as a bench in the German or Chinese manner, both to be hereafter described, the heat given out will be so much the o-reatcr. The occupiers of cottages have much to learn in respect to the best mode of consuming fuel, and economising heat : but to be taught this they must become readers ; or, we must have parochial discourses on economical subjects, as well as sermons on religious and moral duties. Design LXXV. — A Cottage in the Old English Manner, containing on the Ground Floor a Living-room, Kitchen, and other Conveniences, with Two Bed-rooms over, 462. Accommodation. From the front porch, fig. 407, a, the entrance is to a passage and staircase, which leads on the left to a living-room, h ; and on the right, to a kitchen, c ; from which there is a closet, or coal cellar, under the stairs. From the kit- chen there is a door to the dairy, d ; and another to a lobby, which leads to the water-closet, e ; and to the common entrance porch, /. There are a cow-liouse, g ; a pigsty, h ; and a place for hay and straw, i. The chamber floor, fig. 408, contains two t 1 408 : 1 1 :i I i2ox|io-o V-' 1 1 good bed-rooms, k and I ; one of which has a fireplace. 463. Construction. The walls are of brick nine tltions are of brick nogging flat. The roof is slated, and the chimney stacks are of brick set angularly. These angular chimneys are thus constructed : the shaft being finished square, as shown in fig. 409, an earthen- ware circular flue-pipe is placed over the opening of the chimney, and the square flue is made to unite smoothly with it, by being pargeted with mortar made of fresh lime and powdered brick. Bricks are then built round the upright pipe, leaving vacuities not filled up with mortar, in the four angles formed between the bricks and the pipe. As the work is raised in height, pipes are added ; the length of each pipe being two feet, and each having an outside rebate at one end, and an inside rebate at the other, so as to admit of a perfect junction. We inches thick, and 409 the par- may observe that the diameter of these pipes may be from nine to thirteen inches, according to the size of the fire- place below; and we shall show, in Book III. of this work, that by having tubes of this sort, of two feet, one foot, nine inches, and six inches, rebated as above, flues might be built in any direction, however crooked, which would require no climbing boy to sweep them, and would be attended, as we think, with all or most of the advantages of the circular flues of Hiort, Chadley, or Smith, at a comparatively trifling expense. Fig. 410 shows the plan of the projecting bricks set on edge, which form the dentils that support the capital of the shaft. Fig. 41 1 represents one of the chimney tops 232 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 411 J^ "^ '"^./ ^^ !; ^-^ iJr— ■"-i- \ lllliiH lliilllllill r, \\ lu- — n 1 1 11 II 1 1 ll II 1 1 :jv- II "t n M II n ii^- 11 ■i II ^ \ m complete, with its base, m ; shaft, n ; capital, o ; and capping, p. Wherever a " tall boy " (see § 432. ) is required to make a chimney draw, we would enclose it with brick or stone, in this, or in some similar manner, and thus get rid of those house-top de- formities so cleverly ridiculed in the Mechanic's Magazine, vol. xvLi. p. 316. " How generally," says this writer, " do we see fine terminations become pedestals for every foul thing in the shape of a cowl, a mitred, a caped, an uncaped, a vandyked, a per- forated, a conical, a crooked, or a straight, " tall boy; " or to support a black pot, or a red pot, or some of the numerous devices which start up in such great jjrofiision and variety, as soon as a new house is inhabited, or an old one changes its tenant : thus, as it were, proclaiming from the house-top, that the Architect and builder have been unsuccessful, and that some variety or other of the tinker's or potter's whims, to charm or coax out the smoke, has pre- vailed." What are called the genteel cottages about London, indeed, are, in this respect, a disgrace to their Architects and builders. The cow-house, hay- shed, and piggery are supposed to be of studwork, weather-boarded, and roofed with pantiles. The ceiling of the living-room is curbed, or coved at the sides (see the section fig. 412), by which means some addition is made to its height from the roof. Further details of construction will be found in the following specification and estimate ; which, it may be observed, does not include the cow-house, hay-shed, and pigsty; the ingenious contributors of this Design, Messrs. W. and H. Laxton, considering that the occupant might be able, with a little assistance from a carpenter, to erect these additions at his leisure hours. The prices stated in the esti- mate, we should observe, are calculated for the neighbourhood of London, in the year 1832. 464. Bricklayer and Digger's Work, To build the walls, as shown in the plan, one brick thick, with one brick and a half footing, one foot high : — £ Five rods of reduced stock brickwork, at ^12 per rod 60 ; Twenty-four yards and a half superficial of brick nogging flat, to the partitions on the ground-floor, at 3s. : Sd. per yard 3 ; Two yards superficial of stock brick paving laid flat, for the closet or coal cellar under the stairs, at 2s. : 3f/. per yard ; Two hundred and fifty-two feet superficial of foot tile paving to the kitchen, dairy, and fire-places, at 6d. per foot 6 : Twenty-five feet lineal of eight-inch draining pipes, and digging for laying them, from the water-closet and sinkhole, to a tank in the yard, or some other part of the grounds,** Is. per foot 1 • A cast-iron basin and trap to the water-diset, figs. 413, 414, and 415 O : 10 s. d. 0: 19 : 8 4 : 6 6 : 5 : COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. Q33 (Tig. 413 is the surface pltin of the basin; and fig. 414 is a £ s. d. view of it before it is built in. Fig. 415 is a section of the basin, as built in ; in which q is the trap ; r, the riser of the seat ; s, the seat ; t t, the hiickwork of the drain ; and u, the drain. It is evident, from this figure, that no smell can penetrate froiD u upwards, it being intercepted by the trap, q ; and the water into which it dips.) Digging out foundation, levelling, &c., say 1 : i; : Ten sijuares of countess slating, laid on three quarters of an inch battening, with eaves, boards, and tilting fillets to the rakes, com- plete 17 : 10 : O Forty feet six inches lineal of ridge tiles O : 13:6 Three chimney pots formed in brickwork, set angularly I : 10 : O ^92 -.18:8 465. Carpenter s Work. Rafter and ceiling joists, four inches by two inches ; ridge pieces, nine inches by two inches ; wall plates, four inches by four inches ; purlins, four inches by four inches ; joists, seven inches by two inches and a half; bond, four inches by two inches and a half; and lintels, four inches by four inches : one hundred and forty- eight cubic feet of IMemel fir timber, including labour and nails... 25 : 18:0 Three squares and a half of four-inch quartering in partitions, framed complete 5: .5:0 Three squares and a half of one-inch deal wrought folding floors... 7 : 0:0 One hundred and seventeen feet lineal of skirting worked out of two- cut battens, including wooden bricks and backings 2 : 8:9 Seventy-four feet superficial of one inch and a half square framed partition, between the stairs and the small bed-room 2:15:6 Eight one inch and a half four-paneled square doors, six feet six iiwhes high, by two feet six inches wide, with one inch and a quarter single rebated linings, and a moulding round both sides ; hung with three-inch butt hinges, and having a six-inch iron-rim two-bolt lock to each II : 4:0 Two outside bead butt and square doors, with fir frames, four inches by three inches, rebated and beaded, with a moulding round inside. The doors hung with three-inch butt hinges ; and having two bolts, and a seven-inch three-bolt iron-rim lock to each 3 : 12:0 Four window frames and mullions, containing seventy-six feet lineal, of one and a half inch deal, wrought, rebated, and beaded, four and a half inches wide, with forty-eight feet lineal of moulding round the frames inside 2 : 0:0 One bay or bow window in three di\'isions, containing thirty-eight feet six inches lineal frame and mullions, four inches by four inches, wrought, framed, rebated, and beaded. Twenty-four feet lineal of moulding inside, and fourteen feet lineal of moulded cornice and base, to the top and bottom of the frame outside 1:10:0 Six three-quarter-inch propa* ledged lifting shutters to the lower windows, four feet by one ttft six inches, with fastenings 2 ; 5:0 A flight of stairs, containing Qfty-three feet superficial of one and a quarter inch deal steps, and inch risers, bracketed and housed into A A 23i COTTAGE, PARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. strings, fifteen feet superficial, one inch and a half deal wall string, £ s. and seven feet superficial of ramped ditto ; twenty-five feet lineal of beaded cajiping, and three feet of framed newel 3 : 17 One small skyliglit, frame and lining, to the upper part of the stairs, in the roof. : 7 One and a quarter inch deal seat, riser, and bearer, to the water- closet, with hole cut and cover lined, and skirting round 0:12 £ 68 : 14 466. Plasterer's Work. ■ Sixty yards of lath, plaster, set, and whiting, for the ceilings 4: Twenty-three yards of ditto and colouring, for the partition 1 : 14 One hundred and sixty yards of plaster, set, and colouring, for the walls 6 : O Eiglity-six feet lineal of cement skirting, seven inches wide, to the kitchen and dairy 1 : 8 416 417 ^ IS : 3:2 4f;7. Stonemason's Work. A moulded profile stone chimney-piece to the living-room ; and a set of flat jambs, mantle, and slabs to the bed-room ; and a set of one inch and a half ditto to the kitchen 3 : 5:0 Four stone sills to the windows, and two stone steps to the outside doors 2 : 5:0 A stone sink seven feet super- ficial, with grating and iron socket, waste pipe, two five- holes sink stones (dish hol- lowed out), fig. 416 1 : 14 : £7 : 4:0 468. Sundries. Ten feet lineal of three-quarter-inch pipe, with stopcock to the water-closet 1 : 0:0 Seventy-five feet superficial glazing to casements in small squares 4 : 7:6 Seven iron casements, as in fig. 287, three feet four inches by one foot seven inches ; and seven ditto, four feet by one foot seven inches 5 : 15 : 6 Painting woodwork inside and outside, four times, in oil colours 4 : 0:0 Centring for doors, windows, and chimneys, and bedding and pointing (filling up the joints) 1 : 0:0 £16 : 3:0 469. Extra Work for the Porch. Twenty-six feet reduced brickwork in the footings, and digging out the foundations for them 1 : 6:0 Eight yards superficial of pebble paving 1 : 4:0 Three quarters of a square of slating and battening 1 : 6:3 Nine oak posts, five inches square, with chamfered angles, and having the slabs of trees with the bark on, nailed round them, to imitate the trunks of trees, fig. 417 4 10 : O (Trunks of trees very soon rot, if the bark be not removed ; and the mode above recommended ha.s all the appcarac embraced by a platform on three sides. 475. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 13,308 feet, at 6d. per foot, £332 : 14*. ; at 4d., 1221 : 16s. ; and at 3d., £166 : 7s. 476. Bemarks. This Design, which has been sent to us by our much-valued contri- butor, Samuel Taylor, Esq., of Stoke Ferry, Norfolk, is calculated for being built of chalk-stone, which forms the cheapest material of that country, and for being covered with reeds, the produce of the adjoining fens. It forms a comfortable and commodious dwelling, expressive of what it is ; and, from the height of the walls and the proportions of the windows, is rather elegant than otherwise. We cannot justify the Gothic labels over the doors and windows, immediately under a far-projecting roof; because no other part of the building is in the Gothic style, and because labels of any kind, in such a situation, cease to have any character of use. " From truth and use all beauties flow." {Epistle to Lord Lowther on Building and Planting. ) DesioTi LXXVII. — T7ie Model Cottages af the Labourer s Friend Society, as erected at Shooter^s Hill, Kent, Tliese cottages are built in pairs, in such a manner as to have 420 ^ "x7 15^10 1 1 421 XL 10-4x 6-2 477. Accommodation. the fireplaces in the party walls ; the ground plan, fig. 420, shows, for each cot- tage, an entrance- porch, a ; kitchen, h ; pantry, c ; and closet under the stairs, d. The chamber floor, fig. 421, shows two good bed-chainbers to each cottage, without fireplaces. ThepriN-y, pigsty, and other con- veniences, are built apart. To each double cottage are annexed two acres and a half of land. 478. Construction. The walls are raised on grouted foundations (grout is com- posed of fresh limo and gravel, mixed, and imme- diately thrown in, beaten down, and left some days to consolidate), two feet broad and two feet deep ; over which are two courses of twenty-two inches in viidth, and two of eighteen inches, as a footing, and four courses of fourteen inches as a plinth. ITie walls above are nine inches, and hollow, and one course of slates is laid before the floors commence. The bricks are all hard stocks ; the timber Swedish or Baltic ; the window sills and landings of York stone ; the chamber flooring of inch and quarter deal, ploughed and tongued (a groove made along the edge of one board, and a tongue or projection worked along the edge of the other, to fit into it, fig. 422) ; the window casements are of iron, and the roof slated. The course of slates is laid along the walls, just beneath the gi-ound floor, in order to pre- vent the damp from rising through the vacuities, which are two inches wide, being formed in the manner shown in fig. 7, § 25. The brickwork is worked to a smooth face inside, and not plastered, but only whitewashed. Tlie outside of the walls is thus left rough, and it is brought to an even surface by rough-casting it with a mix- ture of lime and fine gravel, which, when completed, has the colour and texture of Bath stone. The floors of these cottages are fifteen inches above the general level of the surromidiiig ground : twelve inches of this space is filled with gravel, and tlie top r'l ;i 'e: ^9l I II 'II :i la 13.3X8-6 Q38 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. of r :£ three inches with grouting, which forms a hard bottom, upon which is laid a floorin foot square paving tiles. The roof, as shown in fig. 423, projects, in order to keep the walls dry. 479. Estimate. Twelve of these cottages have been erected on Shooter's Hill, at ^■'115 per pair, under the direction of our contributor, W. Bardwell, Esq., for the Labourer's Friend Society. The cubic contents of the building are 9620 feet ; which shows that 2^d. per cubic foot is the proper rate for making a general estimate for this description of dwelling. 480. Remarks. This Design, which has been pub- lished in Facts atid Illustrations demonstrating the Benefits derived hij Labourers from possessing small Portions of Land, §-c., vol. i. p. 31, was recommended to us, for our work, by its author, Mr. Bardwell. Considering the size of the rooms, these dwellings are certainly remarkably cheap ; and we are informed that, in consequence of the grouted floors and hollow walls! they are the driest cottages in the neighbourhood where they are built. We agree with the writer, who describes them in the work referred to, that, as all the materials are of the best quality, these cottages will be ai durable as they are cheap ; and that they may justly be considered elegant, from the proportions of the openings, the pediment ends, the low pitch of the roof, and " the Doric simplicity of their general form." The quantity of land annexed to them seems large ; but the reason may be that the occupiers are supposed not to have regular employment, and to find a ready market for garden produce. Design LXXVIII. — Six Cottage Dwellings, built at Abcrsi/ehan, near Pontgpool, in South Wales, with One common JFash-hoiise and Bakehouse. 481. The object of building these dwellings, of which fig. 424 is the elevation, and 425 424 the ground plan, both to a scale of five sixteenths of an inch to ten feet, was to aflfbrd lodgmgs ior the workmen of Messrs. Jones and Wilcox, builders, of Bristol, during the COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOLTS STYLES. 239 time they were employed in erecting the extensive furnaces of the British Iron Com- pany at Abersychan. 482. Accomnu)dation. The ground plan of each dwelling shows a pa,ssage, with a wooden dresser along the side, fig. 425, a ; living-room, h ; and back-kitchen, c ; over which are two good bed-rooms. There are a wash-liouse, d, with two boilers and two ovens, common to the whole ; and four pri^^es, e e e e. The front room, over the bake- house, belongs to the dwelling,/, which was occupied by the foreman of the masons; and the back room, over the privies, belongs to the dwelling, g, which was occupied by the foreman of the smiths. Each dwelling has a strip of garden-ground behind, and they are all supplied with water by a mountain stream, which afterwards passes through the drains of the prines. 483. Constniction. The walls are of stone, quarried on the spot ; the outside and partv walls are eighteen inches in thickness, and the inside ones one foot. Tlie floors are paved vrith stone, and the roofs covered with grey slate. The elevation, fig. 424, is wliolly without ornament. 484. Estimate. These dwellings cost, including the wash-house, privies, enclosing the garden ground, &c., ^"800, which gives ^£"133 : 6s. : 8d. for each cottage. As the whole line of building contains 61,005 cubic feet, it appears that 3d. per foot is the proper sum for employing in its general estimate. 485. Eemarks. This Design was sent us by our esteemed friend, Samuel Taylor, Esq., as a specimen of a very cheap and simple mode of building dwellings of the lowest degree of accommodation in a stone coimtry. The elevation has nothing to recommend it in point of effect : but, by advancing the wash-house in front ; by putting a screen wall be- fore the pri%'ies behind ; by reversing the position of the doors of the three dwellings on the right-hand side of the centre, in order to get the fireplace of the end one against a party-wall, as well as to maintain uniformity in the position of the doors and windows ; by projecting the roof at the eaves, and forming pediment ends ; by introducing a string 426 course under the bed-room windows ; and by raisiiig and ornamenting the chimney tops, a very superior description both of elev ation and plan, figs. 426 and 427 will be produced. 240 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. If such a line of cottages were erected in a country where fuel was dearer than it is at Abersychan, it might be worth while to keep the floor of the wash-house three feet lower than that of the dwellings, and to conduct the flues from the boilers and ovens under the floors of the living-rooms, in the manner indicated in § 19. Perhaps some might think that it would be an improvement in our elevation, fig. 426, to bring the windows of the living-rooins more into the middle of the space between the door and the party-wall ; and also to bring the door to the back-kitchen into the middle of the space between the passage door and that party-wall, as in figs. 428 and 429 ; and we grant i 429 a n a n D IBC Br THl— M would, looking no farther than mere symmetry: but in figs. 425 and 427 there are spaces in the living-rooms at h, and also at i, in which a person may be seated at work without being in the draught between any opening and the fireplace ; and also in which tables or dressers might be placed : Init supposing the door of the back-kitchen and the front window placed in the middle of their respective walls, as in fig. 429, there will be no place for either table or dresser, and the whole room will become, as observed by one of our correspondents § 365, a complete " Temple of the Winds." Thus, though there cannot be a doubt that, in point of architectural symmetry, the elevation, fig. 428, is much more beautiful than fig. 426 ; yet, in point of fitness, that is, with reference to the interior plan, the latter is decidedly more beautiful than the former. Can there be a doubt, then, which kind of beauty ought to be preferred, in cases of this sort ? We say there cannot. The most useful is unques- tionably the most beautiful. When the question is between a beauty belonging to the expression of art, and a beauty con- nected with fitness for enjoyment, it is clear to us that the decision ought to be in favour of the latter. The great object of the Architect ought to be, to combine the two species of beauty; but as this cannot be done in every case, it is clear, tliat in judging of a building merely by its exterior, unless we are intimately ac- quainted with its use, we can only decide as to its symmetry, or other architectural expression. To form a just taste in architec- ture therefore, it is as necessary to study all the various purj^oses to which the difltrent parts of the interiors of buildings are ajjplied; and the different modes of lighting, warming, and ventilating, of supplying water and draining, of avoiding bad smells, damp, dry rot &c., as it is to study the original or conventional beauty of lines and forms. It may be useful to observe that the chimney tops in figs. 426 and 428 are formed by setting up four slate stones, such as fig. 430, two about a foot, and two about eighteen inches broad, and all from three to four feet high ; firmly 432 flanching them to the top of the chimney shaft with cement, and sometimes cramp- ing them with iron into each other. Over these slates is placed a two-feet square slab, fig. 431 ; and on that a truncated pyramidal stone, fourteen or sixteen inches square at the base, fig. 432. The handsomest cottage chimneys on tiie hanks of the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland are formed in this manner; and we shall give saeciinens of some of them in the historical part of this work. 431 433 ^^- COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 241 Design L XX IX. — Twelve or more Cottages in a Row, with a Kitchen, Wash-house, and other Conveniences, in common; the whole heated by the Fires in the public Kitchen. 486. The object of this Design is to sliow how the modes of heating under the ground floor, and of having a common kitchen and wash-house, may be apphed to a number of liouses together, so as to produce very comfortable dwellings at a very moderate expense. By rendering fireplaces and chimneys unnecessary, not only is the expense of buildmg them avoided, but also that of employing any other material than mud or earth m any part of the walls, or of having them, in any part, more than nine or ten feet high. It will be evident, after considering this Design in detail, that the domestic labours of a family living in one of these dwellings will be considerably diminished, and their com- forts, at the same time, greatly increased. 487. Ground Plan of the public Offices. The dweUings and offices may be either erected in a straight line, or in a curved line ; or they may form two or more sides of a qua- drangle. For so small a number as twelve, we prefer a straight line. At one end of this line we place the common kitchen, fig. 433, a ; in which there are two ovens for baking and roasting, b ; an open fireplace, c ; and three boilers for cooking and washing, d. The floor of this kitchen is four feet below the level of the floors of the dwellings, in order that flues from the ovens, and also from the boilers and the open fireplace in the centre, may be conducted under the floors of the drying- room and sitting-rooms, for heating them. Two ovens are shown, because, in the most severe weather in winter, the heat from one oven may not be sufficient for the floors. There are three boilers, in case of accident to one, and also because one boiler may be required for washing or brewing, while the others are being used, the one for boiling potatoes, and the other for making soup. The open fireplace is for the cooking of small articles by individuals. The roasting and baking is supposed to be carried on in the ovens, and the boiling meat chiefly in one of the boilers, in which also vegetables may be introduced to form soup ; while another boiler may be devoted exclusively to potatoes ; and the third to hot water. There may be a large table, with benches along its sides, in the centre of this kitchen, at which those who choose may dine. There are a cellar, e, and a store-room, /, adjoining, in which potatoes and other roots, flour, meal, barley, table-beer, &c., may be kept for sale to the occupiers. The cominon wash-house, g, is fitted up with washing-troughs, from h to i; and there is a pipe of hot water from the boiler in the kitchen, and another of cold water from a cistern over the wash-house ; both which com- municate by cocks with each trough. There is also a hole in the bottom of each trough, with a stopper, for emptying its contents into a common drain, connected with the cess-pool of the water-closets. There may be one of Siebe's pumps in the wash-house, where it would be completely protected from the frost ; and by this, the water might be raised from a well, either in the floor of the wash-house, or at any convenient distance from it, to the cistern. This cistern would also be completely protected from the frost ; and from it a pipe might be conducted along the upper part of the middle wall, which separates the sitting-rooius from the bed-rooms of the dwellings, so as to supply each house. Another pipe, with a ball cock, will give a perpetual supply to the hot-water boiler ; from which the water may be drawn for the use of the kitchen by one cock, as it is in the wash-house by several. This boiler, in- tended for the purpose of affijrding a perpetual supply of hot water, should be raised considerably higher than the cooking boilers, in order to supply the water at a sufficient height for the washing-troughs ; the floor of the washing-house being on a level with the floors of the dwellings, while that of the kitchen, as already observed, is four feet below them. Adjoining the wash-house is a drying-room, k, heated by the hottest part of the flues which proceed from the ovens, the open fireplace, i » i o j " j and the boilers; and, to increase this heat, a part of the flues L ' I - may be covered with cast-iron plates, over which may be a false floor, one inch distant from them, so contrived as to create a draught, on the 242 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AllCUITECTUIlE. principle before mentioned, § 306. There are two divisions of privies; one for the females and young children, I; and the otlier for males, m. The drain, common to both, is connected with three covered cess-pools, w, n, and o ; by which, with tlie aid of two sluices or plugs, as described in § 16, s, the liquid manure in one tank may be allowed to ferment, while one of the others is being filled, and the third being emptied. Over these cess-pools are two dimg-pits, n n, and one pit for rubbish not convertible into manure, o. 488. Accommodations of each Dwellitifj. Tlie entrance is by a lobby, p, in whicli there is a sink with a water-cock at one corner, and the other corner may do for the tools, brooms, &c. A. door from this lobby opens into the living-room, q, which is of a com- modious size, nineteen feet six inches by thirteen feet six inches. In this there is a place, r, with a raised hearth for keeping food or water hot over a lamp, a little charcoal, or a fire pail, there being a small flue formed of earthenware pipes, for carrying oflf the smoke. This cooking place, however, is only intended to be made use of in case of family sick- ness. Adjoining, there is a closet cupboard, s ; and at the opposite end of the room there may be corner cupboards, a dresser, or any piece of furniture or kind of fitting up the occupier may prefer or find necessary. There are three bed-rooms, t, u, v, the largest for the master and mistress ; and the centre one, u, having the window down to the floor, paneled below, and to open as a door. This door is to be considered as exclusively for the use of the females. 489. The flues tinder the floors will be six in number, going from the three boilers and the two ovens. We propose that the whole of these flues should be placed under the floors of the living-rooms, and that all of them slioidd go from the drying-room in direct lines to the extreme end of the dwellings, each outgoing flue having a return flue along- side of it. There will thus be six outgoing and six return flues; which, covered with one-foot tiles, will serve as flooring to the whole of the living-rooms. In order to prevent the smoke from rising between the joints, narrow slips of slate must be laid under each ; or, what would make a warmer floor, tlie whole should be covered with cement, or arti- ficial stone composition. As heat will not be required under any of the floors during the summer season, except that of the drying-room, it is proposed to have all the upright flues in the party wall between the drying-room and the first dwelling, and to have two communications with each of these upright flues, one from the outgoing flue immediately under it, and the other from the return flue of the same outgoing flue. By having a damper in the first, the smoke might be either sent round the horizontal flues, for the purpose of heating the dwellings ; or, when heat was not wanted, allowed to escape through the upright flues. These dampers will thus serve to regulate tlie heat supplied to the floors of the dwellings ; and, in the end of spring and the beginning of autumn, when only a little heat is wanting, some of the dampers can be drawn out ; while in winter, when a maximum of heat is required, they can all be pushed in. The dampers will aiso be useful when first lighting the fires in the mornings ; because withcb'awing them will create a draught. The number of dwellings, which it is supposed these flues might heat, with no other fuel than what was required for the cooking and washing of the occupants, is here estimated at twelve ; but, if the houses were placed on a slope, the fires at the lower end, and the upright flues at the iqiper end ; the outgoing horizontal flues having no returns, the number would no doubt h& greater. INIucli will depend on the kind of fuel used, and on care being taken to let no air pass into the flues from the furnaces or ovens, that has not entered by the ash-pit doors, and ascended through the fires ; and also, that, when no fires require to be made, the fiu'iiaces, ovens, and ash-pit doors are kept closely shut. The best fuel for heating flues is that which burns the quickest, such as faggot wood, spray, shavings, &e. ; and'^vlien once heated they ought to be closely shut up, to ])revent a draught of air from cooling them. 490. Constriictioyi. We have shown all the outside and party walls as eighteen inches thick, and the partition walls as one foot thick, on the supposition that it would be cheapest to build them in mud or rammed earth : there will thus be no brickwork required, but for the ovens, fireplaces, and flues. The walls may be finished inside according to the taste or means of the party. The roof may be of thatch, or whatever material is cheapest in the given locality ; it ought to project at least three feet on every side, as well for protection of the walls, as to form a covering to tlie terrace path, which will form the common passage from all the dwellings to the offices ; and also to save the expense of gutters. In the roof of each dwelling there should be an opening of two or three inches s(]uarc over the raised hearth, corresponding with a similar one in the ceiling under it, to admit the escape of smoke, when a lamp, embers, or charcoal, COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. ii4,3 435 happened to be used in tlie lieating place. The opening in the roof may be simply a pan- tile with a covered hole, fig. 434, such as are comiTion in tlie neiglibourhood of London. If thought necessary, a small flue to each cooking place could easily be inade by earthen- ware tubes, ten uiches or a foot in diameter, such as fig. 435, with a cap to keep off the rain, fig. 436. These tubes are common in all potteries, and are sold in the neighbourhood of London at only from ninepence to tenpence per foot. The same description of tubes, twelve or thirteen inches in diameter, may be used in forming the six upiight flues to the six fires, which will thus render brickwork imnecessary for them, except at the dampers, and for the cliinmey shafts. All the window casements may be of iron, and all the doors ledged ; and no window shutters can be required where there is perfect security, and abundance of heat. Warm curtains of some cheap worsted stuff in winter, and calico blinds in summer, wDl be found preferable. The pri^■^es are not proposed to be made water-closets ; but to prevent the rising of smell, a description of cheap basin and trap maybe used, such as fig. 437, r ■'sJiJVA'^A 435 \^^ manufactured at the common tile potteries about London, and sold by retail at 2s6«L each ; or fig. 438, which has a hole for a water-pipe at tr, and forms altogether a very complete trap ; these ai-e also made at the tile works, and are sold at 5s. each. It will be understood that the upper part, x, of fig. 438. is a separate vessel, of a funnel shape, and that the lower part, y, is a basin with a soil pipe, z ; and that when the fimnel is placed in this basin, it must be so adjusted as to have its truncated extremity reach to within two or three inches of the bottom. As this funnel, from its construction, must then necessarily remain immersed in water as high as the under part of the soil pipe or discharge tube, z, it is evident that no smell can rise through the funnel. When X has been properly adjusted to y, it must be made air-tight with cement. 491. General Estimate. The cost of these dwellings will evidently depend much on the price of common country labour ; for the work of the carpenter and joiner is very limited, and still more so that of the bricklayer. From a rough calculation made for us by an experienced surv-eyor, it appears that the whole of the twelve dwellings, with the requisite offices complete, as shown in the plan, might be executed, where common labourers' wages are 10s. a week, for about ^"500; which averages less than it 50 a dwelling. 492. Remarks. Wherever this plan is proposed to be carried into execution, choice should be made of a dry soil, becaase that will greatly lessen the expense of the footings to the mud walls, to the flues, and to the platform. It must not be forgotten, also, that a level spot is to be preferred, unless one of a uniform slope is obtained, and the number of dwellings increased so as not to require the flues to be returned. We have no doubt that in many situations, perhaps in most, it would be least expensive to form all the flues of thirteen-inch tubes, so close together as to touch each other, supported on brick or stone piers, filling up the interstices above them, and levelling the surface so as to form a com- fortable floor over them with concrete (gravel and mortar), and the flooring composition before mentioned, § 386. These, and every other description of flue in this position., the direction being straight, may be easily cleaned, which they ought to be at least four 244 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. times a year, by first pushing a slight line through them, by means of a series of hazel rods, or rods of any kind, tied one to another as inserted, and afterwards with this line introducing a rope, to which a buncli of straw is attached. Not one tile of any of the floors would require to be disturbed, but merely the ends of the flues opened, by taking out foot tiles, built in so as to be convenient for that purpose. The farther ends of all these flues will necessarily be on tlie outside of the gable end of the last dwelling, and the other ends will either form the throats of the ovens and furnaces, or they may termi- nate in the drying-room, close under the dampers, where their covering tiles may be taken up. It would save some trouble, if, when each flue was built, a copper wire were laid in it, extended from one end to the other. This miglit always be employed, when they were being swept, to di'aw through a rope. It may be thought that a line of build- ings of tin's description, fig. 439, with no chimneys but in one place, would be rather mean than ornamental ; but that diflRculty would be easily overcome, and would speedily be so, if such dwellings were found as comfortable and economical as we consider they would be. By employing tiles of any of the Italian forms for the roof, by heightening the architectural expression of the walls, and by surrounding the whole with a light zinc-roofed veranda supported by iron colinnns, the whole miglit be rendered elegant, as well as comfortable ; not to speak of the additional beauty which might be given by ornamental shrubs and flowers, and by the gardens. In countries where grapes ripen in the open air, the whole roof might be covered with vines ; and in colder climates, even apples, pears, cherries, or plum trees, might be trained over it in the same manner. Design LXXX. — Eighty Dwellings of the humblest Class, placed together, with a View of being heated by One common Fire, and enjoying other Benejits, on the Cooperative System. 493. General Purpose. Our able contributors, IMr. Laxton and Mr. Taylor, have shown, § 290 and § 481, how six labourers' families may live together under one roof, and use, in common, the same wash-house, oven, drying-closet, well, &c. ; and we have, in both cases, suggested how the six dwellings may be heated from one fire. In our last Design, we have extended tlie idea of a common kitchen, wash-house, and other offices, to twelve dwellings, and shown how they might all be heated from the fires which must necessarily be kept in these offices, for cooking and washing. M'e now intend to sliow an extension of the principle, so as to include any number of dwellings, with common offices for cooking, washing, baking, brewing, bathing, &c. ; and, instead of employing common smoke flues, as in our last Design, for heating the whole, to adopt, for that pur- pose, steam or hot water. Mankind are beginning to allow that society is in its infancy, and that " the grand secret of its improvement is in union and cooperation ;" although, as the writer in the New Monthly Magazine, from whom these words are quoted, ob- serves, IMr. Owen, the founder of the cooperative system, may be laughed at in the mean time by those who do not comjirchend his doctrine. Our object, in giving tliis Design, is to show the application of the cooperative princii)le in what may be called a college of mud houses, for the humblest class of country labourers ; by which it will appear, that, by such a ])lan, their comforts, compared to what they enjoy at present, even in the best districts of Britain, may be increased in an almost incredible degree. We shall not go very minutely into details ; because we are aware that the labouring classes COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STY'LES. 21-5 tbemselvcs must be rendered alive to the !)enefit.s which would result to tliem from adopt- ing plans of this kind, before tliey can be carried into execution witli much prospect. of success. Good, however, will residt from making such plans known, because it will prepare the way for them in the minds of the rising generation. 494. Locality. The place where such an assemblage of buildings ought to be erected must depend on the kind of labour supplied by the occupants, and the demand for it. Such a Design as the present would answer best in the immediate neighbourhood of a large manufactory, or, in a mining district ; or, in short, wherever mankind are employed in masses : but it would also answer for a central situation in an agricultural district, where the number of hands required was such, that none of the eighty men supposed to be here congregated together would require to walk more than a mile to and from their work morning and evening. In the neighbourhood of a large town like London, such a working man's college might be set down, though at a distance of several miles ; be- cause there is always abundance of puljlic conveyances to carry the occupants to and from their work, and others might be started, either by individuals or by the college itself, to carry a gi-eater number, and at a cheaper rate. In the best cultivated districts of Scotland, where the farms are large, it is the custom, during harvest, and we believe also during the turnip-hoeing season, to carry the labourers to the field and back again in carts ; the same thing is also done with the colliers in the coal districts of Staffordshire, and has been lately adopted with the letter-carriers in London. Why, then, might not even an agricidtural college, and much more a manufacturmg or a mining one, support a public carriage for the accommodation of those of its inmates who had to go the greatest distance to their work ? Such a college must always have a certain portion of land for the growth of culinary vegetables, &c., the culture of which would till up all the spare time of the horses and their driver. 495. Situation. Whatever may be the locality of such working-man's college, the situation ought to be dry and elevated ; and the summit of a regular knoll, or a level spot, will always be found preferable to an irregular surface, on account of the greater 440 ^Bx \lo\9\S\7\6 \s\il\3\2\ I 4s:ii-j3\i3\ti ;/o 9\S\\ 7':\6 246 COTTAGE, FAllM, AND VILLA AUCIIITECTUIIE. 441 facilities which it affords for heating and supplying water to every separate dwelling. The aspect of this and of all similar buildings ouglit to be such as that the sun may shine on every front nearly every day in the year. 496. General Form. In all cases where economy is a leading object, the quadrangular form presents itself as the best. When the number of dwellings is few, as in Mr. Laxton's plan, fig. 267, or tliat of Mr. Taylor, fig. 424, or in a plan which we made in 1818, for a London college for working men (see Mech. Mag., vol. xvi. p. 321), the whole of the buildings may be under one roof, and several floors may be formed one over another, and ascended to by stairs, or, as we proposed in the plan alluded to, bj' an inclined plane. In Design LXXX., however, we intend to have all the buildings only one story high, as cheapest, and as admitting of their being built of mud, or of compressed earth, chiefly by the occupants themselves. 497. General Arrangement. In the quadrangular plan, fig. 440, we have shown in the centre the public offices of the college, which include one fireplace, from which all the artificial heat required proceeds, and the public kitchen, store-rooms, dining-rooms, schools, &c. In the circumference we have placed eight lines of dwellings ; every line containing ten dwellings marked 1 to 10, of four apartments in each, similarly arranged to the dwellings in the preceding Design. At the angles, a a a a, are water-closets ; tliose entered from the inner side for the women and female childi-en and infants, and those from the outer side for the men and boys. There is one carriage road, c d, which passes through the centre of the quadi'angle, and two walks, e and/, wliich connect the centre with the circumference, at right angles with the carriage road. Botli the central buildings and the outer quadrangle are raised on platforms ; and the roof of the outer quadi'angle is supposed to project at least three feet outwards from the walls, in order to give a dry path, at all times, along both sides of the dwellings. The four enclosed areas, g, h, i, k, may be devoted to public gardens and play-grounds. Exterior to the qua- drangle, each dwelling is proposed to have a small grass plot or flower-garden, /, the width of its front, and about fifty feet in depth ; beyond which there may be a circumferential walk, m ; and, beyond that, gardens for fruit, flowers, and ainusement, to each house, n. Last of all may come the vegetable ground, and dairy and poultry farm, belonging to the college, with its cow-house, stable, piggery, poultry-house, &c. 498. Arrangement of the public Offices. The most important of these is the fire and fuel room, fig. 441, o, in whicli all the artificial heat required either for cooking, washing, drying, &c., in the public offices, or for heating or cookery in the private dwellings, is generated ; and from wliich it is dis- tributed in the manner hereafter described. Adjoining this is the public kitchen and bakehouse, p, in which the roasting is supposed to be done in an oven, heated, of course, by the common fire in o ; and in which tliere is also a baking oven, which may be either heated in a similar manner, or by Per- kins's hot- water ajjparatus, which is connected with the common fire, and by which all tlie heat requisite for boiling, stewing, and similar culinary operations, is supposed to be supplied to the kitchen in small iron tubes of hot water and steam under compression, and raised to a temperature of from 300° to 400'. The same mode is proposed to be adopted for conveying heat to every public office and private dwelling. Ad- joining the kitchen are, a scullery, q; dairy, r; larder and pantry, s; store-room, t; ])olato and root cellar, ic u; brewhouse, with beer-cellar imder, v; drying-room, w; wash-house, x; dining-rooms, y y; office for keeping the college accounts, and public library, 2; infant school, a ; boy's school, h; girl's school, r; bath for boys, d; and for girls, e. The mash tub may be in the upper part of the brewhouse, and the water may be boiled in it, by a pipe from Perkins's heating apparatus; from this the liquor may be let down into successive coolers, and working vats, till it is at last delivered by a funnel and pipe COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VAIIIOUS STYLES. '247 to the different barrels in the cellar, as is done in the brcwhonse of the Bush Inn, at Dudley. Adjoining the brewhoiise is an apartment, m, with a cellar under it, for keeping potatoes and other roots; the upper part being devoted to fruits, herbs, and seeds. At this extremity of the building are the batlis, &c. The two dining-rooms are each forty feet by twenty-five feet, which will afford space for two tables in each room four feet broad by twenty feet long; and these, with side-tables along the sides of the rooms, will dine IGO persons at once, in the two rooms, 'llie entrance to these rooms is direct from the kitchen, and they are supposed to be surrounded by a sideboard shelf, one foot broad, above the dining-board, which may be two feet in breadth. The four detached tables are also supposed to have narrow elevated shelves, running along their centres, on which may be placed plates, and various articles, to wliich the party at table may help themselves, and thus lessen the labour of waiting. The tables may have a strip of iron along their margins immediately under the line of plates, and this iron may be easily kept hot during dinner liy a very small pipe of hot water passing under it ; thus presen-ing the food of each individual quite hot while being eaten. The office and public library, infant school, and the two Lancasterian schools for the older boys and girls, which, when not occupied by the chUdien, may serve as lecture-rooms, places of public discussion, &c. , may be heated by hot-water pipes from the common fire ; as will the water in the baths, which it is supposed will be in use every day for washing the children. These bath rooms may, if requisite, be easily filled with steam, medicated or otherwise, for the benefit oi rheumatic patients, and along their sides there may be long troughs, with forms beside them, tor the larger childi-en to sit on while washing their feet; and into these troughs hot or cold water may be admitted by cocks, and drawn off in the same manner by a waste pipe, which will convey it to the manure tanks. A similar process to this, for washing children's feet, is practised at Christ's Hospital, London. The chimney of the grand central fire may serve at the same time as a tower for a turret clock, which should have fo'xr faces, and be placed so high as to be seen from the inner windows of all the dwellings. It should be made to play chimes at certain hours, such as the time of risLiig, of taking meals, of going to school, &c. &c. ; and at night the dials should be Uluminated. In this tower there might also be a bell, for ringing on extraordinary occasions. In the fire house there may be a small two-horse power steam engine, wliich, by very simple machinery, may communicate with the kitchen, to work a kneading machine, a machine for chopping meat, breaking sugar, mashing potatoes, &c. ; with the wash-house, to work the washing and wringing machine ; with the scullery, for washing potatoes and other roots ; with the knife and shoe house, for setting in motion a knife- cleaner (see Mech. Mag., vol. ii. p. 409.), shoe-brusher (as at the Angel Inn, Oxford), a coat beater and brusher, &c. ; with the drying-room, for working a mangle ; with the dairy, for churning and breaking the curd of cheese, &e. ; and, when employed in none of these oflSces, in turning a small bone-crusher, to prepare bones for making soup, and in raising water to a cistern over the scullerj', placed on exactly the same level as the four cisterns placed over the four angular water-closets, and communicating with them in such a manner that there should always be the same depth of water in all the five cisterns. From the central cistern there should be pipes for conveying it to all the dif- ferent offices, including even the dining-rooms and the schools ; and to each cock there ought to be a small sink, communicating with a common di-ain leading to one of the four angidar cess-pools. iMany other modes of applying the power of the steam engine to domestic purposes will doubtless suggest themselves in practice. We have omitted to introduce a gasometer ; because, though we believe that in towns gas might be advan- tageously employed for the purposes of cooking and heating, as well as lighting, yet, for a college of so humble a description, it might involve more expense and trouble than it would be desirable to incur. Neither do we consider the steam engine, nor the various machines which it is intended to set in motion, as at all essential to the plan ; but we have suggested 'them, because, in many parts of the country, in the mining districts for example, the rate of wages is suflSciently liigh to allow of their introduction, and every one, in such districts, understands their management. The only feature in the way of apparatus, that is essentially necessary, is that of Perkins, for heating by hot water; and the reason why we consider this essential is, that it will convey to each of the eighty dwellings a higher degree of heat than can possibly be done by steam, and this at a cheaper rate, than by any other mode at present known. But if the idea oil'- individuals ever cooking any thing for themselves in their own dwellings, or preserving any thing there at a higher temperature than 180', is given up, which we think it very well might be, as the public kitchen is at a convenient distance for supplying hot water, &c., to all; then, instead of Perkins's apparatus for circidating hot water at a temperature of 300°, steam might be circidated at the ordinary temperature of 180° and upwards. The apparatus for this pui-pose would not be so cheap as that of Perkins, but it would be more easUy put up, and kept in repair, in remote districts. In putting up a steam 5248 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AUCHITECTURE. apparatus, it must be kept in view, for the sake of economy, that all the mains may be of small half-incli pipe, which does not cost above 3d. or 4(1. a foot, while the heating pipes under the floor of each dwelling, in order to give them abundant power, may be of six or eight inches in diameter. In the management of steam, with a view to economy, it should always be remembered, that it dirters from water in this, that the mains may always be exceedingly small, however large may be the service pipes. Where steam is to be conveyed to a distance, this is a very great advantage. 499. Arrangement of the Dwellings. These, as before stated, are in eight divisions ; by referring to the plan, fig. 440, it will be seen that the limits of each row of ten dwellings is determined by the carriage or foot entrance to the offices, at 10, at one end; and by the public water-closets, at A1^-.\VVi 44S ail inch and a quarter to a foot), in which k is the sleeper ; I, the bottom plate ; and m, the joist. The posts are grooved on the sides, and so are the top and bottom plates, for the purpose of receiving in the grooves the ends of the paneled frames. When the cottage is putting together, the paneled frames, fig. 449 (to a scale of an inch and five eighths to three feet), are put in between the grooved posts. Two of these panels are in part glazed, and hinged to a hanging style, which fits into the upright groove ; thus form- ing at once all the doors and windows required. The panels being all fixed, a set of top plates is put on, similar in dimension to the bottom plates, and similarly grooved to receive the top rails of the paneled frames ; and these are held together by iron screw- bolts at the corners, made fast by a bed-wrench applied on the upper side of the plates. On these top plates (which, in a common building, would be called the wall plates) are placed the rafters, seven feet six inches long, and four inches by one inch and a half 254. COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 449 OH i I h '^St thick, which are let into a ridge piece at the top, as shown in fig. 450, and into the wall plates at the foot, as shown in fig. 451. A purlin is placed across the rafters on each 451 452 side, halved into them, and flush at top, as seen in the skeleton elevation, fig. 454. The flooring is formed of ineh-ded boards, laid side by side, and let into the bottom plates, as shown in fig. 452 (to a scale cf one eighth of an inch to a foot), in which n is the floor board ; o, the bottom plate ; p, the bottom raU of one of the paneled frames ; and q, the joist. The construction of these frames will be un- derstood by fig. 453 (to a scale of five eighths of an inch to a foot), in which r r are the styles ; s s, the muntins, or muntings (from the French, montant, meaning the upright pieces between the side styles, into which the rails of doors, or other paneled compartments, are framed) ; t 1 1, the panels ; and u u, the posts. The outside posts, to which the partition is joined, are t s t .V t formed as in fig. 455 (one fourth of the full size), which requires no explanation, roofing is generally completed by a tarpawlinj The which is thrown over the rafters, and, COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 255 having strings on the under side, is made tight by them to the rafters, while it is kept close down at the eaves by lines which are sewed along the margin of the canvass, and tied tight at the angles. All that is now wanting to complete the cottage are eight short posts, on which to place the sleepers, so as to raise the floor above the surface, in order 455 WJ to keep it dry. These, however, may be generally dispensed with ; for on very dry soils, or where the ground falls from the site on every side, the sleepers may be laid on the ground ; and even in situations flat, and not very dry, a ditch may be dug round the 2.56 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. cottage, at the distance of about a foot from it, so as to produce the efTect of placing it on a platform, as shoA\Ti in the skeleton, fig. 454, and in the miniature elevation of the finished cottage, in isometrical perspective, r, in the same figure. Exterior appendages may be easily constructed of materials found on the spot. The tarpawling ought to be oiled, and all tlie wood-work should have at least two coats of paint. If instead of being painted with common oil paint, these cottages were coated over with any of the anticombustible paints or washes, the risk of accidents from fire might be diminished. The most effective wash of this description is said to be a saturated solution of silex in alkali. This is obtained by dissolving to saturation, in a lie of caustic alkali, siliceous earth properly prepared. Whatever material is washed with this mixture is said to become covered with a vitreous coat, and this has been proved at Munich and other places effectually to resist ignition. (liep. of Arts, 2d series, vol. iii. p. 249.) 513. Remarks. We consider this cottage as one of the most perfect things of the kind that we have seen. Every part of it being made exactly of the same dimensions ; that is, all the panels, posts, and plates, being respectively of exactly the same length, breadth, and thickness, no mistake or loss of time can occur in putting them together. Another great beauty in the construction is, that there is not a single nail used either in the carpentry of the separate parts, or in putting those parts together so as to form the cottage. All the framework composing the sides of the cottage being grooved and tongued, the weather is most effectually kept out ; and at the same time this construction allows the work to shrink or swell, according to the changes of the atmosphere or the season, without deranging any of the parts. The inventor of this cottage, Mr. IManning, carpenter and biulder. High Holborn, London, has made a great number of them for the Australian colonies, and particularly for the Swan River. Mr. Manning, who has a son settled at the latter colony, says, " These cottages were found to be of the greatest service to settlers, both in protecting their families from the weather, and their property from theft. Many persons who took out only tents, suffered severely in both respects ; their tents being frequently blown down in the middle of a stormy night, and their goods being thus not only exposed to the weather, but to pilfering. Provided with a cottage of this description, an emigrant might land from a ship in a new country in the morning, and sleep in his own house on shore at night. Whoever can use a common bed-wrench can put this cottage up ; and as none of the pieces are heavier than a man or a boy could easily carry for several miles, it might be taken even to a distance, without the aid of any beast of burthen. When a permanent situation is fixed upon, the cottage may be covered with shingles, or thatched with spray of trees, long grass, or such other suitable material as may be most readily obtained ; and at any future period, when the emigrant is prepared to build a stone, brick, or earthen-walled house, all the posts, panels, &c., of the portable cottage maybe brought into use as doors or partitions ; or cut up for window-framing, shelves, chests, or a variety of other purposes ; and the tarpawling, when no longer wanted for the roof, will always be a useful article for the agriculturist." 514. A Portable Cottage mai/ be used as a Substitute for a Country Residence. Mr. Man- ning has furnished us with an elevation and ground-jilan, figs. 456 and 457, of one, which he constructed for Captain J. G. Hall, and which has been erected by that gentlemen as a residence, at Wargrave, near Henley upon Thames. It is placed on a rising ground, within sixty feet of the river, and forms a handsome and conspicuous object to persons sailing from Henley towards Reading. The accommodations of this cottage are, an entrance hall, a; servant's sleeping-room, h ; kitchen, c; store-room, d; sitting-room twelve feet square, e ; and bed-room, /. A lumber-room which is formed in the roof COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 257 457 '^■— -"~ b --'v -/ z"' 1, f e 8X1 1 " 1 1 ^ R-li ^ 12 HX12 «-'bc'2 ... 1 r I 1 1 \ a — .. ,. .. IH :^-^ — -wi, ,r \ n fl has a floor of ploughed and tonguod boards laid on ceiling joists, so as to form a ceiling to the room below, and a floor to that above. The roof is thatched ; and the walls are painted, and dusted over with powdered fi-eestone. The interior is painted in imitation of wainscot. The fireplace of the sitting-room is a ship's cabin stove, and that of the kitchen a ship's galley stove ; both having iron piping for flues. By having horizontal piping from the kitchen through the servant's room, sitting-room, and bed-room, with a return pipe, one fire might suffice to heat the whole house. In this case, by a veiy simple contrivance, the smoke, during warm weather, instead of circulating through the horizontal flues, might be made to escape direct from the fire through the upright pipe (see § 489.). The cost of this cottage in London, exclusive of the stoves and the thatch, was only j£'120. For this sum, which would do little more than pay for a year's lodging of two rooms and a kitchen, in a fashionable street in London or New York, we have here a handsome and comfortable dwelling, abundantly commodious for a single person, or a man and his ^rife without children, and which, with moderate attention to painting, would last a lifetime. It must not be forgotten that a great saving is produced by the paneled walls, which render unnecessary all expense of plastering and papering, and wliich, when painted in imitation of wainscot, look remarkably well, and remain many years without requiring any repair. 515. Ambulatory Cottage. With such a portable cottage as this on wheels, a man with £'200 or ^^300 a year might enjoy in Britain as much niral beauty and variety, as would cost another with a fixed town and country residence as many thousands. 516'. Cooperative Ambulatory Cottages. If a family or a party intended to live in portable cottages, renting a small field wherever they found it desirable to set them down ; and to change their place of residence frequently, say to the north of England or Scotland during summer, and to the south during winter, the most convenient plan would be to have not more than two rooms in one cottage, or, perhaps, even one room might be found enough, as the wheels should be low, and under the floor. At every place of encampment, the cottages, or rooms, any number of wliich might belong to one family, might be placed in a line, with the kitchen at one end ; from which a steam pipe might proceed to heat all the others, and also a pipe of cold water from a cistern over the ceiling of the kitchen, filled by one of Siebe's pumps, and a long leathern hose, from any neighbomung well or brook. Tlie roof and the floor of one side of every cottage might project three feet beyond the wall ; and, when all the cottages were placed close together with the projections alongside of each other, a covered passage or veranda would be formed the whole length of the line of cottages. There would be no diflSculty in heating all the rooms by steam from one fire, or in supplying all the bed-rooms with water from one cistern. Every cottage should have its own pipes for these purposes ; and those of one cottage could be connected with those of another by right and left- handed screws and coupling pieces, as in Perkins's tubes for circulating hot water under compression. In short, by some contrivance, many of the comforts of a fixed residence might be obtained in these portable and ambulatory cottages ; and many of the enjoy- ments and advantages of society and of cooperation, by a number of them encamping together. We do not say that the same comforts and advantages would be obtained so economically as in a fixed locality ; but for those who have no occupation, and derive a great part of their enjoyment from visiting diflTerent parts of the country ; who like to live by turns among mountains, by the sea-shore, in a fertile valley, or in the suburbs of a large town ; among the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland in summer, and in Devonshire or Cornwall during winter, we do say that an arrangement of this kind would procure those enjoyments for one tithe of what they now cost. 2.58 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Chap. III. Designs and Directions for Exterior and Interior Finishing, as connected with Furnishing, and for the Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of Cottage Dwellings, 517. Exterior Finishing is the term applied to stuccoing, roughcasting, and plastering ; and to whitewashing, colouring, painting, and similar processes, for exterior walls, and timber-work. It also includes troughs, gutters to projecting roofs, rain-water pipes, exterior window shutters and window blinds ; and the application of exterior ornaments, such as barge-boards, canopies, ornamental chimney-pots, balconies, verandas, vases, trelliswork, and a variety of similar appendages. 518. Bg Interior Finishing is here to be understood the covering of the walls with various materials, partly with a view to use, and partly to ornament ; such as affixing cornices, whitewashing, colouring, painting, stenciling, papering, &c. Architects include under the term finishing, all such portions of the joiner's work as are fixed, after the ceilings, walls, &c., are plastered; also locks, bolts, bars, and springs, to shutters and doors; and water-closets, baths, chimney-pieces, &c. : but, in this portion of our work, we have thought it best to confine ourselves chiefly to such parts of finishing as have not before come under our review. 519. By Fittings-up are commonly implied the putting up of wooden closets; the fixing of shelves ; of seats and basins in water-closets ; of cisterns ; and of pipes and cocks to supply the different parts of the house with water ; the hanging of bells ; and the putting up of such other articles in a house, as cannot be taken down without deranging in some way or other the finishing of the apartments. 520. Bg Fixtures are meant stoves, grates, boilers, coppers, dressers, and sometimes bookcases and corner cupboards ; all of which are more or less fixed to the walls, and, like the fittings-up, cannot be taken down without, in some degree, injuring or disfiguring the apartment. 521. Furniture includes all the portable articles introduced into apartments, for the purpose of rendering them habitable, comfortable, and agreeable : such as seats of dif- ferent kinds, tables, beds, carpets, and curtains ; wardrobes, and other portable receptacles for clothes, books, &c. ; musical instruments ; and also ornaments, such as pictures, sculptures, curiosities, &c. 522. These different departments of the art of completing a house are not alike susceptible of being illustrated by designs, which cannot, for example, be made to include painting, colouring, papering, &c. For this reason we intend to blend some general directions with our graphical illustrations, deferring the details of the processes of the painter, plasterer, paperhanger, &c., till we treat of these arts in a subsequent part of the work. 523. In all that relates to finishing and furnishing, the artist must be directed by the same general principles as those which were his guide in designing the building. These principles are as much founded on reason in the one case as in the other. The first im- pression which we ought to receive from seeing a human dwelling at a distance is that it is such ; and that it is suited for some particular class or description of family, mode of living, or state of civilisation. On a nearer view, the parts and finishing of the exterior, as they develope themselves, ought to convey to us some ideas of tlie taste of the occupant. As we enter the porch, these ideas ought to be confirmed by the continuation of the same general style of taste, enhanced in degree, because nearer to the eye and under the protection of a roof; and, as we proceed to the principal apartment, the train of ideas awakened ought to be maintained, and increased, till it arrives at its ultimatum in the room wliere the mistress of the house receives visits from her friends. This is the general result to which all finishing and furnishing is, or ought to be, directed ; and it may be reduced to two principles, unity of style, and gradation of excellence. Unity of style should pervade both the exterior and the interior ; and there ought to be a regular gradation in the labour and care employed, from tlie outside walls and exterior finishing and ornaments, to the most highly enriched apartment within. Another principle, subordinate to these two, is, that as every apartment in a house has, or ought to have, its particular use, so it should be characterised by some particular piece of furniture essential to that use ; and that all the subordinate articles and ornaments in such apartments should have a reference, or be appropriate, to the principal one. Thus a kitchen is characterised by the grate or kitchen range ; the dining-room, by the side- l)oard ; the library, by the bookcase ; the drawing-room, by the sofa ; and so on : the subordinate furniture must always accord with the jsrincipal article. Thus, the kitchen range should be sujiported in character by the dresser and plate-rack ; the sideboard, by the cellaret and massive dining-table ; the bookcase, by reading and writing tables and desks; and the sofa, by chimney and pier glasses, and by various descriptions of seats, EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 2o9 some with cushions. Every apartment, therefore, on being entered, ought to display a marked character of use ; as well as a particular character of style, with reference to its finishing and furnishing. Whenever any doubt is left in the mind of the spectator, as to the use of an apartment into which he is conducted, something in that apartment must as certainly be wrong, as when the exterior of a building conveys a false idea of its use, and a human dwelling is mistaken for a stable or a chapel. This principle must also be extended to the exterior of a dwelling, and the windows and walling of a drawing-room, or library, or other superior living-room, ought never to be liable to be mistaken for those of a bed-room or closet. At the same time that the nobler parts of a dwelling are to be rendered prominent features in its general aspect, the meaner parts are not to be rendered more mean, but should rather be raised in character, so as to harmonise with the rest, and to support the general expression of the whole. These principles are as applicable to the humblest cottage as to the most elegant villa ; and we shall proceed to exemplify their application in the order of exterior finishing, interior finishing, fittings- up, fixtures, and furniture. We should premise, however, that some parts of the present chapter must necessarily seem to belong as much to ornamental as to plain cottages ; be- cause the two subjects are so intimately connected, that it is almost impossible to separate them ; nor, indeed, with a view to the improvement of the cottager, is it desirable that this should be done. 524. Previously to finishing either exteriors or interiors, a sufficient time ought to be al- lowed for what is called the carcass, or general framework, of a building to be thoroughly dried and settled in every part. The time requisite for this purpose will depend on various circumstances ; but chiefly on the thickness of the walls, and on the doors and windows being left unclosed. The maintenance of this ventilation, when the house is finished, will depend upon the judicious introduction of openings in the side walls under all the floors, and under the eaves of the roof, for the admission of a Iree current of ah-. As a general principle, it may be laid down, that provision ought to be made for a constant circulation of air in all the voids of a building ; or, in other words, wherever air is admitted, it ought to maintain a circulation with the external air. A circulation between the roof of a house and the ceiling of the uppermost room is maintained by small openings directly under the eaves ; or by very small windows, loopholes, or slits, in the gable ends. A circulation is promoted mider the floors of the different stories of a house by the introduction of small iron gratings in the walls, communicating with the vacuities between the floors and the ceilings. When precautions of this kind are neglected, premature decay is too frequently the consequence. What is called the diy rot in timber, every builder knows, is brought on by the use of timber imperfectly seasoned in parts of buildings excluded by position, or by neglect of the means, from proper ventilation. Even in cottages of the humblest class, therefore, the walls ought to stand some months before being roughcast, or coloured outside, or plastered inside; and the timbers of the floors should remain still longer before they are covered with the flooring-boards above, and closed up by the ceilings below : when all fhe timber-work is put up, it ought to remain another period before it is painted ; and in some parts of Britain, and in most parts of the Continent, this period extends to a year and upwards, even in cottages. Common plaster, on brick or stone walls, ought not to be whitewashed or coloured in less than a year ; or, if on lath and plaster, six spring or summer months. Where oil colours are used, the stuccoed plaster requires, in ordinary cases, to dry for one or two years. When this is neglected, the water enclosed in the walls cannot escape by evaporation ; and is therefore, by the swelling of the mortar, forced through the paint ; entirely discolouring it in some places, and oc- casioning it to peel off in others. 525. Provisions for all the exterior and interior finishing and all the fittings-up and fixtures of a dwelling, however humble, ought to be made in building it. Among these provisions, the principal ones are, proper openings for pipes for bringing in or can-ying off water ; tubes for conducting bell wire ; recesses, flues, and other openings, for such of the new modes of heating" or ventilating as it may be proposed to adopt ; and places for cupboard-closets, water-closets, cisterns, &c. &c. There is not much to be provided for in this way in cottages of the class now under consideration, but stiU enough to wai'rant our noticing the subject in this place. Sect. I. Designs and Directions for the Exterior Finishing of Cottage Dwellings. 526. Outside Plastering includes stuccoing with the different kinds of cement ; rough- casting, Scotch and English ; and common lime and hair plastering, ornamental or other- wise. The principal puqsose for which any of these processes is adopted on the outside walls of a cottage is, to keep them dry ; and a secondary purpose is, to render them ornamental, either by imitating stone, or by producing a surface more curious or agreeable to the eye, than the rude materials concealed by it. 527. The Cements for Stuccoing are chiefly the Roman cement, of which there arc two 2G0 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. kinds common in Britain, Parker's and Mulgrave's ; the Puzzolano ; the tarras ; the gypsum ; the mastic ; Frost's cement ; the metallic cement ; and Bailey's composition. The first two, and the gypsum, possess in an eminent degree the power of setting almost instantaneously, either with or without an admixture of sand. Puzzolano earth, tarras, and Frost's cement are better calculated than the Roman cements to indurate with lime ; because they do not set so quickly. A very hard and durable cement may be formed of stone lime recently burned, and, immediately after being slacked, mixed with clean, sharp sand. This about London is called Bailey's composition, and is packed dry in casks, and sent to any distance. The usual proportions are, three of sand to one of lime. Mastic is a calcareous cement, which consists of earth, and other substances almost insoluble in water, to which, when pulverised, are added any of the oxides of lead, and also a quantity of glass, or flint stones ; the whole reduced to a fine powder, and intimately incorporated with any cheap vegetable oil. This is rather too expensive a cement for cottages ; but it forms a better imitation of stone, especially of freestone, than any other, and has this great advantage over all the others, that, when put up into casks, it will keep without injury for any length of time. In general, wherever good fresh lime and clean sharp sand can be had, an excellent cement may be formed. Mr. Frost has proved that lime, even chalk-lime, burned in a close kiln, and cooled without coming in the slightest degree in contact with the atmosphere, will, when afterwards slacked, and mixed with sharp sand, set as rapidly as Roman cement, and this even under water. ( See the Spe- cification, of the Patent in the Repertory of Arts.) In England, the scrapings of the public roads, where limestone or sandstone is the material employed, are found to serve as a substitute for sharp sand, provided care be taken (o wash from them their finer earthy particles. But on the subject of cements we shall enter more at length in a future part of this work. 528. The object of coverinff the outside of the walls of cottages ivith cement is generally to imitate stone. In this imitation, care must be taken that the lines drawn do not represent stones of too large a size ; that the shapes of the stones at the corners, and for the lintels and sills of doors and windows, be suited to their situations and uses ; and that, in the regular courses, the joints alternate and show bond properly, as in regularly built stone buildings. A dwelling with the walls of brick will often be much improved in appearance by forming the string courses, the facings or architraves to the doors and windows, the corner stones, the cornices, the tablings, and especially the chimney-tops, of cement in imitation of stone. Where the cement used for either of these purposes is lime and sand, it will resemble stone with little or no colouring matter added ; but where Roman cement, or Puzzolano, or tarras, is used, the colour, after being laid on, will be dark, and the cement must therefore be brought to a stone colour by washing it over with washes, composed in proportions of five ounces of copperas to every gallon of water, and as much fresh lime and cement (to which some add tallow), as will produce the colour required. The copperas, or sulphate of iron, oxidises with the atmosphere, and produces a reddish tinge. The forms of the stones, defined by the lines, should, some days afterwards, be touched with umber, ochres of different shades, and occasionally with vitriol ; which colours, if laid on by a painter who knows how to imitate tlie tints of nature, will produce a harmonious effect. Oil colours should not be used on cement laid on walls in the open air for a year or more, till the water mixed up with it is either solidified or evaporated. When cement is once thoroughly dry, its hardness and durabi- lity is greatly increased by washing it over with any oily or greasy matter, with or with- out a mixture of colour incorporated. There are various litliic paints for covering cement, all of which are composed of oxide of lead, powdered glass or other vitrified matter, and the colour of the stone to be imitated, intimately mixed together, and beaten up with oil. 529. Roughcasting, or Harling as it is called in Scotland, is a mode of outside finish- ing well calculated to protect walls from the weather. It is not capable of such a high degree of beauty as a covering of cement, because a roughcast wall is only a plastered wall with a rough surface, instead of a smooth one ; but then it is considerably cheaper than any description of stucco. It is much used for covering rubble stone walls and houses, in Scotland and Ireland. The following is the process : — Plaster the wall over with lime and hair-mortar ; when this is dry, add another coat of the same material, laid on as smoothly and evenly as possible. As fast as this coat is finished, a second workman follows the other, with a pail of roughcast, which he throws on the new plas- tering. The materials for roughcasting are composed of fine gravel, reduced to a uniform size by sifting or screening, and with the earth washed cleanly out of it ; this gravel is then mixed with pure newly slacked lime and water, till the whole is of the consistence of a semi-fluid : it is then forcibly thrown, or rather splashed, upon the wall with a large trowel, which the plasterer holds in his right hand, while in his left he has a common whitewash brush. With the former he dashes on the roughcast, and with the latter. EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 26l which he dips into the roughcast, he brushes and colours the mortar and roughcast that lie has laid on, so as to make them, when finished and dry, appear of the same colour throughout. 530. Another description of rouffhcast, which may he called English, as the other may be called Scotch, consists in "dashing the surface of the plaster, after being newly laid on, with clean gra\el, pebbles, broken stones of any kind, broken earthenware, scoria, spars, burnt clay, or other materials of the like description, sifted or screened, so as to be of a uniform size. The effect of surfaces of this kind is good, and the process admits of pro- ducing very great variety in tlie external appearance of cottages. The sea-side pebbles are frequently used in this way on the sea-coast of Norfolk : by being forcibly thrown against the moist plaster, they penetrate into it, and render it very firm and durable. Sometimes, instead of the stones, or other matters, being broken to a small and uniform- sized gravel, they are pounded into a coarse sand, and this is dashed against the moist mortar. The effect is pleasing, but the strength and durability are not so great as in the other mode. In using small stones or gravel, it is desirable, for the sake of effect, previously to render the moist plaster as nearly as possible of the same colour as that of the materials to be thrown against it. It is also desirable that all corners, sills, lintels, and, in short, all vertical and horizontal bond, should be tinted of the same colour as the roughcasting. 531. Common Lime and Hair Plastering ornamented is to be seen on the outside of cot- tages in several parts of England. When the plaster is in a moist state, impressions are made on it in various ways, and by various articles. Lines are drawn with the trowel, straight, wavy, angular, intersecting, or irregular. Stripes, chequers, squares, circles, or trelliswork, are also imitated. Wickerwork is a very general subject of imitation ; and this is produced by pressing a panel, generally a foot square, of neatly wrought wicker- work, against the plaster, while moist. It is evident that this description of ornament might be greatly extended and varied ; and that, instead of the panel of wickerwork, wooden plates of patterns, such as those used by room paper-printers, might cover the cottage walls with hieroglyphics, with sculptures of various kinds, with imitations of natural objects, or with memorable or instructive sayings, or chronological facts. 532. Cementing, Roughcasting, and Plastering, as means of ornamenting the outsides of buildings, are dangerous processes in the hands of a builder who is without a culti- vated architectural taste. Let our readers never forget that the outside of a house, or a wall of any kind, covered in every part with roughcast, or with plaster ornamented in any way, except being Ifned and coloured in imitation of stone, is a mere blank or negation in Architecture. Such a wall has no beauty, because it has no expression. It may not even be a wall, but a panoply of plastered lath, imposed upon us as a substitute. No wall is worthy of the name that does not bear on its face the nature and kind of its materials, and the manner of its construction ; or, in other words, that does not display in its physiognomy the character of its anatomy. A house, the walls of which are covered with roughcast, or with plaster whitewashed or otherwise coloured, whatever may be the beauty or magnitude of its doors and windows, is no piece of Architecture ; it is not even an imitation of Architecture ; because the elements of all architectural productions are the stones or bricks of which edifices are composed. A wall or a house, therefore, that does not show, either in reality or in imitation, the materials of which its walls are composed, can have no pretensions to architectural expression. This expression can no more be produced with its full effect, without the indication of the constituent materials of the edifice, than a sentence can be printed without employing the letters of the alphabet. There is not a more important principle than this for the young Architect to bear constantly in mind, in the whole range of the science of Architecture. The rule to be derived from it, in the practice of the art, is, whenever cement is to be employed on the outside of a building, and not to be lined and coloured in imitation of stone, there must be the requisite vertical and horizontal bond, for the strength, stability, and durability of the structure, of brick or of stone ; or, in minor buildings, of timber, or of projections or piers of cement, lined and coloured in imitation of stone. The same rule applies to roughcasting and ornamental plastering. We shall illustrate this rule by the case of a plastered and whitewashed house, taken at random from a number seen from the window of the room in which we now write. Fig. 458 will, by general observers, be considered a very neat elevation ; but those who have understood the principles we have laid [down will see at once that it is totally without expression, having no appear- ance whatever of either vertical or horizontal bond. The facings to the windows convey the idea that these openings are surrounded by stone ; but there is no evidence that these stone framings rest on any thing but plaster ; the mind, therefore, does not follow up the impression made by the eye, and the imitation stone facings, for want of imitation sup- port below them to carry on the illusion, sink into mere plaster ornaments. Let the plaster in front of this building be disposed either as in figs. 459 or 460, and how dif- £62 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AIICHITECTUIIE. 458 459 460 fercnt would be the effect ! In the first case, fig. 459, the vertical bond is produced, or, in other words, the roof is supported, by the squared stones at the angles, and the hewn stones forming the piers containing tlie windows ; and in the latter case, fig. 460, the roof is supi^orted by the pilasters, and the architrave over them ; while the windows are supported by tlie string courses, or horizontal bond. 533. Whitetvashing the outside walls of buildings is of very universal use, and it seems to please the eyes of persons of ordinary minds, by the contrast which it produces with the surrounding scenery. Bright whitewashing, however, has at all times been objected to by men of taste ; particularly by artists, who, having cultivated the art of seeing objects with reference to their picturesque beauty, ought to be judges of its efi^ect in scenery. Gilpin, speaking of the cottages in Wales, says, the Welsh generally " seem fond of whitening their houses, which gives them a disagreeable glare. A speck of white is often beautiful ; but white in profusion is, of all tints, the most inharmonious. A white seat at the corner of a wood, or a few white cattle grazing in a meadow, enliven a scene, per- liaps, more than if the seat or the cattle had been of any other colour : they have mean- ing and effect. But a front and two staring wings ; an extent of rails ; a huge Chinese bridge ; the tower of a church ; and a variety of other large objects, which we often see daubed over with white, make a disagreeable appearance, and unite ill with the general simplicity of nature's colouring. In animadverting, however, on white objects, I would only censure the mere raw tint. It may be easily corrected, and turned into stone colours of various hues ; which, though light, if not too light, may often have a good effect." ( Gilpin's Wye, p. 94.) Bartell directs, that, in colouring cottage walls, " every material of a strong harsh colour should be rejected. The fierce red of some kinds of bricks, and the perfect white of a wash of lime, are equally disgusting." ( Hints for Pic- turesque Improvement fur Ornamental Cottages, p. 10.) 534. The Compositions for Exterior Colouring are various. The following is said to be a very superior one : — Take 26 pounds of quicklime, slacked to a powder, and well sifted, and 28 pounds of tarras, sifted well. Mix these with a small quantity of water as quickly as possible. Beat them together with a wooden beater, upon a banker (a stone or wooden bench). Continue to beat them three or four times a day, for four (lays ; and, at the end of that period, take three gallons of bullock's blood (which should be well stirred in the catching, to prevent it clotting), and add to it, when cold, three gallons of water. Put the lime and tarras into a tub, together with the blood and water, stirring them well to make the wash thin ; when it will be fit for use. Keep stirring while using it, to prevent the tarras from settling at the bottom. Let the wall be first cleaned from moss and dirt, washing it twice with a watering-pot ; and, before it is dry, begin to lay on the composition, observing not to work it too thick. In the second washing, add two quarts more blood, properly stirred while cooling, as before, to make the wash more sizy and glutinous. If a yellow tinge be desired, put in a poimd or more of stone or Roman ochre, according to fancy. Stale milk may be substituted for blood, though it is said by some not to make the wash resist the weather equally well. 535. The common colouring in use about London iscomposed of %vhitening made from chalk or other lime, charcoal, or yellow ochre, and cojiperas, in projiortions according to the colours which it is desired should prevail. A preponderance of lampblack, or powdered charcoal produces a greyish white, which is a cold, and not in general a desirable, colour ; lime and stone ochre produce a cream or freestone colour. Lime and copperas produce a bright white at first, which, in the course of a few weeks, changes to a white, with more or less of a reddish tinge, according to the proportion of copperas introduced. 536. A whitewash which will adhere to woodwork, and preserve it from the weather, is thus composed : — To three parts of unslacked lime add two of wood ashes, and one of fine sand, or of coal ashes sifted through a fine sieve. Let these be mixed with as much linseed oil as will bring the mixture to a consistence for working with a painter's brush. If the mixture be ground together, it will be an improvement. Two coats wiU be re- quired ; the first tliin, and the second thick. The hardness of this wash increases by time. (^Smith's Art of House- Painting, p. 36.) EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. '263 537. T/ie colouring of outside walls is most commonly effected by water colours, when the surface of the wall is new ; or by colours incorporated with glutinous substances or oils, after the walls have been thoroughly dried. As a general rule in colouring walls, it may be laid down, that colours unmixed with glutinous bodies, and held in solution by water alone, may be laid on the wall at any time when the temperature is ten or twelve degrees above the freezing point, and in no immediate danger of falling lower, whether the walls are wet or dry, new or old. Colours mixed with glutinous matters or oils, on the other hand, should not be laid on new walls till they are thoroughly dried ; or on old walls at a season of the year wlien their surface may be saturated with mois- ture. The reason for these rules Ls, that water colours do not impede the evaporation of moisture from the wall, and the absorption by the mortar of carbonic acid gas, by which it is hardened and rendered durable ; while glutinous colours, by closing up the pores of the surface, do both. 538. IFater colours for outside walls are generally formed on a basis of quicklime, Roman cement, tarras, or Puzzolano. With one or other of these the colours are mixed as wanted, and are immediately laid on with a whitewashing brush. By far the most favourable time to do this is when the wall is newly built, or the plaster is recently laid on. In the case of old walls, they must first be thoroughly scraped, washed, and stopped ; and afterwards brushed over with the colouring mixture, either as a flat shade, or clouded, as the expression is, to imitate the effects of time. This last purpose will be materially aided by taking any strong acid that combines with lime, or any metallic oxide, that will, of course, absorb oxygen from the atmosphere, and mixing these with water, in two separate pails, occasionally dipping the brush in one or the other. A very convenient acid is the sulphuric, in the proportion of one to ten of water ; and a suitable oxide is the sulphate of iron, dissolved in water, in about the same proportion. The blotches moistened with the sulphuric acid will in time assume a rich cream colour, and those touched by the copperas will have a reddish tinge. 539. Glutinous colours for outside walls also take for their basis quicklime or some cement ; and the glutinous matter is either blood, kept stirring till cold, to prevent it from becoming clotted, stale milk, or vegetable oils. Size and paste are sometimes used as glutinous media ; and, in such cases, alum is mixed with them, to prevent tliem from fermenting, and becoming mouldy on the walls ; but they are not durable, and, if exposed to driving rains, soon wash off. The desired colours are added to the glutinous matter, which is laid on of such a consistence as to part easily from a common whitewasher's brush. 540. Painting the outsides of walls in oil colours is too expensive for cottages, and, on the whole, is unsuitable for any structure not formed of timber. As a medium of giving colour, it is more expensive, and not much more efficient, than glutinous colours formed with blood ; and, as a protection from the weather, three coats of oil paint are nearly as expensive, and far less effective, than one coat of quicklime and sharp sand, which will last as long as the atmosphere contains oxygen, and will grow harder as it grows older. In the United States of America, however, the exteriors of brick houses are said to be frequently " painted in oil, the colours being most commonly red or brown." It is also said that " the Dutch very generally cover their buildings with a composition of mortar, or plaster, mixed with oil and colour : blue, red or light pink, and grey, are the most common tints. These walls, when dry, have a kind of gloss like varnish, and of course resist wet." (Meek. Mag., vol. iv. p. 98.) It appears to us that the protection afforded by this oil-colouring is not sufficient to atone for the bad taste which it displays. 541. The kinds of colours most suitable for exterior walls should generally be such as belong to the stones or bricks of the country in which the dwelling stands. These are chiefly whites, browns, yellows, reds, and greys. Yellow, red, and brown ochres are among the cheapest of colours ; and fi-om these, with whiting, chai-coal, and bistre (or soot, fi-om which bistre is made), all the colouring desirable for the outsides of cottages may be produced. 542. Splasking is a mode of colouring walls, which may be performed with equal success, as far as immediate effect is concerned, in water, in glutinous, or in oil, colours ; and, in regard to the state of the walls, the same rules will apply in this case that have been already laid down in § 537. The object of splashing is either to imitate the lichens and weather stains of an old wall, or some particular kind of stone. It is seldom attempted in water colours, from their transient duration in the open air, but answers perfectly well with colours mixed with either blood, milk, or oil. The surface of the wall to be splashed must be well seasoned, and perfectly dry ; and should reseinble, as much as possible, the form of the stone or wall to be imitated ; and the prevailing or groundwork colour of that wall should be given to it, by one coat over the whole. Then, several pots of different colours being mixed up, and a long painter's brush, called a duster, being put in each, the artist, holding a short stick in one hand, takes in the 264 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. other the brush, with the colour which he thinks it desirable to put on first, and strikes the head of the brush against the stick, so as to bespatter the wall with the colour. The taste of the artist must be his guide, as to the quantity of each colour which he throws on, and also as to the number of colours to be employed; but in neither case will he be at any loss, if he keeps the object to be imitated steadily in view. The first brushful of colour falls on the wall in circular patches, from -^ to j|- of an inch in diameter ; the second brushful adds to the number of these round patches, and enlarges many of them, either by falling thickly among several, and joining them into one irregular blotch ; or by falling on two or three, or on only one of the previous spots, and forming with it either an oval, or the figure 8. If we suppose the same process continued, on the same portion of surface, with different colours, it will be evident, that not only the shapes of the patches will be further altered by the addition of each splash of colour, but that their colours also will be varied. In this manner the process of splashing is carried on ; and the result is obtained partly by chance, though chiefly by the skill of the artist. This kuid of painting is less applicable to cottages than it is to imitations of rocks in garden scenery, and to Gothic buildings of a considerable size. In cottages, however, it may sometimes be usefully employed in colouring the imitations of stone or brick bond, where the rest of the walling is stuccoed, roughcast, or plastered j and, at all events, it is good to know every source of varied expression. 543. Ill whitewashing, colouring, or painting the exterior tvaUs of buildings, the young Architect must constantly bear in mind that there are two objects in view; viz., the pro- tection of the wall from the weather, and the production of a colour suitable to the object coloured, and agreeable to the eye. The protection of the wall is effected with glutinous or oil paints, by excluding it from all kinds of atmospherical influence, exce]:>t that of change of temperature. The same object, but in a less degree, is pro- duced by washes composed of lime or cement ; which, while they do not prevent the atmosphere from evaporating the moisture of the wall in dry warm weather, yet exclude from its surface driving rains. The colouring matter in either of these cases is of very little consequence, so far as respects the protection of the wall. By having a clear idea of the purposes to be effected by colouring and painting, the Architect will know when to direct, or the cottager when to employ, colours or washes which will protect the wall from the drying influence of the atmosphere ; and when such other colours and washes as will admit that influence ought to be preferred. 544. On painting the ivooclwork of the outsides of cottages little need here be said. If the wood be not thoroughly seasoned, it should not be painted with oil colours till it become so. It may be washed over in the mean time with water colours, or stained with nitrous acid, and dyed with logwood for immediate effect. We allude chiefly to the doors and windows. The larger outside timbers in cottages, especially those built of studwork and nogging, in countries where labour is abundant and paint dear, may be charred by the application of fire before being put up. We have seen buildings, the timbers of which had been treated in this manner, in France and Germany ; and in Switzerland we have seen cottages in which the timbers had been charred, after having been put up, by the application of red-hot iron. The practice is not uncommon in some parts of Russia, not with a view to preservation, but for the purjjose of ornamenting the very curious barge boards and gable ends which are sometimes seen on the cottages of enfranchised serfs in that country. The cheapest paint for the outside timber-work of common cottages in Britain is coal tar or gas liquor, which should be laid on hot during summer, when the timber is not only dry, but warm, and of which two or more coats, at intervals of two or three weeks, should be given, according to the nature of the timber, so as completely to saturate its pores. The colour cannot be called beautiful at first, but in the course of a year or two it assumes a subdued greyish tone, from the surface fibres of the wood becoming bleached by the atmosphere. Coal tar will, however, be suf- ficiently softened by the heat of the sun, to stick to clothes, or any thing that touches it, for three years ; but is an excellent preserver where it can be used without incon- venience. 545. The tiles, slates, and other roofing materials of cottages, may be painted exactly in the same manner as the walls ; but this can only be desirable with certain materials of a perishable nature, such as timber ; or ■with others of a harsh glaring colour, such as red tiles. The latter will .be greatly improved, both in durability and appearance, by being rubbed over or soaked in any greasy or oily matter, or by being painted with tar or gas li<]uor, before being put on the roof. But the best mode of colouring tiles and bricks is by mixing chalk, or ochres, or other oxides, with the clay, while it is being prepared for the mould. The tiled roofs of cottage lodges are sometimes splashed with oil colour, and the effect of age very successfully produced. 546. The best description of paint, for all kinds of outside work, is such as is formed by ground glass bottles, scoria from lead-works, burnt oyster-shells, and the required EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. ^65 colouring matter, powdered, and intimately mixed with raw linseed oil. Paint of this kind is prepared in London, and sold in a state of powder, under the name of anti- corrosion, litliic paint, i*tc. : but, as it requires to be mixed a day or more before it is used, as it is nuicli more laborious to put on than common paint, as it wears out the brushes in a very short time, and, above all, as it lasts so long when applied to iron, or well-seasoned timber, or masonry, as seldom to require renewal during a man's lifetime, painters very seldom recommend it. Tlie appeai-ance of a surface painted with anti- corrosion is rougli, resembling that of unrubbed cast iron or freestone ; and, when timber which has been once painted with it has to be cut up by a cai-penter, it takes the edge off his tools (even his axe and saw), so that he also is against it. It is used, how- ever, in some government works ; particularly for cast-iron bridges. 547. The Jfalls of Cottages may be protected and ornamented by Matheinatical Tiling. The object of this is to make the walls appear as if they were built of brick. The tiles, fig. 461, have their surfaces in two planes ; each plane of the depth and length of a common brick ; so that when tiles of this kind are placed against a wall, the one overlaps the other, as shown in the section, fig. 462 ; and the general appearance of the elevation is that of regular brickwork, as in fig. 463. There are bats or headers to imitate half bricks, fig. 464 ; and closers or quarter bricks, fig. 465, for the purpose of breaking 462 463 4€1 1 i; 11 11 1: i 1: ' i 1 ii 1 1 11 1 I 1 !i 1 1 joint at the angles, and rendering the imitation more complete. When these tiles are of cream colour, their effect is very neat, clean, and handsome ; but buildings in Avhich thav are used, to be in good architectural expression, ought always to have vertical bond in the form of projecting piers or angle stones. 548. Mathematical and common weather tiles may be rendered ornamental, either by varying their outline, or by impressing on them, in the mould, lines or figures. This has been done in a few places in England with bricks, and we think also with tiles. Fig. 466 shows some forms of weather-tiling, in addition to those before given, § 459. 466 ^"^ ^ K\ ^^ %il By taking leaves of plants as the source for originating ideas for varying the outline, the variety of ornamental weather-tiling might be carried to a g^eat extent ; and we are informed by travellers that it would be a most valuable protection to the wooden walls of houses in America, as we are certain it would be to the earthen walls of the farm buildings which are put up in some parts of Ireland. Weather tiles might also be applied instead of barge boards, the tiles in that case being formed longer ; and, when put on at right angles to the slope of the gable, finished by a projecting line of plain tDes over them. The colour of common weather-tiling might be varied, as well as the form, by the mixture of chalk, ochres, &c., with the clay while working it. IMathe- matical tiling might be ornamented on the surface by geometrical lines and figures j by Q66 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. representations of natural objects, such as the sun, moon, and stars, as is sometimes done on the window- facings and barge- 467 boards of the cot- tages in Russia ; of animals ; of the flowers of plants ; of their leaves, &c. In fig. 467 a, b, c, d, and e show a few of the simpler patterns. 549. Various other articles might be employed to cover and ornament the walls of cot- tages, according to the effect intended to be produced. Trellis-work of various kinds gives a gay and dressed a])pearance, suitable for the immediate neighbourhood of a large town. A marine character may be given by shells ; a rustic one by bark of trees ; and a grotesque one by roots of trees ; that of a Dutch cottage by glazed quarries (square tiles) ; and that of a Russian log-house by the outside slabs of trees (the first pieces sawn off, to reduce the trunk to a square, and of course flat on one side, and round on the other) ; the expression of warmth may be produced by clothing the walls with reeds ; and of coolness by blue slates, &c. 550. The use of barge-boards, ornamental chimney tops, vases, verandas, terrace parapets, balconies, flower-stands, mignonette boxes, §-c., may be consider, d as having been suf- ficiently illustrated in the preceding chapter. We have not hitherto, however, mentioned one very simple but neat cottage ornament, the sparrow pot, 468 fig. 468, which is made of common potter's ware, and projected from under the eaves of cottage roofs at regular distances, by simply placing the pots, which have holes in the side of their bottoms, on nails or wooden pegs. The use of these sparrow pots is, to prevent the birds from dirtying the walls or windows with what falls from their nests, by keeping them farther from the wall ; they also supply an easy means of taking either the birds or their eggs. We have seen a swallow pot for the same purpose, made by Adams, Gray's Inn Lane ; but we are not certain that it succeeds. High and ornamental chimney tops will, how- ever, generally be found to afford suitable angles and recesses for that bird (so useful to the cultivator in destroying winged insects) to build in. 551. The Doors of Cottages may be ornamented by adding strips of deal, in the form of muntins, styles, rails, beads, &c. ; by ornamental hinges and latches ; or by studding them over with imitation door nails. The plain door, fig. 469, may be rendered archi- tectural, in the Gothic style, at a very trifling expense, by fillets nailed on so as to produce the effect of figs. 470, 471, or 472, or that of fig. 473 ; or by nails, as in figs. 474, 475, and 476. The woodwork shoiild be painted in imitation of oak, and the heads of 469 470 473 474 475 476 n the nails should be black. These nails are to be procured complete, of different shapes, in cast iron ; but they are equally fit for producing effect when the heads are made of wood, and fastened on by a brad. When properly painted, it is impossible to distinguish the wooden nails from the iron ones. The shapes of the heads of these nails may be round, square, triangular, or polygonal ; and with either flat or raised surfaces. A few of the different forms are shown in fig. 477. Ornamental hinges, or plates of iron as 477 in figs. 474 and 475, into which ornamental nails are driven, may also be imitated in wood, and completely disguised by paint ; a-s may be certain parts of common latches, the EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 267 escutcheons of keyholes, &c. All knobs to cottage doors should be of real oak, laburnum (false ebony, as it is called by the French, from its hardness and blackness), yew, box, or other hard and tough wood, or of iron blackened or bronzed, but never of brass, which is too fine, and is besides liable to tarnish. The knobs, and other iron work of doors, may be blackened, by heating them nearly red hot, and immediately plunging them in oil ; after being taken out and dried, they are polished with a coarse woollen cloth. Knobs, nail heads, and other parts of doors, whether of iron or wood, may be made to imitate bronze, by first painting them of a deep yellow colour, and then green : before the green is quite dry, it should be rubbed off the projecting parts, so as to allow the yellow to be seen through it. The greatest ornaments to cottage doors are, the porch, the penthouse roof, and the projecting canopy or shelf supported by brackets ; but these may be considered as already disposed of. 552. Windows may be ornamented in a great variety of way . A plain sash or lattice window, figs. 478 and 479, may be disguised by a Gothic framework being put before it, as in figs. 480 and 481. In tliese cases it is supposed that the window to be disguised shows outside reveals of at least six inches in depth, and that the thickness of the frame- work is not more than an inch, which will still leave five inches of reveal ; a deep reveal being always desirable, as expressive of the thickness and strength of the walls. To dis- guise windows placed in nogging, studwork, weather-boarding, or other kinds of thin walls, which prevent any reveal from being shown on the outside, an artificial reveal must first be formed round the window by a projecting facing, in the manner of an architrave ; and to be truly architectural, and to convey the expression of strength, this facing ought to be continued to the ground below, and to the roof above. Fig. 482 shows a portion of the front of a common weather-boarded cottage, in which it is desired to improve the appearance of the windows. Fig. 483 shows the windows improved in the manner described. On the supposition that these windows gave light to a stable and hayloft, to a tool-house with a seed-room over, or to any apartment not occupied as a dwelling, the windows might be further ornamented by placing a framework before the glass, as in fig. 484 ; or Gothic labels might be added, as in fig. 485. It will readily be conceived 482 483 484 485 268 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. that, by the application of facings round windows, and by placing framework, judiciously painted and shaded to imitate mullions and their mouldings, before them, an inexhaust- ible source is opened for the improvement of commonplace windows. Where the window to be improved is flush with the outside wall, even its proportions might occasionally be changed; its height might be added to by using framework in which there was much tracery in the upper part, painting the wall immediately behind it black ; and the width might be increased in the same manner, by having narrow side-lights, and broad mullions and transoms. Thus, fig. 486 might be placed before fig. 487, and fig. 488 before fig. 489 ; the spaces marked a in both figures being painted black. In a country like 486 487 488 • 489 Britain, where the cottage windows are generally low and broad, nothing adds more dignity of character to a dwelling than heightening the windows ; because high windows are expressive of lofty rooms. Where height cannot be given, and the obvious tendency of the openings is to width, the effect of the elevation is improved by increasing that tendency, because the idea of a larger rooiu is thus given. From what we have said on the subject of disguising and ornamenting windows, we hope no reader will for a moment suppose that we intend any of the frames to be jdaced before the windows of the dwelling-rooms of cottages, in such a manner as to diminish the quantity of light and air admitted by them, or to injure the prospect seen from them. Nothing can be truly an ornament, or an improvement, to a house, which in the slightest degree diminishes the comforts or enjoyments of the occupier. There are few things to which we have a greater dislike than the practice of some great owners of parks, of putting labourers to live in lodges, and other ornamental buildings, which, with a great display externally, are scarcely habitable within. 553. Outside Shutters to windows or doors certainly cannot be considered as ornamental. To see on the outside of a building what we are accustomed to see on the inside, seems an offence against propriety ; while it gives, at the same time, the idea of meanness and insecurity. Nevertheless, it is certainly more economical, in building a cottage, to have outside shutters than inside ones ; and this circumstance, together with the influence that it is likely to have on the comfort of the cottager, being duly taken into consideration, we ought to moderate our dislike to them. What, perliaps, increases this dislike is the practice of holding forth these shutters as ornaments, by painting them green, and other gaudy colours ; instead of keeping them subordinate, by making them the colour of the walls, or of oak ; or by avowing them, and giving them the character of great strength, by fillets of wood, and nail heads, painted in imitation of iron ; or by adding some description of architectural expression. When we consider the economy produced in interior finishing by having dutside shutters, we think that, treated in this manner, they might be admitted even in ornamental cottages. Figs. 490, 491, 492, and 493, are examples of what may be called architecture shutters : those which 490 491 492 493 are meant to be completely subordinate should be painted, and marked with lines, in exact imitation of the forms and materials of the walls against which they are to l)e turned back. We have seen houses in the suburbs of Kiinigsberg with the outside shutters painted so exactly like the walls on both sides, that, when shut, the house .ap- peared to be without windows; and we were informed in 1813, by M. Koch, that several EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 269 houses escaped in this way from being plundered by the retreating French army, durin the preceding winter. In the Duke of Northumberland's house, 494 in the Strand, London, there is a gateway painted so exactly like the wall, as to deceive every body. Hinged shutters, when folded back, should be made fast in that position by the same bolt as that wliich fastens them when closed ; and the strongest bolt for this purpose is one in which the end is turned up so as to form the handle, and render riveting on the knob un- | necessary, fig. 494. The hinges used should be what are called set-back hinges, when it is wislied to make the shutters fit close to the windows when shut, and to throw them back close to the wall when open, as shown in fig. 495. Outside shutters might also be made to slide in grooves, in the manner wliich we shall notice when speaking of outside blinds. • Thus, outside shutters, which at first sight appear a deformity, may be converted into a source of beauty; for taste, like necessity, must bend to circumstances. The truth is, that the found- ation of aU taste, beyond that which is merely physical, lies in the mind ; and, as a writer in the New Monthly Magazine observes, " every man manufactures for himself bis own sub- limity and beauty." 554. Outside Blinds form both elegant and useful ornaments to windows. The mind is at once reconciled to them, from the idea which they convey of shading and protecting something delicate and refined within. Tlieir expression is the very opposite of that of commonplace window shutters, noble ratlier than mean ; and the reason is, because, in Britain at least, they are almost exclusively used in superior houses. They have not only the effect of shading the curtains, carpets, and other fur- niture in a room, from the direct rays of the sun, and so pre- serving their colours; but, by reflecting back the sun's rays, they keep the rooms cooler during summer, and also darker ; which last circumstance lessens the inducement for flies and other winged insects to intrude themselves. These outside blinds being only necessary during sunshine, various contrivances have been invented for putting them up in a compact form, during the night, or in cloudy weather ; and this circumstance has given rise to boxes with cornices, which are fitted to the upper parts of windows, and joined to narrow wooden facings, or architraves, which extend along the reveals down each side. These boxes and facings are always more or less ornamental ; and hence, even without blinds in them, tliey confer, when added to windows, a certain degree of dignity and beauty. All the diiferent kinds of outside window blinds may be included in three divisions ; viz., shutter blinds, Venetian blinds, and cloth or curtain blinds. 555. Shutter Blinds of the commonest kind, sometimes called folding Venetian blinds, are nothing more than outside shutters, opening in the middle, each shutter framed so as to form one panel, which is filled in with what are technically called luflTer boards (inclined boards placed one above another in an aperture, so as to admit air, without permitting the rain to penetrate). These luffer boards are either fixed, or turn on pivots in the styles of their frames ; their action, in the latter case, being like that of the common Venetian blinds. In shutter blinds, where the luflfer boards move (which is always the preferable plan, as by it the admission of light and air can be better regulated , the movement is eflfected by a lever handle fixed on one of the luffer boards. These boards might be placed vertically, instead of horizontally ; but the greater length required would render them liable to warp, and of course the shading would be imper- fect. Outside shutter blinds are generally hinged like outside window shutters, and fastened back against tlie wall like them, by bolts, or button fastenings ; but in veiy windy situations they are sometimes made to slide in grooves, which, as they are commonly made, are by no means ornamental ; but by disguising them as string- courses, or labels, and painting them of the same colour as the walls, they may be rendered architectural as well as useful. These blinds, when the luffer boarding is shut close, serve, during night, as a secure window-shutter. In situations much ex- posed to the sun and wind, we consider this description of blinds, either running in grooves with fixed luffer boarding, or hinged and furnished with bolts or other fastenings, superior to any of the kinds of hanging outside blinds about to be described. From 2/0 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. tlie manniT in wliich shutter blinds are generally constructed and hung, tlieir outer surface, when shut, is even with that of the wall. This is objected to by some, in a jjicturesque point of view, as depriving the window of tlie effect of the lines of shade that would otherwise be thrown upon it by the depth of the reveals. To overcome this objection, it is only necessary to form the luffer boarding narrower, say two inclies in width, and to hang the blinds with set-back hinges, so as to shut them close against the sash frame, like the outside shutter in fig. 495. Thus, if the depth of the reveal be seven inches without the shutter blind, it will only be reduced to five inches with it. 556. Venetian outside Blinds, of the common kind, only differ from inside Venetian blinds in having cornice boxes at top into which the blinds are drawn up, and frames at the sides which confine the ends of the laths forming the blinds, and prevent them from being blown about by the wind. In these blinds, instead of the laths being hung on tape, as is customary with inside Venetian blinds, slight brass chains are sometimes used. Outside blinds are generally painted of a stone or cream colour in the country ; and green in towns. In Gothic cottages, showing oak framework externally, they may be painted in imitation of that wood. 557. The Venetian Fan Blind, an improvement on the common Venetian blind, is made by Messrs. Barron and Mills of London, and its object is, to admit a greater quantity of light and air than is done by either the common Venetian blind or the shutter blind. For this purpose the front of the blind is projected from the wall, at an angle which may be varied at pleasure from 1° to 45" ; and to prevent the sun from shining into the windows on the sides, admitting at the same time free circulation of air, fan blinds are there introduced. Both the front blind and fans are worked by means of one line connected with cords and pulleys, which is made fast to the frame in the same manner as in the com- mon outside Venetian blinds. The front blind may be pulled up, and complete!}' concealed under the cornice box at top, while the fan blind folds into a narrow box provided for it in the side frame. Hence, when this description of blind is not in use, the cornice box and side frame of the window have exactly the same appearance as those of any other hanging blind. A detailed account of the very intricate construction of this blind will be found in the Repertori/ of Arts, vol. viii. p. 449.; and we shall recur to it when entering more at length into the subject of blinds, under the head of Exterior Finishing to Villas. There is another description of outside Venetian blinds, in which the laths are formed of iron, and copper chains supply the place of tape. These blinds are fixed at top to a box which projects from the window, and are attached at the other end to a roller having a pulley at one end, by which, and by a cord which passes over a pulley in tlie reveal of the window at top, the blind is let down and rolled up. These bullet-proof blinds, as they are called, are manufactured by Bramah of Pimlico, and have been employed by the Duke of Wellington, at Apsley House, to protect his windows from the mob. They are most unsightly objects, and are only mentioned here as connected with the subject of Venetian blinds. 558. Outside Curtain or Cloth Blinds are of various kinds. The simplest form is where a curtain of the size of the opening of the window is furnished with rings on the margin of each side, which run upon two upright rods, concealed or not, according to the taste or means of the party, by side-framing. The lower edge of the curtain is attached to an irod rod, or a fillet of wood, to keep it down by its weight ; and to this there is a cord attached, which, passing over a pulley in the middle of the soffit of the window, admits of pulling up the curtain, and fastening it in the usual manner. By another plan, tlie curtain is made to spread out in front like the Venetian fan blind. This variety is called a bonnet blind, and on it Messrs. Barron and Mills have made an improvement, which we shall hereafter describe. When these blinds are drawn up, they are as completely concealed, and protected from the weather by the box and frame, as any other description of blinds. The cloth generally used is strong linen, of the kind called gingham, and is generally striped with blue and wiiite colours, which harmonise remarkably well with the sky and clouds. The cornice and frames are generally painted of a stone colour. A patent was taken out in 1 826 for an improved mode of stretching by a contracting and collapsing apparatus, but it docs not appear to have come into use. (See Re]}- of Arts, vol. iv. p. 195.) 559. Various other outside blinds of the curtain kind have been used, and might be occasionally introduced in cottages. Projecting canopies, of different kinds, from the top of the window, might have corresponding balconies for flowers at the bottom ; and, common curtain rods being concealed in the top of each canopy and in the bottom of each balcony, curtains, with rings affixed in the usual manner, might run on them, and be opened by hand, in the middle or at the sides, at pleasure. This would be a very cheap exterior blind, and one which, judiciously placed over the principal window of a cottage, would produce a very striking edect. Another description of blind is formed EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. !271 oy strawiing canvass, gauze, or fine wire clotli, on three or more light wooden frames; and, liy hanging these iiorizontally to a frame of the size of tlie window, the small frames being connected on the oi)posite side to tliat on whicli they are hinged, by two slips of wood or by iron rods, they may be moved sympathetically to any angle, so as to keep out the sun. The slips of wood or iron rods must be screwed on so as to allow them to have free action at the head, otherwise they will not fall down. Blinds of this sort are kept in their position by a line fixed to the outer edge of the ujjper frame, which passes through a pulley at the upper end of the large frame, and being brought down, either on the inside of the window, or on the outside, is fastened as usual by a hook. It is evident that blinds of this description may also be hinged ver- tically ; and if only two are used for each window, and these are hinged back to back to a style in the centre, one half of the window might always be uncovered, because before twelve o'clock it would be only requisite to keep that blind shut which was next the east, and after twelve o'clock that one which was next the west. Such blinds, however, would be chiefly applicable to windows facing the south. If, instead of being hinged back to back in the middle of the window, they were hinged to the side styles, and fur- nished with set-ofF hinges, they would form shutter blinds of a simple and cheap description. Roller outside blinds, such as are used to shade shop windows, are capable of a variety of useful and ornamental applications on the exterior of cottages. 560. IFire outside Blinds have not hitherto been used ; but the very fine wire clotli now applied as inside blinds, might, we think, in some cases be advantageously placed outside, either as leaf or sympathetic frame blinds, § 559, or as shutter blinds. The great advantage of this wire cloth is, that it admits a view of what is v\itliout from within, while it completely excludes a view of what is within from without. Where a cottage is placed by the roadside, such blinds are very desirable, not only on these accounts, but also because they keep out the dust ; and they are not less so where the windows on the south side of a house command a fine prospect. Much of the enjoyment of some rooms, in country houses, is lost during the finest weather of summer, from the necessity of keeping down the blinds ; but, with wire blinds, the heat and great part of the light might be excluded, and yet the prospect be not only enjoyed, but even im- proved in effect, by the darkness of the room acting on the eye like the tube of a telescope. They should be painted to preserve them from the weather ; and they may, in addition, be ornamented with landscapes, figures, or other objects ; or, in the case of a country tradesman, in a roadside cottage, they may exhibit the owner's name, or the implements or products of his trade. 561. Projecting fixed Canopies are sometimes used for giving consequence to windows ; and they might be occasionally employed in cottages. They are framed in wood, with paneled soffits, moulded cornices, and sometimes ornamented friezes, and they are supported by brackets. Figs. 496, 497, 498, 499, and 500, are canopies of this 496 497 498 499 500 sort. They may very properly be put over doors, and when they cannot be formed in solid timber, a plain kind of trellis-work may in some cases be introduced, for the purpose of supporting an ornamental climber. 562. Other architectural modes of ornamenting the exteriors of either old or new Cottages might be mentioned but we have said enough to lead the reader into a train of thought on the subject, and to point out to him to wliat parts of a plain cottage he ought chiefly to direct his attention, when his object is to ornament it. 563, Ornamenting the exterior of Cottages by the productions of Horticulture, and by Landscape- Gardening, is a subject which has occasionally occupied our attention in the course of the preceding chapter ; and that of laying out the grounds round ornamental cottages and villas will be treated of in a future division of the work. We may here repeat, what we have before stated incidentally, that we by no means advise much to be attempted in the way of ornamenting cottages in the country by means of vegetation, 272 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. on account of the damp produced, and the insects harhoured, by leaves; and because, in proportion as any building depends for its effect on a covering of vegetation, in the same proportion does it lose its beauty as a piece of Arcliitecture. We are more par- ticularly anxious to impress on the minds of our readers the impropriety of planting trees, or creepers of any kind, against walls of cottages, which are shaded by opaque-roofed verandas, penthouses, or far-projecting eaves ; because in such situations they can never thrive, and not only have a sickly and disagreeable appearance, but actually, to a certain extent, contaminate the air by their decaying foliage. Life without health is without beauty. Sect. II. Designs and Directions for lite Interior Finishing of Collage Dwellings, 564. The Walls of a Cottage, viewed externally, ought, by the appearance of the nature of the materials, and the mode in w^hidi they are put together, to give at the first glance imquestionable evidence of their sufficiency to support the roof. This being the case, on entering the dwelling we dispense with a repetition of this evidence, as far as the roof is concerned ; but if the apartments are large, and one is placed over another, as in houses of two or more stories, we require the appearance of strength in the ceilings to support the floor above them. Hence, the ceilings, in all very large rooms, should be thrown into compartments, by the reality, or by the appearaiice, of beams crossing the ceiling in the direction of its breadth, or shortest diameter. On the same principle it is desirable that these beams should be, or appear to be, supported at the extremities by piers or pilasters projecting from the walls, and sometimes even by detached columns. The finishing of these piers or columns is generally in imitation of some description of stone or marble, as belonging to the wall ; and that of the horizontal beams, of oak, or some other timber, as belonging to the superincumbent floor, or the roof. 565. The Interior of the Walls of a Cottage of the humblest class may, in some cases, require no other finishing than the rubbing or dressing of the material of tlie wall. This may be the case when the walls are built of brick, and the inner courses are rubbed and worked to a fair smooth surface. Rubbed sandstone may be applied in the same manner. For the plainest description of cottage the walls may be completely finished with one coating of plaster ; either by mixing the lime with a portion of Roman cement, or by using fresh -burnt stone lime and sharp sand, in the proportions of five of the latter to two of the former. The basement stories of many of the commoner street houses about London are finished in this manner ; by which not only the labour of putting on two coats of plaster is saved, but a more durable surface to the wall is produced. In general, however, the internal surfaces of cottage walls, of whatever materials they are composed, require to be plastered as indicated in the specifications already given ; for example, in § 80, and in § 235. 566. Without a Coi-nice no Room can have a finished Appearance, therefore we recom- mend cornices to be introduced into the living-rooms and principal bed-rooms of even the humblest cottages. The simplest cornice is formed by filling up the angle by a straight hypotenuse line, fig. 501 ; the next step is to curve this line convexly, fig. 502, or concavely, fig. 503 ; a square fillet, fig. 504, may be introduced ; or a round bead, fig. 505. In cottage dwellings, this bead is frequently formed of wood, as being 501 502 503 504 505 U' D" easier executed in that material than in plaster. The eflPect, when the bead is about an inch in diameter, is satisfactory ; and we think, instead of wood, it might, in some cases, be made of iron, fastened to the walls with staples ; and witli one or two hooks to each length of rod between the staples, for the purpose of hanging pictures or other articles, agreeably to the practice in what are called gentlemen's houses. It is easy to conceive how a variety of cornices may be deduced from this simple form : by flattening the circle, by narrowing it; by causing it to present the broad end of an oval, or the narrow end ; and by its being made, sometimes, to seem chiefly projecting from the wall, and, sometimes, chiefly from the ceiling. From these elementary forms a great variety of cornices may be produced. For example, in figs. 506 and 507 we INTERIOR MNISHING OF COTTAGES. 273 .506 r have ten different variations of the concave line, the lightest and most agreeable feature of all cornices, particularly when viewed from below, and the characteristic of the Gotliic 507 cornice. Fig. 508 shows five sections of cornices having a convex curve for a leading 508 V^ V member. Fig. 509 shows modifications of the square, a leading feature in Grecian and Roman cornices. Tlie square form, it thus appears, may be varied by approaches 509 to the parallelogram and to the rliomboid, and by altering its relative proportions with respect to the ceiling over it, and the surface of tlie wall beneath It. Composite cornices, fig. 510, may be formed by employing two or more of these five leading forms as 510 SJ E7 P"~^ F main features ; and cornices in particular styles of architecture are obviously of easy composition, from the lines and forms which belong to those styles. 567. The magnitude of a cornice ought always to be regulated by the size of the room in which it is introduced ; since the origin of the cornice of a column or wall was tlie edge of a plate of stone or timber, bedded on that column or wall, to receive with greater security, and give a better bearing to, what was to be placed upon it. A long narrow room does not require sucli a massive cornice as a square one covering the same surface, because there is less occasion for studying the security of the cross-beams or joists. 568. Plaster Ornaments on Ceilings have not hitherto been much introduced in cottages, on account of the expense. We scarcely think cornices with foliage or other cast ornaments desirable in plain cottages; but a rose or other flower, in plaster or composi- tion, might often be introduced, at very little expense, in the centre of tlie ceiling of a cottage parlour. There is scarcely any part of a house in which a single ornamental form produces so much effect as in the centre of a ceiling. Fortunately for the builders F F 274 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. ^hflZ r '"''" '^''Tf''- «'-"=""'-'"t'^ ^"itable for tlus purpose, and for various others in Biel5rrf'"^',TI^ 'V"'°""'' "*■ •■°"'"«' ''--^ '•eeently been n.anufactured by Messrs at neSctlTll r f ? "' ^* ''"''. '""' 1"""' "^ ^ ^--ip'i- "^ Papier n.acl.l They are perfectly hght and strong ; and may be sent to any part of the world. Tliev are fixed 4 5 IT\: o7 'f ^ ' r\ '""'r^ ''-"'"'"'' r'" ^^"' ^^ '""S - -y «">- 1'-' of a house £l' ami' .;";''■*";" *°"' '" '•'7''<,'^'-;;»J ^"-ts 7.. ; fig. 5l 2 is two feetL-ross, and costs Al , and fig .-313 is two feet and a half across, and costs £] : I5s. For the ceilins no other reason than the expense, why it should not be adopted in the humbles cottage, as well as m the highly enrichedviila.' The occupant of the one may havH mind i:ZT^ t Ir;;;' rV"^"^'";-";"/'""'" '"^ "-^-'P'^'on of degant for'nt i: ?i"t of iiie other, and he is therefore entitled to piocure tliem whenever it is in his power to do o Without inter enng With any moral duty. Panels of this sort are geiTe-X fbimed propel rlS '" f ^'"- ""' '"''r-' '"' *"^^ "^^y ^--*-- rm^r/ch p y produced by mouldings of papier maclie, some of which, such as fi.rs 514 515 51/ and o 1 7, p. 276, may be bought at from 2d. to 3d. per foot ° 514, 515, 5 J 6, be'^attinnted "/m";t"'h^ ^"'7-'7 "". ''"'* "'""' ""^' "" ^'^^'"S^ of Cottages should not kfnd w £ -^ fin h? . T'^ '' ''" •' " y""""- ^*' ^''^ P'^^*^^"- be of tl^. commonest lenaeiea tLiiatious by glue, paste, or other mucilaginous mattei-, instead of oil • because ot its porosity, which would wholly absorb the ofl. The mos co, nli co ourin r f'r cottage walls is what is technically Llled lime whiting, whi iit no^ng mo t haf tt fin St particles of hme or chalk mixed with water, will, the addition of! smal J u a , . t J of Size. The colour of tlus is varied by the addition of the black of charcoal rVom monly called blue black, as distinguished from the soot of lamps, which ? calS lamn' black , oi- by yellow ochre, by verdigrise, or any cheap pigment. ^" aufnti'tv^/'thr""" ''f"f !.'"'' "f ^^ln"='nngfor interior .rails is thus formed :-Procure a quantity of the very best lime, and pass it thiough fine lii.en ; pour it into a hu-e tiib ftirmshed with a spigot at the height equal to tha°t which the liiiL occupies :fiirhetb w th clear spring water; beat the mixture with instruments made of wood, and then and a low the water to i-un oH ; then supply the tub with f,-esh water, and contin.e "his operation for several days, until the lime attains the g,-eatest degree of^whhli.es tl P h^f l'. i "'? ■' '' necessary to mix a little Prussian blue, or indigo, to relieve the bi.ghtness of the wli.te, and a small quantity of turpentine, to give it brilliLicy. The hole?'"" "/' '• /""''^ °' ^'^"^•'^ ^'^^''"••' "'^^ *'- ^'^'ditiok of some alum ; a^ d the yhole IS applied witli a strong brush, in five or six layers, to new plaster. The wall is itstrr"^f '7" "'^^ ' '.""' °'^°S«' bristles after the painting is dry, which g ♦1, ^7i" T° 'f ''f" ^'"^ P''*"^' "f (Cottages. Take the best white chalk, and add a little of the black of charcoal, " to prevent the white f,om growing reddish ■ infuse them separately in water; mix the whole with half water a".d half size of glove leathei " J he size requires to be diluted, otherwise the whiting would come off in rolls when drv Give two layers of this tint while it is lukewarm. {Tbid.) Instead of black, a small portion of any otiie.- colour may be mixed with the white, and Dutcli pink is not un- fi-equently used for that purpose. Tiie cornice, wliere there is one, forms a member of "louid ftlr h T"" "' "■^'" n"' *'u- "■"•"^'' ='"'•' ^''•^'"S ''''"■'>>'^ ••'» --hitectural object sliouid, for that leasoii, generally exhibit some colour belonging to stone, such as white or some shade of yellow, grey, or brownish red. ' 573. The colouring of the walls of rooms with water colours, or in what is called dis- temper only differs from whitewashing them, in the application bei.ig coloured White, n' is'a I'Tl *;'■ '"' '"™^ ^'"" S-".>dwork or body of the composition, and the colou.!! ing IS added by some concentrated vegetable extn.ct, or metallic oxide. All the difiereiit colou,-s are used for the walls of rooms; but the n,ost coimnon, after white, are sine hades of yellow, .-ed, green, or grey. As a general rule, the ceiling shoi^ld be of a Ighter colour than the walls; because it is found that, when it is darker! it is apparently brought neaier to the eye, and has consequently the eflect of making the room appear what higher than they arc, by having the walls a sha.ie daiker than is usual, and the COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 511 27.5 270 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 514 515 V/«\V/S^V, 517 518 ^U Jus. _: Ff. INTERIOR I'lNlSIllNG OF COTTAGES. ^77 ceilings a sliade lighter, and this efllct may he heightened by a slight gradation in the shade of the wall from the base to the cornice. The manner in which tlie cornice is painted may also be made to cooperate in conveying the idea of height or the contrary. Small lines and mouldings, and faint shadows, convey the idea of distance from the eye, and the contrary that of being near it. Cornices of small dimensions, in plaster, may ba apparently increased by lines of colour, and members not sufficiently distinct may be rendered so by shades. When the walls of rooms are paneled, the shade of colour of the panel, and of the styles, rails, and munnions, should be the same : but the shades ox the mouldings between them should be lighter on the side on which the ligiit is sup- posed to come ; and darker on the opposite side, as in fig. 518, p. 276. Sometimes panels are formed by lines in imitation of raised mouldings as in fig. 519, which, with the preced- ing figure, may sei-ve to show the method of paneling in plaster as well as in colours. 574. As a cheap inside paint, which a cottager may prepare, and lay on himself, we shall give a receipt for milk paint : we could add a number of others ; but we have made choice of this, from having been assured of its superiority. 575. MM- Paint. Take of skimmed milk nearly two quarts ; of fresh slacked lime, about six ounces and a half; of linseed oil four ounces, and of whiting three pounds: put the lime into a stone vessel, and pour upon it a sufficient quantity of milk to form a mixture, resembling thin cream ; then add the oil a little at a time, stirring it with a small spatula ; the remaining milk is then to be added, and lastly the whiting. The milk must on no account be sour. Slake the lime by dipping the pieces in water, out of which it is to be immediately taken, and left to slack in the air. For fine white paint, the oil of caraways is best, because colourless ; but with ochres the com- monest oils may be used. The oil, when mixed with the milk and lime, entirely dis- appears, and is totally dissolved by the lime, forming a calcareous soap. The whiting, or ochre, is to be gently crumbled on the surface of the fluid, which it gradually im- bibes, and at last sinks: at this period it must be well stirred in. This paint may be coloured like distemper or size-colour, with levigated charcoal, yellow ochre, &c., and used in the same manner. The quantity here prescribed is sufficient to cover twenty- seven square yards with the first coat, and it will cost about three-halfpence a yard. The same paint will do for out-door work by the addition of two ounces of slaked lime ; two ounces of linseed oil, and two ounces of while Burgundy pitch; the pitch to be melted in a gentle heat with the oil, and then added to tlie smooth mixture of the milk and lime. In cold weather it must be mixed warm, to facilitate its incorporation with the milk. {Smith's Art of House- Painting, 1825, p. 26.) 576. The painting of the walls of rooms in oil is seldom attempted, unless the walls have been finished with a coat of stucco ; but, wherever both can be afiTorded, the result, in point of durability and beauty, is far preferable to what can be produced by water colours. The great advantage of oil colours is, that they will bear washing with soap and water, so that a room once finished with them will not require repainting for many years. 577. Painting the internal woodwork of cnttagrs ought never to be neglected, both on account of its preservative quality and its ornamental effect. All woodwork, avowed as such, should, if possible, be grained in imitation of some natural wood ; not with a view of having the imitation mistaken for the original, but rather to create allusion to it, and, by a diversity of lines and shades, to produce a kind of variety and intricacy, which affords more pleasure to the eye than a flat shade of colour. The most suitable colour for the woodwork of cottages is undoubtedly that of the prevailing timber of the district or country in which the cottage is built; at the same time, where this timber is but slightly veined or marked, it is allowable and advisable to imitate a better description of wood. Thus, in England, the prevailing timber in several districts is fir and poplar ; but, as the wood of these trees is much inferior in beauty to that of the oak, the elm, or tlie chest- nut, which respectively prevail in different districts in Britain, it would be allowable, .-md what would be considered in good taste, for the painter to iniitate them. In this, as in every thing else, the Architect must be guided by the object in view. If a cottage lie in the Swiss style, the larch and silver fir, being the two woods chiefly used in cottages in Switzerland, should be either procured by the builder, or imitated by the painter. In an Indian or Chinese cottage, the bamboo and other tropical woods, or their imitations, should predominate; and the same principle may be applied to other countries ; always, however, bearing in mind, that the business of an Architect of reason and taste is not to produce fac-similes, or repetitions of objects, but imitations of their style and manner. For the method of imitating woods in painting, or wh-it is technically called graining, as well as for the practical details of the painter's art, we refer to that part of this work where painting is treated of systematically, and also to Smith's Art cf House-Painting, im- proved by Butcher, 12mo, London, 1825, price Is. 6d- 578. The Pi-ocess of Stenciling Walls or Ceilings. Stenciling, said to be a corruption 278 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AUCIilTECTURE. of stained ceiling, is of two kinds. The first, most ancient, and most universal mode, which is still generally practised in Italy, both on the outsides and insidcs of buildings, is tliat of pricking through, with a large-sized needle, the exact outline of a figure, previously drawn on paper or oilcloth ; and then placing it against the wall, and striking the surface with a small gauze bag containing red or white chalk in powder, or powdered charcoal. Tlie powder goes through the holes in the paper, and, lodging in the plaster, forms an outline, which is afterwards filled up by the painter. Sometimes, instead of pricking through the drawing, it is placed against the plaster before the latter has dried, and the outline is impressed on it by passing a blunt point over the outlines on the paper. This is generally done in the Italian practice of a/yv-esco, a term appliedin that country to the process of painting in water-colours on plaster, when newly laid on, and before it has set. The second mode of stencilling is the most common in Britain ; by it, the patterns are all cut out in pasteboard or oilcloth, and as many pieces of board or cloth are employed for each figure, or compartment, as there are colours or shades to be laid on. This mode of ornamenting the walls of rooms is not unsuitable for cottages of the humblest description, on account of its cheapness ; and because, in remote places, or in new countries, it might be done by the cottager himself, or by the local plasterer or house-painter. The beauty of the eflfect produced will depend on the suitableness of the forms and colours of the figures to the style of the Architecture of the cottage ; and on their disposition on the walls. Where the cottage dis])lays externally any kind of architectural style, it is reasonable to conclude that some of the same style should prevail in the ornaments within, as well as in the furniture. A Gothic cottage should display lines, forms, and ornaments belonging to that style of Architecture, in all its interior, as well as exterior detail ; and the same of other styles, or sub-styles. More judgment is required in the disposition than in the choice of ornament. There ought always to be an obvious reason why an ornament is placed in one position rather than in another ; and wherever there is ornament or enrichment, there must be plain or flat surfaces to con- trast with it. The side-walls of a room equally ornamented in every part by elaborate stenciling, or by a rich paper, would be intolerable, were it not for the contrast produced by the plain ceiling, and by the border with which the paper, or stenciling is finished under the cornice at top, and above the base or surbase below. If the same border, however, were carried across the middle of the paper, it would be as intolerable as the paper without a border, because the spectator would see no sufficient reason for its being placed there. In stenciling, and in every other mode of putting ornaments on walls, no figure, however appropriate and beautiful in itself, should be put down at i-andom ; nor should any wall be covered with figures for the sake of their individual beauty, but because they cooperate in forming a whole, or a particular object. That object may be tlie enrichment of the entire surface of the wall, by covering it, as it were, with a rich cloth or printed paper ; or, instead of a cloth, by covering it, with a picture in perspective. The cloth, as a production of the loom, and the paper, as produced by printing, ought to exhibit a succession of the same figures at regular distances, and to be accompanied by all that uniformity and regularity which is characteristic of works effected by machinery. The perspective view, on the other hand, as an imitation of something existing, or sup- posed to exist, in nature, forms a whole uitli reference to itself, and not to the art by which it is produced, and consequently admits of almost endless variety. 579. In the choice of palterns for stencillitg, not only the architectural style of the cottage, but its situation, whether in a town, the country, or in a village; and the occupation, native country, and taste or wishes, of the occupant, will naturally influence the artist. As contrast is one great source of beauty, both, as respects objects when placed so as to be seen together, and when placed so as to create allusion to other objects of the same order, but of a different class ; so figures of flowers and plants in gay colours are more suitable for tlie town than the country, and figures of human beings, buildings, and streets, are more suitable for the country than for the town. The taste of a cottager living in a country far distant from that in which he was born may lead him to wish to create allusions to that country, by depicting some of its scenery ; and, in like manner, another may desire to create allusions to scenery which he has heard of, but never seen. We state these things chiefly to show that, even in ornamenting walls, there should be a reason for every thing, and that this reason is, in every case, nothing more than a refinement on, or a correction, by a recurrence to original principles, of, the common practice of mankind. (See Whiltoclc's Decoralioe Pauiter's Guide.) 580. Jl simple and elegant mode of stenciling the walls of plain cottages consists in throwing them into panels, with lines of dark brown or grey ; the general colour of the wall being white, a pale yellow, or fawn colour ; and in forming ornaments at the angles. These panels should be coloured of a shade darker than the spaces between them, wliieh are left in imitation of styles, muntins, and cross rails; for there can be no doubt tliai all paneling lias had its origin in wainscoting. The panel may be ornamented, INTERIOR FlxNISHlNG OF COTTAGES. ^79 and the styles and niils left plain, or the contrary. It is easy to conceive that there may be a great variety of stencil paneling adapted to plain cottages, which any cottager or emigrant, who' could mix milk whh ochres or any cheap universal colour, and use a blacking brush, miglit do for himself. 581. Papcrum lite U'ath of liooms is a very general practice in Britain; and is ap- plicable, to a certain extent, even to the humblest cottages. It is not adapted lor kitchens or other apartments in which the coarser domestic labours are constantly going forward ; but it gives a clothed, warm, and comfortable air to bed-rooms, and an enriched finish to the better description of living-rooms. The variety of papers for rooms is almost endless ; beginning with a flat shade of colour, and rising tlirough patterns of one, two, or three, or more, to twenty or thirty different colours, or shades of colours, as in the printed landscapes, some years since introduced into this manufacture by the French. All this variety may either be printed on the paper in water colours, or in colours in which oil is introduced, so as to admit of their being washed with soap and water. The figures on papers may be classed as arcliitectural, either in the Gothic, Grecian, or other styles ; as imitations of nature, either plants or animals, or combina- tions of these in landscape scenery ; or as historical or biographical, and, consequently, either groups of figures or portraits. As the fashions of most of these papers change as frequently as those of printed cottons, it would serve little purpose to offer designs of them, either for the choice of the builder or the direction of the manufacturer. 582. The designs which are printed on papers, like those which are printed on different cloths, may be divided into two kinds : those which are intended to be correct imitations of natural' or artificial objects, such as of particular species of plants or animals; and those which are fanciful compositions of artificial forms and lines, or of plants and animals imagined in imitation cf nature's general manner, but not copied from any of her specific objects. All ornaments truly architectural or sculptural are of this latter class, and they are in no style more beautifully exemplified than in the Grecian ; and, perhaps, in no ornament of that style more elegantly than in the sculptured honeysuckle which decorates many of the friezes of the ancient temples. As this style of design brings into exercise the imagination and invention of the artist, while the other (that of copying specific objects) only calls forth his powers of imitation, the former must necessarily be considered higher in the scale ; and hence we find that the ornaments of the most cultivated nations of antiquity are of this class, while those of nations who have never excelled in the arts of design, as the Chinese for example, are of the other. Thus, while Grecian or Roman ornaments have only in their forms a certain allusion to particular plants or animals, almost all the plants and animals on Chinese papers and cottons may be referred to particular species or varieties. The imaginative style of design, carried to a high degree of perfection, is addressed to the cultivated mind, and excites admiration on the same principle, though in an inferior degree, as a painting or a piece of sculpture ; and the imitative style, carried to an e(|ual degree of per- fection, is addressed to the memory and the judgment, and gives pleasure to the mind, by its imitation of well known objects, and by the associations which their images recall- As a proof that the imaginative designs, if we may so term them, are more permanently satisfactory than the merely imitative or natural history ones, it may be stated that all those patterns of papers and cloths which have withstood the changes of feshion are of the former description; while all those patterns which have soonest palled on the public taste have been attempts at close imitations of nature. At a large ma- nufactory of tea trays, and other articles in papier mache, at Wolverhampton, a trial was made, a few years ago, to substitute portraits of plants botanical! y correct, for the ima- ginai7 compositions of flowers and leaves generally used ; but the change was found unsatisfactory, as the articles would not sell. The drawing-room walls of the celebrated stock-broker Goldschmidt, at Morden, were covered with silk, painted witli flowers and other objects, which were all drawn and coloured with scientific accuracy. We recollect the principal flower was the i\"arcissus Tazctta, with its bulb and roots accurately portrayed ; but, though we admired the figure in a botanical point of view, it gave us no pleasure as an ornament among other ornaments ; because it had no connection with any of them, and did not combine with tliem in forming a whole. A showy geranium paper, and a red rose and green trellis paper, are seldom chosen but by those who cannot derive pleasure from a higher style of composition. 583. Ill the choice of papers for a common cottage, the same general principles may be observed respecting patterns and borders, as were mentioned under the head of stenciling. One of the best plain papers for tlie entrance lobby and the staircases of cottages, is one simply marked with lines in imitation of hewn stone ; because, when any part of this paper is damaged, a piece, of the size of one of the stones, can be renewed, without having the appearance of a patch. There are very appropriate Gothic papers, with borders at the top, to imitate cornices, which are very suitable for Gothic cottages. 280 COTTAGE, FAllM, AND VILLA AIICIHTECTUIIE. There are also papers covered with green trellis-work, with roses and other flowers entwined ; and it is sometimes the custom to cover the ceilings, as well as the walls, with such papers. This practice may be allowable in towns, as creating an allusion to the country ; but, in a country cottage, we consider it in bad taste, as not contrasting with local circumstances. 584. An instniclwc natural history paper for cottagci, and the walls of nurseries and school-rooms, a contributor suggests, might be formed by printing figures of all the commoner and more important plants and animals with the scientific and popular names beneath them ; each plant or animal being surrounded by lines, so as to appear either in frames, or as if painted on the ends of stones or bricks. The advantage of the framed lines would be to give unity to the paper as a whole, and also to admit of repairs by taking out any single frame or stone, and replacing it by another. There is no I'eason, but the expense, why a geographical paper should not be formed ; or one exhibiting all the principal rivers, mountains, and cities in the world; or the portraits of eminent men, with their names ; or perpetual almanacks ; or lists of weights and measures ; or chronological or arithmetical tables ; or, in short, any useful and instructive subject, which it would be beneficial to the cottager to have frequently before his eyes. We all know how easily, and yet how deeply, the mind is impressed with objects that we are continually in the habit of seeing ; and that what is learned through that medimn in childhood is rarely, if ever, forgotten in after-life. Children, brought up in nurseries or cottages decorated in the manner we have mentioned, would thus have their minds stored with useful ideas, instead of fanciful images. 585. The Floors of Cottages of the comnion kind do not admit of much ornament. Entrance porches and lobbies may be paved with a description of tiles callt/d (piarries, which are formed in small squares of six inches on a side; coloured blue, red, drab, and black ; and sold at Newcastle under Line, at from 2«. 2d. to 2i-. 8f/. per square yard. A superior sort is sold at lOs. ; and a sort known as Wright's quarries, which have dark brown figures in pigment on their surface, let into a pale yellow ground, and are very ornamental, are sold for 25«. per superficial yard. In countries where tiles are not taxed as in Britain (where the duty, in 1 8;52, is ^^1 : 4s. : Srf. per thousand), the price would of course be much cheaper. Quarries of diflferent colours are set in mortar or cement, so as to appear like tessellated pavement ; and Wright's figured quarries are used to form bordering and centres to his plain ones, or to floors of rubbed stone : in either case, they make a very ornamental and substantial flooring. When all the rooms of a cottage are on the ground floor, and when they are not fined under, a substitute for boards, at once ornamental, cheap, and comfortable, may be formed by paving them with one or diffen nt kinds of wood, obtained from the branches of trees, which have been cut into lengths of ft)ur or six inches, and set endways on gravel or in mortar; or, pieces of board, of various woods, resembling tile quarries in size, or stained of diff'erent colours by acids, might be embedded in cement, either in imitation of tessellated pavement, or of the Continental practice of parquetted floors. A very good composition for laying imder such floors is made of one part of quicklime, two of sharp sand, and as much oil of rny kind as will bring the other ingredients to the consistence of mortar. A sound, warm, and durable floor is formed in the following manner: the ground being well drained, and covered to the depth of a foot with loose stones, lay on these a stratum of a mixture of gravel and newly slacked lime, to the depth of six inches; let this be well beaten, and brought to a perfect level, and after it has dried a week or a fortnight, according to the weather, cover it, to the depth of two inches, with a composition of equal parts of quick- lime and powdered smithy ashes, brought to the consistency of mortar by the addition of bullock's blood, stale milk, oil, or any other description of greasy matter. As soon as this is laid on, it must be well beaten with the back of a spade, or rolled with a cast-iron roller ; after which, if immediately well and long rubbed with coarse woollen cloths, it may be brought to a high polish. The colour, when bullock's blood is used, is at first brown, but after some weeks it changes to a light grey. When yellow ochre is added to the mixture, a Bath stone colour is produced. One of the simplest modes of pro- curing a composition floor, in countries where Roman cement can be easily obtained, is to bed plain tiles in this material ; then coat them over with a mixture composed of one part of cement, and two of sharp sand ; and, a month afterwards, to give the floor a second coating of the same mixture, with the addition of as much lime and yellow ochre as will commimicate a cream-coloured tinge to the surface. Or, the second coat may be com- posed of powdered Portland, Bath, or other freestone, and oxide of lead mixed up with oil, as in Hamhn's mastic (see § 527). A great object, in all ground-floors of cottages, is to lay such a foundation as to insure their dryness; we liave mentioned several modes of attaining this end, and we add the following (which is said to be practised in Bengal), as suitable for districts in Britain, or other temperate climates, where pottery is cheap. " The area of the house or room to be floored is first made perfectly leve' ; nnglazed INTERNAL FITTINGS-UP OF COTTAGES. 281 earthen pots, each about a foot in height and large-bellied, are then placed with tlieii mouths downwards, close together, over the whole surface. The vacant parts round tlie necks and tops of these pots are afterwards filled up with charcoal pounded fine fthis sub- stance being well known to resist damp) ; and, over the whole, a floor is formed of brick- dust and lime, well worked together, and made as hard as possible. [Mech. Mag., vol. xi. p. 21.) \Ve shall describe different modes of forming composition floors for the upper stories of buildings, wlien giving designs for fire-proof houses, in our suc- ceeding Book. Sect. III. Designs and Directions for internal Fitlings-np for Cottage Dwellings. 586. Shelves to pantries, closets, and closet cupboards should be formed of boards of some description of wood not liable to communicate its flavour to the articles laid on them ; or, if such a wood cannot be got, the shelves ought to be painted in oil. The least expensive mode of fixing tliese shelves is by inserting their ends in the wall, or rather in the first coat of plaster; a better one is by fixing them to wooden bricks, but the best is by lining the walls with thin boards to which the shelves are attached. When shelves are put in by tenants, or temporary occupiers of houses, this last practice is sometimes adopted, for the sake of allowing the temporary occupier, at the expiration of the period of liis occupation, to carry away with him liis shelves, which in this case are no longer considered as landlord's fixtures. 587. Of Seats and Basins to Water-closets, and of Cisterns for Water, we have already said enough for this division of our work ; and shall, therefore, not again recur to them, till we come to give designs for those of ornamental cottages and villas. 588. Chimney-pieces for the kitchens of cottages should generally be finished with stone facings and stone shelves ; but, where the stone is sandy and brittle, it is much better to substitute stout shelves of deal or oak. The cottage parlour should; if pos- sible, have a marble chimney-piece ; and those of the bed-rooms may be of stone or composition. Designs will be found in our succeeding section, where we treat of fire- places which may be executed either in marble, or stone, or composition ; in the latter case, and even where freestone or slate-stone is used, they may be painted in imitation of some variety of marble. In countries abounding with slate of the kind which rises in large lamina; like that of North Wales, handsome chimney-pieces may be formed at very little expense, and painted so as to resemble either stone or marble. There are also chimney-pieces of cast iron, which are generally highly ornamented ; and which are sti-ong and durable when properly painted. The height of the shelf of the chimney from the floor is generally varied according to the width of the fireplace ; but, in a cottage where the shelf is always turned to some use, its upper surface should generally be about four feet and a half from the floor ; the projection of the shelf from the fascia, or face of the lintel, may vary from four to six inches, and its thickness should not be less than an inch. Where cast iron is used, and bronzed, so as to avow the material, the thickness of the shelf need not exceed half an inch, and the general design may be much more varied and enriched. Were the plan adopted of enclosing fireplaces in glazed doors, so as to prevent the heated air of the room from escaping by the chimney, and yet to show^ the fire, for which a patent was taken out by a gentleman of Edinburgh some years ago (see RejJ. of Arts), and which has been recently recommended by Dr. Arnott, cast-iron chimney-pieces would be found very suitable. 589. A valuable substitute for Portland stone chimney-pieces is thus formed: — " Take two bushels of sharp drift sand, and one bushel of sifted slacked quicklime ; mix them up with as little water as possible, and beat them well together for half an 'lour every morning for three or four successive days, but never wet them again after their first mixture. To two gallons of water, contained in a proper vessel, add one pint of single size made wann ; a quarter of a pound of alum in powder is then to be dissolved in warm water, and mixed with the above liquor. Take about a shovelful of the first composition, make a hole in the middle of it, and put therein three quarters of a pint of the mixture of alum and size, to which add three or four pounds of coarse plaster of Paris ; the whole is then to be well beaten and mixed together rather stiff. Put this mixture immediately into the wooden moulds of the intended chimney-piece, the sides, ends, and tops of which moulds are made of movable pieces, previously oiled with the following mixture: — Take one pint of the droppings of sweet oil, and add thereto one pint of clear lime water, made from pouring boihng water on lumps of chalk lime in a close vessel till fully saturated : when the lime water becomes clear, it is in a proper state to be added to the oil, as above mentioned, and on their being stirred together they will form a thick oily mixture or emulsion, proper to apply to the moulds. In forming the side or jamb of a chimney-piece, the mould is to be first half tilled with the sand, lime, and plaster composition ; then two wires, nearly the length of the piece to be moulded, are to be wrapped round with a thin layer of hemp, and to be placed in parallel lines, 282 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. lengtliwise, in the mixture or composition in the mould : the mould is afterwards filled up with more of the composition ; and if there is any superfluous quantity, it is to be struck off with a piece of flat board. The lid, or top of the mould is then to be placed upon it, and the whole subjected to a strong pressure from powerful levers, or a screw press. The composition should remain under this pressure for twenty or thirty minutes ; the precise time necessary being guessed from examining the state of a small specimen of the composition, reserved purposely to determine the time it requires to harden and set firm. The sides of the mould must be held together by iron clamps and wedges. The wires above mentioned answer a double purpose, by giving strength to the jambs, and retaining the whole mass together, in case it should at any time be cracked by accident. These chimney-pieces may be made either plain or fluted, according to the mould ; and when moulded, they are finished off by rubbing them over with alum water, and smoothing them with a trowel; and a little wet plaster of Paris. A common plain chimney-piece of this composition was sold at only 7s., and a reeded one at 28*., in London, in 1832, completely fitted up." [Trans. Soc. Arts.) 5&0. Bell-hanging may be described as the art of conducting lines of wire, intended to ring a bell at one end, when pulled with a little force at the other, in all directions round the apartments and through the walls of a building, in such a manner as not to obtrude on the view. This is effected with ease in straight lines ; and angles are got over by what are called cranks, of which there is a variety of sorts for external and internal angles. As few bells can be required for common cottages, we shall defer what else we have to say on the subject till we come to treat of public-houses and inns ; merely observing here, that a modern improvement consists in having the wires entirely con- cealed ; and, in having a small wooden or ivory knob, protruding eitlier from the plain face of the wall, or from the centre of a rose, a cup, or other ornament, instead of riband or string bell-ropes suspended from the ceiling. Fig. 520 shows a bell handle of tliis 520 description, with its different parts : a is a cup, containing in the centre an ivory knob, by which is pulled the brass cliain b ; this chain passes over a pulley, c, and consequently may pull a bell in the direction of right or left, upwards or downwards, accor(h'ng to the side to which the pulley is turned; and when it is desired to pull (he wire in a di- rection perpendicular to the face of the wall, the pulley is omitted, and the chain works solely in the groove d ; e shows the outer rim of the cup unscrewed, in order to l)e cleaned if in wood, or new lacquered if in brass ; y shows tlie ivorj' knob also unscrewed ; g is the hollow of the cup, with the ears containing the holes for the screw-nails wliich fix it to the wall. The knoby is of ivory, and all the rest is of brass; but the cup might be made of ebony ; or both cup and knob might be of bronze, or of iron painted to imitate bronze. The grooved bolt, d, in which the chain works, is generally made square, but it is here shown round, an improvement made by Mr. Nettlefold of London, wliich is found to make it work more truly and easily. The use of the grooved bolt is to guide tlie chain or wire, in pulling it out, and in letting it spring back again. Sect. IV. Designs and Directions for Fixtures for Cottage Dwellings. 591. The fixtures for cottages we shall take in the order of kitchen ranges, cooking stoves, warming stoves, ovens, boilers, grates, sinks, fixed basins, fixed wasliing troughs, fixed ironing boards, and other flaps and slabs, towel rollers, dressers, and corner cupboards. 592. Kitchen Ranges are manufactured in Birmingham, and sent to all parts of the world, and their variety is almost endless. All of them, however, may be included in two classes ; those that have neither boilers nor ovens, either at the sides or behind ; and those which have either or both. It is of great importance to the cottager to know, tliat when he is obliged to choose a kitchen fire-jdace that has neither boiler nor oven in the hob or jamb, he ought to choose a front and bottom grate only, and have the sides and back of his fire-place one solid mass of masonry, and if possible of fire stone or fire brick. FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 283 521 In every country there are day stones to be found, so free from sand or lime as not readily to fuse ; or clay so free from other substances as in like manner to resist the action of intense heat ; and of one or other of these the backs and sides of all open fire- places ought to be formed, where the object is to get the greatest quantity of heat from the smallest quantity of fuel, with the least quantity of labour. When the cottager can aflbrd to purchase a range having an oven on one side and a boiler on the other, the kind which we consider the most suitable is that first made by Mr. Eckstein of London, fig. 521, in which the boiler occupies one side and the back, from ato b; and the oven is on the other side, c ; the fire comes in close contact with both oven and boiler, and heats them sufficiently with- out the aid of a flue underthe former. This range, on a small scale, may be purchased in London, by retail, for five guineas; the size here shown costs eight guineas. The oven, in this and other iron kitchen ranges, would be much improved by being lined with fire stone or fire brick; the heat would be thereby moderated, rendered more uniform, and retained longer. For roasting meat, there might be a grated false bottom, with a valve in the lower part of the door of the oven, and another in the back part of its cover, by which a current of air might be admitted at pleasure to brown the meat. There is a very small cast-iron range made occasionally, in which a stove for heating irons, and for other purposes, is substituted for a boiler, and which costs only three guineas- 593. A Design for a Collage Kitchen Grate, of great ingenuity, and capable of supply- ing all the heat required, not only for cooking, but for washing, warming, and every other domestic purpose, has been sent us by our scientific and gifted correspondent, Mr. Mallet, juu., of Dublin, who informs us that he has tried it, and found it to answer m every particular. Fig. 522 is a vertical section of this grate in the plane of the breast of the chimney ; and fig. 523 is a plan, or horizontal section, of the same, taken a little above the bottom grate. The sides and back of the fireplace are fonncd by tli« 28i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. hollow vessel b, of boiler plate iron, into which two pipes are inserted to produce circula- tion between the water in it and that in the apparatus shown in figs. 524, 525, and 526. The vessel b receives constantly that portion of the licat wliich would otherwise be dissipated in the brickwork of the back and sides of the fireplace, and transmits it to a hollow vessel, fig. 524, enclosed in a cast-iron casing with doors, as shown in fig. 525, wliich may form ^ a 1 II at one time an oven or hot closet, and at another a water or steam bath : the tem- perature of either of these, however, can never be higher than 212°, unless oil be used. The upper surface of this case will be useful for culinary purposes, most operations of which require but a moderate heat. Fig. 526 shows the top of the water-bath, with holes at one end for inserting sauce- pans, &c. ; and with a hot plate at the other. This double- cased vessel is easily and cheaply made of boiler plates. Over the fireplace is another vessel, also formed of boiler plates, fig. 522, a, the water in which is heated by that heat which generally escapes up the chimney, to the amoimt of fialf that evolved by the fuel. The flue passes in a circuitous route, c c, and the ordinary flue receives the smoke at d ; but if the smoke passed oflf by the dotted lines e e, more heat would be given out, though in that case soot doors would be necessary in the chimney breast, opposite the angles of the flues, to admit of cleaning them. This boiler or vessel will lieat part, or the whole, of the cottage, according to its sire ; it will supply hot water for culinary or other purposes ; and when the vessel 6 is not in use, the heat of a may be greatly increased by opening the cock m, which will permit circulation to take place between the upper and lower vessels. The vessel a is supplied with water by a small cistern and ball pipe g, bent to prevent circulation, and sunk into the wall of the chimney ; a . I 527 simple smoke-jack may be placed over the opening of the flue, c, as shown at h in fig. 527; and a door of iron should be fixed in the breast of the chimney, a little higher up, as shown in the same figure at i, in order to get at the boiler at any time, and to sweep the chimney. Fig. 527 shows the elevation of the grate, which has a common crane, k, for hanging pots on ; and two hinged cast-iron doors, I I, to turn back against the wall ; by closing which the fire may be at any time intensely urged, and thus the water made to boil in both vessels in a few minutes (the cock m being open). By these means a bath may be procured in a very short time in any part of the house or cottage. Of course many modifications and applications of this Design are jiracticable ; such as heating a conservator)' or a poultry-house, hatching eggs, steaming fodder for cattle, &c. ; all of which may be readily conceived and executed by any practical engineer accustomed to direct works in iron. cock, f, connected by the FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 285' 594. Cottage Cooking-S(oves are not common in Britain, but they are much used iu those truly economical countries, Holland and the Netherlands ; and might, in many districts, prove of great advantage to the British cottager. We shall give a description of the stove in use in tlie cottages about Bruges, as furnished us by Mr. G. H. Cottam, who adds that these stoves will be manufactured, in future, at the establishment of Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, Winsley Street, London. Fig. 528 is a vertical section, showing the furuace or fireplace, a; the flue, e ; and oven, o. Fig. 529 is another vertical section, taken at right angles with the former ; and fig. 530 is a perspective view, show- 529 ing the external appearance of the whole. Near the top of the furnace there is a square opening, fig. 528, h, to admit the hot air and smoke produced by the consumption of the fuel, to enter into the flue, f, in v\ hich it circulates round the stove, between the plates joand q, before it escapes up the chimney, e. The oven, o, is heated from the furnace, a; which furnace, being closed at top, becomes red-hot, or nearly so, and produces sufficient heat for roasting, or any other culinary purpose. Tlie size of the fireplace can be increased at pleasure by taking off the grate, g, and putting in a smaller grate to rest on the projections, i; or a still smaller one on the shoulders, at the bottom of the opening at k. The cinders and dust from the fuel fall into the box, h ; which pulls out, in order to remove them, without producing the slightest degree of dust or dirt. Thus, while bread is baking in one oven, and meat roasting in the other, boiling or stewing may be carried on by saucepans set upon the cover, or in holes cut in it, having lids with handles, r, which lift off. One of these lids, n, is directly over the fireplace, and the two others, I and m, open into the smoke-flue. Irons may also be heated on this plate. These stoves will consume the most inferior description of fuel, and will produce an intense heat, from what would scarcely burn at all in a common open fireplace, where the fire is, as it were, drowned with air on all sides, instead of being, as it is in the Bruges stove, surrounded on all sides by heat, and the air supplied in one stream from below, through a valve in the front of the drawer for receiving the ashes. Most of our readers will agree with us in thinking that this stove, when it becomes generally known, will form a treasure to the British cottager, as it will not only serve to cook his meat, &c., but will throw out more heat for the purpose of warming his room, than any open fire- place whatever. The construction of this stove, in a scientific point of view, is admirable ; and all that is necessary, in putting it up, is to set it on the floor, a few feet from the chimney (if one should be already built), and to conduct the smoke funnel of the former into the flue of the latter, immediately under the ceiling of the apartment, or, if the cottage contains two floors, it might be carried through to the roof, in order to heat the bed-rooms. When this stove is used as a substitute for a kitchen range, the open fire- place, or the throat of the flue over it, should be closed up, in order to prevent the escape of the heated air of the room. The fireplace, indeed, might be turned into a cupboard. We hope to hear of orders being given for hundreds of Cottam's Bruges stove ; because they would not only serve instead of all other kitchen fires for common cottages, but would prove a useful auxiliai7 to the kitchen in most houses. It would be easy to make an improvement on this stove, so as to circulate hot water from it all over a house, for the purpose of heating it ; thus rendering open fireplaces totally unnecessary, and doing away, in ordinary-sized dwellings, with all the chimney-flues and chimney tops, except one. 595. Warming-Stoves are of endless variety. Those manufactured in Britain are generally of iron; and for the consumption of pit coal they are erroneous in one im- portant particular, viz. tliat of not being surrounded by fire brick or fire stone, to serve as 286 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. a reservoir of lieat. Were this done, or were even a double vacuity of air formed around, above, and below the furnace of a stove, by plates of iron, a great deal more heat might be procured from the fuel ; because nearly the whole of the smoke might be consumed : all the difference would be, that the heat, instead of being radiated directly from the stove into the air of the apartment, would be radiated from the flue; and this flue, being of iron, might be conducted so as to heat several apartments, or the whole house. A good and cheap construction for this purpose is still wanting. A stove invented by Witty effectually consumes the smoke ; but it is bulky, the fuel is supplied in an awkward manner, and the stove itself is rather too expensive for our present purpose. 596. Cottage Ovens are formed of either iron, fire stone, or fire brick. The two latter kinds are by far the best ; because they do not, like iron, acquire suddenly so much heat as to burn what is to be baked or roasted in them ; and because they retain the heat they do acquire for a long time. An excellent oven is formed by cramping together five square fire stones or fire bricks, of a foot or more in breadth each, and having a sixth stone or brick as a cover. The fire may be made within, and taken out wlien the stones are thoroughly heated. This oven may be fixed by the side of a kitchen fire, or set on a weak fire, as practised with a description of stone oven in use among the cottagers in Gloucestershire, and with clay ovens at Dunstable, in Bedfordshire. Excellent ovens of this sort might be made of Stourbridge fire clay ; and Mr. Peake of Tunstall informs us, that not only ovens for baking bread, but entire fireplaces, with their flues, might be made of the same material, at a very moderate expense, if it were not for the present enormous duty. A fire clay fireplace, with an oven on each side, and requiring no ironwork, except a small grating in front and another at the bottom, would be a most desirable fixture for the cottage kitchen. 597. Portable Iron Cottage Ovens are common among the ironmongers, but they are not very desirable. Occasionally, however, they may be useful where nothing better can be got, and we shall therefore briefly notice two kinds. Fig. 531 is a front view of a portable wrought-iron cottage oven, which costs in London, by retail, 30s. It is intended to be placed over a fire, so that the smoke and hot a air may enter at a, circulate round the oven, and escape by the funnel, h. There is a valve, c, to permit the escape of steam when meat is roasting. Fig. 532 shows a view of the oven with the door open, and with a false bottom, d, of fire stone, raised half an inch from the iron bottom, to moderate the heat. The dimensions of the chamber are, depth and height, thirteen inches and a quarter, and width fifteen inches. Another portable oven is nothing more than a com- mon cast-iron flat-bottomed pot or stewpan, with a false bottom inside supported on pivots, under which sand is put, to diminish the intensity of the heat. When this oven is to be used, it is put on a moderate fire, and covered with a lid, which may be taken ofi' occasionally to admit air. The cost in London, by retail, is only 3s. 6d. It will bake a small loaf, or roast a fowl. 598. Hollers for Wash-houses are commonly made of copper, and require little art in either making or managing, except, in setting them up, to provide for getting as much heat as possible out of the fuel burned beneath them ; and to get ready access to the flues, to free them from soot. In all open boilers, as usually constructed, there must necessarily be a great waste of heat ; and therefore, in cottages, we always desire to contrive tlie flues proceeding from them so as they may heat the air of the apartments. 599. Parlour and Bed-room Grates are manufactured in iron in the greatest variety ; but it may truly be said that there is not one in a hundred of their forms worthy of being recom- mended, as being scientifically constructed, with a view to the complete consumption of the fuel used, and the radiation of heat into the room. The grand errorof almost all of them FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 287 consists in their being exclusively constructed of iron. We hope the clay is not very far distant when open fireplaces will be considered as relics of barbarism, and will be altoge- ther banished from every room in British houses, except the kitchen : in the mean time, we recommend the cottager who persists in indulging his prejudice for the sight of an open fire, to form the sides and back of liis fireplace with fire brick or fire stone ; and to use no iron whatever in its construction, but four bars for a front to tlie fuel chamber and a bottom grate, which, together, in cast iron, will not cost more than 3s. or 4s. The most convenient fire bricks are what are called Welsh or Stourbridge lumps, from the names of the places where they are made ; that is, masses of burnt clay, eighteen inches or two feet long, nine inciies or a foot broad, and six or eight inches thick. One of these maj' form the back of the fireplace, and two others the two sides, as in fig. 533 ; in which a 5SS c l! a f\ 3 represents the front bars ; b, the bottom grate ; c, the plan of the fireplace, the bars, grate, and Welsh lumps being shown in their proper places ; d, the elevation ; c, the section of the front bars, and the bottom grate, showing the inclination of the latter, f, towards the back of the fire chamber, in the proportion of about one inch in six, with a view of giving the ashes a tendency to the back ; and g, a section of one of the front bars, of nearly its full size, showing the upper surface inclining towards the back of the grate, in the pro- portion of half an inch to an inch, h being the front of the bar. The nearer the fuel- chamber is placed to the hearth, the more heat will be radiated into the room from the increase produced in the space, i, between the grate and the chimney breast ; and, on the contrary, the nearer the fuel chamber is to the chimney breast, the less will be the heat radiated into the room, though the chimney will draw better. The Welsh or Stourbridge lumps at the sides should form with those of the back an angle of forty-five degrees or upwards. In a fireplace of this sort a fire is much more easily lighted, and much less liable to go out when neglected, than in one having the back or sides of iron. It also con- sumes the fuel much moi-e effectually ; and, by not radiating the heat so rapidly from its surface as iron, it creates less draught up the cliimney, and consequently carries less heat out of the room. When the mass of fire brick is once thoroughly heated, it retains heat for many hours after the fire has been extinguished ; so that, if the fire is at any time suffered to go out from neglect, the room is not so soon cooled as it would be, under similar circumstances, bj the radiating and conducting powers of cast iron. Where the grate is raised somewhat higher than is shown in fig. 533, a drawer may be added to the front bars, and bottom grate under the latter, for receiving the ashes, so as to prevent them from raising a dust, by falling from the bottom grate to the hearth, and at the same time to retain more heat about the fire. The ashes may also be carried away in the drawer, in furtherance of the same object ; and by drawing it out more or less, or keeping it closely shut, the burning of the fire may be accelerated or retarded. As a further means of preventing the ashes from falling from the front bars on the hearth, the upper 288 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. .9.H I 1 = V 1 '"■ t 535 surface of t'le former should always be made to slope inwards, as before stated, and the breadth of the bars should be somewhat greater than is usually employed. This is shown in fig. 533, g, and also in the section, fig. 534, to a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot, in which k k k are the sections of the bars ; /, the bottom grate ; and m, the ash-drawer. The front bars should always be straight, because the consumption of the fuel depends on its being as little exposed as possible to cold air on the sides, and because the heat given out to the room depends on the breadth of surface of the ignited fuel, and not on the depth of the fuel chamber. Curved fronts, therefore, for fireplaces of this sort, are never to be recom- mended ; not only because they increase the depth of the fuel- chamber, but because they expose a greater portion of the fuel to the action of the cool air, by which perfect combustion is rendered more difficult. With the fireplaces near the hearth, with front bars beveled inwards, and with an ash-drawer, the fender may be made very low ; and thus the heat may be allowed to radiate freely to that part of the floor from which it is excluded by a high fender. It is necessary to observe that the bottom or ash-drawer is not recommended as a means of increasing the heat, because its front and bottom will prevent a portion of that from being radiated to the hearth, but chiefly as a means of regulating the draught of air through the fire, and consequently of accelerating or diminishing the consumption of the fuel ; and partly for the sake of cleanliness, in preventing the small ashes from falling on the hearth, and avoiding the dust which in that case arises when they are swept up and carried away. 600. A simple and economical Fireplace for a cottage parlour the chimney of which is liable to smoke, is in use in some parts of Fifeshire and Mid- Lothian, and is worthy of imitation in countries where fire stone or fire clay can be readily procured. In tlie cot- tages alluded to, the sides or jambs, figs. 535, 536, n n (between which are fixed the front bars and the grate), are formed of a kind of fire stone, found in the island of Cramond ; the fire-cham- ber is wide in front, but not deep ; in consequence of which it consumes but few coals in proportion to the heat it throws out. The upper part of the fireplace, behind, and at the sides, is formed of the same stone ; and in front there is fixed a cast- iron plate, with an opening in it ; which, though generally semicir- cular, might be made square, or Gothic, according to the character of the architecture of the house. These fireplaces are valuable for low-roofed cottages placed among high trees, as the chimneys of dvvell- ings so situated are very apt to smoke. Fireplaces thus constructed draw well ; but it must be obvious that, in proportion as this is the case, a greater amount of heat must be carried up the chimney. A thin plate (generally of sheet iron) is sometimes hooked on in front of the opening, on first lighting tlie fire, in order to increase the draught, by preventing the cold air of the room from mixing with the heated air that has passed through the fire. In Ireland, we are informed by Mr. Bu- chanan, in his Economy of Fuel, p. 315, that, instead of using a cast-iron plate, the back of the upper part of the fireplace is formed into an oval niche, by fire stone or fire brick ; the breast of the chimney being rounded of}", and the throat very much con- tracted. A view of such a chimney is given in an excellent work, entitled The T/icort/ and Practice of Warming and Ventilating, &c., p. 183. We can only recommend such fireplaces, however, as a minor evil to that of a smoky chimney. The grate, fig. 535, and the preceding one, fig. 533, have one disadvantage for the cottager, common to both, viz., that of liaving no hobs ; but this want may be supplied in tlie present grate, by omitting the cast-iron plate, when the tops of the jambs would become hobs, as is actually the case in the parlour fireplaces of cottagers about Edinburgh : 5S6 FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 289 537 538 and hobs might be supplied to the grate, fig. 537, Iiaving the sides of the fiio at right angles to the front, as indicated in fig. 53?, in which o o are the hobs, formed of Welsh lumps, or fire stone ; p p p, \\'clsh lumps forming tlie sides and back ; and q q, angles tilled up with mortar, or fragments of fire brick. In such fireplaces as fig. 533, a substitute for a hob may always be found in the movable bracket called a trivet, for hang- ing on the bars ; or by a similar stand with three feet, for setting before the fire. 601. An economical union of cast iron and jire stone or Jire brick is sometimes attempted by ironmongers, by lining iron cases with stone or brick, as in fig. 539 ; in which the front plates of the jambs, r r, and the plates which form the hob, 5 s, are of cast iron ; and the back and sides are also of iron, but lined with three fire stones, t i t. The iron back and sides are of no other use than to retain the stones in their proper places, and thus render this fireplace portable, and, in consequence, an article of trade for ironmongers ; since a much more eflective and less expensive fireplace would be produced by having only the covers of the hobs, the front plates of the jambs, and the bottom grate, of iron, and building up from the hearth, the jambs, and the back, of solid masonry, and on that placing the firestone. A grate built in this way is both economical and handsome, more especially if it has broad beveled front bars and an ash-drawer, as shown in figs. 534 and 537 ; but, as Mr. Tredgold observes, " ironmongers, in general, seem to think it more desirable to use. iron, than to economise fuel, or to work on sound principles." In the neighbourhood of Birmingham, and in the coal districts of the midland counties, where coal is abundant, and the inhabitants are fond of large bright fires, the bottom grates are made so -wide that cinders of con- siderable size are allov.'ed to pass through them. To prevent these cinders from being lost, and also to prevent dust from being raised, by sweeping up and carrj'ing away the ashes, what is called an ash-pan is often placed on the hearth between these fire jambs, immediately beneath the grate. This ash-pan, fig. 540, is a frame or box, with a grated top and a drawer underneath. The open spaces in the grating are about a quarter or three sixteenths of an inch apart, which is the width between the bottom bars of grates about London, and in most parts of the country where fuel is scarce and dear. In some places, the drawer or box is let into the hearth, and the grating over it is formed of brass wire, which gives a remarkably clean and warm appearance to the hearth, as no ashes can lie on the wires, which, from the reflection of the fire over them,' present a glowing hue to the eye. Where provision has not been made for this recess in the hearth, the same effect may be produced by a box over it, the outer rim of which should form the fender, which will look better, and be more effective, than the ash-pan, fig. 540, which only receives the ashes that fall directly under the grate ; leaving those which fall from the front bars to be swept up. By having the whole of the hearth within the fender formed of one shallow box, of which the fender is the outer rim ; by having this box co- vered with brass-wire grating, and the front bars sloping inwards, no ashes could ever be A^ X ,!X ■■-] r 1 1 L 1 ^lllilllilllllll!llllllT>| 540 290 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. seen. In kitcliens on the ground floor, it is a common practice, in many places, to leave an ash-pit under the kitchen range, three or four feet deep, covered with a wrought-iron grating, into which the ashes fall, and are only taken out when it is full, generally when the chimneys are swept. This practice is highly commendable, as saving the labour of daily carrying out and sifting the ashes, and bringing back the cinders. 602. The rounding of the chimney breast, and the contraction of tlte throat of the flue, whatever may be the kind of grate adopted, are points which contribute materially to the free draught of every chimney. The chimney breast requires to be rounded, in order to direct the current of cool air drawn from that of the room gradually upwards, so that it may mix in by degrees with the current of hot air ascending from the fuel chamber, instead of striking against it at right angles, which it must necessarily do when the chimney breast is not rounded. The object of contracting the throat of the chimney is to diminish tlie quantity of heat drawn from the room, by the current of air which is continually passing up the chimney ; but the same contraction, it is justly observed by Mr. Tredgold, often augments the draught to such a degree, as greatly to increase the consumption of fuel. The grand point to be attained is, such a di-aught as will do nothing more than carry off the smoke, and keep the fire clear ; because then there is the greatest radiation from the fire and fireplace, with the least waste of hot air from the room. The rounding of the chimney breast may either be effected by having a stone lintel or a cast-iron one. In countries where stone is so abundant that lintels of that material are thrown across the openings of the fireplaces, the under side may be rounded off as at a, in fig. 541, and the throat of the flue gradually contracted (as shown in the section from c to d, p. 113.), till, at the height of two or tlu-ee feet from the chimney breast, the superficial area, in ordinary cases, is not more than 90 or 100 square inches; this being found by experience to be a suitabley sized flue for an ordinary coal fire. When this contraction has been neglected in building the chimney, or done improperly ; or when it is found necessary to contract the throat still farther, to create a draught ; this may be done, in stone countries, by the piece of flag-stone, b, set on the surface, c, which may be moved backward or forward to adjust the draughts to the degree required. When fires are no longer wanted, this stone may be brought forward so as to lean against the breast of the chimney, as at d, to close up the flue ; or thrown back, as at e, when the chimney is to be swept. That this may be done with ease, and without dirtying the hands, the stone may be removed by inserting the points of the tongs in two holes cut in its face for that purpose. In countries where brick is the principal building material, the chimney breast, as we have seen, § 79, is built on an iron bar : this bar is generally flat, and about three inches broad ; consequently its inner edge pre- sents a sharp angle, instead of the rounded surface repre- sented in fig. 541 : to remedy this, a bar has been invented by Mr. Chadley, fig. 542, the cross section of which, taken at the centre of the opening, is shown at f; and another cross section, taken nearer the end, is shown at g. This is obviously an excellent bar, and its cost, for an opening three feet wide, is not more than the usual expense of a common wTought-iron bar, suitable for the same opening. " The contrivance for contracting or closing the throats of chimneys, itr brick-built buildings, is cither by a plate of cast iron, formed with a base so as to stand like the stone, d b 543 b, in fig. 541 ; or by what is called a register plate, fig. 543. In the latter case the plate is furnished with a turn latch, which may be worked by the tongs, so as to regulate the distance between its upper edge and the breast of the flue. It may FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 291 be taken out to admit of sweeping the chimney; or the flue may be completely closed by it. " When the chimney top is properly contracted," Mr. Tredgold observes, "a register at the throat is not wanted, and it is always desirable to do with as little machinery about a fire as possible." He says that he makes the contraction at the top in order to reduce the opposition which the wind, and even the resistance of the air, make to the ascending smoke ; also to prevent the chimney from being cooled by double currents of air (which is often the case in wide chimneys), and to diminish the loss of heat which would be required to sustain a current of smoke in a large flue. If the con- traction were made only at the throat, the force of ascent would be diminished at the first ettbrt ; it would be like contracting the aperture of a pipe which supplies a jet ; besides, if a larger opening were left at the top than what is absolutely necessary, the rain, cold air, &c., would" descend, and interrupt the smoke. The degree of contraction at the throat of the flue I\Ir. Tredgold makes the same as that at the top of the chimney. He avoids all abrupt changes in either the form or direction of tlie flues; he prefers the circular form for them ; and in 1816 proposed, in the Xcw Montldy Magazine, to build them of earthen pipes. 603. The Jmerican Stove is adapted for a cottage in a country where wood is the fuel, where it is abundant, and where no great nicety of construction has yet entered into cottage dwellings; but it can never be recommended as so economical in the first cost, or so neat andcleanly in use, as a fireplace with the back and sides of non-conducting earthy material. It is formed entirely of cast iron, and has a large projecting cast-iron hearth, with a rim to it, serving as a fender ; it has also sides serving as jambs, and a hood or shelf of cast iron. The fuel is burned on three or four iron bai's, resting on dog-irons. 604. Many other Stoves suitabk for Cottages might be described and figured ; but we have deemed it more likely to be useful, to confine ourselves to two or three which we are perfectly certain are excellent, and which are fit for first-rate houses no less than for cottages. The fire-brick stove, fig. 533, is to be found in the libraries and business rooms of some of the largest mansions in London ; for example, in Portland Place and St. James's Square. 605. Tlie Consumption of the Smoke in open Fireplaces has long been a desideratum ; and though it never can be accomplished effectually, it may in a great degree, by the use of a stove invented by Cutler, in which, instead of throwing coals on the top of the fire, in the usual way, they are supplied from beneath, by hoisting up a grated box, into which as many coals are put in the morning as it is supposed will be burned during the day. The invention is rather too complicated for common cottages ; but, if a little trouble were not objected to, at least the grosser portion might be consumed by the following arrangement : — Supposing the bottom grate of the fuel chamber, as in fig. 533, to be within six inches of the hearth, all that is necessary is to char the coal by keeping it a day directly under the grate (with a good fire burning above), before it is used. The space below might be divided vertically into two chambers, and each sunk so deep into the heartJi as to contain as many coals as would be used in a day. The bottoms of these chambers should have an ash-box fitted into them, into which the ashes and dross would fall when the coals were being lifted with a shovel to be put on the fire. Every morning one chamber would be found empty, or nearly so ; and the ash-grate, being taken out, and its contents thrown in the dustliole, might be replaced, and the chamber again filled with coals. The coals might also be charred by having the jambs hollow, and the hobs to lift up ; or by leaving a hollow in the back directly behind the' fuel chamber, with a cast-iron door : but though these two modes would be much more cleanly than the other, they would not, like it, have the advantage of burning whatever was evaporated from the coals. It would be impossible for a quantity of raw coal to remain a whole day directly under a good fire, without being in a great measure deprived of the watery particles and grosser carbonaceous matters which are the principal ingredients in smoke; and equally impossible for this vapour to escape without passing through the ignited mass of fuel over it. We do not present this as either a perfect or an elegant mode of burning smoke in open fireplaces, but as one which may be universally adopted; and which, whether it succeeds in effectually con- suming the smoke or not, is sure to do good, since the drier and hotter fuel is, before it is put on the fire, the better it will burn. 606. Designs for more elegant Grates and Stoves will be found among our fixtures for ornamental cottages and villas ; and we shall treat more at length on the principles of warming and ventilating, in the Third Part of this work. 607. Sinks, or fixed shallow troughs, are usually placed in back-kitchens, sculleries, and wash-houses, for setting dishes and other articles upon which are to be washed ; and for receiving and conveying away dirty water. They are generally fonned of stone, fig. 544, but are sometimes also made of cast iron ; and Mr. Mallet of Dublin, who H U 2(1'^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUKE. 544 has made a great number, has sent us several Designs, of which fig. 545 is a corner sink, suitable for cottages. Sinks are also frequently made of wood, lined with lead or zinc. A sink, of whatever materials it may be constructed, should always either be raised on masonry, or placed on an iron or wooden stand, so as to have the upper edge about two feet and a half from the ground ; and it should be fixed near a window, on account of the light. Where practicable, there should be a cock with a supply of water immediately over it ; and, at all events, there should be a waste-pipe from it, leading to a drain, the orifice being protected by a bell stink-trap, as already described, § 237. 608. Fixed Waah-hand Basins, Washing- Troughs, and Slabs are little required in plain cottages ; we shall therefore defer what we have to say of them, till we come to treat of fixtures for villas. Fig. 545, given as a corner sink, would make a very good fixed wash-hand basin. 609. A Towel Roller ought to be placed on the back of the kitchen-door of every cottage ; or, if not on the back of the door, it should be near the sink or fixed wash- hand basin. It is formed of deal, or any common wood, fig. 546, to a scale of one inch 546 to a foot, and consists of a roller with a gudgeon, or small pin, at each end, which pins work in sockets cut out of brackets fixed to a door, or to any other perpendicular surftice. One of these brackets, a, has its socket cut through, to admit of taking out and putting in the roller, when the towel requires to be changed ; the other, b, has merely a circular hole cut into one side. 6iO. A Hail for Taivels, fig- 547, to a scale of an inch to a foot, is a fixture suitable for 547 either bed-rooms or kitchens : it requires no description beyond the inspection of the figure ; and may be nailed to a wall, to a door, or to tlie side of a wardrobe or cliest of drawers. This rttff should be made of strong wood, and painted of the same colour as FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 293 548 the walls or door of the room, or the wardrobe against which it is fixed. The use of the paint is not only to harmonise it with the rest of the apartment, but to preserve the wood from being first discoloured, and afterwards rotted, by the wet and damp of the towel. If it should be fixed against a papered wall, and near a wash-hand stand, a row of wooden pins or buttons, e, may be placed in the under side of the rail, on which may be hung a curtain of brown bolland linen, or of any other material, to prevent the w all from being splashed. 611. Hat and CloaJc Pins are sometimes formed of \*ood, turned or plain, and let into a rail of the same material ; this rail being fixed to the wall, in the entrance lobby or passage, or sometimes in cottage bed-rooms. The more common pins for this purpose are made of cast iron ; and figs. 548 and 549 show two of the most useful shapes : the latter answers two purposes, as a cloak may be hung on rf, ar^d a hat on e. 612. All Iron Hand-miU, for grinding coffee, rice, barley, and groats, and another smaller one for pepper, &c., are most vahable articles in the better description of cottages ; because the cottager may not only roast and grind his own coffee, or any of the substitutes for it, but he may, at pleasure, fcitn rice flour from whole rice, for puddings, &c., for invalMs or children; barley flour from pearl barley, for fever drink ; or oatmeal from groats, for porridge or gruel. These mills are always easiest to work, and most effective, when fixed ; and for this purpose, if there be no styli of a door or quarter of a partition suflSciently strong, they must be bolted to the wall, unless provision was made in building it, by inserting a piece of strong timber, or a sto 'e to which the mill could be cramped with lead. 613. Fued Ironing- Boards and Flaps are useful both in kitchen and, on a smaller scale, in lobbies and passages, and even sometimes as brackets in sit ng-rooms. Fig. 550 550 is an ironing-board, or flap table, which, in a cottage, may seive for various u =eful purposes, and, where the living rooms are small, will be found a most valuable substitute 294 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 55a for a portable table. The piece of board, a, is made fast to the wall, either by holdfasts, or by being nailed or screwed to wooden bricks. The flap, b d, is hinged to it, and, when raised up, is supported in its place by the hinged folding legs, of which c c, fig. 550, is a plan, and d an elevation. Fig. 552 is an insulated fixed table, or ironing-board, supported by cast-iron framing, which is fixed by screw nails to the floor, and also to the under side of the top. Mr. Mallet, junior, of Dublin, who has sent us this Design, observes that all manner of kitclien tables may be supported in this manner, most securely and firmly, and at very little expense. Fixed insulated tables occupy more room than wall flaps ; but in roomy cottages, and especially where the mistress is a washer- woman, they admit of two or four persons ironing at the same time, instead of one or two. Fig. 551 is an ironing-Ijoard, or side-table, supported by cast-iron brackets ; the dotted lines showing the ge- neral disposition of the framing to support the table, and the diagonal rib, e, introduced to prevent lateral action. Figs. 553 and 554 show two modes of fastening sideboard framing to walls ; the first by an eye-l)olt, with a round key, passing through holes jumped (the expression for boring stone with a blunt chisel, called a jumper) in two superincumbent stones in tlie wall ; the latter shows the bolt passed through the wall, and secured with a nut. Fig. 555 is a sideboard suitable for a lobby, wide passage, or dining-parlour. The board or flap, /J is hinged at the joint, to fall down, and is supported by two jib brackets, fig. 556, which 556 ^ 554 f 1 J shut into the frame when the flap is let down, and are concealed by it. There is a slip of board, g, above the flap, to keep things from rubbing against the wall. In the construction, the brackets are fixed to the frame, by having round pins worked in both ends of their upright piece, which turn in corresponding holes of the top and bottom rails of the frame. 614. Dressers are fixtures essential to every kitchen, but more especially to that of the cottager, to whom they serve both as dressers and sideboards. They are generally made of deal by joiners, and seldom painted, it being the pride of good housewives, in most parts of England, to keep the boards of which they are composed as white as snow, by frequently scouring them with fine white sand. The dishes, plates, &c., which they contain are also kept perfectly clean and free from dust, by being wiped every day, whether used or not. In old farm-liouses, the dressers are generally of oak rubbed bright, and the shelves are filled with rows of pewter plates, &c., polished by frequent cleaning, till they shine like silver. The dresser may be called the cottager's sideboard, and in the dining-rooms of the first nobleman's houses in Britain, the splendid mahogany sideboards, set out with gold and silver plate, diil'er only in the costliness of the materials employed from the cottage dresser : nor do the essentials of human food differ more in the palace and in the cottage than the furniture ; for, in Britain and America at least, good meat, good bread, and good potatoes are the main dishes on all tables, and may be obtained by the workman who has good wages and full employ- ment, as well as by the wealthy merchant or hereditary aristocrat. VVlien there is a pot-board affixed to the dresser, it is usually painted black or chocolate colour ; and ■when the shelves and fronts are painted, it is generally white, or, what is in better taste, the same colour as the walls or doors of the apartment. Gothic dressers would be more appropriate if made of oak, or painted to resemble that wood. The price of a deal dresser, in London, is from £2 to £5, FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 295 5.59 ^/t 561 ^ -r" K— 1 BpTiiiTi^h"-T , ,M.,, hi lllllllllllllllllll iiiniillli uiiiliU |u^ -,==^-«=, ■ :';;'| Ip'i - ; '■j_j:i '''"'''» M Mllllllililllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll kO ■! l.llllliiullill -1 ' M RSTS 296 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 5(j3 564 U ^^.sssA iitiiiiiiiiniiiipiffliiiiifflii FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. '2^1 615. Dressers in the Grecian Sit/le. Fi>. 557, on a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, represents a dresser in a plain Grecian style, the characteristic features being the square columns which support the drawers, and the board or table which covers them : under the drawers is seen the potboard, or place for setting pots, saucepans, &c., when not in use. Tliere are tliree shelves, and two large drawers. Rails are fixed a few inches under eacli shelf, on which to rest the edges of the plates and dishes, in order that they may lean forward, so as to protect their faces from the dust, which, when they are in this position, can only fall on their backs. There are hooks fixed in the edges of the bhelves, on which jugs and any small articles having handles may be hung. Fig. 558 is 557 553 tr a cross section of this Design, on a somewhat larger scale, on which are shown the ends of the shelves, e; of the plate rails,y; of the hooks, g ; and of the potboard, /;. Fig. 559, p. 295, is another dresser in the Grecian style, but difl'ering from the other, in having beads fixed along the upper surface of the shelves, near the edge, to support the plates and dishes in a reclining position against the back. In this position they are liable to receive the dust on the face ; but it is nevertheless preferred by some housewives, as showing better whether or not the plates are clean. Instead of an open potboard, there are two side-closets, and, in the middle, shelves. There are three drawers above: the centre one for tablecloths, towels, &c. ; and the two side ones, one for knives, forks, and spoons, and the other for dusters, brushes, &c. In one of the cupboards below may be kept what wines or spirits are in daily use, glasses, &-c. ; and, in the other, bread, biscuits, groceries, or any other articles of food. The tea-tray and teacups may be put on the upper middle shelf, and the smaller saucepans, &c., on the bottom one. Fig. 560 is an end view of this dresser, on a somewhat larger scale, in which the ends of the beads, i, the hooks, k, and supporting brackets, /, are more distinctly delineated. The top of this dresser, being somewhat heavy, should be fixed to the wall by two holdfasts driven in above so as to be concealed by the cornice, or by screw nails to wooden bricks. Fig. 56' 1, also to a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, is a very convenient dresser, used in the better description of cottage dwellings in Cambridgeshire. The middle drawer, which is shown drawn out, has a lift-out box or tray, which is divided in the centre for the knives and forks, and spoons, in daily use ; and underneath, in the bottom of the drawer, is a space in which are kept those not generally in use. There are two other drawers, one on each side, for clean tablecloths and towels, and for dusters, &c. The cupboard in front is made, in order to look uniform, with three panels like doors, but the centre one is fixed, and behind it, in the middle, is a division forming the whole into only two cupboards, in one of which may be kept glasses, teacups, &c. ; and in the other, the liquors, fruits, sweetmeats, &c., in daily use. Fig. 562 shows a section of this 298 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. dresser, in which is seen the middle drawer, ni, with its lift-out tray, n, and the space below, for knives and forks not in use, o. This dresser being intended to have the plates leaning forward, as in fig 557, sections of the plate rail for that purpose are seen nt p. 616. Dressers iti the Gothic Style- Fig. 563, p. 296, to a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, is considered in the Gothic style, from the character of its mouldings at q q, and of the upper part of its supporting columns, r r. It has an open potboard and two large drawers over it. The plates, &c., are intended to lean forward, as shown in this figure, and also in the section, fig. 564. Fig. 565 is a dresser more decidedly in the Gothic style, as is obvious from its openings with pointed-arched tops in the ends which support the shelves, and from its pointed-topped panels in the two cupboard doors. There are three shallow drawers under the board or table, two shelves in the middle, and a lock-up cupboard on each side. The plates are intended to lean back, as shown in the section, fig. 566. 617. Fixed Corner Cupboards. Where the dresser is without cupboards, as in figs. 557 and 563, a corner cupboard becomes requisite for cups and saucers, glasses, the tea- caddy, liquors in daily use, &c. ; and these cupboards are cheapest when put up as fix- tures ; because the shelves, instead of being fitted into wooden sides or linings, are then let into the plaster, or fixed on slips nailed to the wall. In small rooms these cupboards are very convenient, as they occupy very little space, and, for a moderate sum, supply a handsome article of furniture. 618. Fixed Corner Cupboards in the Grecian Style. Fig. 567, p. 299, to a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, is the external view of a corner cupboard in a plain Grecian style. The side styles are finished with pilasters, and there is a handsome cornice at top. There are an upper cupboard with two glazed sashes, and a lower one with two paneled doors. Fig. 568 represents another cupboard, in the Grecian style, with the doors open to show the interior, and standing on turned legs, to give it the character of a portable piece of furniture. The shelves, which are supposed to be of deal, are let into the plaster ; and the whole, outside and inside, including the plaster between the shelves, is painted of a wainscot colour. Fig. 569 is a Grecian corner cupboard in a inore elevated style of design ; the panels below and the round heads of the sashes give it an elegant and rather uncommon air. 619. Fixed Corner Cupboards in the Gothic Style. Fig. 570 is an open corner cup- board without doors. The shelves are nailed to slips of wood ; and these, with the wall between them, should be painted of the same colour as the side styles or pilasters, and the whole will look well, if grained to imitate wainscot. Fig. 571, p. 300, shows a plain Design, with glazed doors above, and paneled doors below. Fig. 572 is a Design somewhat more elaborate ; the pilasters having sunk panels ; and the sash-heads and cornice having more work in them. The expense of fixed corner cupboards of the kind here shown, with glazed doors above and paneled doors below, varies from £2 to £5. The cost will be con.siderably diminished by having the upper doors in single wooden panels, instead of being glazed. Sect. IV. Designs and Directionsfor Cottage Furniture and Furnishing. fiSO. The Furniture and Furnishing of Cottages have been hitherto neglected in every country where the comfort of the cottager has depended on those above him, and this never can be fully remedied till the inmate of the cottage is sufficiently enlightened to be able to take care of himself. We have shown, in our Chapter on Model Cottages, p. 8, that all that is essential, in point of the general arrangement of a house, may be obtained in a cot- tage with mud walls, as well as in a palace built of marble ; and we intend now to point out in what manner all that is comfortable, convenient, agreeable, and much of even what is elegant, in modern furniture and furnishing, may be formed of the indigenous woods and other common articles of every country, as well as of the most beautiful exotic timbers, and other costly materials obtained from abroad. If it should be asked, whether we ex- pect that such Designs as those which follow can be executed or procured by the cottagers of this country, we answer that we trust they soon will be ; and we believe that the first step towards this desirable end is, to teach them what to wish for. As the spread of knowledge becomes general, it will be accompanied by the spread of taste ; and correct habits of thinking will go hand in hand with comfortable dwellings, and convenient, neat, and elegant forms of furniture. An approximation to equalisation in knowledge will lead to an approximation in every thing else ; for knowledge is power, and the first use which every man makes of it is, to endeavour to better his own condition. Our grand object, therefore, in this as in every other department of our work, is, to cooperate with the causes at present in operation for bettering the condition, and elevating the character, of the great mass of society in all countries. Though most of the Designs submitted are of a superior description to what are common in cottages, they are not on that account more expensive than various cumbrous articles of furniture now possessed or desired by FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 5(i7 , iiiiiiiiiiififi^ 568 299 300 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 573 FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 301 every cottager in tolerable circumstances. The difference will be found to consist cliiefly in the kind of labour employed in making them, and in the style of design which they exhibit. To speak in familiar language, we have given more work for the joiner than for the carpenter ; and our Designs pretend to nothing more than what could be in- vented by any joiner who could read and draw, and derive ideas from books. Mr. Dalziel, under whose direction most of them have been prepared, has shown superior taste in pre- serving the character of simplicity, and preferring what was really good in itself to what had only novel or showy appearance to recommend it. For the Designs for iron furni- ture we are chiefly indebted to Mr. Mallet, jun., of Dublin; but partly to Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, and Mr. Eckstein, of London. We shall present the following Designs in the order of sideboards, dumb waiters, bookcases, book-shelves, wardrobes, chests of drawers, tables, chairs, stools, benches, sofas, beds, cribs, window-curtains, inside blinds, looking-glasses, fenders, carpets, oilcloths, matting, umbrella stands and hat and cloak holders, mats, scrapers, clocks and musical instruments, pictures, sculptures, and oilier ornamental furnishing : the various utensils employed in cookery, brewing, baking, washing, the dairy, &c., or for the table and bed-rooms, including earthenware, China and glass of every description, with linen, the minor articles of ironmongery, cutlen.-, &c., do not come within our plan, because they cannot be considered as architectural in their Design. 621. Sideboards for a coito^e j9ar?o?/r generally include cupboards, unless there should be a comer cupboard in the room, either as a fixture, or as a movable piece of furniture. Fig. 573, p. SOO, shows a small cupboard side-board for a neatly furnished cottage par- lour, in which there is not much room. In point of style it may be considered Grecian ; because the panels do not indicate any thing of pointed architecture at their angles, and because the mouldings under the top belong to the former style. Fig. 574 is a Design in the Gothic style ; and fig. 575 shows the interior of the Design. A partition is fixed in the centre, which divides the cupboard into two parts. One side has a drawer at the top, which drawer is partitioned, and lined with baize, for holding plate. There are four tray shelves below, which draw out, the space between them being of sufficient height to hold wine glasses, tumblers, &c. In the other side is one fixed shelf, leaving height enough for bottles and decanters both above and below. The lower part may be lined with lead, to keep wine and liquors cool ; or it may contain earthenware wine coolers for that purpose, the bottom being lined with lead, and having a ledge in front about an inch high, to retain any water that may exude from the coolers. The top of this sideboard lifts up, and leaves a well for holding tablecloths, napkins, doyleys, table- mats, &c. This article may be made in deal and painted ; of any native broad-leaved vood, as oak, elm, walnut, &c., or of mahogany. Made of the last material, in London, the price would be from £7 to £\2, according to the style of finishing 622. Corner Cupboards are best put up as fixtures (see § 617), and Designs for them may be made after the style already given, figs. 562 to 574 ; all the difference in con- 5:5 struction between a movable and a fixed comer cupboard, being, that the former have linings or sides of boards, to which the shelves and side styles are fixed. In some old 302 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. cottages and farm-houses there is a sort of pyramidal corner cupboard, fig. 575 a, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, sometimes in use for holding glasses, the punch bowl, &c. ; and another sort of corner cupboard, fig. 575 b, to the same scale as the preceding Design, has this advantage, that, when not in use, its two open sides may be turned against the two walls of tlie room, and, its two close sides only being seen, it may pass with a stranger as a book or music stand, for wliich, indeed, a similar design is frequently used. There is a drawer below, for holding plate, and on the top may stand the tea-urn ; or, in the event of its being used as a music-stand or book-stand, the drawer may contain manu- scripts, and the top a globe or bust. Tliis piece of furniture should stand on castors. 6'23. Dumb Waiters, or portable sideboards, are useful in small families, with few or no servants or children. The most common form is that of a candelabrum, with tiers of circular shelves fixed to an upright axis, the shelves diminishing from the bottom upwards, and the whole on castors. The two figures last described will also make very good dumb waiters. 624. Bookcases and Escruioires, Secretaries, or Bureaus, are extremely useful for holding books, keeping papers, or writing on ; and, therefore, no cottage parlour ought to be without one. Figs. 576 and 577 are bureaus in the Grecian style ; the middle part of fig. 576 draws out, and the front lets down and forms a writing-desk. The lower part, enclosed by doors, may be either fitted up with shelves or drawers; the upper part is for books. Fig. 577 has a falling board or flap, which, when let down, as shown in fig. 578, forms a writing-desk. Figs. 578 and 579 are bureau bookcases in the Gothic style. In the first of these figures, the writing-table is formed by pulling out a drawer, and letting down its front, as in fig. 578 ; in the second (fig. 579!, the sloping flap falls down, and rests on two sliding pieces, a, technically called lopers. This last description of secretaries is often made without the addition of the bookcase over it ; and, instead of paneled doors, it is more common to have drawers exposed to view. The knobs to .the drawer desks, figs. 576 and 578, are supposed to be made of wood, mahogany, ebony, or laburnum, as being more in harmony with the articles, and as less liable to tarnish than brass, the usual material of which similar handles are formed. The astragal moulding which covers the joint formed by the two doors of each Design is also com- monly formed of brass ; but wood, generally of the same sort as the rest of the fabric, is now substituted by the best manufacturers. Even the linings to keyholes, fig. 580, and the shields or escutcheons of locks, are now made of ebony, or some other hard wood, in all the better articles of cabinet furniture. Fig. 581 shows a section of tlie door style and astragal of the Grecian Designs ; in which b is the astragal, and c the door style. Fig. 582 is a similar section, showing the Gotliic astragal and door style. It will be observed that the astragal is not worked on the door style, but on a distinct piece of wood, d; which is afterwards glued, and rabbeted on to the edge of the side style. The situation in a room for pieces of furniture combining bookcases and secre- taries should never be on the side opposite to the window ; for nothing can be more awkward than the idea of a person sitting down to write with his back to the light, or, should the room be small, to an open fireplace. Recesses in those sides of a room, which form right angles with the window sides afford the most desirable positions ; and, of these, the preference is always to be given to the side containing the fireplace. In rooms heated by stoves or flues, the same care as to the position of the secretary with refer- ence to the fire is not requisite. 625. Book-shelves will shortly become as necessary as chairs or tables, for the cottage of even the humblest labourer. We shall give two Designs, figs. 58.S and 584 ; the first may be considered as suitable for a Gothic cottage, and the other for a plain one. Eitlier of these Designs may be fixed against a wall, with the lower shelves about six inches higher than what is called chair-back height from the floor. Or they may be set on a chest of drawers, or secretary, provided these are in suitable styles of Designs. The balusters which support the shelves, in fig. 584, .-ire called by cabinet-makers shaped columns; and they may either be made plain; fluted or reeded, as at g; or witli carved foliage, as at /(, in the same figure. 626. Wardrobes are as essential in a bed-room, as a dresser is in a cottager's kitchen, or a cupboard, or sideboard of some sort, in his parlour. Figs. 58,5 and 586, p. 304, on a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, exhibit a Design for a wardrobe in the Grecian 583 A A FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 576 578 303 Hi riWH^ . ^'^'"•"^ — =-^ 1 1 'it I r 304 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 585 586 587 591 588 FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 584 305 style. Fig. 586 is a view of fig. 585 with the doors removed, showing four inside sliding tray shelves, with a deep drawer underneath for bonnets, &c. In this drawer are com- monly fixed bonnet-holders, fig. 587, and against its sides cap pins, fig. 588. Fig. 589 is a Design for a wardrobe in the Gothic style, and also differently arranged in the interior. Fig. 590 shows a view of it with the doors removed. There is an upright division in the centre, with four fixed shelves on one side, and on the other an open space, with cloak pins fixed round it for hanging gowns, coats, caps, &c., upon. It is to be remarked, that the row of pegs is continued round the inside of the door. In the bottom of this division may be a fixed or portable bonnet-holder, such as fig. 587. These wardrobes may be made of deal, and painted wainscot colour, or of any other suitable to the other furniture of the room. The price in London is from ^^3 to £5 each. 627. Chests of Draivers are the common substitute for wardrobes, but they are very far inferior to them for keeping clothes, and create a great deal of useless labour in pulling out and pushing in drawers, and perhaps in locking and unlocking them ; whereas one lock secures the whole of the wardrobe ; and, by the opening of one door, the whole of the contents are exposed to view, and the article wanted can be had with the least possible trouble. For those who prefer the old mode, we have given the Design 591, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, which represents a chest of drawers in the Gothic style. It may be constructed of common deal, painted wainscot colour, with real oak knobs. The cost in London is from £3 to £'i. A common chest of drawers may be made more useful in a small room, by having a slider to pull out , — , „ in front, from under the *"" ^^ top above the first drawer, as in fig. 592, a ; the two bottom drawers may, if re- quired, be made into one deep drawer, to hold bon- nets, &c., like the drawer in the wardrobe, fig. 586, p. 304. Knobs of the same wood as the furniture, fig. 592, b, are now genei'ally substituted, as in most other pieces of furniture, for brass. They harmonise better, and do not tarnish ; besides, the fashion is, at present, comparatively new in liOndon, and this confers on them a certain degree of factitious elegance, viz., that of novelty and fashion. 628. Tables are of numerous kinds and various forms. We shall take them in the order of kitchen tables, parlour tables, and bed- room tables. 629. Kitchen Tables ought to be strong, on account of their continual use ; and, if possible, they should be contrived to fold up, or otherwise go into little space, when not in immediate use, in order to afTord more room for carrying on the business of the kitchen. One of the most economical of kitchen tables is that formed by the kneading-trough, represented by fig. 593, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, of which a is an end view. Such tables are a good deal in use in the cottages and small farm-houses in many parts of England. The cover, which, when on the trough, serves as a table or ironing-board, either lifts off, or, being hinged, is placed so as when opened it may lean against a wall, when the trough is wanted to be used. Frequently a division is made in the centre of the trough, so that the dry flour can be kept in one compartment, and the dough made in the other. Sometimes there are three compartments, in order to keep separate two different kinds of flour or meal. The board forming the cover ought to be an inch and a half thick, and always in one piece, in order that neither dirt nor dust may drop through 306 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 593 595 the joints. Tliere ought to be four fillets, b h, nailed along the under side of each edge of the cover, so as to keep it exactly in its place when on. Deal, beech, sycamore, and ash are good woods for the trough and cover of this table, because they are light in colour, and have a clean appearance. No part of them should be painted, because both the trough and cover, when used for making bread, will require frequent scouring to keep them clean ; and, if the board should be used for an ironing-board, the heat of the irons would blister the paint, and make it stick to the cloth or blanket used to cover it. Fig. 594, p. 313, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a kitchen table on four fixed legs, which, by means of two portable legs in addition, can be extended at each end, so as to make a table of double its original length. Thus, suppose the table, fig. 594, when folded up, to be three feet long, and two feet six inches wide , it may, in two minutes, by screwing in the two portable legs, be made six feet long ; and, instead of being only large enough for two persons, it may dine several, or be used as an ironing-board, which, in narrow rooms, must obviously be a great convenience. There is a drawer under the centre of this table, in which the portable legs may be kept ; or they may be set elsewhere, and the drawer used for other purposes. This Design might be varied by having lopers to support the end leaves, instead of portable legs ; or the leaves might hang down, like those of a common dining-table, and be supported by draw-out feet. In the construction, care must be taken to have the wood of the hinged leaves very dry and well-seasoned, otherwise they will warp ; and the ends of these leaves should be clamped at each end, by a piece of wood the reverse way to the grain of the leaf or flap. The term clamping is applied by cabinet-makers, when a piece of wood is grooved, and another tongued into it, as in fig, 595. This table will cost in London from ^ Q to £ 4. Fig. 596, to a scale of half an inch to a foot is a fold-up kitchen table, chiefly valuable because it will take up little room when not in use, as in fig. 597. The top consists of two leaves hinged together 59g 597 at the ends ; and, when the table is opened, it is prevented from fall- ing down in the middle by the wooden button, c, being locked into the notched piece, d, figs. 598 and 599. The for- mer figurerepresentsthe under side of the table. The tops and feet of the standards, e e, and the rails, ff, must be beveled, to admit of their free action. The legs may be fastened together, when shut, by a hook and eye at each end, as shown at g, otherwise it would be apt to warp. This table will be found very convenient for carrying out to a cottage lawn or arbour, or for using under a veranda. Where, however, the veranda is narrow, FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 307 599 the preceding Design, forming a long narrow table, will, perhaps, be found more com- modious. Fig. 601 shows a table with a semicircular top, double-hinged at the ends, and supported by tliree legs and a triangular frame, as shown in fig. 600. The two 600 601 legs, h h, fold out, to support one half of the top, when it is opened and turned over on them. As this table, when shut up, will stand against a wall, it will take up but little room, and is, therefore, very suitable to a cottage kitchen. A common kitchen dining- table, square, round, or oval, with a fixed centre, and two hinged folding-down leaves, supported, when up, by hinged folding feet, is so familiar a form, that we have not thought it necessary to give a Design for it. Its construction will be easily understood from that of the fixed flap table with folding legs, § 613, fig. 550. 630. Parlour Tables. Where the parlour is square, a round table will be found the handsomest and most appropriate. Fig. 602, designed by Mr. Mallet, shows a round fable with a wooden top, supported on a C£ist-iron pillar, with iron castors. Each of these castorscon- sists of a ball one inch in diameter, having free motion in every direction within a wrought-iron cup, which is pressed into its form in a fly press, from a piece of flat iron ; and, the ball being put into it, it is then closed suflSciently at the mouth, to prevent the ball from falling out. The con- struction of this kind of castor (which Mr. Mallet informs us he invented some time ago, and which has been since used extensively) will be better understood by fig. 603, in which a is the ball of a single castor ; b b are the sides of the wrought- iron cup ; and c is the leg of the table, bed, sofa, or other piece of furniture, to which the 308 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUflE. cup is riveted : d shows the plan of three castors, such as are used for the table, fig. 602 ; and e is a view of these castors appended to the round foot of any piece of furniture, tlic junction being concealed by the moulding f. IMr. Mallet states that three castors placed in this manner form an exceedingly firm and effective loco- motive support for any heavy article of furniture. The pillar of this table is cast hollow and thin, so as to come far cheaper than the same Design could be made in the n 'UM U commonest description of wood. Fig. 604, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a table on four legs, and which, when covered with green baize, is commonly called a [1=J!= 605 ■ 1 m 1 FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS, 309 card table. Tlie top is made double, and hinged at the back, so iis to fold over, and there is a dra ver in the frame. The two legs ^ g are fixed, but the ether two, h k, are hinged, and fold out to support the folding flap. The joints, which are made in the rails of the folding legs, are of wood, as shown at t and k ; and, being put togetlier, a piece of strong iron wire is driven down the centre of the rounded ends, and forms the axis on whicli they turn. This joint is technically called a knuckle joint ; and rails of tables hinged in this manner are called fly rails. Fig. 605 is a table, which, when folded up like fig. 604, has exactly the same appearance. The top is double, like the top of a card table, and turns round on a pivot /, having a fixed well, n, to answer the pur- pose of a drawer ; when the flap is opened it makes a square table with rounded corners like tlie other. Tliere is a rail, m, fixed to the upper side of the frame, to receive the pivot on which the top of the tableworks, as shown in the cross section, 7j,and longitudinal section, o. Fig. 606, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a table on four legs, with two drawers in 606 the frame. The end flaps, p p, are made to put on or to take off as required, by means of what are called strap- hinges, which are fastened to the flaps. These hinges are shown in fig. 606, in which q is the part screwed to the under side of the flap ; and r the strap or part which is inserted under the top of the table, into an iron plate, s, screwed to the under side of the top, as shown at *. The hinge of the strap is of the knuckle-joint kind, as exhibited at u. After the flap is put in, it is supported by small fly-brackets, fig. 606, v v- This is certainly a very convenient table, and very simple in its construction : it might be made still more economically, by substituting fixed bracket-shaped iron straps to the flaps, in lieu of the strap hinges ; which would render both the latter and the brackets, V, unnecessary. The only inconvenience of this plan would be, that the flaps, when not in use, would require to be taken out and put aside. Fig. 607, p. 313, is a table on four turned legs with castors, and with the ends of the frame made to draw out to support two flaps, which may be loose, and fastened at the joints by sockets, tc, and pins, x ; or the flaps may be hinged to the ends of the top, and lift up and let down, being sup- ported, when raised, by the end frames. A shelf might be added to this table, about fifteen inches from the floor, which would be found useful for holding workboxes, books, &c. Fig. G08, p. 313, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a plain parlour work-table, with two drawers ; and with flaps having ruled joints to fall down, and fly brackets to support them when up. Fig. 609, p. 313, to a scale of three fourths of an inch to a foot, is a work and writing table for a cottager's wife ; for we trust that the time will soon come, when not only every cottager's wife will be able to ^-sTite as well as read, but wiU have leisure to do so. This table may be made much plainer than is here shown, and consequently cheaper. For example, if the legs were not turned, and the whole were made of common deal, it would cost little more than an ordinary table with two drawers. The bag frame, which, when economy was the object, might be made of glazed coloured calico instead of silk, is made to draw out in front, and the writing-drawer over it pulls out at the end. In this drawer there is a flap to write on, hinged to a sliding piece. 310 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. which may be pushed back from the front of the drawer, so as to raise the desk upon tliP edge of the table to the angle required. Underneath this writing-board is a space for papers; and, to the right, another for the inkstand, pens, and wafers. The writing- board, or flap, might be made to rise with a rack and horse, (fig. 610, in which a is the rack, and b the horse) ; but the first plan is far simpler, and answers the same end. Indeed, even the sliding piece might be dispensed with, and the writing- flap adjusted to the proper angle by pulling out or pushing in the drawer. At the opposite end of this table a flap is a shown, which may be put up or let down accordingly as it may be desired to make the table longer or shorter. This is evidently a very convenient table ; because a cottager's wife may have a book to read in lying at one end, writing materials at the other, and her work in the middle. Fig. 611 is a small tea or work table. The top is hinged on a triangular box, which may be useful to hold work in. When not in use, the top is set up on edge, and when brought down, it fastens itself by a common catch fasten- ing. Fig. 612 is a neat vi-ork- table, which may be made by any joiner, out of the common woods of the country, at a very trifling expense, and placed on three of Mallet's iron castors, or even on turned knobs in imi- tation of castors ; either of which, by raising it from the ground, would add much to the lightness and elegance of its appearance. Figs. 613, 614, 615 represent a very useful article, called a camp table, from its going into little bulk, being light, and being used by officers in camps. Fig. 613 shows it opened out to its full extent ; the top being hinged to the two legs, and supported by a portable leg which is fastened into it by a screw and socket, c, in fig. 613, and can be removed at pleasure. When not in use, this leg is fixed to one of the legs of the stand by two pieces of girth webbmg, d d in fig. 615, which are fastened to the leg of the stand. When the stand is opened to its full extent, it stretches out, as a top, three pieces of webbing, which serve as a tray- etand; and a tray is generally made of a proper size to go along with the table. Fig. 615 shows how this camp table may be used as a common table; the hinges projectmg above the rail of the stand in such a manner as to let the top turn round either way. Fig. 614 shows this table shut up ; there are two turn buckles, e, on the legs at f, to keep the top fastened, and to prevent it from swinging about when the table is moved. In families, accustomed to give large dinner parties, these tables are found useful, as forming additions to the sideboard : they are also brought in requisition when parties are given in the open air, or when a meal is taken in any room deficient in tables. FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 311 6i4 -615 6SI. Bed-room Tables are of three kinds : those for holding wasliing utensils ; dressing- tables ; and tables for sick persons. Fig. 616 is a small wash-hand stand, or table, in the Gothic style, w-ith a shelf below, and a drawer under it. The hole in the top is cut round to receive the basin, and on the ^-^^ p, back-board is fixed a small shelf to " ^^"^ "" hold a glass, trays for brushes, &c. This table may be made of oak, or of deal painted and grained in imitation of that wood. Fig. 617 is a small enclosed wash-hand stand -n-ith two cupboards ; one of which will hold the ewer, and the other a night-vase. There are two hinged shelves, one on each side, supported by fly brackets, in order that they may be let down to save room, when not in use. Fig. 618 is a Design for a lady's wash- hand stand, which has been sent us by its inventress. When not in use, the basin is concealed by two box covers, which are hinged ; and wliich open and turn over when the stand is used, af- fording space for soap-holders, brush- trays, &c. There is a drawer below, svith partitions for keeping these and various other articles belonging to the toilette ; one partition having a flat board raised two inclits from the bottom of the 31 2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. drawer, and being pierced with holes for scent bottles, &c. Below this drawer there is a deep cupboard with double doors. This wash-hand stand, which has a neat and rather massive or architectural appearance, is said to be a great favourite with all the ladies who have seen it Fig. 619, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a small dressing-table, with a drawer in front to hold combs, brushes, &c. Common dressing-tables, consisting of a top without flaps, supported by four legs, and with one or two drawers, are so simple in their construction as not to require any particular exemplification. Fig. 620, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a table for invalids, commonly called a bed tal)le ; which is a very great convenience to a person bedridden. The top of this table is made to rise and fall at pleasure, by raising or lowering the upper part of the pillar, a, wliich is perforated with hole's at given distances, and which works in a square groove, in tlie centre of tlie lower part. This lower part is formed of four pieces glued together, as shown in the plan, b, in fig. 621. It is firmly fixed in the bottom block by a mortise and tenon, and at top the four pieces are confined by an iron ferule, to keep the joints from opening : tlie mortise at bottom suflficiently confines the lower part of the pillar. The height of the top is regulated by moving the pin at c ; the block or foot, of which d represents a plan, is elongated on one side to about the same extent as the top is elongated on that side ; and, when the table is in use, the block is turned under the bed, and the top over it ; the latter being adjusted to the height most con- vejiient for the patient. This table is very frequently used for reading in bed ; and in that case it is generally made with a horse and rack, e, and a shifting ledge, f, to support a book, at one end. This ledge is fixed by two wire pins, fastened in its under side, which drop into two holes bored in the lower side of the flap of the table. On the edge of tliis ledge are affixed two book-holders, g, commonly made of brass, but which art; much better if made of ivory, or of ebony, box, or any otlier liard wood. This table, in mahogany, costs in London FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 313 607 608 609 314 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 313 from £5 to £7 ; but, made of any common wood by a joiner in the country, it would :iot rorae to half the amount. Fig. 622 is a cheap invalid's bed table, which we had made at Bayswater some years ago, for our own use. It is simply a piece of mahogany board, about three feet long, and one foot nine inches wide, supported by a wrought-iron pillar, with a brace, k, and two feet, t i ; the latter extending nearly the length of the top from the pillar, and spreading out at their extremities to about its width ; thus producing in effect a table with three feet. It is placed on castors, and is light and sti-ong. The height of the pillar must be regulated by the height of the bed. The maho- gany board cost 5s., and the iron work and castors ^1. 632. Seats may be arranged as stools, forms, benches, chairs, and sofas. 633. Stools. Common kitchen stools for children admit of little variety of design, without incurring more expense than would be justifiable by the use and place of the object. Fg. 623 shows the construction of a plain round stool, with three legs framed together at the top, and with rails about six inches from the ground ; a shows the proportion which the triangular frame bears to the circular top. Fig. 624 is a round stool, wliich may be called in the Gothic style, and would be suitable in a Gothic cottage, where every thing was in character with that style. Fig. 625 is a 623 624 625 box stool ; the lid slides in a groove, as shown by the section, b ; but there is a stop, to prevent it from being taken off entirely. The box may be useful for a child to put its playthings in, and to teach it betimes those habits of order and neatness which are so highly essential to its success in life. Figs. 626, 627, and 628 are stools with cast-iron 626 627 628 legs or pillars, invented by Mr. Mallet. The tops may be of any common wooo, with or without cushions, according to the use for which they may be intended. Fig. 629 is a long stool, in the Gothic style, for a child ; and fig. 630, one, also for a child, suitable for a plain cottage. 634. A Footstool, either 629 630 plain or covered with carpeting, is an article of essential utility in every cottage where there is a mother; and it also forms a seat for a child. In England, they are very £ 316 COTTAGE, FAIIM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. commonly formed by covering a bundle of bulrushes with rush ma tting, and they are th en called hassocks. Fig. 631 is a design for a box footstool, which has been sent us by a lady. The top is formed of an outside frame, on which is stretched strong webbing, for the purpose of supporting the stuffing above, which is co- vered with carpeting of tlie same kind as that of the floor of the room in which it is to be used. The sides are of wood, painted of the same colour as the other furniture. 635. Forms may be described as long stools, for the use of several persons; and, as such, are useful in cottage kitchens, and in lobbies _ and passages. In the scullery they also often serve as stands for tubs, and for various K3^ articles to be washed or cleaned, to prevent stooping more than is necessary. Two or more of them are, therefore, always requisite about a house. Figs. 632 and 633 are 633 Designs for forms in the Grecian style, the construction of which will be understood by 634 every carpenter. Figs. 634 and 635 are forms in the Gothic style, equally simple willi the others. All these Designs are to a scale of half an inch to a foot. 7^ iP 635 636. Benches are broad forms with backs to them, and sometimes with arms. Fig. 636 is a kind of bench with solid back and arms, for a cottage kitchen, commonly FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 317 636 called a settle, and frequently to be met with in public houses. The back forms an excellent screen or protection from the current of sur which is continually passing from the door to the cliimney. The drawers below are deep, and will be found very useful for a variety of purposes. On the back there might be a towel roller ; or, in a superior kind of cottage, the back of the settle might be ornamented with prints or maps, in the manner of a screen. Placed in the open floor, where it would seldom require to be moved, there might even be book shelves fixed to this back, and a flap might be hung to it, with a jib bracket, to serve as a reading or writing table, or for other purposes. Fig. 637 is a handsome Gre- cian bench with turned legs and open back, but without arms at the ends, or drawers under the seat. Fig. 638 is a Gothic bench also without arms or drawers, but with a paneled back and square legs. Fig. 639 is a Design for a handsomer Gothic bench the back of which may either be paneled or open, according to the position, in the kitchen, where it is intended to stand. It has arms and two drawers, and has below the latter a broad shelf about three inches from the ground, on which shoes, &c., may 638 stand, or a dog may have a mat for sleeping upon, scale of half an inch to a fuot. All these benches are to the same 318 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 637. Chairs may be classed as suitable for the lobby, kitchen, parlour, and bed-room. 6,38. Lobby Chairs, being seldom moved, may be made of heavy massive forms in timber, or of cast iron, so as to have a decidedly architectural character. Fig. 640 is a lobby cliair of cast iron, suitable for a porch. The Design is Etruscan ; and Mr. Mal- let, to whom we are indebted for it, says that it may be cast in two pieces. It would, therefore, come cheap, and would look exceedingly well in the porch of a cottage in the Italian style. Mr. Mallet observes, that " where carved work, or much or- nament, is to be executed in fur- niture, cast iron will always be found cheaper than wood, even though a small number oidy of the article were wanting." We hope that this hint will not be lost on Architects, who might thus introduce a style of highly improved design in all the principal articles of furniture, at a moderate cost. Chairs of this de- scription, whether made of iron or wood, may be painted in imitation of Oiik in the following manner; — Give two coats of white lead in the usual mode ; add a third coat of a pale yellow, as near as possible to the lightest part of the oak board to be imitated. Yellow ochre is rather too deep for most varieties of oak board ; but stone ochre and white may be mixed together, till the exact shade oe produced. When this coat is dry, thj graining colour is to be laid on. This colour is not fluid like common oil paints, but is a mixture about the consistence of thick treacle, composed of various ingredients, and technically called meglip. The recipes given for making meglip are various ; but the following are the articles principally used: sugar of lead, rotten stone, linseed oil, white wax, and spirits of turpentine. These are all ground up together, and immediately after the colour they produce is laid on, the graining is made by passing horn combs over it before it is dry. These combs have their teeth of different widths and lengths, and may be had of every combmaker. Fig. 642 is a lobby chair of wood in the Grecian style, which may be made of deal, with the exception of the legs, which, being turned, should be of beech or some fine-grained wood suitable for that operation. This chair may be painted of the colour of the wall against which it is to stand. Fig. 641 is a lobby chair in the Gothic style, wliich may be made entirely of deal, or of any other common wood, and painted and grained in imitation of oak. ' FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 31Q 641 639. Kitchen Chairs. Fig. 643 is a Windsor chair, one of the best kitchen chairs 'w general use in the midland counties of England. The seat, fig. 644, i, is of elm, 643 somewhat hollowed out ; the outer rail of the back is of ash, in one piece, bent to the sort of horseshoe form shown in the figure, by being previously heated or steamed ; its ends are then inserted in two holes bored through the seat, and are wedged firmly in from the under side. An additional support is given to the back, by two round rails, fig. 644, h, which are also made fast in two holes, formed in a projecting part of the seat, c. These chairs ar'e^ometimes painted, but more frequently stained with diluted sulphuric acid and logwiBa ; or by repeatedly washing them over with alum water, which has some tartar in it : they should afterwards be washed over several times with an extract of Brasil wood. The colour given will be a sort of red, not unlike that of mahogany ; and, by afterwards oiling the chair and rubbing it well, and for a long time, with woollen cloths, the veins and shading of the elm will be rendered con- 320 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. spicuous. Quicklime slacked in urine, and laid on the wood while hot, will also stain it of a red colour ; and this is said to be the general practice with the Windsor chair manufacturers in the neighbourhood of London. Fig. 645 is a chair with a seat like the Windsor pattern, but with a different back, the two side styles of which are mortised into the seat, as shown at d. The legs are put together by dowels (wedges put in tenons after they are inserted in the mortise, to prevent them from being drawn back), like the Windsor chairs before mentioned, fig. 643. This forms a very comfort- able and cheap chair. Fig. 646 is a very strong chair, being put together with mortise and tenon : it forms the common kitchen chair about London. It is generally made of deal, but sometimes of birch or beech, and is usually painted. Figs. 647 and 648 are two Gothic arm-chairs for kitchens ; and fig. 649 is a kitchen workbox and table chair. The 6-4 7 648 g^y ^ ^ t>50 workbox is formed beneath the seat, and is got at by a fall-down flap, e, supported by small chains or strong tape. The table, J", is simply a boai-d which draws out from under the seat three fourths of its length, the remaining fourth remaining in to steady it ; by which means lopers or fly-brackets are rendered unnecessary. Such a chair will be found very useful, and it may be made of deal, at a very trifling expense, by a common carpenter. The bottom of the box below may be loose, so thai by turning the chair upside down, it may be taken out, and the box cleaned. Fig. 650 is a Design for an iron elbow kitchen chair, by Mr. Mallet. The back and elbows are cast in one piece ; the supports for the elbows and also the legs are of gas tubing, screwed into a cross frame of iron, which proceeds from the back of the chair under the wooden seat. This is a strong, durable, and cheap chair, and only wants good cushions, for the back, ell)ows, and seat, to render it a most comfortable article for a cottager. Fig. 651 is a Design by Mr. Mallet for a cast and wrought iron chair, with a wooden seat. It is cast in one piece, the legs being tubular, with v/ire stays ; the whole forming an exceedingly light and yet stable chair, weighing less than most oak ones. This chair might have a cushion seat, and also a cushion for the back, which the cottager might make himself of bulrushes, or of any other monocotyledonous water plant (the pith of these being filled with air, and therefore bulky, soft, and elastic), or of the chaff of Indiai; corn ; covering them with cloth, and tying them on the chair with tape. 640. Parlour Chairs. These are of various patterns ; and, as the characteristic of the kitchen chair was strength and durability, so that of the parlour chair is lightness and elegance. Figs. 652 to 657, p. 314, are plain Grecian chairs, sold in London at from 7j. to 12s. each. They arc usually made of beech, and may be stained to imi- tate mahogany, by thi' following process : — Wash the wood, after the chair is completed, FURNITURE lOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 3^1 with red ochre mixed with thin ghie and water, quite hot ; when dry, rub the chair well with woollen cloths, till it assumes a good colour, and afterwards varnish and pohsh it. Chairs of this sort are made in great numbers in Buckinghamshire, where there are extensive beech woods. The commoner sort are gcnerallj' nailed together, but the best arc screwed or mortised, as in figs. 654 and 657. The bottoms are made of cane, with the exception of fig. 654, which is covered with leather. These chairs arc generally painted and varnished ; but they are sometimes stained either black maho- gany colour, or a rosewood pink. We shall give the processes from Partington's Builder's Gidde. 641. For a deep Black, the wood is brushed over four or five times with a warm decoction of logwood, made by boiling one pound of logwood for an hour or more, and afterwards as often with decoction of galls, allowing it to dry thoroughly between the several ap- plicati(>ns of the liquor ■■ thus prepared, it receives a fine deep colour, from being washed over with a solution of vitriol, in the proportion of two ounces to a quart : in the room of which some use a solution of iron in vinegar, keeping the vinegar for this purpose upon a quantity of the filings of the metal, and pouring off a little as it is wanted. A pretty good black is also obtained, more expeditiously, by brushing over the wood, first with the logwood liquor, and afterwards with common ink. 642. A very fine Black may be produced by brushing the wood over several times with a solution of copper in aquafortis, and afterwards with the decoction of logwood (Hasma- toxylon campechiense), repeated till the colour be of sufficient force, and the greenness produced by the copper overcome. The blacks may be varnished as the other colours. 643. A light red-brown Mahogany colour may be given to wood by means of a de- coction of madder and fustic wood (the wood of Madura tinctoria), ground in water, in the proportion of half a pound of madder and a quarter of a pound of fustic wood, to a gallon ; or, instead of the fustic wood, an ounce of yellow berries (the berries of iJhamnus tinctorius) may be used. Brush over the wood with this solution, while boiUng hot, tiU the due cdour be obtained. Nearly the same effect may be produced by a tincture made by dissolving an ounce of dragon's blood in a pint of spirits of wine; and a similar tincture of turmeric root {^Curcuma longa,, made by putting an ounce of the powdered root to a pint of spirits of wine, and after it has stood some days straining off the mixture. 644. For a dark Mahogany, take the infusion of madder as above, and substitute for the fustic wood two ounces of logwood : and when the vi'ood has been brushed over several times, and is dry, wash it over with water in which pearl ashes have been dis- solved, in the proportion of a quarter of an ounce to a quart. The wood, in the better kind of work, should be afterwards varnished with three or four coats of seed-lac varnish ; but, for coarse work, resin and seed-lac varnish may be used, or the articles may be well rubbed over with drying oil. 645. IVood may be stained Yellow by the above tincture of turmeric root, or by a tinc- ture of yellow berries applied boiling hot ; the wood, when dry, being brushed ovw with weak alum water, used cold. 646. For Roseivood Pink, make an infusion of a pound of Brasil wood (Caesalpinta brasiU^nsis) in a gallon of water impregnated with pearl ashes, in the proportion of an ounce to a gallon of water. The infusion should be frequently stirred, and should stand two or three days. When wanted for use, two ounces more pearl ashes should be added, and the mixture strained, and made boiling hot. It should then be applied to the wood, which should be afterwards brushed over with alum water, made in the pro- portion of two ounces of alum to a quart of water. 322 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 647. Elbow Parlour Chairs in the Grecian Style. Figs. 658, 659, and 660, p. 314, are Grecian elbow chairs with stuffed seats. Fig. 660, has a workbag under the seat, which draws out on one side ; and on the other a slide, which serves as a table. Tlicse chairs may also be made of beech or birch, and stained or painted like the otlier. The silk or glazed cotton, for the workbag and the covers for the cushions, sliould be of the same colour as the window curtains and the cover of the sofa, if there be one in the room. 648. Gothic Parlour Chairs. Fig. 661 to 666, p. 323, are Designs for chairs made of beech ; the first with a rush bottom ; the second, third, and last with cane bottoms, and the two others with stuffed bottoms. Figs. 667 and 668, p. 323, are Gothic elbow chairs with stuffed bottoms. Fig. 669 is a Gothic chair, with a workbag and sliding board for table. All these chairs may be made of any strong fine-grained wood, mortised together, and afterwards painted and grained in imitation of oak. In the construction of chairs, care should be taken that the feet of the back legs shoula always spread out an inch at least more than the top rail of the back, in order to keep the latter from touching the wall, or paper, or window, when set against it. 649. Bed-room Chairs. These are of two kinds ; a light sort for common use, and strong elbow or easy chairs for times of sickness. The light chairs may be any of those frames figured in p. 314, but with rush instead of cane bottoms. Figs. 670 and 671 are two strong elbow chairs for the use of a labouring man, when confined to his bed-room. Pillows may be put in them as cushions, both for the seat and back. Fig. 672 is a bedside chair of the same description, with a cupboard beneath for containing a night convenience of the simplest description. Such a chair ought to be in the bed- room of every cottage. Fig. 673 is a very comfortable easy chair, stuflTed in the back and sides, vnth a movable cushion as a seat ; beneath which is a night convenience. 650. ^ Sofa is a piece of furniture which affords a great source of comfort to its possessor ; and therefore the cottager ought to have one as well as the rich man. Let him strive to obtain it, for no parlour is completely furnished without one ; and he will certainly succeed. We shall give some Designs for sofas, and also for sofa-bedsteads, which we hope will come within the reach of many cottagers ; and shall commence with figs. 674 and 675, p. 3&4, which are Designs for sofas of a superior description. Fig. 674 is in the Gothic style, with castors sunk in its legs, a great improvement with regard to appearance. We may here observe, generally, that good castors are essential to the convenient use of every piece of furniture to which they are applied. Many persons, by saving a few shillings in castors, deprive themselves of the full enjoyment of what, if easily moved, would be a most useful piece of furniture ; besides which, bad castors destroy the carpets of sitting-rooms, and scratch the boards of bed-rooms. Purchasers of furniture, who are no judges in this respect, are often deceived ; for of two articles of furniture, exactly the same in size and appearance, one may FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 323 662 663 664 665 666 i^ 667 668 669 24 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 674 677 FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 3^ be sold bv a manufacturer for a pound sterling less than the other, merely from his havin- employed in it the most common, instead of the best, description of castors. \Ve are infornied bv Mr. Dalziel, who is extremely particular to use only the very best mate'rials in all thJ articles which he manufactures, that the best castor at present in use is that of Cope of Birmingham. ITiis is a ball working in a cup, something in the manner of Mr. ISIallefs iron castor ; and the more pressure there is on it, the easier it works. The cushions and mattresses of sofas are commonly stuffed with hair or wool ; and sometimes, for cheapness, with chaff, chopped hay, or straw or bran- but an article has been lately introduced into tins manuf^acture which is found to answer as well as baked hair, and not to cost above a tlurd of the expense. This is the Zostera marina, or sea wrack grass, found on the coast of Isorfolk ; abundantly in the Orkneys and Hebrides; and on the northern shores of the German Ocean. When gathered, it is repeatedly washed in fresh water, to deprive it of all its saline particles; and, being afterwards dried in the sun, it is twisted into thit-k ropes, and in That state sent to the manufacturer, who has it untwisted, and cut into short lengths for use " Whatever material is used for stuffing, it is first enclosed in strong canvass, and afterwards covered with black horse-hair, moreen, or damask, nailed on with brass- headed nails, or with a loose cover of printed cottons or other stuffs. A very cheap and yet tasteful loose sofa cover may be made of glazed self-coloured calico, with a narro'w piece of different coloured calico, or shawl bordering, laid on about a couple of inches from the edcre. This kind of cover lasts clean much longer than one of common printed cotton ; and, when the bordering is carried round the covers of the cushions, bolsters, &c., it has a pretty and even elegant effect. In all cases where the covers of sofas are made of a material which admits of a choice of colours, those should be preferred which prevail in the cai-pet and window curtains of the room ; the principal reason in tliis, and all similar cases, being, that such a choice indicates unity of design. 651 Sofa Beds. Sofas which may be converted into beds are most convenient articles of furniture for cottages and other small dwellings. Fig. 676, p. S24, shows a bed formed out of a sofa of this description. The back of the sofa is hinged, as shown in ficr 677 at a- and it falls down, and is supported by two portable legs, fig. 678, b, c: these leo-s are 'tapped and screwed into the top rail of the back (that is, a screw isfonned on the °upper end of the leg, and, a hole being bored in the rail, nearly of the same diameter as this screw, an instrument called a tap is introduced into the hole, and being turned round, grooves out a path for the screw ; this path, or screw groove, is called the female s^rew, and that which goes into it, the male screw). The end, d, is made to shift ; it is fastened to the side rail of the seat of the sofa by the two wooden dowels, e e, which o-o into the rail, and is secured to the back and bottom by two thumb screws, at f f. When the bed is used, this end is shifted to that opposite, in order to form the head of the bed ; the end style of the back of the sofa having holes to receive the same dowels and thumb-screws, so as to retain it in its place. Underneath the sofa there is a well for the legs, fig. G76, g, which may either open to the front or the back, and may be either conceafed by the valance of the sofa cover, or by a movable ^anel of wood. There is a cupboard which opens at one end, as seen at h, in fig. 678. Fig. 679, p. 327, is a view of a sofa which may be turned into a bed with posts and curtains. Fig. 680 shows 680 the first process, that of removing the sofa cover, mattress, and cushions of the seat, and the mattress of the back. Here is seen a third mattress, t, which is kept in a well underneath the scat, and sufficiently long to hold it in a curved though not in a straiglit position. The remaining part of the space underneath the seat is occupied by 32() COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUUE. a cupboard, k. Under the cushions which form the seat of the sofa, and above the well may be seen the foldi.ig frame, /, «hich forms the bottom of the bed. Fig. 681 shows 681 oS s ili Tl?^rf °?' '^"'^.^"PP^'-'^d by four portable legs, tapped and screwed Of wl at formod t.l /"^T """'] "u '"''" '""""'^'■' *"PP^'^ ^"^^ ^"^-^^ '"to the top rails drop on t h on ^n '1 ", '• ^'"f '^' ''''"■■ '""''' ""'I ''''"'■'• '^^' P^'---^^' forming the top, fhe teste 1 t° ' ^ "T '" *'n ''^^^' ''"^' "^ ''"^ '"^'^P«^'^- T'''^ l^g^' ^'>e posts use and ^h^n T. ' f' P'"'"'' '" S"-'"*^ *'" ^'^"^^ ^^^'^ ^^ '^^ ™-"ress," .vhen not in bed,;os ancl'^^.n H '°^'\r"I u ''"' '.' •^^"i'Pl'^t'^ly ^^o'^ceals the holes which receive the S ress;s ' d .n r "f -T^ *^' '"P'^,""'"'- ^'»- ^'-' P- ^27, shows the bed with the mattresses and bolsters laid m their places, and the curtains put up. This is a very desirable description of sofa bed to have in a cottage parlour, or, inLd, irany smaU dwelling either in town or country. The cost, coml^lel, in £ondon, Ts from |lT to il\ - "^ ^"^ ''''°, "''""■ ^"'^' "■''''^'' ^'' ^"™"1 ''y 'l^^ving out a frame fronfunder tin. chair, so as to triple the length of the seat ; on which frame are aiTan'ld the cushions « h.ch were previously placed against the back and sides of the easy chafr The bo torn of the cha>r may be formed into a cupboard to open at the side orTrnAlt^iu!!!.'' '^"^^'"P*'""? 1"/^ '"^ classed under the following heads : folding tLT7dhlrrSriu\^^^^^^^^ couch, box, an'd French beds^ ho canVZdCh ''.''/' • '-•'"^'•'•^"■'^/"bs- I" our opinion, those cottager^ I kle offed and hlV^" t'^'c'^T T °^'"" disproportionably extravagant in°the n'«n emfv 'bed ii M '^' •^" .^■'''''" ^ '"^"^ ^''''''' "•'''''•'•' *'''•' cottager's parlour has vS e h^bed il of 7 '" ""' 'Vi''" '"*''>' P'-''"''"P^ ^^ excusable ;"but in England, a wCer economv to . 'T^V \" "f'^°''' '"'''''^ "^^ '^ '''''"S^'' "'^ t'»"k it would be' expend, nvsundnsn.' "^ ^f P-n, though, in all respects, comfortable, and to cottager s wife, who must be allowed to be the best judge on the subject. FURNITURE FOR COTTAGF DWELLINGS. 327 682 679 S2S ( OTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 094 695 FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 329 653. Folding Camp Bed- This is one of the cheapest of all beds ; and when the sides and feet are made of iron rods, with no wood but the head board, it goes in very little bulk, and costs complete, with sacking, not more than \5s. Fig. G83, to a scale 683 of half an inch to a foot, is a view of a folding bed, with the sides and feet made of wood, which may be manufactured complete, in London, for £}. The head board has two iron pins in its lower edge, which drop into holes made in the side-rails of the bed. When a cottage is small, we recommend all boys to be made to sleep on beds of this kind, which they ought to be taught to fold up and put away in the morning, as soon as they get up ; and to bring out and make up for themselves at night. The boy or lad who cannot sleep soundly on such a bed must have soinething either physically or morally wrong in his constitution ; and is, in either case, not very likely to become a man capable of earning his bread by labour. 654. Sttmip Bedsteads are common in the humblest description of dwellings in England, both in town and country. They are commonly made of wood, with sacking bottoms ; but as these materials are apt to harbour vermin, they have lately been ma- nufactured entirely of wrought iron ; the place of the sacking or canvass bottom being supplied by interwoven thin iron hooping, as shown in fig. 684, which is manufactured by -^^^ Messrs. Cottam and Hallen of London, and sold complete with castors, when two feet six inches wide, for one person, at 23s. eacli ; and at a proportionate increase of price, according to the width, up to 33s., which is the price of an iron stump bedstead five feet wide. 635. Press Bedsteads are very common in kitchens, and, sometimes, in parlours where there is a deficiency of bed-rooms ; but they are objectionable, as harbouring vei'min, and being apt soon to get out of order when in daily use. They have, however, one advantage, which is, that persons sleeping in them are generally obliged to get up betimes in the morning : we, therefore, present one Design. Fig. 685 is a view of tlie press when the bed is put up. There is a cupboard shown at one end, and the remainder of the lower part is occupied by a drawer which is made to appear like two externally, in order to form to a regular front, with that of the cupboard. Fig. 6S6 shows the manner in which the bedstead folds tip : a is one of the feet, which is 330 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. C85 686 liinged on an iron pin, and is seen wlien down, as in fig. 687. The other two feet, h b, in lig. 687, are placed, when folded up, as shown in the section, fig. 686, at 6 ; c represents part of the front and top, lifted up and folded back. Press bedsteads are sometimes made to imitate a chest of drawers, or a secretary, in front ; in order, if possible, to prevent the real use of the article from being discovered : a proof that beds of this kind are not held in much repute ; because they indicate a deficiency of bed-rooms. 056. Half-Tester Bedsteads are used in small rooms, where it may be desirable to turn them up during the day, in order to allow the occupant to work in the room. They have this advantage over press beds, that they are turned up and let down with very little trouble ; and that when turned up, and the curtain drawn round them, they are by no means unsightly objects in a room which is to be considered as a bed-room ; but they are quite inadmissible in a kitchen or a parlour. Fig. 688 is a Design for a half- tester bedstead, with the posts, rails, and feet of wood, and the bottom of sacking. It is shown in this figure as turned down, and ready to receive the mattress and bedding. In fig. 689 the bed is shown turned up, by which it appears that the turned legs, d d, are hinged and fold down, so as to occupy less space. The manner in which the curtain rod is fixed is also here shown. It is fastened to the lath at the middle of the front, at c, and at both its extremities an eye is formed, which drops on a hook, as shown at J". The fixed feel arc always placed in an inclined i>osition, to give greater steadiness to FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 331 the bed : they are shown straight in fig. 688, and curved in fig. 689, to indicate that they may be made either way. Fig. 691 is an iron half-tester bedstead, which, however, does not fold up, but which has the great advantage of being remarkably cheap. It is manufactured by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, of two feet six inches in width, for 465. 6d. ; and of five feet in width, for 685. in both cases it is complete, with castors, head board, and curtain rods, and is thrice painted in oil. Fig. 692 is another wrought- iron half-tester bedstead, one half of which folds over the other : it is the invention of Mr. William Mallet of Dublin, who, we are informed, has made many thousands of them. In this bedstead both the head board and the foot board are of iron. Fig. 690 690 is a different modification of the same bedstead, intended for sick persons, which is made to rise with racks, h h, so as to place the patient, though still recumbent, at any angle that may be required. An important addition to this bed would be two upright rods, one on each side, about half way between the head and foot, securely joined together by a strong rod at top, so as to be perfectly firm j from this top rod a corcj. 332 COTTAGE, rAllM, AND VILLA AllCHlTECTURE. sash, towel, or piece of girth webbing, might be suspended, or even a hooked walking-stick put on, for the bedridden patient to take hold of, to assist him in turning, or otherwise changing his position. Every person who has been long confined to a bed knows that this simple contrivance is the most valuable part of a sick man's bedstead ; and it is one reason why the beds of all elderly people should have bedposts and testers, because from the centre cross laths this simple contrivance, for the comfort of an invalid, may be suspended. Both figs. 690 and 692, we are informed, can be afforded for less than the price of the frame of a common wooden bedstead. 657. Couch Beds may be described as sofas used as beds ; and, for our parts, we prefer them to either the press or the half-tester bedstead. They are very common in France and Germany. Fig. 693 is a Design, by Mr. William Mallet of Dublin, for an iron couch bed frame. The head is cast in one piece, the back in another, and the frame in a third. All the rest is of wrought iron ; the four legs of gas pipe, the braces of quarter-inch wire, and the bottom of iron hooping. Castors might easily be added ; and this Design would then form a suitable article for some descriptions of cottages. 658. liox Bads are common in the better description of cottages in Scotland, and also in Alsace, Ix)rvaine, and other parts of the nortli of France, and in Holland and Flanders. This bed is of tlie uiiual length, and in general four feet wide within. There arc four FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 333 square posts, at the four corners ; and the back and ends are filled in with boarding grooved and tongued ; while the front is formed into panels, one of whicli at top and anotlier at bottom are fixed, and two between them slide in grooves, and form tlie door of the bed. The roof is of boards, and the bottom of laths, three inches wide, and about two or three inches apart. There is generally a shelf, and sometimes two, fixed to the inside of the bottom of the bed, just above the bedclothes; and sometimes there is one at top, close under the roof. There are also sometimes one or two shelves against the back of the bed ; so that this piece of furniture not only serves as a bed, but as a wardrobe and linen chest. In some parts of the country the bed doors fix within by bolts, or have a lock to fasten them on the outside; so that a person going to bed, with all his treasure round him on the surrounding shelves, may secure it while he is asleep at night, or going out to work in the daytime, by bolting or locking the doors. These box beds can be easily taken to pieces, and put together again ; the ends, backs, and roofs being in separate pieces, and fitting into grooves in the posts, and in the top and bottom rails, in the manner of Manning's portable cottages, § 512. Besides serving as a wardrobe, &c., a box bed may be made to supply the place of a partition, two of them being often placed, in Scotland, as well as in Alsace, across any apartment of fourteen or fifteen feet in width, which they thus divide into two rooms (a but and a ben), leaving a passage between them. In roomy cottages, four are sometimes so placed back to back ; thus giving two beds to be entered from the kitchen, and two from the parlour. A bed of this sort, well made, was formerly considered the principal article in a Scottish cottager's furnishing ;'and this is still the case in Alsace and Lorraine, as we learned when we visited those countries in 1829. Something might be made of these beds in any country where the cottager's house is his own, and where he is likely to be a permanent resident ; but they are too costly, and too cumbersome, for a tenant at will, or on a short lease. 659. French beds are generally formed like couch beds, especially those in use by French cottagers. Fig. 694, p. 328, shows a French bedstead of an improved description, with the furniture complete. There are two drawers underneath, and a small cupboard, all of which open from the front ; because the furniture would be in the way if they opened at the ends. There is a turned rail above the headboard, to keep the furniture from the face ; and another over the footboard, to be uniform with it. The pole whict supports the curtain is screwed into an upright piece, which is seciu-ely fixed by a mortise and tenon to the back rail of the bottom of the bedstead, as shown in fig. 695, so that the bedstead and furniture can be removed from the wall. Castors may be introduced into the four pillars, so as not to be seen. It will be observed that the Design of fig. 695 is different from that of fig. 694 : both may be considered elegant, and well adapted for a superior description of cottage. These bedsteads may be made of deal, and painted, with the exception of the upright piece, which should be of beech or some other stiff wood. Fig. 696 is a French bedstead of wrought iron, which costs when two feet six inches wide, 46s., and when five feet wide, 84s. The curtains, in this case, are supposed to be thrown over a pole, projecting from the wall, and supported by a bracket. 334 COTTAGE, FARM, AXD VILLA AllCIIITECTUIlE. 660. Tent Beds are in universal use, and scarcely require description. Fig. 697, to a scale of tliree eighths of an inch to a foot, shows the framing or woodwork of the bed : 697 Q a, b, c, is tlie bed frame, a and b being the side rails, and c the bottom rail ; d is the head-board which fixes into a groove in the head posts. These posts, being intended to be covered with that part of the bed hangings called the head piece, are made plain ; while the bottom posts, which are intended to be exposed, are generally turned or covered. Fig. 698 is a tent bedstead with the curtains complete. Fig. 699 is an iron tent bedstead, manufactured by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, which costs, when two feel six inches wide, 56.t. 6d., and when five feet wide, 77.?. 661. Four-Post Bedsteads are more suitable for villas than for cottages, except perhaps the cheap and excellent ones made of wrought iron, which do not cost much more than a tent bed of the same materials. Four-post bedsteads, however, of every descri])- tion, are objectionable for cottagers, both on account of the room they take up, and the quantity of bed furniture which they require. FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLIXCS. SSI 662. Cribs are bedsteads for children so young as to render it unsafe to trust them by themselves in beds with unguarded sides. They are generally intended to be placed, during the night, by the bedside of the mother ; and, for that purpose, the height of the crib should cor- respond with that of the large bed, and one of its sides be made to lift out. This is effected by grooves in the up- right posts, with tongues on the end styles of the side. Fig. 700 is a Design for a crib in the Grecian style, and fi 700 703. for one in the Gothic style, both by Mr. Dalziel, who recommends that the heads of the bed-screws, with which fig. 700. is screwed together, should be concealed by a wooden cap, fig. 701, instead of by a brass one, as is commonly done. In the leg of the Gothic crib, fig. 703, the screw is concealed by means of a small wooden panel made to take out. The turned rails of the sides, in fig. 700, and the plain rails in the Gothic Design, are considered better than the open canework usually employed for crib sides, through which children are apt to put their fingers and hurt themselves. Cribs are sometimes made with only one side, the rail on that opposite being held close to the rail of the large bed by hooks and eyes. Any joiner might make these cribs of deal, or any other cheap wood ; and they may be painted or stained to harmonise with the bedstead and chairs of the room in which they are to be placed. Fig. 702 is a view of a cheap crib, the frame and bottom of which are formed of wrought iron, S3G COTTAGK, FARM, AND VILLA AUCIIITECTUIIE. 701 m auJ the sidfs and ends of deal are now justly exploded. 663. i^«M?(5 includes palliasses, or straw mat- tresses ; hair, wool, or other mattresses ; hay, chaft", or feather beds ; bolsters, pillows, sheets, blankets, and counter- panes. The palliass is an inflexible mattress, stuffed «ith drawn wheat straw ; placed as the lower layer of the bed- ding, for the purpose of raising it, and giving a more agreeable basis to the feather-bed. The common mattress is formed by stuffing a canvass case with flocks, wool, baked horse-hair, sea grass, technically called U'lva marina, or any other articles wliich when put together form an elastic body, and afterwards quilting it down, and covering it with a description of cloth called ticken. The feather bed and the pillows are stuffed with feathers. In Scotland, mattresses and bolsters, exceedingly agreeable to sleep upon, are stuffed with tlie outer chaff of the oat, carefully sifted from the smaller chaff, and from all dust, and renewed once a year. In Italy, and in countries where the maize is in common culture, excellent mattresses are formed by stuffing them with the chaff of that grain. A few flowers of the hop mixed with the chaff of the bolster gives that article an agreeable fragrance, which is at the same time soporific. George III. at one time slept on a pillow entirely stuffed with hops ; and some years ago, when in Worcestershire, we think in 18L'3, we slept at a farm house, on a bed, bolster, and pillows, all stuffed with hops, and found that they formed a species of bedding soft and powerfully fragrant, though said to be unwholesome. 664. Subatitutes for Stuffing to beds, bolsters, and pillows have been proposed by upholsterers at different times, and some of them have lately been a good deal used ; of these we shall mention three ; viz., wire springs, air, and water. 665. Wire Springs for stuffing are nothing more than spiral coils of wire, fig. 704, gene- rally an eighth of an inch in diameter for mattresses, and smaller for cushions, carriage seats, &c. These springs are placed, side by side, on interlaced webbing, strained to a frame of the size of the intended bed, cushion, or seat ; they 704 ■ arc then all confined by cords to one height, and covered by a piece of ticken or strong canvass, strained tiglitly over them. On this is spread a layer of curled horse-hair, and an upper cover of ticken is then put over the whole, and nailed down tight to the under side of the wooden frame with tacks. For our own part, we prefer beds made with these spiral springs to any other ; not only from their greater elasticity, and the equal diffusion of the support which they afford to the body, but because, from the quantity of air among the springs, they can never become so warm as beds stuffed with any of the ordinary materials. The effect of spiral springs as stuffing has been long known to men of science ; but so little to upholsterers, that a patent for using them in stuffing was taken out, some years ago, as a new invention. Beds and seats of this description are now, however, made by upholsterers ' ==l-j=^=- generally, and the springs may be had from Birmingham by the hundred weight. FLUNITUUE rOR COTTAGP: DWELLINGS. 33J 6G6. Air Beds and Cunliions wore inveiited by John Clark of Bridgewater, in 1813. He first renders the case of the bed, pillow, hammock, or cushion, impervious to air, by preparing it with caoutchouc; he next encloses it in another case not impervious to air, and afterwards forces the air into the inner case by means of an air-pump, j)reventing it from returning by an air-tiglit stopcock. He observes " that these beds aflbrd the most renovating and easy repose ; that they may be rendered soft to any required degree, and either cool or warm, by changing the air j that, on tlie general principle of fluids main- taining a uniform level, they are not subject to hard lumps or knots, like feathers, wool, or down ; that they never can get damp ; that they require no making up ; that the largest bed weighs only a few ounces, and that, being exhausted, they may be folded or rolled up, so as to go in very little bulk, and hence their great advantage to travellers." For medical purposes, he says, " they may be filled with air at any required temperature; or witii water, steam, or other fluids, either wet or dry, elastic or non-elastic, to which the case is impermeable. Seamen's hammocks, if filled with air, would be light, portable, and buoyant ; and, in case of ship«Teck, might be used as life preservers. Cushions, pads, and carriage linings thus, filled, will also be eligible and commodious, from their lightness and elasticity. {Repertory of Arts, vol. xxiv. p. 157.) 667. The Hi/drostatic Bed for Invctlids is a recent invention of that enlightened and benevolent physician Dr. Arnott, the author of the Elements of Physics, and is already coming into general use in the London hospitals. Its object is to mitigate all, and entirely to prevent some, of the evils attendant on remaining for a great length of time in a reclining posture. " The health, and even life, of every part of the animal body depends on the sufficient circulation through it of fresh blood, driven in by the force of the heart. Now, when a man is sitting or lying, the parts of his flesh compressed by the weight of his body do not receive the blood so readily as at other times ; and if, iVom any cause, the action of liis heart has become weak, the interruption of the circulation will both follow more quickly and be more complete. A peculiar uneasiness arises where the circulation is thus obstructed, impelling even ahealthy person to involuntary changes of position : when the body is debilitated with sickness, however, these changes occasion much fatigue ; and should the sensations after a time become indistinct, as in deUrium, palsy, &c., or the patient have become too weak to obey them, the compressed parts are kept so long without their natural supply of blood, that they lose their vitality, and change to what are called sloughs, or mortified parts. These have afterwards to be thrown oW, if the patient survive, by the process of ulceration ; and they leave deep holes, which require to be filled up with new flesh during a tedious convalescence. Many a fever, after a favourable crisis, has terminated fatally from this cause ; and the same termination is common in lingering consumptions, palsies, spine diseases, &c. ; and, generally, in all diseases which confine patients long to their beds." {Penny Mag., vol. i. p. 215.) Dr. Arnott, having tried various descriptions of beds contrived for invalids, including air pillows, down pillows, &c., thought at last of a hydrostatic bed. He " reflected that the support of water to a floating body is so uniformly diffused, that every thousandth part of an inch of it has, as it were, its own separate liquid pillar, and no one part bears the load of its neighbour ; that a person resting in a bath is nearly thus sup- ported ; that a patient nught be laid upon the surface of a bath over which a large sheet of waterproof India rubber cloth had been previously thrown, his body being rendered sufficiently buoyant by a soft mattress being placed beneath it ; and that it might thus repose upon the surface of the water, without sensible pressure any where." {Ibid.) The hydrostatic bed is made of the usual dimensions ; and is nothing more than & wooden trough, say four feet wide, six feet long, and one foot deep, lined with lead or zinc, to render it water-tight. Over this is thrown a sheet of India rubber cloth, as large as would be a complete lining to the box if it were emptj'. The edges of this sheet are secured by narrow slips of wood, or tinned iron hooping, firmly screwed down all round the top of the trough, shutting in the water as completely as if it were in a bottle, the only opening being at one end, which is filled by a cock. Upon this India rubber sheet a mattress, pillow, and bedclothes are laid, as in common beds. The box may be made by any carpenter, and lined by any plumber, and the India- rubber cloth is manufactured by Mackintosh and Co., Charing Cross. 668. Bed Furniture. The usual material for the hangings of cottage beds, especially for tent beds, is dimity, which has the advantage of being easily washed, and may thus be always contrived to have a clean appearance. Printed cottons, Manchester stripes, and chintzes are also very suitable, particulaily the latter, for French beds ; but moreens and other woollen stuflTs should never be used in cottages, as they have not only too heavy an appearance for a small room, but are liable to harbour dust and vermin. The furniture of the bed, and the curtains of the windows of the room in which it is placed, should always be of the same material and colour. 669. Window Curtains give such an air of comfort to a room, whether it be to the 3.S8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. spectator from witliout, or to the occupant within, that we could wish no cottage, however humble, to be without them. For the same reason, we should wish cottage windows to be large, that the curtains may be displayed without too much obstructing the light. Window curtains give the mistress of tlie house an excellent opportunity for exercising her taste in their anangement ; and it is but doing justice to the French and Germans, to state tliat they are far in advance of the British, or, indeed, of any other people of Europe, in this particular. From Stockholm to Naples, the room of a French- man may always be known, before entering it, by the curtains of his window. It is not that they are formed of expensive materials, for these are seldom employed, except in a superior description of houses ; but muslins, cottons, and lenos, of different colours, sometimes accompanied by shawl bordering, sewed upon the cottons, are put up with a degree of style and taste which indicates both talent and a love of home in the occupant. It would be easy to introduce the same taste in Britain, if it were once properly pointed out to young females, and exemplified by the comparatively enlightened cottager ; for example, in the dwellings of the married upper servants of country gentlemen. The first step, however, is to have large windows. Fig. 705, p. 339, is a very plain style of hanging curtains. A round pole of wood is supported at each end by a bracket, fig. 706 a, 706 ]^ which is fixed by screw nails to the architrave of the window. The pole is kept securely in its place by the screw-pin, b, which passes through the bracket, and is screwed into the pole so as to keep it quite firm. On the pole are fourteen rings, generally of brass, but for a common cottage they might be made of iron bronzed ; and in the lower part of each ring there is a small eye, c, in which is inserted the end of the wire hook, d, -which is sewed along the inside of the upper margin of the curtain. By these means the curtain can be unhooked, and taken down to be cleaned at any time. The curtain, when not drawn, may be supported by a wooden pin, by a brass pin, by a brass band, e, which fits into a socket, f, and will stand either upright, or horizontal, at pleasure, accord- ingly as the square^tenon of tlie band maybe introduced. In fig. 705, this band is shown at g g, placed horizontally ; in fig. 706 it is shown placed upright. Instead of a pin or band, a piece of riband or curtain line, with a ring on each end, might be hooked on two knobs, and thus loop up the curtain. The manner in which this curtain, which opens in the middle, is made to draw from the centre to each side of the window, is shown in fi"-. 707. A line, /(, is passed round the small pulley which works in the pulley rack, ;' ; it is then carried over another pulley at A-; then over a third at /; and a fourth at m, return- ing to the pul- ley rack, where it is joined to its other end. There are two rings at n and o; one of which, the curtains being closed, is attached to the inner edge of one curtiiin, and the other to the inner edge of the other. The ring n is then fastened to the upper line, by a small eye on the outer edge of the ring, which may be seen in the figure ; and the ring o to the under line, by similar means. On inspecting the figure, it will be evident that, when thus arranged, by pulling the line p, tlie curtain to which the ring o is attached will he pulled towards m, and that to which n is fixed towards I; and thus the curtains will be opened. The reverse will be of course effected by pulling tlie line /;. The curtain rod may be formed cither of iron or of any hard wood ; and it should FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 705 3.39 ifflS^ 708 340 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITFXTURE. 710 711 _^ n J! • iiiillli " 1 1 ^^U FUllNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 341 be fixed to tlie under side, or soffit, of the window, by hooks of the form shown at q. This is the very simplest form of curtain made to draw apart, and it may be made by any country carpenter. The cheapest material for these curtains is calico, dyed crimson, blue, or any other ingrain colour that will wasli. They may also be formed of dimity, witli a strip of glazed calico about an inch and a half wide, of any colour suitable to the other furniture of the room, sewed on about two inches from the margin. This coloured calico is, of course, taken off when the dimity is washed, and, with care, will last clean and look well for years. Coloured calico cut in Vandykes, or in any other pattern, and sewed on close to the edge, may be substituted for the plain strip, if preferred. 670. Ilmdow Curtains in the Grecian style. Fig. 708, p. 339, may be considered as suitable for a cottage finished in the Grecian style, including under that term the Italian manner. This curtain requires a different bracket from the other. A lath, four inches wide, fig. 709, r, is fixed on the architrave of the window, by an iron angle bracket, i. The bracket which supports the pole, t, is of brass, and it is fastened by screws on the top of the lath. The curtains are arranged as in the preceding Design, and the drapery or valance over them, at top, 709 is hooked into the rings (shown in fig. 70S), in a similar manner to the curtains, so that both drapery and curtains may be taken off to be washed. The pole to which the drapery is attached would look remarkably well if stained of a mahogany colour ; or, in a Gothic cottage, to re- semble oak. Fig. 710, p. 340, is another curtain in the Grecian style, in the construc- tion of which the plaited drapery, or valance, is tacked to the cornice in a manner which we shall include in our description of the next figure. 671. A Gothic Curtain and Cornice are represented in the Design, fig. 711, p. 340. The cornice may be made of deal, and painted and grained to imitate oak. The drapery is nailed on to the lath with tacks, the heads of which are covered by the cornice, as shown in the sections, p. 340, u. The cornice takes off and puts on by means of what are called cornice slides, v, which go into a broad staple, iv. The curtain runs behind the drapery, on a pulley rod, as shown in the section x, in fig. 708, p. 339. The pins to support the curtains may be made of oak, in order to harmonise with the cornice. 672. Curtains for the humblest description of Cottages. Where an apparatus of lines and pulle)'s would be too expensive, a simple curtain, opening in the centre, may be formed by nailing two pieces of dimity, coloured calico, or printed cotton, to a square cornice, either painted, or covered with a piece of paper bordering ; these curtains may be looped back by a piece of sash line, or coloured cord, twisted round hooks fixed to the architrave, and viill thus form a kind of Gothic drapery across the window. Another simple description of curtain is formed by nailing a piece of dimity, or other material, of the requisite length and width, to a flat piece of wood, in one end of which are inserted two pulleys ; while two others are let into it, one in the middle, and the other at the opposite extremity. Three pieces of tape are sewed down the curtain, one on each side, and one in the middle, to which are affixed small rings, at regular distances : through these rings are passed three pieces of cord, which afterwards go over the pulleys, and, being fastened together on one side, are kept tight by means of a pulley rack. By this apparatus the curtain may be raised or lowered at pleasure. The board with the pulleys is concealed by a cornice, to which a valance, or any other description of drapery, may be attached. 673. Inside Window Blinds are of various kinds; but the chief are roller blinds, \'enetian blinds, and wire blinds. The roller blind, being much the cheapest, may be considered the most suitable for common cottages. It is simply a piece of linen, of the height and breadth of the window, nailed to a roller, which has a pulley at one end, by means of a string over which the blind is pulled up ; and it is drawn down by a cord and tassel fixed to the middle of its lower edge. The blind is kept extended to the width of the window by a lath, passed through a broad hem, at the opposite end to that which is fixed to the roller. The roller works in pivots at each end; and motion is usually com- municated to it, for the purpose of drawing up the blind, by an endless cord, which passes over the wooden pulley on the end of the roller, and under the small brass pidley in the rack. (A rack is shown in fig. 707, at i.) As the pulley and rack often re- quire adjusting, a more simple plan is to have the pulley affixed to the roller of the blind, with a cylinder or axis smaller in diameter than that of the roller on which the blind is wound up. To this is attached a line, the length of which should bear the same relation to that of the blind, as the diameter of the cylinder of the pulley does to that of the cylinder of the roller. The line must be affixed when the blind is wound up on the roller, so that the action of drawing down the blind may wind up the cord. 342 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. The smaller the diameter of the axis of the pulley is in comparison with that of the roller, the sliorter will be the length of string required. A great improvement in this description of blinds has l)een made by forming the roller of a tin case that encloses a spring, which acts so as to turn the roller, and pull up the blind of itself. The best description of this spring roller blind is one improved by Messrs. Barron and Mills, which we shall describe when treating of blinds for villas. Sometimes, instead of linen blinds being plain, they are painted with transparent colours, so as to represent stained glass windows, landscapes, &c. These blinds, while they exclude the sun, admit abun- dance of light, and are very suitable for staircase windows, or the windows of cottages which have either no view, or one which it is desirable to exclude. A great improve- ment has lately been made in the manufacture of transparent blinds by Mr. Newbury of London, who paints them on a superior description of gauze, of his own invention. Long and short Venetian blinds, and short inside wire blinds, are not unsuitable for the better description of cottages ; but we shall defer what we have to say of them till wv come to speak of Villa Furniture. 674. Commoner descriptions of Short Inside Blinds axQ formed of muslin or leno, either flounced all round, and opening in the middle, or with flounces only at top. These blinds may be affixed to the windows either by a piece of tape drawn through a string case running across the blind near the top, and fastened by brass hooks to the side styles of the window ; or by brass wires or rods passed through broad hems at the top and bottom of the blind, and having a loop at each end, to drop on the pin of a small brass bracket affixed to the side style or bead of the window frame. Other blinds may be netted by the cottager's wife, of white cotton, or green worsted, the size required, and hung on brass hooks fixed to the astragals and side styles of the window. Various other blinds may be formed of equally cheap materials, according to the taste and skill of the mistress of the cottage. 675. Lines and Knobs for Curtains and Blinds, <^c. The description of line used should always be the plaited thread line, which, being of the same material throughout', is much stronger, and lasts four or five times as long as the common twined sash line, which in many cases is made of one material on the outside and another in the interior. This patent thread line, as it is called, is manufactured of all sizes, from that fit for a carriage window blind, to one thick enough for a ship's cable ; and it should be used, not only in curtains and blinds, but in hanging sashes, pictures, and, in short, in all cases requiring lines. Knobs of iron, brass, or wood, for the purpose of fastening lines round, arc far preferable to the hooks of ditt'erent kinds in common use ; because they have a more solid and architectural look; are mo-re removed from a common nail ; and are not so ajit to catch the corners of the laths of Venetian blinds, or to tear cloth blinds or curtains. 676. Looking-glasses for cot- ^ ^ tages may be divided into two _Ss - « classes ; chimney or pier glasses, and dressing-glasses. Fig. 712 is a Design for a chimney glass in the Grecian style, and fig. 7 1 3 is another in the Gothic manner. The frames may be of deal, painted in imitation of oak, or they may be gilt, which is generally considered to look best. For a Gothic cot- tage, very handsome and cheap pier and chimney glasses may be formed by constructing a frame like a Gothic window,and glazing it with panes of plate glass, or of a superior descrip- FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 343 tion of common glass prepared as looking-glass, nie same may be done in Grecian cottages by imitating a Grecian window. By placing mirrors of this kind so as to reflect the best exterior views, apparent extent, variety, and gaiety may sometimes be added to even smitll rooms. Where it is desired to have richly ornamented frames, they can be had in great variety, and at a very moderate price, made of the papier mache of Bielefield and Haselden (see § 568), or of a composition manufactured by Jackson of Rathbone Place. 677. Dressing-glasses may have tlieir frames made either in the Grecian or Gothic style. Fig. 715 is the ordinary form, improved in the style of design, so as to har- monise with Grecian forms; and, if the supporters were of cast-iron bronzed, it might be recommended : but, made of wood, it is not heavy enough to resist the action of the wind against the back of the glass when the window is open ; and, accordingly, bed-room glasses of this description are very frequently blown down and broken. Fig. 714 is 715 also a Design in tlie Grecian style, with a plinth or base of solid wood, on which it stands. Such glasses are called by cabinet-makers plateau glasses ; and they are far preferable to the common sort, for obvious reasons. Figs. 716 and 717 are Designs for plateau glasses in the Gothic style, which are given principally to show that style should be attended to in minor as well as in major articles of furniture. Fig. 717 has a drawer for trinkets, &c. 716 717 678. Fenders should be low, and may be narrow, when the fuel chamber is placed low ; and more especially when the beveled front bais and drawer, § 599, fig. 534, are used. The lower and narrower the fender, the more heat, other circumstances being the same, will be radiated into the room. The front of the fender, unless very low indeed, ought always to be of open work, in order to admit through it the radiation from the fire. The forms and lines and general style of the fender ought to be the same as those of the grate ; and both ought to harmonise with the chimney-piece. We have seen a cottage fender with a well hole inside for containing coals ; thus serving instead of a coal scuttle, and at the same time drying the fuel so as to diminish the quantity of smoke produced ; in this case the fender and its well fitted into a sunk panel in the hearth, and as it was in the house of a toll bar keeper, who had to sit up all night, it proved convenient ; because the coals were always at hand, and burned readily when put on the fire. Fenders should have stands for fire-irons, unless a substitute is provided by holders being screwed to the grate. The cheapest kind of cottage fenders are of painted wire, and these may do for parlours and bed-rooms; but there are very handsome and cheap fenders of cast iron, which are much more appropriate tor kitchens. 679. Fire-irons, stoves, and grates, w hen of polished iron or steel, require a great deal 341 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUllE. of severe and disagreeal)le labour from women, wliich we have long wished to see put an end to, by the substitution of a more rational mode of heating than that of open Kre- places ; but, in the mean time, as tlie cottager must have fire-irons of some sort, we recommend him to have plain patterns, and rather to indulge in some other description of furniture whicii requires less care in keeping. Where wood is the principal fuel, we recommend the kitchen poker to terminate at the lower extremity in two claws like a claw hammer, or a crowbar ; and to be hollow, with one orifice between the claws, and anotiier at tlie opposite end for applying the mouth to blow the fire, or rather to rouse the embers after they have been collected together from the ashes by the claws. We have seen the use of such pokers in the kitchens of inns in Germany ; and tliink they may be safely recommended as very superior to those in common use, where wood is burnt on a hearth. 680. Carpets are sources of comfort in every room ; and we should wish the cottager to have not only one in his parlour, but, if possible, also one in his bed-room. For neither the parlour nor the bed-room would we recommend the carpet to be fitted to the room ; because such garpets can very seldom be either turned or changed in any way. In general, whatever may be the shape of the room, the carpet ought to be in the form of a square, a parallelogram, or a circle. A square carpet may be changed eight times, so as to be worn equally on every part of both sides ; a circular one, indefinitely. A parallelogram may be changed four times, which will also admit of wearing it with toler- able regularity. A carpet, accurately fitted, or planned (the term among upholsterers), to every projection and recess of a room, cannot even be changed once, unless the projections and recesses should be of a particular description of symmetry, wliich is very seldom to be met with. It is evident, then, that a fitted carpet, which can neither be changed nor turned, will not last more than one eighth the time of a square one, or one fourth the time of a parallelogram. For a cottager's bed-room, we would chiefly recommend one piece of carpeting placed by the dressing-table, and pieces neatly fitted to each other to go round the foot and sides of the bed. In general, the parlour carpet will require to be made fast at the margins with a few tacks, but the bed-room carpets may be left loose. Stair carpets give an air of great comfort and finish to a house ; and a cottage should never be without one. We shall describe the manner of laying. these down, and shall enter into other particulars respecting carpets, when we come to speak of Villa Furniture. When a parlour carpet does not cover the whole of the floor, there are various ways of disposing of the margin between it and the wall. Some recommend oil- cloth, others baize, drugget, coarse broadcloth, or brown linen ; for our part, we greatly prefer to any of these, painting tliat part of the boards of the floor which is not covered with the carpet, of the same colour as the woodwork of the room ; taking care that the margin painted shall exceed in breadth by a few inches the space which it is intended to leave uncovered. This is by far the best mode in staircases and in bed- rooms, as well as in parlours ; it also saves a great deal of the most disagreeable part of a woman's household labours. When the woodw ork of the room is painted to imitate oak, this mode of treating the margins of t.'ie floor has a particularly good effect. The expense may be objected to; but we shall show, when we come to treat of the art of house-painting, how easily any cottager or his wife, though they never before saw a paint brush in their lives, may learn in an hour to grain the woodwork of their cottage, in imitation of oak, sufficiently well for every purpose they can require. Round carpets are not very common in England, but they are not unfrequent on the Continent, and look exceedingly well in a square room. 681. The kinds trf carpets most suit able for cottages are chiefly the Scotch and the Kidderminster, on account of their cheapness ; but we consider none too good for the cottager, provided he can afford to pay for them. In choosing a pattern, the smallest is generally to be preferred, not only as a matter of taste, as being more in accordance with small rooms, but in point of economy; because, in sewing the breadths together, it requires less cutting out to make it match, and because, when the carpet gets old, the patches put on in mending are less conspicuous. The parlour carpet, and the carpets of at least one bed-room, should be of the same pattern, in order that, when the former is partly worn out, the latter may be used to mend it ; because it is always bad, both in point of effect and economy, to mend what is old with what is quite new. A very neat pattern for carpets has lately been introduced for libraries, but it would suit Gothic cottages equally well. It consists of an imitation of wainscot, has a quiet subdued tone of colour, and accords well with furniture made, or painted in imitation, of oak. 682. Colours of Carpets. Much of the opinion wliich we form of all objects depends on the effect of the first impressions which we receive from them. Our first ideas of any man or woman, ori seeing them at a short distance from us, are taken from their height and clothing; and our first ideas of a room, from its size, and the covering or colour of its floor and walls. Taking the room as a whole, and considering its effect as FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 345 a picture, tlic colours of the carjiet and of tlio walls will t'orm the principal masses in tlie composition, nnil will necessarily influence every otlier component part. If the floor and the walls were of the same colour, there would be a deficiency of force and of effect, from want of contrast ; if they were of different colours, equally attracting the eye, the ett'ect produced would not be that of a whole; because a whole is the result of the cooperation of different subordinate parts with one principal pait. The harmony of the colouring of a room, therefore, can only be produced by the same kind of knowledge w hich guides an artist in painting a picture. The principles of the art of painting supply the prin- ciples for the art of distributing colours in furnishing; but, as tliis art cannot all at once be communicated to the reader, all that we shall attempt, at present, is, to supply him with a few hints, drawn from the usual practice of upholsterers. These are, that neither the colours of the carpet should be so brilliant as to destroy the effect of those of the pa[>er, nor the contrary; and that the curtains should always be of a colour suitable to both. It is not necessary that they should be of the same colour, but that they should be of colours that harmonise, or, in other w ords, look well together. A very brilliant colour, such as crimson, in the carpet, may have a drab or other subdued colour in the curtiuns and paper; but then there should be some of the brilliant colour "introduced in both, as bordering or ornaments. Thu?, a room with a bright blue or crimson carpet may have white, yellow, or drab, curtains and paper ; but blue or crimson bordering or ornaments should be introduced in them, to harmonise the effect. It would not do, in the case of the blue carpet, to have green curtains or paper, or with the crimson to have scarlet ; because these colours do not accord. A green carpet may have black, red, or white curtains, with green borders and ornaments. A yellow carpet may have black curtains, and a dark grey paper with yellow borders and ornaments. Whatever will apply to a self-coloured carpet, curtains, or paper, will apply equally well in all cases where those colours predominate. It should never be forgotten, that the whole effect of an elegantly furnished room may be destroyed by the selection of a carpet which, though handsome in itself, does not harmonise with the other furniture. 683. Geographical Carpets. The idea of a geographical carpet, that is, a caqiet with the lines of a map substituted for a regular pattern, has been suggested {Meek- Mag., vol. xii. p. 21.); and we agree with the author of the suggestion in thinking that "a carpet is so admirably adapted to geographical instruction, that it may be almost said to be a natural article for the purpose. A map is a picture of the surface of the earth, and on the ground is the place to view it. One on so large a scale as a carpet would admit, is calculated to give a more correct idea of the relative position of places than could be effected by the largest map now extant. A family in the daily occupation of a i-oom furnished with such a carpet, woidd acquire unavoidably a more permanent knowledge of a given portion of the earth than could be obtained by any other means ; and, w hen tlie local position of the room would atlmif, the carpet might be placed agreeably to the bearings of the compass, and it would thereby give a correct idea of the real direction of places on the map." The principal objection to this plan seems to be, the great difficulty which would attend its execution. A map, such as above described, might, however, be printed on fine cloth, or brown holland linen, and might then serve as a cover to a carpet. This would be particularly suitable for a school-room or nursery. 684. Substitutes for Carpets. Green baize and drugget are often used as substitutes for carpets, and are not only cheap, but in many cases look remarkably well. When a driib drugget is used, a border of black or any dai'k-coloured cloth, laid on about two inches from the margin, has a very good effect. Cheap carpets may be made by industrious housewives of a kind of patchwork. Remnants of cloth bought from the woollen- draper, or tailor, and cut into any kind of geometrical shapes, may be sewed together, so as to form circles, stars, or any other regular figures that may be desired ; and, when arranged with taste, produce a very handsome and durable carpet, at a very trifling expense. The figures, of whatever nature they may be, should be always symmetrical ; and a handsome border should invariably surround the whole, so as to preserve the idea of unity of design ; care should also be taken that the colours employed harmonise, not only with each other, but, as before advised, with those of the other furniture of the room. 685. Paper Carpets are formed by cutting out and sewing together pieces of linen, cot- ton, Scotch gauze, canvass, or any similar material, &c., to the size and form required ; then stretcliing the prepared cloth on the floor of a large room, and carefully pasting it round the margins so as to keep it strained tight. If cotton be the material, it will require to be previously wetted. When the cloth thus fixed is dry, lay on it two or more coats of strong paper, breaking joint, and finish with coloured or hanging paper, according to fancy. Centre or corner pieces, cut out of remnants of papers, which may be bought for a mere trifle, may be laid on a self-coloured ground, and the whole surrounded by a border ; or any other method adopted which may suit tlie taste or circumstances of the N N 34'G COTTAGK, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. occupier, or accord with the other furniture of the room. When the carpet is thus pre- pared, and quite dry, it should receive two coats of glue, or size made from tlie shreds of skins, such as is used by carvers and gilders. Tliis size should be put on as warm as possible, and care should be taken tliat no part of the carpet be left untouched by it ; otherwise the varnish to be afterwards laid on will sink into the paper, and spoil it. When the size is perfectly dry, the carpet should have one or more coats of boiled oil ; and when that is dry, a coat of copal or any other varnish. The varnish is not absolutely essential, as boiled oil has been found to answer very well without it ; but where oil only is used, it requires several more coats to be applied, and takes a much longer time to dry. These carpets are portable, and will roll up with about the same ease as oilcloth. They are very durable, are easily cleaned ; and, if made of well-chosen patterns, have a very handsome appearance. Where labour is cheap, the cost will be very trifling ; the materials being of little value, and the expense consisting chiefly in the time requisite to put them together. Where cloth cannot be easily procured, the carpet may be made by pasting paper to painted boards; when, by repeated coats of paper, it is become strong and firm, it will separate from the paint, and will be as durable as if mounted on any kind of cloth. For earth, brick, or stone floors, in order to render them impervious to damp, these carpets may be made with two faces, by pasting paper to both sides of the cloth which forms their basis, and well oiling or varnishing them on the under as well as upper surface ; they may also be bound with leather or any strong substance, to prevent moisture from penetrating to the paste. The paste used in the preparation of these carpets ought to be very strong, and is best when beer or sweet wort is substituted for common water. It must be kept free from lumps, and, when taken from the fire, stirred till cold. Papers used for carpets should have sufficient gum or size employed in the printing of them, to enable them to withstand the effects of the washing over with warm ^ize. If printed in oil, a strong coat of size should be given to the back to prevent the oil from penetrating through the paper, otherwise it can- not be pasted to linen, cotton, or any thing else. Papers printed in oil will not require any size before they receive the finishing coats of boiled oil and varnish. When varnished on one side only, they ought to be rolled up with that side outwards, to pre- vent its cracking. (London Jour, oj" Arts and Sciences.) Paper carpets would perhaps be better for geographical subjects, than carpets formed of any material produced by the loom. We have before suggested the idea of geographical, natural history, and other scientific papers, for the walls of apartments ; and, if these were once made, they might be transferred to paper carpets at pleasure. 686. Hearth Rugs are of various patterns and prices. Their use is obvious, in saving the carpets from becoming worn by the constant inovement of persons near the fire. When economy is an object, a piece of carpeting the same as that of the room, and the width of the liearth, may be employed, and this may be either hemmed at the ends, or sur- rounded by a deep fringe of black or very dark brown worsted, which the mistress of the cottage may net herself, and sew on. A cheap rug may also be formed of a piece of drab drugget bound with black, or any other colour to suit the paper and cm-tains, and fringed ; either with or without a strip of cloth, of the same colour as the binding, laid on about two inches from the margin. This kind of rug does very well without the fringe. Another kind of cheap hearth rug may be made by the cottager's wife, of remnants of cloth cut into narrow strips about half an inch broad, and three or four inches long ; -these strips are doubled, and sewed at the bend, in rows, to a strong piece of cloth, or knitted into a framework of packthread. In either case the colours are disposed so as to form some kind of pattern ; and, the ends being left loose, and cut even when the work is finished, with a large pair of scissors or shears, the whole presents a remarkably rich, warm, and massive appearance. 687. Painted Floorcloths may sometimes be used in the lobbies and passages of cot- tages ; but they are not economical articles, where there is much going out and coming in of persons generally employed in the open air, and of course wearing strong shoes, probably with nails in the soles. When they are used in cottages, the most appropriate patterns arc imitations of some materials usually employed for floors, such as tessellated pavement, different-coloured stones, wainscot, &c. ; but, for the better description of dwellings, where oilcloths are considered chiefly as ornamental coverings, there seems to be no reason why their patterns should not be as various as those of carpets. 688. Matting of different sorts may ha e\te\\s\\Q\y xiseA in cottages. There are some kinds, which the cottager might make for himself in the winter's evening ; and there are others that he may purchase cheap. Matting is manufactured, in many different manners, out of the straw of corn, ruslies, or other long, narrow, grassy or sedgy leaves. Among the uses to which a cottager might apply mats of this sort, which he could make himself, are, seats for chairs, stools, and benches ; foot mats for outside doors ; and screens, than which there is not a more usefid article for the cottage kitchen. In Monmouthshire, FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 347 easy chaiis with hoods, like porter's chairs in gentlemen's halls, are constructed of straw matting on a frame of wooden rods, or of stout iron wire ; and chairs like fig. 718 are made entirely of straw in different parts of England, in the same way as the common beehives. Matting of this sort might in some cases be employed as partitions, and is extensively used in the more miserable of the cottages both in France and Scotland. Russian matting, or bast, made from the inner bark of the lime tree, is very cheap, and might be useful to the cottager in many ways : the walls and partitions might be lined with it, and temporary ceilings formed of it in hovels where there were none. There are various other applications of Russian matting, which will readily occur. Indian matting, when bound with black or coloured ferreting, is a very neat article, and may be used either for walls or floors. 689. Duor Mats may be made of basketwork, straw, rope, hair, wool, sheepskin. Sec. A very good outside mat, or rather perhaps scraper, is formed by a piece of flat wicker- work, somewhat coarser than that of a common hamper ; it takes the dirt effectually from the soles of the shoes, and as it falls down in the interstices between the rods, the wicker- work has only to be lifted up now and then, and the dirt swept away. A mat which operates like this wicker mat has been formed in Germany of flat tarred rope, in the following manner: — The breadth of the rope, fig. 719 «, full size, is about three quarters of an inch, and it is something more than a quarter of an inch thick. The out- line of the mat is first formed by setting the rope on edge on the floor, or on a piece of board, in the manner of a frame, and attaching it in two or three places with nails or pegs ; the rope is next returned on itself in zigzag lines within the frame, either by continually going round it till it ends in the centre, or by going backwards and forwards from one end to the other, till it finishes on one side. This being done, all the parts which touch are sewed together, and the result is a mat like fig. 719, b (to the scale of half an inch to a foot). These mats are imported from Ger- many ; and, when used as shop-door mats in London, they art found to be more durable than any other kind that has yet been tried. One of the commonest and most useful out-door mats is made of untwisted rope yarn, woven into very coarse canvass, and then cut, so as to present a brush-like surface, on which, not only the soles of the shoes may be cleaned, as in the wicker and rope mats, but also the sides. In-door mats are made of hair, tow, or wool, in various modes. One of the best for a cottager's bed-room door is a black or grey sheepskin, with all the wool on. A black or dark goatskin makes also a very handsome mat. Skins with white or other light-coloured hair or wool niake very handsome mats, but are hardly advisable for a cottager, as they require frequent washing. 690. Scrapers for the feet may be let into the wall of the cottage, on each side of the door, a cavity being left over the scraper for the foot, and one under it for the dirt. There are various forms of scrapers for building into walls, which may be had of every ironmonger ; and all that the cottager has to do is to choose one analogous to the style of his house. There are detached scrapers in endless variety ; the most complete arc those which have brushes fixed on edge, on each side of the scraper, which, with other forms, we shall describe and figure under VUla Fin-niture. Scrapers are so essential to cleanliness, that, where the cottager can get no better, he may drive two short stakes into the ground, about a foot apart and half a foot high, and let into them a piece of iron liooping edgewise ; or he may sink the blade of an old spade, with its edge upwards* The last two scrapers are very suitable for gardens ; and, unless the cottager keep his garden walks perfectly clean, or at least free from the clods of earth which will stick to his feet when working in the compartments, he cannot expect to have the gravel of his platform in nice order, or his entrance-porch clean. A dirty entrance is a sure sample of an untidy housewife ; and little comfort can be expected in a cottage the floor of which is soiled with filth brought into it from without. Those cottagers who can afford it may purchase the portable scraper, fig. 720, which costs, in London, only Is. 6d., or fig. 721, which costs 2s. ; both of which will answer either for the entrance door or the garden walks : or they may take the dibber scraper, fig. 722, which costs only 2s. 6d., and may be stuck into the garden anywhere, and pulled out again to remove it, at pleasure. 719 3 IS COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 721 An excellent scraper, partaking of the na- ture of a mat, may be formed by letting a number of jjieces of iron liooping edge- wise into a wooden frame, say a foot or more wide, and eighteen inches long. Tlic pieces of liooping may be from an Inch to an inch and a half apart. Wooden hooping, or straight-edged laths, may be sub- stituted for iron ; but the latter is more effective, as well as more durable. Scrapers of this sort may be let into a stone, so Jis to 1)6 level with the adjoining path or pavement ; but in this case there should be a pit, three or four inches deep, beneath the scraper, and the latter should admit of being taken out, to remove the dirt from the pit. In Holland a very good cottage- garden scraper, particularly for sandy soils, is formed by fixing small iron bars, or pieces of hooping, in the circumference of two segments of ovals, fig. 723 ; the chord of the segment is about nine inches in length, and the width of the scraper a foot. When it is used, the sand, or other 723 dirt, drops from the soles of the shoes, between the bars; and, when the space is filled, the scraper is lifted up, and the dirt removed. 691. Hat and Umbrella Stands. Both these articles combined, as in fig. 724, may form a suitable piece of furniture for aGothic porch or passage, where the walls are covered with pictures ; or where there are other objections to having coat and cloak pins fixed against them. Besides, it is always better for hats to be hung on stands in the free air of the apartment, than to have them placed on a table, or against a wall, where they get the air only on one side. In the box at the bottom of this stand, there is a tray of tinned iron, painted black, which lifts out, in order that it may be emptied of the water which may run into it from wet umbrellas, &c., and be cleaned. Where there is sufficient space in the apartment, hat and cloak pins may be put on both sides of the tree ; in which case there should be a second box. We have shown on the two upper branches or rails of the trunk, or upright piece, five hat pins, or surplice pins, as they are cailed by upholsterers, which may be made either of brass, or of iron bronzed. On the lower rail there are four wooden pins, which may be either made of oak, or painted in imitation of it. These pins are formed in two pieces • the stem, or shank, and the head ; and the latter is screwed into the former, as indicated in fig. 725. Such 72i wn pins arc made of mahogany, in Birmingham, in laro'c quantities, and are sold to the trade all over the country. Tliey are far superior to brass or iron knobs or pins ; because they never tarnish or rust, and because they give decided evidence of improved design, in their far removal ^O^ FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 3i9 from llic coiiunon nail or liook. Tlie umbrella stand, fig. 726, might very well be made of aist iron ; and could not, in that material, cost more than a fourth of what it would r% in any description of wood ; but in this, and in similar cases, the objection is, the first expense of the pattern, which, being necessarily considerable, cannot be prudently in- curred, unless the manufacturer be secure of an extensive sale. We could wish that our furnishing ironmongers would direct a portion of that power of invention which seems to be now almost exclusively occupied in contriving bad fireplaces, to the improving of the designs and lowering the price of cabinet furniture, by the judicioxis introduction of cast iron. IMuch, we are sure, will one day be done in this way. For a small cottage, a very useful comer umbrella stand, may be formed by bending a piece of stout brass, or iron wire, somewhat in the form of c d in fig. 727, and fixing it in the angle of the porch, inmaediately within the out- side door; placuig below a corner tray of tinned or cast iron, e, to receive the water from the wet umbrellas. The use of the wire is to prevent the wet umbrellas from touching the wall, and the use of the bends in it is to keep the um- brellas or walking-sticks apai-t. 692. A Toicel Horse hsLS generaily one rail at top ; but a double rail, as in fig. 728, is a great improve- ment ; for, when a wet towel is thrown across both rails, the air has freer access to it, and it dries much sooner. It may be fonned of deal, and should at all events be painted, for the reasons given when speaking of fixed towel rails, § 610. 693. Clock-cases for cottages may be harmonised both with the style of the building and that of the other furniture, by the lines of their mouldings and the forms of their panels. Figs. 729 and 730 are examples; the former in the Gothic, and the latter in the Grecian style. 694. A Folding Screen, for keep- ing oflF the wind, is required in most cottage kitchens, particularly such as have no porch or lobby. The most suitable, where there is room, is the settle, § 636, especially with the addition of Mallet's iron castors ; but very light and efficient screens may be formed by two or more wooden frames, five feet high, and two feet wide, hinged with girth webbing or leather, so as to fold either way. llie mode of hinging, so as to admit of this, is by nailing the pieces of girth which serve as hinges, alternately to one side of 731 - i 350 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. the one hanging style, as at a, fig. 731, and to the opposite side of the other, as at b. Supposing two hinges done in this way, the two alternate ones should be nailed, as indi- cated by the dotted lines at c and d. A brass hinge, to answer the same purpose, has been lately invented by Mr. Vokins, architect and builder, of Wilton Road, London ; several of whose ingenious inventions and contrivances we shall have to notice when speaking of \'illas. The wooden frames for the screen may have canvass stndned on them, in order that they may be covered with paper ; or they may be covered with green baize, drugget, or any similar material, with a border of ferreting, attaclied by brass-headed nails, or bordered by the nails only. In case of the screen being covered with paper, maps, subjects of natural history, arithmetical or chronological tables, alma- nacks, or, in short, any kind of useftil subjects, should be preferred, for the reasons given, § 584. 695. Fire-screens may be wanted in a cottage as well as in a palace. A lady has sent us a cottage fire-screen, made of straw, with a hook attached to it, by which it is hung on the back of a chair, fig. 732, which will answer very well when sitting with the back to the fire. To shield the face a standard fire-screen is required ; but we shall leave the reader to contrive one for himself from the Designs, which he will find in another part of this work, under the head of Fire-screens for Villas. 696. Clothes Horses and Stands for brushing Coats. Clothes horses, for drying linen, &c., are open frames hinged in the same manner as folding-screens; and one or more of them should be found in every cottage, not connected with a public drying establishment. There are generally three horizontal rails to these clothes horses ; one at top, one within two feet of the bottom, and one between. In a small cottage the clothes horse might be contrived to answer the purpose of a screen, by having a movable cover, either to slip on, or to be attached by hooks, or pieces of tape. Stands for brushing clothes are formed of a foot in the form of a Greek cross, with an upright piece firmly mortised into it at the lioint of intersection ; into the top of which, about five feet from the ground, is mortised another piece, about two feet long, which serves as arms, on which is put the coat to be brushed. Where there is not room for a stand, the arms, with a post of six or eight inches in length, may be hinged to the back of a door, so as to fall down like a flap when not in use, and be supported by a bracket, or horse and rack, when a coat is to be brushed ; or the form shown in fig. 733 may be adopted. 732 in which the jib bracket, e, works by two pins in //, and the cross piece, (/, also works on a pin in the upper part of the bracket ; the holes, A A, arc for slipping it on to nails fixed to any wall or door. Whatever kind of coat stand or horse may be used, there should always be a table at the command of the person brushing the coat, on which to fold it up, previously to putting it away. 697. Children's Furniture. To enable a mother who has no servants, to relieve herself at pleasure from carrying lier child, tliere are various contrivances in use in England, which deserve to be mentioned ; and there is one, for cleanliness and decency, which deserves imitation in every country, and more especially in our own. Fig. 734 is a swing chair, formed out of ten jjieces of elder tree, u, six inches long, and an inch and FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 351 a half in diameter, with the pith burnt out with a redliot jjoker, or other h-on ; nine rails ahout a foot long, with a round hole at each extremity, h ; a bottom board a foot square, with a round hole in each corner, c ; and four sash lines or cords about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and of sufficient length to reach from the ceiling of the room in which the chair is to be hung. Knots being made on the ends of the lines, the tubes and rails are strung on as in the figure, and the other ends of the cords tied together and suspended from a hook in the ceiling. By omitting four of the cylinders and four of the rails, a chair may be made for an infant of the earliest age. A cushion may be put in the bottom, or the bottom may be stuffed. Fig. 735 is a go-gin for a child who can stand, to teach liim to walk. It consists of a jierpendicular shaft, long enough to reach from the floor to the ceiling, which turns in a hole in a brick or stone of the floor, and witiiin a staple di'iven into the side of one of the ceiling joists, or by any similar means. The piece d, about eighteen inches long, is mortised into the upright shaft, about eighteen inches from the ground ; and the wooden ring, e, about seven or eight inches in diameter, has a piece about six inches long, which is hinged at one end, and fastened with a hook and eye at the other. This opens, and the child being put in is enclosed at the height of the waist. The ring taking part of the child's weight, he cannot fall, and he soon learns to walk. Frequently this ring is made of twisted withy, fig. 736, with an eye at one extremity and a hook at tlie other : or each extremity is made to terminate in a loop, and when the child is put into the ring one of these is slipped over the other, and a hooked wooden pin serves to keep them together : in both cases the hinge is made like that of the handle of a basket. I5oth these pieces of furniture are made in England by every cottager for himself. Fig 737 is a hollow cylinder, nothing more than the section of the trunk of an old pollard tree, commonly to be met with in England ; the inside and upper edge are smoothed, and a Child just able to stand is put into it, while its mother is at work by its side, or going after the business of the house. Fig. 738 is a go-cart which is frequently made of willow rods without castors, but is here shown as a piece of carpentry, standing on castors. The ring, /', opens with a hinge, and shuts, and is made fast like e in fig. 735. Children readily learn to walk by these machines, without the danger of falling. Fig. 739 is a pierced chair, made entirely of wickerwork, which costs, complete, about London, only 4s. 6d., while there is a cheaper sort, with a rush bottom, at 2s. 6d. Every one who can make a basket can make a chair of this descrip- tion. First form the skeleton frame, fig. 740 ; then commence round the circular hole in the centi'c, and work in either willow rods or rushes towards the extrexnitics, according 734 736 739 740 to the kind of chair it may be wished to produce. The cover of the vase in the seat, ff, is lifted off by two thumb holes, so as to be quite flat for the child to sit upon when the vase is not in use. There are two holes in the elbows of the chair, through which may be placed either simply a rod to keep the child from falling out, or a table flap, h, with two pins at the ends to fit into the holes ; the table being also sup- ported by a movable leg in front, and having a ledge round it for holding the child's playthings ; its pins being kept in their holes by the elasticity of the sides of the chair. In England the cottager's child is placed on a chair of this sort after he is a week old ; but in Scotland there is neither this chair, nor any substitute for it. In both, coiuitries there are small chairs with long feet, for elevating childi-en to the height of an> 352 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITKCTURE. ordinary table, so that tliey may sit and eat with their parents; and these, like the pierced chair, ought to be univers;il]y in use. 698. Other articles of furniture might be enumerated, and various hints given for the selection of household utensils and instruments, but we are doubtful whether in this work they would be seen by tiiosc who would feel most interest in them, or to whom they would be most useful. A washing and wringing machine, such as we shall figure in our next Book would be too dear for one cottager ; but we would strongly recommend that half a dozen cottagers should join in purchasing one ; as it would afford a great saving of labour, and that, too, of the most oppressive kind, to the cottager's wife ; since wring- ing is, to a female, almost as great an exertion as mowing is to a man. W;ishing-tubs have hitherto liecn chiefly made round, and Ijy the cooper, probably to accommodate the form to the ancient practice of washing by treading with the feet ; but oblong troughs are much cheaper, and far more convenient. — Every house whatever ought to jjossess the means of filtering the water used in cookery. We have shown how this may be done on a large scale, § 31 and 305 ; on a small scale, the operation may be performed with a common garden flower-pot of a foot or more in height, according to the impurity of the water to be filtered. Over the hole in the bottom of this flower-pot should be placed a piece of sponge; around and over which should be put two or three pieces of smooth clean stones, to keep it in its place, and, at the same time, to prevent the pressure of the filtering mate- rials (to be placed over them) from rendering the sponge so compact as not to allow of the escape of the water. Fill the pot, when thus prepared, to within two inches of the brim, with a mixture of one part of powdered charcoal, and two parts of clean sharp sand, and on the top of this lay a piece of flannel, letting it sink in the centre, but making it fast on the outside of the pot, by a string tied tightly under the rim. The upper sur- face of the pot will now form a shallow basin, lined with flannel, into which the water to be filtered is to be poured, and it will be found to come out rapidly at the bottom, quite clear. As the flannel will intercept the grosser impiu-ities, it should be taken oft' fre- quently, and washed and replaced ; and two or three times a year the sand and charcoal ought also to be taken out and washed. This will be found absolutely necessary ; for the purification is effected simply by the filtering materials attracting the impurities in the water ; the sand the earthy particles, and the charcoal those of organised matter. From this use of the charcoal the reader may learn to increase or lessen its proportion, according to the nature of the water to be purified. — When a cottager keeps a cow, he will require a churn, and one of the cheapest and best is the patent box churn which may now be had at Weir's manufactory, London, for ^1. Butter may be made in this churn with a fourth of the labour requisite witli the common plunge churn ; it is, besides, much more easily used, and when not wanted as a churn, makes an excellent vessel for holding water. In the choice of utensils much de])ends upon knowing when to choose iron, and when wood, earthenware, or papier mache. Cast-iron pots, tea lUMis, tea and coffee pots, and parlour candlesticks, are excellent ; but iron tea trays are l)ad, as compared with those of papier mach^, because one of the latter will last out a dozen of the former. The same may be said of all vessels of copi)er or pewter, as compared with those of cast iron. It must never be forgotten that cop])er, pewter, and lead vessels sell for nearly as much by weight, when old and worn out, as when nev/, and that even c:ist iron will sell for some- thing, but that vessels of wrought or turned iron, when worn out, are of no value at all. Sjjoons, forks, and other articles, made of a composition of nickel and other ingredients, and known >mder the name of German silver, or of Beauchamp's British plate, may be recommended as very good substitutes for real silver. 699. Pictures, Sculptures, and other internal Ornaments. There is no cottage or dwelling, however humble, in which there will not be found some object purely ornamental : we have observed this to be the case in the most wretched log-houses in Russia, where engrav- ings of the rudest kinds, and sometimes fragments of glass or earthenware, such as no one would think worth picking up in the street in England, are placed in rooms which cannot boast of either chairs, tables, or beds. The occui)anls of these hovels sleep in their sheepskin clothes, on the stove in winter, and on the floor or out of doors in siunmer ; and their seats and tables are wooden forms or turf benches. It seems, at first sight, difficult to account for a taste for ornament existing among people so circum- stanced ; but the truth is, that man, whether in a state of liarbarism or refinement, is essentially the same animal, and ornaments bis home, because he loves it, and wislies to render it agreeable. The trumpery of the Russian boor, and the pictures and statue of the English gentleman, are collected and displayed exactly on the same principle. It is clear, therefore, that every cottager must have ornaments in his house, as well as flowers in his garden ; and, since whatever it is worth doing at all, it is worth doing well, we strongly recommend him to cover his walls with the best engravings he can get, and to ornament his chimney-pieces with handsome jilaster or terra cotta casts. Such articles may now be had for a mere trifle ; for example, alto relievo plaster portraits, on FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 353 tablets six inches or eight inches square, of eminent men, remarkably well cast, may be had in London by retail, at 6il. each; casts of Venus, Cupid, Adonis, and of various cele- brated antique statues, eighteen inches or more high, may be had at 5.s. each ; busts of a large si/o may be had at the same price, and Swiss figures in terra cotta at 'is. Gil. each. Uy sizing over plaster casts wlien they are first bought, and quite clean ; and afterwards, when the size is perfectly dry, washing tliem over with copal varnish, they may be made to look almost as beautiful as marble sculpture. (Mevh. May., vol. xiv. p. 96.) Excel- lent engravings of subjects of every description may now be had for a few halfpence each : tiie commoner sorts the cottager may paste on the back of his settle, fig. G?yG, § 636, or kitchen screen, and varnisli them ; and the better kinds he may frame with common deal, ])ainted to imitate majile, and either glaze or varnish tliem according to his means. When there is a good broad chimney shelf, there will be room for other ornaments of a smaller description than busts or sculptures, such as curious stones, spars, ores, or other minerals, or coins, and objects of art and antiquity ; and these the cottager will collect as he can. The public taste for articles of this description has improved in an astonishing degree within the last twenty years; and, as knowledge spreads, and the working classes acquire tJiat leisure which, in consequence of this spread of knowledge, will become a necessary of life to even the most hard-working country labourer, this improvement will increase. But the objects witli which, above all others, we should wish to see the cottage ornamented are books ; and every room, even the kitchen and bed-room, ought to have its book shelf. If we were asked what sort of books we should recommend generally to the cottager, meaning in this term to include the very humblest class of society, as well as the more elevated, we should reply that, as our aim is to render him free and independent alike mentally as physically, to fit him in short for taking care of himself, we recommend, first and principally, works on morals and politics : the former, that he may know the principle on which the social duties of all individuals are founded ; and the latter, that he may learn the use and duty of public government. Next, we recommend books on his own art, trade, and manner of living ; and, for the rest, we leave him to his own taste. Every cottager ought to possess a general encyclopaedia, and to take in a newspai)er. The penny magazines, and other cheap literatiire of the present day, though more calculated to amuse the cottager, than to instruct him how to improve his condition, will end in creating a demand for something better. 700. Retiiarks. Some other articles of furniture and decorations suitable for cottages might be enumerated ; but we have, we think, done enough, in Designs both for cottages and furniture, to prove the assertion with which we set out (§ 14), that all that is essen- tially requisite for " health, comfort, and convenience, to even the most luxurious of man- kind," may be obtained in a cottage, the wails of which are of mud, as well as in a palace with walls of marble ; in a working man's college of one story, as well as in the magnificent halls of Oxford and Cambridge, or in the elegant clulvhouses of London. A number of our readers will, no doubt, object to many of our Designs, both of cottages and furniture, as being beyond the reach of the great majority of British cottagers; but let such recollect that, in our Introduction to the Book of which this is the conclusion (see § IS), we in- cluded under the term cottager, not only labom-ers, mechanics, and country tradesmen, but small farmers and cultivators of their own laud ; and the gardeners, bailiffs, land stewards, and other upper servants, on gentlemen's estates. Let them consider, also, that our plans and views extend to both hemispheres (see § 1 ) ; and that the citizen of America, who thinks with his countryman, Dr. Dwight, that all private dwellings should be a,s much as possible alike in accommodation, and that architectural display should be confined, as in ancient Greece, chiefly to public buildings, may on his part not only find the Designs given not too good, but may even object to our making any distinction between Cottages and Villas. The British cottager or workman is, no doubt, at present in a widely different situation from the American ; but we anticipate for him a new era, and a condition very different from that in which he now is, at no great distance of time. All the evils which have so long afflicted him have arisen from his own moral and poli- tical ignorance, and from his consequent incapacity for self-government, either indivi- dually or collectively ; and they will be dispelled by the education of the rising generation, and the new order of things which will thenceforth be established. The working classes will then be able to take care of themselves ; and never, till this shall be the case, will they obtain those comforts and enjoyments which ought to be in the possession of the industrious labourer, as well as of the wealthy capitalist Every country is essentially the property of its inhabitants; and it is only in ages and in countries where education is partial or unequal, that wealth and the enjoyments of life can be very greatly different. 354 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AIICMITECTURE. BOOK II. nESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSKS AND FARMF.RIES, COUNTRY INNS, AND PAKOCHIAI. SCHOOLS. 701. The Designs which compose this Booh are calculated for three of the most important occuimtioiis of man in civilised society ; viz., that of raising food on a large scale ; that of furnishing all domestic comforts to travellers and otliers, who are absent from or have no home ; and that of the education of youth. The last subject does not necessarily Ijelong to an Eiicijclopcedia of Domestic Architecture ; but, as our main object ill this work is the amelioration of the great mass of society in all countries, and as we consider education as the source of all amelioration, and, in fact, as the only means of IHcparing the most dejjressed part of society for appreciating and obtaining the comforts and conveniences which we are pointing out to them, we find that the parochial school, for the purpose of mutual instruction, is the most important feature for the accomplishment of our object ; and, as such, ought not to be passed over unnoticed in a work like the present. 702. The Arrangement of these Designs will be in three chapters ; viz., on Fariris, on Inns, and on Schools. Tlie first section in each chapter will consist of Fundamental Princii>les and Model Designs, on which the ]\Iiscellaneous Examples given in the second section of the same chapter are founded ; and the third section of each chapter will be devoted to such Furniture as may be peculiar to tlte class of subjects of wliicli that chapter treats. Chap. I. Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, exhibiting various Degrees of Accommodation, from the Farm of Fifty to that of One Thousand Acres, suitable to different Kinds of Farming, and in different Styles of Architecture. 703. A Farm House differs from other dwellings, more in the circinnstance of its situation, being adjoining a farmery, than in its accommodation ; but still tlicre are some extra-arrangements, which require to be provided for in designing it, according to the kind of produce raised on the farm, the manner in wliich it is manufactured or disposed of, and the inode of lodging the labourers employed. 704. A Farmery, or set of buildings necessary for carrying on the business of a farm, consists of various structures and enclosures ; some for lodging animals, and others for securing farm produce, for keeping farm implements, and for otlicr piu'i)Oses ; with yards for enclosing cattle, and for preparing or keeping manure ; others for containing ricks of corn, and stacks of hay, or other produce. Tlie house in which the farmer resides is no essential part of a farmery, and is therefore left out of view in this enumeration of its leading features. These features are three : the buildings, tlie court-yard, and the rick-yard. The rick-yard does not form an essential part of the farmery ; because but little inconvenience would result from having the ricks placed apart from the farm ; and, indeed, in some jiarts of Britain the produce of every field is formed into a rick, or ricks, in one of its corners. The two essential parts of a farmery, then, arc the buildings and the court-yard ; and all the variations of which these are susceptible, in jioint of design, are founded on their relative position with regard to each other. Thus, all farmeries may be included under two classes ; viz., those in which the buildings siu-round the court-yard, and those in which tlie court-yard snrroiuids the buildings ; and a model of each mode must necessarily be the groundwork of every variation or combination of the component parts of a farmery. 705. The Divisions of the Buildings of a Farmery admit also, to a certain extent, of being founded on model plans ; because the animals which, in temperate climates, are to be lodged in them, are every where of llie same species, and require the same extent and kind of accommodation and food ; because the manner of threshing out grain is, or may be, the same throughout the world ; and because the implements to be woikcd by the same animals cannot differ greatly in bidk in different countries. Previously, there- fore, to giving Model Plans for Farm Houses and Farmeries, as a whole, we shall submit General Principles, and give Model Designs and Directions, for the construction of their component parts. 706. Every particular situation and kind of Field Culture requires an appropriate arrangement in its Farmery ; therefore our object, in giving Model Designs, is chiefly to embody principles in a tangible shape, to which practical men may recur for general rules for application to jjeculiar localities. The manner of applying these rules we shall MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 355 exemplify in a series of Miscellaneous Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, most of which have been executed in different parts of Britain, and some in France. 707. The Arrangement of the first two Sections of this Chapter, therefore, will be in the order of General Principles with Model Designs, and Miscellaneous Designs with Details and Remarks. Sect. I. General Principles and Model Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries. 708. The object of this section is to show what parts of a farm house are peculiar to it as such, and the best mode of constructing and arranging these ; what are the details of a farmery, with the relative position for eacli object there ; and what is the best arrange- ment for a Farm House and Farmery, as a whole. SuBSECT. 1 . General Principles and Model Designs for the Arrangement of a Farm House. 709. The Interior of a Farm House may be arranged in three divisions : viz., the apartments of the family, including such of the servants as live in the house ; the rooms for farm-house stores ; and the places where the in-door business of the farm house is carried on. In farm houses of the smallest size, all these may be obtained under one roof; but in the case of large farms, where fifteen or twenty persons live on the premises, all those offices, or places, in which the in-door business of the farm house is carried on, such as the dairy and its appendages, the cider-house, the brewhouse, the bakehouse, the wash-house, and the cleaning place, ought to be in a building or buildings separate from the house, but not far distant from it. Cellars of most kinds, however, such as those for potatoes, and other roots or vegetables to be used by the family ; for fruits ; and for beer, ale, wines, &c, ; and the larder, pantry, and coal-house, may be in the same build- ing as the farm house. 710. Of the Apartments for the Familij we need enter here into (cw details in addition to those which have been given in the preceding Book. The number of living-rooms in a farm hoase will depend on the extent of the farm, and on the style in which the farmer chooses or can afford to live. The smallest farm-house should have at least one good parlour ; and for a farm of 800 acres or upwards, of good productive soil, there ought to be in the dwelling-house, at least two good sitting-rooms, and a small library or office for business ; besides three or four bed-rooms, and a nursery. In farm houses where it is the custom to board and lodge the out-door labourers, a larger kitchen will be required for them to dine in, and a larger kitchen range to cook their food. IMore bed-chambers will also be necessary, and these should always have a separate staircase from that leading to the better rooms. In some parts of Britain where the farmer and his out-door labourers are nearly on a par in point of intelligence and manners, they continue to dine at the same table in the kitchen. This is by no means the practice in districts where the farmers are highly intelligent, and superior in their manners to their servants, as, for example, in East Lothian ; but when the latter are raised nearer to the level of the former by the universality of education, this excellent patriarchal practice will in all probability be restored. 711. The Sleeping- Rooms for wimarried Farm Servants, in most parts of Britain, are generally such as merit extreme reprobation. Those of the men are frequently in lofts over stables or cow-houses, without light, or sufficient space for air ; subject to the deleterious exhalations arising from horse or cow dung ; sometimes badly ventilated, and at other times under a roof insufficient to exclude the wind and the rain. Female servants are lodged in-doors, but often in damp back-kitchens, store-rooms for the coarser articles, harness-rooms, dark closets, or low, ill-ventilated garrets. " I am sorry," says the excellent and benevolent jNIr. Waistell, when speaking on this subject, " that the health of servants is often less attended to than the health of cattle. Too often," he adds, " there is neither chimney nor window by which to ventilate servants' bed-rooms, and when there is no window they are not likely to be properly cleaned. What )-enders them still worse is, their being partly occupied as store-rooms for green fruit or bacon, or for drying new-made cheese : the effluvia from all these articles contaminates the air, and renders it greatly injurious to the health of those who breathe it ; indeed, all strong- scented bodies, placed in bed-rooms, are more or less pernicious. I shall, therefore, enumerate," he continues, " a few more of those tilings from which farmers and their families not unfrequently suffer in their healths, without being, perhaps, at all aware of their pernicious effects. The air of rooms is rendered unwholesome by keeping in them oil, oil colours, impure wool, sweaty saddles, soap, tallow, fat, fresh meat whether raw or dressed, wet clothes and other wet articles ; by foul linen, washing, drying, and ironing ; by the fumes from charcoal fires, which are extremely pernicious, and frequently fatal ; by gi-een plants, and flowers however fragrant ; and by saffron and hops, which last articles. Dr. Willich says (Enci/c. of Dom. Econ.), have also sometimes proved fatal." ( Waistell on Agricultural Buildings, p. 22.) There is no department of farm architecture 35() COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCIIITECTURK. in which reform is more necessary than in the rooms appropriated to unmarried servants ; unless, indeed, it be in the cottages of the married ones. The state of both in liritain is disgraceful to the farmers and their landlords. 712. Tlie Places in which the ordinary Farm-House Stores are kept are, the potato or other root-cellar, the cabbage-cellar, the liquor-cellar, the fruit-room, the cheese-room, the larder, the pantry, and the coal and wood cellar. In general, all articles that are not frequently wanted are better kept in a dry cellar than any where else, because they are there less subject to atmospherical changes. If cellars, however, are damp, they are unfit for storing up any thing except liquors in glass or in earthen vessels. 7 1. 3. In the Cunatruction of Cellars the first thing is, to provide such a di-ainage as will draw off the water at least one foot lower than the surface of the cellar floor. If the soil be naturally wet, this floor, which should be of flag-stones or tiles, should be laid hollow ; the walls sliould also be built hollow, and, if convenient, with a povi'erful cement, rather than with common mortar ; or, at least, they ought to be coated over with cement in the inside. In all very cold or very hot countries, provision should be made for double doors and double windows, even though the inner window should be nothing more than a boarded shutter ; and the windows, in all such cases, ought to fit tightly. The space between the double windows need not be more than from six inches to a foot ; but the space between the double doors ought to be at least three feet, so that the one door may always be shut before the other is opened. In cellars so constructed, even ice, enveloped in abundance of straw, might be kept without danger of melting ; and it is so kept in most of the confectioners' cellars in London. As cellars are not places to live in, they need not necessarily be made higher than seven feet. In general they are better under- ground, and arched over with masonry ; but the same results may be obtained above ground l)y double walls, very small and double windows, double or thickly tliatclied roofs, and double doors. 714. The Potato and Root Cellar may be under the floor of some part of the house, when the soil is dry naturally, or capable of being rendered so by drainage. The opening by which the potatoes or other roots are introduced should be on the outside of the house, and not higher than the level of the ground, in order that a cart may be set back against it, and the potatoes or other roots shot out and shoveled down the opening. This opening should have double shutters, in each of which should be at least one pane of glass, to admit sufficient light, and yet effectually to exclude the cold in winter and the heat in smnmer. The panes of glass should be in the upper part of the shutters, so as to be protected, by the lintels of the windows, from the direct raj's of the sun ; but, if the opening be to the north, this precaution is imnecessary. The size of a root cellar, where the roots are merely for the consumption of the fanuly, need not be large : ten or twelve feet square, and seven or eight feet high, will be sutticient dimensions in a house calculated for from twelve to twenty persons. When there are different roots to be stored in the same cellar, they may be separated by temporary partitions of boards. 715. A Cabbage- Cellar is a common appendage to a farm house in Germany, and might well be introduced in Britain and North yVmerica. It may be formed citlier above or imder ground, provided it can be rendered (juite dry, and lighted by one or more windows, with double saslies, about six inches apart, to guard against extremes of temperature. This cellar ought to be twice as large as the other, because the manner in which the cabbages and other articles are disposed in it requires a good deal of room. The common method is, to cover the floor with soil to the depth of a foot, and to plant in it, at the commencement of winter, full-grown cabbages, broccoli, lettuce, endive, Ike, as close together as they can be placed without touching each other. Water is given occasionally in the course of the winter, and the greatest care is taken to remove every leaf as soon as it shows symptoms of decay. The improved method which is adopted in the better description of cabbage cellars is, to surround the cellar with shelves about eighteen inches in width and three feet apart, which, if convenient, may be formed of flag-stone or slate, or, if these materials are not to be had, of strong wood. On these shelves are placed layers of earth, with alternate layers of cabbages or other vegetables ; with their tops projecting beyond the shelf, and their roots and stalks bedded in the soil. Where the soil is of a sandy nature, bricks, moss, straw, or some other suitable material, should be introduced in the front part of the soil, to keep it up. Not only the cabbage family, but the lettuce, endive, celery, beet, sweet herbs, and a variety of other culinary vegetables, are kept in this manner from October till May, in Bavaria, Wirtemburg, Baden, and other states. In very severe weather, or when the air is more than usually humid, hot embers are placed on the floor to raise the tem.perature, or dry the air ; or, when the cellar has a chimney-flue, which is the jireferable mode, provided it be kept .shut when not used, a fire may be made in a small iron stove. 716. A Cellar for fhrciny some kinds of Cidinarij Vegetables might be formed in every house, merely by placing an iron stove in any cellar sufficiently protected by extern^ MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. SdJ walls. Eight is not necessary. In boxes or pots, or in beds of earth on the floor, or on shelves, may be placed roots of tart rhubarb for its footstalks; succory for its leaves; hops for their tops, as a substitute for asparagus ; asparagus roots, sea-kale, &c. I'otatoes might also be placed in such a cellar, to make them throw out fresh tubers ; but, as the yoinig ones so produced would be merely a transfer of nutriment from what we consider a better to a worse state, we cannot recommend the practice as one of utility. Were light admitted into a cellar of this description, mustard, cress, and other small salading niight be grown ; and roots of parsley, mint, and other herbs, and of beet, sorrel, and otlier spinaceous plants, for their leaves, might be planted. In short, a good dry cellar with double doors and windows, might, with very little trouble, be made to produce a great many articles of convenience and luxury for the table, which are now grown in glass frames, or hot-houses, at very considerable expense. Every body knows that mushrooms can be grown in a cellar better than any where else. We do not, however, recommend the practice of forcing for general adoption ; thinking it, with a few exceptions, in better taste to take the vegetable productions of nature or art in the open air, by turns, in their proper seasons. Our exceptions are, tart rhubarb, sea-kale, asparagus, mush- rooms, succory, and small salading ; all of which are as good, when forced, as when grown in their natural climate. 717. A Fruit- Room, or Fruit-Cellar, is essential to every farm which has an orchard ; and no farm ought to be without one where fruit will grow. The great art in preserving fruit is, to keep it dry, and, at the same time, so as to prevent evaporation from its surface ; for this last purpose, all change of temperature and moisture in the air must be guarded against. The simplest mode of effecting these objects is, to place the fruit on a thick bed of dry straw, and to mix and surroimd it with an ample mass of the same material in any situation dry and protected from the weather ; but a better method is, to place the fruit in a dry cellar, on a layer of dry sand, and to cover it with the same material, or with fern, finishing with an upper layer of straw. The superiority of the sand consists in its coolness, and comparative freedom fi-om air, by which the fruit is less liable to wither. Where there are several kinds of fruit to be kept in one cellar, shelves may be employed ; and if the cellar be not often entered, so as to admit air of a different temperature or degree of humidity, the fruit need not be covered at all, or may only have fern strewed over it. Where the situation does not admit of an under-ground fruit- cellar, a fruit-room miay be formed above the surface, with thick or liollow walls, and double doors, windows, and roofs. The size for a fruit-cellar, on a farm of even consider- able extent, need seldom be more than an area of ten feet on a side, and seven feet high, 718. Cellars, for Liquors, including ale, beer, cider, wine, and spirits, are essential to every farm house. In even the smallest there ought to be one cellar for beer, empty casks, brewing utensils, &c. ; and another, opening out of it, for ale, wines, and spirits. The area of the former, in the smallest farm house, should not be less than twelve feet by twelve feet ; nor that of the latter less than six feet by eight feet. The beer-cellar, and that part of the wine-cellar which is to contain ale, should have brick or stone benches or shelves built solid, or on arches or piers about two feet high, on which to place casks, for the greater convenience of drawing off their contents. That part of the inner cellar which is to contain wine should be fitted up with cells, or bins, one above another, ot about two feet broad, and the same height, and of any convenient depth, provided it be a multiple of the height of a common wine bottle. A part of the wine-cellar should be fitted up with stone shelves, for spirits or other liquors, and for various articles which are best preserved in the temperature of a cellar. 719. 77/e Larder and Pantry are conveniently placed near each other, and close to the kitchen. Both ought to face the north ; and the former more especially ought to be thoroughly ventilated, by openings near the floor on one side, generally in the lower part of the door, and near the ceiling, generally in the outer wall, on the other. Both larder and pantry should be fitted up with shelves and hooks ; and the larder may have a wooden grating or cradle, called a rack, three or four feet wide, about one foot deep, and of any convenient length, suspended from tlie roof, for the purpose of holding bacon. In old farm houses these racks are generally placed in the kitchen, but in very large establishments, or where bacon forms the principal animal food of the labourers, as it does in tlie midland counties of England, there is often a separate room fitted up with racks and shelves, set apart for keeping it. 720. A Salting-Room is necessary in every house where the farmer occasionally kills his own meat. The effluvia from this room being both disagreeable and deleterious, it sliould, when convenient, form one of a detached group of buildings. In small establish- ments, or where only a part of the meat used is killed at home, an airy cellar, facing the north, may be employed. The room should be fitted up with strong benches for cutting up the meat, and salting it on ; and fixed long shallow troughs, generally lined with lead, for holding the sides of bacon, &c., while in pickle. These troughs shoidd be provided 358 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AIICHITECTUIIE. with cocks, or holes with phigs, at the liottoin, for the purpose of drawing off the brine, and cleaning thein ; the brine, when boiled and skimmed, being fit for vise several times. Smaller troughs, or round eartlienware pans, are generally emploj-ed for holding tongues, pieces of beef, and other smaller articles ; and the whole should be carefully provided with the means for being kept clean, by having pipes of water conducted into it, and the floor arranged so as to have a gradual inclination towards a corner, having a trap and drain. 721. The Coal-house and the Wood-house should always be adjoining the kitchen or back kitclien, and both should l)e perfectly dry ; since whatever moisture is added to fuel, beyond wliat it contains in combination, must be driven off before comlmstion can take place ; and this must always occasion a certain loss of heat. Both places ought to be of considerable size, because in well regulated farms there are only certain periods of the year when the farmer finds he has leisure to bring fuel from a distance, and to store it up : he will also by the same means be enabled to take advantage of a temporary depression in the fuel market. 722. A Tank, or a Wdl for Water, is essential to every farm house, independently of the provision of water for the farm-yard ; but we have already sufficiently enlarged on this subject in § ;50 and § 151 ; and the subject of supplying water to the farm-yard will occur hereafter. 723. A Place for hrushing Clothes, and cleani/iff Knives and Shoes, §•<•., should form part of the arrangement of every farm house ; and as this is necessarily a place where much tlust and dirt are generated, it should be kept apart from the house, and especially from the l)ack kitchen, which is too generally made use of for these purposes. As a mere open slied, which every coimtryman may erect for himself, will suffice for a cleaning ])l;ice, there can be no sufficient excuse for not liaving one adjoining every farm house ; and, indeed, every labourer's cottage or human dwelling whatever. Conveniences of this sort, which are within the reach of every one, and which may be obtained rather by tliought and contrivance than by expending any considerable sum of money, are indeed some of the distinguishing marks of a high state of civilisation and refinement. A savage is satisfied with mere food and shelter ; and, if he pretends to more, takes delight in showy or gaudy ornaments ; but the man whose mind has been enlightened by education prefers simplicitj' in decoration, and only employs his leisure time and money in contrivances to lessen human labom-, and obtain the greatest possible proportion of comfort which his opportunities will permit. Ample apartments and sumptuous furniture can be obtained but by few, and, as they contri))ute little to happiness, are not wortliy of becoming objects of ambition to any rational being ; but a clean, comfortable, and well arranged home is an essential ingredient in liuman happiness, and, as such, ought to be sought after and obtained by every one. Cleanliness is also essential to health ; and this blessing, so desirable in every condition of life, is particularly so to a labouring man, as witliout it he cannot perform his daily toil. 724. The Wash-house, Bakehouse, and Brewhouse, in small farms, are commonly all united in the back kitchen ; b\it in extensive establisliments they, together with the laimdry, dairy, cheese-room, cider-house, salting-room, and smoking or curing room, should be in a building or buildings apart from the house, but connected with it by a covered way. 725. The Wash-house should be well lighted ; and therefore, if imited with other offices, it should, if practicable, be made a corner building, and have windows on two sides. Instead of portable round tubs, which, as noticed in the i)roceding Book, are the most inconvenient of all the forms tliat could be devised for washing by hand, oblong troughs, about three feet in length, eighteen inches wide at toj), one foot wide at bottom, and eighteen inches deep, should be fixed round tlie two lighted sides of the room. Each trough should have a hole and stopper in the bottom ; and close muler these holes should be a gutter, common to all the troughs, which may convey av.-ay the waste water to the manure tank. In one corner or side of the riwm the boiler should be placed ; and over it a supply pipe from a cold-water cistern. Pipes may be conducted from botli the cold- water cistern and the boiler, so as to deliver, on tin-ning cocks, cold or hot water, at (ileasure, into each trough. The main part of the washing, however, we should propose in all cases to be done by a washing-machine, of which we shall hereafter give an improved Design ; and this, with a ])ressing or wringing macliine hereafter, may be worked by a horse or steam power, whicli may also be applied in chiu-ning and other oi)erations, to be carried on in this department of tlie farm offices. The floor of every washing-house ought to be very carefully paved, with an inclination of an inch in a yard towards one corner, in wliich there ought to be a trap drain leading to the maiuue tank. This inclination, which will hardly be ))erecptil)lc to the eye, or recognised in standing or walking, will yet be most useful, by directing all the water, which must be occiLsionally spilt on the floor, to the point where it will be carried off. Close under liie ceiling there ought to be several openings communicating with the open air, to carry oH' the steam, and MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 359 in the bottom of the door there ought to be correspondent openings to aihnit fiesh air : both openings ought to liave sliutters sliding in horizontal grooves, with hooks in them, so as to admit of their being easily drawn back, or pushed forward. 7'J6. The Lauriflri/, tlie business of which in small dwellings is generally performed in the kitchen, may be very conveniently placed over the wash-house ; and, like it, sliould have windows on two sides, and ventilators under the ceiling, and in the bottoms of the doors. Against the two lighted sides, tables or flaps for ironing on may be fixed ; and in the corner behind, directly over the bailer, maybe placed a drying-closet; which may bo partly heated by the flue Irom the boiler, and partly by the requisite ironing-stoves, or by a steam-pipe. If the laundry should be placed on the same floor with the wash-house, it should adjoin it, so that the i)ack of the boiler fire may heat the drying-closet. In this closet the clothes may be dried by the arrangement described § 306. Where a drying- closet is not used, the clothes may be dried, as is usually done, in the open ironing-room, either on common clothes horses, or on rails suspended from the ceiling by ropes and pulleys, so as to be raised or lowered at pleasure ; or by lines stretched across the room, which may also be raised or lowered by means of pulleys. The last mode may be very completely effected by having the pulleys to work in vertical grooves, or in hollow rods similar to tliat invented by Mr. Vokins for lianging pictures, to be hereafter described. Tlie mangle may stand in the middle of the room, or on the dark side not occupied by the drying-closet. 727. The Bakehouse shoidd be close to the wash-house, in order that their united flues, with those of the dairy, scullery, and the brewhouse, may form one stack. The bakehouse may have light on one side only. The oven should be lined with fire-bricks ; and immediately without its iron door there should be a grating over an ash-jsit, tor the reception of the ashes v/hen it is cleared out. Height in an oven is of no use, but rather tends to bake the bread imoqually : eighteen inches will generally be found sufficient for private ovens, and the length and width need not be more than three or four feet. Against the light side of the bakehouse should be placed a flap or table, for making up the loaves on, with a kneading-trough close to it ; and near the kneading-trough should be a flour chest or cask. If a kneading macliine be employed, which for large families ought always to be the case, not only from the saving of labour, but from the greater certainty of cleanliness, and the more thorough working of the dough, it should take the place of the kneading-trough. In the largest private establishments it may also be foimd worth while to construct the oven on Hicks's plan, so as to be able to condense the spirituous vapour produced from the dough while baking. The plan will l)e found de- tailed at length in the Repertory of Arts, new series, and in Mech. Mag. vol. xiv. p. 417. 728. The Breichousc, for the reasons before given, should adjoin the wasli-house and the bakehouse. It shoidd occupy two floors, in order that the malt may be placed in the upper floor, and be conveniently put througli a shoot into the boiler, which should be near the ceiling of the lower room, to allow of the liquor or wort being conducted from its bottom by pipes or tubes to the coolers, which again should be sufficiently raised from the ground floor to allow of casks being placed under them, so as to be filled without trouble ; or, where it is practicable, a small pipe may be conducted at once from the coolers to the beer-cellar in the house. Where the cellar is under the brewhouse, which, however, is seldom desirable when the latter is detached from the farm house, the same an-angement may be adopted as that mentioned § 498. 729. The Dairy is one of the most important of farm-house offices, and yet it is seldom properly constructed. The desiderata are, equality of temperature during every season of the year; and frequent renewal of the air, so as to have it perfectly fresh and sweet. Equality of temperature is easiest obtained when the dairy is under ground ; but in this case the ventilation is insufficient to supply the other desideratum. Where the dairy is in a detached building, a comjiromise between a cellar and a room above the level of the grovmd may be formed by sinking the dairy two or three feet, and covering the outside of the walls and the roof very thickly with thatch ; or by forming the walls hollow, and raising against them a bank of earth covered with turf. One of the most complete modes is, to form the walls hollow, and to throw over the room two or three arclios of masonry, one above the other, covering the whole with a mound of earth, like that of an ice-house, but with proper windows for light and ventilation, protected from the covering mound by projecting side walls, with lintels or arches over them of corresponding depth. The windows, in this and in every case, should face the north, or north-north-east, or north-north-west, and should be double ; the outer window fixed and of wirecloth, and the inner one of glass and to open. There should also be double doors, and the space between them should not be less than three or four feet. In both doors there should be panels of wirecloth, to exclude the flies, and yet admit the aii-. In the most severe weather of winter, the wirecloth of both doors and windows may require to be protected by temporary shutters of either mats or boards. 360 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 730. miere the dairy is connected with a group of other farm-house offices, including tlie dairy scullery, cheese-room, clieeseprcss-room, &c., it may occupy the north angle, or part of the north side of a square mass of building. The walls should in this case also be double, and the windows should be treble ; the outer one of wirecloth, and the two inner ones of glass. There should be double doors, and care should be taken that one should always be closed before the other was opened, and that neither should ever be left o])en for more than a few minutes at a time. To compensate for all inequalities of temperature, there should be a power of introducing a stream of water to run through the dairy, or spring water from a well, tank, or spring, so as to cover the whole of the floor, or to sjjrinkle it and the shelves, at pleasure, and thus reduce the temperature of the air in summer, or raise it in winter. To do this more rapidly, part of the floor may be perforated, and from each small hole a jet of water may be contrived to rise, on turning a cock ; or perforated pipes may pass under the dairy shelves, and under the middle part of the ceiling ; and from these there may be a power of producing an artificial shower to raise or lower the temperature at once. The process of introducing water in this way, either from the floor or from the ceiling, may seem at first intricate and ex- pensive ; but whoever has seen it done in Messrs. Loddiges's palm-house will allow that it is neither. We shall give some details hereafter, when speaking of fountains for villas. Common lead pipes, of half an inch in diameter, may be used ; and the perforations may be made with a stout sewing needle. The only matter of expense is the tank, or cistern of water, which should be so placed as to maintain the same temperature throughout the year ; and at the same time be above the level of the dairy ceiling, so as to give due force to the delivering pipes. If, however, the dairy be properly constructed, and a power contrived for flooding its floor with water (and, if no permanent jet can be made, this may be done by a common watering-pot), the two grand desiderata may in every case be certainly and economically obtained. The floor should be accurately paved, and sliould slope to a trap drain in the corner, as before directed for the washing-house. The shelves and benches should be formed of thin flag-stones, or slates, or of wood covered with lead ; the walls and ceiling shoidd be plastered with cement, or coated with a firm- .setting mortar, or should be inlaid with glazod tiles. The milk-pans are better portable than fixed ; because, if fixed, they must be scalded in the dairy ; and hot water should never be introduced into it, in summer at least, on account of its raising the temperature. Even milk directly from the cow should be allowed to stand to cool in the dairy scullery, before it is taken into the dairy ; because its temperature, when in large quantities, cither in summer or winter, would soon raise that of the apartment. A thermometer should be kept in the dairy, and the temperature should be never allowed to fall below 50", or rise above 55° ; experience proving that most cream is thrown up by milk in a medimn between these degrees. If at any time in winter the temperature of the dairy should fall too low, vessels of hot water may l)e carried in and set down on the floor, or the milk, in such a case, may be sent in direct from the cow. No articles of food, but milk, cream, and fresh butter, should ever be kept in a dairy ; nor, as Waistell tells us, should any thing that has a strong scent, even though it may be sweet, be placed in or near it. " Bad scents," he says, " greatly lessen the product of butter dairies, by preventing the complete separation of the cream from the milk." It is also certain that raw meat, if kept in a dairy, has such an effect upon the cream as to prevent the butter produced from it from keeping. This, and the facts stated by Waistell, it is diflicult to account for, but not more so than others equally well ascertained ; such as the influence which the leaves of certain milky-jiuced trees, such as the papaw tree and the fig for example, have in intenerating fresh meat. 731. The Dairy Scullery should be near the dairy, though not immediately adjoining it : it should h.ave a boiler for heating water, and two underground ])ipes with traps ; one for foul water, communicating with the liquid manure tank, and the other for waste milk, communicating with the pigs' food tank. From the latter piiie there may also be a communication with the dairy ; because it may sometimes be advisable to empty out milk there, without bringing it into the dairy scullery. The churning may be carried on in the dairy scullery ; for which purpose, on a large farm, provision ought to be made for the introduction of a shaft from a horse or a steam power for working the churn. There ought to be fixed benches and movable forms, for setting milk-pans and other dairy utensils on ; and a jiortable rack with a wheel and two feet like a wheelbarrow, for draining the pans and pails, and wheeling them out to a shed to dry. Figs. 741 to 746 show a Design for a double dairy, whith will keep the produce at a proper temperature, in whatever climate it may be built. It may also, with very little alteration, be partly or chiefly used as an ice-house, or as a wine or ale cellar. We shall first describe it as a dairy. Fig. 741 is the gronnd-))lan, in which a is an outer room, for airing and drying the utensils, or for drying cheese; being warmed by an open fireplace at h, and lighted and ventilated by two windows, c r, beneath which are two elevated sinks, rfc/. MODEL DESIGNS FOR FAli.M HOUSES. 3()1 741 |-' . iiiiiil |4- close to one of wliicli is a Siebe's pump, from a well or tank common to the whole dalrv. It will be observed, by the five steps at e, that the floor of this building is three feet below the common surface of the soil. The room marked f is the dairy scullery ; in which may be observed a boiler, two windows, two sinks close to one of which is a Siebe's pump, and five steps at the entrance door. In this room tlie dairy utensils are to be washed; and churning may be performed, if it should be a butter dairy; or cheeses pressed, if the object should be cheese-making. In both these rooms there should be traps to a common drain ; and from one of the sinks in each room a bell trap communicating with the pig's food tank, unless the piggery should be at such a distance as to render it more economical to convey the milk thither in wheelbarrow tubs. The two milk rooms, g g, are to the right and left of the lobby or drying-room ; and these are surrounded by siate or thin stone shelves two feet broad, with smaller shelves beneath them eighteen inches broad, indicated in the section, fig. 742. Each range of shelves has two small fc 742 ,. sinks, at the two corners next the lobby and scullery : one of these sinks is for waste milk for the pigs, and the other, which has a Siebe's pump close beside it, for waste water. It is to be observed that we mention Siebe's pump, because it goes into less bulk than any other ; and, indeed, when the handle is taken off, and an escutcheon put over the keyhole, no appearance whatever of a pump is discernible. These pumps are also worked in much less space than any other. In the centre of the floor of each of these milk-rooms is a small circular basin, and under the shelves in each is a trap to a di-ain. There are skylights dnrectly over the two circular basins, which are seen in the section fig. 742, at h h. These are covered with glass cases, which project and are open at the eaves ; and under these are other glass cases, i i, which are lifted out during sununer, but put in again during winter for the purpose of retaining heat : below these cases are wiie- cloth frames, which remain on always, in order to exclude the flies. There are three windows, * A *, in the side walls of these milk-rooms, with three frames, shown both in the plan, fig. 741, and in the section, fig. 742. The outer frames of these windows are filled in with wirecloth, and fixed ; the two inner frames with glass, each in two vertical divisions, hinged, so as to admit or exclude air at pleasure. There are double doors to each of the rooms, one of which is chiefly of wirecloth, and the otlier of wood, so that ventilation may be allowed to take place from or to the drynng-room, a, as may be required to warm or cool the milk-room. It wiU be observed that the milk-room is surrounded by double walls ; and by the section fig. 742 it wiU be seen that the whole is covered with a mound of earth, which necessarily produces the long tubular openings to the side- wall windows, A *, so favourable for producing currents of air during the warm season, and for tempering the frosty air during winter. Fig. 743 is a cross section, 74;? 3()''2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND Vii-LA AIlCTllTEC lUllE. in which 1 1 represents tlie ground's surface, m the top of the upper niilk shelves, and n the skylight. It may be observed that, instead' of employing glass and wirccloth frames for these skylights, vessels of water with glass bottoms might be introduced ; which, wliile they admitted light, would exclude heat in summer and cold in winter; and they might be rendered further useful, by having openings in tlitir bottoms, to be regulated by cocks within the dairy, so as to allow water to drop down on the basin below, whenever it was de- sirable to increase the coolness of the tem- perature. The vessel might be covered above with a skylight, and supplied either by the Siebe's pump within the dairy, or by a pipe and ball-cock from some exterior source. The water might contain gold and silver fisli. The glass might be stained, as might that of the side windows ; and, instead of a small circular basin in the centre, tliere miffht be a deep well for containing very cold water. — We shall now describe this buildino- as two ice-houses with a dairy between. The shelves of the milk-rooms should be removed, and the windows closed up entirely ; and, instead of a skylight at top, there should be three flag-stones substituted for the frames containing the upper skylight, the under skylight, and the haircloth, and resting on the same ledges on which they rest. There are three oflFsets or ledges, shown at h i, in the section fig. 742, for this purpose. The object of leaving these openings in the ceiling is to put in the ice ; and this being done, and the flag-stones replaced, the space between them should be filled in with barley straw. The traps to the drains before mentioned will serve as conduits for such water as may be produced by the thawing of the ice ; the well in the centre will also hold a part of this water, which will be valuable for its coolness even after the ice is gone. The spaces o o, between the doors, must be kept constantly filled with straw cushions. The room a may be fitted up with shelves as a dairy, the chimney being turned into a ventilator; and the room f may remain a daii-y scullery, as at present. For a wine or beer cellar this building is admirably contrived, whether for a very warm or a very cold climate. The wine or ale may be kept bottled in bins, or in casks on benches, in the milk-rooms ; and it may be supplied to customers in the room a, while the cleaning operations go on, and the attendants wait, in the room f. Wine and 745 JUl ^ ale cellars of this description are little known in Britain, though there used to be a wine- cellar for draught wine near old London Bridge ; but in Germany they are frequently to be met with. There is a very large one at IVIunich, covered with an immense cone of earth, in which ale is kept and drunk at the same temperature both in the hottest sum- mers and the severest winters of that climate of the most opposite extremes. There is an excellent one at Silberberg, near Stuttgardt, both for ale and wine ; and tliere are nume- MODEL DESIGNS FOR 1-AllM HOUSES. 363 rous others in the neighbourhood of Vienna, which no doubt are familiar to many of our readers. By a third arrangement, one of the milk-rooms might be made a dairy ; the otlier milk-room a wine and ale cellar, and the lobby a drinking-room. The appearance of sucli a construction, to whatever use it may be applied, when covered with green turf, need not be disagreeable ; we have given the architectural parts something of an Egyptian character, as may be seen in the elevation of the end, iig. 744 ; of one side, fig. 745 ; and in the perspective view, fig. 746. 732. I'he Cheesepress-room may be very properly placed between the dairy and the dairy scullery. It should be surrounded by shelves, and the presses may stand in the nviddle of the floor. Tiie shelves should be grooved across, with a small gutter suspended in front, to collect from the grooves the whey which runs from new cheeses, for a day or two atler they are taken out of the press, and before they are carried up into the cheese- room. Tliese gutters may deliver their contents into one upright pipe, communicating with the pig tank. As a' good deal of whey will also run from the cheeses while in the I)resses, grooves may also be formed along the floor communicating with the same pipe. 733. The Cheese-room may be over the cheesepress-room, the dairy, and dairy scullery. There should be windows on opposite sides of this room, for tliorough ventilation ; and tJiese windows should have outside wire shutters, to exclude flies and vermin, and yet admit a free circulation of air. The best position for the shelves is in the middle of the r(X)m, so that the cheese may have air on all sides. The shelves should be of the breadth of the cheese intended to be made, and should be perfectly smooth and level. They may be supported from the floor, or, if danger from mice be anticipated, suspended from the ceiling by iron rods. 734. A Dryiny-shed is a useful appendage to the back kitchen, dairy scullery, wash- liouse, and even brewery. It is useful not only for drying every description of wooden vessel, but even clothes, leaves, such as those of tobacco, ears of maize, garden seeds, &c. In old English farm-houses, the penthouse, or far-projecting eaves, supplied the place of this appendage; and in Switzerland the galleries answer the same purpose; but AN'aistell, by far the best Britisli writer on farm buildings, as Morel- Vinde is by far the best of the French writers on the same subject, recommends that a drying-shed should be built on puqiose. We are decidedly of the same opinion, unless verandas connecting the difftjrent parts of farm ofliccs, and forming covered passages between them, can be made to serve the same end. 735. 77ie Cider-house, on a small farm, where cider is not made for sale, may be dispensed with, and the apples ground in the churning-rooni, or in any room or shed wnere steam or horse power can be applied to turning the grinding rollers. On large cider farms, the cider-house requires to be of considerable size, for holding the fi^uit before and after it is ground, and for holding the rollers or mill for grinding it, and the press. In Worcestershire the dimensions of the best cider-slieds are twenty-four feet in length by twenty in breadth. The rollers are turned by horse power, communicated by a gin wheel operating on a pinion on the end of a horizontal shaft, in a similar manner to what takes place in a horse churning or washing machine. The cider-house is occasionally open on one or more sides, and the liquor, after being expressed from the pulp, is cai-ried in pails to the cider-cellar, which is commonly under the dwelling-house ; but a better mode would be, to have a cellar under the cider-house, and to let down the liquor into the casks by pipes, in the manner suggested for the brewery, § 728. The floor ought to have an inclination to a trap at one corner, in order that it may be easily washed ; and this trap ought to communicate with the manure tank. A second trap and pipe should lead to the pig's food tank, to poiu- down it such liquor as may not be fit for luitting in the casks. 736. An Ice-house for a farm house may be considered a superfluous appendage in Britain, but it is common on the farms in America, and therefore its construction deserves a place in this work. There are various descriptions of farms in Britain, particularly those belonging to public-houses and inns, to which an ice-house would be a most desir- able appendage; not only as affording the means of preparing ices, cooling wine, &c., but as supplying a place for preserving fish, meat, fruit, and vegetables fresh, much longer than can be done by any other means. The simplest mode of keeping ice is by envelop- ing it in an immense body of loose straw above the sm"face. For this i)urpose, the first operation is to form the surface of the ground into a flattened cone, for the sake of drainage when the ice happens to melt ; next, put on a layer of faggots, and straw a foot or more in thickness ; then lay on tlie ice, in a conical mass, the larger the better, and cover it with straw to the thickness of one foot, and afterwards with faggot wood to the thickness of two feet, for the purpose of preserving a stratum of air above and aroimd it ; lastly, cover the whole with two or three feet of straw, arranged as thatch. The ice will now be surrounded on every side by such a powerfid non-conducting medium, that scarcely any heat from the atmosphere will be able to penetrate to it ; while whatever portion ot :}0i> COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AUCIIITECTURE. it may thaw will find its way off tlirough the under stratum of faggots, without the admission of air. Ice Ikos been kept in larpje quantities in this manner both in England and America, throughout the year. The best situation for such an ice stack is under the shade of trees, or under a slied roof, closed on the south side, and open on the north. 737. An utiderground Ice-house may either be a large cellar, with hollow walls, lioUow floor, hollow roof, and double doors ; or, it may be a separate structure, in the form of an inverted hollow cone, with a drain and trap at the bottom, and double doors Oil one side at the toj). When a cellar is employed as an ice-house, a proper drain and trap should be provided in the lower floor, for carrying off such water as may be produced by the melting of the ice, without the risk of introducing air. When the ice is about to be put in, the floor and sides of the cellar are thickly coated over with strong wheat straw, or reeds, as a powerful non-conducting medium. Double, treble, or quadruple doors are always requisite to an ice-house of tliis description, according to the use whi-.-h is to be made of the space between the doors. Where these spaces are to be used as pantries, four doors are requisite ; and two should never be opened at once. The space between the outer door and the second door should always be kept filled with straw, and that of barley is found better than tlie stiffer straw of wheat, rye, or oats. The space between the second door and the third should, if possible, be kept filled with straw also ; but the space between the third door and the fourth should be of sufficient width to admit of its being fitted up with shelves, on which the articles to be preserved fresh are to be placed. From time to time, the door of the ice-house may be opened, in order to reduce the temperatui-e of this space, and to freshen the air. In some cases there is a movable shelf or table placed over the ice, immediately within the inner door, as a substitute for the shelves in the passage. AVhcn an ice-cellar cannot be formed under or adjoining a dwelling, it may be constructed above ground, even on wet soils, covered witli a mound of earth, and that mound further protected by trees, evergreen shrubs, or, what is equal to any thing as a non-conductor, and at any rate far superior to deciduous trees, ivy. The common form of out-door ice-houses, is, as we have before observed, an inverted cone, and the supposed advantage of tliis form is, that, as part of the ice thaws, the remainaer slides down the sides of the cone, and still keeps in one compact body. This is no doubt true ; but the advantage by no means compensates for the difficulty of constructing an ice-house in the conical form. A plain square room, with double side-walls, say a foot apart, a double arch over, and a double floor under, which can be built with the same ease as any common cellar, will, all other circumstances being alike favourable, keep tlie ice as long as any conical form whatever. Where there is a doubt of being able to exclude the heat, treble walls, roof, and floor may be resorted to ; and the entrance, which should always be three or four yards in length, instead of being straight, may be made crooked, with a door at each turn. The space between at least two of the doors sliould always be filled with straw ; and, to render the removal of this straw easy, when jiassing from the outer door to the ice-house, it might be ])ut into two or more canvass bags, like immense cushions, which might be hooked to the ceiling and the sides, so as to close up every interstice. The space between the second and third doors may alwa)'s be widened, and fitted up, as before described, with shelves for holding articles which retjuire to be kept cool, but not to the same degree as if they were placed in the ice-house. It ought always to be recollected that any perfectly dry cellar may be made an ice-house, by employing faggots as well as straw, in the manner we have described as i>roper for preserving a stack of ice above ground. The French preserve ice in frames of wood- work suspended in cellars or pits, in the form of inverted cones, suri'ouiuling the whole with a thick covering of straw. Both the French and Italians also form ice-houses in dry, chalky, or calcareous soils, deep under ground, where neither drains nor straw are necessary, with the exception of as much of the latter as will close up a long circuitous opening. In England, many persons are deterred from forming an ice-house, by the idea that the form of an inverted cone is essentially necessary to it ; that it must be under ground ; and that ice is oidy useful for making ice-creams and cooling wines : but an ice-house may be made any where ; and, as a place for preserving meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables, there is not a more iisefid appendage to a coimtry house. iMg. 747 is a section, and fig. 748 a ground plan, of an ice-house on the inverted cone principle, but of an improved construction. This form, as usually employed in English country seats, very freijuently fails in keeping the ice, from not having double walls, and double or treble doors, or from imperfect drainage ; but the plan now submitted is free from these defects, and will keep ice throughout the year, in any climate, if covered with a sufficient thickness of earth or straw. In this Design, a is the -well or cellar for the ice ; h, a drain from its bottom, for can-ying off such water as may be produced by the gradual thawing of the ice ; c, a trap in this drain, to MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 36i prevent the external air from communicating with that of the ic&-house ; and rf, a lead pipe from tliis trap, connected with one 747 of Siebe's rotatory pumps at e. The object of this pump is to allow of making use, during the heat of summer, of the very cold water produced by tlic thawing of the 1 ice, either for cooling wines, or, after filtering it, for drinking. Tliere are five doors to this ice- house, at /, p, /(, I, and A- ; and v, vacuity, /, one foot wide, between the two walls, surrounding the cellar, and covering the inner division of the passage, m. 'I'liis passage may be fitted up with shelves, as a place for keeping ve- 748 10 ft. getublcs, and vai-ious other articles of food (raw or cooked), fresh during summer. The natural level of the ground is shown at n n ; and the whole superstructure nuiy be covered, in Britain, to the depth of two or three feet with earth, planted with ivy, and surrounded with trees. In warmer climates the depth of eai-th ought to be increased to eight or ten feet. Tlie size of the well ought also to be enlarged, and it might be well to liave even a third vacuity round it. The space between the doors t and k should be filled up by a barley-straw cushion, and it would be well to have similar cushions against the doors g and h, at least during summer. The two recesses, o and p, are here shown only two feet in depth ; but, by making the walls behind them of brick, that depth may be increased at pleasure. It may also be observed, that, in situations where brick is cheaper than stone, all the walls in this Design may be built, in Dearn's manner, hollow ; and that the side walls of the ice-well need not be more than the length of a brick in thickness, the one wall being tied into the other. It may be further observed, that, if it should be inconvenient to cover the building with earth, a covering of straw or reeds, or even planting ivy against the outside walls, and surrounding the whole with a few trees, will be equally efficient in keeping out the heat. If trees cannot be planted, on account of the soil, or of shutting out any view, a slight roof elevated on props of any sort will have the same effect. One of the most effective ice-houses which we have ever seen was covered in this manner, by a wire trellis and Ayrshire roses, mixed with lioneysuckles, clematis, and ^ irginian creeper. Ice-houses, we are persuaded, would become much more general, were coimtry gentlemen fully aware of the fact, that they might be built square just as well as round, and be equally effective at less expense, above the surface than vmder it. A square ice-house above ground, or sunk three feet into it, may have treble hollow floors fonued of bricks on edge, covered with foot tiles or flag-stones ; and its side walls may be treble also, of brick on edge, in Silverlock's manner. To form the roof, a nine-inch semicircular arch may be first thro^ra on these walls, and on this arch three vacuities built of bricks on edge and tiles : there may be five doors, as in fig. 74S ; and the whole may be covered with a cone of earth, or thatch, four feet tliick, and clothed with giant ivy. In filling an ice-house, the ice, being collected and laid down outside of the exterior door, is there broken into small pieces, and reduced to a powder composed of particles not larger than those of sand or salt. It is then carried into the house and thrown down into the ice-well, in which a man is placed with a rammer to beat, and ram it closely ; occasionally sprinkling it with a little water to consolidate the whole. An improved metliod consists in using M-ater saturated with salt, by dissolving ten pounds of «jlt in ten gallons of cold water, and pouring it on tlie ice through a common garden watering pot every two feet of thickness, as the house is filling, and finishing with a double quantity (>f the salt water. " Tlie ice, in hcuscs filled in this manner, m ill \^ 36C) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VJLLA ARCHITECTUUE. found, wlicn opened in summer, to be as firm as a rock, and to require, at all times, the force of a pickaxe to break it up. Thus prepared it will be found to keep three times as long as by the common method in the house, and it will also keep three times as long wh.en exposed to the air, from salt water, and consequently salted ice, liaving a less capacity for heat than fresh water, or fresh ice." (Garrl. Mag., vol. iii. p. I;i9. ) 738. A very cool Place for the Preservation of Meat, Butter, Vegetables, Sfc, might be formed as follows : — Construct a frame of wooden or iron rods, in the form of a cone, or in any convenient form, and raise it from the ground on pillars between two and tliree feet higli ; form a door of wirecloth on one side, and one or two openings as windows, also filled in with wirecloth, on the other. Cover the whole, except the doors and windows, with a coating of cement, and form a double floor of boards. The result will now be a conical bottle of cement, with three wire openings in the sides. Place on the summit of tlie cone a vessel of water, or conduct a pipe of water tliere, and allow it to trickle down the sides of the cone, and the greater the heat of the weather, the cooler will the area be made within, by the heat carried off by evaporation. Perhaps it would be better to form the cone over a pit or well, and without any openings in its sides ; entering under ground to the pit or well, in which tlie heavier articles might be put, while the lighter ones were placed on slielves suspended from the roof. In an airy situation, in the shade, it is presumed the temperature, througli the continued evaporation of the water, would be kept sufficiently low for every purpose that could be required from an ice-house pantry. Perhaps the water miglit be conducted more regularly from the apex to the base of the cone, by forming round it a screw gutter, something like the rings of a straw beehive. 739. A Room for smoking Hams and other dried Provisions is, in some countries, jiarticularly in Germany and Sweden, a general appendage to a coimtry house or a large farm. It is usually biult of stone or earth, and placed apart fiom other buildings. It may be a square room, ten feet on the sides, and ten feet higli, open to the roof; and it may have iron ceiling joists, at about two feet apart, in both sides of which hooks are fixed for suspending the articles to be smoked. The smoke is generally allowed to escape through crevices in the roof, or through chimneys or apertures formed of slates, or thin stones, placed like luffer-boarding ; but, in an improved construction, air-hole tiles, like that shown in fig. 4:54, or central luffer-boarded chimneys which admit of regulation, like those of stables, to be afterwards described, would be an admirable substitute ; because, while they admitted the escape of smoke, they would exclude the entrance of rain. In Germany, not only bacon, beef, and mutton hams are smoked in houses of this kind, both as a means of preservation, and to communi- cate a flavour ; but venison, geese, ducks, sahnon, cod, liaddock, eels, herrings, &c., are so cured. The preserving principle is the pyroligneous acid, whicli being purer in wood than in coal, the former is always employed. I'he flavour depends upon the kind of wood used : that most esteemed is communicated by the juniper, with which the Westi)halian hams and the Embdcn geese are smoked. The wood most generally next in use is the beech ; but in Sweden a.id in Pomerania the spruce fir is often used, either alone or in mixture with the birch. In Hampshire, and other counties, where much bacon is smoked, the kiln is egg-shaped, witli a door in one side, and a covered chimney on the narrow end : the hams are sus])endcd from hooks in the roof, and a smothered fire of sawdust is kept up on the floor, by throwing on successive handfuls of sawdust. The sawdust of hard wood, sucli as oak, ash, beech, &c., is preferred to that of resinous trees. In Cambridgeshire, and other parts of England, hams and bacon are frequently smoked by hanging them in a wide kitchen chimney, and making a fire of sawdust on the hearth ; and, in the north of Scotland, gentlemen often send their bacon or mutton lianis, wrapped in paper, or coated in sawdust, to their tenants, to be hung up in their wide kitchen chimneys where peat is burned below. In the neighbourhood of Aberdeen, and in various places in the north of Scotland, haddocks are strung up on rods called spits, and suspended in wide chimneys, under which peat and sea-weed are burned, and some- times fir; tliough the flavour of the sea-weed and peat is greatly preferred. Red herrings are strimg by the gills on wooden spits, and tliese spits are suspended in rows above each Other, in a house which is kept filled with the smoke of birch for several weeks. As this process cannot require to be performed more than two or three times a yeai- on a private farm, the same apartment might serve for distillation ; or for smoking willows with sulphur, to bleach them, where basket-making was carried on ; or straw, where hat-making was practised. In the same room, also, articles of carpentry intended fnr the open air might be either saturated with ])yroligneous acid, or actually charred at the ends to be inserted in the groimd. Tlie value of the saturation ])rocess is evident from the great durability of tlie timber of the roofs of cottages which have imperfect outlets for the smoke ; many in Scotland, and some in England, might be referred to as examples. 740. As an Example nf the essciitiat ArcdJiimodiitioiis of a Farm House on a small scale, 7'10 MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 367 and on the most economical principle of construction, wc may refer to fig. 749. The walls of this liousc may be built of rammed earth, or mud, or clay Hogging, or in whatever manner is cheapest antl best suited to the particular locality ; and, as all the accommoda- tion is on one floor, the highest of these walls need not be more than ten feet above ttie stone or brick foundation. The accommodations are, an entrance-porch, a, facing the south-west ; a liall or lobby, b ; kitchen, c ; back-kitchen, d ; jjlace for fuel, e ; larder, f; pantry, grooves in the walls, for ventilation, q q ; and the appearance of these open- ings exteriorly is indicated in the end elevation, fig. 799. Fig. 800, to a scale of two thirds of an inch to a foot, shows the manner jj f 1 ^ , -^ I, , JLJ 794 of finishing the eaves of " the roof; in which r is the principal rafter, eight inches by three inches at bottom, and six inches by three inches at top ; s, the wall-plate ; t, the pole- plate ; u, the upper rafter ; v, the eaves board ; w, the slate boardmg ; x, the bracket ; y, a bed-moulding ; and z, the soffit boarding. The stalls in this stable have level floors and gratings similar to those in fig. 776, § 752; ^, ^ '^ 795 the floors of the boxes are also level, and paved with flag-stones, all of which, except about eighteen inches in width round the box, are per- forated with holes about the fourth of an inch in diameter at top, and gradually widening to the under side of the stone, like the holes in the tiles of a malt kiln. The centre stone lifts up, ' for the purpose of cleaning out the drain below. 756. Houses for Horned Cattle. The anatomical structure and physiology of horned cattle are much less intricate than those of the horse ; and 796 the animals are consequently much hardier, and much less liable to disease. They will endure a greater degree of cold in winter, and of heat in summer ; and they require less delicacy of management in their lodging, either in respect to space or ventila- tion, than horses. No horse could be kept in a stall for months, without exercise in the open air, and yet retain iiis health ; but cattle have been so kept till they have been made sufficiently fat for the butcher ; and milch cows have been kept in the neighbourhood of London, standing in the same stall, without having been once taken out, for two years. (^Encyc. of Apr., 2d edit. § 6898.) It does not follow from this, however, that great improvement might not be introduced into cow-houses and cattle-sheds ; and that exercise in the open air would not add to the flavour and wholesomeness both of butcher's meat and dairy produce : on the contrary, the cow-houses in Holland, and the cattle hammcls, or small feeding yards, of Northumberland, may be referred to as proofs that this is actually the case. The principal difference between a house in which cattle are tied up, and one in which horses are cither kept in stalls or in separate rooms, is the open gutter behind, which has hitherto been considered indispensable in cattle-houses, on account of the more fluid nature of the dung of tlie animals. This gutter, or some substitute for it, is MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 385 certainly essential where cattle arc tied up ; and one of the principal poinis m the construction of the floor, in every liouse for horned cattle, is, to place the gutter at 798 ,pvf , a a proper distance from their hind feet. This distance, in Holland, is never less than six inches, nor more than a foot. The gutter is generally made a foot broad, and three or four inches deep ; it is usually perpendicular on the sides, but some- times the cross section of the gutter is that of a semicircle or semioval ; which last form is, however, objectionable, as it is apt to make the cattle slip when they cross it to their stalls. Whatever be the form of the section of the gutter, the hoe or scraper employed to clean it out must have its blade of a corresponding shape. In houses where cows or cattle are kept untied, two or three are generally placed together in an apartment ten or twelve feet square, opening into a small yard of twice that area. Such cattle- houses are called, in Northumberland and Berwickshire, hammels ; and in them there is no regular gutter, but simply a vei-y gentle inclination of the floor of the shed and of the surface of the yard to one angle, where there are, or should be, a trap and drain, com- municating with the liquid manure tank. 757. -Cow-houses, in which cows are kept for giving milk, require to be constructed with more care than other cattle-houses, with respect to ventilation, light, and cleanliness. Cows on common farms are not generally kept in separate stalls, except in cases of sickness, or when they are near the period of cahing. The width of a common farm cow-house, where the cows are to be ranged lengthwise of the build- ing, should be at least sixteen feet, and the width allowed for each cow, of the largest and most improved breed of cattle, should not be less than five feet, or, when the cows are kept in-doors throughout the year, six feet ; and the space from the manger to the gutter should be eight or nine 38G COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCIIITKCTUUE. feet. Tlie manger should be a boarded, stone, or iron trough, placed so tJiat the upper edge may be from a foot to eighteen inches above the surface of the ground, or about tlie heiglit of the cow's knees ; and it may l)e eighteen inches broad, and a foot deep. It should be divided into three parts, to admit of putting dry food in one, moist food in another, and water in the middle. In default of this arrangement, there ought to be a division of the manger for water between every two cows. Where cows arc not kept in separate stalls, there ought to be a partition between every two pair, to reach half-way or more to tlie gutter behind. Between the manger and the wall there should be a passage of at least three feet in width, for supplying food, and for cleaning out the mangers from time to time. The gutter behind the cattle should be at least a foot wide ; and this will leave a passage, between the gutter and the wall, of three feet in width. There ought to be a door in one end of the foddering passage ; and, another as an entrance for tlic cows, in the end of the broad passage. The food may eitlicr be kept in an empty stall next the door, or, what is preferable, in a foddering bay, into which the doors should open. In every cow-house there should be windows for light ; and there ought to be tubes for ventilation in the side walls, or in the roof, similar to those recommended for ■tables, to use when the windows cannot be conveniently opened. The cows may l)e fastened to the front rail of the manger by a halter or chain passed through an iron ring, and loaded at its lower end. The floor of the standing-room ought to be perfectly level, because it is found that, when it is lower towards the gutter than at the manger, it is apt to occasion abortion, when the cows are in a gravid state ; and, for the same reason, the top of the manger or rack, if there is one, should never be higher above the floor than eighteen inches. Morel- Vinde observes that the farmers of Normandy are so particular in this respect, that they not only have their mangers and racks very low, but, when the cows are turned out to grass, they always harness them with a bridle and brechin (bricole Normande), in such a manner as to prevent them from tossing up their heads, or reaching to the branches of trees. 758. A cow-house in which the cows are to stand across the building will afford the same accommodation as that in which they stand with their heads against one of the side walls, at less expense of walling; because the foddering bay, which need not be larger in this case than in the other, serves at the same time as a foddering passage. In these foddering bays Waistell recommends that a cistern should be constructed, in order that when the turnips are topped and tailed in the field, the cart which brings them home may be backed into the bay, and the turnips tilted into the cistern, where, by stirring them a little, the loose earth which adheres to them will readily drop off", and they may be taken out of the cistern, and supplied as wanted to the mangers. This operation is per- formed by means of a grated iron scoop with a long handle. 759. In the cow-houses of laiided proprietors of taste, or in those of large establish- ments near town, various improvements may be suggested on the above arrangements. One of these is, to have a drain covered with oak planks pierced with holes or cast-iron grates along the bottom of the gutter, for the purpose of allowing the urine and thin dung to pass immediately through it, and be carried off", as was practised in the Harleian dairy, near Glasgow ; thus diminishing smell and evaporation, and presenting at all times an appearance of cleanliness. The gutter, in this case, may be very shallow ; and, indeed, if a broom be now and tlien passed over the grating, so as to press all the dung into it, it might be raised to a level with the floor, and the open gutter entirely dispensed with. Grated bottoms to gutters, with drains imderneath, are common in the cow- houses of men of wealth in France and Germany ; where there is sometimes, as in the king of Wirtemberg's dairy at Weill, a supply of water at one end of the gutter, always ready to be turned on by a cock, every time it is cleaned. Tliis is the case also in the cow-houses of the Agricultural Institution at Schleissheim ; and it is found there not only to keep the gutters sweet, but, by the obvious increase it afl^ords of fluid matter in the manure tank, to supply the means of rotting a greater quantity of straw in the dinighill which is there kept over it, and moistened with the fluid beneath by means of a pump. Another improvement is, having all the divisions in the manger, intended for water, on the same level, by which means they may be simultaneously sujjplied by turning a cock ; or the same thing may be accomplished, if they are on a uniform slojie, by sinking them six or eight inches below the general surface of the bottom of the manger, and ha\Tng a false bottom, or water channel, leading from one to another. In this case, after the first division was filled, the water would run along the false bottom or water channel and under that of the dry and moist food divisions of the manger, to the next water division, and so on to the end. It must be confessed, however, that supplying cattle with water in this way is a refinement that can only be worthy of adoption in very extensive establishments ; for cattle, like all other animals, when regularly fed, and properly treated, will only drink at stated ])eriods after they liave had their due supply of solid food, and at these periods they could be let out to drink in the MODEL DESIGNS FOU FARMERIES. 087 open air. Water is supplied in the manner above mentioned at Uhodes's dairy, at Islington (see Encyc. 0/ ^ with racks, each having a court or yard of proportionate size to the shed ; that is, containing three or four times its area. In general it is desir.iblc to divide tliese yards or sheds, so that not more than six or eight head of cattle may be together in the same yard. Besides the rack in the shed, there ought to be fixed or jjortablc racks, witli roofs to them, in the open yard. All cattle-racks ought to be placed on the ground : their height need not exceed two feet and a half, and their width eighteen inches. The top should have cross bars eighteen inches apart, to prevent the cattle from tossing out the fodder, and the bottom should be grated, to allow reeds, stones, dust, or other matter to drop througli on the ground. 764'. Houses for working Oxen may either be fitted up like the cow-houses, or, wliat is preferable, like the cattle hammels ; a pair of oxen being allowed for each hannne). Whether oxen arc kept loose in hannnels or tied up in stalls, provision ought to be made under cover, and near them, for hanging up their liarness ; and for keeping the curry- combs and other instruments or utensils with which they are cleaned or fed. As it requires two pair of oxen to do the work of one pair of horses, on a farm where the ox is the principal beast of labour, a proportionate increase of building is required ; and, in general, also an additional labourer for every three or four pair, for the purpose of cleaning them, and their stalls, liarness, &c. 765. Piggeries. The swine is an inliabitant of all climates, and cats every kind of food ; but lie is nevertheless averse from extremes of eitlier cold or lieat. Nature has taught him, in a wild state, in the torrid as well as in the frigid zone, to seek the recesses MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 389 of tlic forest, both for food and shelter; where, while grubbing up tlic soil for roots, he is protected, by an impenetrable non-conducting mass of branches and foliage, from the heat of the one or the cold of the other. The domestic swine is in a highly artificial state, and requires to be kept warm by abundance of drj- litter in the winter ; and cool, by shady well ventilated houses or sties in summer. Seeking his food chiefly in the soil, he cannot be considered a delicate animal ; and he has few diseases compared with cither the cow or the horse. Uniformity of temperature, therefore, seems to be tlie chief thing to be studied in the construction of piggeries. As pigs are generally fed in great part with refuse from the kitchen and dairy, the piggeries should be so placed in a farmery as to be accessible from the offices of the dwelling-house, without passing through any of the straw yards, and at the same time not so near as to prove an annoyance in summer by their smell. The construction of jiiggeries is exceedingly simple, each pigsty consisting of a covered lodging, and a small open court ; the latter for feeding and the former for sleeping in, in the case of store pigs ; though, for fattening pigs, especially in winter, the feeding troughs are frequently placed in the covered or warmest part of the structure. In a complete piggery for fattening pigs, there should be, at one end, or in the middle, a bay or compartment for pig's food dry and moist ; and on the two sides of a passage may be placed rows of separate sties ; each with its feeding- trough in the side nest the passage, and with a swing-door on the opposite side to a small yard. The use of the swing door, which is nothing more than a frame of boards suspended from a rail, the ends of which move in sockets freely either way between the jambs of the door, is to prevent the door from ever being left open in severe weather. When the pig wishes to go out, he 50on learns to push it before him ; and the same when he wishes to return. Fig. 801 is a section across a wall containing a pig's trough, in which a is a swinging flap or door ; b b, stops to prevent it from being pushed too 801 far either way; and cc, holes for a bolt to fix it in the position d, when the troughs are to be filled with food, or to be cleaned ; or at e, when the pigs are to eat. The pigs, however, will keep the flap open them- selves while eating. This arrangement is well calculated for fattening pigs, M-hen there is not more than one in a sty ; but for store pigs, or for a sow with a litter, it is desirable to have a longer trough, or to have two or more small troughs, as the strongest pig is apt to get into the trough while eating, to the exclusion of the others. The floors of all pigsties should have an inclination to carry the moisture to a trap or drain ; and no animal requires a greater abundance of dry litter. If under a good roof, and well supplied with this material, the pig will keep himself warm and comfortable, almost any where, and in any season. 766. Sheep-houses. The sheep is a native of temperate climates, where the ground is not long covered with snow during winter ; but it has become an artificial inhabitant of all countries from Iceland to the equator. It is only in those countries where it cannot pasture in the open air, from the snow covering the ground during some weeks at a time, or where the extreme heat of summer burns up the herbage, that sheep-houses ought to be required. There are, however, other cases, in which, from the imperfect state of agriculture, and the absence of fences to the fields, or from imperfect civilisation, or the want of rural police, and the consequent prevalence of thieves and wolves, sheep- houses become necessary for protecting the sheep during the night. Structures of this kind are common in Russia, to prevent the sheep from being famished during the long winters of that country ; and in France they abound as nightly shelters to guard them from the wolves. In Britain, folds, or walled enclosures, are almost the only description of sheep-liouses in use ; because our sheep can pasture in the open air during every month in the year, and all our fields are enclosed by hedges, walls, or other barriers. In some of the mountainous districts it becomes necessary to protect and feed the sheep during severe storms ; and this is done in Scotland by square or circular folds, called stells, into which the sheep are driven and fed. Sometimes these stells are roofed in, but in general they are left open. The sheep-liouses of France and Germany are simply roofs supported by posts, and covering a space sometimes open on all sides, but generally closed to the height of six or seven feet. Across, or lengthwise, in this space, hay-racks are placed ; 390 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. and, insteatl of side and end walls of masonry, there are generally wooden pales. The roofs arc made very high and steep, in order to acquire strength to bear, and inclination sufficient for throwing off the snow, at the least possil)le expense of timber. As there is no objection to numerous posts within, provided they be in the line of the racks, sheep- houses of the largest dimensions may be constructed of pieces of timber not more than ten or twelve feet long, or thicker than six inches. Sheep-houses, or folds for feeding and housing sheep in bad weather, are, in England, Mr. INIain observes, " square enclosures erected in slieltered places, formed of an outside wall built of turves or otlier materials, about six or seven feet high ; and all round the interior are lean-to thatched sheds, supported on posts about four feet high. Against the back wall are racks for hay, and troughs for chaff, bran, oats, or peas, &c. Tlie middle of the fold is kept well littered with straw ; and on one side of the gate there is a lock-up shed for keeping the jirovender. These foltls are usually about fifty feet square, and are no less serviceable to the flock in bad weatlier, than to the farm in making great quantities of excellent manure." In the north of Germany, and in Poland and Lithuania, there are immense sheep-houses of a very simple construction, which nevertheless are exceedingly effective. A skeleton roof, sometimes circular and sometimes oblong, is formed of long poles, chiefly young spruce fir trees, with their lower ends inserted in the ground, and their points meeting at to)} ; across these, smaller poles arc fastened, not by nails or wooden pins, but by withy ties. The whole is then covered, or thatched with branches of spruce fir. The doors and places for ventilation are merely gaps, stopped up or opened according to the discretion of the sheplierd. These sheep-houses answer their purpose perfectly. They are sometimes also used for sheltering cattle. 767. The Sheep-house at Celle,7iear St. Cloud, may be given as one of the most complete in France. It was erected in 1809, by Morel- Vinde, on his own estate, and the plan published fourteen years afterwards, as of a construction which, during that period, had given entire satisfaction. Long experience has convinced Morel- Vinde that every sheep in Iamb, or with a lamb, to be at its ease, ought to occupy a superficies of ten square feet ; that every full-grown sheep without a lamb requires a space of six feet ; that every ewe requires a length along the edge of the rack and manger of one foot, in order to eat at ease ; and that every ram with horns requires fifteen inches along the rack ; that the racks are best when portable, that is, when they are capable of being taken down from the posts on which they are hung, as shown in fig. 802 ; and, lastly, that in no case should a shecp-Iiouse have a floor over it, the health of the sheep depending essentially on their having a great height of open space over them. On tlicse fundamental principles the modi:l designs for faumeuies. 391 sliecp-liousc at Cclle was designed. Fig 803 shows tlie ground plan, in which a a a a are double racks and mangers, lilce that, shown in fig. 802, pl.iced lengthwise in the 803 Ft.6 3 6 12 "* . 24 Ft. middle of the building ; and 6 6a single rack and manger, continued round three sides. There are three doors at one end, c c c. These doors may be seen shut in the elevation, fig. 804 ; and the double and single racks may be seen in the cross section, fig. 805. 804 in tliis section, also, are seen two bull's-eye openings, d d, in the end, for ventilation, and which are kept open at all times. Fig. 806 is the side elevation, in which are shown the situation of small sliding shutters, immediately under the eaves, at e e, and that of small 806 iZ^ liM 1^ u u u uvjj |y/j «y" " -^ -^Ailg? openings close to the ground, at ff, which have also sliding shutters, and which are. for the purpose of establishing a current of air on a level with tlie soil. Fig. 807 is a 807 longitudinal section, showing the framing of the roof. The dimensions of this sheep- house are tliirty feet in width, and seventy feet in length; giving, exclusive of the space occuiiied by the racks, eight parallelograms, marked from 1 to 8, in fig. 803, each thirty feet by ten feet, and each containing sufficient room for thirty sheep in lamb, or fifty without lambs. The racks cover a space of 370 superficial feet, exclusive of the 24,00O feet devoted to the sheep. The great merit of this structure is its economy ; it liaving cost only i,117 : 10s., which was mainly owing to the circumstance of its construction requiring only short pieces of wood j none of these exceeding twelve feet, or measuring 392 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUKE. more than six inches on the side, as before mentioned. In France, wood which docs not exceed these dimensions sells at tlie same price as firewood. 768. Gont-houscs are not in use in Britain ; but in France the celebrated manufacturer, M. Ternaux, who introduced the Cachemire goat from Persia, keeps them in his grounds at St. Ouen, near Paris, in the same description of houses as he does his sheep. In similar houses deer might also be kept. 769. Rabbits may be kept in any dry house. Sometimes they are allowed to run at large on the floor, and a range of boxes, eighteen inches high, and two feet broad, is placed round it, at the foot of the walls, divided into compartments of two or three feet in length, with one small door, a foot high and six inches wide, to each. On other occasions, where there is a scarcity of room, or where rabbits are to be fed, they are kept in tiers of boxes, one above another, called hutches. Each box or hutch, in this case, has a grated front, and behind, or at one side, an inner box or division, for the animal to enter and rejjose. The size of this inner box may be a foot by eighteen inches, and eighteen inches high ; and the size of the open part of the box may be a cube of eighteen inches. The bars or spokes in front may be an inch square, and two inches apart. Two of them ought to take out, for the purpose of putting in food, &c. 770. Poidtri/-houses require no particular form or magnitude ; because, the animal being small in size, there is no necessity for accommodating the shape of the house to its par- ticular figure. Both terrestrial and aquatic poultry agree in requiring a di-y and rather warm lodging ; and they differ, in that the web-footed birds all roost on a flat surface, while gallinaceous fowls roost best at some height from the ground, on roundish horizontal rods or rails, of a size suitable for being grasped by their claws, but neither perfectly round nor perfectly smooth. All fowls, when in a state of incubation, require repose, to which darkness is favourable as well as solitude ; and places where they can have these requisites must be provided for them, as well as separate places for fattening them, to which also solitude and darkness are congenial. Poultry of every description, while growing, are exceedingly active, and, in an artificial state, require a considerable extent of yard to enable them to take sufficient exercise for health. The variety of their food is also con- siderable, including not only animal and vegetable matter, but even, as a help to digestion, salt, sand, or small pebbles. As land poultry require a dry yard, so aquatic poultry require ponds ; and, while the common hen will roost at the height of a few feet from the ground, the turkey and peacock prefer the highest trees. It must be evident from this variety in the nature of these animals, that every kind will require a separate house or compartment of a building, and that this house or compartment should be in four divisions ; one for rearing, another for keeping full-grown fowls, another for incubation, and a fourth for feeding. For the first two of these houses or divisions, a yard for the purpose of allowing the fowls to take exercise and pick up food is essential, and in this yard there ought always to be an open shed for shelter from the sun or rain, abundance of sand, and small pebbles ; and, for aquatic fowls, a large pond. The healthiest poultry of every description are those which are well fed in their yards in the morning, and allowed free exercise out of them the greater part of the day ; and the fattest poultry are those which are confined in the dark, and not allowed to take any exercise. In all cases where poultry have not the free use of a large yard, they should have troughs filled with sand and small pebbles, placed so as to allow them to pick them when they choose, to promote digestion. We have described, in the Encyclopccdia of Agriculture, the mode of fattening geese and other poultry, as practised at Strasburg ; but it is too disgusting to wish for its adoption in any other country. These being the general circumstances connected with domestic poultry for architectural purposes, they may be classed in the three fol- lowing divisions : viz., the web-footed or aquatic, which must necessarily, for every kind of treatment, be lodged on the ground floor ; the common cock and hen, which prefer the floor above ; and the turkey, guinea fowl, and peacock, which roost in lofty open sheds, or on trees. In small farms, therefore, all the different kinds of poultry may be lodged in the same house. Ducks and geese, with the other kinds, while rearing, on the ground floor ; common fowls, when full grown, and while in a state of incubation, on the middle floor ; and the turkey, &c., above. One yard may answer for the whole, provided it be sufficiently large, and contain a large pond. As warmth is highly conducive to the prosperity of poultry, common fowls are frequently lodged above cow-houses or stables, or even pigsties; and in other cases, when it is very desirable to cause hens to lay early in the season, their houses are heated by flues. When, however, the house is of a construction well calculated to retain heat, and it is perfectly dry below, and has few openings above, and a roof sufficiently thick to exclude all frost, artificial heat can very seldom be necessary. When it is desired to rear chickens ft)r sale very early in the season, the eggs may be hatched by hot water, or in a bed of tan, dung, leaves, or other fermenting matter ; and, after being hatched, they may be reared imder a roof of glass, which roof may be employed in the summer season as a covering for vines. At Bagshot Park, MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 393 Surrey, tliere is a very extensive poultry establishment ; and early in the season the fowls are reared in a vinery; and a writer in the Gardener's Mariazine (vol. viii.) not only rears, hut hatehes, in a house of the same description. In the centre of the large yard at Bagshot there is a tree partially denuded of its branches, in order that it may serve as a roosting-i)lace for the turkeys. In every poultry-house the places for incubation are sinall stalls or boxes, eighteen inches or two feet square, and open in front, in which the fowls sit on their eggs ; and, after these are hatched, they are taken out into the yard, and the mother is confined in what is called a coop, an inverted cup of wickerwork, with the interstices large enough to allow the young brood free egress and ingress, while the parent cannot escape. These coops are frequently boarded on all sides, with a grated door opening in front. Partridges, pheasants, quails, bustards, and other gallinaceous birds are sometimes bred and reared in artificial structures, with a view to their domes- tication or increase in anv* particular locality. When this is the case, it is necessary to enclose them above and on all sides by netting, to prevent their flying away ; because these birds are not susceptible of perfect domestication. 771. The Pigeon-house, or Dovecote, has been an appendage of the country-house from the earliest ages ; and nothing can be more simple or universally known than its structure. The only essential requisite is, that it must be at some distance from the ground ; because the pigeon is a bird that flies much higher than any of the domesticated fowls before mentioned. The openings for the birds may be in the roof, or in the highest part of the side walls, with shelves before the holes for the birds to alight on ; and the walls of the interior may be lined with boxes, divided into square holes, for the birds to make their nests in ; in short, into pigeon-holes. 772. The Farmery Infirmary is simply a house, or one or more divisions of one, in a quiet part of the farmery, large enough to contain a horse or cow in each division, and to serve as lodgings for animals under a course of medicine. DrjTiess and a command of temperature and ventilation are essential. 773. The Store-houses for the Produce of the i^armer!/ include the barn; the straw- house ; the granary ; the root-house ; the hay-barn ; the maize-barn ; the place for keeping pigs' food ; the wool, hair, and feather room ; the hop-loft ; and the loft for miscellaneous products. 774. The Barn combines a manufactory and a storehouse, and is to the farm-yard, in the former capacity, what the kitchen is to a human dwelling ; that is, it manufactures a great part of the food consumed in the other apartments or divisions of the premises. Formerly the corn barn was much larger than it has become necessary to have it since the introduction of threshing-machines. It should still, however, be of considerable size, so as to contain a rick of unthrcshed corn of the size that such ricks are generally made on the farm. The size of the ricks, and the size of that part of the barn which is to con- tain the unthreshed corn, should be accommodated to each other ; and the size of that part of the barn which is to contain the straw after it has been threshed, if the straw- room is not a separate building, should be acconmiodated to both. The form of the barn should, in almost every case, be a parallelogram, and at least twenty feet wide, with walls twelve feet high. The length will depend chiefly on the size of the ricks, and it is always most economical to have these small ; not only because a small barn costs much less than a large one, but because both grain and straw are sweeter, and more relished by cattle, when recently threshed fi-om the rick, than when they have been long kept in a barn, granary, or straw-room. Where the expense is not an object, it is desirable to have a room, as a gi-anary, over that part of the barn which contains the machinery for threshing, and the room for cleaning up and measuring the corn. Into this granary the corn, as measured and put into sacks, may be hoisted up through a trapdoor by a wind- lass, with a rope and pulley. The position of the barn relatively to the other buildings of the farm-yard, depends on the position of the stables, and cattle-houses ; it should always adjoin or be central to them, and be close to the rick-yard. Where the thresh- ing-machine is to be driven by horses or steam, the barn may be set down on whatever side of the farmery is thought best for it ; but where it is to be driven by water, local circumstances must often determine its position. In general, as the buildings of a farmery form a shelter to the cattle-yard, and as the barn is the highest of these buildings, it should be placed on that side from which the coldest winds blow ; and this is also favour- able for its proximity to the rick-yard, which ought to be in the most windy situation, for drying the corn when it is newly stacked. There is another reason for placing the barn on the most airy side of the farm-yard, which is, that when the threshing-machine is diiven by horses, they are less apt to be heated in the track-shed, which should always be as open as possible on all sides. Wind machinery is also sometimes employed for driving a threshing-machine; and, when that is the case, the north side of the farmery is, in Britain at least, still the best situation. The most desirable power for driving a threshing-machine is water ; and the next, in a coal country, steam. 1>T 39'i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 808 775. A Corn Barn on Posts was erected by Morel- Vindc, at Celle, St. Cloud, in 1 8 1 2 ; and the plan and details of it arc given in his excellent work. He observes, that though the construction of a barn on posts is necessarily more expensive than one the floor of which is the ground, yet that it does not cost more than one third of a barn of the same size built of masonry, while it is a great deal better, especially in countries where timber is at a low price. When Morel- Vinde's work was published, the barn at Celle liad stood twelve years without undergoing any alteration, or requiring the slightest degree of repair, and without a single mouse or rat ever having been seen in it. The great advantage of this barn is that of preserving the straw always as fresh as if it had just come from the flail : he has preserved it one and even two years, without its undergoing the slightest damage. The saving from the ravages of rats and mice, produced by such a barn, is found by experience to be more than fifteen per cent ; and, compared with barns built of masonry, there is also another saving, that of being able to fill it with corn the first year ; whereas a barn with stone or brick walls requires a year to dry them. The wood of which this barn is composed was not felled on the 25th of March, 1812, and yet the barn was completed by the 25th of June in the same year ; and in the harvest follow- ing 15,000 sheaves of wheat were put into it. The only kind of wood employed in this barn is that of the Lombardy poplar, with the exception of the posts, two feet high, which are of oak ; it is covered with slates ; and the whole cost was only ^"182 : 5s. : lOd. in the neighbourhood of Paris. In the departments of France, the cost is estimated at ;^I09 : 7s. : 6d. Fig. 808 is the ground plan, on one half of which are shown three sleepers the whole length of the structure, a a a, which support the joists, b b, on which is laid the plank- ing, c. Fig. 809 is a cross section of fig 808ontheline A B, on which are shown the threshing-floor, d ; a floor over it, e, and the suspend- ed fold-up steps, f. Fig. 811 is a cross section of fig. 808, on the line C D, showing that there is no second floor over any part of the barn, but the threshing-floor, as seen in the preceding figure. Fig. 810 is an elevation of one end, showing the cross braces, which are only placed in the ends and sides. Fig. 812 is a side view in which may be seen die threshing- floor, g ; the end of the floor over it at /( ; and, in the roof, four small openings for the escape of the wind during stormy weather, to prevent its blowing off the roof CB= The sideview of these openings is seen in fig. 811. Fig. 813 is a longitudinal section, showing the cross braces which strengthen the upright posts, and the construction of the roof. MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 812 395 813 ir II .1 I t I I n I I ir II If m J^W -1UUJ4 JUlM. mum jnnn unnn fflH ^ 776. In the Con- struction of the Corn Barn at Celle, the object was to enclose a space fifty-five feet long, twenty-two feet broad, and twenty- two feet high, without taking into calcula- tion the space con- tained in the angle of the roof, which was eleven feet high in the centre, the angle of the side being at forty-five degrees, for the better throw- ing off of the rain. Numbers divisible by 11 were made choice of, because experience has shown that eleven feet is the maximum of length which can be given to beams placed horizontally, without risking their bending. The fifty-five feet of length are therefore divided into five bays, which are contained between six frames of carpentry, placed eleven feet apart, and of which two form the gables at each extremity. Eighteen founda. tions of masonry are built in the angles of ten squares (see fig. 808), each eleven feet on ^/v^^ the side, and carried up fifteen inches above the surface, in order to support eighteen stone plinths, on which are placed eighteen oak posts, two feet high and one foot square, fixed to the stone by oak pins one inch square and two inches long, which are let half way into the post and halfway into the stone, with tenons at their upper extremities for being mortised into the sleepers. By these means the eighteen pillars are raised to the height of three feet from the surface of the ground ; the two lower feet are covered with slates, as shown in fig. 814 from i to k, and the foot immediately under the joists is covered with twelve panes of window glass, each a foot square, retained in their places by two small fillets of wood at k and 1, to which they are cemented at the upper and lower edges only, and without any finishing at the angles. The glass is to prevent the ascent of rats. r 814 12. 7 39(i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. On the eighteen pillars, presenting on their upper extremities eighteen tenons, is placed, first a frame of carpentry composed of three sleepers the wliole length of the structure, which may be easily cut out of trees of Italian poplar ; and, secondly, six sleei)ers of twenty-four feet long each, crossing the three long sleepers, and let into them by notch- ing out each to the depth of one third. The three long sleepers contain, on their under sides, mortises to receive the tenons of tlie oak pillars, and these are made fast by wooden pins. On this frame is placed the skeleton of the building, which is rendered plain by the sections and elevations represented in fig. 809 to 813. The skeleton of the superstructure consists of twelve upright posts, each twenty-two feet high, framed into two top plates extending the whole length of the barn, and into six cross plates. This framework completes the skeleton of the rectangular part of the building. Tlie roof is composed of twelve principal rafters, on which are placed two purlins ; and on these rest the secondary rafters, to which are nailed the laths for receiving the slates. The eaves of the roof project about four feet on each side, to protect the unthreshed corn or straw from the rain ; it also projects about two feet at each end, for the same purpose. This is the more necessary as the sides are not covered with boards. AU the joinings of the timbers in this building are l>y tenon and mortise, and all the pins used are of wood, with the exception of those employed for nailing on the laths for receiving the slates, and the nails used in fastening them. With these exceptions, there is not a single piece of iron in the whole of this structure ; and there is no other metal used, except four pieces of lead for the four openings in the roof. In order to make certain of excluding the rats and mice, by rendering it impossible that the thresher should ever forget to turn up the folding stair when he leaves his work, two chains or ropes are attached to it, one on each side, counterbalanced by heavy weights, as shown at m, in fig. 815. In case of the roof requiring repairs, twenty-four hooks of iron may be placed at equal distances along the ridge, to which the slater's ladder may be hooked on. Instead of painting or tarring the ti.nber work, it may be covered, on the exterior sides, with slates. We examined this barn and the other buildings at Celle, with M. Bailly dc Merlieux, in 1828, and were highly gratified with it. We consider it a model for economy and usefulness, and would strongly recommend it to the American farmer. 777. The Straw-hottse is generally the end of the barn opposite to that in which the unthreshed corn is placed ; but in large farms it forms a separate building, adjoining and connected with the barn, and opening into the different cattle-houses and cattle-yards. 778. The Granary, where the barn is not sufficiently high to admit of its being placed in the roof, is commonly placed over the cart-shed, or some other building. It is some- times built apart ; but this is a needless expense, and seldom incurred in wooden construc- tions. A detached granary should be built on pillars with projecting caps, to prevent the ascent of rats and mice ; and it should have windows filled in with lufFer-boarding on all sides, for thorough ventilation ; it should generally be placed exterior to the cattle- yards, in any open situation not far from the barn. When the granary is placed over any other building, it is always convenient to have a windlass fixed in it ; either im- mediately over a trap-door in the floor, or over a door in the outside wall ; through the first of which, sacks of grain may be hoisted up from the corn-room of the barn, should tlie granary be placed over it ; in the other case, be raised up from, or let down into, a cart. MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 397 rdi 816 779. A Granary icith a Loft for Wool above, and a Cart or Implement Shed beneath it, is given by Morel- Vinde, which, where economy of room and money is an object, we consider a most ex- cellent model. The material of construc- tion is entirely timber of small dimensions, no piece in the whole structure exceeding ten feet in length ; and only the story posts, or supporting pillars, are so much as nine inches squai-e. Fig. 8 1 6 is the ground plan of the cart-shed or ground floor, fifty feet by tliirty feet. Tlie height to the under side of the floor above is ten feet. The two longitudinal sides of this plan are carried up perpendicularly as gables, and the two ends are hipped in at an angle of forty-five degrees, as shown in figs. 818 and 819. The gi-anary floor is of the same dimen- sions as the ground floor, and the wool floor, fig. 817, which is above the granary, is thirty 817 feet by thirty feet. The granary and the wool-room are both seven feet high. The grain and wool are both taken up and let down through a trapdoor, by means of a windlass fixed over it, as shown at a, in the plan of the wool room. Fig. 818 shows the longitudinal elevation of the building, in which may be observed three doors to the corn granary, and one door to the loft over it. Fig. 819 is a longitudinal section through the centre of the building, showing the situation of the windlass, b ; and the pulley over which the rope passes, a. Fig. 820 is an end elevation, and fig. 821 a cross section. The total expense of this structure, in the neighbourhood of Paris, in 1819, was ^"247, and the estimate for the departments of France was £l50. Such a building is admirably calculated for a country where small timber is the cheapest building material ; and we have introduced it with a particular view to America and Australia, as it might be put up by the very commonest description of country carpenter. The granary might even be used as a hay-loft, or a loft for maize or Indian corn in the ear, and the wool-room may be Employed as a granary or seed-room, according to local circumstances. By means of 398 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. the trapdoors and windlass, any article might be hoisted up from or let down into carts with very little labour or loss of time. Should it be intended, before creating this building, to use the granary as a hay-loft, or Iiay-barn, tlie floor need not be laid with boards. Ji 7^-a-:r^.. ^as;^||^^3Tr-j^^^^ j^3tt.>^,^j^ 780. Storehouses for Boots, such as potatoes, turnips, mangold- gnn wurtzel ; and temporary deposit- aries for clover, tares, or other green food, or for chaff, hay, or other dried food, should be placed next to the houses or yards of the animals which are intended to be fed by them. In form they should either be squares or parallelograms, as giving most space at least expense. They should have ample doors, ge- nerally of such a width as to admit of setting back a loaded cart into y" them, and shooting down the article to be stored up. Food which is to be consumed immediately in feeding cattle, such as green clover, tares, turnips, &c., may also be laid down at once in proper recesses or stores formed in the houses or sheds in which the cattle stand. Food which is to be steamed, or otherwise prepared, before it is given to cattle, should be stored next to the place of preparation. 781. A Barn for Hay is used on some forms, though the practice is given up by the best farmers as too expensive, and as being less favourable for keeping the hay than stacks or ricks in the open air. 782. A Barn for keeping the Ears of Maize is sometimes reqiured in countries where that corn is grown upon a large scale. Barns of this description should be made quite narrow, and open on the sides, so as to admit a thorough current of air ; and, to prevent the weight of the ears above from compressing those below, there should be horizontal MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. S99 821 floors of open work on which the corn may be borne in separate layers. A small nuiize-barn on this construction, and supported on posts six feet from the ground, has been erected by M. Mathieu de Dombasle, at Rovillc, near Nancy. 783. A Store Place for Pi(/s' Food is a most useful part of a large farmery, which never can be properly conducted without keeping pigs. It ought to be a dry well-aired room, near the pig- geries, and should be of considerable size, so as to have two tubs or tanks for liquid food, the one being always filling while the other was emptying, after the contents had undergone proper fer- mentation ; and three or four divisions, for different kinds of meal and other dry food. Tlie situation should be close to the pigsty, so as to minimise the trouble of supplying their troughs. 784. Storehottses for Hair, Wool, and Feathers should generally be formed in dry airy lofts ; and, as nothing is more offensive or unwholesome than the decomposition of these materials, no one, as before observed (§ 711), ought to be allowed to sleep, or to work for any length of time, in such places. 785. The Storehouses for the Machinery and Implements of the Farmery include the cart and roller shed, the plough and harrow house, the house for hand implements, the harness-room, the chaise-house, and the place for miscellaneous articles. Of several of these it is unnecessary to say any thing. 786. Storehouses for portable Machinery and Implements should be placed apart from the houses for live stock ; and they should not, if it can be avoided, open into a yard in which cattle or swine are at large. The sheds for carts and waggons are generally lefl open in front ; and, when this is the case, they should face the east, in preference to the west, from which driving rains are to be expected ; and the north, rather than the south, because the intense heat of the sun is apt to warp the wood, and occasion a shrinking in the joints. Houses for smaller tools should have closed doors, and luffer- boarded windows for better ventilation, and their floors should always be perfectly dry and free from litter. In general small implements should be hung up, or supported at some distance from the floor, that they may be kept drier and more airy ; and those of iron should be placed horizontally rather than vertically ; because it is found that in the latter position they become in time magnetised, and more apt to rust and decay at their extremities. 787. A Harness-room, for harness not in use, should also be a dry airy loft, or other- wise a room on the ground floor, with a fireplace to admit of occasionally drying and ventilating it by artificial heat. 788. The Working-houses of the Farmery, besides the barn already mentioned, include the slaughter-house ; the carpenter's shop ; the smith's shop and shoeing-house ; and a room for pickling wheat, cutting potatoes, carrying on various miscellaneous works, &c. 789. A Slaughter-house is necessary in a farmery of considerable extent, as it will always be found profitable for a farmer to kill as much of the meat used on his farm as possible. This part of the farmery should face the north : it should be well ventilated, but without admitting light, because darkness tends to exclude the flies. The floor should be paved, and have a sink and trap communicating with a manure tank. 790. ^ Room for a Smithy, and another for a Carpenter's Shop, are required in very extensive farmeries ; and they should generally be placed so as to open into a small yard devoted to the different materials used by the carpenter and smith, and to machines and implements undergoing repair, &c. 791. A Room of All-viork is necessary in every farmery, whether small or large, and it may generally adjoin the slaughter-house. In it there should be a boiler for preparing drinks for sick cattle, or for supplying hot water for other purposes. Wheat may be pickled or brined, and other seeds prepared, in this room ; harness cleaned, tools shai-pened on a grindstone, chaff or roots cut by machinery, malt ground, &c. 792. Bee-houses are seldom requisite, where bees are kept, unless for the purpose of preventing the hives from being stolen ; and this Huish and other writers propose to do by jhainLng tliem to the bee-stand. A bee-house is very conveniently formed in the end or side of any building, or in a wall, facing the south-east, east, or south. There should be a recess, or a projection formed so as to give the effect of one ; and in this recess there should be shelves of^ stone or boards, eighteen inches broad, and from eighteen inches to 4<00 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. (wo feet one above another. In front tlierc may be either a grated iron door, or several horizontal iron bars, to lock, so ,-is to permit the free ingress and egress of the bees to and from their hives, and yet jirevent any person from taking them out. 793. Dogkennel. A watchdog is common to most farmeries, and the shepherd's dog is a valuable assistant where flocks of sheep are kept. The projjcr position for the watchdog is the middle of the open area between the farm house and the farm-yard, in order that the dog may have a complete view of the yard, and be seen l)oth from tlic yard and house, as well as by all strangers who approach either. The lodging-jilace for the dog is commonly a roofed wooden box with an opening only on one side, tlie consequence of which is, that he may be passed by persons on the other sides without his seeing them. We would suggest the idea of raising the dogkcnnel eighteen inches or two feet, by placing it on a knoll sloping on every side, and of having two or three panes of glass on each side, that he may see every way around him. To cnal)lc the dog to lie in his kennel with comfort during hot weather, we would form two openings the whole length of the sides of the kennel, close under the eaves of the roof, by means of hinged flaps, which could be let down during summer, and put up and fastened with wooden buttons in severe weather. Kennels for dogs kept for field sports belong to the subject of villas. 794. A Lodge for single Men sometimes forms a part of farmeries, and should always consist of one large well lighted, and comfortable room for cooking and eating ; and another, also large, dry, and well ventilated, for sleeping in. These rooms ought to be placed near to the stables and cattle-sheds ; and perhaps it might not be amiss, in some cases, to have speaking pipes from the stables and cattle-houses to the men's bed-room, in order that they might the more readily hear any noise made there in the night-time. Near London, where farms are liable to be robbed, we have known the farmer have a speaking or hearing pipe, communicating from his bed-room to his dogkennel, and also a wire connected with his dog's collar, by means of which he could loose the animal, without moving from his bed. Mr. Ackermann, the celebrated printseller, has a contrivance somewhat similar, in his villa near Fulham. 795. Cottages and Gardens for married Servants are built in the ncigbourhood of (he farmery, in all tlie large farms in the north of England and in the south of Scotland. Sometimes they form part of the farmery, but in general they are 200 or 300 yards apart from it. The convenience of proximity is, however, so great, that we think the distance should be diminished rather than increased. These cottages, in Scotland more particularly, are very wretched habitations, even on the most extensive and best cultivated farms. In 1831, we examined some farm labourers' houses of this description on a very large and admirably cultivated farm, on the Duke of Buccleugh's estate in Dumfi-iesshire. The dwelling-house on this farm (Cumroo) is more than usually large, with two rooms in its width ; a part of its exterior wall is covered with well trained and wide-spreading fruit trees ; and there is an excellent kitchen-garden, well stocked, and apparently in good order, in which, when we saw it, a professed gardener (judging from his blue apron) was at work ; so that the whole, had it not been for the farm-yard behind, miglit very easily have been taken for a mansion residence. Passing this house, and advancing about half a furlong, we came to a row of fourteen cottages, occupied by yearly servants of the farmer who resided at tlie large house, and who, we were told, came from tlie best-cultivated district in Scotland, East Lothian. Observing that to every door in (his row of cottages there was but one window, we entered one of (hem, and foimd a woman sitting at a table, writing a letter (which seemed in a very good hand for a person in lier rank in life), while she rocked the cradle with her foot. The room, -o'liich conijirised the wliole cottage, was about fourteen feet square, without a ceiling, and open to the roof; the floor was of earth, and the walls were left rough, just as the stones were put together in building, but whitewashed : there was a fireplace, but only one fixed window of fom- small panes. In this room there were two box-beds, placed end to end, and, behind, a space of about two feet in width for fuel and lumber. The furniture and utensils, though scanty, were clean and neat ; more especially when contrasted with the floor, which, underneath the box-beds, which have no valances, was of earth, quite loose, though near the fire were laid some flat stones, which the woman said her husband had picked up and put down himself. The cottage window, as already observed, was fixed, and incapable of opening to give air. There was no back door, and no opening either in the rotif or walls for ventilation, except the entrance door and the chimney. There was no appendage, nor garden ground of any sort, behind these cottages ; but across the road, in front of them was a narrow strip of ground, divided so as to allow one fall (thirty-six yards square) to each cottage. In these gardens was no structure of any kind. ( Gard. Mag. vol. viii. p. 265. ) There are few of the houses of married farm- servants in Scotland any better than those at Cumroo, where they are built by the tenants ; but we hope that the time may not be far distant, when the landlords will MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 401 #, undertake this part of the farmery, as well as those buildings which are destined to lodge cattle, or protect produce or implements ; which are now deemed of so much more importance than the cottages, that their erection is not intrusted to the farmer. 796. By the Extra-Buildhiys of a Farmery are to be understood those which do not belong strictly to agriculture ; but which, nevertheless, are to be found on particular farms, and the businesses for which they are calculated carried on by the farmer, as well •IS the common culture of the farm. This practice is, no doubt, at variance with the principle of the division of labour; but as it does exist in many cases, and must necessarily long continue to do so in new countries, we cannot avoid shortly noticing such extra-buildings, m a work addressed to occupiers of land, and dwellers in the country generally. They may be included under corn mills, malt-houses, hop oasts or kilns, cider-houses, kilns for drying corn or other seeds, and for general purposes, limekilns, houses for manufacturing meal from potatoes, distilleries, beet root sugar manufactories, &c. We shall shortly describe the most common of these, and such as are most closely connected with general agriculture. The reader whose situation may render him par- ticularly interested in any of those not noticed in this work will find every information he could wish, accompanied by plans, sections, and details, in the Dictionnaire Tec/mo- logique, and in the Agrkulteiir Maiiufacturier ; the latter one of the most scientific agi'icultui'al periodicals published in France. 797. Corn Mills are of various kinds; the principal of which are those for grinding or husking oats, barley mills, and flour mills. The first class is sometimes connected with the threshing-machine ; more especially in Scotland, where it is driven by water, or impelled by steam. The farm in this case is always small, seldom exceeding 100 acres; and, as the occupier's attention is divided between his mill and his land, he rarely succeeds either as a miller or a farmer. Still we see no reason why an active intelligent man, with sufficient capital, might not excel in both, and thus secure to himself the profits of the grower, as well as those of the manufacturer, of corn. The same observation may be made with respect to barley and flour mills ; and, no doubt, will apply to a variety of others which are used for manufacturing farm produce. 798. Malt-houses. The manufacture of malt being a much more simple process than that of grinding meal or dressing flour, a malt-house is a very common appendage to the farm-yard in the barley districts of England. A malt-house and kiln comprehend three divisions ; a floor, or place for steeping the barley, and managing it, till it has germinated ; a kiln for di-ying it, to check vegetation ; and an airy loft for cooling it, and rendering it so dry as to admit of its being put up in sacks, without the risk of its undergoing fer- mentation in them. Tlie floor for germinating the corn may be level with the surface of the ground ; or, if the soil be dry, it may be three or more feet below it, as, the warmer and moister the atmosphere is, the better it will be for the vegetative process to be carried on. One end of this room should contain a cistern for steeping the barley ; and near it should be a pump for supplying water. The barley, when the process is completed, is thrown out on the floor, and turned over till it has sufficiently germinated. It is now ready to be put on the kiln ; and, after being properly dried there, it is spread out on the floor of the loft, which is generally over the malting-room, and of the same size ; being thoroughly ventilated by having lufFer-boarding on both sides. The building containing the kiln may be advantageously placed at that end of the malting-room which is opposite to the end containing the cistern ; and the floor of the kiln, and that of the upper or dr-ying room, ought to be on the same level, for the convenience of throwing out the malt to be cooled and dried. The common form of all kilns is that of an egg, with the broad end uppermost ; or of two inverted cones, placed base to base, the floor for di-ying on being formed where the diameter of the shape so produced is broadest. The fire is made at the bottom of the kiln, and the smoke from the fuel, and the vapour from the articles drying, are allowed to rise directly through the floor above it, and to pass off by a chimney covered with a cap or cowl, mounted on an upright shaft, and furnished with a pivot, so as to turn freely with the wind, and presei.t the opening for the emission of smoke and vapour always on the sheltered side. This form of kiln and mode of management are still continued in Aberdeenshire, and in other parts of the north of Scotland ; and the malt made there takes a particular flavour according to the kind of fuel used. The malt most in repute Ls what has been dried with birch wood. In England the fuel used is most generally wood, coke, or Welsh coal ; none of which produces a smoke injurious to the flavour of the malt, so that the heated air which arises from the fire is allowed to pass directly through it. The principal modern improvement in the construction of malt-kilns consists in the employment of a furnace and flues, in the lower part ot the kiln, by which common coal, or any description of fuel, may be burned there ; and heated air, being generated on the sides of the furnace and around the flues, ascends tlirough the malt, instead of the combination of air and smoke which issues from an open fire. The sides of malt-kilns are of masonry, and the drying-floor is commonly formed of cast- u u 402 COTTAGE, FAUM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. iron plates, sixteen inches square, and three eighths of an inch or half an inch tliick, pierced with holes an inch apart, half an inch in diameter on the under side, and con- tracted to tlie eighth of an inch on the upper side. Sometimes tiles pierced in the same manner are used instead of iron plates ; and a kiln tile, about a foot square, ought to contain 900 or 960 small holes. Wliether tiles or plates are used, in either case they rest loose on wrought-iron rafters, with a narrow rib along the middle of tlie upper edge, which forms two rabbets for receiving the plates or tiles. Wirecloth, supported by iron rafters, is used occasionally, but it is found not to be sufficiently durable ; or perforated sheet iron may be employed. This last material was formerly almost exclusively used for dryinf pale malt, but it is now found that with cast-iron plates or tiles, like those above described, the malt may be made pale or brown at pleasure. The space between the floor tiles and the top of the furnace or flues is commonly between five and six feet : this space is called, in Norfolk, the dunge, and into it fall the chives or cooms which, in the process of turning and drying, are rubbed off the malt ; and these form an excellent manure, under the name of malt dust, as well as a good mash for sick cattle. The proportions of the openings on the top of the kiln, and for admitting air to be heated over the furnace, relatively to the area of the surface of the kiln, are points rather difficult to adjust. For a kiln twenty-seven feet square, a circular opening at top, of about five feet in diameter, will generally be found sufficient ; and the area of the openings on each side of the furnace and flues, for the admission of cold air to be heated, must, when united, equal that of the opening at top. These openings for the admission of the external air should have regulators of sheet iron balanced by weights, so as to adjust the draught according to the heat, and the state of the malt. A great improvement has been lately effected in some of the Norfolk malt-kilns, by the dismissal of that unsightly and expensive appendage, the cowl, before-mentioned, as being placed over the orifice at top. This cowl, until of late years, was deemed an indispensable part of every malt-kiln ; but to Mr. Salmon of Stoke- ferry is due the merit of the discovery that it may be wholly dispensed with. In lieu of them this gentleman substitutes a flat circular canopy of sheet iron, supported on iron rods. By this improvement, not only the exterior deformity is got rid of, but also two lar.cre interior beams ; the one forming a guide, and the other a base and pivot for the upright axle of the cowl. In a country like Britain, where malt is heavily taxed, there are necessarily a variety of observances having reference to the duties of the excise officers, which occasion some peculiarities in the details of construction ; such, for example, as the malt couch, dry cistern into which the malt is thrown from the steeping cistern, before it is spread on the floor, in order to be gauged ; but these we leave unnoticed at present, as unconnected with general principles. 799. Hop- Oasts, or Hop-Kilns, are constructed much in the same manner as the malt- kilns ; and the principal modern improvement which has been made in them, that of sub- stituting hot air cockles for open fiieplaces, is common to both. In the old plan of the hop-oast, the fire was made on a grating at the bottom of the kiln, with what is called a spark plate (a broad plate of cast iron, to reflect back the sparks, and prevent their reaching up to the hops) placed at the distance of a few feet over it. Instead of being laid on a perforated floor of iron or tiles, hops are almost always dried on haircloths. These are supported on a floor formed of wooden spars or laths, about two inches and a half square, and nailed, two inches apart, to wooden joists. Tlie haircloth is laid upon this floor, and its edges round the sides of the kiln are hung up by loops, to prevent the hops from falling over into the fire-chamber below. The form and size of hop-kilns vary, but they are generally built square, as being most suitable for covering the drying-floor with a cloth ; and the ordinary size of a drying-floor for a hop groimd of two statute acres and a half, is eleven feet on the side. This size will dry three changes of hops in twenty- tour hours. The floor of the kiln ought to open into a loft on the same level, into which the hops are thrown to cool. In one part of this loft is a circular hole, about two feet in diameter, with an iron rim round it, on which is placed the hoop to which the mouth of the bag or pocket in which the hops are to be packed is sewed. This bag hangs down through the floor into the place below, which may be a cow-shed, or, as it is very fre- quently in Worcestershire, a cider-house ; and a man gets into it and treads down the hops as they are thrown in to him. The fuel which is used for drying hops, when the smoke is allowed to pass through them, is coke ; and that made from very sulphureous coal is preferred, as tending best to preserve the colour of the hops. In the management of hops in Britain, there are a variety of arrangements connected with the kiln and hop- loft, rendered necessary by the mode of collecting the excise duty ; but these we take no notice of here, as our object is merely to lay down the general principles of drying, from which every Architect can deduce the most advantageous forms. 800. A Drying-Kiln for General Purposes is a useful building for a corn fann in a wet climate, and it may be easily constructed, at very little expense, and scarcely any loss of room J since the drying-floor may be used as a granary or store-room, when not MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 403 required for drying on. In the north of Russia it is frequently found necessary to dry the corn, while in sheaf, in a particular description of kiln, the characteristic of which is, that the floor is of wooden rafters about a foot apart, and at least twenty feet above the hearth on wliich the fuel is burnt. There are %'arious uses to which a farmer could apply such a kihi as might be used for drying either malt or hops ; and since it is very desirable for every farmer who grows barley, to make his own malt, and brew his own ale, we think a drying-kiln ought to be considered as a part of the farmery on every large farm. 801. A Cider-house is only essential to an orchard farm. Where the fruit, as in Devonshire, is ground between rollers, the house for containing these need not be large ; but where it is ground in a circular trough by a stone roller mill, as in Worcestershire, greater extent of space is requisite. It seems to be agreed on by the most competent judges, that the Worcestershire practice is by far the best ; for, while the fruit is merely torn and crushed to pieces by being passed between two revolving cylinders, it, together with the rind and seeds, is reduced to a pulpy mass by the continued revolution of the stone wheel in the trough. The exposure of the pulp to the atmosphere, while this process is going forward, is also more favourable to its absorption of oxygen, than that given to it by the cylinder mill, from which it di-ops at once into a vat. Hence the great superiority, in flavour, of the Herefordshire and Worcestershire cider over that of Devonshire. It may be observed, also, that the malic acid corrodes the metal of the iron cylinders, and thereby injures the liquor ; and fiuther, that the machinery which impels these cylinders is much more liable to get out of order, than the extremely simple apparatus by which the roller mills are driven. In choosing a stone for a roller to grind fruit, all such as contain lime must be avoided, on accomit of the action which the acid of the fruit would necessarily have on it. Granite, quartzose rock, or millstone grit, is therefore necessary. The stones are mounted so as to turn in a circle of from ten to twelve feet in diameter, in the manner which we shall describe when we give an example in our succeeding section. 802. A Limekiln is a most valuable article on a farm containing limestone, or with limestone in its neighbourhood. We are even of opinion that, where fuel is abundant, a kiln for burning a portion of the soil of the farm, whether calcareous or clayey, would be a valuable source of manure ; because all calcined earths, in consequence of their affinity for oxygen and carbonic acid gas, decompose air, water, and insoluble organic matter. Almost all clayey soils contain a certain proportion of lime ; and it has been found that when such clays are calcined, and spread on any soil, even the same as that from which they were taken, they add to its friability and fertility. There are various rude modes of burning lime adopted in different parts of the country : in some districts it is mixed with the fuel, and burned in heaps ; in others it is burned in kilns in the form of an inverted cone, or of an egg with the broad end uppermost ; but the most improved form has been determined, by Mr. Menteath of Closeburn, after long experience, to be that of an inverted wedge rounded at the angles. The advantage of the wedge or oval form in the ground plan of a kiln is, that it admits of two or more openings at the bottom for emptying the kiln, by which that work can be more speedily performed than in the common round kilns, which admit of only one opening ; and by which improvement, of course, more lime can be burned in a shorter time. The great object, in burning lime, is to burn it thoroughly, with the least possible expense of fuel, and in the shortest time ; and for these purposes the kilns of the most improved construction, in addition to the wedge shape for the expeditious emptying of the kilns, have either non-conducting movable covers, or very small openings at top, into which the fuel and limestones are thrown. The first inventor of tlie cover for limekilns was Booker of Dublin ; but they have since been greatly improved by Mr. Menteath, as we shall show hereafter, in givuig designs. A most scientific combination of a limekiln with a coke oven has been made by Mr. Heathorn of Maidstone ; in which the lime is burned by the gases which are driven off" from the coal while it is being turned into coke, and which gases would other- wise be entirely lost. Of this kiln, also, we shall hereafter give a plan. 803. Buildings for carrying on Agricultural Manufactures, such as making potato flour, extracting sugar from the beet, maple, or cane ; distilling spirits ; crushing seeds for oil ; preparing woad, or weld, or flax, or hemp, and similar operations, have nothing so peculiar in them as to demand the particular study of the Architect ; the building being, in all these and similar cases, rendered subservient to the machinery. 804. Water is essential to every farmery, both for supplying the cattle with it to drink, for washing the feet of horses, &c., and for other purposes of cleanliness. The most convenient form of supplying this is from a well with a pump, in a central part of the yard. If the subsoil do not naturally afford water, the well, or in that case the tank, must be supplied artificially, either by pipes laid from some distant spring, pond, or brook ; or from the rain which falls on the roofs of the buildings. We have already, § 151, given Mr. Waistell's design for a tank, and shall here submit a plan which has been sent us by our ingenious and most scientific contributor Mr. Mallet. 404 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 805. Mallet's Tank, fig. 822, is calculated to save expense ; first, by using a figure of maximum capacity and minimum surface ; and, next, by being able to dispense entirely with the centring, which, according to the present practice, is used for arching over tanks. ]Mr. Mallet proposes for very large tanks to adopt a spherical form ; but for any of less than five or six feet in diameter, a sliort cylinder with hemispherical ends, as shown in fig. 822. The excavation being made, the building is commenced, either with a single brick at the bottom, a ; or better with a circular piece of stone laid on a layer of tenacious clay, tempered as dry as possible, well beaten together, and previously mixed with some salt to prevent tlie worms from working through it. This layer of clay, b, completely surrounds the brickwork in every part, to make it retain the water. The bottom part is now built all with common mortar, in the form of an inverted dome, nine inches thick ; then the perpendicular part, c ; and, lastly, the upper dome. Now, any common arch may be built without centring as far up as where the courses lie at an angle of about thirty- two degrees, or what is called the angle of repose for masonry ; that is, where the bricks will first begin to slip off; but a brick dome may be built of any size, entirely without centring, for the following reason : — Referring to fig. 823, d d are two bricks supposed to belong to part of the course of bricks next above that at the angle of repose. Each of these is to be considered, with the mortar in which it is embedded, as a quadrangular prismatic frustum, whose sides all incline towards the centre of the hemisphere at e : now, the upper surfaces of these two bricks form an internal or reentering angle with one another, from the position they lie in on the preceding courses ; that is, they lean against each other, as if tlicy lay on opposite inclined planes, as shown in fig. 824. If, then, these 822 823 bricks slip, they must do so in the line e f; but, in doing so, they must approach each other ; but they are already in contact, therefore they cannot slip. This demonstration applies to any greater number of bricks, until the whole course is finished, when the bricks are sustained by their lateral thrust. There is a limit to the weight of the voussoir (the overhanging part of an arch, looking up from under it) wliich will support itself in this way, as must bo obvious to every one from the common jjrinciples of gravitation. It is also obvious that a dome may thus be eitlicr left open, or closed at top. To make the tank perfectly watertight, it is finally coated over two or three times with coal tar inside. A manhole is shown at >^ ' "^=^^ _ — . 843 412 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. hanging post is continued down nine inches at bottom, so as to form a jjiyot for working in a socket fixed in a stone ; and up, so as to turn in a liook. The shutting post admits of the application of anv description of fastening ; one of the best for a cattle-yard, to which this gate is particularly adapted, is a spring latch, which shuts into a recess in the falling post, as seen in the figure. These gates are manufactured in the workshops of the inventor, at Catrine, and the prime cost, in 1831, was found to be about 30s. 829. Cottain and HallenS Iron Field Gate, fig. 842, is made of wrought iron, the hori- zontal bars and braces being made of flat bar iron, riveted together at every intersec- tion, in order to prevent the swagging or sinking of the head or falling style. The lower rails are placed suf- ficiently close together to prevent pigs and lambs from passing through between them. This gate can be supplied, singly, for 26s. each, and by the dozen 10 per cent lower. Mr. Cottam considers this gate stronger, more durable, and far more economical, than any gate which can be made of wood. 830. The Closebum Field Gate is the invention of C. J. Stuart Menteath, Esq., and of which he has lately sent us a sketch, fig. 843. The material is timber ; the construction is very light and strong, and so economical that it may be made in some parts of the country, where young fir trees are abun- dant, for 7s. When the head sinks, it is raised by the simple operation of adding another washer be- tween the key, and that which retains the hook of the upper part of the hang- ing style at a. The fasten- ing latch is protected from the rubbing of cattle, by being made to shut into a recess in the falling post at b. When gates of this sort are made of young timber, it is, after being sawn up, steeped in lime water, which is found to add to its durability ; and, when well seasoned and put together as a gate, it receives three coats of boiling hot tar. 831. Gates to open hy Machinery. One of these, for a park or farm, made to open on the approach of a carriage, will be foimd in our Encyc. of Ayr., § 3107 ; and we sliall here describe two others ; one of which is used as a turnpike gate at Scotforth, in the neighbourhood of Lancaster, and the other is the invention of our correspondent, Mr. Saul, of that town. Mr. Said has sent us the following account of the mode of opening the gate at Scotforth. In fig. 844, a a represent two fixtures ; each consisting of two posts, with rollers between, for guiding the chains h and c. The chain b, fixed to the lower bar of the gate, is tlie opening chain ; and the chain c is the shutting one. There is a continuation of these two chains in tunnels under the road, represented by the dotted lines d d ■ and both chains pass under a roller at e, after which they rise through a wooden tube to f, in the sleeping-room of the toll-house. They are there worked by a winch, which being turned one way opens the gate, and the other way shuts it. Mr. Saul was informed by the gatekeeper that this gate did not work freely ; and he has suggested what is obviously a far more efficient plan, of which he has given us an explanation, accompanied by the sketch, fig. 845. In this figure, y represents a horizontal shaft jilaced in a tunnel made across the road directly under the gate ; working at one end on the heel the hanging post by a pinion at /;, and at the other by a beveled pinion at i, on the upright shaft k. This shaft has another pinion at its upper end, which works into tlie pinion I, on the axle of the winch m, supposed to be at the bedside of the gatekeepei. It is evident that, by turning this winch, the gate may be opened or shut to any extent at pleasure. The whole of the machinery may be concealed under ground, and in the wall of the house ; the winch alone protruding into the bed-room of the gatekeeper. Any millwright could easily make a working plan from the above description and sketch. It may sometimes be worth while to have the princijial entrance gate to a farm-yard con- itructed so as to open in this manner, and tlie use of the contrivance for toll gates, and for the coach-yaid gates of inns, is obvious. We hope also that the time is not far distant MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 844 413 when the occupiers of mansions, whose approach roads are guarded by entrance lodges and gates, will so far study the comforts of their gatekeepers as to introduce this piece of mechanism, or something better, to prevent the necessity of their getting out of bed to 845 I^ r^ n — ^ open the gate in the night-time. In Germany the toll-bar or beam (schlagbaum) is balanced by a weight at one end, and the other is held down by a cord, which passes under one pulley and over another into the bed-room of the gatekeeper ; who, without rising from his bed, pushes out through a small opening a long-handled iron ladle, in which he receives the toll, and, afterwards untying the cord, the weight raises the bar, and the traveller passes through. 832. A Gate with a Puzzle Latch, to serve as a Substitute for a Lock, fig. 846, is in use on the estate of R. Bevan, Esq., Rougham, Suffolk, and the following description of it has been sent us by Mr. John Levett. The latch, a, is fastened by a brace, with a screw bolt and nut to the head of the gate, and it works on the joint b. When this latch is drawn back by pressure on the top of a, it raises the rod c, which is connected with the catch d at e. The catch d being now raised, the pin f, fixed in the head of the gate, is allowed to pass, and the gate is opened. The catch d, and plate for the rod, marked c, are fastened to the post with four screw nails and two screw bolts. 4141 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 8<€ a SuBSECT. 3. The Farmery considered as a whole. 833. The Farmery, as a whole, may be considered with reference to its situation on the farm ; its extent and character relatively to the size of the farm, and to the kind of culture pursued or of crops raised ; its position relatively to that of the farm house ; tlie style of its architectural design ; and the materials of its construction. 834. The Situation of every farmery ought, as far as practicable, to be in the centre of the farm ; because this will reduce the labour of carting home produce, and carting out manure, to a minimum. When the surface of a farm is very irregular, or where it consists of the sloping side of a hill, the site of the farmery should be chosen at that point of height in the slope where the extra-labour of carrying home the crop will always be balanced by the extra-facility of carting out the manure; and where, as much as possible, the labour of the two operations may be equalised. The most difficult case for choosing a proper site for the farmery is where the lands lie on the two sides of a valley : here there is ho choice but that of placing the farmery in the valley, and laying out the fences, roads, and even ridges of the fields, in directions athwart the slopes, so as to diminish all the farm labours to the extent of one half of what they would be by ascend- ing and descending in straight lines. All labours with ploughs, carts, or waggons, and even harrowing, and the manual labours of hoeing and reaping, may be diminished on this principle. In laying out farmeries in all old countries which have been long inter- sected by hedges and roads, and the boundary lines of all landed property in which is exceedingly irregular, numerous cases occur where true principles must give way to circumstances ; and all that the Architect can aim at is, after weighing well the argu- ments for and against particular situations, to make choice of that which has a maximum of advantages. Our intelligent contributor, Mr. Main, has paid much attention to this subject, and has sent us the following observations : — " Proximity to a high road, to a natural pond, or to the ^umnoit of a dry knoll, in order to be free from floods, is an advan- MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 415 tage which is never disregarded by the British fanner ; but, for the sake of tliose, we often see others of much greater importance wholly neglected. If the buildings are on the highest ground belonging to the farm, it follows that carting out manure from the yards must be facilitated ; but that, on the other liand, all the produce will have to be carried up-hill ; and if, for the sake of water, the homestead be placed in a valley, that these circumstances will be reversed. A gentle eminence, near the centre of the farm, is, on all accounts, the most eligible, provided only that water can conveniently be had near it ; but, now that the practicability of obtaining water by boring, in almost any situation, has become so well known, no homestead need be wrongly placed merely on that score. Some old homesteads are badly arranged in other respects ; such as placing them across public footpaths or bridlewa3's ; in which case gates are frequently left open by careless passengers, and much damage is often sustained by the straying out of cattle, &c. There are even instances of farm houses standing on one side of a turnpike road, and the barns and yards on the other ; but surely accident, and not design, must have produced such absurdities." 835. The Size of the Farmery, and the Kind of Buildings which compose it, must necessarily be regulated by the extent of the farm, and by the kind of culture pursued on it. A farm wholly arable will obviously require different buildings from one chiefly in pasture ; and an arable farm, on a strong alluvial soil, on which wheat, beans, and clover are chiefly cultivated, will require different buildings from a farm on a light soil, on which turnips form a principal article in the succession of crops ; and, consequently, extensive cattle-sheds are required for lodging the cattle to consume them. On this subject Mr. Main observes : — " The size of a farm regulates the extent and number of the build- ings belonging to it. The lowest grade of farmeries has only a dwelling-house of two or four rooms, with a small barn on one side, and a cow-house and stable on the other. A front fence (generally carried across from the outer end of the stable to that of the barn) forms the yard. The rick-yard is behind the barn, and the orchard and garden are behind the stable and dwelling-house. The carts or waggons, when not in use, are usually kept loaded with straw to preserve them from the weather ; pigsties lean against the end of the house or stable ; and the whole is on a very homely and limited scale. Such a homestead is only fitted for a farm of from forty to sixty acres. Large farms require buildings in proportion. Those belonging to a farm of 500 or 1000 acres appear like a little town. In arranging these buildings, it should always be contrived to have all the barn doors and cattle-yards in view from the dwelling-house. Tlie superintending eye of the master, or of some of his family, assists the vigilance of servants, and accidents among the live stock are sooner observed and prevented, or remedied. Another point, in disposing the buildings, should be, to have the lowest on the south, and the liighest on the north and east sides, for the purpose of shelter to the yard. Where the buildings are insufficient for the purpose of shelter, closely planted ranks of spruce firs are available. A horsepond is generally supposed to be a desirable appendage to a farm yard : but a p.-.imp and trough in the yard are far more suitable. Cart horses are liable to greasy heels; and the having their legs wetted in the pond causes irritation, which they generally indicate by constant stamping for an hour or two afterwards ; and this is sometimes attended with dangerous wounds, loss of shoes, &c. The pantry and dairy are always placed on the north side of the house. The latter, on a dairy farm, is usually a large clean room, with a stone floor, four or five feet below the surface; and a ceiling lofty and plastered. At one end, on the ground surface, is the churning and scalding room ; and on the outside of this, next the yard, are the hog-cisterns, for the reception of the whey, skim-milk, &c. It is an advantage to have barn room enough for every crop, especially in climates where the corn is quickly and thoroughly dried. But in cold humid districts of countiy, it is absolutely necessary either to have Dutch barns, or covered rick stands, § 816, or to set the corn abroad in small cocks, thatched, to receive the sun and wind for several months before housing. Agriculturists are generally of opinion that a well-proportioned farm should consist of one third of meadow and pasture ground, and two thirds of arable land ; because all the advantages of the plough and the hoof will thus be so well balanced, and each will assist the other so beneficially, that there need be neither redundancy nor waste of any of the produce ; but aU may be turned to the best account in the shortest time. In grazing farms, the above proportions are reversed ; one third of arable land being considered necessary to supply litter for the cattle, and straw for thatching ricks, &c. The buildings on such farms are also different ; as, instead of barns, they have extensive feeding-houses." We might enlarge on this subject at great length, from the circum- stance of having been early initiated in farming under our parental roof, and having since farmed extensively on our own account, as well as from having designed several farmeries, and executed some of them : but having already treated on the subject in detail, in our Encyclopcedia of Agriculture, we purposely refer the reader to that work ; being desirous of not repeating any part of it in the present one, and of saying no more on 416 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. the subject of agriculture than wliat is absolutely necessary to put the Architect in possession of the requisite data and desiderata of the buildings which he will be required to design. 836. The most desirable Position of the Farm House, relativehj to the Farmery, has already more than once (see § 740 and 741) been incidentally mentioned; and it is only necessary to repeat, that it should always be such as to command as complete a view of the yards and the doors of the buildings as possible. For this purpose, wlien the living- rooms of the liouse have windows on two sides, as in fig. 749, § 740, the diagonal of tlie square of tlie house ought to be parallel to the square of the farmery ; ))ut wlicn the parlour or living-room has windows only from one side, its front may be parallel with the front of the farmery. On whichever side of the farmery the house is placed, the buildings or walls on tliat side should always be so low as to be overlooked by the dog- house and the windows of the parlour. 837. The Style of Architectural Design, in Farm Houses and Farmeries, may be con- sidered in two points of view : first, with reference to the nature of the buildings ; that is, their magnitude, shape, materials, and uses ; and, secondly, with reference to the other buildings of a superior character, when there are such on the estate to which they belong. Grecian architecture is best suited for low extended buildings, and for build- ings constructed of timber, and abounding in piers and posts ; and Gothic architecture is best calculated for lofty buildings of stone, without detached outside piers, posts, or pillars. The prevailing lines in Grecian arcliitecture are horizontal, and lead the eye along the eaves of the roof ; the prevailing lines in Gothic architecture are perpendicular, and lead the eye upwards, by long, narrow, upright openings, and high gables. A Gothic building of one story produces no effect, because there is no room for the ex- tension of its characteristic lines ; but a low Grecian building may have the full measure of its characteristic expression by extending its length. It is clear, therefore, that the Grecian style is better adapted for farm buildings tlian the Gothic style ; and that, if expense were not an object, the piers and posts of a farm yard might be, with propriety, finished as Grecian columns and pilasters ; and open cattle-sheds and cart-sheds might show the nol)lest colonnades, arcades, and piazzas. On the other hand, when the mansion, or chateau, or convent, or college, or school, to which the farm belongs, is in the Gothic style, tliere is a propriety in yielding to accidental circumstances, and conferring the same character of style on the farm buildings. As this cannot be done by general forms, since it would be useless to carry stables and cattle-sheds three or four stories high, it is to be attempted chiefly by the character of the openings, and by highly raised roofs : the barn may have something of the forms and proportions of a cathedral ; the cart and cattle sheds, of cloisters ; and the stables and cow-houses, of lodgings for monks, like those common in old monasteries. We throw out this idea respecting the Gothic style more in conformity with the taste of the times than with our own, which in every case of farm buildings is in favour of the greatest simplicity of design, and of the indication of the Grecian style rather than of any other. 838. The Materials with which Farm Buildings are constructed are commonly those which are most abundant in the given locality. As the improvements which are con- stantly taking place in agriculture necessarily occasion changes in the buildings for storing or consuming its produce, it does not seem essential that the constructions on a farm ought to be of the same degree of din-ability as those for a dwelling-house or for a public building. Indeed, as society advances, change will enter more and more into every thing, and almost the only buildings that will eventually require to be made of great durability will be those of a public nature ; such as bridges, which ought to be the most durable of all architectural constructions, piers, quays, sewers, public offices, parochial schools, &c. As the walls of the greater part of farm buildings have no weight to supjjort but the roof; as the retention of a high temperature within is seldom, if ever, an object ; and as scarcely any fires are requisite, timber seems a very suitable material of construc- tion ; and in all coimtries where wood abounds it will be found the cheapest. The objection hitherto has been the want of durability, but this evil may be in a great degree remedied by raising proper footings of masonry, as basements for the framework of the walls ; by thoroughly seasoning the timber before it is used ; and by coating it over, after it is put together, with tar, or some description of jiaint or other adhesive material, which will effectually exclude the air and the weather. Walls of mud, or of compressed earth, are still more economical than those of timber; and if they were raised on brick or stone foundations, the height of a foot or eighteen inches above the ground, or above the highest point at wliicli dung or moist straw was ever likely to be placed against them, their durability would be equal to that of marble, if properly constructed, and kept per- fectly dry. The cob walls of Devonsliire, which are formed of clay and straw trodden together by oxen, have been known to last above a century without requiring the slightest repair ; and we think that there are many farmers, especially in America and Austrab'a, MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 417 who, if they knew how easily walls of this description could be built, would often avail themselves of them for various agricultural purposes. We shall therefore here describe the Devonshire practice, as furnished us by the Rev. W. T. E , who has himself built several houses of two stories with cob walls, in the mamier which he details in the follow- ing paragraph ; and who, moreover, informs us that he was born in a cob-wall parsonage, built in the reign of Elizabeth, if not a tew years earlier, which was only taken down last year (18:31) to be rebuilt. 839. Cob Walls, as they are called, are composed of earth and straw mixed up with water like mortar, and well beaten and trodden together. Chappie, in his Survetj of Devon, 1785, derives cob from the British word chwap (ictus), or from the Greek KOTTTos (contusiis), becausc the earth and straw ought to be well beaten or pounded together. The earth nearest at hand is generally used, and the more loamy the more suitable it is considered for the purpose. These walls are made two feet thick, and are raised upon a foundation of stonework. The higher the stonework is carried the better, as it elevates the cobwork from the moisture of the ground. After a wall is raised to a certain height, it is allowed some weeks to settle, before more is laid on. The first rise, as it is called, is about four feet ; the next not so high ; and so every succeeding rise is diminished in height as the work advances. The solidity of cob walls depends much upon their not being hurried in the process of inaking them ; for, if hurried, the walls will surely be crippled ; that is, they will swag, or swerve from the perpendicular. It is usual to pare down tlie sides of each successive rise before another is added to it. The instrument used for this purpose is like a baker's peel (a kind of wooden shovel for taking the bread out of the oven), but the cob-parer is made of iron. The lintels of the doors and windows, and of the cupboards or other recesses, are put in as the work advances, (allowance being made for their settling), bedding them on cross pieces, and the walls being carried up solid. The respective openings are cut out after the work is well settled. In Devonshire, tlie builders of cob- wall houses like to begin their work when the birds begin to build their nests, in order that there may be time to cover in the shell of the building before winter. The outer walls are plastered the following spring. Should the work be overtaken by winter before the roof is on, it is usual to put a temporary covering of thatch upon the walls, to protect them from the frost. 840. In forming cob walls, one man stands on the work to receive the cob, which is pitched up to him by a man below ; the man on the work arranging it and treading it down. Each workman generally uses a common pitchfork, though sometimes a three- pronged fork is employed. Cob houses are considered remarkably warm and healthy ; and they are generally covered with thatch. The durability of cob is said to depend upon its having " a good hat and a good pair of shoes ;" that is, a good roof and a good foundation. The Devonshire thatching is very superior to that in most other parts of England. It is done with combed wheat straw, called reed, consisting of the stifij imbruised, and broken stalks, which have been carefully separated from the fodder straw by the thresher, and bound up in large sheaves called nitches. In this way the thatcher is enabled to finish his work much more neatly than in other counties where no reed is made. Instead of brick nogging for partitions, cob is used for filling in the frame- work, which is previously lathed with stout slit oak or hazel. This sort of work is called rab and dab. 841. Cob walls thatched are very common for garden boundaries. Tlie trees ai-e trained against them by being pinned with maple hooks ; but such walls in the course of time become full of holes, and afford a hiding-place for insects ; they, therefore, frequently require a fresh coating of plaster. 842. In estimating the merits of cob walls, it must not be forgotten, that, when pulled down, the materials are good for nothing but as manure ; whereas the materials of brick, stone, and sometimes even of timber walls may be used in rebuilding. It also deserves to be remarked, that earth or mud walls are not in use in any district of Britain which is in an advanced state of improvement ; they appear to be chiefly suitable to a rude state of society, where every inan is his own builder, and where mechanical skill, and good tools for working in timber and stone, are scarce. However, though they cannot be recommended for general adoption where brick and stone walls are common, yet the very circumstance of their being neglected, or not known, in such places, renders it pro- bable that a great economy would be produced by their occasional use ; on the same principle that, in a country where the common labourers live on bread and butcher's meat, one of them who should determine to subsist merely on oatmeal or potatoes would save money. 843. For covering the Roofs of Farm Buildings, the cheapest material will generally be the straw raised on the farm, which, when laid on thick, and with a steep slope, lasts many years. The spray of trees previously well seasoned, hoop chips, and the chips from other articles made of coppice wood, form more durable materials for thatching with than Y \ 418 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. straw, and we think they might be more used than they are, with advantage. Never- theless, thatched roofs have disappeared with the improvement of agriculture in all the more advanced districts of Britain, and have given place to tiles and slates. It would appear, therefore, that mud walls and tliatched roofs, like the practice of using oxen in field labours, notwithstanding all that is said in favour of the former for excluding extremes of temperature, and of the latter as combining a working with a beef-producing animal, are fast falling into disuse. Our own opinion, with respect to thatched roofs, is, that in very many cases they are preferable, both for farm buildings and cottages, to roofs of tiles or slates, as these are commonly constructed, even where the latter two are cheaper, because they are less liable to admit through them the influence of every change of temperature. 844. For Details of Construction common to buildings in general, we refer to tliat part of this work which treats of the practice of building ; or the Architect may consult Waistell's very excellent chapter (v.) on this subject. Chap. II. A Miscellaneous Collection of Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, in different Styles of Architecture, and adapted to different Kinds of Farms; with Specifications, Estimates, and accompanying Remarks. 845. The following Designs exhibit various combinations of tlie separate buildings, courts, and yards which compose a farmery ; and exhibit also farm houses with different degrees of accommodation, from those of the gentleman's bailiff, and of the rent-paying occupier of a hundred acres, to that of the wealthy proprietor who cultivates his own estate. Though there is little room for a display of style in the necessarily simple form of farm buildings, yet we shall endeavour to show in what manner style may be intro- duced even in the humblest of them ; because the farm house is as susceptible of archi- tectural design as any other dwelling ; and -n-hen it is in the same style as that of the farmery, it gives a first impression, which should be found to be echoed, as it were, through all the subordinate buildings. With respect to the arrangement of these Designs, it is enough to say, that, like those of the cottage dwellings in the preceding Book, it is miscellaneous. Design I. — A Bailiff's Cottage, in the Old English Style, intended for the Manager of a Farm in the Neighbourhood of London. 846. Situation. This dwelling, which has been erected at Bury Hill, near Dork- ing, Surrey, the seat of Charles Barclay, Esq., was designed by John Perry, Esq., architect, Godalming, and executed by contract, in 1831, under his direction. It is situated on the south side of the farm yard, which will form the subject of our next Design, and of which the bailiff has the management. We were shown the house and the yard by INIr. Barclay, in October, 1831, and were so much gratified with both, that we requested his permission to publish Designs of them. This permission he kindly granted ; and, l>y the liberality of our excellent friend, Mr. Perry, we are here enabled to give them, with the most ample details of construction, and with tlie original specifi- cations and estimates signed by the contractors who executed the work. 847. Accommodation. The ground floor, fig. 847, p. 419, contains a porchway, u ; 84S s , ,'llll!li^ t 1 849. hall and staircase, J; parlour, c; pnntry, <7; store room, e; dairy,/; scalding-room, or dairy scullery, g, containing a pump, h ; oven, i ; drying-room, h ; and terrace, /. The, FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 1 19 D =0 Ft- III! lY, , . I ] -30 Ft. 420 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. ^^^ '■^.P •mmmJJJTIii!}/"/!'-- ■'"'' ' -^ 'm/imm/mwiW. 853 FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 421 chamber floor, fig. 848, to a scale of twenty feet to aii inch, contains four good bed- rooms, m, n, o, Pi each with fireplaces, and all commodiously entered from the landing, q, of the stairs, r. The basement story, fig. 849, to the same scale, contains an outer cellar, s, and an inner cellar, t. There is an area, w, to the kitchen window, with a trap over a drain, v, which is conducted under the cellar floor ; in one corner of which, another trap, w, is placed over it, for carrying off any moisture spilled in the cellar. 848. Construction. The walls are of local sandstone, in random courses, with brick arches and coins ; and the window sills, lintels, labels, and chimney shafts are of Bath stone. The posts of the entrance and drying porches, are of oak and the superstruc- ture of the drying-porch is of framed oak, filled in with brick nogging flat, as shown in the elevation of the south front, fig. 850, p. 419. The roof is covered with plain tiles. The different elevations are shown in p. 420 ; fig. 851 being the north front, fig. 852 the east fi-ont, and fig. 853 the west front. The ground floor is raised three feet six inches above the general surface, and the terrace three feet ; as shown in the diflTerent elevations, by the line x, which represents the solid ground, as compared with the line y, which represents the surface of the terrace. The cellar is shown at z, in fig. 850, p. 419, in fig. 853, p. 420, and in fig. 854 ; the latter being a section across the cellar, z ; the 854 parlour, c ; the kitchen, /; and the bed-rooms, o, p. The foundations and their footings are distinctly seen in this section, and in tlie different elevations. Fig. 855 is an end view of the drying-porch, and fig. 856 a side \iew of the same ; ii55 ^^--^ 1 42^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. both to a scale of one eighth of an inch to a foot. The columns here, it will be observed, are twisted ; a practice not unfrequent in old English cottages of the better kind, and which is in perfect accordance witli the enridied barge boards and the turned balusters of the balustrade. Fig. 857 shows the plan of the drying-porch. Fig. 858, to a scale of one inch to a foot, is a section across the balustrade, in which a is the top rail, and b the bottom rail. Fin-. 859, to the same scale, is a section of the moulded face of the beam, c, in figs. 855 and 856. Fi"-. 860 is a section of the top of tlie columns, on which the beam, c, is placed. Flo'. 861 is a section of the base of the same columns. Fig. 862, to a scale of one fourth of an inch to a foot, shows one of the piers to the parapet of the terrace, supposed to be of stonework ; in which d is the line of the solid ground ; e, the surface of the new ground ; /, the level of the terrace ; g, rough stone- work J and h, worked stone. 858 Fig. 863 shows the bottom part of the gable post, seen in fig. 865, and which also serves as a pattern for the pendants from the verge boards. The scale of this figure is two inches to a foot. Fig. 864 is a section across the eaves of the roof, in which are seen the face of the wall, i; the bed moulding, k; the soffit, I; the situation of the bracket, m; the eaves moulding, n ; the rafter, o ; and the eaves board, p. The scale of this figure is two inches to a foot. Fig. 865 is a view of part of the barge board, and the gable post ; in which are shown the sunk panel, q, of the pinnacle ; the gable post, r ; the pierced openings in the verge board, s s ; the raised ornaments on the same, t t ; the cross section of the verge board, u u ; and the cement verge of the tiling, v v. The scale of this figure is two inches to u foot. FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 1-23 f Fig. 866 is the front view of the entrance porch, and Fig. 867 is the side view of the same porch ; both are drawn to a scale of six feet to an inch. Fig. 868 is a cross section of the oak coping of the wall of the porch. Fig. 869 is a view and sections of the bracket part of the post, and part of the arch, in the gable of the porch. In this figure, a is the commencement of the arch, which 424 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 8G6 C 867 corresponds with the same letter in fig. 866 ; b b show the section of the moulded face of the arch ; c c c are the three ornaments shown at c in figs. 866 and 867 ; d, e, f are the ornaments shown as decorating the outer sides of the corner posts in figs. 866 and 867 J and ff is the side view of the brackets shown at g in the same figures ; A is a section of the face of the corner post, and of the impost over it; ii, the front view of the bracket ; k, a front view of the impost over the bracket ; /, the soflRt of the arch ; and m, the inside view of the corner post, shown without ornament. Fig. 870 is a baluster in the side of the entrance-porch, in which m is a section of the top rail. FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 425 Fig. 87 1 shows tlie gate-post, o, and a cross section of the top rail of the gate, p. Fig. 872, bottom rail of the gate, g'j and lower part of a baluster, under tlie rail, r. Fig. 873 shows a horizontal section of the gate-posts, s, and of the gate-head, f. Fig. 874 is a baluster of the gate, different from that in the side rail, shown in fig. 870. Fig. 875 is the elevation of the external door of the house, to a scale of four feet to an inch ; below which are the plan, a, to the same scale ; and the section of the muntings, b ; the latter to the scale of a quarter of an inch to an inch. 875 Fig. 876 is a horizontal section of part of a window, showing the stone window jaml>, c, stone munting, d, and the cast-iron frames of the windows let into them, e e e. Fig. 877 is a section of the stone drip mouldings, or labels, put over the windows, to a scale of one inch to a foot. Fig. 878 shows three sections of different parts of the chimney shafts, to a scale of one inch to a foot ; f is a section of the head of the shafts ; p is a section of the base; and h is a section of the drip moulding under the base, shown at /; in figs. 879 to 882. Figs. 879 to 882 are the elevations of the four different patt9i-ns of chimney shafts, below which are the plans, i i i i. 879 881 1 1 1 Sl=!p^^ 1/ (7\ \ 1 1 / S. J>-, ^ 8S2 426 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Fig. 883 is a section showing the footings of the walls, and their depth under the original surface line, k k, of the ground on whicli they are built. 883 £ } 14 Hi 884 I H U 18 Fig. 884 is a section showing the relative height of the ground floor, I, and the surface of the terrace, m. In this figure are also shown the joists of the ground floor, n ; the wall plate on which they are placed, o ; and the chain plate, p, which is continued round the whole building. Particulars of the several Works to he done in huilding a Bailiff's Cottage at Bury Hill, near Dorking, Surrey, for Charles Barclay, Esq., according to the Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Details, severally signed by the Parties undertaking the same. 849. Excavator's, Bricklayer's, and Well-digger's Work. To dig out the earth for the basement story, and the several trenches for tlie foundations of the whole of the building, of the respective depths and widths required, and to fill in and well ram round the work. Surplus earth arising therefrom to be spread round the building, to form a terrace, as shown in the plan. To dig a well in the dairy scullery, 4 feet clear in diameter, 45 feet deep ; to steen the same in 4-inch brickwork, and to dome it over in 9-inch brickwork. The soil and rubbish which may be made during the carrying on of the works to be taken out of the building, from time to time, as occasion may require. All the bricks to be used in the building, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well- burned stocks. The mortar to be composed of the best well-burned grey lime, and clean sharp sand, well tempered together. The footings and foundations to be built of sand- stone, and below the ground line to be grouted with hot lime and sand. The remain- der of the walls above ground to be built of sandstone laid in neat random courses, with a flat joint garreted on the external face ; the stones to be properly headed and prepared, and flushed solid in mortar ; the whole of the coins, arches, and inverted arches to be of brickwork, and all the walls to be built of the several heights and thick- nesses shown in the drawings, leaving the several apertures therein described. The chimney breasts, jambs, and backs to be of brickwork, with inverted arches under the lowest fireplaces, the flues to be properly gathered and pargeted (this operation is usually performed with loam and cow-dung ; but quicklime and pounded brick are found far better, and are now generally used by the best London builders), 1 2 inches in diameter in the clear. A strong iron chimney bar (see § 602, fig. 542) to be put to each of the fireplaces, and 4-inch brick trimmers to be turned wliere required. To build stone foundations for the porchways, stone underpinning for the partitions, brick foundations for the sink and to the dairy steps, and an area of 9-inch brickwork to the cellar window, paved with bricks, with sinkhole and drain to deliver the water into the main di-ain. To pave the cellar and passage adjoining with building bricks laid flat in mortar ; and the pantry, store room, and kitchen with dressed paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar ; and to wheel in such sand as may be required for properly levelling and current- ing the same. To put hollow tile drains, 7 inches clear in the bore, where shown by dotted lines in the plan ; altogether a length of 200 feet ; and to provide and fix 6 east- iron stink-traps, 8 inches square, one at each of the external apertures thereof; the whole to be laid with a proper fall, and suflScient depth to deliver the water away from the lowest part of the building. To pave the drying-porch with pebbles ; to build brick steps, and to bed the oak nosings (the nosing of a step is the front part of the tread, between the line formed by the meeting of the riser with the tread) to the cellar stairs. To build the foundations, the enclosure walls, and an oven 4 feet by 3 feet 9 inches in the clear, properly domed, plastered, and paved ; and to find and fix the requisite iron- work and door for the same complete. To build brick benches, with 4-inch arches and piers, in the dairy, to receive a slate covering. To fill in the nogging partitions with brick nogging flat. The bricklayer to find scaffolding and ladders, and to fix and refix the same as occasion may require, as well for his own work as for the other trades requiring tlie use of them ; and to allow the same to remain till the external part of the house and chimney shafts shall be completed. The walls to be carried up in an ujiright, FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4^7 substantial, and workmanlike manner ; and in the progress of the buiklin{j no part of the work to be raised more than 4 feet above the other, except in the pediments, but the whole to be carried up in a regidar and equal manner. To fix the wooden bricks, and to bed all the plates, bond timber, and lintels in loam. To cut all the rakes and splays, and all the chasings required for tlie lead flashings ; to make good and stop the same with Roman cement ; to bed and point the door frames in lime and hair, and to underpin the sills. To cover the whole of the roofing with old sound plain tiles (old are preferred for their picturesque effect) laid on straw to a 7^inch gauge, with heart of oak laths, the hips, ridges, and eaves in mortar : the straw to be of equal thickness throughout, and in sufficient quantity to exclude the light : 835 no crooked, cracked, or cornerless tiles to be used ; and the whole of the tiling to be done with particular care, so as perfectly to exclude the snow, rain, and wind. (The gauge of plain tiling is reckoned from ' the distance which the first and third laths are apart, measuring from centre to centre. For a 7^-inch gauge, the workman nails on a lath, and, with a measure or gauge 7 inches and a half long, finds the place of the third lath ; and, having fixed that, nails another lath between. Tliis aiTangement, when the tiles are hung on, causes them to overlap, so as to show uncovered 3 inches and a quarter of each course. By this means the third tile overlaps the first 2 inches and a half, which makes the work rmper^-ious to rain. This will be rendered clear by the section fig. 885 ; in which a a are the tUes ; b h, the laths ; and c c, the wooden pegs, by which the tiles are hung on the laths.) The fillets, listings, and verges to be of Roman cement. (The fiUets are narrow strips of lime and hair, or cement, put to cover the horizontal joints, where tiling abuts against walls ; the listings are the same upon an inclined plane. The verges are the external edge of the tiling in gables, which are covered with lime and hair, or Roman cement. ) The bricklayer to find all the materials, ropes, boards, tackle, tools, workmanship, and ironwork, for the completion of his work, and the carriage thereof; to do the whole in the best and most workmanlike manner ; and to colom' twice over in good stone colour, to match the stone part of the chimney shafts, the whole of the brick coins and brick part of the chimney shafts. To do all the beam-filling, and wind-pinning required. The whole to be done subject to the pro- visions of the general particular at the end. 850. Plasterer's Work. To lath, lay, set, and colour stone colour, the gable of drving- porch. To lath, lay, set, and white the ceilings of basement story and scalding-room, and to lime-white the walls twice over. — Ground Floor and Chamber Ston,-. To lath, lay, set, and white the whole of the ceilings, except the parlour, which is to be lath, lav, float, set, and whited. To lath, lay, and set the whole of the battenings and strings of the stairs ; and to render set the walls and nogging partitions, so as to fit them for colouring, and in the parlour for papering. All the timbers of the partitions to be diagonal-lathed. The plasterer to find all materials, tools, tressels, boards, moulds, rules, carriage, and workmanship required for the completion of his work ; and to do the same in the best and most workmanlike manner, subject to the provisions in the general particular at the end hereof. [The same person contracts for both the brick- layer's and the plasterer's work, and signs this particular in the following form : — ] I, the undersigned, hereby undertake to perform the foregoing bricklayer's and plasterer's work for the sum of four hundred and eighty-five pounds five shillings and eleven pence. S. B. 851. Mason's Work. To pave with Yorkshire stone paving, properly squared in courses, the porchway, the dairy, and the scalding-room ; the dairy floor to be rubbed ; with proper holes for stink-traps where required ; with Yorkshire steps and risers where shown in the plan, and with a solid Yorkshir-e step at the entrance door of the house. To put Yorkshire curb stones to the drying-porch and area, 5 inches by 4 inches, pro- perly cramped, and run with lead. To put plain Portland stone shelves, mantels, jambs, slips, and bases to the chambers ; and the same, with profiles, and reeded shelf and turned pateras (the representation of a cup in has relief, a common ornament in friezes), in par- lours, with Yorkshire stone hearths, and Portland stone slabs to each. The kitchen to have inch-and-three-quarters Portland stone mantel jambs and shelf. To put a Yorkshire stone sink in the scalding-room, 5 feet long, and 2 feet 3 inches wide, with proper hole for washer. To put moulded window frames, labels, and chimney shafts of Bath stone, properly cramped and run with lead, according to the drawings, and properly to fix, and run with lead, the iron frames, lights, and stanchion bars. To put milled slate benches in the dairy, an inch and a quarter thick, with rounded edges, and milled slate skirting z z 428 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 7 inches high, backed up, and set in Roman cement, in the kitchen, dairy, pantry, and store room. The mason to find all materials, carriage, and workmanship required for the completion of his work in tlie best and most workmanlike manner ; and to fix the whole complete, subject to the conditions in the general particular at the end hereof. [The mason contracting for this, affixes his signature to the same form as before.] The terrace shown in the drawings (see the figures in p. 419 and p. 420) is not de- scribed in this particular, nor included in the estimate ; as the expense depends upon whether the free sandstone, of which it should be built, can be obtained with facility or not. 852. Carpenter's and Jomer''s Work. The whole of the materials to be provided and sawed out square free from wane, of the several scantlings and thicknesses herein sjie- cified ; to be carted to the spot by the contractor, and to consist of the best yellow Dantzic or Memcl fir, or English oak, free from sap, shakes, or large and loose knots. The whole of the carpentry is to be framed in a workmanlike manner, according to the drawings ; the carpenter finding labour, nails, and tools, and all kinds of ironwork required for the purpose ; the whole to be done subject to the i)rovisions of the general pai-ticular at the end hereof. The bond is to pass through the openings, and not to be cut out till the work has settled. To put a chain plate of oak, 6 inches by 4 inches and a half, round the whole of the building, and the middle wall in the centre of the same, at the height shown in the plan ; the whole to be properly halved, and bolted at the laps, and dovetailed at the angles. To put three tiers of bond in the ground floor story, and three tiers in the chamber story, of oak, 3 inches l)y 2 inches and a half; and an oak wall plate under each floor, 4 inches and a half by ?, inches, dovetailed at the angles, and halved and spiked at the laps. To put double oak lintels, 4 inches thick, to all the openings, of the width of the respective walls or reveals, to lie 9 inches on the wall at each end. Oak wooden bricks to be provided in the jambs, for fixing the several linings where required, not exceeding 2 feet apart. — Parlour. To put oak joists, 6 inches by .3 inches, 1 2 inches apart ; the trimmers and trimming joists to be 6 inches by 4 inclies. — Chamber Floor. To put fir joists throughout, 9 inches by 2 inches and a half, 1 2 inches apart. The trimmers and trimming joists to be 9 inches by 3 inches and a halfi with one row of 1 inch and a quarter, fir keys (or strutting pieces) in each of the large chambers. — Ceiling Floor throughout. The ceiling joists to be 4 inches and a half by 2 inches, 12 inches apart, with binding joists, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half, and angle beams fixed with iron screw pins to the tie beams, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half, trimmed to the chimneys, and for a trapdoor over the landing to the stairs. — Roofing. Gutter plate, 8 inches by 4 inches. Tie beams, each in one length, joggled to the plates, 7 inches by 4 inches ; king posts, 9 inches by 3 inches, with three quarters of an inch iron screw pins 2 feet long, with nuts 3 inches long, mortised through the king posts. Struts, 4 inches by 3 inches ; framed principal rafters, 6 inches by 3 inches at bottom, and 4 inches by 3 inches at top ; purlins notched on the back of the principal rafters, 5 inches by 3 inches ; oak wall plate, 5 inches by 3 inches ; pole ]ilate, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half; 1 inch and a half sleepers, 5 inches wide, laid on the back of the rafters to form valleys, 1 inch and a half ridges and hips, 6 inches wide ; common rafters, 4 inches by 3 inches, 13 inches apart ; inch yellow deal gutter board and l)carers, with feather-edged flanch board ; and the same to the chimneys. The middle gutter is to be 12 inches wide at the narrowest end, and to rise 2 inches in every 10 feet, with one 2-inch splayed drop ; proper valley boards are to be put for the lead valleys. The roof of the scalding-room, and of the porches and oven, are to have plates, rafters, ridges, valleys, and glitters, as before described, and the whole of the eaves are to have feather-edged oak eaves board, 4 inches and a half wide, and 1 inch and a quarter, and tliree quarters of an inch thick, with inch brackets to receive the eaves moulding and soflfit. — Partitions for Nogging Flat throughout. To put heads and sills, 4 inches and a quarter by 3 inches ; and common quarters, 4 inches and a quarter by 2 inches and a half, 18 inches apart ; door posts, prmcipal quarters, and braces, 4 inches and a quarter by 3 inches ; and nogging pieces, 4 inches and a quarter by 2 inches. All the heads of partitions to be dovetailed into the plates. All the external walls are to be battened inside with inch oak, 2 inches and a half wide and 12 inches apart. To make a proper barrel curb, for the well-diggers, and such centering as may be wanted for the archers and trimmers. 853. Joiner's Work. To be done according to the several drawings of details. All the stuff' to be of the best well-seasoned (kept till so dry as to be in no danger of shrinking when used) yellow deal, listed, free from sap and shakes, and the whole to be neatly wrought and finished off in a workmanlike manner. — Floors. To lay inch straight joint floors, with proper borders to slabs in the parlour, passage, and bed-rooms. — Doors. To put inch and three quarters four-jianel both sides square doors to all the rooms and closets, and to the head of the cellar stairs, hung with 3 inches and a half butt hinges, and 6 inches iron rim brass knob locks, with 1 inch and a half single-rebated FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4^20 jambs, having framed grounds beaded on edge, with quirk ogee fillet and square, to form architraves. To put an incli wrought ledged and beaded trapdoor to go into the roof, with incli rebated linings. The external doors into the entrance-porch, and the drying- porch, to be of oak, witli doorcase, hinges, and linings, Sec, according to the drawing; and to have a 10-inch iron-rim drawback lock, and two 8-inch bright rod bolts to each. The cellar door to be inch proper ledged, with oak proper doorcase, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half, with lock and key, and hung with 18-inches cross garnet hinges. — Windows. To prepare a wood model, and provide cast-iron lights, casements, frames, hinges, fastenings, and stay bars to the several openings, according to the drawings. To provide stanchion bars four to each light, of an inch square wrought iron, in the daii-y, the pantry, and the store room. The dairy, the pantry, and the store room to have fly wire (wirecloth to exclude flies) inside of the windows, and the casements to open from the outside, with two panels of fly wire in the door between the pantry and the passage. The several windows to have inch window boards with rounded edge, and also three qiMrters of an inch splayed jamb linings, and soflits with framed grounds, and moulding for architraves, to match the other doors, except those in the cellar, store room, pantry, dairy, and scalding-room. The kitchen and parlours to have 1 inch and a quarter square framed folding inside shutters, with back flaps, proper hinges, and iron bar fastenings. — Skirtings. To put inch torus skirting 7 inches high in the parlour, and three quarters of an inch square skirting throughout the chamber floor. All the skirtings to have narrow beveled groimds and backings. — Staircase. To put inch steps, risers, and carriage, housed into the string boards, and 1 inch and a half close string, with moulded planceer and raking skirting. IMoulded handrail, and inch square bar balusters, with iron balusters, and turned newels. The spandril to be filled in with inch and quarter both sides square framing; and to put proper apron lining (the lining which eases the trimmer) and nosing to the landing. To put oak framed nosings to the brick steps of the cellar stairs, with oak ^vrought and rounded handrail and newel posts. To put inch and half oak pump cheeks and sills, and to case the same with inch deal, and proper cap. Sec, and to fix the same in the scalding-room. To put proper staff beads to the angles of the chimney breasts. To prepare and fix with iron holdfasts, 150 feet run of inch and quarter shelf, 12 inches wide, and brackets in the pantry, store room, or elsewhere, as may be directed. To put 2 inches and a half oak carved verge boards with crown mouldings, and carved pendants, with three quarters of an inch wrought oak soflfits to all the pediments, and eaves moulding, and three quarters of an inch soffit and bed mould, also of oak, to all the eaves. The entrance porch and drying porch also to be fitted up with oak, the whole according to the drawing of details. The carpenter and joiner to find all the materials, tools, labour, nails, glue, and every description of iron- mongery, locks, bolts, bars, hinges, and fastenings, and the carriage and fixing thereof, and every thing required for the completion of his work in the best and most workman- like manner ; and to prepare and fix all manner of beads, stops, fillets, grounds, linings, and backings required for the perfect execution of the work, whether the same may or may not be minutely specified in this particular. The whole to be done, subject to the provisions in the general particular at the end hereof. [Signed, as before, by the person undertaking the carpenter's and joiner's work.] R.S. 854. Plumber, Painter, and Glazier's Work. Plumber. To put flashings of milled lead, 8 inches wide, 5 lbs. to the foot superficial, chased into the stonework, and fixed with wall hooks to each of the chimney shafts ; and to put gutters, 1 8 inches wide, of 7 lbs. cast lead, and aprons to such as require it. To cover the middle gutter, and gutter at the drying-porch, with cast lead, 7 lbs. to the foot superficial, to turn up 8 inches under the tiles on each side, and to put 3 inches lead rain-water stack pipes, with cistern heads to bring the water to the ground in the angle of the north front, and at the dry- ing porch. To cover the valleys with 7 lbs. cast lead, 1 5 inches wide. To put proper flashings of milled lead, 5 lbs. to the foot superficial, 12 inches wide, chased into the stonework where the roofs of the scalding-room and of the porchway abut against the same. To put a 5-mch brass grate, and bell trap, and 2 inches and a half lead pipe to the sink. To put a good stout 4-inch lead pump barrel, weighing 2 qrs. 14 lbs., in the scalding-room, with 50 feet of 2 inches and a half lead suction pipe, with bucket, sucker, and iron handle complete. — Glazier's Work. To glaze and back putty all the lights and casements, with good second Newcastle crown glass. — Painter's Work. The whole of the iron frames, lights, and casements, and fly wire to be painted inside and out, four times, in good oil colour. The whole of the internal joiner's work to be knotted, primed, and painted three times in oil stone colour. The oakwork is not to be painted. — The plumber, painter, and glazier to find all materials and workmanship ; and the car- riage thereof, and every thing requisite for the performance of his work ; and to do the 430 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. same in a perfect and workmanlike manner, subject to tlie general particular at the end hereof. [Signed, as before, by the plumber, painter, and glazier.] W. B. 855. General Particular. The bricklayer's work to be completed by the day of . The naked floors and roofing to be fixed and finished by the day of . The whole to be covered in by the day of . The plastering to be begun as soon as the roofing is covered in, and finished, as well as the mason's work, by the day of The whole of the joiner's work to be finished by the day of ; and the painter's by the day of The glazing to be done as soon as the lights and casements are fitted in. Each con- tractor shall be answerable for all damage done to his respective work during the pro- gress, either by the inclemency of the weather or otherwise ; and shall make all good, and leave the same perfect at the final completion of the work. The work to be paid for within one month after the certification of the completion of the contracts. — The whole of the materials are to be found by the contractors, and are to be of the best of their several kinds, and fit for the purpose. Tlie work is to be done in a substantial and workmanlike manner, under the direction and to the satisfaction of the Architect appointed for the purpose by the employer ; and every thing is to be performed that is necessary for completing the whole work in the usual and customary manner, notwith- standing the same may not be mentioned in the specification. And, if any alteration shall be made by the direction of the employer, during the progress of the work, it shall not vitiate or annul the contract, but the value of such alteration shall be ascertained, at the customary prices of the neighbourhood, by the Architect, whose decision between the parties shall be final. The full amount of the contracts to be paid when the several woiks are certified by the surveyor to be complete and finished. And, if any material shall be brought upon the premises which is disapproved by the surveyor, or any workman employed whose skill is considered insufficient by him, tlie said materials or workman to be removed or discharged immediately, upon the contractor receiving notice from the surveyor so to do, either in writing or verbally. And further, if any or all of the said works should be performed in any way inferior to the description or intention of the particular and drawings, or shall be deteriorated below a fair standard of good quality or sound workmanship, the same shall also be valued by the said Architect as aforesaitl, and deducted from the amount of the contract by the employer ; and his decision in this case shall also be final. The several contractors to be responsible to make good all latent defects arising from bad work or bad materials, notwithstanding the certification as aforesaid. The contractor or contractors are to sign an agreement, when required so to do, to perform the work according to the foregoing particulars and conditions ; which agreement shall contain such additional clauses as the solicitor to the employer shall deem requisite to secure and enforce the fulfilment of the same. [This general particular is signed by all the different contracting tradesmen who have signed the separate particulars, in the manner before shown.] S. B., Bricklayer, Plasterer, &e. W. G., Mason. R. S., Carpenter and Joiner. W. B., Plumber, Painter, and Glazier. 856. Measurement and Estimate. Account of the quantities of the several works required in building a bailiff's cottage, with an estimate of the expense of performing the same. 857. Bricklayer, Excavator, and Well-digger, a. m. (that is, finding All Materials). 102 cubic yards digging, filling, and ramming 6 rods 265 feet reduced stonework below groimd, grouted 13 rods 7 feet reduced above ground with brick coins and garreted on face 4 rods 183 feet reduced brickwork in shafts and chimneys 25 scjuares 83 feet superficial, old ])lain tiles, with heart of oak laths laid in straw ; with the hips, ridges, and eaves in mortar 65 yards brick nogging flat 27 yards stock paving flat, in mortar , 34 yards dressed paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar 8 and a half yards pebble paving 92 feet run (lineal) splay 60 feet chase-cut and cement stopping FAiai HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 431 78 feet verge (see fig. 865 v, p. 423), in cement 58 feet hip 100 feet ridge 200 feet run hollow tile drain 7 inches bore, and digging and setting and filling in 1 sinkhole 6 cast-iron stink-traps 2 door frames bedded and pointed, colouring brick shaft, and back at scalding-room, and square bases of the chimneys of the house, and all the coins 30 feet deep of well-digging, and labour to steening 15 feet do. of do. (Extra depth) 6 strong iron chimney bars Ironwork to oven £ 444 858. Plasterer's Work, a. m. 94 yards lime- whiting 204 yards whitewashing to new work 7 yards stone colour 245 yards render set 261 yards lath, lay and set 19 yards floated do £-41 : 4 : 7 859. Mason's Work, a. m. 190 feet superficial York paving squared in courses 182 feet do. rubbed 18 feet 9 inches Yorkshire stone hearth 23 feet 9 inches Portland stone slab 12 feet 9 inches inch-and- three -quarters Portland stone mantles, jambs, and shelf 47 feet 5 inches seven eighths of an inch thick in chambers 63 feet 6 inches milled slate benches to the dairy 87 feet 7 inches milled slate skirting set in cement 11 feet 3 inches superficial Yorkshire stone sink 28 feet 6 inches run Yorkshire curb 5 inches by 4 inches, cramps, and lead feet 6 inches Yorkshire stone step 24 feet rounded edges to slate shelves 4 feet 6 inches reeded edge 2 holes for stink-traps 8 inches square 2 turned pateras 2 bases to do 4 three-light Bath stone window frames, and labels, as per drawings, figs. 876 and 877, p. 425 10 two-light do. (with iron frames and stanchion bars in ditto, and 3 light frames fixed only) 3 plain Bath stone chimney shafts and bases 4 enriched do. do Yorkshire stone landing, and corbel, to secure the stack of chimneys. ( A corbel is a projecting row of stones, or of pieces of timber, to support a superincumbent part of a wall ; it is here used to support the upper division of the shaft which overhangs its base) £234 : 12 : 1 860. Carpenter's and Joiner's Work, a. m. 154 feet cubic of oak in bond, plates. Sec 422 feet 9 inches foreign fir, framed, in roof, floors, and partitions... 1 1 square (a square is 100 superficial feet) 1 1 feet superficial, in oak battening 2 inches and a half wide, and 12 inches apart 180 feet superficial feather-edge flanch and valley board 58 feet 6 inches yellow deal gutter and bearer 36 feet 9 inches inch-and-quarter keys in floor 40 feet inch-and-half sleepers for valleys 43'2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 87 feet 2 inches ineli-and-liall' liips and ridges 227 feet run oak eaves board 1 1 feet 5 inches cubic oak framed 2 feet 4 inches oak wrought and framed 2 feet 4 inches do. do. circular 11 feet 7 inches do. wrought, framed, and moulded Oak wood bricks 9 screw pins (wrought iron) to angle beams, and fixing 8 iron screw pins and nuts to king posts 1 gate to the porch, of oak with turned balusters, and hinges com- plete Joiner s Work. 105 feet superficial, three-quarters-inch splayed lining 109 feet three-quarters-inch square skirting 244 feet three-quarters-inch wrought oak soffit 3 feet inch rebated lining... 48 feet window board rounded .. 52 feet 6 inches steps, risers, and carriage 148 feet 8 inches framed grounds 2 feet 3 inches wrought beaded and ledged trapdoor 19 feet 6 inches proper ledged door 2 feet 3 inches apron lining 18 feet 5 inches wrought pump case 28 feet 3 inches torus skirting 15 feet raking do 9t squares of inch straight joint floor 97 feet 6 inches superficial inch-and-quarter closet front and door ... 42 feet square framed folding window shutters, including hinges .... 13 feet 4 inches, inch-and-quarter close string 21 feet square framed spandril 150 feet shelf wrought, rounded, and fixed with brackets and hold- fasts 167 feet 3 inches, inch-and-half singli'-rebated jambs 9 feet 9 inches oak pump cheeks , 7 feet 6 inches oak filling in to gable of porch cut circular 206 feet 8 inches inch-and-three-quarters both sides square doors.... 39 feet 6 inches oak Gothic doors 208 feet sujierficial moulded work to oak verges, and fixing with pierced sinkings 74 feet superficial oak columns turned spiral, as shown in figs. 855 and 856, in p. 421 13 feet 6 inches oak wrought, framed, and weathered (beveled to throw off the wet) 35 feet 7 inches fly wire 435 feet run quirk ovolo and fillet 266 feet 6 inches narrow grounds 10 feet moulded planceer 3 feet nosing 120 feet angle staves 132 feet bar balusters 8 feet wrought and rounded rail 15 feet moulded handrail 120 feet eaves moulding of oak 120 feet bed mould 24 feet 6 inches, inch-square wrought-iron bars 2 feet 9 inches cubic oak in nosing to steps 3 inches do. in newel 3 feet 9-incli oak wrought, framed, and weathered 9 feet 9-it!cli posts, wrought, framed, and carved 4 feet 10-inch do., coping, wrought, framed, and beveled 11 pair 3-inch and a half butt hinges, and fixing them 11 6-inch iron-rim brass-knob locks 4 closet locks 2 10-inch iron-rim locks 4 8-inch rod bolts bright » 2 pair of old formed hinges, as per drawing FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. lo3 5 pair 2-inch butts , 1 pair 18-inch garnets 1 cellar lock and key 1 wooden pattern for casting the iron lights and casements . 32 cast-iron frames 32 casements with hinges and stay bars 2 iron shutter bars 4 newel posts turned 1 hole for handle 1 cap to pump case Barrel curb for well 5 gable posts carved and fixed, 7 feet 6 inches long 8 pendants 4 feet long 4 caps and 4 bases to columns ■ 36 turned balusters 4 carved caps to the posts in the porch £ ^.S5 : 7:11 861. Plumber's, Painters, and Glazier's Work, a. m. 12 cwt. 2 qrs. cast lead 3 cwt. 2 qrs. milled lead 53 feet run Si-inches lead pipe and joints 26 feet 3-inch lead rain-water pipe 2 cistern heads 1 5-inch brass grate and bell trap 1 stout 4-inch lead pump barrel complete, with iron handle, bucket, sucker, and fixing 152 feet second Newcastle crown glass, small panes 154 yards of painting thrice in oil, of stone colour 146 feet run bar do 218 feet square skirting, 6 inches high 48 feet 6 inches torus skirting, 7 inches high 26 feet handrail 132 feet bar balusters 90 feet angle staft' 32 casements and frames both sides, 12 small squares in each 2 shutter bars £ CS : 18 : lO 862. Summary of Estimates for the Bailiff's Cottage, a. m. Bricklayer 444 Plasterer 41 Mason 234 Carpenter and Joiner 485 Plumber, Painter, and Glazier 68 £ 1274 : 4 : 9 863. General Estimate. This cottage contains 22,842 cubic feet ; which, at the above sum, amounts to Is. \\d. per foot, which thus appears to be the proper sum, per cubic foot, for estimating dwellings of this description in the neighbourhood of London. 864. Remarks. Our readers, we think, will agree with us in highly approving of this cottage, both for its internal accommodations and arrangements, and for its external effect. The parlour and kitchen are of good sizes, and are both well lighted ; and the cellarage, pantry, store room, and dairy are ample. The latter is large, because it is supposed to furnish supplies to the family residing in the mansion. It is very properly placed on the north side of the building, and both doors and windows are protected by wirecloth from the entrance of flies. The pump being in the dairy scullery is a great convenience. The drying-porch, judiciously placed on the south side of the building, is a most useful part of this house, and we could wish it appended to every dwelling in the country ; not only on account of the accommodation which it affords for da-ying things in wet weather, and for sitting or working under, but for its ornamental effect. It is a more social appendage than the veranda, because it allows of a party sitting round a table, either to work or to eat. In America such a porch would be a delightful place for husking Indian corn, as described by Cobbett ; or, in Savoy, for taking the skins off walnuts, to prepare them for being crushed for oil, as described in the interesting Travels 43 i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. in the Tarentaise, by the eminent geologist Bakewell. All the chimneys arc in t!ie interior wall, which brings the shafts exteriorly to the highest part of the general mass, and completes what Hogarth, in his Anali/sis of Beauty, calls the painter's pyramid. It is always more satisfactory to see chimneys issuing from the highest part of the roof, than from the side walls, or from any lower part ; because the rising sides of the roof seem to conspire in supporting what issues out of its apex, as the leaves of a plant seem to support the flower stem which proceeds from its centre, or the spreading lower branches of a fir tree do its spiry top. When it is known, also, how much this dis- position of the chimneys contributes to their drawing well, and to the general warmth of the house, its satisfactory effect cannot but be greatly heightened in every well regu- lated mind. Design II. — A Farmery in the Old English Style, chiefly calculated for Dairy Hus- bandry, and conducted by a Bailiff, for the Proprietor of the Land. 865. Situation. This farmery, of which fig. 886 is the isometrical elevation, and fig. 887, the ground plan, is built a few yards to the north of the bailiff's house, whicli forms the subject of the preceding Design. Both, as before observed, were erected in !8:51, at Bury Hill, near Dorking, for Charles Barclay, Esq., from tlic Design, ami luider the superintendence, of John Perry, Esq., Architect, of Godalming. ■I d e / >■ 887 c h k 111 •') m ^ ;: I 'n:::::::::D:::::::: d a : = I 1 I °. ! * ii b::::::::a:::;;::: a i L \ 1 ; I 866. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 887, to a scale of forty feet to an inch, shows a cattle-shed, a ; waggon and implement house, with granary over, h ; hay-store, c ; calf- pen, d; cow-house, e; another calf-pen, /; slaughter-house, g ; swill-cisterns and tanks for holding liquid food, and bins for dry food, for pigs, h ; piggeries, i i i i i ; passage between tlie piggeries and the fowl-houses, k; fowl-houses, II II; and two places for fuel, m m. There is a pigeon-house over the granary, as may be seen in the elevation, fig. 888. These buildings are placed on three sides of a cattle-yard, which is open to FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4-3.5 the south, and overlooked in that direction by the windows of tlie bailiffs house. There is no stable in this farmery, all the field labour being performed by four jiair of oxen, which stand in the cattle-shed. Tlie surface water may be supposed to be con- veyed from the passage roimd the farm-yard by a gutter, forming a line of demarcation between that passage and the space for the dunghill in the centre, and having traps com- municating with an underground drain. The water from the roofs may be collected by guttei-*, at the eaves, and conveyed to the same underground drain as that which carries off the surface water. All the liquid matter of the cow-house, cattle-sheds, and pigsties shoidd be collected by gratings into covered gutters, and by them conveyed to two liquid manure tanks in the centre of the yard, over which should be placed the dunghill ; and, if the greatest economy of manure, and also a pattern to surrounding farmers, were, as we think they ought to be, leading objects, this dunghill ought to be covered with a roof. 867. Construction. The walls are built of local sandstone, with the exception of the south wall of the cow-house, and of the west wall of the granary ; both of which are of studwork, weather-boarded. The roof, over the cattle-shed and hay-store is to be covered with pantiles, and all the other roofs with hoop chips. Hoop chips are the shavings made by the coppice cutters, when splitting and preparing large hoops from long hazel and other rods grown in coppice woods : they are generally upwards of an inch broad, a quarter of an inch or more thick, and from 18 inches to 3 feet in length. They are laid on, and sewed to the laths, like thatch ; and, after a few years, are hardly to be known from a roof of that description. Their durability, when the roof is so steep as to throw off the water effectually, is equal to that of tUes, and they require less repair. Fig. 888 is the south elevation, in which may be seen the manner in which the oak gate- posts are kept firm in their places, by the underground braces, to the subsills, n n. Fig. 889 is the back elevation of the cow-house, in which are seen, to the right, the 889 gable end of the granary, and its outside step-ladder. Fig. 890 is the front elevation of the cow-house and the slaughter-house ; showing the manner in which the former is ventilated by luffer-boarding under the eaves. Fig. 891 is an elevation of the waggon- house, with the granary over, in which is seen a side view of the outside wooden stair or step-ladder; and, under the ground line, the inverted arches, on the abutments of which the stone bases of the story posts are placed. These stone bases are shown in fig. 892, 890 892 [in 436 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 894 on a scale of half an inch to a foot. In this figure, o is the post ; p, the stone base ; and q, lialf of the plan of the same. Fig. 893 shows the elevation of the front of the fowl-houses, and the end of the slaughter-house ; and fig. 894 the front of tlie pigsties. In the last figure are seen, at r r, the ends of the cast-iron troughs, which project about a foot from the 89 J wall, for receiving the pigs' food. They are seen in the ground plan, fig. 887, at s s s. All these elevations are to a scale of forty feet to an inch. Fig. 895 shows tlie construction of the roof of the cow-house, and fig. 896 that of the roof of the granary ; both to a scale of twelve feet to an inch. Fig. ^91 ^'''' shows a section, on a scale of twelve feet to an inch, through the piggeries and fowl- houses, in which t is the fowl-house ; u, the passage between the fowl-houses and the piggeries ; v, the pig- sties ; and w, the ojien yards in front of them. Other details of con- struction may be gathered from the following particulars of tlie work to be done : — Particulars of the several Works to he done in erecting certain Farm Buildings at Bury Hill, near Dorking, Srirrey, for Charles Barclay, Esq., according to the Plans, Eleva- tions, Sections, and Details severally signed by the Parties undertaking the same. 868. Bricklayer, Excavator, and Well-digger. To dig out the several trenches for the foundations, of the respective depths and widths required, and fill in and well ram roimd the work. To level and form the ground for the farm-yard and paving, and to spread the surplus earth, if any, wherever required so to do, any where within 50 yards of the farm-yard : if an additional quantity be considered necessary, it is to be carted to the spot by the employer. To dig a well, 4 feet clear in diameter, 45 feet deep ; to steen the same in 4-inch brickwork, and to dome it over in 9-inch brickwork. All the bricks to be used in the work, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well burnt stocks. The mortar to be composed of the best well Ijurnt grey lime, and clean sharp sand, well tempered together. Tlie foundations of the walls to be built of sand- stone below the ground line, and to be grouted with hot lime and sand. The remainder of the walls above ground to be built of sandstone, laid m neat random courses, with a flat joint garreted on the external face ; the stones to be properly headed and prepared, and flushed solid in mortar; the whole of the coins, and arches, and inverted arches, to be of brickwork. The whole to be built of the several heights and thicknesses shown in the drawing ; leaving the several apertures therein described. The chimney breast, back, and shaft, for the copper in the slaughter-house, to be of brickwork, and the flue to FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 437 be properly pargeted, with a second-size chimney pot, well flanched up with plain tiles and Roman cement. Tlie shaft and pot to be coloured stone colour. All the door and window frames to be properly bedded and j)ointed with good lime and hair mortar, and the sills to be underpinned. To build underpinning of stonework, witli proper footings for the partitions where required, and foundations for the stone bases to the cattle-shed. To put a coping of semicircular bricks, 1 4 inches wide, to the fence wall, the back of the hay-store, and the front of the pigsties, set in Roman cement, with proper stay irons at all the coins. To fill in the nogging partitions with brick Hogging flat. To pave the four fowl-houses with paving bricks, flat bedded and jointed in mortar. To pave the coal places, pigs' lodgings, and slaughter-house with brick stock paving on edge in sand. The passage, cow-house, calf-pens, cattle-shed, hay-house, and pigs' yards to be paved with pebbles laid in sand, properly currented and i-ammed. To build and pave proper swill cisterns of brick, set in Roman cement, and rendered inside with the same, so as to be perfectly watertight. To colour twice over in good stone colour the brickwork of all the coins, arches, and coping. To lime-white the inside of the slaughter-house and fowl- houses. To bed all the plates, bond, templets (short pieces of timber laid under girders and beams, to distribute the weight), and lintels, in mortar. To cover the roof of the cattle-shed and hay-store with pantiles jointed in mortar ; to build foundations for the posts, and to cover all the other roofe with hoop chips from large hoops, finding straw, binders, rods, twine, &c., and laths. The bricklayer is to find all the materials, carriage, scaffolding, tools, workmanship, and ironwork for the completion of his work, in the best and most substantial manner. The whole to be done under the inspection and to the satisfaction of the Architect, subject to tlie several conditions contained in the general particular at the end hereof. [Signed by the bricklayer, in the same form as before.] S. B. 869. Carpenter and Joiner. The whole of the materials to be provided and sawed out square, free from wane, of the several scantlings herein specified ; to be carted to the spot by the contractor, and to consist of the best yellow Dantzic or Memel fir, or English oak, free from sap, shakes, or large loose knots. To frame the whole of the carpentry in a workmanlike manner, according to the drawings ; finding labour, nails, and all kind of ironwork for the purpose, subject to the provisions of the general par- ticular at the end hereof. — Waggon-house with Granary over To put oak story posts (upright timbers supporting brestsummers or girders), 9 inches by 9 inches, and circular braces, 8 inches by 9 inches, wrought, framed, and chamfered ; each post to have a square iron tenon let into the stone base. To put wall plates of oak under tlie floor and roof, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, with fir sills to the external partition, 12 inches by 6 inches. To put fir girders, 12 inches by 1 2 inches ; each girder to be fixed with a three quarters of an inch iron screw pin and nut to the sill, and to have an iron tie, with an S iron through the wall, properly spiked to the girder. The joists to be framed into girders, 1 2 inches by 2 inches and a half, 1 2 inches apart. The external partition to have principal quarters, 6 inches by 6 inches, with common quarters and braces, 12 inches apart, 6 inches by 3 inches and a half; head, 6 inches by 6 inches, covered with oak or yellow deal weather-boarding and fillets, with flauch board and brackets at bottom. To lay the floor with inch and quarter yellow deal, wrought, ploughed, and tongued. To put 3 tiers of bond, 4 inches by 3 inches, ui the walls of the granary. To put fir proper window frames, filled in with three quarters of an inch deal wrought luffer-boards housed into the frames ; with oak wrought and beveled drip sills to the front and back windows. To put an oak proper doorcase, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half, to the granary, with oak drip sill, 9 inches by 3 inches and a half, with inch and quarter deal proper ledged door, hung with strong hook and eye hinges, and with a strong iron-rim lock. To put a step-ladder of 2-inch oak, with the steps housed into the sides with three iron screw braces and nuts. The steps to be fixed with strong iron hook and eye hinges to the sill. — Roof. To put fir tie beams, 9 inches by 4 inches ; king posts, 9 inches by 3 inches, with three quarters of an inch iron screw pins 2 feet long, with nuts 3 inches long, mortised through the king posts ; struts, 3 inches by 3 inches ; framed principal rafters, 6 inches and a half by 3 inches at bottom, and 5 inches by 3 inches at top, fixed at each end with screw pins to the tie beams. Purlins, 5 mches by 3 inches, notched on the back of the principal rafters. Pole plate, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches ; common rafters, 1 3 inches apart, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches ; ridge pieces, 9 inches by 1 inch and a half, with oak eaves board. The joists, to receive the pigeon-house floor, laid on tie beams, are to be 6 inches by 2 inches and a half, trimmed for a trapdoor ; the floor is to be of inch deal, rough, with edges shot, ploughed, and tongued, with trapdoor and hinges, and step-ladder, complete. To put 1 inch and a quarter oak shelves and penthouse to the pigeon-holes, with oak cantilevers to support them. A rough partition to be put across in the loof, covered with weather- 438 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. boarding, with a iloor, hinges, and lock, to go into the pigeon-liouse end. — Cattle-shed and Hay-house at the back of the Granary. To put fir posts, 7 inches by 7 inches, wrougiit, framed, and clianifered, with iron tenons and braces circular on plan, G inches by 3 inches ; fir plates, 7 inches by 4 inches ; pitching piece, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches ; tie l)eams, 7 inches by 4 inches ; principal rafters, 5 inches by 3 inches ; struts, 3 inches by 3 inches; purlins, 5 inches by 2 inches and a half; common rafters, 13 inches apart, 4 inclies and a half by '2 inches and a half, covered with pantile laths, with oak feather-edge eaves boards. To put oak proper door-case and sill to the hay-house, 5 inches by 3 inches, witli 1 inch and a quarter yellow deal proper ledged door, hung with strong hook and eye hinges, strong Norfolk latch, and 8-inch stock lock. — Cow- house, Calf-pens, and Slaughter-house. To put oak sills to the external partition in front, 6 inches by 3 inches, with fir principal posts, 6 inches by 3 inches ; common quarters and braces, 5 inches by 2 inches and a half; the head, 6 inches by 3 inches; oak wall plates, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches. The front to be covered with weatlier-boarding at bottom, and with open filleting (slips of deal nailed at one or two inches apart), at top ; to put oak proper door-posts, 5 inclies by 3 inches, with 1 inch and a quarter oak proper ledged doors, with strong hook and eye hinges and fastenings and the same to the slaugliter-house. The calf-pens to be parted off with oak posts and arris rails (rails presenting two surfaces to the eye, which two surfaces unite in forming an edge or arris between them), filled in with oak slabs, with a small gate hung on hook and eye hinges, with a hasp and staple. To put proper cow-bows (a contrivance for fixing the cow's head over the manger) and mangers for twelve cows. To put an oak proper 2-liglit window frame, and oak drip sill with iron casement, to the slaughter-house. To put tie beams, 7 inches by 4 inches ; struts, 3 inches by 4 inches ; principal rafters, 5 inches by 3 inches; purlins, 5 inches by 2 inches and a half; common rafters, 4 inches and a lialf by 2 inches and a half; ridge pieces, 9 inches by 1 inch and a half, with oak eaves board, — Fowl-houses and Piggery. The roofing to be of the same scantlings with oak eaves board, as last described ; and the window frame in the swill-house the same as that in the slaughter-house. The door and doorcases the same as those in the cow-house, with 8-inch stock locks. The partitions of the fowl-houses to be framed for brick nogging flat, with oak sills, and English fir puncheons (short pieces of timber used in framing partitions). The front of the pigsties to have oak sills with fir pun- cheons, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half, covered with weather-boarding. The division of the sties and of the back partition to be of oak posts, 5 inclies by 5 inches, with arris rails, and filled in with oak slabs. The pigsty doors to have oali frames wrought and rebated, with inch oak wrought ledged doors, with strong hook and eye liinges, and liasp and staple fastenings. To find and fix five pig troughs of cast iron, 6 feet long each. To put a proper wrought framed and beveled oak curb to the swill cisterns, 6 inches by 2 inches and a half. — The three Gates. To put oak posts wrought and chamfered, 9 inches by 9 inches, with proper sills, subsills, and braces, to the wide gates. To put cast-iron moulded and beveled caps, as in fig. 898, to the posts. To put yellow deal, 2 inches and a half, wrought, framed, and braced gates, ^.'ith their respective sections. The skylights are to be finished with suitable linings and facings. 931. Bases. The two parlours are to be finished with bases to correspond with their other finishing, the plinths of which are to be 6 inches and a half high. All the other apartments, passages, &c., that are floored with timber, are to have skirtings to correspond with the facings of the respective apartments, &c. Those of the first and chamber floors are to be 6 inches and half high ; and those of the kitchen buildings are to be 5 inches and a half high. The parlours are each to have a surbase to correspond with the base ; and the window architraves and facings, the bases and skirtings, and the surbases, are all to have suitable grounds. Those of the windows are to be dressed ; and those of the thin walls are to be built into them. 932. Jajiib Moulding. The chimney jambs, that are not made in imitation of marble ones, are to have jamb mouldings round them, and light entablatures over them. 933. Stair of Kitchen Buildings. The stair to the apartments over the kitchen, scullery, &c., is to be of timber ; the steps are to be 1 inch and an eightli thick ; it is to have a suitable plain rail. The stair to the chamber floor is to have a suitable hand- rail of wainscot, fixed upon plain iron balusters, three fourths of an inch square, which arc to be batted (run with lead into holes chiseled out for their reception) into the steps, &c. 934. Press Shelving. All tlie presses are to have tiers of shelving ; and the store closet is to be fitted round with three tiers of shelving ; each tier to be 14 inches broad. 935. Slating. The roofs are to be covered with best second Lancashire ton slates (or others according to local situation), liung to the laths with Memel timber pins, and to be rendered (pointed inside) with good plaster. The slates are to have at least ,'J inches of bond at the eaves ; but the bond may gradually diminish to 2 inches at the ridges. The ridges and piens (angles of the hips) are to be slated watcrtiglit befoi-e they are covered with the lead. The ridge and pien batten rods (ridge and hip rods) are to be 2 inches' diameter, and they are to be covered with lead, 6 pounds to the square foot, which is to be at least 12 inches in breadth. The alleys are to be laid with lead, 7 pounds to the square foot, which is to be at least 14 inches in breadth. All round the chimney stalks (shafts), where they are intersected with the plates, coverings of lead, 12 inches broad, are to be inserted into the chimney heads, to cover the joinings, and these coverings are to be of lead, 6 pounds per square foot. All along the lines of the roofs that intersect the higher buildings, the joinings of the slates with the walls are to be covered with aprons (or flasliings) of 6-pound lead at least 12 inches broad. The sky- lights are to be laid round with gutters of 6-pound lead, at least 12 inches broad. 1'lie aprons round the chimney stalks, and those that cover the joinings of the low roofs, are to be inserted into mortises or grooves, made in the stones as formerly specified ; and they are to be puttied into these mortises with lead and oil putty, mixed with fine sand, or dry pounded sandstone, well burnt (or roasted). This roasting is to destroy all earthy matter, &c. 936. Plasterers' JForli. The ceilings of all the apartments, passages, &c. of the first and chamber floors, and the walls of the entrance-lobby, passages, and staircase, are to be finished with good three-coat plaster. That of the ceilings to be on laths three sixteenths- of an inch thick ; and each apartment to have a suitable cornice, finished agreeably to the sections. All the ceilings of the kitchen buildings, and of all the other walls not specified above, are to be finished with fine two-coat plasterwork, to be properly straighted (made even or smooth with the edge of a board or float), &c. Behind all the ingoings, soffits, bases, and skirtings, &c., the wall is to have one coat of plaster, without finishing. 937. Though a variety of the materials and works are described in the foregoing specifications, yet it is not to be considered that the whole are specified, but it is to be distinctly understood that the whole are to be included in the estimate ; so tliat the house may be built and finished with materials and works of the quality and relative scantlings with those specified and figured on the plans, without any other charge than tliat in the estimate ; and the whole of the materials and works are to be done to the satisfaction of by the day of , luider a penalty of £ . FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 469 945 938. Office Hoti.ies. — liuhhle Walls. The foundations of the thick walls are to be laid with large flat-bedded rubble-stones, and the whole of the walls are to be good rubble-work, properly built in the heart with good lime mortar ; and such a proportion of large bond stones to be used throughout the whole of them, that they shall not be more than four feet apart, in any direction, on either side of the walls. 939. Hewn Work, \-c. The door and window rybets, sills, and lintels are to be of droved freestonework ; they are all to have canted corners (the sharp angle of the corner cut off). The scunchcons of the doors are to be splayed 4 inches wider inside than at the rybet cheeks (see § 282, and fig. 262), and their inner corners are all to be rounded. In-bond rybets with 12-inch heads are to be built at proper heights for fixing the crooks of the door hinges. The lintels arc to be at least 12 inches square. The vi'indow sills are to be weathered (beveled so as to throw oflT the rain) at least 2 inches, exclusive of a sinking for the wood sills, as shown by the sections. All the external corners are to be of droved work. The wall-head tablings (copings beveled to throw off the rain) are to be of droved work 3 inches thick, and to project 5 inches beyond the line of the walls. The door scuncheons and lintels of the cart-house and loose cattle sheds are to be neatly draughted and scappled (stones are said to scappled or scabbled, when they are dressed with the pick end of the hammer ; they are called draughted and scappled when worked round the edges or joints with a chisel and hammer-di-essed in the centre), and the corners canted with droved work. The pillars for the cattle are to be in one stone each, and to be finished in a similar manner with the scuncheons. The door scuncheons, sills, and lintels of the barn- ventilators, &c., are to be draughted and scappled. 940. Barge Stones over the Slates. Droved stones 4 inches thick, weathered on the upper side, are to be built into the walls of the high buildings, along the lines of the roofs of the low ones that intersect them ; these stones are to project at least 4 inches in front of the walls, to cover the ends of the slates, and to lie close upon them, fig. 945 ; and ragalets (grooves), 2 inches deep into the walls, are to be made under these stones, to receive the ends of the slates. In fig. 945, a is the wall, b the situation of the groove, in which the slate, c, is shown inserted ; d is the upper part of the wall ; e, the weathered stone inserted into it ; /, the rafter ; and g, the wall-plate. 941. Floors. The barn is to be floored with the hardest freestone pavement that can be procured in any particular quarry in the neighbourhood. The flags are to be square- jointed, and set with oil putty ; and they are to be laid on a preparation of whinsiones, similar to that specified for the floors in the dwelling-house. There is to be a 6-inch skirting built into the walls at the level of the floor, so that the flooring may be jointed to it with putty. This is to prevent the operations of vermin. The floors of the pig-houses are to be laid with rough flags closely jointed ; and these floors are to have a current of at least 9 inches from the back walls towards the doors. The stables, byres, and all the other houses not specified above, are to be paved (pitched) with small whinstones set in sand, and all the requisite sewers are to be made in the cattle-sheds, stables, &c. The byre is to have a freestone kerb along the sides of the grip (gutter), the stones of which are to be 16 inches deep and 4 inches and a half thick, and placed so that they will stand 6 inches above the bottom of the grip, all as shown by the plans. 942. Partitions of Byre. The byre is to have stall partitions of freestone, each to be in one stone 4 feet 6 inches by 5 feet, which are to be sunk into the ground 1 foot, and on each side of these partitions there is to be an iron rod, with a sliding shackle (fig. 946 is a section across a stone partition, in which the iron rods at A A are the shackles) upon it, upon which the collar is fixed for binding the cow. The feeding-ci-ib is fitted up with rough droved work, and the partition between it and the fotherum (foddering-passage) is to be of freestone flags set on end, and to stand at least 2 feet 6 inches high above the crib. All these are shown by the detailed plans and sections. 943. Cope of Court Walls, &cc. The court walls of the pig-houses are to have a cope (coping) 6 inches thick, of draughted and scappled work ; but the joints are to be droved and jointed with oil putty. The cope is to be laid even with the walls on both sides. The walls of the kitchen-court, large court, dung-court, &c., are to be covered with a 3-inch cope of droved work jointed with putty. The cope is to be laid even with tlie walls, on the sides next the large court and cattle-sheds ; but it is to project 3 inches on the side next the kitchen court, 2 inches on the side next the dung-court, and 6 inches on the side next the garden. 946 470 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 944. Stahh- jritidowx. The stable windows are to be made ingoing ones (recessed from the inside), in order that corn-chests may be fitted into them. The upper sashes are to be astragal ones, glazed with third crown glass, and the under ones are to be sliding wooden frames, for ventilation, See. The back wall of the barn is to be simk sufficiently deep for the wheel of the threshing-mill and the race (horse-course) from it. The hewn work is all to be jointed with oil putty, and all the rubble-work is to be built with good lime mortar. 945. Inside Lintels. The inside lintels of the door and window spaces are to be of British oak timber ; they are to be proportioned in size to the width of the respective spaces ; and they are all to have 12 inches of bearing on each end (or bond). 946. Roofs. All the roofs are to be constructed, as shown by the plans, with trussed principals ; which are all to be of the dimensions figured on the respective sections. These principal couples (rafters) are to be placed at no greater distance from each other than 6 feet 6 inches between their centres. The purlins are to be 7 inches by 3 inches and a half, and placed no farther asunder than 3 feet 6 inches. The rafters are to be 2 inches and a quarter square, and placed no farther asunder than 16 inches between tlieir centres. All the roofs are to have sawn laths 1 inch and a quarter by five eighths of an inch each. 947. Slating. The whole of the roofs of these office-houses are to be covered with second Lancashire slates (or as the case may be), hung with 3Iemel timber pins ; and they are to be rendered with good plaster. They are to have 3 inches of bond at the eaves ; but the bond may gradually diminish to 2 inches at the ridges. The under eave- courses are to be laid full, and they are to be double-nailed at the shoulders with 1 2-lb. nails. The ridges and piens are to be slated water-proof, before the pien and ridge-stones are laid over them. The gables are to be slated over, and the skew-stones (the coping- stones of the gables, called barge-stones in England) are to be laid over the slates, but to project 3 inches over the line of the walls, and to be pointed along the ends of the slates under them with Roman cement. The eaves slates are to project 4 inches beyond the line of the tabling. The ridge and pien stones are to be of fine droved work ; they are to be made correctly to the angles of the respective roofs ; to be closely jointed with oil putty ; and, when perfectly dry, to be painted with three coats of oil paint, the same colour with the slates. 948. Joists. The joists of the granary floors are to be 12 inches by 2 inches and a quarter, and placed no farther asunder tlian 16 inches between their centres : they are to have a tier of bracing along the centre of each floor, 1 1 inches by 1 1 inches. Those of the stable lofts are to be 8 inches by 2 inches, and placed no farther asunder than 1 8 inches between their centres. The flooring is all to be 1 inch thick when finished, and none of the boards are to exceed 7 inches in breadth ; they are all to be feathered and grooved. The granaries and haylofts are to be finished all round with skirting, not less tlian 5 inches higli ; the walls of the haylofts are to be plastered at least 9 inches above the skirting ; and the walls of the granary are to be plastered at least 2 feet above the skirting. 949. Doors. The whole of the doors of the office-houses are to be stout batten ones. The front boards are not to be less than seven eighths of an inch thick, and the battens are not to exceed 6 inches in breadth ; the back battens are to be 1 inch thick, those of the small door to be not less than 7 inches broad, and those of the large ones not less than 9 inches broad. These doors are all to be hung with stout crooks and bands. The c joists of the hayloft. The feeding (or hay) cribs of the stables are to be constructed like mangers; but they are to be about 18 inches deep and 18 inches wide at the top ; and nre to have two slanting iron bars rising from the front of them to the wall, at an angle of about 45". The corn manger occupies about one third part of the width of the stall, and the feeding-crib the other two thirds (as shown by detailed drawings). The gra- nary windows are to be sliding-framed ones, or they may be made with shades similar to Venetian ones, proper for ventilation, &c. 951. Cattle-sheds. The cattle-sheds to be fitted up with feeding-cribs, the bottoms ofwliieh are to be raised 9 inches above the level of the floors; they are to liave 3 rails in front, fixed to the upright posts. The upper one is to be 4 inches by 3 inches, the middle one 3 inches by 1 inch and a half, and the under one 5 inches by 1 inch and a half. The bottom rails are to be 2 inches by 1 inch and a half, and placed no more tlian 1 inch and a half apart. The side next the fotherum is to be finished with 1-inch FARM HOUSES AND 1' AllMKlHES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 1-7 1 battens to the heif^ht of 2 feet 6 inches. Fothcrums are not always introduced in cattle- sheds (see the sections, &c. ). 952. Feedinp-houses. The feeding-houses are divided into stills of 12 feet 6 inches each (either with stone or timber); and the Iiayracks are placed alojig the tops of these partitions, nearly in the form of two sides of an equilateral triangle, at the height of about 4 feet 6 inches from tlu; floor. These racks extend from the feeding-cribs to the front of the covered part of the shed. The feeding-cribs are constructed similar to stable- mangers, but they are to be 18 inches wide and 10 inches deep, and are raised 9 to 12 inches above the level of the floor. The partition between the crib and the fotherum is to be of Ig-inch battens. These cribs may be of wood, or they may be constructed of similar materials to those of the byres. The byre partitions may be of timber, where stone cannot be procured. 953. Gati's. The gates of the court-yards, &c., are all to be constructed as shown by the plans ; and they are to be hung with stout crooks and bands (hooks and strap hinges). The gates, and all the outside doors, tlie stable and granary windows, are to be finished with three coats of oil paint. Design XIII. — A Farm House and Fanner// for 100 Acres of Land to be cidtivatcd on the Norfolk System, with a Flour Mill dricen by Wind. 954. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in the isometrical view, p. 473. The gromid plan, tig. 948, exhibits a dwellirig-house, containing a parlour, I ; kitchen, 2 ; counting-house or keeping-room, 3 ; store-room, 4 ; pantry, 5 ; wash-house and brewhouse, 6 ; and dairy, 7. Over these are two large bed-rooms with fireplaces, and four other bed-rooms without fireplaces. The farmery contains a central building of two stories, in which, on the ground floor, are, a passage to the mill, which serves also as a foddering-passage, 8 ; a place for turnips, 9 ; for calves, 10 ; for four cows, 1 1, over which there are a granary, and a retail shop for flour, lighted by glazed tiles (tig. 947) of cast iron (weight four pounds and a quarter, price, unglazed, 047 8f/. , glazed, I s. -id. ) from the roof ; a house for six oxen, 1 2 ; for chafF, 13 ; the mill, 14 ; the barn, 15 ; the cart-house stable, with hayloft over, 1 6 ; lean cattle lodge or shed, 1 7 ; (he harness-room, 1 S ; piggeries, 1 9 ; cart lodge, 20 ; drive- way to the mill, 21; hackney stable, with hayloft over, 22; customers' stable, 23 ; colt stable, 24 ; and gig-house, 25. There are two ample yards, 26 and 27, for the lean cattle and the colts ; and two also, 28 and 29, for the piggeries. 955. Remarks. This plan has been furnished us by William Thorold, Esq., Architect and Engineer, of Norwich, accompanied by the following obseirations : — " The capital required to carry on a mill must necessarily limit the size of the farm. We will, there- fore, take a farm of 100 acres of land, four fifths being arable, and the remainder in grass ; and we will suppose the mill competent to grind thirty quarters of corn per week, twenty of which would be manufactured into flour and sold, and the remaining ten used as grist for the neighbourhood ; the mill being supposed to be situated in a rural district. The mill should have a threshing-machine and hay-cutter attached to it ; the threshing- machine to be made capable of drawing, that is, of husking, trefoil, clover, and other small seeds. Pumps can also be added in situations where water is at a great depth, which will often occm' in places proper for a windmill. A number of pigs may be kept, to eat up the offal of the mill ; and this will, of course, require buildings for their reception more extensive than the piggeries on a common farm, while the buildings for the other cattle are fewer in proportion. The mill is placed in the centre, for the sake of uni- formity and economj-. It is necessary to have one side of it accessible to waggons, and also in case of repairs being done to the sails. The piggeries I have placed on the north side ; knowing, from experience, that they are intolerable in summer, if near the house. In constructing the mill, a horse walk should be added to it, in order that the machinery of the mill may be occasionally worked with that power. There is stabling for four farm horses, and for two hackney or trade horses, besides a loose stable for customers' horses : there is also a cow-house for four cows ; stalls for six grazing bullocks ; and a lodge for lean cattle. This will generally sufiiee for milling and farming as it is carried on in Norfolk. Tlie house contains a parlour and kitchen, with a brewhouse and wash-house combined, on the ground floor ; and it has six sleeping-rooms in the upper story. It is kept low, in order that it may offer as little obstruction as possible to the wind. The fireplaces for the kitchen and for the oflSce or keeping-room are contrived so that the chimneys noay be conducted under the stairs, and form one stack with the other chimneys. The parlour window is to have French casements, opening in the middle. Tlie mill will cost from .£800 to .£'1000, according to the quantity of machinery employed. The sails 472 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 948 111 so 10 20 so 40 50 UO u. . .iiilt n i) .. I 1 1 1 i I f<- as shown in the Design, are upon the principle generally adopted in Norfolk, called Cubitt's Patent : tliey should never be horizontal, as such sails have only one fourth of the power of vertical ones. Norfolk is considered to be superior to any other county in England, as to windmills." We consider this a remarkably well arranged Design, which will not surprise those of our readers who are aware of the experience which Mr. Thorold has had as a farmer, as well as an Architect and Engineer. The entrance to the cattle- house, being near the dwelling-house, is convenient, on account of its supplying a covered passage to the mill-house and barn : and this passage is not merely a matter of conveni- ence as such, but it is essential to the cattle-house for conveying fodder from the straw- house at one end, and turnips from the turnip-store at the other to the oxen. It is always Ratifying when a really useful object or arrangement can be rendered at the same time ornamental or agreeable. The back cart or waggon entrance to the mill is exceedingly well contrived, while it serves at the same time as the waggon court, which could not have been dispensed with in a farmery of this extent when combined with a mill. The Architecture of a building ..ontaining a windmill will be given in the next subsection. FARM HOUSES AM) FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 17;] XIII. 474 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AliCHITECTURE. XIV. XV. FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 475 Design XIV. — A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of two Plouyhs, in the County of Northuiuberlaiid. 956. Accommodation. The general appearance is sliown in the isometrical view, p. 474 ; and the ground plan in fig. 949. The latter shows, in the dwelling-house, the parlour, a ; kitchen, b ; back- kitchen, c ; and dairy, d ; with two bed-rooms in the chamber floor, one over the kitchen, and the other over the parlour. The farmery contains a stable for four horses, e ; a hay- house, f; two cattle-hovels, g ; a barn and straw-house, h ; foal-house, i ; calf-pens, k ; cow-house for four cows, I ; cow-house for eight cows, m ; two fold-yards, n ; and stock- yard, 0. 957. Construction. Fig. 950 shows a section across the house, in which appears the manner of roofing, and also that the floors are paved. Fig. 951 shows a section across the stable, in which is seen the manner of construct- ing the partitions between the stalls, p ; and that the partition post, q, is let into a stone at the lower end, and at the upper end fixed to the tie-beam. The flooring of the stable is also shown per- fectly level, which is consistent with the most improved ideas on this subject. 958. Estimate. The total expense of erecting this farm- house and farmery was £550 ; /ijHMHni 1- -^ft [L_J a sum which will appear remarkably low to a London Architect : but it nnist be recollected, that, in N^orthumberland, freestone is generally found for the trouble of 476 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AUCHITECTUIIE. working it, on the larm ; and that the carriage of all materials is per- formed by the tenant. 959. Remarks. Tlic house has few conveniences, and there is no enclosed kitchen-garden shown : tlie stack-yard, however, is sur- rounded by a stone wall ; a com- mendable practice, if it were only for the air of neatness and finish which it gives to the whole. Design XV. — The Farm House and Offices at Cocklaio East Farm, on the Beaufront Estate, Northumberland. 960. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in the isomctrical view, p. 474, and the ground plan in fig. 952. In this plan the farm house contains a kitchen, a ; a parlour, h ; back-kitchen, c ; dairy, d ; coal-house, e ; and place for ashes, /. There is a garden, g, enclosed with a wall.' The farmery exhibits a cart-shed, h ; fo..l- h ~ii ^ '^ p 1 Ik i 912 house, i ; stable and hay-house, k ; four hovels, I ; three folds, m ; strax^-house, M'ith granary above, w ; barn, o ; stack-yard, p ; calf-house and turnip-house, q ; two byres (cow-houses), r ; two cottages, s ; and ])iggcry, ^ F.vRM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4-77 961. Construction. Nortliiiml)erIancl 953 being a county abounding in freestone, the walls are of that material, and the roofs of Baltic timber, covered with Westmoreland slates. Fig. 953 shows a cross section of the dwelling-house. A sj)ecification, applicable to Northumbrian farnis generally, will be given with a suc- ceeding Design. 962. Estimate. The contributor of this Design, John Green, Esq., Architect, Newcastle, having supplied us vnth the amount of the actual cost of the different buildings composing this Design, we liave made out the following table, with a view ot obtaining an approximation to the cost per cubic foot : — Per Foot. d. 2 Estimated Cost. 54 150 178 Actual Cost. £ 50 145 168 177 129 453 130 Contents of the cart-shed, h 6,480 Contents of the foal-house, i, and stable and hay-house, kk 1 8,000 Contents of two hovels, b b 21,432 Contents of the barn, o, and straw-house, with a granary above, n 25,442 2 212 Contents of two cow-houses, r r, and calf-house, 9 18,000 2 150 Contents of two pig-houses, t, with yards 4,804 2 20 Contents of the farm-house, and kitchen offices, a, h, c, d, &c 31,570 3\ 460 Contents of two cottages, s s 11,520 2| 132 From the above it would appear that, in Northumberland, 2(Z. per cubic foot is a fair sum for estimating farm buildings ; QT.d. for farm houses and their offices ; and 2|rf. for cottages. 963. Remarks. The farm house in this Design is placed on one side of the farmery ; but that circumstance, we presume, is owing to some local peculiarity in the surface ; since it must, when no obstacle is in the way, generally be desirable to have the house so placed as to command the whole of the farm-yard. In this instance there is not a single window of the living-rooms which looks in that direction. We observe that the fireplaces are all made in the outside walls, which would be bad in a country where fuel is scarce and dear, but which is probably thought nothing of in Northumberland, where it is abundant and cheap. Design XVI. • A F^:rm House and Farmery for seven Ploughs, proposed to be exeeiited in Northumberland. 964. Accommodation. The ground plan of the farmery is sj'own in fig. 956 groimd plan of the farm house in fig. 954. Tlie farmer)- contains a cart-shed, a ; stable for eight horses, b ; hay-house, c ; hovels with yards, d, e, f; straw-house, g ; water- wheel and machinery for threshing- machine, and place for threshed corn, h h h ; corn-barn for unthreshed corn, i ; tool-house, k ; hovels with fold yards /, m, n ; foal-house, o ; calf-house, p ; '^ ' \\ L's cow-house, with stalls between every two '•'■ "- cows, q ; stable for sis horses, r ; hay bay in the sfable, s ; tuniip-houses, t t ; roofed part of the pigsties, u u ; cribs for fodder in the fold yards, v v ; kitchen court of the dwelling-house, w ; and stack-yard, x. Fig. 954 is the ground plan of the dwelling-house, in which may be seen a porch, a ; a sitting-room, b ; parlom-, c ; dining-room, d ; store-room, e ; pantry, /; dairy, g ; with a meat-safe indicated on one side at p ; kitchen, h ; back-kit- chen, i ; cleaning-shed, k ; privy, I ; place for ashes, m, and for coals, n. The .surface drainage of the kitchen court, o, is to two iron traps, q q, as indicated ; and the 478 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 956 _ftet by arrow-heads ; and the water thus collected passes under the privy into a drain, r, which also receives the water from the sink-stone, s. 965. Construction, The walls are of freestone ; the exterior angles, and all the jambs of the doors and windows being worked, and the lintels and sills of one piece. Fig. 955 is an elevation of the front of the house, in which a porch is shown, which is formed of stone pilasters. Fig. 957 is a cross section of the stable, showing the manger, a; racks, h ; and the floor, perfectly level, c. Fig. 958 is a section across the division walls, d, and double cribs of the fold-yard ; by which it appears that the posts, e, into which are let. the ends of the rails to which the spokes of the cribs are nailed, are of stone, and that the cribs are divided into short lengths by cross rails at top, let into the posts, e, and the wall, d. Fig. 959 is a section across a single crib. FAIl.^r HOUSES AND FAIIMER1L:S TX VAllIOLS STYLES. 479 957 i»59 n u] 966. General Estimate. The actual expense of building this faimery, exclusive of the farm house, was ^-^1200; and, as it contains 168,560 cubic feet, the expense per foot is about l|rf. The actual cost of the farm house, with the kitchen court and offices, amounted to the same sum ; and, as these contain 86,704 cubic feet, the average per foot is S^r/., or thereabouts. 967. Remarks. This Design, also by Mr. Green, is for a Northumbrian farm which pays a rent of from i, 1200 to j£1400 a year ; the rent being partly paid in money, and partly in the value of the produce, chiefly corn, wool, and butchers' meat. The circum- stance of the threshing-machine being driven by water is favourable for the tenant, as requiring fewer horses. The cribs for the cattle in the fold-yards seem remarkably well executed, the posts being of stone. These cribs are two feet wide, and into them the turnips are thrown at one period of the day, and the straw at another. The stables are, as usual, divided into single stalls, and they are lighted by glass windows, which are always favourable for cleanliness. The house is spacious, and appears to contain most of the conveniences required. The connection of the dairy with the kitchen and back-kitchen is good ; biit the idea of a safe for meat in the dairy cannot be considered as favourable (see § 730). The manner in which the draining of the surface water of the yard is indicated is highly commendable, and ought to be generally adopted. The first points which should be settled, in determining the heights of the ground floors of any assemblage of bu' dings, are the levels of the underground and surface drainage. Disign XVII. — A Farm House and Farmery for Fourteen Ploughs, suited to the Noith- umbrian Husbandry. 968. Accommodation. Fig. 962 shows the general appearance of the whole ; fig. 96:3 is the ground plan of the farmery ; and fig. 960 the ground plan of the dwelling-house. The ground plan of the farmery shows a gig-house, a ; harness-room, b ; a stable, c, with a loft over it, and a man's sleeping-room over the gig-house and harness-room ; a foal-house, d ; bull-house, e ; two cow-houses, for sixteen cows, each pair separated by a partition,//; five hovels with fold- yards, g ; calf-house for twelve calves, h ; stable for a loose horse, i ; straw-house, k ; barn, I ; steam-engine house, m ; boiler-house, n • tool-house, o ; povdtry-house, p ; outside stair to the barn, q ; cart-shed, r ; cartwright's shop, s ; blacksmith's shop, t ; hay-yard, u ; stable for bailiff's horse, v ; bailiff's cottage, rv ; turnip-houses, x ; pig-houses, y ; kitchen-court of the farm house, z ; and rick-yard, §•. Fig. 960 is a ground plan of the dwelling- house, in which there are a lobby, a ; a dining-room, b ; drawing-room, c ; parlour, d ; office and library, e ; passage, /; kitchen, g ; back-kitchen, h; pantry, i; dairy, k ; wash-house, / ; place for ashes, m ; for coals, n ; best privy, o ; and servant's privy, p. Fig. 96 1 is a front elevation of the house. 969. Construction, Native freestone, Baltic timber, and Westmoreland slate are, as usual, the principal materials ; and the details of construction are common to all farmeries in Northumberland. We may remark, as not common, the practice of passing from one fold- 3 r 960 961 480 COTTAGE, FAIJM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 962 FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 481 963 IfThlllillillllU-ll r mj r n =Anrt tQ J2 6 12 24 3li 48 (iO ."2 84 96 108 ■ ' i 1 I f feet 482 COTT...GE, I'ARM, AND VILLA AIICIIITECTUIIF.. z i yard to another, over the separation wall, by ascending three steps on one side, and descending three on the otlier, as indicated by the section fig. 964. The fodder-cribs, 964 fig. 965, have raised bottoms, grated, in order i f 965 to let the dust and dirt from the turnips "i T drop thi-ough. The hay, when there are cribs r" 1 for the turnips, is given in racks, placed against the back wall of the hovels, as indicated in the plan, fig. 963. This practice seems a decided improvement. 970. liemirks. The threshing-macliine here is driven by steam, which shows a great aavance on the practice of employing horses, and one particularly suitable to a coal country, where fuel must be so much cheaper than horse-food. It will be observed in the plan, that the boiler-house, the cart-shed, the cartwright's shop, and the smithy are kept quite apart botli from the fold-yards and the rick-yard ; which is highly proper, as it prevents all risk from fire getting to straw, and all waste of litter, none being required for this department of the farmery. Taken altogether, this farmery appears one of the most extensive and well-arranged things of the kind that we have seen, and does the liigliest credit to its Architect, Mr. Green. One circumstance we cannot help remarking ; and that is, the commodiousness of the farm house, which contains twenty-eight windows, and twenty-eight apartments; while the dwelling of the bailiff", or superintending hind, as he is called in Northumberland, consists of only one apartment, and one small window. The horses and cows, nay, even the swine, are incomparably better lodged, considering their scale in creation, than the unfortunate occupant of such a cottage as is here shown : but the farmers of Northumberland, like those of Scotland, are under the dominion of an all-powerful aristocracy, and their servants are little better than serfs ; or, as it has been observed in the Morning Chronicle, the landlords are the slave-owners, the farmers the slave-drivers, and their servants the slaves. Design XVI IL — A Farm House and Farmery for Ten Ploughs, Ten Cows, Twenty Young Cattle, and other Live Stock, adapted to the Husbandry of Northumberland. 971. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 966, and the ground plan in fig. 967. In the latter, the house contains a kitchen, a ; dining-room, b ; parloui-, 966 f, separated from the dining-room by a large hall or lobby ; office, or place of business, d; dairy, e ; covered passage, open in front,/; back-kitchen, and dairy-scullery, 5- ; privy for servants, h; best privy, i ; kitchen court, k; place for ashes, I; and walled kitchen- irarden, m. The farmery contains in the barn a comjiartment for unthreshed corn, 1 ; another for threshed corn, 2 ; a space for machinery, 3 ; and a large straw-house, 4. At one end of the straw-house is a stair to a granary which extends over the straw-house and cattle- sheds 5 and 6. The cattle-sheds, or hammels, are of three kinds ; hammels for beeves upon turnips, 5 ; hammels for stirks, 38 ; and hammels for store cattle on straw, 6. Every hammel has its yard ; those for the cattle on straw, 39, being largest, because FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 483 967 13331 w— {— m I n2Ul 1^1 111 S (I 10 iO 30 -10 50 00 70 fO go 100 U-1— i— 4 r— f-H H-4-H ;—\ a number are put together ; and those for the beeves being smallest, because they arc understood to be fattening. The yard for the stirks, 38, is also the yard for the stables. There are two hay-rooms, 7 7 ; and two stables for ten horses each, 8 8 ; a poultry-house, 9; pigsty, 10; calf-house, II ; foddering-bay for cow-house, 12; cow-house for ten cows, 13 ; yard to the cow-house, 14; vacant house, to be used as a slaughter-house, or for pickling wheat, or for various other purposes with a dovecot over, 15; store pigsty, 16 ; house for a bidl, 17 ; house for a stallion, 18 ; feeding-house for cows, 20 ; and yard for cow-house, 21. There are a boiling-house, which also serves as a wash-house for the family, 22 ; a coal or wood-house, 23 ; stable for a riding-horse, 24 ; an hospital, 25 ; a carpenter's shop, 26 ; a tool-house, 27 ; cart-shed, 28 ; and six cottages for ploughrnen, 29. Belonging to the cottages there are a place for such rubbish as cannot be turned into manure for the cottage gardens, 30 ; a privy for the women and children, 31 ; and a privy for the men and boys, 32. To complete the establishment, there are a blacksmith's shop, 33 ; and a cow-house for the six cows of the cottagers, 34. Each cottage has a garden in the enclosure marked 35. To supply all the animals with water, there are pumps at n n n, besides a pump in the kitchen court, and one at o, for the cottagers. There are a broad passage or roadway between those offices which are unconnected with working, feeding, or store animals, and the farm yard, 36 ; a yard for store turnips, 37 ; one for stirks, and for the stables, 38 ; two for cattle feeding on straw, 39 ; and an extensive rick- yard, 40. 972. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by one of the most extensive farmers in Northumberland, an enlightened and liberal-minded man, and a much valued con- tributor to our Encyclopedia of Agriculture, Gardener's Magazine, and Magazine of Natural History, accompanied by the following remarks : — " This Design is sent to show you what we in Northumberland consider some of the essentials in the arrangement of a farm steading. It scarcely ever happens that a whole homestead has to be built at once ; and the nature of the ground, or of the farm roads, frequently causes a variety of modi- fications in the different buildings here exhibited. In explaining what these essentials are, it may be necessary to state the reasons why the barn, in fig. 967, is made thirty feet wide, instead of sixteen or eighteen feet, which is the usual width. This is done that there may be sufficient space for a stack of unthreshed corn, and also two bays for threshed corn, in order to supply work for the men and horses, in weather so bad, that corn would be injured in carrying it from the rick-yard to the barn ; and to contain a large quantity of threshed corn, when there may not be time, on account of out of doors work, to clean and measure it up, and raise it into the granary. The straw-house, 4, may 484! COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. also seem large ; but the advantage of having occasionally, or rather always, a store of dry straw is great ; and in a large straw-house the different kinds for tlie keeping or feeding of cattle may be kept separate without inconvenience. The hammels, as well as the other cattle-houses, it will be seen, are so situated as to be supplied with straw from the straw-house with the least possible labour ; they are also all made to front the south ; as that aspect, in Northumberland, offers so much more warmth and comfort to the animals, as to render the food given much more effective in fattening them than it would be in houses facing the north, or even the east or west. The cattle wing is placed on tlie west side of the quadrangle, near the dwelling-house, as being more convenient for the cows and calves ; and the stables are placed near the centre, with hay-houses, 7 7, at their farther end, to which access may be had through large folding doors in the straw- house. The hay, may, therefore, be carried to the feeding stock dry, and may l)e lodged under lock and key, and given into the charge of a fodderman ; under which circumstances, it is considered much less liable to waste ; the expense of lofting the stables is also saved, and the stables are thus rendered more healthy for the horses. As a long range of buildings fronting the south might be exposed to a sweep of wind from the east or west, the stables arc carried up close to the fodder-house, for the purpose of breaking such a current, and of rendering the folds more sheltered, particularly the middle one ; which, on this account, and from its being the most convenient for receiving the stable litter, is particularly eligible for the yearling cattle (stirks), which the Northumbrian farmers think are less liable to the quarter ill, when allowed to eat the refuse hay and litter from the horses, of which they are very fond. The feeding cattle are now generally fed in sheds opening into a loose yard, three, five, and sometimes more, being placed together, with the exception, occasionally, of old cows, which are usually tied up ; for these there is a feeding-byre, 20, in the east wing, which, however, may also be converted into a feeding- hammel. Botli a turnip-house, 19, and a turnip-yard, 37, are given ; the first is princi- pally useful during winter frosts, though excellent beeves may be fed with turnips which have been stored in the open yard, when they have been well covered with straw. The cart-shed, which more farmers consider necessary than can boast of having, is placed near the stables, and fronting the north ; that being considered the best aspect for preser\ing those implements. The tool-house is also near, and the remainder of this range to the west may be considered most conveniently situated. The dwelling-house is placed a little in advance of the west wing, and is as near the farm-yard as it well can be, without being subjected to its nuisances. The dairy is shown rather detached, because it is better at some distance from the heat of the kitchen ; and its window is to the north, as that is requisite for preserving the milk sweet during the hot weather of summer. The cottages are to the east of the south range ; and if built like Mr. Bardwell's, § 477, fig. 423, with sleeping apartments above, they will be of sufficient size. They are better placed together than detached, as, by their vicinity to each other, a dishonest servant is prevented from pilfering, from the fear of being detected and exposed by his neighbours. Their cow-houses, and the blacksmith's shop, are placed on the east, to complete the quadrangle, where also other conveniences may be added, if thought necessary. The wash-house, 22, at the west end, is intended either to boil horse or cow food ; or where many harvesters (reapers) are employed and fed, it may be used as a cooking-house." We value this plan highly, knowing the competency of its author. We are gratified to observe that the cottages for the labourers are proposed to be formed, like Mr. Bardwell's, with one large room and two closets on the ground floor, and two bed-rooms over. The worst point about the Northumbrian farmeries, as well as those of Scotland, is the boothies, or little booths, for the single men, and the houses of one room for the married servants. Design XIX. — A Farmery for Five Ploughs, with Cows, Cattle, and other Stock in Proportion, suitable for the Northumbrian Husbandrij. 973. Accommodation. No farm house is here shown, but merely the offices of the farmery ; the general appearance of which is exhibited in fig. 968, and the ground plan in fig. 969. The latter contains the barn bay for unthreshed corn, y ; the bay for threshed corny z ; the machinery, c ; and the straw-house, d : the stable, e, has separate stalls for ten horses ; and connected with it is a hay-house, f. There are a tool-house, g ; straw- yards, and hammels, /(, /, k, I ; calf-house, m ; stable for a loose horse, n ; cow-houses, o, p ; hackney stable, q ; and four feeding-hammels, with yards, r, s. There are a vacant house for an hospital, and for various other puqioses, t ; a cart-shed, u ; turnip-house, V ; a common yard, w ; and riek-yard, x. There are pumps for supplying water, at da' ; and upright racks along the divisions between the fold-yards, at b' b', &c. 974. Remarks. On this Design, which has been sent us by the same experienced agriculturist as the preceding one, its author thus remarks : — " No dwelling-house or cottages are attached, nor a blacksmitli's nor carpenter's shop ; because these may be added FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 485 968 where deemed most convenient. Many of the observations made on the preceding Design win apply also to this one : the cart-shed, however, fronts the east, which is the next desirable aspect to the north. " 20 40 60 80 100 Ft. Design XX. — A Farm House and Farmery for Three Ploughs, adapted to the North' umhrian System of Culture. 975. Accommodation. Fig. 970 shows the general appearance; and fig. 971 the ground plan. In the latter the dwelling-house shows an entrance-lobby and staircase, a 486 COTTAGK, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 971 z parlour, 6 ; kitchen, c; dairy, d; drying-shed, e; back-kitchen and dairy-scullery, /"; servants' privy, g ; best privy, h ; place for ashes, i ; pigsty, k ; poultry-house, I ; and kitchen yard, m. The offices show a stable for six cart-horses, n ; hackney-stable, o ; cow- house, /> ; calf-house, q ; hammels and yards, r ; house for a loose horse or bull, s ; bay of the barn for unthreshed corn, t ; threshed corn and machinery, u ; straw-house, v ; situation in which cattle-sheds may be extended, w, with yards, x. A pump, placed at y, will supply the whole of the farm-yard, and the kitchen court may have one in any con- venient angle. The rick-yard is at z. 976. Remarks. This Design, by the same contributor, is for what is considered in Northumberland a small farm. " It is chiefly intended for keeping cattle, and may be extended towards the east, as shown by the dotted lines, w, x. The additional hammels, w, may be covered by corn stacks, as roofs, and especially with beans, a very general practice in Northumberland. There is a dwelling, but no buildings are shown, for ser- vants or workmen. The cattle-sheds are all lofted, such lofts forming better granaries for keeping corn than those over close cattle-houses or stables ; because the corn is not injured by the breath of cattle confined below. The whole range of building on the north side of this yard is shown two stories high, for the sake of sheltering the fold-yards. The stables in this Design, and in the two preceding ones, ought to be between sixteen and eighteen feet wide ; and, if a recess with a small window in it were made behind each pair of horses, a convenient place would be formed there for keeping harness above, and for placing a corn or chaff bin below. The light and the ventilation which would be afforded by the window would admit of keeping the stable much more sweet and clean than is usual ; for it is certain, as White observes, that ' there is nothing like light for exposing a negligent servant.' " Design XXI. — The Farm House and Offices for a Farm of Six Ploughs, called HaUington New Houses, on the Beaufront Estate, in Northumberland. 977. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 972, and the ground plan in fig. 973. The latter shows the farm house, containing a kitchen, a ; parlour, b ; 972 FAUM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 487 973 back-kitchen, c, with four bed-rooms and a closet over. There are also a dairy, d ; coal- house and shed, e ; ash-house and privy,/; and garden, surrounded by a wall, g. Tlie farmery contains a stable for nine horses, h ; a hay-house, t ; three hovels with their fold- yards, k ; a straw-house, with granary over, / ; a barn, m ; stack-yard, n ; stable for four horses, o ; foal-house, p ; cow-houses, q ; calf-house, r ; piggeries, s ; cart-shed, t ; and two cottages, u u. 978. Construction. The walls are of the freestone found upon the estate ; the timber is of Baltic fir, and the covering of the roofs of Westmoreland slate. There is nothing pe- culiar or specific in the fitting up of the buildings composing the farmery ; and the interior of the dwelling-house is finished in the usual manner, as appears by the section, fig. 974. As a specimen of the manner in which the particular, or specification, of the work to be done in buUding a farm house and offices in Northumberland is made out, we are enabled, through the kindness of ISIr. Green, to subjoin the following form, being that actually made for rebuilding this farm : — 979. Specijication ayid Description of the several works to new farm buildings intended to be erected at Hallington New Houses, on the estate of J. Errington, Esq., of Beau- front, in the county of Northumberland, according to the plans, elevations, and sections hereunto annexed. 980. The Contractors shall, at their own cost and charge, provide all and every kind of material ; labour, including the digging and quarrying stones ; workmanship ; tools ; travelling, lodging, and every other expense attendant on the works, except cartage, which is to be supplied by the tenant. All the materials to be of good quality of their several kinds ; and the mortar for building the walls to be composed of good well-burnt lime, mixed with clean sand ; using not less than one cart-load of lime to three cart-loads of sand, and having them well mixed and beaten together with water. The stones to be got from a quarry which is to be opened on the farm ; the contractor to find labour for opening and laying bare the stone ; but the tenant to supply what cartage may be neces- 3 G 488 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. sary. The timbers for all the carpenter's work ; viz., roofing, lintels, bond timber, stoothings (stuchvork, or quartering ; that is, wooden framework for lath and plaster par- titions), ragglings (ceiling joists), joistings, external door-frames, posts and rails for stalls in stable, cow-byre, and calf-pens, to be all sawn out of IMemel, Dantzic, or red pine timber. The deals for the external doors, windows, gates, stall partitions, mangers, and hay-racks, and for the steps and risers to stairs, to be all of red wood from the Baltic. All the floors of the house and granary to be laid with white-wood battens from Christiania. All the other inside joiner's work to be executed witli deals, &c., cut out of Quebec yellow pine. The whole to be free from sap, shakes, loose knots, and every other defect. The materials of the present old buildings to be taken for the use of the respective con- tractors ; and such of them as shall be deemed sound and good by the inspector, such as stones and timber, to be used in the new offices. The old buildings, however, are to be taken down only in such order of time as they can be spared by the tenant, so as he may not be put to unnecessary inconvenience thereby. 981. Dwelling- House. — Mason's Work. To open out, and lay bare the quarry where pointed out ; and to get from it all tlie stones necessary for the mason-work ; to dig proper trenches for all the walls, of the different thicknesses, and to the depth required for a good foundation, and also for sleeper walls to the parlour floor. To build stone footings to all the walls, from good foundations, of the difl'erent thicknesses described on the drawing ; the first footing to be 3 feet, and the second ditto 2 feet and a half. To carry up all the external walls 2 feet thick, and the internal walls, and walls of coal-house, privy, &c., 20 inches thick, to the heights required, as shown by the elevation and section. The front of the house to be built with good blocking courses of hewn stone (" good blocking courses" does not mean, in Northumberland, hewn work, but only stones dressed with the pick end of the hammer, and laid in regular courses, which courses are generally of such a tliickness, as that two of them range with one course of coins, as in fig. 975). The jambs of the doors and windows to be carried up in in and out tie (in and out tie, or in-bands and out-bands, are analogous to headers and stretchers in brick- work; and, in the case of windows and other openings, will be understood by fig. 976, 975 976 977 978 in which a is the in-tie, in-band, or heading stone ; and b, the out-tie, out-band, or stretching stone ; and c, the pulley style of the windows ; the external elevation of in and out tie may be seen in fig. 977); checked (rebated) to receive frames; the inside of the jambs to be splayed ; to have wooden bricks built in for fastenings of flie beads, and recesses left for window seats. The gables of the house and back side to be built with good common walling ; the whole of the walls to have a bond stone (binding stone) laid through the full thickness of the wall every superficial yard, and to be properly pointed outside. Windows and doors to have stone heads and sills, chiseled and set. The silLs to have proper drips, and to project 2 inches from the face of the wall. The coins (corners) for all the walls to be chiseled, and to be from 12 to 14 inches deep, 20 inches long, and 10 inches in the bed. Two courses of blocking in the front wall to range fair with one of coins. The chimneys to be carried up with gables, as shown in the drawing. The vents (flues) to be well pargeted inside, with hair and lime ; and the tops above the roof to be built with hewn stone, well jointed ; each joint to have a wrought-iron cramp, three eighths of an inch square, and 5 inches long, run with lead. Stone water-tables to be laid up the gables on each side, and to be wrought with saddle top, chiseled and set ; the first stone to be fixed with an iron stud, run with lead, into corbel coins (summer stones, as shown in fig. 977), also a stone ridge, wrought fair to a mould, well jointed and laid straight on the roof. To pave the two kitchens, dairy, pantry, passages, and closet under the stairs with flag-stones, 3 inches and a half thick, from Erring Craig : the whole to be dressed, jointed, and well bedded in sand. Tlie front and back doors to have stone steps and thresholds, chiseled and set. The fireplaces in the front kitchen and back ditto to have stone jambs and mantels chiseled and set. The mantels not to be less than 15 inches deep, and the jambs the breadth required. Each fireplace to have a fui^iace pot (boiler) and oven (the front kitchen pot to contain 12 gallons of water ; the oven to be 20 inches in diameter); and standard grates, (kitchen grates supporting themselves by feet in front,) 20 inches wide, set with hewn stone fronts, coved behind for the pot mouth (boiler mouth, as in fig. 978; in which d is the pot or boiler; e, the coving; /, the jamb; and ^, FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 489 the bottom of the standard grates) ; the back-kitchen fireplace to have a standard grate, 20 inches wide, and tlie pot to contain 16 gallons of water. The whole to be properly set with cast-iron dampers and iiru bricks ; to have end plates and a liook fixed for the top bar to fall down. The firejilaccs in the bed-rooms and parlour to have polished stone jambs, mantels, and fire slabs, and side slips where required ; each to have a sham stove of the value of 15s. each, the parlour fireplace to have metal cove plates (metal side pieces, coved to the jambs above the stoves, as in fig. 979, in which h h are the cove plates), and the whole to be properly set. 979 To pebble-pave the yard to the house, coal-house, ash-house and J^ — L shed ; the privy to be flag-paved. The front and back doors to have j/ ^3^ h < flags laid in the front of the steps, 4 feet by 4 feet. To build the -^1 H- garden wall, as shown in the plan, with common walling, 20 inches thick, and 6 feet high, with coins at the angles, and to have the coins of the gate openings scappled (broached ashlar dressed roughly with the pick end of the hammer). 982. Plasterer's Work. To plaster all the walls of the house with two-coated plaster ; and also all the jambs of doors and windows. The soflits of the same to be lath-plastered where required. The ceilings of all the rooms, passages, and of the staircase with stooth- ing partitions, to have two-coated lath-plaster ; also the partitions forming closets to have the same. The privy to have two coats of wall-plastering, and the ceiling to have two coats of lath-plaster. The lime for the whole of the above to be well prepared, and mixed with a sufficient quantity of long beast's hair ; the whole to be well smoothed off", and left free from blushes (blisters) and every other defect, when finished. The mason to cut all the holes necessary for the carpenter's and joiner's work, and for the smith's work, &c. ; also to provide lead for running in ditto. Grooves to be cut, when required, for the slating ; and the whole to be done to the satisfaction of Mr. J. Green, Architect, or whom he may appoint to inspect the same. 983. Carpenter and Joiner's Work. To provide and cut all the necessary wooden bricks ; lintels for door and window openings, and wall plates for joisting, of such scantling as will be hereafter specified. The joisting for the chamber floor to be laid level at top, and fair underside for the ceiling, and not to exceed 16 inches apart, middle and middle (from centre to centre). The joists to have 1 2 inches hold on the wall at each end, and to be laid on wall plates ; to lie trimmed for the chimneys and staircase, as may be re- quired ; and to be of such scantling as will be hereafter specified. The joisting for the parlour floor to be laid on sleeper walls, not to exceed 18 inches apart, middle and middle. The fire hearths to be boxed with 1 inch and a quarter deal. The roof to be framed, as shown in the section, with four pair of principals (principal rafters); the common rafters to be laid so as not to exceed 18 inches apart, middle and middle, a course of five-eighths inch deal sarking (boarding), 9 inches broad, to be laid along the eaves and the ridge, on each side of the roof and chimney necks (shafts) ; also five-eighths inch deal sarking laid up the gables, 2 feet wide on each side, to meet the slate laths in the middle of the second spar from the gable. The beams to be laid on raising plates, (wall plates) with a proper bearing on the same. The ceiling joists to be fixed to the underside of the tie beams, and not to exceed 16 inches apart, middle and middle. A trap-door to be made and fixed in the ceiling where directed, to give access to tiie roof. Stoothing partitions to form rooms, pantry, closets, &c., to be fixed as shown on the drawing; the stoothings (quartering) not to exceed 16 inches apart, middle and middle, the scantlings to be hereafter specified. Partition door-frames to be beaded, rabbeted, and fixed with stoothings, where shown in the drawing. The closet door-frames to be beaded, and fixed with stoothings to form closets, as shown in the di-awing. The chamber floors and parlour ditto to be laid with inch-and-quarter white-wood battens ; dressed and jointed, and well nailed to joists ; the battens to be dressed and jointed immediately after the contract is made, and horsed (set up on end in the open air to dry, against a horizontal spar or horse, the end of which ^°*^ is shown at i, in fig. 984), so as to be properly seasoned before laying down. The coal-house, shed, and privy, to be covered in with a pitched roof (a roof raised in the middle, and not at one side only, as in lean-to roofs), as shown in the drawing; scantlings hereafter specified. — Scant- lings. Chamber flooring joists, 9 inches by 2 inches and a half, 16 inches apart, middle and middle; sleeper joists for parlour, 6 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half; 18 inches apart, middle and middle ; principal rafters, 9 inches by 3 inches ; tie-beams, 8 inches by 3 inches and a half; king-posts, 11 inches by 3 inches and a half; ridge- pieces, 7 inches by 1 inch and a half; ribs, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half; strutts, 5 inches by 3 inches ; common rafters, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half; ragglings, 3 inches and a half by 2 inches ; stoothings, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half; wall plates under joists, 4 inches and a half by 1 inch and a half; raising plates under tie-beams, 6 inches and a half by 2 inches and a quarter ; lintels for doors and windows, 4 inches 490 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. thick, by the breadth required ; wall plate at foot of spars, 9 inches by 1 inch and a quarter ; partition door-frames, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a quarter ; closet door-frames, 3 inches and a (juarter by 3 inches; -external door-frames to house, 4 inches and three quarters liy 3 inches and a half; principal rafters for shod and coal-house roofing, 6 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half; common i-afters, 2 inches and a half by 2 inches and a quarter ; ribs, 4 inches and a half by 3 inclies and a quarter ; wall plates, 6 inches and a half by 1 inch and a quarter ; ridge pieces, 6 inches by 1 inch and a half; ])an plate, wall plate, and lintel, 3 inches and a half thick. — Windows. All the windows for the house to have boxed sash frames of red-wood deal. The frames to have 1-inch pulley stiles (hollow stiles, containing the pulleys, lines, and weights, for balancing tlie sashes), outside linings of three-quarters-inch deal ; and beaded inside linings of half-inch deal, with the sash sill double sunk (see fig. 981), 3 inches and a half tliick by the breadth required. The heads to be of 2 inch deal, boxed out the breadth of the side frames ; three-eighths- c [ 981 inch parting (separating) beads grooved into pulley stiles; inside beads, three quarters of an inch and seven eighths of an inch broad; the sashes to be 1 inch and three quarters, stuck (worked) with astragal and hollow ; sash bar, five eighths of an inch thick ; the stile of sashes to be 1 inch and three quarters broad. The whole to be single hung with cast-iron weights and proper sash line ; and to have cast-iron framed pulleys; each window to have a brass sash fastener fixed, of the value of Is. 9d. The low room (ground floor) windows to have inside shutters framed of inch-and-quarter deal, in two panels, planted (inlaid) moulding, plain back flaps of three-quarters-inch deal, clamped at the ends ; shutters to be hung with two inches and a half metal butt hinges ; and the back flaps with 1 inch and a half wrouglit-iron ditto, and screws. Each shutter to have a plain brass knob, and a window shutter bar, 2 feet and a half long, fixed to each window. All the windows to have inch-and-cjuarter deal bottoms, with plain backs and elbows (casings round the window seats) of 1-inch deal beaded ; the upper edge and plain soflfits to be of three- quarters-inch deal, grooved and tongued. The parlour window to have framed backs and elbows down to the floor, with a framed soflit of inch-and-quarter deal, to corre- spond with shutters. The plinth to be fixed round the windo%v, 4 inches and a half broad. Framed grounds 4 inches and a half by 1 inch and a quarter, beaded and splayed inside, to be fixed round the windows in the parlour and in the two kitchens, with a three- quarters-inch ogee back moulding. The upper room windows to have a three- quarters-inch angle bead fixed round the jambs and heads. The dairy and pantry windows to be made with solid frames, 3 inches and a half by 3 inches ; to have sliding trellises inside, with glass above, one square in height ; and to have inch-and-quarter deal bottom made level with shelving. The jambs and heads to have a three-quarters- Inch angle bead fixed. Tlie dairy and pantry shelving to be fixed, as shown on the plan, by dotted lines ; to have three shelves in height ; their united breadths not to be less than 4 feet ; and to have proper framed bearers. All the external angles of the chimney, breasts, jambs, and heads of door openings to have three-quarters-inch angle beads fixed, and on such other places as require them. The closets to be fitted up, as shown in the drawing, with 3 shelves in height, of 1-inch deal ; their united breadths not to measure less than 3 feet. The stairs to be fitted up in one flight, as shown on the plan, with inch-and-quarter deal steps and risers. The steps to have rounded nosings chimed (let in) at both ends into stringings, which are to be of inch- and-half deal, and 10 inches broad ; with a dressed and beaded upper edge to answer as skirting. A wrought deal handrail to be fixed to stoothings on each side of the stairs. Moulded skirting to be fixed round the parlour of 1-inch deal, 6 inches broad ; to be fixed to the wall with plugs. I'lain skirting of three-quarters-inch deal, 4 inches and a half broad, to be fixed round the kitchen, back-kitchen, passages, bed- rooms, &c. The parlour fireplace to have a j)lain pilaster chimney-piece, 4 inches and a half broad, with shelf and frieze. The bed-room fireplaces to have a single fire moulding, with a plain shelf and frieze. The two kitchen fireplaces to have each a chimney shelf of inch-and-quarter deal, fixed with ogee brackets. All the room door-frames to have a three-quarters-inch quirk ogee moulding, planted (fixed) round on each side, also round the closet door-frames, to cover the plastering. The upper room doors, and the dairy and pantry ditto, to be framed in four panels of inch-and-half deal, finished and planted on one side. To be hung on frames, with 3 inches and a half butt hinges, and each to have a good Norfolk latchet (latch). The cheese-room door and pantry ditto to have iron-rimmed locks of the value of 2s. 6d. each, with escut- cheons. The low room doors to be also framed in four panels of inch-and-half deal finished, planted moulding, l)oth sides hung on frames, with 3 inches and a half butts ; the parlour door and kitchen ditto next to the stairs to have each an iron-rimmed lock FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 491 with Scotch springs, and plain brass knobs of the value of 5s. 6d. each. Tlie closet doors to be framed in four panels of inch-and-quarter deal ; with planted mouldings on one side, to be hung with ;J-inch butt hinges, and to have closet door locks of the value of '2s. 6d. each. The front door to be framed 1 inch and three quarters thick, in 6 panels, bead and flush outside ; and hung with -1 inches and a half butt hinges on frames beaded and rabbeted, with a ligiit above. The back entrance door to be framed 1 inch and three quarters thick, in four panels, bead and butt, and hung on frames, beaded and rabbeted, with 4 inches and a half butt hinges. Each of the above doors to have a stock lock of the value of 6s., and a good Norfolk latchet. 20 feet run of pin rail (railing for hat or cloak pins) to be fixed in the kitchen where required. The trap-door, made for the ceiling, to be of half-inch deal, grooved and tongued, with beaded lining round the frame. The privy to have a boxed seat of inch-and-quarter deal, grooved and tongued, and a battened door of 1-inch deal, hung on frames, beaded and rabbeted, 4 feet by 3 feet, with T bands (hinges like fig. 982) 2 feet 'jh2 long, and to have a Norfolk latchet, with a small bolt inside. The coal-house door, and ash-house ditto, to be of inch-and-quarter deal, hung with bands (strap hinges) and crooks (hooks) run into stone cheeks (jambs), 2 feet 2 inches long, with two screw-bolts and nuts in each band. (N. B. No doors or window shutters to be hung on mouldings fixed in any jiart of the house where the plastering is unfinished, excef)t on the window grounds and skirting.) 984. Hardicare (Ironmongery). To provide all the nails, spikes, screws, &e., that may be necessary for the carpenter's and joiner's work ; also all the hardware, as before specified; two dozen of iron crooks to be fixed in the ceilings of the kitchen, or in such other parts as shall be directed. To fix along the eaves of the roof on both sides half round metal spouts (see fig. 983), wit'n two metal wall pipes. The whole to be fixed with a sufficient number of iron stays and holdfasts. 985. Slater's Work. To cover the roof of the house with Welsh slates called countesses, laid with a sufficient overlap, and well nailed, with two nails to each slate, to Memel laths 1 inch and a half by five eighths of an inch ; the laths to be well nailed to spars (common rafters). The whole to be well pointed inside with good hair and lime mortar, and inserted into grooves at the chimney necks ; also to be well pointed up the gables and along the ridge ; the whole to be sound, and left perfectly watertight when finished. 986. Glazier's and Painter's Work. To glaze all the windows with the best Newcastle second crown glass, to be well fitted and bedded in good oil putty. The windows to be primed before glazing. Pantry and dairy windows to have glass above the trellises one square in height, also the same above the front door. To paint all the outside joiner's work, viz., doors, windows, &c., and all the metal spouts, with three coats of good white lead and oil ; and all the inside joiner's work, viz. the doors, windows, mouldings, linings, skirtings, handrails, &c. &c., with two coats of white lead and oil, or with such other colours as may be required. The whole work to be well puttied up, and knotted (the knots smoothed and filled up) previously to painting. 987. Farm Offices. — Mason's Work. To dig proper trenches for the foundations of all the walls to the new buildings, the proper thicknesses, and to the depth required. To take off the covering, and pull down the walls of such of the old buildings as are to come down ; the old stones to be used for the inside of the walls to the new buildings ; and the new stones wanted, to be from the aforementioned quarry. To build stone footings to all the walls for the new buildings, as shown on the plans, 2 feet and a half wide, from good and sufficient foundations. The walls above the foundations to be 21 inches thick, with good common walling carried up to the height required, as shown in the plan, elevation, and sections. A proper bond stone to be laid through the full thickness of the wall every superficial yard (measuring on the face of the wall), and the face of the external walls to be well pointed. The coins for all the external angles of the walls to be scappled, jointed, and set; and to be 20 inches long, 12 inches deep, and 10 inches thick. Stone heads and sills to be chiseled for all the windows, the frames to be built in with the walls. The external doors to have also stone heads and sills chiseled ; the jambs to be built in and out tie, scappled and cheeked ; (hammer-dressed, as above explained, with a rebate cut out for the door to shut against, ) the in-tie to go through the full thickness of the wall, and to be 12 inches in the head ; the out-tie to be 20 inches long, and 10 inches in the head. Iron crooks to be run into stone cheeks while building for the door bands, which the carpenter will provide ; the lead to be provided by the mason. The two byres at the west end of the present old farm house to be converted into two hovels, as shown in the drawing. The present slated cart-shed to be lengthened with a new 492 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. opening, arched, &c., as shown in the drawing. To build jambs and pillars to all the hovels and cart-sheds, with hewn stone in and out tie both sides, well jointed and set ; the stones to be 20 inches long, 12 inches deep, and 10 inches and a half thick, and the space between the pillars to be carried up with good common walling. The arches to have pen stones (arch stones) to go through the full thickness of wall, and not to be less than 10 inches in the head; all the angles of the jambs to be cut off, making a 2-inch chamfer. The barn and straw-house to be flag-paved with flag-stones, 3^ inches thick, dressed and jointed, to be laid on a bed of rubblestones 8 inches thick, broken small; the flags to be bedded in sand, and tlie joints to be set with lime. To pebble-pave the byres and calf-houses with proper cribstone and saddle (the former, fig. 984, k, partitions off the crib ; and the latter, /, the gutter 9S4 behind) ditto, as shown in the plans. The cribs to be flagged at bottom. To pebble-pave the new stable, fowl-house, hay-house and pig-houses, with the yards to ditto. The stable to have proper stones mortised, and set for stall-posts. To pebble-pave a causeway 4 feet broad, with proper edge stones, in front of all the buildings inside the fold ; also along the east side of the east wing, as shown by dotted lines on the ground plan. To build walls for the pig-houses, fold walls, stack-yard walls, and crib walls, as shown in the plan. Proper stone gateposts to be set into the groimd, and those for the folds and stack-yard to have iron crooks run into the same with lead, for gates to be hung on ; the whole to have scappled coins at the angles and gate openings. The walls to be carried up 5 feet and a half high above the ground, in common walling, with sloped coping. The ridge stone to be worked fair to a mould- ing, and laid on all the ridges and hips of the roofing. The first stone of each hip to be fixed with an iron spike. Stone water-tables to be laid on the pig-house gables ; the first stone to be run into a corbel coin. The stone spouts to be wrought, and fixed into the walls of the pig-yards. The crib walls in the folds to have stone posts grooved to receive deal fronts, and to be flagged at bottom with common flags. The old cottage at Hallington Hill to be taken down ; the byre to be converted into a cottage, and the barn into a hovel, opening into ditto. The latter to have jambs carried up with hewn stone and arch, as described for the other hovels. The chimney and fireplace in the cottage to be done as hereafter described for the new cottages. The flagging and plastering also to be the same. The walls for the fold and stack-yard to be done as before described for those at the farm house. 988. Cottages. To build two cottages adjoining the cart-shed, as shown in the drawing. The walls to be as before described. The chimneys to be carried up with proper vents 14 feet by 10 feet, and to be well pargeted inside with hair and lime; each to have hewn stone jambs, mantels, and chimney-top. The fireplaces to have each a cylinder oven, 1 5 inches in diameter ; a furnace pot to contain eight gallons of water ; and a pair (front and bottom bars) of common grates 17 inches wide : the whole to be set with hewn stone fronts, fire bricks, and dampers. The floors to be flag-paved with Si-inch flags, dressed and jointed, and well bedded in sand. 989. Plasterer's Work. To plaster the cottages with two-coated plastering; the stoothing partitions of the dairy and lobby, in the new cottages, to be plastered with two coats of lath plaster. The granary and barn walls to l)e plastered with one coat wall plaster, 4 feet from the floor. The window-frames to be drawn about (pointed) with hair and lime mortar on both sides. The lime to be well prepared for all the plastering, and to be mixed with a suflficient quantity of hair. The mason to cut all holes for posts, iron crooks, grooves, and all others necessary for carjjenter's and joiner's work, and the slating also ; to clear away all the surplus earth from the inside of all the buildings, which are to be made level ; the earth to be wheeled out to a considerable distance for carting away. The mason, also, to provide lead for running the ironwork into the stone ; and to have the use of roofing timber, or any other old timber which may be spared, for scaffolding ; but in case any of the same should thereby be broken or injured, to replace them, or else allow the value thereof to the carpenter for damages. 990. The Carpenter's and Joiner's IVorh. To provide and cut all the lintels for tlie doors and windows, of such scantlings as are hereafter specified ; and so as not to have less than 12 inches hold on the wall at each end. The granary above the straw-house to have joisting laid 18 inches apart, mid and mid; and to have 12 inches hold on the wall at each end. — Flooring. The granary floor to be laid with inch-and-quarter white-wood battens, dressed and jointed : the battens to be laid loose, so as to take up and relay after pining (shrinking). Tlie roofing for all the buildings to be framed and hipped, as shown in the drawing, with tie-beams laid on raising plates (wall plates), the scantlings to be hereafter specified ; and the whole to have a sufliicient number of principals to make the openings between not exceed from 7 to 8 feet. — Scantlings. Tie- beams, 6 inches and a half by 4 inches ; principal rafters, 8 inches and a half by 2 inches FAUiM EIOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 403 and a half; liip rafters, 10 inches by two inclics ; common rafters, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half, not to exceed 18 inches apart middle and middle; binders (tie beams) 8 inches by 2 inches and a half; ribs, (5 inches by 3 inches and a quarter ; ridge, 3 inches and a quarter by 3 inches and a quarter; granary joists, 10 inches by 2 inches and a half; raising plates, 6 indies by 1 inch and a half; lintels, 4 inches thick by the breadth required for the low buildings. The lintels for the granary windows, 3 feet and a half by the breadth required. Hinder posts to stalls, 5 inches by 5 inches ; fore posts, 5 inches by 3 inches. Sarking of five-eighths-inch deal, 9 inches broad, to be laid on the eaves and ridges of the roofing on each side. Gutter boards to the valleys to be laid with three-quarters-inch deal, covered with sheet lead, 18 inches broad, 6 pounds to the foot, which is to be provided, and laid at the carpenter's expense. — The stable to be fitted up with stalls, as shown on the plan and section. The stall partitions to be fitted up with inch-and-quarter deal, and to have a 9-inch batten jilaced horizontally about the middle of each side. The top and bottom rail, 4 inches by 3 inches and a quarter, to be grooved to receive the same. The rails to be tenoned into the stall posts ; and the stall posts to be set into proper stones at the bottom, and fixed to girding pieces at top, 5 inches by 3 inches, nailed to the under side of the tie-beams. The hinder posts to be fixed at the top with a screw bolt. Mangers to be fixed between the stall partitions, with fronts and bottoms of inch-and-half deal ; the back to be of inch- and-quarter, and the fronts to have a roller 2 inches and a quarter in diameter, grooved and fixed : each manger to have a wrought-iron ring and staple fixed. The hay-racks to be made 2 feet and a half wide ; the rungs (spokes) of 1 inch and a half deal ; the rack sides, 3 inches and a half by 3 inches; a harness rail 12 feet long, with proper pins, to be fixed in the stables. — The cow-byres to be fitted up with partitions and stakes, as shown in the drawing. The partitions to be cleaded (clothed) with inch-and- quarter deal, and proper posts of the old materials, provided any of them can be found suitable. The stakes to be let into the cribstones at bottom , and to be fixed at the top to joists, 8 inches by 4 inches, laid through for that purpose. — The calf- house to be fitted up with pens, as shown in the di-awing ; and the partitions to be formed with posts and rails, and paled. The posts to be 3 inches and a quarter square, let into stones at bottom, and fixed to a joist at top, laid through for that purpose. The partitions to have three rails in height, 3 inches by 1 inch and a quarter. The pales to be 4 feet high, 2 inches and a half by three quarters of an inch, and to be well nailed to the rails ; each pen to have a small wicket, hung with sinall bands and crooks, and each having a hasp and staple for fastening. — Doors. All the outside doors of the farmery to be battened of inch-and-quarter deal, grooved and tongued. The barn and straw-house ditto to be hung in two halves. The whole to be hung with bands and crooks, run into stone cheeks. To provide and fix on the same a common wrought-iron sneck (latch), fig. 985, and catch, with ring handle to hang down. The barn, straw-house, granary, and stable doors all to have stock locks of the value of 5s. 6d. each, and proper iron bolts and staples to be supplied for all the other 985 doors. The cottage outside doors to have each a thumb sneck and catch, and a stock lock of the value of 4s. The cottage inside doors to be made of 1-inch deal, battened, grooved and tongued, and hung on frames with 3 bands ; and each to have a Norfolk latchet. I'he stable door to be hung in the middle with strap hinges, to allow the !1 door to fall back against the wall. The door between the straw- house and barn to be of 1-incli deal, battened, grooved, and tongued ; hung on frames with 7 bands, 22 inches long, and to have a sneck the same as the stable doors, with an iron bolt and staples. — Windows. The cottage v.indows to be made with case- ments, and iron bars, forming small panes, about 6 inches by 4 inches, to be fitted into solid frames, leaded and rabbeted ; 4 feet three quarters of an inch by 3 feet 7 inches inside of frames ; scantling of frame, 3 inches and a half by 3 feet : one casement in each to be made to slide. The above to have outside shutters of three-quarters-inch deal, grooved and tongued, hung on frames with small bands and crooks. Each window to have an iron cotteral (a spring wedge, fig. 986) and an "''° iron turn (a fastening, see Index) to keep it back. The small wmdows for (W^ the cottage dairies to be made with inside sliding trellises, 22 inches )1\ square. The windows for the stable, granary, and foal-house to be made lj\\ 3 feet high, 2 feet 10 inches wide; and to have inside sliding trellis frames, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half. The stoothing partition and ragglings to be fitted up so as to form a dairy and lobby in the cottages, with door-frames for ditto, 4 inches by 3 inches ; and stoothings, 2 inches and a half by 2 inches and a lialf. The dairies to be shelved, with two shelves in height, each 12 inches broad, of inch-and-quarter deal, with brackets. The cottage windows to have inch-and- quarter deal bottoms, and 1-inch deal backs. ITie jambs and heads of the doors and 49i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. windows to have a tliree-quarters-inch angle bead for plastering. A chimney shelf of 1-inch deal, with brackets, to be fixed above the fireplace in each of the cottages. The windows in the granary to have inch-and-quarter deal bottoms, to project 1 inch over the wall, and to be nailed to the window sill. — The hay-racks to be tlie same as those in the stable, and to be fixed in each hovel the full length ; as are the rack and manger in the foal-house. The hovel at Ilallington Hill to have a partition put across it with posts and rails ; and the gates to be hung with loops and crooks for youno- cattle. The stairs in the straw-house to be fitted up with inch-and-quartcr deal steps and risers, and proper strings ; the stairs to be partitioned off with stoothings, and three-quarters-inch deal cleading next to the straw-house; with inch-and-quarter battened door at the bottom, hung on frames 4 inches by ;5 inches and a quarter, with T bands, and to have a stock lock and sneck as before described. A rail to be fixed round the opening of the graaai-y stalls, with skirting at the bottom of three-quarters-inch deal, 12 inches broad. The skirting to be fixed round the barn and granary of 1-inch deal, 4 inches and a half broad, and to be well nailed to plugs. — Gates. Nine gates to be made for the folds and stack-yards, including those at Ilallington Hill. Each to have 5 bars, and to be braced. The bars to be 4 inches by 1 inch and a half, and the stiles to be 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a half. Also, 5 wickets, with 5 bars and braces, for the inside of the folds, &c. &c. The bars to be 3 inches and a half by 1 inch and a quarter ; and the stiles, 3 inches and a half by 3 inches. The whole to be hung with proper iron loops, and crooks run into stone posts, in the coins of walls, where necessary ; and to have proper hasps and staples. Crib-boards to be fixed in all the stone cribs in the folds ; to be 10 inches broad, and 2 inches and a quarter thick ; and to be made to take out and in by grooves cut in the stone posts. Centres for the arches of the hovels and cart-shed to be provided, and posts for setting ditto. 991. Smith's Work, and Hardware. To provide and fix all spikes, nails, screws, &c., necessary for the carpenter's and joiner's work ; and all the other hardware and smith's work before specified. 992. Slater's Work. To cover the roofs of all the buildings of the farm offices, as shown on the plan, with slates of the same kind, and done precisely in the same manner, as before specified for slating the dwelling-houses. 993. Glazier's and Painter's Work. To glaze the casements of the cottage windows witli second crown glass ; the panes to be 6 inches by 4 inches, neatly puttied on each side, and the casements to be primed before glazing. (N. B. The casements will be provided ; and are, therefore, not to be estimated. To paint all the external doors and frames ; also, the granary windows, the cottage ditto, and the stable ditto ; also, the inside doors of cottages, and the window backs, with two coats of white lead and oil, on both sides. The windows to have one coat before being built into the walls. ) 994. All the Works, as before specified, to be done in a sound and workmanlike manner, subject to the approbation of Mr. John Green, Architect, or whom he may appoint to inspect the same ; and it is to be understood that, should it be deemed advisable that any of the work before specified, for the dwelling-house or farm offices, should be dispensed with during the progress of the building, the value of such work is to be deducted from the amount of the contract ; and, on the other hand, should any alteration or additional work be required, which is neither expressed nor understood by the plans and foregoing specification, the expense of such alteration or additional work is to be paid to the contractor, and agreed for previously to its being done, or else left to the valuation of the inspector. (N.B. The iron-barred casements for the cottage windows will be provided ; therefore the joiner need only estimate for the outside frames for ditto, as specified. ) 99.5. General Estimate. The following form was sent us with the foregoing spe- cification ; — £ s. d. Building new farm-house, fig. 977, a, h, c, d 453 : 12 : 7 Building corn-barn, m 95 : 1 1 : 2 Building straw-house with granary above, 6 125: 3: 1 Building foal-house, p ; two cow-byres, <^ ^ ; and calf-house, r 176: 6: 3 Building two stables, /t and o ; and a hay-house, ? 189: 3: 10 Building one hovel, A 48 : 13 : 11 Building two cottages, u u 1 30 : 8 : O We have formed a rough estimate of the cubic contents of the farm house, which, we find, contains 31,570 feet, which gives about S^rf. per foot as the price of this descrip- tion of building in Northumberland. The cottages estimated in the sam(; manner cost 2Jd. the cubic foot ; and the farm buildings 2rf. These prices are not much more than half what such farm houses and farmeries would cost in the neighbourhood of London, FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 495 as will be evident by comparing thein with tlie estimate of the Bury Hill Designs, § 863 and § 880. One reason of this is, that in Northumberland stone is got for the working, and the carriage of the greater part of the materials is found by the tenant. 996. Remarks. This Design is another of those so obligingly furnished us by John Green, "Esq., of Newcastle, the first Architect, as we are informed, for farm buildings, in the extensive counties of Northumberland and Durham. It is one of twenty plans and estimates which he made, in the year 1 824, for renovating the farm buildings and cottages on the estate of Beaufront, lying on the river Tyne, between Newcastle and Hexham. By the advice of a kind friend, in the north of the countj^ we applied to this gentleman through our esteemed correspondent IMr. Falla, the eminent nurseryman at Gateshead, near Newcastle, and he has liberally permitted us to examine many of the plans (accompanied by their specifications and estimates) which he has designed and executed on different estates. From these we have selected seven, of which this is the last, and they will give a complete idea to the Architect of the mode of arranging farm houses, farmeries, and the dwellings of farm labourers, in that first of all English agricultural counties, Northumberland. 'We must say, that, highly gratified as we have been with these farm houses and farmeries, we have been proportionately shocked by the scanty accommodation provided for the farm labourers. While the master is lodged in a house which is fit for any gentleman of independent fortune, and the horses and cattle have as ample accommodation as can be desired, the poor ploughman and hind are put into single rooms, each generally about 22 feet long by 1 6 feet wide, with one door and two small windows. At one end of this room a closet or dairy, 5 feet by 5 feet, is partitioned oflT, and lighted by one of the windows ; and a corresponding space serN-eg as a sort of lobby to the outer door. This reduces the room to 16 feet by 16^ feet, which must serve the occupant for every purpose to which a dwelling-house can be applied. The reader may turn to the plan of two of these cottages, marked u u, in fig. 973, p. 487, which he may rest assm-ed are fac similes of all the cottages buUt in Northumberland for ploughmen and farm-labourers. Among IMr. Green's plans, we have met with none with two rooms ; and only with two or three that have privies or places for a pig. These last cottages, we are informed by Mr. Green, were built for labourers to be employed by the landlord in different parts of his estate. To the cottages marked u u, in fig. 973, there is attached no pri^-j- or exterior appendage whatever ; though this is not much to be wondered at, since there is none to the farm house. We are tempted to enquire by what strange circumstance it happens that the art of farming should be carried to such a degree of perfection as it is in Northumber- land, while the farmers, and more especially their servants, live in a state of comparative destitution of many of the comforts enjoyed by the same class in the south of England, where the art of agriculture is at the lowest ebb ; and we can only account for it from the general ignorance both of the labourers and their employers, and from the remaining habits engendered by the oppression of the feudal system. The truth is, that almost the entire produce of the land, beyond the mere subsistence of the farmer and the labourer, is paid to the landlord in the form of rent; because the landed capi- talists, like the great capitalists in trade and manufactures, enjoy a complete monopoly of the market, and they can command their own price for their land, as the others do for the use of their capital. Thus, in the coimtry of great landholders, in the same manner as in the gi-eat manufacturing districts, the operative is scarcely able to exist. This evil can only be remedied by time, and a better system of government, \^hich will effect a more equal distribution of land and capital. In submitting these remarks to the reader, we intend to make no reflections, in this or in any other case, on the Architect, who must necessarily conform to the customs of liis locality ; but we conceive it to be the duty of an author, who is under no local influence, to express his opinion freely on this, as on every other subject that comes within the range of his work. M'e may add, that the chief point in which the farmeries of Northumberland excel those of Scotland, is in the subdivision of the fold-yards into smaller yards ; which, instead of being mere manufactories for manure, serve as enclosures for the growth, improvement, or fattening of cattle. Weak and young cattle always suffer much when many are placed together in the same yard ; and this, more especially, when the animals are brought from mountainous or partially enclosed districts ; or even districts where the enclosures are very large. Cattle fed loose in small enlosures or hammels of this kind have their hair sleek and unbroken, and their feet are never so tender as to prevent their travelling some distance to market. Nine tenths of the beeves or young cattle of Northumberland, we are informed by one of the most intelligent farmers in the county, are fed in small fold-yards, such as are represented in the ten preceding Designs, to the number of from three to six, or even morp, together, accordingly as they are found to agree. In the rich flat pastures of Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and other counties of England, the larger breed of cattle, from their constitutional tamcness and docility, will 3 w ¥JQ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. fatten together in large open yards, by dozens ; but this not the case with Scotch cattle more especially those from the Highlands. In looking over the specification, § 979 ti § 995, the reader will observe that many of the building terms used in Northumberlani differ from those in use about London ; and some even from those employed in the south of Scotland, as given by Mr. Newall in his specification, § 907. We have shortly ex- plained these terms, each when it first occurs ; but there are some of them which will require to be more minutely defined, and compared with other local terms, in the Glos- sarial Index. This specification will be found of great use to all persons intending to build farmeries where stone is employed, and it also shows the practical man what is considered, in a highly cultivated district, the best mode of finishing racks, mangers, cribs, partitions, &c. The construction of the cribs is worthy of notice ; the sides and bottom are formed of boards two inches and a quarter thick, which fit into grooves and notches in stone posts. This seems an excellent plan, because the boards may be taken out at any time, and cleaned, and at seasons when the cattle are not kept in the yards they may be taken out altogether, and placed under cover, in a dry airy situation, till again wanted. All the stables are fitted up with stalls and full-length partitions, so that every horse securely enjoys the food placed before him. There appear to be a few inches of slope from the head of the stall to the gutter behind, which is now generally disapproved of in the best stables in England and France, though still continued in the farm stables in Scotland, as appears by an article in the Highland Society's Transactions. Design XXII. — The Farmery at Galley in Kirkcudbrightshire, suitable for a Galloway Crop and Pasture Farm of 400 Acres. 997. The Object of this Design is to afford accommodation for wintering young cattle, and fattening others, as much or more than for affording stable room for horses. In Galloway, we are informed by the contributor of this Design, Mr. Brown, the factor or land agent at Galley, that the half of the rents is generally paid from the corn crop, and the other half from black cattle ; so that a considerable proportion ai the farmery is required to be laid out as cattle-sheds, for wintering the animals when young. The oldest and best Galloway cattle are generally wintered in the fields ; which, in Galloway, where the winters are very temperate, are mostly well sheltered by hedgej and plantations. Cattle wintered in this way are less tender in the feet, have a finer skin in the spring, and are in better condition to go to the English markets at that season, than those wintered in sheds and yards. 998. Accommodation. The cattle sheds here shown at a, in fig. 987, with the yard in front, h, are sufficient for the accommodation "^' of forty or fifty-two head of cattle. There are a feeding-house, c, in which six cattle may be fed in stalls ; a cow- house, d, 32 fett long, in which ten Galloway cows may stand without stalls ; and at their heads there is a foddering-passage, e, which communicates with the straw-house, f, the feeding-house, c, and the cattle-shedsand yard, a, h. There are a barn, <7, with a threshing- machine driven by waterj a room for horses' corn and cut straw, h ; a stable, . 33 feet by 17 feet, for six horses, i ; a cart-shed with a loft over, k ; a small office or count- ing-house, / ; a boiling or steaming house, m ; and a tool-house with a smith's forge for occa- ■sional use, n. One part of the yard is left open, 1 [J a en r-i □ FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IS VARIOUS STYLES. 497 988 and the other part is enclosed by a fence of pales, o, p, as a fold for the wintering of cattle. The general appearance of this Design is shown in the isometrical view, fig. 988. 999. Construction. The walls are chiefly of the slate-stone of the country, a cold and disagseeable stone for cottages and human dwellings, but less injurious for buildings for cattle and for sheds. The roofs are of Baltic fir, covered with slates ; a covering cold in winter, and too warm in summer ; and therefore, however fit for sheds, not to be commended for stables without lofts, or for cattle-houses. It is true that the prevailing prejudice, in the west of Scotland, is in favour of slates indiscriminately, from their durability ; but even if thatch should be found less durable, and this is not always the case with the thatch composed of chips, shavings, and spray, or heath, we consider the latter as decidedly preferable for all buildings in which animals are to be lodged. But, in Galloway, improvement is not yet so general, that long heath and broom cannot be found ; and these, even the natives will allow, are nearly as durable as any slate or tile whatever ; or, at all events, they are sufl^ciently so for constructions which are undergoing the progi-essive improvements and changes which those of agri- culture constantly are. 1000. Remarks. This Design has been furnished us by one of the most enlightened agri- culturists in the west of Scotland, and therefore it may be considered as a fair specimen of a farmery for the agriculture of that district. It would be easy to add a farm house ; but we have given so many good plans of this description of dwelling, that we consider it unnecessary to add one on the present occasion. No arrangement for the collection of liquid manure is shown ; because the farmers of Galloway, as those of most other districts of Scotland, have not yet arrived at that degree of scientific refinement to be fully aware of the advantages to be obtained by this important part of a perfect farmery. Design XXIII. — A Faniery for a small French Farm, as given hy Morel- Finde. 1001. T7ie requisite Farm Buildings for asnudl Farm, our author observes, are the same as for a large one, almost the only difference being in their magnitude. The plan ex- hibited in the following figures is therefore to be considered as conveying the rudimental idea of all farmeries whatever, where the objects of cultivation are those common to the temperate regions of both hemispheres. The same constructions, which in the annexed plans are only a width of two bays of ten feet each, by forty feet in length, might be ex- tended to many bays of the same size. The following is the general type of this building: — l.The stable and cow-house are in the same space without separation ; because by this arrangement, on small farms where there are few or no servants and not much litter, the animals are more easily looked after ; the litter from tlie horses is with little trouble thrown under the cows, and the dimg of both, being mixed, produces a better manure. 2. The poultry-house is placed alongside of the cow-house, and only separated from it by an open grating in order to admit the heat of the former to the latter. S. The barn is suflicicntly large for containing one rick of 3000 sheaves, with additional 498 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. i:::® space, in order tliat a 989 part of it may be used, if necessary, as a cider- house, for wine vats, or for storing roots. The space covered by the entire build- ing is eight hundred superficial feet. 1002. Details. Fig. 989 is the surface ground plan, showing the barn for unthreshed corn, a ; the cellar end of the same barn, h ; the threshing-floor, c ; the stable for three horses, d; cow-house for three cows, e; harness-house and general magazine, /; poultry-house, 5^ ; pigsty, A ; place for hatching poultry, i; oi)en shed for large im- plements, k ; and two porches, //. Fig. 990 is a plan of the foun- dations. Fig. 991 is a plan of the flooring over the barn, stable, &c., which is used for containing unthreshed corn. Fig. 992 is the side elevation showing the door of the porch. Fig. 993 is the eleva- tion of either of the ends. Fig. 994 is a longitudinal section ; and fig. 995 is a per- spective view. 991 990 a. 992 1003. Construction. The foundations are of stone or brick, and the superstructure is framed of timber, in lengths not exceeding twelve feet, and not measuring more than FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 499 six inches on the side. The panels are filled in with studwork or quartering, and covered with weatherboarding or plaster. 1004. General Estimate. The actual cost, in the neighbourhood of Paris, was £\50; that for the departments of France, £'92. A bay may be added, in the neighbourhood of Paris, for £42 ; and in the departments, for £25. 1005. Remarks. The great economy of this construction must be obvious. This economy results fi-om the four cross walls being used on both sides ; and from two short lines of eaves serving for the whole structure. To be con- vinced of this, it is only necessary to ima- gine the threshing- floor, corn-bay, stable, cow-house, the two implement-houses, the two poultry-places, and the pigsty, arranged as separate buildings round a square or parallelogram farm-yard, as in Britain. Add to this, the great advantage of the accumulation of heat during winter, and the exclusion of heat during summer. The steepness of the roof not only renders that part of the structure more durable, by preventing it from ever being soaked with moisture, but it actually reflects off the heat more powerfully in summer, and receives it more effectually, because at a larger angle, during winter. If eaves-gutters are considered necessary, they are only required at the two ends, and even the tubes for conducting the water from these gutters to the ground are as short as it is possible to conceive them to be. We have examined all the French and German works on Rural Architecture, and though we have found much to approve of in Lasteyrie's Rural Architecture and the Landes Verschdnerung, published periodically at jNIunich, which, through the kindness of our friend Count Hazzi, we receive regularly, we have found nothing at all worthy of being put in competition with the Architecture Rurale of Morel- Vinde. We say this with the more confidence, having seen most, or all (for we cannot bear all the circumstances exactly in our mind), of his designs in actual execution, on his own beautiful estate, at Celle, in 1828. — In a wine or cider country, or on a farm where potatoes were raised in great quantities, a cellar might be made both under the threshing-floor and the bay for unthreshed corn. The two porches convey an idea of shelter and comfort, and, in fact, produce both in every building to which they are judiciously attached. We particularly recommend this Design to our American and Australian readers, and, indeed, to those of all countries where timber is the principal building material. Design XXIV. — A Farm House and Farmery suitable for a Farm of from Three Hun- dred to Five Hundred Acres in France. 1006. T/ie object of the following Design, which is taken from the work of Morcl- Vinde,is to show what is considered by one of the first agriculturists in France a model farm 500 COTTAGE, FAUai, AND VJLLA AllCHlTECTUllE. yt'6 house and farmery for a large farm. Like all Morel- Vinde's de- signs, it will be found to be the result of much consideration, both in point of ar- rangement and ac- commodation, and of economy of construc- tion ; altogether it is eminently worthy of imitation, in countries where small timber forms the principal building material. 1007. General Ar- rangement. The farm- ery with its different courts, yards, and gar- dens stands on a space of about two acres : the general appear- ance IS as in fig. 996, and fig. 997 is the general groimd plan. I'Jiis plan is arranged in four divisions. In tlie first may be seen the dwelling-house, a ; an open shed on posts, /), under which linen is washed and dried, and maize, tobacco, onions, herbs, and various other garden productions are hung; the kitchen-garden, c ; and part of a large pond, d u, for supply- ing water for washing, for watering the gar- Fi. io FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 501 den, &c. The second division contains a large building, including a barn, stable, and cow-house, e ; stands for ricks/; plots of turf, g ; and oblongs planted with apple and pear trees for cider and perry, h. The third division contains the sheep-house, i ; four farm compost heaps, k ; the pit for stercorat, / ; two plots for cider fruits, m ; and a part of the pond, cl, which is divided by a fence, ti. The fourth division contains the cart and implement shed, with granary over, n ; a plot planted with fruit trees, o ; two dung-pits, r ; and the situations of open gutters, p p p, which collect the surface water, and deliver it either into the dung-pits at q q, or into the pond, d, as may be considered most desirable. Tliese four divisions are surrounded by a wall, t ; and they are separated from each other by hedges, v. The advantage of placing the different buildings which compose the farm house and farmery in four divisions. Morel- Vinde states to be as follows : — the absolute security against the communication of fire from one to another ; the facility of maintaining an orderly administration of the business of the farm ; and the thriving better of the different kinds of animals, as from their being kept distinct, they will run less risk of being injured by each other. We shall now give the details of each of these divisions. 1008. The Farm House is a model of excellent contrivance and economy. Its general appearance is shown in fig. 998 ; and its details, which are given with such distinctness and accuracy that the simplest country carpenter may build from them, are exhibited in. figs. 999 to 1008. The plan of the house is ^ formed on the same general model as that detailed in § 742; but it is necessarily larger, in order to afford the additional accommo- dation required. The li%ing-apartments are raised on four cellars, which give a bake- house and wash-house, a beer and cider cellar, a cabbage or green ve- getable cellar, and a cellar for potatoes and other roots. AU the living-rooms and bed- rooms for the family are contained on one floor over these cellars ; and on the floor above are the bed-room for g servants, and a place for drying linen. The only luxury which may be said to distinguish this plan from that 502 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. before given is, that there is a bed-room for strangers. Fig. 999 is a plan of the cellar floor, in which a is the wine, cider, and beer cellar ; b, the cabbage or green vegetable cellar; c, the bakehouse and wash-house, with a square supporting post; and d, the potato-cellar, also with a post. In the bakehouse there are an oven, e, and a stove, f, which might be employed for heating the whole house. The foundations of the stairs to the principal entrance, and for descending to the cellars, are shown at v; those of the back door and staircase at w ; of a. small storehouse or fruit-room at p; of the implement-shed at q ; of the shed for wood at r ; and of the cesspool of the two privies at t. Fig. 1000 is a plan of the principal floor, in which g is the kitchen, with its dresser and post, z, and sink stone, u; h is the parlour, with its double-sized or best bed, n-hich in French farm houses is but seldom used, the whole family sleeping together in one large bed-room, I ; or the master and mistress using the stranger's bed-room, m ; i is the master's office, or place of business, the window of which ought to command the entrance gate to the farmery, and does so in the plan, fig. 997 ; k is a clothes-press, or linen and china closet ; /, the children's bed-room, and room for sewing-work {chamhre de couture) ; m, stranger's room ; n, light closet ; o, pantry ; p, fruit-room ; 7, shed for all the agri- cultural implements used on the farm ; r, shed for wood and other domestic purposes ; * s, privies ; v, entrance porch, with stair down to the cellar and stair up to the kitchen ; w, staircase to the upper floor. In the centre of the building may be seen the octagonal funnel which receives the heated air from the stove in the cellar, and communicates with the parlour and the two bed-rooms through the lateral openings. Fig. 1001 is a jjlan of the upper floor, in which are seen the sleeping-room for servants, and general lumber- room, V ; place for drying linen, w ; and reserve bed-room, x. Fig. 1002 is the plan of the joists of the principal floor. In this plan the situation of the upright posts may be observed, from which it will be evident that neither girders nor joists are required of a greater length than ten feet. Fig. 1003 is an elevation of the entrance front. Fig. 1004 is an elevation of one side, in which may be seen the entrance porch, and stair to the principal floor, c, and the projection behind containing the staircase, d. Fig. 1005 is a longitudinal section through the bed-rooms, in which may be seen two stoves, e e, one in each bed-room ; the door of the oven, f, and of the ash-pit under it, p ; the stairs up to the principal floor, h, and down to the cellar, i ; the inside stair to the bcer-ccllar, k ; the stair to the principal floor, I; and to the floor above, m. In showing in what manner this dwelling is but an extension of that detailed in § 742, Morel- Vind^ remarks that the kitchen has the addition of a pantry ; that the stove in the centre, which ought I0 warm, dry, and ventilate the whole house, is enlarged in proportion to the dimensions of the rooms which it has to heat; and tliat the air which supplies coiubustion in this stove. FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. ,503 i i , , . 1 12 13 01 ri 504 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1005 must always be drawn from the exterior, which it will be, if the bakehouse door does not fit very accurately, or if the window be left partially open. Instead of the ladder for ascending to the garret in the smaller house, we have here a staircase ; and the garret, which in the smaller house was intended chiefly as a granary, has now a ceiling and boarded sides, and forms a servants' room, a room for drying linen, and the reserve bed- room. 1009. Estimate. Tliis building, with its two porches and sheds, covers 1580 superficial feet; and it costs, at Paris, £''546: 15*. : lOd.; or, in the departments, ^"'328: 2s.: 6d. As the cubic contents of the buildings amount to 25,280 feet, it thus appears that 5d. per cubic foot is something near the rate from which to form an estimate for this description of farm houses in the neighbourhood of Paris, and 3d. in the provinces. 1010. Remarks on the Dwelling-house. A superficial observer, deeply imbued with the prejudices common in Britain, and especially in Scotland and other stone countries, against wooden buildings, and not taking into consideration the fitness of means to ends, will be apt to despise the simplicity and homeliness of this farm house ; but to us, who have entered into all the details of this Design, it appears perfect of its kind. The accommodation is ample for the country and state of society for which it is designed ; and it is contained in a form as near as practicable to that of a cube. The mode of heating is the most perfect that could be devised ; and the room for drying linen is a great source of comfort to the housewife, in rainy weather or in the winter season. It may be thought that there are too few bed-rooms, and too many beds in one room ; and the bed in the parlour will no doubt appear shocking in the eyes of an Englishwoman. It should be recollected, however, that the manners of the French are materially different from ours in this respect ; and that, with apparently less delicacy, they have not less moral rectitude. Whoever has travelled much by the public conveyances in either France, Germany, or Italy, must have frequently found himself going to bed in the same room with strangers of different sexes. 1011. The Barn, Stable, Cow-house, Calf-house, Dairy, Cheese-room, PouJtri/-house, Pigeon-house, Piggery, ^c, for this large French farm, are all contained in the same building. The problem to be solved is, to imite under the same roof, at the least cost, and in the manner in every respect the most suitable, a stable for twelve horses, a cow- house for as many cows or cattle, a calf-house, a dairy, a cheese-room, a poultry-house, piggeries, a harness-room, and pigeon-houses, with a barn sufficiently large for containing 6000 sheaves of grain at a time, and with two threshing-floors for threshing it. This 1006 FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 505 J 007 problem is solved in the plan, fig. 1007, which presents the best possible construction of each particular requisite, and the best mode of imiting them together at the least possible expense. Fig. 1006 shows the general appearance of this building, and fig. 1007 its ground plan. The latter con- tains a barn with two thresh- ing-floors : one for wheat and rye, a ; and another for oats, peas, and barley, c ; with a space for either straw or un- threshed corn between them ; the corn being either brought in from the ricks in small quantities, as wanted to be threshed, and the straw piled up ; or in entire ricks, and threshed by degrees as the straw is consumed in the stable, cow-house, &c. ; b and d are porches, over which are pigeon-houses ; e is a stable for twelve horses, fitted up with separate stalls, and a rack and manger ; /"is a cow- house for twelve cows, with se- parate stalls, and a manger, but no rack, for reasons given § 757 ; g is a dairy with two windows to the north, and two doors to the east and west ; A is a cheese-room ; {, a calf-house ; k, a poultry-house, grated on the side next the stable, with a \'iew of admitting to it the heat from the horses ; I, a harness- room ; and m, piggeries. There is a lobby to the north at N, and another to the south at S. Fig. 1008 is a plan of the foundations. Fig. 1009 is a plan of the flooring over the 1008 JOG COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. stables, cow-houses, and porch ; the threshing-floor being left open to the roof. Fig. 1010 is an end elevation. Fig. 101 1 is a cross section. Fig. 1012 is a longitudinal elevation. Fig. 101" is a longitudinal section through the threshing-floor. Fig. 1014 is an elevation of the racks and mangers of the stable ; and fio-. 1015 a section, showing the construction of the rack and manger. Figs. 1016 and 101 7 contain an elevation and section of the feeding-trough in the cow-house. 1012. Estlmnte. The actual cost of this building, in the neighbourhood of Paris was i'438 : lis.: 8rf. ; and the price for the departments of France is ^"263 : 5s. As the cubic contents of the building are 24,052 feet, this gives 4|d. per foot as a fair price for estimating this description of building in the neighbourhood of Paiis, and 2\d. per foot for estimating it in the provinces. 1013. ItemarJis on the Building contain- ing the Barn, Coiv-house, &c. The author observes on this plan, that the greatest care has been taken to adjust every part with a ■view to sufficient strength and economy. The stables and cow-houses are 14 feet 6 inches wide, and 53 feet long, inside measure; which, he says, is the smallest space that ought to be allowed for 12 horses and 12 cows. The mangers, racks, and troughs are of the proper dimensions, and are placed at the precise heights from the ground at which they ought to be. No racks are placed in the cow-liouse ; because, if they were put sufficiently low, they would only incommode the animal when eating out of tlie trotigli ; and, if they were placed as high as the racks of horses or nearly so, they would oblige the animal to •lOiO raise its head, and tluis endanger abortion. All the doors to the stables and cow-houses are grated, or formed with luflbr-boards, in order to admit through them a continual FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 50? Os 1012 ^ current of air. For the same purpose, and for light, there are four windoTrs to the threshing-floor, and one window at each end of both stable and cow-house, as may be fl3 1013 C3 seen in the plan. The partition which separates the poultry-house from the stables is of trellis-work or lufFer-boarding, in order that the heat may enter the former, for the 1014 1015 1016 1017 benefit of such hens as are laying eggs. The threshing-floor is 1 2 feet wide and 50 feet long, which allows a considerable bay for unthreshed sheaves in the middle, and space for two threshers at each of the ends. Over the spaces for the two threshers at the ends, may be floorings of joists for recei\'ing sheaves. The middle of the threshing-floor, the two floors over the stable and the cow-house, exclusive of the spaces over the threshers, will hold two stacks of unthreshed corn, each containing 3000 sheaves (see § 815). The two porches at the two extremities of the threshing-floor are for protecting the latter from the weather ; and, at top, one of them contains a pigeon-house for wild or common pigeons, and the other a cot for stockdoves. Morel- Vinde concludes by observing, that, if any one will take the trouble of examining this Design with the most severe attention, he will find that it leaves little to desire, unless the farm were of an extraordinary size. We mav add, that in tliis case the chief addition that would be necessary would be a 508 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. threshing-machine, which might be placed at one end of the threshing-floor, and driven either by water, or by a gin-wheel under a porch sufficiently large to cover the horse- course. The building is composed of five bays 10 feet wide by 56 feet long, exclusive of the porches ; hence, the expense of the two gable ends being already incurred, any number of additional bays may be introduced, at the sixth part of the first cost of the whole building. By this means the barn, stable, cow-house, &c. may be extended to any degree of accommodation required. 1014. The Rick-stands for this farm, which are placed around the barn in the manner shown in fig. 996, have already been described under § 815 and § 816. 1015. JVte Cart-shed and Granary, also shown in fig. 996, have been described in § 7'^9- 1016. The Sheep-house has been described in § 767. 1017. General Estimate. The actual cost of the house, barn, stable, cow-houses, &c., and of the cart-shed and granary, in the neighbourhood of Paris, amounted to jf 1427, and the average for the provinces would be about ^£"'855. The expense of the rick- stands and of the drying-shed is not taken into this account. 1018. Remarks on the Farmery as a whole. To the eye accustomed to admire only the extensive quadrangles of stone covered with slate, common in the best agricultural districts of Britain, neither beauty nor convenience will be seen in the scattered dis- position of the objects in fig. 996 ; but let such consider the very different circumstances which exist between a country where timber is the sole or principal building material, and another where easily worked stone is abundant. The great object, in all agricul- tural constructions, is, to attain the end in view in the most effectual manner, by the simplest and most economical means ; and this result will be found to be as completely attained in the French farmery as in the British one. With respect to the scattered appearance of the building, that is fuljy justified by the security which it affords from the spread of fire ; and if we imagine the whole surrounded by fruit trees, as Morel Vinde proposes, and as is generally the case in France, we shall find as much or more beauty, though of a different kind, as in any of the farmeries of Britain. We have already observed, that we have introduced this Design and others by Morel- Vinde, chiefly with a view to new countries, for which they form admirable models. Design XXV. — For a Court of Feeding-houses, hmlifor the late Thomas Hibbert, Esq., at Chalfont Lodge, Buckinghamshire. 1019. The object of these feeding-houses was, to fatten cattle and swine at the least possible expense ; and with the greatest product of manure, consistent with a due economy of straw for litter. For this purpose, arrangements were made by open gutters in the feeding-houses and pigsties, and by underground drains communicating with them, to convey all the urine to one tank or pit. In furtherance of the same object, the dung, consisting of the litter and droppings of the animals, was conveyed from the feeding- houses, and sties directly to a dunghill under a roof, and there it was watered, by means of a pump and spouts, with the liquid from the manure tank. Fig. 1018 will give a general idea of the whole. FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLIS. 50[) 1020. Details. Fig. 1020 is a ground plan, in which aa aa form the area of the dunghill, which is covered with a lean-to roof on all sides as far as b b b b, wliich letters mark the situation of oak posts, 1 6 feet apart, and 8 feet high above the surface, supporting a granary floor, over which there is a pigeon-house, with the boxes for the pigeons fixed to the rafters of the roofs, as indicated in the section fig. 1019, at c c. The floor of this granary is divided into 7 bins, indicated by the dotted lines forming the squares marked d, and by the same letter in the sec- tion. There is a porch, e, for receiving and delivering corn by means of a crane and pulley, as indicated at f in the sec- tion. In the upper part of this porch there is a small door to the pigeon-house, i---' g, and the ascent is by an outside step-ladder, k. Under the porch carts or waggons may enter, and pass completely round or through the area roofed in, so as to take up dung ji I— jc faL r III I I II I II I J 1^ r? I ' °^ i n il . II IK f- Ft. 10 at any point. There is a cesspool, i, with a pump to it, rising 8 feet above the surface at k ; and there are a number of spouts, which can be joined one to another, from the pump all over the dunghill, so as to convey the liquid of the tank to all or any part of the latter. This operation was performed at Chalfont Lodge every morning. There is a pig-;' kitchen, !, which has a copper, m ; hog-tank, n; bins, o, feeding hoppers, p; hog- troughs, q ; and sties, r. The flue and chimney of the hog's copper are seen at « in the plan and at t in the section. From two of the bins in the granary there 1022 « h.S- <— 6-0. W. b • (3) 510 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. are spouts, indicated in the section at u u, for shooting down corn from the granaij to the bins, o, there to be mixed up, or used, as required. The cattle- feeding houses, V V, are fitted up with stalls, racks, and mangers, like stables, and there are foddering-bays, at each end, and at the angle, www, for hay, oil-cake, turnips, &c. In one of these there is a pump, x, which supplies water to the divisions, y, in all the mangers, by means of a spout, z, at the back of the mangers, and between them and the par- tition which separates the stalls from the feeding-passage, §•. Fig. 1021 is a cross section of the feeding-houses, in the line A B, in which are seen the passage behind the stalls, a ; the partition between the cattle, b; manger, c; water gutter, d : i.i Li ;..- • .'.— . partition separating the foddci ing-passage from the stalls, e ; foddering-passage, /; hay-rack, g ; fodder-bay, A ; and roof over the gateway, i. Fig. 1022 is a section, taken across two stalls in the feeding-house, in which are shown, a a, oak posts, 5 inches square, let into the ground ; b, a cistern for water, 3 feet in length, 12 inches wide, and 15 inches deep, placed between two stalls so as to supply water to each, and being raised 3 inches above the manger ; c c, mangers for di-y meat, 3 feet long, 12 inches wide, and 12 inches deep ; and d, the situation of the spout or trunk of wood, 2 inches square, which runs along the back of the manger, for supplying water to the cistei-ns. This line of spouts is on a perfect level ; so that, when water is pumped into it at one end, it runs along it to the other, supplying all the cisterns iu its course. Where the spout crosses the foddering- bays and the gateway, it passes under ground, rising up again to the same level on the opposite side. These cisterns are intended to be pumped fidl every day, and the person pumping is rendered aware of the cisterns being full, by the water first becoming stag- nant in the trunk, and afterwards running over the end immediately under the spout of the pump, which is purposely made one inch lower than the top of the cisterns. The hay-racks are shown at e e; //are the doors thi-ough which the cattle are fed ; g g, the boards of the partition between the stalls and the foddering-passage ; and h h, the brick- work on which the mangei-s and cisterns are placed. In the construction of these feeding- houses, granary, and pigsties, all the posts which are fixed in the ground, and all the sills into which the uprights are framed, are of oak; and all the otlier scantling and boards are of Scotch pine, grown on the premises. The granary and piggeries have tiled roofs ; but the feeding-houses are thatched with straw. 1021. Remarks. We received this Design from Mr. Main, who informs us that it was built in 1796, by the late Mr. Howes, land steward at Chalfont Lodge, and who was succeeded in that capacity by Mr. Main, a few years afterwards. We have made some trifling alterations and additions, for the purpose of completing the square, and giving the whole a more symmetrical form ; but we have in no respect altered the dimen- sions of the stalls, or the different details. The arrangement and contrivance of the whole we think most excellent in theory, and Mr. Main informs us that it was found to be not less so in practice. The mode of conveying water to the different stalls may seem too expensive for common commercial farms ; but it is not unfrequent on feeding farms in Lincolnshire, where oil-cake is much in use for feeding cattle. Instead of a wooden gutter, we have observed in the neighbourhood of Gainsborough, gutters, and also mangers, and stall partitions, of freestone. In most other situations, lead or iron pijiing would be found cheaper than wood. An immense quantity of dung, we are informed, was produced by means of the tank, from which the dunghill was kept constantly moist, and tlie roof over it, which prevented evaporation. We should have thought that the exhalations from tlie dung would have affected the air, and consequently the corn in the granary ; but we are assured that this was by no means the case ; because the latter was double-floored and thickly covered, on the outer side, with several coatings of boiling pitch. FARxM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 5H Design XXVI. — A Farmery for extensive Irotir- Works, erected at • , in South Wales. 10522. The object in view, in this establishment, is, to prepare food and supply lodo-ing for fifty working horses, and the men who manage them. It was sent us by our esteemed friend, Mr. Samuel Taylor, at once a practical and scientific farmer, and a literary man. 1023. Accommodation. Fig. 1023 shows the general appearance of the quadrangle; fig. 1025 is the elevation of the north side, and the section of the east and west sides, as taken on the line A B ; and fig. 1024 the ground plan. The stabling for fifty horses is r? C 1024 U T J X. LQ i c \ b li i^i ^=* '=^^~' I (=1 1=1 1=^ 1=1 1=1 3£ k w\ Is I -m I n « t Hji Ml ijji [j: fH HI db d 1 • I I I ^ ^ I I ' I ' ' I 512 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. in ten divisions, marked a, containing five horses in each. In every division there is one chafP-bin, marked b, and one harness cupboard, marked c. These bins and cupboards are formed of boards in the manner of lean-tos, as shown in fig. 1025, at c. They are lighted 1025 by the lower panes of the windows, their roofs being carried high enough for that purpose. The upper panes light the stable over the lean-to slope. There is a barn, d, in whicli is a threshing-machine driven by a water wheel ; which wheel also drives a straw-cutter, a machine consisting of a pair of rollers for bruising oats, and one for washing turnips or potatoes. There is a turnip-house, e, in which turnips are washed by the tail dam, or water from the overshot wheel, which is led through the house, in the underground drain marked/, to the washing-pond in the centre of the 3'ard, marked g. This pond is about two feet and a half deep, and is paved at bottom, for the purpose of washing the horses' legs. There is a cart and waggon shed, with a granary over, h ; a sick-horse stable, i ; implement-houses, k ; two comfortable cottages, I, with six rooms each, three having fireplaces, and three being without ; a workshop, m ; a tool-house, n ; and three privies, o. The water from the overshot wheel, after passing through the horse-pond, ff, runs off by the undergi-ound drain marked p. 1024. Construction. The walls are of the slate stone quarried on the spot, the mortar used being made from the limestone of Aberthaw, which was considered by the late cele- brated engineer Smeaton as the best in Britain ; and, when mixed with clean sharp sand, as equal to any cement known in his time. The roofs are of fir covered with slate. The floors of the stables are perfectly level, with underground gutters, and gratings over them under each horse. There are no partitions between the horses, except those between every five ; but the space allowed for each horse is six feet, which is more than is found in most farmeries. There are mangers of double the usual size, but no racks ; the horses being fed with straw and hay cut into chaff, and mixed with corn, roots, salt, and water, and given in a semifluid state. No horses ever thrive better than those so treated ; and the expense was found to be less than that of the common mode of feeding in use among farmers. 1025. Remarks. Little care seems to be taken, in this farmery, of the dung or liquid manure ; but it is most gratifying to observe the striking difference between tlie labourers' cottages shown in this Design, and those on the Scotch and Northumbrian farms. The truth is, that the Scotch and Northumbrian farmers have the fear of their landlords con- tinually before their eyes, and dare not venture to increase the comforts of their labourers, lest they should be thought too comfortable themselves. In every country, all the comforts which the labouring classes without fixed property enjoy above the starvation point, they owe to the commercial classes. Where landed property is in immense masses, farms are necessarily large, small properties few, and manufactures or commerce scarcely known. Under such circumstances, there being only a demand for one description of labour, and that of the rudest kind, the mass of the population are easily kept in a condition little better than if they were the slaves of their employers. Hence the low state of the agricultural labourers in the farm districts of Scotland and the north of England, and, indeed, of all the purely agricultural districts of Britain, compared with their state in the manufacturing, commercial, or mixed districts, where the different kinds of labour required necessarily produces different degrees of remuneration, and where the laborious classes of every description acquire higher tastes, and rise in the scale of comforts. All the comforts which the lowest class of society enjoy, they owe to the introduction of manufactures and commerce ; and it gives us pleasure to i)ay a tribute of respect to this great Welsh Iron Com]5any, for the comfortable cottages which they have built for their carters, as we did before (§ 481) to Messrs. Jones and Wilcox, the eminent builders, for the dwellings they provided for their workmen. Design XXVII. — A Farmery for a Farm of 250 Acres in the Valley of Strathmore, where a Rotation of Seven Crops is followed, the Grass Division being pastured the Second Year. 102(). Accommodation. Fig. 1026 shows the general appearance, and fig. 1027 is the ground plan. In the latter are seen three cow-houses, a ; with foddering-bays, b ; barn, c; horse-course for threshing-machine, d ; straw-barn, e ; stable for ten horses with a foddering-bay in the centre, f; house for potatoes or grass, g ; two-stall stable, h j cow- FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 513 10-26 nouse, t ; cart-shed, with granary over, k ; carpenter's shop, I ; tool-house, with spare room over, m ; cattle-yards, n ; open sheds for cattle, o ; pigsties, p ; and rick-yard, q. 1027 WM^ nr.ni \* ill. a c a c a a * ^ J — ^ — H 514 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. A place for poultry is supposed to be formed over the cow-house, i ; and entered by an outside stair at r. 1027. Constructimi. The walls are of stone, and the roof slated. All the doorways and window-openings have facings, sills, and lintels of dressed stone, and all the doors are hung by strap hinges on hooks leaded into the stone ; and they shut into rebates in the jambs. The feeding-houses have ventilators in the roof ; one upright tube, about a foot square, with a cover to protect it from the rain, being placed in the ridge over each stand of four cattle. Fig. 1028 is a section across the mill-shed and barn, on the line A B ; and fig. 1029 is an elevation and two sections on the line C D. In the latter, the stable window, s, is shown with the upper part of glass and the lower part of spars for 1029 the admission of air, with an inside shutter for occasional use. Tlie stable-loft windows over are shown lufTer-boarded. 1028. Remarks. This Design has been sent us through our esteemed friend and valuable correspondent Mr. Gorrie, by Mr. James Chalmers, land surs'eyor, and land steward at Muithly, in Perthshire. Mr. Chalmers is evidently a good Architect as well as land-surveyor, the Design being well arranged, and the elevation architectural. Design XXVIII. — A Farmery for a particular Situation, suitable for Eighty Acres of arable Land, and Three Hundred Acres of Pasture, in the Carse of Goiorie. 1029. This Design is calculated for a steep declivity ; so much so, that the floor of the granary and straw-loft, which is on a level with the ground on one side of the range, is ten feet above it on the other. The general appearance is shown in the isometrical view, fig. 1031. 1030. The Accommodations are seen in the plan, fig. 1032, in which a is a cart-shed with a granary over ; h, the threshing-mill course ; c, the dressing-barn ; d, a stable ; e, a feeding-house for cattle ; /, a cow-house ; g, a poultry-house ; h, a boiling-house ; i i, ploughmen's cottages, each sixteen feet by seventeen feet, and two stories high ; k, a privy ; 1 1, cattle-sheds ; m m, open yards for cattle ; n, pigsty of the farmer ; o o, pig- sties of the two cottagers ; and pp, the gardens of the cottagers ; each containing twelve falls, or about one thirteenth of an acre. 1031. Construction. The walls are of the common stone of the country, and the roofs slated. Fig. 1030 is a section inqn taken on the line A B, which shows the steepness of the situ- ation. 1032. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by Mr. Gorrie, accompanied by the following remarks : — " The dung from the stables, and cow and cattle houses, is thrown into the cattle-yard across the road, by which means it becomes mixed with the litter of the yards in which young cattle are kept during winter and spring, and enclosed in summer and autimin. The advantage offered by this form of farmery, when the FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 515 1031 ouildings are not of sufficient extent to enclose three sides of the straw or cattle yard, and where the surface of the ground is a declivity, is, the facility of carting in corn to the threshing-mill loft in winter, and turnips for the byres in sharp seasons ; and clover for the stable and byres in summer. The disadvantages of adhering strictly to this plan, which is taken from an old steading, are the narrowness of the threshing-miU course for a 103 rapDf hH [ -1 — I — !- mill of four-hojfc power. The machinery, too, being across the house, is too much con- fined, admitting of only one shaker (a part of the machine), which throws the straw on the loft, imperfectly freed from the grain. In the present instance the ground occupied by the steading is on a dry freestone rock, and the lower part of the range does not suffer from damp, to prevent which expensive draining would be necessary for a similar range on humid soils. A turnip-house placed at the back of the feeding-byre is a desideratum 516 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. in this Design, but was not thought of in laying it out; the culture of turnips not being extensive when it was built. Potatoes are for the most part kept in pits, and a house for that article is often dispensed with in this district." We consider this Design of con- siderable value, as indicating how to manage farm buildings on declivities. In such situations, where there is a stream, very favourable opportunities frequently occur of driving the threshing-machine by water, with very little expense in forming the head- dam or tail-dam. At Underley Park, in Westmoreland, there is a very complete farm- ery, built on the margin of a stream, the barn stretching across it, and the wheel of the threshing-mill so contrived as to meet the whole of the water of the stream. The banks being thirty or forty feet high on one side, and not much above the level of the water on the other, the corn is carted from the ricks into the bain, and shot down at the feeding-board of the machine ; it is cleaned in the floor below, from which, through a trap-door, it is dropped into the ground floor, or into carts to be taken to market. We saw this farmery in 1811, and then considered it, in this and in various other respects, as remarkably complete. Design XXIX. — Tlie Farm House and Farmery of Starston Place, near Harleston, in Norfolk, suitable for a Farm of 350 Acres under the Norfolk System of Culture. 1033. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1033, and the ground plan in fig. 1034. The house contains a vestibule, a; two parlours, 6, c; an office, d; 1033 a lobby, e ; store-room, /; pantry, g ; kitchen, h ; back-kitchen and bakehouse, i ; back entrance, k ; a dairy, Z; and larder, m. In the farmery there are : — 1 1, barns ; 2 2, porches to ditto ; 3 3, cattle-sheds ; 4 4, cattle-yards ; 5 5, turnip-houses ; 6, cart- horse yard; 7 7 7, cart-horse stables; 8 8, hay-houses; 9 9 9, chaff-houses; 10 10, horse-sheds (open to yard); 1 1 , yard for colts ; 12, shed to ditto; 13, stable to ditto; 14 14 14, pens for sheep or pigs; 15 15, pigsties; 16 16, swill-house and cistern; 17, cow and sheep yard; 18, cow-shed (open); 19, cow-house; 20 20, calf-cribs; 21 21, hay and turnip-houses ; 22, horse-pond ; 23, sheds for waggons, carts, and imple- ments, with granary over ; 24, stack-yard ; 25, house for horse- wheel ; 26, chaff engine- house ; 27, shed for implements; 28 28, &c., passages; 29 29, &c., lock-up gates; 30, riding-horse stable, chaise-horse, carpenter's shop, tool-house, &c. ; 31, garden and orchard ; and 32, kitchen-garden. 1034. Construction. All the walls of the buildings and yards are of flintstone, as are those of the barns, to the height of 6 feet, above which they are of studwork, boarded, 14 feet higher. The house and aU the farm buildings are covered witb«lates. 1035. Remarks. This Design was contributed by Mr. Samuel Taylor, the nephew of the proprietor of Starston, Meadows Taylor, Esq., of Diss. Tlie general arrangement seems good; all the cattle-houses and cattle-yards being conveniently situated with regard to the two barns ; and the cart-shed, 23, and carpenter's shop, tool-house, chaise- FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 517 1034 house, &c., 30, being detached from the buildings and yards for animals ; and, con- sequently, being free from straw, the obligation of opening and shutting gates, and the risk of letting out cattle, &c. The farm house has the most ample accommodations. Mr. Taylor has sent us a plan of Starston farmery, as it appeared some years ago, when the same accommodation was scattered about in all directions, to the great inconvenience of the occupant. In reply to some questions respecting the construction of the racks and mangers, and the farm-yard management of Norfolk, Mr. Taylor has sent us the foDowing valuable information : — 1036. " The Norfolk System of Farming Management differs materially from that pursued in most other coimties of England, in not having any stalls or divisions in the stables, save, perhaps, one for a vicious or troublesome horse ; the rest stand close to each other, each tied to the manger by a halter, at the end of which is a log of wood, as in fig. 1035, sufficiently heavy to draw down the halter after its being raised by the horse, in lifting up his head ; and thus, by keeping the line stretched, preventing the horse from getting his feet entangled therewith. The horses are not confined to the stable, except at feeding and cleaning times, when they are tied up ; at other times they are turned into a dry well-littered straw-yard, between the stable and the horse-sheds, 10 10, which, being open to the yard, they can resort to for shelter. The door of the stable is left open every night. This4is done in all seasons, and in all weathers; and it is a well-known fact, that, be the weather ever so rough, the horses generally prefer lying in the open air. Of course, in pursuing this yard system, it will be desirable to keep a good look-out, especially in the first instance, that no horse of a quarrelsome domineering temper be suffered to mix with the 1035 518 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. rest. Again, in some stables, there may be a horse of a particularly timid disposition, who seems a sort of butt of the whole stud ; and who, if he could speak, would doubtless exclaim with Falstaff, ' Nags of all sorts take a pride to gird at me.' All such should be separated from their fellows, or accidents will very likely happen. It is not well to put too many horses together in one yard. In Lancashire and other parts of the north of England, the farm horses are clothed up in warm close stables ; the consequence of which is, that if a horse stand any little time in a cold wind, even though his cloth be on, he is almost sure to catch cold, and be laid up. Now, a Norfolk man never clothes his horses ; unless, perhaps, in very severe weather, when a carter throws a sack, or some such covering, over the horse's loins, while corn or other articles are loading or unloading. This is proper enough, but anything beyond it tends to make the animal tender, and susceptible of cold." With respect to the keep of farm horses, Mr. Taylor is decidedly in favour of cutting their fodder, whether it be hay, straw, or a mixture of both. The best criterion of the excellence of this plan is the fact, that, in seasons when the hay crop is unusually short, farmers invariably resort to it as a measure of economy, in order to make their stock of fodder hold out. 1037. The Norfolk System of managing Cows and Cattle is the same as that for horses; except that in the cow-houses and cattle-sheds there are no racks, but only troughs or mangers from which they eat their food. 1038. The Sheep System of Norfolk is very simple ; though some persons go to a great expense for movable racks and feeding-troughs. Mr. Taylor thus describes, in the Country Times, a movable fold, with a sheep-rack attached, which he used for a number of years : — " It is well known that, in setting and striking a fold in frosty weather, there is not only great difficulty, but that the wear and tear of the hurdles is considerable ; to say nothing of the loss of time incurred by the frequent repetition of this operation. Wicker hurdles are made on a frame, with holes bored for the upright stakes ; around and between which, the smaller wood is woven or wattled. The frame is usually six feet long, and of course this is the length of each hurdle. Instead of a six-feet frame, get a larch pole, or oak stand that will square about five or six inches, and is about eighteen or twenty feet long. Bore holes in this similar to, and at the same intervals as, those of a hurdle frame ; then fix it on a pair of axletrees about four feet long ; each axle- tree having attached to it a pair of cast-iron wheels, just high enough to carry the hurdle when finished ; the whole presenting an appearance like that of fig. 1036. For greater strength, the end uprights may be of iron, fastened to the bottom with nuts and screws. Fig. 1037 is an end view of the hurdle on its axle, with the addition of a small, or bank, 1036 1037 hurdle, as it is sometimes called, sloping outwards, and forming the economical hay-rack of which we have been speaking. Being low, the strain on the main hurdle is but trifling, and it is easily kept in its place by tar-line. The hay forms not only food but shelter for the sheep. About a fourth of the total length of the movable fold may thus be made into hay or straw racks in a very few minutes ; and the whole fold can be shifted by a man and a horse in the tenth of the time it would take to remove it if formed of common hurdles and stakes. Iron rings or staples are provided at the end of each di-vision of the fold, to which the horse is fastened when it is wanted to be moved. There being but little wear on the hurdles, they will last treble the time of those in general use, and, even when the wickerwork decays, it may be replaced at the cost of a few shillings. A fold on the same principle was invented by the late Mr. T. Plowman of Broome, near Bungay, but it was made of sawn stuff, painted, and of course vastly more expensive in its construction." (Country Times, vol. i. p. 27.) Mr. Taylor has suggested a still cheaper sheep-rack and fold, which may be formed in a few minutes, of wicker hurdles (which cost about 10s. or lis. per dozen), set sloping round a yard, as represented in the section fig. 1038; the yard itself being supposed to be fenced in with bush faggots (faggots composed of thorns from the hedges, which, when wanted for yard fencing, ought to be cut with the leaves on, and stacked flatwise previously to using, in order to render them close and compact ; thus treated, they wUl also go further, and make a better fence) ; a represents the line of hurdles, and b the faggot fence. The hurdles may be secured at top to the stakes of the faggot fence with a piece of tar- FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 519 line, c. Between tlie Inndle and the faggots is placed the fodder, n-hicli serves the triple purpose of food, shelter, and protection to tlic sheep from the thorns of the faggots. 10;?9. 7Vu' Norfolk System of managing Swine has nothing in it which recpiires any variation of construction from the form of pigsties in use in other districts. 1040. A Substitute for Rickstands, the invention of the late ingenious and excellent Robert Paul (see his humane rat trai>, Ganl. Mag. vol. vi. p. 584.), Mr. Taylor recommends as being csidence of tlie grieve (bailiff). Tiie cattle-sheds, k and u, are judiciously contrived so as to shelter the cattle both from tlie north-east and south-west winds, according to the prevalence of either ; these winds being most severe. 1045 TfTTT ^ <5> -CD-^ [=' : c J ■_ c 3 3 [ ■ 1 r? '^ 1 h L 1 r « 111 FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 5QS Design XXXllI. — A Farm House and Farmery for 500 Acres, half Pasture and half arable, erected at , in the Parish of Tar bat, Eoss-shire. 1051. Accommodation. The general appearance is seen in fig. 1051, and tlie ground plan in fig. 1046. In the latter the house shows a dining-room, « ; parlour, b ; bed- m rqiiC "=-^3 room, c ; kitchen, d ; and pantry, e ; and on the floor above are foui' garret bed-rooms. The farmery shows a pigsty, f; place for calves, g ; corn-chest, and harness-room, h ; stable, i ; privy in the same, k ; spare stable, /; barn, m ; covered horse-course, n ; stair to granary over the straw-house and cattle-sheds, o ; straw-house, p ; cattle-shed, q ; pump and water-trough, r ; cattle-shed, s ; poultry-house, t ; cart-shed, it ; cow-house with feeding-passage, v ; boiling-house and dairy scullery, w ; dairy, x ; and coal- house, y. 1050 524 COTTAGE, FAKM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1052. Constniction. The materials and kind of workmanship will be found detailed in the following specification, obligingly sent us by Mr. Ross ; and which is intended to be elucidated by fig. 1047, a section and elevation on the line A B of fig. 1046; by fig. 1048, a section on the line C D ; by fig. 1049, an elevation of the north side of the same figure ; and by the section across the stables, fig. 1050. 1053. Specificntion of the Carpenter's, MasorCs, Plasterer's, and Painter's Works, intended to be done in building and finishing a Farm Steading for , tacksman (tenant on lease, a lease in the north of Scotland being called a tack) of , Parish of —, Ross-shire, under the direction and to the entire satisfaction of William Ross, Architect, of No. 11. Pritchard Street, Bristol; and which is further explained by drawings made for that purpose. 1054. It is to be understood that the following conditions apply to each trade respectively. 1055. The Contractor is to find and provide every kind of materials, labour, hoisting, carriage, scaffolding, rules, moulds, tools, and tackle necessary for the due execution of the works, correspondent with this specification and drawings, to the full intent and meaning of both, as no extra-charge or day-bill will be allowed for any thing implied, expressed, or set forth, in either of them. 105C. The Materials are to be the best of their respective kinds, and the Architect, or his agent, shall have full power to reject any materials that may be brought on the premises which he may consider unfit for the purpose, or different from those described to be used in the works ; and likewise the power to cause any unsound work to be altered, at the contractor's expense, or any works that are not executed according to the true intent and meaning of this specification and drawings, and to the directions which may be given from time to time by the Architect or his agent. 1057. The Care of the Building is to be with the contractor, as (the proprietor) will not be accountable for any thing that may be damaged, destroyed, or removed ; but the whole must be left clean, perfect, and complete, in every respect, at the conclusion of the works. will not be bound to accept even the lowest tender, nor to pro- ceed with the works, unless the amounts of the estimates are satisfactory. 1058. The Contractor must not allow any alteration to take place from this specification or drawings, without first obtaining a written order for the same from the Architect, or the proprietor, particularly describing such alteration ; but if (the proprietor) or his Architect think proper to make any addition or omission, or to deviate in any manner from the drawings and this specification, such alteration, whether an addition or omission, shall not invalidate or make void this agreement, but the same shall be ascer- tained in the usual and customary way by admeasurement, and either added to or deducted from the amount of the contract (as the case may be), according to the list of prices herein after mentioned ; and all extras or omissions not included in such list will he monied out (calculated) in proportion to such list. 1059. Tenders must be delivered in separate amounts for each trade; and it must be distinctly understood, that in each case a detailed bill of every article contained in. the FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 525 estimate, together with the price at wliich each article was monied out, must accompany such tender sealed up, or it will not be accepted ; and all variations from this specification and drawings, which may be ordered, shall be monied out from such list, and whicli is to remain in the hands of tlie Architect for that pin-pose. 1060. The Works to he executed in the most sound, substantial, and workmanlike manner ; and, that the contractor may not consider himself in any way aggrieved, he must take sjjecial notice that every circumstance appertaining to the well-doing of the works will be most strictli/ insisted on, to tlie full intent and spirit of this specification and drawings; and that no indulgence will be allowed for any breach of covenants ; and if any difference of oi)inion shall arise as to the quantity or quality of the workmanship or materials, or upon any other matter connected with tlie works, the contractor must in all cases be bound, by the decision of the Architect. 1061. The Works to be immecUttith/ hegun by taking down those parts of the jiresent buildings that are intended to be removed, in the most careful manner ; shoring up as will be necessary the adjoining walls, &c., which will be at the contractor's risk, until they are fully secured; repairing and making good all the walls, &c., that may be dis- turbed in consequence of this contract. 1062. 27(6 Contractor may see the Site, and he is expected to provide for every thing required to execute the works, without any extra-charge whatever, for any thing omitted in this specification or drawings. 1063. The Money is to be paid at the rate of £73 per cent on the amount of work done, by certificates to be signed by the Architect, and payable at fourteen days' sight ; but the Architect will not certify for any sum less than jt60, and the balance will be paid upon the certificate of the Architect, that the works are completed to his satisfaction, by bill at four months. 1064. Carpenter. The timber (unless where otherwise particularly described) is to be the best natural-grown Spey timber (Scotch pine, grown in a native forest on the banks of the Spey, and generally considered of superior quality) ; and, together ^v^th every other species of timber which may be hereafter described, for carpenter's and joiner's work, is to be well seasoned, for which affidavits must be given, if required by the Architect. The whole to be perfectly sound, free from sap, shakes, dead parts, and large knots. 1065. All the Materials icill be carted from Portmahomack by the proprietor; but the contractor must not delay the carts imnecessarily, otherwise the proprietor will charge for such detention, and will deduct the amount fi-om the balance in his hands. 1066. All Timbers to be cogged (notched)down, so as to have a solid bearing on the walls and plates; no joist, standard (quarter), or rafter, &c., to be more than 18 inches apart in the clear. All lintels, and filling in lintels (lintels behind the front lintels), to be not less than 2 feet longer than their respective openings, and 1 inch thick for every foot the opening is wide, and shored up where requisite. All bridlings (trimmings) and bridling joists to be one eighth of an inch thicker than the other joists, for every joist they support. The joists to be bridled (trimmed) for wells of stairs, for fire- places and vents, and stiffened with herring-bone strutting, at distances not exceeding 4 feet apart. All scantlings and other dimensions given, must hold good, when the works are completed, cleaned off, and finished. No panels to be, when cleaned off, less than five eighths of an inch thick. To provide for all centring for arches, &c. ; also, all blocks, studs, beads, stops, fillets, bilgets (wooden bricks). None of the flooring- boards to be more than 6 inches wide, and they must be prepared, and brought on the pre- mises five weeks before they are laid. All the framing, such as doors, sashes, &c., must be got out in six weeks from the date of the contract ; but not to be wedged up until the Architect or his agent directs. The door-fi-ames are to be built in the walls, with horns (the lintels with projections beyond the styles) and side arms (side pieces to bond in), and tenoned into stone sills. The roof is to be formed as shown in the drawings, and of the several scantlings thereon figured, and well nailed with double garron (6-inch spikes) nails. All plates to be in long lengths, and chacked (notched or halved) ; or dovetailed together, and well spiked. To lay the floors throughout (unless where other- wise directed) of 1^-inch Tarlogie (a native forest) deals, straight-jointed, ploughed, and feathered. The stairs to be formed as shown in the plan, of I|-inch Tarlogie deals, glued and blocked, complete, with 1 J -inch wall string and torus on upper edge; and where an open well is shown, to have 1 '-inch front strings. All the treads and risers to be raggled (housed) into strings, and the whole to have strong carriages complete ; handrail to be put from the barn to the threshing-floor, as shown, with |^-inch balusters, with three iron balusters, flanged and screwed complete : the handrails to be of Spey fir. The locks, bolts, and fastenings to be found by the proprietor ; and the contractor will find screws, and fasten them on without any extra-charge for the same. The roof must be ready to receive the covering on or before the day of , and the whole of the works finished and completed on or before the 5^26 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. day of , or else the contractor shall and will allow the sum of £5 per week, as liquidated damages, for each week he may exceed the time allowed for being ready witii the roof, for covering in, or for the completion of the works ; and which sum or sums will be deducted from the balance due to the contractor, remaining in the hands of the proprietor. 10G7. Joistiiu/. All the wall plates to be 7 inches by 1 inch and a half. The sleepers in the dressing-l)arn (the part of the barn appropriated for dressing corn) to be 6 inches by 2 inches and a half, built in as described in the mason's work. The joisting of the barn and granary floors to be 10 inches l)y 2 inches and a half, with 1 foot of wall hold. Tlie cart-sheds to have a joist 8 inches by 2 inches and a half, built into the wall at each pillar, and chaeked to the lintling beams, 9 inches by 12 inches, and screwed to the same with a half-inch bolt, the other end of the same joist to be chaeked to the wall plate in tlie same manner. 1068. Doors. The whole of the doors to be made of Tarlogie deals, not more than 6 inches wide, and 1 inch and a quarter thick, ploughed and beaded on the joists, with three l^-inch cross bars, and well nailed. The stable, byre, and barn doors to be hung in two leaves. The whole of the doors to be hung with crooks and bands ; the crooks to be laid on the bed of the rybats ; the crook to be split in the tail (in order to serve instead of a rivet), and to have 7 inches hold of the stone, and to be well batted (run) in with lead ; the pin of the crook to bo 1 inch and an eightli in diameter ; each crook to weigh 3 pounds and a half. The bands to be 22 inches long, three eighths of an inch thick at the neck, and 2 inches broad, with |^-incli screw-bolt to the neck of eacli ; each band to weigh 4 pounds and a half. The band nails to have counter-sinik lieads, and properly riveted ; sunk ring latches to all the doors, and 8-inch stock locks to tlie granary, barn, poultry-house, milk-house, and coal-cellar doors only. 1069. Windows. The frames of the barn and milk-house windows to be 2 inches thick, and filled in at bottom with boards 16 inches high, liimg to frames on ci'oss-tailed bands, and glazed above with third crown glass ; those in the granary, stables, !kc., to be filled in witli weather-boards 6 inches wide and 1 inch thick, chamfered on the outer edges, hinig with iron pivots in a frame 3 inches by 2 inches, having a strap of iron attached to the inside, and movable up and down, to admit air when wanted. 1070. Stables. The hind posts of the trevises (partitions) to be octagons of 6 inches and a half in diameter above the pavement, and sunk in solid masonry, as shown in the section, fig. 1050 ; the part built in to be charred, and the tops to be rounded. The fore posts to be 4 inches and a half by 2 inches, the foot set in a stone; 1^-inch trevise-boards to be mortised into the hind post, which must be set 8 feet from the front wall. 'I'he trevises to be 6 feet high at the front posts, and 4 feet and a half high at the hind posts ; to have angle warpings (braces) 4 inches by 1 inch and a half, and to be nailed with double double nails (20rf. ). Mangers to be, as shown, of 1^-inch Tarlogie deals. The under racks to be 2 feet 3 inches high, and to have a run beam 4 inches by 3 inches, rounded on the upper edge, with rings for fastening the horses. A piece of bond timber, 4 inches by 3 inches, to be built into the walls for harness-pins. 1 07 1 . Gates. The posts to be as the hind posts of the stables, and to stand 9 inches above the gates ; the hinge post of the gate to be 5 inches by 4 inches ; the front post, 4 inches by 5 inches ; the angle spar, 1 inch and a half by 3 inches ; the spars to be three quarters of an inch by 3 inches and a half; the top spar will be Ij-inch square iron, with shoulder and eye at the hinge post, diminishing to three quarters of an inch square at the front post, with a screw and nut. The crooks to be put into the gate-posts with a screw and nut. 1072. Sundries. The linteling beams to the horse-course to be 12 inches square, and to be tied at the angles with iron strajjs 2 inches and a half by three eighths of an inch, and 20 inches long, and to be chaeked together ; the rafters to be 6 inches and a half, and 6 inches by 2 inches and a half, with 2 balks in height, chaeked and spiked together with double garron nails, and mortised into the octagonal post at top 6 inches in dia- meter ; #-inch square cat bars (a cat bar is an iron bar three quarters of an incli square, for keeping a folding-door fast when shut ; it has a ring at one end for fastening to the wall with a staple, and is bent at the other end, so as to hook into the door by another staple on the inside) to all the two-leaved doors ; to provide a seat and riser to privy, and a ventilator over the boiler in the milk-house. 1073. Mason. All the excavating will be done by the proprietor. The whole of the stones used to be fixnn the (juarry of Balnascarrish. The mortar to be made of good ivell-burnt English lime, and landed at Portmahomack, with sharp sand in tlie pro- portion of two parts of lime to three jiarts of sand, the whole being well tempered and beat before being used. The foundations to be laid with flat-bedded stones laid in regular courses, and to be taken in by regular scarsements (sets back) as shown in tlie sections ; all the internal gables to be carried up to the roof; the sleepers to be laid and built into the FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 527 same, and the dwarf walls to be 14 inches thick. The walls to be built of the heights and thicknesses shown and figured in the drawings, and the whole to be beam-filled at the top. No wall to be at any time more than 3 feet higher than the other walls, until each wall has been raised to its intended height. The door soles (sills) to be laid six inches above the causeway (or pavement) outside; the soles of the stable, byre, &c., to be laid 3 inches above the same, and the whole to be beveled (sloped outwards) on the top. 1074. Hewn Work. All the external corners to be droved (tooled) with broached tails (a regular breadth on each side of the angle of the corner stones to be hewn smooth, and the remainder of tlie stone to be rough-hewn, like the rest of the wall). The rybats (reveals), soles, and lintels of the doors and windows to be droved, with broached tails ; all the rybats and corners to be 2 feet long at least, and the inband rybats (headers) to pass through the thickness of the walls ; all the skews and tabling to be droved, and the shed- pillars, arches, and the chimney-tops to be broached ; the shed and gate pillars to be chamfered 3 inches on the angles. 1075. Causewayiitg. The wliole of the stables, byre, sheds, &c., to be laid with whin- stone set in sharp sand ; the settles (gutters or channels) to have 2 inches fall in 10 feet ; the stable channels to be 10 feet from the front wall, and the rise fi-om them to the rack to be 5 inches. All the doors, windows, &c., to be saved with rough arches (to have discharging arches) over the same. All the spurs (lower stones of the raking part of the gable, called in England the summer stones) to be 2 feet and a half long each. The whole of the rough walls to be pointed and harled (roughcast) outside, and the whole to be pointed inside. 1076. Plasterer. To plaster the walls of the granary and the dressing-barn with one coat of plaster with pounded glass mixed in the mortar, to prevent vermin from getting in. 1077. Painter. The whole of the doors, windows, gates, and all exposed wood and iron work, to have three coats of oil paint, of a colour to be chosen by the proprietor. Detailed Estimate of the Expense of erecting the Farm Steading of , referred to in the above Specification, 1078. Mason. 308 roods (36 square yards in each rood) rough walls of the standard thickness (2 feet), and harled 433 yards of causewaying with whinstone, laid in sharp sand 47 yards of paving with flags in the straw-house 365 superficial feet of droved hewn work (labour only) 200 superficial feet of broached do. (do. do.) 9893 superficial feet of run 4-inch tabling and skew stones ; the ma- terials only; the labour being included in the droved work 96 superficial feet of door and window soles and lintels, do 16 lineal feet of vent 1 copper and furnace to set 21 posts built in solid work, 3 feet in diameter 1 8 steps broached to the gangway to the granary Tools, tackle, scaffolding, &c ^ 274 : 10 : 1079. Plasterer. 417 yards of one-coat plaster £ 14: 5: 1080. Painter. 428 yards of three-coat paint and knotting £ 21 : 8 : 1081. Carpenter. 169 cubic feet in lintels, &c 1227 yards of roofing and cabers (laths for thatch) 271 yards of flooring and joists 264 yards of l|-inch three-barred doors (ledged doors with 3 back- boards) ... 1 93 yards of windows 56 yards of gates 43 yards of sleepers and flooring 45 yards of trevises, &c. complete 55 yards of racks, &c 41 yards of do. in byre 75 yards of do. in cattle-sheds 93 yards of centres for arches 3 u 528 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 105 yards of paling in the fold-yard 15 yards of water-trough and pump 29 yards of shelves and divisions for nests in the poultry-house 10 feet superficial 1 seat and riser in the privy 61 feet superficial of stairs 57 feet suiierficial run bond timber, and harness pins 48 pairs of large crooks and bands 14 pairs of small cross-tailed bands 4 8-inch stock-locks > 8 cat bands and socket hinges (see fig. 1059, p. 533.) 20 iron straps for the cart-sheds and horse-course 1082. Recapitulation. Carpenter £457: 8: Mason 274:10: Plasterer 14: 5: O Painter 21: 8: O Thatcher, about 55: 0: O £ 457 : 8 : O £ 821 : 11 1083. General Estimate. As the cubic contents of this farmery are 78,468 feet, the above gives 2^d. per foot as the data for forming guess estimates for the north of Scotland. 1084. Remarks. We have given the foregoing specification and estimate chiefly on account of some peculiarities in the details of construction, and of some local terms. The first twelve paragraphs were taken from a printed form, which, being applicable to specifica- tions generally, is calculated to save the Architect a good deal of trouble. Such forms, both for specifications of buildings, agreements for leases, and even leases themselves, are often printed, in the case of large estates, for the convenience of the agents. The farm house to this farmery is remarkably small, and, with its chimneys in the gable ends, it has the usual commonplace air of Scotch farm houses ; cold, formal, and comfortless. There is a privy in a recess off the stable, which is all exceedingly well for the men, but quite useless for the women, who ought, at least, to have had a similar convenience, equally private, near the byre, but by no means in it, as cows are, in relation to such places, much more delicate than horses. The barn here is remarkably well placed, con- nected, as it is, with the stables on one hand and the cattle-sheds on the other. Design XXXIV. — The Farmery at Greendyhes, in Haddingtonshire, consisting of 500 arable Acres under a Six- Course Shift. 1085. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in p. 535, and the ground plan in fig. 1054. In the latter are seen an entrance gateway, a ; two stables for eight horses each, 6 h ; hen-house, c ; two loose horse places, d d; a boiling-house, e ; two cart-sheds, //, with granaries over ; the tool-house with stairs to the granary, g ; gig-house, h ; two riding-horse stables, i i ; four cattle-sheds, k ; potato-house, I ; two cow-houses, w m ; straw-barn, n ; chaff-house, o ; corn-barn, p ; engine-house, q ; boiler, r ; coal-house, s ; smithy, t ; bailiff's house, u ; open courts, v ; piggeries, w ; feeding-troughs, x ; passage, y ; and rick-yard z. Fig. 1055 is a plan of the roofs, and of those parts of the buildings "which are two stories high. In this plan are shown the two granaries, a ; boiling-house, h, hayloft to the riding-horse stables over the gig-house, c; barn, d; and chimney to the boiler of the steam-engine, e. 1086. Construction. The walls are of local freestone, and the roofs of Baltic timber, covered with slate. Fig. 1052 is an elevation of the west front, and fig. 1053 is an 1052 sA 1053 njo o v\ FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 529 1054 Tl- Oii'ini Ft. 10 20 40 60 80 Ft. elevation of the north front. All the various details of construction will be found clearly set forth in the following specification : — 1087. Specification of a Plan for huilding the new Farm Offices at Greendykes, near Haddington. — Foundations. The foundations to be dug down until a firm and solid 1055 ^30 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. substratum is obtained for founding upon, and to be at least 1 8 inches below the level of the door soles (sills). The foundation to be laid with large flat-bedded stones on a bed of Ume, and to be laid in 12 inches wider than the thickness of the walls, as figured in the plan, and to be reduced to their regular thicknesses at the surface level. 1088. Ruhhk-work. The whole of the walls to be executed of the best rubble building, with the stones laid all on their flat and natural beds, and properly hearted and packed (the interior filled in solid with mortar and chips) with well prepared lime and sharp sand ; and all tlie joints to be clean, and neatly drawn in with the edges of the trowel, particularly the west elevation, which will be done in coursed work with the very best picked stones from Bangley quarry. Tlie whole of the external elevations to be executed with new materials, and all the old stones to be used in tlie inside walls. All the gable tops (upper parts of the cross walls) to be carried close up to the slates. 1089. Hewn Work. The whole of the corners, door and window rybats (reveals), soles and lintels, stair-steps, crow-steps (barge-stones rising above one another like stairs, see fig. 1053), balls and points (ornaments; see the figures), chimney-tops, skews, pillars and arches, and arches of cart-shades (cart-sheds), archways for the gate- way and bailiff's house, the jambs and hearths, also the pavement in the riding-stable, gig-house, and at the stair foot, to be all executed in broached work, with droved mar- gins (or draughted and broached; that is, worked round the joints with a chisel, about 1056 three quarters of an inch on the face, and the remaining part of the face, roughly doni XMMtiii^- _ ■ _ ^ ' ' . .^•' ■'■ ' *' Vr ,?^ with a pick, as in %. 1056: .■;iTC™n!SJ^ It;- . ' ]')'■■ "■■'"'"■'''^■'.'■•'y^^V common broached ashlar is without the draughted or di'oved edges, and is simply dressed with the pick, or pointed or chisel edge of the hammer, as in fig. 1057) as will be directed. 1090. HeelpoHt Stones. The stable posts, and posts in front of the feeding-troughs, to 1057 have heel-stones 12 inches square and 18 inches long, — -_. ,.. , ^,.„ ,^ ,. ^ , ^^^ .. properly squared, and droved on the top; with a hole '^ ;.'"'!:' "';'' .''"i' ■•''':'''''''''?''.''' ':''^''^ fo"" receiving the posts 2 inches deep. '], ' I I ' ' 1091. Causewni/ing (Pavini/). The stables, loose- house (stable or place for a sick horse, mare and foal, cow about to calve. Sec), byres, and piggeries to be fmwi'w, ya r¥¥,::;:a,:' all neatly causewayed (paved) with good rubble cause- way ; and all these apartments to have proper declivities and channels for carrying off the water into tbe open courts. 1092. Wall Coping. The walls in the open courts to have semicircular hammer- dressed (dressed with the chisel end of the hammer) freestone copes (coping), and the tops of the pillars or piers to the gateway openings to be finished with a square plinth und semicircular droved stone ; the top stones (the course of stones immediately under the coping) to be in single blocks. 1093. Trotighs. The feeding-troughs to be built up solid with stone and lime to a proper height ; and the soles to be laid with droved pavement close joined, and not less than 3 inches thick. 1094. E7iginc-house. The engine stalk (shaft or chimney) to be carried up with brick from the level of the wall heads to the height of 45 feet from the level of the engine-house floor. The flues to be 20 inches square inside, and the sides of the flues to be built with (juicklime, and the floor of the engine-house to be laid with clean droved ))avement. A tunnel to be built for the engine 10 feet long, 6 feet deep by 2 feet 3 inches wide, the sides and ends of the tunnel to be built with rubble-work 2 feet thick, and lined upon the face witli droved ashlar, and the bottom to be laid with droved pavement. Tiie tradesman to build in the boiler for the engine, and to furnish what fire and otlier bricks may be required for that purpose. The whole of the external corners of the pillars of the cart and cattle sheds to he neatly rounded. 1095. Corn-ham. The floor of the corn-barn to be sunk down 15 inches deeper than the level of tlic door sole, and dwarf walls built every five feet apart, and 12 inches thick, for supporting the sleepers ; the whole space below the floor to be filled up close to the under bed of the flooring, with small broken stones, and to be run full of thin gi'out lime, on purpose to prevent vermin from getting through the floor. 1096. Stahlcs. The wall heads of the stables, corn-barn, granary, hayloft, and cow- house to be beam-filled close up from the top of the walls to the roofs. Recesses are to be left in the stable wall behind the horses, seven feet high, as shown by the drawing, for the reception of the harness, and of the corn-chest. 1097. The Ventilators to be put through the front wall of the stable, as shown by the FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 531 plac, 6 inches square, with a droved liewn stone on the outside of the wall 16 inches square, with a 6-inch hole cut through it to ventilate the stable. 1098. Serva7its' Houses. ITie vents (chimneys) of the servants' houses and boiling- houses to be carried up at 11 inches square inside, and to be properly plastered. 1099. Sto?iework generally. In building the pillars for the gates to the open courts, proper care must be taken that large weiglity stones be put at their proper places for fixing in the iron crooks. The tradesman to get the old stones at Greendykes and Arniston which will be pointed out by Mr. C. The tradesman will also furnish the whole of the other stones, and the lime that wiU be required for finishing the building ; the hewn and rubble stones are to be taken from the Jerusalem quarry, the whinstones for the west front from Bangley, and the pavement from the quarries at Salton limeworks. AU to be of the best quality the several quarries will produce ; and Mr. C. to furnish the whole of the carriages of every description ; but the tradesman must take down and clear out the old stones, and prepare them for carting, and also furnish bricks for the engine vent of the best quality. 1100. Carpenter's Work. The soles and lintels to be 3 inches thick, with a wall-hold (their ends deeply inserted into the wall) on each end of the head and sill of the frames, 9 inches in length, and of width sufficient to fill up the space required. The whole of the joisting for the granary and barn to be 11 inches by 2 mches, and 1 6 inches apart, with a \^-all-hold on each end of 9 inches ; and the joisting to be laid on wall plates 7 inches by 14 inches. The joisting over the mill-loft (floor for the unthreshed corn, from which, being fed into the upper part of the machinery, it comes out separated into corn and straw, in the floor below) and granaries to be covered with a flooring of boards not exceeding 6 inches and a half broad, and 1 and one eighth of an inch thick, and to be ploughed and tongued on the edges. Two strong joists to be in the mill-loft, 1 1 inches by 6 inclies, and three cross framings of the same size on each side of the shaker, and one at the spur-wheel (a wheel on the main shaft witli the cogs or teeth standing outwards, which operates on a pinion), as shall be directed by the millwright. 1101. The Corn-barn to be laid with sleepers and flooring; the sleepers to be 5 inches by 2 inches and a half, and 1 6 inches apart ; the flooring to be the same as above speci- fied ; tlie wall-plates below the sleepers to be 7 inches broad by 1 4 inches thick. 1102. Roofing. The scantling for the roofing to be 6 inches at bottom by 5 inches at top, by 2 inches and a half thick, and placed 18 inches apart. Wall-plates to be 7 inches by 1 inch and a quarter ; baulks (tie or collar beams) to be 6 inches by 2 inches and a quarter. Tlie sarking to be three quarters of an inch thick, and close- jointed on the edges. The flank-trees (valley rafters) to be 7 inches at bottom and 6 inches at top, by 3 inches and a half thick ; and the pien-trees (hip rafters) to be 7 inches broad and 2 inches thick. The partition in the corn-barn to be of standards (quarters) 4 inches by 2 inches, 18 inches apart, and covered on one side with deals a quarter of an inch thick, clean-planed, beaded, grooved, and tongued on the edges ; with a door through to the chafF-hole. A trap-stair and wood-rail to be put up to the same, and round the opening at the landing from the corn-bam to the mill-loft. There is to be also a wooden trap from the straw-bam to the mill-loft, 2 feet wide, and of proper strength for carrying up the refuse from the shaker. There are to be two skylights put into the roof of the miU-loft, 3 feet long by 2 feet wide, for gi^•ing light to the machinery ; and these are to be glazed, having flashings of lead round the slates weighing 4 lbs. and a half per foot. 1103. Working-Horse Stables. The working-horse stables to be fitted up with racks and mangers, and trivess boarding. The trivess boarding to be 7 feet high in front, and 8 feet at the back end; with hard-wood (oak, ash, elm, &c. ) coping on ditto. The top of the coping to be 2 inches and a half by 2 inches, and the boarding to be 1 inch and a half thick, and doweled on the joints. The mangers to be 10 inches wide at bottom, and 14 inches wide at top, by 10 inches deep, and the boards 1 inch and a quarter thick. A breast-tree (horizontal rail) to be put in front of the manger, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half, rounded in front. This tree to be of oak, with proper iron rings and staples for fixing the horses. The rack sides (top and bottom rails) to be 4 inches by 2 inches and a quarter, and to be fitted in with turned rack staves, 2 inches in diameter, with a rail 6 inches broad, opposite each trivess, and the rack staves to be made of beech ; the back posts of the trivesses to be made of oak 6 inches square, rounded on the angles, and mortised into a run-tree (a raU fixed along the tie-joists) at top, and let 2 inches into the stone at bottom ; the front posts to be 4 inches by 2 inches and a quarter, and one on each side of the trivess to be rounded on one side. Tliere are to be 16 tie-joists across the stables, 7 inches by two inches and a half; and clean-planed for fixing the run-tree. The run-tree to go the whole length of the stable, to be 6 inches by 3 inches, and clean-planed. Tliere are to be a sufficient number of harness- pins and saddle-trees put up behind the horses and on the posts. 532 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1 104. TTie Riding-Horse Stable to have a manger the same as the other stables, with circular racks in the angles. The stable to be divided in the middle with a deal partition 2 inches thick, clean-planed, beaded, and doweled on the joints, with a door of com- munication formed in it. The door-framing to be 4 inches by 3 inclies ; the door to be hung with strong cross-tailed hinges (strap hinges with a cross, sometimes shaped like a trefoil at the tail), and to have a sunk thumb sneck (a latch with the handle sunk flush with the surface of the door), the partition to go the whole way up the height of the ceiling. The front wall to be lined up with ^-inch deal from the top of the manger to the top of the rack, and to be planed, grooved, tongued, and beaded. 1105. Stable Arches. Elliptical arcJies to be put across between the back posts and over the horses, with neat wood impost mouldings at tlie springings ; and a thin plate of wood bent round the soffit of the arches. 1106. Trivess {Partition) Boarding. The trivess boarding to be of the same height and thickness as in the other stables, and finished on the top with an ogee and sweep, and hard-wood cope. The joists to be of the same materials, and the workmanship the same as in the other stable. The stone wall next the west front to be lined with 1-inch deal, and finished the same as the other trivesses. The ceiling to be lathed from the beam- filling, round the couples, and back ; and the whole walls and ceiling to be finished with three-coat plaster. There are to be two wood pipes made 6 inches square, to go up through the ceiling, and 2 feet through the roof above the slates ; with a flashing of lead put round the pipes to cover their joining with the slates. The 2 feet of pipes above the slates to be l)ored full of holes on all the four sides, and covered on the top with a moulded capital, on purpose to ventilate the stable. The bottom of these pipes to project below the ceiling of the stable, on purpose to admit of a shifting board to shut them up when required. 1107. Poidtry-houses. A wooden stair to be put up from the turkey-house to the hen-house, as shown by the plan ; and this hen-house and the hayloft to be joisted and floored with the old materials, &c. The stair to be covered in round the sides up to the ceiling in the turkey-house, and a door to be put up on the foot of the stair to keep the two places separate. The hen-house to be fitted up with a wooden roost, and nests on 'he north and east sides ; and the tops of the nests to be covered with a sloping thin •al cover, on purpose to keep them clean from the roosts. The ceiling of the hen-house -v, be lathed from the top of the walls, round the couples (rafters), and back ; and to be finished with two coats of plaster ; and the walls both of the hen-house and of the turkey- house to be plastered with one coat of plaster. A skylight to be put in the roof of the hen-house, 3 feet by 2 feet, glazed, and made watertight with flashings of lead. 1108. Doors. The doors to be plain deal, and 1 inch and one eighth thick; the boards to be 6 inches and a half broad, and ploughed, tongued, and beaded on the joints, with three bars on the back of each ; to be all hung with strong cross-tailed hinges (hinges like fig. 1058, which, of course, can only be used where there are wooden door- frames, or hanging posts, on which to nail the tail part, a, of the hinge) with an iron bolt through the neck, b, of each ; 1058 except the doors for the straw-barn, which are to be hung with strong crook and band hinges. The door-frames to be 6 inches by 2 inches and a half, and strongly batted into the * cheeks of the rybats ; the whole to have keeps (stops) tliree quarters of an inch thick, and of proper breadtli. 1109. The Servant's (Bailiff's) House to have a lath and standard partition on both sides, and two doors inside, 1 inch in thickness, with hinges and sneck (thumb latch). 1 1 10. Glazier's Work. The windows of the stables and byres to be glazed on the top half; the under half to be made to open with boards, and hinges and snecks. The sashes to be 2 inches thick, with proper facings, keeps, and frames. The windows of the riding-stable, boiling-house, servants' house, corn-barn, engine-house, potato-house, and turkey-house to be made with sashes and cases ; and to be glazed with good crown glass. The whole to receive one good priming coat of white lead before being glazed. 1111. The Beams (Lintels) for the Cattle Sheds to be 12 inches by 6 inches; to be all clean-planed on the front and under sides, and to have 12 inches of wall-hold on each end. 1112. The large Entrance Gate to be framed with 2^-inch wood ; styles 6 inches and a half broad, with cross rails 9 inches, and cross angular (diagonal) braces to the same, to be covered on the face with 1-inch deal grooved, tongued, and beaded on the joint, and to be made in two leaves ; a wicket door to be in one of the leaves, to be framed in a similar manner. The gates to be himg with centre-point hinges at the bottom, and crook and band hinges at the top ; and fixed at top and bottom with a very strong sliding bolt, and large thumb sneck. (Centre point, or swing hinges, appear to be of two kinds ; one with the pivot of the hinge turned down, to work in an iron socket let into a stone. FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 5S3 us in fig. 1059 ; the other with two pivots, working on two hooks, as in fig. 1060, in which a is the lianging style of the gate, with the double pivot hinge attached, b h being the pivots ; c is the hanging gate-post ; and d d, the two pivots leaded into it. The 1059 u m "^ L. 1060 a SJ:. ^ ^^ 1061 object common to both is, to make the point of rest of tne gate the same as the shutting point ; that is, the line in which the gate remains when it is shut. ) 1113. The Gig-house Door to be made with l:|^-inch deal, with three bars across each half, 1 inch and a half thick, and with angular braces ; to have hinges and bolts of a proper strength, the siime as the large gate, and a good stock lock and sneck. This door to be made with an opening three quarters of an inch wide between each deal (board), for the admission of air, the deals not being more than 6 inches broad. 1114. The Bijres to be fitted up as shown in the drawings; the sole trees to be ei ht inches by four inches ; the top tree six inches by three inches ; and the stakes to be of hard wood. 1115. The whole of the Doors to have good and suflHcient locks, bars, and bolts, where necessary; and all to have strong Scotch-made thumb snecks, with folding handles (handles to hang down, or fold aside) to the same. 1116. The Gates for the open courts to be hung on two leaves, and framed with 1^- inch thick flaming and angle braces ; and to be covered on the outside with 1-inch thick deal, ploughed, tongued, and beaded on the joints ; and finished on the top with a cope 1 inch and a half thick. The gates to be hung with strong crook and band hinges (in fig. 1061, a is the band, and b the crook ; tlie former is used in the case of boarded doors, which have no hanging styles; the latter is either leaded into stone, or sharpened and driven into wood), and the hinges to be made so that the gate may open on the outside, and fold back to the court walls ; and be fixed together, when shut, with a hardwood swivel bar, and iron bolts and staples of suflicient strength. 1117. Granary Windows. The windows of the granary to be fitted in with wooden frames and round iron rods three eighths of an inch in diameter, and three fourths ot an inch apart. The frames to be 2 inches and a half broad, and 2 inches thick ; the sole for the frame to be 3 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, and to be washed off (sloped) on the outside to carry off the rain. There are to be inside shutters five eighths of an inch thick, ploughed, tongued, and beaded on the joints, with a water verge on the bottom (a slip nailed on, to throw oflT the rain), hinged on the two halves, and fixed inside with a cross shifting hard-wood bar, and iron staples. There is to be a standard and deal partition put round the top of the stair in the granaries 3 feet high. Standards 3 inches square, and the boarding 1 inch thick, ploughed and tongued. 1118. The Hayloft to have a door 1 inch thick, with frames, hinges, and folding thumb sneck ; the openings for putting the hay down to the horses to have doors three fourths of an inch thick, with frames, hinges, and bars ; there is to be a light mov- able trap-ladder to go up to the hayloft by the firont door of ditto ; and saddle-trees and pins to put up in the stable. 1119. The Gig-house is to be lathed on the ceiling, and to be finished on the walls and ceiling with two coats of plaster. The floors of the straw-barn, servants' house, potato-house, turkey-house, chaff-hole, and boiling-house to be all laid with a composi- tion of Ume, sand, and engine ashes (coal ashes), three inches thick ; to be laid on in due proportions, and properly rubbed and smoothed on the surface. Frames of wood ^ 534} COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. are to be fixed to the inside of the front wall of tlie cart-stable, opposite the openings of the ventilators, with shifting boards, to slide and close them as may be required. 1120. Beams. Two strong Meniel planks will be required in the engine-house, to be built into the walls, and to be 9 feet long and 12 inches by 5 inches on the sides, for fixing part of the machinery. 1121. Plaster-work. The working-horse stable, granaries, corn-barn, and mili-loft to be finished with one coat of plaster on the walls ; and the corn-barn, mill-loft, and granaries to have a skirting of Roman cement 8 inches round the floors. 1 1 22. Slaters' Work. The roofs to be covered with the best dark blue slate, from ]Mr. Bell's quarry near Dunkeld ; to have a sufficiency of cover, to be well shouldered in haired linae (the lower part of each row bedded in lime) ; and to be nailed on with nails at 12 lbs. per thousand, well steeped in linseed oil when in a heated state (to prevept, or at least diminish, oxidation); the slates to be all close-mitred (when two planes meet against a diagonal line, they are said to be mitred) in the angles of the flanks. 1123. The Ridge to be covered with lead 12 inches broad, and weighing 5 lbs. per su- pei-ficial foot ; the piens (hips) with lead 10 inches broad, and 5lbs. per superficial foot; and the flanks with lead 8 inches broad, and 5 lbs. per superficial foot, to be all properly dressed down to the slates, and firmly nailed to the wood battens. 1124. Description of Timber. The timber for the roofing, joisting, sarking, soles, lintels, sleepers, gates, windows, trivess-boarding, racks and mangers, beams, and sole and top trees, feeding-troughs, &e., to be all of the best Memel timber, and all the flooring and doors, &c., to be of drawn (selected) battens. 1 1 25. Feeding-troughs. The front of the feeding-troughs, in the open courts, to have a plank of wood 9 inches by 3 inches set on edge ; and to have a post every 10 feet 4 inches by 3 inches, and put 2 inches into a stone in the bottom, and fixed at top with a long strong iron bat (stud) fixed into the stone sole, and a large screw-nut on the outside of the posts. The planks to be all fixed to the posts, with two iron screw-bolts into each. 1126. The Tradesman to furnish the whole of the material and workmanship, as par- ticularised in the foregoing specification. Also the sea carriage of the slates, which must be shipped to the harbour nearest Greendykes, and Mr. C. (the tenant) will furnish the whole of the land carriage. 1127. The whole Work, of every description and kind, must be finished in the most substantial and workmanlike manner, and be liable at all times to the inspection of the proprietor, or Mr. C, or any other person they may choose to appoint for that purpose. The carpenter to ftirnish all the centring and moulds for the mason-work. 1128. Estimate. The actual cost of this building, exclusive of the old materials, and the expense of carriage, was about ^"'2000 ; but it is estimated that if all the materials had been new, and the carriage had been included, the total amount would have been ^8000; which, at 6 per cent, would have been equal to an addition of ^^180 a year to the rent of the farm. The expense of the farm house is not included in either of the above sums ; but as that for such a farmery would cost neaily ^700, this, at 6 per cent, would give at least ^£"200 a year of additional rent, or 12s. an acre. The total number of cubic feet in the farmery, including court and fence walls, is 208,600 ; which gives 2\d. per cubic foot as the guess price for estimating buildings of this description in East Lothian. 1129. Remarks. This Design was procured for us by our much valued contributor, Patrick ShirrefF, Esq., of IMungoswells, near Haddington, well known as one of the most scientific farmers in Scotland, as a specimen of one of the best farmeries in East Lothian. It was designed by Swinton, Esq., Architect, Haddington; and built, under his superintendence, at Greendykes, for David Anderson, Esq., of St. Germains. It will be observed that, considering its extent, the courts or fold-yards are fewer in number, and smaller in size, than those of the Northumberland Designs ; and that there are none of these courts which are entitled to the appellation of hammels or fold yards. Hannnels, indeed, Mr. ShirrefF informs us, are out of repute in East Lothian ; that is, ^vhat are called hammels in Berwickshire, which diflTer from those of Northumberland in being much smaller. " My idea of a hammel," says I\Ir. ShirrefF, " is a range of shed-build- ings divided by parallel partitions fi-om ten to twenty feet asunder, and projecting beyond the building, so as to form courts two or three times the size of the space included within the building. Such hammels, within long narrow open courts, have gone out of use in Haddingtonshire, and in Scotland generally ; and justly so, on account of the expense of littering them, supplying them with food, and removing from these long narrow spaces the accumulated manure. To a farmer who fattens short-horned cattle, so tame that several of them may be put together in a very small space, hammels may be of use ; but where, as with us, young active cattle from the Highlands and other northern districts are put up to feed, it is often a month or more before only two or three cattle, bought FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 535 XXXIV. XXXV. 536 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXXVL FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 537 promiscuously in a market, agree when put together into a hammel ; and the loss, in consequence, is often considerable. In the neiglibourhood of Haddington, there was a let of excellent hammcls erected about fifteen years ago, but open sheds witli large courts are now substituted for them. Well sheltered courts are almost every where employed, in Haddingtonshire, for fattening cattle; but it must be remembered that with us, it is generally a difficult matter to convert straw into manure, from the abundance of it, and the dryness of the climate." The ample details in the specification of this Design will give a very complete idea, to the Architects of other districts, how farm buildings are executed in the first agricultural district in tlie island ; and they cannot fail to observe the substantial and durable nature of the materials and the workmanship employed. There are two or three minor conveniences and comforts which we could wish to intro- duce ; and that prominent feature, the chimney to the steam-engine, might, we should hope, be i)laced centrally with reference to the range or side to which it belongs. But, whether the shaft of the steam-engine can be placed centrally or not, we sincerely hope that the landed proprietors of Scotland will not sufier their country to be disfigured with the inelegant forms of engine-cliimneys, which have hitherto been erected in those farmeries where steam has been adopted. We have little doubt that it will soon be pre- ferred to either horses or wind, on all large corn farms on every part of the island. Tall engine chimneys, therefore, promise to be as common in the corn districts, as they are now in Lancashire, and we have only to point out the latter as beacons to be avoided. Under the head of Exterior Finishing of Farmeries, in Section III., we shall give some to be imitated. Since it is so difficult to turn straw into manure in East Lothian, we coidd wish to see all that is used for fodder cut into chaft", and mixed with succulent food, salted and watered ; and we could wish also to see the liquid manure collected in tanks, and pumped up daily, or twice a day, and distributed over a covered dunghill, in the manner which has been already described, § 1019. It will, no doubt, be considered presumptuous in us to find fault with any agricultural practice prevalent in East Lothian : let it be recollected, however, that great improvements have, within the last twenty years, taken place even in this district, and that farther advances may be made. The dryness of the atmosphere appears to us a strong argument in favour of covering the dunghills, as well as of collecting liquid manure to moisten them ; and feeding horses and cattle with cut straw and some liquid food, in order, among other advantages, to increase the quantity of liquid manure. It will be observed that several local terms are spelt differently in this specification from what they are in those of Mr. Newall, § 907, Mr. Green, § 979, Mr. Ross, § 1053, and even the Committee of the Highland Society, § 1200. We have deemed it better to give the spelling, in each specification, as we received it, hoping to be able to discover and insert that which is preferable, and also to generalise many of the local terms in the Glossarial Index. Design XXXV. — A Farm House and Farmery at Elcho Castle, Perthshire, adapted for a Farm of Six Ploughs, under the Turnip Husbandry. 1130. The General Appearance is shown in the isometrical view, page 535 ; the ground and chamber plans of the house in figs. 1062 and 1063, and the ground plan of the farmery in fig. 1064. Figs. 1065, 1067, 1068, and 1069 are geometrical elevations. 1062 1063 Ril a4^J iffl'fn i 10 20 31) Ft. 1131. Accommodation. The ground plan of the house, fig. 1062, shows two parlours a a ; a. family bed-room on the same floor, h ; kitchen, c ; wash-house, d; lobby and staircase, e ; pantry, f; coal -house, g ; dairy, h ; and cellar, i. The chamber flooi-, fig- 1063, contains four good bed-rooms, k ; and a servant's bed-room, /. — In tlie farmery, fig- 1064, a and c are poultry- houses ; h is a boothy, or single men's lodge, with a bed- 538 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. IJ U U U U U-- U.— L room over ; ddd are houses for milch cows ; e e e, stables, with hay and straw lofts above ; /, house for grass, or other green food for the horses ; g, house for feeding cattle ; k, feeding-chamber ; i, straw-house ; k, corn- room ; I, chafF-huose ; m, mill-shed ; n, cart- shed, and granary above ; o, potato-house ; p, boiling-house ; r r, cattle-sheds ; s s, turnip-houses ; t t, straw yards ; uuuu, pig- geries ; V, water-cistern ; w w, water-tank ; X X X X, turnip cribs or boxes ; yyyy, straw racks, and z, watercourse for driving the water-wheel of the threshing-machine, when v/atcr b abundant. FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 539 1132. Construction. The walls are of stone, eighteen inches thick, and those of the barn, and of all the other buildings of two stories, two feet thick at the surface of the ground, and eighteen inches at top ; the roofs are covered with slate. Fig. 1065 1066 t 's a front elevation of the farmer's dwelling-house. Fig. 1066 shows the position of the house relatively to the farmery, in which a is the house; b, the kitchen- garden; c, a grass field planted with fruit trees as an orchard ; d, the farmery ; and e the rick-yard. Fig. 1067 is an elevation of the farmery from the south. Fig. 1068 54-0 . COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1068 i fl Inn nnnnnn n|a fl 10G9 is a west elevation. 1069 Other jjarticulars of is an elevation from the cast, and fi; construction will be found in the following descrip- tive particular, sent by W. M. Mackenzie, Esq. Architect, the author of the Design : — 11.33. The Situation fixed upon was nearly level, and the straw-yard was cut out hollow in the centie, of a basin figure, that form being most advantageous for retaining the moisture among the manure. 1 1 34. In the General Arrangemeiit, the highest of the buildings front the north and east, as best suited for the purposes to which tliose p.irts of the steading are to be applied, and at the same time adding to tlie comfort of the cattle in the sheds and straw-yards, by sheltering them in the directions which are generally the coldest. The pigsties on the south, and the byres, &c., on the west, being low buildings, do not sliade the straw-yard and cattle-sheds, but admit the rays of the sun to all parts of them. The farm house is situated on the south-west of the steading with the kitchen court adjacent to the cow- byre, calf-ward, &c. ; thus keeping the offices wliicli are managed by the house servants in the one division, and those under the management of the farm servants in the other divi- sion, of the establishment. 1135. The Threshing Machinery being placed in a corner of the square, discharges the threshed corn into tlie clean-corn )0om, in the direction of the granary which occu- pies the upper story of that side of the square, and the straw is thrown from it into the straw-house, which is in the direction of the straw chambers, over the fccding-bj're, stables, &c., on the other side of the square. By this arrangement the clean-corn room communicates with the granary, which comes three feet over it, and extends from this point over the cart-shed and boiling-house. In this three feet of the granary which comes over the corn-room is placed a trajidoor, through which the sacks are drawn up by means of a wheel and axle, and are then placed in a miller's barrow, and wheeled into the granary. In this way the clean-corn room occujiies a side of the square apart from the offices allotted for the bestial (lieasts), and other apartments connected with them ; and, as the corn-room can be locked up the moment the operation of threshing is finislicd, no opportunity is left for the grain being pilfered or injured. The granary, in this situation, has not only the advantage of tlie ventilators in the side walls, but it has also the benefit of the free air in the open cart-shed under it, which acts upon the grain tlirough the joints of the floor. The cart-shed under the granary, besides being bene- ficial to it for air, is convenient, particularly where a farm is situated at a considerable distance from a market town ; or, in the winter season, when the carts are required to be loaded on the evening preceding the market day, as it can be done before yoking, and without moving the carts from under their cover, by means of the trapdoor in the centre passage of tlic granary, which passage is at all times kept clear from grain. In the straw- house a trapdoor is placed over the straw-rack, and when the lower part of the house is packed full, this trapdoor can be shut, and the straw carried along the upper floor to the straw-chambers over the stables and feeding-byre. These apartments will contain the straw of three large ricks, which will enable the farmer to keep different kinds under (H)ver, and in separate divisions. A door five feet square is placed opposite the passage which extends along the centre of the straw-yard for taking out straw for the cattle-sheds, cow-byres, &c., if at any time required, but in general these are supplied from the low straw-house. The tlireshing-machine is one of six-horse power, and is im- pelled by water, but is so j)lanned that horses can be employed if the water run short : in this Design, however, the horse-shed is not executed. • 136. The circular Fecding-hyre, which will contain eighteen cattle, is by far the most commodious and convenient arrangement for a farm of this extent. The figure of tlie stalls being broad beliind gives more space for the cattle when lying ; and, as a greater quantity of bedding (litter) is requisite, more manure, of course, will be made ; at the same time admitting a more abundant supply of fresh air, by having the advantage of one large ventilator in the centre of tlie circle serving the whole. The eighteen cattle are put up in double stalls in pairs ; tliey are bound up one on each side of the travis (partition, pro- bably from traverser, Fr. to cross), which is made high enough to prevent the horned FARi\I HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 511 cattle from touching one another, at the same time keeping the lieads of each pair at such a distance apart as not to be able to injure, or eat, one another's tiirnips. The hands are fixed to upriglit iron rods about three quarters of an inch in diameter, wliich are screwed together through the travis. The lower part of the windows in the back wall of the byre are filled with louvre (luffcr) boarding, which can be opened to any degree for admitting air, or shut altogether, at pleasure. The feeding-ports (openings), which surround the feeding-chamber, have small doors hung with pulleys, lines, and weights, similar to a common window, wliich by moving upwards, do not interfere with, or occupy, any part of the feeding-chamber. The wall at the cattle's heads, surrounding the feeding-chambers, is built to the full height of the joists, which keeps tlie turnip- barrow out of the view of the cattle, and does not disturb the one division of them while the man is in the act of feeding the other. This is important, as the quieter the cattle are kept the better, quietness being no doubt essential to quick fattening. 1137. A comtnodioiis Straw-chamber is got over the byre, in a connected range with the straw or hay chamber over the stable; the roof, which is of considerable height, serving the double purpose of covering the feeding-byre, and containing a very large quantity of straw immediately over it. Racks are placed over the several stalls, which are fiUed from the straw-chamber above. By this arrangement, the cattle have it in their power to eat straw and turnips alternately, if inclined. The access to the straw- chambers over the byre and stables is by a stair which is common to both, and upon the plate (first landing-place) of the stair is placed a door, which divides the stable from the feeding-byre ; the upper flight of the stair is understood to be a hanging one, leaving a useful space under it for holding the byre implements. By the whole arrange- ment half the labour of feeding and attending the cattle will be saved. 1138. T7ie Stahliyig consists of eighteen stalls, three of which are separated from the general farm stable, but are so situated as to admit of the racks being supplied from the general straw or hay chamber over the common farm stable. They ai-e understood to have two sets of racks ; the upper one for hay or straw, and the under one for grass. Although the under racks appear the most natural for the horses to eat from, it is found that they do not eat the straw or hay so clean out of them as they do out of the upper racks ; but these under racks are the most convenient for the grass, as it should always be put in from the stall below, without passing through the hay-chamber ; being, in its damp state, verj' hurtful to the wood floor above. 1139. The Turnip-shed, which is right opposite the feeding-byre, is also conveniently situated for supplying the cattle in the straw-yard ; and, as it is not required for turnips in summer, it may be used for, and serve the double purpose of, a grass-house. 1140. The Cow-byres have ventilators placed over each line of heads; they cross the ridge, and are formed of lead of a triangular figure, the sill-piece being overlapped by the sides far enough to prevent the rain from getting in. The calf house and ward, and the cow-byres, which fall under the class of offices more immediately connected with the house, have doors facing the kitchen court, which makes the access to them convenientand clean. The opposite doors are used for driving out the cattle, and for wheeling the dung into the straw-yard. The causewayed court in front of the byres, besides being con- venient for carting in the turnips, affords space for the cows to move about in, or to stand in for a short time ; and, as the cattle always make dung when they are driven out, by allowing them to remain for a few minutes in this passage or court, the dung that might otherwise be wasted on the roads is preserved, and thrown into the straw-yard. 1141. The several Drains leading from the byres, stables, and straw-yard have such declivities as to discharge the liquid manure into the tank, which is constructed on one side of the straw-yard, in a central situation for the byres, stables, &c. It is twenty-one feet long, five feet broad, and seven feet deep ; and, if the nature of the soil be porous, it should be plastered over with Roman cement, to prevent the thin liquid manure from escaping. Being of this long and narrow figure, the tank can easily be covered with pavement, which is much cheaper than arching, and takes up less space. The drains should have cast-iron plugs placed at about fifteen feet apart, and at these openings a jointed rod fifteen feet long could be put into the drain with a hough (hoe), or piece of plate iron the figure (shape) of the drain, fixed to one end of it ; by which means the drains may be cleaned without breaking up any part of the causewaying ; but, if the drains are properly constructed, they will not require cleaning for several years. They should have a fall towards the tank of at least four inches to the ten feet, and be nine inches wide, six inches deep at the sides, and nine inches at the centre. By having this kind of triangular bottom, the smallest quantity makes a rim (current) and forces every thing along with it. The di-ains through the straw-yard should have openings, with grates over them, situated in the lowest part of the straw-yard, to draw off the surplus ■water after falls of rain or snow. When these drains are not required, the grates may be 542 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. easily covered over witli dung ; and if, at any time, the dung is found too dry, movable spouts may be attached to the pump which is placed in the tank, by which means tlie liquid manure can be regularly spread over the whole straw-yard. A waste drain extends from the tank to an open ditch in front of the steading ; by which means the liquid manure in the tank, if neglected, is carried off when it rises to that level, and is thus prevented from injuring the drains. 1 142. The Cattle-sheds, from their situation, face the south, which is of great advantage to the cattle, though often overlot)ked in laying out farm buildings ; and they are divided in the centre by a passage adjoining the turnip-shed, and opposite the straw-house. This passage rises like an inclined plane, 4 feet from A to B, the side walls or parapets being built up to that height, and forms a fence to both yards. All the dung from the feeding-byre and stable is wheeled into the straw-yards by this passage ; which, from its central situation, admits of the stable dung being equally distributed through both yards, and this by the rising passage can be done without opening a door, which prevents the one class of cattle from intermingling with the other, or getting out Straw-racks are placed in the sheds ; but, by also having them in the centre of the yard, and connected with this passage, they can be conveniently filled, and the cattle are induced to divide, which mixes tlie dung more generally through the yards. The racks on the extremities of the passage are understood to be movable, and can be laid aside when carting out the dung. The piggeries, from their situation, may be conveniently supplied from the kitchen or boiling-house, and are in both yards. Pigs are very beneficial to the dung, from their turning it over and mixing it : they also eat up any particles of corn among the horses' dung that may not be digested. One small enclosure is provided in each yard, with a trough for feeding young pigs ; thus protecting them from the cattle while eating : but they have no house or sty, which induces them to go out among the cattle, and to lie about the sheds. By this arrangement they have healthy exercise, enabling them at the same time to provide a part of their food, and be beneficial to the dung in both yards. Other two sties ai-e provided for putting up two pair to feed. The gates to the straw- yard may cither be of the common form, or be hung with stout ropes, puUeys, and weights. This last is perhaps the best plan, as it secures them from the risk of damage when the dung is being carted out of the yard, and they can be also raised as the straw in the yard rises. 1143. The Cistern-house is of such a height that pipes may be taken from it to the dwelling-house, boiling-house, calf-ward, &o. It may be either supplied from a fountain, if one can be found in the neighbourhood ; or a well may be dug, and a pump placed within the cistern-house. A water-trough is placed in the division wall between the straw-yards ; and a ball-cock is fixed in the centre of the said trough, and shut in by boarding, overlapped by the upper part of the wall, protecting it from injury from the cattle. The cock opens and increases running as the water falls low in the trough, and when the trough is full, the floating ball shuts the pipe. By this self-acting supply, the cattle at all times have the command of water, and none of it is wasted ; if supplied from a fountain no attention is necessary, as the cistern will also shut itself in like manner, and the overflow, if any, will go off at the fountain head. Two troughs are placed on the outside for the horses, or the milch cows, and supplied with ball-cocks in the same manner. 1 1 44. The Roof Water, in the inside of the court, is carried round with eave spouts, and with rain-water pipes at the south extremities leading it into drains. It is a material object to carry off the roof water without allowing its admixture with the manure in the courts. 1 1 45. The DweUing-hotise consists of the following apartments ; viz. upon the ground floor two parlours, a bed-room, kitchen, servants' bed-closet, dairy, scullery or wash- house, with a small cellar, which may be got under the stair, and a coal-house. The upjier floor consists of four bed-rooms and a servants' bed-room ; but, in cases where more bed-rooms are rccjuired, an additional attic room could be got over the wash- house, having access from the same stair. The upper rooms go partly into the roof. 1146. Estimate, — Mason's Work. £ s. d. 54 roods of rubble building, at 30s 351: 0:0 810 feet of rybats, soles, and lintels, at Is 40 : 10 : O S02 feet superficial of hammer-dressed pillars in cart-sheds, at 4rf. ... 5 : 4:0 fiO feet lineal of cart-shed arches, hammer-dressed, at Is. 6d. 4 : 10 : O 98 feet lineal of cattle-shed ditto, at 2s 9 : 16 : O 52 feet lineal of squares droved, at Is 2 : 12:0 378 yards ot causeway in stables and byres, at Is 18 : 18 : O 476 feet superficial of flag division at cattle's head, at 8d 15 : 17 : 4 J147. Wright's and Slater's Work. 1589 yards of wood roofing, at 5s. S^ 417 : 10 : O FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 543 51 roods 6 yards of slatework, at 75s 190 : 0:0 728 feet superficial of lead ridges, picns, and flanks, at Is 36 : 8:0 149 yards of sleepers in flooring in low barn, at 5s. 6d 40 : 19 : 6 511 yards of joisting in granaries and stable lofts, at 6s. 6d. 161 : 1:6 390 feet cubic for safe lintels (inside lintels) and beams, at 3s 58 : 10 : 1523 feet lineal for skirting in granary and cow barn, at 4d 8 : 14 : 4 140 feet superficial of weather-boards in ventilating the byres, at 6d. 3 : 10 : 108 yards of plain doors, with 3 bars each, at 3s. 6d. 18 : 18 : O 192 feet superficial of luffer board windows, at 6d 4 : 16 : 126 feet superficial in straw-yard gates, at 6rf. 3: 3:0 24 feet cubic in frames of hung gates, at 3s. 3d 3 : 18 : O 4 pulley chains and weights 2 : 5:0 36 feet cubic in beams at cattle heads, at 3s. 3d. 5:17:0 32 stakes for binding cattle, at Is. 6d 2 : 8:0 50 feet cubic of trevis posts, at 3s. 3d. 8 : 2:6 693 feet superficial of trevis boards, at 6d 17 : 6:6 222 feet superficial of racks, at 4d 3 : 14 : O 1 85 feet superficial of mangers, at 6rf 4: 12 : 6 36 pairs of crooks and bands for doors, at 5d. 9 : 0:0 3 pairs of cross-tailed hinges, at 2s. 6d. : 7:6 22 stock locks, at 2s. 6d 2 . 5:0 8 sliding bolts of a large size, at 2s. 6d. 1 : 0:0 9 ditto of a smaller size, at 2s O: 18 : O 45 feet superficial of three glazed windows, at 2s. 3d. 5 : 1:3 175 feet superficial of stair, at 6d. 4 : 7:6 46 yards of division walls in the poultry-house, piggery, and necessary, at 2$ 4 : 12 : 153 yards of plaster in granaries, at 5d 3 : 3:4 46 feet cubic of anchor beams and posts in cart-shed at 3s 6 : 18 : O ^1478 : 3 : 9 1148. Hemarks. This Design was procured us by our much esteemed friend Mr. Gorrie, who informs us that it is built exactly on the model of one which obtained a premium for its author from the Highland Society of Scotland. " The farm of Elcho, where the above farmery stands," Mr. Gorrie remarks, " is partly clay and partly black land, and may be considered as a fair medium average of Carse of Gowrie farms, as to size, soil, and mode of cropping. INIany of the best farms in the Carse of Gowrie contain a proportion of black land, which admits of turnips being raised for feeding. On Elcho, and such Carse farms, the whole is under tillage ; clover, standing only one year in the course, admiting of little pasturage. On black lands, a pair of horses with a plough are equal to the labour of 40 acres ; 6 ploughs with 1 2 horses, and a few supernumerary, are equal to the working of 240 acres. On farms wholly clay, 8 ploughs are necessary for the same extent, under the same rotation of cropping ; and, on such farms, feeding-byres and additional stabling would be requisite. In other respects the plan of Elcho farmery would be suitable, holding out many advantages. Several mills go by water near the northern banks of the Carse, and this element is available near the river Tay. Elcho is situated near the west end of the Carse of Gowrie, and on the south side of the Tay." To us this Design appears decidedly the most perfect of upwards of a hundred which have been sent us from different parts of the country, and from which we have chosen those given in the present section. Its excellence evidently depends on two things ; first, on the Architect being a thinking and ingenious man, really intent on carrying improvement into every department of his profession ; and, secondly, on his kn-^iving thoroughly the uses of a farm yard. He is, or appears to us to be, among the builders of farmeries, what Mr. Fowler of London is among the builders of public markets, — an Architect of reason, and not a mere follower of precedents ; a man, in short, anxious to do something more than leave his art exactly where he found it. No Architect can improve the arrangement of a building of which he does not thoroughly understand the use ; for which reason, in all our Designs, we have endeavoured to show the uses of aU their different parts ; and we have also enlarged on this subject when treating of Fundamental Principles and Model Designs, in a manner which, in a work professedly devoted to Architecture, must, no doubt, have surprised many. This we have done, because we are convinced that the knowledge of the uses of any building constitutes the essential foundation of all architectural improvements in it, beyond that of mere design and taste ; which, it must be remembered, are to an edifice only what dress is to a man, not the man himself. In perusing Mr. Mackenzie's description of his plan, we find in every sentence evidence of his intimate acquaintance 514 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. with the business of the farm yard ; and we cannot help being delighted witli the im- provements which he has introduced. The circular feeding-house is a new and excellent idea, the whole arrangements of the barn and straw-house are admirable, and, as the author observes, must save a great deal of labour. Tlie inclined plane, and its right and left level elevated branches, for wheeling the manure from the stables into the middle of the cattle courts, without the necessity of opening a gate, is excellent ; as is the idea of the pump and general supply cistern being placed in a house, to protect them from the frost. In a country where flag-stone abounds, long, narrow, liquid manure tanks are, as shown, preferable to circular or square forms covered by arches, on account of their cheapness. On the whole, we strongly recommend the young Architect to make himself master of this Design ui all its details ; because there are several points in it which he may introduce in the very humblest of farmeries, and because most, or all, of them should be included in all extensive ones. Design XXXVI. — A Public House and Farmery ; the Publican beitig, at the same time, a small Farmer and a Butcher. 1149. Accommodation. The general appearance of this public house and farmery is shown in p. 536; the ground plan in fig. 1070; and we have received from the 1070 author, William Thorold, Esq., Architect and Engineer, of Norwich, the following explanatory details : — " The words, ' Good entertainment for man and horse,' " Mr. Thorold observes, " formerly appeai-ed on the sign-board of every country alehouse ; far:m houses and farmeries in various styles. 545 and, in order that we should maintain the character of ' good,' it is necessary to make the accommodations and appearances correspond with modern refinement, which we have endeavoured to do in the present Design. In fig. 1070, to a scale of 48 feet to an inch, the bar, a, is represented with a bow window, overlooking the road, and is surrounded on the other sides by the entrance lobbies and staircase, being warmed from the back of the kitchen range. The dining or club room, b, is proposed to be occasionally used as a magistrates' petty sessions room ; the two small parlours, c and d, have cellars under them ; the kitchen, e, is approached from the yard, x, by a small porch ; and this kitchen should have a cooking-range, copper, oven, &c., and must be used also as a back-kitchen ; but the family washing can be done in the brewhouse, s. There is a dairy, f; pantry and store-room, g ; and there are six sleeping-rooms on the first floor. There is a butcher's sale-shop, h ; a lock-up stable, i ; a coach and gig-house, j ; a slaughter-house, k ; and an open stable, / ; with hay-houses, m m. Two open lodges are shown at n ti, with stack staddles over their flat stone roofs. There is a barn, o, with a wicket at each end to pitch in the stacks. There is a cart-house stable at p ; a loose box for a hackney, q ; a cow- house, r ; brewhouse, s ; cart-lodge, t ; place for fowls, fuel, and women's privy, v ; a yard for driven cattle, iv I ; a yard for farm cattle, w 2 ; and a paved yard, x, with pump and water-trough. The house and brewhouse are supposed to be supplied by underground pipes. There is an orchestra at y ; and two verandas for playing at skittles, or for separate alcoves or pavilions for taking refreshments in, z z. There is a kitchen-garden, A ; a bowling-green and tea-garden, B ; a parish road, C ; and a turnpike road, D. 1150. Construction. The walls may be of rubblestone, bricks, or clay lumps; and the roofs covered with slate. 1151. Eejnarks. This Design is supposed to be in the plainest possible style; and it is intended to introduce drains, manure tanks, and every other economical arrangement, in its details." We consider this a very complete Design of its kind; its author is not only a scientific Architect and engineer of considerable practice, but he has also had much experience in farming, in the county of Norfolk. Design XXXVII. — A House and Out-buildings for a Cheese Dairy Farm of from 300 to 350 Acres, in Cheshire. 1152. Accommodation. The ground plan of the house, which we have not given, con- tains a parlour, dining-room, kitchen, or, as it is called in Cheshire, a house-place, 1071 J " L B .tr staircase ; pantry, with a cellar under ; dairy, with cheese bench ; situation for cheese- presses, and boilers, there are a milk-room, with a cheese-room over it ; and a salting- house, also with a cheese-room over it. The farmery contains four cow-houses for six cows each, 7n ; and two for twelve cows each, o ; with foddering bays, n, and cleaning- passages, p, between. There are in the barns two corn-bays, q, and a threshing-bay, r, where the machinery would be placed if a threshing-machine were employed. There 3 o 546 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. is a stable for six horses, t, an hospital for sick horses, w; a wheelwright's or carpenter's shop, V, with a store-room over it ; a steaming-room, w ; a reservoir for liquid manure, x, with a pump, y ; four inner pig-cots, z, with outer pig-cots and two poultry-houses, aa ; with a poultry-yard, hh. The stack-yard is in the situation, cc, and it contains sixty feet in length of hay-sheds, twenty feet wide, and twenty-two feet high, in one or more lengths, as may be most convenient. There are three calf-cots, cM, and sheds may be continued at ee, with a wall at jff, so as to form an additional straw or fold yard to that in the centre of the farmery marked gg. 1153. Remarks. — Tliis Design has been made, at our request, by Alexander Ogilvio, Esq., of the Mere, near Knutsford, Cheshire. Mr. Ogilvie was a pupil of the late Dr. Coventry, and has since had extensive practice both as a land steward and as a farmer. We saw his crops and his dairy when we visited him at Mere, in July, 1 830, and found them greatly superior to any in the neighbourhood. His dairy practice was also of an improved description ; and, at our request, he has furnished us with plans and elevations of his improved cheese-press, which we shall give under the head of Farm House Furniture. The plan of the farmery was accompanied by the following observations: — " This plan is something near what I should think a house and set of offices ought to be on a farm of from 300 to 350 acres, in Cheshire : but I am sorry to say that the poor tenants of this district are obliged to put up with buildings of a very different description; partly owing to the landlords not liking to see a gentleman farmer in their neighbourhood, and partly owing to the class of men who, in this country, generally have the charge of landed property being incompetent to judge of the best system to be adopted for the ultimate and permanent benefit of the estate. There are several things of minor im- portance that have been omitted in this Design ; such as a coal-yard, &c. ; but these will not affect the general merits or demerits of the plan. If I occupied such a farm myself, with similar out-buildings, I should certainly have a threshing-machine, and that one to be moved by a steam-engine of about six-horse power, by which I could thresh my corn, cut my hay, straw, turnips, &c., and steam my potatoes and other articles. The machine would stand in the one corn-bay, on a loft or platform raised eight feet from the ground, with a winnowing-machine, &c., under it; then the threshing-bay, shown in the plan, would be the place where the straw would be deposited when thrown from the shaker of the machine, and the other corn-bay would become the straw-house. Behind the cow-houses there might be a straw-yard, if required, with sheds for young cattle and young horses during the winter months. This is shown by the dotted lines ee and ff," Design XXXVIII. — A Mixed Stock Farm, in a high (Jtilly') Country, employing only One Pair of Horses. 1 1 54. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 1072, are shown a potato-hoase, a ; spare- house, or place applicable for different purposes, b ; house for young cattle, c ; cow-house, rf; =] □ ci 1^ 1072 '■:i XTZ i*— Tiah r- e _s 1 - l^ 1 » a . |lM lty more effectual applications of the water, and are very rarely met witlu Undershot wheels of this description are generally called groundshot wheels, because the water shoots along th" ground or floor of the channel in which the wheel works. Fig. 1101 is the vertical section of an undershot wheel, as now in use ; in which a is the axis, which, if not of metal, should be made of hard and durable wood, of a length and size proportioned to the size and weight of the wheel. Into each end of this axis a gudgeon or centre-pin should be fixed, for the wheel to turn upon. There are two methods of fixing the gudgeon into a wooden axis : one is by forming the gudgeon with a cross, which is let into the end of the tree, and fastened by screws, the wood being compressed round the cross by two or three iron hoops, fitted on the end of the tree, and wedged. The other method is, to make a strong iron box in a piece with the gudgeon, into which box the end of the tree is received and secured with wedges : in the latter case, the box being of an octagonal shape, and the wood being cut to tlie same form, it cannot slip round with the box. Of late years it has been usual to make the axis of water-wheels of cast-iron tubes, which is a very good plan if they are of sufficient dimensions. In an iron axis, it is advisable to make tlie bearings of the axis close to the side of the water-wheel ; and to leave the ends of the axis projecting beyond the bearing, in order to attach the cog- wheel. This diminishes the length of the axis between the bearings, and renders it much stronger. The arms supporting the circular rim of the ^\-heel h b, are usually eight in number, framed together so as to intersect each other at right angles, and leaving a square oiiening in the centre for the recejition of the axis ; the corners roimd which being filled up by adding pieces of wood to it, and the wheel being fastened on by wedges. The only objection to this mode of framing is, that the arms are weakened by intersecting each other; and support the circular rim of the wheel in imecjual segments: but on the whole it is considered superior to the metliod of mortising diverging arms into the axis, because by so doing the axis is much weakened, and the water, being admitted into the centre of the tree, soon causes it to decay. Another objection is, that an arm cannot be easily replaced without taking all the wheel to pieces. The very best method of uniting the arms to the axis is to have a cast-iron centre-piece, or strong hoo]), to fit on the axis, with a broad projecting flanch round it, against tlic flat surface of which tlie arms of tlie wheel are applied, and the intervals between them are filled up by wooden blocks or wedges : the arms and blocks are firmly bound to the iron flancii by iron rings a])plied to the arms on the opjiosite side to the flanch with screw bolts to go through the whole. The circular rim, c, is made of wood put together in two or three thicknesses, the joinings of one ring not coinciding with those of the other ; and there being eight or ten segments in each thickness, according to the size of the wheel. The thicknesses are united by rivets. The arms are attached to the ring by notching them into it, and securing them l)y bolts. Cast-iron rings are now generally used, and with gieat advantage ; because the necessary mortises can be made in the iron witliout weakening the ring, but the strength of a wooden ring is greatly impaired by the mortises througii it. The number of rings in a wheel must depend on its breadth ; when the %vheel is 4 MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 571 feet wide, two rings will suniiort tlie float-boards ; but the rings should never be more than 5 feet asunder, or tue float-boards may bend. Eaeh ring is tbnncd with its separate set of arms, so that every one derives its strength from the axis. 'When a wheel is of very great breadth, much additional strength may be gained by bracing it obliquely. Tlie float-boards, d d, are twenty-four in number : they are formed of wood, and are nailed to pieces of wood called starts, which are fixed into mortises in the rings, and project outwards for that purpose. The velocity of the float-boards should be about equal to half the velocity of the stream ; not more than one half of the float should ever be below the water, and from three to five should be immersed at once, according to the size of the wheel. When the stream is very rapid, the float-boards should be inclined towards the rim, so that the water may heap upon them, and act by weight as well as impulse. When the velocity of the stream is II feet per second or upwards, the inclination should not be less than 30 degrees ; but as the velocity lessens so should the inclination diminish. When the velocity is only 4 feet per second or less, the floats should not be inclined at all, but shoidd point to the centre of the wheel. To prevent backwater, the floats should be made to rise from the water as pei-pendicularly as possible. The circular sweep of masonry, e, is to prevent the escape of the water ; the float-boards approach it as nearly as possible without touching. Beyond this sweep should be a step, or fall, /, of not much less than 9 inches, having a slope of about 45 degrees ; in order that the tail-water may run off quickly, and not retard the motion of the wheel : beyond this step, the bottom of the tail-water channel should be paved for about 50 feet, having a declivity of an inch in every 6 feet : beyond this the bottom should slope about 4 inches the first 200 yards, 3 inches the second 200 yards, and decreasing gradually to the usual fall of the river. In places liable to floods, this fall must be increased so as to prevent the water running back upon the wheel. The tail-water course must be wider than the wheel. The slope g must be paved. The pen-stock is marked h. The diameter of the wheel should be the largest of which cir- cumstances win admit ; and, as it is of great importance that none of the water sLoidd escape without contributing to turn the wheel, either below the float-boards or at tlje sides, the breadth of the float-boards should be greater than that of the sheet of water that strikes them. 1 242. " Breast Jflteels are very commonly called also undershot n-heels, because the water runs beneath the wheel ; but they differ essentially, since the principal power is derived fi-ora the weight of the water, and not from its iinpulse. A breast wheel partakes of the nature of both over and under shot n-heels, and is constructed as repre- sented in fig. 1102. The lower part of the wheel is surrounded by a sweep of masonry, which is made concentric with it ; the float-boards are exactly adapted to this masonry, so as to pass as near as possible to it without touching, and the side walls are, in the like manner, adapted to the ends of the float-boards ; the intention being, that as little water as possible shall be able to pass by the float-boards, without causing tliem to move before it. The water is poured upon the wheel over the top of the breasting at a; the efflus from the mill-dam, b, being regulated by the sluice or shuttle, c, which is placed in the direction of a tangent to the wheel, and is provided with a rack and pinion, (/; by which 572 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. it can be drawn up, so as to make any rc65 the two pair of stones, b, and of the sack-hole, c, for allowing the corn to be raised by the tackle into the bin floor. The trapdoors of the sack-hole fold upwards, so as to give passage- way to the rising sack, and they fall close down again directly after it has passed. There is a hole between the two flaps for the chain to hang through ; and d is the step-ladder. The fran-iing is of foreign fir ; the plate is 6 inches by 7 inches; and the joists, 12 inches apart, and 6 inches by 2 inches, are mortised into girders 10 inches by 10 inches ; as also are the trimming joists which support the stones, and are 8 inches by 9 inches. Fig. 1116 is a plan of the bin floor, on which the corn to be ground is kept for supplying the stones, for which purpose the bottom of the bins slope to a centre, where there is a wooden trunk passing downwards through the floor, to convey the corn to the stones. The dotted lines represent the sides of these bins, which are generally about 3 feet 6 inches high, and are formed of inch wrought deal boarding nailed on fir bearers. The plate is 6 inches by 6 inches, the girders 8 inches by 10 inches, with the joists 5 inches by 3 inches mortised into them ; e is the sack-hole. Fig. 1117 is the upper floor to 1116 1117 1118 get at the machinery : the plate is 6 inches by 6 inches ; the girders 9 inches by 8 inches ; and the joists 4 inches by 3 inches. Fig. 1118 is a plan of the horizontal framework which carries the wind-shaft, and forms the base of the head or cap of the mill. The plates are 10 inches by 12 inches; the diagonal braces 7 inches by 6 inches ; and the centre brace 10 inches by 8 inches. On the under side of this fram- ing, and bolted to it, is a circular curb or wooden ring, /. There is a similar curb on the top of the fixed building. These curbs are to allow of moving round the head or cap ; for it is necessary, as the wind changes its direction, to turn the sails about so that the axis or wind-shaft may be always in the direction of the wind. This motion is effected by turn- ing the head of the mill roimd upon the fixed part on the curb at the top of the framing of the house of the mill, and is represented in section by I, in fig. 1119, between which and the movable curb, m, attached to the bottom of the frame of the head are fixed a number of rollers. The movable curb, m, of the cap lies upon these rollers, which are kept equi- distant from each other by the centre-pins being fitted into a circular hoop. Bv these means, though the head of the mill with the wheels and sails weighs several tons, they can be made to turn round to face the wind by a slight force ; n is the centre- brace of the head, turning on the pivot, o ; p, the top of the vertical shaft on which, a short distance down, is a wheel called a trundle or lantern, which works into the cog- wheel on the wind-shaft, and so gives the rotatory motion to the shaft ; q is one of the ribs of the head. In fig. 1118, the wind-shaft or horizontal axis, r, is made of cast iron, and is octagonal, thickest at the end next the sails, and having two cylindrical necks 3 X 586 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Illy where it rests upon its bearings. It generally is placed a little inclined from the hori- zontal line ; the highest end being towards the sails. At the end, it has a kind of box, which has two mortises through it in perpendicular directions to receive the sails. At the back of one of these mortises, and on the front of the other, a projecting arm is left in the casting to receive screw bolts which hold the sails fast in the inortises. The cog- wheel, s, is fixed on by bolting its arms against a flanch cast on tlie vertical axis ; t is the commencement of a curved piece of timber 10 inches by 12 inches at top, and G inches by 6 inches at bottom, being the lever by which the heads of the old-fashioned mills are turned round to the wind. Attached to the lower end is a windlass, a cord from which fastened to any one of the posts that are fixed round the mill in a circle (see fig. 111.3) enables a man to move the head in the direction desired. There are also two pieces of wood affixed to the bottom of the lever by staples, made sharp at the lower end, to stick in the ground, and to steady the mill against any side-gusts. There are several plans now in use for making the head turn itself when the wind varies : this is done by having small sails at the back of the head that do not revolve while the head is in its proper position, but as soon as the wind varies, these sails are set in motion, and by machinery bring the head again into its proper direction. This is considered a great improvement ; but, as all the plans for this purpose involve much machinery, a detailed description of them is omitted, as they may be considered to come more under the control of the millwright than the Architect. Fig. 1121 is a section across the roof, showing the framing of one end of the 1121 head, where there is a door that may be opened to give light when any repairs of the machinery are going on. MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, KTC. 587 Fig. 1120 is an elevation of the east side of the structure, in which t is the com- mencement of the lever. Fig. 1122 is an elevation of the north side, showing the front of the sails, the armsi of which pass through mortises in the end of the wind-shaft, and are bolted to pro- jecting arms. The sails are clothed and unclothed by a line fastened to the upper corner of the canvass, passing over a pulley, and down the side of the arm to the bottom, where it is fastened. By these means, the canvass can be spread out at the end nearest the axis from below, in the same manner as a common window-curtain ; the lower part is spread out by hand, and tied. When the mill is not at work, the canvass is gathered up in a roU over the arm. There are patent windmiU saUs now in use, in which a number of flaps or shutters of thin wood supply the place of canvass. They can all be moved from below, so as to present their edges to the wind when the mill is not at work. The computed power of a windmill, with four sails, measuring 66 feet French from the ex- tremity of one sail to that of the opposite one, and 6 feet wide, or a little more, is, that it will raise 1000 French lbs. 218 feet in a minute, and is capable of working eight hours in a day upon an average. This is equivalent to the work of 34 men ; 25 square feet of canvass performing about the daily work of one man. Fig. 1 1 23 is an elevation of the west side, in which t is the commencement of the lever, which serves for turning the sails to the ^v^nd. Fig. 1124 is a transverse section of fig. 1118, from C to D, showing the framing of the mill. The corner or principal posts are 8 inches by 8 inches ; the principal quarters and braces are 4 inches by 4 inches ; and the common quarters are 4 inches by 3 inches. The clear height of the ground floor is 9 feet 8 inches ; the clear height of the stone floor story is 7 feet 6 inches ; that of the bin floor story 6 feet 8 inches j and 588 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1124 that of the upper story, to the under side of the frame of the head, is 4 feet 4 inches. The ribs of the roof are 4 inches by 3 inches, cut to a sweep. The roof is covered with l^-inch yellow deal feather-edge boarding, wrought on both sides, and the whole of the timber framing of the mill is likewise covered with l^-inch yellow 1125 deal feather-edge boarding, wrought on both sides, and having a quirked bead forming a drip (see fig. 1125) run on the lower edge of each board. 1261. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by Mr. Varden, who has also compiled the preceding historical notice of the different kinds of windmills. We insert this Design, considering it extremely useful for new countries, where the inhabitants must necessarily be content to commence with simjjle machines. There are, however, windmills to be met with of a highlj' improved construction ; and Mr. Tliorold, who, being a Norfolk engineer, is well acquainted with the subject, informs us that, " in some parts of England, windnaills are now brought to such perfection, as to be little inferior, in point of uniform motion, to either steam or water power. For grinding corn, threshing, draining land, or, in short, any operation, to perform which i^iw hands are required ; windmills are more economical than mills worked by either steam or water ; and they may be rendered applicable to towns, by building the tower high enough to permit the lowest part of the sails to swing over the houses." Mr. Varden accompanied this Design by a scientific dis- sertation on the principles of windmills, which we have been obliged to leave out, not that we thought it irrelevant to the subject ; but that Its introduction would have extended this work beyond our proposed limits. We can only ri'fcr the reader to Smeaton's Works, Brewster's Mechanics, Gregory's Mechanical Dictionary, and the Dictionnaire Technologique. It is singular that there is not a single work on wind- mills in the English language ; there are some remarks on gravitating sails by Hesel- dine, but no work embracing the whole subject. MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 589 Design III. — A Malt-kiln, with tlie requisite Appendaaes, and Directions for their Use. 1262. Malting. In order to understand the uses of a malt-kiln, and of the buildings and details generally connected witli it, it will be advisable to commence by describing the process of malting ; and this has been done to our hands by a correspondent at once scientific, and ex])erienced in this important department of rural economy. " It is not very easy to give specific rules for the process of malting, because the practice of each year must vary with the teniperature, and the quality of the barley. The experience of one year is no sure criterion for that of another ; but there are general rules and broad principles that will apply to any season ; and it is to these that I mean chiefly to confine myself in the following memoranda. — In the first place, the barley about to be malted should be of a plump kernel, dry, and well dressed. The policy of dressing well will be sufficiently obvious when we consider that the swimmings, or light grains that are skimmed off in the cistern, are generally worth but 9d. per bushel ; and, to fetch even that, they must be sold immediately, because they will not keep ; whereas, if taken out in a dry state by a winnowing-macliine, they will sell for, perhaps, three or four times the sum, and will keep for any reasonable length of time. The water, or liquor as it is commonly called, is in general pumped to the required height in the cistern, before the barley is admitted : experience will determine this, but in Britain the present vexatious excise laws will insist that all the barley shall be covered, so that enough ought to be admitted to allow for the swelling of the barley during the process of steeping. It is not my present purpose to enter into all the minutise of the excise interference Jn this branch of business, but it is of such frequent occurrence as not to admit of being passed over, even in such a mere sketch of the process as the present one. The law, then, has determined forty-eight hours as the minimum period for steeping ; the maltster may steep longer if he chooses ; but first, I should have said, the barley is skreened, or dribbled into the steep, from a chamber above. Having lain the required time, the water is let off, and the barley is emptied into the couch, a square frame formed of battens, or deals, each, 6y law, two inches thick, and also, 6y law, not exceeding thirty inches in depth ; here it remains, by law, twenty-six hours. The couch is then unloaded, and its contents laid into a tolerably thick bed. It may here be noticed, that a malt-house may have two, and sometimes three, working-floors : if two, then the corn steeped (which when it comes out of the couch is called the piece) is divided ; one half being worked on the upper, and the remainder on the lower floor : or, if three, then the piece is equally shared by each floor, that is, provided the weather is not too warm ; if it is, the upper floor must be either stopped altogether, or considerably ' curtailed of its fair proportion,' this floor of the building being usually the first to feel a change of temperature. It is quite impossible, after the barley leaves the couch, to lay down any fixed rules for tlie number of times a piece ought to be turned. This, and the thickness of the piece, must entirely depend on the state of the weather. If any sudden increase of temperature takes place (a circumstance of frequent occurrence, especially late in the season) not only must the piece be almost constantly kept turning, but the maltster will have to ' give it all the ground,' i. e. ^ 1 26 X? lay it as thin on the floor as he can. Besides actually turning, a piece is occasionally ploughed to lighten it up, and check the root. The plough is a light implement, constructed like fig. 1 1 26, the whole being of wood, and about four or five feet long. Be the weather what it may, the maltster's eye must be almost always on his floors ; on the one hand to cheek exuberant vegetation, by which the qualitj' of his malt would be prematurely ex- hausted ; and, on the other, to see tb.at it is not injured by being untimely checked. There is a just medium in this matter, only to be insured by strict and unremitting attention on the part of both the master and his men. The root should not be long and 1197 ' 112S straggling, like fig. 1127; but short and curly, like fig. 1 1 28, bushy, and ha^dng a tendency to turn back. Yet even this checking should be done with judgment. If the piece be moved injudiciously often, or have too great a proportion of cold drying wind admitted into the house, the root will turn rusty, die away, and vegetation will be diffi- cult, if not impossible, to restore. The main object of the maltster is to ol)tain the greatest quantum of saccharine matter from the "barlev ; and this is found to be hv^'c 590 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHlTEC'l'URE. attained by ' getting the back well up,' as it is technically termed ; that is, by forcing and encouraging the seminal slioot, or acrospire, as it is called, till it is nearly fit to start through the skin, not actually to show itself; but only the protuberance occasioned by its progress under the skin. To effect this is the great art in malting ; and it requires from ten to fourteen days to accomplish it, after the barley has left the couch. Some maltsters are in the habit of loading the kiln before the acrospire is fully up, and of getting it up by means of a slow fire, and, of course, very gradual drying. I see no advantage in this ; preferring the getting it well up in the back, before loading the kiln, and then of drying it off in half the quantity, and about half the time, say fortj'-eight hours. During the operation of drying, the malt should be turned three or four times, or one part would get more fire tlian it ought, while another would perhaps, be raw. An equality in the drying process is essential to the manufacture of good malt. I do not stop to describe the different sorts of malt ; pale, amber, high-dried, &c. : the maltster ascertains the quality he wishes to make, and gives it more or less fire, according to circumstances. The quantinn of fire is ascertained by chewing it till reduced to pulp (using as little saliva as possible), and then examining it between the thumb and finger ; or, in default of that necessary article, good teeth, a small mill, somewhat like a pestle and mortar, only made of bone or hard wood, is frequently resorted to by way of substitute. Malt, when once well dried, should be kept in a dry room, as close as possible, or it will soon get clung (withered), and lose its fire (its crispness). 1263. " The Malt-kiln, to be hereafter described, is calculated to dry off a whole piece (say from 100 to 104 bushels) at once. The time required for this is about thirty- six hours ; sometimes (as, for instance, in close foggy weather) a few hours longer. The fuel may be either coke or stone-coal ; perhaps a mixture of each may be better, say two thirds of the former (by measure) to one third of the latter." Our contributor next describes, in succession, the upper working-floor, the lower working-floor, the kiln, and the furnace. 1264. The Upper Working- Floor is shown in fig. 1129, from a to &, 81 feet long, and 10 feet 6 inches wide ; c is the cistern, 8 feet 4 inches long, 9 feet wide, and 2 feet 4 inches deep, in one corner of which there inay be a plug to let off the watei-, and close to the outside of which may be a pump for supplying water ; d is the couch, of the same dimensions as the cistern ; e, a trapdoor, through which a part, generally one half, of the quantity steeped, is thrown from the couch down to the lower working-floor. There is another trapdoor at /, up which the contents of the lower floor are brought when suflSciently worked, in order to be put on the kiln. Over the upper working-floor there is, or ought to be, a floor or chamber for a stock of barley, which may be hoisted up to it with a crane, and there is a spout in the floor, to let it down into the cistern. 1265. The Kiln and Malt- Chamber. The kiln, fig. 1129 ff, is 17 feet square; it is connected with the malt-chamber, h, by the door, i. Into this chamber the malt is tin-own after being dried. There is another malt-chamber over this, the opening to which is shown at ?/, in fig. 1132. 1266. The Lower Working- Floor, fig. 1130, k, as it includes, in addition to the length of the upper floor, the length of the cistern and the couch, is about 100 feet long by 10 1129 11. .0 '' 1132 ^- OpO'r [["IJ 1131 1 '" 1 A- ,/> \ B P MILLS, KILNS, flIALT-HOUSES, ETC. 591 1133 feet 6 inclies in width. In this figure, m shows the dunge (supposed to be a corruption of dungeon, from its appearance when looked down to from the kihi floor) or space be- tween the kiln floor and the furnace ; »« is a passage taken off the dunge, but wliich does not interfere with the furnace, as may be seen by the same letter n, fig. 1131, wliich is a section on the line A B ; o is the space in front of the furnace-door, 6 feet wide ; and JO is a place for stowing fuel. In fig. 1131 are seen the furnace and ash-pit doors, q, and the two shutters of the draught-hole on each side of tlie furnace, r. These draught- holes are about 1 foot wide and 18 inclies liigh ; and the admission of air is regulated by plates of sheet iron, which slide in frames and are balanced by weights, as shown by fig. 1133; in which s s are the draught-hole covers ; t the furnace-door, and M the ash-pit door, with its ventilator. Fig. 1132 is a section of the kiln, dunge, malt-chamber, and conical roof; in which are shown from y to ?; the ends of the iron joists on which the flooring is laid: they are sixteen in number, and are supported by stronger iron cross-beams or girders, let into the walls, and also by the upright iron posts 2v w, 5 feet high, the situations of which are shown by w w in fig. 1 134. This section, and also the plan fig. 1 1 30 show the diminution of the dunge from 1 7 feet to about 7 feet square. The cone is about 1 6 feet high from the floor j; k to the top or kerb x ; here the opening is two feet in diameter, which gives an area equal to that of the two draught-holes on each side of the furnace, and of the ventilator in the ash-pit door, agreeably to the prin- ciple laid down in § 798 ; y is the opening to the upper malt-chamber ; and z the door to the lower malt-chamber. Over the opening at the summit of the cone there is a flat circular plate of iron, a, supported by rods, b, to protect the opening from the weather. The kiln floor is square at bottom ; but at the height of 1 foot 6 inches at the angles it is gradually gathered into a circle, as shown by the dotted lines c c, in fig. 1132. It will be observed, that, while fig. 1131 exhibits a front view of the furnace with the two draught-holes, one on each side, fig. 1132 shows a back view of the same, with their openings into the dunge. The furnace-bars are 3 feet long. Over the mouths of the furnace and draught-holes is suspended from the floor-joists of the kiln a plate of iron 7 feet 6 inches long by 5 feet wide (d in fig. 1 132, and d d in fig. 1 134), which is called a dispenser, the use of which is to equalise the heat in the upper part of tlie dunge, so that the kiln floor, fig. 1134, e e, may receive it equally in every part. The furnace, /i 1134 is 3 feet long ; it is 18 inches wide, and 20 inches high, the ash-pit under it is of the same width, and 1 6 inches high ; g g are the sloping sides of the dunge ; and h the cen- tral part. 1267. The Kiln Floor may be either of tiles or of wirecloth ; but the former are generally preferred. The under side of a kiln-tile presents a sort of honeycomb appear- ance, fig. 1 1 35, i ; but the upper surface on which the malt is laid is perforated with small holes, and has the 1135 appearance of k. A tile one foot square contains 120 large openings on the under side, with 8 ^ smaller openings to each \Z_1. of the large ones on the " upper side ; thus giving a total of 960 apertures in every square foot. The openings of the small holes are larger on the lower than on the upper side, in order to prevent them from being choked with the malt dust or combs before mentioned. (See § 798.) 1 268. Constrvction. All the walls may be of brick or stone ; the cone over the kiln floor should either be of brick, or, if economy be very much studied, it may be composed of a frame of iron rods hung over with plain tiles, and covered with cement. The bottom and sides of the couch may either be of wood, stone, slate, or of brick lined with cement. I'he malting-floors may be paved, tiled, or laid with composition. The furnace S3 om COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. may be built with fire-brick, and there should be a ventilator in the ash-pit door for regulating the draught of air througli the fire. The dispenser may be of -n-rought iron, or of an iron frame filled in with large slates. The orifice at the summit of the kiln may be either protected by an iron plate, or by a tiled cover with sides of lufler-boarding. Other details have been given in the course of the description. 1269. Remarks. Various improvements have been attempted in malt-kilns of late years, and patents have been taken out for particular modes of construction ; but of none of these liave we been able to hear a favourable account. The most probable source of improvement appears to us to be the adoption of the circular form, and of the mode of heating by brick or iron flues, distributed through the dunge, in the manner practised by Mr. Read in his hop-kiln, to be hereafter described. IVIr. Read, who has examined numerous malt-kilns in all parts of the country with a view to their improvement, informs us that he considers the plan adopted in his hop-kiln a.s equally applicable to a malt-kiln ; but that he has found the proprietors of malt-kilns so strongly prejudiced in favour of existing forms, that he has never had an opportunity of trying the experi- ment. Design IV. — A Hop-oast, or Kiln for drying Hops. 1270. The Variation), from other Kilns formerli/ required in a Kiln for drying Hops will be exhibited in the following plans and sections, which have been obligingly sent us by our contributor, Mr. Varden. These figures from 1136 to 1148, Mr. Varden informs us, exhibit part of a range of building consisting of a repetition of similar parts situated at Farnham. The packing-house, fuel store, &c., are under the same roof. The six oasts are capable of drying at one time on the first haircloths, twenty-five bags of hops ; each bag containing fi-om sixteen to twenty bushels. These generally require twelve hours' drying before they are fit to be packed, unless they have previously been spread upon the upper haircloth, which is not often the case, except when there is a great quantity to be dried oflTin a short time. " The Design sent is that which I under- stand is generally considered to be the best. Some hop-growers, a short time ago, fitted up their kilns with a succession of drawers one above the other, having hair bottoms ; but the extra-labour of these is found to be so great, that they intend removing them, and adopting the method about to be detailed. Fig. 1 1 36 is a plan of the oast floor. 1136 ////'/>yy/>yy'^'^yyz-yy'^yy'yyy/:y^Ay4'^^^ f n'.^-n jjj ^'A V./y'/M.,'M VW'A'.^'//>VM V'"-'A:y/7\ V/^'.>»»^yy:^ Bj-^^/^^ ■^ VM.'/M. The external walls are of 1 4-inch stonework, the internal ones are brick ; that against the passage a is 9 inches, and the two partitions, h b, are 4 inches and a half thick. 'i"he building is 58 feet 4 inches by 14 feet in the clear, and contains six oasts or kilns, c. 1137 Fig. 11. "i? is a plan of the first hair, or floor for the haircloth, showing the timbers, &e. The joists are 3 inches and a half by 3 inches ; the arris girder 5 inches by 5 inches, 1138 MALT-HOUSES, KILNS, IIOr-OASTS, ETC. 598 and the storj'-posts 5 inches by 4 inches and a half. Fig. 1138 is a plan of the second liair. The joists are 3 inches by 3 inches and a half; and the arris girders 5 inches by 5 inches. Fig. 1139 is an elevation of the front. The small windows have 1139 n n n n n D wooden shutters. Fig. 11 40 is an elevation of tlie back. The windows are filled in with luffer-boarding. Fig. 1141 is a plan of a part of the building to a larger scale. 1140 I 1 1 |. . .-M ' ,.| Ft. 30 10 10 Ft. The pavement, d, is brick on edge covered with plain tiles ; and the small square openings, (, e represent the orifices of air flues ; /, is the furnace. Fig. 1 142 is a plan of a part of 1141 1142 the first hair, showing the laths of which the floor is composed -. they are I inch and a half by 1 inch, and 1 inch and a half apart. Tiiese open floors are used to allow of the warm air rising from below ; and a large haircloth is spread over the whole, before the hops are laid out. Along the side, about 17 inches above the lathing, is a stage 20 inches wide for the men to walk upon without damaging the hops. This stage is made to fold up against the wall when not in use. Fig. 1143 shows part of the second hair. The" arris girders are hung to the roof by wrought-iron rods, as shown in fig. 1145. Fig. 1144 is an elevation of a part of the wall at the mouth of the oasts, showing the fireplace g, ash- 3 u 59'i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. hole h, and the mouths of the air flues, i, which latter have hinged flaps, k, to close occasionally. Fig. 1145 is a transverse section of the building; in which a is the jias- sage shown by a in fig. 11. 36; 6 is the mass of pigeon-hole brickwork, which encloses the furnace shown bye, in fig. 1136, and by/, in fig. 1141 ; c is the brick floor, in whicli 1143 1144 are the openings for the ascent of air, shown by e, in fig. 1141, and by the dots In fig. 1136; d is the lower hair, at it is locally termed, or lower drying floor; e e are the supports to the girders of this floor ; y is a door of communication in the partition between the kilns ; and g is the iron rod which supports the middle of the girders of the upper hair, or upper drying floor, h. The upper half of the roof is half tiled, to allow the steam to escape. When tliis method is adopted, cowls arc not requisite. Fig. 1146, to a scale of 5 feet to an inch, is a plan of one of the oasts; in whii.'li / is the fireplace covered with a brick arch to the depth of 1 foot 8 inches. Tlie fuel made use of is cliarcoal or cuhn (by culm is meant the charcoal from the smaller wood and sprays), and tlie fire is made on a cast-iron grating. No chimneys are required, the quantity of smoke being so very trifling. Fig. 1147 is a side elevation of the oast, showing the open brickwork for letting out the warm air ; the fireplace m, and the ash- hole, M. The timbers, o, are covered with two courses of plain tiles set in cement or mortar, and are 4 inches by 3 inches, and 4 inches apart. The fireplace arch is seen at p, and the soil under it at q. In the roof, the plate is 6 inches by 4 inches, the tie- beam 9 inches by 6 inches, the couplings ,5 inches by 4 inches, the common rafters 4 inches by 2 inches and a half, and the struts 4 inclies by 4 inches and a half." MALT-HOUSES, KILNS, HOP-OASTS, ETC. 595 1271. Remarks. This appeal's to be an expensive mode of drying hops, compared with that practised by many of the growers in Kent, who liave adopted the improved circular kihis invented by jNIr. Read, wliich will be next described. Design V. — A Hop-kiln or Oast, on an improved Principle, erected in 1832, at Teston, in Kent. 1272. Hops have been dried from time immemorial on kilns with cockles, furnaces, or other fireplaces beneath them ; the smoke and heated air being allowed to ascend througli the hops, and to pass off by an opening in the apex of the roof, as in the case ot the kilns for drying malt, corn, &c. About the year 1796, Mr. John Read, then a practical gardener at Horsemendean, in Kent (ha\'ing had extensive experience in heating hot-houses by smoke flues, and having also tried steam in pineries so early as 1802), began to turn his attention to the subject of building hop-kilns. Mr. Read has subsequently invented his well-known improved garden syringe, his stomach pump, and various other surgical instruments of acknowledged importance ; and it may easily be conceived that so ingenious a mind would improve any object to which he might turn his attention. The idea of applying flues like those of hot-houses to generate heated air, for the purpose of drying hops, very naturally occurred to him ; and he soon found an opportunity of caiTying his ideas into execution. i\Ir. Read has, since he began to erect hop-kilns on his plan, made various improvements in them ; and he has furnished us with the Design about to be described, in which the whole are combined. 1273. The object in view, in kiln-drying Hops, is to discharge the water contained in the flowers. This, ]\Ir. Read has ascertained to be, when the flowers are newly gathered, about 500 lbs. in every hundred bushels ; and he finds that this moisture may be converted into vapour, by tlie expenditm-e of one bushel of common coals to every hundred-weight of hops, in twelve hours, the hops being spread on the floor of the kiln, in the proportion of one bushel to every square foot. 1274. TTie Process of drying Hops is as follows : — After being gathered from the bine, or stalk, the flowers are immediately carried in bags to the kiln, on which they are spread out to the thickness of from six to ten inches all over the surface of the kiln. The fire is then lighted, and kept burning briskly night and day, so long as there are any hops ready to be dried. It is found that a kiln of Mr. Read's construction may be charged once in every twelve hours. After the hops are dried, they are swept off the kiln into a cool well ventilated loft adjoining, and generally attached to it ; this loft being formed over a cart-shed, or some other building open on one or on all sides. Being cooled here for a day or more, or according to convenience, the hops are bagged, or pocketed ; the bag weighing two hundi-ed-weight and a half, and the pocket one hundred-weight and a half ; that is, packed in bags, which are suspended by a hoop from a round opening in the floor, and into each of which a man enters, to consolidate the hops by treading them down. ^^ hen the bag is full, it is released from the hoop, and pulled up, still being retained over the hole, till it is beaten into shape, when it is sewn up, and let down into the shed, whence it is carried to market, or to the store loft, where it may be kept a year or more, if carefully excluded from the air. Hops dried on INIr. Read's kiln have been known to keep four or five years ; but those dried by the common methods, and especially those of Farnham, seldom keep even twelve months, from the imperfect manner in which the process of drying has been performed. There are several excise regulations connected with the drying of hops in Britain, which we think it unnecessary to enter into in a work intended for both hemispheres ; more especially as we anticipate the entire removal of the excise duties, and the substitution of a graduated per-centage or property tax for this and all other government taxes. 1 275. TJte Situation of a hop-oast ought to be airy ; and the external opening to it, for the admission of the air, ought to face that point of the compass from which the wind blows most frequently at that season of the year when hops are being diied. In England, the hop harvest is in the month of September, and the wind, in that month, is generally in the direction of the south-west. When several kilns are built together, and not in a straight line, but so as to form two rows or a group, as in the Design before us, this rule cannot be followed ; but the next best rule is, to have the openings to the fireplaces facing the north-west and south-east, by which means they will catch a part of the current from the south-west as it passes. 1276. The circular form for the kiln has been adopted by Mr. Read, because it contains a gi-eater ai-ea than any other figure with the same quantity of exterior walling; and because both the walls and roof can be made stronger than they can in any rectan- gular form, with fewer materials. Hence, while the circular kilns possess more strength and durability than the rectangular ones, the expense of construction is less. 1277. Details of the Oasts erected at Teston. Fig. 1148 is the ground plan j in which 59() COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. a a are two kilns, twenty feet in diameter internally ; and h h two other kilns, sixteen feet in diameter internally ; c is an open space between the kilns, to wliieh air is freely adniitted by the openings to the south-east, south-west, and to the north-esist, sX d d d; e 1148 y y b-.: :.-ti shows the openings to the dunge, and cockles or furnaces for the admission of air to the fire, and to be rarefied by the flues, previously to its ascending and passing through the drying-floor ; /, the furnaces made of cast iron, with doors to the fuel-chambers and ash- j)its of the same material ; g, termination of a portion to the extent of one yard of the flues next the furnaces, which ought to be built of fire-brick, or which may be formed entirely of cast iron, as in this Design. The remaining part of the flues to be built of common brick on edge three courses deep, and covered with bricks or tiles, twelve inches long by six inches broad ; /(, the situation of the chimney shafts ; i, the staircase for carrying up the hops to the drying-floor ; and It, a cart-shed, over which is a floor on which the hops are cooled. Fig. 1149 is a transverse section on the line A B, or nearly so, in which I is the fuel-chamber, with the doors open; m, the thoroughfare between the two kilns ; n, the flues ; o, tlie chimney shafts ; p, tl)e drying-floor ; q, the situation of the wall-plate; ;•, the doors to the drying- floor open ; s, tlic floor of the loft, with the movable MALT-HOUSES, KILNS, HOP-OASTS, ETC. 5;>7 stairs to the drying-floor j t, the roof of the cooling-loft ; and u, collar beams for supporting the spindle of the cowl. Fig. 1150 is a longitudinal section on the line C D, in which I' V show the situation of the movable steps from the common floor of the passage loft, and cooling-room, to the double doors, w, of the drying-floor ; x, bottom boards of the doors, eighteen inches deep, which fit into grooves, and have two holes in each for Lifting them up every time the drying-floor is to be emptied. While this operation is going on, the step-ladders are removed, and the hops are swept through the door, and faU down into the passage loft, whence they are swept along to the cooling-chamber ; z is the ridge of the roof from the cooling-chamber and passage loft. Fig. 1151 is a cross section of one of the larger kilns on the line E F, for the purpose of showing the returns of the flues, from the centre to the sides in the lower part of the dunge, and from the sides to the chimney shaft in the upper part of the dunge. Fig. 1152 is a dissected plan of the drying-floOr, in which a a are the iron girders, the strength of which may cither be such as to require no supports between the ends ; or they may be so slight as to require one or more pillars as props between the extremities ; when they are of cast iron, they may be in two lengths, four inches deep in the middle, and half an inch thick, each length of sixteen feet, supported by two iron colunms : 6 & are 59S COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1151 '''^ the laths, which may be either of cast or wrought iron ; when of cast iron, they are four feet long, roach-bellied, that is, forming the segment of a circle on the under side, two inches broad at top, and a quarter of an inch on the imder edge ; when they are of wrought iron, they are one inch and a half broad (that breadth being necessary to form a bed for the tiles), and half an inch deep ; in this case the extended lengtli across the girders is from one of the kilns to the other : c c are the tiles pierced with holes, in the same manner as the tiles of malt-kilns, fig. 1 1 35, § 1 267. 1278. Construction. The exterior walls are of brick, with eighteen-inch footings, and are carried up . a foot or more of tlie width of fourteen inches, after which their width is nine inches, up to the eaves of the roof, which are eighteen inches above the drying-floor. The rafters are four inches by two inches at the bottom ; and three inches by one inch and a half at the top, where they abut against a circular curb or rim under the cowl. The furnaces or fuel-chambers are entirely of cast iron, and the ash-pits have iron doors. At the further extremity of the fuel-chamber there is an opening six inches square at top, through which the smoke and heat ascend into the flue. The flue for the first three or four feet is either built of fire-brick, or formed entirely of cast iron six inches in diameter ; after which its sides are formed of three bricks on edge, not plastered either outside or inside ; and its top is covered with two courses of tiles, breaking joint, six inches by three inches. The reason why narrow tiles are chosen is, that duty is saved ; and two courses breaking joint are employed, in order to prevent the risk of smoke getting through the joints into the dunge. The flues are svipported by piers formed of open brickwork on edge, and joined by arches four inches in thickness, beveled on the top so as to form the base of the flue. Two flues proceed from each fireplace, ascending at an angle of 15°, or more if the height of the dimge will permit, in the direction indicated by the arrows, meeting at e, in the plan fig. 1148, and each there returning over itself, and again meeting at the chimney shaft, /;. These flues may be easily cleaned by the removal, at short distances, of some of the covering-tiles ; or, what is a much simpler mode, by burning in the fuel-chamber a few handfuls of dry brushwood, or dried hop-bine, or any thing that will quickly create such a draught as will carry all the soot in the course of a few minutes out at the cliimney top. About London the washer- women clean the chimneys of their boilers on tlie same principle, by throwing in, in rapid succession, small quantities of gunpowder. The cowl should project about a foot on every side over the orifice in the summit. This orifice is, to that for the admission of air to the dunge, as one to one and a quarter. In the building of the walls of the kiln, in order to preserve them truly circular, an upright pole is fixed in the centre, and a guide-rod, fig. 1153, d, is framed on to it, of the requisite radius. The lower end of the central perpendicular pole is fixed in the ground, and the top kept steady by braces to other poles outside the circumference of the plan, so as not to interrupt the free revolution of the guide-rod. For every course of bricks laid on the wall, a course is also laid in mortar round the upright pole luider the guide-rod, so that the latter is always kept level. So rapidly can bricks be laid in this manner, tliat INIr. Read finds sue walling cost less than straight brickwork. The course of bricks innnediatcly under tlie flooring tiles, twenty inches from the top, ought to project an inch inwards for the tiles to rest on. The exterior opening to the dunge should be kept low, it being found that MALT-HOUSES, KILNS, HOP-OASTS, ETC. 599 1155 when this is the case the drauglit is always greatest ; its height need never exceed fonr feet six inches, which is sufficiently high to admit a person to enter tlie dunge. When the manager of tlie furnace is once within, he imme- diately finds six feet of head room ; there being a pier, e, nine inches by eigliteen inches carried up on each side of the door, along with the outside wall, in as fig. 1154, which is a section on the line L M, for the purpose of forming abutments for the four-inch arch, /, which carries the double flue, the end of which, at the point where one returns on the other, is shown at g. The furnace and flues should be blackened exteriorly, in order to increase the radiation of heat, and the inside of the surrounding walls ought to be white- washed, to prevent them as much as possible from absorbing it. The cowl moves altogether independently of the curb which forms the opening under it : it consists of one strong back piece, into which the upright spindle is framed, as may be seen in the section, fig. 1149, at I. Attached to the spindle and the back board is the fly-boai-d, fig. 1155, A, which serves, like a rudder, to keep the back of the cowl to the wind. The boards forming the cowl overlap each other fi'oni the back piece, or rib, towards the sides ; and they are nailed to iron hoops, as indicated 5 " ^ in the section I K, fig. 1155, and also in the < — 1 ' ' — ^ — ' ' '■ — ' ^fi. section, fig. 1149. In the former section, h is the fly-board ; i, the back rib ; k, the upright spindle ; I, the iron hoop ; and m the boarding. Fig. 1156, which is a section on the ine G H, shows the manner in which the upright spindle works against a collar-piece, which is fixed across the centre of the curb, at the kiln top. This piece being fixed, and the collar containing the spindle bolted on to it, the bottom piece, in which the pivot of the spindle works, can, before it is fixed, be moved backwards and forwards on the collar beam till the spindle is brought to a perfectly upright position, and made to work freely. 1279. Estimate. The expense of these four kilns, exclusive of the cooling-room, was about j£700, which amounts to about 2',(l. per cubic foot. 1280. Remarks. The great superiority of the circular kiln to that described in the preceding Design is so obvious, that we only wonder, con- sidering it has been extensively used in Kent and Sussex for upwards of thirty years, that it has not found its way to Farnham. It must be obvious that not only any description of fuel may be used in ]Mr. Read's kilns, but that, from the great length of the flues, a much greater quantity of heat will be rendered available for passing through the drying-floor. The circumstance of the flues ascending at a considerable slope is highly favourable for promoting a draught, and consequently for thoroughly consuming the fuel. ]Mr. Read informs us that he has superintended the erection of some hundreds of these kilns ; and that in one year he erected seventy, all within the counties of Kent and Sussex. This being the case, it strikes us with astonishment that Mr. Read's improvement has not been adopted by the hop-growers of either Farnham or Worcestershire, and the proprietors of malt- kilns every where. For our own part, we have no hesitation in saying, that we con- sider the malt kiln, Design III., though it be of the most improved construction, and the Farnham hop kiln, Design IV., though it comes from a district so celebrated for its hops, as discreditable to the science of this country. No man who understands Read's kiln would erect either. 1156 600 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Design VI. — An improved Limekiln. 1281. Limestone is burnt in a variety of ways. The object is, completely to deprive the stone of its carbonic acid gas with the smallest quantity of fuel, the least amount of labour, and in the shortest time. The rudest mode of burning lime is by mixing the stones with coal or other fuel, in large open heaps, and then setting fire to the coal or fuel. The first improvement on this mode consisted in covering up the heap with earth or turf, so as to confine the heat; a practice which, we are informed, is still followed in the islands of the West Indies. The nest improvement was the forming of a well for burn- ing the lime in the face of a bank, so that the stones and fuel could be thrown in at top, and drawn out, as burnt, at bottom. The ordinary form employed for this purpose is that of an inverted cone, or an egg with the broad end uppermost. The first improve- ment on this form was made by Booker of Dublin. The section of Booker's kiln forms two long narrow truncated cones, placed end to end, giving a width, or diameter, at the base and apex of three feet, and in the middle of seven feet. A suitable height for these dimensions is from twenty-five to thirty feet. On the top is a cast-iron cap or cover, which turns on a pivot, and rests on a curlj-ring fixed on the top of the masonry of the kiln. The use of this cover is to prevent the escape of more heat than is necessary to keep the fuel burning, and, therefore, the opening at the top of the cap is a circle of not more than twelve inclies in diameter. Very little heat is thus lost, and lime may be burned with as little fuel in winter as in summer. Another great advantage of this plan is, that by closing the orifice at the top of the cap and the furnace-doors below, the fire may be kept alive for four or five days, which, in situations where the demand for lime is not regular, is an object of some importance. Booker's limekiln has subsequently been materially improved by C. J. Stuart Menteath, Esq., the proprietor of extensive lime- works at Closeburn, in Dumfries-shire ; and it is this kUn which constitutes our present Design. Booker's, and a vai-iety of others, will be found described in our Encyc. of Agr., 2d edit. § 3862. 1282. The Closeburn Limekiln is oval in the plan at top, and perpendicular in the sides to nearly half its depth ; below which it is gradually contracted to the size of the grating of the furnace. The advantage of the oval form is, that the combustion is more regularly sup- plied with ail- than in the case of a kiln of large diameter. " Narrow kilns," Mr. Men- teath finds, " also burn much faster, admit of there being drawn out of them every day {if fiilly employed) more than two thirds, or nearly three fourths, of what they contain of well-burnt line ; and afford fully three measures of calcined lime for one measure of coal, when large circular kilns will not give out one half of their contents every day, and require nearly one measure of coal for two measures of lime burnt." In a country sale of lime, Mr. Menteath remarks, " the quantity sold every day is liable to great fluctuations: two or three cart-loads will sometimes only be required from an establish- ment which the day before supplied forty ; and, as lime is known to be a commodity which, when exposed to the action of the air, becomes more bulky and hea\y, and in that state does not admit of being carried to a distance without additional labour, it has been an object of importance with me, to find out a construction of a kiln wliich will allow of lime being kept for several days without slaking, and, at the same time, to prevent the fire escaping at the top of the kdn, if the kiln stands twenty-four hours without being employed, especially during the autumn and winter, when the air is cold, and the nights long. I now employ kilns of an cgg-sha))e, and also oval. The oval-shaped kilns are divided by arches across the kiln, descending foiu- feet from the top. The object of the arches across the kilns is to prevent the sides of the kUns from falling in or contracting, and also for the purpose of forming cu'cular openings for feeding in the stone and coal at the mouth of the kiln. Upon this plan, a kiln of any length might be constructed with numerous round mouths." Having placed a lid to the cover of Booker's iron cap, Mr. Menteath is enabled " to prevent the escape of heat at the top, and by cast-iron doors at the bottom the air is prevented from passing through the kiln ; so that by these pre- cautions the limel)urner can regulate the heat, and prevent its escape for several days ; when without them the fire, in winter, would be extinguished in the course of twenty-four hours. This is an object of great importance, as it enables one to burn lime as well, and with as small a quantity of fuel, in the winter as in the summer season ; and to sup- ply tlie farmer with well-burned lime at any time of the year : an object which cannot be obtained by the common construction of kilns, open both at top and bottom, for the reasons before stated." 1283. Burning Lime with Coke instead of Coal. " From the great expense attending the carting of fuel from a distance of twenty-five miles from my own coal-pits, I have adopted the practice of coking the coal, which is a saving of ciglit twentieths of the weight ; and I find that equal measures of coal and coke give the same quantity of heat in burning lime, wliich appears paradoxical, but is not the less true. The coal MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, BRICK-KILNS, ETC. 6'0I is found to have little effect upon the stone till it is deprived of its bitumen, or is coked in the kiln ; for, during the time the smoke is emitted from the top of a limekiln, little or no heat is evolved ; or, in other words, the smoke carries off the heat, which is not given out from the smoke till it is inflamed ; a circumstance which does not take place in the ordinary limekilns. When coke is employed for burning lime during the day, small coal should be used in the evening ; in order to prevent, as much as possible, the escape or waste of heat during the night, from the rapid circulation of air through the limestone in the kiln. A kiln in which coke is the fuel employed will yield nearly a third more calcined lime (or shells, as they are termed in Scotland) in a given time, than one in which coal is the fuel. Coke may, therefore, be used occasionally, when a greater quantity of lime is required in a certain time than usual. It is well known to lime-burners that the process of burning is done most economically when the kiln is in fidl action, so as almost constantly to have a column of fire from the bottom to the top of the kiln, with as short intervals as possible in working the kiln." 1284. Regulating the admission of air to the bottom of the kiln. Mr. Menteath haa found that limestone is apt to be vitrified during the process of calcination in stormy weather. This proceeds from the increased circulation of air through the kiln, which, by increasing the rapidity of the combustion, evolves in any given time a greater quan- tity of heat from the fuel employed. From having experienced the bad effects of too great a circulation without properly providing against it, Mr. Menteath considers it desirable to have it in his power to throw at pleasure an additional quantity of air into the bottom of the limekiln ; both for the purpose of saving fuel, and, when the lime- stone is biu-ned, to cool it, that it may be the sooner ready to be drawn out of the kiln. It is well known that, with kilns as they are commonly constructed, it requires nearly twenty-four hours to cool the limestone in the bottom of the kiln to such a degree as to prevent its burning the wooden carts in which it is to be carried away. (^Highland Society's Transactions, yo\. \m. p. 131.) The power of throwing in .in additional quantity of air at the bottom of the kiln is easily attained by increasing the length of the bottom, and by having two or more furnace doors opening to it, instead of one. 1285. The proportion of coal to limestone will vary according to the softness, hardness, or density of the stone, and the strength and size of the pieces of the coal used. The same weight of coal will burn a greater quantity of lime, when in pieces of from half a pound's to a pound's weight each, than when in fragments of from half an ounce to an ounce. Hence those who employ small coal in burning lime, from its cheapness, are often performing the operations at greater expense than those who employ larger, and consequently dearer, coal. In working a kiln with narrow circular mouths, such as that about to be described ; the stone and coal should be measured, in order to enable the workmen to proportion the one to the other. The stone and coal being in separate heaps at the top of the kiln, and both broken into small pieces, a fire is lighted on the iron bars at the bottom of the kiln. When this is fairly kindled, limestone and coal are dropped from the top in small quantities at a time, so as never to check the current of air through the fire. This operation is carried on till the kiln is filled, after which it is allowed to stand for several hours till a complete combustion of the fuel has taken place. If the calcined lime be wanted immediately, the furnace doors below are opened, and the cover at top removed, in order to produce a current of cold air through the kiln ; if not wanted for some days, the top and bottom are closed to exclude the air, and to prevent the escape of heat- In Mr. Menteath's kilns there is a door both to the ash-pit and to he fuel-chamber over it. Through the upper door the calcined lime is drawn out ; and through the under door are drawn out the lime ashes, which are a clear gain to the lime-burner where lime is sold by measure ; because, if not separated from the larger pieces, they would only serve to fill up the interstices between the stones. 1286. The situation most suitable for building a limekiln is the face of a steep bank; but if this cannot be obtained, it may be built on a level surface, with a ramped road, or inclined plane, for carrying up the fuel and limestone to the top of the kiln ; or, the sides of the building may be carried up perpendicularly, and the limestone and fuel hoisted to the top by means of a crane and windlass. 1287. Details of the plans and sections. Fig. 1157 is a section across a bank, on the face of which it is desired to build a limekiln. In this section, abed indicate the space to be occupied by the mass of masonry containing the kiln ; and c d e f, the situation of the shed over the kiln mouth. Fig. 1158 is a gi'ound or foundation-plan, in which may be seen, at h, the fuel chamber, two feet square, with iron bars laid across ; two side openings for occasionally admitting an extensive quantity of air, i i, which openings may be blocked up with stones, to save the expense of iron doors ; and ghg, the space in which the cart stands when loading with the burnt limestone, as drawn out of the kiln. Fig. 11 59 is a horizontal section of the kiln at the height of eighteen feet from the grating of 3 X 002 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Fig. 1161 is a plan of the top the fuel chamber ; that is, on tlio line A B, in fig. 1160. of the kiln enclosed and covered by the kiln-shed. In this plan, k k It are the three circular openings in the covering arch of the kiln, through which the broken stones and coal are introduced : these open- ings may either be covered with a flat plate of cast-iron, or with one of Booker's cast-iron covers ; this last is a truncated cone of cast- iron, the opening at the truncated part of the cone being a foot in diameter, with a lid to cover it oc- casionally ; I is the place where the broken coal is laid down ; and m, that where the broken stone is laid ; a cart for bringing these materials into the kiln may pass in at one door and out at the other. Fig. 1 1 60 is a longitudinal section of the kihi .^_ ^ on the line E F, in which n is the 1158 ^j — ^^^'y l ■ — S_LJ_J^ side opening to the back of the I 1 ^ ' L fuel chamber ; o, cast-iron covers (with openings in the centre, and lids over them) to the feeding apertures; and p, the springing of the covering arch. Fig. 1162 is a transverse section of the kiln and kiln-shed, on the line C D, in which is shown the ash-pit, under the fuel-chamber, q; the Bpace between the double doors of the fuel chamber, r ; the covered area on which the loading carts stand, s ; and the cast-iron cover to the feeding aperture, and the protecting cover to the chimney of the kiln-shed, M. Fig. 11 63 is a front elevation of the kiln, with the shed over it. - 1 t-v — 1159 _ .-A-. .jj^ ^ 1288. Construction. The walls should either be built of fire-brick, or firestone; but they are sometimes built of limestone of the same quality as that to be burned within ; but having the stones in large masses, so to prevent their being as much affected by the heat as the smaller stones in the kiln, which are mixed with fuel. The upper part of the kiln may either be arched over, or covered with oast-iron joists and flag-stones ; leaving square or longitudinal holes for the admission of air, which MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, BRICK-KILNS, ETC. 1161 603 ©0 may be covered with a plate of cast-iron, regulated so as to give the exact degree of draught requh-ed. This contrivance will be found cheaper than the conical kilns of Booker ; and, where there is a kiln-shed, it will answer equally well. When there is not a kiln- shed, Booker's covers are un- doubtedly preferable ; as they not only keep in the heat, but throw off the rain. The shed over the mouth of the kiln is of the greatest use in keeping dry the stones and fuel before they are thrown into the kiln ; and not only keeping them dry, but heating them, and thus evapor- atmg part of their moisture. These materials, therefore, ought always to be kept as near as possible to the feeding mouths; and when the heat of the kiln is to be continued for some time by closing both the bottom and ' I top openings, the coal and un- burnt limestone should be heaped up over the latter, in order that they may absorb as much as possible of the escaping heat. The double iron doors to the fuel chamber should be nine inches or a foot apart, to prevent the escape of heat ; but single doors will suffice for the ash-pit below. The two side openings, for the admission of additional supplies of air at pleasure, may, when not wanted, •be blocked up with stone, to save the expense of doors. The bars of the grating of the fuel- chamber may be two feet and a half long, two inches wide, and three inches deep, cast hollow ; and the two cross bars 604. COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. J 163 Ft. 40 Li- on which they rest may be three inches broad, and five inches deep, also cast hollow. The thickness of the metal, in either case, need not exceed a quarter of an inch ; as the hollow in the centre, by admitting a current of air, keeps the bars cool, and prevents their decay. It is to be observed, that the opening behind the fuel-chamber, for the admission of an extra quantity of air, inust have a grating where it enters the fuel-cham- ber, to prevent its being choked up by the lime while burning, or being drawn. 1289. Remarks. This Design for a limekiln we consider decidedly the best we have ever seen or heard of. We examined it, and several others of dif- ferent kinds, at Closeburn, in 1831 ; we saw Heathorn's kiln in 1828, and we liave seen, we believe, every variety of limekiln in use in Britain, having had occasion to build one for ourselves some years ago. We therefore con- sider that we are entitled to pronounce an opinion on Mr. Menteath's im- provements. The same form of kiln is admirably adapted for burning clay, either to use as a manure, or to form walks or roads ; and we shall presently show how it may be used for burning bricks. Heathorn's limekiln has for its object the preparation of coke as well as of quicklime. For this purpose, the kiln may either be a narrow vertical cylinder, with coking ovens placed around, and opening into it ; or, it may be a long narrow kiln, like Menteath's, with a row of coke ovens on each side. The kiln is filled with broken limestone, and the process of burning is effected entirely by the combustion of the bituminous matter of the coal to be coked. A patent was taken out for this kiln some years ago; and one was erected at Maidstone, by the patentee, who has recently informed us that it continues to answer his expectations. Only one other kiln of the same kind, however, has been erected ; which we conclude to be owing to the expense of building, and the greater time and care required to burn the lime in these kilns. Where lime is to be burned in small quantities, and where there is a great demand for coke, this description of kiln may perhaps be recommended ; but the first cost, and the slowness of the operation of burning, are great drawbacks. This kiln will be found figured and described in our Encyc. of Agric. § 3868. It is evidently founded on the model of a perpetual limekiln, described by Count Rumford, in his sixth Essay, p. 181. The objects proposed to be attained by the perpetual kiln were, first, to cause the fuel to burn in such a manner as to consume the smoke, by obliging the latter to pass through the ignited fuel ; and secondly, to cause the flame from the fire to come in contact with a large quantity of tlie broken limestone, so as to prevent the heat, as much as possible, from escaping into the atmosi)here. The latter object was effected by making the kiln very high in proportion to its width ; by fill- ing it quite to the top with limestone ; and by having the fireplace near the bottom of the kiln. The third object in view, was to render the process of burning lime perpetual, in order to prevent the waste of heat, which unavoidably attends the cooling of the kiln, in emptying and filling it. A fourth object was, so to arrange the process, as that the burnt limestone, while cooling, might give off its heat in such a manner as to assist in heat- ing the fresh quantity of cold limestone with which the kiln was replenished, as often as a portion of burnt lime was taken out of it. To show how these purposes might be effected, Count Rumford had a model erected in the court-yard of the Dublin Society, and another in the farm of the English garden at Munich ; and he has given an engraving and description of the latter in the Essay referred to. Whoever will take the trouble of examining it, will find that Heathorn's kiln only differs from that of Count Rumford in saving the coke ; this object not being proposed by the Count. The fuel in both kilns is not mixed with the limestone, but is burned in a closed fireplace, which opens into the side of the kiln, at some distance from the bottom. For large kilns built on these principles, Rumford observes, there may be several fireplaces, all opening into the same cone ; that shape of kiln being employed both by Count Rumford and Mr. Heathorn. At the bottom of Count Rnmfi)rd's kiln there is a door, which is occasionally opened to take out the lime; and at the bottom of Heathorn's there are movable bars, which can be taken out, for tiic same MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, BRICK-KILNS, ETC. 605 purpose, ^^^len a portion of the burnt lime is taken away either by Count Rumford's manner or Mr. Hcathorns, the empty space formed in the top of the kihi, by the sub- sidence which necessarily follows, is inunediately filled with fresh limestone ; and, when the opening at the bottom, through which the burnt lime is taken away, is closed, a very small aperture is left, to admit as much air as will create a draught through the hot limestone, now occupynig tlie place of that which was removed, in order to carry up its heat to the limestone in the upper part of the kiln, lliis aperture in both kilns is furnished with a register. We observe by the Dictionnaire Technologique, and the article Four a chaux, in tlie Cours Complet cT Agriculture, that tlie pei-petual kiln is reconmiended for France ; but there is no evidence of any of them having been actually erected in that country, llie form given as tliat now in general use in France is egg-shaped, with the ujiper orifice about two feet in diameter, and tlie lower one somewhat larger ; be- cause wood is burnt there on a hearth, and the calcination of the stone is effected by the flame passing througli it, and not by the mixture of fuel with the limestone. In the turf and peat districts of France, these kinds of fuel are mixed with the stone to be burnt, in the same manner as it is commonly done in Britain. Design VII. — A Kiln for burning Bricks or Tiles, or other Earthenware used in the Construction of Buildings; and which may also be used as a Kiln for burning Lime or Clay for Manure, or coking Coal or Peat, or charring Wood, impregnating Timber with PyroUgnous Acid, kiln-drying Corn, or drying Corn in the Sheaf in wet Seasons, and for other agricultu/-al Purposes. 1290. The Art of Brickmaking was, probably, one of the first inventions of man after the art of agriculture ; because houses and utensils are only second, in point of necessity, to food and clothing. Bricks may be formed in three ways : by compressing loamy soil, in an intermediate state between wet and dry, into convenient shapes of a rectangular form ; by moulding moistened clay, and drying it in the sun ; and by vitrifying these moulded forms by the application of fire. As the art of preparing the clay for making tdther bricks or tiles must be of great importance to tlie settlers in new countries, we shall, previously to describing a farm or country brick-kiln, give a short account of the manner of preparing the clay, and moulding it into bricks. 1^91. The Soil most suitable for making Bricks is a clayey loam. The surface should be removed from it in the autumn, and the subsoil dug up, and niixed ■n'itli about one sixth part of coal-ashes, during the winter; the whole being, diuing this season, exposed to the weather. In spring, it is turned over once or twice, and, after all risk is past from frost, the clay is prepared or worked, either by chopping and beating it, as dough is worked and kneaded by a baker, or by passing it througli a mill, called a pug-mill, which effects the same object mechanically. The mass being sufficiently mixed and kneaded, it is laid on a table sprinkled with dry sand, ii-om wliich it is taken in small portions, and pressed into moulds of the shape of the brick or tile which it is desired to form. These are first dried in the sun, or in tlie open air, under sheds, and afterwards burned in one or other of the modes which we are about to describe. 1292. Clamp-kilns for burning Bricks are nothing more than stacks or masses, com- posed of bricks, interspersed with layers of coal cinders. The first three or four layers or courses of bricks are placed on edge, diagonalwise, an inch or more asunder, and the superincumbent course breaking joint ; the second, third, aaid fourth courses on edge over them are also placed diagonalwise, and so as to leave considerable interstices for being filled up with the cinders. Thus, the lower part of the clamp, or kiln, is formed of about three fourths of the cubic contents of imperfectly burned bricks, and one fourth of coal cinders in the interstices between them. The superincumbent part of the clamp is formed of new-moulded bricks set close together on edge, every layer having a stratum of half an inch of small ashes placed under it. Tlie size of the kiln is without limit as to length and breadth ; but it is found that the weight of more than fifteen or twenty coiu-ses of unburned bricks, laid one over the other, will crusli or deform those at the bottom. In placing the lower stratum of four courses of open brickwork and cinders, there is a kind of horizontal tunnel, or channel, continued through the work upon the ground, about a foot broad, and eighteen inches high, which is filled with wood and coal, to serve as the means of lighting the cinders among the bricks on each side. When the contents of this tunnel are once thoroughly lighted, its ends are closed up with brick or clay. The stack or clamp is carried up in sections, or vertical strata, of between tliree and four feet in thick- ness ; and when as many bricks are put together as it is desired to burn, the whole is surrounded by a double casing of refuse bricks or such as are impcrfectlv formed, for the purpose of keeping in the heat, as well as of, to a certain extent, reburning them. A elamp-kiln generally continues burning twenty days, and is used for biu-ning bricks only. GOG COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1 293. Covered Kilns for burning Bricks or Tiles are very simple in their construction. Like limekilns, they may be formed either above the surface, or more or less under it- The objects are to generate an intense heat, to equalise it as much as possible over a given space, and to continue it in that space for a certain length of time. The form which we have already given for a limekiln would answer perfectly for a brick-kiln ; provided arched ribs were thrown across it, at the height of ten feet one above another, in order to prevent the pile of unburned bricks from being crushed or deformed by their own weight. Where the situation admits, a brick-kiln will always be constructed on the most durable plan when the body of the kiln is sunk in a dry soil ; because, in this case, the side walls may be much narrower, and also because the escape of heat by them will be much more difficult. A kiln to burn 20,000 bricks at a time need not have the chamber more than sixteen feet by fourteen feet, and eight feet high ; above which, the sides may be gradually gathered in, so as to terminate, at the height of twenty or twenty-five feet, in an opening of two or three feet in diameter. The fire is supplied below the floor of the kiln ; this floor being of open work, and at such a height above the fire as that the flames and heat may be equally diffused in their ascent through the openings in the floor. The fire is made in two or more furnaces, which generally extend the whole length of the kiln ; and these furnaces are made larger or smaller, according as they are intended to burn coal or faggot wood. Those who are desirous of building a complete brick and tile kiln may consult Ware's Architecture, chapters xii. and xv., in which they will find the plan and description of one for burning 34,000 tiles ; and, at the same time, about half as many bricks. We shall confine ourselves here to a kiln of a very small size, which will burn bricks, tiles, lime, or clay, at pleasure. It may also be used for coking coal, to be employed for chamber fires, or French cooking ; for making charcoal of wood, or peat ; and various other purposes. For example, when the kiln is employed in burning bricks, or charring wood or peat, a quantity of timber to be saturated with the pyrolignous acid of the smoke may be placed over the mouth of the kiln, under the tiled roof; and all the large openings in the latter closed. In wet seasons, corn in the sheaf may be placed under this roof; and coke, coal, or peat, burned below. By removing the arched top, and replacing it by a flat one, like that of a malt or hop kiln, it is evident that malt, hops, and corn, previously to being ground into meal ; peas, before being split ; or sliced potatoes, to be preserved ; and other articles, may be dried, using coke or charcoal as the fuel. 1 294. Details of the Design. The situation of this kiln is supposed to be similar to that of the limekilns, on the face of a steep bank ; but it may be built on a level surface, of the same dimensions, surrounding the brickwork with two iron hoops. The walls of the ground plan are shown curved outwards ; in which form they are found to expand and contract with less injury than when they are built straight. In the latter case, they contract to a concave line, and ultimately give way. Fig. 1164 is the ground plan ; in which a shows the walls two feet thick; h, an outer wall \\6^ of nine inches, with a vacuity of six inches between ; c is the ash-pit, sixteen feet long, and two feet six inches wide ; d, part of the iron bars laid over it, two inches deep, one inch broad, and half an inch apart : these bars are cast hollow, and laid loose ; e is the opening or doorway over the furnace by which the kiln is charged with brick or other materials to be burned, after which the door is built up. Fig. 1 1(55 is a dissected horizontal section from A to B in fig. 1167, in which / is part of the ash-pit ; <7, part of the grating; h, part of the bearing arches over the grating ; i, the first layer of open brick- work on edge over the bear- ing arches ; k, the second layer crossing the first, which 1165 MALT-IIOUSES, LIMEKILNS, BRICK-KILNS. ETC. 007 forms the floor of the kUn ; and /, the sill of the door of the kilu. Fig. 1166 is a transverse section on the line 1166 C 1), in which m is the ash- pit J n, the fuel-chamber ; o, the bearing arches over it ; p, the open brickwork, form- ing the floor of the kiln ; q, double arches over the kiln mouth ; there being in the lower arch six small openings on the sides for the escape of the smoke, and in the upper arch four larger openings along the top ; the united areas of the openings in each arch being equal to the area of the ash-pit door; r, coverings of iron or stone to the upper openings, for use when it is desired to retain the heat in the kiln ; s, roof covered with tiles for enclosing timber to be smoked, corn in the sheaf to be dried, &c., and for serving as a roof when the covering arches are taken off, and the kiln used as a malt or corn kiln ; t, a vacuity between the inner and outer walls. Where t t the kiln is likely to be used alternately for burning bricks and lime, and for drying corn, instead of a fixed arch of aiasonry over the top, an arch may be bidlt on a cast-iron frame placed on wheels, and 1167 d .^ S ■I M M H arawn off and on at pleasure by windlasses, as practised at Closebum, and figured and described in the Ency. of Agric. 2d edit. § S864. Fig. 1167 is a longitudinal section on the line E F, in which u is the roof of the fuel-shed, and the shed under which the moulded bricks are dried before being put in the kiln ; v, the kiln floor ; w., the open 008 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. brickwork under it ; x, the bearing arches ; y, the iron bars of the fuel-chamber ; z, the ash-pit ; a', the open- ings in the under arch ; b', the openings with covers to the upper arch ; c' a tri- angular opening in the upper part of one end for the escape of the sirtoke; and d', an entrance door. Fig. 1 168 is a ground plan of the fuel-shed, and the shed over the kiln, in which, e' is the fuel-shed on the lower level ; /', the upper arch of the kiln ; g', the under arch ; h', the kiln chamber, and £', the door to the upper shed. Fig. 1169 is a section through the plan at G H, showing the i-oof and pillars of the fuel-shed, and the elevation of the wall of the kiln, and the end of the upper shed. In the lower part may be seen the furnace and ash- pit doors ; above them the door to the kiln, k' ; and in the end of the upper roof the opening for permitting the escape of smoke, /. In this elevation, as in those of all the preceding De- signs of kilns, no attention has been paid to effect, and i ; very little to architectural style ; but every building ^^' ' ° . . may be made to have an appearance, expressive not only of architectural design, but even of some particular architectural cha- racter. This character may be de- rived from its use, its locality, or from historical allusion. For example, a brick-kiln may be built on the face of a bank, like that before us, with no- thing more than simple architectural expression ; that is, having the walls marked as such by the proper sizing, squaring, jointing, and laying in ho- rizontal beds, of the stones compos- ing them ; or, by other means, in connection with these, by tliis time well known to the reader. Now, the expression of use may be given by a kiln chimney being made the leading feature ; that of local connection and character by the same forms of arches, or other openings or prominent parts, being adopted, as those which are most striking in an adjoining bridge, or other public building; and historical allu- sion may be created by carrynig up the kiln-shed as a castellated tower, or fragment of a ruin. 1168 G M ALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILN'S, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. ()09 Design VIII. — A Cider-house, ^HU, and Press, according to the Plan most generally approved of in the Counties of Hereford and Worcester. 1295. The Cider-house is shown in figs. 1170, 117), and 1172. Fig. 1170 is the ground-plan, in which a is the entrance door, and b the door to a cellar, where a stone 1170 ^ ■ / N :. O : s / vat for receiving the Liquor should be placed, ha^•ing a trough from the lip of the press to it. There are three windows, c c c ; the cider-mill, d, is placed in the centre of the house ; and the press, e, at one comer near the door to the vat cellar. Fig. 1171 is a longi- 1171 tadinal section through the centre of the building, in which maj' be seen the cider-mill, n-ith its stone trough, y"; upright shaft, g ; grinding wheel, h ; and horse-shaft, i. Fig. 1172 is a cross section on the line C D ; in which are seen the cider-press, k; the door to the vat-cellar, I ; and the window, m. 1296. The Cider- Mill is shown in the plan, fig. 1173, and in the sections on the line 610 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. A B, fig. 1174, and on the line C D, fig. 1175. In each of these figures, the same letters represent the same parts : a represents an upright shaft or spindle four inches and 1173 a half in diameter, with an iron band and gudgeon on each end ; the top one working on an iron plate with a hinge joint and staple to release the spindle. The bottom gudgeon is shouldered, to prevent it going too far up the shaft, and it works in a cast-iron cap, b ; fixed to tlie cross-piece or arm, c, which is bedded in the stonework, d. There are three other arms, e, halved on c, at right angles to it, for the purpose of securing the circular rim, f, to which the cogs or teeth, g, are fixed. There is an axle or spindle, h, one end of which works in the upright shaft, a, and which is compelled to revolve on its own axis, when taken round with the spindle, l)y means of the spokes,^', which work in between M ALT-HOUSES, LIMEKH.NS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. 6ll r-^ the cogs or teetli, g ; the other end works in an iron collar, k, which is attached by means of the iron bar, /, to the horse-shaft, m, so that the power of the horse, when 1175 applied, causes the axle, h, which has a millstone, n, fastened on it, to revolve in the circular channel, o ; into which the fruit intended to be ground is put. The channel and millstone must both be of siliceous or grit stone ; and the former must be guarded by the oaken curb, p ; and by two bands of strong hoop iron around the periphery of the mill at q. The pole, r, is a piece of oak three inches square, fastened to the upright shaft, a, and to the horse-shaft, m ; and from the top of the upright shaft, a, there is an iron bar, s, for the purpose of supporting the pole near its junction with the horse- shaft, 7)1. 1297. The Cider-Press is shown in figs. 1 176 to 1 179, in which the same letters repre- sent the same parts. Fig. 1178 is a plan of the press; fig. 1176 is a section on the line A B, in fig. 1178. Fig. 1177 is a section on the line C Dj and fig. 1179 is an isometrical view. The letter a represents the oak sill 6 feet long, 14 inches by 7 inches, the top of which is level with the ground ; to this sill, the upright, b, 14 inches by 9 inches, is framed and pinned, the angles being further secured by 4 pieces, c, nailed to both ; d is a piece of oak 14 inches by 12 inches, framed to the upright, b, for the purpose of supporting the bed of the press, e, which is of oak, 3 inches thick, doweled together, 61^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 3 feet 9 inclies wide, and the same in lengtli, with the angles canted off. ( Dowels, in timberwork, are pins, or tenons, generally of oak, which are let into two pieces intended to be joined in their interior, so as not to be seen externally : it differs from the mortise and tenon, in the tenon or dowel being a separate piece from the two which it connects. In fig. 1180, a a are round oak pins for dowelling two fir planks together, and b b two dovetail pieces of wood or iron, or sometimes of stone, for dowelling two stones together.) A groove or channel 2 inches wide is cut on the bed, within 2 inches of its edge all round, being half an inch deep at the back, and 1 inch and a half at the front, where the middle plank projects 3 inches beyond the others ; and a channel is cut through at /, called the lip, which is throated underneath, to prevent the liquor being wasted ; ^ is a loose plank, 3 feet 9 inches by 3 feet 1 inch, of 3- inch oak, framed flush on both sides, used for the purpose of placing on the haircloths containing the pulp or cheese ; h is the presser, which is of cast iron, 8 inches by 2 inches and a half in the centre, and 6 inches by 2 inches at each end, whei'e a groove is cut 1 inch and a half by 1 inch to admit the oak guides that are nailed on the uprights, b. The presser is suspended by means of two slots, i, to the bottom of the iron screw, k, which has a groove turned imme- diately under its nave for the slots to work in. The nave of the screw is about 9 inches long and 8 inches in diameter, with two holes through its centre at right angles to each other, to admit an iron lever bar. The screw is 4 inches in diameter, and has a square thread of about one-seventeenth pitch, or 16 revolutions to the foot, working in an iron box, I, which has two lips cast on it to prevent it from turning round, being mortised and pinned into the top beam of the press, m, which is of the same size, and framed and pinned to the uprights, b, in a similar manner to d. 1 298. Specification of the works to be performed in the erection of a cider- house, mill, and press, according to the plan most generally approved of in the counties of Hereford and Worcester, as detailed in the accompanying drawings, figs. 1176 to 1179. 1299. Excavator. To excavate the earth to the depth of 3 feet 6 inches, and of such breadth as may be necessary TO allow for working-room. The space between the wall and the solid earth to be filled in on each side of the walls equally, as they are carried up, and the 1177 '^f: i3 MALT-HOUSES, LIiMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. 6l3 remainder of tlic earth that may be excavated to be used to fill up the bed of the mill, or to be wheeled away to any distance required, not exceeding 20 yards. 1300. Bricklayer. The walls to be commenced with good brick or stone, IS inches wide and 6 inches high, and reduced on that to 14 inches wide and 6 inches high ; whence they arc to be continued 9 inches thick to the roof; the whole of the bricks being of good quality. Com- mon bricks are to be used laid in English bond in good mortar, made with the best lime and sand that can be obtained, or is used for such purposes, in the parish. The door and window cases to be properly set, and a brick on edge arch and platting course (a brick flat arch, over a brick j^^ J7/ ^ ^ ^ on edge one) over eacii. The templets (short pieces of timber laid under the beams, to distribute the weight), bond, ar.d raising plates to be well bedded in mortar on the walls, and a 3-brick diagonal dentil cornice to be worked under the eaves. (Jl4f COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1180 DP' 1301. Carpenter arid Joiner. To provide two 5 inches by 4 inches oak beaded and rebated door-cases, 7 feet by 3 feet 9 inches in the clear ; with 2 iron dowels in the bottom of each, 6 inches long and 1 inch square ; and 2 1-inch centre-boards on each ; having IJ-incli red deal ledged, ploughed, tongued, and beaded doors hung to them with 20-inch hooks and hinges, put on with 1 5-inch screws, and a good fine plate copper ward-lock of the value of 4s. on each door. Two one-light windows, 3 feet by 2 feet in the clear, to be provided, of 3 inches by 4 inches oak, with 2 1-inch centre-boards, and 3 iron bars 1 inch square each ; 1-inch deal ledged doors, ploughed, tongued, and beaded, to be hung outside each window with 10-inch hooks and hinges, and fastened inside with hasps and staples. The templets under the tie-beams, and the bond timbers through the o-ables, to be of 3 inches by 4 inches oak, each in one length. The tie-beams to be of Memel timber, 10 inches by 6 inches ; and the raising plates to be properly cogged down upon them, in one length of 6 inches by 3 inches Memel timber ; the rafters to be also of Memel fir, 5 inches and three quarters by 2 inches, and 1 8 inches from centre to centre ; the ridge-board, 8 inches and a half by 1 inch and a half, of red deal ; the ridge roll (a piece over which the lead is turned on ridges and hips,) to be 1 inch and three quarters in diameter, supported by proper ridge spikes 4 feet apart j the tie-beam in which the top of the upright spindle works to have two diagonal stays of 6 inches by 4 inches Memel fir from its centre to the ends of the other tie-beam, being mortised, tenoned, and pinned to each other. An oak curb to be made to go all round the mill, and the millwright assisted in rimming it, and spindling the stone. 1302. Slater. The roof to be covered with Welsh blue duchess slates, having a 2^- inch lap on 2 inches by 1 inch red deal battens, and nailed on them with 2-inch copper nails, and torched (plastered at the crevices, to keep the wind out) on the underside with hair mortar. 1303. Ironmongery. To provide and fix cast-iron spouting with proper brackets at intervals of 3 feet ; hopper head 2 inches down pipe, and shoe to each side of the building. 1 304. Plumber and Painter. The ridge to be covered with 5-pound milled lead 22 inches wide, and both the doors, door and window cases, shutters and cast-iron spouts to be well painted with good white lead and oil paint three times. 1305. Stone Mason. To provide and set 2 pair of plinth stones and lead in dowels, each stone being 9 inches square and 6 inches thick. To provide and set stones for the bed of the mill as shown in drawings ; the stones to be well and properly cramped with iron, and joggled together with good hard stone joggles (the same as doweled in car- pentry ; the use of the stone joggles is to prevent two pieces of stone joined together from sliding apart at the joint) where necessary. The stones to be of the best siliceous or grit kind that is usually procured for the purpose, and the millstone to be of similar quality. The millwright to be assisted in spindling the millstone, and in rimming th" mill. 1 306. Millwright. To p/ovide every description of labour, and all kinds of materials that may be requisite for the completion of the mill and press, except the wood rim and stone bed of the mill, which will be provided by the carpenter and stone mason, both of whom will assist the millwright to rim the mill and spindle the millstone. 1 307. General Particular. The whole of the works must be performed in a good, sound, and workmanlike manner, and every part made complete and perfect ; using the best materials in every department of the works, and the whole being In conformity with the foregoing specification and the accompanying drawings. 1308. Detailed Estimate of Cider Mill-house, Mill, and Press. £ s. d. 92 feet of lineal trenches excavated O : 10 : O 1013 feet superficial 9-inch brickwork (or 2 rods 131 feet 4 inches), at 6rf. per foot, or jglO : 4s. per rod 25: 6: 6 55 feet lineal dentil brick cornice, at 2d. per foot 0: 9: 2 3 squares 43 feet 9 inches of duchess slating, torched underneath, and copper-nailed, at 36s. per square 6: 3: 9 MALT-HOUSES. LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. 6l5 40 feet of lineal 3 inches by 4 inches oak ties and templets, at 4^il. per foot Of 15 : 60 feet cubic red pine timber, the beams, wall-plates, rafters, &c. at Ss. 6. conveying a part of the heat to an outside poultry- house. It is only necessary to extend the flues under its floor. Neither can there be the slightest difficulty in contriving a poultry-house to be heated from the fire of the living-room, when a new cottage is to be built ; for, in the case of a double cottage, two poultry-houses may be placed between the two dwellings, as in fig. 1200, in which / is one dwelling, and g its poultry-house ; and h another dwelling, and i its poultry-house. In the case of single cottages, the poultry-house may either be a lean-to, as proposed for old cottages, or it may be a recess, as in fig. 1201 ; in which k is the dwelling, and I, the poultry-house; the back of the fireplace, m, being supposed to be a cast-iron plate. Perhaps vre have gone more into details on this part of our subject than to some may appear necessary ; but we are extremely anxious to introduce poultry- houses of an improved kind, generally, into the cottages of farm labourers ; and an important step to this is, to make Architects and their employers aware of what is wanted. Sect. V. Designs for Farmery Dwellings for rioughmen and other Yearly Servanli employed on the Farm. 1330. Every Scotch Farmery has some hitman Dwellings belonging to it, in addition to that of the master ; and, in most districts, there is a room, or a couple of rooms, in some places called a bothy, for the single men, with one or more cottages, in a line, not far distant from the farmery, for men having families. This is one of the great advan- tages which the modern farmeries of Scotland, and of the north of England, have over those of most other parts of the island. In consequence of these dwellings, the men employed in taking care of the horses, and in other agricultural labours, being always on the spot, are enabled to commence their work in the morning, without being previously fatigued by getting up very early, and perhaps walking a mile or more to the farm ; and they can also afford to stay later on extra occasions ; always arriving at home less fatigued in the evenings, than they could do under other circumstances. The wives and families of such men must evidently be much more comfortable than when the man has to go a distance to his work ; and the master must feel proportionately satisfied by being enabled to consider his ploughmen as forming part of his family. It is well known in Scotland, that the ploughmen who live with their families on the farms on which they work, and who are paid partly in money and partly in kind, are the most comfortable, moral, and laborious of country workmen ; and it appears to us to be very desirable that the same practice should be introduced into the midland and southern districts of England. We have seen, in § 795, that those in Scotland are suflSciently wretched ; and, in § 996, that those in the north of England are little better. In the agricultural counties of the south and west of England, the cottages of the ploughmen are generally more commodious than those in the north ; though those of some of the midland counties, Buckinghamshire for example, may be referred to in proof of a contrary opinion. Various attempts have been made to introduce improvements into this class of dwellings, and we shall here bring together 1201 628 COTTAGE, FAIl.M, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. a few plans devised by difTerent individuals for that purpose ; previously giving the plan and interior arrangement of ploughmen's cottages as they now exist in Scotland, in Northumberland, and in Wiltshire. 1331. No yreat Iiiij/rofeiiieiit in the Cottages of Farm Labourers, however, can be expected, till tiie farmer looks upon liis labourers in a very different point of view from what he does at present. Tlie relative situation of these two classes is that of seller and buyer, or rather master and slave ; the one trying to get a maximum of labour for a minimum of remuneration, and looking upon his labourer as a being inferior to himself, and, in short, as little better than a beast of burden ; and the other regarding his master as his natural enemy, to be taken advantage of on every occasion where it can be done with imi)unity. With a superior degi-ee of knowledge in both parties, the labour of the servant, and the wages and accommodation of the master woidd be merely looked upon as articles of exchange, inferring no degree of obligation on either side ; and, in those fluctuations in the price of labour which mast ever take place, implying no greater personal subjection, or inferiority of dignity, than now takes place between foreign and British merchants, when regulating their accounts according to the rate of exchange between their respective nations. This desirable result can only be brought about by universal education, by which every man will be enabled to rise in the scale of being, in proportion to his native intellect ; and all will be essentially alike in what relates to manners ; which, after all, have more influence than even intellect in conferring personal dignity. 1332. When evert/ Farmer and the Labourers settled on his Farm shall consider them- selves more in the light of a small cooperative society, and it shall be tlie interest of the one party to act for the benefit of the other, as well as for his own advantage ; then will the comfort and happiness of both be greatly increased : the labourer will cease to look upon his employer as a hard taskmaster, and the master upon his servant as a mere instrument of labour, or an unwilling slave ; then will kindly feelings be again awakened in both bosoms, and the wish to confer mutual benefits revive. Tyranny and servility have alike a tendency to harden the heart and to stifle all the better feelings of human nature : there is much of both in the present situation of labourers and their employers ; but let labour find its fair value in the market, and be regarded only as an article of barter given in exchange for wages, and the moral condition of the labourer will be raised ; he will feel himself restored to the dignity of a responsible agent, and all the nobler feelings of his nature will be called forth. 1333. One of the first Results of a right understanding between farmers and their labourers will be, the enjoyment of certain accommodations in common ; such as an oven, a brewhouse or cider-house, a wash-house and washing-machine, a mangle, and a mode of heating. We will not go farther than this, though we might anticijiate something nearer patriarchal equality ; for the height of refinement is to return to simplicity : but there is this difference, that the one is the simplicity of knowledge, and the other the simplicity of ignorance. One of the first sources of comfort which, in cold countries such as Britain, the farm labourer will enjoy in common with his employer is, we think, artificial heat. Of all the laborious, wasteful, and extravagant modes of procuring this necessary of life, that of employing open fireplaces is the worst ; being scarcely more than one step removed from the savage practice of lighting a fire in the middle of a hut, sitting round it, and feeding it with boughs. The Chinese, and the Continental nations of Europe, even the semi-barbarous Russians, are far in advance of us in this respect. We have suggested the mode of heating by smoke-flues under the floors ; but even this is a comparatively imperfect mode, to what may be practised in every farmery, after steam sliall have been as generally introduced for driving threshing and other machinery, and cooking food for cattle, &c., as we are persuaded it very soon will be. Our attention has been called to this subject by an enlightened correspondent residing in Edinburgh, whose communication, given in his own words, will enable the Architect, with the greatest ease, to devise the means of heating the floors of farm houses, farm labourers' cottages, and farmery bothies, from the same steam-apparatus which is erected in the farmery for cooking food for the live stock. 1 334. Heating the Floors of Cottages by Steam. " The excellent method you pi-opose for heating the dwellings of tlie working classes is, unfortunately, limited to situations where a fireplace can be established on a lower level than the floors which are to be heated ; and is, besides, objectionable in localities where the nature of the coal employed causes a rapid deposition of soot, by which the heat abstracted from the fuel is, in great jiart, forced along into the exterior atmosphere. In such situations, an arrangement may be adopted, which has been successfully applied here, in the following case : — The Police Office being built on the side of very steep ground, the front of the building is about 20 feet higher than the back part. A range of cells for prisoners had been added on the lowest level, and were so situated that it became a difficult question how they were DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS. (j'29 to be heated and ventilated during cold weather. I suggested the following method, uiiich was ad;)i)tee has been sent us as a genuine specimen of a Wiltshire farm labourer's cottage, by a much esteemed correspondent resident in its neighbourhood. 1342. Accommodation. The smaller cottage contains one living-room, fig. 120.5, a, with a fireplace at b, a closet under the stairs, and a door out of this closet to the dairy or pantry, c ; there is an oven from the backof thefireplace,d; and the chamber-floor is divided into two rooms. This cottage is entered from the front by three steps at e ; and it has a garden and orchard of about the eighth of an acre at /. The larger cottage is entered behind by one step at g, into a porch, as the ground rises from the front to the back : it contains a kitchen, h, with a fireplace at i ; a closet at h ; another under the stairs ; an oven at Z; a wash-house at m 1205 and pantry at n. The space over is divided into one large and two smaller bed-rooms. There are a garden and orchard belonging to this cottage at o ; and the public road passes on the two sides, p and q. Fig. 1 206 shows the external elevation of the two dwellings. 1 343. Description. The following observations accompanied the above Design : — " This old double cottage was originally a small farm house. It is built of stone, except the gable, which is of flint and stone in narrow layers : the smaller tenement is more DWELLINGS FOll FARM SERVANTS. i)33 modern than the other. The windows have all stone frames and mullions, except that in the roof; the window v/ith the label over it is a very handsome one. Tlie ground plan is just as it is here represented. The stairs in the larger cottage might be better placed ; and the smaller cottage should have a good window, instead of the small one near the fireplace ; but they are both comfortable dwellings in summer, though in winter the floors are damp. In the smaller cottage a spring rises close to tlie fireplace, althou ^»— ^ 652 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. containing 6000 cubic feet of air at a comfortable temperature, during the most severe weather of an Edinburgh winter. The same excellent correspondent observes, that a convenient improvement in register grates with polished bars is, to have the fronts of the grates made to lift off", so as to allow them to be taken out of the room to be cleaned. Wlien several grates of the same pattern are in the same house, a spare front may be hooked on, when the blackened one is taken away ; and this, in its turn, when polished, may be used as a spare one in another room. As much of the light dust which lodges upon furniture arises from the stirring of the fire, this may be in a great measure prevented, in register grates, by having a horizontal slit, or row of holes made through the back plate, just under the grate bottom: as a current of air will always be flowing by such openings into the space between the back plate and the wall, the light dust which is separated by stirring the fire will be carried in by this current, insteac of partly eddying out into the room. 1 374. The Furniture for lite Living and Sleeping Rooms of a Farm House have nothing in them which is peculiar ; and therefore we refer our readers to what we have saio respecting the furniture of cottages, for farm houses of the smaller size; and to what we shall say of the furniture of villas, for those of a larger description. As all educated persons living in the country must necessarily derive a considerable portion of theii enjoyment from books, the parlour of the farmer ought always to be provided either with a large bookcase, or, for economy's sake, with one or more recesses in an interior 1246 wall or partition, fitted up with book- shelves. In either case, where glass, or glazed bookcase doors are considered too expensive, we would recommend a blind of canvass working in two grooves, as an equally efficacious protection for the books. This is the invention of a very ingenious architect, Charles Vokins, Esq., who has adopted it in his office bookcase. In the styles or sides of the frame of the shelves, fig. 1246, a a are the grooves, and 6 b the laths to wliich the canvass is attached, which work in them. The blind thus formed being pulled down by the knob c, and pulled up by the cord d, the last operating on a spring roller, enclosed in a tin case fixed in the top of the bookcase ; e is the scutcheon of a lock in the lath, for locking up the whole or any number of shelves. The book- shelves, where economy is the main object, may be fixed ; but where they are movable, and supported by pins, we would recommend another improvement, invented also by Mr. Vokins. This is, having the pins of metal broad and flat, so as to fit into grooves in the under sides • 129630123 of the shelves ; by which means two more '"• , , , , , , . F'. books are got upon each shelf than it would otherwise hold, without raising it the thickness of the pin above the height of tlie books, which would thus lose a space of an inch or more the whole length of the shelves. Two flush brass bolts in each shelf would effect the same object, but in a more expensive manner. 1375. Saul's Bookcase and Writing-desk Clock forms a curious and useful piece of furniture for the farm-house parlour. This clock, fig. 1247, Mr. Saul observes, " differs from any I have seen ; and may, at first sight, appear expensive : but this is by no means the case ; for there are few mouldings about it, beads looking equally well, and being much cheaper. Long before I made this piece of furniture, I always considered the common clockcases defective, from the room taken up by them, when compared with the very small space occupied by the works of the clock ; and I therefore endeavoured to make every part of use. In describing this clock, I may commence with the face. As my name has twelve letters in it, I have placed them on the clock face, instead of tlie figures which denote the hours ; the figures in the inner rim represent the hours also ; but tliose on the outer rim are on an entirely new plan. Those to the left of six o'clock, and twelve o'clock, representing how many minutes it is to such an hour, and those to INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES. 653 the right representing how many minutes it is past such an hour. This arrangement will be more easily understood by looking at the face of the clock in the drawing, than by any description. I think it particularly useful for farm servants, and such sort of people, in the counti-y ; many of whom I have known, who could not teU the minutes otherwise than by guess. At the angles of the face I have the four seasons painted, and on each side 1 have an urn lined with lead, in which I can put water for keeping cut flowers. The upper part, a, of this urn, takes off, to admit of changing the water and arranging the flowers. Under the head of the clock I have shelves fixed for books, as the pendulum 1248 CySif COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. and weights only occupy a space of seven inclies square, which I have enclosed as a trunk or case, so that the books can be removed without ever interfering with the working of the clock. Being an eight-day clock, it only requires the lines of the weights to be two feet ten inches long ; so that I have the whole of the lower part of the stand for drawers or whatever I choose. This lower part I have fitted up with a writing- desk in a drawer, with a slider b, for writing upon, which moves from c to d, and from which you have received many a letter. Under this writing-drawer I have two doors, which enclose three sliders or trays, like fig. 1248, which I use for keeping paper in When I am writing, I keep the doors open, as I find this more convenient for drawing out the sliders, and referring to the papers they contain." This piece of furniture, which we have taken the liberty of calling Saul's Bookcase and Writing-desk Clock, and for which, Mr. Saul being a cabinet-maker and joiner, we could wish he had 10,000 orders, is seven feet high, in three divisions. The lower division is two feet four inches high, by three feet wide, and two feet deep from front to back ; the middle or bookcase division, is two feet ten inches high by two feet wide, and the top is twenty-two inches high by twenty inches wide. The diameter of the large turned baluster is three inches in the widest part; and that of the small balusters is two inches in the widest part. The shelves are sufficient for containing a select agricultural library, and the writing-desk below, with slides for papers, must be amply sufficient for the correspondence and accounts of any ordinary farmer. 1376. The Introduction of Iron into the Furniture of Farm Houses would be attended with considerable economy, at least in the article of dining-tables, sideboards, bedsteads, and hall, lobby, or porch chairs. The sideboards may be formed of slabs of native marble in some districts, and slate in others, supported by enriched cast-iron feet, fig. 1249, or by brackets of various kinds, fig. 1250. Sideboards of this kind have a massive architectural efl[ect, very suitable for all houses whatever, and especially for houses in the country, where room is not an object. For our own part, we should even prefer slabs of finely polished stone, as sideboards, to wood of any kind; but cast iron maybe substituted; and, where neither metal nor stone is approved of, wood of some kind is always to be obtained, and may be worked and polished at pleasure. Fig. 1251 is a circular table, the top of which may be made of mahogany, or any other finely grained wood, and the supports of cast iron bronzed. The idea of having iron bedsteads will, we have no doubt, shock those who have been always accustomed to consider mahogany as essential for tliis piece 1250 of furniture : but we can assure them that they are to be found in the houses of people of wealth and fashion in London ; sometimes even for best beds. 1377. The Kitchen of the Farm House requires a good kitchen range or grate, which should always be accompanied by a boiler on one side, to afford a constant supply of hot water ; and an oven on the other, for baking, or keeping things hot. Both should be heated by the same fire. There are numerous cast-iron kitchen grates with a boiler on one side and at the back, and an oven on the other side; and we have already (§ 592) figured and described what we consider one of the simplest and best. For a farm house it should generally be on a larger scale than for a cottage ; and the most abundant choice may be obtained at the shops of the ironmongers in every part of Britain. In Derbyshire there are square cast-iron boxes, with iron or stone lids built in, at the sides of the kitchen fireplaces of farmeries; and Mr. Farey, in his elaborate, accurate, and most philosophical report of the county, informs us that they have been found great sources of usefulness and comfort, in supplying abundance of hot water at all times. INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES. 655 III Northumberland and Berwickshire, the kitchen fireplaces are fitted up in a very economical manner, so as to supersede, in many cases, the necessity of hav- ing a back-kitchen ; a plan, however, not favour- able to cleanliness, essen- tial requisites for which are space and separation. The jambs or sides of the fuel-chamber are built of a kind of stone which resists fire, or of fire- brick. One cast-iron grat- ing, fig. 1252, is built in as a bottom, and another grating, fig. 1253, is let into the stone at both ends as a front. On one side in ~~ the masonry is built in a cylindrical cast-iron oven, seen in fig. 1254 ; and in the other is built an open boiler, generally, also, of cast iron, with a wooden cover, and separated from the fuel-chamber by an upright plate of stone or iron, coved behind, and 1252 1253 arched over at top, as shown in the figure. Beneath the oven, and beneath and around the boiler or pot, as it is called in those counties, flues are formed opening from the fuel- chamber, as shown in the section, fig. 1255, in which a is the opening or commence- 1254 1255 ment of the flue of the oven ; b, the front grate ; c, the bottom grate ; and d, the throat of the chimney. This forms the cheapest description of efficient kitchen range that we know of for a farm house ; and, for a country where the fuel is coal, and abundant, it answers every purpose. A somewhat better kitchen range is formed by employing what is called a standard grate, fig. 1256, the upper bar of which lets down at pleasure by lifting up the catch, e, in fig. 1257. In this section, /is the bottom grate let into the stone at g ; h, the flue of the oven or boiler ; and i, the tie l)ar of the standard grate, which, being let into the stone at k, keeps it from falling forward. There are cast-iron kitchen grates suitable for farm houses, manufactured in large quantities at the Shotts iron- 656 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AIICHITECTURE. 1256 ^ e works, at Whitburn, near Glasgow, and sold there at various prices, from SO*, to 90s. by- retail. Where timber is the principal fuel, there is no stove better adapted for throwing 1258 ; but it is not so well adapted for cooking 1258 out heat than the American stove, fij^ as the British cast-iron ranges. It might, however, be mucli improved in this respect, by having the project- ing shelf or cap, a, hinged, so as to lift up ; and by having a hook fixed in its underside, from which a pot might be suspended. Where stoves of this kind are used, the oven and boiler are necessarily built apart from the open fire, and heated separately ; though it would be an easy matter to connect with this stove both an oven for baking, and a square cistern for heat- ing water, either for tlie purposes of cookery, or cleaning, or for circulation to heat some other apartment, or to hatch eggs, or keep warm a poultry place. Great benefits have been ex- perienced from the introduction of the American stove into some farm houses in Kent ; where, from the large open chimneys, it was before their introduction found impossible to keep the kitchen, which is there generally the farmer's living-room, comfortably warm. Such kitchens were only rendered habitable by elderly people, in consequence of the use of the large chair or settle, § 636, fig. 636. When anthracite or blind coal is the principal fuel, Hinton's AmcvJcan cooking-stove, figured and described in the Mechanics' Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 273., may be employed. In all cases where wood is the principal fuel, we believe it will be foinid decidedly the most economical method to heat the air of the kitchen, as well as the living-rooms, by stoves, as in Germany ; by benches of flues, as in China; or, better still, by underground flues, or steam-pipes under the floor, to heat a mass of masonry, as we have before proposed ; and to make the fires used in cookery on raised hearths. 1378. The Back-Kitchen or Scullery of the farm house should always be fitted up with a large sink for dirty water, with a trap and drain communicating with the liquid manure tank ; and in many cases it may be found worth while to have a second sink communicating with the tank for pig's food. There are excellent sinks formed of cast iron ; sometimes also they are formed of wood, and covered with lead ; but most generally they are hewn out of stone ; and this kind, as the most durable and the simplest, we think the best adapted for farm houses. Cast-iron sinks are, however, very mucli used ; and some excellent forms have been sent us liy Mr. Mallet, who has made great numbers of them. We shall here give fig. 1259, which may serve as a pattern either for a stone or INTEUIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES. ()07 l'25[) 1260 iron sink, or one of wood covered with lead. The sloping plate, a, which ought to be grooved, is found particularly useful for draining the water from vegetables, fish, &c., and should never be omitted in any kitchen sink. 1379. Jmong the Fumilitre of the Store-room of a farm house, there ought to be proper weighing and measuring machines, for proving the weight or measure of articles purchased. One of the most ingenious and generally appli- cable weighing-machines is the farm and family steelyard, invented by Mr. Ruthven of Edin- burgh. It may be made to any size, so as to weifh either a pound or a ton; and only one weight is necessary, its power being increased or diminished by the weight used being moved along a lever. (See IJhc^/c of Jgr., 2d edit. § 2570, fig. 280.) Fig. 1260 is a weighing- machine, for eitlier grocery goods, bread, butcher's meat, or any similar articles, which, thouo-h it is not so extensively useful as the other, yet is more simple ; and, occasioning very httle trouble, and not being liable to go out of repair, is well adapted for general use. The dial weigh- ing-machine, also, occasions very little trouble ; but, as its accuracy depends on the elasticity of the iron spring continuing always the same, it cannot, we think, be so durable an instrument as either of the two above mentioned. 1.380. The Fittings iip and Furnishing of the Dairy have been noticed § 729. The dairy furniture consists of the churn, of which there is a great variety of kinds ; but the cheapest and best, on a very small scale, is the box-churn {Encyc of Agr., 2d edit, fig. 1214), already recommended for cottages. For a dairy on a large scale, there are several excellent sorts figured in the same work, which may either be impelled by manual labour or by machinery. There is a model of one, worked by a windmill, in the museum of the Highland Society of Scotland ; and there is also a model, in the same museum, of a double churn, to be worked by manual power applied to a pendulum, the invention of Mr. Vallance of Libberton, Lanarkshire, an engineer ever fertile in ex- pedients, and the author of many valuable inventions. Of cheese- presses there are many excellent ones ; there is one of cast-iron manufactured at the Shotts ironworks, in which the pressure is produced by a combination of a wheel and pinion with a lever and weight, and the cost of which is only 65s. This press, fig, 1261, is used in the dairy of Mr. Ogilvie of Mere (see Design XXXVII. § 1153), who infonns us that his dairy- maid had a strong prejudice against it at first, but that before she had used it for three months, she greatly preferred it to the old-fashioned box-press or stone press ; as she could with this new press regulate the pressure to the greatest nicety, and with tlie greatest ease, by means of the weight on the lever, which is capable of communicating a pressure of from one ton and a half to two tons and a half. A swing frame for turn- ing cheeses has lately been invented by Mr. Blurtan, and is described in vol. xlviii. of the Transactions of the Society of Arts, p. 19- It maybe described as a double shelf ■which turns on pivots, by which means the cheeses are not only turned but placed on new surfaces. There are various descriptions of milk-pans, of wood, earthenware, and metal ; but the cheapest and best, we believe, are those of cast iron, invented by Mr John Baird, manager of the Shott's ironworks. These pans or dishes cost from \s. 6d. to 8s. 6d. each, according to their sizes, wliich are from one quart to ten gallons. Their shapes are either circular or oval ; the largest circle being twenty-one inches and a quarter in diameten. This gives the maximum of width for dairy shelves ; but square pans, by covering every part of the surface of the shelf, are the most economical. Milk-pans have been formed of zinc, and these are said to throw up cream better than pans fomied of 4 K 658 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. any other material. Zinc, however, is one of those metals which are most readily acted on by acids ; and all the soluble salts so fonned are poisonous. Zinc, therefore, is a dangerous metal to introduce into a dairy. A thermometer should be placed in every dairy, and the dairy-maid should be taught to regulate the temperature according to some fixed prin- ciple. It has been found, by experiments made at the in- Etance of the Highland Society of Scotland, " that the most proper temperature at which to commence the operation of churning butter is from 50° to 55°, and that at no time in the operation ought it to ex- ceed 65° ; while, on the con- trary, if at any time the cream should be under 50° in temperature, the labour will be much increased, without any proportionate advantage being obtained ; and a temper- ature of a higher rate than 65° will be injurious to the qua- lity as well as the quantity of the butter." {Highland Soc. Trans.) 1381. Among the Furniture for the Wash-house we would strongly recommend an im- proved washing and wringing machine, fig. 1262, as calculated to save a great deal of INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES. 659 severe labour. In this machine, a is the box containing the water and the clothes to be washed by the movement backwards and forwards of the washer, b ; c c c are three rollers, two of which are covered with flannel, and between the largest of which the clothes to be wrung are passed, and the water pressed out of them, the pressure being increased or diminished by changing the position of the weights, d, on the levers, e. The other parts of the machine require no further description in a work merely intended to recommend it to general adoption, as one of the very best washing-madiines that have ever lieen invented ; being, we believe, the only one that has a really efficient wringing- machine. In the case of all large farm establishments, we would recommend the wash- house and laundry to be detached from the house ; and to contain, besides the wasliing- machine mentioned, a mangle and drying-closet, the use of all which should be allowed, for one or two days in every week, to the families of the diflferent workmen employed on the farm. There is a number of different mangles ; but we are informed by a ma- nufacturer of several kinds, on whose judgment we can place the utmost reliance, that none have yet appeared preferable to the common mangle, with the improved reversing movement, known as Baker's Patent, fig. 1263, by which the mangle may be moved backwards and forwards while the handle is turned continually one way, instead of the operator being required every minute to reverse the motion of his arm. This is eflecttd by a wheel, a, having teeth in the form of pegs on the side, into which works a pinion. l;i63 fixed on the end of a spindle, which rises and falls in a vertical groove, c, and worLs first on the under side, and then turns round upper side. The opposite end of the spindle has a pinion, e, which is operated upon by a small wheel, which is turned by the handle, f. Where space is wanting, there are short mangles, which operate entirely by the pressure of leverage ; such as Saul's Reform Mangle, and the Edinburgh Reform Mangle, and a number of others. We shall describe a very economical mangle, given in the Mechanics' Ma- gazine, vol. xi. p. 104, and Saul's Reform Mangle. Fig. 12G4 is an end view of a cheap family mangle, which is one foot four inches high, eight inches broad, and the rollers are two feet two inches long ; a is a screw fixed to a piece of wood in which the upper roller works, for the purpose of raising it so as to put the linen between the two rollers ; b, c are the pieces of wood in which the rollers work, fitted into grooves, in the upright standards, d, e; channel at d, and works on the /. H_^ g l^llHillirH'rlliilillilli.l ' \ Mais G60 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AllCHITECTURE. // are two strong iion screws to screw on the top, g, in which the larger screw, a, works : h is tlie handle fitted on the lowest rollers. The rollers are one foot eleven inches in length, and four inches in diameter. The uprights are one inch and a half square. When the linen is to be put on, the upper roller is raised up by turning the screw. Saul's Reform Mangle is stated by its inventor " to differ from any other mangle ever yet made public. Fig. 1265 is a perspective view of it as at work Its total length, when the flaps at each end are raised up, as in the figure, is six feet, and when they are let down, it is two feet two inches square, and about two feet six inches high ; so that the whole space which it occupies is little more than eight cubic feet. Altliough this mangle stands in and occupies so little space, yet it works in the same length as the common mangles, by means of an endless cloth fixed so that it passes round two small rollers, a a, at the extreme ends of the mangle, and under the bottom roller, b, as indicated by the endless dotted line c. The linen is placed on the endless cloth at d, and then, by turning the handle e, it is carried through over the roller b, and under the roller f, till it reaches the roller a. It is then turned back, or, by placing another mangling cloth upon the endless cloth, the linen to be mangled may be carried entirely round. Thus far it is to be considered as only effecting the purpose of a com- mon mangle; but the iron roller, _y; is hollow, and admits of a heater lieing placed in it; and, when this is dane, the machine becomes an ironer as well as a mangle. To give pressure on the rollers, there is a box, g, on the two levers, h h, which box may be moved backwards and forwards at pleasure. This box may be loaded with stones, by which, and by altering its position on the levers, any degree of pressure may be given. The large roller is four inches and a half in diameter, and the small ones two inches and a quarter." We saw this mangle, when nearly completed, in July, 1831, and it appeared to us likely to answer the end proposed. A common mangle, with Baker's improved move- ment, costs, in London, from £S to £12. The cheap mangle may be got up for 20s., and Saul's ironing mangle costs from £2 to £3. 1382. The Filtin^s-vp and Furniture of the Brewhonse are generally known. We have before hinted at the advantage of having the boiler so higli that the wort can descend from it to the coolers : these being still sufficiently high to admit of the liquor descending in a similar manner to the vats or to the cellars. Domestic brewing utensils are so well known, that we shall not enumerate them : we shall notice, however, one improvement, which is that of keeping ale or beer to be drunk within the year in casks set on end, and formed rather wider at top than at bottom, gradually tapering downwards, and not bellied in the middle, as is generally the case ; by which means, as the liquor descends, in consequence of being drawn oil' for use, the head or scum which has formed on its surface still covers it entirely, and preserves it eflectually from the air. Tliis is by no means the case with liquors kept in cylindrical casks placed on their sides ; or with casks placed on end, which are not widest at top, and gradually tapering to the bottom. A highly improved method of keeping beer, by Mr. Mallet, is described in the Mechanics' Magazine, vol. v., and will be noticed under public-house furniture. 1383. The Fittings-tip and Furniture of the Cider-house have been already (§ 1312) given in sufficient detail. Where home-made wine is manufactured either from goose- INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES. 661 berries or grapes, there is a very excellent machine, comprising a hopper, crushing rollers, a trough, and press, sold by Weir and Co., Oxford Street, London, for the purpose of bruising the fruit and expressing the juice. Tliere is also a simple and economical, but very efiective, gooseberry crusher and press, figured and described in the Gardener s Magazine, vol. viii. pp. 542. 544. 1:?84. T/ie Furniture of a Cleaning-house, or Knife and Shoe House, may either contain a wheel for cleaning both knives and shoes, and all movable parts of grates, such as we shall hereafter recommend as particularly suitable for inns ; or, the very simple knife- cleaner, fig. 1266, may be used. In this figure, a b are two boards twenty inches long, 1266 six inches broad, and one inch thick, joined together, but not quite close, by a hinge at c; d e are two pieces of buff or belt leather stretched over the interior surfaces, and nailed on the exterior ones, and y is a handle, to assist in holding the apparatus steady. " In using it, lay powdered Flanders brick, or any similar dust, on the lower leather, shut the boards together, lay the left arm on the upper board holding the handle, put the knife, well wiped from grease, between the leathers, and four or five rubs forwards and back- wards, not sidewise, wiU produce a beautiful polish on both sides ; the shoulders and back may be polished by rubbing on the part of the leather turned over." This knife- board has been found to give great satisfaction. {Alech. Mag., vol. ii. p. 409.) No machine for beating and brushing clothes has yet been invented ; but it would be easy to make such adcUtions to the knife and shoe cleaning machine, above mentioned, as would not only beat and brush clothes, but beat carpets. Already a machine for scouring floors has been patented in America ; and we sincerely desire that it may soon come into use in this country, as well as the other machines mentioned ; for there are few labours more unsuitable for women than scouring floors, cleaning grates, and wringing clothes. The American scrubbing-brush is to be worked backwards and forwards by a lever, operating in the manner of a pump-handle. A flat board, on which the operator stands, is placed upon the floor on castors ; and from this rise two uprights, to sustain the pin that is the fulcrum of the lever. To the lower end of this lever the scrubbing- brush is attached. It would be easy to modify this machine in such a manner as to render it fit for rubbing tables. (See Meek. Mag., vol. xv. p. 109.) I3S5. For the Ashpit of the ICitchen- court a cinder-sifter is a very useful utensil. For the small ashpits or dustholes belonging to houses about towns, there is a portable box, in which is placed a sieve ; and, the ashes being put in, the lid put on, and the box shaken, the dust passes through the sieve, and remains in the bottom of the box ; without any dust having escaped to annoy the operator. But tliis machine is on too small a scale for a farm-house, which would either require a portable one, of double or treble the usual size, or a screen operating in a large box. When the intention is thoroughly understood, such a machine may be easily contrived by the commonest country carpenter. The object is not merely to sift the cinders, which never can be done more etfectually than by a common riddle or sieve ; but to sift them in such a manner as not to incommode the sifter by the dust. For this purpose, all that is necessary is to make such an arrangement, as tliat the riddle may be worked in a large box, by a rod passing through the box, and attached to the riddle within ; the latter resting on two laths or rails, and having sufficient room in the box to admit of its being worked backwards and forwards, A friend of ours, and a valuable contributor, Mr. Laxton, has his dusthole enclosed on all sides, with a door in front ; and through a hole in this door, the rod passes, which works the riddle. The riddle is square, and rests on two laths, placed horizontally about ."3 fett from the ground ; and when the riddle is pushed as far back as it will go, the handle projects beyond the door when the latter is shut, just as much as to enable a person to take hold of it. In the morning, when the girl carries out the ashes, she opens the dusthole door, and empties the cinders into the sieve, without changing its position ; she then shuts the door, and, taking hold of the handle, draws it to her and pushes it from her for ten or a dozen times, according to the quantity of ashes which she has put into the riddle. She then leaves it, without opening the door, in order that 662 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. the dust may subside; and, returning after breakfast, gives one single movement to the handle of the riddle, merely to shake off the dust which may have settled on its rim. She then takes out the riddle, and empties it into a cinder-box or scuttle for use. Trifling as all this may appear to some, it is yet of great importance ; because, how can a servant be expected to be cleanly in her person or her work, if the very first operation which she has to perform in the morning covers her with dust ? We have shown al)ove, § 1373, how the dirty and disagreeable operation of cleaning grates in a room may be avoided, and we have now, we trust, pointed out a mode of sifting ashes, whether on a large or small scale, so as to avoid the disagreeable consequences of covering the operator with dust. We may add, also, that the operation is more likely to be well performed by this contrivance, and fewer cinders lost among the ashes. 1386. The Finisldng of the Surface or Floor cf Kitchen-courts and their offices should always be sloped, so as to lead all the water which falls on them to a trap over a drain at one point. This will greatly facilitate the process of cleaning, wliether with a scrubbing-brush or broom : and it also promotes the rapidity of the drying process, by natural evaporation, wliich must necessarily contribute materially to the purity of the air, and the healthiness of all houses where there are a number of apartments or offices on the ground floor. SuBSECT. 2. Of the Finishing, Fixtures, Fittings-tip, and Furniture of Farmeries. 1 387. The External Finishing of Farm Buildings ought to be simple and durable. All the woodwork exposed to the open air ought to be well covered with paint, of which, the anti-corrosive kind before mentioned, § 546, is the best. When the roofs are covered with tiles, painting them with tar during the hottest weather in summer adds to their durability, as well as harmonises their colour with that of the surrounding ob- jects. The walls, when not of a very durable material, may be roughcast, or white- washed ; but the last should never be resorted to under the pretence of adding to their beauty, by those whose standard for that quality rises higher than mere glare and smartness. As it is extremely probable that steam will soon be very generally employed for impelling threshing-machines; and as nothing disfigures the country more than red brick chimney-shafts, like those common in the manufacturing towns of Lancashire, we would strongly recommend some attention to elegance of form in these very conspicuous parts of a modern farmery. We have already referred to the chimney built by Mr. Capper, at Birmingham, as a model of excellence in this respect ; and a correspondent having cited " Glasgow as a good example, both for the remarkable elegance of the shafts or obelisks, and the happy terminations by which ornament is given, and yet so as to be conducive to utility," we have applied to our architectural correspondent there, Mr. Reid, for sketches of soine of them ; and he has sent us a view of the three wliich happened to be nearest to his residence. In this sketch, fig. 1267, a is 130 feet high, five feet in diameter at the top, nine feet in diameter about ten feet from the ground, and circular throughout ; b is eighty feet high, square throughout, and four feet on the side at the top ; c is 150 feet high, five feet six inches in diameter at the top, and ten feet in diameter at the height of ten feet from the ground. Fig. 1268 is the cliiumey built by Mr. Capper at the Union rolling-mills, near Baskerville House, Birmingham : it is 1 62 feet high, the pedestal being tliirty-one feet high ; the diameter at the top is four feet six inches, of the plinth at the bottom of the circular shaft fourteen feet, and of the octagon dado of the pedestal fourteen feet ; it contains 200,000 bricks ; and cost, in building, j^420. Of the Glasgow steam-engine chimney shafts, Mr. Reid observes that till lately they were made square in the plan, and built from scaffolding placed on the outside ; but that now they are generally built circular, from the inside. All the scaffolding employed is a continued central post, in the centre of the flue, from which cross pieces, at intervals of a foot or eigliteen inches, are fixed with their ends in the brickwork, to serve as a stair by which the workmen, in building, may ascend and descend ; the materials being liauled up outside with tackle. Formerly winding staircases were built outside these chimney- shafts ; but Mr. Reid says they have a bad effect, and, therefore, he has paid no atten- tion to them in his sketch. Could a few such shafts as those of Mr. Capper be introduced into the farmeries of Scotland and Northumberland, the effect in the land- scape would be excellent. It is only necessary to imagine them, as the traveller moves along the public road, rising into view one after another, on the prominences of the plains, and on the cultivated sides of the hills, backed by the mountains, which appear in the distance in every part of that beautiful and picturesque portion of Britain. Perhaps the time may come, when, from almost every large farmer being the proprietor of the land he occupies, there will be a competition among them as to who shall erect the hand- somest shafts, similar to what there was in former ages among the Catholic clergy as to the building of spires to their churches and monasteries. Like the spires and towers of churches, the column and tlie obelisk are forms that, though without variety in them- EXTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. G()3 1267 s( Ives, yet, when high, and elegantly proportioned, never tire in the general view, how- tv.r often they may be repeated. We strongly recommend this subject to the attention of Architects. The public have surely a right to expect that such conspicuous objects as engine chimney-shafts are, in the country, should be built in what is considered good taste, no less than spires of churches. Every farmery has one or more common chimney- shafts ; and on the form of these, as well as on that of the chimneys of the farm house, of the cottages, and of the boothy, much of the architectural and picturesque beauty of every farmery will depend. It should never be forgotten, that the chimney-tops are the first parts of dwelling-houses which strike the eye at a distance in most cases ; and that our first impression, as to the architectural style of the edifice to which they belong, is generally taken from them. 1S88. The Internal Finishing of Farm Buildings, we have seen by the different spe- cifications, is very simple. The stable, the barn, and the granarj', are almost the only buildings which are generally plastered within, and none but the better description of riding-horse stables have a plaster ceiling. In general, the internal surface of the walls ought to be built as fair and smooth as possible ; by which means, more especially if the materials of the walls be brick or freestone, no plastering of the walls can be wanted in any part of the farmery. In almost every part of the farmery, it is desirable to have the ceiling open, and the timbers of the roof freely exposed to the air. To promote this end, openings ought to be left all along the side walls, immediately under the eaves, except in situations where these openings would admit too much of the exterior air in winter for the health of the animals lodged within. It m_ay be laid down as a general principle, that the durability of the timbers in the roofs of farm buildings depends entirely on their thorough ventilation. After these general remarks, we sliall proceed to the fittings-up and furniture of the component parts of the farmery, and take them in the same order in which we treated of their plans in the preceding section. 1 389. The Stable, if the surface of the interior walls be not very smoothly built, ought to be plastered on that side on which the harness is hung, or else lined with boards. There ought either to be small cupboards, or recesses formed in the wall, for the currycombs, mh COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. brushes, pickers, &c., or wooden bins for keeping them in ; and there should be a harness- room, for harness not in common use, witli a fireplace or stove for heating it in damp wea- ther, as well as proper openings for ventilation. The harness is generally hung on hooks or pegs, which are sometimes formed of wood, and nailed to the rafters, but most generally of hooks driven into the wall. Fig. 1269 is a double harness-peg, or bracket, of cast iron, for nailing against the wall, from which it projects ten inches, and which costs Is. 6d. Fig. 1270 is a saddle-bracket of iron, which projects twelve inches, and which costs 2s.; and fig. 1271 is a saddle-bracket and bridle-hook, which projects twelve inches, and costs 2s. 6d. In some places, small cast-iron hollow cylinders, the tubular part being about an inch in diameter, are built into the walls of stables and harness-rooms, so as not to project beyond the inside face of the wall ; and, in these, wooden pegs are inserted and taken out at pleasure. This we believe to be much the cheapest and best mode for common farm stables. There is a cast-iron halter-ball, which costs, by retail, 6d. or 8d.: in some districts they might be made of stone; and where terro-metallic potter's earth abounds, they would answer well, as would mangers and other fixed cattle- troughs, of that hard and durable material. Where expense is not an object, all balls of this sort ought to move up and down in a trunk, so as not to incur the risk of becoming entangled with the horses' feet. Among the stable utensils, such as pails, &c., we shall only notice Cottam's cast-iron gruel-trough, fig. 1272, fifteen inches long, ten inches wide, and nine inches deep, for giving bran mashes, which may be con- veniently set in the manger. Two and three pronged forks, brooms, and shovels, complete the stable imple- ments. 1390. The Coiv-house, as we have already shown, admits of a variety of finishing and fittings-up, with respect to the troughs and mangers, and the mode of tying. Fig. 1273 127.S shows a mode of riveting cast-iron plates together, so as to form troughs for dry food, a, and others for water or moist food, b. Figs. 1274, 1275, and 1276 are modes of fastening milch cows, in use about London. By the first mode the cow is fastened to the stall partition ; by the second, to the post which supports the manger; and by the third, to the bottom rail of the manger. Fig. 1277 is the Normandy brechin, which is com- monly put on cows in France, to prevent them from tossing up their heads, and thus risking abortion, aiid which also prevents them from cropping the branches of fruit trees INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. 665 in orchards; for the latter purpose it well deserves adoption in this country. Fi"-. 1278 shows the manner in which it is used. ° 1274 1275 1276 while it division 1391. Cattle-sheds and Calf-houses require scarcely any fitting-up beyond what has been already mentioned. There are various descriptions of cribs, of wood, stone, and iron, for foddering- yards. It is objected by some, to fixed stone troughs, that they are not so easily cleaned as portable wooden ones. In some places oblong crits are fixed to the tops of posts, so as to turn on pivots in their centres ; in others they are placed on the top of a wall. Hay-racks are also often placed on the tops of the division walls of farmeries, as indicated in the section, fig. 1279; which, provides a double rack for twoyards, saves the expense of heightening the walls. The iron tethering-stake, fig. 1 280, which is twenty inches long, and costs 5s., is useful both for tethering calves and other young animals, when first taken out to the open air. 4 F t)06 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1392, Vnritms 1279 Filtings-itp for Piggeries have been shown in the miscellaneous tor farmeries ; and in the way of furniture, there are < numerous iron troughs, both for sties and open yards. ^ Fig. 1281, which is twenty-six inches in diameter, and costs 26s., is well adapted for open straw- yards. Fig. 1282 is a section of this trough on a larger scale. There are sheet-iron pails, exceedingly useful for car- rying out pigs' food, and for various fannerj' purposes, which cost from 4s. to 7s. each ; and which, when heated nearly red hot, and immediately afterwards rubbed over with oil or grease of any kind, will last many years, without requiring paint. 1393. For Sheep-houses there are various descriptions of racks and mangers, but little that is peculiar. For 1280 the open air there is a covered iron rack, fig. 1283, with a trough below, formed wholly of iron, six feet long, which costs, by retail, in London, £4. 1394. Of the FiUi7igs-np of Babbit-houses, Poxiltry-houses, and Pigeon-houses scarcely any thing requires to be added to what will be found in § 769 to § 771. The side walls of pigeon-houses are fitted up with holes nine inches square, with a shelf fi-om four to six inches wide in 1284 front ; the material used being either wood, slate, brick, or stone, according to convenience. When a pigeon-house is formed chiefly in the roof of any building, the holes or boxes may depend from the roof, like a reversed stair, as we have seen in fig. 1019, § 1020. There are iron hutclies for rabbits, and even small iron rabbit troughs, such as fig. 1284, which is fourteen inches long, four inches wide, three inches deep, and costs 2s. 6d. 1395. The Fittings-tip of the Barn, when there is a threshing-machine, embrace a variety of considerations. When the machine simply beats out the corn, and separates it INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. 66? from the straw, one floor on the ground is sufficient ; but when, in addition to separating the corn from the straw, the corn is to be winnowed and sifted by the macliine, a loft or second floor, from eight to ten or twelve feet, over the first, is essentially necessary. This floor is used for containing the unthreshed corn, which is commonly carried into it from the rick-yard, on hand-barrows, up an inclined plane or gangway ; but which is some- times albo carted into it, up a broad inclined plane, the cart being unloaded and turned round in the loft. Tliis mode of carting the corn into the loft is only to be met with on very large farmeries, or where the buildings are particularly situated ; such as being on a declivity : a more common practice is, to set back a cart loaded w ith sheaves within the barn on the ground floor, and unload it, forking up the sheaves to the threshing- floor, as in Mr. Donaldson's very excellent Design, § 891. From this floor there is a communication by a stair, or step-ladder, with the floor below on which the corn is cleaned, and from this cleamng-room there is a communication with the chaft-room adjoining, in which the chaif and refuse are contained. A clear idea of the arrangement of threshing-machinery, impelled by horses or water, relatively to the walls and floors of the barn, may be obtained by referring to our Encyc. of Agr., 2d edit. § 2786 to 2790, and the ibllowing Design will give an idea of the arrangement where steam is em- ployed. 1396. The Fitting-up of a Steam Tlireshing-machine. The application of steam to agricultural purposes has hitherto been very partial, and almost entirely limited to im- pelling the threshing-machine. Till lately, low-pressure engines only were used for this purpose ; but Mr. Burstall, an ingenious engineer at Leith, has now introduced, very extensively, the high-pressure or non-condensing engines. " These seem to be superior to the low-pressure engines in various respects : first, such engines are considerably cheaper in the original cost ; secondly, they do not require more than one twelfth or one twentieth part of the water which is requisite for a condensing engine ; and, thirdly, a knowledge of their management is more easily acquired. They are thus rendered more fit for farm labour ; and, when properly made, are certainly as safe as, if not more so than, condensing engines." 1397. The ^-Ipplication of Mr. Burstall's method of employing a high-pressure engine for moving a thresliing-machine is extremely simple. It is well known that there are two modes by which, in mechanics, a slow motion with great power may communicate a rapid motion. The first is, by means of wheels and pinions ; the second, by means of smootli or iron cylinders, to which a broad strap adheres by its friction, and conveys the power from the prime mover to the acting agent. In the one case, there is a constant and definite number of teeth acting on each other ; in the other case, there is what may be considered as an infinite number of teeth : that is, the surfaces of the belt and cylinder, applied to each other, produce the same result. The use of the belt to drive machinery is of much later date than that of toothed wheels ; but it may be safely affirmed, that, where high velocities are required, the former method has considerable advantages, and is gaining ground in the practice of machinery. Mr. Burstall is, we believe, the first who has made a successful attempt to drive the main cylinder or drum of a threshing-machine by the direct application of this principle ; and among other great advantages of the belt over gearing is this, that, should foreign substances get into the mill, the belt is at once thrown off, and this is all the injury that results; whereas, when with wheels and pinions a like accident occurs, an expensive wheel or shaft is generally broken. For these reasons, Mr. Burstall communicates directly the motion to the machinery of a threshing-mill by means of a belt. The method will be seen from the accompanying figs. 1285 and 1287. The application of the steam power, in this case, is made to an old threshing-mill, formerly driven by horse power and gearing, and altered to steam and belts. The machinery for driving the rakes and rollers has been retained, although it is clear that, as the main machine is well driven by a strap, the subordinate parts, which do not take one sixth of the power, can be so driven likewise. 1398. Details. Fig. 1285 is a ground-plan of a thresliing-mill, with the barn walls and steam-engines. Fig. 1286 is the end elevation of the steam-engine as placed out- side of the bam walls in the engine-house. Fig. 1287 is a front elevation of the steam-engine. The letters of reference are the same in the three figures ; a a are the rakes ; b, the drum and scutchers ; c, the feeding or supplying roller ; d, the feeding- table ; e, a rigger, or smooth cylinder, fixed upon the end of a shaft that couples to the drum-shaft of the threshing- mill ; y is the belt, from eight to ten inches wide, accord- ing to the power of the mill ; g, the fly-wheels of the steam-engine, lined up with wood, to form a drum for the belt to run upon ; h, the shafts and gearing to drive the rakes and rollers ; i, the barn wall ; /:, the wheel and pinion from the main shaft. It is under- stood that the machines erected by Mr. Burstall on this simple principle have given great satisfaction. (Highland Sac Trails., vol. xi. p. 235.) 1399. Of Threshing-machines driven by Water, the most complete which we know of 068 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1285 INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. 669 are those at the farmery of Bagshot Park, Berksliire ; and at Wynnstay, Flintshire. The former has been figured and described in the Appendix to the second edition of our Etiaj. of Agr. It cleans the corn most completely, having a chain of buckets for bring- ing up, to pass a second time through the mill, the short stalks and imperfectly threshed ears, wliich are delivered into these buckets by the wiiniowing-machine. There is also a travelling sheet or corn elevator, fixed at an angle of about thirty degrees, with laths of wood across it at regular distances, which acts as buckets in carrying up the corn from the lower winnowing-machine to the upper one, to be passed through a second time. I'here is a power of throwing, not only any part of the machinery out of gear, but even of reversing the motion of any part. There is a pair of French bun--stones for grinding meal, a turnip-slicer, a straw-cutter, and a bone-crusher ; besides which, there are arrangements and room for adding any other machine that might be required. This machine was executed under the direction of Mr. Burns, the Duke of Gloucester's most ingenious bailiff, by a local millwright. The machine at Wynnstay was erected by the late Mr. John Gladstone of Castle Douglas (the ingenious inventor of several agricul- tural implements and machines), about the year 1812 ; and complete plans and descrip- tions of it were furnished to us, in 1830, by his nephew, Mr. John Gladstone, engineer to the Chester leadworks ; a young man of great modesty and ingenuity. The site of the Wynnstay mill is on a declivity, and the barn has three floors. The upper one opens into the stack-yard, being on a level with its surface; the second floor contains the first winnowing-machine, with a chaft'-house, which descends to the floor below, and has one door into the straw-house and another into the cattle-yard. When the corn is only wanted to pass through the first winnowing-machine, the corn elevators and the second winnowing-machine are thrown out of gear, and the corn is delivered on the second floor. Here a bruising-machine is fixed. The under floor contains the second winnowing-machine, with the lower end of the corn elevators. The corn may be deli- vered on this floor, instead of into the trough of the elevator, by throwing the latter out of gear. The elevator trough conveys the corn to a room on the upper floor, which serves as a granary, and there throws it into a weighing-machine, wliich is connected with an index in the barn, placed on the partition wall facing the man at the feeding- table, and consequently showing him the quantity of corn threshed. The chaff and short straws from the first winnowing-machine are elevated to the feeding-board by a chain of buckets, as in the threshing-mill at Bagshot (which appears to be, to a certain extent, an imitation of the Wynnstay machine), and passed through the machinery a second time. This chain of buckets is a very useful appendage to a threshing-machine, as it takes from the winnowing-machine all the refuse which generally accumulates on the cleaning-floor, and, by passing it through the machinery a second time, separates it into corn and chaff. The water-wheel is in a house beside the barn. In a room above the wheel is a Scotch barley-mill, and, beyond that, a very complete saw-mill ; both driven by the same wheel, and both easily turned out of gear when the threshing- machine is at work. In the middle floor is an oat-bi-uiser and a straw-cutter ; and there is every convenience for adding such other machines as may at any time be considered desirable. We have noticed what is effected by these two machines, to show that, when once steam shall be generally applied in farmeries, the labour both of men and horses will be diminished in an almost incredible degree. By applying the steam-engine to the plough and other instruments of aration, and to reaping and mowing implements, very few horses would be wanted, even on the largest farms. The good that will result from such a change will be immense ; even the superior degree of intelligence requisite to put up, to work, and to repair steam-engines, will in a short time have an influence on the condition of the farm labourer, and approximate him more nearly in intellect to the mechanic. The result will also benefit the quadrupeds and fowls kept on a farm ; for, as soon as farmers become familiarised with steam, we are persuaded they will have all the straw, not to be used as thatch, cut into chaff, and all farm-yard food whatever cooked, either by steam or hot water, before being given to the animals. This will not take place without carrying with it the heating of the cottagers' floors by steam. 1400. A Saw-mill is a most valuable machine, wherever there is much timber to be cut, and, in all new countries, may be considered not less essential than the limekiln or brick-kiln. Any building ten or twelve feet wide, twenty or thirty feet long, and open at one end, so as to admit long trees, may be adapted for a saw-mill, by excavating a trough in the floor for the action of the saw. 1401. Portable Threshing-machines, to be worked by horses, commonly thresh only, without cleaning the corn ; and therefore they require no particular modification of the barn. There is an excellent cast-iron macliine of this description, invented by Mr. Baird of the Shotts ironworks ; and there are some in England which are impelled by steam, and employed to thresh out a crop in the fields, on a movable floor, under a temporary roof, a few weeks after the crop has been cut ; the straw being in that case 670 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. consumed, or turned to manure, in a temporary cattle-yard on the spot. Hand threshing- machines have been constructed of various kinds ; but they have never yet given much satisfaction. On small farms, however, a machine of this kind, requiring less skill to use it tiian the common flail, must be a considerable advantage, since a thresher is paid higher wages than a common labourer. A design for a liaiid threshing-machine is given in the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, vol. viii. p. 262 ; where it is observed, that, the labour required to move these machines being very considerable, it has been found that the laboui-ers employed on them must be relieved at intervals. This is thought to be the reason why these machines have not been so generally adopted, in the smallest class of farms, as might at first view be supposed. To diminish this labour, it is recommended to confine the operation of the machine to the beating out the "•rain by the action of a revolving drum or roller, and not to attempt separating the grain from the straw, or winnowing it. 1402. Tlie other Machines, Implements, and Utensils of a Barn are, the winnowing, machine, now brought to great perfection ; the barley-chopper, or hummelling-maehine, or which is sometimes substituted the implement, fig. 1289, which costs 8s. ; the smut- machine, shovels, forks, rakes, sieves, a sack-weigher, a sack-carrier, and a bushel and other measures, according to the locality or country. A very ingenious tub lor measuring and weighing corn has been invented by our esteemed contributor, l\lr. Taylor ; it has been in use for some time at the Whittington malt-houses, near tstoke Ferry, Norfolk, and will be found Hgured and descriV)ed in the Gardeners Magazine, vol. viii. p. 466. All the other machines and implements required by the British agri- culturist will be found in our Enci/c. ofAgr., 2d edit. 1403. Among the Farmery Fixtures and Furniture, which may be placed in the cliatt- house, the steaming-house, store-house, foddering-bay, or cattle-food house, may be enumerated the oat-crusher, bone-crusher, the turnip-cutter, the straw-cutter, and tlie portable corn mill. All or any of these, and several others, might be placed in a building adjoining the threshing-macliine, and, as already mentioned, § 1223, might be driven by the same machinery. Our correspondent, Mr. Thorokl, has sent us a drawing of an oat-crusher, fig. 1290, wliich he manufactures, and sells at £8 : 8s. ; he has also INTERIOn FINISHING OF FARMERIES. ()71 sent us a turnip-cutter of his invention, fig. 1291, for which he received a premium from the London Society of Arts. The most complete turnip or potato-cutter, or slicer, that has been hitherto made kno^vn, is that recently invented by Mr. Baird. It costs £4, and, with an extra- wheel to cut potatoes, £l additional. This machine, with a man and boy, will cut a cart-load of turnips or potatoes, in twenty minutes, into very small pieces. We have no doubt that this machine might be advantageously applied to the cutting of cabbage, in countries where sauer kraut is used. 1404. J portable Com- mill of a very superior description, manufactured by Mr. Tho- rold, and sold by him for £'250, is shown in fig. 1288. In this figure, " cast-iron hurst frames are represented, capable of being erected independently of any building, only requiring a solid foundation, and containing wheelwork, and two pairs of French stones, four feet in diameter. The iron spur-wheel and two pinions are shown, for giving :iie 672 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1291 requisite speed to the millstones ; the spur-wheel has wooden cogs, and the pinions iron cogs neatly pitched and trimmed. Tlie pinions are hung upon cones attached to the stone spindles, and may be thrown out of gear by a ring attached to a lever and rack- work, not shown in the figure. When it is intended to drive the mill by wind, tiie upright shaft of the spur-wheel is continued upwards until it reaches the cap-works of the windmill ; when it is to be driven by steam, a mitre-wheel is fixed on the upright shaft just above the spur-wheel, which is intersected by another mitre-wheel hung on the fly-wheel shaft of the steam-engine. When driven by water, a similar arrange- ment is made, with different speed, to assimilate with the speed of the first mover. The slip brasses of the stone spindles pass through bored boxes, so as to be free from shaking ; they then rest upon a steelyard connected with a screw which serves to adjust the millstones at the pleasure of the miller. These, with the spouts and meal-troughs, are omitted in the figure, for the sake of showing the wheel-work, the wliole of which forms a complete and substantial piece of machinery. In this machine, mitre-wheels may be attached to the upright shaft, so as to adapt it for a steam-engine ; whicli might also drive the threshing-machine of the farm." 1405. The FiUings-up of the Boiling and Steaming Hcuse are exceedingly simple to Those who know any thing of steam. We shall give as an example, an apparatus invented ))y Mr. David Liddell, junior, and described in the Highland Society's Transactions. It consists of a furnace, and cast-iron boiler containing about sixty gallons, fig. 129'2, a, " furnished with a safety-valve, to render it secure from danger, even in the hands of tlie most ignorant person. This boiler is intended to supply warm water for any domestic purpose, as well as steam, the water being drawn oft' by a cock in the lower part of it. The boiler is supplied with water from a cistern, b, placed five or six feet higher than the boiler. This cistern may contain about thirty gallons, and, when filled, requires no further attention, as the boiler regulates its supply of water, by means of a float in the inside of the boiler, attached to a valve in the cistern, which contains as much water as will boil ten hundredweight of potatoes. The two casks, c and d, are for holding the produce to be steamed. They contain about three hundredweight each. The steam is conducted from the boiler to them by a pipe (one-inch) branching off to eacli by stopcocks. As many casks as may be necessary for the supply of food m.ay be attached in the same way. Tiie casks are furnished with sliding hatches in the bottom, for taking out the food when ready, and are raised as far from the ground as will allow a trough, INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. 1292 G73 or barrow to be introduced under them, to receive the contents. For boiling grain, the cask for holding it differs from those used in steaming potatoes only by not having a hatch in the bottom, as the hatch could not be easily made tight, which is necessary in boiling barley, as water must be mixed with it in the same quantity, or nearly, as if it were to be boiled in a boiler the common way. It may be added, that the hatch not being tight, in boiling potatoes, is an advantage, and even necessary for allowing the con- densed steam to run out, and also all the earthy matter from the skins of the potatoes. In the figure, one of the casks is represented with the lid pressed down, by means of the vertical bar, which is employed for this purpose during the operation of steaming or boiling. In the other cask, the lid is represented as opened, with the vertical bar moved to one side. {Highland Soc Trans., vol. viii. p. 322.) 1 406. The Fixtures and Fumittire of Farm Labourers' Cottages differ in nothing from those already given for cottages generally. The grates ought always to be landlord's fixtures, and so ought the presses, cupboards, and dressers. It would add greatly to the comfort of the occupant if the bedsteads were also the property of the landlord ; because he would be saved the trouble of carrying them with liim on removal. This is some- times the case in gardeners' houses, where even the chairs, tables, and carpets are land- lord's property, and taken by one occupant after another at a valuation. All the fixtures and furniture of the boothy, or single men's room, ought to belong to the landlord ; and the valuable hint of Mr. Gorrie, that the bed-room ought never to be on the same floor with the sitting-room, in order to avoid the temptation of lying down on the beds at unseasonable times, ought not to be forgotten. Wrought-iron bedsteads are well suited for the married cottager ; and, where great strength and durability are the objects, there is a cast-iron bedstead, which may either be a fixture, as in fig. 1293, or made with four feet and portable, which is well adapted for the ploughman's room. These beds are the invention of Mr. Mallet of Dublin, and have been extensively used in Ireland. Most of the vessels for the boothy may be of cast iron tinned, such as are manufactured by Cottam in London, and Baird near Glasgow. The latter lias lately invented excellent cast-iron tea or coflfee pots, at 2«. 6d. each ; and he sells tinned tumblers at \0d. each, tea-kettles at 2s. 6rf. each, together with a number of other articles particularly suitable for the boothy, because they are little liable to be injured or broken. These articles, which might be purchased by the landlord, would last for many years, and contribute materially to the comfort of the inhabitants of the boothy. We have already shown how, in the case of all farmeries where there is a steaming apparatus for cooking food for cattle, the floors, both of the boothy and the adjoining married meji's cottages, might be heated by steam, which to them would be a great source both of economy and comfort. 1407. As Fiit^tres belonging to the Farmery in general, rather than to any one part in particular, we include a pump ; of which the most suitable kind for farmeries is that of cast iron, fig. 1294 ; which, according to the bore, or diameter, may be had at various prices from £2 upwards; the total price depending on the length of tube required to reach the bottom of the well. With the pump is necessarily connected a cistern, or 4 G Gjl COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1294 supply trough, which should communicate with other troughs in different yards, accord- ing to circumstances, as already explained, §824 and § 1143. All farmeries whatever, ought, in our opinion, to have a turret clock, § 505, placed in some conspicuous situation fronting the kitchen-court and the farm house, to regulate the hours of going to and returning from labour. Very good turret clocks may be had for £10 each, without the addition of a bell, and surely £"10 in this way will pay the farmer better than the same sum laid out on a pocket watch. In large farmeries, to the turret clock ought to be added a bell to strike the hour ; and this bell may be so hung as to serve for a bell to ring at the different times for going to and returning from laboui-. We have shown such a clock and bell in our own Design, § 1221, but we have not added them to the plans and elevations wliich have been sent to us by others, because these have, for the most partf been executed in different parts of the country without them. As much will depend on the accuracy of clocks of this kind, we consider it wise policy to procure them from some clockmaker in the neighbourhood, who may contract for wind- ing them up, and examining them once a week, at so much a year, in order that they may be always kept in correct time. Whether there be a clock or not, there ought always to be a vane fixed on some lofty and airy part of the farm buildings, in order to show the direction of tlie wind ; and no farmer who can afford it ought to be wdthout a barometer, measuring-rods, and a measuring-chain. There is also such a thing as an index to ploughs, made by our most ingenious correspondent, Mr. Wilkie of Uddingstone, near Glasgow, one of the greatest improvers of the plough and the brake, or cultivator, of the day. The plough index shows how much ground the plough has gone over in a day, and consequently how much it has ploughed ; but this, and similar instruments we can only recommend to amateurs, preferring in all cases the labour dictated by a sense of justice, duty, and good-will, to that obtained by constant watching and espionnage. When the relative duties of masters and servants are clearly understood by both parties, DO eye-watching, measuring, or instruments of this kind, can ever be wanting ; and farm labour, like most other kinds of labour, will come in time to be let by the job. For the hinges of farm-yard gates, those of Collinge are so decidedly preferable to all others, that all who can afford them ought to have them. (See Aleck. Mag-, vol. xiv. p. 392.) As a fixed rat-trap for farm-yards, we know of none superior to that invented by Paul of Starston, and alluded to by Mr. Taylor, § 1040. A great number of other fixtures, fittings-up, and furniture, belonging to or connected with farmeries, might be men- tioned, but they will all be found described or figured in our Enct/. of Agr. We trust we have made such a selection, in this work, as to attain the end we proposed in the com- mencement of this section ; viz., that of showing the necessity of Architects studying the uses of all the buildings which they are employed to design. COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 675 Chap. III. Designsjor Country Inns and Public Houses of various Degrees of jlccommodation, from the Hedge Alehouse to the Mansion Inn, with Us Gardens, Farm, and Park. 1408. An Inn differs from a private dwelling-house chiefly in having certain apart- ments and stores open to the public generally. In a private Iiouse all is private ; but in an inn, one of the recommendations to the traveller is to see a well-stored larder, and a spacious public room, in which he may take his meals, either at a common table or at a separate table. Another characteristic of an inn is tlie bar, or office, to which all enquiries are addressed, and from which all orders are issued. This is always placed in a conspicuous part of the interior, so as to be seen on entering, and so as the bar mistress may observe all comers and goers as they pass, and liave her eye as much as possible upon the servants of the establishmeiit. 1409. All Inns ought to be Duilt firr-proof. When the number of persons lodged in such dwellings are considered, the necessity for this will appear obvious. There are two ways in which this may be effected ; first, by forming all the floors of flat arches of brick or tiles, and cement ; or of hollow bricks, the abutments being of cast iron, tied with wTOught-iron rods ; or, secondly, by laying all the floors over the joists \\ith brick or stone pavement. The staircases ought always to be of stone ; and all the partitions either of that material, or of brick, or of quartering covered on both sides with tiles and cement. All the ceilings, where wooden joists are used, ought to be fonned of flat tiles and cement, and all the skirtings of the same material. The roof is easily made fire- proof by being arched on the same principle as the floors of the rooms, and, like them, covered with tiles and cement. In inns so constructed, there would remain no combus- tible matter but the doors, the window-shutters, and the furniture. The two former might be rendered incombustible by being saturated with sulphate of iron, or coated over with a solution of silex under the paint. We are the more anxious to direct the atten- tion of Architects to fire-proof houses, in consequence of the following communication from one of our most scientific correspondents : — " The new process for smelting iron by raw coal and hot air blast, is producing a great change in the iron trade ; and it is antici- pated by good judges, that no long period will elapse before cast iron of the quality known as No. 1. will be manufactured at the cost of about 405. or 45a-. the ton. When this takes place generally, it must inevitably produce an effect which will pervade almost every condition of society. Rich and poor will, by degrees, find themselves enclosed in iron cages ; and fir joists, and slate roofs, will become things to be alluded to as betoken- ing something venerable from antiquity. The introduction of iron into building oper- ations will, no doubt, spread rapidly, as the price of cast iron falls; and, if unskilfully done at the outset, we may have a number of imperishable monuments of bad taste before our eyes wherever we go. It is, therefore, of importance that good examples should be given in time, and that Architects should be prepared for the change, so as not to leave the matter to the caprice or taste of the workmen of the founderies. " 1410. Inns and Public Houses for the country, like private dwellings there, are of various kinds, and include various degrees of accommodation, from what is found in the small hedge alehouse, to what is afforded by the mansion inn, with its places for amusements, garden, farm, and perhaps park. In all of them the object is to provide entertainment for the pubHc ; and, consequently, the kind of accommodation afforded by the inn must be adapted to the wants of that portion of the public for whose use it is intended. Inns of every kind are the result of liigh civilisation, and the consequent intercourse of society by public roads, rivers, or canals. In rude countries, without roads or other regular means of communication, there can be no inns, because there can be no regular travellers. In countries imperfectly civilised, and with defective roads, the inns, like the caravanseras of Persia, or the post-houses in the interior of Russia, are little better than empty houses, or hovels, where the traveller, who carries his own bedding and provisions, may take shelter for the night. In the north of Germany and Poland, the country inns are little better. At one end of a small cottage occupied by the postmaster, or furnisher of horses for travelling, is an immense shed, closed in on the two sides, and with gateways at each end . Into this shed, the traveller drives, at the end by which he approaches ; and, when he has refreshed his horses and himself, he drives out by the other. If his intention be to stop for the night, he sleeps in his carriage, or spreads the bed he has brought with him on the floor of the hovel, which, in most parts of tlie countries alluded to, is occupied by the horses, cows, and other live stock of the postmaster, and the horses of other travellers. On the contrary, inns in a wealthy and highly civilised countrj- like England contain all the luxuries of a private mansion ; and the traveller who stops in them, with plenty of money, may enjoy many of the comforts of home, without its cares. In other countries, such as the south of Germany and many parts of Nortli America, 070 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AIICHITECTUUE. tlie inn is fretjucntly a place wliere greater luxuries are to be obtained than in the private liouses of most of the citizens. With the progress of things in all countries, this is likely to be more and more the case ; for, as equality of education and rights become general, it will be followed l)y a comparative equality in tlie distribution of property ; and great entertainments, such as are now given by wealthy merchants and princes, will only be obtainable by public assemblies or associations at inns. This will, in time, give rise, in every country, as it has already done in Britain, to inns of recreation and enjoy- ment, as well as inns of accommodation and convenience for travellers. 1411. Inns of Recreation seem destined to contain all the comforts and luxuries which are now almost exclusively found in the mansions and palaces of the aristocracy of Europe ; as these comforts and luxuries were in ancient times only to be met with in the richer convents and monasteries. Such inns will, therefore, not be confined to in-door conveniences, but will embrace also all that can be attbrded by gardens, pleasure-grounds, parks, forests, and farms ; all the sports of the field, and all the games and exercises that liave been known to contribute to human gratification. In one word, all that now can only be obtained by sovereign princes or the most wealthy nobles, will, by the modern system of inns of recreation, be within the reach of every one who has a little spare inoney and time. In ages and countries of ignorance, and of a privileged and con- sequently wealthy and all-grasping aristocracy, there will necessarily be many enjoy- ments, the very nature of which cannot be even imagined by the mass of society, much less can the spectacles displayed by them be seen ; but, in an age such as we contemplate, there will not be a single enjoyment which is not within the reach of all to see and un- derstand ; and in which most of the inhabitants may not be able to participate. 1412. The Model Designs for Inns and Alehouses, therefore, must obviously be founded on the accommodations afforded by private houses ; and this will reduce this first section to the business of laying down principles for arranging the architectural characteristics of inns ; after which we shall illustrate them by a few miscellaneous Designs. It is previously necessary, however, that we repeat what we have before stated, § 701, that the subject of country inns is but a very subordinate part of our work, and that we, con- sequently, do not profess to give a complete treatise on the subject. Sect. L General Principles for composing Model Designs for Coimtry Inns and Public Houses. 1413. A complete Country Inn may be considered with reference to its accommoda- tion, arrangement, or distribution, its situation and architectural style. The accom- modation includes that of the house, of the stable offices, and of the gardens and grounds. 1414. The Accommodation of the house, we have already said, is essentially that of a private house, with the housekeeper's room, or bar, placed in a conspicuous situation, instead of in a private one ; and with the store-room and larder also exposed to public view. The inn contains an entrance hall, in which there ought always to be a porter to announce the arrival of guests, by ringing one bell for the hostler, and another for the waiter ; an ante-room or strangers' room, into which the guests are first shown, and where they are waited on by the master, mistress, or some upper servant, to ascertain the kind of accommodation which they desire. A complete inn ought to have large rooms for parties to dine in on public occasions, or in which may be held public meet- ings, assemblies, balls, &c. : it ought also to have suites of apartments, consisting of one or two sitting-rooms, one or two bed-rooms, a maid-servant's or nurse's room, and a water-closet ; such suites of apartments being frequently required in first-rate inns, by wealthy families who travel with their own carriages and horses, and who wish to live at an inn as privately as if they were at home. There ought also to be suites of apartments for single persons, consisting of a bed-room and sitting-room each. There ought to be small dining-rooms for small parties to dine together ; and numerous bed-rooms, some with dressing-rooms, and some without them. In a large inn, there ought to be also a billiard-room for exercise and amusement during bad weather and long evenings ; and also one or inore musical instruments; and in every inn, whether large or small, there ought to be a library of books ; which may bo put under the care of the bar-woman, and lent out to quests at a small sum per volume. Among the conveniences, there should be hot, col*!,^ saline, vapour, and air baths ; and, in general, whatever is found mentioned in the first chapter of our succeeding book, as appropriate to villas. 1415. The Bar or Office of an Inn being its characteristic feature, it is proper that it should be shortly described : its situation ought to be central in the interior of large buildings, commanding views of the front entrance hall and back entrance ; and, as far as practicable, of the foot of the principal staircase, and along the principal passages. These objects can only be obtained by having the room of some size, almost insidated by broad passages, and with windows on all sides ; or having the sides formed by glazed COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 677 paititions. Considerable assistance might be afforded to the bar-woman, to enable her to see in every direction, by looking-glasses, judiciously disposed without and witliin the bar, as these would reflect places and persons which could not otiicrwise be seen. The situation of tlie bar, in a narrow building, may be at the end of the entrance- hall, with one side looking towards it, and the one opposite looking towards the yard. In size, the bar need never be large; because, though, in small public houses and inns, it is used as a shop or store-room, as well as an office, yet, in general, it is used in tlie latter capacity only. Here the books of the inn are kept, and orders given to the cook, the keeper of the cellar, the ostler, or the stable-yard keeper j and here also all monies are given in, which have been received by the different servants or waiters. Adjoining the bar there is usually the private room of the master and mistress of the house ; and the larder and general store-room are commonly near, and within sight of it. 1416. The ^Iccommodation of the Stable-court ought to be proportionate to that of the house. In a conspicuous situation, at the entrance to the court, there ought to be the office of the superintendent of this department, which should command a view of the interior of the stable-yard ; and also, if possible, be seen from, and look to, a window in the bar-room. In very extensive country inns, the stable-yard should be a distinct part of the establishment from the farm yard, for obvious reasons ; but in small establishments they may often be combined, the cattle-courts being altogether separated from the courts for post horses, travellers' horses, and carriages. The principal buildings in the stable- yard of an inn are the stables, coach-houses, and houses for corn and fodder. There ought also to be an ample harness-room, a room for boiling or steaming food for sick horses, an hospital, a shoeing-house or smithy, and a wheelwright's shop, or place for repairing carriages. There are other minor accommodations which will readily occur. In all large establishments there ought to be a riding -liouse ; and the business of a riding- master might be very well combined with tliat of innkeeper. 1417. The Accommodations in the Grotinds are first and principally a dairy, a poultry- house, and an icehouse ; there ought also to be a complete farmery ; a kitchen-garden, with forcing-houses ; an orchard or a vineyard, according to the climate ; and a large park for guests to take exercise in on horseback or in carriages, and for a herd of deer, as well as other animals for profit and pleasure, including what is called game. Near the house there ought to be lawns and pleasure-grounds for pedestrian exercise. 1418. In Public Houses, or Inns of a7i inferior Description, all these accommodations must necessarily be very limited : the park may be dispensed with ; the farmery included in the stable-court ; and the pleasure-ground limited to a bowling-green, tea-gardens, and place for playing at skittles or other games. 1419. The Situation of an Inn, or Public House, for ordinary purposes, should in general either be on or near a public road, or on the margin of a canal or river ; but the particular points along roads or other lines for public conveyances on which inns should be placed are subjects which require some consideration, especially in new coun- tries, where most people travel in stages or coaches, which stop for refreshment only at certain distances. The great object ought to be, so to arrange the stopping places, as that the inns may always be built in dry healthy situations, with extensive and agreeable prospects ; we say extensive, because one object, with all travellers, is, to form some general idea of the country through which they pass. With respect to inns of recreation, it is obvious, that to place them on any other spot than one of great natural beauty can never be a voluntary act ; since situation and accompaniments, much more than the plan of the dwelling, will naturally be the principal inducements to guests. Under inns of this sort, we of course include those of vi-atering-places, baths, springs, fishing and shooting stations, and various others, which it would lead us beyond our proposed limits to describe. 1420. The Architectural Style of an Inn in the country maybe as various as that of any dwelling-house, and there is no beauty within the whole range of cottage and villa architecture that may not be conferred on it. Indeed, as country inns on public roads are likely to be among the most permanent of country dwellings, it is very desirable, with a view to the general beauty of a country, that they should be built, not only in a substantial manner, but in a highly improved style of design. In old countries, such as Europe, it is seldom found necessary to erect a building expressly for the purpose of an inn of recreation ; as there are generally mansions of decayed nobility, or convents, or other buildings belonging to wealthy individuals or public bodies, which are to be purchased at a moderate rate, with gardens and grounds, and every requisite accom- paniment and appendage. Many houses of this description are in the finest natural situations which Europe affords, and their eligibility for inns of recreation is so de- cided, that they could not in general be turned to any other use with half the advantage. In America, the building of country inns appears to be an art yet in its infancy ; but, with the progress of wealth and the improvement of manners in that country, it is pro- 678 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. bable that country inns, along tlie great public roads, will be almost the only permanent and substantial palace-like dwellings. Our opinion is, that, with the advancement of civilisation, country inns, in all parts of the world, will, as architectural objects, rank next to buildings for public offices. Sect. II. Miscellaneous Designs for Country Inns and Public Houses. 1421. 7'/(e Desif^ns submitted under this section embrace but a very few of the nu- merous varieties of inns and public houses which are suitable for the country ; but, as whoever can compose a good villa is equally competent to compose a country inn, we consider the following selection amply sufficient. We have, besides, already given a Design for a country inn combined with a farm, § 1 149, which we consider exceedingly well arranged ; and many of our cottages in Book I. will answer, with very little alter- ation, for hedge alehouses. Design I. — yl Country Inn in the Italian Style ; having, besides public liooms, Thirty Bed-rooms, and Stabling for Twenty Horses. 1422. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1295 ; and the 1295 ground floor, fig. 1298, consists of an entrance porch, a ; vestibule and staircase, b; 1297 COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 1298 079 two parlours, c; passage, d, to the garden, x; store-room, e; bar,y; family sitting-room, g ; back parlour, h ; back stairs, t ; water-closet, k ; tap-room, / ; kitchen, with oven and hot water boiler, m ; back-kitchen and scullery, n ; coal-house, o ; larder and pantry, p; dust-hole, q ; boot-closet, r ; covered yard for gigs, chaises, &c., s ; stables, 1 1 ; coach- house, w; privies for servants, vv; stable-yard, «•; garden, a-; veranda for skittles, y; and liquid manure tank, 2. The chamber-floor, fig. 1296, has two sitting-rooms, aa; and a large room for balls, or public meetings, b ; the ceiling of this last room is on a level with the ceilings of the rooms of the attic story, and is marked, in fig. 1297, by the same letters. All the other rooms in the chamber-floor and attic story, figs. 1296 and 1297 (thirty in number), are sleeping-apartments. 1423. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of brick, and the roof covered with Peake's Itah'an tiles, such as are shown in § 50 or in § 1 368 ; the eaves being supported by wrought cantalivers. To render tlie bed-rooms fire-proof, the joists may be covered with plain tiles bedded in Roman cement, and having a coating over them" of the same material; the tiles and cement being closely joined to the brickwork of the walls, and the skirting being formed of stucco or cement. The floors, after being made a year or more, may be washed over with oil, and painted either a plain colour or an invitation of any particular kind of wood, marble, or stone. The ceilings may be formed in the same manner. The staircases may be of cast-iron, the treads being covered with stone- plates. The garden, x, is shown with a circular grass-plot in the centre, and a border of evergreen and deciduous shrubs and flowers nest the walls. The kitchen-garden and farm are not seen in this plan. 1424. General Estimate- The cubic contents of this building are 201,908 feet ; which, at 5d. per foot, is £4203 : 85. : 4d., the probable cost of an edifice in this style, plainly finished, in the neighbourhood of London. 680 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1425. Remarks. Tlie ground plan of this Design was contributed by Mr. Taylor, and the elevation has been supplied by Mr. Robertson. The inn seems well adapted for country business ; liaving large rooms for meetings, a sjiacious covered yard for the protection of carriages of every description, and abundance of stabling. A large kitchen* garden v\ ill be required for such an establishment, unless there be a market-garden close at hand. Design II. — A small Country Inn, with Stabling, Skittle- Ground, Tea- Garden, and Bowling- Green. 1426. The Sitnation is supposed to be in a right angle, formed by the intersection of two roads, or by a branch from one road. The principal front, which is seen in fig. 1299, is to tlie main road; and the stables, carriage-house, and yard open to the cross or branch road. 1299 1427. Accommodation- In fig. 1301 is an entrance passage, a, which leads to a hall and staircase, out of which open two other passages ; that to the left, leading to the skittle-ground, i ; and that to the right to the yard, h, the tea-garden, t, and the bowling- green, s. Between the passage and the tap, c, is the bar, b, which is also very conveniently situated for observing comers and goers by the diflTerent passages, and to and from the kitchen, e. The bar, it is to be observed, has glass windows on three sides, and the upper half of the kitchen door, and of those of the passages, is also of glass. In the back-kitchen, /, is an oven. There are a wine and spirit cellar, g ; a brew- house, k ; beer-cellar, I; and cow- house, m; and these last three build- ings have a floor over them for malt, corn, hops, &c. There is a malting- house, »i, over which, at one end, there may be a kiln for drying the malt, or this may be placed in an adjoining building in the yard, ji. There is a stable for four horses, g ; a place for two carriages, r; a bowling-green; s, and a tea-garden, t, with a fountain in the centre, and five alcoves on the sides, m. The chamber floor, fig. l.'^OO, contains six good rooms, five of them witii fireplaces, and a water-closet. 1300 COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 1301 681 1428. Construction. The materials of the walls may be those in common use in the given locality j and hence they may require to be either tliicker or narrower than those shown in the plan. 1429. The Skittle- Ground ought to be rendered hard, smooth, and perfectly level, by a composition of quicklime, sharp sand, and smithy ashes, being spread over a layer of small stones or coarse gravel, and rolled or floated so as to be perfectly smooth, before it has had time to set. We have shown this appendage, and that following, in con- formity with modern usage in Britain ; though we are convinced that when mankind generally are more highly educated, such childish amusements as playing at skittles will never be thought of. As to the exercise which the game affords, perhaps something may be said in its favour in crowded cities ; but, even in them, exercise may surely be 4 H 68-2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. obtained by means equally amusing, and, at the same time, somewhat more rational. When cities are self-governed by a regularly organised representative system, there will always be public gardens sufficiently extensive, and furnished with abundance of botanical and zoological specimens, to supply the means of agreeable exercise and recreation in walking through and examining them. We are justified in this opinion by the fact, that rude games have disappeared in all countries, in proportion as civilisation has ad- vanced and been equalised. 1430. The Bowling- Green ought to be well drained, and to have gratings communi- cating with under-ground drains along tlie sides. The surface of the ground ought then to be reduced to a perfect level, and, by treading or ramming, to an equal degree of solidity ; after which it should be covered with turf of uniform thickness, and after- wards well watered and rolled. It is usual to form a small gutter, about a foot broad, and three inches deep, round the margin of a bowling-green, for the purpose of receiving the water from its surface ; and in the bottom of this gutter the gratings to the drains are placed. When properly drained, however, and turf from a sufficiently porous soil is used, the rain will sink down through it direct to the under drains. The nature of the soil and the drainage are important considerations to be attended to, as one of the greatest beauties of a good bowling-green is to present a dry surface immediately after rain. 1431. The Tea- Garden should be planted with deciduous and evergreen shrubs; taking care that the nurseryman who supplies them does not plant more than two of a sort, and that the sorts have showy and odoriferous flowers. The alcoves may be formed of trellis-work, and covered with honeysuckle, virgin's-bower, and other creeping shrubs ; and, in general, where nothing else will grow, and it is desirable to have a covering of vegetation, Virginian creeper and ivy may be planted. The fountain may be of artificial stone, if real stone is found too expensive ; or it may be of cast iron. 1432. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this building are 107,508 feet ; which, at fi heavy rains. In all inns whatever, we would have the main entrance either under an archway to the yard or court, 1310 or under such a porch or portico as would admit of a carriage of the largest size. We have ex- perienced the great comfort of carriage entrances of this kind, both in inns and in private houses on the Continent ; and we are surprised that Architects, who have travelled, should not have introduced them more generally in this country. We do not recommend that arch- ways through the building, with apartments over them, should be adopted as substitutes for projecting porticoes ; these, where they occur, we would rather consider as adjuncts, to be used when two carriages chanced to arrive or depart at the same time. What we sliould wish to see would be bold projecting porticoes, or Gothic porches, form a prominent part of the front, such as we see to some villa residences. Three of these, which occur to our recol- lection at this moment, are Lord Winchelsea's, in Kent, for a Grecian example ; Eaton Hall, for a carriage-porch in the Gothic style ; and General St. John's cottage, in Sussex, for a carriage-porch in the oldEnglish cottage style. The ground plan does not show the wings, which may consist of iwo rooms and a passage on each floor. Design V. — A Suburban Public House in the Old English Style. 1442. The princijml object of this Design is to show the arrangement of the bar and counter in those public bouses which are supported chiefly by the sale of liquors in small quantities, either drunk in the shop, standing at the counter, or carried home in brought vessels by the purchasers. The general appearance of this house is shown in fig. 1311. COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. b87 1311 H43. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1312, shows a tap-room, a, thirteen feet by twenty feet, with a porch to a skittle-ground behind ; a bar, b, with a counter separating it from the shop, or place for standing customers, c: dis the bar parlour for the master and mistress ; e, a company parlour, with a porch to a garden containing a bowling-green, quoit-ground, cricket-ground, swimming-pond, and baths ; J" is the kitchen ; and g, the pantry. The main entrance is at h ; the house yard and its offices are at i ; the skittle-ground and the garden for the tap-room company are at k ; and the gardens for the parlour company at I. Fig. 1313 is the plan of the chamber or one pair story, showing a club-room, m ; a waiting-room or bed-room, n ; a room for hats, great- coats, and other conveniences connected with the club, o ; and best bed-room, p. The basement story is similar in plan : in it, »i is a beer-cellar ; n, a store-cellar ; a, a coal-cellar ; and p, a spirit and wine-cellar. Fig. 1314 is the plan of the attics, showing three good bed-rooms with fireplaces and presses. Fig. 1 3 1 5 is a perspective view of the bar room, which is eleven feet six inches by ten feet, and ten feet high, with a fireplace for a stove on one side, a door opposite, and another door in the back as seen in the ground plan, fig. 1312, b. The view is taken looking towards the bar from the shop, c, and sup- posing the counter, fig. 1316, to be removed. In this view, a shows small casks for gin, brandy, rim, and other spirituous liquors simple or compound, holding from ten to twenty gallons each, for retail sale, chiefly in single glasses. The casks are supplied some- times from the bar-room by means of a small forcing-pump, or by a can called a jack, but more frequently through a trap-hole in the floor of the room above ; from which hole, a 68S COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE n 1313 T^^T^ Fi.lO 5 ' • ■ ■ ■ I ■ ■ ■ ' ' 1315 COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. ()89 flexible tube is conducted to each particular cask. The liquor is supplied to what is called the fountain, on the counter (r, fig. 1316), by pipes, which communicate with the casks, and are connected with them by means of union joints (that is, male and female screws, witn a nut generally of brass). The pipes are brought down in a case or trunk against the wall, are led along the back of the counter close under its top, and are afterwards carried up the hollow column of the fountain, in the upper part of which they are united to the different cocks by which the liquors are drawn off. There are store vats, b b, for such liquors as are sold in larger quantities, and these are drawn directly from the vats by cocks. There are bins for wine and liqueurs kept in bottles, which bins are here shown with the doors shut at c ; at d are shelves for glasses and similar articles ; at e, shelves for pewter or stone pots for beer, ale, &c. ; at f are pigeonholes for bottles containing choice compounds, cordials, &c. ; and at g, cupboards for various articles ; /« is a fire- place, with a boiler for hot water round three sides, and a cock to draw it off for constant use ; and i is the case or trunk, containing the pipes which lead from the upper casks to the counter fountain. Fig. 1316 is a view of the inside of the counter, looking from the bar-room, in which A: is a six-motion beer-machine to draw the beer and ale of different ages and qualities from the butts in the cellar. Beneath this machine, at I, is a projecting tray, the bottom of which is formed of a grating, or of a pierced plate of pewter, the holes being about the eighth of an inch in diameter ; over this the beer is drawn into the pots, and the droppings are collected by this grating, and passed down, by means of a tube, to a vat in the cellar. This waste beer is taken back by the brewers, and an equal quantity of new beer given in exchange ; at ?» are shelves for glasses, liquor measures, &c. ; at n is usually placed a portable apparatus for heating elder wine, gin and ale, or other liquors ; it consists of a funnel connected with a worm tube, which passes through a vessel filled with hot water ; the water is sometimes kept hot by an iron heater like that of an urn, or a :;pirit lamp ; and at other times, by a tube connecteU with the boiler at the back or sides of the kitchen fire. Sometimes there are two funnels and worms, so that two sorts of liquor can be warmed at once. To warm the liquor, it is poured into one of the funnels at top, and in about half a minute it is drawn off by a cock at bottom ; the length of the worm in the hot water allowing time for the latter to communicate its heat during the passage of the wine through it. There are drawers, o, for tobacco, cheese, biscuits, sugar, lemons, &c. ; places for bread and other articles, p ; a recess for pipes, y; and a fountain, r, with twelve cocks, connected with the small casks, a, in fig. 1315, and with a basin and water for rincing glasses below. In some places this basin is supplied with two cocks, one for hot and the other for cold water, w ith a waste-plug and cliain in the bottom of the basin ; and in others there is, imme- diately beneath the fountain, a saveall, or pierced plate of pt-wter, through which the drippings froin the glasses percolate, and are collected in a shallow basin below, from which they are taken out occasionally, and sold at a low prict! to the poorer customers, or given away in charity. All the wood-work of tliis counter is mahogany, and the metal is pewter, with the exception of the cocks, which are sometimes of brass, though pewter is considered preferable, as being less liable to corrode. 1444. Remarks. For this Design we are indebted to Mr. Laxton, who has had great experience in fitting up public houses. We may observe here, that the fitting up of public Hfcuse bars in London forms almost a distinct trade; and that the expense incurred in this way by the owners of public houses is almost incredible, every one vying with his neighbour in convenient arrangement, general display, rich carving, brass- work, finely veined mahogany, and ornamental painting. The carving of one ornament alone, in that of Mr. Weller, the Grapes, in Old-street Road, cost £" 100 j the work- 4 I 690 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. manship was by one of the first carvers in wood in London. Tliree public houses, or rather gin-shops, have been lately fitted up in Lamb's Conduit Street, at an expense, for the bar alone, of upwards of ^^2000 each. We have no doubt, however, that progressive improvements will be made, even in these bars. The fireplace, for example, is a clumsy mode of heating water, in an apartment where there is but little room to spare. In every town and village where gas is laid on, not only in bars but in kitchens, the heat- ing of water, and various operations of cookery, might be readily effected without the aid of common fires in any form. A correspondent has sent us the following important communication on this subject, to which we invite the attention of all who live in locali- ties where gas can be obtained. 1445. Healing Water and cooking by Gas- " Mr. Strutt, many years ago, affirmed that coal gas, properly applied, would be the cheapest fuel for cooking. Tliis has been so fully confirmed by late trials here (Edinl)urgh), that I have no doubt that, in all cases when it can be had, it should form part of the arrangement of a working man's dwelling, to have the means of so applying it. The plan, which has succeeded here, is as follows : a case or tube of thin rolled iron is made of about two feet, or two feet and a half, long, with a soldered joint; its diiimeter may be from three inches to ten inches, according to the use it is to be put to. Over the mouth of this a piece of wire gauze, of about forty-five wires to the inch, is fixed by an iron hoop: from the sides of the tube, close to the hoop, three pieces of iron are made to project, by means of wliich the tube may be supported by the edges of a circular hole in a table or shelf, shown by the dotted circle n fig. 1317. When so placed, if gas be admitted at the lower extremity of the case or tube, it will mix with the common air within it ; and, the mixture being lighter than the common air, it will rise and pass through the meshes of the wire gauze. If the mixture be set fire to above the gauze, it will continue to burn there, witliout igniting what is below it ; and, although the flame gives scarcely any light, it gives out great heat, and quickly boils any fluid in a vessel placed on a stand two inches over it. Cases of three or four inches diameter answer well for tea-kettles, sauce or stew pans ; and one of nine or ten inches is fully sufficient for a large fish-kettle, or a round of beef, or for sending off steam to heat a bath. The consumption of gas of such a stove costs, at the prices charged here for gas, about rd- an hour. To use the gas conveniently and econo- mically in such an apparatus, each gas branch should be furnished with two stopcocks, one of which only should be accessible to the cook : by the other, the workman who fixes the apparatus should regulate tiie maximum quantity of gas which can pass when the accessible cock is fully opened. The cook will then have the power of diminishing and shutting ofl'the gas, but not of admitting an undue quantity. The point for regulating is the commencement of the appearance of yellow flame on the tip of the blue cone. If more gas be admitted after this, carbon is deposited on tiie bottoms of the cooking- vessels, from the combustion not being completed; while, if the due proportion be observed, the cooking may be performed in bright-bottomed vessels without sensibly tarnishing them. If these gas stoves be placed in the surface of a table, the sides and ends should be boxed up from the under side of the table nearly to the ground, to prevent disturbing currents of air from interfering with the regular rise of the gas mixture in the cases." Design VI. — A Hedge Alehouse of the smallest Size. 1446. The general Appearance is shown in the perspective view, fig. 1:518, and the ground plan in fig. 1319. The latter, to a scale of one inch to nineteen feet, COUNTllV INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. GQl contains a porcli, a; vestibule, 6 ; tap-room and kitchen, c; bar, having' a command of the tap-room and parlour, by borrowed lights on both sides, d; parlour, e; pantry,y; china-closet, g ; master's bed-room, k ; and water-closet, t. There is a staircase, k, to tlie floor above, which contains three good bed-rooms ; over which, and over the parlour, are c arrets. Two of these garret bed-rooms have fireplaces, as shown in the section A B, fig. 1320. 1447. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of brick, the chimney tops of artificial stone, and the roofing of grey slate. 1448. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 27,634 feet; which, at Ad- per foot, is ^£■460: \\s.:4d. 1449. Bemarks. This Design is also by Mr. Ross of Bristol, and seems good in point of arrangement; though Mr. Ross suggests that it might be an improvement if the bar and staircase were to change places. It would make a very comfortable private cottage, d being a store-room, instead of a bar, and the other places remaining in their present state ; unless, indeed, the large porch, a, were made a green-house, or aviary, or place for sculpture, antiquities, or a museum. 692 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUUE. Design VI I. — A Country Public House in the Italian Style. 1-450. Accommodution. The general appearance is shown in the elevation, fig. 1321, and the ground plan in fig. 1322, which contains a carriage entrance, a, with a passage, h between it and an entrance-porch, c. There are a bar, d ; bar-room, e ; parlour, f; kitchen, g ; staircase, h ; small parlour, i ; loggia or place fijr drinking in, k ; and outside stsrir- case to rooms for company in the upper part of the tower, which is circular, and also over part of the house. 1322 J ^ = : ^ ft. 1 1 I I I I I f ' I I : 1 1 ft. 1451. Re-marks. This Design has been sent us by Edward Buckton Lamb, Esq. Architect. As an elevation, it is very picturesque, and well calculated for a public house of recreation in a country commanding fine views. The carriage entrance is a most desirable feature, and, as already observed, § 1441, ought never to be omitted. COUNTRY INNS AND PLBLIC HOUSES. 693 Design VIII. — A small Inn or Public House in the Sudss Style. 1452. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1323, consists of an entrance to the bar, a; bar, b; cellar, c; family parlour, d ; kitchen, e; store- closet, /; pantrj-, ^; water- closet, /i ; entrance lobby, i ; tap-room, A- ; public parlour, ;; lobby, 7?;; bakehouse, ti ; dust-hole, o; wood-house, j5 ; coal-house, y ; privies, r r; entrance to cncket and quoit ground, s ; situation of the baths, t ; garden, u ; terrace, v v ; terraced walk to the stairs leading to the balcony, w ; skittle-ground, x. The first floor consists of a club-room, fig. 1324, a; large bed-room, b; staircase, c ; lobby, d; bed-room, e ; family bed-room/- terrace, gg. Tliere is one large bed-room and two small ones in the attic floor. ' 694^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AllCIIITECTUllE. 1325 1453. Consb-uclion. The foundations are to be built of stone or brickwork, and carried up two fcut above the level of the terrace ; the walls containing the flues and the chimney stacks are also to be of stone or brickwork. The platform on which the terrace is raised is to be formed of the earth dug out of the foundations ; and, after being pro- perly rammed, and allowed time to settle, it is to be paved witli flat tiles. The railings surrounding the terrace are to be formed by wooden posts driven firmly into the platform at the angles, and the intermediate spaces are to be filled in with roughly turned balusters, coped with a light wooden rail. The balconies to be supported by wooden brackets, as shown in the elevation ; and the balusters of the outside stiurs are to corre- spond with those of the terrace. The walls above the solid stone or brickwork are to be framed of wood in the Swiss manner, and covered with boards both outside and inside. The roof is to be covered with shingles or with tiles, and the projecting eaves are to be supported by brackets, and by a continuation of the common rafters; the projections over the gable ends are also to be supported by solid wooden brackets. The tops of the chimney shafts are to be covered with tarred boards, or with thin flag-stones ; and the smoke is to escape at the lateral openings, as shown in the elevation. The ornaments on the roof are to be of very light cast iron, painted of an oak colour. The windows may be common sashes, hung in the usual way ; or they may be framed in the Italian or Swiss manner, and hinged so as to open inwards. The oven is to be built of fire bricks, having the joints radiat- ing to centres. All the ornamental woodwork to be roughly carved and notched with the axe and chisel. The water-closet and privies are to be lined with |-inch deal two feet above the seats, and are to have proper pans, traps, and drains. The inconvenience often occa- sioned by leaving the lid of the seat off, may be remedied by the following very simple contrivance, shown by fig. 1325. Immediately behind the lid, when up, let a small fillet of wood be hinged by a piece of leather at the upper end, a, and a cord fixed at its lower end, b, passing over the pulleys fixed in the ceiling at c c, to the door, d. It wall be seen that if the door be opened • outwards, the cord passing over the pulleys raises the fillet of wood, and if the lid has been left open, it throws it down with such force as not only to correct the omission, but to make every one in the house aware of it. 1454. Remarks. " The terraces in front may have seats for the accommodation of those who wish to sit in the open air ; and the balcony may be a comfortable retreat in mild rainy weather, being well protected by the projecting roof; it will also be a very convenient place for invalids. A stove is shown in the bar, both for warming the apartment, and for keeping water hot to mix with the liquors. The bar or shop, at a, is for retailing liquors to those who are to carry them away ; and a temporary division is thrown across the bar, to separate the shop department from the company passing into the lobby, i. The platform opposite the bar communicates with the terraces on each side, and a walk is shown from the terrace opposite the family parlour, passing through the porch, and descending a few steps to the garden, v. The garden may also be entered by the kitchen, e, and also through the cricket-ground, s. The bar, the fami y parlour, and the kitchen, are arranged as near to each other as possible, for the sake ot con- venience ; and an additional door is made to enter into this parlour close by the kitchen door, both to prevent the inconvenience of carrying hot dishes through the lobby, ??i, and to afibrd more private access to the water-closet, li. The covered yard in front of the privies will be found very useful in keeping the skittles and quoits from the weather when not in use. Warm, cold, and shower baths may be erected at <; and swimniing- ponds, surrounded by boarding, may be made at the extremity of the cricket-ground. It more cellarage be required than tlie small cellar, c, cellars might be made under the tap- room and family parlour, descending by a staircase where the present cellar is shown. The club room, a, may be used as a room fbr public meetings; and, at election time, it FINISHING OF COUNTRY INNS. 695 might be used as a committee-room, at which times the balcony would be a suitable place from which the candidates might deliver their opinions to the electors. Tlie out- side entrance staircase will be found a very convenient means of access to the club-room, and will prevent company from being annoyed by those who may be enjoying themselves on the terrace in front. If this building were situated in a district where there were no scientific institutions, the clul)-room might be occasionally used as a place for delivering lectures in to a small company, on mechanics and chemistry, and other branches of experimental philosophy ; and, in this case, the room over the bar might be used as a reading-room or library. It would, however, be preferable to have a regular mechanics' institution, that would accommodate a greater number of persons, if the inhabitants could afford to support such an institution ; and the possibility of this being made a lecture-room is oiily suggested in order that refreshments for tlie body and mind might be supplied in the same quarter, to suit the various tastes of various individuals." This Design, and the preceding description and remarks, have been composed by Mr. Robertson ; and we think tlicy do credit to his judgment in arrangement, and his taste in composing elevations. Its general appearance, fig. 1S26, reminds us of the very beautiful nine- house and pleasure-garden, in the Swiss style, at Silberberg, near Stuttgard. Sect. III. Of the Finishing, Filtings-iip, Fijctures, and Furniture of Cou7itry Inns and Public Houses. 1455. Tke Finishing, Fittings-xtp, and Fixtures of Inns differ from those of private houses chiefly in tlie extent of those belonging to the kitchen and its offices ; and the peculiarity of those required for the bar. We shall take in succession the bar, the kitchen, and the store-room, larder, and other offices. Si'BSECT. 1. Of the Finishing, Fittings-tip, FLi-tures, and Furniture of the Bar of an Inn or Public House. 1456. The Finishing and FUtings-up of the Bar include, in large inns, an ii-on safe or chest, for books, valuable papers, and money ; pigeonholes, marked with the letters of the alphabet, for letters, accounts, and general purposes ; and other pigeonholes, marked with the numbers of all the different apartments, for letters or other articles left for, or belonging to, any of the guests. In small inns, there is a cupboard for glass and china, together with drawers and shelves for tea and coffee urns, tea-pots, coffee- pots, and punch bowls, and a variety of miscellaneous articles ; there are also vertical divisions for tea-trays, waiters, and similar things : and, in public houses, there is a supply of hot and cold water from cocks over a sink ; and, as we have seen. Design V, § 1443, a complete system of tubes or pipes, for drawing liquors from casks, either in the bar-room, in an adjoining room, or in the cellar beneath. In presses and drawers in the bar are also kept, in the smaller inns, the table linen, napery, and plate of every description. Some years ago, an invention was exhibited in London, called a domestic telegraph, which was considered to be well adapted for very large inns. A dial, with a face like that of a clock, but with tjie names of the articles most in use in coffee- rooms inscribed round the plate, instead of tlie figmes of the hours, and witli a hand 696 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. to point to the articles required, was fixed up in the cofFee-roora or in the bar, and was united by wires and machinery with a corresponding dial in the kitchen. The move- ment of the hands being sympathetic, orders were thus communicated from the one to the other, a bell being previously rung to direct attention. Speaking pipes, howevei, are much better adapted for this purpose, though either can seldom be wanted in a country inn. A bell to the kitchen, another to the stables, a third for the waiter, and a fourth for the chambermaid, are indispensable in the bars of large inns; but in small ones, a bell for the hostler, and anotlier for the head waiter, are deemed sufficient. 1457. Rising Ciipboai-cls. There is a contrivance, in some coffee-houses in London, for sending up articles fiom the kitchen to the bar, or to any other upper room, in a vertical tube or trunk. This is effected in two ways. The first is by a single box, or cupboard, suspended by a cord and pulleys, and balanced by a weight, as in fig. 1.'527, in which a is the box or cupboard, with a shelf in the middle ; b b, two pulleys, over which the cord passes which is attached to the lid of the box at one end, and to tlie mass of iron, c, of equivalent weight, at the other ; d is a wooden rod, attached by a piece of cord, or two or three links of a chain, to a staple in the bottom of the box, by which the person in the kitchen below pulls it down, or pushes it up ; e is the top of the counter of the bar; andy the surface of the bar floor. In some cases the cupboard is balanced by two weights, one on each side, when the centre pulley becomes unnecessary, and the top of the cupboard, on which articles may be placed, rises to the level of the surface of the counter, or of any table to which the apparatus may be affixed, so as to appear a part of 1328 1327 it. Bv the second mode there are two cupboards, 6g. 1S2S, ^g, which balance each otlier, and are attached by cords, fastened to staples in the exterior surfaces of the tops and bottoms of each cupboard. These cords run on the two cast-iron wheels, A /;, each of which is about twcntv inches in diameter, and the cupboards are so p aced as that, when one is at the top of the trunk, or place of delivery, i, the other is at the bottom, or pl-.ce of reception, Ic. In order that the cupboards may move up and down with pertect case and steadiness, two beads or fillets are nailed on each of (heir exterior sides, as ,n fiT is^q at //• and grooves arc formed in the sides of the trunk, by fillets nailid on, as I'lNlSHING OF COUNTRY INNS. t)97 ^^ at m m. When the second description of rising cupboard 1329 is used, it is necessarj' to have one for each floor ; but tlie former kind may serve all the floors of a house, openings being made at the proper height in each floor, for a person to put in his hands in order to take out, or to put in, articles, and to move the cord either upwards or down- wards, as may be required. The second mode is much the most convenient for large inns; but the first is sufficient for small ones. One of the cupboards, in fig. 1328, is sup- posed to contain the principal dishes of a single course ; and while the other is at the bottom, ready to receive the dishes of the second course from the kitchen, it is at the side- board in the dining-room, or in any other convenient place near it, for receiving and takino- down the empty dishes. Fig. 1327 may be seen in action at the shop of Mr. Rope, Con- fectioner, in Lamb's Conduit Street; and fig. 1328, adapted both to the ground floor and the first floor, at the Albion Tavern, Drury Lane Theatre. The latter was constructed by Mr. Argent, Bricklayer and Carpenter, Seabright Place, Hackney Road, and is found to save a great deal of labour in carrying the dishes up and down stairs, besides keeping the articles hot. Indeed, by having a cast-iron plate, heated by steam, at the bottom of each trunk, it may be rendered a hot closet, for all its length ; and, when the apparatus of the rising cupboard is not used, it might serve for conveying heat from the kitchen to the upper rooms. In some inns the cupboard is raised or lowered at pleasure by a cord and pulley, operated on by a rack and pinion in the kitchen ; orders being given by the waiter above through a speaking-tube, and attention being directed to the tube by the waiter in the bar or upper room first ringing a bell. In some eating- houses, in London, the tube is circular, and about a foot in diameter, that size being suflScient for sending up dinners for individuals in two or three covers placed one over another ; but in inns where large parties are given, the tubes are two or three feet square, and the boxes, which move up and down in them, are fitted up with shelves, and may be kept perfectly hot by a vessel of hot water or an iron heater being placed in the lowest shelf. The tubes in which these boxes move are generally formed alongside the staircase. In some private houses in Russia, for example, at Astankina, near Moscow, there is, or was, when we saw it, in 1814, a contrivance for the descent and return of the entire dining-table to and from the kitchen ; the dining-table, in this case, being sur- rounded by a fixed margin, on which the wine was kept. This also can, however, be seldom wanted in a country inn, where the kitchen may almost always be on the same floor with the principal dining-rooms. A horizontal tube, or hot tunnel, with grooves for a small cai-riage like a railway waggon, to be drawn from one end to the other by cords, one at each end, for conveying the dinner from the kitchen to a distant part of the house, may possibly, in some cases, be wanted, and could easily be constructed along the side of a straight passage^ 1458. Among the Fixtures of the Bar may be included a folding register grate, which costs, in London, £1 : Is., and is one of the best things of the kind in use either for a bar, a library, or any other room where valuable papers are kept ; or for a sick-room, or nursery, or even for common bed-rooms, where the expense is not an object. The doors of this stove are in two parts, the upper and the lower ; and each part consists of four divisions, which are hinged to each other, and fold back so as to present the appearance of fig. 1 330 when not in use. When it is desired to blow the fire, after being newly lighted, or if it gets low, the upper half of the doors may be shut, as in fig. 1331. On the other hand, when the fire burns too rapidly, or it is not wanted, the lower doors may be shut; which, by excluding the draught of air through, the fuel, wiU prevent combustion. On leaving the room at any time, or on retiring to 1330 1331 098 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. bed, all the doors may be wholly or partially closed, so as to put out the fire, or keep it barely alive. This description of stove has also the farther advantages, that it increases the draught of slow-drawing or smoky chimneys ; and that, in summer, when f.res are not wanted, it may he shut close, to prevent the descent of air from the chinmej into the room. By filling in the panels of the shutters with talc ins.ead of iron, a very perfect description of fireplace might be formed ; and, while many of the advantages of a close stove might be obtained, the English prejudices in favour of the sight of the fire might still be gratified. This might also be done, and, at the same time, safety and ventilation insured, if the panels were filled in with brass wire. 1459. In the Sculleri/ or Back- Kitchen of an inn, a large sink will 133- be required, of which there are numerous convenient kinds made in cast iron. Fig. 1332 is manu- factured by IVIr. INIallet of Dublin. It has three divisions ; a is a com- mon sink, from which the water or other fluid rims away without impediment through the adjacent column or support; b is a trough, which may be filled with water for washing vegetables, and which is furnished with a plug and waste-pipe at bottom; c is an inclined plane grooved on the surface, for draining vegetables, fish, &c. ; and d d are cocks for supplying water. Side- tables or dressers, either in the kitchen or scullery, or in any of the other apartments connected with them, may be fixed to the %vall, and supported by cast-iron brackets, fig. 1333, in the manner recommended for cottage and farm furniture- 1333 Kitchen tables are generally formed of the wood of the ash, as being white, hard, and durable. SuBSECT. 2. Of the Finishing, Fittings-np, Fixtures, and Furniture for the other Offices of Inns. 14G0. The general Store-room is fitted up with large presses and drawers for the bed- room linen and for furniture, such as curtains, table-covers, &c., not in common use. The carpets, mats, and floorcloths of different descriptions are kept in closets on the particular floors to which they belong. Li tlie general store-room are also kept all groceries, and other dry goods usually purchased in large quantities. Coffee, pepper, and spice mills are fixtures generally placed here, or, in small inns, in the bar-room. A napkin press, fig. 1334, is one of the most useful articles of inn furniture, since table- cloths, napkins, towels, &c., after having been used, but not soiled, if neatly folded and pressed, may be made to look as if newly washed and mangled. 1461. The Larder ought to be in a cool shady situation, and should be well ventilated by windows or other openings on, at least, two sides, covered with wire or hairclotl)s; and also by openings or flues from the ceiling or top of the side walls, conducted to the side of some chimney, in which there is constantly kept a fire ; in order that the heat of the smoke flue, by passing through to the air flue, may create a continual draught through the larder. In complete inns, there are separate larders for butcher's meat, fresh and cooked, venison, game, fish, and even vegetables : there ought also to be a salting-room, and a house for smoking hams, tongues, &c. The fish larder has a well or cistern for ice, in which fish are kept during summer, with troughs of water for FINISHING OF COUNTRY INNS. 699 live eels, and cisterns for feeding oysters, and also for crawfish. In summer, the fish is kept on a table under a case of fine ivirecloth, that it may be seen, for the purpose of selection, by guests, without uncovering it to admit the flies. Cold meat, and also raw meat for steaks and chops are covered in a similar manner in some of the London larders. The vegetable larder, as we have already observed, § 737, ought, if convenient, to be near the ice- house. In addition to larders for preserving these different kinds of pro\dsions, there ought also to be a cellar or other place for intenerating such meat as may be required to be dressed before it has hung the usual time. As coating poultry or butcher's meat with yeast, or rub- bing it over with, or immersing it in, charcoal, tends to freshen it when it has been kept too long, so burying it in earth, by accelerating putrefaction, serves to render it tender. It is well known, that a fowl of any kind, not many hours killed, if buried five or six hours in common garden soil, becomes as tender as if it had been kept above ground two or three days. Fowls newly killed, and dressed before they are cold (savagelike though the practice is), are always perfectly tender ; as are also all the internal parts of animals. Hanging fowls or meat in the shade of a fig tree, or any tree of the same natural order, is also found to make them tender. Nettles belong to the same natural order ; and it is said that slices of meat, such as beefsteaks, &c., rubbed over with nettle leaves, or laid on and covered with them, will become quite tender in a few hours. 1462. The Fittings-np of the Cellars of Inns have nothing peculiar. Cast-iron bins for wines have been employed in London, to save room ; but, as they are not so durable as brick or stone, they are not approved of in cases where there is abundance of space. It is also said that the effect which the changes of temperature produce upon iron has some influence on the state of port wine stored in iron bins, it being well known that this wine is more liable to be rendered muddy by cold than any other. 1463. The Cellar Furniture for oh 7?t7i includes a machine for racking wine from one cask to another, of which there are various sorts ; one, recently invented by ]\Ir. Hilton, is figured and described in the Trans, of the Soc of Arts, vol. xlviii. p. 70: and a machine for bottling wine ; one of which has been invented by Mr. Masterman of London, by which a number of bottles may be filled at tlie same time, and this with such rapidity, that six dozen of common quart bottles may be filled in ten minutes. The same gentleman has also invented a machine for corking five or six bottles at i time ; so that, in extensive concerns, the business of bottling and corking may be reduced to a tenth part of the usual labour. Both machines cost very little ; they will be found figured and described in the Bepertory of Arts, new series, vol. i. ; and the bot- tling-machine, which is a very beautiful and effective apparatus, may be seen in operation in the extensive wine vaults of Carbonell and Company, Regent Street, London. The common bottling-machine we have already given, § 1324, fig. 1189. An improved mode of preserving beer from souring has been invented by our correspondent, Mr. Mallet of Dublin, which is well deserving the attention of those who know what it is to drink table beer charged with carbonic acid gas. By IMr. Mallet's apparatus the external air is not only completely excluded, but the beer may be impregnated with gas, as in the manufacture of soda water. The cost is little more than that of the patent vent peg. (See Mech. Mag. vol. xv. p. 264.) 1464. A Washing and Wringing Machine for a farm house has been already given; and we shall now recommend one for an inn, which is in use in the Derbyshire Infirmary and in other establishments. This machine may either be turned by manual labour, by a horse, or by steam ; and as, in a large inn, a steam-engine of one-horse power might always be combined with the steam apparatus for other purposes, it might be em- ployed for driving different kinds of machinery, such as a washing-machine, a churn, a straw-cutter, oat-bruiser, &c. It has been remarked to us by a correspondent, who has paid great attention to the subject of domestic economy, that the machine we are about to describe is the only one he ever saw wliich did no injury to liuen. It was adapted 700 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. by Mr. William Strutt, from the common washing-wheel ; and is thus descrihed in Sylvester's Domestic Economy : — " Two sides of the wash-house are provided with stone benches. In the centre of the roonr is a boiler, containhig 100 gallons of w^ater; and near it stands the washing-machine. There are also several wooden tubs foi the purpose of washing by hand occasion- ally. Fig. 1335 is a perspective view of the washing-machine ; c d is a. water- tight cistern, in which the cylinder a revolves. The interior of this cylinder is divided into four revolvers. One quarter of the end of the cylinder is removed in the figure, to show the interior of one of these cavities. The proper entrances into these are by small doors, of which there is one in each, as seen at h : here the linen is introduced, and the doors are then closed. The perforations in the cy- linder, and in the separations of the ca- vities, are for the admission of water ; the linen is wetted, and rubbed with soap, the night before washing. Before the opera- tion commences, as much cold water is put into the outer vessel, c d, as wiU rise to the height of four or five inches in the cylinder, a. The vessel, c d, is provided witli a steam- pipe from the steam-engine boiler. The steam is let in until the water and linen are heated to the niaximum, which is something below the boiling point. The part b being turned down, tlie inner cylinder is put in motion, and the lioles in its sides freely admit the hot water and steam. Tlie velocity of the cylinder should be such that the linen may be heard to fall from one side to tlie other every time it is raised out of the water. This discharges most of the water from it, and it becomes filled with a fresh portion every time it dips into the water below. If the motion be too rapid, the linen remains against the sides of the cylinder ; if too slow, it slides down the sides. In either case, little or no effect is pro- duced. When the machine moves at a proper speed, one change of linen will be washed in less than half an hour. It must be observed, that during this process the quantity of soap in the machine should be such as to produce a strong lather ; so that, if a sufficient quantity has not been rubbed upon the clothes before they were put into the machine, more soap must be added, either in the state of thin shavings, or previously dissolved in hot water. A great advantage will be derived from the use of an alkali, when it is used in a proper state, and with caution. The operation of the machine consists merely in letting the clothes fall from one side of the compartment to the other, so that the texture is less injured than by any other mode of washing, and the water, being nearly at the boiling point, has a much greater effect in dissolving the dirt, than at the low temperature which can be borne by the hand of the washerwoman. The dirty water may be let off in a few seconds by a cock in the bottom of the fixed vessel, which may be immediately supplied with fresh water, and with steam to heat it. All the labour of lading the dirty water out, and pouring fresh water in, is saved by pipes being laid for its admission and exit ; and the constant supply of steam rendei-s the presence of fireplaces unnecessary. After the clothes are removed from the machine, some of them require to be looked over, and sometimes a little hand-washing is necessary ; but the greatest pro- portion are finished by the machine alone. The next process is boiling the clothes, which is performed in the boiler above mentioned : it is placed in the middle of the wash-house, for the pui'pose of getting round it. There are three pipes attached to it : one introduces cold water, a second steam, and a third carries the waste water away. During the boiling process, the boiler is covered ; the edge of the cover fits into a groove, which goes round the top of the boiler. This groove, being filled with water, ))revents the escape of steam, and by that means economises the heat. Tlie linen is now taken from the boiler, and laid upon a board or tray, filled with small holes, and placed over the boiler ; by which means the water, which contains much soap, is drained out, and used for the process of washing in the machine. Near the ceiling of the wash- house, there is an oiiening into a chimney, which is for the express purpose of carrymg off the vapour." ( SyliHster's Fli'dosopliy of Domestic Economy, p. 27.) 1465. Tfie Mode of IVrinying is as folloivs : — " The linen is placed in a square bag of strong sacking, kept open by wire rings j this bag is contained in a cast-iron box, which FINISHING OF COUNTRY INNS. 701 opens on one side to admit the linen, and then closes firmlj'. The interior surface of the box is grooved, to receive the water when pressed out. The pressure is applied by- means of a sliding plate, which fits the box, and is forced against the end of the bag by a rack and pinion, and turned by a winch. The sides of box prevent the bag from be- coming wider ; the pressure applied has therefore the effect of shortening the bag, tiU all the water is pressed out into the grooves. By this machine, the clothes are squeezed much drier than by the common method ; and, the pressure upon all parts being uniform, less injury is done to the texture of the linen." (Ibid. p. 62.) 1466. In the Laundry of an Inn there might be a drying-closet, heated either by steam or by a hot-air stove, in the very superior manner described by Mr. Sylvester, as being in use in the Derbyshire Infirmary. Instead of the cockle employed in that institution, a furnace and flues, the latter of cast iron, might be made use of. In this case, the flues might be arranged in the manner adopted by Mr. Read in his hop-kiln, § 1272, the con- volutions being brought into a space not exceeding the area of the bottom of the drying- closet. On this subject we refer our readers to the drying-closet which we have already given, § 306, and to that described in the woik of Mr. Sylvester. 1467. For the Water-closet of the Kitchen Courts and Stable Courts of Inns, we should recommend the very excellent plan adopted in the Derbyshire Infirmary, and thus described by Mr. Sylvester : — " The great superiority of thiswater-closetabove all others is, its preventing any smell, without the least care of the person using it. The person who enters it fills it with fresh air, which is left behindon coming out. Tlie manner in which tliis is ef- fected we shall now explain. Fig. 1336 is a plan of the water-closet : a, the en- trance into the first part ; 6 is a door attached to, and turning upon the arbor (a spindle or axis) c, which is shown more at large at the same letter in tig. 1338 ; cZ is a bar of wood inserted into the same, and having the same radius with the door, fits the concave cy- lindrical space, the air is driven before d, and escapes at the ceiling over the seat, e; by this motion the door is brought up to the wooden divi- sion, f and the end of the bar, d, is brought to the point g; A is a small closet, made for the pur- pose of reducing the space in front of the seat to what is suf- ficient room. When the person returns, he is obliged to ptish the bar, d, which now is in the position c a, before him, till he brings it close against the other side of y. During the returning motion, one of the panels of the door, i, in fig. 1337, is iuade a valve, and, opening inwards, lets in fresh air to supply the place of that driven out on entering the closet. At one particular 702 COTTAGE, VAUM, AND VILLA AUCHITECTU HE. point in returning, the arbor c, in fig. 1 338, gives motion to certain machinery, which lets the water through the seat in the same manner as in the coiranon water-closet. Indeed, the seat part of this closet is the same, in every respect, as those invented by Bramah ; by which the water is made to flow by raising a lever. The construction of this part is shown in fig. 1337. The arbor c, in fig. 1338, by its motion carries round the wheel, A I, which, in entering the closet, does not act upon the lever, m, but raises it on its return, and opens the valve, n, which allows the water above to descend through the seat, e. It will be seen by examining the wheel, k I, which is better seen in fig. 1338, how it affects the lever on its return only. The part I, to a certain extent, towards k, is a steel spring, which bends upwards ; so that, if the wheel be moving from k towards I, the part I will go over the pulley, o, and when it gets to the protuberance at k, the lever, m, will be pulled down, the valve, n, raised, and the water will flow till the protuberance at /t passes over. When the closet is entered, the opposite side of the wheel passes under the pulley, o, and, moving from k to I, tlie spring is bent downwards, and the lever, m, is not acted upon. The cylindrical cavity is formed of brickwork, and plastered inside. The plaster, while wet, is scraped by the door, which gives it its proper cylindrical shape." (Phil, of Dom. Econ. p. 49.) This water-closet, we are informed by Mr. Sylvester, was invented by Mr. William Strutt, in the year 1 806 ; and it has been in use in his own family, and in those of several of his friends, ever since. We agree with Mr. Sylvester, in thinking it the most perfect of all water-closets ; because, besides answering com- pletely the intention of a water-closet, it does so independently of any care of the person using it, and is not likely to go easily out of repair, unless it is so placed as to admit of the water being frozen during very cold weather. In thus noticing it, we cannot help expressing our admiration of tlie genius and the benevolent mind of Mr. Strutt, and also paying a tribute to the memory of the late amiable and scientific engineer, Mr. Sylvester, who has so ably portrayed Mr. Strutt's inventions, in a work which ought to be in the hands of every Architect and furnishing ironmonger. 1468. A Cleaning House or Shed is essential to the kitchen court of every inn ; and perhaps no part of such establishments stands more in want of improvement. We refer, for hints on this subject, to what we have said when treating of the interior finishing of the kitchen court of farm houses, § 1384 and § 1385. 1469. Other Details for the fittings-up and furniture of this department of Country Inns will be found in the corresponding sections in Book I. ; and under Farm House Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture, § 1371. SuBSECT. 3. Of the Fi/iishinff, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furiiiture of the Inn generally. 1470. All Inns on a large Scale ought, in our opinion, to be heated by steam, hot water, or hot air. The last mode is much better adapted for an hospital, a college, or a large dwelling-house, than an inn ; because, in the former cases, it is supposed that the whole house is to be regularly heated, whereas in the latter, only one room will require to be heated at a time, as guests arrive. For this purpose, steam and hot water, especially the former, are much better adapted than hot air. By having proper vessels for containing steam in every apartment, they may be filled with it from the steam apparatus in the kitchen, a few moments after the ai rival of every guest ; and these vessels may, in like manner, be deprived of their steam at the instant of his depar- ture. As the same instantaneous effect could not be produced by tlie hot-water system of heating, and would occasion too much expense by the hot-;iir system, we necessarily arrive at the conclusion, that heating by steam is the mode best adapted for inns an HimIiihL ^ft. R _sil Jk ^ .::V.r-::- ^^ . 1 them may be taught 400 childi-en. The circles round which the children are to stand are drawn on tlie floor with chalk : there are writing-desks p round the walls as in the Madras school in Baldwin's Gar- dens, fig. 1377, and writing is also taught on slates. The schools are well lighted from the south-east and north-west ; and in the roof are ventilators formed in the manner shown in fig. 1381, in which the iron spindle which supports a board, or the pane of glass, p, is raised by two lines, q, passing over the pulleys, r, wlien the card, s, is pulled by a person standing on the floor of the school. The weight forming the handle, t, is such as to balance the ventilator in whichever position it may be placed. 1533. By the Lancasterian System the children are placed in lines across the room, with a form and desk to each line, and are chiefly taught in one mass when so placed ; but they are also taught in small classes in the form of semicircles round the room. The desiderata for a school to be taught on this system have been given in a very complete manner In an appendix to the work, already named, entitled Manual of the Model Schools of the British and Foreign School Society, from which we shall make a succinct abridgment. 1534. The Situation of the School should be retired and quiet, and the ground high, and open to the south. To preserve the pupOs from the inconvenience of cold and damp, it will bo better to raise the ground two or three feet f^ above tlie surrounding level. There should be a play-ground \^ or yard, in which the children may assemble before they t go into school, or during the hours of recreation. The soil of this yard sliould be of gravel, to the depth of one foot. It should be enclosed by a wall of suitable height, and Iiave a communication with the street or road, without passing through the scliool-room. There ought to be a good sujiply of fresh water, either from a pump, or a cask or cistern, with conveniences for the children to wash their hands and faces. One side of the vard 1S81 73i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. should be furnished with seats, and a part covered, in order to protect the children from inclemency of weather. 1535. General Arrangement of the Schoolroom. Tlic schoolroom should be a paral- lelogram, the length about twice the breadth. The height of the walls should be pro- portioned to the length of the room, and may be varied from eleven to nineteen feet. They should be worked fair, and lime-whitened, in order to give a neat and clean appear- ance, reflect light, and contribute to the preservation of health. There should be a con- siderable number of windows, each of wliich should be fixed in a wooden frame, and movable upon pins or pivots in the centre, so that, by drawing the upper part into the room, tlie lower part may project outwards, so as to admit air above and below ; by which means the school may be sufficiently ventilated in hot weather. The lower parts of the windows should be at least six feet from the floor, in order that the light may not be inconvenient, and the wall be at liberty for the boards or placards containing the reading- lessons, &c., which are attached to it : if piers or buttresses are required, they should be on the outside of the wall. P"ig. 1382 is a plan of a Lancasterian school for 304 children. It is sixty-two feet six inches long, and thirty-four feet wide, inside measure. It contains nineteen forms, a, for holding sixteen children each ; and with a desk, b, to each form. Tht-re is a platform at one end, c ; a desk for the master, d ; and twent3'-eight semi- circles, e, for small classes of nine children each. The situation of the monitor-general is at/"; of the monitor of the writing classes at g ; and of the monitors of inspection at h. The diameter of the semicircles is four feet, and the passage between the wall and the forms five feet ; i i are two doors opening into the adjoining road or street ; and k, a door opening into the play-ground. The roof should be slated on boards, in order to prevent the reverberation of sound which is frequently occasioned by plastered ceilings. When this reverberation takes place, it may always be checked by suspending pieces of baize from the ceiling, from one side of the room to the other ; and these may be so festooned as to form an agreeable drapery. Openings, with sliding covers for ventilation, should be formed under the eaves. All projections in tlie walls, as well as pillars to support the roof, ought to be avoided ; for they interfere with the arrangement of the school, and obstruct the view of the master and of visiters. If pillars are necessary, they should be placed at each end of the desks, but never in the middle of the room. Tlie floor may be paved with bricks or tiles, or prepared with a mixture of clay, slacked lime, and scales of iron from a smith's forge. The earth being previously levelled and conso- lidated by a heavy roller, or by ramming, the mixture should be applied, and well beaten down. Wooden or stone floors are objectionable, on account of the noise they produce by the trampling of the feet. 1536. A good Flooring may be formed of Roman cement, cast into flags, and jointed with the same material ; it is perfectly dry and durable, and emits but little sound. 1537. In order that all the Children may he conipletelg seen hy the Master, it is of great importance that the floor should be an inclined plane, rising one foot in twenty from the master's desk, to the upper end of the room, where the highest or eighth class is situated. At the lower end is the platform, elevated, in proportion to the length of the room, from two to three feet. Tlie length and breadth of the platform must be in proportion to the size of the room. The centre of the platform is the place for the master's desk ; and on each side there may be a small desk for the principal monitors. 1538. The Entrance-door should be on the side of the platform, in order that visiters, on entering the school, may have a commanding view of all the children at once. 1539. The School may be icurmed, whatever may be its size, by means of one or two stoves placed at the extremities of the apartment. But the most uniform temperature is obtained by steam or hot water, when conducted along the lower parts of the room, through pipes ; or by heated air conveyed into the room through tubes communicating with a stove, which is siuTounded by a close casing of iron, having a suflficient space for a ciu-rent of fresh air to be brought in through a tube : the current of air coming in contact with the stove, and the outside of the flue, or iron chimney, whicli passes through the casing, is heated, and may be discharged into the room by means of iron pipes. This method has been found to answer extremely well. 1540. 77*6 Forms and Desks occupy the middle of the room, a passage being left between the ends of the forms and the wall, five or six feet broad, where the children form semicircles for reading. 1541. The For7ns and Desks must be fixed firmly in the ground ; the legs or supports should be six inches broad and two inches thick : but cast-iron legs are preferable, as they support the desk-board with equal firmness, occupy less room, and have a mucli neater appearance : their number, of course, will be in proportion to the length of the forms. A form twenty feet long will require five ; and they must be so placed, that flic supports of the forms may not be innnediately opposite to those of tlie desks. 'I'he corners of the desks and forms are to be made round, in order that the children may not hurt themselves. MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. "yS/i 1382 10 5 10 LI l.,> . , I '■■■''''' i' 1542. Tlie Desks of the Writing Classes are arranged next after those of the first or sand class (those who write in sand) : they are to be four inches higher than the latter. The forms are six inches broad, and sixteen inches in height. The desks are inclined planes, rising two inches : they are nine inches broad, and are furnished witli beads along the least elevated sides, in order to prevent the slates from falling and being broken. At 730 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. the right-hand cxtremitj' of all the desks a hoard is fixed perpendicularly in the ground, and nailed against the further side of the desks. This hoard is of the same hreadth as the desk, and rises ahout one foot and a half ahovc it. Upon this the dictating lessons and class marks are to he hung. 1543. Telegraphs are small hoards, six inches long and four inches hroad. One of these boards is attached to each class, except the first. Upon one side of the board is inscribed the number of the class, and on the other the letters E X. The telegraphs arc made to tm-n freely on an iron rod, about twelve inches in height, the other end of which is firmly screwed into the perpendicular standard at the end of tlie desk : by fur- nisliing the top of each of these standards with a screw nut, the telegraphs may be changed from one to another, as occasion requires. 1544. Drawers for the Pencils. In schools situated in a country where slate pencils are dear, it is best not to allow the children to take away the pencils with them when they leave the school : the pencils may in that case be deposited in drawers placed under the first desk of each class. 1545. Semicircles for Eeaaintj. On the floor of the passages, semicircles are formed opposite to the wall : they may consist of a wooden or iron hoop sunk in the ground to tlje level of the pavement, or be marked by an incision in the floor, which will be found to answer better. Round these seirucircles the children are to be arranged for reading. The diameter of each semicircle must be four feet, and a space of two feet and a half should be left between each of them. The passages, in a school of more than three hundred cliildren, should be six feet broad ; in a school of from one hundred to three hundred children, the breadth of these passages should be five feet ; in a very small school, the desks may be brought close to the wall on one side, and passages of five feet left on the othei's. Each semicircle will contain nine children, or from that to twelve, if they stand close to each other. When the number of children in attendance is greater than can be accommodated in the passages of the school, one or two classes may remain in their seats, and continue at those exercises which are performed sitting ; or they may be ar- ranged in small divisions between the desks, by suspending the lesson on a movable standard, which may be inserted in a staple fixed at the edge of some of the desks, at convenient distances ; but it rarely happens that this is necessary, as experience proves that a considerable number of the children are always absent, on account of illness, and from various other causes. 1546. Slates and Pencils are substituted in these schools for paper and pens, which are onl3' used by those children who have made considerable proficiency in writing. This plan is economical ; and greatly accelerates the progress of the children. The slates should be of an even grain, ground flat, and polished ; the red slate is generally harder than the blue, and answers remarkably well. The pencils must be made of the softest kind of slate, that they may be more easily pointed, and leave a fuller and clearer mark; the flat slate, being harder, grinds off a portion of the pencil at every stroke. The slates are to be about a quarter of an inch in thickness, and without frames. The slates of the second, third, fourth, and fifth classes are five inches broad and eight inches long ; those of the sixth are five inches broad and nine inches long ; those of the seventh class are five inches hroad and eleven inches long ; and the slates of the eighth class are five inches broad and twelve inches long. All these slates have a hole made in them, through wliich is passed a piece of string, well twisted, by wliich they may be suspended. The length of this double string is from three to five inches : they are hung upon round- Jieaded screws. These screws are fixed upon all the desks in the school, except those of the first class, at the distance of half an inch from the highest edge; and serve to mark the seats of the pupils, opposite which they should be placed. The distance between two screws should be eighteen inches, or fifteen inches, if no more space can be allowed to each child. The first screw in every desk should be placed at half the distance allowed to each child, or at nine inches from the end ; in this manner every pupil will have his slate suspended opposite to him. It is found convenient, in some schools, to fix a rail under the desk board, at about two inches from its under surface, for the purpose of holding the slates. In small schools, where it is necessary to fix the desks very close to each otlier, with the view of saving room, this arrangement is indispensable. 1547. Paper, Pens, and Ink. Most of the pupils in the eighth class write occasionally upon paper. They must each of them, therefore, be provided with a copy-book and pens : these, as well ' sub- scribers of £10 each ; the total charge of interest would he .£25, and this sum should be annually divided among the survivors equally, until the remaining one would receive :it the rate of £25 per annum upon his £10 share. All the parties should have security MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. JSQ upon the building, and this security would become more and more valuable in proportion to the decease of the subscribers. There must, of course, be a limitation as to the age of the person subscribing. 1569. Expense of fitting-up a School for 120 Bo!/s. £ s. d. 12 desks and forms, 12 feet long, with legs complete 12: 0: O Sleepers in the floor, for them to rest upon, and to be ftistened to 1:0:0 100 lesson-boards, at 4d. each 1 : 13 : 4 Master's desk 1:0:0 4 windows, 3 feet by 4 feet, glazing and framing 4 : : O Total £\9 : 13 : 4 1570. The Annual Ex- 1384 pense of Schools upon the Lancasterian Plan will consist principally of the following items : rent, master's salary, lessons, slates, &c. (which will cost about i^l5 per annum for a school of 400 or 500 chil- dren), rewards, fuel, &c. 1571. The Expense of educating a Child is from 4s. 6d. to 12s., according to the size of the school ; for, as the salary of the teacher is the principal expense, and as one only is required in any case, the larger the number of children the smaller the charge will be per head. One set of lessons, &c., will, if carefully used, be sufficient for the use of schools of from 100 to 500 children, for several years. (^Manual oj the British Si/stem, &c. p. 79.) 1572. A Country School, whether for infants or other children, but more especially in the latter case, ought always to be accompanied by a certain extent of garden ground ; in order that all childi-en may be taught experimentally something of botany, and of the universal arts of gardening and agriculture. A girls' school should, in our opinion, always be accompanied by a kitchen completely fitted up with a stewing-hearth, roasting or baking oven, &c., in order that they may be taught experimentally the most useful part of cookery, the art of making the most of human food. Besides a garden, we would have a large apartment, in which should be placed various descriptions of tools and benches, to teach the boys the more common mechanical exercises, particularly those Oi carpentry and masonry. Adjoining the girls' kitchen there should be a washhouse and laundry, in which the arts practised in these places should be taught them ; and in the general schoolroom they might be taught all the different kinds of sewing and making clothes, and every other description of housewifery. 1573. The Extent of Garden Grou7id which ought be attached to a country school will vary according to circumstances ; but, to contain a tolerable collection of useful plants, and to afford space for displaying different kinds of culture, it should, in the very smallest schools, never be less than half an acre. The children may be taught the names of the plants, their natural history, and the different operations of culture, with the scientific reasons on which these operations are founded. Pursuits of this kind are so congenial to man, that very little instruction would be sufficient; and it might generally be given rather as a reward for good conduct than as a task. Believing, as we do, that the happiest state of society is that in which the majority, whether em- ployed in agriculture, manufactures, or commerce, shall possess each a house, and a small portion of land, either adjoining it or detached fi-om it ; and believing, also, that the progress of things is approaching to this state even in Britain, we attach considerable importance to the instructing of the rising generation in these pursuits ; not only as tending to create in them a desire for this state of things, but to fit them for the enjoy- ment of it when obtained. In Wirtemberg and Bavaria, where the system of parochial schools is far in advance of those in any part of Britain, land is attached to every school- 740 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. house, and the children, all of whom are obliged to be kept at school from infancy to the age of jnibcrty, are not only taught agriculture and gardening by catechisms and other books, but practically in the parish garden. Mucli might be written on this important subject ; but we have no wish to say more here, than to awaken the attention of the Architect to the requisites for a country school and its appendages. He will find farther details in our pamphlet Des Etablissemens pour V Education publique en Baviere, et dans le }Virternberg, et a Bade, &c., published at Paris, in 1829, and to be had of Treuttel and Wiirtz, London ; and to ouv article entitled Parochial Institutions ; or, an Outline of a Plan for a National Education Establishment, &c., in the Gardener's Magazine, vol. v. p. 692. Sect. 1 1. Miscellaneous Designs for Parochial Schools. 1574. Our Miscellaneous Designs for Parochial Schools are few, principally because we have already said so much on the subject in our section on Model Designs. Design I. — A Parochial School, in two Stories, for 400 Children, with a House for the Master and Mistress. 1 575. The Object of this Design is to show how the accommodation required may be obtained by placing one schoolroom over another, and the whole executed in an economical manner, and at the same time with some regard to architectural style. Tlie Design has been executed, and it was furnished to us by its Architect, I. J. Kent, Esq., of London ; a gentleman who has made himself fully master of the subject of schools, both by study and the examination of the principal erections of this kind in Eng- land. Mr. Kent has besides designed and superintended the execution of some of the handsomest and best schools about London. We shall give elevations of the Design before us, and leave the young Architect to put them in perspective for himself ; but, to give the general reader an idea of the effect of Mr. Kent's style, we shall place before him fig. 1386, which is a perspective view, by Mr. Kent, of the Paddington Charity School, built from one of his designs, with the exception of the porch, which was omitted on account of the expense. 1576. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1385, shows, a, an enclosed yard, with three covered privies open in front, for the girls, and one ditto, with a door, for the mistress; b, a similar yard with privies for the boys, and for the master. The drainage from the yard, e, also all the water from the roof of the building, are carried through these privies ; by which means, and by water laid on to the master and mistress's privy, they are kept clean and sweet. This will be more distinctly seen in the plan of the foundations. The roofs of the privies are flat, and covered with plain tiles, in cement. There is a small yard, c, for fuel, 8 feet by 8 feet 6 inches, to which access is obtained by the door from the yard, a, or through the kitchen door, o ; rf, is a small yard for fuel, to supply the boys' school ; e is a yard for the girls to assemble in, the entrance being on the south side, /. This yard will be found useful in the summer time for the girls to go into in the afternoon, when the heat of the weather is found oppressive in tlicir schoolroom, it being on the upper floor ; f, entrance for the girls from the road or street ; g, stone staircase leading into the girls' school ; h, private staircase leading to the dwelling apart- ments for the master and mistress : under the two staircases, g and h, is a kitchen, 9 feet 6 inches square, with a cistern, sink, dresser, fireplace, &c., as shown in the plan of the foundations, fig. 1389; i is a committee-room, 21 feet by 13 feet; and, when not wanted for that use, the large folding doors, r, may be opened, and the room used as part of the boys' schoolroom, k. The boys' schoolroom, k, is 44 feet by 32 feet, and 1 1 feet 6 inches high ; the windows are placed high, 6 feet from the floor, so as to le.ave the full use of the walls under them for desks, forms, and hats. The windows open up to the level of the ceiling, and are hung on pivots, thereby affording a thorough venti- lation above the boys' heads : they are placed facing the south and north, in order that the extreme heat of the afternoon sun shall not be full upon them ; there being abun- dance of light without the large window in the west front, should the heat from it be found oppressive ; /, a yard for the boys to assemble in ; m, entrance to the boys' school from the yard, I ; n, gateway or entrance from the road or street, for the boys in the west front. These entrances are placed in the different fronts, to prevent, as much as pos- sible, the boys and girls associating together, when they assemble morning and evening before the school hours. The yards enable the children to assemble in an enclosed space, tliereby preventing them being a nuisance to the neighbours. The kitchen under the staircases, g and h, is lighted by the doorway and window, o. The closets, p, on tlic half space of the staircase, h, are for the use of the master and mistress. On a stone, s, on a brick trimmer (bi'ick arch), is placed a stove, with a pipe through tlie floor above, into the upper or girls' school, to which it has been found to afford sufficient heat. TAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. I3S5 741 I j n . I I rrcF 30Vt. The upper floor, fig. 1 387, shows a stone staircase, a, from the girls' school down to the yard, it should be formed of granite or Colalla stone (a quarry of sandstone, of great hardness, in Fifeshire), for the sake of durability ; b, wooden staircase up to the bed-rooms 74>i2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1336 PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 743 for the master and mistress ; c, sitting-room, 1 3 feet by 1 1 feet 6 inches, and 8 feet Ugh) 1387 with a fireplace ; d, bed-room, 13 feet by 9 feet 6 inches ; e, upper or girls' school, 12 feet 6 inches high at the Bides, and 18 feet high at the ridge, as shown in the section, fig. 1388 ; /, stove, with iron pipe from the stove in the lower or boys' school. The girl's schoolroom, in addition to the windows, is ventilated by circular lights filled with lufFer-boards in the pediments ; by which the heated air, that would otherwise accumulate among the rafters and other timbers of the roof, will be carried off. 1577. Construction. In the plan of the foundations, fig. 1389, are seen, a, the drain built in cement to the girls' privy ; h, the di'ain to the boys' privy ; c, drain from the girls' yard, or play-ground; d, cesspool to the privies ; e, drain from the boys' yard ; f, drain from the foundations of the committee-room ; g, drain from the sink in the underground kitchen ; h, dresser and shelves m the kitchen ; t, foundations for four cast-iron pillars to support the girders of the floor of the girls' school ; and k, foundations for the sleepers. Fig. 1 388 is a section on the line A B, in the ground plan, fig. 1386, in which are shown, g g, masses of concrete, 2 feet 6 inches deep, and 2 feet wider than the bottom of the footing, to be used where the foundation is of soft wet clay ; h, cast- iron columns, 3 inches and a half in diameter, to support the girders and floor of the upper schoolroom; i, yard fence wall, a brick and a half or 13 inches and a half thick for 2 feet above the ground, and above that one brick or 9inches thick, with piers of the widtli of the lower part of the wall, at the distance of 8 feet centre from centre ; k is the floor of the boys' schoolroom ; I, the floor of the girls' schoolroom ; and Wi^,r,,,///,M/m in COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1S89 m, the appearance of the trussed rafters of the roof. Fig. 1390 is an elevation of the west front, showing in the tympanum (the space enclosed by the side and horizontal cornice,) the bull's eye (a circular opening) filled in with luffer-boarding for ventilation, and to the left the door into the boys' assembling yard. Fig. 1391 is the south or exterior elevation of one side. 1578. Specificntinn of sundry works to be done in erecting and completely finishing a charity school, including a residence for the master ; for the committee of managers of PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 745 the charity school, in y conformably to the drawings made and to be made for that purpose, and agreeably to this description ; and under the direction and to the satisfaction of the said committee or their surveyor. 1579. The Contractor to find all and every kind of material, labour, workmanship, scaffolding, carriage, &e., necessary, proper, and requisite for the due execution of all and every part of the works ; and no alterations that may be made in any part thereof shall set aside the contract, but shall be added to or deducted from the contract, as the case may be ; and the said additions or deductions shall be measured and valued, in proportion to £ per rod, for the best stock brickwork ; per foot cube, for the best Memel fir timber, framed and fixed in the building ; and per foot superficial, for l^-inch deal, wrought both sides, and fixed. 1580. The whole of the works must be executed with the best materials of their respec- tive kinds, and in the most substantial and workmanlike manner, and the rooms, &c., scoured and cleaned down, the chimneys cored (the sweep sent up them, to clear out pieces of mortar, &c., left in building), the windows cleaned, and the whole building left perfect and complete. The contractor to pay the district surveyor his fees, and all fees and expenses on entering the sewer (if within the operation of the Metropolitan Building Act, but not the expense of building the sewer), and fees for laying on water, &c. 1581. Digger. Dig, wheel away to a distance of fifty yards on an average, spread and level, as may be required, the ground from the whole surface to be covered by the school building, and yards for it and for the privies, the depth of 2 feet ; and dig out and wheel away the ground for the footings to the several walls, privies, &c., of the buildings, and for the garden fence walls, privies, drains, and cesspools, and to an extra-depth for the kitchen, and for the foundation of steps, &c. ; and cart away all ground not required to fill up the ditches, &c. Prepare, level, and ram the ground, provide and lay good gravel at least 6 inches thick, well beaten and rolled over the whole surface of both yards, with a fall for surface water as to be directed. 1582. Slater. Cover the roof of the building with strong duchess slates of the best quality, laid with 2 and a half lap, strong copper nails, and continued eaves (the first row of slates laid all along touching one another : in general the first row only breaks joint with the row over it). 1583. Bricklayer. Build the walls of the several dimensions and thicknesses, and with proper footings, as set forth and described in the plans, sections, &c., with good, sound, hard, well burnt, stock bricks and mortar, composed of well burnt fresh Dorking lime, and sharp dry seasoned road grit under gi-ound, and with Thames sand to the parts above ground, mixed in the proportion of at least one part of lime to two parts of sand ; and work all the walls above the ground on both sides in a neat flat joint, jointed, except to the committee-room and master's residence. Face the pilasters, arches, plinths, tablets, chinmey-shaft, &c., with the best coloured second marl bricks, picked square, and cut and rub all the closers for the pilasters, &c. ; face the whole of the remainder of the external work with the best coloured Cowley stock bricks, picked care- fully for that purpose ; but rub and set in putty all the gauged arches to the doors and windows with the best picked marl bricks. Properly bed all the bricks, rub them well 4q 746 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. up full and flush in all the joints, and take care that no headers are executed with any but whole bricks, except where absolutely necessary to use half bricks. 'I'urn brick trimmers in cement for all slabs, and turn arches over all the openings and the ends of all the girders. Bed all the door and window frames and sills in lime and hair, and point them ail afterwards with cement ; parget the flues with lime and brickdust cement. Build all half-brickwork at the back of the windows, &c., the three upper courses of the chimney-shafts, and the open drains under the privies in Parker's cement, and render ditto inside. Build the garden fence walls all round the ground (which is 10.5 feet net from east to west, and 50 feet net from north to south) of the same kind and descrip- tion as is shown in the plan, fig. 1385, and in the section, fig. 1388, with one doorway complete (opening to the intended road), in the south fence wall, 10 feet from the soutli- cast angle of the school building, of the same size as the one in the west garden wall in the west front. Provide and fix eight cast-iron air gratings, 9 inches by 6 inches, and sj)lay ofl' the brickwork for ditto, to give air to the foundation. Splay off all the reveals of the windows, &c., in the schoolrooms, and render ditto with cement. Splay off very neatly the angles of the piers to the openings to the yards for the privies, and to the opening for the stone staircase, &c. Render all the drains half round inside with cement, and also those inside tlie building half roimd on the top. Make good (join them) to the sewer in cement. Provide for three rods of reduced brickwork of the foregoing descrip- tion to be used in tlie drains, walls, &c., not set forth in tlie drawings ; and to provide for digging and carting the same, to be deducted if not required. Build a cesspool at the south end of the privies in cement, and render ditto in the inside and at the bottom with cement, size 2 feet 6 inches wide, and 7 feet long, and cover ditto with two 3-inch York stones, with two manholes in ditto, 15 inches in diameter (for cleaning out or examining the cesspools), and stones to fit the holes with strong iron rings let in for the convenience of raising them ; and fix two 3-inch York stones across the cesspool let 4 inches into the sides, to form traps. Bed all the timbers that require it with lime and hair. Pro- vide and fix proper iron chimney-bars to all the openings, 2 inches and a half by half an inch. Fix 3-inch York corbel-stones, to project 4 inches, for the ends, &c., of all the timbers, near the flues. Provide and fix twelve pieces of strong iron hoop worked into the fence walls at the angles, and turned up to keep on the brick on edge ; lay four courses of the brickwork round all the walls of the building, and to the cross walls and to all the piers, in good Parker's cement, and grouted with cement. Build counter-arches under all the openings of the doorways, &c., under the ground floor. 1584. Carpenter. The whole of the timber to be good sound Riga or Memel fir; the deals good, sound, well seasoned, Christiania deals, or of equal quality ; and the oak to be of English growth, free from knots and shakes. — Roof. Frame and fix a span roof, with four sets of principals, braces, struts, purlins, rafters, ridge-pieces, pole-plates, &c., all wrought imdersides, and principal timbers chamfered, of the several scantlings set forth on the plans, &c. Fix blocks at the back of all the purlins and pole-plates on the principals, and on the bond, &c., well spiked. Fix on each side of the principals two long double wrought-iron strap irons (binding plates of iron), and to go over the top of the timber, 2 inches and a half by five eighths of an inch, and four ditto shorter, and to run down each side of the upper principals, 2 inches and a half by five eigliths of an inch, secured with thirteen screw-bolts, washers, nuts, and screws, five eighths of an inch in diameter ; and two strap irons, with strong washers, nuts, and screws, to the ends of the principals, 2 inches and a half by three quarters of an inch. Fix eight J-incli bolts, nuts, screws, &c., to the wall-plates at the angles, and four wrought-iron diagonal and dragon ties (straps to tie together the wall-plates at the external angles of the building) to the upper wall-plates, 3 inches by five eighths of an inch, turned down at both ends. Fix four angle ties to the pole-plate, 2 feet long each way, 1 inch and a half by half an inch. Fix eight bearing irons to the ends of the purlins, and four ditto to the ends of the pole-plates, 3 feet G inches long, inch by inch, turned up and down, to carry the rafters of the pediment. Fix a rounded roll for the lead on the ridge-piece, with strong irons every 4 feet. Provide and fix four long raking temporary braces from the wall-plates under the roof to the girders, bolted together where they pass. Cover the roof with J-inch yellow boarding for slates, edges shot (planed straight), and I'ough- planed, with tiltcrs (tilting fillets). Lay on small joists, 4 inches by 2 inches, to the pediments ; inch yellow deal for lead, with proper fillets, firrings (pieces of wood fixed on the joists under the boarding, thicker at one end than at the other, to give a current to the water), and rolls (pieces of wood rounded, to dress the edges of the lead over). Fix inch wrought and rabbeted fascia, 6 inches wide; and fix 1 inch and a half wrought and weathered fillet scribed (to scribe is to cut the edge of a board or fillet, so as to make it fit and touch every point of an irregular surface,) under the eaves of slates all round, and up the pediments ; and to fix all round under the soffit a square fillet, 2 inches square. Frame and fix small ceiling joists, 3 inches and a half by 2 inches. PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 747 unilcr the caves of the roof and the pediments. Frame and iix pole-plates under the rafters, returiied in the pediments; wall-plates throughout under principals and joists, &c., and fix templates under girders 3 feet long, 9 inches by 5 inches; the wall- plates and pole-plates, purlins, girders, and chain bond, to be in one lengtli each, without laps. Frame and fix two floors of joists for girls' and l)oys' school, and three floors of joists for dwelling-rooms, &c., all carefully strutted and trimmed for flues, slal), stair- cases, &c. ; and frame and fix ceiling joists for attics to the roof, and in the kitchen. Plane on three sides, and chamfer the edges of the two girders over the boys' school, and sup- port the girders with four (3 inches and a half in diameter) cast-iron columns, with 1^-inch cajjs and bases, 6 inches and a half square, let into 6-ineli York bases on piers. Frame and fix quarter partitions on the one pair and the two pair floors of the house, with heads and sills, principals, quarters, door-heads, puncheons, and horizontal braces, let in flush, &c. Provide and fix all necessary lintels, wood bricks, centring to apertures, templates, blocks, fillets, wedges, angle beads, &c., and feather-edge pieces to trimmers, and fillets, &c. generally, for plasterers. Provide and fix oak wrought octagon posts in the west front, 3 feet high out of ground, 6 inches in diameter, and large buts to ditto, 3 feet underground charred, and oak wrought arris rail framed into ditto, feet long, 4 inches by 4 inches, and dig and ram holes for ditto : the boards to be prepared and stacked (horsed) by the 1st of September, 1 585. Joiiier. Floors. Lay 1 inch and a half wrought yellow straight joint batten floors scribed to the brickwork, on the whole of ground floors, and in the girls' school- room. Lay inch deal straight joint floors on the one pair and two pair in the master's house, bordered to slabs. — Skirtings. Fix j-inch deal skirting, 4 inches and a half wide, blocked (small pieces of wood fixed at the back of the skirting, to keep it a little distant from the brickwork or the partition), to rooms on the two pair, and to all the closets, &c., on the two pair and one pair, and inch deal quirk ogee bead skirting, 7 inches wide, with narrow gi-ounds and fillet, in the rooms of the one pair, staircases, and in the committee- room. Fix narrow grounds, and moulded chair rail, round the walls of the committee- room, 6 mches in girth. — Windows. Frame and fix in the window openings eighteen fir wrought and framed frames, 6 inches by 3 inches ; muntins, 6 inches by 2 inches and a half ; heads, 6 inches by 4 inches, lined outside with ^-inch deal, scribed and splayed. Put oak wrought framed and weathered sills, 7 inches by 4 inches ; 2-inch deal splayed bar sashes, the side sashes fixed, and the centre sash hung on hardened steel centres, with brass pivots, &c. Put proper beads inside and out, and patent lines, brass pulleys, and hooks, &c. Fix in the two pair, at the east end, a solid frame, sUl, sashes, &c., hung as above, with cir- cular head. Fix a large solid Venetian frame (a fraine in three divisions, the two side divisions being narrower than the centre one), with sill, muntms, sashes, &c., with circular head, &c., at west end of boys' school. Fix in two openings in the one pair, and in one opening in the kitchen, deal-cased frames, oak sunk and weathered sills, 2-inch deal ovolo sashes, double hung, brass pulleys, patent lines, and iron weights. The Venetian window in the one pair sitting-room to be hung with lines and weights to the centre part, as above. Fix to the circular window in the two pair, to the upper part of the window in the bed-room, to the window in the kitchen, and to the window in the committee-room, inch deal staff beaded linings, and 1 inch and a quarter wide rounded deal window boards. Yix to the three other windows on the one pair, inch deal staflT beaded and tongued linings, 1 inch and a quarter square framed window backs, and tongued cappings. Fix one brass patent sash fastening to each window. Fix on the roof over the staircase a 2-inch deal ovolo bar skylight, made to open with a quadrant fastening, hinges, &c. Fix 1 inch and a quarter wrought, beaded, and tongued Imings, round the opening, and a narrow gutter at the back. Fix in the circular opening, or bull's-eye, at the west end, a fir wrought framed rabbeted and beaded circular frame, 4 inches by 4 inches ; and fix in ditto eight tiers of 1 4-inch deal lufFer-boards, wrought, splayed, and fixed on splayed fillets. Form a segment head for the plasterers in the committee-room to the window. Plane the face of the plate through the east window, and fix a |-inch deal soffit to ditto. — Doors. All tiie doors to be put together ready for wedging up by September 1st. Fix in the three openings on the two pair floor, the three openings on the one pair floor, and also in the two openings on the ground floor, 1 inch and a quarter double-rabbeted and double-beaded linings ; those for the folding doors to be framed and moulded, with dovetailed rails for ditto, and inch framed gi-ounds and moulding round on both sides, and hang seven 2-inch deal four-panel square-framed doors, with S^-inch \\Tought butt hinges and screws; and fix one 7-inch brass knob best three-bolt lock on each door ; and hang in the other door- way in the committee-room, 2-inch deal four-panel each flush folding doors, with three pair of 5-inch wrought butts. One 7-inch lock like the last mentioned, one 1 2-inch and one 3 feet I inch iron rod barrel bolt, with strong iron plates ; and cover the doors with strong best green drugget on both sides, with gilt nails and tape, to form panels on ditto. Frame and fix to the entrance in the girls' school, 2-inch deal flush and square framing, 748 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 7 feet high, with four-panel square door to ditto, hung with 4-inch butts ; and fix on ditto a 9-inch strong copper ward best drawback lock, and two keys ; the style to framing next window to be turned flat against the wall, and to be 5 inches by 2 inches, rabbeted and spiked. Fix on the top l^^-inch deal styles, and proper ledged flap, hung with 18-inch strong garnets and screws, and fastened with a strong hasp and staple. Scribe and fix 1^-inch deal lining up to the sash frame and the glass. Frame and fix in the doorway to the boys' school a fir proper doorcase, G inches by 4 inches, let into the stone steps, the head 9 inches by 4 inches, moulded outside ; and hang to the doorcase 2-inch deal four-panel three large beads flush and square folding doors, hung with three pair of strong 5-inch wrought-iron butts and screws. Fix a lO-inch solid brass knol) drawback lock, with copper wards, and brass bolts, and two keys. Fix two |-inch iron rod bolts, 2 feet long, with strong iron plates. Fix scribed linings round the inside, and a moulding along the door head, and a solid sash frame, sill, and sashes over, hung ; the whole to correspond with the other sashes, and to be framed. Fix a fir wrought framed rabbeted and double-beaded frame to the opening of the doorway to the house, 6 inches by 4 inches, with head 9 inches wide, weathered and moulded; and hang to ditto a 2-inch deal four-panel three large beads flush and square door, with 4-inch butts, one 9-inch brass knob best copper ward drawback lock, and two keys ; two 10-inch brass knob Strong barrel bolts. Fix over ditto a 2-inch deal square rabbeted fanlight frame, and metal fan, and glass ; and inside, inch staff beaded lining and mouldmg over the door. — Closets. Frame and fix two l^-inch deal double closet fronts on the staircase, with square doors, two in width ; the upper closet 7 feet high, with inch deal divisions, and shelves 1 8 inches wide, three in each closet, and inch deal rounded top to the upper one ; inch deal floors and joists, bearers, &c. ; 2^-inch butts and screws, and 3-inch brass tumbler lock and key on each door (the tumbler of a lock is a piece of iron, or other metal, inside the lock, to make the bolt act truly and easily) ; prepare and fix, in the boys' and in the girls' school, a large closet for books, 3 feet by 1 foot 6 inches, and 7 feet high each, of 1 j-inch deal square framed front and door, and inch deal ends, wrought on both sides, and J-inch deal back, all wrought, ploughed, and tongued, &c. ; four inch deal shelves in each, and top, and bearers, 2^-inch iron butts, and 3-inch brass locks and keys to each. — Desks and Forms. Prepare and fix on each side of the girls' school and of the boys' school, l:|-inch deal desks and forms, with legs and bearers to the forms and desks, 5 feet apart ; a scribed fillet against the wall, and 14-inch beaded rail under the desks, and |^-inch deal on each side of the forms, and holes for lead inkstan.ds, and to supply them. Fix a form only, of a similar kind, all along the east end of the boys' school, and provide six loose unfixed forms of a similar kind, each 8 feet long, for the girls' school. Provide and fix in the girls' school two lengths of inch deal rail (3 inches wide), with iron pins 8 inches apart, all along over the desks. Provide and fix wrought iron on tlie edges of the desks, 1 inch and a quarter wide by one sixteenth of an inch thick, screwed on. — Staircase. Fix 1^-inch deal, rounded treads, inch deal risers, and double carriage, with the steps properly housed into it, and the nosings returned, from the kitchen up to the two pair; 1^-inch beaded wall strings and capping, ramped ; 1^-inch deal framed raking string, rabbeted, staft-beaded, cut, mitred, and sunk ; turned deal newels, red oak moulded handrail, fi-amed strong deal bar balusters, 1^-inch deal rounded nosings, J-inch deal staff-beaded trimmer linings, gussets (the string board continued beyond the newel up to the ceiling in a triangular shape), &c. ; proper 1^-inch landings, carriage, &c. Fix inch deal boarding, ploughed tongued and beaded on both sides up to the ceiling of the ground floor, and down to tlie kitchen floor, to enclose the staircase. — Kitchen. Frame and fix I^-inch deal front, to enclose the staircase on the ground floor, with li^-inch deal 4 inch panel square door and hinges, and 7 inch lock, as to the other doors, with stops, &c. Fix a 1^-inch deal dresser-top |^-inch pot-board and bearers under, proper framed legs, rails, and runners (pieces of wood for the drawers to slide on, and to guide them), one drawer stock and two japan handles ; inch framed end and backrail ; two 1^-inch deal sunk shelves, and cut standards, ^-inch beaded fascia and top, and quirk ogee bead, and bead on tlie dresser to keep the plates from sli])ping. To put 1^-inch chimney- shelf, with rounded corners, and two holdfasts; l^j-inch deal, ploughed and tongued, with dovetailed cistern rims and bottom, and flap ; and linings, in the ceiling floor to get at ditto, carriage for ball-cock, casings for pipes, &c. — Privies. Frame and fix two fir jjlates imder flat, R inches by 4 inches, wrouglit and beaded, and ll-inch square fillet on ditto, and under ditto 1^ inch wrought and framed oak uprights 4 inches wide; and fix between the privies inch oak divisions, ploughed, tongued, and beaded, and ledged, with l)ack boards, and l^j-inch oak scats and bearers, with holes cut in ditto to six privies, and inch oak risers, ledged water boards and wide fillet; and fix in two privies iJ-indi deal seats, risers and bearers, clamped and beaded flaps and frames, J-inch jilain skirtings, two inch butts, cut holes in seats, and for cocks, water pipes, &c., and fix PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 7 i9 ill two doorways fir proper doorcases 4 inches by 4 inches let into the stone, and lintels over them, and hang two H-inch deal bead butt and square doors, with 3A-inch butts, two 4i-inch best brass-bushed dead locks (iron locks with brass linings to the keyholes) and keys, two 4-inch strong bolts. — Yards. Fix in two openings in the fence walls fir proper doorcases, 6 inches by 4 inches, with heads 2 feet longer than the openings, the posts let in 2 inches into the stone sills ; and hang to ditto 2-inch deal two large reed flush and square two folding doors, 2 panels, each with three pair of 4-inch wrouglit butts and screws to each pair; three 3 feet 10 inch strong rough rod-bolts, plates, and staples, and one strong wrought-iron latch to each door- way. Fix two strong stud posts and iron catches to keep the gates open. 1586. Mason. Fix sixteen Bath stone moulded caps on piers 3 feet 3 inches long, 10 inches by 6 inches each, and sixteen Batli stone neckings (members which are always used on the top of a column or pilaster, in Tuscan and Roman Doric orders, under the cap), 2 feet 10 inches long, each 7 inches by 2 inches. Fix Portland stone sills to all the window openings and blanks, 6 inches longer than the openings, 8 inches by 4 inches in one stone, sunk, weathered, and throated, and cut away bond timber at back for ditto. The sill to the east and west window to be 10 inches by 6 inches. Fix two pieces of 4-incli York landing (an extra-sized stone laid down before doors, and in the landing-places of stairs) in the openings in the fence wall, 4 feet 9 inches long, 2 feet wide each, worked fair on both edges ; and cut mortise holes (holes for the projecting ends of the wooden framework) for the doorcases round corners. Fix three rubbed York stone steps to the doorway into the boys' school, and three ditto to the doorway to the house; each in one stone and 9 inches longer than the openings, 13 inches by 7 inches each, neatly rabbeted, and back-jointed to the floor ; the ends worked fair, and the corners of the bottom steps rounded ; cut mortise holes, and let in scrapers 4 inches deep, run with lead. Fix six York steps rabbeted, 13 inches by 7 inches, 3 feet 9 inches long each to the yards for the privies, &c. Pave the yards for the privies, and all privies and coal-yards, with 3-inch York paving in straight courses. Provide two pieces of 3-inch York stone, 18 inches square, for the yards; and provide and fix five 8-inch iron bell air-traps. Fix on two entrance doorways in the fence walls 3-inch York coping, rubbed and throated to all the edges, 22 inches wide and 7 feet 7 inches long each, in two stones bedded in cement, and double cramped with strong copper cramps run with lead. Fix, for the staircase to the girls' school, Purbeck stone steps, rabbeted and let into the walls. The first five steps and the four upper steps 4 feet 2 inches long, and the other ten flyers (straight steps in contradistinction to winders) 4 feet 9 inches long ; the four winders (diagonal steps for the corners) may be out of 4-inch York landings, with risers of the same ; the ends to be securely pinned in with cement, the bottom step to be rounded, and set on brickwork, with cut holes for iron bars. Fix two 3-inch York slabs in boys' and girls' schools for stoves, 3 feet 9 inches by 3 feet each, bedded in cement, the edges rubbed fair. Fix three neat solid Portland chimney- pieces, to show as profile chimneys, with 1^-inch shelf, slab, and York hearths to each, in the two pair and one pair and committee-room ; and fix 2-inch rubbed York mantel and jambs, 8 inches wide, in kitchen. Pave the kitchen all over with 2^-inch York paving laid on brickwork two courses high. Fix a 7-inch York sink in kitchen, as shown on plan, 2 feet wide, cut holes for pipes, and let in liell trap, and provide and let in one 8-Jnch iron |)ell air-trap, with brick shaft under ditto into drain, in cement. Provide and fix two 3-inch York stones in flues for pipes in boys' and girls' school, 14 inches by 9 inches, fitted so as to be removed when required, and let iron pipes through ditto, and make good and flanch off brickwork with cement across flue, to prevent the soot from falling. Fix two York sink-stones, and form shafts in cement from ditto, into drain in coal-yards. 1587. Plasterer. Properly stop and lime-white twice over the walls all round in boys' and girls' school, and the boarding rafters, and timbers of girls' school, the inside wall and roof of the privies. Lath, la)', and float, and set, and whiten the ceilings and partitions on both sides of all rooms, closets, staircase, &c., throughout the dwelling-house, and the ceiling of boys' school and committee-room, and the soffit outside round building, and render float and set the walls in all the rooms and closets and staircase, and stucco the committee-room. The laths to the ceiling in boys' school and committee-room, and outside soffits, to be done with lath and half-laths ; and the walls, &c., in the rooms of the one pair of stairs, and the staircase, and committee-room, to be coloured drab. Cover the plinth neckings and upper part of chimney shaft with Parker's cement, jointed, coloured, and tinted as stone, with proper arises and throats, the tops weatliered. Cover the tablets at the east end with Parker's cement, and work on ditto, in raised letters, the name of the present school, date of erection, &c. Cover the roof of the privies with three courses of plain tiles in cement rendered top and bottom with cement, and work plain cornices along l)oth fronts, throated, and colour ditto, and form current for water, and fix two cement rain-water trunks to take water into the drains. Render inside of the open drain 750 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. under the privy seats, all round up to the oak seats, with cement. Point up neatly with cement, round all the floors in schoolrooms, and after all the tradesmen generally. Run circular beads and quirks to the windows in two pair, and in the committee-room, and to doorway of the master's entrance ; cut all the quirks ; render two coats behind all the skirting, and to all the chimney openings, and lath and lay two coats beliind the skirtings to all tlie partitions. Render with cement behind the window backs in first floor, and render the face of tiic half-brickwork to the windows with cement, and black ditto. Render and float with Parker's cement all round the walls in the kitchen, 2 feet high, l^inch thick, and colour ditto. 1588. Smith. Fix six wrought-iron bars, inch square, 3 feet long, on the steps to the girls' school, and strong iron brace, and handrail ramped 2 inches and a half by five «ighths of an inch rounded. Fix four strong iron scrapers let 4 inches into steps ; five |-inch square wrought-iron guard bars to the kitchen window, and top rail, 2 inches and a half by five eighths of an inch. 1589. Plumber. Fix step flashing (pieces of lead flashing let into the joints of the brickwork above one another) 9 inches wide, round chimney shaft, of 4-pound lead, and fix on the ridges milled lead, 5 pounds to the foot, 20 inches wide, dressed round the roll. Strong lead-headed nails every two feet on both sides. Fix milled lead round the skylight, 5 pounds to the foot, 14 inches wide, and gutter, IS inches wide. Fix milled lead on the base of the pediment at both ends, 6 pounds to the foot, to turn up 4 inches, and flashing, 6 inches wide, 4 pounds to the foot, over ditto, fixed with holdfasts ; put 20 dots (studs, or broad-headed tacks) to keep the lead down, line the cistern in the kitchen with lead, 7 pounds to the foot at the bottom, and 6 pounds to the foot on tlie sides. Lay on water from the main in the road with inch extra-strong pipe and joints to supply the cistern, with ferrol (ferrol, in plumbing, is a brass tube soldered to the lead pipe at one end, and then driven into the main water-pipe), ball- cock and ball, 1^-inch waste pipe to the sink from the cistern, and ^-inch service pipe from the cistern to supply the sink, with cock and boss, 3-inch brass grate and bell trap soldered in ; 2-inch waste-pipe from the sink into the drain ; and lay on a piece of inch pipe from the service-pipe to the branch to the two best privies, with cocks to turn on the seats. 1590. Glaziers and Painters. Glaze all the sashes, skylight, &c., with good jjickcd thirds glass ; paint all the sashes and frames, sills, doors and frames, jjrivies, outside soflfit and fascia, ironwork to steps, closets, skirtings, window-backs and linings, and other woodwork and walls, &c., of the committee-room four times in oil and good colour, but not the oak-boarding and seats in the privy. Cover all the ironwork to the roof, iron angle ties, &:c., with boded oil and lamp black, and paint them twice in oil- colour, black. 1591. General Estimate. The actual cost of this school was ^£"1287; and, as it con- tains about 62,000 cubic feet, this gives 5d. per foot as the guess rate of such buildings in the vicinity of London. 1592. licmnrJts. Tlie specification of this Design appears remarkably complete ; and it is the more likely to be so, because the contract was made from it, and it received its last corrections from Mr. Kent, after the work was executed. Having examined the school, we can answer for the excellence of the workmanship, and the completeness of the system of draining, heating, lighting, and ventilation. The system of underground drainage, as will be seen by reference to the foundation plan, is very complete ; and the stone traps to the cesspools of the privies deserve the particular attention of builders : without them, all privies constructed and arranged so as to have currents of water jjassing tlirough tliem, to wash away their contents, must necessarily smell ; with them, all smell is effectually prevented ; because, as the trap i-eaches down within ."J inches of the bottom of the drain, there will always be water more than sufficient to prevent air from entering bv so small an opening. Many of the privies of the small houses in the suburbs of London are intolerable, solely from the want of traps of this sort ; wliich, unfortunately, it would cost the occupant too much to build in ; and the consequence, we have no doubt, is, that the stench gives rise to various diseases. We could have wished doors to all the privies without exception, for we do not like marking out a difference, even between children and their teachers, in any thing that relates to comfort or cleanliness: if a dis- tinction is to be made, it shoidd be in things which relate only to luxury and ornament. On mentioning the subject to Mr. Kent, however, he gave us a very sufficient reason for the omission. The mode of covering the privies with flat roofs, formed of three courses of flat tiles, laid in cement, is good, and of great strength and durability ; more especially if, after laying the first coat, a week or more is allowed to elapse before the second is laid, and after laying the second, two months is allowed to elapse before laying the third. The mode of laying two coiu-scs of brick in cement, in the outside walls, and also in the cross walls and piers, immediately under tlie sleepers, ought always to be followed witli every building PAIIOCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 751 erected on soft moist soil ; and so should the practice of forming foundations of concrete, and coating over the surface under the ground floor with the same material. The iron gratings in the walls, to admit of a thorough circulation of air, ought never to he omitted in similar cases ; nor the excellent mode of ventilating the timbers of the roof. The principal cause of the durability of the roofs of churches, and, indeed, of all buildings erected above two centuries ago, is chiefly owing to the thorough ventilation given by leaving the eaves entirely open ; a secondary cause may be, that, from the great abundance of oak timber all over Europe about that period, the builder could make choice of the very best : but, undoubtedly, the other is the principal cause. Providing yards for the children to assemble in, with sufficiently high walls to exclude them from the public road, so as to prevent them from being troublesome to the neighbourhood, is an excellent idea ; and, from living at no great distance from this school, we can vouch for its success. Mr. Kent has suggested, that, in situations where the ground is dry and the drainage good, a base- ment story might be got, as an infant school ; in which case the school-house would consist of three floors, and would be remarkably complete. The infant school is the pivot on which, in all countries, will turn the regeneration of mankind. Design II. — A Pai-ochial School, on One Sfori/, for 100 Boys and 80 Girls, including a Residence for the Master and Mistress. 1593. The object of giving this Design is to show a parochial school of moderate size, duly proportioned for its uses in all its various parts, and rendered an agreeable architec- tural object externally. It has also been contributed to us by Mr. Kent, and bears all the marks of that gentleman's thorough acquaintance with the subject of schools, and his minute practical knowledge of Architecture and building. The general appearance ot this school and dwelling-house is shown in the perspective view, fig. 1394. Fig. 1392 is an elevation of the south-east front, sliowing the entrance to the boys' school. Fig. 1393 is an elevation of the south-west front, with the entrance to the girls' school. The elevation of the north-east front is exactly the same as that of the south- east front. 1594. Accommodation and Construction. The ground plan, fig. 1395, shows a porch, a ; a schoolroom for boys, b, 40 feet by 15 feet, 12 feet 6 inches high at the sides, and 16 feet in the centre, capable of containing 100 boys, allowing 6 feet superficial for each boy. This sjiace Mr. Kent has found from experience to be sufficient, when the apartment is so proportioned as to throw the area into the most available shape ; that is, when it is either 15 feet wide, in which case it will admit of one (Madras or Stoat's) class in 752 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 1395 763 \^ ^~< T\ n U LT T X its width ; or if it be 29 feet wide, when it will admit two classes. The windows are placed 5 feet 6 inches above the floor, to allow the space under them to be occupied by desks, forms, and a hat-rail. There are privies, c c, to each school ; and, if thought advisable, a doorway may be made under the window of the boys' schoolroom, direct from that room into the yard where the boys' privies are placed ; the same may be done with regard to the girls' school. There is a porch to the girls' school, d, which, like that to the boys' school, may be enclosed with doors ; e e ar« places for fuel ; f, girls' school, 26 feet by 1 6 feet 6 inches, 12 feet 6 inches high at the sides, and 16 feet in the centre, capable of containing 80 girls. The height of both rooms is obtained in the manner shown in section C D, fig. 1397. Both schools are to be ventilated by openings for air in the gables near the ridges, by which means a current of air will be always passing into and through the upper part of the roof; g, a sitting-room for the master and mistress, 13 feet by 10 inches, and 9 feet high, with a fireplace and closet; h, a small bed-room, 10 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 6 inches, and 9 feet high, with a closet under the staircase leading to a bed-room over h and g, 13 feet by 1 1 feet 6 inches, and 8 feet high : the sides are formed into closets, as shown on the section A B, fig. 1396 ; A is a porch to the master's dwelling ; Z, a larder ; m, a place for fuel ; n, boys' play-ground ; and o, girls' play-ground. In fig. 1397, drawn to a scale of 10 feet to an inch, a a is the collar-beam which forms the ceiling to the boys' school-room ; b is the king-post ; c, the ridge-piece ; d, the purlin j 4 K 754 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. e, the wall-plate ; /, the inside lintel of the window opening, the outside being a brick arch ; g, the oak sill to the window-frame ; h, the stone siU under it ; i, the brick wall, 14 inches thick ; k, two courses of brick laid in cement, to prevent the moisture of the ground from ascending higher up the wall ; I, wall under the sleepers of the flooring joists, 18 inches thick ; m, lower footing, 2 feet 3 inches wide; n, level of the ground; o, footing, 10 inches wide, to the waU, p, 9 inches wide, which supports the sleeper, q. PAllOCIIIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. y^^ Tliis wall has also two coui-ses laid in cement immediately under the sleeper. The joists r, are of oak, 6 inches deep ; s shows the end of the chain bond, which is continued com- pletely round the building at that heiglit ; t is the cast-iron eaves guttering, and h, the level of tiie platform. In fig. 1396, a is a dry drain to keep the damp from the platform off tlie foundation walls ; b, the door into the master and mistress's living-room ; c, the door to their bed-room ; e e, two light closets off ditto ; f, garret in the roof, lighted from the ends ; g, privy ; h, 9-inch drain to a liquid manure tank j and i, the surface of tlie platforms. 1595. Specification. — Digger. Dig out the ground over the whole sui-face to be covci-ed by the building to the depth of 12 inches, also for the footing which must be 1 2 inches deeper, and proportionately deep for the drains and cesspools. The depth of these excavations must depend on the nature of the soil, which, if dry, need not be re- moved deeper than what is requisite to procure the necessary quantity of earth to form the terrace round the building ; but, if the soil be of a damp or soft clayey nature, it should be taken out deeper for the footings of tlie walls, say 1 foot more ; that is, 3 feet. The trenches for the footings should then be filled in with concrete (already described as a composition of clean gravel and hot lime mixed with water). The proportions are, one bushel of hme to five bushels of gravel ; the whole to be well mixed and thrown in, then levelled, rammed, and beaten down every stratum of 9 inches in thickness. The whole surface under the floor should be covered with the same composition, and rammed 12 inches thick. If the drainage be good, this composition will form an excellent bed for a plaster or cement floor ; but a deal, elm, or oak floor is better, being much drier and warmer for the children's feet. If the floor were formed of concrete or paved, a mass of stones under it might be heated by steam or flues, as shown § 20 and § 500; if boarded, a stove may be employed, as in Design I., or there may be two open fire- places, as may be thought best. Cover the raised terrace with gravel, 6 feet wide, all round the building, 9 inches thick, well rammed and rolled. 1596. Bricklayer. Build the walls of the several heights and thicknesses, and with the footings as shown in the plans, &c. The walls at the south-east end of the boys' school, and at the south-west end of the girls' school, to be carried up in one brick thick from the level of the wall plates to the underside of the boarding of the roof, with holes in them, 6 inches square and 18 inches apart, for ventilation under the ridges. Build all the walls with a fair face on both sides, and strike the joints inside of the schoolrooms flush and fair for lime-whiting, as they are not intended to be plastered. Splay off all the reveals of the windows, and point up all the frames inside and outside with cement. Build two courses ol" all tiig walls, piers, &c., in cement, immediately under the sleepers, for the floors. Build brick piers for the sleepers, 6 feet 6 inches apart from centre to centre, each pier 9 inches square, 1 foot high, with two courses of footings, 14 inches square. Build 9-inch brick fenders for three fireplaces. Pave the fuel places and larder with stock bricks on edge. Build 200 feet of barrel drains (cylindrical in the section), 9 inches in diameter, and half a brick thick, all round the bottom of the privies, the lower half of the drains to be rendered with cement. BuUd a dry drain round the foundations, as shown in the section fig. 1396, two courses in one brick, and ten courses to form the arch in half a brick, in thickness. Cover roofs of the privies, places for fuel, larder, and porches to north- east and south-west fronts with three courses of plain tiles in cement. Cover the roofs of the building and the south-east porch with countess slating, nailed on with copper nails. To put on ornamental cement chimney-shafts, 6 feet high, with bases, and artificial stone ornaments on the top of the pediments, 4 feet 6 inches high, and 7 inches square, as shown in the drawings, fig. 1396, and fig. 1397. 1597. Carpenter. Frame and fix the roofs, with principal rafters, kingposts, and collars (chamfered on their edges) every 6 feet 6 inches, and purlins, common rafters, pole-plates, ridges, &c. Fix a wall-plate to serve as a lintel over the windows, and con- tinue it all round, except where interfered with by the flues. Fix a chain-bond under the window-sills, continued all round in the same way, and extra-lintels over the u]5per windows in all the gables, to serve for bearing the ends of the purlins ; cover the rafters with |-inch yellow deal boarding for slates, edge shot (planed on the edges), and planed in one side, with proper tilting and slab fidlets. Fix ceiling joists for the bed-room, and floor joists, trimmed for the staircase and the chimney for the dwelling-rooms. Fix quarter asli- lering (partitions framed in quartering for lath and plaster), to form the sides of the bed- room, and to enclose the staircase. Provide and fix all necessary centring for the windows, doorways, drains, &c. Fix |^-inch yellow staff-beaded fascia and soffit round the roofs, 9 inches in girth, and cast-iron 4^-inch seim'cylindrical troughs, supported by strong wrought-iron brackets. — Scantling of Timbers. Rafters, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a quarter ; principals, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a half at top ; ditto, 9 inches by 3 inches and a half in at bottom. Fir cut brackets, 14 inches long, 3 inches and a half by 3 inches and a half. Collars, 6 inches and a half by 3 inches and half; king- 7-56 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. posts, 8 inches by 3 inches and a half; purlins, 4 inches by 4 inches ; pole-plates, 5 inclies by 3 inches ; ridges, 9 inches by 1 inch and a half, rounded for the lead ; vallev- pieces, 1 1 inches by 2 inches. — Partitions. Head and sill pieces, 4 inches by 3 inches ; posts, 4 inches by 3 inches ; quarters and braces, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half; wall- plates or lintels over the windows, 9 inches by 4 inches ; wall-plates in the return-walls, 4 inches by 4 inches ; chain-bond under the windows, 5 inches by 5 inches ; common bond, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half; ceiling joists, 3 inches and a half by 2 inches ; sleepers and floor-joists for sitting-room, &c., 6 inches by 2 inches; floor-joists for one pair, 8 inches by 2 inches, and all to be strutted ; plates under the flooring joists, 4 inches by 4 inches ; quartering for ashlering, 3 inches by 2 inches and a quarter ; posts to ditto, 3 inches by 3 inches. The rafters to be planed on the under side, and all the other timbers of the roof on three sides. 1598. Joiner. Floors. Lay inch deal straight joint yellow deal floor, in the parlour and bed-rooms of the dwelling-house, with borders to slabs. Lay l^-inch yellow batten straight joint floors in both schoolrooms, on oak joists and sleepers, 4 inches by 3 inches ; the sleepers, 6 feet 6 inches apart, laid on brick piers. Fix |-incli deal skirting, 6 inches and a half wide, round the dwelling-rooms and closets. — Windows. Prepare and fix thirteen solid proper frames of sound yellow fir ; the sides and heads, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a half, chamfered on one edge, and rabbeted; the muntins to be 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, chamfered on two edges, and double-rabbeted ; the sills to be of oak, splayed and sunk, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half. Hang 2-inch deal ovolo bar sashes, 4 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 6 inches each, in five squares high, and two squares wide, with 3-inch butt hinges at bottom ; with a chain, staple, and hook, to each centre sash, 12 inches long, so as to let them fall inwards to ventilate the room, and a 4-inch bolt to each. The windows to be glazed with second crown glass. The sashes to the dwelling-rooms to be hung on the sides. Fix 1-inch deal tongued and splayed and staff-beaded linings to three windows, and 1^-inch rounded window-boards, 6 inches wide. Fix in each of the square openings in the gables, an inch deal board, chamfered at both ends, the size of the openings, with iron pivots at each end, to work in the lintel and sill, and a 4-inch bolt on each. — Doors. Hang l|^-inch deal four-panel square doors, one in the upper bed-room, and four in the lower rooms and larder, with 3-inch butt hinges, and a good 3-bolt and 6-inch knob lock on each. Fix l;|-inch single-rabbeted and rounded linings to the doorways, and 1-inch framed grounds, 3 inches wide, staff-beaded on edge round one side. Fix to the opening from the porch a fir proper doorcase, 4 inches by 4 inches, and an inch deal staff-beaded lining round inside. Hang in the ashlering of the bed-room, 3-inch deal two-panel square doors to the low closets at the eaves on each side of the room, 4 feet by 2 feet each, with 2^inch butt hinges, and turn buckle latch to each ; and fix l;|^-inch rabbeted and beaded linings for the doors. Fix l^^-inch square framed spandril and door under the staircase, and up to the ceiling, and on the one pair. To enclose a closet from the lower bed-room, and put on hinges, and turn buckle. Fix fir proper doorcases to the boys' school and the girls' school, 4 inches by 4 inches and half; and hang l:|-inch deal ploughed and tongued and ledged doors, with moulded fillets on the joints outside, with 24-inch fancy hinges, and a strong fancy iron latch of Chubb's patent (a latch invented by Mr. Chubb, of St. Paul's Churchyard, ■which cannot be picked), to answer the purpose of a lock. To fix a l^-inch deal framed and beaded closet front in the sitting-room, with square door, 2^inch butt hinges, and closet lock. To fix 3-inch deal shelves in ditto, 16 inches wide. — Privies. Fix H-inch oak seats, risers, and bearei's, and divisions, 2 feet 6 inches wide, and 6 feet 6 inches high each, all wrought, ploughed, tongued, and ledged. Fix two iron bars to support the brick- work over the opening of the cesspool, 7 feet 6 inches long, turned up and down at both ends, 3 inches deep, 1 inch thick, and 3 inches wide at the top. Fix 26 feet of oak cleft fence to enclose the yards of the privies, 6 feet 6 inches high, with three strong arris rails, cut out of stuff 4 inches by 4 inches, including two doors, each hung with 24-inch strong garnet hinges, and hung to fall to, and 6 feet oak posts, chamfered, 9 feet long, 6 inches by 6 inches, and spurs ; and fix oak arris capping, cut out of stuff, 3 inches by 3 inches. 1 599. Mason. Fix four plain solid Portland chimney-pieces, with chamfered edges ; 1^-inch Portland slabs, and Yorkshire stone hearths. Lay three solid Yorkshire stone steps to the porches. Lay Yorkshire stone paving, 2 inches and a half thick, in the porches, privies, and in the yards to ditto, and to the outer doors to the fuel places ; all the paving to be supported on bricks, so as to be hollow underneath. Fix Bath stone copings on the gables, moulded on the edges, 18 inches wide, and 4 inches thick, with copper cramps (iron is apt to stain the stone). Fix Bath stone plinths to both chimney- shafts, 2 feet high, grooved for lead flashings. Fix Bath stone moidded cornices, 9 indies wide, 3 inches thick, with a moudled front edge, and Bath stone ashlar (or blocking course) on ditto, 12 inches high to the two porches, and 9 inches high to the fuel places ; 5 inches COUNTRY SCHOOLS. T^? wide at bottom, and 2 inches and a half wide at top ; and fix stone round the three openings in the gables and the same, 5 inches wide, round the opening in the east gable. Fix moulded Bath stone labels, 3 inches thick, over the two openings in the gables, and over the opening at tlie east end; and fix two trefoil-shaped plain sunk panels. Fix 13-inch York quarry sills, tliroated, 8 inches wide, and rubbed on the front edge, 3 inches and a half thick. 1600. Plumber. Fix TJdges and valleys, 16 inches wide, 5 pounds to the foot, with lead-headed nails, &c. Fix step flashings, 9 inches wide, 4 pounds to the foot, to both of the chimney-shafts. 7ix four stacks of 3-inch iron water-pipes, 15 feet long each ; four ditto, 10 feet long each ; two ditto, 9 feet long each ; and ten shoes ; all to be fixed in the drains with cement. Fix six heads to the pipes. 1601. Plasterer. Lath, lay, set, and whiten the ceilings and partitions of the three dwelling-rooms, staircase, and closet, &c. ; and render, set, and whiten the walls. Stop, smooth, and colour twice over the whole of the walls, rafters, timbers, boarding, &c., in the two schoolrooms, and privies, and larder ; and colour twice over the whole of the exterior brickwork, and the inside of the porches and fuel-places ; and splash ditto with colours, to imitate granite or porphyry stone (see § 542), carefully protecting the stone- work from being discoloured while the work is going on. 1602. Painter. Paint the woodwork usually painted in the dwelling-house, and the inside and outside of all the doors, windows, &e., four times in oil, of oak colour; and paint the fillets, hinges, and other ironwork, in imitation of green bronze. 1603. General Estimate. This school, if built in the neighbourhood of London, IVIr. Kent informs us, will cost from i^ 700 to £800. It contains 25,649 cubic feet; which gives about 6^d. per foot, as the guess price for buildings of this description in or near the metropolis. 1604. Remarks. Our readers, we think, will agree with us in considering this an excellent model for a parochial school of the simplest description, where there is neither an infants' school, nor a room for lectures or discussion. In point of architectural style, the effect is good ; and the care with which the skeleton specification, as it may be called, is drawn up, will form a useful study for the young Architect ; and, with the specification of the preceding Design, may supply some valuable hints to the many benevolent persons who are now, in aU parts of the country, erecting schools for mutual instruction on the Bell or Lancasterian system. Design III. — A Country School, in the Italian Style, including a Du-elling for the Master and Mistress. 1605. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1398, and the groimd plan in fig. 1399. In the latter, a is the entrance of the master's house, and to the infant school ; 6 is a passage for the use of the master and mistress, by which the three schools are connected ; c is the infant school ; d is the girls' school, and e its entrance porch ; / is the boys' school, and g its entrance porch ; h is the parlour of the master and mistress, with a kitchen under it ; and bed-rooms over both it and the infants' school ; i is a yard to the infant school ; k, a yard to the boys' school ; and I, a yard to the girls' school. 1 606. Remarks. "We are indebted for this Design to Mr. Lamb, to whose taste in composing Italian elevations it does great credit. As in country situations it is seldom that so many infants can attend a public school as is the case in towns, the room for the infant school in this Design is much smaller than those for the boys and girls, and neither a gallery nor a class-room is considered necessary. With respect to the architec- tural style of this Design, the genius of the Italian manner is finely kept up by the masses of unpierced wall in some places, and the groups of openings in others ; thus producing strong contrasts both in construction and in effect. 7<58 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. l:>99 Sect. III. Of the FinisJdng, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Ftirniture of Parochial Schools. 1607. The Finishing of both the Exterior and the Interior of Schoolrooms ought to be simple and substantial, iis being less liable to be injured by the childi-en ; and because, when children are brought up in the midst of simplicity and plainness, they are rendered more independent in after-life. The interior surface of the walls sh(5uld be built so smooth as not to require plastering ; or, if plastering becomes requisite, tlie plastered surface ought to be lined out so as to indicate brick or stone ; in other words, so as to give the expression of the simplest description of wall. Instead of lime-whiting such walls once a year, we would wash them over with alkali (pot or pearl ashes) or lime water ; which, while it did not obliterate the forms of the stones or bricks, would, equally with lime-whiting, contribute to the purification of the air. The lower parts of the v/alls all round the schoolroom should be wainscoted, or lined with boards, to the lieight of six feet ; not only for warmth to the backs of the children when seated against them, but to preserve their clothes, and the hats of the boys, from the lime of the wall. Instead of a plastered or bordered ceiling, it is preferable to leave the space from the floor to the roof perfectly open, because ceilings are found to reverberate the soimd. The timbers of the roof may be occasionally oiled ; but, as a matter of taste, we certainly should neither whitewash them nor paint them, because we would not destroy the genuine expression of strength produced by the real veins of wood. Where iron is substituted for wood, painting, of course, is unavoidable. 1608. The Fittings-up and Fixtures of schools depend on the age of the children, and on the systeni of instruction according to which they are to be taught. The fittings-up of an infant school differ from those of a scliool for children of a greatei age, in having the seats from nine inches to a foot high, instead of sixteen or eighteen inches high. The hat pins are also jiroportionately lower, and are generally about three feet from the ground ; while those in other schools arc five feet. A form or seat for an infant school, when fixed, and with a back, should not be more than nine inches wide, in order to keep the children upright ; and, tor the same reason, there ought to be a bead along the floor, about six inches from the front liueof tlie seat, for the infants to place their heels against, to aid them in keeping themselves up. Fig. 1400 is a section of the wall seats in the infani. school in Baldwin's Gardens, in which a is tlie bead ; b, the seat ; and c, a row of pins for hanging the lessons on, and also their hats. The stage or gallery peculiar to infant schools and its proportions have been already mentioned, § 15^2\. Fig. 1401 is a section of the gallery in the infant school in Baldwin's Gardens, and fig. 1402 is a front — \ FITTINGS-UP AND FIXTURES OF SCHOOLS. 759 elevation of the same ; in wliich may be observed the inclined plane which passes up the middle, and by which tlie children ascend and descend to their seats. In some cases, for this inclined plane is sub- 1402 stituted a stair, with very low steps, which is, perhaps, safer for the infants, being less liable to cause them to slide. The lesson station is a fixture, which the infant school has in common with the others. It is the segment of a circle, generally formed of a brass hoop, let edgewise into the floor, with a socket in the point to which it is concentric, for holding a pole or rod, from which a lesson is suspended. Fig. 1403 represents one of the lesson stations in Baldwin's Gardens, in which e is an arc or segment, the size of which is three feet two inches and a half, for six infants to stand round, with their toes touching the bright edge of the brass hoop, and looking towardsales- son, suspended by a rod fixed to a socket, four inches by three inches, at /; g g are two brass lines, twenty inches long, to connect the segment with its central point, and to aid in guiding the eyes of the infants to the lesson suspended at f. 1609. The Fittings-up and Fixtures of a School on the Madras System consist of little more than the hat and lesson pins, and the writing-desks which sur- round the walls. The latter are about the same dimensions in height as those given for the Lancasterian schools, § 1541. Fig. 1404 is a view of one of the desk* in the Madras School, at Baldwin's Gardens ; of which a is a cross section, or end view. 1404 ^^ showing the cast-iron supports, h, and the plugs, c, by which the upper part is fixed to the walls ; d is the row of pins for hats, slates, lesson-boards, &c. ; every boy being allowed two pins for these purposes. In some schools the pins are in two rows on different levels. The efficiency, and even beauty, of the cast-iron supports are worthy of notice. 1610. The Fittings-up and Fixtures required for Stoafs Circulating System of Instruc- tion consist chiefly of single circles of sixteen feet in diameter, or of a circle of this diameter, with three concentric circles within it, marked on the floor by grooves, into which brass hoops are fitted ; or which are filled with iron cement, or other composition, so as to form distinct lines for the children to stand round. Along the walls of the schoolroom are desks and benches, with two rows of pins fixed over them into the wainscoting, the same as described for the Madras system, from which Mr. Stoat's differs only in adopting the circulating mode of teaching, instead of the square or fixed one. 1611. The Fittings-up and Fixtures of Lancasterian Schools have already been given at such length, § 1540 to § 1545, that little remains to be said of them, except to give a section of the desks and seats, fig. 1405, the dimensions of which have been already stated, § 1559. Hat pegs, and pegs for pointers, lessons, &c., are fixed against the wainscoting round the room, in the manner already described, § 1535. (See plate ii. of the Manual of the System of Primary Instruction, §-c.) The semi- circles, according to the Lancasterian method, are marked in the 760 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. floor by a groove filled with black putty, or by brass studs driven into the floor, in the exact position of each child. 1612. 'Hie Fittings-tip and Fixtures for the Parochial Schools in the Country, where some of the children may have to come a considerable distance, and, of course, usually bring their dinners with them, should include cupboards for holding these dinners till the children are ready to eat them. In such cases, there should also be glasses, or mugs, and other articles, for the use of the children. The shelves in the cupboards should be of sufiicient height to adniit of a common corked bottle standing upright ; a bottle of milk generally forining the liquid part of a country boy's dinner, at least in the agricultural districts. 1613. Tlie Furniture o^ Schoolrooms depends chiefly on the number of subjects taught in them ; and on these we shall make some observations in a succeeding paragraph. As the schools of Britain are at present arranged, the greatest variety of portable articles are required for the infant school ; and of these we shall briefly enumerate the chief. It may be premised, that the great object. In an infant school, is, to keep alive the attention of the infants ; for which purpose the founder of these schools, Mr, Wilderspin, proposes no particular limits to the mode of teaching, or the furniture, or other means of carrying on the business of the school. He admits of every description of innocent amusement, of musical instruments, models, pictures, games, experiments, fire and water works : in short, of every harmless contrivance which may prove conducive to his grand object ; viz., that of keeping alive the attention of the little creatures committed to his care. This latitude is one of the most remarkable features in Sir. Wilderspin's system, and one altogether worthy of the present age. Hitherto, when any system has been laid down, it has been assumed by its authors to be perfect, and therefore absolute ; but the infant school system, and also that of Mr. Lancaster, contain in themselves, like the constitution of the United States of North America, the seeds of regeneration and perpetual improve- ment. As a proof of what is to be effected by genius and comprehensive views in the conduct of the education of youth, without reference to any preceding system, we may mention the Hazlewood school near Birmingham, and the Academic Institution at Han well, near London, founded by • Morgan, Esq., the celebrated author of the Revolt of the Bees, &c. Both are admirably conducted ; and, in both, the business of teaching, and that of being taught, are converted into matters of recreation, rather than considered as tasks. For the beau ideal of a school for universal instruction, we may refer to our own tract, Des Establissemens, &c., mentioned § 1573 and to A Plan of Universal Education, by William Freund, Esq. 1614. For the Furniture of Infant Schools, we have examined two at Westminster, two at Chelsea, one in Bishopsgate Street, and one in Baldwin's Gardens ; and the principal portable articles which we have observed in them are the following : fig. 1406 is a frame on castors, containing a slate or black board for showing letters, figures, pictures, or other FITTINGS-UP AND FIXTURES OF SCHOOLS. 7()l ohjecls. Tliis frame moves on two pivots, so as to admit of presenting its sm-facc at riglit angles to the eyes of tlie infants, whether these may be standing or sitting on tlie benches round tlie walls of the room, or sitting or standing in the gallery. Below this board is a wire, u, on which are strung black and white beads to teach notation, and nvimeration. There is besides, an alphabet frame, containing shelves or compartments, each of which holds twenty-six letters. These letters are painted on small square tablets, which are put into the shelves by one or more at a time, according as the object of the master is to teach single letters or syllables, printed or written letters, small or capital letters, letters in the old English style, &c. When the lesson is to be proved, all the letters are put in, and the infants are directed to take them out by name. Fig. 1 407 is a portable stand, combining an arithmetical board, b, for teaching the first four rules of arithmetic by different-coloured beads, with an alphabetical board, for teaching letters and syllables at c, a section of which is shown on a larger scale at c'. Fig. 1408 may be called the 1407 1408 infant's show-box, as the upper part contains two rollers, on which there is an endless sheet with a great variety of pictures and names painted, and which, by turning one of the rollers, are shown at the opening, d. This may seem a very trifling and useless con- trivance to some ; but we are assured, and we can easily conceive it, that it is a soui-ce of great entertainment to the infants ; and, as the objects shown include many articles in general use, and many of the leading objects in natural history ; also the names of eminent persons, ar.d of countries, on each of which, as the roller brings them to view, the master deli\ers a short lecture, it must be very instinctive. Below this show-box is an open space, e, into which a variety of objects are introduced, at tlie pleasure of the master ; the space being closed by a piece of pasteboard while the lecture on the show-box is going forward. A circular plate containing a mariner's coinjjass on one side, and the dial of a clock on the reverse, is a common resource ; and often square frames of pasteboard containing pictures are put in, and lectures delivered, or questions asked. The lower part of this stand, f, is formed into a box for books. Fig. 1 409 is a rostrum or pulpit for a little monitor, with a reading-desk, (/ ; a drawer, li; and a box for books, i ; k shows the steps of ascent. Fig. 1410 is a rostrum of the commonest kind. Besides these, there are various other portable articles belonging to infant schools, which will be found figured and described in the works of Wilderspin, and other writers on the subject. 1615. The Portable Furniture of a Madras School consists of little more than forms, fig. 1379, and square boxes for books, which are shown in fig. 1378 at o. These forms are supported by cast-iron feet, in the same manner as the desks, as shown by the section 4 s 76S COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. or end view, fig. 1404, a. Tlie boxes for books are of deal, two feet and a half long eighteen inches wide, and eighteen inches high. In the girls' school, the boxes are made larger, with a division for work ; or, there are two boxes to each class. The seat of the master, having a desk fixed before it, is ])()rtable in both the infant and Ma- dras schools, and moves on castors, to enable tlie head master to station himself wliere he chooses ; there is also a portable bookcase, or cupboard for books and other articles not in use. 1616. The Portable Articles of Furniture * for a School on Stoat's Circulating System are still fewer than those required in the Madras system. In IVIr. Stoat's concentric circles there is no room for boxes, and the books arc therefore kept in cupboards, either fixed or portable, placed against the walls, or in any convenient situation. The only essential portable article in Mr. Stoat's system is the medal-stand or point of reckoning, fig. 1411, unless we reckon among the articles of furniture the medals, lessons, slates, &c., common to all the four systems. This medal- stand is made of cast iron, or wood with a cast-iron base. 1617. The Articles of Furniture necessary for a Lancasterian School we have already enumerated at length, § 1543 to § 1558. 1618. All the Furniture of Schools according to the infant system may be obtained from Mr. Beilby, Chelsea; all those for the Madras system, from the central school, Baldwin's Gardens , all those for Stoat's system, from Mr. Stoat, Islington ; and all those for the Lancasterian system from the Bo- rough school. 1619. Such are the Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of common Schools, according to the preseiit'most improved prac- tice in Britain ; but, if general school education were carried to the ]wint to which we think it ought to be, and to which we trust it will be at no distant period, every parochial school would contain most of the philosophical apjiaratus and models now almost exclusively to be found in colleges and universities ; and, besides these, many of the implements, utensils, instruments, and machines necessary for the practice of the more useful arts. Our opinion is, that, when the social system comes to be better understood by the mass of society, and the greatest happiness of the greatest number is acknowledged to he the end of all government; education, like every thing else, will be com- paratively equalised, and this high and equal degree of education will be acknowledged, by all governments founded on the universal will of the governed, to be as much the birthright of every individual as food or clothing. Tlie kind and degree of education that we think ought to be given to every human being in this, and in every other country, and in every state of civilisat'ion, may be thus defined : — All the knowledge and accomplishments that a cliild's body^ or mind, and the state of knowledge and the art of teaching at the time, will admit, previously to the age of puberty; giving i)reference to those branches of knowledge which may be considered the most useful, and those accom- plishments and manners considered the most humanising, by the wise and good ot the particular age and country. We consider this degree of cul- tivation to be as mucii the birthright of a child, in a highly civilised com- munity, as food and clothes are in the rudest state of society. PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 7(J3 BOOK III. DKsIGNS FOR VILLAS WITH VARIOUS DEGREES OF ACCOMMODATION, AND IV DIFFEKENT STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. 1620. A VUla we intend, in this Book, to consider as a country residence, with land attached, a portion of which, surrounding the house, is laid out as pleasure-ground ; or, in other words, with a view to recreation and enjoyment, more than profit. In this view of a villa, the dwelling is to be considered as only an amplification of the cottage; and the lands, as those of a farm, in which ornament and effect have been studied in the vicinity of the house. The humblest cottage, in our opinion, ought to contain all the essential comforts of a villa dwelling ; and the lands of a farm, all that is useful in the grounds of a villa. The cottage and the farm are occupied as the means of obtaining and enjoying the comforts of life ; and the villa of adding to these the gratifi- cations resulting from the display of wealth and taste. In countries where all the inhabitants are in possession of equal rights, every industrious individual, not living in a town, will possess a cottage and a garden ; and every man who has been successful in his pursuits, and has, by them, obtained pecuniary independence, may possess a villa. Ac- cording to this view of the subject, it is not necessary that the dwelling of the villa should be large, or the land surrounding it extensive ; the only essential requisites are, that the possessor should be a man of some wealth, and either possess taste himself, or have sense enough to call to his assistance the taste and judgment of others, who profess to practise this branch of the art of design. 162\. T7ie Art of arranaiiip Villas tn Britain is far better understood than the con- struction of cottages, or the laying out of farms. The reason of this is, that the occu- pants of the two latter descriptions of residences have hitherto been deficient in that degree of cultivation which is necessary to the display of what is considered good taste ; and have been too poor to be able to call in the assistance of the taste of professional men. The occupiers of villas, on the contrary, have not only possessed more cultivation and taste than the others, but, fi-om their wealth, have been able to command the services of all who professed an ability to render them assistance. Hence it has followed, that the villas of Britain, though deficient in some particulars, are yet decidedly superior to those of every other country. It is easy to point out in them numerous faults ; but where, in any other countn,', will be found half so many beauties in the Architecture and scenery, or so much real comfort and luxurious refinement in their accommodation and arrangements ? In consequence of the comparatively improved state of Villa Archi- tecture, this department of our work will require to be much less copious than those which have preceded it ; and this the more especially, because there are already many excellent works which treat on the subject, under the titles of Designs for Villas, and Treatises on Landscape- Gardening. 1622. The Principal Defect of English Villas is in the want of a sufficient imion between the house and the grounds ; or, in other words, of cooperation between the Architect and the landscape-gardener in fixing on situations, and in laying them out. " Our parks may be beautiful," Laing ]Meason observes, " our mansions faultless in design ; but nothing is more rare than to see the two properly connected. Let the Architect, by study and observation, qualify himself to include in his art the decorations round the immediate site of the intended building ; and the improving taste of the gentrj- of England will second him in his efforts." Viewing the subject in the same light as IMeason, we shall, in the present Book, first direct the attention of the reader to Fundamental Principles ; next depict the Beau Ideal of an English Villa ; afterwards, give IMiscellaneoas Designs for Villas, and Designs for Appendages to Villas ; and, lastly, Designs for their Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture. Chap. I. The Ftindamental Principles of laying oui a ViEcl, including the House and the Grounds. 1 62S. The End in view, in forming a Vtlla, is to produce a healthy, agreeable, and elegant country residence ; and the means for aUaining this end are, a judicious choice of situation, a fitting arrangement of the p-ounds. and a correspondent excellence in the interior accommodation and the exterrikl Architecture of the house. "VVe shall take these three subjects in succession. Sect. I. Of the Choice of a Situation for a Villa Residence. 1624. In the Choice of the Situation far a Villn Residence, two classes of circum- stances rcqiure to be taken into consideration: tiie one include? such as arc abolute or 76i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. jicrmanent ; and the other such as are accidental, or lial)le to vary from temporary causes. The permanent considerations inchide climate, elevation, surface, aspect, soil, water, and the sea ; and tlic temporary or accidental circumstances are chiefly its locality, present state, prospective improvement, and the personal peculiarities of the intended possessor. 1625. Cliiu'ite is, perhajjs, the most important of the permanent circumstances which • etjuire to be kej)! in view in fixing on the situation of a villa ; because it is less subject to human improvement than any other. In every country of any extent, the climate differs in different parts of it, and the popular divisions may be stated to be, the cold, the warm, and the moist. The last is vmquestionably the least desirable ; because it admits of least amendment by human means. The cold climate, provided it be dry, is often one of tlie healthiest ; and it njay always be improved by planting to afford shelter, and by increasing the di-yncss of the soil by draining. The warm climate, if it be dry, is always agreeable ; and if the heat be intense during summer, it can be readily moder- ated by tlie shade of trees. A wet climate can scarcely be improved ; it must necessarily be unhealthy compared with a dry one, on account of the moisture witli which the atmosphere is always charged ; and it precludes the exercise of the greatest of rural improvements, the surrounding the house with plantations. All other circumstances, therefore, being suitable, a dry warm climate must always be the best for a villa residence. 1626. Elevation is, in our opinion, the next most important circumstance to climate, though some may assign the second place to the character of the surface. Tlie great advantage of elevation is, that it gives a command of prospect, witliout which a villa may be beautiful, picturesque, or romantic ; but it never can be dignified or grand, and scarcely even elegant or graceful. The term elevation must always be considered as relative ; and not to be determined by measurement. In a flat country, a knoll of 100 feet in height, by raising the ground floor of the house above the level of tlie tops of the highest trees in the surrounding plain, will allow the eye to range over an exten- sive distance ; to catch a view, in all probability, of some river or stream ; and, in a cultivated country, to command towns, villages, farms, and human dwellings. On the other hand, where the vhole surface of a country is hilly, he that prefers elevation must fix on a hill somewhat higher than those by whicli it is surrounded, so as, at all events, to look over some of thein. It is not necessary to dignity of effect and variety of pro- spect, that a house in a hilly country should enjoy such extensive views as a house in a plain ; because, in the former case, the variations of the surface produce that expression in the landscape which in the flat country is unknown, and but faintly compensated for by the movement of the clouds, and other atmospherical changes. In every countrj-, however, there is a limitation to tlie height at which it is desirable to build dwelling- houses ; and this limitation is clearly determined by the growth of the princijial timber trees of the country, indigenous or acclimatised, and the ripening of the hardy fruits. In other words, it is determined by the capacities of the situation for gardening. Whenever a situation is so hign that trees will not attain sufficient dimensions to shelter the house, or fruit not ripen on the garden walls, it ought to be abandoned, unless a better one cannot be found. 1627. T/te Character of the Surface on which to build a villa is the next consideration, and is also one of great importance. A surface may be uniformly liilly, or irre- gularly so; and may consist of ridges and valleys, or of ridges on the sides of hills, rising above each other, without valleys. The variety, in short, is so gi'eat, that it can scarcely be classified witli sufficient distinctness. It is hardly possible, however, to conceive a hilly surface in which excellent situations may not be foimd for setting down a villa. Perhaps one of the most desirable is, where a prominent knoll stands forward from a lengthened irregular ridge ; and where the latter has a valley with a river in front, and higher hills rising one above anotlier behind. One of the worst is, perhaps, the steep uniform side of a high hill, closely surrounded by oilier hills equally high and stcc)). On the whole, it may be observed, that though an irregular surface affords the greatest variety of excellent situations for building on, yet, at the same time, it is one in which the inex- jierienced are likely to commit the greatest erroi-s ; and one, also, respecting which it is more difficult to lay down general rules than any other. 1628. Aspirt is next in the order of importance. There are some considerations respecting aspect which a])))ly to every country ; and others to jiarticular countries, or districts of country only. Nothing in the Architecture or ajipendages of a house can com- jiensate for its being set down on the north side of a liigh hill or ridge; where it is pre- cluded from partaking of the direct influence of the sim during three or four months of the year. In most countries, there is some point of the compass from which rain and storms are more fVequenl than any other ; and to set down a house in such a manner as to be exjiosed to these lenijiests is evidently injudicious. An aspect exjiosed to high PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 7^<5 wind is less objectionable than one exposed to driving rains ; since slielter may be afforded from the former by trees, but not from the latter by any means. lf)29. Sui! and Subsoil arc very generally reckoned among the jirimary considerations in the choice of a site for a villa ; and they are undoubtedly the lirst, as far as respects the value of the estate. But it must be recollected that the soil about a house can be totally changed by art, while the previously mentioned requisites of climate, elevation, surface, and aspect, hardly admit even of improvement. Where these circumstances are favourable, the nature of the soil and subsoil, though of secondary importance, have yet still considerable influence, both in regard to the health and enjoyment of the occupant, and the grovi'th of the plantations. A soil which retains moisture on its surface, which is the case with most clays and loams with retentive bottoms, may be considered as the least healthy ; and the one which admits of being walked on without wetting the feet the soonest after a shov,-cr of rain, is the most so. For the present purpose, it will be sufficient to consider all soils as either clayey, sandy, gravelly, or chalky ; and all subsoils as either based on granite, argillaceous rock, sandstone, limestone, or chalk. Soils based <»n rocky subsoils, whatever may be the nature of the stone, may always be considered Ileal thier than alluvial soils, sands, or gravels. Soils supei-incumbent on calcareous and sandstone rocks are found to produce healtliier surfaces than those on chalk or slatestone ; and surfaces, also, which are much better adapted for cultivation and the growth of trees. Unquestionably, the best substratum for the site of a house is a limestone or sandstone rock ; and the worst, soft black peaty soil, or strong tenacious clay. But, in judging of the soil for a villa residence, regard must also be had to its suitableness for garden pur- jioses, and for the growth of trees. In this respect the subsoil is sometimes of more importance than the soil : for the latter, in general, can be improved by draining ; and its susceptibility of this improvement vaiies materially, according to the nature of its subsoil. The most difficult subsoils to undcrdrain are those composed of moist retentive clays; and, when to tliis subsoil is joined a flat surface, the situation, a.s far as respects the enjoyment of walking in the open air, is one of the most hopeless kind. A bad sub- soil is an effectual barrier to the thriving of timber trees ; and, as these constitute the finest ornaments of every country seat, the importance of choosing a subsoil cither natu- rally congenial to them, or capable of being rendered so by art, is eufficicntly obvious. In an economical point of view, it is always more desirable to choose a poor soil than a rich one, provided it be dry, for the immediate site of the house. Rich soils are better re- served for cultivation ; and, indeed, for the purpose of lawns and kept grounds, they only serve to increase the expense of mowing and weeding, by the luxuriant growth of their herbage. On the whole, therefore, the most important consideration, in respect to the soil of the site of a villa, is, that it should be dry, and placed on a subsoil favourable to the growth of trees. 1 G30. Ji'ater is the remaining consideration ; but it is one of very secondary import- ance. For all domestic purj)oses, it can be procured almiost every where by boring or sinking wells; and pieces of artificial water, where expense is not an object, may be supplied by machinery from natural sources, at the distances even of miles. It is singular, that in England, where immense sums have been laid out on the groimds of villas, and where the steairv-engine is familiar to every body, so little should have been- done in the way of bringing water from a distance by underground pipes, and forcing it to higher levels by means of machinery. Some of the noblest parks, with the surface of the soil finely varied, and beautifully enriched with wood, lose half their effect, from the want of as much water as might be sujii-'lied from a distance by an engine of one- liorse i)ower, which might be kept up at a less expense than a footman or a groom. 1631. The Situatinn of a Villa, relative to the Sea, is a consideration that chiefly applies to islands, and countries bordered by the ocean ; but in these it merits particular attention. Some of the differences between an inland and a maritime situation are of a jiermancnt nature, and can never be affected by human improvement. Of these, some of the principal are, the dryness or moisture of the air, its moderate temperature, and the imfitness of most maritime situations for garden purposes. The uniformity of temper- ature on the sea-coast is a great reconnnendation to persons of particular constitutions ; and so is the dryness of the air on the cast coast of our island, and its moisture on the west coast. The grandeur and variety of a marine prospect at every season of the year are powerful considerations ; and, to thase who have little relish for gardening pursuits they may compensate for their absence. In choosing a marine situation, it is an importan point to ascertain whether or not it will admit of the free growth of trees and the cul- ture of garden productions. On the western shores of the British islands, especially when there are hills or mountains at no great distance in the interior, timbci' trees grow freely to the water's edge : on the eastern shores, on the contrary, they will scarc^^ly grow at all. 1G32. Among the teviporary Circumstances which influence the choice of a situation 766 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. for a villa, are included, its locality, its present state, its prospective improvement, anil the peculiarities of its possessor. 1633. By Locality is to be understood the distance from the capital of the country in which it is situated ; from a smaller town or village ; from a road or canal ; from anotlier villa ; or from neighbours of any sort. The distance from a town, at which it is desirable to place a villa, must depend so much on the style of living, and the taste of the occupier, that it is scarcely requisite to say any thing on the subject. Where taste is free, however, the villa ought to be at such a distance from the town as to be decidedly a country-house ; and, for the same reason, it does not appear desirable that the villa should command a view of the town, even in the extreme distance. This sentiment will be felt witli more force by the citizen engaged in business, who goes to the town almost every day, than by the country gentleman or retired tradesman. In the first case, the associations recalled by the appearance of the town are those of toil and occupation ; in the second case, they are those of society and gaiety. The circumstances of a neighbour- hood materially affect the character of a villa. Hitherto the prevailing ideas in England liave been in favour of exclusive enjoyment ; and the great object, whether in small villas or extensive ones, has been, to shut out every thing belonging to the neighbour- hood, which could indicate that there was any other proprietor or resident in the vicinity. The only objects that might be legitimately shown were, wood, pasture, water, rocks, ruins, and public buildings. In short, the end aimed at by this exclusive system was, to appropriate in idea the whole of the surrounding country. The extent to which this has been carried by the higher classes in England can scarcely be conceived by tlic proprietors of other countries ; and is not at all understood by them. The possessors of extensive parks abhorred the appearance of a human habitation, however humble or however distant ; and the first object of a new settler, of the rank of a gentleman, wa?-, generally, to purchase every thing around him ; and to seclude himself in a sort of artificial forest, for his own exclusive enjoyment and that of his friends. Happily, this antisocial spirit is beginning to give way before the general spread of intelligence, and, what is of more effect, the salutary influence of diminished wealth. Notwithstanding this, we consider it perfectly natural and in good taste, to plant out a number of objects which serve to recall the idea of a town, or of manufactories, and thus to diminish the idea of the country and of rural life. 1634. The present State of a property adapted for being formed into a villa residence involves a great variety of circumstances. It may be with trees and plantations, or without them ; in aration, or under pasture ; in a high state of improvement, or in a state of neglect. No man can determine for another which of these states is most desirable. To an intended purchaser who is desirous of avoiding trouble iind uncertain expense, tlie less there is to do, the more immed'ate will be his gratification. To another who under- stands the improvement of land, and who takes delight in it, the more there is to do, the j^reater will be his satisfaction in doing it. A young purchaser will generally prefer forming his own plantations ; one who retires for quiet enjoyment, or because he con- siders it a mark of distinction to possess a villa, will give the preference to a situation where nearly every thing is ready prepared to his hand ; and where he has little more to do than to take possession. 1635. The. prospective Improvement of a villa residence is but a secondary consider- ation, where it has not the addition of an extensive landed estate ; and hence it cannot have much to do with Architecture. Nevertheless, it ought not to be lost sight of; and, where two situations are equally desirable in other respects, that which is likely to be improved by the growing prosperity of the neighbourhood will be preferred by every reasonable man. The difference of situation, in this respect, is very considerable. Al- most all inland towns, which are the seat of manufactures, are either in a state of pro- gressive improvement, or on the decline. Hence the great change in the value of property in their neighbourhoods ; and the consequent profit or loss on estates which derive their chief value from their local situation. Accidental circumstances, also, fre- quently increase or diminish the value of a villa residence as such. In general, whatever has a tendency to approximate the surrounding country to the character of a to^m, has the latter effect, however much it m.ay add to the actual value of the land. 1636. The peculiar Tastes or Circumstances of the intended Occupant of a Villa often determine his choice of situation. A man engaged in business every day must have his villa within a certain distance of the place of his occupation; and another, not engaged in business, may jircfer a spot with which he has some peculiar associations ; such as, the parish in which he was born ; property which once belonged to his ancestors ; or the vicinity of some river for fishing, or of a fine country for sporting, &c. 1637. All these Considerations, and a Variety of others, require to be taken into view before fixing on the situation of a villa residence. It must be confessed, however, that, in a country like Britain, where liy far the greater i)art of the landed property is in large PUINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 7^7 mnsscs entailed on particular families, there has hitherto been very little room for choice. Commercial men, who, after having made fortunes by trade, have retired to the country to enjoy them, have had hitherto little opportunity afforded them of making a judicious choice, and have generally been obliged to set themselves down where they could. Hence the great number of villas which are to be found in dull, low, and damp situations, undistinguished by a single feature of external beauty. Hence, also, the little attention that has hitherto been paid to the situation of villas by Architects ; so that, when an oj^por- tunity does occur of making a choice, they are not, in general, competent to take advantage of it- A new state of things, however, is gradually arising : in a few years landed property will be more equally distributed ; its value will be diminished ; and, in consequence of a greater number of possessors, there will be an increased demand for viilas, and a consequent improvement in the taste of Villa Architects. Sect. II. Of tht Position of the House, and the Arrangement of the Grounds of a Villa ' Residence, 1638. The Arrangement of the Grounds of a Villa Residence includes the position of tlie house, relative to the natural features or accidental circumstances of the grounds ; and the disposition of the offices, roads, gardens, farm, and other component parts of the whole. 1639. Tlie Position of the House should, in every case, be pointed out by some striking natural feature ; or, where no such natural feature exists, an approximation to one should be created by art. Whenever a house is so placed as to display no sufficient reason why it has been erected in that precise spot, rather than in any other, something must decidedly be wrong. There is no surface on which a house can be built, which may not be so managed as to create an artificial reason for making choice of the exact spot on which it stands. This is to be effected, first, and principally, by elevating the base or platform from which the structure appears to rise ; and, secondly, by tlie disposition of the plantations by which it is connected with the surrounding scenery. On the dullest and flattest surfaces, by raising the house on a platform of twenty or thirty feet high, or more, according to the dimensions of the house ; and by connecting this platform with the surrounding grounds and plantations, by gradations of terraces and shrublierics, the main body of the house will be raised higher than the highest of the surrounding trees ; and this, by giving, at a distance, the same effect as though it were placed on a knoU, will afford at once a satisfactory reason to the stranger, why it was erected on that spot, in preference to any other. The space under the arches which sujiport tlie platform may always be made use of as cellars or offices, and the surface over them can be laid out as Italian or terraced gardens. Even if only a part of the space under the platform were made use of, stUl the important effect produced would justify the means. In the case of a uniformly sloping bank or hillside, on which it is desired to create an artificial position for a house, the Architect should proceed in one of two \vays, according to the nature of the ground. In a dry soil and subsoil, he may scoop out a recess, with the earth of wliich he may form two prominences on each side of it ; and in an elevated posi- tion in the back part of the recess he may place the house, so high as to raise its main body considerably above the surrounding trees. When the two projecting points or prominences ai-e properly planted, the house, at a distance, will ajjpear to be placed in a natural recess on the side of the hill, backed and flanked by wood. When the soil and subsoil of such a bank are moist, a platform may be raised, projecting boldly forward, and a recess excavated behind ; with the soil from which, terraces may be formed in front of the house, and at two of its sides ; the space behipd, and also the sides, being planted. The effect of this at a distance will be, to give the house the appearance of being built on a projecting point or promontory ; which, from being the only one on the otherwise uniformly sloping bank, would appear clearly pointed out by that circumstance as the position for a house. These examples will be sufficient to give every Architect, who has studied the effect of scenery in the country, an idea of the mode of proceeding, to create artificial situations in the most hopeless cases. 1 640. IVhen there are natural Indications of Features in the Grounds, they may always be heightened by the foregoing means, as well as by others. A knoll, if too small, may be enlarged ; a rock (a most desirable feature on which to found a house, when it can be obtained, but wiiich is very rarely taken advantage of as it might be) may be increased TO. magnitude upwards, by additions ; or downwards, by the removal of earth. The bend of a river may be widened, or the course of a stream may be changed : in either case, neightening the natural expression, and creating a most desirable site. Where a house is to be built on the margin of a lake with a tame uniform shore, the common practice is, to keep it a certain distance from the water, and to form a lawn between it and the house : but a bolder and more striking mode of proceeding would be, to carry tlie plat- form on which the house is placed to the very margin of the lake, and even projecting 708 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. into it ; or to bring an estuary from the lake to the liouse ; or to give it the effect of being placed on a promon'ory or a peninsula. Whatever mode is adopted, the platform on which the house stands should always be raised considerably above the level of the water, and the main body of the house above the tops of the highest trees j not only for the sake of cfFect, but for the health of the occupants. 1641. IF/ioi a strikinc/ iiatural Situation occurs, it should not be rejected, because it may be on the boundary of the estate, unless there be something decidedly offensive in the adjoining property. Some of the noblest situations of villas, in Britain, are on the sea- shore, or on the steep rocky banks of rivers, or on lofty cliffs overhanging public roads. The proximity of the sea, of a river, or even of a public road, to a house, can never be offen- sive to the occupant ; because, though they do not belong to him, they belong to no one else, and the grandeur of their effect overpowers every other consideration. 164'i. The accidental Circumstances ichich influence the Position of a House are, chiefl)', the boundary of the property, and the existing trees, roads, buildings, fences, and other artificial objects. The most desirable position for a house, all otlier circumstances being alike favourable, is the centre of the estate. The advantages of being at an equal dis- tance from every part of the boundary ; of having, as much as possible, on every side, that which we can call our own ; of not being overlooked by near neighbours ; and of reposing, as it were, in the bosom of our own tenantry, cottagers, cattle, woods, and gardens, are obvious, and felt by every one. It is seldom, however, that natural features correspond so exactly with accidental circumstances as to render this practicable ; and, therefore, all that the Architect can do is, to make the nearest approach to such a combination that the case will admit of. 1643. To he guided by existing Trees, Roads, or other artificial Objects, in fixing on the position of a house, is obviously bad judgment; on the general principle, that what is intended to be permanent should never be made subservient to what is only temporary. Nevertheless, this is very frequently the case ; and nothing is more common tlian to see good houses deprived of half their effect from being placed in some inferior situation, merely because it contained a few old trees, or was the site of a former mansion, the cellars of which, perhaps, remain ; or because it was near very good offices, which it was thought a pity to pull down. Such are the shortsighted prejudices with which Architects have frequently to contend. 1644. The Offices of a Villa include those of the kitchen-court, those of the stable- yard, and those of the farm. In small villas, or in what may more projjcrly be called villa farms, these may be all arranged around one court : but, in general, they are placed apart ; the kitchen-court being attached to the liouse, the stable-yard adjoining the kitchen court, and the farm being placed at some distance, according to the situation and the kind of farm. The principle by which the position of both the kitchen and sta- ble offices is determined is, that of having free access to them without coming in sight of any of the fronts of the house. This is, perhaps, one of the most important points in determining the position of a villa and its offices ; for, if the latter are placed so as not to be accessible by servants and tradesmen without their passing the front of the house, it is scarcely possible to make a perfect villa. It is not necessary to the attainment of this object that the offices should be concealed : on the contrary, they should always be visible, and be rendered subordinate and supporting parts to the main body of the man- sion, and should cooperate with it in forming a whole. In general, there is only one approach to a villa; and, in that case, the offices should always be on the side by which the approach road advances towards the entrance front. When there are two approaches, advancing towards the entrance froqt in opposite directions, then the offices ought to be placed on that side which is most likely to be the principal road for tradesmen and servants. This will, of course, generally, be the side which is next the nearest village or town. In scarcely any case that we can conceive is it desirable to have the kitchen- court on one side of the main body of the house, and the stable-court on the other, as wings ; though this was formerly much the practice in large mansions. The incon- veniences of such an arrangement for a villa are too obvious to require pointing out ; and they could only be tolerated in times when the proprietors of such residences were surrounded by servants, and when the highest ambition of taste was ostentatious display. 1645. The Farm Offices of a Villa should always be placed on the side next the stable offices ; so as that a free communication between them may take place, witliout inter- fering with the entrance front on one side, or the lawn front on the other. Where the farm is large, the offices should lie central to it, whatever may be their distance from the house ; but where it is small, and chiefly used for raising produce to be consumed at home, the farmery may be jjlaced near the stable yard, and may compose a subordinate part of the general architectural group. 1646. The Kitchen-garden of a villa should always, if possible, be on the side next PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 7^^9 the offices ; not only that a free communication may take place between the kitchen and the garden, without interfering with either the entrance front or the lawn front ; but that the stable dung may be taken to the garden, from the stSbles, by the shortest and most private route. In general, it is desirable to have the kitchen-garden close to the stable offices, so as to make some use of the walls of the latter for training fruit trees, and to shorten all the lines of communication for servants, as also the walk to the garden fi-om the lawn front. MTierever it is practicable, the farm should adjoin the kitchen-garden, and, as it were, follow in the train of offices and useful appendages. In this view of the general arrangement of a villa and its offices, it appears that all the latter should be placed on one side of the dwelling-house, so as to leave the three other sides free. Wherever three sides of the dwelling-house are not free to be disposed of as the combined judgment of the landscape-gardener and Architect may direct, either the case must be anomalous, or some gross fault must have been committed. We would strongly recommend this to be kept in view, both by Architects and their employers, as a leading principle in determining the position of the offices relative to that of the house. 1647. Hie Approach Road. The whole train of offices and usefid dependencies being disposed of, the subject nest in importance is the direction of the road by which the dwelling-house is to be approached. Though this, like every other part of the subject, is necessarily treated of separately in a book, it must be considered together with all the other parts, and more especially the offices, in practice. The side of the house on which the offices are placed must, as has been already observed, in a great measure be deter- mined by the direction in which the approach road advances to the house ; so that tliese two parts are so intimately connected, that the one cannot be considered without the other. In the modern or natural style of disposing of the grounds about a house, the approach road almost always advances towards it in such a manner as to show two fronts at the same time. This is one principle ; and, as we have already laid it do^^Ti as another, that the offices must always be on that side by which the principal approach advances, it follows, that the first \-iew of the house will generally show the dwelling as the principal mass, and the offices as subordinate and cooperating parts of the whole. When- ever the first part of the dwelling, therefore, which comes into view, is the offices, there must be something defective in their position, in the direction of the road, or in the disposition of the trees and scenery by which the house and offices are united with the grounds. In the ancient or geometrical style of laying out grounds, the approach road or avenue ad- vances directly in front of the house ; and here, also, the dwelUng-house is the mass which ought first to meet the eye. The offices, in this case, are generally concealed from the view ; either altogether, or till the spectator has arrived almost at the entrance front. The great object, in the ancient style, is, to present a full geometrical view of one front ; that of the modem style, to show two fronts at once, or what is called by Architects an angular view. The beauties aimed at by the ancient style, whether with respect to the house or the grounds, were, to present regular, symmetrical, architectural views ; the end aimed at in the modern style is, to present views which are irregular, picturesque, and natural. The direction of the approach road from the public road, till it advances nearly to the entrance front, may be considered as more legitimately within the province of the landscape-gardener than within that of the Architect ; yet, still, the general principle by which it is directed ought to be alike known to both. In the ancient style, the grand object is, to obtain a straight line ; because such a line is more archi- tectural, and displayed, in a rude age, more decidedly a character of art and design. In the modern style, a winding line is preferred, as being more easy and natural, and, by displaying a greater variety of scenerj', evincing a more refined taste. The ancient style of approach is displayed to greatest advantage over an even surface ; the modern style, over a surface which is irregular. In the ancient style, when the two extreme points were once deter- mined on, nothing could be easier than to lay out the road between them. In the modem style, when the two extreme points are determined on ; that is, the point of departure from the public road, and that of arrival at the entrance front of the mansion ; the laying out of the road between them calls into exercise a considerable degree of taste and judgment. As it is essential to this style that the line of road should be more or less curvDinear, the artist is required duly to consider what ought to be the extent of these curves, and how far they ought to deviate from a straight line. If lie should be guided entirely by the surface ; that, if very irregular, may induce him to trace a line too circuitous ; and if even, to adopt a line without ease or grace. It may be laid down as a principle, that no winding approach can be beautiful wheie there is not an obvious reason for each of the windings. It may also be admitted as another principle, that, when the surface is very irregular, and the road changes its direction with every little obstruction, it will cease to have the character of a work of refined art. A third principle here occurs, to correct the tendency to error in either of the extreme cases of a verj' hilly or a very flat surface. This principle is, that the road, in every case, should be 4t 770 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AIlCIllTECTUUE. easily travelled over; and from this principle are derived the following rules; viz., that, on a flat surface, this road should never deviate so far from the straight line as to be obviously very circuitous ;-that, on an irregular surface, it should never be turned aside by surmountable inequalities, so as to produce the same effect ; and tliat, if not turned aside by inequalities, it should never pass over them in such a manner as to interfere with facility of communication. An expression of art, therefore, requires to be given, not only to the direction of tlie road, but to its inclination in the direction of its length. For this reason, on irregular surfaces, it will frequently be required to cut into or lower eminences, and to fill up or raise the surface of hollows or declivities. In effecting this, the greatest degree of skill is required, to maintain the ease and grace of a work of art, and to avoid the mere straightforward character of an improved turnpike road. Ila|)- pily for the artist, trees can at all times be called in to liis assistance ; and the effect of these, in hiding defects and eliciting beauties, is all-powerful. Along the sides of a road passing over an irregular surface, trees may be placed so as to conceal bends in its direction, wliich would, if seen all at the same time, be considered too numerous ; and on a flat surface they may be arranged so as to create an artificial cause for bends which could not otherwise be made without forfeiting all pretensions to good taste. 1648. The Pleasure- Grounds. In order to make the most of a villa residence, it is found desirable to have the grounds around the house laid out in two distinct characters. The surface on the entrance front should be so disposed as to be in a less refined style of design and ornament than that on the other fronts ; or, at least, on that generally designated tlie lawn front, or that on the drawing-room side of the house. This side should, in all cases, look towards the best views which the situation affords ; and the fore- ground to these views should be in the highest style of design, order, and keeping which it is intended that the villa should display. It is always desirable that this high style of art should embrace two sides of the house, a third side being the entrance front, and the fourth connected with the offices. We are here assuming the general outline of the ground plan of the house and kitchen-court to be a square or a parallelogram, merely to simplify discussion ; but what we shall advance will apply alike to every form of ground plan. As the style of the grounds on the entrance front is decidedly inferior in degree to that on the drawing-room front, and as the former are generally depastured by sheep, deer, or cattle, it becomes necessary to form such aline of demarcation between them as will serve also as a fence. To conceal this fence, or so to manage it as to render it a work of art, or an architectural appendage to the house, is one of the nicest points of management in disposing of the connecting links between the house and the grounds of a villa residence. The most common resource is an iron fence ; sometimes avowedly displayed, and at others studiously concealed, or formed so slightly as to be considered invisible ; but in all cases a meagre and paltry contrivance, utterly unworthy of a higli style of art. The sunk fence is another resource, which has been employed for separating the grounds of the entrance front from the lawn ; but this also is unarchitectural, and, like the iron and wire fences, only to be adopted at such a distance from the house as never to be supposed to form any of the appendages wliich connect it with the grounds. The iron fence and the sunk fence being rejected, to what, then, arc we to have recourse? Most decidedly, to a bold and avowed line of demarcation, of an architectural character, and in a style of design which shall harmonise with that of the house. Even a plain wall, broken in its lines by trees and shrubs, is superior to any fence not avowedly dis- played as such, and not decidedly architectural. Here, then, is a medium of connecting the house with the grounds on one side of the entrance front, while the kitchen-court and stable offices afford a more conspicuous means of effecting the same object on the other. Here, also, the Architect will have an opportunity of displaying, in the wall, his inventive powers, in its line of direction, its height, its projections and recesses, the orna- ments with which it is decorated, and in its partial concealment, and connection with tlie scenery, by occasional groups of trees and shrubs. To fit a Villa Architect for this purpose, he should stuby, above all other works, the writings of Uvedale Price, the work of Gilbert Laing Meason on the landscape-architecture of the great painters of Italy, and the essay on uniting the house with the grounds, by the late Thomas Hope. " In recommending to Architects to study the picturesque effects of buildings, the site adapted for them, and the accompaniments of terrace walls, architectural gardens, and other decorations, to set off their designs for villas," Meason observes, " we are influenced by a desire to raise and extend the theory and the practice of Architecture, to aU that we consider belongs to the art. This was the case in Italy when the fine arts were in per- fection, and great villas were laid out by artists who often combined the practice of paint- ing with that of Architecture ; and, until it be adopted in Britain, the .designs of the Architect will never have justice done to them in the execution." 1649. The Separation of the Lawn from the Scenery beyond it may be considered as a continuation of the same subject ; for here, also, the sunk wall or the iron fence has PUINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLUS. 771 been almost invariably resorted to. We do not object to these fences at a proper distance from the house ; that is, at such a distiince as to render it unnecessary for them to be made architectural appendages for connecting the house with the grounds; neitlier should we object to the wire fence in front of tlie house, in the case of cottages and cottage villas, where the house, from its smaller dimensions and picturesque low form, 'tilends with the scenery, without the necessity of architectural appendages. In the case of all villas of any magnitude, however, we consider the architectural accompaniments of terrace walls, gateways, alcoves, stone seats, steps, pedestals, urns, and other mural and sculptural ornaments, essentially requisite to prevent the incongruity so ably exposed by Mr. Hope, of " launching from the threshold of the symmetric mansion, in the most abrupt manner, into a scene wholly composed of the most unsymmetric and desultory forms of mere nature." " These forms," he adds, " are totally out of character with those of the mansion, whatever may be its style of Architecture and furnishing." With him, we desire to surround the house with a garden, into which " the cluster of highly adorned and sheltered apartments that composes the mansion may, in the first instance, shoot out, as it were, into certain more or less extended ramifications of arcades, porticoes, terraces, parterres, treillages, avenues, and other such still splendid embellishments of art, calcu- lated, by their architectural and measured forms, at once to ofter a striking and varied contrast with, and a dignified and comfortable transition to, the undulating and rural features of the more extended, distant, and exposed boundaries ; before, in the second instance, through another link, and a still farther continuance of the same gradation of lines and forms, the limits of the private demesne are made, in their turn, by means of their less artificial and more desultory appearance (increasing with tlieir distance from the house), to blend equally harmoniously with the still ruder outlines of the property of the public at large." An eloquent writer on this subject, in the Gardeiier's Magazirte, after objecting to the general incongruity between the English villa and its garden, on the same principles as iNIr. Hope, observes, " We should condescend to borrow from our neighbours on the Continent some of that architectural taste in gardening in which many of them have so much excelled ; we must engraft upon our own romantic harshnesses .■ajmething that will accord better with the equipment of the interior of our residences ; something like furnitin-e and ornament ; and not leap from our windows into jungles and steppes, and wildernesses, where the lion and the panther would be more at home than the ' lady with her silken sheen.' We must, in fact, adapt our gardens, those, at least, which adjoin the house, to the building, and make them a part of it ; appropriate, and such as, in the times when those buildings were erected, were considered suited to each particular class. If we take a review of our country residences, we shall find them to be, or to have been, either the baronial castle, or the monastic and conventual houses, such as, at the dissolution of the monasteries, were granted to the great and powerfiil of their time, of which the greater part of many now remain, and are private dwellings ; or tlie Elizabethan and Inigo Jones buildings ; or the great square edifices, with projecting roofs, of William and INIary's time ; or the PaUadian palace and villa. To give these buildings gardens appropriate to their individual styles and eras of build- ing would not only add truth and consistency to the character of each place, — an object hitherto sadly neglected, although generally allowed to be desirable, — but it would give also to the possessor an opportimity of introducing that description of garden ground which I contend to be best adapted to our climate. Each stj-le of building would give us permission, as it were, to ornament, to furnish highly our gardens, to decorate them with masonry ; to place statues, and vases, and balustrades, and steps about them ; and to enrich them with that most charming of all garden ornaments, the terrace : all of which rich accompaniments, by carrying the eye from the interior ornaments of the chambers to the garden, would in a manner so connect our gardens with our houses, as to make them, what all, I believe, would wish them to be, a pleasurable part of them. The want of colour, so necessary to a clieerfulness of scene, would, at those seasons when flowers have ceased to bloom, be compensated for by the lights which would be constantly falling upon and playing about the architectural ornaments j and that court- ing of sunshine, which is so desirable, would be generally gained." 1G50. Rules for laying out Architectural Gardens, the same writer observes, might be given v»-ithout much difficulty. Each of the above-mentioned eras of building villas or mansions admits of architectural ornaments ; " the taste in their disposition, and the skill in their execution, being determined by the style of the individual building. The terrace, or succession of terraces, of the baronial castle will not require the same orna- ment as the monastic terrace ; nor will that, again, be so richly or gorgeously adorned as the PaUadian terrace : and let it here be observed, by the way, that by a terrace is not always implied that elevated sjiot whence a commanding and distant view is obtained (a misconception of this description of ornament to a building entertained by many) ; but any raised, straight, and broad, paved or gravelled walk, on a level, running parallel m COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. to, or surrounding, a building. Many, in these times, have cliosen to misinterpret the original intention for which terraces were formed ; and because some of the remains of them, and, no doubt, therefore, the finest and most agreeable, enjoy distant and extensive prospects, have imagined that, without that, no terrace could strictly so be called : whereas, I conceive, the main object of a terrace to have been for the purpose of ob- taining in most, but particularly in bad, seasons, a dry and healthy promenade ; and, no doubt, if from this promenade an extensive view were commanded, the enjoyment of the exercise taken thereon would be greatly enlianced. If we define a terrace merely as a long and spacious straight walk, no one will object to the introduction of it ; and I think I may affirm, that all who possess one will agree with me in confirming the enjoyment they have derived thereon. Of those houses built in the reigns of Charles II., James II., William and Mary, and Anne, some exception to my original position may be judiciously made ; for, to follow strictly the trim style of gardening which was originally adopted by their possessors, and considered then as appropriate, would be, in truth, to return to a style which was introduced in bad taste, and which ought, therefore, to be dis- carded. Where such houses remain, it will be well, perhaps, to keep up their gardens partially, introducing with them, or engrafting upon them, the better style of Palladian gardening, that, too, which iminediately succeeded ; by which we can only subject ourselves to the same species of reproach, if reproach it can be called, as that given to our munificent ancestors, when they completed the Saxon and Norman cathedral with the then newer style of Gothic." 1651. The Italian Architectural Garden. " It is a mistaken notion to suppose, that, because wc do not enjoy the climate of Italy, we cannot, therefore, appropriate to this country the Italian style of garden. It is also a mistaken notion to suppose the Italian style of gardening peculiarly adapted to the Italian climate. Those who have visited Rome in the winter season will agree with me in enthusiastic admiration of the Roman gardens, at that period of the year. By an Englishman the gardens of the Villa Borghese and Doria Pamfili can never be forgotten. But, then, he must have visited them in winter ; he must have seen and enjoyed them at that season, for the amelioration of the rigours of which they have been constructed ; for even at Rome a winter hits its rigours. Let him visit these gardens in summer, and he will find them a very Pande- monium. If his eyesight recover from the glare of their blazing ornaments, he will not so easily forget the intolerable heats he has found collected in them, and tlieir almost total want of shade ; for the shade of evergreens, even though they should be the beautiful /lex or spreading stone pine, is not true shade to an Englishman, accustomed as he is to the delicate and umbrageous foliage of our deciduous natives, the oak, &c. By as much, therefore, as our climate throughout the year ajiproaches to the climate of an Italian winter, by so much should we do wisely in adopting the Italian style of gardening. It is true, we have not marble in the same abundance ; and, if we had, we have neitlicr artists to execute figures and vases in that material at a moderate price ; nor would these, when executed, bear the frost or damj) of this country ; and so far the Italian style is not fitted for this climate : but we have stone, and tliat in abundance, and of the most beautiful description, such as the Portland, the Bath, and the Ancaster, which will stand all weathers ; and the two latter of which are so easy to cut, and so dur- able when cut, that the place of marble ornaments may be supplied by them at a very moderate expense. A plot of ground, of one acre only, attached to the mansion, laid out in the Italian manner, with its terrace, steps, balustrades, vases, fountain, and rectangular gravel walks, will add more to the chcerfidness of both the exterior and interior of that mansion, throughout the greater portion of the year, than five times the quantity of land laid out according to our present English style of gardening. What flower-beds, and those formal ones, corresponding in lines parallel to the gravel walks, may be introduced, will be made gaudy and rich for the summer season by annuals, of which, in colour, there is a great variety ; and roses, care being taken to put but one kind of plant into each flower-bed ; bulbous roots, such as snowdrops, crocuses, tulips, hyacinths, &c., will afford a spring crop of many colours ; China asters, chrysanthemunts, georginas, pelar- goniums, &c., will decorate the autumn; and but a few winter months will remain for tlie architectural ornaments to display fidly and solely those powers which, with the conjunction of the flowers, they have through the spring, summer, and autumn main- tained. A garden of this sort is * an extension of the splendour of the residence into a certain limited portion of the demesne ; it is a sort of chapel of ease to the apartments within doors.' If it cannot justly be called a part of the mansion, it is at least a link of connection between that and the other gardens ; and, for such other gardens, our own English style is as good as. and perhaps better than, the style of any other nation. In these gardens this rule shoidd be observed, that, as they approach the park or forest, the wilder and more in character with that adjunct they become, till, by an apparently natural and easy step, the one amalgamates wifli the otlier. However strong contrasts, and PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 77^ happy and unexpected transitions from one style of gardening to another, may be permitted, and perhaps with good effect, within tlie garden ground, yet, when the park is approached, no such trick should be allowed. The simple grandeur of our park scenery requires no raree-show work to attract attention ; it stands unrivalled with its hundred accompani- ments of wild splendour, which cannot but be materially deteriorated by any contrivances to show it off to advantage." {Gard. Mag., vol. iv. p. 214.) Sect, III. Of adapting the Architectural Style and interior Arrangement of the House to the Character of the Situation. 1652. Certain Cliaracters of Ground and Sccneri/ are supposed, by many, to have an analogy with certain styles of Architecture. Rude, rocky, hilly, and very irregular sur- faces are said to require the Castle Gothic ; fertile valleys, the Abbey Gotliic, or monastic style ; and rich extensive plains the Grecian or Roman manner. It is, no doubt, very natural to associate a rude style of scenery with tlie baronial castle ; and an abbey or monastery with surrounding fertility ; but the connection between Grecian Architecture and tame or rich scenery is not so obvious. However, in so far as these prejudices or associations exist, they ought to be taken advantage of by the Architect, in his choice of style. In so far as Architecture is entitled to be considered a fine art, the style adopted ought to exercise some influence on tlie imagination ; and, therefore, whichever style may be selected, it ought always to be accompanied, as far as practicable, by such cir- cumstances as may serve to heighten its effect on the mind. Thus, a castellated man- sion, with towers and battlements, will more powerfully affect the imagination, when placed in a position favourable for defence, by its altitude, its rocky base, its proximity to a river or the sea, or by various other circumstances, than when placed on a tame, flat surface. At the first glance the spectator immediately concludes that it may have been a real castle in former times ; and he readily becomes a party, as it were, to the illusion which it is desired to create. Tliere are similar associations connected with villas ui the monastic style ; but few, at least in Britain, with purely Grecian villas. The associations connected with them are either classical, and of a description which can only affect the minds of those classical scholars who have studied Architecture ; or purely architectural, and therefore confined almost entirely to Architects. Whenever, therefore, the artist wishes to affect the imagination, and to raise emotions of grandeur and beauty, or recall the images of antiquity in general observers, he must adopt one or other of those styles with which general observers are familiar. The truth is, that, in order thoroughly to enjoy an object, we must first understand it : now, for one person who knows and can comprehend the uses of the component parts of a Grecian elevation, there are numbers who are familiar with aU the details of Gothic Architecture. Towers, battlements, buttresses, pointed windows, mullions, and porches have been, from infancy, before the eyes of every one who has been in the habit of attending his parish church ; and, when- ever they occur in other buildings, they recall a thousand images connected with the place of our birth, the scenes of our youth, the home of our parents, and the abodes of our friends. In this frame of mind how easy it is to be pleased ! 1653. In order to compare the Grecian Style with the Gothic, or any of those which may be considered as indigenous to this coiuitrj-, with reference to their effect on the imagination, it is only necessary for us, first to take a view of a newly built villa in the one style, and then of one, also newly built, in the other. Let us imagine a Grecian villa now before us, with its portico, and regular symmetrical front ; perfect in all respects as an edifice. What are the sentiments which arise in the mind on viewing it ? ^'ery few which can respond to any feeling already existing in the mind of the general observer. The columns, no doubt, carry back the ideas to the Grecian temples of antiquity ; but these do not possess half the interest, in the present age, which attaches itself to a Gothic church. There are no ancient villas in the Grecian style, at least in Britain, to recall associations in their favour ; and, that style of Architecture being chiefly prevalent in newly built cities, a villa in the Grecian style generally reminds us more of the town than of the country. A style of building which has this effect cannot be well adapted for a villa. What, then, are the inducements to build villas in the Grecian style ? Is there any particidar fitness in this style for the internal arrangement of a house in the country? Can such houses be rendered more commodious, more durable, or built more economi- cally ? No one will answer these questions in the affirmative. If, then, Grecian Architecture has but few associations connected with its external appearance to recom- mend it for the country, and if it be found not better than other styles in point of fitness and utility, by what means has it happened that it has been, till lately, so generally adopted in country houses? We believe that the principal reason why it was first introduced in the reign of James I. was its novelty at that time ; and that, having then become the fashionable style, it has since been continued, partly for that reason, and partly from the general deference which is paid to any thing Grecian. The style is, we 77'i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUllE. believe, frequently adopted, merely as evidence which the love of it is supposed to afford of scliolarship and taste. Let us next take a view of a newly built villa, either in any of the varieties of the Gothic style whicli have long existed in Britain, or in any nf the mixed styles which have prevailed, or which still prevail, on the Continent. How various the associations which rise up in our minds, when viewing a successful imitation of a baronial castle, or of an old English manor-house ! Even an Italian villa has its interesting associations ; and though these associations can never be so generally agreeable to a native of Britain, as those raised up by the forms of Gothic Architecture, yet still they are recognised in such a manner as to excite emotion, from tlieir frequent recurrence in the landscapes of the great artists of Italy. We thus arrive at the conclusion, that the styles of Architecture that have been most familiar to those who are to inhabit the edifices to be erected, are the best calculated for general use. It follows, also, from this, that any style which has been long in use will raise emotions ; and thus, that, after a long period of time, the associations connected with the Grecian style will call up feelings in the mind of a Briton, as interesting as those now excited in him by the Gothic. Our approbation of the Italian style, which is of a mixed character, and has long been applied to domestic purposes, has, no doubt, its origin in this cause. 1 654. The Fitness of a Style for Accommodation, Comfort, and Convenience may natu- rally be supposed to influence our judgments in respect to its external effect ; but, in this point of view, our belief is that the Grecian, Gothic, and Italian styles are altogether equal. It is true, that if we consider it necessary that the Grecian style, when adopted in the country, should be as essentially symmetrical as it is, when applied to temples there will be an end, at once, of all its pretensions to fitness for a villa residence : but this exact symmetry, though it seems essential for a temple, or any large public building, the principal use of which is to assemble great masses of men in one room, is not absolutely necessary where the occupants of a building are to be lodged in different rooms ; and, when this is the case, the Grecian style is as applicable to a villa as the Gothic. It will not, we think, be denied, that all the details of the Gothic style are as much taken from a cathedral, as the details of the Grecian style are taken from a tem- ple J and yet, in a private building in the Gothic style, it is never considered necessary that we should be guided by the general form and symmetry of the cathedral. The difference between the styles unquestionably lies much more in men's minds, and in the historical associations connected with them, than in the abstract forms belonging to them. We assert this with the more confidence in regard to forms, because those essential to use and occupation are precisely the same in both; viz., the square and the parallelo- gram for the ground plan ; or the cube and long cube for the plan and elevation. 1655. The Difference between a House in the Town and a House in the Country lies much deeper than in mere style, important though we allow that to be. The great object of a house in town is concentration ; the great object of a house in the country, the enjoyment of free air and of the external scenery. In the town, there is nothing to admire but what has been created by man and all that is beautiful to the eye is archi- tectural. In the country, on the contrary, there are not only architectural beauties to enjoy, but the extensive and varied beauties of verdant scenery. It would appear, there- fore, that much greater attention ought to be paid to Architecture in towns than in the country ; and this, taking a general view of towns ancient and modern, will invariably be found to be the case. Country houses, or villas, on the other hand, will invariably be found to be less architectural ; and, especially, less symmetrical, than dwellings in towns. This difference is clearly founded on the sound principles of utility and enjoy- ment. In the country, there are two leading principles which direct the disposition of the different apartments : the one is, shelter from the particular winds and storms which prevail in the particular situation ; and the other is, the enjoyment of the particular views which are to be obtained of the surrounding country. The influence of these two principles we shall find pervading the villa residences of every age and country ; and hence it is that, as town houses have in all ages and countries been concentrated and symmetrical, so country residences have, in all ages and countries, been comparatively scattered and irregular. The conclusion which we draw from these observations, as apjilied to our present subject is, that a villa residence ought to be characterised by extent and irregularity ; and this conclusion agrees with that arrived at by Mr. Hope and other writers. 1656. The Irregularity of the Style of Villas has been illustrated and contended for by Price, Knight, Hope, Meason, and a number of other authors ; while the concentrated and symmetrical style has never, so far as we are aware of, been advocated by any one writer as the most suitable for the country. We shall not here repeat the invaluable observations of Sir Uvedale Price, who, in his Essays on the Picturesque, was the first in the order of time, as he still h in the order of excellence, to draw attention to the beauty of irregularity in all country buildings, where the object aimed at is any thing PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 775 beyond bare shelter and utility ; but, having already recommended the essay of Mr. Hope (which will be found in vol. ix. of the Gardener's Magazine'), we shall conclude tliis section with some quotations from the work of Meason. 1657. The Landscape Architecture of Itahj, iNIeason observes, is the result of time and of a great variety of circumstances. The Roman villas were, no doubt, originally Grecian edifices adapted to the particular situations in which they were placed ; and we are cer- tain, from the descriptions which remain of them, that they extended over the surface rather than towered in stories one above another. After Italy was invaded by the Goths of the north and the Saracens of the south, and became a prey to barbarians from one end of the country to the other, those who remained stationary, as proprietors of the soil, left their villas in the plains, and betook themselves to situations where they could with facility fortify themselves against the attacks of invaders. Hence the fc-w villas, which we know to have existed in the middle Jiges, are in a mixed style of Roman and castellated Architecture ; and this mixed style has prevailed in the villas of Italy from that period to the present. 1658. The Transition from the Roman Villas to the Italian castles or monastic esta- blishments of the middle ages is thus given by Castellan, and G. L. Meason. Castellan maintains that several monasteries, built on the ruins of Roman villas, retain the ancient distribution of the parts of the buildings ; the courts surrounded with porticoes, which are used for walks ; the roon^s entering upon the portico, without communicating with one another ; the basins, with fountains in the courts ; the terraces upon arcades ; the oratories in the gardens ; all these have a striking analogy to the ancient villa. At an ancient villa near Brundusium, our author foimd the amhulacrum, or covered walk, prettv entire. " One of the celebrated villas of LucuUus," observes G. L. Meason, " formerly belonging to INIarius, and afterwards an imperial residence of Tiberius, situated on the promontory of IMisenum (Capo Miseno), existed a. d. 480. To this retreat was sent, by the clemency of Odoacer, king of the Heruli Goths, the last feeble representative of the Roman emjierors of the West, called in derision Augiistulus. The villa had gr^duflly been' changed into a strong castle, to protect it against the sea attacks of the Vandals. These invasions by sea of the Vandals, and, subsequently, of the Normans and Saracens, rm'ned probably the crowd of Roman villas on the Nea- politan shores. The villas on the fertile plains of Italy would suffer from the invasions by land ; but many villa castles or fortified residences remained after the tenth century, in the hilly districts of the Vicentine and Veronese territories ; as their rural nobility descended into the cities of Padua, Verona, Vicenza, and Trevisa, and took part with the Guelf faction. In the thirteenth century, 150 castles were computed to be in the Milanese. It was probably to a Roman villa that Avitus, lieutenant of the emperor Maximus, and afterwards himself a short-lived emperor, retired, a. d. 460. It was situated near Clermont in Auvergne, on the margin of a lake, into which rushed a torrent of mountain cascades. The villa contained baths, summer and winter apartments, and porticoes. Sidonius, the son-in-law of Avitus, has, in imitation of Pliny, given a prolix but obscure description of it.'\ (^Landscape Arch, of Italy, &e.) The same author (G. L. Meason), in his gi-aphic illustrations, has given an example, from a landscape of Giotto, of T^hat appears to be " a monastery, constructed on a more ancient edifice." 1412 5 ''llll|i,!|,i;-J^,"^ fig. 1412. He has also given an Italian baronial castle of the fourteenth or fifteenth century from Titian, characterised by round towers, fig. 1413; one from Breemberg, 77^^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUUIi characterised by square towers, fig. 1414; and one from Giulio Romano, in wliicli both 'ound and square towers are combined, with something of the monastic character main- tained by gable ends, and aspire-like turret, fig. 1415. A fine example of a pictures(iue country-house, of the seventeenth or the beginning of the eighteenth century, is given H1.5 PRINCirLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 777 from Francesco Solimene, the last of the old school of Italian painters, fig. I41fi. Tliis very picturesque residence was situated at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, and must have harmonised admirably with the surrounding scenery. 1416 1659. The Beau Ideal nf the Italian Style of Villa Architecture, it is justly observed bv IMeason, is to be found in the landscapes of the great Italian painters, and more especially in the backgrounds of their pictures. Speaking of the examples which Italy and her artists afford to the rest of Europe, he says, " that there are no petty ornaments to detract from the effect of simplicity and breadth in the Architecture. None of the sky lines are broken by trifling turrets or meagre pinnacles. The towers are plain, or simply embat- tled ; and the varied line is produced by the different heights of large massive parts. The projections in the facade may be considered, in many of these buildings, as too sudden and unconnected ; owing, no doubt, to the additions made at different times : but the Architect has to study the value of bold breaks in a picturesque composition, which may produce strong light and shade in almost every position of the sun, yet so as not to interfere with the interior convenience of the mansion. The various forms of projections by which the parapets, whether of towers or of the whole facade of the building, may be supported, deserve the particular attention of the Architect; and here the Tuscan Archi- tecture of Florence, and that of many existing Italian villas of the fifteenth century, will supply him with excellent examples. These objects in irregular Architecture, conibii:ed with the power of the owner of the future mansion to arrange his apartments in any way that his taste, or fancy, or habits may guide him, give to the Architect an endless variety of architectural compositions, in which his genius has ample room for display. Such edifices, spread over the country, would contribute most essentially to the beauty of British landscape. But, in following out this style, our artists ought to work on a large scale. No tower, round or square, should be elevated that cannot be made into useful rooms of proper dimensions, so that effect and utility may always be combined. The upper parts of the towers should never be loaded with immeaning hanging watch-turrets, nor the grandeur of the general outline be broken down by ill-placed tasteless pinnacles. We must condemn the present taste for pinnacles, rising above the simple sqiiare tower, of tlie new churches around the metropolis. In correct Gothic Architecture, no pinnacle was uselessly introduced. ' An Italian,' Rose observes, ' wisely considers the Architec- ture of a house as connected with its position, precisely as he meditates a picture with reference to the light in which it is to be placed.' " {Land. Arch. Italy, &c. ) 1 660. The present Country Seats of the Italians have been, more or less, copied by most civilised nations of Europe, celebrated by poets, and " visited and admired by travellers : they have not, however, been described or represented as they deserve. They are arranged so as to produce the best effect ; and advantage of the nature of the site has been taken with admirable skill. The regtdarity of the garden is, as it were, an accom- panying decoration and support to the Architecture. The Architecture, sculpture, and gardens of these villas are often designed by the same hand, and concur in the general effect to produce perfect harmony. Many of the great painters, besides Michael Angelo, were Architects. Raphael superintended the building of St. Peter's for a time ; he built a few palaces and churches ; and we hope to see published a collection of his original architectural designs, found in the valuable library at Ilolkham. Giulio Romano planned several buildings at Mantua. Domenichino is said to have been too picturesque in his 4 V 778 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. city buildings. Paul Veronese was an Arcliitcct of great merit; and even Pietro da Cortona practised extensively in this branc> of the fine arts." (Lund. Arch. Itiily, &c. ) 1661. As Examples of the Specimens of Italian Landscape- Architecture, and Meason's remarks on them, we give the following : — Fig. 1417 is from Raphael. " This fine edifice deserves the attention of an Architect. The outline against the sky is very picturesque, and the introduction o* the colunm 1417 gives an agreeable pyramidal figure. The whole is so well connected, that it has the appearance of having been built at the same period. Drawn on a large scale, the build- ing would have a much greater air of simplicity and grandeur." Fig. 1418 is from Titian. " We have in this chaste design a very beautiful building, varied, yet extremely simple, and having all the parts well combined ; which is owing 1418 much to the elevation of the central square mass, producing not only a fine general figure, but uniting the whole into a connected body. The large round tower, as a termination, adds the character of firmness to the whole edifice." Fig. 1 41 9 is from Claude Lorraine. " To the original part of the building, placed behind, PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 779 have been joined much more modern additions in front. Here, again, the commanding ele- vation of the square tower gives that consequence to the edifice, without which it would have no effect. Hence Architects may observe how important it is to have one bold well-p!aced part in an irregular pile of building." If the reader imagine this square tower removed, the whole pile will not only appear tame, but there will be a want of that central resting place for the eye, which is essential to produce the effect of a whole. Let him also imagine a tower of equal height, raised over the lower mass to the right of the picture, and he will find the idea of a whole materially lessened ; simply, because there would then be no centre to the field of vision. Place a higher tower than either between the two, and the idea of a whole will be restored. Fig. 1420 is from Michael Angelo. " This edifice is taken from the picture of the Rape 1420 of Ganymede. It has a very picturesque appearance ; and here, again, the high central tower unites the whole, and gives a pleasing sky line. The termination of such buildings by a massive round tower based a little below the rest of the /^ _ 142 building, gives, we think, the look of stability and firmness to the whole." In this picture, the trees, and the background of the centre of the building, are in some measure necessary to the completion of a whole ; but they might have been dispensed with by a small tower, or even lofty chimney-tops rising out of the large square tower. The re- moval of the pyramidal top to the small tower on the right, would have also produced the same effect. The embattled terrace harmonises with the em- battled parapets of the towers and of the right wing, and con- trasts advantageously with the roofs of the square and round towers to the right of the pic- ture. Fig. 1421 is from Claude."We have here a singular group of towers tv^ken from a drawing by this great master. Tlic whole is built for strength and security." Viewed as a dwelling, there is little appearance of habitablcness in this collection of towers ; but that very circumstance contributes to its effect as a castle. The whole group consists of eight towers, contrasted in dimensions, in height, in position, and in light and shade. Imagine the eight towers ;-'laced in a line rising from one level basis, and thi> building would have had little or no claim to attention, and certainly none to approbation. 780 COTTAGE, FAllM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. With a view to modern Villa Architecture, this vignette suggests fewer hints than any which have preceded it. There are no projecting parts or appendages " sliooting out," as Mr. Hope expresses it, in all directions among the surrounding garden scenery ; no terrace serving as a basement ; no steps or porch indicating an entrance ; and no colonnade or arcade suggesting the idea of elegant enjoyment. Still, we may imagine a situation where such a tower might be built as an ornament, as a ruin, as a prospect tower, or for the purpose of commemorating some ancient castle, which may be supposed to have formerly stood upon the spot. Fi". 14'J;2 is from Sermonita. " The main tower appears to have on one side a semi- circular shape which we have not before met witli. The sky line of the whole deserves H22 the notice of Architects. We have here another example of low circular towers on the left, built to abut upon and protect the foundation of the large square tower." Fig. 1423 is from Caspar Poussin. " This is one of the largest edifices we have selected, and appears to form two sides of a square. Both in the facade and sky line there is much variety of outline. The other two sides of the square are formed by the walls enclosing the garden. If these ■svalls had originally been higher and embattled, the whole would 1423 have been a very strong baronial castle of the largest dimensions. The building has a simple picturesque appearance, and may be advantageously compared with many large irregular structures lately erected in different parts of Britain." Fig. 1424 is from Domenichino. " The round tower has been apparently the nucleus of this mansion. The other parts are likely to be the work of the fourteenth or fifteenth century ; but whether the portico be ancient, or merely the addition of the painter, we cannot determine. The scenery is similar in the original picture. In calling the attention of Architects to the sky line of irregular buildings, we do not mean that the tipper lines should cut against the sky ; on the contrary, we think this has always a harsh eflect. Buildings appear most agreeable when backed by wood or rising ground." rillNC'li'LES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 1424 781 Fig. 1 425 is from Nicolas Poussin. " The arcade, over which there appears to be an iipjicr terrace, has a grand and imposing effect, and the lower terrace unites the whole wilh the surrounding scenery. The round tower biings the pile to the pyramidal shape." 14-23 1662. Eemarks. The preceding vignettes are taken, with some slight alterations and additions, from the M'ork of G. L. Meason (of which only a very few copies were printed) ; and we may state that they were taken with the author's permission ; since, in a correspondence with him in the spring of 1831, just before his departure for Italy, he consented to our making whatever use of his work we pleased. Sir. Meason, at the same time, proposed to us to edit a new edition of his Laiidscape Architecture, incorporating with it a great variety of new matter, which, we hope, will not be lost to the public. Having stated this, we have now to recommend the young Arcliitect to pause, and, turning back to those vignettes, to examine each separately, endeavouring to discover the causes of the satisfaction which they afford him. We advise him to do this before perusing the remaining part of this paragraph. Fig. 1412. The beauty here depends a good deal on the different forms of the terminations of the towers. Two of these to the right are of the same figure, and two on the left are of different figures ; but the greater distance of the tower on the extreme right renders it smaller in appearance ; and, by a difference in dimension, completes the variety. The contrast between these smaller pointed towers, and the square tower with battlements in the centre of the group, contributes materially to the impression or effect of the picture ; and the height of this square tower contributes, with that of the liighest spire, to the formation of a centre to the field of vision; or, in the language of art, to tlie production of a whole. Fig. 1413. The effect here is produced by the same form in contrasted positions. In the preceding vignette, the contrasts in the forms and stj-les of Architecture was so great as to produce a variety almost approaching to discordance ; here the sameness of the forms is such, that, notwithstanding their contrasted position, the result is a variety of an opposit3 kind, so tame as almost to border on monotony. Fig. 1414. This picture consists of the same foi-ms, of different dimensions and heights^ with two small towers, which may be considered as chimney-tops, and which 78^ COTIAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCIIITECTURE. serve to attract the eye towards a centre, and to form a whole ; this whole, liowever, depends a good deal on the exterior scenery. Fig. 1415. Considerable variety of form, disposition, and outline; and the idea of a whole produced by the central round tower, and its spire-like termination. Fig. 1416. Great variety in disposition, and the group completed by an elevated rectangular tower, terminating in a smaller division of the same with pinnacles. Fig. 1417. A still greater variety of form and disposition, finely scattered over an irregular surface, and the unity of the whole maintained by an elevated central column. Fig. 1418. An extensive habitable-looking assemblage of grand forms. The character is decidedly grand from the breadth ; but the idea of a whole less complete than in the preceding and following vignettes, from the want of a central elevated pro- jection, or tower. This very want, by rendering the edifice less measurable by the eye, contributes to its grandeur. 1663. Whatever may be the Style of Architecture adopted for a Villa, and whether the general form of the house be symmetrical or irregular, there are three points which require the particular attention of the Architect: these are, the porch, or portico; the colonnade, arcade, or veranda ; and the chimney-tops. We can hardly conceive a country- house, of any beauty, in -which considerable attention has not been paid to these three requisites, so as to render them prominent featmcs in the dwelling. 1 664. A Porch, or Portico, can never be dispensed with in a country-house ; because independently of its real utility in protecting the door and entrance, it serves to point out that part of the house to a stranger, to lend importance to it, and to affoi-d an opportunity of architectural display. The porch, or portico, is, indeed, in a great measure, a characteristic of a country-house, since it is not generally found in ordinary street- Architecture ; and, where it does occur, it indicates a superior description of dwelling : whereas, the humblest cottage in the country has, or ought to have, its porch. Porches, then, being comparatively indispensable in the country, and as, in order to enhance the interest of any class of buildings, it is desirable to take advantage of every circum- stance which can add to their distinctive character, this is another argument why the porch should never be omitted. Where a carriage is kept, we think the porch, or portico, ought always to be of sufficient dimensions to admit of driving under. 1665. Colonnades, Verandas, and Arcades, though not so essential to a country-house as the portico, or porch, are yet so characteristic of a dwelling in the country, that we think one or other of them should very seldom be omitted. They are not only cal- culated to be useful, as connecting passages between one point and another ; but as places of shelter and protection for walking in during inclement weather, or for sitting in during hot sunshine. At all events, even if they were of less use than they are, they are so ornamental, and such evidences of elegant enjoyment, that we woidd rather court an opportunity of introducing them, even if they were of little or no use, than forego their effect in an architectural group. Every style of Architecture admits of its particular character of arcade or veranda ; and the forms of the supports, the roofs, the parapets, and the openings between the supports, admit of endless variety of form and decoration. A Grecian house in the coimtry, without a portico or a colonnade, is one of the most dreary of architectural elevations, and is calculated to, call up any associations ratlier than those which belong to the Tusculan villa of Pliny, which " had a spacious portico, a porch built after the ancients, a second portico, and an enclosed portico." But it is frequently contended, a judicious critic observes, that the Roman portico is but ill adapted to our climate ; and that colonnades and porticoes, so delightful beneath the sunny skies of Greece and Italy, are, in this country, at best but beautiful and costly absurdities, in which propriety and comfort are sacrificed to display. It is urged, that, however tasteful they are considered as mere decorations, the application of them, in modern Architecture, is at variance with one of the first principles of correct taste ; namely, that nothing can be essentially beautifid that is misplaced and misapplied. That the colonnade was admirably adapted to the latitude of Greece and Italy, no one can dispute ; but, surely, it does not thence follow, as our objectors would have us infer, that it is worse than useless in our island. As well might these critics say, that an umbrella is excellently contrived to serve as a screen against the rays of a tropical sun ; its very name indicates its destination ; and, consequently, that it is highly absurd to use it for any other purpose than as a parasol. Those who inveigh against the applica- tion of the colonnade, as a mere architectural luxury, at once expensive and inconvenient, appear not only to forget that the sun does sometimes actually unveil his face to us, and that shade is desirable during some portion of the year, even in this formidable climate of ours ; but, also, to forget that what, in a hot climate, is adopted for the sake of shade, may here, with equal propriety, be employed for the purpose of shelter. Neither do they consider that we can derive both advant.ages from it : shade in summer, when the sun is high j and shelter in winter, when that luminary is too low in the horizon for the PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 783 colonnade to cast a shadow of such depth as to darken the rooms before wliose windows the columns project. (Lib. of the Fine Arts, vol. i. p. 188.) To arrive at a just con- clusion on this subject, it seems to be only necessary to determine the principle on which exotic Architecture is introduced at all. Now, we conceive, it will not be contended that it is introduced because its interior arrangements are better adapted to our wants tlian those of our indigenous Architecture. It must, therefore, be introduced on account of the beauty of the style ; and, as porticoes and colonnades are essential to tliis style, it is evident that, for this reason, independently of all other considerations, they cannot be dispensed with. In our opinion, it is quite a sufficient argument for the introduction of every component part of this sort in a villa, that it adds to the beauty of the genera] effect, and is not inconsistent with convenience and enjoyment. After a certain point has been passed on the road from necessities to superfluities, beauty is use. 1066. On the Subject of Chimney-tops we have enlarged at some length in Book I. They are essential features tO human dwellings of every description j more especially in climates where they must be used for heating as well as cooking. ]Many consider that the chimney-tops ought not to be shown in Grecian Architecture ; but they can assign no reason for this, except that they are not seen in Grecian temples. We know nothing of the Grecian villas, and very little of those of the Romans ; but, if we were even perfectly certain that, in the villas of Pliny and other men of taste of his time, the chimney-tops were concealed, we should say that the taste which dictated their conceal- ment was bad. Our opinion is, that the chimney-tops ought to be as conspicuous in a dwelling in the Grecian style as in any other ; and that the British Architect, so far from having to regret the necessity of introducing chimney-tops into his dwellings, ought to hail that necessity as one cause why the British villa might excel every other in the world, and in many examples does excel them. How much do the Italian villas not owe to their chimney-tops, their campaniles, their balconies, and their open watch-towers ! 1667. The two grand Defects of the Villa Architecture of Britain are, want of union with the ground and the surrounding scenery, and want of skill in the manage- ment of the chimney-tops. Our main object, in this chapter, has been, to draw the attention of the young Architect to these two points ; believing them to be by far the most important for producing the kind of effect and beauty required in a villa. Perhaps the next point is the disposal of the principal apartments in such a manner as that they may command the best views which the situation affords. When this is done, it will generally produce an irregular ground plan, extending over a considerable sur- face ; and this is always highly favourable to the character required in a villa. Villa Architecture ought, in our opinion, to form a distinct part of the profession of an Archi- tect ; and with this branch ought to be united the profession of a landscape-gardener. This union was long ago recommended by Kniglit, Uvedale Price, Hope, IVIeason, and other writers ; and we believe its necessity is felt by some of the first Architects of the present day. Our opinion, decidedly, is, that no great improvement can take place till the professions are united ; and, with a view to this end, we shall subjoin another para- graph to this already too long section, to suggest a mode of study for acquiring both professions. 1668. As Graphic Illustrations of the Principles which we have endeavoured to lav down in the preceding paragraphs, we shall refer to the villa of the late Thomas Hope, Esq., at Deepdene, Surrey, and to the architectural gardens formed by tlie late Earl of Shrewsbury, at Alton Towers, in Staffordshire. The first is one of the finest examples 781' COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. in England of an Italian villa, united with the grounds by architectural appendages ; and the second exhibits one of tlie most extraordinary combinations of garden building with garden scenery, any where existing in Europe. Fig. 1426 is the entrance front of Deepdene; in which the offices to the right are not shown, but they extend to a distance equal to the length of the house, and are highly varied, and architectural. Fig. 1427 is a view of the south front of Deepdene; showing the conservatory, and the terraced garden in front of it. Fig. 1428 is a view of the north-west, or garden, front; in the centre of which will be seen a projecting semicircular terrace, with a parapet, om.imented by vases, and on tlie summit a prospect tower. It is proper to mention that these views, which are reduced from those published in NeaVs Fieivs of English Country Seats, do not do justice to tliis verv beautiful place, because they are not sufficiently extended to the right and left to show the skilful manner in which the architectural and sculptural ornaments are blended with the garden scenery : but we hope, imperfect as these views are, they are sufficient to show how much Deepdene deserves to be visited, and attentively studied, by the Villa Architect. Both the house and the grounds were arranged entirely from the designs of Mr. Hope, under the direction of P. Atkinson, Esq., Architect. 16fi9. The Valley Gariltn fit Alton Towers was formed in a scene richly varied with wood, water, and rocks, and naturally in a high degree romantic. The late Charles carl of Shrewsbury began to ornament it with walks and garden buildings about 1814. and continued employing on it hundreds of labourers, mechanics, and artisans, from that time till liis death, in 1827 ; consulting a number of artists, and, among others, ourselves. The Architects employed were chiefly Thomas Allason, Esq. and Robert Abraham, Es(i. To the present earl, and to his very ingenious and obliging clerk of the works, iNIr PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 78.3 •^■^'/'/.L 780 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Fradgley, we are indebted for a number of plans and views, some of wliich we shall here lay before our readers. Fig. 1429 is a general view of the north side of the valley, as seen from a point in the south side, taken from a drawing obligingly lent us by Mr. Abraham, and made by Mr. Abraham, jun., on the spot in 1827. Fig. 1430 is a view by Mr. Fradgley, taken from a point on the south side of the 1400 ^ — r ~-^ valley, and showing part of the north side. The conservatories are here conspicuous objects ; and to the left is seen an imitation of Stonehenge. Fig. 1431 is a view from a point on the north side of the valley, shov.-ing the pagoda fountain in the bottom; and to the left, in the background, the towers of the house. f] ?^K ^. -^ -3;^ 1431 fc.'^v^N^ Fig. 1432, which is taken from a point on the north-west side, shows a fountain, cascade, and basin in the bottom, to the right ; part of the large conservatories, and in PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 787 the distance an arcade, which separates tlie upper part of the valley from the lawn in front of the house. 1670. We visited Alton Towers in 1826, and again in 1831. On the former occasion we arrived at the house, from Uttoxeter, in the month of October ; and on the latter, from Cheadle, in July. By the road leading from Uttoxeter, we came imex- pectedly close to the house, and near the head of the north side of the vaDey, which contains the chief wonders of the place. The first objects that met our eye were, the dry Gothic bridge and the embankment leading to it, with a huge imitation of Stone- henge beyond and a pond above the level of the bridge alongside of it, backed by a mass of castellated stabling. Farther along the side of the valley, to the left of the bridge. is a range of architectural conservatories, -with seven elegant glass domes, designed by Mr. Abraham, richly gilt. Farther on, stiU to the left, and placed on a high and bold naked rock, is a lofty Gothic tower or temple, on what is called Thomson's rock, also designed by Mr. Abraham (and seen on the right of fig. ] 429), consisting of several tiers of balconies, round a central staircase and rooms ; the exterior ornaments numerous, and resplendent with gilding. Near the base of the rock is a corkscrew fountain of a peculiar description, which is amply supplied from an adjoining pond. Behind, above, and beyond the range of conservatories, are two lakes ; and beyond them is another conservatory, curiously ornamented : below the main range of conserva- tories are a paved terrace walk with a Grecian temple at one end, and a second terrace containing a second range of conservatories. The remainder of the valley, to the bottom, and on the opposite side, displays such a labyrinth of terraces, curious architectural walls, treUiswork arbours, vases, statues, stone stairs, wooden stairs, turf stairs, pavements, gravel and grass walks, ornamental buildings, bridges, porticoes, temples, pagodas, gates, iron raiUngs, parterres, jets, ponds, streams, seats, fountains, caves, flower-baskets, water- falls, rocks, cottages, trees, shrubs, beds of flowers, ivied walls, rockwork, shellwork, rootwork, moss-houses, old trunks of trees, entire dead trees, &'c., that it is utterly im- possible for words to give any idea of the eflfect. There is one stair of 100 steps ; a cottage for a blind harper, as large as a farm house ; and an imitation cottage roof, formed by sticking dormer windows, and two chimneys, accompanied by patches of heath to imitate thatch, on the sloping surface of a large grey mass of solid rock. This, seen at a distance, protruding from a steep bank of wood, bore naturally some resemblance to the roof of a cottage grey with lichens ; and the chimney-tops and windows were added, to complete the idea. As the sandstone rock protrudes from the sides of the valley in immense masses, abundant use has been made of it to form caves, grottoes, caverns, ;md covered seats ; it has even been carved into figures : in one place we have Indian 7^8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. temples excavated in it, covered with hieroglyphics ; and in another, a projecting rock is formed into a huge serpent, with a spear-shaped iron tongue and glass eyes. There is a rustic prospect-tower over an Indian temple, cut out of solid rock, on the highest point of the north bank ; and in the lowest part of the valley there are the foundation and two stories (executed before the death of the late earl) of an octagon pagoda. This pagoda was intended to be eighty-eight feet high. It is placed on an island, in the centre of a small pond, and w.as to have been approached by a Chinese bridge richly ornamented. Tlie diameter of the base of the pagoda is forty feet, and there ■were to have been six stories, the lower one of stone, and the others of cast iron. From the angles were to have been suspended forty highly enriched Chinese lamps, and these were to be lighted by a gasometer fixed in the lower story. Besides the lamps, there were to have been grotesque figures of monsters projecting over the angles of the canopies, which were to spout water from their eyes, nostrils, fins, tails, &c. ; a column of water v/as also to have been projected perpendicularly from the terminating ornament on the summit of the structure, which, from the loftiness of the source of supply, would have risen to the height of seventy or eighty feet. This fountain was designed by Mr. Abraham ; but only the lower story has been executed. The pagoda, the Gothic temple (seen to the right of fig. 1429), the range of gilt conservatories, and the imitation of Stonehenge, fig. 1433, form the leading artificial features of the valley. The valley 0%2>~-> itself is upwards of a mile in length : it gradually widens from its commencement at the stone bridge, with the pond above it, till it terminates by opening into the wide valley containing the Chumet (there a considerable stream) and a navigable canal. This immense valley, it is said, the late earl intended to cover entirely with water ; and, as it would have saved the canal company several miles of canal, they offered to form the dam, or head, at their own expense. This lake, of some thousands of acres, would have been as easily produced as that of Blenheim was by Brown. 1671. In approaching from Cheadle, we arrive in front of the castellated stables, and see the abbey, fig. 1 434, across the pond above the level of the bridge. Proceeding a little farther towards the dry bridge, Stonehenge appears in the foreground, and the tops of the seven gilt glass domes of the main range of conservatories below (as ia fig. 1433.). Raising the eyes, the lofty Gothic temple appears on the left of the picture ; and on the right, across the valley, the harper's cottage. In tlie centre of the picture over the domes in the foreground, the valley loses itself in a winding bank oi wood, in a style of great grandeur and seclusion. None of the details of the valley liere obtrude themselves ; and the effect, after passing through a wild country exhiliiting no marks of refinement, is singularly impressive. It fills the mind with astonishment and delight, to find so much of the magnificence of art and the appearance of refined enjoyment, amidst so much of the wildness and solitary grandeur of nature. The imitation of Stonehenge, too, is a feature in artificial landscape which we have not elsewhere seen ; PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 1434 789 and a stranger is puzzled and confounded by finding a stream and a small waterfall supplying a lake on what he conceives to be the highest point of high ground. 1672. The Scenery of the Valley of Alton Towers is not here presented as a model for inoitation : on the contrary, we consider the greater part of it in excessively bad taste, or rather, perhaps, as the work of a morbid imagination, joined to the command of unlimited i-esources. Still, however, there are many excellent things in it, and both the good and the bad well deserve the attentive study of the young Architect. Indeed, wc know no place in Britain, and only the Isola Bella on the Continent, capable of affording, both by faults and beauties, so much instruction to the young artist. We say faults, as well as beauties, since we are of opinion that the study of the former, in order to trace the causes which have produced them, may be quite as useful to the student as that of the latter. The house at Alton Towers is a magnificent pile of castellated and abbey Archi- tecture ; and the gallery of armour, the picture gallery, and the conservatory, are in a high degree extensive and splendid. A more detailed description of Alton Towers, illustrated by numerous engravings, will be found in the Gardener's Magazine, vols. vii. and ix. 1673. The Architect who intends also to he Landscape- Gardener should begin by pass- ing a year in a botanic garden, or in such a garden as those of the London or Caledonian Horticultural Societies, in order to acquire a correct knowledge of the names, heights, characteristic forms, and colour of foliage of all the trees and shrubs which will stand the open air in this country ; and of some of the principal families of herbaceous plants. To do this effectually, he ought to make a distinct sketch of one individual of every species and variety of tree and shrub ; and at the same time he ought to make other sketches combining different species and varieties in groups. By reading, he will become acquainted with the native countries of trees, and with the associations connected with them, as to soil, character of surface, &c. For example, certain trees, such as willows, alders, &c., always growing in low moist situations, are associated with the idea of damp, and should never be planted near a house, or where it is intended to convey tht idea of dryness. The time thus spent would also familiarise him with the routine practices of gardening, and with the construction and uses of hot-houses and other garden buildings, to such an extent as to enable him to profit from afterwards reading gardening books ; and thus, by thoroughly understanding the uses of garden structures, to be able to improve them. One year thus employed by a youth of seventeen or eighteen, who had previously received a scientific education, and was accurate and expert in sketching from nature, would form his elementary instruction in landscape-gardening. Let him then be put under an Architect whose practice lies chiefly in the country ; and, after acquiring a thorough knowledge of architectural drawing in all its departments, and makirig himself master of all the best books on the subjects both of Architecture and landscape-gardening, let him endeavour to become an assistant to a Villa Architect. AMiile in this capacity, let him lose no opportunity of sketching landscapes containing villas and garden scenery, from nature ; and at the same time let him refresh liis memory from time to time with the names of trees and shrubs, and their characteristic forms and modes of growth. By such a course of study and practice, a young man who has a natural genius for the arts of design (and no other shoidd attempt the villa department of Architecture) will acquire a sufficient knowledge of landscape-gardening to enable him to lay out grounds, with the same assistance from the kitchen-gardener, as he receives, in designing and estimating a house, from the builder. One thing, however, is essential, and, without it, all the other acquirements are insufficient for enabling any young man to join the tvv'o arts ; and that is, a thorough knowledge of perspective, joined to a great facility in sketching every description of object, more especially landscape and architec- tural scenery, from nature. If there is one test rather than another by which the taste or no taste of an Architect can be detected with certainty (always supposing that he is master of the mechanical rules of the art), it is the degi-ee of perfection which he has attained in sketching general scenery. 790 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1674. To enable an Architect already in practice to acquire a kiiowledge of Landscajw- Gardening, we recommend him to procure access to some botanic garden containing a rich arboretum, of which there are only two in the neighbourhood of London; viz., that of the Messrs. Loddiges at Hackney, and that of the Horticultural Society, at Chiswick. Having done this, let him take portraits of all the trees and shrubs of which the arbo- retum consists, in the same manner as we have before recommended for the pupil to do ; and let him, at the same time, endeavour to acquire all the knowledge of gardening generally that he can. The mornings, from six to nine, during the three months of summer, may suffice for the garden visits, provided the Architect be an expert draughts- man. (For a work which we contemplate on Landscape- Gardening, we have liad sketches taken of most of the species and varieties of trees and shrubs in Messrs. Loddiges' arboretum ; and we find fliat one month, at the rate of nine hours a day, would be sufficient to take portraits of the whole.) After this we would recommend the Architect to visit all the villas that he can, and to take memorandum ground plans of the general distribution of the house, offices, gardens, roads, and walks belonging to each ; and also to make views of the different houses, in connection with the scenery around them. While going through this course of study, let the Architect, at his leisure, make himself master of the gardening vporks of Shenstone, Gilpin, Whately, G. Mason, Mason the poet, Allison, Price, Knight, Repton, Dugald Stewart, Hope, G. L. Meason, Gerardin, De- lille, Morel, Watelet, Hirschfeld, and Quatremere de Quincy. We may add to tliese the perusal of a number of papers on the subjects of Landscape- Gardening and of Garden Architecture, in the Gardener's Magazine. Many persons think that all that is required to constitute a landscape-gardener is, to have studied and sketched natural scenery, and to be able to imitate that scenery in artificial grounds ; but unless this imitation be made in the spirit of art, which it can only be, in the native or modern style, by the use of exotic trees, it becomes, instead of an imitation, a mere mimicry of nature ; and to this mimicry on the one hand, and a tame monotony on the other, may be referred half the villa landscape or park scenery of Britain. Chap. II. Tlie Beau Idial of an English Villa. 1675. In order to give our readers a Picture of a modern English Villa as it ought to be, we here present them with the description of an imaginary one, which has been drawn up, and illustrated with plans and elevations, by a highly esteemed contributor and amateur Architect. Our readers, we think, will allow that this gentleman is singularly well fitted for the task which we have prevailed upon him to undertake. So complete a knowledge of the subject, so much power of conveying his ideas both by verbal descrip- tion and graphic illustration, and so much taste and discriminating judgment in ViUa Architecture, are seldom, indeed, to be found united in the same person. For our own part, we know nothing of the kind that can be compared with the following description, unless it be that which Pliny has given us of his own villas ; but the value of our modern Pliny's description is greatly enhanced by its being accompanied by graphic illustrations. We have applied to this picture the term b-eau ideal, not that there is any thing in it that may not be found in hundreds of villas in England ; but because there may be few at the present time in which the whole are united. Indeed, the time for such villas is rapidly passing away in this and in every other country ; and we must confess, that, did we look forward to the continuance of such a state of society as that here depicted, in which one portion of mankind is placed so immeasurably above another, it would have given us pain to present this picture. Our consolation, however, is, that it will soon become matter of history, and only be referred to by Architects to aflbrd hints for smaller villas, and for inns of recreation. We shall first lay before our readers the verbal de- scription, and afterwards give the delineations, with their references. Sect. I. TJie Beau Ideal of an English Villa described. 1676. The Situation. The word villa was originally used by the Romans to denote a farm house, with the offices requisite for the accommodation of a husbandman. After- wards, when luxury increased, the terra villa was applied to the country residence of an opulent Roman citizen ; and it is in the same sense that we now use it to signify a gentleman's residence in the country. As a villa is to be a place of agreeable retirement, BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 791 and not one of seclusion from the world, it should be situated, if possible, in a beautiful country, within reach of a public road, and at an easy distance from the metropolis. Were I to select a situation for a residence of this description, I should choose a country neither flat nor mountainous ; varied with hill and vale, and rather approaching to the mountainous than to the dull monotony of a level surface. I shoidd prefer a situation removed about a mile from a great public road, and about ninety miles, or a day's journey, from the metropolis. Here I would enclose a park of 100 or 150 acres j bounded on the north and west sides of it by lofty wooded hills ; on another side, by a road ; and, else- where, by the enclosed country of the district : the surface of the park varied, but generally inclining to the south, with a rapid stream of water passing through it at no great distance from the site of the house. The park, in form, should be irregular, neither round nor square, but the length greater than the breadth. The country itself would, in great measure, determine the line of the boundary fence. Near to the woody hill, on the north side of the park, on a gentle eminence, should be the situation for the house ; and I would so place the principal front as to be seen from the public road, and to com- mand a beautiful and extensive prospect over a fertile country ; having in the middle distance a town or village, with its " heaven-directing spire " reflected in the broad reach of a noble river, and in the extreme distance a mountainous country, or the sea ; the foreground of the view to be well broken up by the timber in the park. The house should stand near the north boimdary, nearly but not quite in the centre of the length of the park, which I would divide into three unequal portions. That portion which would be before the house should be an open lawn of an irregular shape, crossed obliquely by the stream widened in parts, and having the banks fringed with underwood and a few trees ; the lawn itself being bordered irregularly with thorns, holly, furze, fern, and trees ; and varied, where the sm-face indicated a place for them, with groups or single trees. The other two portions I would make unequal, the smallest towards the village. ITiese should be laid out in imitation of forest scenery, with open glades and thickets, an irregular lawn in each, with occasional openings to the principal lawn before the house, and to the distant prospect, or anj' picturesque object in the surrounding country ; taking advantage of the inequalities of the surface, and following as closely as possible the most beautiful natural scenery. An irregular green drive or walk might be formed round the whole. As to trees, I would have every kind of forest tree that the soil and space would allow ; but I should prefer the oak, sycamore (one of the noblest of forest trees when old), the elm (narrow-leaved), Spanish and horse chestnuts, the m.aple, hornbeam, and a few others. Of course, I should add lower growths, such as thorn, holly, broom, fern, and even furze. To have a close even turf, which is one of the chief beauties in park scenery, I should keep it well stocked with cattle, young horses, sheep, and, if possible, a few deer. I have seen many parks, beautiful in themselves, but conveying an unpleasant feeUng of dulness and solitude. Cattle, &c., always give a certain air of cheerfulness to a park scene ; but still the effect is often solitary, where there is no appearance of human habitation besides the mansion. To obviate this loneliness, I would introduce a few buildings. Thus, I would have the church within the enclosure of the park, near the entrance gate, concealed partly by wood ; but so situated that the tower and a portion of the church might be seen from the house. An ornamental temple or summer-house ; a pigeon-house, often a very picturesque object ; the keeper's lodge , which should be within the park ; and even a few gables of the farm buildings, seen at a dis- tance ; would all contribute to give the eflfect of cheerfulness and a pleasing variety to a richly wooded park. I should even wish to have a public footpath across it, and within sight of the house ; though at such a distance as to be no inconvenience. To me, nothing is more cheerless than that exclusive solitary grandeur so much affected in the present day, which forbids the poor even to set a foot within the precincts of greatness. As the most beautiful landscape is incomplete without figm-es, so the general effect of a park is always lonely, unless it have a footpath frequented by the picturesque figures of the labouring classes, and giN-ing life and interest to the scene. Even the line of a footpath is in itself beautiful, and breaks the monotony of the green turf. If it be objected that a footpath is a nuisance, I answer, it is seldom found to be so in a retired situation, where the comforts of the poor are properly attended to ; where the labourers have constant work, good wages, comfortable cottages, and ground on which to occupy their leisure time ; and where there are proper national schools, in which the children are taught their duty, and kept out of mischief. They are the neglected poor who are mischievous and dis- honest ; and in a populous neighboiu-hood, abounding with squalid poverty, a footpath might be a nuisance, which I should willingly dispense with. 1677. The Approach to a residence is commonly one of the most important features about the place. A villa should always form part of a village, and be placed, if possible, on rather higher ground, that it may appear to be a sort of head and protector of the surrounding dwellings of the poor, as it ever was formerly ; many of the finest of 79^-^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. our ancient residences being close to towns and villages. Supposing, then, that the estate is bounded on one side by the great public road, about a mile from the house ; I would form a good parish road from the most convenient point in the public road, through a pretty enclosed country, watered by the stream from the park, which I should cross by a brido^e of one or two arches, near the parish mill, and thence gently ascend to the village, passing among the scattered farm houses and cottages, with their pretty gardens and orchards, crossing the village green, on which should stand the school-house shaded by lofty trees, to the other extremity of the village, where a handsome arched gateway should form the entrance to the park. Passing through the gateway into an open glade of oaks, the church would be seen at a little distance among the trees, through which the road is continued with a gentle ascent, till the house suddenly presents itself, with its stables and offices, backed by a woody eminence ; and, sweeping across the plain in front, through some scattered trees and hollies, you at lengtli reach the steps of the porch. 1678. Exterior Architecture and general Arrangement of the House. Before I describe the interior of the villa, it will be proper to say something of the style of the building, and of its external appearance. There are many reasons which lead me to give a preference to the mixed style of Architecture, called the old English style, for a gentle- man's residence in the country. For instance, it is more picturesque and ornamental ; it accords best with rural scenery ; and, as it admits of great irregularity of form, it affords space for the various offices and conveniences necessary in a country-house. It is also, I think, better suited to our climate than the Grecian style, which requires porticoes, pro- jecting cornices, and windows of moderate size, &c. ; all which circumstances tend to make the house gloomy, and intercept the light. The old style, also, allows more variety of ornament upon the roof, such as the stacks of chimneys, gables, pinnacles, turrets, and other things of importance to the general effect of a building to be seen at a distance : whereas, in the Grecian style, v^liich requires perfect symmetry of form, and the prevalence of straight lines, the offices and chimneys are commonly excrescences offensive to tlie eye of genuine taste. For these and other reasons, therefore, I should erect a villa in the old English style, and in that ornate manner of it called the Elizabethan, as being most adapted to the habits of refined and peaceable times. Of the various forms of houses of which we have examples in the old English style, that of a blunt H, is, perhaps, best suited to a villa residence of the second order. Supposing, then, that our villa be in the English style, and in the form above alluded to ; the front would present a centre and two projecting wings. The centre would contain the hall and dining-room, with a gallery and staircase behind them. One wing would be occupied by the drawing- room and library, with the saloon between them. The other wing might contain a sitting-room, and superior offices for servants ; the inferior offices being in the basement, or in a separate building in the kitchen-court. The principal front should be highly ornamented, and form a symmetrical whole. In the centre would be the porch of two stories, with its rich gable, small pillars, escutcheons, &c. ; the wall on either side (broken into compartments by pilasters, or handsome buttresses, and proper string courses) would contain large muUioned windows ; the whole supporting a battlement or a parapet, with its appropriate ornaments, such as busts, urns, heraldic animals, &c. The ends of the projecting wings would present each a bay window of two stories, square or semicircular .'n form, with balustrade or stone covering above ; the gables of the wings corresponding with that of the porch. The high and steep roof should be varied by ornamental c limneys, of different patterns, placed in their proper situations ; and, rising above them, the tower containing the grand staircase, appearing at a short distance behind the porch ; its wavy cupola roof terminating in a rich lantern, and supporting a weathercock or dwarf spire. The general effect of such a building would be dignified and imposing ; the projecting wings, the high roof, tlie numerous chimneys, and the lofty staircase tower rising in the background, all conveying an idea of magnitude which the edifice would not in fact possess. But, however beautiful the house might be in itself, it would require the aid of certain picturesque accompaniments to connect it with the site, and to make it harmonise with the surrounding scenery. 1679. Architectural and Gardening Accompaniments to the House. The superior taste of our early Architects led them to enclose their ornamented edifices in a rich framework of courts and gateways, balustraded terraces, and architectural gardens ; which the ruthless hand of modern improvement has swept away, as being inconsistent with the habits of more refined life. We should, however, soon learn the value of such embellishments, could we compare the effect of an Elizabethan mansion, in its ancient glory, with its present forlorn appearance, after suffering tlie mutilations of some levelling improver, who has robbed it of its gorgeous framework, and exposed its nakedness on a bald ex- panse of turf, where it frowns in sullen majesty, and communicates a gloom to all around it. Indeed, much of the gloomy effect so often observed in a handsome modern residence arises from this defect of architectural embellishment around the house j without which, I BEAU IDE4L OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 793 am persuaded, no important mansion can be either picturesque or cheerful. Now, though I admit that some of the appendages to our ancient residences are inconsistent with present habits ; yet there are many which might be retained witliout inconvenience, and with great advantage as to general effect. Thus, terraces and aixhitectural gardens are of this description, and are particularly ornamental. At that end of the villa, there- fore, which contains the drawing-room and library, with the saloon between them, I would form a spacious terrace, with a handsome balustrade supporting urns at proper intervals ; the ends of the terrace in some projecting form, one of which would be seen as you approached the house, and would miite with a low ornamental wall enclosing the garden from the park. Opposite to a door in the saloon should be a flight of steps descending to the garden, across which should be a broad walk ending with a stone seat built in the garden wall, immediately opposite to the saloon door. Another principal walk should cut the above at right angles ; and at the intersection I would place a marble basin and fountain : this walk should terminate at one end with a temple or conservatory in the shubbery under the hill, and at the other with a rich gateway leading to the park. The garden I would divide by broad gravel walks into squares of turf, on which should be beds of flowers and shrubs, and an urn or statue at the corner of each square. Beyond the garden, tlie pleasure-gromid should extend behind the house to the kitchen-garden, and, communicating with walks in the woody hill which backs the whole, be a substitute for the wilderness which was the ordinary appendage to an ancient mansion house. As a substitute for the bowling-green, which was fonnerly indispens- able, I would have a ground for archery, with its proper butts and seats ; it might be made highly ornamental, and would be introduced with good efl^ect at a short distance from the house. The remaining outward embellishment of an old residence is, perhaps, the most inconsistent with the habits of modern life : this was, a court-yard surrounded by a high wall before the principal front. Opposite to the porch was usually a handsome gateway, from which a paved walk led to the house. It appears from a drawing, still preserved, that a large court of this description was originally before the principal front of Longleat, adorned with a handsome gateway, and two fountains ; and it would improve the appearance of that princely edifice if it had now something of the kind, instead of the bare turf at present before it. Tlie objections to the court are, that it excludes the view, makes the house gloomy, and prevents a carriage-approach to the house, without which no residence can be now complete. I think, however, that this ornamental appendage might be so modified as to be no inconvenience in these respects ; and propriety suggests to us that the entrance should be protected by an enclosure, from the nuisances occasioned by cattle in the park. I woidd, therefore, retain the court, which might be either square or semicircular. Supposing it the latter, I would enclose it with a low wall, which could be ornamented in various ways ; having opposite the porch an arch, or lofty gate-piers, adorned with arms, &c. The wall might be accom- modated to the height of the piers. Within the court a carriage drive should wind round a circle of turf, on which might be compartments of low shrubs, with urns or sculptures intermixed, and in the centre a fountain, or obelisk supporting a lamp. A square coui-t might be adopted, with a gateway in two of the sides, leaving the view unbroken in front ; and even a few obelisks or statues might be placed around the entrance, to vary the sameness of the level green lawn which is now a substitute for the ancient court. But, if managed as above described, the court, so far from being an inconvenience, would give a richness to the approach ; the view in front would not be interrupted ; and the ornamental gate piers would, in most cases, give an interest to the foreground of the landscape, which we look for in vain upon a broad expanse of turf. Assisted by these embellishments, the villa would be in keeping with the surrounding scenery. The stables and oflSces at one end of the house would balance the terrace and parterre at the other ; and in front would be the court. The whole, if properly mingled with groups of cedars, cypress, ilex, &c., would form a composition striking even to the ignorant, and, I hope, not uninteresting to the more fastidious eye of the painter and man of taste. 1680. r^e Porc/i, in an old English mansion, was commonly much enriched with sculptured ornaments, heraldic devices, &c. ; as I imagine, because the stranger is supposed to observe it carefully, while he is waiting to be admitted into the house. I would ascend to the porch by a flight of stone steps, to give dignity to the house, and an idea of drj-ness : it should be floored, as the hall, with a pavement of stone ; the ceiling should also be much enriched, and the door and doorway highly ornamented, be- cause exposed to minute examination. As you are supposed to wait for i few minutes in the porch, there should be a seat on each side, on which servants might rest while in waiting for their masters. The porch is the proper place for the door-mats ; the scrapers being at the foot of the steps, and outside the porch should be a bell-pull, besides that at the court-gate ; since, if the latter were rung on entering the court, the 4 T 791 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. door might be opened before the visiters reached it. The porch should be the only entrance to the house, for visiters ; that from the garden terrace being confined exclusively to the use of the family, who would generally dislike to have their privacy interrupted by the sudden intrusion of strangers. These observations upon the porch are equally applicable to the Grecian portico. The porch would admit you to the entrance-hall. 1681. Tlie Entrance- Hall, in regard to character and size, must depend upon the scale of the principal apartments. If the latt'jr are spacious and elegant, the hall should be large and handsome : indeed, an old English residence would not be in good keeping without a spacious hall, as it was formerly the dining-room and place of rendezvous for the servants and, retainers ; and, in a Grecian mansion, a large entrance-hall is necessary for eifect. If the apartments are small, and devoid of ornament, I would then substitute for the hall a smaller kind of entrance,, with a vaulted roof; and, moreover, rather gloomy, to increase tlie general effect of the rooms which open into it. In the old English and in the Grecian style, the hall is generally high ; often reaching to the ceiling of the upper story of the building. In tlie English style, this should always be the case in houses of much pretension ; but, in a Grecian house, a hall with a low ceiling, supported by lines of columns and pilasters, has generally the best effect. In the latter, the entrance-door should be in the middle ; in the English style it should be at one end of the outer side. An English hall admits of much picturesque embellishment, such as a carved oak roof or ceiling, either flat or semicircular, enriched with highly wrought bosses or coats of arms ; a music gallery across tlie end, supported by pillars or a carved screen ; a chimney-piece reaching to the cornice of the roof, and a carved wainscot covering half the height of the walls. The decorations of a Grecian hall have more of the beautiful than the picturesque, and more grandeur of effect. Besides the columns supjiorting an embellished or coved ceiling, a fine effect is produced by dividing the side walls into compartments by pilasters ; and having, in these compartments, handsome doorways, panels, wreaths of fruit and flowers, reliefs, busts or statues in niches, a noble chimney- piece, and other architectural embellishments. It might also have a floor of various- coloured stone or marble. A hall in the old English style should be so furnished as to have an appearance of use beyond that of a mere entrance to the other apartments : it was formerly the general eating-room, and might still be the ban- queting-room on great festival occasions. The furniture of a hall in this style should be rather plain and massive ; consisting of massive oak chaii's and benches, a high table across the upper end, formerly placed on a platform (called the dais) raised a step above the floor, and other tables capable of being united in one upon great occa- sions ; one to be used as a sideboard, and placed against the wall, at one end of the high table ; carved chests to contain less valuable papers ; window-curtains of cloth, of the simplest form ; a few books, and writing implements ; and a massive lamp suspended from the ceiling. The walls, painted to imitate stone, might be hung with a few of the oldest family portraits, the founder in the panel over the fireplace ; and a few other pictures, such as hunting-pieces, Dutch fairs, and other amusing subjects. To assist in furnishing the walls, armour and curious specimens of defensive arms, and ancient sport- ing weapons, together with the horns of stags and other animals taken in the chase, might be hung around. The hall is the proper place for all sporting instruments, as guns, bows and arrows, fishing tackle, &c. There might also be a few fire-buckets hung up under the gallery ; and a letter-box, with notice when the post goes and arrives, might be placed near the door. Where state is observed, the porter's staff would be an appropriate ornament, in its place, near the front door. The family arms, and the arms of those connected with the family, should be among the ornaments of the hall. They might be introduced on painted glass in the windows, on the cornice of the wainscot, on the pediment of the fireplace, in the roof, and front of the music gallery, and even on the chairs and benches. The floor should be of stone, uncovered by a carpet, unless it were a Turkey carpet placed under the higli table, when the hall is used as a dining-room. To make the hall comfortable, it should be warmed with hot air, to which, on state occasions, I would add a fire of large logs of wood, burnt upon handsome dogs in the open chim- ney, to which there should be a back plate of cast iron, ornamented in high relief. I remember seeing a plate of this kind at Birirungham, on which was the representation of a battle in bass-relief; and a beautiful thing it was. (In the hall at Persfield near Chepstow, we have heard that cinnamon and other spices were thrown into the hall fire upon great occasions. ) There should be but few doors in a hall of this kind ; there were seldom more than three in old English halls; viz., the front door, and the one opposite, and the buttery-door in the middle of the lower end, all under the gallery, and shut out from the hall by the screen, which formed a sort of passage at the lower end. The hall of a Grecian house would require less furniture than a liall in the English style, as it could seldom be used for any other purpose than that of an entrance. But, to give it a furnished appearance, I would fill the vacant panels with the oldest family portraits, 13EAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 795 the founder in the place of honour, over the fireplace, opposite the great door. Busts on pedestals, and statues, might be placed around it ; armour, I believe, would be out of keeping. There should be handsome chairs and benches of carved wood, ornamented with the family arms ; and marble tables on carved frames ; plain cloth curtains ; and lamps suspended from the roof. To these might be added a few of the articles above enumerated, such as the sporting implements, letter box, &c., for which the hall is the most convenient place. The floor should be uncovered, except, perhaps, in winter, when a few strips of India matting between the doors of the rooms would give it an appear- ance of comfort. It should be warmed with heated air and have a wood fire on particular occasions. In a hall of this kind there might be doors ad libitum, provided they were regularly placed. 1682. The Gallery. To return to our old English villa: having entered the porch door, you would cross the lower end of the hall to the opposite door, opening into the lower gallery, extending the whole length of the hall and dining-room, fifteen feet wide, and twelve feet high. Opposite the door by which you enter is a broad arch, through which appear the staircase, and the lower division of its painted window. The gallery windows are on the same side as the staircase ; at the end, on your right, is the saloon door ; and, at the opposite extremity, the door leading to the offices. The floor is of stone, like the hall, with a broad strip of India matting extending the whole length of the gallery. The walls might be painted of stone, or any sober colour, and be ornamented with the inferior pictures, and family portraits, and a few glazed prints. The ceiling might be either coved or plain. There might be a few ebony chairs and settees, with a table or two, against the side opposite the windows, which should have curtains, without draperies, of crimson cloth. At the end near the saloon door would stand the wood basket and coal scuttles ; and near the same a door might lead to the biUiard-rocm, a low building in the garden. This gallery would form a sort of promenade, and place of recreation for the children and young people in wet weather, and would be an ornamental appendage to the house : it should be warmed with hot air. The door (which should be of two leaves) at the end of the gallery should be in the centre of the side next the saloon, and should be handsome both in its proportions and decorations. 1683. The Saloon, which is generally a sort of vestibule to the living-rooms, might be in form either a square, a long parallelogram, an oval, or circle ; but a parallelogram of good proportions is the most usual form. In the present case, I will suppose the saloon of this last form. The door, by which you enter it, being in the centre of the side next the gaUery, in the centre of the end on your right would be the drawing-room door, also of two leaves : opposite to it, at the other end, should be a like door into the library. In the other side should be two windows, witli a glass door between them, opening to the terrace and garden. As this arrangement of the doors would leave no proper place for a handsome chimney-piece, tlie room might be warmed with hot air (the best mode of heating it), or have a small fireplace on each side of the gallery door. As the saloon is often used as a music-room, we will suppose it to be so in the present case, and furnish it accordingly ; and, as it is generally rather a splendid apartment, I would attempt tc render it something of the kind in this instance. The walls I would divide into rich panels, in which might be some of the full-length portraits of the family, or which might be filled with fresco paintings upon the walls ; and the divisions between the panels should be painted with wreaths, including musical emblems. The doors should be of oak in frames, painted like the walls. Above a rich cornice, the ceiling should take the form of a half cove, leaving a compartment in the centre. In the coved part, over each door, might be painted groups of figures ; or the family arms might be introduced, surrounded by wreaths of flowers, musical instruments, &c. The corners also might be painted in the same style. In the centre of the middle compartment of the ceiling, from a rich boss, should be suspended a handsome lamp, and the boss might be surrounded by a group of figures. A warm fawn colour miglit be the ground of the whole painting, and a good deal of gilding might be introduced in the cor- nices and mouldings. A saloon requires but little furniture, and, when used as a music-room, should have none that is calculated to deaden sound. Modern ideas of comfort, however, make a carpet and curtains indispensable. The carpet should be of thin material, covering great part of the room, but showing about a yard all round it of the polished oak boards. It should, of course, be a bordered carpet ; the colour of the ground a shade of fawn ; the pattern chiefly shades of crimson. The curtains I would have of crimson watered silk, without draperies, supported by large rods of gilt brass, with handsome knobs. The chairs and seats should be without cusliions, and of rather a plain description, so as not to interfere with the splendid effect of the drawing-room. I would have the chairs of ebony, or an imitation ; and there are old carved ebony cliairs which might be taken as a pattern. The seats might be of cane, gilt. I would have 79^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCIIITECTUllK. seats of various forms ; a few arm-chairs ; cliairs without arms ; long benches, supported hy twisted legs and frames, such as are met witli in old galleries, and stools. Against the piers, between the windows and door to the terrace, might be slabs of dark-coloured marble, supported by carved rosewood fi-ames ; and, in the corners of the room, rose- wood tripods, slightly gilt, supporting china vases of flowers. I would also have two plain rosewood tables standing against the wall ; on one of which the flat chamber-candle- sticks might be placed at night, one of the candles being lighted ; the other table would be useful for the servants to place any thing upon ; sucli as the tea-tray, while the drawing- room door was opening, &c. The musical instruments and music-stands would com- plete the furniture of the saloon. The grand piano-forte should be placed not close to the wall, say between the library door and the window, so that tlie l)ack of the performer should be to the light. The harp would be at the opposite end of tlie room; the other instruments, in their cases, on a proper stand against the wall ; and the music stools ana stands so placed as to leave the centre of the saloon open, so as to have a free passage between the ckawing-room, library, and gallery. In arranging the contents of the room, a crowded effect of furniture is to be especially avoided, as being at vai'iance with an air of dignity and elegance which is proper to the saloon. 1684. The Drawing-room. We next proceed to the drawing-room, which, being the sitting-apartment of the ladies, should be distinguished by the elegance of its propor- tions, decorations, and furniture. Though two drawing-rooms are necessary in a London house, one will be found sufficient in an ordinary country residence, containing a saloon and library ; as the latter would be used as the family sitting-room on common occasions. Our villa would, therefore, contain only one drawing-room, which I shall proceed to describe. The drawing-room should be larger than the saloon. In the present case, we will suppose it to be 23 feet in width and 35 feet long, exclusive of a bay at the end, and at least 12 feet high. This would make the proportioiis nearly equal to those which, according to Palladio, are proper for a room of this description ; viz., the length twice the breadth, and the height two thirds, live sevenths, or three fourths of the breadth. En- tering our drawing-room from the saloon, at the end opposite would be a square or circular bay window, commanding a view of the park and the distant country beyond it. On the right side would be the fireplace, and on the opposite side two windows looking over the terrace and parterre. In this room I would have a splendid white marble chimney-piece, copied from one of the most magnificent designs common in old English houses. These are usually of stone or coloured marble : but white is the most elegant, and most in accordance with our present taste. I have one in my eye which reaches to the ceiling, and is divided into two compartments. In the lower com- partment is the fireplace, surrounded by a broad moulding, and on each side double Corinthian columns, supported by ornamented pedestals. Above this is a broad cornice which forms the mantel shelf, and the base of the upper division ; the middle of which has a panel surrounded by a rich moulding, the centre filled with projecting heads, and a large basket of fruit and flowers, in high relief. On each side are double Corinthian columns, similar to those below, but having a sort of niche between tliem. Tlie whole is finished above by a handsome cornice, ornamented with shields and fruit. A chimney-piece, of this design, of white marble, with coloured shafts to tlie columns, say verd antique or scagliola, with a historical subject in alto relievo filling the panel over the firei)lace, would have an elegant effect. Gilding might be sparingly introduced in the capitals and cornices, and the shields might be painted with the family arms. All the wood- work of the room should be unpainted, say polished oak. The panels of the doors and shutters should be copied from handsome old wainscot, and the mouldings partially gilt. The ceiling should be a specimen of that gorgeous lacework, in stucco, common in old houses, with ornamental pendants to support the lamps, and varied with shields of arras, the whole tinted to suit the colour of the walls, and partially gilded. As I do not pretend to any taste in colours, indeed cannot correctly discriminate their various shades, I should be rather at a loss in selecting the prevailing colour of the drawing- room furniture. I think dark colours have most dignity of effect in furniture ; and perhaps light colours most elegance. Of dark colours, crimson is the richest, and is the prevailing colour in modern drawing-rooms in our inost sjilendid palaces, as it was in old houses. Orange and yellow were much chosen formerly for beds and furniture. The yellow contrasted well with the dark wainscot, and heavy style of cabinet-work common at that period ; but, where yellow is the prevailing colour of the walls and furniture, the effect is usually gaudy. Generally speaking, there should be always some contrast between the colour of the walls and curtains. The drawing-rooms at Earlstoke Park were furnished with apple-green satin ; the walls hung with watered rose-coloured silk ; the ground colour of the carpets dark mulberry, on which were groups of flowers. There was a profusion of gilding, and the effect was strikingly elegant. As I am reserving crimson for the colour of the dining-room furnituie, I really BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 797 do not know what to choose for the drawing-room ; suppose, at a venture, we fix upon blue satin ; I mean a pale blue, which is a good candlelight colour, and is a sort of medium between dark and light. The next difficulty is, what should be the colour of the walls : perhaps buff would do ; and, as we cannot discuss the point, I will suppose the walls hung with silk of a buff colour, watered, or having satin and watered stripes alternately. Or, the walls might be formed into panels ; the framework painted a very pale blue ; the panels, which should be large, filled up with silk having a gilt moulding round it. If silk were merely hung upon the walls, of course it must be surroimded by a gilt moulding. Where silk or velvet is used for the furniture of a room, a papered wall has generally a poor effect ; except, perhaps, a plain flock paper, which has the appearance of cloth, or a paper printed in imitation of striped or watered silk : but I shoidd prefer a hand- somely painted wall to paper, if silk curtains were to be used. In the drawing-room I would hang some of the finest pictures that were not of a large size. A small Claude, a curious portrait or historical subject, or rare cabinet picture ; indeed, any beautiful picture of moderate dimensions, would here be in its proper place, pro%'ided the subject were pleasing. A few busts, or ciu-ious small sculptures, might also be introduced. I would have the fringe of the curtains blue ; the draperies simple, and in large folds ; the cornices massive and gilded. There should also be inner curtains of figured muslin, edged with blue silk ball fringe. In the pier between the windows should be a large looking-glass filling up the whole. Below it, a marble slab, say of Florentine mosaic, and in the gilt stand supporting it a bookcase, filled with handsome books of an amusing kind, such as the best poets and novelists, &c., and curiously embellished works. On the slab might be china vases filled with flowers. On each side of the entrance- door might be a rich iidaid cabinet, on a car^-ed and gilt frame ; under it some large jars of china ; and some curious specimens of old china, arranged on a rising frame, on the top. I woidd have an Axminster carpet and rug, of colours suited to the furniture. The frames of the chairs and sofas might be buff or cream colour and gold. The seats covered with blue satin, edged with buff-coloured g}Tnp (a kind of laced bordering, made of cord). The frames of some of the chairs should be caned and rather massive, and the chairs themselves should be of various kinds ; such as large reposing-chairs, others with and without arms, some of a lighter kind with gilded cane seats, and others which unite into a kind of sofa against the wall. These latter might fill up the space in that end of the room which is not occupied by the bay window. There should be two sofas placed not against the wall ; they usually stand on each side of the fire- place. At the end of the room, near the bow, might be a modern kind of seat, like two sofas placed back to back : persons sitting on one of the seats would look through the bay window upon the park, and before the other seat might be a sofa table, on which should be placed a handsome silver ink and taper stand, writing-cases, books of prints and drawings, and bijouterie of the better kinds : settees, and perhaps a table, would fill up the bay window. A large round table is usually placed in the middle of the drawing- room, on which are generally books of prints and other things to amuse the company ; a china plate, made into a sort of basket, to hold visiting cards and all sorts of things ; and a variety of odd matters which I cannot enumerate. Two card tables would stand one on each side the fireplace : and, besides all these, we must have tables of various sizes, some small ones on pillars ; a chess table, with an inlaid marble top, the men placed upon it ; a large china dish set in a gUt sort of tripod ; a sort of table flower-stands ; and I cannot tell what besides. INIost of the tables must also have something upon them, to make them appear of use. There might be candelabra neai' the fireplace, or in the corners at the lower end of the room, supporting lamps. There should be screens of various kinds placed near the fire ; one I would have, like the large old screens, of embroidered silk, in a carved gilt frame ; and various sorts of footstools, chiefly with carved gilt frames. Writing, work, and drawing boxes of handsome kinds, and every thing amusing, curious, or ornamental, is in its place in the drawing-room ; but the host of trumpery toys so often seen there would be unworthy of a place in a room like this. The arrangement of the multitudinous furniture and ornaments must be left to the taste of the lady of the house ; none but a lady can do it. Tlie chief thing to be avoided, in the disposition of the articles, is a vidgar crowded effect ; every thing should seem to contribute to comfort or amusement, and there should be nothing superfluous. I had nearly forgotten an important feature in the room, viz. the grate, which should be large and low, of polished steel, with handsome back plate, showing itself above the fire. If the fire is of wood, as is sometimes the case, the dogs should be very handsome, and the back plate particularly so. The fender and fire irons might be plated. Tlie lamps suspended from the ceiling might be also plated, or of the handsome gilt brasswork now in fashion ; and I would light the room entirely with wax, to the exclusion of oil, which always produces both smoke and an unpleasant smell. 1685. The Library. Having now, I hope, made my escape from the drawing-room, 798 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. let us proceed across the saloon to the library. This, in form and proportions, I will suppose exactly similar to the drawing-room, having the same sort of bay window at the end opposite the door, from which is a home view over the pleasure-grounds to the rising woods behind them. The two windows opposite the fireplace would look upon the flower-garden and the church tower rising from the trees in the park. The library, though it ought to be a handsome room, should present a great contrast to the light elegance of the drawing-room. The furniture should be substantia], the hangings of a warm but dark colour. In the present instance we will choose claret or maroon colour. Tliat part of the wall not covered by bookcases might be painted to imitate old oak wainscoting of a handsome pattern, or it might be formed into panels, filled with plain flock paper edged with a narrow beading of gold, the framework dark oak ; or it might be papered with plain flock paper in the usual manner, with gilt mouldings. The colour of the paper maroon. The ceiling and cornice after some rich old pattern, with pendent ornaments to support the lamps. It should be of a heavier description than that in the drawing-room, with more numerous coats of arms blazoned in their proper coloiu-s. I should paint and pick out the ceiling with some light warm colour. The chimney-piece should be handsome, but it might be lower and heavier than in the drawing-room, and might be made of the best sorts of stone, or of British marble; for instance, Purbeck marble is a handsome material for chimney-pieces. It might contain a low arched fire- place with a rich cornice above, supported at the sides by small pillars or pilasters. In the fireplace I should have a large low grate, with a rich back-plate, on which should be a classical subject in relief, say the Destruction of Troy. The grate, or dogs for a wood fire, of dead steel, the fender of the same. The vacant walls of tlie side in which is the fireplace, and that of the two ends, would be covered with oak bookcases, two thirds of their height. The lower part of the cases should be enclosed by doors of brass wire, in which might be kept the more curious and valuable books, prints, drawings, &c., the shelves above being open. In the piers that divide the cases might be closets for rolls of maps, &c. On the cornice above the cases might be a series of busts of philosophers and eminent scholars ; and on the wall seen above the book shelves, scripture subjects, and portraits of distinguished authors, statesmen, &c. A full-length portrait of some celebrated person, or member of the family, might be hung over the fireplace ; and in the pier between the windows opposite would be a place for maps on spring rollers fixed to the wall. Below them might be a dark marble slab on a carved frame, and under the slab a sort of frame for large folio books of maps, engravings, &c. The slab might have upon it small bronze statues and things of that kind. The curtains should be of maroon- coloured merino,, damask, lined with glazed stuff (this sort of damask has a poor effect without a lining as it is commonly used), and trimmed with silk fringe, &c., all of the same colour. The cornices might be maroon colour and gold. I would have inner curtains of plain muslin, edged with maroon silk fringe. There should be a large Turkey carpet, or an Axminster carpet, with a maroon-coloured ground, showing round it the polished oak floor, and a hearth rug to match. The library should contain an abundance of various sorts of seats and tables, made of some dark wood, the more carved the better. There should be two or three large easy chairs, with movable desks and candlesticks, some smaller arm and other cushioned chairs, and a few light chairs with gilt cane seats. The patterns of the chairs should be old-fashioned ; and some real old high-backed chairs might be introduced with very good effect. There should also be a sofa or two, and some stools and settees ; the cushions of the chairs, sofas, &c., being covered witli maroon-coloured leather, with silk tufts and gymp edgings. As the library would l)e the common family sitting-room, a round table would be necessary, for tea, &c. There should be also one or two regular library tables, with drawers, and maroon leather tops. One might be placed across the room at the end near the bow, with a settee before it ; the other would stand near the window at the right hand, as you enter the room ; the round table being in the centre near the fire. Besides these, there should be smaller tables of various sizes, some forming reading-desks for large and small books ; otliers on pillars and claws, to be placed about the room. A pair of globes on a stand might occupy one corner; the library steps, shutting into a strong table, woidd stand in another. One or two old embroidered screens, in carved frames, and a few others, and some foot- stools, might be placed near the fire. The bay window might be fitted up as a recess for reading in, with a small reading-desk or table, and settees. I think I have noticed all the furniture of a library, except the lamps, which I would have of bronze, as most in keeping with the sober character of the apartment. As to the smaller ornaments to be placed about the room, they should be curious and interesting, and on no account frivolous. Handsome silver inkstands, a few curious fossils, or models of celeljrated buildings; all sorts of writing-cases and implements, taper stands of silver, boxes of coins, old china in large jars, and any thing of these kinds, with handsome books, might decorate the tables : and, as nothing gives a room a more dismal effect than an appear- BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 799 ance of idleness, every thing should be so arranged, both here and in the drawing-room, as if the persons using the rooms had been employed in some way or other. This effect would be produced by the daily papers, and some periodical works, and open letters received in the morning, on the principal tables ; and, on other tables, some of the blotting books might be open : the inkstands not thoroughly in order, with some unfinished writing and open books or portfolios, would give at least the appearance of industry. I do not recommend such foolish tricks, which are, I know, often used by idle people, wlio have sense enough to feel the bad taste of indolence ; and in a sensible family, who spent their time rationally, this would be, in fact, the usual state of the room, at least during the morning. I do not think that drawings and drawing implements would be out of their place in a library. The ladies would generally draw ; and every country gentleman ought to have some knowledge at least of architectural drawing, so as to be able to design the buildings to be erected upon his estate, wliich are now often built from the coarse plans of ignorant workmen. Drawing would also add to the in-door amusements of a country gentleman ; it would give him a taste for the picturesque, and enable him to improve judiciously his park and grounds, and miderstand the beauties of the natvual scenerj' around his place. It would also open to him a source of innocent enjoyment, by gi\-ing him a taste for the fine arts, which eveni- gentleman should patronise as far as his income will permit. But to return from this digression to the suite of living- apartments. When there is company in the house, the librarj' would be the morning sitting-room for the gentlemen, who might here read the papers and new publications, write and answer letters ; and thus, with a stroll round the garden or farm, and a look into the stables and kennels, employ the time till luncheon, after which some would join the ladies in an excursion on horseback, while others rode with their host to see some improvements upon the farm or estate. In the sporting season, those who are sportsmen would be of course engaged in the sports of the field. The ladies would occupy the drawing-room and saloon, and there amu?e themselves, some with needlework, others with a book or a drawing, others with writing or music, till they met the gentlemen at luncheon ; and afterwards the equestrians would probably ride with the gentlemen, while the rest took a carriage airing, or made calls with the lady of the house. This woidd be a frequent arrangement for the morning ; but, of course, it would be varied as much as possible. Sometimes the whole party would make an excui-sion in carriages, and on horseback, to view something interesting, or make a \'isit at a distance ; at other times the ladies would take walking exercise in the park and gardens, or visit the schools and cottages in the \illage, as the weather and inclination might suggest. After luncheon, and in summer evenings, the doors of the living-rooms would be th j^ji- Open ; and on the return of the party, they would, probably, arrange themselves in groups in each of the rooms. Thus, in the library, a gentleman may, perhaps, be referring to a book, while he explains something to the ladies with whom he had conversed during the morning ride. In the saloon a lady is, perhaps, playing a lively air, while the young ladies and some of the gentlemen are lounging about the room engaged in playful convers- ation. In the drawing-room would most likely be another group, some sitting upon a couch, while others stood round the table collecting their work, books, or drawings, before they retire to dress ; and all talking over the place or people they had visited in the morning. While we have them in these positions, let me ask what you think of the general effect of the sitting-rooms now seen together through the open doors. Stand for a moment near the bay window at the end of the library, and look at the perspective view of the whole, terminating in the distant prospect seen through the opposite bay window in the drawing-room. I hope the effect is not disagreeable ; but, we cannot wait to speak of its merits or defects : the half-hour bell has rimg, the ladies are hurrying to their dressing-rooms ; and, as the gentlemen slowly follow, let us take a look at the dining-room, while the party are engaged at the toilette. 1686. The Dining-room. To get to the dining-room we must proceed through the saloon and lower gallery into the hall, where a door of two leaves in the centre of the lower end admits you to the room. Here I would have double doors. We will suppose the room of the same width as the hall, but six or eight feet sliorter. The walls covered with old oak wainscot ; the ceiling rising from them with a slight cove to the flat com- partment, which would be formed into panels of various shapes by rather hea\-y mouldings of stucco. Scattered over the whole would be groups of fruit and flowers, shields of arms, and three pendent ornaments to support bronze or gUt lamps. The coved part of the ceiling should be also richly adorned with devices in stucco : a large shield of the family arms would be an appropriate ornament for the centre of each side, surrounded by emblems of hospitality. The wainscot should have a broad handsome cornice round the upper part of it, and might be covered nearly with pictures in handsome gold frames, of any subject (except, perhaps, scripture pieces), such as portraits, landscapes, historical pictures, amusing subjects, and pictures of feasts. The chinmey-piece should be very 800 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. handsome. I would have it reaching to the ceiling, and somewhat resembling that in the drawing-room ; but of coloured stone or marble : above the large low arch for the fire])lace, a panel containing tlie representation of a feast, sculptured in white marble in relief; the ornaments, chiefly fruit, and emblems of hospitality. Here I would always burn wood in large logs. The dogs for this purpose should be massive dead steel, the back plate particularly handsome. The curtains in this room should be of crimson velvet, trimmed with gold lace and fringe, the cornices carved and gilt. The furniture would consist of a handsome carved mahogany sideboard on each side of the door, supported by piers, in which are plate-warmers, and a hot closet lined with tin ; also another closet, which would be of use for some purpose; and under each a sarcophagus, one of them lined with lead to contain ice to cool liquors ; the other would be of the same sort, to contain the beer jugs, or it might be a cellaret. A lamp over each sideboard might hang from a supporter in the wainscot. On the sideboards would be placed, at dinner time, the useful and ornamental plate and glass ; and near the sideboards, against the walls, might be, perhaps, two side tables, one on each side of the room. One might be a hot table, on which to put the vegetables, &c., during dinner ; the other for cold meat, and the things usually kept upon the side table. A handsome wide dining-table would stand in the centre of the floor ; and a table to place before the fire when the ladies have left the room after ilinnur, would stand against tlic wall at the end of the room. This table is usually in the form of a horseshoe, and is furnished with a sort of box, to protect the bottles from the heat of the fire, which moves by a brass apparatus, or in a groove, from one person to another. A brass rod supported on the side of the table next the fire is hung with silk curtains, to be drawn occasionally as a screen. Some of these horseshoe tables can have the centre of the horseshoe filled up, and will thus form fireside dining-tables for very cold weather. Against the pier, between the windows, a marble slab might be supported on a carved frame : it would be useful at dinner-time, and help to furnish tlie room. The side tables are also frequently of marble, on frames carved with the family arms, &c. The chairs should be very handsome, massive, and without arms; the seats crimson leather, with silk tufts, and gymp edging. A crimson leather easy chair would be well placed on each side of the fire. Dumb waiters, with a japanned frame for clean and dirty plates, and knives and forks, besides the usual shelves, might be wanted occasionally, and would furnish two corners of the room. The floor might be covered with a Turkey carpet, showing round it some of the polished oak floor, with a rug of the same pattern as the carpet. A footstool or two might be usefid after dinner. I do not remember any other necessary article of furniture for the dining-room ; but, there is a certain convenience rather indispensable, viz. a closet to hold utensils sometimes required l)y gentlemen after dinner. This closet might be made in the thick outer wall, large enough for a person to stand in, with shelves in the corners for the utensils. A part of the wainscot might open as the door, contrived so as not to be observed. Near the sideboard a similar door in the wainscot might be formed, through which the servants might pass at dinner time, without opening the principal door at the bottom of the room. In the plan we have in view, there would be another wainscot door leading to the master's private or business room. Unless in very large houses, it is usual to take every meal in the dining- room, except tea. A regular breakfast-room is not, therefore, generally necessary in a house of moderate size ; and it is desirable, on many accounts, to have no more sitting- rooms than those which are in constant use. I shall, therefore, omit a description of the breakfast-room, and proceed to the gentleman's private sitting-room, without which the country residence of a person of propei-ty would be very incomplete. 1687. Gentlemari's Study, or Business Boom. A gentleman of studious habits would use his private room as a study ; and here, also, he will see persons on business, and administer justice, if he happens to be in the commission of the peace. The private room should, therefore, be apart from the family sitting-rooms, and near to the back entrance and the servants' oflices, for the convenience of admitting people who come on business, without interruption to the fainily. It should be a comfortable apartment, of good size, but not a handsome one. The furniture should be neat and simple. The curtains might be of moreen ; and the chairs, and tables, and carpet, of any unexpensive kinds. The walls might be papered with any cheap paper ; and the woodwork would probably be painted oak colour, to hide dirt. Against the wall might be hung portraits of favourite horses, cattle, or dogs ; and any glazed prints. There should be, of course, a bookcase, with a good collection of books of a general kind, including law books ; the best publications upon farming, building, planting, gardening, and other subjects of rural economy. Some of these might be lent out to persons living on the estate. Under the cases shonld be a range of presses, in which to keep papers and accounts; and an iron closet for deeds of value, &c., built into the wall. A large map of the estate upon a spring roller, and a map of the county, would be often useful. There should also be a bureau with drawers under it, a large library table also having drawers, and one or two BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 801 large leather easy chairs. A washhig-stand whicli sliuts up would be also required hero occasionally, and a neat wardrobe also, if the gentleman used it as a dressing-room, which is sometimes the case. 1688. Principal Staircase. Having now gone through the principal apartments on the ground floor, the next thing to be considered is the great staircase, which will lead us to the bed-rooms. I have already supposed the staircase to be in a separate tower, built out behind the centre of the gallery, from wliich you approach it under a broad handsome arch. When you are witiiin the arch, on the right and left, under the landing of tile stairs, are the doors of the gentlemen's water-closets ; those for the ladies are above, and are approached from tlie landing-place over. The staircase is an important con- venience in every house, and it should always be a striking feature in a mansion of any elegance. The tower, which I suppose to contain the staircase, would be square as high as the ceiling of the upper floor, where it would take a sort of octagon form ; the roof coved, and ending in a lantern : in the centre of the lantern a boss would support a lamp. In the side, opposite to the arch by which you enter, would be a tall mullioncd window, filled with stained glass. Advancing a few steps, you would roach the first fliglit in the middle of the tower, and ascend to the first landing-place ; you would find a flight of stairs on the right and left leading to the second landing, in the centre of which is the upper gallery-door, immediately over the arch below. As the house is to be in the old English style, the stairs might be either -of oak or stone ; but the balusters must be of oak handsomely carved, and rather heavy. They might begin at the foot of the stairs with a richly carved sort of pedestal, and the same at each corner as they ascend. In old staircases, there was frequently an animal of some sort sculptured in wood, supporting the family arms placed on these pedestals, especially at the foot of the stairs ; or the animal had a substitute in a ball or pine-apple. The centre part of the stairs might be cai-peted or not ; the walls of the tower might be painted like the lower gallery, and on the right and left walls a large picture on any subject would be very ornamental : for instance, a large scripture piece on each of the side walls would be well lighted from the lantern above. 1689. The Upper Gallery. From the upper landing, an arched doorway would admit you to the upper gallery, of the same dimensions as the one below, but not so high. The windows should be on the same side as the staircase, and the wall opposite should have doors leading to the bed-rooms and dressing-rooms. The walls should be );ainted like the lower gallery ; and as there would be little space for pictures, a collec- tion of glazed prints might be arranged upon the vacant spaces in the walls. I should carpet the floor ; and a few side-tables and settees would be all the furniture required, except lamps suspended from tlie ceiling, to light the gallery at night. There might be also crimson cloth window-curtains, on large brass rods, without drapery. The col- lection of fossils, or old china, might be placed in glass cases between the windows. This gallery, besides its use as an entrance to the bed-rooms, would be a promenade, or place of recreation, for the ladies and young people in wet weather. As there would be a great many doors in the gallery, it would be convenient to have them numbered : the number on a brass or japanned circle over each. I have known strangers much plagued to find their rooms in large houses, for want of a proper mark upon the doors. 1690. Bed-rooms and Dressing-rooms. The doors of most of the bed-rooms and dressing-rooms should open into the upper gallery, or communicate with it. Generally speaking, I would not have the bed-rooms of a very large size. Twenty or eighteen feet square is a comfortable size for a room to contain a large four-post bed ; sixteen feet square is sufficient for a bed-room for a single person. A dressing-room shoidd be attached to all the principal bed-rooms ; I believe modern luxury, in great houses, requires two : this would not be necessary in a villa of the second class ; but even in this I would have two dressing-rooms to the state bedchamber, as, occasionally, persons accustomed to such luxuries might visit at the house. Generally, however, one dressing-room would be sufficient for the company-rooms ; but if the gentleman of the house did not dress in liis private apartment, I would have two dressing-rooms to his bed-room, that for the lady rather large and elegant, as she would probably use it occasionally as her private sitting-room. The family bedchambers might be at that end of the house where the offices are situated ; those for company over the principal apartments. In lai-ge houses, the master and mistress frequently have their bed and dressing-rooms upon the ground floor ; but I should prefer the floor above, as being more airy and quiet. A bedcham- ber should be an airy, cheerful-looking apartment, rather elegantly furnished, but in a plainer style than the living-rooms. The walls look best when papered ; the doors and woodwork painted to suit the paper ; the ceiling plain ; the chimney-piece rather plain, of marble or stone ; and the grates such as are easily cleaned. I should prefer a floor that coidd be washed ; that is, not a polished oak floor, and would not have the whole covered with carpet. In all the company rooms I would have four-post beds, double 4 z 80^2 COTTAGE, FAUxM, AND VILLA AKCHITECTUllE. or single beds according to the size of tlie rooms. Four-post beds are most airy and comfortable ; and I have seen single four-post beds of a very elegant appearance. The bed and window curtains should be of silk, woollen stuff, chintz, dimity, or printed calico, according to the fortune or taste of the owner. For beds used by the family, perhaps printed calico or dimity furniture is best, as it may be occasionally cleaned or washed. There is room for the exercise of much taste in the hangings of beds, both in the choice of the colour and material, and in the disposition of the hangings. In the houses of great personages, bed furniture was formerly of a very costly description, and made of such stout materials that in many cases the hangings have lasted through several generations to the present time. At Boughton House, in Northamptonshire (formerly the seat of the Montagues), there were, a few years ago, some curious specimens of ancient bed furniture, of considerable antiquity, and much timeworn, but originally of great splendour. Some of these hangings were of a sort of stag velvet, others silk, or some other costly material, embroidered with coloured silk. The testers were generally rather low, and the valances put on plain, but cut into a form at the lower edges. Though simple, the effect of these beds was dignified, but rather gloomy. They were often sur- mounted by plumes of feathers ; and many such beds are still preserved in old mansion- liouses. A bed of rather more modern date than those at Boughton may be seen in the state apartments at Warwick Castle, put up, I think, for Queen Anne, and in good pre- servation. Our modern cheap stivffs are not likely to last so long. I have often slept, in a house which once belonged to a family much attached to the Stuarts, in a bed whicli was said to have been put up for the young Pretender. The furniture was of fine woollen plaid, of a scarlet ground. The valances were put on plain, but cut into elegant forms, and ornamented with silk binding, sewn on in a very elaborate pattern ; and in the same way the appearance of a rich head board was given by binding, sewn on at the head of the bed. The cornice was particularly elegant, cut into the form of the prince's feathers, and other devices, and covered with plaid : the effect of the whole was very handsome and cheerful. A rich modern material for the company beds, in a gentleman's residence, is merino damask, which, if lined with glazed stuff of the same colour, would have rather a handsome effect, and look well in almost any colour. Besides the bed, the furniture of the room consists of bed-steps, containing a night-stool and pot -closet, on each side of the bed ; carpets, and a hearth-rug before the fire ; a neat coal-box, with a cover ; a sufficient number of light chairs, a large easy-chair, and a dressing-stool. A large dressing-table, and swing glass ; a washing-table, with the necessary basins, jugs, antl glasses ; a wardrobe, and a sort of box for caps and bonnets, which is made an orna- mental piece of furniture, and a cabinet of any kind for trinkets, papers, &c. A small table on which to place books, writing implements, &c., and footstools and screens, are also necessary comforts in well furnished rooms ; and, in gentlemen's rooms, a boot-rack and boot-jack. Of course, there shoidd be every article used for washing the person, as bidets, feet-pans, water-bottles, and glasses, &c. A few pictures or glazed prints upon the walls would add to the cheerful appearance of the room. Window-curtains and blinds are indispensable ; and a small clothes horse or two, for ailing linen, drying towels, &c. A closet in a bed-room is convenient, in which to put away trunks and boxes, and other imsightly necessaries. A door in the bed-room should open into the dressing-room, which should be furnished to match the apartment to which it is attached. A complete dressing-room, besides what is necessary for washing and dressing, already enumerated in the bed-room, should have some other articles of furniture used in sitting-rooms : for example, a sofa, which could be made into a bed ; a large easy-chair ; a sofa-table ; a bookcase, containing a small collection of instructive and amusing books; and a chifTfbn- nier (literally a ragcase, used for placing books or papers in) : a few pictures and prints might decorate the walls. The floor might be covered entirely with car^iet ; the chairs might have cushions. In an elegant dressing-room for a lady are usually work- tables and a full-length swing dressing-glass, and many usefid and ornamental articles in plate and china, as inkstands, toilette suite, scent pots, caudle service, &e. &c. Of course, there must be what is necessary for containing wearing apparel, as wardrobes, cap-boxes, &c. A cabinet to contain jewel-boxes and small valuables may be also added. There should l)c a fireplace in every dressing-room, and a door communicating with the passage, or gallery. 1691. Tlie Sitting and Sleeping Nurseries should be on the bed-room floor, and in a retired part of the house : they should be light airy apartments, with fireplaces in each. It is unnecessary to describe their furniture, which should be plain and strong. 1692. The Governess's Sitting-room, furnished like any other sitting-room, is usually on the first floor, and should be in a quiet part of the house. 1693. The Servants' Bed-rooms are commonly on the highest floor, approached by the back staircase ; the men-servants' rooms should, if possible, be ixpart from those of the BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 803 females. The rooms for tlie under servants might contain two beds each, witli curtains of woollen stuff. The ftirniture should include every thing necessary for cleanliness and comfort, of a plain and stout kind. Tlie upper servants should have each a separate l)L'd-room, neatly and comfortably furnished ; and there should be a sufficient number of similar rooms for the servants of visiters, the males and females apart. The bed-rooms of the upper servants should be near those of the inferiors. I should choose to have plaster floors, such as are common in the north of England; and woollen bed-curtains in all the servants' rooms, to prevent accidents from fire. These floors, when kept clean, and wliitened with pipeclay, have a very neat and comfortable appearance ; more so, in- deed, than the coarse wooden floors usual in servants' rooms. 1 694. The Housemaid's Closet is a necessary convenience in the upper part of a gen- tleman's house : in this closet are kept the pails, brooms, dusters, &c., used in cleaning the house. It should be a light roomy closet, with a plaster floor, containing an inner closet for the bed-room night lamps, or rushlight cases, &c., with drawers under for cloths and dusters. There should be pegs and shelves, on which to put any thing out of the way. As warm water is much used by the housemaids, their closet, in a large house, should contain a small copper for heating water ; and, if possiljle, it should be supplied with water by a leaden pipe, say from a cistern of rain-water upon the roof; a sink-stone, communicating with a drain, would also be a great convenience in this closet. In large establishments, the labour of carrying up and down the clean and dirty water is very great ; so that a pipe supplying soft water, and a sink for the slops, is necessary in a place of this kind, which should also contain a large box, in one corner, for a supply of coals to be used in the upper part of the house. Another closet, apart from the housemaid's closet, would be also useful to contain spare bedding, blankets, and other things of the kind, when not in use. 1695. A Bath-room is s cheap and useful luxury, which would be considere4 by many persons an indispensable requisite in a perfect villa. A room of moderate size would contain the warm and shower baths ; the cold bath would be in the park, in an ornamental building on the side of the stream. I would place the bath-room in such a situation that it could be supplied with hot water from the offices, by means of a pipe connected with the boiler, say in the kitchen or scullery. There should also be a supply of cold water by another pipe, and a drain to convey away the waste water. Where the house is supplied with watei- from a spring in some of the high ground adjacent, as is often the case, the bath-room and housemaid's closet might easily be furnished with an abundance of water. The bath-room would be most conveniently placed near the family sleeping-rooms. 1696. Servants' Offices. Having now, I believe, noticed what requires attention in the upper floors, let us descend, by the back stairs, to the servants' offices ; of which, the first to be described is the housekeeper's room, with its appin-tenances ; viz., the still-room, store, and china closets. 1697. The Housekeeper's Boom should be a spacious comfortable apartment, furnished as a respectable parlour ; and so situated that the other offices may be easily overlooked by the housekeeper. The furniture should comprise aU that is necessary for use and comfort, in rather a plain way. The walls might be stencilled, or covered -n-ith a chea]^ paper, and ornamented with a few prints. There might be plain window-curtains, a carpet covering part of the floor, some mahogany chairs, a dining-table that could be enlarged at pleasure, a Pembroke table, and a good-sized side-table. There should be a small looking-glass against the wall ; the chimney-piece plain ; the grate black, with large hobs. A bureau, in which to keep account-books, &c., with drawers under, and a small bookcase above, containing some instructive books, would be a very useful piece of furniture here. On one side of the room should be a row of neat lock-up closets painted ; one of which should be a wardrobe for the house-linen ; another for cakes and such things ; and one for the tea-china and dessert-service in use, and other things of the kind. Here would also be the butler's writing-desk, and place for his accounts. Inkstands, and other usefiil small articles, would help to furnish out the I'oom. 1698. The Still-room. A door in the housekeeper's room should open into the still- room, in which the housekeeper, assisted by the still-room maid, would make preserves, cakes, &c. ; it would also be the common sitting-room of the under female servants. It should be furnished as a better kind of kitchen, containing a fireplace, with boiler, a small oven, a range of charcoal-stoves, with a cover ; a small shut-up sink, with a water- pipe for a supply of water. A range of small closets for the maids, to keep their tea- things, and tea and sugar, and things used at the housekeeper's table ; a large table, with drawers, in the centre of the room, and a smaller round table for work ; and a dresser against the wall, to let down when not in use, would be convenient : shelves would also be useful for the pans, &c., used by the housekeeper. There should be also a roller foi" A round towel, and a basin in the sink for washing hands ; a small looking-glass might 80 1< COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. promote tidiness of person, and a piece of common carpet would add to the comfort of the room. The chairs and stools should be neat and substantial ; and a small case of well-chosen books should hang against the wall. 1699. The Store-closet should be dry and airy, and it should open conveniently into the still-room, in which the stores might be unpacked before they were put away, and given out as wanted by the housekeeper. The store-closet should be properly furnislied with shelves, drawers, and pegs, to receive all the stores and preserves, &c., under the housekeei)er's care, wliich should be arranged in proper order, so that every thing miglit be found immediately, when it happened to be wanted. It might be kept dry in winter by a small jiipe of hot air or water, from the still-room fireplace. 1 700. The China-closet. Where the collection of china is not large, a proper place might be made for it in the store-room ; but where a china-closet is required, it shovdd be near the houseket-'per's-room, and be furnished with shelves to receive the spare china and glass, and a table on which to place it when given out and returned. It should be a dry closet, and light. 1701. The Butler's Pantry. The next office to be considered is the butler's pantry. In the case of a large establishment, this should be a light spacious room, witli a fireplace in it, or stove. The door and window-shutters shoidd be strong ; and the floor boarded. The furniture would consist of a strong table and some chairs ; a long sort of dresser, with several drawers under it : at one end a part of the top of the dresser should open to a sink, lined with lead, and supplied with water by a pipe. A wash-hand stand would be necessary, and pegs on which to hang hats, coats, aprons, &c., and a boot-jack and place for shoes and boots would be perhajis convenient. There should also be a stand in which to put away the trays, and a common tray-stand, and proper convenience for drain- ing decanters. A na])kin-press is generally found here, and under it a chest of drawers for tablecloths and napkins. Against the wall should be spacious closets for glass and china and lamps, di-awers for knives and forks ; the latter lined with baize. An indispensable requisite here is a roomy fire-proof plate closet, in the lower part of which would stand the chests of plate not in common use, and above should be shelves and conveniences lined with baize, to receive the silver articles used by the family. To this closet I would have double doors ; one of them of iron, to be closed and locked at night. The doors should have different locks, the key of the iron door to be in the sole keeping of the butler. As, for security, a man-servant often sleeps in the pantry, there should be for this purpose a closet bed complete : a round towel roller and pot closet would be also necessary. A plain lamp should hang from the ceiling, and a small looking-glass near the window against the wall. It would be convenient to place this pantry near the housekeeper's room, and out of the vi^ay of the back entrance to the house. 1 702. The Servants" Hall should be near the back entrance ; and so situated that strangers might pass to and from it without intruding upon the other offices. The size of the servants' hall will depend upon the nature of tlie establishment and the number of domestics kept. Here all the under servants woidd dine, and it would be the common sitting-room for the males. It should, therefore, be rather a large apartment, and I would have it, if possible, a cheerful and comfortable one, with plenty of light. It should have a stone floor, and a good large fireplace ; or jjcrhaps a stove would make it warmer, with less expense of fuel. The furniture of a servants' hall is very simple. It con- sists of a long stout oak table, generally placed rather on one side of the room, with strong benches on each side. Tliis table the servants use for dinner and their othsr meals. There is generally a large chair at one end, for the servant who presides. There should also be a sort of side-table, and a small movable table, a few chairs and small benches, A large high-backed settee, with drawers under the seat, near the fire, miglit be so placed as to screen the fireplace from the draught of air from the door. Against the wall should be rows of pegs for the servants' hats, &c., and there should also be a roomy closet, in which to keep the jugs, drinking-horns, knives and forks, and many other things used by the servants. A dial-clock would be useful, and a lam]) hanging from the ceiling, to light the room at night. In a conspicuous place upon the wall, the rules of the house to be observed by the servants are frequently hung iqi : there should also be a small case of useful and instructive books. A horse for brushing coats on, or to hang a great-coat upon to dry, would be usefiil in the servants' liall. 1 703. Men's Washing and Dressing Closet. Where many men-servants are kept, a neccs sary appendage is a small room, adjoining the servants" hall, for them to wash and dress in. It should have fixed washing-places, with a pipe to supply them with water, and a drain to convey away the dirty water. It should liave round towels, a small looking-glass or two, and a large press in which to put things away ; also a horse on which to brush clothes. In small establishments, a corner washing-stand, such as is described at page 292, might be placed in the servants' hall, with a cover to conceal it when not in use. It should be supplied with water by a pipe, so that it could be used at any time, and a t(nvel should BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. bO.5 hang on a roller near it. A small leaden box, with holes in the bottom, might be fixed in a corner of the washing-place, to contain the soap. I would on every account encourage cleanliness among the servants ; and they would have no excuse for being dirty, if proper conveniences for washing were provided. 1704. The Knife and Shoe Cleaning Place should not be far distant from the servants' hall ; and would, of course, contain the necessary conveniences for cleaning knives and shoes, which it is unnecessary to describe. 1705. The Kitchen is one of the most important offices in a house; and is often, in large residences, a very handsome apartment. I remember to have seen one, at a nobleman's house in Warwickshire, which struck me particularly. The kitchen, scullery, larder, &c., formed a range of building on one side of the kitchen-court, separate from the house, but there was a covered way betvv^een them. The building was of two stories, the kitchen occupying the centre. It was a large lofty room, of good proportions, as high as two stories of the building. You entered it at one end, by large folding-doors, from a passage through the building; at the opposite end was the fireplace with the screen before it ; on one side of which was the door to the scullery and bakehouse, on the other side a range of set coppers of different sizes. On one side of the room were two rows of windows, and under the lower row a range of charcoal stoves and hot plates : the latter to keep things warm. The other side had only the upper row of windows, and against the wall was a dresser, above which the copper cooking utensils, &c., were ranged in a very orna- mental way. A long table was in the centre of the room, and over the door a dial-clock. The ceiling had a very handsome cornice, and a boss in the centre, from which hung a brass lamp. Opposite the entrance door, another door admitted you to a passage, on one side of which were the larders, on the other salting-rooms, &c. ; and at the end a staircase led to the cook's apartments over. There was a sort of turret on the centre of the roof, contain- ing a capital clock, which struck upon the dinner bell. The other offices were in the base- ment story of the mansion, and the kitchen was detached, to prevent the annoyance of the smell of cooking, which commonly ascends from a kitchen beneath the house. I thought the arrangement particularly convenient, and the kitchen was really an elegant apart- ment. As, in a large establishment, there is cooking going on through the whole day, it is of importance to the comfort of the family, to place the kitchen in such a situation that the smell of cooking, which is particularly offensive, may not be an annoyance to the principal apartments. A house with the kitchen in the basement story is generally subject to this inconvenience, and it is usually avoided by having the kitchen and offices in a separate building adjoining the house. Underground offices are also dark and uncomfortable ; and, in a country-house of any consequence, it may always be contrived to have them above ground. The kitchen described will give an idea of the principal requisites in this office, and I am not able to enter into the details. A kitchen should always be a light airy room, with the windows, if possible, looking north or east ; and in no case west, where all the windows are on one side. 1 706. The Scidkry. The kitchen should open into the scullery, in which the dishes, &c., are washed, and all the dirty work done. I suppose it should contain proper sinks, a fireplace, a small brick oven and a large oven, if the bread be baked there ; coppers for heating water for the use of the kitchen-maid ; dressers and tables ; plate-racks, shelves for saucepans, &c. ; and it should be well supplied with water. It would be con- venient that the scullery should have a door opening into the kitchen-court near to the coal place, to which there should be a covered way. In the houses of great personages, where a service of plate is in constant use, I believe there is commonly an office called the silver scullery, in which the plate is washed ; but I am not able to describe its requisites ; and it would be unnecessary in a villa of the second class. 1707. The Larders should be placed close to the kitchen. There are usually four offices of this kind in great houses ; viz. the wet and dry larders (the former for un- dressed, the latter for cold meat), a game larder, and a pastry. In ordinary gentle- men's residences, a wet and a dry larder would be sufficient; to which, in the case of a large family, a small pastry might be added. Both larders should have windows, at least, on two opposite sides, and should be cool and dry. The windows should be covered with wirecloth, to exclude flies and insects ; the dry larder having glass windows inside, to be shut when the weather requires it. I once saw a very pretty convenient larder, which was used only foi game, but it would be a good model for an ordinary wet larder. It was built out from the wall of the kitchen, in the form of an octagon, having windows on every side, except that formed by the kitchen wall, and in this was the door. The roof projected over the windows, to protect them from the sun and rain. The ceiling in the interior was coved, and from the centre hung an octagon rack with hooks for the smaller birds all ranged in order ; and round the wall was another rack for pheasants, hares, rabbits, &c. A common wet larder might be built in this form, in which the meat might hang on the rack in the centre, with the chopping-block under. 80(> COTTAGE, FAR-M, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. The game might be hung round tlie wall, and under the game might be a dresser on wliidi to cut and salt meat, and salting-troughs lined with lead, and having covers like the dresser. It should also liave a machine to weigh meat as it is brought in. A dry larder is the place in which the cold dressed meat is kept. In the centre is a large table of wood or stone covered with a tablecloth, on which the cold meat is arranged in dishes. If the windows are not fly-proof, which they always should be, a sort of safe made of coarse muslin, or wire, on an arched frame, is sometimes used to cover the whole table. This might hang on a cord and pulley from the ceiling, so as to be pushed uj) out of the way wliile the cold moat is taken out. A broad dresser and a row of shelves might be placed round the dry larder, on which to make and place the pastry and other things usually kept here. (A fish larder, § 1461, and also a vegetable larder, such as we have already noticed, § 737, might be added.) 1708. Tlie Salting-room. Except in very large families, a separate salting-room is seldom necessary. When required, it should be a cool place, containing proper salting- troughs of lead with covers for meat in pickle, with taps or holes in the bottom, to let oft" the brine ; and a stone table on which to salt bacon, with a groove round it, to convey the brine by a small pipe to a vessel placed beneath it. 1709. Tlie Smoking-chimney, or Room fur smoking Hams and other Provisions, shoidd be detached from the house. Its forms, &c., will be found described at length, § 739. 1710. The Wash-house, described, § 725 ; the Laundry, § 726 ; the Brewhouses, § 728 ; and the Bakehouse, § 727, are, of course, separate offices, and are nearly the same in all sorts of residences, varying only in size. Unless in very large establishments, a separate room for a bakehouse would seldom be required ; and it would save trouble in cleaning the house, were the oven placed in the scullery, where it would be no inconvenience, as the bread for the family would seldom be baked more than once a week. 1711. The Kitchen- Court and its Appurtenances include the places for coals, wood, and ashes, which should be conveniently situated so as to be approached under cover. The ash-hole should be furnished with a proper screen of wire, and be so contrived that, the cinders being put in at one door, they would pass down the sloping screen to another, where they might be taken out cleared from the ashes. The ashes could be removed from under the screen, and taken away by a door in the outer wall of tlie kitchen- court. There should be doors of the same kind, with locks, by which the coal and wood houses might be stocked without making a litter in the court. The racks for empty bottles should be in this court, enclosed by railed doors locked ; and there should be also a sort of store-place for potatoes, &c., for the use of the house ; and here might be put away any unsightly articles, when not used. Privies for the servants should be in a retired corner : and a pump in the centre to wash the court, which should be paved throughout, and have proper drains, so as to be always dry and clean. 1712. The Cellars are very important offices; and, in a large mansion, should be exten- sive and convenient. Their construction and arrangement have been already given, § 713 to § 718, and recurred to in § 1462 and § 1463. The descent to the cellars should be near the butler's pantry and housekeeper's room, to be within the observation of the upper servants. There should be separate cellars for small and strong beer, one or more large cellars for the general stock of wine, and a smaller one for the wine under the care of the butler, which is taken out occasionally from the general stock under the master's inspection. There should also be a root-cellar, and a spare one in which to put hampers before they are unpacked, and other things as occasion required. 1713. Cellar- Closets. A closet on each side of the foot of the stairs would also be convenient. In one might be kept, in covered pans, placed each in a pan of water, the cheese in use, and in the other the butler might lock up the wine left in decanters, which is commonly spoilt when kept above ground. Another closet might probably be convenient for the use of the housekeeper or cook, such as to place ice-cream in while freezing, and other things in very hot weather. 1714. An Ice-house is an indispensable appendage to a villa; but its construction has been already described, § 736. The dairy would be at the farm, which I suppose to be at a distance from the house (see § 729). 1715. Tlie Stable Offices. We proceed next to the stables, which should have one ornamental front, to be seen as you approach the mansion. As a villa of the size described would require extensive stabling, it would be convenient to build the stables and coach-houses in the form of a quadrangle, with a paved yard in the centre. The front to the park should have gables at the ends, resembling those of the mansion ; and in the centre should be an arched gateway with a clock turret over it. The doors should all open into the yard, and be so contrived that the whole might be secure when the gates were closed at night. For greater security, a comfortable bed-room might be formed in the clock turret over the gateway, in which some of the grooms might sleep. The side of the quadrangle which formed the principal front might contain, besides the gateway. BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 807 the coach-houses and the liarncss and saddle rooins ; the latter in the two angles. The side joining the harness-room sliould be occupied by the coach-horse stables, divided by a sort of open vestibule, in which a gig might be put out of the rain, or a horse rubbed down in wet weather ; over this open vestibule would be a loft for hay or straw, or the granary for the horse corn. Joining to the saddle-room, the riding-horse stable would occupy another side, arranged like the coach-horse stable opposite. The remain- ing side would contain stabling and harness-room for visiters' horses, and loose boxes for hunters. In the centre of this side might be a passage through to the dung-yard, and in this passage the wheelbarrows would stand under cover. 1716. A Riding-house is a luxury seldom required by persons of moderate income ; but, if it were necessary, it might be built out at right angles to the side of the stable- yard last mentioned, and be approaclied by the thorough passage above described. As the roof of the riding-house would probably appear above those of the stables, it should be ornamented with a lantern or cupola, for the sake of effect at a distance. 1717. The Stahle-yard should at least have a broad pavement round the four sides, sloping fi-om the walls to a drain ; that before the coach-house wider than the rest, to w;ish carriages upon, or there might be a square pavement for this purpose near the pump, which I would place in the centre with a large lamp over it to light the yard, the ground having a gentle slope from the pump to the edge of the pavement before the stables. If the extent of the yard would admit of it, there might be a ring of fine loose gravel between the pavement and the pump, of sufficient width to exercise sick horses upon, or other horses in cold dirty weather ; but the park would generally afford a dry sheltered situation for this puqiose. 1718. The Coach-houses should be airy and spacious, the floors dry; in low damp situations, the floor might be of stout boards. They should also be light, that the coachman may be able to rub over the carriages in damp weather without opening the doors. A closet in one of them would be convenient to receive the brushes, leathers, sponges, &c., used for cleaning carriages ; the jacks for washing the wheels would stand in the passage before mentioned, with the wheelbarrows. If the harness and saddle rooms joined the coach-houses, as they ought to do, a stove in the party wall would serve to air both ; and, if the carriages were moved every day in moist weather, each would stand near the stove in its turn, and all would be constantly fit for use. If a carriage be allowed to get damp, it is soon spoiled, and is also dangerous to ride in. The coach-houses should, of course, be ceiled, and the walls plastered and coloured, or whitewashed, and be kept particularly clean and free from dust and cobwebs. There should be blinds to the windows, and, where the doors front the south or west, it would also be necessary to have blinds to the doors, to protect the carriages from the heat of the sun when the doors are open, which they always should be in dry warm weather. 1719. The Harness and Saddle Rooms, in large stables, should always be distinct apart- ments. They should be light airy rooms adjoining the stables, but, if possible, not opening into them, as the moist heat of the stable would be injurious to the saddles and harness. The harness-room should in all cases have a stove to keep it dry. The ceiling and walls should be neatly plastered and whitewashed, or coloured. Round the room, at a sufficient height from the floo)-, should be a row of large and small pegs, on which to hang harness, bridles, &c. ; and some saddle-trees to support the saddles. From the row of pegs to the floor, the wall should be boarded, or covered with canvass painted, to keep the harness from touching the wall. A small closet, in which would be kept the brushes, leathers, &c., used in cleaning harness, would stand in one corner of the room, and a movable horse, to clean saddles upon, would occupy another corner. In the centre of the room a table v,-ith lock-up drawers would be useful, to which might be added a few strong chairs, as the stable-men sometimes sit in the harness-room in cold weather, when they happen to be unemployed. The saddle-room should be exactly like the harness-room, except that it should have more trees to support saddles, and the pegs should be such as are required to hang bridles upon, 8rc. Both rooms should be clean, and free from cobwebs and dust. 1720. The Sfahles should be lofty, airy and spacious, well lighted, and furnished with proper ventilators to keep up a circulation of air. There should be a wide open space behind the horses. Other arrangements are described in § 750. I believe the plan of supplying the racks with hay, tlirough a hole in the floor of the loft above, is now gene- rally discarded, as being prejudicial to the health of the horses. A sort of closet ad- joining the stable, into which the hay is thrown down from the loft, and where it would be properly shaken before it was put into the racks, would be very convenient. To avoid having the corn bin in tlie stable, the corn is often kept in a bin in the loft above, from which it is let down into the stable by a wooden pipe with a small trap spout at the l)ottom, from which the corn may be let out at pleasure, and measured as let out, by liaving two traps or stoppers in the trunk, with such a space between them as will con- 808 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. tain a quarter of a peck of corn, or whatever quantity may be considered a feed. Loose boxes have been already described, § 755. One, at least, should always be reserved for sick horses. 1721. The Keimelfor Sporting Dogs would be well situated somewhere near the stables, though, as dogs are rather noisy and unsavoury neighbours, some people would place their residence at a greater distance from the house, probably at the keeper's lodge. Their larder and kitchen are certainly great nuisances in many cases. I scarcely need describe a dog-kennel, which consists, in all cases, I believe, of sleeping-houses, with a bed against the wall raised a foot or more from the ground, and filled with straw. In fi-ont of these are yards enclosed by a wall or paling ; and, in the yards, proper troughs for the food and water. The sleeping-houses and yards should both be paved, kept particularly clean, and frequently whitewashed. A stream of water should, if possible, nm through the yards. Adjoining should be a room containing a chest for meal, and a set copper in which to prepare the dogs' food. A pump to supply the troughs and copper with water would also be necessary, if there were no running water near. 1722. Back Yard for Dung, Rubbish, Sfc. Behind the stable should be a yard enclosed by a wall, to contain the stable-dung, wood stacks, and refuse from the gardens and house. Here niight be cisterns to receive the liquid manure from the stables and the contents of the house-tb-ains ; and here would also be the privies for the stable-men and gardeners. As I suppose tliis yard to be bounded on one side by the garden wall, it would form a receptacle for the rubbish from the garden ; so that, all the manure produced about the premises being accumulated in one place, it might be removed, as wanted, to the farm. The fuel, and all the provender required for the stable would be brought in here, the stable-men having a proper lock-up coal-house for their allowance of fuel ; and as I suppose the back entrance to the garden to be through this yard, every thing the gar- dener required, such as coals, earth, manure, &c., would pass this way to the garden gate. All the litter of the premises would thus be confined to the back yard, and nothing unsightly would appear about the house. 1723. Kitchen-garden. I shall not venture to say any tiling of the arrangement of the kitchen-garden ; but, with regard to its situation, as a garden wall is always an ugly object, I would place tlie garden in a retired sheltered spot, and endeavour to conceal it by plantations and shrubberies. The principal entrance to it should be from the plea- sure-ground, by a handsome gateway. This gateway might be so designed as to appear at the extremity of a lawn or vista, and form an architectural embellishment to the <^rounds. In the situation we suppose, the kitchen-garden would probably be in the form of a long parallelogram, the long sides north and south. The entrance would be in the middle of the east end, and might open upon a broad gravel walk, extending the whole length of the garden, having a border for herbaceous plants on each side of it ; and, beyond this border, the compartments for vegetables. At the end opposite to the entrance might be the gardener's lodge, a comfortable dwelling, showing on this side an ornamental fi-ont, with a few flower-beds, and jierliaps a sundial before it. Beyond the lodo-e would probably be a separate enclosure for the hot-houses, stoves, pits, &c. ; with the seed and store rooms, and labourers' sitting and sleeping rooms, and other necessary buildings of that kind ; beyond this might be the orchard, properly enclosed. The ground for dmig frames would, I suppose, be near the back entrance to the garden, which, as I have already said, would be through the yard behind the stables. To make the most of the wall for fruit trees, there might be a narrow outer gaiden, or slip as it is usually called, round the south and west walls. 1724. The Pleasure-gardens would comprise the enriched parterre before the windows of the drawing-room, saloon, and library ; the pleasure-grounds leaching to the woody eminence behind, and filling the space between it and the back of the house, and tlie end of the parterre. In this space there would be room for great variety of effect in garden scenery; such as shaded winding walks, open glades, small lawns, &c. &c., with orna- mental scats interspersed. Between the kitchen-garden wall and the woody hill would be a sheltered spot for a small winter-garden, planted with the best evergreen trees and shrubs. On a small lawn, in the centre of it, might be a few beds filled with laurustinus, mezereon, Cydonia japonica, and any early-flowering low shrubs and plants ; with bulbs, such as all the varieties of crocuses, &c., in great abundance. A conservatory on the warm side of it would not be ill-jilaced. 1725. In the Pleasure-grounds, I would have very few clumps or masses of shrubs. Both trees and shrubs have generally the best effect, and attain to greater beauty of form, when .scattered judiciously in groups upon turf; the groups properly connected and mixed with lower growths, so as to form a whole : what is called dotting, I would espe- cially avoid. Masses are, however, sometimes required for boundaries, and to conceal disagreeable objects. One of the most de!ightf\d pleasure-grounds I have seen is at Packington Hall, in Warwickshire, in which I do not remember to have observed a clump, BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 809 proporlv- so called. The surface slopes from the south and west fronts of the mansion to a lake and parklike pastures. The pleasure-ground is extensive, and has an undulating surface, which is planted with groups of trees and shrubs on the turf, forming lawns, thickets, &c. The walks through it are judiciously arranged ; and, indeed, the whole is so contrived, that it appears much more extensive than it really is : it contains a variety of trees, including a group of noble cedars on the highest ground, and some ancient yews and cypresses near the house. In a bright summer evening, tb.e view from the western terrace to the lake and rising grounds bej-ond it, bounded by wood, presents a beautiful natural picture. I would attempt something of this kind at the back of the villa ; the principal lawn in the pleasure-ground being in front of the bay window at the end of the librarj-, with some architectural embellishment, as a seat or temple within view. The pleasure-ground should communicate with extensive walks through the natural wood of the eminence behind the villa. These would be merely wood walks, not highly kept, with occasional openings through the trees at those points where a fine distant view, or any interesting object m the surrounding scenery, could be commanded. A few rustic seats placed at these points would be appropriate ornaments for the wood walk. 1726. The Farm. The nest appendage to the villa, which requires attention, is the farm. Every country gentleman possessing a residence such as we have described should occupy a farm of sufficient extent to supply the family with provisions ; such as meat, bread, beer, poultry, raUk, butter, cheese, &c. The perfection of rural economy is to purchase nothing which the estate can be made to produce ; and the advantage of this system, under judicious management, is, that j-ou have an abundance of everj^ thing, and a liberal style of housekeeping, at prime cost. Thus, under the system of management supposed, besides the ordinary provisions supplied by the farm, the estate generally would afford game and wildfowl ; the park and the waters in it would supply venison and freshwater fish of several kinds ; and the gardens and orchards all sorts of fruits and vegetables ; so that there would be nothing to purchase for the house, except groceries and chandlery. I have often partaken of very elegant dinners at a house in one of the midland counties, where the table was supplied almost exclusively with home produce. We had not, perhaps, a dish of sea-fish ; but we had what was much better than half-stale fish, procured from London at great expense, or from a neighbouring town when it had been, perhaps, ten days out of the water; instead of this, we had a dish of the finest carp or tench I ever met with, or probably a jack, or eels, each taken from the stew-ponds immediately before dinner, and thus eaten in the highest perfection. The meat, poultrj', and game were all home produce ; and, perhaps, a dish of oranges was the only foreign article at the dessert, which always presented a display of the finest sorts of forced and natural fryit. If it be said that it would be, perhaps, better economy to buy than to produce these luxuries, I answer, that, in that case, things are not well managed ; and probably the owner of the place is a thoughtless idle person, who does not make him- self properly acquainted with his own concerns. But, supposing it to be rather more expensive to produce than to purchase luxuries ; at all events, when you produce them, you have them in great abundance ; they are always ready on any sudden emergency; and, in fact, you have them much oftener than you would do, were you obliged to procure them from a dealer. Besides this, by producing, you afford employment and a comfort- able maintenance to many of your dependants, who would otherwise, perhaps, be supported by the poor's rate, or be breaking stones upon the roads. But the most important reason why a country gentleman should farm to a certain extent is, that it introduces him to a knowledge of agriculture, and every thing connected with land, and thus qualifies him to superintend the management of his own estate. The produce of his own farm would enable him to form a correct judgment as to the rent he should i-eceive from his tenants. He may try experiments, and introduce useful modern improvements among the neighbouring farmers. A knowledge of agriculture will also increase his ability to be useful as a country gentleman and justice of the peace ; and will cause hira to be more thought of by his neighbours, who are apt to despise those who are wholly ignorant of rural pursuits. The management of a farm is also an additional source of out-door amusement to a person residing in a retired part of the country ; and it more- over adds to his weight and consequence, by increasing the number of his dependants ; besides giving him a knowledge of the condition of the labouring classes, and enabling him to do them many little kindnesses, such as finding an industiious man a job when he is out of work, which he probably could not do if he did not occupy a farm. For these and other reasons, I think every country gentleman should be a farmer to a certain extent ; the size of the farm to be determined by the wants of his family. But I would not have him a large farmer, because a large farm is more a source of anxiety than amusement : it would occupy too much of his time and attention ; and, if not ^vell managed, would be attended with considerable expense. I would have him also a good farmer, 5 A 810 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. but not an expensive one. His object should be, to produce abundant crops by a judi- cious but not a costly mode of husbandry ; to adapt his production to his consumption ; and to have little to do with buying and selling ; because in this he is at the mercy of salesmen and dealers, and would generally purchase at the highest and sell at the lowest price. To turn the park to account, he would probably be a breeder of cattle and horses for his own supply, as well as a grazier and arable farmer. He miglit keep a large stock both of slieep and cattle, as he would have an excellent summer run for them in the park, which I would stock hard, as it is termed, both to enliven the scene, and to keep a close turf ; long rough grass being of all things most unsightly about a gentleman's place ; indeed, the use of the park, as a place of recreation, in our moist climate, would depend upon the closeness of the turf. 1727. The Farm Buildings should be placed at an easy distance from the house, either within the boundary of the park, or contiguous to some part of it near a parish road. The farm itself would, of course, be around the buildings ; and a dry gravel-walk, among the tiees in the park, should be formed between it and the house. The buildings would comprise all the requisite conveniences of a complete farmery, built round a yard, having on one side of it a very pretty comfortable residence and garden for the bailiff, whose wife would superintend the dairy and poultry. 1728. The Dairy. As the ladies would probably take an interest in the dairy and poultry-yard, I would have both complete and ornamental. The plan you have given for a dairy, § 729, is, I am aware, the best that can be adopted ; but in the present case I would, in some degree, sacrifice utility to ornamental effect, and not have the dairy entirely under ground. Let us suppose it to be a pretty cottage, sunk 3 feet into the ground, with a projecting thatched roof. At the principal entrance might be a pretty rustic porch, over the steps which descend to the passage ; in which a door on the right would admit you to the dairy ; the floor being paved with black and white marble in diamonds, or a mosaic pavement that would admit of being washed and occasionally flooded in hot weather, I once saw a dairy in which a spring rose into a marble basin in the centre, where the pats of butter were cooled. Round the room marble slabs might be supported on low arclies ; the slabs being below the level of the outer surface, on whicli the white milk-pans would be placed. The china cream-pots would stand in the two arched recesses at one end. From the slabs to the cornice of the coved ceiling the wall might be covered with Dutch tiles, coloured or white. A good deal of china might be intro- duced in the dairy, both for use and ornament ; and a lady of taste might make the dairy a pretty little bijou to show to her visiters. A second door might open to a place where the cheese was made and pressed, or to a passage connected with the bailiff's house, in which any airy garret would do for a cheese-room. I need not add that the dairy scullery should be abundantly supplied with water, and that the whole should be properly drained; having a sink connected with the wash-vat for the waste milk and whey, and every thing as convenient for the dairy-maid as possible. It should be in a shady place, say in an open grove of trees, and might be built of flints or any rude masonry, with the roof thatched ; the porch should be of unbarked trunks and boughs of trees ; the door might be made to correspond with the porch, by covering it with the thick stems of ivy, in a pattern, which I have seen done with a very pretty effect. 1729. The Farmery. After your description of one, it will be needless to give an account of the various agricultural buildings ; but one thing is indispensable in a gentle- man's farm yard, and that is, a clean path around it, paved perhaps, or dry and clean at any rate, so that even ladies may inspect the whole, and look at the cattle without being over shoes in dung and dirt. Farm yards are too frequently offensively dirty places, without being necessarily so ; and cleanliness should prevail in every thing connected with a gentleman's residence, even in the pigsty. 1730. Farm- Labourers' Lodge. As labourers expect, and perhaps justly, rather more attention to their comforts from a gentleman than from a renting farmer, I would add to the ordinary farm-buildings a small-sized room, with a fireplace, and a few benches and a table, over which I would have a bed-room, containing say two plain but comfortable beds. When labourers work at a distance from home, they usually bring their dinner with them, which they eat, in a comfortless way, in the barn, or sometimes in the stable. Had they such a room as I have described, they might light a wood fire, and warm their provisions, and thus take their meals in some sort of comfort. At haytime and harvest, and at other seasons, many labourers go a great distance for work, and are often some weeks from home. During their absence they are frequently obliged to sleep in barns, and have scarcely as many comforts as the cattle in the yard : but, in the building I have mentioned, they would have a comfortable sitting-room and bed-room, wliich the dairy-maid might keep clean ; it might also be part of her duty to dress their provisions, and thus they would have most of the ordinary conveniences which they find at home. Where the under carters or ploughboys sleep at the farm, as they do in some countries BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 811 in miserable lofts over the stables, I would have a bed-room provided for them in the bailifiTs lodge, that they might be under his inspection. Young labourers often acquire habits of drunkenness and immorality by sleeping at the farm, where they are away from the control of parents and masters ; one of the many evils which have arisen to the peasantry from the system of large farms. When the land was in small farms, the young carters and ploughboys usually slept and boarded in the master's house. 1731. The Keeper^s Lodge. I beUeve I have now mentioned all the usual appur- tenances to a gentleman's country residence, except the keeper's lodge, which should be a pretty picturesque cottage, on a woody eminence in the park, where it would be extremely ornamental. 1732. The nUage. I will add a few observations upon the sort erf" village which would contribute to the general beauty of the place. I should choose to have the vUlage at no great distance from the house,' for the sake of cheerfulness. A pretty comfortable village is always a pleasing object, and even the " rural sounds " of a vUlage, when heard at a distance, would remove that unpleasant feeling of cheerless solitude, which is often expe- rienced at a secluded country-house. The large mansion of a nobleman is often placed in a very retii-ed situation, in the centre of an immense park. The numerous visiters, and the host of servants and retainers, produce a sort of bustle and cheerfulness about it, while the family is resident there ; but, when silence reigns around the deserted mansion, it is commonly as cheerless as a palace in the wilderness. As I should desire, therefore, to have the viUa in the immediate neighbourhood of a villeige for the sake of cheerfulness, I should, of course, wish it to be a pretty village ; because no other can be cheerful. Now, there are several kinds of pretty villages. The effect of an irregular street of old-fashioned cottages is often highly picturesque ; but I should prefer a scattered village, in which the houses are arranged in groups, as being more convenient, and gene- rally more pleasing. Cottages crowded together in a continued row have too much of the appearance, and have in fact many of the inconveniences and nuisances, of a dirty back street in a country town. The people live too close together ; if the street be narrow, the houses are dark ; there is not a free circulation of air, nor space for proper drainage, and the gardens are necessarily small narrow slips, shaded by the numerous trees and hedgerows, and of course unproductive. These inconveniences are avoided, and a more cheerful effect produced, where the houses are scattered in irregular groups, and at irregiJcir distances, on each side of the road, and aroimd the tillage green ; some of the &rm houses, with their numerous buildings standing at a little distance in fields, and the whole embellished by the surrounding pastures and hedgerow timber. L'nder this arrangement you have not the nuisance of a dirty village street ; the cottages are more light and cheerful ; the gardens and orchards would be more extensive and more pro- ductive ; and the cottage allotments, whether of arable land or pasture, might be con- tiguous to the houses. Supposing, then, that the approach to the park entrance of the villa was through a scattered village, we wiU suppose, in the first place, that a good road passes through it, wide and open, and always diy and clean. At the beginning of the village the houses would be thinly scattered on one or both sides of the road. Perhaps the first dwelling you would observe, would be a respectable farm house and buildings standing retired from the road, in a field, with a few old trees around it. A little farther on, perhaps a pretty double cottage, with its orchards and low outhouses, would stand on a gentle eminence backed by a copse ; opposite to it a break in the hedgerow timber would probably let in a view with a group of cottages in the fi.elds at a short distance. As you proceed, the groups of cottages would most likely increase in number, some close to the road, others a little removed from it, all weU sheltered by hedgerows and trees ; tUl you pass by a rude bridge over a shallow stream which crosses the village green, and nms along a rocky channel for a short distance near the road ; the banks fringed with underwood. At that end of the green where the high road crosses it wovdd be some of the village tradesmen's houses ; in a retired spot, at the other end, would be a pretty building for the school ; and round the whole a few scattered cottages and farm houses, and plenty of trees. A narrow road would in all probability branch off from the main road across the green, passing through the brook by a ford ; the green would also be intersected by footpaths, and there would most likely be stepping-stones, or one or two rude foot-bridges over the brook : it woidd not be a pretty green without a few old thorns, and two or three old trees, or groups of trees, scattered over it. Of covu^se, there would generally be a donkey or two, or perhaps two or three of the cottagers' cows, or some geese grazing on it ; and there would always be children playing, and the \illagers passing to and fro, to contribute to the rural effect of the scene. When the road had passed the green, the cottages would probably be less frequent, and the trees thicker in the hedge- rows as you advance to the park gate, which would appear to terminate the road ; which Would, however, branch off to the right or left as convenience required before you reached the gate. The above is a description of hundreds of villages to be seen in all parts of 812 COTTAGE, FAIIIVJ, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. England. A person having such a village near his place would, probably, not improve it by altering the accidental arrangement of the groups of cottages ; and, if these chanced to be old and picturesque, much taste and judgment would be required in rebuilding or repairing them. I should scarcely have courage to pull down a fine old specimen of a picturesque cottage, unless in a case of extreme necessity. Generally speaking, an old cottage ruay be so repaired and restored as to preserve the picturesque exterior, while the interior was made convenient and comfortable : but when an old cottage stands in a damp unpleasant situation, and presents an exterior too wretched and ruinous to be pleasingly picturesque, in that case it is a nuisance, and should of course be rebuilt upon a better site ; a ruin of any kind, though generally a picturesque object, being never a pleasing one, when it is supposed to be the squalid habitation of a wretched fellow-creature. In rebuilding the cottages, I should use the material most prevalent in the neighbourhood, that the village might form a whole. Every district produces its proper building material : thus, in some counties, stone is the prevailing material ; in others, brick ; in others, chalk and flints. A mixture of houses of all these materials would only have an appearance of propriety, where all were procured in the immediate neighbourhood. Stone is generally the best and most picturesque material ; and most people have taste enough to perceive the staring disagreeable effect of a new red brick cottage, when placed in contrast with old stone buildings. There is an exception to this in favour of a mixture of wooden framework, filled up with brick or plaster ; this being an early inode of building, of which some specimens remain in most neighbourhoods ; and such cottages are always picturesque. In the case of rebuilding a village, great judgment would be required in selecting the designs, as, however beautiful the situation might be, the pleasing effect of the whole would depend chiefly upon the style of the buildings. In selecting the designs, there- fore, there are two or three things that I would especially avoid. In the first place, I would on no account have the cottages all alike ; and in the second place, I would discard those fanciful comfortless dwellings which are often erected as ornamental cottages. In my opinion, a cottage should present a picturesque simple exterior, conveying an idea of internal comfort and convenience ; and models of this kind are most common, I think, among our old-fashioned English cottages. I would build them chiefly in this style, beginning with that style of cottage in which wooden frainework prevails, and imitating all the various kinds of picturesque houses which are suitable to cottage residences. In many cases a cottage might be rebuilt exactly as it was in its old state, and, in pulling down, some of the old parts might be sufficiently good to remain ; and I should, there- fore, suffer such parts to remain, and build to them when they happened to present a pleasing specimen of picturesque Architectuie. If the cottages were thus managed, judiciously grouped, and properly mixed with the enclosures and timber trees, a pretty interesting village might be produced in almost any situation ; but, its beauty would be greatly increased, if it chanced to stand on a well wooded varied surface, and near to the boundary of the richly wooded park of a gentleman's residence. 1733. The Village Church. The beauty of the village would be very incomplete with- out a handsome village church ; and, though I describe it last in order, I consider it first in importance, and would make it the most interesting feature about the place. In all rural scenery, the towers and spires of churches generally form the most striking objects in the landscape. To a man of cultivated mind, who has resided much in the country, there is always something interesting in the appearance of a village church, in which he and the lowly rustic can both forget their cares, and worship God in peace ; and where all must be laid " each in his narrow cell," when the cares and enjoyments of this life are quenched in death. But I am far from considering this as a mere matter of taste. I will suppose the owner of the villa I have described a perfect specimen of a respectable country gentleman, formed after the model of Evelyn of Wootton ; a man of taste and refinement, a respectable scholar, an affectionate husband, a good father, a kind master, a considerate landlord, the true friend and general resource of his poorer neighbours, and a man of sincere and unaffected piety. A person of this character would think it a discredit to his taste and better feelings to have a comfortless dilapidated church. He would rather wish to have it a beautiful interesting edifice, worthy of the purpose to which it is devoted. We will suppose it, therefore, a fine old building, in the florid style of Gothic, preserved by his ancestors, with religious care, in its original state. As the population of the parish would be small, we will suppose the church to consist only of an ample nave and chancel, with two small transepts ; and a handsome tower or spire at the west end, or over the intersection of the transepts. The windows would be small, except the great east window, and all filled with stained glass ; those in the nave having old coats of arms ; and in the cast window a fine scripture subject. Entering the church by a rich porch at the south side, near the lower end, on your left would be the beautiful old Gothic font ; over it the richly carved oak loft, for the organ, schools, and singers. Standing under the loft there would be a perspective view up the BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 813 aisle to the chancel, terminated by the east window. On each side the aisle would be old oak benches, the ends richly carved with ornamental fineals ; facing you on one side of the chancel arch would be the carved oak pulpit, on the other the reading-desk. One transept would be the vestry, in which would be the stairs to the pulpit ; the other transept woidd contain the descent to the hot air stove under tlie church ; and the coals, &c., used about the church. I would have the chancel wainscoted with carved oak, in the manner of cathedral choirs, as high as the windows ; the floor paved with marble ; the ceiling of the chancel vaulted, having very rich tracery and bosses ; that of the nave, oak in a rich fi-amework, embellished with coats of arms, and supported by handsome corbels. 1 do not mention pews, as I would not have any in the church. The most beautiful interior of a village church I have seen, was that of one rebuilt by a peer of high lank, now deceased, and one of the most excellent of men in every relation of life. It did not contain a single pew. The peer and the peasant each sat on the same sort of seat ; an open bench witli a desk affixed to the back, such as are still seen in many of our old churches. Pews are comparatively a modern introduction, and often greatly disfigure a beautiful church. The churchyard should have a handsome gateway. It would probably contain a few picturesque yews or cypresses, numerous tombstones, and, perhaps, a handsome erection covering the entrance to the vault of the principal family in the parish ; and the whole would acquire a secluded and rather solemn effect from the surrounding timber in the park. Such a religious edifice would be worthy of its situation ; and with it I shall conclude my description of the villa and its appendages. Sect. II. Map of the Demesne and Park, and Ground Plan and Elevations of the House, of Beau Ideal Villa. 1734. The Engravings ivhichform the subject of this section are from drawings sent by the autlior of the preceding description (Selim). The map of the grounds has been very slightly altered by us, in order to vary the form of the boundary of the park, and to show, somewhat more in detail, the gardens and pleasure-grounds. The plans and elevations of the house have been kindly revised by one of the most distinguished Villa Architects of the present day, Charles Barry, Esq. 1735. The Demesne is shown in fig. 1435, in which a is the entrance court to the mansion ; b, the kitchen-court ; c, the stable-court ; d, the gardener's house. On the north-west front is an ancient geometrical garden, with a straight walk to the ter- race, e, on the side of the steep and thickly wooded hill. The upper and under sides of this terrace are supposed to be planted with evergreens and bulbs, so as to form a winter garden. Tiiere are three alcove seats on it, open to the south. The two extremities of this walk join other narrower walks, which descend to the American garden at the west end, and a botanic garden at the end opposite. In front of the drawing-room side of the mansion there is a descent from the terrace into an ancient English parterre, ornamented with statues, vases, fountains, and a sundial. The walks on the side of the wooded hill are of turf, but those in the lower parts of the grounds are chiefly of gravel, f, The situation of the ice-house, in a rising bank near the river, for the convenience of filling it with ice ; g, the keeper's lodge, and dog-kennels, on rising ground, and partially concealed by wood ; h, the deer-sheds, with hay-stacks in front, for feeding the deer during winter ; i, a circular Grecian temple, on rising ground, seen from the liouse ; j and k, waterfalls, seen from the house ; I, ornamental pigeon- house ; m, dairy-house and farmery to the mansion ; n, entrance lodges and garden ; 0, school-house on the village green ; p, road through the village to the turnpike ; q, parish road, passing through the estate ; r, farms belonging to the proprietor of the demesne ; s, water-mill ; t, parsonage-house, garden, and glebe ; n, church ; v, cottages of the village ; w, common, for the pasturage of the cottagers' cows during summer ; a*, stone quarry ; i/, rocky copse ; z, thick copsewood, and rising hills thickly covered with wood, intersected by green walks and grassy glades ; a', orchard; 6', sunk fence, enclosing the gardens and pleasure-ground, and changing into an iron fence where it enters the wooded hill ; c, a portion of the park beyond the parish road ; the fence on each side of the road being either a sunk wall or ha-ha, or open iron fencing, so as to show the passengers from the house ; d', a hedge, allowed to remain, in order to har- monise the park with the enclosures beyond ; e', protruding hedges, for the same purpose ; f'f', two points, between which the boundary of the park is formed by an iron fence concealed in the natural copsewood ; g' g', walks on each side of the river, open at all times to the villagers and the public. The other walks, and the public rooms of the house, may be supposed to be open for public inspection two days in the week, h' h'. Continuation of enclosed country, divided into farms, and interspersed with copses, the distance rising into hills ; i', great public road to the metropolis ; k' /f and I' l', con- tinuation of the estate. Sl-l* COTTAGE, FAR3I, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1435 BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 1435 815 — ~-^^— ^"^ fcn 5b -J-H-^ BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. SIQ Fig. 1438, the garden-court, or north-west, front of Beau Id^al Villa. Fig. 1439 is the ground plan, in which a is the entrance porch ; b, the hall ; c, t!ie 820 COTTAGE, FARM, AND ViLLA ARCHITECTURE. dravvinoToom ; d, the saloon ; e, the library ; f, tlie terrace, with a descent to an ancient flower-garden; g, the lower gallery; h, the lower housemaid's closet; i, the principal stairs ; /.-, the back stairs, which descend also to the cellars , I, the dining-room ; m, gentleman's private room ; »i, china closet ; o, butler's pantry ; p, store-room ; 0, still-room; r, housekeeper's room; s, passage to the offices; t, back entrance to the house; ?/, entrance to the kitchen-court, in which court there is an outer entrance to the cellars ; v, servants' hall ; w, kitchen ; t, back kitchen ; y, servants' dressing-room ; z, place for cleaning slioes ; a', cleaning place ; b', dry larder; c', wet larder : d', coal- house ; e', wood-house ; J", place for ashes ; g', entrance to the kitchen-court ; h', brew- house, with laundry over it; i', covered passage; /(■', wash-house ; /', store-room, the laundry extending over it also ; «(,', gentlemen's privy, entered from the garden ; «', upper servants' privy ; o', privy for female servants ; ]>', men-servant's privy ; 7 The latticework was to be of inch deal, two inches wide, three inches apart, halved together. The chimney-shaft, which is of Bath stone, and the flower galleries at the lower windows of woodwork, are both similar to those in my Design, § 231. The two rooms over the 1461 n- ■TJ-n T7~T 1 r 1 — r •) ■■ r coach and brew houses were for the occupation of an elderly couple, the coachman and his wife, who were to live on board-wages. The disposition of the rooms on the prin- 1463 1 k 1 1462 J il J t - 1 • " y-j\ TLT" J i [ '1 n -1 1. 1 !^^--i 838 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 839 840 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. -V^'^.fcNXN*. ♦- W^. * \ ^ "-"^ cipal floor was regulated by the aspect, &c., of the locality. The lobby was placed in an angle, the better to shelter the entrance door of the hall from the northerly winds. which are very cutting in that neighbourhood. The window of the morning J"'*"/" commands a view of the road ; the dining-room window is to the south-east, and the drawingroom has one in the same direction, and another to the south-west that reaches to the ground, and opens on to the terrace ; but it is sheltered by a veranda from the afternoon and evening sun, which would otherwise be very annoying. A store-room 1 consider indispensable in every country residence. The morning room, when not oc- cupied, could be used to usher visiters into while being announced. The chambers have nothing uncommon about them, unless it is those over the dining and drawing rooms, which have windows down to the floor opening under the porticoes. If either ot these, but especially the former, should be for the use of an invalid for whom it might be considered desirable to retain an equable temperature throughout the night, this VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 841 might be in a great measure accomplished by having close shutters, partly glazed, tha could be placed across the openings of the portico, so as to exclude the air ; thus the chamber would be insu- lated, and would not be af- ected by any sudden alterations of the weather. There is but one staircase in the house ; but this was in consequence of the proposed occupant not desir- ing a separate one for the servants, except from the basement ; and that is carried up from the open or beer cellar into the brewhouse, and so into the yard. The brew- house was to serve as a wash- house, &c. The large room on the attic floor, if used as a nm'sery or play-room for children, would require more air and light, and this might be obtained by opening win- dows towards the north-west that would not interfere with the present elevations. Over the dressing-room there might be a large cistern to receive a part of the water from the roof, which would supply the water-closet, and might, if desirable, be conveyed by pipes into the principal chambers. The closet in the larder was intended for table- cloths, &c , in use. The tool-house could be used for storing potatoes, as well as for depositing garden implements." The general effect of this Design is remarkably good, and the arrangement and details are most carefully considered. The plan for laying out the grounds shows Mr. Varden to have a very good taste in that department. Design V. — A Parsonage House for a particular Sitiiation in Somersetshire. 1767. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1469, which is a perspective view of the garden front. In the ground plan, fig. 1470, a is the drawing- room, twenty-eight feet by fifteen feet, with bay window, n, seven feet and a half wide, and two side outlets to the terrace ; h, dining-room, twenty feet by sixteen feet, with company and service entrances ; c, library, twenty-two feet by seventeen feet, with bath iunk in the floor and private water-closet ; rf, hall with oak staircase, closet for sticks, 5 s 842 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1470 eoFt. &c., and inner lobby ; e, housekeeper's room, with sink supplied by hot and cold water pipes from the kitchen, presses, &c. ; /, butler's pantry, with sink, 8ic., presses, &c. ; ff, servants' passage ; h, entrance porch ; i, water-closet and lobby ; k, servants' cleaning-room, and /, passage thereto from servants' hall ; m, servants' hall, thirteen feet by twelve feet, with oak dining-table and presses ; n, dairy fitted up with slate shelves, and zinc fly- wire in the windows, &c. ; o, pantry and larder, fitted up with slate shelves, and with line fly- wire in the windows, &c. ; p, scullery, with oven, copper, hot-closet, sink, &c., dresser, &c. ; q, kitchen, with steam range and close boiler at the back of it, for the supply of the bath, and the several sinks on the ground floor, and the housemaid's sink on one-pair floor; r, covered way from the kitchen-gate to the kitchen-porch, s; it, court- yard; t', flap and entrance to cellarage under the whole of the house, for ale, beer, wine, coals, coke, wood, lumber. See. &c. ; u, stable-yard; r, turfed terrace; w, lawn; .r. VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. H71 Sl-3 Ft. 10 "iiilii" I 60 Ft. lawn and shrubberies ; y, entrance, foot, and carriage gates ; z, shrubbery between liouse and church-yard; and &% public road, with footways on each side. Fig. 1471 is the one pair of stairs plan ; in which a is the best bed-room, with entrance lobby ; b, a boudoir, with bay window; c, d, e, f, andy, family bed-rooms; h, staircase; i, lobby ; k, water-closet; /, linen and store closet ; tn, servants' staircase ; n, passage through the house, with venti- lation and light at each end ; o, housekeeper and lady's maid's bed-room ; p and q, ser- vants' bed-rooms ; r, servants' passage, with housemaid's sink and closet, s ; t, upper part of the kitchen. There are lofts above the main body of the house ; and space for addi- tional bed-rooms. 1758. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by Charles Barry, Esq., the dis- tinguished Architect of the Traveller's Club-house, and of the Slanchester Institution, &c., to whom we have before acknowledged our obligation for revising the plans and views of our correspondent Selim's Beau Ideal vUla. " This Design," IVIr. Barry observes, " was made for a parsonage, to be erected in a most delightful situation in Somersetshire, com- manding an extensive view of the Mendip and "Wrington Hills, the Bristol Channel, &c. ; and ha\-ing the parish church, which is a very picturesque Gothic building, adjoining it, and in view fi-om the windows of the principal rooms. These circumstances suggested the character of the Design, and the form of the window in the lawn front, which admits of a convenient view of the surrounding scenery from the drawing-room and boudoirs. Tlie building is proposed to be erected of the stone of the countrj-, a close grit, and of a cream colour ; the coins, window-dressings, parapets, bonding, and lacing courses (vertical and horizontal bond), being rubbed, and the intermediate spaces faced with rough M-aU- stone (rubblework) in regular courses, and hammer-dressed. The cost of the building will be about jflSOO." Our readers, we are sure, will admire with us the great beauty and marked character of this Design externally ; no less than the fitness, completeness, and luxury of its internal distribution. Mr. Barry states that the local circumstances 844 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. gave rise to the style, and to the form and situation of the principal rooms and windows. This is what ought always to be the case in designing buildings for the country ; and, if it were so, every Design would be an original composition belonging to its particular locality. We admire in t>'5 Design the manner in which the principal pieces of furniture in each room are disposed and could wish that in all plans this mode were adopted. As Villa Architecture impro es, it will go hand in hand with furnishing and landscape- gardening ; and the Vil]a Architect will eventually find himself under the necessity of studying and directing both these accessary departments. Design VI. — A Cottage Villa in the Gothic Style. 1 759. The Situation is supposed to be on a gently elevated surface, on the Surrey side of the metropolis ; the garden and pleasure-ground not occupying more than half an acre, and laid out so as to include a kitchen-garden, orchard, and drying-ground, aviary, green-house, and pits in frames ; the two latter being supposed to be heated from a fire and hot-water apparatus in a hot-house and potting-shed behind the green-house. The general appearance of the house, on entering from the road, will be as in fio-. 1472. 1760. Accommodation. The principal floor, fig. 1473, shows an entrance hall, a, with billiard-table, h ; dining-room, c kitchen, d ; staircase down to the cellar floor, and up to the bed-rooms, e ; library,/; and draw- ingroom, g. The dining-room and 1 473 ^^^ ^ / /-* drawingroom are each twenty feet ^^~ '' ' — square, and twelve feet high to the top of the cornice ; the dining-room is two feet higher in the centre than at the sides, liaving a groined ceiling; or showing the entire struc- ture of the roof. The chamber plan, fig. 1474, contains a sitting or dress- ing room, i, communicating with the best bed-room, h ; two bed- rooms, k ; and a nursery, /. 1761. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of brick, either covered with cement, and coloured to imitate weather-stained stone ; or of brick stained in imitation of the effects of time. All the exterior timberwork is sup posed to be either oak, or well-seasoned deal painted in imitation of that wood; and the covering of the roof should be tiles. Fig. 1475 is an elevation of the entrance font. Fig. 1476 shows the barge-board and pendant of the entrance front. Fig. 1477 shows the corresponding barge-board of the garden front. Fig 1478 is a fac- simile of the gable of a house at Ypres, in Normandy, taken by the Architect, and intended occupier of this house, wliich it is proposed to imitate on one of the end gables. 1474 ■^=^L.JF^ VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 8i5 1475 U^i^l 1762. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 91,896 feet; which, at 6d. per foot, amounts to ^"2297 : 8s. If the external Gothic ornaments were added, the expense would be increased by at least ^"lOO. 1763. Remarks. Tliis Design was fui-nished us by William Frome Smallwood, Esq., a young Ar- chitect of great taste ; who has devoted his attention chiefly to the Gothic style, and who has lately spent a considerable time in Normandy and the Nether- lands, delineating the antiquities of those countries. Mr. Smallwood intended to erect this cottage for himself; and the ^•illa-like arrangement of the interior, and the highly enriched Gothic of the elevation, e^^nce the great elegance of his taste. The first villa-like featm-e, speaking with refer- ence to the ordinary construction of buildings of this size about London, is the largeness of the hall. Every body knows, that, in houses with even double the accommodation here shown, the entrance is com- monly into a narrow passage or lobby, generally serving also as a place for the staircase. The effect of this upon a stranger is to show want of ease and ample means on the part of the occu'^ant ; and con- sequently to indicate that he cannot oelong to that class of society, whose means are comparatively unlimited, and whose taste, being unrestrained by considerations of expense, is supposed to be good. Perhaps it may be said, in defence of these narrow- entranced small houses, that they are suited to the fortunes of their occupants ; and are therefore more true to nature, than any attempts at a style which properly belongs to men of greater wealth. We allow the force of this argument ; but, at the same time, we feel that the source of all improvement has its origin in the desire of individuals to better their condition ; and we consider that individual to be higher in the scale of worth, who endeavom-s to raise his taste, and give evidence of it to his friends and the world, than he who merely endeavours to increase his wealth. We therefore cannot but approve of displaying this taste, in a preeminent manner, on houses, gardens, furniture, and everj' thing connected with home. But, if this may be said of builders of houses in general, how much more might be said of an Architect, who builds his own house, and who is unquestionably bound to set an example to the public ! The second feature which we shall notice in this Design is the ceiling of the dining-room being open to the roof, which affords a fine opportunity for an Architect to display his knowledge of the principles of dj-namics, as well as of the characteristic features of the different varieties of Gothic Architecture. Tlie barge boards for the entrance and garden fronts, and the small dormer window, are of highly appropriate beauty ; that for the end is not less curious, and, if executed, would at once be a standing memorandum of tne Architect's taste, and of his travels. 846 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Design VI L — A Villa in the Old English Manner, adapted to a gent/y elevated Situation, with good Views on three Sides. 1764. The Situation of this villa is supposed to beat a moderate distance from a town, on a surface rather elevated than otherwise ; and commanding views of the surrounding coimtry in at least three different quarters, as from a by fc to c, in fig. 1480. Tlic y J- U' '^7 VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. •^ ^ 1480 ,,0'-'-^-'-"""""'"*'""" "'"'"' 847 "'■'-'-(- #<. approach road, \ '^'^-v^ ^S^^!?- 'fe-z 5sf Ay '"^ iX'"." 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 K H- "^" ^ _i_ ^^■ i _ 1 K-^i 'ji- - ~^^~\ -Hrl- -4 =# 1 ■'^ P-^ -i t- i 1 1 1 1 1 1 \ 1 I im-r- \ 1 '^'^ im^ &'^i. ■■ 1519 ' j=ilj l!H!r-ti «:=!=t;± I '^^^YA-yAy,' ir I i- : I;:! r 150) ^rj^gfefe^4^4^a^.>^^ : ,. 1 :fi^m-fAigmiimim& . : i m I r^i ''1 i't 1 I i i'i I rRT diEiaj 4-U-.4- a "n~i '■ IT Eaasfi M hiD FT DJiBEHB ^WM^-A r-^\iyn B H m I5 TIB I 1522 1523 , ; ^'.j-^l ]•■ !■ ■{ ■' ■■" ;■■■■■'«?- -.'11 I j— j j-^j j — i 1 — 1 — 1 1 ' ■ . ' . a ) T T T M i I ! ■ i . 1 JJ-nTTTEt.-I-II i;^^« mmm.AHi;:i^h..^m. ^:\ximmkixi. --^ 1524 B ! I i J I U : .U" , i :'V-.'M m WT >i^ T[ 1 1 1 I ',f^ i-r Ffrt : 1 i ' r ! i i ES 864- COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AUCHITECTUliE. 1525 1527 1526 lidJ. VJ_L tU-izl 1528 1529 _r: r' "Jj^: t -^ ] I ^^ ^1 J^ 1 rri 1 r^ rr ■ fi, I, 1 .__ 1 -IHiH) the flat over the library, Sec, may be laid with tessellated pavement, or with the ornamental quarries, or paving tiles, of Mr. Wright of Shelton, near Newcastle under Line, Staf- fordshire ; of which we shall give some account, accompanied by figures, when treating of the finishing and fitting up of villas. The vases at the front and at the garden entrances are to be of baked earth or artificial stone, and the statues either of artificial stone or of marble. If the cost of the latter material be objected to, terra cotta or Austen's artificial stone may be employed, as both are of moderate expense, and stand well in the open air. Should it be preferred, however, vases of a larger size than those near the entrance, and of a different form, may be substituted for statues. The small vases on the piers of the balus- trading are to be of baked earth ; the sculpture group in the centre of the elevation is to be of stone ; and the latticework of the portico of wood, painted stone colour. Tlie piers, &c., of the upper walls are to project four inches and a half; and all the semi- circular-headed openings are to have architraves round them. The iron railing of the terrace is to be according to fig. 1530, to a scale of one inch to a foot, though a plainer sort is shown in the elevations, in order to prevent confusion in the drawing. 1786. To render the Villa fire-proof, various plans may be adopted. We shall first describe one suggested by Mr. Varden, and shall afterwards give some others. 1787. Mr. Varden's Plan. " It appears probable that common fir or oak joists witli their lower edges chamfered, and coated over with a mixture of alum, black lead, clay, and lime, or some similar composition, would (if closely floored above with earthenware tiles, bedded all round into the plastering, the joists being made air-tight) resist the action of flames, at least for a considerable time. Fire could not descend through such a flooring so as to communicate with the rooms below, till the tiles used in it had become red hot ; neither could it ascend until the tiled floor above gave way from the burning of the joists ; which, if coated as proposed, would not take fire from below, till the tiling over them acquired a sufficient heat to cause the distillation of the turpentine from the wood. In general, there is not furniture enough of a combustible nature in any room to do this. The battening against the outer walls might be of larch, as that wood burns less freely than most others ; but if the walls were brick, or lined with brick, battening of any kind will be unnecessary. If this plan should be thought likely to answer the end proposed, houses built in the common manner might be altered at a moderate expense, by taking up the VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 865 boarded floors, and substituting earthenware tiles, plain or ornamented, according to tlie character of the house. 1530 1788. Mr. Frost's Plan for constructing fire-proof Buildings is, to form the floors of hollow earthenware tubes embedded in cement, and combined in such a manner as to be, in effect, one artificial flag-stone of the size of the room. These hollow tubes, for which Mr. Frost took out a patent some years ago, are square in the section, about an inch and a half on the side externally, with a tubular space of an inch and a quarter on the side internally. They are formed of brick earth, prepared in a superior manner, and pressed through moulds by machinery. The tubes are each about two feet long ; and the mode of forming a floor or roof of them is as follows ; — The centring, after being prepared and fixed in the usual manner, is first covered with a coating of cement of a quality suflSciently fine to form the ceiling of the apartment to be floored over ; and, if it is desired that there should be mouldings or ornaments in this ceiling or its cornices, moulds for them can be placed iii the centring, so as to form a part of it. One, or, in some cases, two coats of cement being laid over the centring, a stratum of the square tubes, laid side by side, and breaking joint, is next to be bedded in fine cement, and the interstices between them also filled in with that material. One thin coating of cement is then laid over the whole stratum ; and, in a week, when this is dry, another stratum of tubes is laid over the first, in a contrary direction, bedded and filled in with cement as before, and finished by a coating of the same material ; which, when dry, may have a second coating to serve as the floor of an apartment, or the covering of a roof, as the case may be. Where the space to be covered is not wider than ten feet, Mr. Frost conceives, and indeed has found upon trial (at a house. No. 6, Bankside, London, where he resided when he explained to us his process), that two strata of tubes would be sufficient ; but for greater widths he would employ three, four, or half a dozen strata ; or he would introduce iron girders to support artificial flag-stones of less thickness. There can be little doubt of the success of this plan ; but, as both cast and wrought iron are now so cheap, a simpler and less expensive mode is to tie cast-iron or stone abutments together with wroughl>iron rods, and to form the flooring or roofing between by four-inch brick arches, or layers of plain tiles bedded in cement. Flat roofs and floors of immense strength are formed in this manner, in and about London. Near us, at Bayswater, there is a public house with a flat roof so formed, which, on Sundays and other holidays, is crowded with guests ; and a veranda, ten feet broad, with a flat roof formed of two courses of tiles bedded in cement, is brought to a level at top with that material, and supports as many persons as can sit upon it. 1789. Fire-proof Floors and Roofs formed of Arches of Coomhs or EartJienware Pots, This is an old French invention, described in the Mechanics' Magazine, vol. viii. p. 354, as having been 'adopted in that architectui'al deformity the new palace at Pimlico. There the arches are formed of hollow pots, as being lighter than solid bricks. These arches spring from stone abutments which rest on the flanges of iron girders placed five feet apart. The length of the cast-u-on girders is from twenty to thirty feet. The pots are like flower-pots, but are without rims ; they are four inches in diameter at the mouth, and six inches deep outside measure ; the diameter at the bottom is such as that, in an arch of five feet span, the rise in tlie centre may not be more than six inches. The S H 8(iG COTTAGE, FARMj AND VILLA ARCIIlTECTUREv space above the arches may either be brouglit to a level, with bricks and cement ; or a flooring of ornamental tiles, or marble ; or a boarded floor on joists, or in panels without joists, may be formed over it. Where a roof is to be placed over the arches, their haunches may be brought to a level with brickwork ; and afterwards covered either with common cement, or, as in the case of the Pimlico Palace, with what is called Lord Stan- hope's composition. Tliis is composed of chalk, coal-tar, and sand ; and is laid on hot, and gauged to the thickness of five eighths of an inch with a templet made for that pur- pose. The composition is then smoothed with large heated flat irons ; and several coats of it are required. Over the last coat slates are bedded, while it is yet boiling hot. For details, see AlecJt. Mae;., vol. xviii. p. 339. 1790. To render the commonest Description of Houses fire-proof; or, at all events, greatly to diminish the risk from fire, two things are requisite ; first, to form all stair- cases of stone, or to have the skeleton of the staircase of ironwork, and the treads of the steps of stone ; and, secondly, to avoid having any hollow partitions or floors. A house having a stone or iron staircase, and having all the partitions either of four-inch brick- work, or of brick nogging, in whatever way it might be set on fire, could never be burnt down, if ordinary exertions were made to extinguish the flames ; and, at all events, could never endanger human life. One apartment might be set on fire, but before the flames could spread to that under it or over it, or to a staircase adjoining it, the fire might readily be put out. In a house so constructed, there would be no piece of timber that was not in close contact with mortar, at least on one side ; and all the strong pieces of timber, such as joists, rafters, quartering in partitions, &c., would be closely embedded in mortar on two sides. Where the partitions could not be made entirely of brick or brick nogging, the interstices might be filled up with a mortar prepared of clay with a small proportion of lime. The same material might be filled in between the joists, and, where it was desired to render the roof fire-proof, the rafters might be made of iron, or the space between wooden rafters might be filled in with this mortar. We are qware that one objection to this practice would be, the greater length of time that newly built houses would require to be rendered sufficiently dry for habitation, and also the risk of decay from dry rot when imperfectly seasoned timber was used ; it would also add something to the original cost. All these objections, however, may be considered of minor importance compared with the degree of security which would be thus obtained from accidents by fire. Where the expense of cast-iron girders is an objection, arches of brickwork may be formed, nine inches thick, and of a rise proportionate to the resistance of the walls against which they are made to abut. In the spandrils of these arches, walls may be carried up to such a height as to form, like the girders, abutments for lateral arches, which may be formed of pots, like those before mentioned. This would take the greater part of the thrust of the floor from the side walls, by reducing it nearly to a perpendicular pressure. Were the public fully alive to the importance of having their houses fire-proof, a plan of this sort would very soon be brought to perfection. The panels of all doors and window-shutters in a fire-proof house may be formed of sheet iron, which, kept well painted, would last many years ; and the astragals of the windows might be formed of wrought iron, or hollow brass or copper, like those used in hot- houses. 1 791. To render Houses already built comparatively fire-proof, all the interstices between the floors, in the partitions, and in the roof, where there was a ceiling formed to the rafters, might perhaps be filled in with earthy matter in a state of powder. This powder might be clay or loam mixed with a small proportion of Roman cement ; it might be injected into the vacuities, through small orifices, by some description of forcing-pump or bellows, which, while it forced in the powder, would permit the escape of the air; and, while this operation was going forward, steam might be injected at the same time, so as to mix with the powder, and be condensed by it ; by which means, the whole mass would be solidified with a minimum of moisture. In short, in rendering houses fire- proof, the next important object to using fire-proof materials is, that of having all the walls and partitions, and even the steps of wooden staircases, filled in with such materials as will render them in effect solid. On examining into the causes of the rapidity of the spread of the flames in London houses when on fire, it will almost invariably be found, tliat, whatever may have occasioned the fire to break out, the rapidity of its pro- gress has been in proportion to the greater or less extent of the lath and plaster par- titions, the hollow wooden floors, and the wooden staircases. Were the occupiers of houses sufficiently aware of the danger from lath and plaster partitions, especially when they enclose staircases, they would never occupy such houses, or, if they did, they would not give such rents for them, as they would for houses with brick- nogging partitions. It appears to us to be the duty either of the general or local government or police to see that no houses whatever are built without stone or iron staircases ; and that no partitions or floors are made hollow ; or, if they are, that VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 867 ».he materials should be iron and tiles, or slates, or stones, or cement, or other earthy «:omposition. 1 792. Any Building miyht he rendered completely Jire-proof by avoiding the use of timber in every thing, except fittings up and finishing. The floors might be formed of flat tUes and cement, and covered with ornamental tiles ; or flooring may be made of composition, and polished in imitation of scagliola, or artificial marble. The roofs might be made flat, and covered in the manner already described, § 1789 ; and the outer walls of the building might be tied together in all directions by wrought-iron rods made fast to stone bond, as broad as the wall is thick, the stones cramped or dovetailed together, and carried completely round the walls, about the level of the centre of each floor. The netting or latticework of iron rods, connected with this chain of stone bond, being thickly embedded in cement, and cased with strata of flat tiles, would be kept from extremes of temperature throughout the year ; so that the difference in their contraction and expansion, during summer and winter, would be of no practical importance. Every floor of a house thus formed, would be, in effect, a single flag-stone, and, as the iron rods would be prevented from oxidising, it would probably last for ages. It is easy to conceive the skeleton of an entire house, thus constructed, the perpendicular supports being brick or stone piers, three, four, or six feet apart ; the horizontal bond on these supports, of flag-stone of the width of tlie intended thickness of the walls or partitions, and all the horizontal floors or vertical panels of iron rods and wires covered on one or on both sides with plain tiles coated with cement. Even the staircases miglit be so con- structed and covered. In the case of the floors of rooms, square or nearly so, there might be circles of thin flat cast iron, laid on the horizontal rods, and made fast to them, which would serve as struts ; and oblong rooms might have two or more cast-iron circles, or ovals with plates of cast iron in the direction of their short diameters, to serve the same purpose. The outer walls might have double panels of wrought-iron rods and wires with intervals between, so as to form hollow walls ; so that houses con- structed in this manner might be rendered equally impermeable by cold or heat as those with thick walls, or with hollow walls of masonry. There would be no objection to houses of this description, having all the doors and windows framed of timber, pro- vided the panels and astragals were filled in with iron. As the iron rods and wires need not be of great diameter ; perhaps, in ordinary cases, of half an inch for the rods, and one eighth of an inch for the wires, and half an inch in thickness, with three inches in breadth for the cast-iron circles ; the expense, even for the smallest houses, would not be an insu- perable objection. Were the attention of the legislature turned to this subject, with the view of protecting those who at present cannot protect themselves, we mean dwellers in town houses of the conmioner kinds ; the government would probably direct experi- ments to be made, so as to bring this mode of construction, or some similar mode, to a degree of perfection which would soon render it general. 1793. Protection against Fire. Next in importance to the buDdingof fire-proof houses, is the mode of arranging a general system of police for the extinction of fires, both in town and country. On this subject, a correspondent, J. Robison, Esq. Sec. R.S.E., whose letter, dated Feb. 8th, 1 833, we have received since we commenced these paragraphs, has the following observations. : — " I have long entertained the idea that the protection agamst fire is inadequate, though sometimes costly establishments are maintained, as has, until lately, been the case in Edinburgh and London. In Edinburgh, matters have been put on a better footing since the year 1825, and I believe there is now no city in Europe where property is so well protected, or at so small an expense. I have had some corre- spondence with the last and the present administrations, about a plan for extending a uni- form system of fire-engine establishments all over Britain, by forming a regular disciplined corps of firemen at Woolwich, and furnishing ofiicers and instructors from it to pro- vincial corps to be established by tlie municipal authorities on the spot. I have not suc- ceeded so far as I could wish, but I have made some impression ; and the first fruits of it are now developing themselves inj'our metropolis, where the Insurance Companies have begun to act in concert in getting up a regular corps on the model of the Edinburgh one, and have bribed away the superintendent from this place to put him at the head of it. 'I"he connection with the police will follow next, and, when experience shall have shown the truth of what I have urged, some person about the government oflSces wiU step for- ward with the whole of my plan, claiming it as his own, and will, perhaps, get public thanks for it. Provided the plan be adopted, I care but little who gets the credit of it." The most complete fire-police with which we are acquainted is that at St. Petersburgh. It is entirely under the management of the general police there, which, it is well known is a regularly organised body, such as our correspondent contemplates. We passed the winter of 1813 in that city, during which several large fires happened, and were very promptly extinguished. Among other apparatus, we recollect a system of ladders attached to a frame, which could be elevated to any particidar point by machinery worked on the 868 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. ground. The ladders were slid past one another in the manner of a pocket telescope, and could be elevated to any angle, or projected horizontally. There was also a plat- form formed by a frame five or six feet square, filled in with wirecloth, which worked on pivots, and could be elevated or projected at any angle with the greatest rapidity ; the wirecloth platform, or frame, in consequence of turning on pivots, being always in a horizontal position, for the purpose of receiving those who had no other chance of escape than by jumping on it. These apparatus were invented by a gentleman of the name of Hastie, a Scottish Architect and engineer in the service of the Russian government. Similar, and various other fire engines will be found described hi the Mechanics' Maga- zine, and in the very excellent work of Mr. Braidwood on Fire Engines, published at Edinburgh in 1830. 1794. The Chimneys, in this Design, Mr. Varden observes, " are all brought pretty much into the centre of the house, and are arranged in two lines, in pairs, at equal dis- tances, with the view of making them ornamental ; for, where they cannot be concealed (and it is doubtful if that attempt should ever be made), the only alternative is to make their appearance as agreeable as possible. Our modern Architects have long been endeavouring to do this, though but few of them have succeeded in the attempt ; and hence it is, that, in buildings of the present day, the chimney-tops are generally the most unsightly parts of the edifice. This often arises from their terminating too abruptly, and being treated as pots, not as shafts. There are no remains of antiquity that give us any hints on the subject of chimneys ; we are, therefore, left to our own ingenuity, which has hitherto, in most cases, proved insufficient. In the old English country-houses, the chimney shafts form one of the most prominent and agreeable features of the style ; and there does not appear any reason why the chimneys of modern buildings should not be equally conspicuous and ornamental. Of course, the form must be in some degree altered, in order to assimilate with the style of Architecture ; and, whenever there is any attempt at classical effect, perhaps an adaptation of the elegant Roman candelabra would be more suitable than the diminutive altar-like forms we are in the habit of seeing employed for chimney-tops. In the present Design, it has been a-ttempted to exemplify the above principles. The chimney-tops of this villa are to be of cement, of baked earth or artificial stone, or of real stone. Of these inaterials, cement is the least to be de- pended upon ; as it is generally found to crack, and scale off, after having been exposed to the weather for a few years. Figs. 1531 to 1537 are patterns of chimney-tops, from which a choice may be made. In the elevation, fig. 1515, the first flue from the left hand is the air-shaft from the wine-cellar, that passes up the corner pier of the portico : the second flue is for ventilating the hall and staircase ; the third shaft is from the chim- ney of the morning room ; the fourth is an air-shaft from the beer-cellar ; the fifth is the drawingroom flue; the sixth is the bed-room flue; the seventh an air-shaft from the servants' hall ; the eighth is the dining-room flue ; the ninth, the dining-room air-shaft; the tenth, the bed-room flue; and the eleventh and twelfth, the flues of the library and the footman's bed-room, both of which pass up the piers of the portico. In the elevation of the north end, fig. 1516, the first shaft from tlie left hand is the VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. «(>9 oven flue, and the second is the air-shaft from the scullery, botli of which pass up one of tlie piers of the portico. 1535 lJ:i(3 1537 The thirdis the air-shaft from the pantry ; the fourth is the flue from the copper in the scul- lery ; the fifth is the flue of the servants' hall ; the sixth is the bed- room flue ; the seventh and eighth are the kit- chen flue and air-shaft ; the ninth is the air- shaft of the dairy ; the tenth, the air-shaft of the store-room ; the eleventh is from the furnace; and the twelfth from the footman's pan- try : the last two pass up the corner pier of the portico. If air-flues should be considered unnecessary, a row of single shafts will be sufiicient for the smoke-flues. The walls on which these sliafts stand are twenty-two inches thick, to allow of the flues being gathered, that is, inclined either to the right or left, so as to bring them up to their proposed places without disfiguring the rooms. The diameter of the shafts should be ten inches in the clear ; that of the flues may be an inch or two larger, and the latter may be lined with earthenware tubes, or built with Chadley's chimney bricks." 1795. Cister?is, for containing hard and soft water, to supply the different apartments, may be placed on the roof. 1796. Cohimns, IMr. Varden observes, " are not introduced in this villa, as they cannot be employed with propriety in such small buildings. The bad effect of columns in the porticoes of many villas near London has been frequently noticed by Architects of taste ; and the similarity that exists among them is so great, that they look as though they were all bought ready made. The builders seem quite indifferent as to their form or size, or their suitableness to the building which they are designed to decorate. To them a portico is a portico, and whether it is put to a large or a small house, in front or at the side, is of no consequence ; the same kind is applied every where, and very fre- quently with great impropriety. A column, when of a large size, is the most noble feature in Architecture ; but the little wooden posts dignified by that name, stuck about some modern English villas, bring the beautiful orders of antiquity into disrepute, without in any way improving the taste of the public, or disseminating architectural knowledge." 1797. The Entrance Door of a Villa, says Mr. Varden, " should never be near the corner of the building, for this produces the idea of a badly arranged giound plan. In every case the entrance should be distinctly marked, in order that a stranger may not have to look for it twice : when the spectator has hastily glanced over the whole building, the doorway should be the first thing for his eye to rest upon ; and, that this may be the case, it must display stronger contrast of light and shade than any other part of the structure. In the present Design, I have endeavoured to accomplish this by having a vestibule and arches, that must always be in deep shadow, brought into proximity with a projecting gallery that will receive the strongest light ; and which, in its turn, is relieved by coming in front of a deep portico. " 1798. When anj/ peculiar feature, either of form or ornament, is introduced, Mr. Varden considers, " that it should always be in some way repeated, with slight variation, in other parts of the Design ; and, if masses of ornament are repeated two or three times, it will generally be advisable to have between them some little enrichment of the like descrip- tion, for the purpose of connecting the parts, and harmonising the whole. In the present Design, the form of the arches of the vestibule is repeated by the three windows of the drawingroom, but with less depth of shadow, and the window of the morning room serves to unite them. The gallery over the entrance is repeated at the end of the building, and the two are connected by the smaller gallery over the morning room ; so likewise the four small vases on the entrance front are repeated on the garden front ; the one at the corner being the connecting link." 1799. Remarks. This Design is very much to our taste. It is highly architectural in its expression, and in every part arranged for comfortable and elegant enjoyment. We highly approve of the mode of ventilating the kitchen offices by flues, which is at SyO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. once a most effectual mode, and one which, by giving rise to a number of external pin- nacles or chimney-tops, is a source of the very greatest ornament. Design XII. — A Double Suburban Villa, adapted for a particular Situation in the Suburbs of Leicester. 1 8C0. The Situation is where four roads meet ; the principal road or street, fig. 1 538, a, proceeding direct from the centre of the town, and three other streets, b, c, d, diverg- ing from it in different directions. There are double carriage entrances to each house « e, and//, and a garden to each, g g. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1539. 180L Accommodation. The kitchen and offices are in the basement story, one half of which is shown in fig. 1540; in which a are steps leading down into the area, the dotted VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. b71 lines at / k showing the steps over tlie entrance front area ; h, open area partly under the terrace ; c, situation of a forcing-pump for sup- plying the cisterns of the water-closets, &c. ; d, dust- hole under the steps from the terrace ; e, water- closet ; f, place for coals, having a projection with a hole over it, p, for shoot- ing them down ; g, hack- kitchen ; h, china and glass closet; /,heer-cellar; j, passage from the wall lighted from the risers of the steps shown by the dotted lines ; I, pantry and larder ; m, best kitchen ; J^, soft-water pump, sink, and boiler, in back-kit- chen ; and o, wine-cellar. Fig. 1541 is a ground plan of the principal floor of both houses. In thh are seen, a broad flight of steps, /(, supposed to be covered with pots of plants in the summer season, leaving an ascent to the principal entrance, open- ing into a hall and stair- case, i, with conserva- tories to the right and left, k ; dining-room, I, and •U swingroom, m ; both 1540 P C?) t=d J LP y I [ c y - w^ . _jL L 87'2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. rooms having glass doors at n, opening into the conservatories. Each house has a veranda on the south-west side, o ; and stairs in the area to the kitchen floor, p. The conservatories are proposed to bo heated from stoves, connected with the kitchen-ranges, by flues pass- ing along the haunches of the arches which form the kitchen ceiling ; which flues will at the s7 1853. A Conservatory would also form a very desirable screen between tlie garden and the kitchen-court below. This extension of the original limits of the plan is shown in fig. 1597, where it will be seen that the bay of the window is made somewhat deeper than before, in order to obtain sufficient space for a door leading to the conservatory, a; and opposite to that is another, opening into a small closet, b, for papers, &c. These additional doors, however, would occasion no alteration in the room itself, but leave just as much wall as before for book-shelves. The only other change this alteration would occasion would be, that, instead of folding back, the shutters must be drawn up from a box made to receive them below ; which, as there are no windows bencatli the bay, would be easily accomplished, and for a mullioned window such shutters would be rather more convenient than not ; since, instead of the wliole shutters being drawn up before the window, which, owing to tiie width, would be troublesome, each compart- ment would have its separate shutter to slide up in a groove in the mullions. By this means each would be securely fixed, beyond the possibility of its being removed, when a bolt was put in it below, to prevent its being pushed down again. In order to give suf- ficient width to the conservatory, and yet not to bring it so far forward as to seem to shut up the library too much between two buildings, the south-west angle is cut oft'; which would be rather favourable than otherwise in regard to its elevation ; and decidedly so as catching the sun earlier in the day. Should, however, any deviation from the original Design be adopted at all, I would not stop here, but would suggest that a considerable improvement should be effected, by throwing out another bay or oriel towards the kitchen- court, though not so as to look into it ; for, although it would have a window, it wcwld be about seven feet or more from the floor ; and there would be a book-case under it. The window itself would be of ftained and ground glass, thereby occasioning, together with the expanse produced by the oriel itself (which might be raised a single step above the level of the floor, and also carried up higher than the ceiling of the room), a very beauti- ful effect as viewed from the opposite entrance. The dotted lines at c, in the plan, show the situation and extent of this oriel. Should this plan be adopted, the door leading into the conservatory would be made in the oriel, as affording a better entrance than that from the bay ; and it might be covered with the backs of sham books, as tlie side facing it would have book-shelves. The whole room might be rendered more symme- trical and beautiful by making a shallow or blank recess on the chimney side of the room, corresponding with the other three sides, and placing the chimney-piece in it ; thus con- fining the slielves to the spaces entirely on each side of these four ardies ; and as we have already provided for shutters without having any occasion for them in the bay, there might be shelves in the sides of that also, as well as in the oriel. A still more important improvement here suggests itself to me, which is, to extend this bay, or rather to make it a second but not a separate room, by advancing it as far as the dotted lines, d, leaving the arch of the present bay, which would ojjen into a space about tliirteen feet by twenty-four. Were the wall, e e, removed, not only would all symmetry, and even regu- larity, be utterly destroyed, but the room itself would appear much too low for its extent ; to say nothing of the loss of space for book-shelves against both sides of tlie piers or walls, e e. Neither need we be apprehensive that, owing to this division in the room, and the distance of the window from the fireplace side, the part of the library where this latter is situated would be dark and gloomy, because we have already obtained a spacious window in the oriel. Taken altogether, this apartment would thus be rendered a most delightful one : full of contrast and effect from every point of view ; complex, yet full of order ; irregular, yet abounding in symmetries. Tliis extension of the library would afford additional accommodation on the floor above, as there might be a chamber over this second or western division of the library, a ])assage to it being cut oflT from the other, the window of which must then be placed on the north side. That this is ex- ceedingly practicable, will be instantly seen by referring to the plan of the chamber floor, fig. 1592. With regard to the conservatory itself, while it would be a material recom- mendation to have it immediately connected with the house, nothuig would, certainly, be detracted from tlie value of its effect, by its appearing externally a separate building, as VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 913 there would be no ob\'ious communication between that and the library. Supposing, however, that the whole of the alterations just described should be carried into effect, nothing would then be easier than to make folding doors in the centre of the south end of the conservatory, opening into that angle of the second library ; which would certainly afford more direct and convenient access, and a pleasing vista down the con- servatory ; and as it would be rather an impropriety to place a large doorway quite in a corner, and without any thing to balance it, this objection might be removed at once, by making this door, on the library side, to ajipear a continuation qf the book-cases, and one of their compartments. Nor, in adopting this latter entrance, would it be at all necessary to abandon the other, for the passage from the oriel might also be retained ; thereby securing a double effect. The erection of a conservatory in this situation would, besides, be attended with a collateral advantage, which is, tliat it would enable us to build a laundry and additional offices beneath it towards the kitchen court ; whereby the accom- modation afforded by the present plan would be gi-eatly increased. 1854. Concluding Remarks. When I commenced, it was my intention to make a few remarks relative to the chamber floor, somewhat similar to those on the sitting- rooms ; but the latter have extended to such length, that all I can now allow myself is, to make a few remarks as to how far the house, supposing these last-mentioned improve- ments to have been adopted, would be calculated for effect and display on occasion of a grand entertainment. The first thing that would present itself to the company might be the a[)pearance of a splendid painted window illuminating the vestibule, which piece of decoration would be produced by merely filling the compartments of the screen with small transpai-encies, with lights behind them. The visiters woxdd then enter the drawingrooms, which, brilliantly lighted up, woidd lose none of their effect by tlie contrast they would offer to the subdued splendour of the vestibule ; and which would be greatly heightened by the mirrors over the opposite chimney-p'eces reflecting the chandeliers into a lengthened vista of tapers. Hence they would turn into the spacious library, where their eye would be caught by the view imaged in the nrdrror door facing them, and next by the oriel window Oluminated from behind. On turning into the second library, the whole length of the conservatory, splendidly lighted, and fitted up as a ball-room, with shrubs and exotics ranged on each side, would present itself through the folding doors. On returning, the company might pass through the passage leading into the oriel, and so regain the library. They would then either re-enter the drawingrooms, or proceed straight forward to the staircase, which would also be lighted up ; and have perhaps transparencies in the arches of the upper corridor. Here, too, a splendid effect, of a different character from the rest, would be obtained ; for, on directing the eye immediately upwards, would be seen, high over head, a brilliant transparent roof; to produce which, nothing more would be necessary than to have lamps in the space between that and the upper skylight. As the lights behind the transparencies in the screen would destroy all effect here, if visible, they must be concealed by a plain wooden partition lined with tin, both to increase the light, and to prevent accident by fire, for the lamps would be affixed to it ; and this partition would in its turn be concealed by draperies nailed up against it. After admiring, or, if not admiring, criticising, the stair- case, the company would enter the vestibule, and turn into the dining-room, and the adjoining one, where the supper tables would be laid out ; and, having conducted the company to what will hardly be considered an anti-climax, the arrangements of the entertainment, we may now take leave of them. — It is by no means my wish to be understood as recommending the present Design as an express pattern. Upon nearly the same scale, the same accommodation might be arranged in numberless ways ; some far more varied and picturesque ; all decidedly different from each other ; and yet each distinguished by some particular merit of its own. The art of laying out houses or other buildings, by which term I would express something more than merely forming a plan, — something analogous to what is understood by 'laying out grounds,' — that is, planning for eff^ect as well as convenience, is one that admits of imlimited di- versity." — W. H. L. [There may be some difference of opinion as to the merit of the Design itself, but every one, we think, will allow that its author has explained and analysed it in a copious manner, pointing out his aim in all he has done, and assigning reasons in support of it. It is, too, no more than justice towards him, to apprize our readers that, even extended as his description is, some parts have been omitted by us, not because they were either uninteresting in themselves, or irrelevant to the subject, but principally because we had no other alternative than to make such retrenchments, or exclude his paper altogether, in consequence of the space it would have occupied. StDl, abridged as it is, it may serve as a model for the explanatory text that should accompany published designs ; and it is probable, that, were Architects to consider what they should say of them, they would frequently bestow more study aild consideration upon the designs themselves.] 914 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Design XIX. — A Villa in the Grecian Style, for a large Fnmily, resitUng chiefly in the Country, with an Income of from j^GOOO to ^"10,000 a Year. 1855. The Situation of this villa is on the high and steep bank of a river in Devonshire, where it was built, a few years ago, from the designs and under the direction of Charles Vokins, Esq., Architect, Pimlico. Fig. 1598 sliows the relative situation of the house, 1598 offices, and garden ; a is the approach ; b, the entrance front of the house ; c, the stable and kitchen court ; d, the kitchen-garden ; e, the flower-garden ; /, the family entrance, and road to the gardens ; g, drive to the wooded hills behind the house ; and h, iron fence separating the lawn from the woods. This lawn is not mown, but pastured by sheep and deer, whicli are also kept fVom the plantations between the house and the kitchen and flower gardens by a similar iron fence, in the direction indicated by the letters i i ; A is a river ; and I, a stream which joins it ; the point of the junction is about 200 feet below the level of the floor of the house. The grounds behind are wooded, and rise to hills to the height of several hundred feet. The gereral appcaiance of the house, as seen within SOO feet of the entrance front, is as shown in fig. 1 599. 1856. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. IGOO, a is the entrance hall; b, the library; c, drawiiigroom ; d, dining-room; c, great staircase; /, breakfast-room; g, bed- VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 915 room for an elderly person ; h, dressing-room ; i, water-closet ; k, stairs ascending to the bed-rooms, and descending to the cellars ; /, closet for great-coats, &c. ; m, busincss- 1 61)0 room, or study ; n, fire-proof closet adjoining ; o, fire-proof staircase ; p, steward's room ; 9, back entrance for the children and family ; r, billiard-room, lighted by a lantern above, with a stained-glass window at one end ; s, water-closet ; t, butler's room ; u, strong 916 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AIICIIITECTUUE. closet for plate ; v, housekcoiJcr's room ; ic, kitchen ; x, scullery ; y, wet larder ; z, vege- table larder ; tf, dry larder ; a, game larder ; h', servants' hall ; c', cleaning and dressing room for men-servants ; d', servants' entrance from the yard ; e' and /', coal-cellars ; ff' and h', beer-cellars ; i', brewhouse and bakehouse ; k', open yard ; I', maid-servants' ])rivies ; m', privies for stable-men, &c. ; n, four-stalled riding-horse stable ; o', loose box for a sick horse ; p', harness-room ; q', coiich-house ; r', entrance to stable-yard ; s', coach- house ; if, harness-room ; u, loose boxes for sick horses ; v, hay-room ; iv', clock- house ; x', corn-room ; y', coach-horses' stable ; z', double coach-house ; cj-', stable-yard ; aa, private entrance from the lawn ; bb, space for conservatory. The apartments, f/, It, and i, arc shut in by a door at fi, and may form a suitable bed-room, dressing-room, and water-closet for an infinn person, unable to go up stairs. The business-room, 7/1, com- mands a view of the yard. The gentlemen's water-closet, s, is situated near the billiard- room and dining-room. The large vegetable larder, 2, is only roofed to the line of columns, and the outer half is left open as a yard. The ground is high opposite the coal-cellars, e and /, and the coals are let down, in the usual way, by an opening in the roof. The malt and hops are delivered into a gallery in the brewhouse, from tlie same elevated ground. On entering the hall, a, a vista presents itself, 300 feet in length, ex- tending through the billiard-room, r, and terminating in a beautiful stained-glass window at its farther end. The billiard -table is fixed, altogether independently of the floor, in the following manner ; — Stone piers, two feet square, are carried up from the foundation, which is here a freestone rock, directly under the position of each foot of the table. The piers are terminated by cones of stone, whose bases cover the area of the piers, and whose summits are truncated, the diameter of the section being four inches, or about half an inch more than that of the feet of the table. The height of the upper surface of these cones is on an exact level with the intended floor of the room ; and this floor is not put down till the billiard-table is set and levelled. This being done, the floor is put down altogether independently of the cones ; the object being to prevent the possibility of communicating the slightest motion to the billiard-table, by the players or others walking roimd it, while the game is going forward. The billiard-table is lighted during the day by a lantern skylight (a skylight with upright sides, glazed, and an opaque cover), of the exact size of the table, twelve feet by six feet, and directly over it ; and in the evenings there is a lamp suspended from the centre of the roof of the lantern. The roof of the billiard-room is flat, and forms a flower balcony to the dressing-room of the lady of the house. The entrance hall, finished with niches, and lighted by a glass dome, has a very handsome effect. 1857. 77ie Chamber Floor, fig. 1601, shows, a, great staircase; f>, best spare b^d- VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 917 room ; r, dressing-room ; r/, spare bed-room ; e, dressing-room ; /, bed-room ; ff, spare I)ed-room ; h, dressing-room ; i, water-closets ; k, back staircase for company's servants ; /, family l)ed-room ; 7n, ladies' dressing-room, with an outlet to the flat roof over the billiard-room ; 7i, passage ; o, bed-room, or dressing-room ; p, fii'e-proof staircase ; 7, stairs leading to the nurseries ; r and s, housemaids' closets, supplied with hot and cold water, wood, and coals ; t, water-closet ; u, light to lower water-closet ; v, bed-room ; w, governess's room ; x, upper j)art of kitchen ; y, z, and c^, sleeping-nurseries ; a', day nursery; 6, plunge bath. Each of the spare bed-rooms is shut in by a door, having a dressing-room and water-closet to each. The family part of the house is quite dis- tinct from the visiters' apartments, and has no communication with them but by the passage, n. 1858. Tlie Attic Floor, fig. 1602, contains, a, fire-proof staircase; b, room containing a fmnace and boiler for heating water to supply all the bed-rooms in the floor below ; c, closet ; d, passage to the bed-rooms ; c, stair for company's servants ; /, concealed passage for bell wires, &c. The other apartments, eleven in number, except the closet g, are bed-rooms. All the bell wires rise perpendicularly in tubes from the different rooms, to the concealed passage, /, and descend in one tube or trunk to the bells, which are Inuig in the passage, /, in the jilan of the principal floor, fig. 1600. The boiler, h, supplies the whole of the house with hot water. The Basement Floor, fig. 1603, contains an inclined plane, a, for sliding down pipes of wine ; h, cellar stairs ; c, large cellar for hot- air stove to heat the whole house ; f1, cellar for wine in wood ; e, large wine-cellar ; f, store-cellar ; and g, butler's wine-cellar. 1859. Construction. The walls are built of freestone, from a quarry on the spot (indeed, partly taken out of the foundations of the house), and internally they are lined with brick. All the partition walls are of brick, and, for the most part, are nine inches in thickness, except those in the attic story, which are of brick nogging. There is not a single lath and plaster partition in the house ; in consequence of which, the danger from fire, if it should break out in any part, is greatly diminished. The roofs over the billiard-room, over the staircase, over the smaller buildings between the staircase and the court, and over the passage leading to the nursery, 2, are flat, as may be seen in the vertical profile of them shown in the general plan, fig. 1598. 1860. General Estimate. The cost of this building, in a country where freestone is abundant, and easily worked, would not exceed ^10,000 ; but in the neigh- bourhood of London, if it were built with brick and covered with cement, the amount woidd not be less than £^20,000. The cubic contents are 460,464 feet ; which gives about 5^1. per foot for the country, and about llrf. for the neighbourhood of London. 1861. Remarks, This Design, in point of style, affords a very good specimen of a Grecian villa, in what may be called pure architectural taste, with the chimney tops entirely concealed. This concealment of the chimney tops has almost always been aimed at by Architects, when the object in view was what is called the pure Grecian ; and certainly the absence of chimneys is favourable to the expression of the temple-like style of Architecture, which is characterised by porticoes, pediments, and low-pitched roofs. Mr. Joseph Wood, for whose taste in Architecture we have the highest respect, and with whom we agree in almost every thing, has given a sketch of a Grecian villa, to illustrate his Essay on Villas, published in the first volume of the Essays of the London Archi- tectural Society. We have copied a part of this sketch, fig. 1604, for the sake of showing 918 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. that chimney tops form no part of Mr. W'dod's idea of a Grecian villa. It would, how- ever, be difficult to construct such a villa as is indicated by this vignette in such a man- ner as to have open fire-places in the apartments, and yet to be without the appearance of chimneys externally. In the case of Mr. Vokins's villa, this is much more easily done, because the high parapet affords an opportunity of concealing such of the chimney tops as may be in the outside walls ; and those in the cross walls, and in the interior walls need not be carried higher than the ridge of the roof, by which means, and by drawing the flues to the inner slope of the roof, none of the shafts will appear on the cuter slopes of the roof, and consequently none be seen in the elevation. Notwithstanding the facility of concealing the chimneys in the Design before us, we should, for our own particular taste, have greatly preferred them displayed, for the sake of giving the building th-j expression of a dwelling-house. Looking at the edifice as it is, and without refer- ence to surrounding scenery, it is not easy to determine whether it is a private house or a public institution. The true principle of imitating Grecian Architecture in a villa, in cm" opinion, is, not to produce a building, like that of Mr. Wood's villa, without chimney tops, which might be mistaken for a temple, or a combination of temples ; for that would be mere mimicry ; nor, like the Design before us, a house without chimney tops, because that gives false expression, or, at all events, is defective in that quality ; but to imitate the style and manner of Grecian composition, and adapt it to the particular purpose in view. Mr. Vokins's Design wants only chimney tops to make it come up to this idea, and, indeed, the same may be said of the villa of Mr. Wood. The same principle will apply to the imitation of any of the varieties of Gothic Architecture. Indeed, the young Architect may always bear it in mind, as a fundamental princijile, that all fac- simile imitation ranks no higher than mimicry ; and that imitation, to belong to elegant art, must be the imitation of spirit and manner, not of individual forms. — With respect to the interior arrangement of Mr. Vokins's Design, it is admirable. The cubical mass of the main body of the building admits of getting a great deal in little s])ace, and with much less expense of walling than if the general form had been a parallelogram. The manner of setting the billiard-table (§ 1856) is worthy of notice ; and also the mode in which hot water is supplied to all the bed-rooms, and to the nursery in the chamber floor, from a boiler in the attics over it. The concealed passage for tlie bell wires in the attic floor, and the trunk for their descent, are also judicious contrivances ; and we may state here, that all the pipes from the roof, and from the water-closets, as well as all the pipes connected with cisterns, and the cisterns themselves, are so placed and protected as never to be liable to be frozen. In short, the interior arrangements of this house are among the most commodious and complete that we have seen, and Mr. Vokins has intro- duced some ingenious inventions in the internal finishings and fittings-up, which will be found in the chapter which will hereafter be given on those subjects. We cannot say much in favour of the laying out of the grounds. It is evident that the best views must be obtained before entering the house, which is at variance with one of the fundamental principles of landscape-gardening. (See Gnrd. Mag., vol. ix. p. 3.) The flower-garden is separated from the house in such a manner that a back road has to be crossed in walking to it, which is also in bad taste. VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 919 Design XX. — A Villa for a small Family, in the Castellated Style, of Got/iic Archi- tecture. 1862. The Situation for a villa, in this style, according to general associations, should be on a bold commanding rocky prominence, where it might be supposed that, in some former period, a baronial castle for actual defence may have been placed. It is not necessary on that account, however, that it should be accompanied by fortified outworks ; but still the terrace- walls, and other ornamental architectural appendages which accom- pany it, should either be in some degree marked by the lines and finish of fortified walls, or should imitate their ruins. Even, in point of architectural harmony, the crests (tops) of such walls should be more or less embattled, like the parapets of the house. A slight degree of acquaintance with Military Architecture, or with the existing ruins of castles of the fourteenth century still to be found in Britain, or on the continent of Europe, will afford many excellent hints for designing the external Architecture of the main body, and especially of the appendages, of buildings in this style. For the arrangeraient of the interior, recourse must be had to the wants of modern society ; for, as we have said before, the object, in cases of this sort, is never to mimic individual examples, but to imitate the general spirit of the style and manner. Fig. 1605 is a perspective view ')( the Design before us. 1863. Accommodation. Fig. 1606, is the plan of the principal floor; in which a is the entrance porch ; b, the hall ; c, the dining-room ; and, d, the drawingroom ; each of which has a light closet attached to itj e, water- closet ; f, staircase ; g, coat- closet ; h, butler's room ; i, passage ; j, library ; k, back j ^qq staircase ; I, servants' hall ; m, kitchen ; n, scullery ; o, pantry ; and, p, house- keeper's room. Above the dining-room area bed- room and dressing-room, and there are similar apartments above the drawingroom, hall, and porch. Above tlie other rooms, the ar- rangement of the bed-rooms and di-essing-rooms is ob- vious. Above the servants' hall and pantry are sleeping and day nurseries ; and in the attic story are the servants' apartments, and bed-rooms for single gentle- men. 920 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1864. Construction. The walls may be of brick, or of stone lined with brick ; all tlie partitions on tlie principal floor should be of nine-inch brickwork, and all those on the chamber-floor of 4-inch brickwork. The partitions in the attic story sliou'd be of brick nogging. The two staircases ought to be of stone, or the principal staircase may be of solid stone and tlie back staircase of cast-iron framing ; the risers of grating, and the treads of flagstone. Even the principal staircase may be formed in this manner, the effect of which is very elegant, and which, sometimes, is useful in affording light to the stairs below. The roof may be flat, covered with plain tiles bedded in cement, and coated over with three thin layers of the Stanhope composition, described § 1789. The flooring of all the rooms m«iy be of Wright's ornamental tiles. The battlements may either be finished in stone, which is the preferable mode ; in brick, covered with cement, and coloured in imitation of stone ; or in brick alone ; those for the copings and mouldings being moulded of suitable shapes before being burnt. This practice, as we have already observed, § 274, is as old as the time of Henry VIII., and the bricks produced are almost as durable as stone. The richest Gothic building in England, the house of the late Countess of Stafford, at Jerningham, near Norwich, designed by J. Buckler, Esq., Jun., has all the principal ornaments of the chimney tops and mouldings executed in brick made on the spot. 1865. General Estimate. The cubic contents are 138,422 feet; which, at 6d. per foot, is ^3,460: lis. 1866. Remarks. The internal arrangement of this Design is excellent, and, from the compact, cubical form of the building the expense must necessarily be inoderate in pro- portion to the accommodation afforded. Corbeled, or far-projecting cornices, like those here shown, were only used in ancient times, when castles were built for defence. The parapet being thus projected from the wall, and openings being left between the stones, missiles of different kinds could be thrown down on the assailants. Such edifices were never placed but in situations that afforded some natural means of defence ; such as eminences, prominences projecting into lakes or the sea, or rocky steeps. Hence, to build such a castle in a tame flat situation would be improper, because the illusion would not be kept up. For this Design we are indebted to the author of the preceding one. Design XXI. — A Villa in the latest Style of Pointed Architecture, with an Essay on the Application of that Style to domestic Purposes. 1867. This Design, of which fig. 1607 is a small perspective view, has been con- tributed, together with the essay that accompanies it, by E. Trotman, Esq., a young Architect, who bids rair to rise to the very summit of his profession. We consider it unnecessary to say any thing on the architectural beauty of the elevations of this Design, because it must strike the eye of every reader ; but we must request the careful perusal of the essay, which we do not hesitate to affirm that we consider one of the best which has hitherto been published on the subject of which it treats. 1868. Accmmodatian. In the ground plan, fig. 1608, a indicates the porch; h, the hall, sixteen teet by Itr. feet, lighted by sash-doors, as expressed in the elevation; c, dining-room, twenty-eight feet by sixteen feet, and fifteen feet high, to which the old appendage of the oriel window is attached, though with some difference of character and position ; store or linen-room ; n is the hay-loft over the stable ; and o o, the coachman's living and sleeping-rooms. 1869. Construction and Architectural Character. Fig. 1610 is an elevation of the entrance front. Fig. 1611. Elevation of the garden front. Fig. 1612. End view from the stable court. Fig. 1613. Elevation of the stable and coach-house. Fig. 1614. Section through the house on the line A B. This Design (which is composed in the latest style of Pointed Architecture) might be executed with propriety and effect in brickwork ; with the dressings, or ornamental parts in stone. Lead lights in quarry (or lozenge) squares would have by far the most characteristic appearance for the windows ; but in this matter considerable latitude may be allowed. The ornamental members throughout have as much simplicity as is con- sistent with the character of the masses and of the style ; and a design of this kind, if correct in its simpler state, may easily be enriched at pleasure by the use of tracery, foliage, grotesques, &c. ; care being taken to equalise the decorations of all parts whicU 9'21j cottagb, farm, and villa architecture. may be exposed to the eye at the same time. It must, however, be confessed that to do this with propriety is, in common with the treatment of Pointed Architecture in general, a matter of great hazard to the mere amateur. 161S 1870. General Estimate. The cubical contents of the house itself will average 1 1 7,7 13 feet ; which, at lOrf. a foot, amounts to £"4904 ; 14s. : M. Those of all the out- buildings, together, are 24,645 cubic feet, which, at 9d. a foot, is £92^ : 3s. : 9d., making the whole expense ^^5828 : 17s. : \\d. 1871. The preceding Design illustrates an attempt at the composition of a viUa in the latest style in which Pointed or Gothic Architecture existed in its purity. It has not, indeed, been our object here to present to the eye an elaborate and costly display of all the domestic resources of Tudor magnificence, or to please the fancy of the staunch anti- quary with the representation of a quadrangular pile, rigidly fashioned after the models of the year 1500; but to offer to the man of moderate fortune, and Old English taste, a Design which may be characterised by convenience, architectural propriety, picturesque effect, and simplicity of decoration, while it possesses the essential recommendation of being within the limits of economy in the execution. Its general character and various accommodation will, it is hoped, be sufficiently comprehended upon a comparison of the drawings with their references. The understanding, however, of its constituent parts. VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 925 161- as a composition, will perhaps be most effectually promoted by the introduction in this l)lace of some observations upon Pointed Architecture in general (for, on the ground of correctness and significancy, the term « Pointed," is far preferable to the nickname of " Gothic "), and more especially as applicable to the principal subjects of which this work professes to treat. 1872. The claims which Pointed Architecture has upon the favour of an Englishman are indeed of a supreme and unrivalled order. It was in England that that style, the last and finest of the great general systems of human taste, found a congenial home, and dis- played its most luxuriant beauties, as well as much of its most impressive grandeur. It was here that, in its progressive gi'owth and developement, it exhibited its happy adapt- ation to the wants of the people, the exigencies of the climate, and the diversities of circumstances ; and it was on this land that it threw the last lingering beams of its effulgence, which still struggled amidst the gathering darkness, until overpowered by the night of blind affectation and lawless extravagance. Happily, however, for the interests of sound taste, our country, after having given trial, for nearly three centuries, to the merits of what was called Classic Architecture, both the true and the false, has begun to discern that the native style, so long neglected, has claims to admiration which the pretensions of foreign art can never eclipse or invalidate. Accordingly, our o-rni nation has been the most forward to compensate for its past indifference, by exhibiting, of late years,^ the efforts of a laudable zeal in the preservation and restoration of some of the most interesting remains of antiquity ; and, if we cannot profess any admiration for the great mass of what are called « Modern Gothic" compositions, we must, at the same time, confess, that the fact of their existence demonstrates, at least, a favourable direction of the public mind, and affords a hope that future attempts will assume a far more successful character. Indeed the daily increased extension of general knowledge involves the over- throw of false principles and unreasonable prejudices in art; and, when to the removal of these is added a comprehensive acquaintance with the resources and characteristic spirit of a system of such richness and amplitude as that of Pointed Architecture, we shall be relieved from all fear lest that style should be undervalued, and shall suffer no appre- hension for the purity of the new specimens therein, or the security of the old. We are not sanguine enough to expect that Pointed Architecture should again become as fashion- able among us as it formerly was, when it imparted a character even to the hovels of the poor; nor, indeed, are we disposed, upon the whole, to wish that it should be so; for, in these times of increased population, of extended building, and of freedom of opinion in matters of taste, we should fear that, under the best practicable state of public culture, the propagation of deformity, and of the gingerbread style of art, would be far more rapid than that of the chaste and the beautiful. At the same time, it is our 926 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. anxious hope, th^t, in those works over which enlightened individuals or collective bodies are the arbiters of taste, and in which, from their locality and destination, the adoption of such a style would be appropriate, the mode of Architecture under con- sideration may receive a yet greater measure of patronage than it has hitherto obtained, accompanied, however, with a more vigilant degree of scrutiny. That it deserves such favourable yet watchful patronage, a few remarks, we think, will suffice to prove. 1873. As an ornamental Science, the Merits of Pointed Architecture are of the highest order, arising from a combination and consummation of excellencies, which earlier styles exhibited only in an imperfect degree. The classical structures of Greece affected the beautiful and the simple ; those of Rome the bold and the picturesque. The former could not have attained the masculine force and variety of the latter without the sacrifice of their distinctive character ; nor, without a correspondent loss, could the latter have assumed the feminine grace and detailed beauty of feature peculiar to the former. In the maturity, however, of Pointed Architecture we see tliis happy imion of properties completely effected. The contour of its masses displays the very essence of the pic- turesque ; the prevailing lines of composition, the aspiring and the curved, imite dignity with grace ; while the ornamental detail exhibits the most gratifying alternations of light and shade, and often the most luxuriant richness of a playful imagination. Nor is this all, as applicable to tlie style in general ; for, in its adaptation to particular pur- poses, its universal power is ever discernible. Thus, in York Cathedral it becomes solemnly grand ; in King's College Chapel, Cambridge, it mingles in equal proportion beauty with grandeur ; in Henry the Seventh's Chapel it assumes an aspect of dazzling richness ; in Windsor Castle it rises bold and lordly ; in the colleges of our universities it unites the domestic with the ecclesiastical ; and, in passing thence down to the simple forms of the humblest cottage, it varies its character according to circuinstances ; being no less consistent and successful in the last than in the first. Great as are thus its powers, and varied as are its resources, independently considered, the merits of Pointed Architecture are highly enhanced by the aptitude with which its productions harmonise with the scenery and atmospherical effects of nature. How happily, as contrasted with the square masses of Classic Architecture, do the towers, the turrets, the pinnacles, the gables, the battlements, and the chimneys of the pointed style mingle with the sylvan objects of the painter's study ! Observe these, gilded by the warm beams of the setting sun, or standing in strong relief against a moonlit sky, and say where is the Greek or more picturesque Italian structure that can hazard a comparison with them. The terminating lines of the latter styles are almost always of a hard and square character, setting art in marked opposition to nature ; those of the former are ever of a varied form and aspiring tendency, mingling with all the objects of landscape aerial and terrene. 1874. Suitableness of Pointed Architecture for interior Composition. Il addition to these last observations, which affect Pointed Architecture in its external developement, we may remark, that, for success in internal composition, no other style can for a moment compete with it. This success is of course exhibited, to its full extent, only in eccle- siastical interiors. In introducing a comparison between these in the pointed style, and ecclesiastical interiors in other modes of art, we must be distinctly understood as confining our notice exclusively to those features which come within the province of Architecture. In buildings, however, of domestic application, and with which we are in this place more iiumediately concerned, no limits can be assigned to the display of the impressive or the ornamental ; and, indeed, with this class of Architecture, the ecclesiastical is not unfrequently associated, as in the instance of domestic chapels. Few, confessedly, are the apartments of modern construction that can claim a dignified beauty, equal to that possessed by the halls and galleries of many of our old domestic and collegiate edifices; yet it woidd be frivolous to assert that even those venerable specimens had obtained an unapproachable degree of splendour, or had exhausted the resources of the art. 1875. TJie Perpendicular Pointed Style. There is one further consideration worthy of notice in favour of the style before us, ornamentally regarded, and it is this, that the perpendicular pointed mode of Architecture, of which we shall have occasion hereafter to speak more fully, and which is the only genus of the style capable of application to modern domestic purposes, is exclusivehj English. The finest Continental remains belong to what we shall denominate the middle period of the art ; it is to a later and more finished class that we now refer, in which an Englishman will be proud to rank many of the brightest architectural gems of his country, with King's College chapel at their head. That this mode has therefore a strong claim upon the national attention and favour, appears to us a reasonable inference ; our only hope is, that that favour may be attended with an enlightened vigilance, in order that modern jiroductions may be rendered in some degree worthy of their antique and admirable exemplars. There are, however, other considerations of weight on the side of Pointed Architecture, as founded on its VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 9^7 adaptation to the exigencies of our climate, and to the purposes of convenience. Thus, in the tbrmer case, we have, instead of the gently sloped coverings of southern climes, the high roof, with its picturesque concomitant the high gable, in order tlie more effectually to throw off the rain and snow of our less hospitable region. To obtain more, also, Oi the light of day than was needed in the Greek or Roman structure, we have windows of ample dimension, while of firm construction. To enjoy the benefit of the Greek peristyle for walking in shelter, we may have the yet more closely sheltered cloister. To screen our entrances, we are provided at pleasure with the porch ; and, to protect our less substantially constructed walls, we are allowed to finish our roofs with projecting eaves and ornamental verge-boards. The ample fireplace and picturesque chimney- stack are features suited to our climate, of which ancient classic remains afford no example. Nor must we forget to notice the facility with which, in Domestic Architecture, the Old English style accommodates itself to the opportunities, and means of building, prescribed by diversified circumstance and locality. Thus, let freestone, brick, flint, or timber be the prevailing material of construction in any given district, it will suit itself to either, and assume alike a picturesque and interesting aspect in all. A further advantage connected with the use of this mode, on the ground of convenience, is the aptitude with which it admits of additions and alterations. Its rules of composition are not fettered by that strict regard to uniformity which is displayed in works of Greek or Italian origin : such a principle would tend at once to destroy the varied interest which con- stitutes so powerful a charm in the works of that class for which we plead. Hence it is that those alterations and additions to any given Design, which in other styles occasion deformity, become in this, if judiciously treated, the means of improving the character of the primitive pile, by diversifying its outline, varying its light and shade, or enhancing, by contrast, the importance of the principal masses. 1876. Comparative Expense of Buildings in the Pointed Style. If, then, it be admitted, from the observations already offered, that the considerations of architectural beauty, fitness, and convenience, as well as those of association, are in favour of the Old English or pointed style, let us enquire how the question stands with regard to expenditure. And here we must candidly allow, at the outset, that, if it be asked whether Pointed Architecture, when simplified to its utmost extent, is as economical as our ordinary kind of domestic construction, when that is in like manner simplified, we are compelled to reply in the negative. For, indeed, to put the question in this form, is to ask whether that which is of a genuine architectural character can be executed for as little cost as that which makes no claim to character whatever. If, however, the comparison be formed, as it should be, between a buDding in the Old English mode, and one of equal pretension in either of the classic styles, we are fully prepared to maintain that the former will, in judicious hands, be as economical as the latter ; and in this opinion we shall be supported by a reference to the comparative cost of various works of recent date, more especially churches. The great secret of cheapness in this style is to know how far ornament is essential ; where it may be introduced with the greatest expression and character; and how its place may be most eflfectually supplied by force of outline and of shadow. There cannot be a more gross error in art, than that of supposing that elabo- rate ornament is essential to real beauty ; or, on the other hand, that the application of such ornament can render correct that which is not consistent and spirited when reduced to its very first elements. It is to the neglect of this fundamental principle that we attribute the existence of heaps upon heaps of contemptible trash called Gothic, not only in the way of metal-work, furniture, and the like, but even of Architecture itself. Let the character and application of primitive forms, both in the mass and in the detail, be well understood, and the pointed system may then fairly challenge a comparison with all other modes, as well on the ground of economy eis on that of taste itself. 1877. Causes of the Neglect of the Pointed Style in Villa Architecture. Such, then, being the recommendatory qualities of the style under consideration, it may be natural to ask whence it arises that our own national department of art has, till lately, so completely yielded to systems of foreign origin. This, we imagine, may be accounted for upon various suppositions. Of these, the first is, that, under the increased pursuit of classic literature in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, our ancestors affected a corre- spondent admiration of classic art ; an admiration increased by the charm of novelty, and, for a while, of exclusiveness. WhUe, too, the more polished men of the time thus cultivated their newly acquired taste, it is reasonable to suppose that the progress of the principles of the Reformation would have a tendency to excite in the minds of the people an indifference to that mode of Architecture which they had been accustomed to regard as associated with the observances of Popish superstition. The Italian style, then, being once established in the land, even with such an intermixture of crudities and rudeness, it was natural to expect that, as its merits (great as they unquestionably are) became more fully developed, they would be but the more steadfastly supported, especially as 9^28 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Architecture began now to be studied as an independent profession. The practitioners of that time, too, like many of our own, found it a much e:tsier tiling to fall in with the fixed and mechanical rules of ItaUan composition, than to venture on a species of design for which there are no such absolute laws; and which, on the other hand, demands of the Architect the exercise of a vigorous fancy, in connection with patient and ex- tensive study ; jilacing the great test of excellence in the correctness and depth of feeling by which he is influenced. Besides this, we may remark that the Italian style, by the period at which it had attained any thing like purity in this country, had so accommodated itself to, and identified itself with, the conveniences which the now daily increasing refinement of the times demanded, that it threw a shade over the old system, which had no precedents to offer for the architectural contrivances of a more luxurious age. Not, indeed, that there then were, or even now are, any of the conveniences of domestic construction to which Pointed Architecture is essentially incapable of appli- cation ; but tliat the artists of the times were more willing to improve upon examples of such features already numerous and suited to their own taste, than to exercise their judgment and feeling in the task of adapting an obsolete style of building to new and unprecedented purposes. Indeed, even in our own day, it is to be apprehended that the pointed style may have been depreciated, on account of a supposed intractability of cha- racter ; when, in truth, the fault attaches, not to the style itself, but to the precipitancy of those who reject it, without having studiously endeavoured to become acquainted with its resources. We will not, however, deny that there are some essential characteristics in the adaptation of this class of Architecture to ordinary purposes, which are calculated, at first sight, to place considerable difficulty in the way of the practitioner ; and of which the two following may be regarded as the chief, being, at the same time, matters fiinda- men tally opposed to the procedure of the classic styles. 1878. Difficulties in the Pointed Style. One of the characteristics of the pointed mode is, that, for the maintenance of strict consistency, no mass of material should ever -^ceive its apparent support from a horizontal bearer, but always from the intervention of an arch ; the other is, that, in the details of this style, decoration is obtained rather by a cutting-out of the solid than by an application of mouldings to the surface. The former of these principles entirely forbids the use of a square-headed door, a square- shaped chimney-piece, or a straight beam on columns ; and scarcely even admits of the adoption of a flat ceiling : the latter altogether rejects decorations so easy of attainment as those of pilasters, fascias, and architraves, knowing only the embellishments of moulded jambs and reveals, solid mullions, tracery sunk into the substance of its material, and the like. These matters are, however, difficulties only in the way of the learner ; the judicious practitioner will find it easy to turn them to the most advantageous account, while he discerns in them a test for the skill and feeling of competitors around him. 1879. Tlie Progress and the Characteristics of Pointed Architecture in general, from the Time of its Rise down to that of its Disiise, next demand our attention; and, where the nature of the subject will permit, cur remarks will tend chiefly to the illustration of Domestic Architecture. This latter application, however, we shall not be able to effect with any success, in reviewing the more remote history of the pointed style, which we shall, therefore, notice only for the sake of displaying to the reader the connection which subsists between the earlier and later varieties of the art ; and the increase in refinement and beauty by which those varieties are progressively characterised. The limited extent of our information on the subject of domestic construction, so far back as the thiiteenth century, or, perhaps, we should rather say, the non-existence in that age of what might be considered fair specimens of Domestic Architecture (in the sense in which we ordi- narily understand the term), will compel us to illustrate our remarks upon the earlier modes by a reference to ecclesiastical remains. Indeed, the ideas of our ancestors, as exemplified in the construction of those domestic structures which have been transmitted to our own times, were so obviously formed upon the models of ecclesiastical works, subject to reasonable modifications, that we shall find an investigation of the latter the means of introducing us to a comprehensive knowledge of the former. It is not, how- ever, our intention to make this the place for a disquisition upon Sacred Architecture ; or, indeed, to notice it to any greater extent than may be absolutely requisite for the elucidation of the pointed style in general, and, eventually, of Domestic Architecture in particular. 1880. Origin of the Pointed Style. It would be of little benefit or interest to the general reader, to enter into a review of the various opinions that have been entertained upon the obscure subject of the origin of the pointed arch. To say nothing of the influence of capricious fancy, which might have suggested the trial of so novel a device, we think the only two hypotheses to which any plausibility whatever can attach are, that the pointed arch was either introduced from the East, after the expedition to the Holy Land under Richard I., or that it was a feature suggested by the forms arising from VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 929 1615 1616 the intersection of semicircular arches, as perpetually instanced in ornamental works of the Anglo-Norman period, fig. 1615. Be that as it may, a considerable time intervened between the crusade in question and the appeai-ance, in this country, of any thing which may be de- nominated Pointed Architecture ; and, when the adoption of that stj-le to any extent took place, the form of arch universally prevailing was that result- ing (according to the second supposition) from curves described from the extremities of the base of an equilateral triangle; and did not exhibit that latitude of figure observable in the Oriental specimens. 1881. Pointed Architecture assumed the Character of a System at the beginning of the reign of Henry III. ; the commencement of that reign being dated from the jear 1216. Its progress from the first was rapid ; and, accordingly, it had been so extensively adopted, and so assiduously cultivated, by the middle of the same century, as to have attained all those decided characteristics which we shall consider indicative of the first of the three great denominations under which we shall, in our present remarks, classify the varieties of the system in general. 1 882. Of the Early Pointed Style (for so we designate the species of tliis kind of Archi- tecture now referred to) we have endeavoured to exhibit the most prominent features in the accompanying sketch, fig. 1616. These features are, the high roof and gable; the single or (as it is here represented) the triple lancet window ; the simply bold doorway, frequently divided, as here shown, by a central column or cluster, and headed (as, indeed, are the blank compartments on each side, and the divisions of the window above) by an arch or arches, of the curvature before alluded to ; the massive buttress, with its deep weatherings or water-tables between each graduation or stage of the height, splayed angles, or angle columns, frequently to the different faces, and a simple pinnacle surniounting the whole. Add to these features, that the parapets of the period under notice often project from the face of the wall below, receiving an apparent support from the introduction of little ornamental blocks, masks, grotesques, &c. Ornaments of grotesque and foliage, indeed, are here, as in the later modes, frequently made to enrich string or cornice mouldings, base mouldings of pinnacles, &:c. On turning fi-om external to internal decorations, we observe the high groined stone ceiling, adorned, but with severe simplicity, by its moulded ribs ; and springing from light columns, which are sometimes formed by an independent cluster of shafts, and some- times by shafts attached like reeds around a greats cylinder, and apparently bound to- gether by mouldings at intervals. A corre- spondent degree of simplicity is found to prevail in all the minor matters of embellish- ment. Such a style of Architecture is that to which Salisbury Cathedral, and much of that of Lincoln, belong ; and the same may be instanced in the body of the Temple Church, London, and the Lady Chapel, Southwark. The style of this date is of so restricted an application, that it has nothing in common with Domestic Architecture ; and we must, therefore, refer to ecclesiastical specimens to illustrate it. Tliat we are justified in saying that such a style has nothing in common with the purposes of domestic structures, will, we think, be sufficiently e\ident upon a glance at the unmanageable chai-acter of lancet and triple-lancet windows, clustered columns, lofty groined ceUings, &c. ; features in which resides the very soul of this kind of Architecture. In addition to this, we may observe, that, however effective the early pointed style is in the mass, its details a»-e far from possessing that beauty, variety, and flexibility of form so naturally sought for 5a 1617 1618 on 930 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. by the eye that is familiar with the works of later date. Hence it is that Architects who will endeavour to imitate the more ancient mode are so constantly seen to run into the error of adoptinjr with it the ornamental details of later periods ; since they find their nominal st^de of too strict a character, both for their taste and their convenience, when applied to minutiae. Thus, the embellishment of tracery (the« well-known kind of ornament expressed in fig. 1617), with- out which little of richness can be bestowed on the detail of Pointed Architecture, ex- hibits, during the period under J- consideration, only the rude- (-^ ness of the primitive form, as^ shown in the door-head, gable aperture, &c., of fig. 1616; being, indeed, not far removed from the style of ornament characteristic of the " Carpenter's Gothic," of which we shall have occasion to say more hereafter. The mould- ings, also, in use at this time had not acquired either that variety or that distinctiveness of character possessed by those of after works. The moulded capitals and bases of columns might readily be traced to their Norman and thence to their Roman origin, fig. 1618, a, c. The ribs of groined arches, &c. (6, in the same figure), show in their section an excess of serpentine line ; and a want of that significancy and fitness which characterise the mouldings of the fifteenth century. The foliage, likewise, of this date, was not unfrequently liny and poor, as compared with the full, undulating, and shadowy forms of a subsequent period. In short, the whole range of this species of tlie style exhibits Pointed Architecture in its infancy, sufficiently dignified and picturesque, indeed, to assert the superiority of the master principle ; but not yet sufficiently refined to demonstrate the possibility of uniting qualities which later science has so successfully combined, the impressive in the total, and the exquisitely beautiful in the detail. 1883. The Middle Period of the Pointed Style. But, before the close of the reign of Henry III., the pointed style had entered upon that which we will designate its middle period of developement, which may be considered as extending thenceforward throughout the first half of the century following; viz., the fourteenth. The Jimits of this period we fix less with a regard to the lapse of years, than to the variation of style ; and thus we consider such a work as Westminster Abbey to belong rather to this jjcriod than to the former, as having a greater affinity to the prevailing style of York Cathedral, which also comes under this middle class, than it has to that observable in the cathedral at Salisbury ; although its completion may be said, on the average, to have followed that of the latter only at an interval of some twenty years. In the efficiency of the style, then, during its middle period, we discern very rapid advances towards perfection. Instead of a triple 1619 window, headed by three distinct arches, we see now single windows of as large dimensions, sur- mounted by one arch of the same tall proportion as before, being divided into two, three, four, six, or eight days (bays, lights, or compartments), by mullions, which, rising into the head, branch out into a great variety of ornamental outlines, enriched with tracery. The earlier and smaller attempts of this kind exhibit simple combinations on the same principle as that shown in fig. 1619. In larger subjects, the composition of the window head be- came, of course, much more complex ; sometimes, indeed, uniting in one" several such examples as fig. 1619, with that more elaborate one, VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 931 fig. 1620, as a centre. In addition to the ordinary shape of windows, the builders of this period now adopted various forms of circular, Catherine wheel, or rose window : of such, fig. 1 620 is properly an example ; as is also that composition of which fig. 1621 shows a fourth part. Fig. 1622 is another variety of the same, sketched in outline, without its tracery. Triangular lights were also among the results of the exuberajit fancy and taste of the day. Fig. 1 623 is copied from one out of many examples of these. Of the composition of windows belonging to the period now under notice, it may be remarked that the earlier works exhibit a great profusion of that kind of design which is founded upon geometrical diagrams ; in which the prevailing outlines are either curvilinear, as in figs. 1619, 1620, and 1623 ; or angular, as in fig. 1622. As, however, the resources of regular geometrical figures became exhausted, the artists of the time began to indulge in the use of compound curves, as in fig. 1621 ; and at length to design many of their window heads on such principles as those explained by fig. 1624, in which a disposition of parts takes place similar to that of leaves upon a stem. Besides the deco- rations of windows (the composition of which includes the elements of all the principal features of the style), those of doors became, during this period, much more elaborate and varied. A very common form of finish for the door head was that of the pyramidal label, or hood moulding (see outline, fig. 1625), which was enriched with crockets (such ornaments of foliage as those on the pinnacle top, fig. 1626), and sustained at the springing line by busts, masks, or knots ; the space between the lines of the arch and those of the label being filled with compartments of tracery, &c. But- tresses also assumed a more decorative character, being frequently gi'aduated, or diminished in their projection upwards, bj' the use of little gables, as shown in fig. 1627, which were often finished with crockets, &c. Pinnacles, too, as the terminations to buttresses, began now to exhibit the enriched aspect described by fig. 1626, springing from gables, and dis- playing much elegance and variety in their crockets and finials (the finial being that part of fig. 162G cut off by the band of moulding at a). Embattled and perforated parapets afforded an elegant decoration to works of this period ; and, without entering into a more 1624 1625 932 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1626 1627 1628 detailed notice, we may add that a corresponding improvement in design characteiised all the details of internal composition, whether groined ceilings, clustered columns, arches, screens, niches, or other features. It must, however, be confessed, that even this middle species of Pointed Architecture is, with all its merits as compared with that of the former period, imperfect in decorative character, and inadequate to the purposes of modern application in general, and to those of domestic fitness in particular. We have, indeed, given one example, tig. 1628, of a window of the middle of the fourteenth century, which may be considered of a legitimate character for domestic use ; but it is to be viewed as assimilating rather with specimens of a subsequent, than with those of a previous, date. The style of the middle period is rendered unfit for ordinary application, by the unmanageable character of its high-pointed windows, doors, and ceilings; and, as to the question of beauty in matters of detail, we may remark, in general, that the composition of its window heads, and of its various decorations of tracery, though at first sight dazzling, does not or the most part offer to the eye, on a close examination, that graceful developement of curves, and continuity of line, and that union of delicacy with dignity, which constitute the great excellence of works of a subsequent date. Subject to the same comparison, too, the mouldings of the middle period exhibit a want of distinctive character and of systematic application; being frequently tortured into the forms of tracery, or made to do the office of columns, when, from their profile, they are rendered incapable of answering either purpose without clumsiness. 1884. The Third and last Period in the History of Pointed Archi- tecture displayed not only its master power and beauty, but also its universality of adaptation. This last period we shall consider as occupying a century and a half, from about the year 1 S70, which was towards the close of the reign of Edward III. The style of Architecture which then rose into prevalence has been denominated the " Perpendicular Pointed," the significancy and fitness of which term will be apparent to all who contrast the ]3rinciples of com- position in window heads and tracery at this period, with those which regulated the specimens of the former age. We may here observe that a distinction is drawn by some writers between the earlier and later varieties of the period, the works of which we here comprehend under one denomination ; a distinction founded upon the fact, that the flattened or obtuse arch, which had its origin at the beginning of this period, was, till about the middle of it, made use of only for minor purposes, and in subordination to the simple-pointed or two-centred arch ; whereas, in the latter part of the same period, the flattened arch assumed the predominance, giving a character of additional complexity and elaborate finish to all inferior matters of accompaniment. This distinction, however, is of little moment as compared with the greater differences which separate the perpen- dicular modes, both the early and the Tudor, from the classes which we have before noticed. Indeed, the unity of feeling which prevails throughout the whole of Perpen- dicular Pointed Architecture is so entire that we might safely adopt all its varieties of « feature in one and the same work, provided such work were of sufficient extent to avoid crowded composition and violent contrasts. An example of the principal lines of window head appropriate to the early part of this period is given, divested of its tracery, in fig. 1629 ; and it will be observed that in this figure the perpendicular lines predominate in a manner which has no parallel in the case of either of the before- noticed instances. Indeed, the prevalence of per- pendicular lines constitutes not only the distinction of this species, but forms also, as we before observed, one of the most striking characteristics of Pointed Architecture generally, as opposed to the classic styles ; and it is in the works of the period now under con- 1629 VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 933 sideration, that we see this characteristic producing its finest results, m airy lightness, loftiness, and dignity. It is observable, too (in noticing some of the principles of efleet in the style before us), that the use of the pointed arch cooperates in a double manner with the tendency of perpendicular lines ; for while, negatively considered, it supersedes the want of such features as beams and entablatures, and thus removes the depression of aspect consequent on numerous horizontal lines, it has a positive advantage in carrj'ing the eye up both its curves to a lofty and decided point ; xmlike the semicircular form, which conducts the eye round, and downwards again, without fixing its attention any where. It foUows, therefore, more especially in internal composition, that loftiness is essential to the attainment of the imposing ; length being likewise so, as presenting to the eye a greater succession of lofty forms : and again, that perpendicular lines in an interior should not only be numerous, but continuous ; as having thus a strong tendency to increase still further the appai-ent height, and more effectually to connect the various minor features of design. Force of shadow also contributes to the effectiveness of this style, no less than dignified forms of lines, and fine proportions. Porches, bold buttresses, octagonal turrets, oriel or bay windows, breaks, niches, &c., afford opportunities for the most striking management of light and shade; as well as for the multiplication of vertical lines. Besides tliese features, there are others which, to the varied effects of light and shade, add the interest of excited curiosity and imagination, resulting fi-om a partial interception of the view ; as in the case of screens, cloisters, pro- jecting and retiring distributions of plan, &c. 1 885. The Perpendicular Pointed Style, as applied to Domestic Architecture. But, not to enlarge upon these and similar points, as affecting the style in general, we will consider that style with reference to Domestic Architecture in particular. Indeed, it is only (as before implied) in the perpendicular system, and that in its later practice, that we shall find either principles or precedents to direct us in domestic designs after the pointed mode; and, even those examples of the mansions of Tudor times which have reached our own day are to be regarded only as establishing, to a certain extent, a style of architectural decoration, and not as affording rules either for the arrangements of plan, or the minutiEe of practical construction. Before we proceed, however, we will just remark that we use the term " Tudor Architecture, " in this place, under a limited appro- priation, as referring only to the style in use during the reign of Heni-y VII., and the first part of that of his successor. The application of one and the same epithet to the pointed style of that period, and to the heterogeneous mode which succeeded it, and which pre- vailed through the reign of Elizabeth, though historically correct, is not architecturally explicit ; and may have, we fear, a tendency to create a confusion of ideas as to the peculiarities of styles, not only essentially distinct, but diametrically opposite. 1886. Of the Character of the more extensive Alansions of the Tudor Times, a tolerably correct idea may be formed, by any one who is familiar with the Architecture of our English universities, on a reference to the arrangements of individual colleges. Indeed, we are disposed to think that the varieties of College Architecture may be fairly con- sidered as open to domestic application, where the subject of execution is on a large scale; and that the strictness of character which some would make essential to propriety in dwellings, however extensive, is neither founded upon a comprehensive view of the sub- ject, nor is favourable to variety and spirit in composition. We would not, however, be misunderstood as to this observation ; for when a house is so small that it cannot be reasonably supposed to possess such appendages as a chapel and a dining-hall, it becomes a piece of contemptible affectation to finish its exterior with members which are naturally applicable to those appendages alone ; and the only coui-se, therefore, which good taste can sanction in such a case, is, to treat the subject as what it is ; uniting an honest and obvious character with correct detail, and as much of the picturesque as circumstances will permit. The resemblance to which we alluded, as subsisting betvveen the larger Tudor mansions and many of our collegiate structures, may be traced in the use of the gate-house, the first and second courts or quadrangles with their central fountains, the cloisters, the chapel, and the refectory or hall : the last standing distinguished by its characteristics of the oriel window, light louvert or lantern, open-framed roof, dais or raised platform at one end, and perhaps a screen and music-gallery at the other. In other instances, the necessary accommodation was comprised within the form of a paral- lelogram ; a figure, of course, more suited to the purposes of economy than to those of display. In this case, the porch frequently took place of the gate-house, and the use of stone was often avoided by the execution of the plainer part of the work in brick, as became the practice in the reign of Henry VIII. ; a favourite embellishment of such l)rickwork being that of lozenges and frets formed out of the over-burnt and vitrified bricks, sorted and used with a regularity which turned even accident to account. Then, again, we meet with smaller works of this period, the walls of which, except at the quoins and around apertures, were formed of flints, or of rubble covered with rough-cast ; in 934^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1630 which case the eaves and gables of the roofe were very appropriately made to afford shelter to tlie walls by their great projection, while their ornamental character was improved by the use of" carved verge-boards, showing either a continued pattern of foliage, or a profusion of undulating line and elegant tracery. One more variety of external character is that which results from the substitution of timber and plastering for solid walls, as seen in the streets of many of our old towns. Here, too, there is great oppor- tunity for picturesque effect, as derived from the use of overhanging stories, each pro- jecting beyond tlie face of that below it, to protect it from the weather, and being sustained by the continuation of tlie floor joists ; the ends of which thus assume the appearance of a line of ornamental blocks, or corbels. The timber framing of the sides tliemselves, according to the old practice, is made to imite expression with economy, by giving an ornamental character to the crooked and less serviceable timber, and applying it to the purposes of diagonal braces in the squares formed by the vertical posts, and the horizontal plates and rails ; in addition to which, the surface of the plastering is also occasionally relieved by various forms impressed upon it while moist. To this style of work, such finishings as the carved verge-board, &c., are also applicable as before; it is a style, how- ever, which requires considerable discrimination, lest Elizabethan specimens, of which we have a great multiplicity, should be actually imitated, when those of an earlier date are professedly so. 1 887. Decorative Peculiarities of Domestic Pointed Architecture. Having thus glanced at the varieties of general aspect exhibited in the dwellings of the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries, it may be enquired wherein consist the decorative peculiarities of Domestic Pointed Architecture, as opposed to the decorative characteristics of ecclesiastical examples. We may rejjly that one striking point of difference ia, that Domestic Architecture rarely makes use of pointed windows, but generall y of square- headed ones, as in figs. 1628 and 1630, while the practice in the ecclesiastical style is just the reverse : both, however, are subject to variations. Domestic Architecture, again, is scarcely ever seen to adopt the common pyramidal pinnacle, not very frequently the buttress, and never the flying buttress; the place of the former being ordi- narily supplied by the ogee pinnacle, and that of the others, in many instances, by a slender polygonal pier. High-pointed doors with pyramidal labels, niches and canopies, towers, sj)ires, &c., are excluded from the features of tlie domestic style ; as, in fact, are all those objects generally which have a tendency to produce an eflcct of solemn grandeur, ratlier than an air of liveliness and social comfort. The various members of Domestic Pointed Architecture we shall however proceed to notice more ia detail ; observing, at the outset, that it is with them that we have to do, rather than with any general modes of domestic arrangement and collocation pursued by our forefathers. If, indeed, the principles that regulate the form, ajiiilication, and utility of such members individually, and their effects collectively, be well understood, we shall lose nothing of beauty or of character in departing from the old peculiarities of plan and disposition of rooms, while modifying component features to suit our wants. To pursue imitation farther than tlijs would be, in fact, not only to clieck invention, and sacrifice sound judg- ment, but to oiijiose the example of our ancient predecessors in a most important jioint ; namely, the readiness with which they modelled their architectural works to meet the changes of time and circumstance, and the demands of convenience. 1888. The iruulows in the Pointed Style of Domestic Architecture. In turning to the individual members of Domestic Pointed Architecture, the first to occupy our attention is the window, a feature upon which our old builders delighted to lavish their skill and "Mr K VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 935 fancy. It may be worthy of remark, that, as another difference in procedure betTcccn the style under consideration and the classic modes, the former endeavours to make those members most attractive which are the most indispensable ; while the latter bestows tlie greatest share of ornament upon parts which are rather the result of luxury than of necessity. Hence, while the remains of Grecian and Roman Architecture produce their finest effects by the decorations of porticoes and colonnades, those of the middle ages, in our own land, make the window and the door the main sources of interest, causing even solid masonry to assume a playful arrangement and a luxuriant richness, which, if we could suppose such a subject beheld by an ancient Greek, would seem to him little less than the work of enchantment. Though this is the case, as viewed in general, it is not, certainly, in Domestic Architecture that we can see the composition of the window carried to its finest display. Indeed, by some, the use of the pointed window, for domestic purposes, is entirely prohibited ; the only appropriate forms being supposed to be those of the square-headed window, and the oriel or bay. In all works that are on a small scale, the introduction of the pointed-headed window, sharp or obtuse, woidd certainly indicate a very erroneous taste. We cannot, however, at aU understand how the strictness of the prohibition can be maintained under circumstances wherein a domestic building assumes the character of magnitude and complexity. It assuredly cannot be maintained on the ground of precedent ; for, in the old dining-halls, pointed windows were features of con- stant recurrence : witness the halls of Eltham, Hampton Court, and Croydon ; or, if it be objected that these are instances of a palatial and not an ordinarj' domestic character, take a more unassuming, but not less interesting, example in Crosby Hall. Neither are we disposed to admit as valid the objections to pointed windows, founded upon tlie sup- position that they must necessarily be insecure, because they cannot be closed their whole height by shutters ; and that they must also be inconvenient, because not suited to the ordinary arrangement of drapery. As to the question of security, we should think that shutters might be altogether dispensed with, where a window is divided into narrow spaces by stone mullions, and these, again, by stout iron stay-bars to hold the lead-lights ; or, if not, still the part which remains undefended by shutters, being the window head, is the very part that is best guarded by an increased strength and intricacy of masonry. As to inconvenience on the question of drapery, we have only to say that a pointed window is misapplied unless it be in a large, or at least a lofty apartment, and one in which suflScient space may be spared between the window head and the ceiling to allow of the necessary provision on the part of the upholsterer. Of pointed window heads, as applicable to our present subject, figs. 1631 and 1632 exhibit sketches; the former from Hampton Court, the latter 1631 from Crosby Hall. If, how- ever, compositions of a more elaborate character be at any time required for domestic purposes, the chief points for attention will be, first, the subdivision of the window, when of more than three lights, into principal and minor portions, by the use of greater and smaller mullions, as shown in fig. 1629, without which there can be no force or expression of design; and, secondly, the preservation of continuous and flowing Unes, without which there can be no grace- fulness or repose : of course, we are presupposing a regard to propriety in the forms of moulduig and of tracery. The other kinds of window belonging to Domestic Archi- tecture are the square-headed and the oriel. Of these the former will be understood by reference to fig. 1630. It is frequently (as there shown) divided in height as well as width by a transom bar, or cross mullion ; each compartment being usually headed with a flattened arch, — usually, we say, for the practice is not without variation ; and, though some writers have considered the omission of this arched head, whether above or below, as a mark of Elizabethan taste, it certainly is not exclusively so. Indeed, windows divided by mullions into compartments of the simple oblong form were in occasional use a century before the time of Elizabeth ; nor are they at all opposed to that principle of Pointed Architecture which requires the use of an arch for the support of superincum- bent weight ; since, from the smallness of the spaces in proportion to the solids, the openings of such windows come under the rule of panels, rather than under that which governs the management of larger apertures. Simple as these windows may thus be rendered on the one hand, they are susceptible, on the other, of as much richness of decoration as may be required. An elaborate specimen, for one out of many, of the ornamental kind, may be seen in the cloisters of Christ Chmch, Oxford. The square- 1632 936 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. headed window is for the most part fiiiislicd above with a label, as in fig. 1630, passing down the sides to the springing line of the arches (if there be arches to the different lights), and finished ordinarily with a plain elbow ; sometimes with a twisting of the mouldings into the form of a lozenge, or occassionally that of an octagon ; and sometimes with a shield, bust, or figure. The oriel, or bay window, may be described as being, for the most part, a kind of three-sided compound of the last-mentioned description. Of this there are two principal varieties ; the one of large proportion, rising immediately from the ground ; the other of a smaller character, and standing out from the surface of a wall upon projecting or corbel mouldings. The former was that generally in use in dining-halls, and may be seen finely exemplified at Eltham Palace, at Crosby Hall, and in many of the halls of Oxford and Cambridge ; the latter was more appropriate to the chamber, and is instanced in beautiful taste at John of Gaunt's Palace in Lincoln, Mag- dalen College in Oxford, and numerous other places. In the adoption of either of hese varieties, it is highly desirable, wherever it may be at all compatible with modern con- venience, that the old style of glazing in lead-lights and quarry (or lozenge) squares should be continued, as greatly conducive to the character and picturesque effect of the whole ; and though the old casements formed in this manner were not remarkable for soundness, or retention of warmth, there can be no reason why the application of modern improvement should not make our own as commodious as are the French casements of the present day. If, however, wooden sashes must occasionally be used, great care will be needed to render their appearance as unobtrusive as possible, and to prevent their dis- figuring the muUions of the window, either externally or internally. A window of ordi- nary width, undivided by a mullion, and filled in with regular broad sashes, be it dubbed Gothic or what it may, is only fit to be classed with the execrable designs of Batty Langley. The management of window-shutters, if, indeed, they are to be adopted at all, is a point attached to the former that is attended with considerable difficulty. The com- mon boxed shutters may and do answer their purposes in our ordinary style of domestic construction ; but they have nothing in common with Pointed Architecture ; and, if used at all in connection with it, will need to be altogether remodelled. It would require an elaborate drawing to afford an adequate idea of our views on this subject ; the principal point, however, to be borne in mind, is, that a window, when closed up by its shutters, ought to present as perfect and architectural an appearance in all parts as when open. The customary finishings of architrave, soffit, &c., are entirely out of the question; the character which the whole composition must assume, to conform to the massiveness of the pointed style, being just that of a window enclosed with folding doors. 1889. Doors in Pointed Domestic Architecture. We may next proceed to the door, or rather the doorway, of which the perpendicular pointed style furnishes us with several varieties applicable to domestic purposes. For the large proportions of the principal entrance doorway, a common and simple form is that of the obtusely arched opening, shown in fig. 1633, with a label to correspond with the curvature of its head. Some- times this label assumes the outline of the double ogee, as in fig. 1 634 ; being then 1G34 1633 terminated by a finial, and often enriched also with crockets. At other times, and for all subjects, the square form of label is of frequent use ; the decorations of the doorway l>eing filled out to a similar and suitable shape by the introduction of spandrils of foliage or tracery, fig. 1635. This variety is applicable, like the others, to the simple pointed or two-centred arch ; but is more frequently found in connection with the flattened or obtuse. There are many instances of pleasing forms besides those already noticed ; but they occur only under circumstances of minor importance, and do not belong to the VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 937 class of regular features. As to tlie details of doorways, it will be observed, m general that their jamb mouldings are of a somewhat more complex character than those of windows, abounding in slender columns, based beads, ogees, and quarter and casement hollows ; which are ordinarily brought down, and made to terminate upon a splayed face at some distance from the ground, so as to produce a neat developement of their profiles ; or at other times, as economy or simplicity may require, the mouldings appear only in the arch of the doorway, being made to die away about the springing line against the jambs, which remain plain. The character of solidity which is necessary for effect in door jambs may appear to be occasionally attended with difficulty of treatment ; as, for example, in the instance of a door in a common lath and plaster partition. Hence, some modern iinitators have not scrupled to adopt, in cases of that kind, such incongruities as architraves on the Grecian or every-day principle; though it would be far better tliat the pointed style should be left unattempted, than affected in so barbarous a manner. The case which we have 1637 supposed is one which cer- 1636 <^mi!^V^^ ^^^^g'^^^ ■P nz: tainly admits of little de. coration, but that little will "have sufficient merit in 'being consistent, whether ^ "it be that of a simple % moulding, like fig. 1636, ^ or a mere splay, as in fig. 1637; the general rule 1638 being, that the mouldings of door or window jambs should commence with the surface of the wall or substance, and cut into the solid at an angle of not less than forty or more than sixty degrees, fig. 1638. Together with the varieties in doorways, we have also, in the style before us, varieties as numerous of , doors themselves. The simplest of these is the ledged V /' door, studded with nails, and frequently adorned with ^^ massive flourished hinges and strengthening irons. Some specimens there are of doors covered with con- tinuous patterns of wrought iron ; exhibiting, with con- siderable delicacy, successive ramifications of foliage and flower-work. Others, again, are framed in panels, the rails and styles being thick, narrow, and deeply moulded ; the mouldings very similar to those of muUions in windows, and the fillet, which usually forms the most prominent of them, being studded with nails. In folding doors of this kind, the outer meeting- style (as it is technically called) was usually finished with a little buttress, or colunmar bead, to hide the joint. A degree of additional richness was given to such doors by tlie introduction, in their panels, of compartments of foliage, or, very frequently, of Ion"- opened scrolls ; but the greatest display was that which arose from the use of tracery, with which doors were sometimes so elaborately ornamented as to equal in intricacy and beauty of design the most costly tabernacle-work. Here the same difficulty as before is presented to the ordinary modern imitator, when he finds himself obliged to attempt con- sistency under more economical circumstances, and with doors of a less substantial character than those in ancient use. Hence, under the notion that the sum of propriety consists in the imitation (no matter how distant) of arches and tracery, he plants on the panels of his " square-framed " door some thin lamina; of deal, just cut through into trefoils orquatrefoils, and considers his work as performed to admiration. Such an imitation, how- ever, would be far surpassed by a door framed quite plain and flush on both sides; for the latter exhibits at least nothing faulty, while the former is altogether a caricature. In a paneled door of thin sub- stance, the only kinds of moulding which can be used with correctness are the simple hollow, or the splay, as in fig. 1639; because these are the only mouldings out of which tracery can be formed, and all paneled work in Pointed Architecture is presumed to be susceptible of the finish of tracery, though it may not actually possess it. Projecting (or what are technically called bolection) moidd- ings are quite inadmissible in doors and framing of the style before us ; and we need scaiTcly .>^\^\\^^\\^^? ■<^^^^ 1639 ^<:^y?^-^^s;^^\xs. 938 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. add to what wc have already said, that such things as a square-topped door and opening, in however obscure a situation they may be placed, are as much opposed to the character of that style, as a pointed door would be out of place under the great portico of St. Paul's. In fact, though the judgment wliich some entertain as to matters of taste may be satisfied with giving an architectural appearance to tlie prominent parts, or to the exterior of a building, wliile all the rest is left destitute of character ; we cannot tliink very highly of any structure claiming the name of Gothic, which does not preserve uninterruptedly the charm of association, and wliich is not at unity with itself, fiom the largest decorations of masonry down to the minute finishings of the ironmonger. For even in this last department there is a style of design which also requires attention ; and there is no want of precedents for knockers, hinges, locks, escutcheons, latches, drop- handles, and the like, all which should be in keeping with the rest, though they will cer- tainly admit of some modification, to suit the various improvements of more recent times. 1890. Gables in Domestic Pointed Architecture. Of external features the window and the door must be undoubtedly regarded as the most important ; next to these the gable is that which, perhaps, contributes most to the characteristic effect of Domestic Archi- tecture, and, indeed, to that of Pointed Architecture in general, by harmonizing with the tendency of perpendicular lines. In this style we have the simple gable of two lines, following the rake or slope of the roof; and the stepped gable, which may be compared to a pile of battlements, or to the form of line called by heralds " battled embattled." In the later practice of the Tudor times, we frequently see the apex of the gable finished by the introduction of a little octagonal shaft, bearing a moulded capping cut into battle- ments, and crowned with a pinnacle, of which the outline (as before noticed) was that o» the double ogee ; such pinnacle being frequently enriched with a leaf ornament, not unlike fish scales, or with a kind of honeycomb pattern of mouldings. A substitute for the pinnacle was often found in the figure of an animal, as a heraldic supporter or cog- nizance, sustaining a flagstaff, on which the banner acted as a vane, at the same time displaying in full blazon the armorial bearings of the proprietor. The same style of termination prevailed very generally also at the various angles of buildings belonging to the Tudor period ; such pinnacles or finishings being made to surmount slender octagonal oiers or shafts, which rose from the ground to fortify the corners ; and which, in the time of Henry VIII., commonly superseded buttresses for domestic purposes. In dwellings of a date prior to that period, there are, however, instances of the adoption of the buttress quite sufficient to prove that it was not then regarded as a feature exclusively ecclesias- tical, though some modern writers have pronounced it such. The truth is, that the buttress was used by the old builders with a primary reference to its utility ; and it is because the stone vaulting and massive roofs of churches so frequently demanded a resist- ance to their great pressure, that we find the buttress almost identified with Ecclesiastical Architecture. Where, however, the same necessity for its adoption arose in domestic work, it was applied without hesitation, as it is, for instance, against the walls of Eltham Hall, to counteract the thrust of a roof as ponderous as it is fine. In fact, the buttress, like the pointed window, must be used sparingly ; and only where it conduces, at least apparently, to the addition of necessary strength and stability, as well as to the purposes of decoration : to apply either to dwellings whose construction is simple, and >vhose extent is small, would be unmeaning and improper. 1891. Chimnejj- Shafts are additional features which contribute greatly to the picturesque effects of Domestic Architecture. These arc sometimes square, arranged diagonally in clusters ; sometimes octagonal, occasionally having the faces curved inwards ; and sometimes round. Under the latter form especially, their decorations are often very elaborate, the shafts being fiequently traversed by a succession of spiral reeds, or by the same again in opposite directions, so as to divide the whole into small lozenges. Some- times a similar moulding forms the surface into hexagonal figures ; and at other times, in connection witli hollows, exhibits parallel arrangements of zigzag lines. Other varieties sliov/ the shafts covered with a repetition of the fleur-de-lis, lion, rose, &c. These are all finished aliove with a polygonal capping, frequently cut into battlements ; and, below, with the usual plinth and plinth mouldings, following llie same plan, and all sinking into (uniting with) the inclined upper faces of a general block or pedestal. 1892. The High Roofs of Pointed Domestic Architecture, also, though subjects whick admitted of little ornament, were not left without relief by our old builders. This relief they derived, variously, from the use of numerous lead rolls, when lead was the covering ; 'jr, in other cases, from the employment of shingles or wooden tiles of different sliajjes, producing a pleasing alternation of line ; besides whicli, there are instances of a finishing for the ridges of roofs, formed of what were called crest tiles, a little ornament of open work, bearmg an application very analogous to tliat of the ridge tiles of the Greek temples. 189.3. The Octagonal Turret (whicli in the old style of arrangement was frequently VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 939 made to contain the staircase) was another feature possessing as much of external efTcct as of internal utility. Finished witli its loop-holes and battlements ; decked (as, indeed, were the parapets in general) with " gargoyles," " gargells," or spout-heads, or otherwise terminated with the crocketed ogee cupola, it always imparted to the mass relief, dignity, and ornament. This, however, together with the porch, a member of kindi'ed interest, belongs to the various principles of composition in detail, and will not admit of any fixed definition in this place. 1S94. Internal Effect. We pass from the notice of these subjects of external design, to the consideration of those which are most essentially concerned in the production of internal effect. Of such, the ceiling imdoubtedly possesses the greatest share of imjiort- ance in works that pretend to the maintenance of a decorative character throughout. The varieties of ceiling, or (to use a more comprehensive term) of internal covering, are numerous ; belonging to the departments both of masonry and carpentry. In ancient specimens of the former, we have the groined and ribbed ceiling, the simple vault with transverse ribs, the fan-groin, and the disguised flat ceiling ; in the latter we have the open-framed roof, the enriched wooden vaulted ceiling, the ceiling of two inclined planes, and the flat ceiling in panels : each of these, however, will demand a separate notice. 1895. The Simple Groined and Ribbed Ceiling will be understood by every person of ordinary observation, as being the sober kind of vaulting most frequent in our larger ecclesiastical structures. It is, however, very rarely to be imitated with propriety in domestic works, since it requires a loftiness of proportion altogether foreign to the usual character of habitable apartments. In situations where the width is small in comparison to the height it may be adopted with effect, as in cloisters, porches, and entrance halls ; but it is totally misapplied when made to encroach upon the sides of a room whose height is barely equal to its width. 1896. Zb the Plain Vault traversed bi/ Ribs of Motdding the same observations will apply, though this form is somewhat more manageable than the preceding one, in con- sequence of its requiring less curvature than is necessary for the display of groining (which term the reader will understand to refer to the figure produced by the intersection of one pointed vault with another, whether lofty or flattened). This second and simpler kind of ceiling admits of much pleasing decoration, from the introduction of tracery in the compartments formed by the cross ribs, accompanied by the use of foliage in the springing cornice, and sometimes of little corbels or pendants, as attached to such cornice, under the feet of the principal ribs. 1897. The Fan Groin is the next description of ceiling, the general character of which is that of a number of circles in contact, each divided by radiations of moulding and tracery, springing from a pendent centre ; and tlms producing the outline of a flattened arch between every two adjacent centres. This variety is susceptible of a richness of deco- ration far greater than that of any other ceiling in Pointed Architecture (beautiful as they may all be rendered), exhibiting, even when least adorned, an airiness of character, and a play of light altogether enchanting. It is a variety, also, that may be applied with facility to the purposes of Domestic Architecture ; though it will be proper to bear in mind that we should not, in lath and plaster, multiply pendants, &c., to an extent that would involve impracticability of execution, supposing the subject to be attempted in masonry. 1898. The Disguised Flat Ceiling is another kind which is not without example, as being executed even in stone. This consists of a horizontal plane, relieved with the customary forms of moulding and tracery, the principal lines of which have a little curvature at the points whence they divei'ge ; so as to give to the whole outline, at first sight, an appearance somewhat analogous to that of the arch. Of tlie application of this variety we shall speak hereafter. 1899. In their ornamental Carpentry, both as to roofs and ceilings, our forefathers were no less successful than in their masonry. The open-fi-amed roof, which we have before named, exhibits, in several remaining instances, proofs of their skill in uniting the ornamental with the useful, and giving to their subject depth of shade and colour, and fulness of design. Witness the roofs of Westminster Kail and the hall at Eltham ; compositions which will afford valuable hints to the Architect, as to the covering-in of large and lofty apartments, for which boldness of character is desirable. Another variety we have noticed as being that of the vaulted ceiling of wood, of which the decoration is very similar to that of the parallel feature in masonry already described. Its ornamental appearance may be also enhanced by the introduction of trusses of arched ribs, with spandrels (or corner pieces) of tracery, enriched corbels, pendants, &c. For instances of both of these we may refer to Crosby Hall. Another kind of ceiling, very common in old churches, but very applicable, also, to domestic purposes, is that formed (as before inentioned) of two inclined planes, as in fig. 1G41 : the ceiling and the roof being, in 94iO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, such cases, generally one and the same thing The roof, thus simply constructed, showed its principal timbers and rafters, moulded on the under side, as greater and secondary ribs ; the lead boarding forming the faces of tlie panels, and the points of intersection being often profusely adorned with knots of foliage, and the like. Some examples we find, of a date subsequent to the introduction of plastering, in which the plainer parts are of that material, the ribs only being of wood. To the principal ribs were often attached curved springing pieces (fig. 1641), so as to give to the whole the contour of the flattened arch ; the weight being then sustained, on each side, by an ornamental corbel or capital. One more variety is that of the flat ceiling in wood ; sometimes simply divided by ribs into square or oblong panels, and at other times disguised by much the same kind of treatment as the flat stone ceiling of which we have taken notice. On a principle not very dissimilar to this is executed the wooden ceiling of the withdrawing-room at Hampton Court Palace (fig. 1642), exhibiting a succession of stars, bearing some analogy to the arrangement of the fan-groin; an example which, if purified from its admixture of Italian detail, might claim as much merit as a flat ceiling may generally be expected to possess. 1900. The Form of Ceiling 1642 which is most applicable to the combined Purposes of Taste and Convenience in Domestic Architecture, we consider to be that of two inclined planes. The flat ceiling must neces- sarily have the advantage over every other kind, in point of economy ; but it is greatly deficient in character, as, in its general form, it recognises nothing of the principle of tlie pointed arch ; a principle upon which the effects of the pointed style primarily de- pend; and a regard to which is conspicuous in each of the other varieties which we have enumerated. Even m the simplest of these, the ceiling of two inclined planes, though the rise in the middle may not be greater than eight or nine inches, in a width of sixteen or seventeen feet, there is still a distinct and sensible analogy to the form of the vault, in the upward tendency of the lines, and in the preservation of a lofty central point. When, on the other hand, so important and prominent an object as the ceiling is destitute of a characteristic form, let decoration be applied as it may, it will fail to supply the deficiency, or to relieve the composition from the charge of ambiguity. If there be any circumstances under which the use of the flat ceiling may be considered excusable, it becomes so only when used in rooms whose window; finish with square upix'r lines ; in which case, such lines may harmonise, to a certain extent, with the horizontal surface above. To place the flat ceiling over pointed windows is to destroy ail unity of feehng, as well as to show a great misapplication of economy. 1 901. Floors, in the Pointed Domestic Style. But the lowest as well as the most elevated objects shared the attention of our old builders, and contributed to the completeness of composition. Hence, in their more finished structures, tlie decoration even of floors was not neglected ; the practice being to intermix, with stone paving, ornamental glazed tiles, of varied colour and device. For these the achievements of heraldry aflTorded the most copious exemplars ; the subjects being disposed of in circles, quatrefoils, lozenges, &c. At other times, single and ordinary objects were adopted; or, for more economical VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 941 purposes, mere alternate patterns of different colours. The best of these tiles were executed by indenting the required ornament in the substance of the clay while moist, and filling up the vacuities with clay of a different colour, after which they were subjected to the fire. Unfortunately, however, many of them appear to have had their embellish- ments applied only to the surface, and their subjects have consequently been soon obliter- ated. In porches, halls, conservatories, &c. in which the pointed style is imitated, the paving might be consistently interspersed with tUes of this description, which, probably, would not prove expensive, when their manufacture had once been tried with success. [^Ir. Wriglit's tiles (§ 1785) are exactly what is here described, but are manufactured in a superior manner.] 1902. Chimneii-pieces are matters of internal design which require much judgment, and wliich would aditdt of considerable decoration, were excellence of workmanship pre- ferred to expensiveness of material. As it is, indeed, the pencil is often fettered by the fear of massiveness on the one hand, and of waste on the other (when marble is the sub- stance to be employed), no less than by the want of spirit and feeling. Boldness, however, is here essential to character, the composition of a well-designed chimney-piece differing little from that of a gateway in miniature, reduced to a flattened proportion, and some- times finished above with a course of tracery compartments, and a ledge, scarcely to be called a shelf, arising from the projection of a massive cornice moulding ; the whole being bounded on each side, perhaps, by a slender column, or octagonal shaft, attached to the jambs. On the other hand, this feature may be reduced to an extreme of simplicity, equal in economy to that of an ordinary bed-room chimney. It is, however, to be so reduced by a regard to the primitive forms of arch and jamb, and not by the sinking of a quatrefoil on the blocks of an every-day article, and calling it Gothic. 1 903. The Staircase. One conspicuous object of internal arrangement which remains for our notice is the staircase. For this, unfortunately, we have scarcely any precedents in old works applicable to the modern principle of construction ; the common arrange- ment being, anciently, that of the corkscrew stone staii-case, still used in church towers, of which the steps become the radii of a circle, each lending its aid to form a round newel up the centre. The great staircase of Chj'istchurch College, Oxford, is one example more closely resembling the modern plan ; but it is one upon a 1643 .,a>^^ '^ "^ scale of splendour rarely to be ap- ^s^S^iT^ proached under the economical re- strictions of the present daj-. It will, however, afford many usefid hints to the student; hints which will be seconded by every principle of architectural analogy and right feeling ; and this, among the first, — that Pointed Architecture knows no such finishings as those of the com- mon rail and baluster; but that, if an equivalent to such be wanted, it must be gained under the form of the coping-moulding and the mul- lion. Another point of observation will be, that what ai-e called con- tinued handrails (even supposing their section to be correct), are neither so manageable nor so charac- teristic for Pointed Architecture as those with newels, belonging to the form of the square well-liole, or to what is technically termed the dog- legged staircase. In figs. 1643 and 1644 we have offered some ideas upon this subject, as applicable to the purposes of modern domestic use. In fig. 1643 the staircase us finished with a close string-board, and with balusters which take the character of plain mullions. It is easily to be perceived that the forms here simplified will admit of any degree of decoration, by the introduction. 942 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. at pleasure, of arched heads and tracery to the different compartments, f flowers were often represented with their natural tmts; ex- pensive modes of decoration, but rich in their eflPects. Fig. 1649 is a plan of the mouldings of the entrance-door jambs. 1910. Bemarks. This De- sign has been contributed by Edward Buckton Lamb, Esq.', the author of several preceding designs, and the reviser of that following. It displays a rich fimd of knowledge of the details of the pointed style of Do- mestic Architecture ; and is, taken altogether, a very original composition. 5 s 1649 s 91-6 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1651 Design XXIII. — An Italian Villa on a considerable Scale. l&ll. 77ms Design has been furnished by Robert Mallet, Esq., an amateur Architect of great taste, and by this time well known to our readers by the designs for iron fur- niture, and by various scientific contrivances, some of the more remarkable of which remain to be described. All the general masses, and the principal features of the interior arrangement, are the work of Mr. Mallet ; but the architectural details and finishings are by E. B. Lamb, Esq., whose thorough knowledge of the Italian villa style is evinced by the details given as an appendage to this Design, and whose excellent taste in their display is conspicuous in his revision of Mr. Mallet's elevations. 1912. The Situation of this Villa, Mr. Mallet observes, should be on a rather rapid declivity facing the south-east, so as to give ample scope for forming, at comparatively small expense, those magnificent terraces which vary and dignify the Architecture of the Palladian era. The upper part of the declivity is supposed to be covered with wood, terminating in hills, and the lower part should display garden scenery and pastures, ter- minating in orchards and hop-grounds, beyond which may be a fertile valley, watered by an ample river. There are many such situations in Scotland and Wales, and a number also in England, particularly in the lake district. If the Duke of Devonshire's villa at Chatsworth were to be rebuilt on the same site, something in the style of this Design would be suitable to the situation. 1913. The General Appearance of this Villa is shown in figs. 1658 to 1660. 1914. This Villa should he lighted with Gas, by burners placed outside the windows, with parabolic reflectors, as has been done in some places in England. The exterior effect in a dark night, I am informed, is magnificent beyond description. By these means the heat and smell of the gas in the rooms is avoided, and the light, coming from one side, like that of day, is much more natural and agreeable. As windows are the apertures through which natural light is admitted, nothing can be more appropriate than their employment for the admission of artificial light. The burners, and reflectors, &c., should, of course, be removed during the day. 1915. Accommodation. Fig. 1652 is the ground plan, in which a is the avenue or approach road ; b, the entrance court, flagged with stones of irregular form, as in the streets of Florence and Pompeii, where the material is lava, here it might be granite ; c, situation of the house-porter's lodge, shown in fig. 1 653 ; d, hall ; e, gallery of paintings, &c. ; f, dining-room ; g, drawingroom ; h, library ; i, breakfast-room ; i, principal staircase ; /, lobby and water-closet ; m, ante-room ; n, boudoir ; o, ladies' private room ; p, family bed-room ; lS67 " m jmnmfipri sT ^ma muj imfmi -"Tnraiii iiiimiiiuiiiniiiiTiif. iniriiin ii'iim uiimiii"T^ twi more tame countrj'-houscs of Holland and the Netherlands, as neither of these cisi ever be mistaken for the Italian manner. 16GS M^ilBifiHiilll'IWi i^ mU <^^iy, 1922. The Details of the Italian Styh' of Architecture include roofinp; tiles, wall r.tones chimney tops, brackets, cornices, window- diessings, doors, turrets, and iiovches. I ory Statues, urns, and other such picturesque objects belong to external ornament or finisli- ing, and will be noticed in a subsequent chapter. 1923. Roofing Tiles. Much of the beauty of small Italian villas depends on the marked character arising from the forms of the tiles employed to cover them. We liave 95b COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. already given several of these (see list of engravings, art. Tiles), and shall here add two other modes. 1924. A Mode of Tiling adopted by the ancients, and of which there are specimens still to be found in Rome, is thus described by Borgnis ( Traiti de Construction, p. 253. ) : — Fig. 1670 a is a dissected view of a portion of a roof covered in the manner alluded to; and b shows plans and sections ot fhe separate tiles. The flat tile, with the turned-up margins, is two feet long, and twenty inches wide at the broadest end ; and the hollow semicylindrical or bridge tiles are eight inches in diameter at their widest end. The flat tiles were laid in mortar, either on brickwork, masonry, or boards, as the case might be ; and ornamental tiles were placed at the eaves, somewhat in the manner shown in the following mode of tiling. It is to be observed, that, by having the tiles both flat and semicylindrical, broader at one end than at the other, they are made to dovetail into each other in such a manner that no nails are required to keep them in their places, provided the tiles of the eaves and of the ridge of the roof are securely fixed by mortar or cement. 1 925. The Mode of Tiling exhibited in the Temple of Diana Propyhea is given in the engravings of that temple in the Unedited Antiquities of Attica. Fig. 1672 a is an elevation of part of a roof of the temple, in which the crocket-like ridge tiles are shown at b, and their vertical profile at c. Fig. 1671 d is the upper surface of one of the flat tiles, and e its under surface. Fig. 1673. shows a perspective vice of one of the bridge tiles, /, and a longitudinal section through the same, g. The effect of these tiles is remarkably good, and imitations of them might be introduced in villas and cottages with excellent effect. 1 926. The Kind of Face of the Stones, and the Manner in which they are disposed in Courses in TtaMan Buildings, often form a source of great beauty. In England, when- ever the surface of a wall is otherwise than smooth, it is said to be rusticated ; but the varieties in common use are so few, that they have not received designa- tions as in France and Italy. The rocky surface, the stalactited, the vermiculated, and the punctured, are among the kinds used by the Italians ; and the divisions l)efween the stones are either triangular in the section, cin'ved, square, or composed of modifications of these. In fig. 1674, a is a vermiculated surface; b, a surface cut I GTS ^^^^^^^P^l Im^x'surL"/ '''^''''''''' '' ^ '^^'^''^ P""-tx.rcd in imitation of nulc rock ; nnd J, 1 927. Chimney tops arc features of considcr- ab e importance, more especially in the irreei.lar villas of the north of Italy. That eminent artist, Williams, has selected six : of which fi^ 1675 IS from Rome; fig. 1676 is from Lucca; Hg. 1677 from Perugia; fig. 1678 from Flo- rence ; fig. 1679 from Zante ; and fig. 1680 Irom Corfti. Fig. 1681 shows four comironer torms ; of which e is the most complicated. Fig 1682 IS a large chimney top containing several flues, covered at their terminations with Italian tiles. It must be observed, that, as wood is the common fuel in Italy, the flues in the chimney shafts are much smaller than in Britain, as the smoke of wood ascends in far less space than that of coal, and produces verv- little ^o. importance as to render other parts iiisignificant. ' " "*" '° '""'^' {)f)S COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCIIITECTUUE. 1^75 \G7G M- • ' 1928. BrackcH and Cornices are striking features in Italian buildings. In fig. 1683 a and h are the details of bracket, which may be executed .n wood, such to.ms bc.ng J678 1679 1680 i ' common both in Italy and Lorraine ; c is a cantilever cornice, which may be exccut. .1 cither in wood or stone. The great projection of the corona or upper part produces tliat J6S1 deep shadow, which is the striking characteristic of the Italian cornice. An modillion with rustic coins is shown at rf, and is a common feature in the better tion of Italian villas, and also in 1682 the street palaces of Rome and , Florence. Of block cornices, such as e, f, g, there is a great variety, many of which might be executed with common bricks. Such cor- nices are often introduced as string courses, or horizontal belts or bands in the walls of buildings, and also so as to serve for the sOls of windows. Frequently they are made use of as a finish to the terrace or parapet walls of a villa. ,• 1 1 Few features of the Italian style are less expensive, more generally applicaDle enriched descrip- VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 1683 959 ^T= ■mrm i^ I II II II II II II I \ productive of effect. A building in all other respects plain, with rusticated coins, and a blocking cornice, such as e, with similar cornices under the window siUs, will produce a striking effect, without any other exterior decoration. \d"29. Window Dressings are fine sources of character. In fig. 1684, a and h are the 1684 c I plainest forms in general use ; and, when properly and not too profiisely introduced in an elevation, their effect is excellent. Palladio occasionally uses the form c. In fig. 1685, d is a specimen of a circular-headed ^^g g=- 5^ 1 gg^ window with a balcony. Balconies are used by the Italians in most situations ; and they are most desir- able objects, not only for their in- ■ ., dividual beauty, and their architec- \ J tural effect, but as places for dis- playing flowers ; and, as a writer in the Mechanics' Magazine has observed, as places to go out on in case of fire, when there are no means of internal descent. The straight-headed window, e, in this figure is highly architectural, and is well fitted for a rustic basement. Fig. 1686 is a row of circular- headed windows, with a balcony, which forms one of the most striking features in the elevations of Italian villas. It t L having the angles cut off; and c is a door-head, supposed to be constructed cf rough stone, in which also is sho^-n part of the door. Fig. 1691 is a doorway with a pro- jecting head and rustic jambs, which shows also part of the wall, built of J | / 1691 diagonal masonry. 1931. Bell Turrets assume various forms. Fig. 1692 is one of the sim- plest, being the mere continuation of a wall, commonly a gable end, or the termination of any division wall,carried a few yards above the roof. Figs. 1693 and 1694 are forms of watch- towers, common on the smaller villas, and even farm-houses, in several parts of Tuscany. Fig. 1695 is a cam- panile or watch-tower of a highly architectural character, which is cal- culated to produce an excellent eflfect. 1932. Porches suited to the Italian manner are exemplified in figs. 1696, 1697, and 1698, which are from the portfolio of Marriott Field, Esq., a young Architect, lately returned from a profes- sional tour through Italy. In many of the smaller Italian villas, instead of pro- 1693 169} jecting porches, the entrance is formed within a recess, which has columns or an arcade in front. In others, instead of a portico, porch, or recess, a projecting colonnade, arcade, or veranda, extends the whole length of the entrance front, and the principal yO.6 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1694 t 1695 doorway may be under any part of it. In most large villas the entrance doorway is either protected by a portico that may be driven under, or it is formed on the side of an archway through which carriages drive into an inner court, as in some of our public inns. This is a comfortable con- trivance, but by no means an elegant one. In the first place, it indicates want of space; and, next, want of means for display and de- coration ; lastly, such entrances are always gloomy. 1933. The modern Italian Style of Ar- chitecture, the characteristics of which may be given in two words — painter-Uke effect, — has in this country the recommendation of novelty ; a quality which always makes a strong impression on the general observer. It is not, however, a style which can be trusted in the hands of any Architect not a master in the art of composition. The jp-eat object, in designing every building, as far as exterior effect is concerned, is the pro- duction of a whole : now, in regular symme- trical Architecture, this is comparatively easy ; for, a centre being fixed upon, the two sides can easily be made to correspond w^ith it A beautiful design may not be '^S^ APPENDAGES TO VILLAS. ^-v as in fig. 1715. These x^^^'^ ^^^^^^N ornaments are pro- duced by cast-iron, cast on the wrought- iron tension bars ; but when great strains are expected, they are cast with holes, and leaded on, as casting on injures the fibre of the wrought iron." — We greatly admire the construction of tliese roofs, but we cannot bring ourselves to consider as in good taste, the practice of applying ornaments to the tension bars, either by casting on, or leading on. A tension bar of metal can uever be so expressive of its use, as when it is perfectly plain ; loading it with ornaments [JJO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. altogether counteracts the expression of tension ; and whenever an ornament cither is, or appears to be, at variance with the expression of tlie use of the part to which it is applied, it becomes a deformity. All the struts, or pressure pieces, of an iron roof may be ornamented without any offence against the principle of fitness ; and this Mr. Mallet has done very judiciously, iu the main ribs and pendent struts of fig. 1715. 1942. A Cast-iron Hoof for a Riding-house may he formed on the same principle as one designed by the late Mr. Tredgold, for co- vering the corn market at Norwich. Fig. 1716 is a section showing the half of one of the cast- iron rafters of this roof, in the form of a Gothic arch, with the spandril filled in with tracery. The span is fifty-four feet ; the columns, a, from which the cast-iron arches spring, are of stone; the walls of brick, and the roof covered with slates, nailed to boards, supported by wooden purlins and rafters. The purlins, shown at b, are eight inches and a quarter by five inches and a quar- ter, and the rafters are four inches and a half by two inches and a half. This section was kindly furnished to us by our much esteemed friend Mr. Thorold, who, having been for many years on intimate terms with Mr. Tred- gold, possesses his work- ing-plans and calcula- tions for this and for various other great works. It is evident that a roof of this de- scription, on a riding- house, would have a very grand and rich effect : there might be a row of Gothic win- dows in each of the side walls, and one large window in each gable reaching from the ground to the roof; the lower parts of which windows might serve as doors. Above the doors, in the inside, there might be galleries for spectators. 1943. TJie Framing of a Timber Roof for a Riding-house of great Width, and where, as in Russia and America, timber is abundant, might be constructed on the principle of that of the Grande Salle d'Exercice at Moscow, one half of a single truss of which is shown in fig. 1717. This magnificent exercising-house is 150 feet (French) broad, and 502 feet (French) long; the walls are 40 feet high, and 8 feet thick above the ground; and their foundations, which are 12 feet under ground, are 14 feet thick. The building was constructed in 1*17, including the making and burning of the bricks for the walls, and the cutting down of the timber for the scaffolding. It was begun and finished in the short space of five months, in order to enable the Em- peror Alexander to exercise his troops in it, during the winter of 1817-18 which the DOG-KENNELS. 971 1717 imperial family passed in Moscow. The roof is covered with sheet iron. It was the invention of General Betancourt, who states that its principal merit, as a piece of con- struction, consists in the manner in which the king and queen posts and struts are joined to the principal rafter by iron shoes, by which the effect of compression on timber is avoided. The vai'ious details, together with an interesting account of the manner in which the strength of the rafters was proved before they were put up, will be found at length in Betancourt's Description de la Salle de Moscou, &c. It appears, by that work, that this is the largest building that has ever been covered by a single roof; the next largest is an exercising-house, built by the Emperor Paul at St. Petersburgh, which is 119 feet (French) broad, and 552 feet long. Beautiful as is the construction of the roof of the exercising-house at Moscow, its exterior architectural effect, as shown in Betancourt's perspective view, is completely spoiled by the walls being finished with half columns, with semicircular-headed windows, and fjir-projecting cornices over them in the intercolumniations. The utter destruction of simplicity by this arrangement is to us quite intolerable. It is lamentable to see an Architect throwing away so fine an opportunity of establishing his fame. There is nothing original in the construction of the roof, as any one may see in the works of Borgnis, Kraft, Rondelet, and other authors ; but there is the merit of greater dimensions than were ever before attempted. In the works of Rondelet and Kraft, and from them copied into the Carpentry of Mr. Tredgold, is a design for a roof of stiU larger dimensions than that of Betancourt, which is there said to have been executed at INIoscow ; but Betancourt informs us that that roof never had an existence except on paper. 1944. Riding-houses in the Country are often used as tennis courts for playing at bowls and other games ; and even for archery in wet weather during winter. When a riding- house is to be used as a tennis court, the floor must be laid with flagstones for the latter purpose, and the paving be covered with straw, sawdust, or sand, for the former. If, instead of flagstones, chumps of wood are substituted for paving, the floor will serve both purposes without any covering. Some hotels of extraordinary dimensions have lately been erected at Xew York and Boston (Holt's House and Tremont House, for example), and, as these cities increase in wealth and luxury, we have no doubt they will attempt riding-houses of this kind ; wliich, in a country where the ground is covered with snow for so many months in every year, and where the summers are so very hot, must be of gi-eat use as places for recreation, either in severe weather or during hot sunshine. Sect. III. Dog-hennels. 1945. The requisite Accommodations for Kennels for Sporting Dogs have been given by SeUra, § 1721 ; and we shall, therefore, here merely describe a dog-kennel which was erected from a Design of ours, at Garth, in 1811. The situation is on an eminence, con- siderably higher than that on which the dwelling-house stands ; and forming with it and the stables, described § 1937, three architectural groups on the side of a high, irregular, richly wooded hill. The view is most extensive, and in order that the dogs may see it from their yards, these should be surrounded by light open railings (and not by walls as in figs. 1719 and 1720), it being found, as Somerville and others have observed, that dogs are always quietest when the^ kennels command an extensive prospect ; on the same principle, perhaps, that the most high-spirited horses become perfectly tame when exercised on the sea beach. Fig. 1718 is the ground plan, in which a is the vestibule and show-room, with a stair in the centre, bchmd which is a stove ; the stair leading to COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AUCHITECTURE. a store-room for food and for various articles required for hounds, pointers, &c. ; 6 is a room for pointers ; c, breeding-rooms ; d, couches in these rooms for the dogs to sleep on ; e, room for hounds ; /, boiling-house, the flue from the boiler serving to heat the show- room in ordinary weather, there being a separate stove for use in severe weather ; g, place for carrion ; h, place for fuel ; i i, hospitals ; k k, small yards sloping one inch in two feet ; 1 1, large yards with the same slope ; m, reservoir of water supplied by a spring ; n, channels for irrigating the yards and washing the rooms. These channels are only one inch deeper in the centre than the general surface of the yard, and their sides are sloping, so that, when the water is turned on by raising the sluices of the reservoir, it spreads over the whole surface of the yards, and, with very little assistance from a broom, soon renders tliem perfectly clean ; o o, drains which lead to a cesspool for the deposition of the solid part of the manure carried off by the water ; the liquid part overflowing in gutters, so formed as to irrigate a sloping water-meadow. We have given two elevations of this Design, both different from that which was actually executed ; and both having walls surrounding the yards, instead of open iron railings, ORNAMENTAL DAIRIES AND POULTRY-HOUSES. 973 which, as before stated, are preferable. Fig. 1719 is a perspective elevation in the Tudor Gothic style ; and fig. 1 720 is an elevation in the Italian manner : both are designed by Mr. Lamb. The peculiar shape of the open courts in the plan was indicated by the form of the ground, and by the necessity of having such a slope as would carry off the water rapidly. If, in designing country buildings, Architects were to take hints for the general forms and dispositions of the masses, from the ground on which they are to be placed, and from the surrounding scenery, much more than they appear to do, we should not have such frequent repetitions of the same form, and so many common- place structures, such as may be set down any where. This principle ought to be attended to even in the humblest buildings ; for by it, even independently of architectural details, the interest created by them may be much enhanced. By this means a building may be made to appear to have arisen out of the situation in which it is placed, instead of appearing to have been brought there from some town or village. Sect. IV. Ornamental Dairies and Poultry-houses, 1946. The Principles for constructing Dairies and Poultry-houses have already been laid down at sufficient length (see § 729, 1728, for dairies; and 770, 1325, and 1356, for poultry-houses), and we shall here content ourselves with giving an example of each, rendered ornamental, and suitable for an appendage to a villa. 1947. The Dairy, Cottage, and Poxdtry-house, at Syndal House, Kent, is shown in the general view, fig. 1723, and the ground plan in figs. 1721 and 1722. Fig. 1721 shows the ground plan of the dairy, and cottage for the dairyman, with the position of the poultry-yard. The dairy-cottage consists of two sitting-rooms, a a; a. bed-room, h ; dairy, c ; scalding-room, d ; and two covered sheds, e e : the situation of a pump, well, and cistern in the poultry-yard is shown at /. The cow-lodge is at a short distance from the dairy, but it is surrounded by plantations, and completely hidden from the view. Fig. 1722 shows the elevation and ground plan of the poultry-houses; in this, g is a pigeon-house fixed on a post ; /j is a pond ; i i are two houses for hens ; A is a house for ducks ; I, one for geese ; m, one for turkeys ; and n, one for fatting-coops. The lower 1722 97 1< COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. part of the front wall of the ixml try-houses is of brickwork, ami the upper part of open latticework, as shown in the elevation, /»p; the latticework is painted green. For the better 1724 ventilation of the place, and the health of the fowls, this latticework is left open during summer ; but each division is fijrnished with wooden shutters, attached to the plates inside by hinges, which, during the winter nights, and especially in frosty weather, are kept closed. The centre of the dairy-cottage is for the dairyman and his wife to r(;side in ; and the large sitting-room is intended as a room in which the family at the villa might occasionally eat strawberries and cream, &c. The dairy, which forms the corre- sponding wing to that containing this room, is of a greater height inside, as the floor, which is paved with square 14-inch tiles, is sunk about 2 feet below the level of the ground. The upper shelf for the milk-pans is made of black slate, supported by brick arches, each arch forming a recess below for a pan of milk, fig. 1724. In the space between the doors is a small stone trough, supplied with water from a cistern at the well in the poultry-yard, by a pipe laid under ground. In the centre stands a large marble or stone table. The two small windows marked o o, in fig. 1721, are blanks, forming niches in the inside, in which are placed terra-cotta figures of a bull and a cow. In the centre of the angles formed by the arches support- ing the slate shelves are fastened small rams' heads. These internal decorations give the dairy an air of finish and taste. Instead of the marble table, there might be a marble or stone basin, with a jet or fountain in the centre, and the floor might be laid with Wright's tessellated paving-tiles, to be described more at length hereafter. Where slates are abundant, they might be used, both for the floor and the central table, and painted in imitation either of marble or oilcloth. Oil painting on slate is found very durable, and will bear daily washing, and even scouring, without injury ; paint also renders the slates warmer to the feet. The covered shed, fig. 1721, e, next to the dairy, is fitted up with racks, in which the milk-pans and other dairy utensils are set to drain ; and the corresponding shed on the other side has bins, &c., to keep the corn and pro- visions for the poultry, and the dairyman's beer, &c. As coolness in summer and warmth in winter are essential to a dairy, the wings of the building are neatly thatched with a thick coat of reeds ; the centre is slated. 1948. The Dainj at Alnwick Castle is surrounded by a deep veranda, the supports of which are festooned with climbers : this completely shades the wall, and its doors and windows, from the sun ; except at mid-winter, and before and after that period till the sun at midday is 25° above the horizon. The roofs are thickly thatched. These arrange- ments are found to keep the interior of the dairy perfectly cool in summer ; and, with the occasional introduction of vessels of liot water from the dairy scullery, and the heat of the new milk itself, sufficiently warm in winter. Th^walls are lined with glazed white tiles, the floor is paved with tessellated bricks, the shelves are of white marble, and the vessels in which the milk is kept are of white Wedgwood ware. The ceiling is plastered, and there is a handsome cornice. The middle of the floor is occupied by a very large and AVIARIES AND MENAGERIES. 97-5 thick white marble table, raised about two feet above the floor ; on tliis table are placed the dishes of new milk. These dishes are of an oblong shape, having at one extremity the edge turned over in the shape of a lip, to facilitate the pouring out of the milk. Large vases and jars of coloured china are placed as ornaments on the marble shelving round the walls. ( Quart. Journ. Ag., vol. vi. p. 158.) Sect. V. Aviaries and Menageries. 1949. Aviaries are of two kinds; those for birds of song, and those for birds of show or curiosity. The former are not very common in Britain ; but, where they do exist, they are usually joined to conservatories. Their general form and style should harmo- nise with those of the house ; no particular shape or dimensions are requisite, but it is always desirable to have the whole or a part of the roof of glass ; to have glass win- dows on, at least, two sides ; and to have a complete lining of wire network within every window and door, in order to prevent the escape of the birds, and the ingress of vermin when the sashes are open for ventilation. There should also be a porch with double doors, for the same purpose. Sometimes aviaries are formed on a large scale, and include trees, shrubs, tm-f, and water ; the whole being covered with wire netting. In this case, the extent ought to be considerable, and the birds few, otherwise the trees and shrubs will soon be injured, and the whole place rendered unsightly. Where the object is simply to hear the song of the birds, it is found a more effective and cleanly plan to distiibute a few cages up and down a conservatory ; or along a veranda. The birds are found to sing better when they are within hearing, but not within sight, of each other ; and the cages prevent that appearance of dirt on the trees, plants, and paths, which is generally offensive in a crowded aviary. To prevent the possibility of any dirt, seeds, &:c., being thrown down from birds in cages, the latter may be constructed with a small cellar or box from four to eight inches deep in the bottom ; in which alone food and water may be placed, the bird descending through an opening in the upper floor to eat his food, and ascending again by a small stair or ladder. This construction is found effectually to prevent birds from scattering the husks of their seeds ; and we have seen the same prin- ciple applied on a large scale in chamber and conservatory aviaries, where the birds are kept in niches, with fronts of open wirework, by forming concealed recesses in the sides of the niches, where alone the birds can take their food. 1 950. Aviaries for Birds of Show and Curiosity are not uncommon appendages to English villas. The tender exotic birds are kept in structures with windows to the south, and heated during winter by flues, or steam or hot-water pipes, as in the extensive aviary at Knowlesly, near Liverpool ; and in those of the Zoological Gardens, London. Birds which will endure the open air of Britain, are confined in rustic structures resembling large cages or hen-coops covered with netting, and containing small houses for the birds to retire into during the night, or heavy rains. These cages or coops often contain trees and shrubs, which are renewed as they become injured or decayed. The most complete aviaries of this kind in England are at Woburn Abbey. Some of them, as at Knowlesly, and in the Zoological Gai'dens, include enclosed basins for aquatic fowls. Those who desire more information on this head will find it in the published descriptions of the London Zoological Gardens. A description of the SuiTey Zoological Gardens, with the ground plan and elevation of a circular building with a glass roof, combining at once a conservatory, aviary, menagerie, and a running stream stocked with exotic fish, will be found in the Gard. Mag., vol. viii. p. 693. 1951. Menageries are sometimes found in villa residences, and, when combined with aviaries for hardy terrestrial birds, and formed on a large scale, with all the birds and animals in one enclosure, are much more interesting than aviaries or menageries where the birds and animals are confined in separate structures. The finest we know in Eng- land is at Cobham Hall, in Kent; where the kangai-oo, the opossum, the zebra, the quagga, several kinds of goats, sheep, and deer, the ostrich, the emu, the cassowary, and many other birds and beasts, live in harmony together on a lawn of several acres, finely ornamented by foreign trees and shrubs, and surrounded by a wire fence fifteen feet high. There are suitable ornamental structures for the animals to retire into, and constant attendants to see that they are properly provided with food, and that they do not injure one another. In a mixed aviary and menagerie of this kind at Chiswick, the Duke of Devonshire had lately a great many species of aquatic fowls, a bear, several kinds of monkeys, and an elephant ; the last being kept in an appropriate house, heated during winter. Sect. VI. Architectural Conservatories. 1952. Conservatories are most desirable additions to villas, as indicating the residence of ease and elegance ; as affording a useful source of exercise and recreation during 97^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. severe weather, and in winter ; and as contributing an important architectural feature to the general group of the dwelling-house and offices. There can be no reason why a small house should not have a large conservatory ; because, the first cost once incurred, the expense of keeping up a large one is not much greater than that of a small one ; and more especially, because a large conservatory, unlike a large dining-room or drawing- room, does not imply that the occupant sees much com.pany, or is expected to indulge in an expensive style of living. We shall consider the conservatory in regard to aspect, dimension, modes of growing the plants, construction, mode of heating, and architec- tural style. Our observations shall be brief; because the subject belongs more to Gar- dening than Architecture ; and because it will be found treated of more at length in our intended Encyclopcedia of Landscape- Gardening and Garden Archifecture. 1953. Aspect and Position, The best aspect for a structure in which plants of any kind are to be grown is, in general, the south, or any point between S. S. E. and S. S. W. The chief advantage of a south aspect for large plants, such as those grown in conserva- tories, is the heat gained from the sun's rays in winter and spring ; but where this heat can be supplied by art, and where the economy of fuel is no great object, it matters little what may be the aspect of the conservatory, provided it be not shaded by some other building, or so placed as not to admit of ventilation. The most desirable position, when the conservatory has glass on all sides, is that in which the length of the building is due south and north ; because, as the principal walks in it will be in that direction, the sun will shine on the sides of the trees next the walks, every day whenever it shines, through- out tlie year. This is an important object to keep in view in laying out the walks in all conservatories ; for it will be observed that, both in them and in shrubberies, those sides of the trees and shrubs which face the north are never so finely clothed with foliage and blossoms as those which face the south, east, or west. For this reason, when the position of a conservatory is east and west, the walk in the middle ought to be much broader than when the position is north and south, in order to admit more free access to the sun's rays. 1 954. Dimensions. The laws of vegetation render it utterly impossible that a small conservatory can ever look well. A conservatory is for the growth of trees and shrubs, not, like a green-house, for mere pelargoniums and other small plants in pots ; and trees and shrubs, to look well, must have room, and especially breadth, to expand themselves. As every conservatory, however narrow, must be at least of the height of the apartments with which it is connected, the width, if not considerably greater than the height, will always occasion the plants within to have an etiolated appearance. Supposing the height of a conservatory to be twelve feet, the width should never be less than eighteen feet ; it being understood, as will be afterwards shown to be essential, that the whole of the roof is to be of glass. 1 955. Mode of growing the Plants. There are two modes of growing plants in con- servatories ; the one is by having them in large tubs, boxes, or pots, as in the case of orangeries, which are properly called orange conservatories ; and the other, by having them planted in the free soil. The first mode has several advantages belonging to it, the principal of which is, that the trees may be removed from the conservatory, when in an unhealthy state, and invigorated in a structure better adapted for their growth. This also is the only mode by which trees can be kept in conservatories with opaque roofs. In conservatories where trees are planted in beds of free soil, they almost invariably grow with much greater vigour than when their roots are confined in tubs or boxes, however large, and the allusion to a shrubbery in the open air is much greater ; tlie expense is also very considerably less. For conservatories of this description, it is essential that the roof be wholly of glass. Structures, where plants are kept in pots set on stages, are called green-houses ; and, by some, these are preferred to conservatories, as admitting of the display of a greater number of kinds of plants : but as the plants, in this case, are always small, they can never thrive well in houses displaying architectural elevations, from the distance at which the plants must necessarily be from the glass roof; and from the large proportion of opaque material which the construction requires in the front of the edifice. Small plants in pots, in short, can only be well grown in those shed-like glass-roofed structures which belong to kitchen-gardens and nurseries ; and these, in our opinion, are, from the associations connected with them, utterly unfit for combining with architectural forms, so as to compose a whole, with the dwelling-house of a villa. Where the trees in a conservatory are grown in tubs or boxes, these should always be covered with cases exhibiting handsome architectural forms ; such as vases, sarcophagi, &c. ; unless a mode be adopted which is practised in some conservatories in Italy, as at Monza ; and in England, as at Nuneham, near Oxford, of having trenches or pits sunk in the floor of the conservatory, in which the tubs or boxes are placed, with a false cover of boards over them ; this cover being again concealed by turf or moss. Conservatories of orange trees (and these and camellias are among the best conservatory plants) look CONSERVATORIES. 977 remarkably well in this manner. Indeed, in our opinion, where conservatory plants are not grown in the free soil, this mode is preferable to any other j because the allusion to natural scenery is more complete. 1 956. Construction. The walls of the conservatory should always be formed of the same material as those of the house to which it belongs ; because this is favourable to the principle of unity of effect. Cast iron, however, is in many cases extensively em- ployed as standards between the upright sashes ; and, in this case, the harmony may be preserved by the introduction of stone or brick piers at the angles, or on each side of a central door, or projection, or recess. In the conservatory of Mr. Mallet's Design for a villa, fig. 1660, there is a great deal of ironwork exposed to view; but, by the intro- duction of stone piers, a stone architrave, and a considerable mass of walling behind the central semi-dome, the harmony is perfectly preserved. There is one point in the con- struction of conservatories which ought never to be neglected ; and that is, as we have before observed, to form the roof wholly of glass. Without perpendicular light no plant whatever, and more especially no tree or shrub, will ever grow and look well. To be convinced of this, it is only necessary to observe the plants grown in conservatories in which the roof is partially or wholly opaque ; they will be found, even in the most favourable cases, only to look well on one side. Provided the roof of a conservatory be wholly of glass, the walks broad, so as to allow of a free circulation of air round the trees, and provided the cost of fuel for keeping it at a temperature of 50^ during the winter months be no object, it signifies much less than is generally imagined what may be either the aspect or the position of the conservatory. The floor of the consers-atory, where the plants are to stand in tubs and boxes, may be paved ; but, where they are to be planted in the ground, space and sufficient drainage will be required for a bed of soil of five or six feet in depth. As there must be walks between the beds, piers should be carried up from the bottom, to support the pavement, or iron grating, which may form those walks. 1957. The Mode of heating Conservatories is commonly by smoke flues, or tubes of steam or hot water carried under the paths. Other modes have been practised ; such as flues or tubes above the surface, cisterns, or cylinders of steam or hot water, and the introduction of hot air from cockle stoves ; but no plan, in our opinion, is so suit- able as that of introducing whatever medium may be adopted for conveying the heat, under the pathways ; having such an arrangement of openings in the top or sides of the paths as will insure a circulation of air round the heating body. Without this circu- lation to carry off the heat from the tubes or flues, heat will be given out so slowly to the house, that in severe weather it will hardly be possible to keep up the proper tem- perature. The circulation may be produced by enclosing the tubes, for a considerable length, by the walling which supports the pavement of the path ; and by having an opening at the bottom of the funnel formed by this walling at one end, and another and larger opening at the other end, in its top, or in the pavement over it, for the escape of the heated air. In a conservatory of considerable length and breadth, in which the tubes are conducted round the floor, and also along the middle of the house, there may be several systems of circulation of this kind ; say, for example, one for every thirty feet in length of the steam or hot-water tuljes. These systems may be so arranged as that the openings for the escape of heated air, and those for the drawing in of the lower stratum of the air of the house, in order that it may be re-heated, may be regularly distributed over the floor of the conservatory. This has been admirably eflfected by Mr. Kewley, in the magnificent conservatory heated by him at Clarence Lodge. From not attending to this mode of can-ying off the heat from flues and tubes sunk under the floors of conservatories, some have been imperfectly heated, and others heated at a much greater expense of tubes than would have been at all necessary by a proper plan. This subject is better understood by INIr. Kewley than by most of the engineers who heat by hot water or steam jn the neighbourhood of London ; but a little attention to the plan of Mr. Perkins for accelerating the production of steam by metallic linings to boilers, will at once show the importance of it, and teach the manner of carrying it into execution. (See Gard. Mag., vol. viii. p. 294.) In modern conservatories it is not un- common to see the tubes or flues for heating, forming conspicuous objects along the walks ; than which we can hardly conceive any thing more unsuitable to the idea of an ornamental structure. It would be better far to have no conservatory at all, than to see it thus reduced to the level of a nurseryman's show-house, or the forcing-house of a kitchen-garden. A conservatory so constructed as not completely to conceal the mode by which it is heated, is one of the most imperfect of villa appendages. Before the mode of heating by hot water or steam was invented, there might have been, comjjara- tively, some excuse for not concealing flues ; but now that we have Perkins's mode of heating by hot water, by which the largest house may be heated by tubes not above an inch in diameter, deformities of the kind mentioned are inexcusable. I'uir.ps, cisterns, 5 V 978 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. and contrivances for watering, ought, in like manner, never to be displayed in a conser- vatory ; nor, indeed, any thing which is likely to create an allusion to, or a comparison with, a common-place garden green-house. 1 958. Tlie Architectural Style of Conservatories attached to dwellings, must obviously be governed by that of the house to which they belong ; and there are few appendages which afford better opportunities for displaying the grander features of every style of building ; such as columns, piers, arches, &c. The elevation of a conservatory in the Grecian style may be composed of square columns set on a plinth, and surmounted by an architrave, frieze, and cornice ; a Roman or Italian elevation may consist of an arcade, similarly placed, with a cornice and blocking course, or parapet ; and a Gothic elevation may be formed of a series of pointed windows, with or without buttresses, or small angular towers terminating in finials, between. 1959. One of the simplest and most economical Descriptions of Conservatories in the Gothic Style is described in vol. vi. of the Gardener's Magazine. It was built by a common village bricklayer and carpenter, in the neighbourhood of Nottingham ; and, though forty-three feet long, and eighteen feet wide, the cost was little more than £250. Fig. 1725 is the ground plan, of which a a a are three doors, each dividing in the middle. These doors are hung upon Collinge's patent hinges ; and are lifted on and off with the greatest ease. The letters b b are Gothic lights or windows, resembling the Kfm^ doors. The letters c c are cast-iron pipes, conducting the rain water from the roof gutters into the drains d d, which carry it into the tank /. The letters e e are beds containing soil of the quality best suited to their respective plants. The tank / is twelve feet square by ten feet deep, arched over, and covered with a movable flagstone at the mouth, supplying the pump g, through the bottom of the trough of which, the waste water is again returned into the tank ; m is a glass door opening into a library ; and n a similar door opening into a drawingroom. Fig. 1726 is a sec- 1726 lion of the main beam, forty-four feet long, extending through the centre of the build- ing, upon which the inner ribs and lights rest. The gutters lined with lead, h, are cut out of the solid beam, and fall each way to the three hollow cast-iron pillars, c c c, standing over the centre drain. Fig. 1727 is a cross section of the roof, in which 1 1 II are the rafters on which the lights rest, exactly after the same manner as those of the common cucumber frame ; with the addi- tion of a slip of wood, five inches wide, extending from the ridge to the gutters along the rafters, to cover the outer woodwork of the lights, after they are returned to their places in September. Without this the rain water would find admission down the openings of the sides of the lights. These slips of wood are essential to the dryness of the house ; and if the two or three screws with which they are fixed are well greased, they may be readily taken off from such lights as are removed during the summer. The three lead gutters, h h h, should be wide enough in the centre to admit of a person walking along them ; c is one of the cast-iron pipes, forming a pillar nine feet high, supporting the longitudinal beam, and having five small wooden rods round it, to train climbing plants ujion. The ventilating shutter, I x, works upon two pivots, and is raised by a wooden rod, which also props it open. 1727 I m m CONSERVATORIES. 979 Fig. 1728 is one of the upright lights, six feet eight inches to the spring of the arch, and rising eight inches in the centre, fitting into a corresponding frame, and secured merely by three bolts, k k k ; j j are two windows, fourteen inches deep, each opening upon a horizontal pivot at its centre ; the panes of glass are four inches and a half by four inches. Fig. 1729 is a slight sketch of the elevation, with the doors and lights removed for the summer. The glazing of the roof is cur- \Tlinear, each pane being only five inches and a half by four inches ; the laps are rather more than one eighth of an inch, with puttv between, except a small opening in the centre. Where the best crown glass is used, putty is unnecessary, where merely the usual conservatory temperature is wanted. Not only is the original cost, and the expense of repairs, considerably reduced by using fiames of small dimensions, but the risk of breakage from frost is completely avoided when the laps do not exceed one fourth of an inch. Though this house is forty- three feet by eighteen feet, the cost of the glazing did not amount to £50. Where the substratum of the soil does not afford a ready escape for the water from the beds, drains A k 1 I 1 1 j 1 1 7£S Til i ; l': i i should be made on the outside, and far below the foimdation of the house all round ; small openings being left in the foundation walls, to allow the water to pass off freely from the bottom of the beds. It is often more advisable to have the plants in pots plunged in the soil, than to plant them in the bed itself; as many species, if turned out of their pots into the free soil, are apt to make a profusion of wood, and to bear but little blossom. (Card. Mag., vol. ^^. p. 664.) 1960. As Examples of Architectural Conservatories detached from FiUa Dwellings, we may refer to those of Syon House and Alton Towers. The former, designed by Charles Fowler, Esq., is in the Italian style; the general plan is that of a crescent with a parallelogram centre surmounted by a dome sixty feet high, with two parallelograms terminating the extremities or wings. The central compartment is a stove conservatory, having glass on all sides, with the supports in the outside walls, of stone ; the upright glass of the wmgs is divided by stone piers on the south side, and the other walls are without openings. The whole of the framework containing the glass is of cast iron. A part of the roof in the centre is glazed with plate glass : the panes being large, and their inclination to the horizon being oblique, it was deemed advisable to employ this description of glass, in order the more eCFectually to resist hail. The detached conservatory at Alton Towers is seen in fig. 1429, § 1669; and fig. 1730 is its architectural elevation. The style may be considered as Grecian or Roman. The back wall is of opaque masonry, and the front has stone piers and architraves, filled in with cast and wrought iron and copper sashes. The roof and domes are also of iron- work, and copper, glazed. The whole is richly otnamented with vases and sculptures, and the domes are profusely gilt. The general effect is splendid to a degree, hardly, if at all, equalled in Britain ; and the plants within, which are partly those commonly grown in green-houses, and partly tropical or stove plants, being thinly planted, and allowed to attain a considerable size, are as prosperous as could be desired. This Design is in part the production of several Architects ; but chiefly, we believe, of Robert Abraham, Esq., and Thomas Allason, Esq. There is another detached conservatory at Alton, fig. 1731, designed by Mr. Abraham, the effect of which is remarkably good. Tliere is also a conservatory at Alton Towers connected with the house, in the Gothic style, of large dimensions, but of simple Architecture, having externally the appearance of a plain cathedra], in which the plants are as prosperous as in the common shed-like glass cases of nurserymen. This consers-atory, when we saw it in 1831, was richly ornamented with choice sculptures, fountains, piscatories, vases, china jars, cages of singing-birds, and other suitable objects ; and, taken altogether, it was then tlic most splendid thing of 9S0 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AliCHlTECTUIlK. the kind which we had ever seen. All these four splendid con- servatories are heated by steam-tubes, conducted under the paths. 1961. As an Example of detached Conservatories not architec- tural, we shall give the glass dome erected in 1827, for Mrs. Beaumont, at Bretton Hall, Yorkshire. This structure, fig. 1732, was one hundred feet in diameter, and sixty feet high. It was con- structed entirely of cast and wrought iron ; all the perpendicular supports being of the former, and all the sash-bar composing the ribs of the roof of the latter, material. It was ventilated by horizontal shutters in a low upright wall, or rather iron screen ; by upright windows, which opened inwardly at the base of the upper dome ; and by a skylight which was raised by weights under the terminating gilt coronet. It was heated by steam from a boiler placed in a house at some distance from it, the tubes being conducted under the floors of the paths. The cost for the ironwork alone was between if 3000 and ^''4000. It is worthy of remark, that there were no rafters or principal ribs for strengthening the roof besides the common wrought-iron sash-bar, which is two inches deep, and half an inch thick in the thickest part, and weighs only about one pound to the lineal foot. The upper dome had an in- dependent support from cast-iron pillars. When the ironwork was put up, before it was glazed, the slightest wind put the whole of it in motion from the base to the summit ; and so much alarm did this create in the party for whom it was to be put up, or their agents, that the contractors for the work, Messrs. W. and D. Bailey, of Holborn, London, were obliged to covenant to keep it in repair for a certain number of years. As soon as the glass was put in, however, it was found to become perfectly firm and strong, nor did the slightest accident, from any cause, happen to it, from the time it was completed, in 1827, till, on the death of Mrs. Beaumont, in 1832, it was sold by auction, and taken down. It brought only about £560, though it is believed to have cost in all upwards of if 14,000. In the north of Europe, the conservatory or orangery is often used as an entrance-hall, and sometimes it forms a pas- sage, connecting the centre of the house with its wings, as in the palace of Lazenki, at Warsaw ; or to connect the house with the stables and farm offices, as in the elegant Italian villa of Count Kownatski, near Brody, of which a sketch, partly from memory, is given in fig. 1733. Plans and elevations of a number of other architectural conservatories will be found in the Gardener's Maga- zine, and in the Encyclopcedia of Gardening. 1962. The Flower-garden should generally adjoin the conserva- tory, or at all events be connected with it by a veranda, colonnade, arcade, or covered way of some description. There is not a greater luxury about a villa, either in winter or summer, than a broad veranda facing the south or south-east, and looking out on a flower-garden in the foreground, with pleasure-ground scenery in the middle distance, and a fertile populous valley, with a river be- yond. The last part of the landscape is by no means necessary to the comfort afforded by the veranda, though it adds to the effect of the view from it ; but the flower-garden in the foreground is essential, because in early spring, the spectator may walk dry and sheltered under the cover, and in summer in the shade, and in both cases be interested by the flowers immediately under his eye. There is a fine veranda of this sort at Ashridge Park, which con- nects the conservatory with the French flower-garden ; and there is one at Bayswater, where the roof is covered with glass, by which means China roses and other early flowering half-hardy shrubs may be trained on the back wall so as to flower early in the season. Shade is produced so as to render the veranda agreeable in summer, by training vines on a trellis under the glass. 1963. Architectural Flower-gardens are very suitable garden de- corations for adjoining conservatories and verandas. The walks of such gardens are paved with flags, and the edges to these walks are of worked stone. Sometimes also there are baskets, boxes, vases, or other raised architectural vessels constructed entirely of stone. 1730 e3^ SSSBSS I CONSERVATORIES. 981 so as to become fixtures. Some curious forms of this sort have lately been erected in he flower-garden in front of the house at Chatsworth. The oldest and the most 1732 simple design for an architectural flower-garden is to be found in Caus's work on the gardens at Heidelberg, the perspective view of which is given in fig. 1734. It will be observed, that all the compartments in this garden contain water only, and that five of tliem display fountains. Further details of this garden will be found in the Ewydo- 982 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1734 pcedia of Gardening, 3d edit., and in the Gardener's Magazine, vol. ix. Much may be done in the way of architectural flower-gardens on the roofs of dwellings in towns and their suburbs, and more especially on those of their offices. In Paris, Florence, and Naples there are so many examples, that a book has been written on the subject of taking care of them. (See Jardinier des Fenetres, &c.) Figs. 1735 and 1736 are plans, which may serve either for architectural or common flower-gardens, the walks of which may either be of pavement, gravel, or turf, according to circumstances. The same forms may also afford useful hints for designing mosaic flooring tiles. 1964. A Sculpture Gallery, a Picture Gallery, a Museum for Antiquities, a Library, and other luxuries commonly contained within the walls of the dwelling-house of a villa, are sometimes added to it as appendages ; and the advantage resulting from this arrange- ment, in places which are shown to the public, is, that tlicy may be thrown open at all times, without encroaching on the privacy of domestic life. A truly liberal and bene- volent man will take incomparably more pleasure in seeing the public enjoy his gardens and grounds, than in having them exclusively reserved for his family and friends. In this respect the German, the Italian, and even the Russian princes are much more liberal than the English nobility. Sfx'T. VII. Terrace Parapets, and other mural Ornaments. 1 965. The Value of Terraces and Parapets in uniting the house with the surface on which it is placed, and with the groinids which surroimd it, has been already sufficiently enlarged on § 1649, and we shall here confine ourselves to exhibiting a few Designs by Mr. Varden, from which terrace parapets may be formed in the very cheapest manner, with brick, wood, or even rope. These Designs are evidently the result of much care and study; and they are so distinct, that any builder or carpenter may carry Ihem into execution. CONSERVATORIES. 1736 983 ■^^i^"' ^-r ^ ^^-' kW^^^ = Fig. 1737 is a brick parapet, ornamented with a projecting cornice a, formed entirely of brick and supporting a top rail, 6, which may be also formed in brick set in cement. 1737 1738 ^TO" "^^ Jk ■■^r% «r^ , ,. .'l,.,,:"!^ -? 7 ■■ ^^^'■■■'- ■'--■'' ''-^■'•■''- •■■'• ' _^--^u-.^,. i_j_:-_!_rTT-i:urrri=i. jSSM] q::b::p::id::p The covering bricks, c, may be either rounded, or angular as at tf: e is the surface of the terrace. 1739 1740 • • • • "^ — r-i ^ I— I *— ' i-i ' ■ rT r-T- -T-T- r-1 i-i- n , ::3::?:r::: :z::,:±:iz::;:5 z:-:;r. FR-^l^ .rTn::LiiiT ;a fc^ fe" ^ "r^ j\ -mmM^ ^ap^^hSiv^ 981 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUUE. Fig. 1738 is a parapet constructed in the same manner as the former; the railing, /, in this case, may either be plain, or covered with cement ; or it may be formed of stone or slate. Fig. 1739 is a similar parapet, in a bold style, with an enriched cornice, and having this great advantage, that it may be executed entirely in brick and common mortar, without the use of cement. Fig. 1740 is a parapet formed of brick; but with the top railing supported on iron bars, or with the bricks built in cement in blocks, and then laid on without the aid of iron. Lintels of doors and windows are frequently formed in this manner of brick and cement, and then introduced into walls as though they were blocks of stone. Copuigs to walls are also often executed in a similar manner. Figs. 1741 and 1742 are brick parapets, of which it has been deemed unnecessary to show the sections. 1741 1742 Fi<^. 1743 is a brick parapet, and corner pier, covered with cement so as to imitate stone. The open work, and also the top rail, may be made with brick and cement, filled into moulds, and then built in as if they were of solid stone. Fio-s. 1744 and 1745 show the open work of a parapet, without the cornices or the hand-rails; which may be added at the pleasure of the Architect. 1744 Tsnm 1745 uuuuuuuli'uliUuLjLiLI lTlTulJ U U LI d U 0/ Fig. 1 746 is a parapet, the open work or panels of which are formed of baked earth, which may be slipped into grooves in the top rail, and in the plinth. It is evident that a very great variety of parapets may be formed in this manner, and at a very little expense. Balusters of various kinds may also be made of baked earth, and slipped in. 1746 1747 Figs. 1747, 1748, and 1749 are parapets, which may be either formed of real stone, or of baked earth, or of artificial stone. OHNA.VEXTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES. 1748 1749 985 Figs. 1750, 1751, 1752, and 1753 are panels for parapets composed entirely of thick old rope, twisted into patterns, and secured at the laps with copper wire or strong twine. Covered with a thick coating of paint, panels of this sort will last probably for centuries ; care being taken always to preserve the coating of paint entire, and free from cracks. The top rail and the plinth may be of artificial stone, also well painted ; and there should be standards at regular distances for supporting the rail. These standards may either be of stone or iron, according as they are intended to be covered or concealed. 1756 1757 Figs. 1754, 1755, 1756, and 1757 are parapets in the Swiss style, cut out of flat boarding. The enriched work is sawn out of thin boards, and nailed on blocks, so as to project a little from the face of the rest of the work. 1966. The Mural Ornaments for Terraces, Parapets, and other Walls ahout a Villa, arc chiefly vases ; but there are also other ornaments and finishings, such as statues, globular, oval, square, triangular, or pentagonal forms, hewn in stone, "or moulded in clay or other materials and burnt. These are supported on necks or bases, displaying architectural forms ; and appearing as finishings to piers, pillars, pilasters, and other component parts of walls and parapets. The most favourable opportunities and legitimate sources for these and such like ornaments are, the piers, lintels, or archways over doors, or other openings filled in with open work. This department in general may be considered as beyond the reach of rules, unless particular cases were given; and, therefore, the Architect must be left to his own application of general principles, and to his sense of beauty, in this description of scenery. Sect. VIII. Of ornamental Garden Strvctures. 1967. The architectvral Ornaments for Gardens include prospect towers, seats of various kinds, bridges, artificial cascades, fountains, artificial ruins, rockwork, statues, arns, sundials, grottoes, root-houses and other rustic works, trelliswork, sepulchral structures, &c. 1968. Prospect Towers are very desirable edifices in every country seat, and even in the grounds of suburban villas. Their use is to show a stranger the beauties of the sur- rounding scenery, and to admit of the occupant of the villa inspecting the appearance of his neighbourhood, at diflTerent seasons of the year, &c. The architectural style may in general be that of the house ; but it may also, in many cases, be different ; and, iii all small villas, the prospect tower should never indicate a great outlay of expense. In hilly countries, a judiciously contrived artificial ruin will often have a good effect when so applied ; it being understood, that the intention is less to deceive, than to create a useful and picturesque object. It is almost imnecessary to observe that prospect towers should have staircases of easy ascent, and shoidd contain a dry airy room at top, furnished with seats and a good telescope. The roof should be flat, in order that it may be used as a terrace; in towers in the Italian stylo, this terrace will, of course, have a covering open on the sides, in the style of the campaniles, figs. 1694 and 1695. 5 7. 986 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1969. Seats are essential objects in all pleasure-grounds. In tliose of the most exten- sive and highly enriched description, where a main part of the intention is to display the ^ --^^ wealth and taste of the owner, they may appear as Grecian temples (fig. 1758, contri- buted by M. Field, Esq.,) Gothic porches, Chinese pagodas, or otiier foreign or antique structures. In the grounds of less ambitious villas, plain unarchitcctui-al buildings may be employed, or wooden structures, simply protecting the seat from the weather, may be resorted to. In England it has always been customary since the introduction of the modern style of gardening, to form what is called rustic covered seats ; of which fig. 1759 and fig. 1760, erected on the Duke of Marlborough's grounds at White Knights, Berkshire (see Hoflanars Description, Sfc.), may be consitlered as of a superior descrip- tion. They are constructed of oak posts formed from young trees with the bark on ; and the panels between these posts are first filled in with clay Hogging or boards, and afterwards covered in the inside with hazel and other rods with the bark on, and on the outside with slabs of oak, birch, larch, or other durable woods, having the bark na- turally varied with mosses and lichens. Birch, from its light paper-coloured bark, broad- leaved elm grown in the shade, and alder, are particularly useful in cases of this kind, from the contrasts which they afford in rustic inlaying. The whole of the Architecture and building of structures of this kind may be considered as a species of child's play, which may fairly be left to the taste of those who indulge in it. 1970. Bridges are among the noblest structures which can be erected in pleasure- grounds; and, unlike rustic seats and root- houses, they maintain this character even when constructed of materials of temporary duration, from their obvious and unques- tionable utility. A mere plank or tree, when thrown across a stream, assumes a character of grandeur ; it commands respect for its power of effecting for man what he could not, by any possibility, effect for himself. On the other hand, when a trifling stream, or an artificial river, displays a highly arcliitcctural bridge of masonry or cast iron, the effect is offensive ; because the means seem out of all proportion to the end. In short, a massive highly architectural stone bridge, built across a tame piece of water, not perhaps more than knee-deep, and an elaborate covered seat of rustic cabinet-work, which cannot endure many seasons, offend precisely for the same reason ; viz., the unsuitableness of means to ends. 1 971. Artificial Cascades are of two kinds : those which arc constructed in imitation of the natural ledges of rock which cross the beds of rivers in such a manner as to inter- ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES. 987 nipt their streams; and those wliich are avowedly artificial. The latter are sometimes constructed in tlie form of semicircular upright walls, the convex side lacing the stream, over ^'hich the water falls in one sheet ; and some- times, instead of the face of the wall being left upright, a mass of inatcrial is placed on the under side of it in a sloping direction, and either covered irregularly witli large blocks of stone ; or smoothly paved so as to form an undulating surface, with a view of causing the water to pass over it, like the waves of a swelling, but yet, not tempestuous sea. Sometimes artificial cascades are formed by conducting the water along an architectural aqueduct, and terminating this structure in a ruined arch. This has been beautifully done in the garders of Schweitzingen, by an imitation of the ruins of a Roman aqueduct, fig. 1761. 1972. Fountitins. Water, Switzer observes, is " the very life and soul of a garden," whether it be the grovind plot of a suburban cottage, or the embellished lawn of an ex- teiwive villa. Two centuries ago, when jiictviresque beauty and botanical interest were little attended to in the gardens of Europe, fountains and architectural decorations were sought after as the grand sources of interest ; and one garden was distinguished from another by the expense which had been incurred in its waterworks, and in its mural and sculptural appendages. For the last century the construction of waterworks has been on the decline ; and, in proportion as they engrossed too much attentian before, they have, during that period, been comparatively neglected. The manufacture of artificial stone has contributed to the revival of this taste, by the facilities which it affords of forming elegantly shaped basins, and different forms of drooping fountains. By drooping foun- tains we mean those in which water is conveyed to a height, and then left to trickle down over an ornamental form, as ojiposed to jet or spouting fountains, in which water is forced to spout up vertically, as in fig. 1762. Another circimistance favourable to the construction of ornamental fountains is, the facility with which iron can now be cast into the most beautiful shapes, at a very moderate expense. With the artificial stone of Austin, or the kiln-burnt artificial stone of Coade and Seeley, which is as durable as the hardest marble ; with cast-iron shafts and jets ; and with iron or leaden pipes, there is now y88 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AUCHITKCTHHl.. iTo-^ h R Ill y'lii III no difficulty in constructing tlie most beautiful garden fountains at a trifling cost, in the 1763 17G4 grounds of every villa. Figs. 1763 and 1764 are tazza fountains, executed in arti- ficial stone by Mr. Austin. Fig. 1 766 is a Gothic foun- tain, the lower part of which may be executed in slone or marble, and the upper part in cast iron or bronze. This Design is l)y Mr. Lamb. 1973. A fouutai/i mat/ be formed wherever there is either a natural or an artificial supply of Water some feet higher than the level of the surface on which the fountain is to be placed. Where a drooping fountain is to be adopted, such as fig. 1763, the level of the water in the head need not be liigher than the point at which the water issues from the tazza ; but if, on the other hand, the water is to rise upwards, as in fig. 1762, the head must be higher than the height to which the jet is expected to rise, by at least several inches, according to the diameter of the jet. Where the jet is small, say an eighth of an inch in diameter, the height of the head above it, provided the water in that head be always kept to the same level, need not be above six inches ; but, as it is seldom practicable to keep the head to the same level, it is better to have the bottom of the pond or cistern sufficiently high to effect the desired object ; in which case, so long as there is any water in the cistern at all, the jet will rise to the proper height. A great variety of designs for fountains will be found in Falda's llecueildes Fontaines de Rome, Fontaines de Paris, De Clarac, &-c. Some are also given in the Choix d' Edifices Publiques, and in Coussin's Genie d" Architecture. 1974. IFliere a 7iatural head of water of the projter height cannot he obtained, recourse may be had to artificial means of raising water to an elevated cistern or reservoir, or of forcing tlie water upwards by the direct influence of machinery. When the water is raised to a cistern, the latter may either be placed on a natural or artificial eminence, or on the summit of a building. In pleasure-grounds, an artificial mount, or piece of conical rockwork, would afford a good situation ; and a simple tower, round or sqtiare, ORNAMENTAL GAUDKN STKUCTUKES. 989 is also at once a cheap mode of elevating a cistern, and of adding to grounds an orna mcnt, ■which, if not very beautiful, can yet never be considered mean or paltry. '1 lie water may be raised to the basin or cistern so placed by forcing-pumps worked by men, horses, wind, water, or steam ; or by that very ingenious machine, the hydraulic ram (described, Gurd. Mag., vol. v. p. 594., as being in use at Bury Hill, Surrey), which has lately been put up in various parts of the country, for this purpose, by Mr. Rowley. However, the mode which we woidd recommend, as most directly ajiplicable where there is no natural power, is that of having a small steam-engine, say of two-horse power, which might be placed in the lower part of the tower containing the cistern, or in any con- venient situation near the well, pond, or otlier source of sujiply, and set to work once or twice a week, as occasion might require. A horizontal windmill, so disguised in the tower as not to be an offensive object, would, in all elevated situations, as we have else- where observed (§ 1256), be the cheapest and best that could be employed; because it would require little or no attention, and might be left to itself to work or stand still, according to the wind. 1975. In conducting the water from the cistern or reservoir to the jet or fountain, the following particulars require to be attended to : — In the first place, all the pipes must be laid sufticiently deep in the earth, or otherwise placed and protected so as to prevent the possibility of their being reached by frost ; next, as a general rule, the diameter of the orifice fi-oni which the jet of water pioceeds, technically called the bore of the quill, ought to be four times less than the bore of the conduit pipe ; that is, the quill and pipe ought to be in a quadi-uple proportion to each other. There are several sorts of quills or spouts 990 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. wliich throw the water up or down, into a variety of forms ; such as fans, parasols, sheaves, showers, mushrooms, inverted bells, &c., or (and which is one of the newest forms) the convolvulus of Mr. Rowley, as shown in fig. 1767. The larger the conduit pipes are, the more freely will the jets display their different forms ; and the fewer the holes in the quill or jet (for sometimes this is pierced like the rose of a watering-pot), tin greater certainty tliere will be of the form continuing the same ; because the risk of any of the holes choking up will be less. The diameter of a conduit pipe ought in no case to be less than an inch ; but, for jets like those in the preceding figures, the diameter ought to be two inches. Where the conduit pipes are of great length, say upwards of 1000 feet, it is found advantageous to begin, at the reservoir or cistern, with pijies of a diametei somewhat greater than those which deliver the water to the quills, because the water, in a pipe of uniform diameter of so great a length, is found to lose much of its strength, and become what is technically called sleepy ; while the different sizes (juicken it, and redouble its force. For example, in a conduit pipe of 1800 feet in length, the first 600 feet may be laid with pipes of 8 inches in diameter the next 600 feet with pipes of 6 inches in diameter, and the last 600 feet with pipes of 4 inches in diameter. In conduits not •jxceeding 900 feet, the same diameter may be continued throughout. When several jets are to play, in several fountains, or in the same, it is not necessary to lay a fresh pipe from each jet to the reser- voir ; a main of suflSeient size, with branch pipes to each jet, being all that is required. Where the conduit pipe enters the reservoir or cistern, it ought to be of increased diameter, and the grating placed over it to keep out leaves and other matters which might choke it up ought to be semiglobular or conical ; so that the area of the number of holes in it may exceed the area of the orifice of the conduit pipe. The object is, to prevent any diminu- tion of pressure froin the body of water in the cistern, and to facilitate the flow of the water. Where the conduit pipe joins the fountain, there, of course, ought to be a cock for turning the water off" and on ; and particular care must be taken that as much water may pass through the oval hole of this cock as passes through the circular hole of the pipe. In conduit pipes, all elbows, bendings, and right angles should be avoided as much as possible, since they diminish the force of the water. In long conduit pipes, air-holes formed by soldering on up- right pieces of pipe, terminating in inverted valves or suckers, should be made at convenient distances, and protected by shatis built of stone or brick, and covered with movable grat- ings, in order to let out the air. Where pipes ascend and descend on very irregular surfaces, the strain on the lowest parts of the pipe is always the greatest ; unless care is taken to relieve this by the judicious disposition of cocks and air-holes. Without this precaution, pipes conducted over irregular surfaces will not last nearly so long as those conducted over a level. We shall here add a Design by Solomon Cans, fig. 1766, which may be described as a conceit, and by no means in what may be considered the best taste. Conceits, however, are sometimes admissible, since they can be enjoyed by those who have not yet arrived at a just feeling for the simple and grand. 1976. T/ie perpendicular hcu/ht to which loater tvill rise in a jet has a limit, depending on the diameter of the jet, and on the specific gravity of the water, and on that of the air which it has to penetrate. A jet of salt water will rise higher than one of fresh water; a column six inches in diameter higher than one of three inches ; and a jet of water of any dimension, higher at Madrid or Munich, than in Paris or Ijondon, on account of the dif- ference of the elevation of those cities above the level of the sea, and the consequent OllNAMENTAL GARDEN STKUCTU RKS. 901 oifference in the density of their atmosphere. The most powerful garden jet in Europe is that in the Nymphenburg gardens, near Munich. The water is there forced up the jet bv the direct influence of machinery, without the intervention of a head or reservoir ; and it is found that a column of sis inches in diameter cannot, even there, be raised higher than 90 feet. 1977. Fountains are generally constructed of Stone, combined with cast iron or copper. In the fountain, fig. 1767, the quill which gives the form to the jet is new, having been lately invented by Mr. Rowley ; it is of copper, the double vase with its column is ot cast iron, and the basin containing the water is of stone or white marble. In the very elegant fountain, fig. 1768, which is from the pencil of Mr. Lamb, the whole of the part above the water is of cast iron. 1978. Buiiis, when artificial, are often ridiculous objects, and sometimes highly offen- sive, from their petty mimicry of what, when real, is grand and venerable. Nevertheless, as picturesq\ie objects, we would in some cases admit of them ; for our motto is, let tastt. be free. Ruins may be introduced where a fitting situation is pointed out by nature, or by tradition or other accidental circumstances ; and also where they can be applied to some useful purpose. Where a ruin does exist, we think it may often be allowable to 992 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1768 heighten its architectural character; for example, hy adding to the plain walls of an old decaying castle, a tower, a turret, a window with mullions and tracery, or a corbel cornice and embattlements. The use of artificial ruins has been so much abused in Eng- land, that the tide of prejudice has for some time set in strongly against their erection ; but this does not appear to us a sufficient reason for rejecting them altogether. Now that cement is so universally manufactured, is so ch.ea]), and its valuable uses are so well understood by builders, artificial ruins may be constructed in a very superior manner to what they have hitherto been ; and correct imitations of classical edifices, instructive from their Architecture, might be introduced avowedly as imitation, which, besides their historical interest, might serve .is useful lessons in art. A ruin of this kind has been erected in the grounds at Shugborough, in Staffordshire ; and a ruin in the Gothic style, Radway Grange, fig. 17G9, which has deceived many a traveller, has long existed on both sides of the road leading from Banbury, in Oxfordshire, to Kingston, in Warwick- shire. It is situated on the brow of Edgehill, the scene of a celebrated battle in the time of Charles I., and may thus be considered to possess a certain degree of historical interest. It was designed liy a private gentleman of great taste, the late E. IMiller, Esq., of Radway (to whose son, F. S. Miller, Esq., we are indebted for fig. 1769), and was executed by a local mason. Part of this ruin forms a prospect tower, as before recom- mended, and the habitable part of the remainder is occupied as a public-house, and as dwellings for labourers. In many parks in England, the farm buildings are placed on rising grounds, so as to form conspicuous objects in the views from the house ; and their exterior elevations are disguised as ruins, or as old castles partially repaired, as in fig. 1770. 1 979. Rockwork is one of the most common ornaments of gardens ; though few of them ORNAMENTAL CARDEX STRUCTURES. 093 are worse understood. A rockery is too frequently a mere mass of stories of different sizes and kinds, perhaps mixed with bricks, piled together without any attempt at expression or character ; in short, more as a nidus for a particular description of plants, than for effect as a mass of visible rock, or as fragments supposed to be connected with a mass under gi'ound. In small gardens this is unavoidable ; but in pleasure-grounds of any 1 extent the object ought to be the imitation of nature. For this purpose, the artist should first conceive in his mind some description of natural rock, either above the sur- face, which he intends to imitate ; or under it, which he intends to indicate. As the sub- ject belongs much more to Gardening than to Architecture, we shall not here go into details ; but one essential point we must mention, which is, that, in all imitations of nature, the stones employed ought to be of the same kind. Stoneries, as tliey are some- times called, might be made little geological museums, and contain, besides natural stones, scoriae, vitrified bricks, broken earthen vessels, architectural fragments, and old roots of trees. One of the best imitations of the face of a rock we know of, is that in the garden of the Colosseum in tlie Regent's Park, London. 1980. Statues in the open air are objected to by some, as unsuitable to our climate; and by others, as a practical absurdity. How ridiculous, say such persons, it is to place imitations of human beings on posts and pedestals in the open air, exposed to all weathers ! The proper answer to this last objection is, that it would be still more ridiculous to place them only in warm rooms. Statues are to be considered as works of art, among other works of art ; and there seems no reasonable objection to placing them anywhere among works of art of the like kind ; such as those of Architecture, an art the productions of which have been in all ages closely associated with those of Sculpture. Whenever architectural ornaments are introduced in a garden, therefore, we see no objec- tion to including among them statues and other sculptural articles, where the materials' of which these are made are of a nature sufficiently durable. There is nothing in the way of garden ornaments which we are more desirous of seeing introduced than statues of cast iron, and we are persuaded that the time is near at hand when statues of this material will be cast in one piece. Our patriotic correspondent, Mr. Robison, has lately' 6 A 991^ COTTAGE, FAlliM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. produced an interesting article on this subject, in Jameson's Journal, vol. xiv. p. 364. Messrs. Cottam and Hallen have also lately had vases of a great variety of sizes, with and without ornaments, cast in iron in one piece, so as to sell at very low prices. 1981. The Disposition of Statues, in Architectural Gardens, is a matter that recjuires much taste and feeling ; and it would occupy too much s])ace to lay down either principles or rules for it. As a general guide, we would suggest that no statue ought ever to be placed where it may not be viewed in con- nection with some architectural produc- tion ; such as placed on the piers of a balustrade, on the side walls of a stair, or simply on pedestals among flowers ; but so as always to have a spreading architectural base, and to be seen backed by a wall, or some part of a buildino ^ 1772 Statues may also be placed where they are seen in connection with each other ; though even this will not be entirely satisfactory without some mural appendages. Statues placed in woods, in green arbours, verdant alcoves, in the midst of naked grass lawns ; or, in short, in any place where they are surrounded only by vegetation, are, from their want of har- mony with the scene, decidedly objectionable. The streets, squares, and market-places of cities are indeed the true situations for statues ; next to them, the exterior elevations of edifices of any kind ; and, next to these, architectural gardens. The subject of in- door sculptures is not here under consider- >sV^-y~S^ ation. ^%-#*^\-rt'^" 1982. Busts, Therms, Vases, Urns, Sun- f'^p \j^\ dials, and similar architectural and sculptu- ral objects, are subject to the same laws as statues. Busts alone are more adapted for decorating the walls of an edifice, than 1774 for being placed on the walls or piers of a .iMJ^Z^'^S^ garden ; but, when they are placed on therms, they then approach more nearly to statues, and may be treated like them. The dilFerence between a vase and an urn is, that the latter is always a covered vessel. The vase, being an open one, has frequently soil and a plant ])laced in it ; ^^j^j-^ but this, in the great ,£7^>{5::;f5;::J^::5^''7>£9;2!P) i''i- 4-<:Ki ^ majority of cases, and ''^,$J^"V^fe3bS^-^ Fig. 1791 is a view of a castellated architectural lodge; and fig. 1792 is its ground plan. The effect of this Design and the preceding one is good : in the latter, tliere is a degree of symmetry, combined with variety, which is highly pleasing, and, at tlie sjune time, there is nothing which is at variance with the laws of strength, or oifensive to reason o"" good sense. 1791 1 989. IHten the Loilgc is independent of the Gate, and does not form an architectural composition with it, the gate-posts should be incons])icuous, and at some little distance from the lodge ; at all events, never attached to it. We shall give three examples of lodges of this description. ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES. 1001 1792 Fig. 1793 is a view of a lodge in the Grecian style; and fig. 1794 is its ground plan, in which the line of fence, a, and the gateposts, h, are shown at some distance from the 1793 dwelling. The view is taken fi-om the interior of the park ; and the gateposts, though of masonry, and forming with the trees one general composition with the lodge, are yet not architecturally connected with it, and do not form an architectural composition. 1794 Fig. 1795 is a view of a Swiss cottage as an independent lodge; and fig. 1796 is its ground plan. It will hardly be supposed that a cottage of this description could lead to a villa in the same style; because the style itself is not adapted to large buildings. The preceding Design, however, being in a style rf Architecture adapted to large buildings, might very reasonably be considered as a prelude to a Grecian house. The preceding six Designs are by the distinguished Architect who contributed to us the plan of his own nlla. Design III.' § 1746. Fig. 1797 is a geometrical elevation of a cottage lodge in the Old English style; and fig. 1798 is its ground plan. This Design, having two porches, a, b, would form a very excellent lodge for placing between two gates, to two small villas ; a practice which is sometimes adopted in the neighbourhood of large towns. There is a bench, c, placed outside, which serves as an. apology for the canopy which projects over it, and which adds to the harmony of the elevation. The tiles of the roof, it will be observed, are of different forms, arranged in the manner recommended by ]Mr. A^arden, § 759. This Design is by Mr. Lamb, and would suit his very elegant Gothic villa, fig. 1C46. lOO*^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1795 1990. Entrance Gates to Villas are ( onstructed eitlier of iron or wood; and the lines which prevail in them should be thos of the mural Architecture to which they belonj^ The wrought-iron gates of the age of I^ouis XIV. were highly enriched with foliage and I79S flowers ; and those of modern times, formed of cast iron, are still more so. The richest metallic gates in the world are those of Tuscany, and especially of the cathedrals of Pisa and Florence, formed of brass. Some of the gates in British cathedrals, for example in Henry VH.'s Chapel in Westminster Abbey, are also highly enriched. The iron gates ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES. K^OS J 798 ^ft at Leeswold, in Flintshire, are among the most celebrated in England . they were erecte'l under the direction of Switzer, and will be found figured in the works of different tourists. An excellent work on Roman Gateways, by Donaldson, contains many beautiful designs adapted for towns j a"d Robertson's Gate Zorf^es affords resources for the Villa Architect. Some elaborate designs for wrought-iron gates, which have been executed at Nancy, are er.graved in the Becueil des Fondations, &-c., of that city ; and some others ■^'Ul be found in Vingboon's Architecture, and in that of Dietterlin. A number of rich designs executed in cast iron are common to the Birmingham trade, and may be examined, togetlier witli niAEv original drawings, in the pattern books of ^lessrs. Cottam and Hallen. Tlie most elaborate cast-iron gates in England are those of the triumphal arch, which forms the entrance to the Green Park fiom Piccadilly ; they are bronzed, and, at all events, are excessively rich, as are the cast-iron railings of the same kind flanking the entrance into Hyde Park. These cast-iron gates and rails are bronzed, which is a verv suitable kind of colouring for them. In the palisading to the gardens of the summer palace at Petersburgh, is a description of iion railing combining elegance with magnificence, in which the ornaments are gilt ; but which are not so abundant as to be no longer con- sidered as such. In the English gates the ornaments cover the whole. Fig. 1799 is an elevation of a Gothic gateway in the style of Pointed Architecture, prevalent during the time of Henry VII. It was furnished to us by Mr. Lamb, who obser\-es that " the arms of Henrj- VII. are used in the decorations to mark tlie date of the style of Architecture. Such heraldic devices are peculiarly appropriate to the Gothic style of art, and lend it great interest in a moral point of view, by marking the conse- quence of the proprietor, and serving as a sort of index to the style of living which may be expected at the villa, or baronial castle, to which they lead." In ages when mankind were nearly on a par with regard to intellectual rank, distinctive marks of this kind became requisite, not only to wealthy indidduals, but also to professions : hence, while the warrior was known by his arms, the priest was distinguished by bis gown, and the lawyer by his wig ; even physicians, till lately, carried with them gold-headed canes, and they still wear black clothes. All these distinctions, even the bearing of arms, which will be the last to pass away, will disappear with the universal diffusion of education. Fig. 1800 is a design for a Chinese gateway, copied for us, fi-om a Chinese drawing, by Mr. Varden. The Chinese sometimes adopt an opening of the form of three fourths of a circle as a gateway, which may be considered a caprice ; a doorway, the opening of which is of the form of an egg, with the broad end uppermost, and the lower end cut off, is a better approximation to the human form. Fig. 1801 is a Design for a Grecian gateway, by Mr. Lamh ; it may be .supposed to lOOi COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUME, ft' ? I I .1 if 7^- 1800 be the outer entrance to Mallet's Palladian villa. It would also suit very well for the gateway to a public garden or park. Fig. 1802 is an iron gate between stone piers. We have introduced it for the sake of showing what we should call a gate utterly without taste, such as we might suppose a blacksmith would design, who had few ideas beyond the mechanical part of his profession ; and who, in the figure before us, may be sup- posed to have looked only to the arrangement of the bars and braces, in such a manner as to make them rivet readily together, and pro- duce a strong whole. What he would consider as beauty in this work would be the curving of the secondary diagonal struts ; and he might, perhaps, expect admiration for the contrivance of the latch. How different the effect of such a gate, in an architectinal point of view, from any of the preceding ones. In figs. 1799 and 1801 the lines of tlie gate cooperate in the production of a whole, in which there is a unity _^j=, n,,,,, h,, — i^, of direction in tlie lines, as well as of their rrt^^tiW -'^^ — ^ " kind. The gate before us, fig. 1802, would even have had a better effect, as a work of taste, by the omission of the curved diagoiml.-i, ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES. 1005 1801 /.Jiu.^^ Sjt. M'hich add nothing whatever to the strength of the gate. The straight diagonals do add strength, and one of them is essential to each gate. Had only one been admitted, as in fig. 1803, the whole would have been in much better taste, because it would have been without pretension, and without offence. Fig. 1 804 is an elevation of a carriage and two footway gates, designed by John Perry, Esq., ?5nd erected, under his superintendence, at Uenbighs, near Haslemere, Surrey. We have introduced it here, chiefly to show the manner of fixing wooden gatea in the country. In this figure, a, b are the ground plans of the posts ; c, d, a plank or beam sunk in the earth two or three feet under the surface, into ■which the posts are 100(3 Cottage, farm, and villa architectuke. 1 80:5 CD mortised, and supported by angle braces, e. By means of this horizontal sleeper or beam and these braces, the gate-posts are kept perfectly erect and firm. Fig. 1805 is a Design for a gateway to a menagerie, from the work of Cans, which was intended by him to be executed as an entrance to the grotto, in the gardens at Heidel- berg, which he laid out for tlie Elector Palatine, afterwards king of Bohemia. It may be considered as an extravaganza with reference to the grounds of villas, but would suit very well for a garden containing a zoological collection, such as it is to be hoped will soon become appended to all our cities and towns. EXTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 1007 Chap. V. Of the Finishings, Fittincfs-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of Villas, 1991. In studying the Subject of the Finishing of Villas, the reader will take into con- sideration, with the first two sections of this chapter, what is stated in the first two sections of Chap. III. of Book I. p. 258, and also Section VI. of Book II. p. 650. The fixtures, fittings-up, and furniture of villas may in like manner be elucidated by reference to those of cottages and farm-houses ; and the reader should, therefore, turn to the sections in our second Book treating upon these subjects, the references to which he will find in the Table of Contents, or in the General Index. Sect. I. Of the Exterior Finishing of Villas. 1992. The Exterior Finishing of Villas may be considered with reference to archi- tectural style, and to general decorations applicable to all styles : the former includes the projections, mouldings, lines, and forms which belong to each system of Architecture ; and the latter such ornaments as statues, sculptures, &c., which may be introduced into elevations in any style or manner. 1993. The Display of Architectural Style in the Exterior Finishings of Villas may be obviously carried to a greater extent than in cottages, farm houses, or other dwellings of an humbler and less expensive description. In a cottage, for example, the windows are often left without architraves, or exterior facings ; but in a ^illa these should not be omitted, unless in styles where some other mode of finishing is substituted. The entrance doors to villas ought never to be without porches or porticoes, and these should be of a more imposing and arcliitectural character than those employed in cottages. Where the roof is concealed by a blocking course or parapet, the latter may be rendered ornamental by a balustrade, or by other open work, the piers of which maybe terminated by vases, or other sculptural ornaments. Blank windows, that is, openings in the shape of windows, without glass in them, or without some other object that may leave no regret that glass is wanting, we hold to be inadmissible, in either a cottage or a villa ; but, in a villa, blank windows are more especially objectionable. In cottages and farm houses, the walls may be of mud, of rubble-stone, of coarse bricks, or of some comparatively cheap material ; but in villas the material ought always to be of a durable kind, and also, if possible, of an agreeable or ornamental character ; stones ought to be squared, or, if rubble or coarse bricks be used, the wall should be covered with cement, finished in the manner of squared stone. The guiding principle in all this is, that, a villa being a dwelling of a higher class, there ought to be a higher quality of building material used in its constioiction, and a higher degree of architectural style displayed in its elevation. 1994. The Exterior Decorations of Villas which are common to different styles are chiefly, statues, sculptures, vases, urns, and other ornaments of stone. Exterior window blinds may also be included in this division of exterior finishing ; in addition to the various objects common to different styles, mentioned in preceding sections. 1995. Statues and Sculptures, as we have already observed, have at all times, and in all ages and countries, been associated with Architecture; and, indeed, in rude ages, as is still the case in remote districts of country, the occupations of the mason and of the sculptor are generally found united in the same person. There can, therefore, be no more appropriate ornament to the exterior elevation of a house than statuary works ; and this every one must feel who is capable of deriving pleasure from either sculpture or Architecture. A correct feeling or taste, and a sound controlling judgment, however, are necessary to giude the Architect in the disposition of statuary work. This disposition, as in similar cases, ought never to be left to the sculptor, who, from the feeling for his own art inseparable from artists, will be too apt to limit his views to his productions, instead of taking a comprehensive view of the effect of the whole. In the disposition of statues, either on the summits of the walls of a house, or on its pediments, porticoes, and porches, the Architect must chiefly be guided by the general principles of composition, though in some degree, also, by the style of Architecture which he has adopted. For example, in the Grecian style, it is most common to place statues where they will be seen backed by the sky, by some part of the building, or by the scenery surrounding it ; whereas, in the Gothic style, they are chiefly placed in niches. From the nature of the art of sculpture in entire relief, or statuary, which is altogether unsuitable for representing motion, groups of figures can seldom be used with effect in exteriors, except in tho';e sculptures which are called in alto, or in bas relief. Not only single statues are to be pre- ferred: but single statues in attitudes of repose ; never in attitudes implying motion, as in the Discobolus, which, though an antique statue, is essentially in bad taste. We may also notice, in this place, an error pointed out by ]Mr. Hope, which English sculptors. 1008 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. he says, have fallen into, in imitation of the French sculptors of the last century. This is, the practice of representing in a bust, the head, not looking straight forward and in the same direction as the chest, but turned over the shoulder, and looking sidewise. The reason why this is wrong is, that " in the production of the pencil, which can only exhibit a face in a single aspect, if the most striking or most favourable view of that face be not a direct front view, there may, in the eligibility of bringing the features more in profile, be a very good reason for turning the head somewhat over the shoulder. Nay, even in a work of the chisel, if it be an entire statue, the peculiar attitude or action of the body may present a sufficient motive for giving such a turn to the head. But if a mere bust, which we may easily view in every possible aspect, by ourselves moving round it, in place of being allowed to leave this task entirely to the beholder, be made itself to turn its face away from our sight though it have not a body, to account for this less easy and less usual position of the head, the portrait loses all claim to naturalness and truth ; it forfeits the appearance of dignified simplicity, which is so essential and so fascinating, for an air of inane and pompous affectation ; and it, moreover, from the different direction given to the face and to the chest, can seldom be so situated as not to look ill placed and awkward." He adds, " that the Grecian method of cutting the chest square, and placing its whole mass immediately on a term or other solid support, seems much preferable to the more prevailing Roman fashion of rounding off that chest, and balancing its centre only on a slender and tottering pivot." {Designs for Furniture, p. 47.) 1996. The Proportion between the Height or Size of the Statue, and that of the height and size of an ordinary human being, is a point wliich has given rise to much discussion. The most eminent authors are agreed that there ought to be a certain proportion between the size of the statues and sculptures on a building, and the size of that building ; and that the size of ordinary life is generally too small for interiors, and always so for statues placed externally. This seems but reasonable, and in harmony with the practice in all buildings, of forming the doors and the ceilings of rooms higher than is necessary for the reception of human beings. No fixed rule or proportion has hitherto been given for determining the height of statues relatively to the height of windows, doors, and other openings ; and all that has been suggested by the best writers on the subject is, that there should be some general proportion between the height of the statue and the magnitude of the building. For example, a villa of the ordinary size of villas in the given age, country, and style of Architecture, should have the statues used in decorating its exterior, somewhat, perhaps from a seventh to a fifth part, larger than life ; and a villa much larger than the common size of villas ought to have the statues proportion- ately larger than life. This point, like various others, may be considered as beyond the reach of rules ; the principle is clearly the idea of union with the building in forming a whole ; and this includes union in size, as well as in expression, material, and style of workmanship. 1997. The Style of Statues should correspond with the Architecture of the elevation on which they are employed ; and there ought to be even a historical relation between them. For example, in a highly finished Grecian elevation, the statuary ought to be simple, classical, and highly finished ; in a bold Italian elevation composed of coarse materials, and producing its effect by strong contrasts of light and shade, the statues may be rudely chiseled, so as to produce effect rather by their general form than by minute details ; and the statues on a Gothic building, in which perpendicular lines prevail, should exhibit a preponderance of lines of the same character, in the folds of their drapery, &c. Historically, Grecian buildings ought to have Grecian figures, in the costume employed by the Grecian sculptors ; and the subjects ought to be heathen gods and goddesses, or the heroes and great men of antiquity. The statues for decorating Italian elevations may be those of eminent men of modern times. Gothic buildings ought to display statues of men distinguished for their military gallantry or for their devotion ; while a cottage, being comparatively a temporary structiu-e, may, where a statue is admitted, copy the costume of the times in which it is built, and of the particular country from which its own style is borrowed. A Swiss cottage, for example, might be decorated by a figure in Swiss costume carved in oak, and protected by a projecting canopy. We offer these remarks, not as absolute, but rather to excite reflections on the subject in the mind of the young Architect. 1998. Sculptures in high or low Relief are of far more general application to the external elevations of buildings than statues ; and, indeed, they may be said to be, to the exterior surfaces of walls, what paintings are to tlie walls of rooms. Wherever there is a blank window that it is not desirable to disguise by a glazed sash, it may be filled in with sculpture ; the boundary line of the opening forming a fi-ame, and the subject ap- pearing as though in a sunk panel. The size of the figures for sculptures of this kind ought to bo governed by the same principles as outside statues. Historically, wc think, some subject ought to be chosen relatively to the occupants of the building, rather tlian LXTERlOIl FINISHING OF VILLAS. 1009 to persons or things foreign to it. For example, in one window, figures might appear as if looking out at some object, and conversing about it ; another window might represent part of the interior of a room with its occupants, and, indeed, where the panels or fjilse windows filled with sculpture are numerous, they might indicate the uses of the different descriptions of rooms within. Thus, one blank window might represent some cha- racteristic of a dining-room, another of a librarj', or of a drawingroom, a staircase, &c. This is in perfect accordance with the original uses of sculptures in low relief, which, according to Quatremere de Quincy, were originally a sort of writing, or hieroglyphics, or signs ; and came at last to be improved into classical compositions. 1999. JfJiere Sculptures in relief are to be placed in panels so much smaller than windows as never to be mistaken for them, the size of the figures may be proportionably small. Reliefs of this kind may be classed with those employed by Arcliitects in de- corating friezes ; and they ludy be inti-oduced with excellent eflPect in a variety of posi- tions, where it is desirable to enhance the interest of a particular part of the elevation, or to oppose great richness of decoration to simplicity of form. Even single portraits, in the manner of alto relievo busts, may be introduced in some parts of the exteriors of buildings; such as over an entrance door, over windows, in the tympanum of pediments, in gable ends, &c. 2000. Armorial Sculptures are particularly suitable for the diflTerent varieties of Gothic Ai'chitecture, and in no other style can so much interest be created with so little exertion of skill or expense. The simple form of the shield, which any mason can execute, has alone, from the train of historical associations connected with it, a powerful effect. The cross, whether in complete or in partial relief, is also an object of great interest in the Gothic style. The same may be said of the fleur de lis, and other forms used in armorial bearings. 2001. Other Decorations, such as vases, urns, chimney-tops, tiles, rusticated stones, and sculptured bricks, or weather-tiling in imitation of bricks, have been already suf- ficiently noticed in preceding sections, 200'i. The Subject of outside Blinds has also, § 554 to § 560, been treated of; but we shall here describe the mechanism of what is considered the best description of cloth outside blind. Fig. 1807 is a view of a bonnet blind let down as far as it will go, the lower 1806 B*6 and projecting part being what is denominated the bonnet; and fig. 1806 a view of the same blind drawn up nearly to the top. In the former figure, a represents one of the 6 c 1010 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. hooks for fastening the cord to when the blind is piilled up ; the other hook lieing :i little way above it, as shown at h, in fig. 180G. It will be observed that the hood or l)onnet is confined by the line and rod shown at c, in the same figure ; the line serving to draw up the curtain. Fig. 1808 is a skeleton view of the interior of the blind; in 1808 wz w V \> Nil which a is one of the lines by which the hood is raised : it is attached to the front iron of the hood, passes over the pulley h, proceeds along the top of the lath, passes over the pulley c, and joins the other lines at the knot d% e is the second line of the hood, which crosses the pidley /, passes along the lath, and descends over the pidley g, to the knot /;. h is the third line of the hood, which passes over the pulley i, and meets the others at d ; A is the knot where the two lines unite, which raise the entire blind : one line passes over the pulley /, and is attached by a hook to the slip m, which slides in a groove, and to which the rising bar of the hood, n, is hinged. The other line crosses the pulley o, proceeds along the lath, descends over the pulley p, and is attached to the other sliding slip at q. r is the thick cord, by pulling which the hood is raised ; s represents the front iron ; t is the line which the bar reaches when the hood is drawn up ; and u is the thick cord, which must be grasped together with r to raise the whole blind. An elegant improve- ment on this description of blinds has been made by Mr. Vokins, in consequence ofwliich thev are much more easily drawn up, and are less likely to get out of repair. INTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. lUil Sect. II. Of the Interior FiniMny of Villas. 2003. The Interior Finishings of the Apartments of a Villa embrace a variety of details, the principal of which may be included under those relating to architectural style, and those relating to decorations independent of style. To the latter belongs the consideration of the materials with which the walls, floors, and ceilings are covered, and of the colouring with which the whole is finished. 2004. The architectural Style of an Interior, it is sufficiently obvious, should correspond with the external appearance of the building ; and the degree of decoration should be great, in the former case, in proportion as it is in the latter. The display of style in an interior is in general made on the same parts as in the exterior; viz., on the doors and windows, also on the chimneys which correspond to the chimney-tops, and on the ceil- ings which may be considered as corresponding to the roofs. The ceilings of rooms, next to the walls, are the principal parts where the expression of architectural strength requires to be given ; and this is admirably done, in the Grecian style, by horizontal beams and rectangular compartments; and, in the Gothic style, by beams supported by brackets, and other projections, in the manner of what are called groined ceilings. 2005. /. trnal- '^ "^f^nns which are independent of Style are comparatively few. They are el'Jefly the u.^i^osition of mirrors, or of chandeliers, or other fixed lights, and of fixed scidptures and statuary. Perhaps the time is not far distant, when the regulators for ventilation, and for the admission of heat, which are fixed in floors, walls, and ceilings, will be included under this class of finishings; but the improvements in warming and ventilating are not yet sufficiently disseminated for this purpose. Though certain interior decorations may be considered independent of style none whatever are inde- pendent of construction. " The spirit of decoration," Percier and Fontaine observe (or rather Quatremere de Quincy, who obviously wrote the introduction to their work observes), " separated from that of construction, and not operating in concert with it, will make light of absurdities and contradictions : it will not only pervert the essential forms of the edifice, but it will make them disappear. Looking-glasses iJI placed, or tapestry awkwardly fastened, will produce voids where there ought to be none, and vice versa. Construction is to buildings what the bones are to the human body : it ought to be embellished, wiihout being entirely concealed. It is the construction which, according to the counti-y, the climate, and the sort of edifice, gives the motive for the ornaments. Construction and decoration have thus an intimate connection ; and, if this connection does not appear, the whole is vicio'is. The execution of the work, whatever may be its extent and its importance, will have no effect on the mind, if the construction has not dictated the embellishment ; if the first form does not seem in accordance with its acces- saries ; and if, in short, it is perceived that two wills, without harmonising together, have operated in the execution of the ^.jrk." In accordance with this principle, whether a chandelier hang from a Grecian c a Gothic ceiling, it ought to be, or to appear to be, suspended from a beam, or other part of the construction, obviously sufficient for its sup- port , To suspend any light of this kind from a plastered ceiling, perhaps painted in imitation of the sky, without any intervening decoration or preparation, but the hook to which the chain is attached, every one must feel to be inconsistent with the principles here laid down. 2006. The Materials with which the Walls and Ceilings of Rooms are covered have varied in diffijrent ages, and with different styles of Architecture. In ancient times, tapestry was the principal article employed, and this is still an appropriate covering for the walls of rooms in the Gothic style, and even in the most ancient Italian manner of building. To tapestry succeeded wainscoting, and to the latter the use of lime and hair plaster and stucco, and of printed papers pasted to these, or to canvass. The most durable mode, and that least susceptible of injury from fire, is the covering of plaster or stucco ; even if this should require, from the style of Architecture, to be finished so as to resemble wainscoting. 2007. Scagliola is a mode of finishing with stucco which deserves adoption, more par- ticularly in houses in the Grecian or Italian manner. The object is an imitation of marble, and the success is most complete. The art of making scagliola has been long well known and extensively practised in Italy ; and also by Italian artists in most of the capital cities on the Continent ; but it was not introduced into Britain till about the end of the last century. " In order to execute columns and their ant£B, or pilasters, in scagliola, the following remarks and directions are to be observed : when the Architect has finished the drawing, exhibiting the diameter of the shafts, a wooden cradle is made, about two inches and a half less in diameter than that of the projected column. This cradle is lathed all round, as if for common plastering, and is afterwards covered by a pricking. up coat of lime and hair: when this is quite dry, the workers in scagliola commence their peculiar labours. The scagliola is capable of imitating the most scarce and precious marbles; the imitation taking as high a polish, and feeling to the touch as 101'2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AIICHITF.CTLRE. cold and solid, as the most compact and dense marble. For the composition of it the purest gypsum must be broken in small j)ieces, and then calcined till the largest frag- ments have lost their brilliancy. The calcined powder is then passed through a very fine sieve, and mixed up in a solution of Flanders glue, isinglass, &e., with the colours required in the marble about to be imitated. When the work is to be of various colours, each colour is prepared separately, and they are afterwards mingled and combined, nearly in the same manner as a painter mixes, on his pallet, the primitive colours which are to compose his different shades. When the powdered gypsum, or plaster, is pre- pared, and mingled for the work, it is laid on the shaft of the column, &c., covering over the pricked-up coat, which had been previously laid on it, and is floated with moulds of wood to the sizes required. During the floating, the artist uses the colours necessary for the marble which he intends to imitate, and which thus become mingled and incor- porated in it. In order to give his work the requisite polish or glossy lustre, he rubs it with a pumice-stone, and cleanses it with a wet sponge. He next proceeds to polish it with tripoli and charcoal, and fine soft linen ; and, after going over it with a \>'wce of felt, dipped in a mixture of oil and tripoli, finishes the operation by the application of pure oil. This is considered as one of the finest imitations in. the world; the scagliola being as strong and durable as real marble, for all works not exposed to the effects of the atmosphere ; it also retains its lustre as long, and equal to real marble, without being one eighth of the expense of the cheapest marble imported." (Nicholson's Practical Builder, p. 382.) The principal scagliola worker in London is Mr. Brown, whose rich and elegant museum, in University Street, contains the most beautiful specimens of vases, columns serving as candelabras, stands for busts, and a great variety of other objects. The chief use, however, of scagliola is for columns in rooms of a very superior descrip- tion. Mr. Brown informs us that the art is brought to a much higher degree of jier- fection in London than it ever has been on the Continent ; the reason being, that there it is considered as an inferior style of finishing next to marble, whereas here it is made to serve instead of marble itself, and, therefore, more pains are bestowed upon it. 2008. The permanent Covering of the Floors of Rooms is, for the most part, of boards ; though scagliola, and various imitations of marble and stone, are common on the Con- tinent, and especially in the villas of Italy, see § 1916. Mosaic pavement is also frequently used. An improved description of pavement of this kind, invented by Mr. Wright of Shelton, has already been mentioned. Figs. 1810 and 1811 show two squares, or quarries as they are technically termed, in which the ground, or plain space, is of one colour, and the ornament inlaid is of a diflferent colour. Fig. 1809 is an octagon quarry for halls, with angle pieces, a, and centre pieces, b, in order to complete a square figure, as in fi"! 1812, whatever may be the dimensions of the floor to be covered. The angle and centre pieces are supposed to be of a different and darker colour than the ground, or plain part, of the figured tiles. The manner in which tiie inlaying of the ornament is effected is very simple, and is described at length in the llcpcrtori/ of Arts. A depres- sion is made on the surface of the tile, in the form of the intended ornament, and the cavity thus formed is filled in with coloured clay ; the tile is afterwards burned in the kiln, so that the ornament may form one mass with the rist. I\Ir. Wright informs us that INTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 1013 1810 1811 nothing can exceed the strength and durability of these tiles, and from their appearance we do not doubt it : they are also very smooth, and highly ornamental. Another descrip- tion of flooring tiles for halls, Mr. Peake of Tunstall informs us he has seen at Lillie's Hall, in Shropshire, of which fig. 1813 will give a general idea. Various descriptions of 1812 1813 \ / / \ A A plaster floors are in use for villas, which may either be painted in imitation of marble, or kept covered bv carpeting. In some cases the preferable mode is to paint the margin of the floor round the room in imitation of marble or other stone, or of oak, or of some other dark wood ; or to finish this margm with scagliola, and cover the interior with carpeting. A very successful imitation of Portland stone, which docs not cost half the price of that material, has lately been made by Mr. Bagshaw. Were it not for the cold impression made on the feet by stone, slate, tile, or plaster floors, their introduction in all houses whatever would be very desirable, as lessening the risk of danger from fire. 2009. Boards have long been, and probably long will be, the principal covering for the floors of villas in Britain. Three improvements have been made in them. To prevent warping, and to lessen the risk of their being burned through by fire, they are some- times laid down in large houses three inches thick. For the first of these objects, and also to get rid of inequalities, and save the expense and disagreeable labour of continually washing with soap and water, our correspondent, INIr. Robison, proposes, " when the floors are newly laid and in good order, to cover them over with a copious soaking of boiled and hot linseed oil, and afterwards to paint them with two coats of good oil colour. Very little warping will probably take place after this, and a slight sponging with cold water will at all times be sufficient to render them perfectly clean and clean-look- ing." The third great improvement is the use of the planing machine, invented by Mr. Milne, Engineer, Hutehesontown, Glasgow, by which a board of the ordinary width, and twenty feet long, can be reduced to an equal thickness, planed perfectly smooth on one side, and grooved on one edge and tongued on the other, in or.e minute. This greatly lessens the labour of laying the boards down as floors, and insures the ad- vantage of an even surface. 2010. Parquetted, or Inlaid, Floors took their origin from the circumstance of long thin boards being liable to warp. The fii-st and simplest kind of inlaid floor is formed by using boards of three or four feet in length, and three or four inches in width, and disposing of them as in fig. 1814. A second mode employs veneers three feet in length, and from a quarter to half an inch in thickness, interlacing them so as to form a square or panel, in the manner represented in fig. 1815; the smaller squares or quarries being filled in with the same, or with a different kind of wood. A more refined description of inlaying, which the French call marquetterie, consists in the employment of different colours, which are laid down in such a manner as to imitate mosaic work. The practice 1014< COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1814 1815 1816 M. was firet introduced in Florence, and it has subsequently been employed in most of the great palaces of Europe. It has lately become fashionable in Britain, partly in conse- quence of the recent inventions that have been made of machinery for sawing up and planing wood, in which great improvements have been made since the first planing machine was invented by General Bentham, about the beginning of the present century. At the exhibition of the National Repository in 1829, a very handsome specimen of inlaid flooring, fig. 1816 (from the Mech. Mag.), was exhibited by Mr. James White. Each of the compartments, in this specimen, is formed of a different kind of wood, and the colours are arranged so as to harmonise. Inlaid floors, when composed of different colours, should never be entrusted to the sole management of a common joiner ; and Architects need not consider them beneath their attention. 2011. Colour, next to the size and general proportions of a room, exercises the most important influence on the eye of a spectator. Colour may be either communicated to the walls by printed papers, by hangings of plain cloth or tapestry, or by painting. To the ceiling it is, for the most part, only communicated in the latter manner ; and to floors, in Britain at least, the carpet affords the principal medium of colouring. " A handsome room may be quite spoiled by bad finishing, and by ill-chosen colours of tlie walls and furniture ; and the defects of a poor one concealed, or at least much diminished, )y good management in this respect." ( Wood, vol. i. p. 451.) 2012. With respect to Hangings of Plain Cloth and Printed Paper, very little can be laid down in the shape of rules that will not be included under the general principles, and the rules drawn from them, taught by the art of painting or colouring apartments generally. It must be confessed that this department of the art of interior decoration lias not been hitherto reduced to any regular theory, and that the subject appears to be only understood by artists of a superior description, whose employment is necessarily very limited. After consulting all the works that are considered the most valuable on the subject of house and ornamental painting, we think that by far the best, and indeed the only one that embraces principles, is a small work entitled the Laws of Harmonious Colouring, §-c., by Mr. D. Hay, House Painter, Edinburgh. For the mechanical part there is a very complete work, in a thick quarto volume, by iNIr. N. Whittock, called the Decorative Painter's and Glazier's Guide ; which also embraces the subjects of imitating a great variety of woods and marbles, and of staining glass. From the former work we have drawn the following paragraphs ; but to understand the theory of house-painting so as to be able to act on it, the reader must consult Burnet, Syme, Lairesse, Hassel. Rcade, Schimmelpennick, &c., including an able article on painting in Brewster's EncyclopcEdia. For varnisliing, the most useful work is by Tingry. 201."?. Harmony of Colours is produced by the juxtaposition of two colours, such as red or yeUow, with an intermediate colour, such as orange, to unite them. " Harmony consists more in the media which unite the several colours, than in the colours them- selves ; and therefore, in completing the arrangement of colours for an apartment, a neutralising colour, possessing the pro))erties of both contrast and harmony, should be introduced, in order to give keeping and repose to the whole. The colouring of rooms should be an echo to their uses. The colour of a library ought to be comparatively severe ; that of a dining-room grave ; and that of a drawingroom gay. Light colours are most suitable for bed-rooms. The colouring of all rooms depends so much for its effect on the colour of the furniture, that this ought always to be known to the decorator, before he determines his system of composition." 2014. Defects in the Colouring of Rooms. " The first and most obvious defect in the colouring of rooms is, when there is no particular tone fixed on for an apartment ; that is, when one part of the furniture is chosen without any reference to the rest, and the painting done without any reference to the furniture. This generally produces an in- congruous mixture ; and is, in comparison to a tastefully decorated apartment, as far as INTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. J 015 i-eg-'--'<- colouring, what a child produces with its first box of paints, to tlie work of a greti A second and more common fault is, the predominance of some briglit and i" ur, either upon the walls or floor. It is evident that the predominance of a brij^ overpowering colour upon so large a space as the floor or wall of a room must injure the effect of the finest furniture. This great eri'or often arises from the difficulty of choosing a paper hanging or carpet, and our liability to be bewildered amongst the multitude of patterns which are produced ; the most attractive of which, on a small scale, are often, from this very circumstance, the more objectionable in regard to their forming a large mass in an apartment ; particularly as the artists who design them seem to be regulated by no fixed principles ; but, from their repeated deviations from the established rules of harmony, appear to give themselves up to the vague pursuit of novelty alone. A third error is, introducing deep and pale colours, which may have been well enough chosen in regard to their tints, but whose particular degrees of strength have not been attended to. Thus, the intensity of one or more, may so affect those whicl they were intended to balance and relieve, as to give them a faded and imfinished ap- pearance. This may proceed from applying the fundamental laws without any regard to the minutije ; for although it is always necessary to subdue and neutralise such colours as are introduced in large quantities, yet, when they are reduced by dilution alone, the effect is very different. There is a fourth defect, and rather a conmion one, and that is, a want of the media which unite and harmonise an assemblage of briglit colours which may, in other respects, be perfectly well arranged ; for it is a rule in the higher branches of the art, that confusion of parts of equal strength should always be avoided. A room of this description resembles a Chinese landscape, where foreground and distance are jumbled together. An opposite effect to this is monotony, or a total want of variety ; for some are so afi-aid of committing errors in point of harmony, that neutral tints alone are introduced, and sometimes one tmt of this kind alone prevails. Variety is a quality found to exist in the most trifling as well as in the grandest combinations of Nature's colouring; and it is, as already observed, in vmiting and making an arrangement of various colours, harmonious and agreeable to the eye, that the skill of the house-painter chiefly consists. It is this which produces what is termed repose in a picture, a quality equally desirable in the colouring of an apartment." 2015. Requisites for good Colouring. " All colours brought together, to form an agreeable whole, should be considered not only in regard to tint, but tone, depth, quan- tity, and situation. The tone is the first point to be fixed, and its degree of warmth or coldness will be regulated by the use, situation, and light of the apartment. The next point is the style of colouring, whether gaj^ sombre, or otherwise. Unison, or a proper combination of parts, is the next consideration." 2016. The Tone of Colouring " is generally fixed by the choice of the furniture ; for as the furniture of a room may be considered, in regard to colouring, in the same light as the principal figures in a picture, the general tone must depend upon the colours ot which it is composed : for instance, if the prevailing colour of the furniture be blue, grey, cool green, or lilac, the general tone must be cool ; but if, on the other hand, it is red, orange, brown, yellow, or a warm tint of green or purple, the tone must be warm. But, as hinted before, there can be no pleasing combination of colours without variety ; this, by judicious management, may be given without in the least interfering with the tone, for it is merely the general colour of the furniture which ought to fix the tone, and there may be the most decided contrasts in its parts, which, by the introduction of proper tints upon the other parts of the room, can be reconciled and united. Apartments lighted from the south and west, particularly in a summer residence, should be of a cool tone ; but the apartments of a town house ought all to approach towards a warm tone; as also should be such apartments as are lighted from the north and east of a country residence. When the tone of an apartment is therefore fixed by the choice of the furniture, it is the business of the house-painter to introduce such tints from the ceiling, walls, &c., as v/ill unite the whole in perfect harmony ; and this, it may be observed, is a difficult task. The colours of the furniture may be arranged by a general knowledge of the laws of liarmor.y ; but the painter's part can only be done by the closest attention to all the minutiEB of the art." 2017. The Style of Colouring " is the next point to be fixed, and will depend entirely on the use of the apartment. In a drawingroom, vivacity, gaiety, light, and cheerfulness should characterise the colouring. Tliis is produced by the introduction of light shades of brilliant colours, with a considerable degree of contrast, gilding, &c. ; but the brightest colours and strongest contrasts should be upon the furniture, the effect of which will derive additional value and brillifincy from the walls being kept in due subjection, although, to a certain extent, they also should partake of the general lightness." 2018. TTie characteristic Colouring of a Dining-room " should be warm, rich, and substantial ; and, where contrasts are introduced, they should not be vivid. This 1010 COTTAGE, FAIlxM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. style of colouring will be found to correspond best with the massive description ot the furniture : gilding, unless in very small quantities, for the sake of relief, should be avoided." 2019. Parlours " ought to be painted in a medium style between that of a drawing- room and that of a dining-room." 2020. For Libraries, " the most appropriate style of colouring is solemn and grave, and no richer colouring should be employed than is necessary to give the effect of gran- deur, which can scarcely be done where one monotonous tint prevails ; but care should be taken not to disturb the quiet and solemn tone which ought to characterise the colour- ing of all apartments of this description." 2021. In Bed-rooms a light and cheerful style of colouring is the most appropriate. A greater degree of contrast may here be admitted between tlie room and its furniture, than in any other apartment ; as the bed-curtains, &c., form a sufficient mass to balance a tint of equal intensity upon the walls. There may also, for the same reason, be ad- mitted gayer and brighter colours upon the carpet. 2022. Staircases, Lobbies, Vestibules, §-c., " should all be of rather a cool tone; and the style of colour should be simple and free from contrast. The effect to be ])roduced is that of architectural grandeur, which owes its beauty more to light and shade, tlian to any arrangement of colours. Yet they ought not to be so entirely free from colour as the exterior of a mansion, but should be in colouring, what they are in use, a link between exterior simplicity and interior richness. Staircases and lobbies, being cool in tone, and simple in the style of their colouring, will much improve the effect of the apartments which enter from them." {Hay's Harmonious Colouring, p. 28.) We strongly recom- mend Mr. Hay's work to every painter who aims at excellence in his profession, and to every amateur who wishes to judge for liimKelf. To those who are at such a distance from Mr. Hay as not to be able to employ him, we would suggest the idea of sending him descriptions of their rooms, with the kind of furniture, hangings, and carpets wliich they are intended to contain, the mode of lighting, proportionate surface of pictures, &c., and to procure from him directions for proceeding, togetlicr with specimens of the dif- ferent tints which he would recommend to be employed. Next to this we would recom- mend applying to an eminent scene-painter. This is the practice in Paris. In London, the house-painter of the greatest taste that we know is Mr. Fair, of Mortimer Street, whom we can strongly recommend. 2023. The Arabesque is a description of fanciful ornament, comprising a great variety of objects, brought together apparently without order or reason. Though it chieflj belongs to the Italian style, yet it is applicable to any manner of finishing; because the objects, brought together, may always be chiefly taken from the style of Architecture employed, and from natural objects. At first siglit of an arabesque, the mind of a person imaccustomed to see this description of ornament, is apt to ask, what can be llie meaning of such a composition? The answer, according to Quatremere de Quincy, is to be found in the natural love of mankind for the marvellous. Man is not able to create any particular object, but he can create combinations of objects already existing. He can bring together objects which are never found together in nature ; he can compose plants and animals different from any plants or animals now existing, by joining the parts of one animal or jilant to the parts of another ; or by joining parts of animals to parts of plants. In short, the composition of arabesques is a capricious exercise of the imagin- ation, by an artist whose mind is richly stored with ideas, and whose hand has great facility with his pencil. Nevertheless, in all this, the same author observes, there must reign a certain comparative regard to truth, and to the production of a liarmonious whole. For example, the most delicate foliage must not be represented as supporting an object of great weight ; solid bodies must not be shown as hanging in the air ; in every thing, possibility must be kept in view, and the whole must express a unity of purpose, and a harmony of lines, forms, and colours. No one ought to attempt the arabesque, whose mind is not fertile in resources, and whose pencil is not apt in delineating every description of object. The term arabesque, the author quoted has shown, is erroneously applied to ornaments of this description ; for, so far from their having been invented by the Arabs, they were found on the walls of the ruins of Hcrculaneum and Pompeii ; and, indeed, the Arabs are forbidden by their religion to imitate the figures of men or animals. In short, this mode of varying the forms of natural objects is seen more or less in all architectural sculptures; and, indeed, in all imitations of nature, not intended to be fac similes, or scientific representations, of animals or jjlants. 2024. Eiji/ptian Ornaments. Mr. Hope recommends young artists " never to adopt, except from motives more weighty than a mere aim at novelty, the Egyptian style (jf ornament. Tlie hieroglyphic figures, so universally enijiloycd by the Egyptians, can afford us little pleasure on account of their meaning, since this is seldom intelligible : they can afford us still less gratification on account of their outline, since this is never agree- INTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 1017 able ; at least in as far as regards those smaller details which alone are susceptible of being introduced in our confined spaces. Real Egyptian monuments, built of the hardest materials, cut out in the most prodigious blocks ; even where they please not the eye, tlirough the elegance of their shapes, still amaze the intellect, through the immensity of their size, and the indestructibility of their nature. Modern imitations of those won- ders of antiquity, composed of lath and plaster, of calico, and of paper, offer no one attribute of solidity or grandeur to compensate for their want of elegance and grace, and can only excite ridicule and contempt." 2025. Gilding, as forming a part of decoration, is a subject on which there is some diversity of opinion. All, however, are agreed, that its effect in interior finishing is rich and magnificent beyond that of any other material. The richness seems to arise, in a great measure, from the actual value of the gold, or the associations of value con- nected with it ; because, in Architecture, as in all other arts, where two objects are equally beautiful in regard to forms and lines, that will be most esteemed of which the material is of the greatest intrinsic value. The magnificence appears to result from the brilliancy of the colouring. Merely as a colour, therefore, gilding appears desirable where the furniture of a room consists of rich-coloured woods. Where there are a number of difterent-coloured marbles, and white cornices, with crimson or orange curtains, gilding is a great addition. " Gilding, or a small portion of bright yellow," that excellent prac- tical artist Hay observes, " will be foimd to heighten the effect of a room, wherever scarlet is the prevailing colour." (p. 53.) Hence we find that artists generally prefer a crimson or scarlet ground for the wall on which their gilt-framed pictures are hung. 2026. Plating or Silvering may sometimes be used in decorating rooms ; but the prac- tice is by no means general. A correspondent informs us that a gentleman residing in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh made the experiment on an extensive scale, at con- siderable expense. He furnished a drawingroom with pale green, as the jH-evailing tii:t, the hangings and furniture were silk damask, and the walls were covered with plain flock paper. The mouldings and picture- frames were silvered, and likewise the door handles, and some other matters. The effect was not satisfactory to most observers, who said that the room had a raw look by daylight ; and that, by artificial light, the picture- frames, &e., appeared as though they were formed of tin or pewter, not well scoured. 2027. As an Example of the Finishing of a Room in a new style, we shall quote, from a letter of Mr. Robison, an account of his own drawingroom, " I have lately ven- tured to try an experiment in the finishing of my principal drawingroom, and I send you the particulars, because they coincide in a curious manner with much of what your correspondent Selim recommends, in his description of the interior of Beau Ideal Villa. In the first place, there are only three colours throughout the whole; viz., white (or rather new-milk colour), pure crimson, and green. The ceiling, cornices, v/oodwork, and canopies of the window hangings are white, enriched with gilding ; the hangings (silk damask), the ground of the walls, and that of the carpet, crimson ; and the pattern on the carpet a sort of tracery of creeping plants in shades of green. The chimney- piece is of white marble, reaching nearly to the ceiling, with a panel, equal in width to the opening of the chimney, filled with mirror, as in fig. 1817. The walls are 13 feet 3 inches high, antl are painted in imitation 1817 of morocco leather, enriched with roses in gilding, shaded by hand ; the whole var- ^' nished with copal. The woodwork (there I is no dado or surbase) is flat white, with the convex mouldings gilded (in oil gold, and varnished). The painter's work was done by a most ingenious artist here, a Mr. 1). R. Hay, who has written a very instructive work (before quoted) on the laws of harmo- nious colouring as applicable to house work. The imitation of morocco has been most successful ; so much so as to deceive a book- binder, who enquired where such enormous skins were to be obtained. The window hangings are of the simplest form ; mere large curtains, without draperies or fringes. They hang in vertical lines, and catch no dust. They run on gilt wooden poles, 5 inches in diameter, a in fig. 1818, having two slips of brass beading (such as is used by coachmakers) laid along the top, so that the curtain rings, b, run on the poles without injuring the gilding ; the curtains are hooked on at c, in the usual manner. This arrangement is better than having brass poles, and makes little noise. In the inside of the canopy or cornice (from which the large pole advances far enough to allow room 6 u 1018 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. for the rings to pass free) is a common French curtain-rod, on which runs a very fine but plain muslin sun-curtain, edged with crimson cherry fringe. The cords for drawing the curtains, instead of being concealed, are made very conspicuous, and contribute much to the general effect. They arc about the thickness of half an inch, of plaited worsted cord^ with handsome terminations. They run on sheaves of 6 inches in diameter, let into the knobs at the extremities of the poles, and are long enough to admit the ends to be reached by the hand in the extreme positions of the curtains, when, o. course, one is shortened and the otlier lengthened to the extent of the width which the curtain has traversed. The long end is then looped upon the bracket which confines the curtain. The idea of this arrangement was suggested to me by an old picture. The whole of the crimson in the room is, as near as practicable with the different materials, of the same hue ; the lake for the walls having been first procured, and the silk and worsted dyed to match it. From this circumstance, and from its being contrasted by the green, and relieved by the white and gold, it has no more of a predominant hue in the arrangement than is perfectly agreeable ; while it gives great distinctness to the pictures, and a general air of warmth and comfort, without appearing glaring or gaudy. In the design and construction of every thing in the room, the aim has been, to avoid harbourage for dust, and to reduce to a minimum the time required for keeping it in order. If this principle were kept in view by cabinetmakers and upholsterers, we should be spared the sight of such a variety of meaningless draperies and dirty finery as are constantly exhibited ; and which, although often of flimsy and com- mon materials, are made to cost more than properly made furniture, of materials of the best and most lasting description. The room your correspondent, Selim, mentions at Earlstoke must have been delightful. Titian could not have produced more harmonious colouring ; the drawingroom proposed with bright blue hangings would be difficult to carry through ; as the tints which would be required to make a regular optical harmony by daylight would show quite different by artificial light, which has so little of the yellow part of the spectrum in it, that even orange (the contrasting colour to the blue of the spectrum,) would appear a dirty white by candlelight, while the blue would retain all its clearness. I suspect it is from feeling this, that, in arrangements where delicate blue is introduced as a principal colour, the contrast is generally sought in pure white and gold." Sect. III. Of the Fixtures and Fittings-7ip of Villas. 2028. The Fixtures and Fittings-up of villas include many articles already described when treating of the fittings-up, &c., of cottages, farmhouses, and inns; never- theless, there are a few articles remaining to be noticed, which we shall include in two subsections. SuBSECT. 1 . Of the Fixtures and Fittings-up of Villa Offices. 2029. TJie Kitchen. In the neighbourhood of Leamington, in Warwickshire, we are informed, open fireplaces are entirely laid aside in the kitchens of a number of villas. Instead of them, a fire is made in a furnace in the middle of a raised hearth or brick bench : it is covered with a cast-iron plate, having an opening of al)out nine inches in diameter, into which a lid is fitted. This lid is taken off when broiling is to be performed, but at all other times it is kept on. Two flues pass from the furnace, one to the right and the other to the left, and there is a damper to each flue, so that at any time the whole of the heat can be turned into any one of the flues. There is also a third flue, which communicates directly with the upright chimney, into which the whole of the smoke and heat can be at any time thrown. To the right of the central fireplace, and next to the fire, there is an oven, projjcrly arranged for roasting meat ; beyond it, there is another arranged for baking ; and farther on, a third, serving as a closet for keeping articles hot. The fire, afler having passed round these ovens, returns to the central chimney in a flue with a cast-iron cover ; on which cover stewing may be carried on in different saucepans. The flue which passes out of the furnace to the left has a cast-iron cover, which can be rendered sufficiently hot to boil articles, and here both boiling and stewing can be performed. In returning, this flue passes round a boiler, which contains a perpetual reservoir of hot water, and roinid a second oven for roasting meat. We have been informed by a gentleman who has paid great attention to subjects of this kind, that, in kitchens thus fitted up, there is a great saving of fuel and labour ; and that the heat of the apartment is much less than in kitchens having open fireplaces. 2030. A Kitchen and its Appendnqes, as designed hy Mr. Mallet. In fig. 1819, A is the entrance to the kitchen from the dining-room, and from the two corridors, m m, running parallel to it, and communicating with the housekeeper's, steward's, and butler's rooms, and other servants' offices ; U, the entrance to the scullery from the kitchen court ; C, tlie kitchen, twenty-five feet by thirty feet ; D, the scullery, thirty feet by sixteen feet ; FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA OFFICES. 1819 1019 u °o n 5? 3 o^" a oo E,the larder, sixteen feet by sixteen feet; F, the pantry, of the same size; G, refrigeratory, under an open shed ; H, apparatus-room, sixteen feet by sixteen feet ; I, pastry-room ; K, store-room ; and L, fuel-roora, each sixteen feet by sixteen feet. The fuel-room is divided into six bins for charcoal, coal coke, wood for lighting fires, common coal, coal cinders, and coke cinders, or coke breize as the cinders of coke are usually called. " The details of this plan are as follow : — In the kitchen, C, a a are large kitchen tables, which are fixtures with cast-iron legs and oak tops ; each table has a row of large strong drawers beneath, nine feet long by three feet three inches wide; 6 b are two long ranges of what are commonly called ' stew-holes,' or apertures of various sizes in a cast-iron hot plate, for the admission and application of various culinary vessels, all heated by one close fire or small furnace at the end next the kitchen door. Beneath the flue which heats the top plate and stew-holes may be placed a range of hot-closets for heating plates or other things, or performing operations requiring a low heat ; c c are two plates, or hearths, on which any large or wide vessels may be placed to boil, &c. ; beneath each is a cubical oven, round which the flame of the fire or furnace, which is placed at the ends, y y, is caused to play, and in these ovens such is the heat, that meat may be roasted, or baked, by proper regulation of the fire. Dampers should be provided to all flues in kitchens, in order that a perfect command of heat may be obtained. Both b b and c c may be about two feet six inches wide ; the wall against which they are built should have a proper cast-iron skirting, one foot above their top level ; d is a range of charcoal hearths or grates, such as arv in common use on the Continent. Each is simply a frustum at 1U20 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. in inverted quadrangular pyramid, terminated at the less end by an open grate, and dropped into a square hole formed in a cast-iron or earthenware table to receive it, as in fig. 1820. Tliey are especially used in Italy, and I have often watched the dispatch and neatness with which cookery may be performed by this simple apparatus. As a first-rate kitchen is but a kind of culinary laboratory, it is well to have such a uni- versally available apparatus at hand ; as it can be used with effect at five minutes' notice, while every other kind of appa- ratus, except that for cooking by -^V^^^^ST^ ' ^^'^ /^^^^^^ gas, requires some time to be put ■ ^ ^ vvvN^ ' ^\ \ / i^ \forth the notice of Architects and other professional men. The lower range of divisions FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA DWELLING-ROOMS. 10.^3 Mi / i ' I U' ' ^ is for the cards of tradesmen, which are generally large, and the upper for those of private persons. On the small projecting shelf between them are placed the cards oi persons who have called in the course of the day, or of persons whose names and addresses it may be desirable more particularly to impress ou the memory. 2062. Sylvesters Fireplace exhibits one of the last improvements in this mode of gene- rating heat. It pre sents a return to the primitive simplicity of making fires on the hearth, but it has joined to that sim- plicity a beautiful ap- plication of science. One of the greatest novelties in the ap- pearance of this fire- place, fig. 1844, is, that it has no fender. Fig. 1845 is the plan of the fuel-chamber, and a vertical profile of the hearth ; in which the latter is shown composed of radiating spokes of cast iron, the narrow extremities of which serve as the bottom bars of the o-rate. Fig. 1846 is a section through the centre of the fireplace, in which a is the broad part of one of the spokes mentioned ; h, the narrow 6 F 1034i COTTAGE, FARxM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Ibis part forming the bottom grate of tlia fire ; e, the ash-pit, wliicli is large enough to con tain the ashes made , during a week ; rf is . . , : ; a piece of firestono, or fire-brick, forming the back of the fuel- chamber ; e is an ori- fice by which air enters under each spoke to the ash-pit, and, rising lip among the bars, b, supports combustion ; f is the hearth-stone ; and^, cast-iron plates, placed like luffer- boards; which form the back of the fireplace. These plates are all movable : and their use is to regulate the draught, by dividing the current up the chimney. In ordmary cases, the whole of the plates may remain as in the figure ; but where it is desired to increase the draught of the fire, by taking out only two of these lufFer-plates at the bottom, next the firestone, d, a draught will be created like that of a close furnace; and hence it is, that this fireplace will cure any smoky chimney whatever. In the ground plan, fig 1845, it will appear that the two sides of the fire- place, h h, are not in contact with the jambs, /, or the back, m ; in consequence of which, much heat will be radiated into the space n, and will pass into the room through the openings of the sides, k k. The use of the screen shown in fig. 1844 is to conceal the open- ings between the fuel-chamber and the jambs ; yet, at the same time, to admit of the free circulation of the air. These stoves are of such very recent inven- tion (1833), that little can be said respecting them from experience. From theory these stoves appeared to us superior to all other open fireplaces ; and we accordingly (in 1833), had one of them, Jiff. 1844, put up for our own use- After above a year's trial, however, we found several objections to it, and have now (1835) replaced it with one of Methley's, of the same general character as Jiff. 1843. 2063. Chimney-pieces are conspicuous fittings-up of the rooms of villas. As we have already given several both in the Gothic and in the Grecian styles, we shall _ here only observe that of late they may be obtained.' '- of different kinds of marhle, at much less expense than formerly, in consequence of the application of machinery to the sawing and polishing of that ma- terial. In the London marble-works at Millbank, Westminster, such chimney-pieces as those shown in figs. 1843 and 1844, which cost us, at the trade price, in 1824, seven and ten guineas, may now be obtained for four and six guineas, and of better workmanship- Designs of greater intri- cacy, and requiring much manual labour, such as those of the age of Louis XIV., which abound in curved lines ; and those in the Gothic style, which abound in carving, are not cheap in proportion : nevertheless, they are also now very much lower than formerly ; partly in consequence of the diminished price of manual labour, but principally on account of the importation of many of the chimneys of Louis XIV. 's time, from France, where they have been taken from the mansions of the decayed noblesse. America and other countries might import such chimney-pieces, both fiom France and Italy, at a very low rate ; or they might send designs to Genoa, Leghorn, or Bordeaux, and have them executed in the native marbles of either country, at less than what Portland stone costs in England Some fine specimens of chimney-pieces in foreign marble, at low prices, are generally on sale at the richly stocked museum of Mr, Brown, the scagliola maimfaeturer, in University Street, London. We recommend to young Architects Mr. Robison's plan of having a sort of upper chimney-piece over the lower one, for forming a fiame to the mirror usually placed over fireplaces. The most magni- FITTINGS-UP OF VI I. LA DWELLING-ROOMS. 1035 idea. Fig. 1847 is a chimney-piece and 1847 ficent designs might be formed from thi grate, furnislied by Mr. Lamb ; the object of which, he says, is " to show what can be done in the adaptation of ancient forms to modern customs. This grate represents as nearly as possible the andirons and creepers (terms for the dogs, or fire- irons, for supporting logs of wood in open chimney-pieces) used for burning wood in former times ; and it, at the saine time, possesses all the requisites for burning coals." Fig. 1S48 is a Design for a chimney-piece in the style of Louis XI\ fitted up with one of Sylvester's Jfc)4t5 open grates, and with one of the front screens re- quired for those grates, in the same style. It will be seen that this grate differs in some respects from that shown in fig. 1344, and that two of the luffer-plates are removed. This rich Design is by IMr. Lamb. Some hundreds of marble chim- ney-pieces in this style, and in that ^ of Francis I. (which difTersfrom that of Louis XIV. chiefly in giving greater elevation to the chimney openings), have been lately imported by Nixon and Son, Great Portland Street, London. These upholsterers more particularly devote themselves to furnishing in the style of Louis XIV. ; a style which, though unsuitable for persons in moderate circumstances, yet, could we indiilge in it, we would display in one room, as we would all the other distinctive styles in so many difterent apartments. Our beau ideal of an amateur Architect's house is, a display of all the styles of Domestic Architecture, that have ever existed, in distinctive masses on the exterior ; and of all the styles of furnishing, that have ever existed, in separate rooms in the interior. This would be to the Architect such a practical school of his art, as the representative system of the whole vegetable kingdom, which we have in our small garden at Bayswater, is of botany to the horticulturist. There are few or no Architects, however, in the world, that could afford to indulge in such a school ; but the idea may afford a useful hint to some wealthy citizen of America, who may wish to leave a sort of architectural museum to his native town. We mention America, because such a museum would be a much greater curiosity there than in Europe ; and we suggest the idea of leaving it to a town, to prevent the risk of dispersion in a country where, happily for the inhabitants, there are no laws either of entail or primogeniture. 2064. The Ventilation of Rootns Is equally imperfect with the usual mode of heating them ; because the air, being carried off by the chimney, can never be much changed higher than the chinmey breast. The whole of the stratum above this height must remain, when fires are used, comparatively unchanged. To ren.edy this evil, it is requisite to have ventilators, concealed in the cornice or ceiling, communicating with 103(i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. flues adjoining tlie smoke flues, in order to create a draught : a valuable addition to this plan would be, to have the fires principally supplied with air from tubes descending to the basement story, and opening there into a large air drain ; such tubes, of course, having regulating cocks. The nearest approach to this arrangement seems to be that of Mr. Sylvester's open fireplace ; in which combustion is supplied from a thin stratum of the heaviest air of the room, which slides along the floor. With Mr. Sylvester's open fireplaces', and concealed openings for ventilation in the cornices or ceilings, connected with flues, so placed alongside of other flues as to create a draught, the system of venti- jg^n lation might, we think, be rendered as perfect as could be reasonably desired. This, we know, was the opinion of the late eminent Mr. Tredgold, with whom we have had much conversation on the subject. ( Walk. Rem. ) 2065. The Wainscoting of Rooms in the Gothic style is a source of very great beauty, and might af!brd ex- cellent opportunities for admitting fresh air, and with- drawing that contaminated by respiration. In sojiie cases, pipes of steam or hot water are concealed behind the wainscoting, and clothed with other tubes, in order to heat the room, without showing the ajjpa- ratus, by creating on the surface of the inner tube a current of heated air, on the prin- ciple of Mr. Per- kins's lining to his steam boiler. When the pipes are clothed, this mode is very effective, but not so, as T\Ir. Mallet has observed, when they are left naked. On the whole, we pi-efer an imitalion of wainscoting in plaster, painted to resemble oak, elm, 1850 1851 maple, or other wood, and introducing the heat in ornamental vases or other vessels, as also suggested by Mr. Mallet, and practised by him and others. Fig. 1849 is an ornamental panel, supplied to us by Mr. Lamb, similar to those sometimes found in old English mansions, which may be easily executed either in plaster or wood. Fig. 1850 is an angle for a panel for a dado, or door, &c., of oak ; a very neat manner of finishing in use among ancient joiners. This has also been furnished to us by Mr. Lamb. 2066. Windows. ]Much of the comfort as well as the beauty of a room de- pends on the manner in which light is admitted to it. Whenever the main object is to display pictures, the windows should never be continued down to the floor ; because the light, when reflected ui)wards on the picture, is at the same time reflected on the eye of the sjiectator, and pre- vents him from seeing it to advantage. On the other hand, in the case of rooms on the ground floor, where it is desirable that the windows should open, so as to admit of going out 1852 FITTINGS-UF OF VILLA DWELLING-ROOMS. 10^7 186s on a terrace, or under a veranda, much of the comfort of the occupant will depend upon these windows opening like doors, in what is called the French manner. The mechanism of windows of this description has been carried to a high degree of per- fection by Smith of Prince's Street, Haymarket, London. The great objection to French windows used to be, the difficulty of making them watertight, and even in some cases airtight ; but these objections Mr. Smith has completely over- come. Such windows have another advantage; viz., that they are easily kept clean by comnion servants, diodes of fitting-in the upper sashes of windows so that they may revolve on centres, and thus be easily cleaned by servants from the inside, have been devised by Saul, by Tuely, and others : for the details of the first two methods, we refer to the Mechanics' Maga- zine, vol. i. p. 265, and p. 337. 2067. The Doors to the principal rooms of villas should be hung with Redman's or other rising hinges, which are a great improvement, as they raise the door so as to make it to pass freely over the carpet. For outside doors to Gothic villas, Mr. Lamb has supplied us with the hinge, fig. 1851; the doorhandle and keyhole, fig. 1852; the door, or drawer, handle, fig. 1853; and the nail heads, figs. 1854 and 1855. It is a great beauty in all buildings, but more especially in villas, to have the outside doors formed of some description of timber, which shall not require to be painted. An entrance door of heart of oak, with the handles and fastenings of iron, oiled, but not painted ; or, what is preferable, of copper, left to be bronzed by the atmosphere, every one must feel to be much more architectural, and to convey a far greater idea of dura- bility, than any description of material coated over with paint. There are some other British woods, such as chestnut, Scotch elm, and Highland fir, which might answer for the same purpose ; and, among exotic woods, there is the New Holland mahogany, which only costs about double the price of deal, appears to be nearly as durable as teak ; and is suitable both for outside and mside work, without any paint whatever. INIr. Perry has used this timber for the entrance door and the fittings-up of his own house; and' he considers, that, as it requires 1854 1 85.'; f!' !IMMIIIl Jl ! no paint, it is ultimately as much cheaper than deal, as it is unquestionably far handsomer. 2068. The hanging of Pic- tures in Booms is sometimes performed, in a clumsy manner, by means of brass-headed nails driven into the wall, in a line immediately under the cornice, from which the frames are sus- pended by cords. There are two improved methods,- however, of effecting this, the first of ■which, as practised by Mr. Vokins, is as follows : — Fig. 1 856, a is a hollow iron rod or rail, coated on the outside with brass gilt, of any required length, which is fixed or screwed to the wall by means of plates, as at b b, at regular distances. The pulleys, c t, have a broad hook, which fastens on to the rod or rail, and can be moved along it as the pictures are required to be shifted to the right or left ; these pulleys have also small iron pins to which one end of each of the cords which support the picture must be fastened. Iron staples, e e, are screwed into the back of the picture-frame, having two holes in each to keep the cords or lines apart, and the fi-ame from pressing against them. Pulleys, ff, are fixed to the bottom of the picture at each end ; and at g are male screws on which brass ornaments, as at ;', are fixed to hide the pulleys. It is evident that, by pulling the cords h h, the picture may be raised to any height ; and may be moved along the rail, either to the right or left, at pleasure. The second method, which is found to be both neat and economical where numerous small pictures are to be suspended, is thus 1038 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCIIITECTU KE. 1857 i b described by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen : — Fig. 1857, a is an iron rod sheathed with brass gilt, about three quarters of an inch in diameter, which is fixed to the wall by kneed gilt studs immediately under the ceiling ; b is a rod of brass gilt, about half an inch in diameter, and of such a length as to reach within about five feet of the floor ; c is a ball or knob, about three quarters of an inch in diameter, which moves on this rod from one end to the other, but which can be made fast in any position by the screw e, the head of which serves at the same time as a hook on which to hang the pictures. It is to be observed tliat the centre of this ball coincides with that of the diameter of the rod, so that it keeps the latter at the distance of a quarter of an inch from the wall. The same effect is produced by tlie knob d, at the end of the rod. When small pictures are to be suspended, they may be hung by their centre of gravity one above another on a single rod; but larger pictures should be hung on two rods, as shown at/. By this mode of hanging, neitlier the pictures nor the rods touch the wall in any part; and, as the perpendicular rods may be moved along the horizontal ones, the jjosition of the pic- tures may be shifted at pleasure. That the movement may not be interrupted, it is essential that the studs be kneed or angled, othermse they will prevent the horizontal movement of the hooks of the upright rods. 2069. On the Siihjcct of Bell-hanging we have nothing to add to what has been already mentioned, § 590 and § 1473; and by Mr. Vokins in his description of his Grecian villa, § 1858- The handles to bells may always be rendered highly ornamental. 2070. Water- Closets. " Where practicable, it is desirable that a communication should pass from the ceiling of every water-closet to a flue in the wall of the house, so situated, in respect to chimney-flues, that the warmth they impart sliould cause a rising current of air from the closet. Where a flue is made from the ceiling of the kitchen to carry off the heated air whieli accumiJates there, it may sometimes be possible to lead the com- munications from some closets into it. When the water-pipes of a house, leading to these closets, are subject to being frozen, they should be placed in a flue or trunk through which warm air may be ascending from some source likely to be constant ; or the main pipe, before it begins to rise, may be made to take a few circuitous turns in a fixed boiler, under which a fire may be kept in time of frost. The water in the boiler will of course keep the pipe liot, and will communicate sufficient heat to water flowing through it, to prevent accidents from freezing. If the boiler be large, and the coil long, beat enough may be given in this way to warm a bath, by regulating the supply cock so as to make the bath fill slowly. No accident can happen from the heat while the cocks are shut." GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FUKMIURE. 1039 Chap. VI. Of the Furniture of Villas. 2071. In givinc/ Designs for the Furniture of Villas, our object shall be more to exhibit variety and display style, than to enter into the details of construction ; because the patrons of this branch of Domestic Architecture require rather to have a direction given to their taste, than to have sources of comfort and economy opened up to them. It is almost ininecessary to observe that the principle of unity of expression requires that the style of the furniture should correspond with that of the house ; but it cannot be super- fluous to remind the reader, and especially the young Arcliitect, of the necessity of the building and furnishing of a house being under the control of the same mind, and that this mind should be equally conversant with both departments. 2072. The principal Styles of Design in Furniture, as at present executed in Britain, may be reduced to four ; viz., the Grecian or modern style, which is by far tlie most pre- valent ; the Gothic or perpendicular style, which imitates the lines and angles of the Tudor Gothic Architecture ; the Elizabethan style, which combines the Gothic with the Roman or Italian manner ; and the style of the age of Louis XIV., or the florid Italian, which is characterised by curved lines and excess of curvilinear ornaments. The first or modern style is by far the most general, and the second has been more or less the fashion in Gothic houses from the commencement of the present century ; since which period the third and fourth are occasionally to be met with, and the demand for them is rather on the increase than othej-wise. Till the commencement of the present century, the most gorgeous furniture in the great houses of England was in the style of Elizabeth, and made during the reigns of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and James I. ; or in the style of Louis XIV., and made during the reign of Charles II. All the gorgeous furniture in the great houses of France, and all the most sumptuous altar-pieces in the churches, were made during the reign of Louis XIV. In consequence of the first French revolution, and the recent changes in the fortunes of many of the English nobility, much of the furniture of these two styles, formerly almost exclusi%^ely used by the great, has been exposed to sale, and consequently has attracted the notice of gentlemen of less opulence ; and this has called into exercise a taste among them which had lain dormant for many years. Hence it is that we have now upholsterers in London who collect, both in foreign countries and in England, whatever they can find of curious and ancient furniture, including fragments of fittings-up of rooms, altars, and religious houses ; and rearrange these curious speci- mens, and adapt them to modern uses. Among these may be mentioned Wilkinson of Oxford Street, Hanson of John Street, and Nixon of Great Portland Street, who have curious collections ; made not so much with a view to gain, as from the pleasure attending the pursuit of a favourite object. We have also a very curious work on the subject of furniture, chiefly prior to the time of Queen Elizabeth, by Henry Shaw, Esq., an artist of great antiquarian research, and devoted to the subject of displaying to the world the taste of our ancestors. The designs in this chapter for Grecian or modern furniture have been almost entirely made by Mr. Dalziel, and, indeed, have been exe- cuted in his manufactory ; those in the Gothic style have been supplied by Mr. Lamb ; and those in the Elizabethan style by Blr. Lamb and Mr. Shaw. We have given but few designs in the style of Louis XIV., on account of the gi-eat expense of carrj-ing them into execution, and because we think a style distinguished more by its gorgeous gilding and elaborate carving than by any thing else, unsuitable to the present advancing state of the public taste. We should make nearly the same observations on the style of Elizabeth, distinguished by its rude and grotesque carvings, were it not that it is seldom necessary to manufacture objects in this manner, farther than by putting together ancient fragments which may be purchased at the sale of old buildings. Whoever in the present time (1833) wishes to furnish and fit up a house in such a manner as to produce a new and strange effect on the spectator, cannot attain his end at less expense than by having recourse to Elizabethan fragments. We shall arrange our designs in the order of Grecian and modern furniture ; Gotliic furniture ; and furnitui'e in the Elizabethan style. Sect. I. Grecian arid Modern Furniture. 2073. Modern Furniture may either be arranged according to the rooms in which it is to be placed, or to the particular denomination of the furniture : we adopted the latter mode when treating of the furniture of cottages which consist but of few rooms ; but we shall here take the former mode, and give, in succession, designs of furniture for the kitchen and ofiices; for the porch, hall, and billiard-room; for the parlour and dining- room ; for the library ; for the drawingroom and music-room ; for the bed-rooms and dressing-rooms : and for the niu-sery. lOiU COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AHCHITECTURH. SuBSECT. 1. Fitrn'Uurtfor Villa Offices. 2074. The Subject of Kitchen Furniture may be considered as having been sufficiently noticed, when treating of that for cottages, farm-houses, and inns. The dressers and tables recommended for tliose dwellings require only to bo enlarged for villas, and chairs are nearly the same every where, if their object be chiefly use. We shall only introduce one or two articles in addition to what we have already given. 2075. The Wringing- Machine, fig. 1858, we can from experience strongly recommend for small laundries. The articles to be wrung, when large, are taken out of the washing-tub, and, being passed over the pin at a, the two ends are put through the hole of the twister, h, which is turned round by the spokes, c. The water drops into the trough, d, from which it runs off into a tub or other vessel througli the tube, e. When small articles are to be wrung, they arc put into a coarse hempen bag, which is then treated as above mentioned. By means of this machine, which does not wear the linen more than common wringing, all the most laborious part of washing is done away with in small families, as it is by the larger machine, lig. 1262, in laundries on a large scale. 2076. There are two Washing- Machines for small families ; one of which is the washing part of fig. 1262, on a smaller scale, and the other is fig. 1335, also on a smaller scale. We have tried both these machines, and find both good, the latter being best for small delicate articles. The objection brought against the lever machine is, that it wears out the linen ; but this we believe to be chiefly pre- judice, and in part neglect of putting into the machine a sufficient quantity of water. The barrel washing-machine, as manufactured by Weir and Co., and the wringing- machine, fig. 1858, arc used in our family, and are found to save much labour, and not to do the clothes the slightest injury. 2077. A Filtering-Machine, portable or fixed, and of a temporary or permanent con- struction, ought to be considered essential in every family, whether poor or rich. We have already pointed out a cheap filter for the cottager, and there are several which claim the attention of the occupier of a villa. Mr. Melhuish, a plumber in Gray's Inn Lane, not onty filters water by a very simple process in kitchens, but has an apparatus by which it may be filtered in ships, during their motion at sea. Mr. Struthers, in Parliament Street, manufactures a cheap, expeditious, and most excellent filter, the case of which is slate ; an article which he also applies to the construction of milk-coolers, salting-troughs, dairy-tables, cellar-doors, and safes for the preservation of papers from fire. There are, besides, the portable filtering-machines of Robins and of other can- didates for public patronage. Su BSECT. 2. Grecian and Modern Furn iturefor the Porch, Entrance Hall, and Billiard- Room. 2078. Chairs. Figs. 1859 to 1862, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, are hall chairs. GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FUUNITUUK. lOU which may be made either of mahogany or oak, or of deal painted and grained in imi- tation of the latter wood. In the backs are tablets or panels, for heraldic shields or crests, which are generally painted ; but which have a more architectural effect when carved out of the solid wood, or when cast in composition, glued on, and painted after- wards. Chairs of this sort cost in London, in 1833, from 35s. to 50s. each. With respect to the taste of these chairs, we object to the front legs, as being too much orna- mented for those behind. Who, on being shown the front legs, while the back legs were concealed, would ever expect to find the latter united in the same whole with the former ? Certainly no one would do so who understood the principle of unity of style in composition. The reason why cabinet-makers are in the habit of bestowing so much work on the straight legs of chairs and benches, and so little on those which are curved, is, that the straight legs are readily ornamented at a cheap rate in the turning lathe ; whereas, all the ornament that is bestowed on the curved legs must be carved by hand, at a great expense. The question is, how far the designer of a chair is justified in deviating from the principle of unity, for the sake of displaying more ornament than he would otherwise be able to show. Ask a cabinet-maker, and he will tell you at once, that his customers prefer the ornamented chair, and care nothing about the unity, or the want of unity, of style. Their great object is to get a display of rich workmanship, at as cheap a rate as possible. Our readers, we are sure, will agree with us, that this taste on the part of the purchaser is of a vulgar and grovelling kind, and ought to be cor- rected. This can only be done by enlightening the minds of the public in general on the subject of taste ; and this is one of the grand objects of our work. 2079. Benches. Fig. 1863, to a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot, is a hall bencli for a porch, or a small hall, where there is not much room to spare. This bench, made in London, costs from £'3 : lOs. to £4 : lOs. Tlie legs are all alike ornamented, as are the supports to the arms, so that there is a perfect unity of style 6 c iUb4 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AUCHITECTUUE. in these parts of the bench, and on the whole it affords a favourable contrast to th>» chairs in the preceding paragraph. The front edge of the seat ought to have been carved a little, to harmonise with the legs and arms. Fig. 1864, to the same scale, is another hall bench, in which there may be a tablet in the centre part of the back for heraldic insignia ; and castors may be sunk in the legs, without being exposed to view. We consider this bench in very doubtful taste. In the first place, the outline of the back, which is a principal part of the composition, is the outline of a mere ornament ; and ornaments, in all compositions whatever, ought to be accessories and not principals. We are satisfied that no man of correct feeling in matters of form, or who could apply the principles of design and taste (a connected outline oJ which will be found in our Fourth Book), would derive pleasure from looking at such & bench as this. We are informed however, by Mr. Dalziel, that he has made great num- bers of them, and that the shape is considered very fashionable. The great recom- mendation to it, in the eyes of its purchasers, is the quantity of ornament which is displays. The unsuitableness of the front legs to those behind is sufficiently obvious. 2080. Brackets. Fig. 1865 is a bracket for holding a lamp : it may be made of oak or mahogany, or of deal, and bronzed. The upper moulding rises above the top, in ordir to prevent the lamp from being pushed oflT. Fig. 1866 is a side view of fig. 1865. 1865 Fig. 1867 is another liall bracket with a raised bead at top, wliich may be used eithei for supporting a lamp or a clock. The expense of thcsp articles is from 20s. to 40.?.. according to the style of carving introduced. Hall brackets of the most beautiful forms may be executed in cast iron, and bronzed, as indeed may most articles of hall furniture. These brackets, the sup])orts to which are in the style of Louis XIV., may be considered as in very good taste of themselves ; but the style to be adopted in such nrticles must always be governed by the furniture and finishing of the apartment in v.'hich they are to be fixed. 2081. A Billiard Table forms a useful soiu-ce of recreation, both for gentlemen and ladies ; and no villa ought to be without one. It may be placed either in the hall, if that be large, or in a room built on purpose, in the house, or connected with it by a covered way. There is a smaller sort of billiard table for moving about from place to GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 104-5 place ; in which a spirit-level is fixed, and which contains screws for adjusting it to a perfect level ; and large billiard tables are not unfrequently made of cast iron, the top being in one piece, which is planed smooth by machinery-. In general they are made of mahogany, and covered with green cloth. 2082. Tables for other Games, such as bagatelle, trou madame, &c., which are kept in the hall, library, or other rooms, we have not thought it worth while to describe or figure ; considering the billiard table to be the only desirable piece of furniture of this description, as contributing to the health of sedentary persons. SuBSECT. 3. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Parlour and Dining- Rooms. 2083. Sideboards. Fig. 1868, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a pedestal side- board ; there is a drawer in the centre, which pulls out by means of the lower part of the front projecting downwards, thus rendering a knob unnecessary. In the right-hand pedestal there is another drawer, partitioned into divisions for holding decanters, and lined with lead, to hold ice round each bottle. The left-hand pedestal may have a drawer for plate, with tray shelves below it. The locks are fixed to the inside ends of the pedestals ; and. therefore, are not seen in front. The linings to the keyholes are of wood, or brass bronzed. Fig. 1869 is a handsome but rather expensive sideboard. Tlie expense may, however be reduced without materially injuring the eflfect, by omitting the carved foliage attached 1869 to the drawers. There may be a panel of looking-glass introduced in the back-bjard. A design of this kind will' be spoiled, if the carving be not executed with skill and laste 1044 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AIlCIllTECTUllE. Fig. 1870 is a sideboard in what Architects call cabinet-maker's Gothic ; it is neat aiui plain, but has no claim to merit in point of style. Fig. 1871 is a pedestal sideboard, with carvings at the back, and in front. There are four drawers under the top, and a cupboard at each end, divided as may be found most GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1045 1875 convenient. There is an open sarcophagus-shaped wine-cooler beneath, standing on a plinth. The inside of this wine-cooler may either be lined with lead, or it may contain a block-tin case, with handles, to lift out. Ice is frequently put into these wine-coolers, in order to surround the decanters or bottles set in them, when the wine is to be cooled. Castors are sunk into the plinth of the sarcophagus, that it may be drawn out from beneath the sideboard, and pushed in again at pleasure. Fig. 1872 is a sideboard supported in front by carved scroll standards, rising from a hollow plinth ; there ai-e two drawers under the top, and bronzed rods at the back. A sarcophagus with a hinged lid below, fixed on a hollow plinth with castors, is partitioned and lined with lead, so that ice can be put round each separate bottle. Fig. 1873 is a sideboard supported in front by massive carved standards, with what is called a " shaped sarco- phagus" underneath ; the top of which lifts off by means of the carved handle. There are bronzed rods at the back of the sideboard. Figs. 1874 and 1875 are end views of figs. 1872 and 1873 ; by which it appears that the carved standards are a good deal in the style of Louis XIV. Figs. 1876 and 1877 are two small sideboard tables, usually placed in large dining- rooms, for the convenience of holding the dessert, the 1876 plate, the glasses, and other articles in use, while the top of the principal side- board is covered with ar- ticles for display. These side-tables should always be placed on castors, for the convenience of moving them about from one part of the room to another ; or out of the rooms occa- sionally, when they are covered with things to be carried away. Most of the articles in this subsection we consider in very good taste, nicre is not the 104-6 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AltCl-ilTLCTUllE. same objection to the front legs of figs. 1872 and 1873 being carved, and the back sup- ports being plain, that there is in the case of chairs; iot, because the sideboard is such a massive article as to be in effect a fixture, and tha back pillars are always at such a distance from the eye, and so concealed by the top, as not to be con- spicuous. Nevertheless, a little more ornament in the pillars referred to would be desirable. The scroll ornaments at the back of fig. 1871 are beau- tiful of themselves, but they are too conspicuous features in the composition, and aspire to being prin- cipal parts, instead of being accessories. Fig. 1868 is ornamented, and at the same time forms a harmonious whole, as does fig. 1869. We may observe that the plan of drawing out the front drawers in these sideboards without the aid of knobs, by avoiding the necessity of introducing these, adds much to the massive and architectural character of furniture. Fig. 1876 is handsome, rich, and harmonious. Fig. 1877 is elegant : we say elegant, because the supports, relatively to those in fig. 1876, and to those of tables for dining-rooms generally, according to the modern taste, are light; and the forms indicate great play of outline, and of light and shade, and, thus conveying impressions analogous to motion, may be called graceful. 2084. Table-flap Cases. Figs. 1878 and 1879 are cases for holding the movable flaps of dining-tables. They may be made either of oak or mahogany, according to the ilnSX"T?TrTn''nT>M::ili;iiirn^ 187)* style of the furniture in the dining-room in which they are to be placed. They arc made open, in order not to exclude the air ; and there are thin slips nailed on the bottom, and under the top, between which the flaps slide in, and which keep them from rubbing against or touching each other, and admit at the same time of a current of air to pass between them. The price of fig. 1878 is about 50s.; of fig. 1879 from £7 to £12. In some cases, the flaps of tables are kept in the upper drawer of the sideboard, the front of which falls down to allow them to be taken in and out ; and there are slips on the sides, to keep the flaps apart. There ought also to be a concealed opening, the whole length of the front, at the bottom of the drawer, for the .Tdniission of air ; and GRKCIANT AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 101 another, in the top part of tlie back, for its escape. Fig. 1880 is a sideboard case tc be placed in a dining- room, for the purpose of holding the loose flaps of a dining-table ; the top of which, in a large room, is useful as a sideboard. It is made to suit the style of the sideboard, fig. 1871. Fig. 1881 shows the top of this sideboard case lifted up ; at one end may be seen the slips, between which the flaps slide in. The slips and the spaces be- tween them are covered with green baize. The top is supported, when thrown open, by a quadrant, by which means one person can put the flaps in, or take them out. These are useful objects in families where large dinnerparties aregiven. 1881 We give the preference, for our own particular taste, to fig. 1880, as being massive and ar- chitectural ; and if care be taken to have the bottom open, and to have proper openings under the top to admit of ventilation, the flaps may be preserved from rotting in this case as well as in fig. 1878 while to steep such flaps in the deuto-chlo- ride of meixury (corrosive sublimate), as suggested long ago by Sir Humphry Davy, and as recently employed by INIr. Kyan for the prevention of the dry rot, by neutral- ising the cause of vegetable fermentation. 2085. Dining- Tables. The general form of these is regulated by that of the room in which they are to be placed ; round or square tables being preferred for round or square rooms, and oval or oblong tables for oblong rooms. Round tables are sometimes made so as to admit of the addition of flaps or segments to their cir- cumference, so as to increase their size at pleasure. These segments are secured, by lopers or other fasteners, to the body of the table, and to one another, alluded to a table of this kind as being in use in the villa, De- sign III. § 1749. Figs. 1882 and 1883 are small dining-tables, called cottage or Pembroke tables. They stand on four legs, which should be large and massive, and have good castors, or large wheels. They have two flaps, which fall down ; and which, when up, are sup- ported by fly brackets. They divide in the middle, and draw apart by means of lopers, or slides, of a peculiar construction, Perhaps it might be worth have 101^8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AllCHITECTURE. to any moderate lengtli, from seven to nine feet, without requirinj^ any additional Icgi for their support. Thus, a table may be made nine feet long by any width, say four feet, supported by four legs ; and this length may be reduced in one minute, so as to form a table only two feet by four feet. The fork fasteners, by which the top flaps arc fastened to each other, are placed at a distance from the edge, so as to be completely concealed, which adds to the strength of the table, and yet does not disfigure its appear- ance. These tables were invented in the manufactory of Mr. Dalziel. Figs. 1884 and 1885 are tables also invented at Mr. Dalziel's. They may be placed together so as to form one square table, made fast by thumb-screws ; or they may be taken apart, and placed against the sides of the room. Fig. 1886 shows the under side of fig. 1885, in which a a indicate the situation of the two corner legs, and h b that of the two inner legs. It will be observed, that the two latter are so far within the edge of the top as not to come in the way of the feet of guests, and that the corner feet, such as a a, however near the edge, never offer any obstruction to the feet. Mr. Dalziel's dining tables 1 886 ar" generally allowed to be of the very best kind manufac- 1 in London. It is a great advantage to be able to draw out a table to the length of thirteen or fourteen feet, and to support the whole securely on no more than four legs. The advantage is, that such a table may be used where the floor is not perfectly level, as well as on one which is so ; and this cannot be done so well with tables having six or more feet. Tiiis desirable result is obtained by compound slides, which, when drawn out to their full extent, form, in effect, a series of joists on which the flaps composing the top of the table rest. These tables are sent by Mr. Dalziel to all parts of the world. Fig. 1888 is the view of a semicircular dining-table ; and fig. 1887 is a plan of the top. It is chiefly ased by gentlemen after the ladies have retired to the drawingroom. This table is then placed in front of the fire, with its convex side out- wards, and the guests sit round that side, with their feet to the fire. It has a triangular frame which works on a centre ; the broad end of the triangle sliding in a groove on rollers, so as to admit of the decanters being moved from side to side with case. There is an open space between the decanters and the screen, which forms two sides of the triangle, and protects the decanters from the fire, in order that the wine may be kept cool. There are horseshoe tables for the same purpose, of a simpler description, but without the moving bottle-stand, about eighteen inches broad, and not more than half an inch thick ; the legs are slender and tapering, in order, not only to give an elegant appearance, but to render the tables light, and easily moved further from, or nearer to, the fire, as may be desired. The wine which stands on the common horseshoe tables is liable to be heated by the direct radiation from the grate, and thus to lose that refreshing coolness which is the great luxury of wine drinking, as contrasted with the use ot malt liquors and ardent spirits The top of these tables is 1887 GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FUUNITLUE 104-9 1 883 " If with hot wine we insack us Say our name 's not Bacchus. Serve, serve up a dozen. But let it be frozen." Bacchus in Tutc. When such tables are used, if the party is not sufficiently numerous to finish a bottle before it has made twice the circuit of the table, it is, after the glasses are filled, set in a small vase or sarcophagus, which stands on the floor, and which sometimes contains ice, and at other times only water. Some, however, instead of a sarco- phagus placed on the floor, make use of what »V called an earthenware wine cooler placed on the table. This vessel, every body knows, is made of porous earth open at the top, and somewhat larger witliin than is sufficient to contain a quart decanter. The earthenware cooler is steeped in water for half an hour, previously to its being used ; after which, being emptied and set on the table, on a small mat or on a stand of any kind, the decanter of wine is placed in it. The greater the heat of the fire, the more rapid is the evaporation of the water which has been absorbed by the porous earth ; and consequently the greater the absorption, from the wine, of the heat which is required to carry on this evaporation. Earthen- ware wine-coolers of this description are manufac- tured by Peake of Tun- stall, of very elegant shapes, and are sold at moderate prices. Fig. 1889 is a Pem- broke table with two flaps ; the front is made to imitate two drawers ; but it falls down, and is supported by a quadrant, as in fig. 1890. 2086. Chairs. Figs. 1891 to 1894 are Designs which may be executed in mahogany, the legs being supposed to be in the same style as those of the tables, and the seats to be covered with morocco of the same colour as the curtains. The seats are 1889 1890 quilted, but, instead of fufls, small rings are used, covered with the same leather as the chair ; these rings being found to look as well as, and wear better than, tufts of silk ; at the same time that they do not harbour dust. Fig. 1895 is a dining-room chair, with a stuflfed back and scat covered with morocco, and tufted. It is considered an easy and elegant seat. 6 n' 1050 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUIIE. 2087. A Leg Rest, fig. 1897, called an "ease and comfort," is sometimes used in dining-rooms by old gentlemen after the ladies are gone. It requires to be carefully stuffed, so as to fit the calves of the legs. 2088. Candlestick Stands, fig. 1898, are used in some dining-rooms to raise the candle- sticks placed on the table, in order, by elevating the light, to throw it better over the dishes. Each of these stands has a raised rim round the top, to keep the candlestick it supports from falling off. -_ 1896 52089. Fiie-scieens. Fig. 1896 is a sliding fire-screen, which may be made of mahogany, oak, or deal. The frame has three slides; one draws up, and two draw out to the right and left. It should be covered with tammy (a sort of worsted stuff) or moreen, of the same colour as the curtains. It moves on castors, which are sunk into the feet. Fig. 1899 is a fire-screen with two swinging leaves, which fold out on each side, and, being hinged with GRECIAN AND MODERN VJLLA FUIINITURE. 1051 Tliii itieeii is consitloied liiinilr>or.icr than _Xii /'^^ ceiitre-poiut liingcs, turn round either way the preceding one. 2090. The Win- dow Curtains for the dining-room may be of the same patterns as those exhibited in figs. 705, 708, 710, and 711. The hang- ings should be of mo- reen, cloth, or some similar material, less delicate and orna- mental than silk, chintz, &c. 2091. A General View of the interior of a dining-room in the Grecian style, by Mr. Lamb, is shown in fig. 1 900. In this Design, Mr. Lamb ODser\'es that '• in the centre of one side there is a large pier glass over the side- board, and a window in each side to the right and left. The servants' entrance to the room is opposite to the principal en- trance, and communi- cates directly with the kitchen and other offices. Appropriate sculpture and ara- besque ornaments are the principal decorations. The curtains are placed close to the windows, and within the pilasters, in order that, when drawn, they may not interfere with the Architecture of the room. — In taking a general view of the modern dining- room furniture here given, we shall commence with the sideboards and wine-coolers under them, which are, for the most part, very good. The idea of cooling wine in a sarcophagus, however disagreeable it may be to those who know the meaning of the word (flesh-devourer), and the original uses to which vessels of this shape were applied, is yet so sanctioned by modern habit, as to be, in our opinion, quite imobjectionable. There is no law in nature against the changing of the uses of objects ; and the laws of society are, or ought to be, made by society for themselves, and not by past ages for those which are to succeed them. The dining-tables, as we have already observed, are excellent ; the legs, being all straight, are consequently all turned, and are ornamented in the same style, so as to produce unity of effect. The dining-table, fig. 1887, is a luxury, worth the attention of bachelors ; but imworthy of any family who do not prefer wine to the rational conversation of women. Happily, in England, we are now borrowing a part of the very superior manners of the French, with regard to the dining-table. The circular table capable of enlargement, alluded to in § 2085, is an excellent article. All the dining-room chairs are more or less liable to the objections made to the hall chairs in § 2078 ; they are in other respects good, and we have no doubt would be sufficiently easy to sit upon. In the chairs seen in the interior, fig. 1980, there is just as much carving shown on the front legs relatively to the back ones, as there ought to be ; per- haps, indeed, there is too much, but some allowance must be made for the facilities afforded by turning for bestowing ornament. In the chairs designed by Mr. Hope, and published in his great work, there will not be found any great difference between the ornaments on the front, and those on the back legs ; and in the chairs in the Elizabethan style, where both the front and back legs were generally tin-ned, the ornaments on them were exactly alike. Let the reader, if he has access to Flaxman's Eschylus, examine the chairs in that work. The fire-screens are good, and the candlestick stand, fig. 1898, con\enient, where lamps are not used. The furniture in Mr. Lamb's interior is original, and vet classical ; that is it abounds in forms belonging to, or associated with, tlie antique. GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. SuBSECT. 4. Grecian and Modern Fumitura for the Library. iOOv3 2092. Libraries on a large scale, and which are really intended to contain a collection of books, are fitted up with fixed book-shelves, occupying every part of the sides of the room, except the doors, tlie windows, and the fireplaces. If the books are enclosed by doors, the panels are commonly filled in with brass wire. An architectural character should always be given to the bookcases of a large library, corresponding with the style of the house. In small libraries, where the collection of books is not numerous, portable bookcases are resorted to ; and it may be observed of them, in general, that they ought to be comparatively simple, and grave in expression. Panels of looking-glass in the doors or styles of bookcases are, for this reason, in our opinion, always objectionable ; as there seems to be a want of harmony between looking-glasses, excess of carving, arabesques, and such finery, and the soUd treasures of knowledge contained in the books enclosed. 2093. Bookcases. Fig. 1901 is a bookcase, the front of which breaks forward (pro- jects). There are four doors below, the panels of which are wood ; and four doors in the upper part, glazed with plate glass. There is a carved pediment in the centre of the top. The doors may either be plain, like those in the centre ; or with ornaments, like those on the outsides, which are introduced to enable the reader to make a choice between them. Fig. 1 902 is a bookcase having the lower part finished with pilasters, or carved capitals ; and having what are called carved trusses (projections serving, either really or apparently, as supports) to the upper doors. The panels of the lower doors are of wood ; and those of the upper of plate glass, or of flatted crown glass. ( Flatted crown glass is produced by heating the glass quite hot in an oven, on aflat iron plate laid perfectly level, to which the heated glass adapts its surface ; the operation is performed for the cabinet manufac- lOoh COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHUEC rUllE. 1 902 \^'il^ tiirers, and others who require perfectly flat glass, by a distinct class of artisans, called glass annealers. ) 2094. A Pedestal Case, for holding Papers and other Articles. Fig. 1903 is fonr.cd of mahogany outside, and encloses five boxes, which are made of pasteboard and covered 1903 vnth leather. Every box, a, takes out, and its lop lifts up, which allows its front to fall down, and its contents to be examined. There is a small ring in the front of each box, to pull it out if required ; but it is not necessary to pull any box out its whole length, in order to open it sufficiently to let down its front. The right-hand pilaster of the pedestal GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 105/) is hinged at the side, and locks at the top ; the keyhole being covered by the patera, b, which slides over it in a dovetailed groove. By this means, all the boxes are secured by one lock, and they may be all opened instantly. There may be spaces left for labels in the front of each box if required, and the top may be made to rise up with a horse, like the desk, fig. 1 904, so as to serve for reading on. The top is lined with embossed leather, of the same colour as that of the eases. Castors may be concealed in the plinth. This is considered a very useful piece of furniture for keeping select papers. 2095. Library Tables. Fig. 1 904 is a pedestal library table, which may have drawers on both sides ; or doors and cupboards on one side, and drawers on the other. There is a rising flap on the top, which may be raised to any height, to write or read upon ; and, when not required, it can be let down flush with the top of the table. The ends are hinged at the bottom, and fold outwards ; remaining open in consequence of being sup- ported by a joint stay near the bottom. This forms a very convenient place for portfolios, or large drawings. The depth of the recess may be varied according to the width of the pilasters. The top is covered with embossed russia leather. For the private room of an Architect, such a table may have a drawer immediately under the top, of the same length and breadth as the table ; and of five or six inches in depth, for the purpose of holding large drawing-boards with drawings on them, T squares, &c. In this drawer, the drawing in pro- gress is kept com- ^ ^ -= ^"^^^ 1C04 pletely from the dust ; while the sightliness of the room is pre- served, at times when drawing is not going forward. A rising portable desk, with double horse and rack, may be placed on the table, and raised to any con- venient height for reading, writing, or drawing on, in a standing position, in- stead of the sinking fixed desk shown in the figure ; or a false bottom may be made to the drawer, on which the drawing-board and all the drawing materials may be placed, in such a manner as that, when the drawer is pulled out, and the false bottom is raised to the required height by a rack and horse, the artist may go to work without any previous preparation, or arrange- ment of his instruments or materials ; and he may leave oflT, lower down the false bottom and its contents, and shut up the drawer, in an instant. Fig. 1905 is a very handsome library table, on four carved legs, with four drawers and a carved moulded edge. The drawers pull out from under the rail, thus rendering knobs unnecessary, and main- taining an architectural character. 2096. Writmff- Tables, or Secretaries. Figs. 1906, 1907 represent a handsome writing-table, with numerous drawers and divisions for con- taining papers, money, &c, ; and having on the top a shelf for books. The mechanism is such, that, notwithstanding its apparent intricacy, it can be opened and its contents displayed, or shut up and locked, in an instant. 2097. A sloping Writing-Desk, such as fig. 1908, to a scale of one inch to a foot, fs frequently used for placing on a library table. A part of the top is made flat, with a small lid which turns up, and displays inside the inkbottles, pens, wafers, &c. When not in use, the flap turns down, to keep every thing clean. Tlie sloping part may b« covered with embossed leather. 1056 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITPX'TUIIE. ifyC: 2098. A Reading- Desk. Fig. 1909, to the same scale, Is a small rising iea(iing-de>k, which stands flat on a table, and occupies but little space. 2099. An enclosed Wash-hand Stand, such as fig. 1910, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, IS commonly placed in a library closet, or in a gentleman's study or business room. GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1057 1908 There is a slip of wood fixed on the under side of the top, which drops down in front, and completes the panel ; thus shutting the whole up close. A glass is fixed on the under side of the cover, which rises with a rack and horse. There are two doors below, in the inside of which are shelves, and a space for keeping the ewer with the water ; or it may be fitted up with any appropriate convenience that may be desired. 2100. Chairs. Figs. 191 1 and 1912 are two easy reclining chairs for a library, parlour, or other sitting-room. They are covered with morocco leather, with button tufts ; and they are very easy to sit upon. Fig. 1913 is a view of Dawe's reclining chair for an invalid : the position of the back of this chair can be varied at pleasure, and the projecting part in fi-ont can be elongated, or adjusted to any slope. When it is not wanted to be used as a reclining chair, the back can be fixed upright ; and the front projection slid in, so as to produce the appearance of a common easy chair. 2101. Library Glass. Fig. 1914 is a library chimney-glass, the frame of which may be made of maho- gany or maple wood, or of deal gilt or bronzed. A plinth for it to stand on, half an inch in thick- ness, of ebony, ought to be added ; not only for effect, but to prevent the gilding or bronzing of the frame from being injured by washing the mantel-shelf. We may observe here, that it is a common and commendable prac- tice, when housemaids are dusting the walls of rooms, to have a narrow slip of thin deal in one hand to place against the edges of the mouldings to prevent them from being rubbed. 2102. Tlie Window Curtains of a Library may be formed of the same shapes and materials as those recommended for the dining-room, § 2090. 2103. Tlie general Appearance of a library fitted up with a continued range of book- shelves is so simple as not to require delineation in a work like the present. A very 6 I 1058 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. chaste design for such a library was sent us by Mr. Field, from the following descriptio > of which, by that gentleman, any young Architect may embody it in light and shade : — " The dimensions of this room are about thirty feet by eigh- teen feet, and it is thirteen feet high. The ceiling is surrounded by a large cove, intersected by arches over the divisions of the book-shelves, five in number lengthwise, and three breadth- wise, of the apartment. The walls are entirely covered with shelves, except where the en- trance door is shown in the centre of one end of the room, and where there are spaces for two or three windows, corre- sponding with the recess for the door, on the side opposite to the fireplace. The pilasters and entablature may be exe- cuted in scagliola marble, and the cove and ceiling may be coloured a light tint, to con- trast with the pilasters and the graining of the woodwork. The books are secured by brass lattice doors. If a sky-light in the ceiling were in- troduced in lieu of windows, the uniformity of the Design, and the capacity of the library, would be increased." SuBSECT. 5. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Drawingroom and Music-Room. 2104. Couches. Figs. 1915 and 1916 are two Designs for couches. In the second, the castors are sunk in the legs ; and to each there is a loose squab (a sort of mattress GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1059 •i9i6 serving as a seat) and bolster of hair, and a pillow filled with down. These couches we consider as handsome articles. The four feet, being all straight, are equally carved and ornamented. The carved foliage, embracing the frame of the head, and the hand-rail at the back, exhibits a happy specimen of the application of ornament, in sucn a manner as to make it appear as if it arose out of the construction of the article ; the curvature of the frame of the head is of itself highly beautiful, being a modification of the Greek cyma (wave), the most elegant and graceful of all curves ; and, as Mr. Hosking has happily shown, identical with Hogarth's serpentine line of beauty. Couches in small rooms are generally preferred to sofas. 2105. Sofas. Figs. 1917 and 1918 are two Designs for sofas; the ends of which, if desirable, might be made of a similar pattern to those of the preceding couches. The 1917 wifHWiiiiiisiirr coverings and finishings of couches and sofas should harmonise, in colour and material, with the window curtains. The framework of these sofas we consider elegant ; the 1918 ornaments harmonise with the arms on which they are placed, and with one another the general outlines and forms are simple, and the details ricli. 1060 CO'lTAGE, FARM, A^'D VILLA AliCHl'i ECTUliE. 2106. Ottomans are stuSed seats for several persons to sit on at once ; they may be placed either against the walls of a room, or in the open floor. Fig. 1 91 9 is an ottoman for the corner of a small room ; and fig. 1 920 is another for the centre of a room of consider- able size. The back in the centre is fixed ; the seats are stuffed on a wooden frame, and 1923 lake off, leaving a well or cupboard beneath, for holding the loose linen cases by which they are covered, when the drawingrcom is not in use. GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1061 2107. Ottoman Footstools, Figs. 1921 and 1922 are ottoman footstools, which may have the same-coloured coverings as the ottomans, ov as the curtains ; the material being fine cloth. The carved part may be of mahogany or rosewood. 2108. Chairs. Figs. 1924, 1925, 1926 exhibit three varieties of easy chairs. They may be covered with morocco, or with the same furniture as the sofas and window curtains. Fig. 1 923 is another easy chair, with a richly carved frame, and cane seat. It should have a cushion covered with the same stuff as the curtains. These chairs are all to a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot. Fig. 1 927 may be made of maple, or any other veined wood ; or of beech painted or japanned. The variety of chairs of this kind is endless; they are not very strong, but their , . appearance is light, and, their proportions being slender, they may be considered as not inelegant. Figs. 1928 to 1932 are what are called fancy chairs for drawingrooms ; they may be made of rosewood, maple, satin, or any other kind of fancy wood ; and French polished (that is, polished and varnished with a par- ticular composition invented in Paris, and brought to this country after the peace of 1814). The seats are first caned, and then covered in patterns with willow (split wiUow rods) of different colours, produced by stain- ing, so as very successfully to imitate various kinds of wood. These chairs, when not so expensively finished in the seat, will also serve for bed-rooms. Theii* great advantage in a drawingroom is their lightness. They may have hair cushions covered with the same furniture as the curtains and sofas ; or they may have stuffed seats covered with da- mask. Figs. 1933, 1934, and 1935 are also drawingroom chairs. The first has a carved seat and back ; the other two are made of maple or satin wood with matted seats. The splats (the middle part of the back, which either connects the top and bottom rails, or the two side styles) are carved in the forms of the rose, the shamrock, and the thistle. Figs. 1936 and 1937 are di-awdngroom chairs. Fig. 1936 has an open back, which may be executed in rosewood or mahogany. Fig. 1 937 has a stuffed back, and is a very easy chair to sit upon, though rather expensive. In point of taste, the chairs from 106'2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITJXTURE. il92« fig. 1923 to fig. 1927 are objectionable, on account of the dill'erence between their front ^•'H. back legs in point of ornament. The front left's, and supports of the back and arms, 1 93'i GHECIAN AND MODERN VIJ-LA FURNITUHE. I 0(^.3 of the Designs alluded to, are most richly ornamented, and tlie decorations in general are judiciously applied ; that is, they appear as if they resulted from the construction ; yet the hind legs are as bald as those of the hall chairs, or of any chair which could be constructed for the humblest cottage. A very little reflection will convince any ore 1936 that this cannot be in good taste. The Designs, fig. 1 928 to fig. 1 935, do not show so great a discrepancy between the front legs and the back ones ; and to us they are, on that account, much more satisfactory. There are none of these chairs, however, entirely to our mind ; because there is scarcely one of them in which there is perfect harmony in the direction of the lines. Not one of these chairs can have been designed by an Architect, or other artist ; they are much more like the efforts of a mechanic in search of novelty. Fig. 1937 is not bad, with the exception of the hind legs. 2109. The Polishing of Chairs and other Furniture is a matter which should not be lost sight of by a purchaser. In large towns, such as London and Edinburgh, where the art of polishing furniture forms a distinct occupation, what is called the French polish is by far the best for bringing out the beauties of the wood, and giving it a bright- ness and richness of colour which nothing else hitherto invented can produce. An important advantage of the French polish is, that it is not liable to crack or show scratches, like varnish. Wherever, therefore, the French mode of polishing is practised, we would recommend its adoption at least for all drawingroom furniture, and for the finer articles of libraries and dressing-rooms. For dining-tables, Mr. Dalziel states that by far the best polish for the tops is cold-drawn linseed oil alone, rubbing them 10f)4 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. hard with any soft cloth for a period of several hours till they are got to a bright polish ; which, when once obtained, can be kept up with little labour, and will stand hot dishes and boiling water better than the French or any other polish. The ordinary polish used by cabinet-makers consists of bees' wax mixed with spirits of turpentine and a small proportion of rosin. When this has been all dissolved together, the wood to be polished is thinly washed over with it, and it is immediately afterwards rubbed off by clean soft cloths. For polishing carved work, a clean soft brush must be used for laying it very thinly on, and another brush, in a very slight degree harder, must be employed for ruh- bing it off, 21 10. Consol Tables. The term consol is applied from the form of the front leg or pillar by which such tables are usually supported, which is that of a carved ornament called a consol, frequently placed on the front of brackets, and on the keystones of arches. Fig. 1938 is placed at the ends of drawingrooms, or against very broad piers between doors or windows. The panels in the back are of looking-glass ; and the doors of the two pedestals have panels filled in with fluted silk, or looking-glass may be substituted. The tops of such tables are frequently formed of statuary marble, and the supports and upper shelf of the finest rosewood ; sometimes the shelf is omitted. The looking-glass is sometimes carried up to the height of five or six feet. On the bottom board, in front of the lower glass, are placed vases for holding flowers, and a number of other ornaments. Fig. 1939 is another table of the same description, but of a diflferent pattern. GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1005 2111. Pier Consol Tables. Figs. 1940, 1941, 1943, 1944 exhibit four varieties of pier consol tables, with marble tops, and silvered plate-glass backs. They are commonly placed against the piers between windows. They are made of rosewood, and sometimes gilding is introduced en the carving, especially when the style of Louis XIV. is imitated, as in figs. 1943 and 1944. The looking- glasses are placed in gilt frames, and they are carried up nearly as high as the ceiling. The tops of these tables are sometimes covered with scagliola, instead of marble, which comes a great deal cheaper ; and, when executed in Mr. Brown's very superior manner, looks nearly as well. 2112. Pier Tables with Marble Tops may be supported by cast-iron brackets, or other stands of that metal, gilt or bronzed, at very moderate expense, and with excellent effect. We have already given various Designs for brackets, and for the ends of tables, to be formed of cast iron, from sketches by Mr. Mallet ; and we might here add a number of others from the same fertile and tasteful contributor, but we think it unneces- sary. Almost every thing in the style of Louis XIV. may be executed in cast iron cheaper than in wood. Pier and consol tables ai-e great ornaments in drawingrooms, and ought never to be omitted where splendour is an object to be desired, and money is not wanting. One greit advantage of them is, that the glasses which form a part of them multiply every object in the room, from the floor to the ceiling, and not only every object in the room, but the \-iews of objects reflected from without ; whereas chim- ney-glasses only reflect objects at a cer- tain height between the floor and the ceiling. 2113. Chiffoniers. Fig. 1942 is a chiffonier pier table for placing between windows. These tables are usually finished with white marble tops, with plate glass behind, and a shelf supported by brackets for holding ornaments. The panels of the doors may be sil- vered plate glass, or of fluted silk. These are most useful objects for fa- milies who cannot afford to go the expense of pier or consol tables. In parlours, and even lady's libraries, they may be used as a sort of morning side- board for containing any light species of refreshment. 2114. Devonports (so called from the inventor's name) are drawingroom writing-cabinets used by ladies. Fig. 1945 is a very convenient piece of furniture of this description; the top part, forming the desk, pulls forward to come over the knees when it is to be used. A sliding flap draws out on each side, to hold papers, a candle, &c. The desk lid lifts up, and beneath it is a space for papers, and several small drawers. There is besides a drawer which pulls out at the side, and turns round, as shown in the figure, for pens, ink, wafers, &c. Beneath the flap are drawers on one side, and the other side is finished with the appear- ance of drawers to correspond. The back is handsomely paneled, so that each side of this piece of furniture looks well. The flaps and sides are lined with morocco leather embossed. There are castors concealed in the feet. Fig. 1946 is a Devonport which stands on a plinth, having concealed castors, and 6 K 1066 COTTAGE, FAIIM, AND VILLA AIICHITECTURE. 1944 which resembles the preceding one in every respect, except in being rather plainer These are very useful articles for industrious young ladies. We have seen some of them, and also of tlie articles in the two preceding and two following paragraphs, in ]Mr. Dalziel's show-room, of much more elaborate beauty, executed in the rarest exotic woods, and finished with French polish ; but we have preferred giving these simple Designs, as likely to be more generally useful. 2115. Lady's Work Tables. Figs. 1947 and 1949 are fitted up with drawers for holding cottons ; and they have bag frames, which are of wood, covered with fluted silk, and fringed at bottom for containing work. 2116. Sofa Tables. Figs. 1948, 1950, 1951, and 1952 are four dif- ferent varieties of sofa or occasional tables for drawingrooms. Drawers may be introduced under the tops ; but the effect is not then so good, as it requires the upper part of the frame to be made deeper, and consequently gives the table too massive a character for an article of drawing- room furniture. In examining whether the tables, in this and the preceding paragraph, GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1948 106'^ are in good taste, let us first see h w far they display unity of style. In the legs and bottom rails this unity is con- spicuous. Looking at the former apart from the latter, we should never expect to find the bottom rails joined to them, square in the section ; neither should we expect cylindrical rails perfectly plain. The legs being turned and carved, the rails, to be in unison with them, ought to be turned and carved also ; and, as they are so, they are therefore in good taste. The style of the supports of the table ought, of course, to give a general idea of the style of the top, and here we find that some of the tops, for example those of figs. 1949 and 1951, have carved mouldings round the edges, and therefore they harmonise with the legs and rails, and consequently may be considered in good taste ; but the tables, fig. 1948, fig. 1950, and fig. 1952, though their legs are equally en- riched with those of the other De- signs, have plain mouldings on their edges ; hence we have no hesitation in determining them to be in comparatively bad taste. The justness of this criticism will appear more obvious, by applying it to the table, fig. 1948, which has two supports more highly en- riched by carving than those of any of the other figures, and yet has a plain top. This is in bad taste, and ought not, in a work like the preser.t, to be passed over without notice. In order to show the utility of this kind of criticism, and of giving Designs which are less perfect than they might be made, let us suppose, for a moment, that we had only given the tables figs. 1949 and 1951, which we allow to be in tolerably good taste. All that we could have said of these tables is, that they were very good of their kind, displaying unity of style and of mLllLiLJL lOGS COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, ornament ; and, therefore, that they deserved the approbation of the reader. By intro- ducing other tables, however, less perfect with regard to unity of style, we have an op- portunity of contrasting the good and the bad ; and of showing forcibly, in what the difference between these qua- lities consists. We think it the more desirable to do this, because these tables, both the good and the bad, are made in hundreds by the London cabinet-makers ; and are purchased by their customers, without the latter thinking any thing about their unity of style. 2117. Card Tables. Fig. 1 953 is a card table with a carved pillar and a revolving top, the principle of which has been already explained, § 630. 2118. Loo Tables. Figs. 1954 and 1955 are loo tables, which may be executed in rosewood, or in any other rare and handsome foreign wood. These tables, appear to us imobjectionable, in point of taste ; the legs and bottom rails are of elegant forms, ex- hibiting a great variety of lines, and of light and shade, all in harmony among them- selves, and not inconsistent with the tops. 2119. Ecarte Table. Fig. 1956 is a table of this description, with the top open. The oval part is lined with cloth or velvet ; the top revolves like that of a card table, and shuts up so as to form a small work table, when not wanted for playing on, 2120. Chess Tables. Figs. 1957 and 1958 are two different patterns of chess tables richly ornamented, and considered handsome. There is a semicircular compartment on eacli side, on which to place the chessmen, or lights ; there is also a drawer to each table ; and there are concealed castors in the legs. 2121. Stands for Books. Fig. 1960 is a pedestal stand for containing such books as may be considered ornamental in a drawingroom. There are shelves on all the four sides, and the angles are cut off by coves, as shown in the plan. On the top of the stand may be placed an elegant vase, with or without flowers ; a globe of water containing gold- fishes ; or a bust, or other object, according to the taste and pursuits of the lady of the house. GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. lOClQ 1958 Fig. 1959, to a scale of one inch to a foot, is a bookstand to be placed on a table. There is a drawer for letters or other papers, and at top a rack for holding cards ; and two handles, for removing the whole when necessary. Stands for books might be naade in a great variety of forms, and, to those who derive great part of their happi- ness from reading, bookstands are always welcome pieces of furniture. " One of the grandest detached bookstands I ever saw," says an American correspondent, " was placed in the centre of a square library, with a lofty ceiling, lighted from the roof. It was in the form of a pj-ramid ; the shelves rising above one another like the steps of a stair to the height of twelve feet ; and each step, though narrow, was yet sufficiently broad to admit any person to walk up and walk down in order to take out or put in books. mounted bv d '. ■ ■ L "■■■ ^ The whole was sur- statue of Jefferson, and at the angles was a light mahogany handrail to assist in walking up and down. The artificial light was from gas, placed outside the skylight, and within an outer glass case. Underneath the pj-ramid was a pedestal filled with steam-pipes, for heating the room. The four sides of the room were fitted up with bookshelves to the height of twelve feet, with a travelling step-ladder, similar to one which I saw, when in England, in one of the London club-houses." 2122. Piano-fortes. The forms of piano-fortes have been lately much 1962 improved, so that they now harmonise with the general forms of drawing- room furniture bet- ter than they ever did before. The first step in the road to this desirable end was made by the manufacturer Sto- dart, who invented the upright and 1070 COTiAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AllCHlTECTUUE. cabinet pianos about the beginning ot the present century j and the last by Wornura Store Street, London, in the year 1833. This last ma- -^ nufacturer, in that year, exhibited a piano-forte that could hardly be distinguished from a library table. The piano-fortes of this maker, which are most fre- quently used, are the two sizes, figs. 1961 and 1962; one of the smallest size, ex- hibited in fig. 1962, costs from thirty-six to fifty-five guineas; and one of the ' largest, shown in fig. 1 963, costs from fifty to one hundred guineas. The first instrument is three feet four inches, and the second six feet six inches, in height. There are nu- merous other forms of piano-fortes and organs ; and also of what are called harmonics, which produce music by machinery. The advantages of Wornum's ^-^^ instruments are, that, with the same degree of tone and excellence, in a musical point of view, as the horizontal pianos, and with the convenient form of the upright pianos, they 1965 are finished behind in such a manner as to have a handsome effect whichever side is pre- sented to the to the company. The old upright and ca- binet pianos were generally placed against walls. 2123. Music-stands. Fig. 1 963 is a stand for holding music-books. The upper part rises out of the pillar to any convenient height ; 196 7 tsC8 GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1071 and the pillar of support is round in the upper part, so as to change the position of the desk at pleasure. Fig. 1 964 is another music-stand, the desk of which also rises out of the pillar. The top, when not wanted for music, folds down quite flat, and forms a small table. Fig. 1965, to a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot, is what is called a music Canterbury. Its use is to hold music-books ; and, as may be seen in the figure, the feet have castors for moving it about at pleasure. Fig. 1966 is another music Canterbury, of an elegant but rather expensive con- struction. Musical instruments being, in all cases, articles of luxury, ought never to be made otherwise than ornamental. For this reason, not only the most beautiful forms ought to be employed, but rare and curious woods, shown off to the best advantage by French polish. Brass candlesticks, and other brass ornaments attached to them, we, for our own particular taste, would avoid, and either use plated steel, or bronze ; possibly ivory or ebony might, in some cases, be partially or wholly substituted for brass or any other metal. 2124. Alusic- Stool. Fig. 1 968 is a music-stool, pillow-stuffed. It rises from the stand by turning round the top, which raises a male screw contained in the female one formed in the pillar. The sci-ew is commonly made of wood ; but iron is preferable, as working better, and lasting longer. 2125. Portfolio-stands are useful pieces of furniture both in libraries and in drawing- rooms. Fig. 1967 is a view of a stand for port- folios, or large prints, in which the portfolios can be conveniently locked up when the family are from home. The two fronts fall down to any degree at pleasure, till they both be- come level, as shown in the section, fig. 1969, and thus admit of easily exa- mining the prints or draw- ings. Articles of this de- scription are usually made without the ends, and with the two framed sides; but by this plan the portfolios have to be taken out before they can be opened, and, besides, they cannot be locked up. 2126. Flower-stands. Fig. 1970 is a kind of flower-stand, which is com- monly called a jardiniere. A tin pan fits into the top, which has a cover of trelliswork, or of pierced tin, through which cut flowers are put into wet sand. A loose top of rosewood is made to fit into the recess which contains the tin pan, to be put in when the stand is not wanted for flowers, in order to render it useful as a small table. Prince Puckler-Muskau mentions a flower- 1971 1072 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. stand, in which the tray is placed in the bottom of a drawer which slides in under a plate-glass top, which may be used as a writing or work table ; and, when the fragrance of the flowers is desired as well as their sight, it is only necessary to pull the drawer out a little. The prince expatiates on the luxury of a lady sitting at work by the table, looking through the glass at the flowers, and now and then pulling out the drawer to enjoy their fragrance. We hardly know whether this half-radical prince is in jest or earnest when talking in this manner ; but we must say, for our own part, that we think the idea much more suitable for the diseased feeling of pampered luxury than for healthy active intelligent women. The woman who cultivates her own flower-garden, and watches the progress of vegetation in it from day to day, has every chance of receiving far more enjoyment from flowers than she who has them reared and gathered for her, and sees them for the first time through a plate glass. Fig. 1971 is another Design for a flower-stand, the top part being of a circular shape. 2127. Candelabra are isolated supports for lights. They are formed of wood or bronze, with three feet, and an upright pole, carved and ornamented, and terminating in a capital, on the flat top of which a lamp is placed. Sometimes, instead of terminating in a capital with a flap top, the candelabrum ends in branches for candles. Some of the handsomest lamp candelabra in present use are the scagliola columns manufactured by Mr. Browne of University Street, London. The cost of these candelabra is seven guineas each. 2128. Fire- Screens. Figs. 1972, 1973, and 1974 are Designs for drawingroom fire-screens. The poles may be of brass; as wood, and especially rosewood, is apt to warp or break. Fig. 1973 is a fire-screen with one slide, and a stuflTed flat rail at bottom for the feet. There is a flap for holding a candle supported by a bracket. The fluting is of silk, of the same colour as that of the other furniture in the room. A fire-screen is an article of fur- niture almost exclusively British, because Britain is the principal country in Europe where open fireplaces formed, till lately, almost the only mode of heating the rooms of the wealthy classes. At present fire-screens are less in repute than formerly, because they are ren- dered less necessary by the im- proved modes of heating used in connection with open fires, which, by raising an equal temperature in every part of the room, lessen the inducement for the company in the room to collect round the fire, in the screen part of this piece of furniture with fluted silk, a pic- ture is frequently introduced ; sometimes a map, and at other times some curious performance of the needle. Large fire-screens for parlours are frequently covered with odd prints, and especially portraits of men, animals, plan ts,&c., and even with select passages from newspapers ; or with conundrums, riddles, enigmas, and charades. For a large library fire-screen, nothing could be more appropriate than good maps ; and, indeed, we have seen a globe raised on a pole, and sliding up and down it at pleasure, used as a small fire-screen. It is a great advantage for young persons to have frequently put in their way, such instruments of education, as globes, maps, chronological tables, tables of the heights of mountains, the lengths of rivers, &c. ; for in this manner the contents of these instruments, insensibly, and without effort, im- press themselves on the mind. A material is sometimes used for filling in fire-screens in some of the great houses in England, which would not at first sight occur as eligible : this is glass, through which the fire is seen, but through which it is found that the heat of the fire will not penetrate. This opticians account for, from the Instead of filling 1974 GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA EURNITLRE. 10/3 circumstance of the spectrum being imperfect, and in a great measure deficient in the calorific raj-s. Sometimes the glass is stained to represent a painting, like the stained glass in church windows ; and in this case the effect is remarkably rich and grand. Such a material is particularly suitable for filling in screens in the Gothic style ; and those who are acquainted with the stained glass windows of our ancient cathedrals will readily conceive the endless source of variety and interest that might be added to this description of firescreen. In all rooms where there is a great quantity of furniture, and a great number of objects, it may be allowable, occasionally, to introduce one or two of a subordinate description as articles of curiosity, and which, like all other articles of curiosity, do not come within the pale of regular criticism. On this prin- ciple, Chinese and Indian firescreens are allowable, even though there should be no other article of furnituie in the same style in the room. 2129. Chimney-glass. Fig. 1975 is a Design for a Grecian chimney-glass, the beauty of which will depend much on the carving. Chimney and pier glasses should correspond in the style of their frames, with that of the room in which they are placed. A pier-glass placed opposite the chimney-glass always has an excellent effect, as they reflect one another ; so that the size of the room is doubled from whichever end the spectator directs his view. A black ebony plinth, French polished, is preferred to a gilded one, on account of its not tarnishing with the cleaning of the mantel-shelf. This plinth need not be above an inch and a half deep. Chimney and pier glasses, being comparatively fixtures, and belonging more to the permanent or constructive Architecture of the room, than to the furniture, ought, in our opinion, to be treated in a different manner from what they generally are. Their frames ought to be plainer, and more architectural ; and rather to harmonise with the architraves of the doors and windows, and the marble of the chimney-pieces, than, as they now do, chiefly with the gilt frames of the pictures. A marble frame for a glass, such as Mr. Kobison has introduced in his drawingroom, fig. 1817, we think in good taste; not only over a marble chimney-piece, but over a marble-topped pier or consol table. Perhaps there is no piece of furniture, put up by the London upholsterers, which is mo)-e generally in bad taste than looking-glasses ; and this arises, as it appears to us, from that fertile source of bad taste in articles formed for those who have abundant wealth, — an excessive love of ornament. In this department of furniture, as in some others, we are certainly far excelled by both the French and Germans. We should say, let small, and especially portable, looking-glasses have highly enriched frames ; but let those for largo 6 L ' lO/t COTTAGE, FAUM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE plates, to be placed against walls, always be simple and architectural, seeming to belong to the construction of the room. 2130. Window Curtains. Fig. 1976 shows a window curtain with a gilt cornice and liandsome drapery, the hangings being either of damask or chintz, witli bullion fi-jnge 11»7G (so called because it is made in the style of epaulets, the pendent part of which is called bullion, though for what reason we have not been able to discover,) with silk drops. The curtains are tied up with tassels and bands, instead of being fastened back with brass pins ; a hook being placed on the architrave, on which the band is slipped. In general the material and colour of window curtains should be the same as that of the other drapery in the room ; for example, as the covers of sofas in drawing-rooms and as bed curtains in bed-rooms. In the cases of dining-rooms and libraries, where there is no other drapery than that belonging to the window curtains, the colour, and the ma- terial of these should be such as to harmonise with the colouring, and style of finishing and furniture, of the room. For example, if the furniture be chiefly mahogany, the material of the curtains should be moreen or cloth ; and the colour should be of the same tone, and strong or dark ; say some shade of red, brown, or scarlet. If, on the other hand, the furniture be chiefly of oak, or of difl'erent-coloured foreign woods, the or other light-coloured cloth, or moreen, or some description of chintzes or cottons, will be more suitable ; in both cases the colours in the carpets should be in part those of drab window curtains. When tlie chairs of a room are covered with cloth, the pi-inciple of GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1075 unity requires that this cloth, and that of the window curtains, should be the same both in kind and colour. Fig. 1977 is another drawingroom curtain, m which muslin hangings are shown beneath the damask ones. The use of curtains in living-rooms is chiefly confined to 1977 cold and temperate climates ; and, even in these, they are found to convey the idea of too great warmth in summer. We except, however, muslin curtains, the use of which is to exclude insects, and in some degree to soften the direct light of the sun. In warm climates, and during the heat of summer in the temperate regions, when it is desirable to exclude heat, and, consequently, to a certain extent, light, the means which are most ef- fective are the use of outside luffer-blinds ; the glass of the windows being either altogether removed, and replaced by wire gauze or fine muslin curtains ; or, as is commonly the case in England, the sashes of the window being kept open at bottom and top. In all houses whatever, it is a matter of considerable importance to moderate the light of the sun in the hottest days of summer. The advantages of this are, coolness, the almost total exclusion of insects, and the retention of colour in the different articles of furniture in the room. For this reason, as it is very desirable, in every house, whether of the poor man or of the rich, to preserve the colour of such expensive articles as window curtains and carpets, and to exclude flies, which totally destroy gilt picture-frames, and gnats, which are a personal annoyance, all houses that can afiord it ought to have either shutter-blinds, or some description of outside blinds, such as those mentioned, § 2002. 107^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE Fig. 197S is a curtain with a richly carved and gilt cornice. 1978 Fig. 1979 is a drawingroom curtaui with a fringed valance attached to gilt brass rings, which move along a wooden pole sheathed in gilt brass. A silk drop is attached to each ring, and from each ring the fringe forms a swag (curve). The curtains draw behind the valance on a rod, as before described, § 6C9. As fiir as we have observed, the taste of upholsterers is much more correct in window curtains, and in hangings and draperies of every description, than in articles of furniture where form is chiefly con- cerned. We can only account for this from their being, in this department, under the control of a more enlightened public opinion, viz. that of women ; who, from the milliner upwards, have generally a more correct sense of harmony in colouring than men. In the fashions of window curtains, as in almost every other article on which fashion operates, the change is alternately from simple to complex, and from what is old to what is new. Tlie prevailing taste is for simple draperies, and the four Designs here given we consider to be nearly unexceptionable. It is a great advantage, in every description of hangings, to have them so put up, as to be easily taken down and cleaned ; another desideratum is, that they can be easily drawn and withdrawn ; and a third, as iSIr. Robison judiciously remarks, is to have the folds perpendicular, in order that they may not harbour much dust. A variety of useful details respecting the hang- GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1077 ing of curtains ar.d window blinds will be found from § 669 to § 675 ; and those ladies who may wish to cut out their own curtains will find every thing they can desire in the Uj>holsterer's At cderator. 11/79 21SI. The General Appearance of a Drawingroom fitted up in the Grecian Sti/le is given in fig. 1980. This Design is by Mr. Lamb, who observes " that this room communi- cates with a library through a conservatory. The opening to the latter should have shutters with their backs lined with looking-glass, for effect when they are closed at night ; it should also have glazed sashes to let down, when it may be found necessary to close the room in the daytime. These shutters and sashes should be in three parts, to slide in grooves ; the centre forming one panel. Within the room, on the sides of this opening, are large looking-glasses, and in the four angles from the ceiling are suspended glass %'ases for flowers. The whole of the decorations should tend to give a lively character to the room, and flowers will materially assist in doing so. The opposite side of the room should exactly correspond with this, and should open upon the lawn." We need hardly say that we think this Design one of great beauty and novelty. The idea of a suspended glass jardiniere appears to us much more elegant than shutting flowers up in the drawer of a table, as before alluded to. Mr. Lamb's furniture is, like his Architecture, always in good taste, and always combining novelty with correctness of design and harmony of style. 1980 GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1079 SuBSECT. 6. Grecian and Modern Furniture for Bed-rooms and Dressing-rooms. 2132. Bedsteads. Fig. 1981 is a bedstead ^th a mahogany ogee cornice, in the hollow of which is fixed a small brass or bronzed rod, a, by a bronzed or brass bracket, b, which is placed on the angle of the cornice ; c shows the front of the bracket, looking at it on the angle. The curtains are hooked on to the rings in the manner described § 669, and there are small roses sewed on over each hook, which add much to the effect. There is a fringed valance inside the cornice. The headcloth and tester are fluted in a particular manner ; that is, with one wide flute and a narrow one on each side of it, lea^■ing a space between it and the next flute. The footboard, which is made to slide out and in, is fluted to correspond with the head cloth and tester. The curtains may be looped up by a small cord. All bedsteads should have castors with wooden wheels ; a variety known as the French castor is considered the best. Fig. 1982 is a four-post bedstead and furniture, with the cornice of mahogany, and French-poUshed. The mahogany cornice is considered to be much preferable to a painted and japanned one, both in point of effect and in durability ; though it is some- what more expensive. The curtains of all beds ought to correspond with those of the •windows of the rooms in which they are placed. Chintz is generally preferred for bed- curtains, as it admits of being washed. Bed curtains, when of chintz, are generally lined with cotton of a different colour, somcti'iies plain and sometimes spotted. Dyed 1080 COTTAGE, FAllM, AXD VILLA AllCH riECTURE 1U82 linings were formerly common, but they have now given way to plain white or spotted ones ; the reason for which is, that the latter will admit of being washed, without injuring ihe colour of the spots, which the former do not. Dimity curtains, for both beds and windows, are considered in good taste, especially in the country, where they keep long clean. Moreen used to be employed for the hangings of best beds and bed-room win- dows; but it is now considered as apt to harbour moths and other vermin; and there- fore, in these economical times, it is much less used than formerly. It has, however, the advantage of not taking fire so readily as chintz or dimity ; but were these latter, imme- diately after being washed, dipped in a solution of alum in clear water, they would be "•endercd much less liable to injury from fire than moreen, or any other stuff of which wool is the basis. Any one may prove this, by trying the effects of a solution of alum on a cambric pocket handkerchief 21:53. French Bedstead. Fig. 1984, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a French bedstead with a circidar top ; and with round projecting pillars in front, in which the castors are concealed. The drapery may be of chintz, dimity, or muslin, so as to cor- respond with the window curtains of the room. 2134. Bed Pillars. Fig. 1983 shows four patterns which may be executed in mahogany, oak, or beech ; or they may be made of deal, and painted and grained. These four patterns of bed-pillars will be considered by most persons, as well cabinet- makers as others, to be very handsome ; and it may be worth while to enquire in what their beauty consists. The first thing that strikes the eye in them, after surveying their general form, is the quantity of carving with which they are decorated, and the different rarrow-turned necks or mouldings, which occur on that portion of tlie pillar, which is GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. lOSl above the square, or rectangular part. How far then may this carving, and the intro- duction of these necks, or circular parts, be admitted, and yet be consistent with archi- tectural design and taste? The answer on architectural principles is, just so far as they do not interfere with the expression of the pillar. The next question is, what ought this expression to be ? First,suitablenessof strength and form to its use ; and, secondlj-, the expression of some kind of l^eauty or style, for the gratification of the beholder. The lower part of the pillai- is very properly formed square on the sides ; because that form is best adapted for being mortised to receive the tenons by which it is joined to the framework of the bed. The upper part of the pillar is conical or tapering ; and it is smaller than the lower part, because the same kind of strength and application is not there wanting ; this part having only to support the perpendicular pressure of the roof. The feet, claws, or bottom knobs, of the pil- lars are brought to points ; partly, we may suppose, be- cause, the narrower the space on which a foot can stand, tlie more easily is it adjusted to any surface on which it may happen to be placed ; and, partly, because the only kind of strength required there being that of resisting perpendicular pres- sure, the trouble of preserv- ing the square form becomes unnecessary. Thus it would appear, that, as far as expres- sion of purpose is concerned, these bed-pillars are, at least, imobjectionable ; and we shall now, therefore, examine them with respect to their expression of beauty or style. It is afundamental principle, both in nature and art, that the stronger and more mas- sive parts of anj' object should support the lighter and more elegant forms of it ; and this it is, which is the cause of the satisfaction which we feel when we see a cylindrical column placed over a square pedestal, and the conical upper part of the bed-piUars, in the De- signs before us, rising out of the rectangular part. The beauty of the conicr. of these pillars is gi"eat, in proportion as one part seems to arise out of another 6' Ji n p 108"4J COTTAGE, FARxM, AND VILLA AllCinTECTUUS. as no ynxl vhicli follows, seems to conrfciact that which vent before. In this \)() nt of GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNIJ LKE. lU8o view, the most satisfactory of these pillars is that marked b ; because the base of the conical part being commenced by the mouldings at e, the upper part of the cone appears to rise beautifidly out of the foliage over it ; whereas, in the Design a, the continuity of the cone is iirst interrupted by the hoUow at /, and afterwards by the neck at fi, though above this last letter, the cone rises in a satisfactory manner from the foliage which embraces it. In the De- sign c, the cone rises satisfactorily from the double neck ; but the Design d is altogether bad, from the multiplicity of its parts, the apparent weakness and want of continuity and of cooperation in its lines, and the obvious ef- forts of the designer to display ornament and produce novelty. Of the feet of these different Designs, that of a is unquestion- ably the handsomest ; and that of c the worst, in as much as it ap- proaches nearer than any other to the expression of weakness. If the preceding reasoning be found correct, it follows that, beautiful as these bed-posts ap- pear to be on the first glance, yet that, when examined and tested by principles, there is not one Oj them to which great objections cannot be made. If the foot, or claw, as it is technically called, of a were substituted for the claw of b, then b would be the piUar most to our taste ; and next would be the pillar c, with the same change effected on it. In this case, as in most others, the great fault is the deviation from simplicity. The cause of this fault is, that, in London, so great has been the demand for cabinet furniture, and so ardent the desire for novelty, tliat the great and incessant efforts of the upholsterer are directed to the production of something new ; and that this demand for novelty, instead of being met by taste and invention adequate to the supply, has only called forth mecha- nical changes or combinations of forms. The essential cause of this is the want of dis- crimination on the part of the public, between 1988 what is a mere mechanical change in the dispo- sition of parts, and what is really original design in composition. 2135. Bed-steps. Fig. 1985 shows a set of bed-steps, with two of the steps arranged as cupboards. The tread of the top step is hinged, and lifts up ; the middle step puUs forward ; and when drawn out its lid lifts up, and shows a space for a bidet, or other convenience. Where there are steps of this kind on each side of a bed, the middle step of the one may contain a night convenience, and that of the other a bidet. 2136. Bed Cupboard. Fig. 1986, on a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot, forms a very convenient cupboard, with a shelf and top having two flaps, which fold out for books, &c., so as to form a table at pleasure, and thus disguise the use for which it is principally intended. Pieces of furniture of this kind are often made in tlie shape of pedestals, square or round, with marble tops, shelves within, and a hinged door opening from top to bottom. 2137. Wardrobes. Fig. 1987, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a lady's wmged wardi-obe, to be made of any fine wood, French polished, and showing no brasswork in any part of the front. The knoljs are of mahogany or ebony ; the mouldings on the lOSi COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. doors are made to project ; and the fronts of the drawers are made to recede, and to have a moulding raised upon them. Fig. 1989 shows the interior of this wardrobe. In one 1989 wing there is a rail with pegs, for hanging dresses, which folds out in the centre, so as to enable a greater quantity of articles to be hung upon it. There is a shelf above the rail, for holding shots, &c. In the other wing are four shelves, for bonnets; and below is a locker, for dirty linen, the front of which folds down, and, when closed, fastens by a catch. The centre part contains five tray shelves and four drawers. Fig. 1988 shows a portion of the interior of a wardrobe, containing a horizontal brass rod, on which is hooked another article of brass, having two arms, or cross-pieces, to put into the arm-holes of ladies' dresses ; a number of which by this means may be hooked on to the rod, and slid backwards and forwards on it, so as to be examined, or taken ofl", at pleasure. This is found by far the most convenient and eco- nomical mode of hanging up ladies' dresses, without in the slightest degree creasing or otherwise injuring them. The other part of this wardrobe contains seven press shelves, and a deep drawer for hold- ing bonnets. Sec, as described in § 626. Presses are often made four feet six inches, and even seven feet, wide, for the sole purpose of holding dresses, with a horizontal rod, as in the figure, and with a number GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1085 jf brass arms hooked on it. A variety of other forms for wardrobes will be found among the cottage furniture, § 626 2138. Dressing- Table. Fig. 1990, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a lady's enclosed dressing-table on pedestals. There are three drawers in the frame, and the pedestals have doors, with shelves or drawers within. There is a glass fixed on the top, and the castors ai'e hidden in the plinths of the pedestals. This very useful piece of furniture is often made without the glass being fixed. 2139. Dressing- Glasses. Figs. 1991 and 1992, to a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot, show patterns for dressing- glass frames, which are now seldom made with drawers. Drawers, however, seem not only to be useful for holding small articles necessary for the toilette, but advantageous as forming an architectural plinth or base for the support of the glass, as well as to prevent it from being blown over by the wind. When dressing- glasses have no drawers, the frames are generally loaded with lead, to pre- vent them from being blown down. 2140. Cheval Glass. Fig. 1994 is a cheval dressing-glass, with castors concealed in the feet, and with the face of the frame beveled. It has brass or bronzed candle- brancbes, which turn round with ■"oints ; and the centres or screws on which the glass turns have knobs of wood fixed over the iron screws to hide them. Fig. 1993 is a cheval glass of a moi'e simple construction. 2141. Wash-hand Stand. Fig. 1995 is a wash-hand stand of ma- hogany, with a marble top and wash-board. It contains two drawers, and a shelf below with a circular piece of marble fixed on it, for the ewer to stand on. The best 1993 108() COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. kind of uiarble for wash-hand stands is the variety of French marble known in London as St. Anne's : it is not so light as some blue- veined marbles, but it is considered much more durable than any other, from the lime being cheniically fixed, by combination with iron, in such a manner as to prevent the latter from being easily acted upon by the alkali of the soap. The price of marble being now greatly reduced, in con- sequence of the appli- cation of steam ma- chinery to its sawing and polishing, the tops of wash-hand stands, and other articles of bed-room furniture, are very frequently made of it. Fig. 1996 is a vase, which may be of marble or of cast iron bronzed, or of various other materials, supported on a cast-iron bronzed column, with project- ing handles to serve as soap-holders. If this article were made a fixture, two small tubes could be conducted up the supporting co- lumn, the one to supply clear water, and the other to carry oflT the dirty water. This elegant Design is by Mr. Mallet. 2142. A small Ebmiy Waiter or Tray is frequently used for holding jugs, &c., of hot water, for the washing-table : they are eight or nine inches in diameter, turned, with the edges projecting over, so as to serve as a substitute for handles. This, however, is not the only article of fiirnitiire and furnishing that we have omitted to figure and describe in this work. The truth is, that there are hundreds of small articles required in furnishing a house, which might have been introduced in a work professing to describe and figure all the utensils, implements, and instruments used in private houses : but our principal object is, to communicate our ideas on the taste or no taste of the more conspicuous articles of furniture at present generally fabricated. 1996 SUBSECT. Furniture for the Nicrsery. 2143. Bassinet (barcina, Sp., a rush basket). The first piece of ftirniture which an infant can be said to use is a bassinet, or portable bed. Fig. 1 997 is a bassinet two feet and a half long, the frame of which is made of wicker- work, with a hood wliich falls backwards or forwards as required. It is generally lined with printed furniture, or sometimes with dimity, to keep out the draught. The hood is covered with furniture, and two little curtains drop down from its front, which are looped up with tapes or ribands in the same manner as tent-bed furniture (see fig. 698J. A hair mattress stuflTed very soft, and a small down pillow, complete the bed. " The advantage of this l)cd," Mi. Dalziel observes, " is great ; as the child, when asleep in it, is protected Com ciu-rents of air from whatever direction thev may come. The child may also be removed in it 1P98 GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1087 from one room to another without being disturbed. A mother will find such a bed par- ticularly useful in the evening when the child is asleep beside her in the sitting-room ; because it need not be disturbed, but may be carried in the bassinet to the bed-room, and there placed by the side of the bed ; whereas, if the child were asleep on a sofa, its removal, by taking it up in the arms, would be certain to awake it, and the mother might lose her rest for several hours." 2144. Cribs have been already figured and described § 662. They come into use after the bassinet ; that is, when the child is about a year old, and has been -".reaned. We may here mention a description of crib, which has hooks or other fastenings ; by which, when one side of it is taken out, the crib can be made fast to the side of the mother's bed, so that she may have access to the child during the night, by merely stretching out her arms, and taking it to her. 2145. Chairs are the next articles made use o^ by children ; and those about London are of four kinds. Fig. >999 is a child's chair of the first kind, having a night pan, and a matted seat. A small stuffed flannel of the size of the seat, and having a round hole in the centre, is generallj' placed over it when it is to be used, in order to prevent the i pan from hurtuig the child. (In some districts of Italy, and other parts of the Continent, rings of stuifed cloth, or stuffed lea- ther, or of rush matting, are vised for the samie purpose by grown-up persons. ) In England, infants of ordinary health and strength are put into chairs of this kind, when be- tween three and four months old. Fig. 1998 is a child's high chair, to be used when it first begins to sit at table. There is a bar or stick put across between the arms, to keep the child from falling out, and sometimes there is a foot-board. A 2000 stands on a stool. child in average health is put into such a chair when about twelve or fourteen months old. Fig. 2000 is an Astley Cooper's chair ; being a form recommended by that eminent surgeon, with the view of pre- venting children from acquiring a habit of lean- ing forward, or stooping ; the upright position of the back affording sup- port when the child is placed at table, and eat- ing, which a sloping- backed chair does not. It is proper to observe that some medical men do not approve of these chairs. Fig. 2001 is a child's elbow-chair, or bergere, as it is commonly called in England. Tliis chair to which it is attached 2001 1088 COTTAGE, FAllM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. IJK' chair is removed from the stool, tlie latter forms a tahle for the child to put its playthings on. The shelf for the feet is made to move higher or lower as may be required. The chair is only fixed on the stool when the child is to sit at table to eat, which it may do when about eighteen months of age. 2146. A Child's Washing-stand. Fig. 2002 is a child's washing- stand, consisting of a table about eighteen inches high, with a large basin and a soap cup sunk in one side of the top. The table is made lower than a chair, in order that the nurse may have the more power over the child when she is washing it. When the child is only a few weeks old, it is immersed, or bathed in the basin ; but as it grows larger, it sits on the top of the table, with its legs in the water. Sect. II. Gothic Furniture for Villas. 2147. The Designs for Gothic Furniture whXch we shall submit are few; because such designs are, in general, more expensive to execute than those for modern furniture ; partly from the greater quantity of work in them, but chiefly because modern workmen are unaccustomed to this kind of workmanship. What passes for Gothic furniture among cabinet-makers and upholsterers is, generally, a very different thing from the correct Gothic designs supplied by Architects who have imbued their minds with this style of art. Wherever, therefore, a house is to be furnished in the Gothic style, we repeat our recommendation to put the whole under the direction of a competent Archi- tect. Indeed, it would be of great advantage to the wealthy, who have not leisin-e themselves to attend to the subjects of taste and pin-ity of design in furnisliing their houses, if they were, on every occasion, not only of furnishing a room, but even of adding or changing a piece of furniture in a room already furnished, to consult an Architect before doing so ; since nothing is more common than to find the style (in regard both to art and expense) in which a house is furnished, totally at variance with its external Ar- chitecture. Even in single rooms, we find the most heterogeneous mixtures of forms and colours, arising from the desire of the occupant to possess such or such a particular article of furniture, which has been seen somewhere else, without at all considering pro- priety either with regard to expense, style, or effect. This arises from one of the most common errors of mankind ; viz., that of looking to parts by themselves alone, and not considering them with reference to the whole to which they belong. We have before observed, and it cannot be too deeply impressed on the mind of the reader, that the first glance at the exterior of a house, like hearing the sound of the first bar of a piece of music, ought to give a correct idea of the style of all which is to follow. Whoever has cultivated a taste for architectural beauty miKt feel the force of this truth. 21 48. Previously to the Time of the Tudors, Mr. Hunt observes, " household furniture was in general of a rude substantial character : the tables were formed of boards on tressels ; the seats were massy oak benches or stools ; and the floors were strewed with straw." (^Chaucer.) The higher orders had, nevertheless, many costly and splendid articles : such as embroidered beds, tapestry hangings, and magnificent plate. From the time of Henry IV. to that of Henry VI. it appears that the same style of furniture prevailed throughout Europe. An improved style was introduced into England during the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII., in consequence of the encouragement held out by those monarchs to induce artisans of all countries to settle in their doininions. Some ot tlie handsomest pieces of furniture of those days belonged to Cardinal Wolsey, as ap- pears by the fine specimens in the possession of John Thompson, Esq., of FrognaBi Priory, Hampstead. SuBSECT. 1. Gothic Furniture for Halls. 2149. The Hall of the manor-house, in the times when Tudor Architecture prevailed, was the usual place for dining in. It was a large room, in the form of a parallelogram, having an oriel window at the upper end, and other windows, filled with painted glass, high up in the side-walls. Near the oriel window was the dais, or raised floor, set aside for the master of the house and his most distinguished guests. Under a screen was the passage to the offices, and over it the gallery for the minstrels. The fire was originally GOTHIC VILLA FURXITURE. 10«9 placed against what was called a reredoss, in the middle of the floor, the smoke ascending to the roof, and escaping tliere by one or by several openings, sometimes luffer-boarded, to keep out the rain. The timbers of the roofs were framed with pendants, carved, and more or less emblazoned with heraldic insignia. The " top beam of the hall," and the " roof-tree " of the Scotch houses, both terms signifying a beam of timber now seldom introduced in roofs of such massive dimensions as formerly, were common toasts botli in Wales and Scotland. 2150. The Furniture of the Hall consisted chiefly of clumsy oak tables covered with carpets ; of benches or forms of the same material ; of cupboards for plate and various articles for the dining-table ; and in the centre the reredoss, or fire-iron, one of which may still be seen in the hall at Penshurst, near Tunbridge Wells, in Kent. Against this fire-iron the faggots were placed which made the fire, and they were surrounded l)y 2003 /Ti Ik 2004 _.'.?. a raised rim of stone or tile, on which lay a fire fork and tongs. We saw this interesting hall in 1828, and Mr. Britton, who examined it in 1832, describes it at length in his very interesting Sketches of Tunbridge Wells. " The south side of the court is occupied by the fine old baronial hall, which, though disfigured and mutilated, is still an apart- ment of magnitude and architectural interest. It measures about sixty feet in length by nearly forty in width, and at least sixty in height. It is open to the roof, where there was a louvre, or lantern, for ventilation. Beneath it, on the floor, is the original fire-hearth, with a large andiron for sustaining the blazing log." The designs for hall furniture which follow are not to "be considered as servile copies of what actually existed in the Tudor times, either at Pens- hurst, or any where else, but as an exemplification of that style of Architecture applied to articles suited to modern habits of society. 2151. Benches. Fig. 2003 is a hall bench, designed by Mr. Lamb. In the preceding part of this work will be found two figures of hall benches, from existing specimens, both copied from the work of Mr. Hunt (see figs. 1346 and 1347.) 2152. Chairs. Fig. 2004 is a hall chair, also designed by iMr. Lamb, who observes " that the heraldic devices on it should be painted in their proper colours." 2153. Tables. Hall tables, as we have already observed, were of a simple massive construction, displaying little ornament. The top was generally of oak planking, two or more inches thick, and the frame supporting it consisted chiefly of two massive horizontal top rails, joined to massive pDlars. Sometimes there were both top and foot rails, but in the more massive designs the latter were entirely wanting. SuBSECT. 2. Gothic Furniture for Parlours and Dining-rooms. 2154. Sideboard. Fig. 2005 is an oak sideboard, which may be either executed in that wood, or in deal and painted and grained in imitation of it. 6 N lOUO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 2155. Tables. Fig. 2006 is a dining-room table of oak or chestnut, or of any soft wood painted and grained. 2156. Seats. Fig. 2007 is a parlour chair turned in oak, chestnut, or any other British wood that has colour and variety in its textiu-e. It may be painted, or even gilt, according to the cha- racter of the room in which it is to be placed. The cushion may be of figured chintz. For a Gothic chair, Mr. Lamb considers that this Design would be a cheap one. Fig. 2008 is a din- ing-room chair, having — a stuffed cushion of crimson damask ; the vine leaves and grapes in the back should be painted of their natural tints. 2007 GOTHIC VILLA FURNI'JURE. 2009 1091 109'2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 2157. IVie General Appearance of a dining-room finished and furnished in the Tudor style is shown in fig. 2009. In this Design, the curtains, Mr. Lamb observes, " are to be transparent, in order thit they may not hide tlie Architecture of the windows. The ceiling is to be of oak, and the ornaments in the corners are to be gilt. The dado should also he of oak. The dado did not come much into use till the latter part of the Tudor period. Two additional patterns for chairs will be seen in this Design." SuBSECT. 3. Gothic Furniture for Libraries. 2158. Bookcases. Figs. 2010 and 2011 are bookcases in two different varieties of Tudor Gothic, both remarkably plain, so as to be easily executed by any joiner who has been accustomed to fit up houses or churches in the Gothic style. Such a joiner will, for the most part, have the proper tools for the diflterent mouldings, and will understand better vvliat they are, than even a cabinet-maker, who has always been executing designs in the modern style. 2159. Seats. Fig. 2013 is a carved oak arm-chaii-, with a cushion of green and gold. 2160. Tables. Fig. 2014 is an oak table, which will serve either for a parlour or a library, the pillar might be of cast iron, properly painted, and the top might be of marble. Our correspondent Mr. Robison lias sent us a very handsome design for a table somewhat resembling this in general form, but made entirely of cast iron and marble, wliich he has Jiad executed in Edinburgh, and finds to be " handsome, service- able, and economical." The style of his house being modern, he had the base and piilar bronzed ; the circular marble top was of Bordeaux marble, forty-two inches in diameter, and cost, prepared and poHsiied at Bordeaux, and finished with a raised border, only about eighty francs. Without this raised border, it would not have cost more than forty-two fraiics. The freight from Bordeaux to I^eith is only Ss. 6d. per cwt. We introduce these facts to show how much may be done, in the way of imjiroving house- GOTHIC VILLA FURNITURE. 109^ hold furniture by the more general introduction of cast iron and marble. Were the taste for marble greater, and the steam-machinery for working it more generally known, there can be little doubt that the increased demand would stimulate to such an abundant supply, that the price would be lowered, and all parties be gainers. 2161. The General View of the Interior of a Library in this Style is shown in fig. 2012. 2012 109i AGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 2013 The roof is of oak, with the bosses at the inter section gilt. The shields should be painted of their proper colours. At the end of the room is an enclosed bookcase, and opposite each window is a corresponding recess for books ; these recesses may have carved oak doors. In this Design, Mr. Lamb has shown two elegant chairs, a library table, and ^==^ a footstool. Those of our readers who have paid any attention to the remarks which we have made, in different places in the preceding section, on modern furniture, must, by this time, have formed some idea as to what constitutes unity of style in this department of Domestic Architecture. We would direct their attention to the whole of this interior of a library, to the interior of a dining-room, and to each of the pieces of furniture in this, and the two preceding subsections, separately. In every one of these will be found the most perfect unity of style. On examining the chairs, it will be seen that there is not that discrepancy between the hind and the fore legs, that there is in the designs for chairs in the modern style. The backs also of these chairs seem to arise out of the seats, and to be firmly fixed to them, instead of being twisted about in all direc- tions like the chairs in p. 1062. Their forms are no doubt what might be called stiff, in comparison with the forms of the chairs alluded to ; but that stiffness belongs to the style. The tables, we think, are eminently beautiful ; more especially the legs and pillars. SuBSECT. 4. Gothic Furniture for Drawingrooms. 2162. Seats. Fig. 2015 is an oak drawingrcom chair, with a stuffed cushion of blue 2015 GOTHIC VILLA FURNITURE. 1095 2017 2018 damask, and silver edging and tassels. We may observe here, that there is no end to the variety of form and combination which might be introduced in Gothic chairs. The Gothic style of Architecture, is, of all others, that which affords the most fertile sources of invention ; not only in the forms and disposition of its masses, or prin- cipal parts, but in all its various details and ornaments. The Grecian style of art is directly the re- verse. The expense of the Gothic style is the only serious objection which can be made against it. To a Briton this style is rich in as- sociations of the most interesting description. Fig. 2016 is a drawingroom chair with a cane back and seat. It may be executed in oak, or oak and ebony, the ornamental carvings being gilt. The whole chair may also be executed in any easily carved wood, and afterwards painted and gilt, so as to imitate oak, ebony, ivory, and gold. This was not an uncommon practice in the more magnificent articles of furniture of former times, as we may still see by the chairs at Knowle, in Kent, and by those in the collection of Mr. Thompson of Frognall Priory. Fig. 2017 is a drawingroom chair of oak, partly gilt, and having the cushion of blue damask. Fig. 2018 is a light drawing- room chair, made of any soft wood, and painted. The hollow moulding is supposed to be of a light gi-een colour j the tillet gilt, and the cover of the cushion green, with gold edging. Fig. 2020 is a stool with a stuffed top, which may serve either for a drawingroom, or a library. 2163. A Sofa in the Gothic style will be foimd in the general view, fig. 2021, and also a piano- forte ; both of which are charac- teristics of the drawingroom. 2164. Table. Fig. 2019 is a drawingrooin table. The top is supposed to be inlaid with variously figured oak, ebony, and ivory ; the pillar is of oak. encircled with ebony, and striped with gold. 2165. A General View of the Interior of a Drawingroom, fitted up and furnished tn the Gothic Style, is given in fig. 2021. " The tracery of the ceiling should be of oak, or of stucco painted in imitation of that wood. The fillets and flowers should be gilt ; the panels painted blue, and the ornaments of the cornice also gilt. The dado should be of oak, painted and gilt. In this Design are shown two different varieties of chairs, a piano-forte, a music-stool, a music-desk, a Canterbury, a sofa, a fire-screen, and a footstool." We need not express an opinion of this interior ; for every reader, we think, must be pleased with it. Even the studies of furniture which it affords are interesting ; the Gothic piano-forte and music-stool, with the Canterbury on the left hand, and the music stand on the right ; the Gothic couch, with its footstool ; the two beautiful chairs; and, finally, the fire- screen, all claim attention, and are each separately worthy of study. 2020 1096 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AllCHI lECTUKIO 2021 GOTHIC VILLA FURNITURE. 1097 SuBSECT. 5. Gothic FurnituTe for Bed-rooms. 2166. For Chairs, Tables, Chests of Drawers, and other common Bed-room Furniture, we have here given no designs, because any one at all conversant with tlie subject may easily confer a Gothic character on the different articles before given as modern furniture for the bed-rooms of cottages and villas. We are enabled by Mr. Lamb to give one Design for a bedstead, fig. 2022, which is sufficient to prove that there is no piece of modern furniture whatever to which this style may not be applied with admirable effect. We have seen a number of Gothic bedsteads executed imder the direction of the late Duke of Norfolk, in Arundel Castle ; but none of them are correct in regard to style, or at all to be compared with iNIr. Lamb's Design for splendour of general effect. Arundel Castle, our readers are probably aware, was for many years the scene of the late Duke of Nor- folk's trials at building ; by which, as his own Architect, he sought to instruct himself in the Gothic style. After being occupied in this way for upwards of forty years, and spending several hundred thousand pounds, he just arrived at last at that point where a man discovers his own utter ignorance. We make no reflection on the memory of the noble duke on this account, we merely state the fact. A man of overgrown wealth may be allowed to spend it in any way he pleases, as the greatest injury he can do society is to hoard it. Had the duke employed an Architect, he would, no doubt, have possessed a castle in a very superior taste, both externally and internally, to what Arundel Castle now is ; but it does not follow, on that account, that he would have been so happy in seeing the more perfect works of his Architect, as he was in realising the crude ideas of his own mind. These observations cannot be considered altogether irrelevant to a work of this kind, because they will serve to teach by example the consequences of a man's attempt- ing to be his own Architect, before he is sufficiently acquainted with the subject, to be aware of the precise state of his own architectural knowledge. 2167. Bemarks. For all the designs of Tudor furniture in the preceding subsections, we are indebted to Mr. Lamb ; whose mind is richly stored with all the forms both of modern and ancient Architecture, and whose pencil is as rapid and accurate as his con- ceptions are fertile. Mr. Lamb is one of the few yoimg Architects who, like Mr. Mallet, 6o 1098 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. can draw with equal ease whatever comes before them. Trees, plants, flowers, animals human figures, landscapes, marine scenery, and buildings are all transferred by him to paper with equal facility and rapidity. When we mention that, in addition to this, he is, like Mr. Varden (a young Architect similarly gifted), a practical surveyor, and a drawer up of specifications and estimates, our readers may imagine how well we think him deserving of public patronage. 2023 Sect. III. Elizabethan Furniture for Villas. 2168. The Style of Finishing and Furniture which prevailed in England during the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I. exhibits a mixture of the Italian Architecture with the Gothic ; sometimes very rudely composed ; and, at other times, in consequence of being in ^he hands of superior artists, forming harmonious compositions of lines and forms. The remains of furniture in this style are abun- dant throughout the country ; and, as we have beforfe observed, it has of late become fashionable among the metropolitan cabinet- makers to collect it. We shall give a few examples, for the sake of showing that this mixed style may be easily applied to all the articles of mo- dern convenience and luxury. Those who wish to see designs for Elizabethan furniture on a larger scale will find whatever they could desire, by consulting the elegant work of Mr. Shaw, or the splendid descrijition of Hatfield House by Mr. Robinson. Hat- field House is one of the most perfect exist- ing specimens of Eli- zabethan Architecture externally, and of Eli- zabethan finishing and furniture within. Mr. Robinson's descrip- tion is, therefore, a va- luable reference book for Architects. The object of Mr. Shaw's work is " to extend 'historical correctness in art, by placing within the^ reach of its professors a standard authority for all articles used in domestic purposes ; from the earliest period in which such specimens exist, to the reign of James I." We may here observe that the pleasure derived from seeing or possessing curious ancient furniture, is of a kind often quite distinct from that derived from seeing or possessing fiirniture in correct style, or in elegant forms. Let, for example, any reader observe the cliair given in the next paragraph, fig. 2027, and then turn to any of the chairs shown in Flaxman's Compositions from Eschylus and Homer, or even look on some of those in Mr. Hope's work, figs. 2023 to 2026. There is no one who would not be desirous of possessing a cliair both of the Grecian and the Elizabethan kind ; but the Elizabethan chair would be valued merely as a curious piece of antiquity ; while the other would be prized for its expression, for its suitableness as a seat, for its simplicity, and for the great eflfeot produced in it by a very few lines. This effect of the Grecian chair being independent of all historical associations, since it is, in fact, merely an imaginary composition, results wholly from the beauty of the design. A chair in the Tiidor style is equally expressive in its way ; and is a far more perfect object as a work of art, independent of historical associations, than any description of mixed or Elizabethan chair : but, though it possesses the beauties of unity of expression and of style in the highest degree, it wants that beauty of simplicity, or that evidence of effecting the most ELIZABETHAN- VILLA FURNITURE. 1099 (Hunt's important ends by the simplest means, ■which the Grecian chair displays, and which indeed is characteristic of the whole of Grecian art. The object of these observations is, to show that the present taste for Elizabethan furniture is more that of an antiquary, or of a collector of curiosities, than that of a man of cultivated mind. 2169. Chairs. In Elizabethan houses, Hunt observes, we find in most apart- ments two great chairs : " these were arm-chairs, with st\iffed backs and sides, entirely covered, and similar to the lounging-chairs of the pre- sent day. Others, described as ' Flemish chairs,' ' scrolled chairs,' and ' turned chairs,' were wrought in ebony, wal- nut, cherry-tree, &c., with high backs ; and either stuff- ed in one long upright panel, or filled in with wickerwork ; the seats being also stuffed, and covered with costly kinds of materials, as various as their shapes. To these may be added low arm-chairs, tastefully turned, and carved in ebony, enriched with ivorj- knobs and inlayings, chiefly of Italian or Flemish manu- facture, with cusliions or pil- lows on the seats. Besides these, there were •' some Httle gilt chairs for women ;' and long seats, with backs and arms, resembling in form the more ancient settle, and holding several persons, were also much in use. Tudor Architecture, p. 146.) Fig. 2029 is a low arm-chair in the Elizabethan style, contributed by Mr. Shaw ; and fig. 2027 is a drawingroom chair, sent us by the same gentleman. Figs. 2028, 2030, and 2C3 1 are chairs now existing in the neighbourhood of Haslemere, in Surrey, the drawings of which were sent us by Miss Sarah Perry of Stroud House. Fig. 2032 is a richly carved Dutch chair, in the possession of a family at Bavswater, from a very beautiful and accurate drawing of which our engraving was made. Fig. 2033 Ls an arm-chair and cushion from Hunt, said to be of the time of Henry VIII., and to be now existing. It has nothing to recommend it but its antiquity : the form of the seat is the very reverse of what may be called natural ; since, so far from its affording relaxation and ease to the body, the person sitting on it must inevitably be cramped and con- fined. This is not the only chair or piece of ancient furniture to which similar remarks may be applied. The truth is, that neither in ancient furniture, dress, nor even Architecture, is there any thing to admire, in point of comfort or use when viewed with reference to our own times. There is much of taste and beauty in many parts and articles, considered with reference to their composition ; because excellence in art depends more upon the natural talent and exertion of the individual, than on any stores of scientific knowledge left him by his predecessors ; and art may, consequently, be carried to a high degree of perfection in an age of general ignorance. Hence, numerous great painters, sculptors and carvers existed in the dark ages, when philosophers and men of science were rarely to be met with : hence, also, while science progressively improves, in consequence of the discoveries handed down from one generation to another, the imaginative arts, in any one age, depend mainly upon the individual exertions of the artists of that age. No natural process of human improvement could produce a Shakspeare ; but thousands now know more than Brindley did in his time. AVe state these facts to show that the admiration which is bestowed on many of the works of art of the dark ages may often proceed from the justest taste, and be neither the admiration of ignorance, nor the mere veneration of antiquity. The finest proofs of this may be obtained from the magnificent work of Seroux d'Agincourt; and also from Perrault, an Architect who, as Mr. Hope finelv observes, " knew how to imite philosophy with bricks and moriar." 1100 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE 2170. Talks in the Elizabethan Style displayed no great variety of form; but the splendour of their coverings, Hunt informs us, " amply compensated for the rudeness 2032 and simplicity of the work so concealed : the most elaborate embroidery wrought on the finest grounds, velvets and satins fringed with gold and silver, Turkey carpets, and the ELIZABETHAN VILLA FURNITURE. 1101 2034 choicest tapestry were devoted to the'ie purposes." The ornaments, which consisted principally of ears'ing, were chiefly bestowed on the legs and pillars ; and of such tables there are numbers to be met with in different ancient houses throughout the country. Fig. 2034 is a hall table in this style, designed by Mr. Shaw ; and fig. 2035 is a side- board table for a dining-room, by the same artist. 2171. Cabinets, Coffers, and Chests are well-known pieces of ancient fiirniture, and are to be found in every house that has the slightest preten- sions to antiquity. Cabinets, Hunt observes, " were of massive proportions, carved in oak, ebony, walnut, and other woods, and sometimes inlaid. Some of these answered the double purpose of depositories and cupboards for plate ; and, from having drawers and re- cesses enclosed by doors, and broad shelves between the tiers of turned columns, were conspicuous objects." (p. 148.) Their exterior appearance often displaved much carving and other decoration, with curious hinges, escutcheons, handles, and angle ornaments. The 2035 coffers and chests were covered with iron straps and bands, and had curiously formed locks, hinges, and comer orna- ments. For the termination of the strap and hinge bands, the fleur de lis was often re- sorted to ; and the general form and proportion of these ornamented bands of iron were something like those of a sceptre. The handles were of curious workmanship ; and sometimes the chest was raised on feet, and at other times on a plinth. Oak was the wood of which these chests were most frequently made, but sometimes they were inlaid with different woods. In all houses in the country-, where there are large halls and passages, massive chests are most useful pieces of furniture, for containing articles which it is desirable to conceal ; especially lumber or fuel. The exterior of all such chests or wardrobes might be rendered curious, and highly interesting, though we do not say in correct or architectural taste, bj- covering them with the Elizabethan, Dutch, Louis XIV., or Francis I., ornaments, which are now to be purchased in abundance, either at home or abroad. We have already, § 2063, referred to Nixon and Son, for the two latter kinds of furniture ; and we may here observe that Wilkinson of Oxford Street, and Hanson of John Street, have extensive collections of Elizabethan and Dutch furniture and candngs, from which a judicious compiler of ex- teriors might clothe skeleton frames so as to produce objects of curiosity and interest, at a very trifling expense. Kensett of IMortimer Street has also some curious specimens both of Elizabethan and more ancient furniture. Among these, we may mention a correct fac-simile of a chair taken from Tintem Abbey, and now in Troy House, Mon- mouthshire ; and two other chairs from Glastonbury; one of which, called the abbot's chair, is of very elaborate workmanship, and the other no less remarkable for the sim- plicity of its construction. Correct copies of these celebrated chairs are manufactured by INIr. Kensett for sale. A fine specimen of the manner of fitting up a room with Eli- zabethan fragments may be seen in IMortimer Street, at the oflSce of Mr. Fairs, a London house-painter of the very first taste. 2172. Bedsteads, and the other Articles of Furniture in Bed-rooms, fitted vp in the Elizabethan Style, were curiously wrought and carved. Tlie wood was generally oak or chestnut ; but walnut, elm, holly, and box were used, painted more or less, and some- times profusely gilt. It does not appear that curtains formed so important a part of the ancient bed as they do of the modern one. The chief expense seems to have been incurred in carving the posts ; in the head-boards, which extended from the pillow to the canopy ; in the canopies themselves; and in the deep cornices, or rather architraves, which surrounded the whole. In designing modern beds in this style, the artist should bear 1 102 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. in mind, not merely the great cost of* such carving relatively to the effect produced, but also that this kind of ornament is more apt to harbour dust, and that it is more difficult to clean, than any other. This also is an argument against the Extensive use of the highly enriched Gothic style. In an age like the present when all, from the highest to the lovi^est, are beginning to recognise their equal natural right of enjoyment, it will soon become a part of the business of Architects and upholsterers to design and prepare articles of furniture, both for use and luxury, in such a style, as will reduce the labour of servants, in keeping them in order, to a minimum. Fig. 12036 exhibits six Designs 2036 for balusters, selected, by Blr. Varden, from old specimens, which at once afford hints for bed-posts, staircase railings, liacks to settles and to chairs, and open screens. It is almost needless to add that all these forms might be enriched by carving; or that they are in any thing but good taste when considered with reference to abstract principles. 2173. Interiors in the Elizabethan Style. Fig. 2037 is a general view of a dining- room ; and fig. 2038 that of a drawingroom : both are by Mr. Lamb. 2174. Remarks. Much more might have been said on the subject of Elizabethan furniture, and it would have been easy to give numerous designs : it must, however, be re- collected that our object, in this work, is, not to display antiquarian lore, or articles which would require enormous expense to execute, but simply to give an idea of the style of composition known as Elizabethan, and to show how it may be applied to articles in modern use. No one ought to attempt it who is not a master of composition on abstract prin- ciples ; but, indeed (in London, at least), the attempt is scarcely necessary ; since there are abundant remains of every kind of Elizabethan furniture to be purchased of col- lectors. These, when in fragments, are put together, and made up into every article of furniture now in use ; and, as London has a direct and cheap communication with every part of the world by sea, the American citizen or the Australian merchant, who wishes to indulge in this taste, may do it with tlie greatest ease, and may purchase real antiques at much less expense than he could have the articles carved by modern artists. To those who wish to study the furniture and furnishing of the times of Elizabeth and James, we recommend Mr. Hunt's very excellent and entertaining work on Tudor Architecture and Furniture : and " the antiquary, who desires a perfect idea of any article of furniture mentioned by Froissart, Chaucer, or Shakspeare ; the Architect, who wishes for standard authorities for the restoration or imitation of ancient buildings ; the painter, who is anxious to produce a historical picture which shall challenge the most fastidious cri- ticism ; or the histrionic manager, who is ambitious, in scenery, to rival John Kemble's correctness in costume, "we refer to Shaw's Designs for Ancient Furniture. ELIZABETHAN VILLA FURNITURE. 2037 1103 1101 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 2038 rUIXCIPLES OF CRITICIS-Af. 1 lOj BOOK IV. THE FRINCIPI-ES OF CRITICISM IN* ARCHITECTURE. 2175. The Principles of Criticism, in any art, are nothing more than the principles on which that art is founded. They are termed principles of criticism by those who consider themselves judges, merely with reference to their application to the productions of art, when a judgment is to be expressed upon those productions. Every person who forms an opinion of^ or passes his judgment upon, any work of art or literature, must do so with reference to some previously received ideas ; and these ideas, whetlier well founded or not, are to him at once his scientific principles of the art which forms the subject of his opinion, and his principles for criticising that art. This is one reason for the very dif- ferent opinions formed of works of art by critics : but another reason, and one perhaps more powerful, arises from the difference in the natural susceptibility of men's minds to the impression of beauty ; in other words, from the original difference between men in those perceptive powers, which, when united, constitute what is called the faculty of taste. It is e\-ident, therefore, that the principal causes of the differences of opinion which exist among critics are their different degrees of knowledge of the first prin- ciples of the art to be criticised ; and their different degrees of natural taste for its various productions. 2176. The Productions of any Art maybe examined in two ways: first, with reference to what they are in themselves ; and, secondly, with reference to what the artist intended to make them. In the one case, the effect of the object, or the pleasure or dissatisfaction wliich it occasions, is analysed, and referred to first principles, without the critic having had any previous knowledge of the intention of the artist ; and, in the other case, the design or intention of the artist being known, the beauties or effects which ought to be the result of that design, are sought for in his production, which will be blamed or praised according as these may be found present or wanting. The first mode of criticism may be called analytical ; and the second, synthetical. Both equally suppose in the mind of the critic a knowledge of the principles of art, and the power of applying those principles to its productions. 2177. The Criticisms in the preceding Part of this Work have been chiefly analytical; and they have, in few instances, embraced either the whole of the merits, or of the demerits, of any one particular design. The reason is, that our object, as expressed in the Introduction (p. 1.), was, to develope principles, " as it were, incidentally, and by little and little ; " with a \-iew first to excite, and afterwards gradually to increase, a taste for the study of Architecture, in minds which had previously paid but little attention to the subject. We trust that the reader has borne constantly in his mind, while perusing the preceding pages, that such has been our intention ; for, unless this has been the case, those who were previously masters of the subject must have been surprised to find that we have sometim.es passed over both faults and beauties without notice. All this, how- ever, was the necessary consequence of the plan which we laid down as our guide when we set out. As the result of that plan, we hope we may conclude that the causes which we have assigned for the beauties and defects of the designs given, have, by this time, impressed on the minds of our readers all the leading principles of Domestic Architecture as an art of design and taste. 2178. The Object of the present Book is, to collect, and to present in a systematic form, those leading principles of architectural criticism which have been scattered throughout the work ; as Veil to show the reader theii- relative importance, as to afford him an easy means of comprehending them as a whole, and of storing them up in his mind. By finding here collected together, and connected by the relation which they bear towards one another, those principles which he had before become acquainted with separately and in- cidentally, their repetition, when thus combined, will reiterate the impression they had already made on his memory, and will enable him, if he should re-examine our designs, to complete those criticisms which we have only commenced ; or, should he direct his attention to the designs of others, to detect in them whatever faults or beauties they may happen to possess. The use of the present work, in improving Domestic Architecture in Britain, America, and Australia, will materially depend on its rendering the reading classes architectural critics; and more especially on the influence which it has, in this respect, in improving the taste of women. The Designs we have given wiU, no doubt, be of essential service as models ; but the grand and permanent effect of this work must depend on the spirit of observation and inquiry which it excites in the P'eneral reader. We have stated, in our Introduction, that the principles of Domestic Architecture as an art of design and taste, may be reduced to three: viz., fitness for the end in view ; expression of the end in view ; and, expression of architec- tural style. To each of these principles we shall devote a short chapter. IIOG COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AllCHITECTURE. Chap. I. Of the Principle of Fitness, as applied to Architecture. 2179. The Subject of Fitness, in Architecture, naturally embraces the fitness of the plan, or arrangement, of the building for its uses ; the fitness of its construction for strength and durability, and the adjustment of the whole design to the pecuniary means employed. 2180. The Fitness of the Arrangement of a Design for the uses for which it is intended must necessarily depend on tlie knowledge which the Architect possesses of those uses. The purposes for which buildings are erected are so various, that it is not to be expected they can be all equally known to any one individual : nevertheless, the Architect must be supposed to understand the uses of whatever building he undertakes to design ; for, otherwise, we cannot with justice examine his works by fitness for the end in view, as a principle. All buildings may be arranged under certain classes ; such as, human dwellings, lodging-places for animals, and buildings for carrying on trades or manufac- tures, for public assemblies, for public instruction, for the purposes of the administration of the laws, &c. The first class mentioned (that of human dwellings) may be sub- divided into orders; such as, villas, farm-houses, cottages, &c., according to the different habits or modes of living of the persons by whom they are to be occupied. The second class of buildings (lodging-places for animals) may be divided in a similar manner, according to the kind of animals that are to be lodged in them. The same may be said of the class of buildings for carrying on trades and manufactures, which may be divided into an almost endless number of orders, according to the respective arts or manufactures to which they are adapted. Public buildings will admit of a still greater number of divisions ; but, without attempting to enumerate them, the classification already mentioned will sufficiently show the great extent embraced by the subject of architectural design ; and how vmlikely it is that any one Architect can be equally conversant with the principle of fitness, as far as regards design or intention, in every order of buildings. If we even take human dwellings, we shall probably find that the Architect is only master of the subject of fitness for that description of dwelling in which he has been used to live, or which he has been accustomed to construct. In proof of this, we may refer to most of the books of designs by Architects for cottage dwellings and farm buildings which have hitherto appeared ; and to the remark made by one of our correspondents, on this subject, at the conclusion of § 1368. In like manner, the Architect's powers of design, in contriving houses for lodging animals, will depend on the knowledge that he has of those animals, and of their uses to man ; and thus, though most Architects may design a stable, with which every one is familiar, yet those whose practice has been chiefly confined to towns, and who may excel in designing street buildings for either men or animals, may yet know very little of the requisites for a dairy, a poultry-house, or even a pigsty. Hence it may be aflSrmed that, as far as respects design or intention with reference to use, no persons can be so competent to point out the arrangement of a building, as those who use, or whose business it is to direct the use of, such buildings ; provided such persons are sufficiently enlightened on the subject to be able to conceive improvements, and have the power of conveying their ideas to others. It does not follow from this, however, that no Architect should undertake to design a building with tlie uses of which he is not previously familiar ; but it does follow, that, when employed in such a case, he should endeavour by every means in his power to make himself master of those uses. Among the principal of these means, after referring to books, will be found consultation with the user, or party for whom the building is to be erected. From these observations three conclusions may be drawn : first, that all those buildings which are not of frequent and general construction by Architects are more likely to be imperfect in arrangement than those which are continually being erected by them ; secondly, that a division of labour among Architects, by which each would devote himself solely to some particular branch of his profession, is a very natural, and would be a very desirable, arrangement ; and, thirdly, that very few architectural critics can be supposed to be com- petent to judge of a building with reference to the most important point connected with it ; viz., its fitness for the use in view. . - 2181. The Fitness of the Construction for Strength, Durability, and the pecuniary Means at the Command of the Architect, involves in it a variety of considerations; but the quali- fications for this department may be all acquired by any individual who devotes himself to Architecture as a profession. The strength of a building depends chiefly on the dis- position of tlie materials ; and its durability on their nature, or chemical composition. The fundamental principle on which all construction, which has for its object strength, is founded, is the law of the gravitation of materials ; or, in mathematical language, the law of motion. From this law has been deduced the problem of tlie composition and ARCHITECTURAL FITNESS. 1107 resolution of forces, by which every point relative to the strength of a building may be tested. This problem was first given to the English reader by Emerson, in his Mechanics, and will be found familiarly explained to the young Architect in Tredgold's Carpentry, Gwilt's Rudiments, and other v^-orks. The practical object of the problem is, to enable the builder to determine, with ease and absolute certaintj', what parts of con- struction, whether of timber, stone, iron, or walling, act as ties, or binding parts; and what as struts, or parts supporting weight ; and what is the proportion or amount of tension or pressure on each. ]\Iuch of the strength of all modern buildings, of several stories, depends on the walls being tied together by the different floors, and by the roof. De- prive the walls of the greater number of the dwelling-houses in the principal towns in Britain of these sources of strength, and they would be blown down by the first storm of wind which occurred, notwithstanding the durable nature of their materials. The durability of a building, no doubt, depends, in part, on its construction : but, essentially and principally, it depends on the durability of the materials of which it is composed ; and the tests for ascertaining this durability are derived from the principles of chemistry, and chiefly from the law of attraction. A very strong construction may be formed of timber ; but the duration of such an edifice could never be put in competition with that of one t)uilt of bricks or stones, united by mortar or cement. From the preceding observations on strength and durability, are drawn the following well known practical precepts : viz., to have solid and secure foundations ; to use materials of the best quality : to dispose of them in a manner suitable to their natures ; and, to employ only the best workmanship. The following observations are illustrative of some of these precepts. 2182. The Strength of Building Materials, such as timber, brick, stone, iron, &c., may readily be ascertained by subjecting them to pressure, tension, and torsion, by mechanical means, or by loading them with weights. 2183. The Durability of Building Materials is more commonly ascertained from the previous experience of builders, than by experiinents made on scientific principles; never- theless, there are some geological facts, relative to the stratification of rocks, which ought to influence the builder as to the position in which stones taken from such rocks ought to be placed in walls ; and there are some chemical facts, relative to the decomposition of the integral particles of stone, from which conclusions may be drawn as to its durability, previously to its being applied. The stones, or earths, which, when reduced to powder, are made into mortars, or cements, may always be subjected to experiments, so as to prove their value before employing them. With regard to timber, there are compositions which have been applied to it for the purpose of increasing its natural durability, and others for rendering it less destructible by fire. 2184. All stratified Stones used in Walls should have the plane of their layers or laminae declining towards the outside of the wall ; or, at all events, placed horizontally. The object of this position is, to present the edges of the lamina to the action of the weather, and not their broad surfaces. There are some exceptions to this rule ; but they are so few as not to require notice. When the face of the laminte forms the surface of the wall, the water which runs down it after rains, sinks into the interstice between the outside lamina and the next to it ; and in time, with the aid of frost, causes the outside surface to scale off: and this process many times repeated, will at last so far destroy the stone, as to undermine the superincumbent parts of the wall. On the other hand, when the edges of the lamina are presented to the action of the weather horizontally, and rather declining outwards, though the rain-water will still enter between them, yet, as it cannot penetrate far horizontally, the injury done by it will be comparatively trifling. 2185. Brand's Test for ascertaining the probable Action of Weather on Building Stone is as follows : — Boil two one-inch cubes of the stone to be tried, in a solution of sulphate of soda saturated at a common temperature, for half an hour : then expose the cubes to the air for evaporation. The salt crystallises, and has the effect of freezing on the stone. Then dip the stone in the cold solution until the crystals fall. After this, expose the stones to the air. This experiment repeated, during five days, will produce the same effect on the stone which exposure to the open air would do in many years. {Lit. Gaz. for 1829, p. 6.33.) 2186. The Art of mixing Earths so as to form Mortars which will set, or solidify', either by themselves, or in conjunction with stones or bricks, can only be scientifically understood through some knowledge of chemistry. All lime mortars depend for their strength on their quality of absorbing carbonic acid gas and water, and solidifying them. All cements, or rapidly solidifying mortars, though they depend for their strength on the same qualities as lime mortar, owe their power of rapid solidification to the presence of some metallic oxide, the value of which principally results from its capacity for absorbing oxygen. 2187. Tlie Solidity rf Walls depends on their homogeneousness, on the J)o^ition of 1108 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. tlieir materials relatively to tlie centre of gravity, and on the stability and security of their foundations. The most durable of all walls are tliose built of brick with good mortar, because they attain a degree of homogeneousness which no construction of mortar and stone has ever yet equalled. The proof of this, is to be found in the ancient brick buildings of Italy. The walls next in durability arc those formed of fragments of porous stone, compactly bedded in good mortar or cement ; as in the remains of old Roman castles in Britain and in Germany. The third in order are those (commonly reckoned the first) which are composed of very large blocks of squared stone, and the strength of which does not at all depend on mortar or cements of any kind. 2188. To preserve Timber in Buildings from Decay, the most certain means are so to dispose it, as that it shall have efficient ventilation : but otlicr methods have also been employed. Among these are, steeping the timber, previously to use, in water, and after- wards drying it in the air ; subjecting it to the action of steam, and afterwards drying it; removing the atmospheric pressure, and at the same time applying artificial heat, so as to promote evaporation ; or steeping it in a solution of corrosive sublimate, which is now found the most efficient remedy, next to ventilation, for what is called the dry rot. The object of all these operations, except the last, is, to remove, by extraction and evapor- ation, what is called the sap, or the watery part of the alburnum, or last-formed layers of the wood, which are found to decay sooner than the interior and firmer, or less porous, layers ; and the object of the last process is, to saturate the sap wood with a poison, which, combining with the alburnum, will prevent its being attacked either by insects, or by those fungi which identify themselves with decay. According to Mr. Kyan, who has taken out a patent for preventing the dry-rot in timber, cloth, and a variety of other articles, by steeping them in a saturated solution of corrosive sublimate, oak, fir, and other woods, absorb about the same quantity of the solution ; viz., five ounces for 216 cubical inches, the cost of which is a mere trifle. A fir deal will take in a sufficient quantity to saturate it in forty-eight hours ; but an oak beam will require a month. Canvass, leather, &c., may be completely saturated in an hour or two. It is thought that the outside wood, at present cut oflT as useless, the timber of young trees, and the soft woods, such as poplar, American pine, &c., may by this means be rendered as durable as tlie harder woods, and as heart wood. (See Quart. Rev., vol. xlix. p. 12.5.) 2189. To lessen the Destructibility of Buildings hy Fire is an important part of the prac- tice of construction ; and one which ought never to be lost sight of by the architectural critic. No building can be completely fire-proof, into which timber enters as a com- ])onent part ; but this timber may in some degree be made to resist fire, by saturation with sulphate of iron : and fire can always be prevented from spreading in a building, by having all the partition walls solid, the interior of them being filled up with brick, stone, or mud ; and by having all the floors of stone, brick, or some earthy composition. Where the floors are of timber, coatings of mortar may be introduced under the boards of the flooring between the joists, in the manner invented by Lord Stanhope, and described in the Annua. Register, vol. xxii. Linings of sheet iron may also be applied between floors and ceilings, and in the middle of partitions ; the panels of doors may be formed of sheet iron, or of corrugated iron, for the same purpose. In all dwelling-houses, where it is an object to guard against danger to life from fire, there ought to be stone staircases, and a balcony to at least one of the windows of each story above the ground floor, to aflbrd means of escape. All houses of several stories ought to have the staircase continued to the roof, not only to admit of easy escape in that direction in case of fire, but to afford ready access to the chimneys when on fire, or when they may require sweeping ; and also for general repairs. As Mr. Kyan's composition by neutralising the albumen of woods, destroys the fermenUitive principle, and thus prevents decay, by putrefaction or rot ; .so, at no distant period, the discovery may be made of some solution of silex, or of some other earth or metal for saturating timber, &c., and thus rendering buildings of com- mon construction indestructible by fire. Such a discovery, added to that of the means of preventing the dry rot, would prove of incalculable benefit to mankind, by diminishing the expense and increaing the durability of the dwellings of the humblest classes, in every part of the world. Tlie architectural critic should be alive to all improvements of such general application, whether realised or anticipated. 2190- To guard against the effects of lightning. The use of lightning conductors is well known. They are commonly made of iron rods, pointed at the upper end, higher than the highest part of the building to which they are attached, and having the lower and inserted in the earth ; the rod following the outline of the building from the highest part to the ground, and being prevented from touching it by glass studs. A more im- proved form, however, has been introduced by a distinguislied philosopher, John Murray, Esq., who has paid the greatest attention to this subject, both theoretically and practically. The following is a description by this gentleman, of a conductor, constructed and at- tached to St. Paul's church, Iluddersfield, in 1831, under his directions. " This con- ARCHITECTURAL FITNESS. 1109 ductor," says Mr. ilurray, " is altogether unique, and without its couritcrp-jrt in Europe, as far as I know. It is constructed on principles deduced by me not merely from electrical phenomena developed by artificial experiments, but from repeated and careful inspection of the effects of lightning. It consists of copper gas-piping in lengths of about ten feet, screwed into sockets. The conductor terminates at the summit, in a pyramidal form, inserted by a joint into the hollow pipe ; the lightning therefore finds a ready entrance, not only by the sharp point, but by the angles of the copper pyramid. The pipe immediately beneath this joint is perforated, so that the lightning may be diffused over both sui-faces, internal as well as external, and the facilities of escape to the earth will be further increased by the wet that penetrates the tube during the rain which falls during the storm. This lightning rod is secured from oxidation by ribands of zinc attached at specific distances, which operate on galvanic principles ; and the conductor, thus constructed, enters the earth at a slight angle, and terminates in a stone trough, which will be supplied with sufficient moisture by the pipe. Here it is split in two, and its ramifications pass over the edge of the tank into the subsoil. Perhaps this con- ductor is not only the cheapest but the best ever constructed. The first, because, from a hollow pipe being employed, the weight of the copper, and consequently the expense, is materially diminished ; and the second, because in these conditions all the principles of security are provided. Copper is the best conductor of lightning, and, as lightning does not penetrate a good conductor to any appreciable depth, an extensive and an ample con- ducting surface is provided, and facilities both for its reception and final transfer to the earth fully supplied. Add to these, last not least, in the train of securities, there is no interruption whatever, from beginning to end, in the channel by which it descends from its elevation. A conductor on these principles has also been attached to a private house in the vicinity of Huddersfield." 2191. The Construction ~of Fireplaces and Chimney-flues in dwelling-houses is still very imperfectly understood ; very little having been added to our stock of knowledge on this subject since Franklin's Letter, &c., was written in 1785 ; or Count Rumford's Essays, a few years afterwards. The principal requisites to insure the di'aught of a chimney appear to be, a considerable height in the flue, such a construction at the fire- place as will allow as small a quantity as possible of air which has not passed tlirough the fire to ascend the chimney, and a free supply of external air to the room in which the fire burns. This supply should be obtained directly from the exterior atmosphere, either by having the windows not to fit too tightly, by letting down the upper sash at the top, or by having a tube of several inches in diameter, from underneath the fire-grate to an under-ground drain of ample dimensions. Clavering, Chadley, and Hiort agree in recommending circular or oval flues, as being more suitable to the motion of the smoke, and being more easily cleaned, than square ones. They also agree in recommending a zigzag or bending direction for flues, as preventing the wind from blowing down the smoke by the resistance offered by the bends ; and, according to Chadley, even improving the draught, which, it appears to us, they can only do, by producing a greater quantity of heated material in the sides of the flue, in proportion to its direct vertical height, than can be done in a flue earned up straight. It may also be observed, that the smoke, in a perpendicular flue, ascends in a column composed as it were of straight lines, like water running along a straight brook ; whereas, in a circuitous or zigzag flue, it ascends in cursed lines, or curls, or what may be called eddies, like water in circuitous brooks. In the first case, it is evident that the wind, strikingr down on the smoke, when it escapes the top of the flue, would produce such a pulsation as would force it out into the room ; whereas, in the other case, the force of the stroke of the wind would have to counteract all the different eddies, before the pulsation could reach the fireplace. In general, by attending to these desiderata, those unsightly objects, chimney-pots, may be avoided ; and indeed, oixr opinion is, that every one who employs an Architect or builder ought to engage with him, under a heavy penalty in case of failure, to arrange his design and its execution in such a manner that no chimney-pots shall ever become requisite. Thick walls for containing the chimney-flues, and for keeping them warm ; placing these flues as much as possible in the interior walls ; having lofty and winding flues, circular or oval in their section ; and having a supply of air to every hearth, or the back part of every fireplace, from air drains of large capacity, seem to us to be the prin- cipal means of insuring bright fires and freedom from smoke. Such fireplaces as i\Iethley's and Silvester's are also eminently favourable for this end. Methley's fire- places, by having the breast or upper part beveled downwards towards the fire, not only greatly diminish the quantity of cold air which enters what is called the throat of the" chimney; but, this beveled space being of metal, must necessai-ily raise the temper- ature of such air as does enter. In short, we do not know of any form of fireplace so well calculated for preventing a chimney from smoking, unless indeed it be that ot Sylvester, fig. 1844, of which, however, we have only had a few weeks' experience ; 11 10 COTTAGE, FARM, A\D VILLA ARCHITECTURE. whereas we have proved Methleys fireplace, fig. 1843, for nearly six years. Circular flues mij^ht readily be built, in a winding or zigzag direction, perfectly smooth in the inside, and at a comparatively small expense, by using sections of earthenware pipes as suggested, § 4fi3 ; and, to render the walls containing such flues perfectly strong, they might be built with mortar of a superior description, or with Roman cement. A pecu- liar form of bricks for this purpose has been invented by Iliort, but they are found much too expensive ; another and a very superior kind, wliicli, from their shape, have the great advantage of bonding in with the wall, have been invented by Chadley, and deserve to come into general use. However, were Roman cement used in building the walls con- taining flues, whether these walls were constructed of brick or stone, flues might easily be formed circular in the section, and with perfect strength, by carrying them up round a flexible mould, or leathern bag filled with sand, drawn up the flue as it proceeded. One great use of circular flues is, that whatever may be their direction, they are easily swept without the aid of climbing boys. About London, where houses are almost always built on ground only held on lease for sixty or a hundred years, the thick walls containing the flues are generally the weakest in the building, instead of being, as they ought to be, the strongest ; and hence the great danger which exists, not only of their tumbling down, but of their being penetrated by fire. Were such walls built with Roman cement, though hollow, they would be as strong and perhaps stronger than if they were solid. Nothing is more to be desired than that some mode of constructing flues should be generally adopted, which would render climbing boys unnecessary ; and this, the government might easily effect in all houses to be built, with very little addi- tional expense to the builder, by enacting that all flues should be built circular, and be perfectly smooth inside. This is a point which, we have no doubt, will be attended to as it deserves, by the public, in a very short time ; and, when this is the case (as with every thing else which the public decidedly wills), it will become law. It is well known that (all other circumstances being the same) the short chimney flues of garrets and cottages never draw so well as those of rooms which have very high chimneys. This is an undeniable fact; it was noticed by Franklin; and, as it concerns servants and poor people in every part of the world, it merits the particular attention of the Architect. How is the imperfect draught of short chimneys to be remedied ? On the same general principles which we have laid down ; viz., increasing the height of the chimney as much as possible (which is the reason why we have shown such high chimneys to most of our designs for cottages) ; adjusting the throat of the chimney to the quantity of air and smoke required to make the fire burn properly ; forming one or more bends in the flue, to prevent the smoke from being driven down by the wind, and to increase the draught (which has the additional advantage of preventing the rain from falling down perpendicularly, and car- rying the soot before it) ; but, above all things, by having an opening at the tops of the windows or near the ceiling, in each apartment, for tlie admission of e^'ternal air to supplv the draught. It may be laid down as an indisputable fact, that it is impossible to have all the doors and windows of an apai-tment very tightly fitted, and at the same time to have the fireplace draw well, without the addition of such openings as have been mentioned, or of an underground air flue, and a communication between it and the hearth. As this would occasion too much trouble and nicety in the constniction of common cottages, nothing remains in the case of such dwellings, but to provide openings close under the roof, or over one door or window in each apartment, for a sufficient supply of external air. These openings may be furnished with shutters so as to regulate them at pleasure ; but, as even this might be too mucli trouble to a common cottager, the simplest mode is for him to push down the upper sash of his window an inch or two, or to open his outer door to the same extent. The whole of this subject merits the attentive consideration of the architectural critic ; who will find, that, in proportion to the perfection of the fitting and finishing of doors and windows, in the same proportion is the risk created of having smoky chimneys. 2192. Ventilation Is a subject intimately connected with that of the preceding para- graph. The perfection of ventilation consists, not in suddenly expelling the air from an apartment, and supplying its place with external air ; but in first gradually mixing the external air with that of the apartment to be ventilated, and next in carrying off this mixture by degrees, and supplying, by degrees, a fresh mixture in its place. When warm air is to be mixed with cold air, the latter ought to be admitted from above, in order that it mav descend, and intermingle with the former : on the contraiy, when cold air is to be mixed with warm air, the latter ought to be admitted from below to intermingle with the cold air in ascending. Hence, for the first purpose, the best practical mode of venti- latin<» a room is to have all the windows carried up as close to the ceiling as is prac- ticable ; and, when the air of the room is to be cooled, simply to slide down the upper sash of the window or windows, for a very small space, which, in few rooms, need exceed an inch for each window. When the air of a room is colder than the external air, and ARCHITECTURAL FITNESS. 1111 is to he wanned by its admission, then the lower sash of the window ought to be raised up ; but as this description of ventilation is seldom required, little need l)e said about it, farther than observing that when any material, such as a coil of steam or hot-water pipes, &c., in a room, is to be heated in order to increase the temperature of that room, the heated body ought to be placed on the floor, or as near to it as possible. In like manner, when a room is to be heated by the admission of heated air from a stove, that air ought to enter through the floor, or by the skirting or bottom part of the walls. The most convenient means for carrying oflf the air of tlie room, so as to induce a perpetual current of entering and escaping air, is the chimney ; for which purpose, it is desirable that the chimney breast should be somewhat higher than it generally is. As a high chimney breast is, however, inconsistent with a good draught, and with the throwing out of a maximum of heat from a given quantity of fuel, builders generally content them- selves with leaving this part of ventilation imperfect ; though they might remedy it by taking the trouble of forming openings close under the ceiling of the room, communi- cating with vertical air flues, placed in close contact with smoke flues, in order to create a draught. This last improvement comprehends all that is necessary, for the most per- fect ventilation of a room which can be conceived ; as a proof of which, we need only refer to !Mr. Tredgold's excellent treatise on the subjects of warming and ventilation, already mentioned. 2193. The Deafening, or Pugging, of Partition If'aHs, aiid of Floors in Houses of more than one Sti>ry, is a subject that the critic ought not to lose sight of, in judging of the fitness of the construction of a house for the end in view. There are two modes of eflfecting this object ; first, by filling the interstices between the joists of the floor, and the quartering or studwork of the partition, with some description of light material, such as sawdust, wool, charcoal, ashes, moss, or even earth ; and, secondly, by introducing interpartitions. The latter mode is by far the best, where lightness is the object ; and where it is necessary to preserve ventilation, in order to guard against the dry rot. This mode is also fully as eflicacious against the spread of fire as the former. Supposing a floor to be deafened in this way, the mode is, after the joists are laid down and fixed in their places, to nail slips of wood an inch square along their sides, within two inches of the bottom, and within three inches of the top. On these slips are laid short laths, which are afterwards plastered on each side, care being taken that the coats of plaster are not thicker than to leave a clear inch and a half between them and the lower and upper edges of the joists. When the boards of the floor are nailed to such joists above, and the lath and plaster of the ceiling is put on below, a section across the joists will show, between each pair, one large cell in the centre, and two long nairow cells, the one over the centre cell, and immediately under the boards of the floor, and the other mider the centre cell, and immediately over the lath and plaster of the ceiling. Through such a floor no ordinary sounds will be found to pass, whether to persons above from people talking in the room below, or to persons below from any one walking on the floor above. Partitions may be treated in the same manner ; but, in general, one vertical stratum of lath and plaster in the centre will be found sufficient. In extraordinary cases, two will render a partition wall of nine inches thick as impenetrable by sound, as a solid brick or stone wall of the same thickness. It must not be forgotten, that these measures for pre- venting the spread of soimd are known to be equally effective in preventing the spread of fire ; while, at the same time, they admit of complete ventilation to protect the timber of the partitions and floors from the dry rot. — Such are a few of the particulars which the architectural critic ought to attend to, in judging of the fitness of the construction of a dwelling-house for the end in ^■iew ; for a great many others, as well for dwelling- houses as for agricultural and other buildings, we must refer him to the three preceding Books of this work. 2194. T7(e Adjustment of the Construction of a Building to the pecuniary Means at the Command of the Architect supposes an intimate practical knowledge, Ln the latter, of the most advantageous manner of disposing of forms and quantities. Every architectural critic ought to know that the cube is a form that encloses more useful space, with a given quantity of walling, flooring, and roof, than any other. This was long ago ex- plained at great length, and applied to the designs of a number of dwellings, by ]\Iorris, an arcliitectural writer of the last century : but a short extract from Gwilt's Rudiments will be sufficient for our purpose here. '' Suppose a square, the sides of which are forty feet in length : it is manifest that the walling required to enclose this figure will be 160 feet in length, and the area enclosed wUl be equal to 1600 square feet: whereas, in a building, the form of which, on the plan, is that of a parallelogram, and the opposite sides of which are sixty feet and twenty feet respectively ; the same quantity of walling will be required to enclosse it, as was necessary for the square ; though its ai-ea will be equal to only 1200 feet, or one fourth less than that of the square. Thus the square is proved to l>e superior to the parallelogram, though inferior in capacity to the circle. lli'^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Hence edifices in which the greatest symmetry exists are invariably (other circumstances being the same) of the least cost ; and hence, also, simplicity and regularity in the general plan and its parts are always conducive to economy." (G wilt's Jiudimetits of Architecture, p. 6.) Though this knowledge can never enable an architectural critic to discover whether the Architect has solved the problem of erecting the desired build- ing for the given sum ; yet it will enable him to judge, from external appearanccrs, of the comparative expense of buildings. He may also deduce from it this rule ; viz., that, when economy is the main object, the parallelogram form should never be preferred to that of the cube, except in those cases in whicli the diameter of the cube would be so great, as to prevent the proper admission of light and ventilation to the interior parts. Chap. II. Of the Expression of the End in View, in Architecture. 2195. Tlie Expression of the End in View comprehends the expression of the use for which the building was erected, and the expression of a suitable construction for that end. Every building should appear to be what it is, and every part of an edifice x)ught to indicate externally its particular use. When we are satisfied that we have discovered the use of any building, or the intentions of the Architect in this respect, the next thing which we enquire is, how far he has succeeded in carrying his intentions into effect ; that is, whether the expression of the construction which he has adopted is in accordance with the expression of the use. To give a familiar example : suppose a building, the expression of which was that of a stable, and that the entrance to it was up steps. In this ease, the expression of construction would be decidedly at variance with that of use. 2196. That which constittites the Expression of Use or Purpose, in the Exterior of a Building, must be some quality which we have been accustomed to associate with that use or purpose. It follows, therefore, that all the various uses of buildings and their different parts must be understood by the critic, before he can judge whether the uses of those parts are properly expressed. As this is equally as impossible, with respect to all buildings, as that an architectural critic should always understand what constitutes fitness for the end in view ; it follows, that his judgment in this particular, as in various others, must often be imperfect. Every one has some idea of what constitutes expression of purpose, in the common dwelling-houses of the country in which he lives ; but no person, who was not either an agricultural Architect, or familiar with agricultural buildings, could recognise the expression of purpose in the separate buildings of a farmery ; nor could any one who was not well acquainted with the appearance of manufactories, or was not a constructor of them or of their machinery, expect to do this with reference to the buildings in which manufactures are carried on. Still, the architectural critic may acquire sufllcient information on the general uses of all the classes of buildings con- structed in the country in which he lives, or described in books, to enable him to judge of their general expression. 2197. The Expression of Suitableness of Constructio7i supposes a knowledge of what constitutes strength and durability in buildings ; a kind of knowledge which, as we have already observed, is much more within the power of either Architects, or architectural critics, than a knowledge of the uses of buildings. In illustration of these two prin- ciples, we shall subjoin a few remarks. 2198. In Dwelling-houses, the expression of use is indicated, in a decided manner, in all cold countries, by their having a number of chimney tops, or other outlets, for permitting the escape of smoke from separate fires. In all countries whatever, a dwell- ing-house is indicated by its windows, and by their being filled in with glass, more or less, according to the nature of the climate and the character of the dwelling. A dwelling- house is also known by its entrance door, which is generally ascended to by steps ; a proof that it is not a door for any of the inferior animals, or for taking in and out heavy articles in use in agricidture, trade, or manufactures. These are general features of expression, of which there are many shades ; but there are also a number of particular features, indicative of the different apartments contained in the house, and of the style of living of the occupants. In a cottage of the smallest size, having a living-room, a bed-room, and a closet, the windows to each of these will be of different dimensions ; the largest window will at once be recognised as that lighting the living-room, and the smallest as that belonging to the closet. In dwellings of larger dimensions, the windows of the different living-rooms will or should be formed, not only larger than the others, but occupying what, in the given coimtry and locality, is considered the principal fioor of the house. Large windows, with considerable space on each side EXPRESSION OF PURPOSE. 1113 and over them, indicate wide and lofty apartments within ; whereas numerous small windows, with narrow piers between tliem, and small spaces over them, indicate nu- merous small and low apartments, or apartments extending in length, but not in height, and without space for large pieces of furniture ; consequently, ill-proportioned and badly furnished. Windows in the roofs of dwelling-houses are also expressive of imperfect accommodation and ventilation, as are small windows in sunk stories. The windows of entresols (floors with low ceilings introduced between floors with high ceilings), which are common in France and Italy, are expressive of servants' apartments, and seldom fail to convey the idea of want of space, and of bad ventilation. ^\ hen the base line of the windows on the principal floor of a house is horizontal, it is favourable to the expression of large rooms, and of rooms on the same level : on the other hand, when the windows are placed irregularly, and on no regular axis, either horizontal or vertical, they convey the idea of small rooms irregular in every respect, and altogether the opposite of being either comfortable or elegant. Turrets and projections of every kind, viewed with reference to use, convey the idea of eonimodiousness and convenience ; it being supposed that their object, in modern houses, is to supply closets and cabinets, and other minor apartments. A square house may have all these conveniences included within its cubical form ; and they may have cost less, in building, than if they had been contained in projections : but the cubical form will give no indication of their existence to the external spectator ; and therefore, though it may be well adapted for economy, it cannot be considered as one expressive of ease and comfort. It will merely express, by its uniform-sized and regularly placed windows, apartments of equal dimensions and regular arrangement. Porticoes, colonnades, verandas, and balconies are all expressive, more or less, of comfort and elegant enjoyment on the part of the occupant. It is unne- cessary, however, to pursue this subject farther ; for every person of the slightest observ- ation can refer all the different external parts of a house, in the country where he lives, to their internal uses : in other words, he recognises their expression. 2199. The Expression of Use in farm buildings, though it can only be perfectly recognised by an architectural farmer, can yet be so, to a certain extent, by every one accustomed to live in the country. The barn is known by its large roof, or by its greater height ; or, in countries where threshing-machines are common, by the ap- pearance of the mill-shed ; the granary by its lufFer-boarded windows, and its elevated floor ; the feeding-house by its porthole windows, &c. The expression of the particular manufacture which is carried on in any large building can hardly be recognised by a stranger to that manufacture ; nevertheless, the general appearance of the walls and windows ; their great plainness, and even meagre effect ; the number and regularity of the windows ; and the comparative inattention shown to the beauty and clearness of the glass, enable almost any one to decide that the edifice is destined for manufacturing purposes. The expression of churches and chapels is recognised by all ; because all are accustomed to enter them ; so is the expression of schools, and of other buildings with which we are familiar, such as inns, corn mills, &c. That a building, when expressive of its use, affords more satisfaction than when it is either not expressive of that use, or expressive of some use to which it is not applied, every one must feel. A barn disguised as a church would afford satisfaction to none but those who considered it as a trick. The beautj' of truth is so essential to every other kind of beauty, that it can neither be dispensed with in art nor in morals. 2200. The Expression of adequate Construction is, to a certain extent, recognised by every beholder. Every one knows walls of brick or stone to be more durable than those of earth, of wood, or of plaster ; and no one considers a high and narrow building so strong as one which approaches nearer to the cubical form. Roofs which project con- siderably at the eaves, by exposing a part of their timbers to the eye, never convey the idea of the same degree of durability as when the walls are terminated by stone or brick cornices ; and walls thus finished never give the same idea of a permanent roof, as when to the cornice is superadded a blocking course or parapet. The roof, in the latter case, is supposed to be flat, covered with lead, and calculated to resist the effects of time. The common precept, that openings ought in general to be made perpendicularly over other openings, rather than disposed indiscriminately, is founded on the principle of strength ; for every one feels that the lighter members should be carried by the stronger. Without disputing this general rule, ^Ir. Wood observes, " perhaps two exceptions may fairly be made : the first in small buildings of no pretensions to magnificence, where the appearance of convenience may be allowed to overweigh the character of durability ; and the second, where the general appearance is so solid, and the openings are so small, that it matters not where they are put. In this last case, the very want of correspondence announces an exuberance of power, which disdains attention to trifles; and, what is, m some degree, in ordinary cases, a source of absolute weakness, becomes a means of ex- pressing strength." The indication of the thickness of wall, produced in a wall seen 6 Q llli COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Only on one side, by those ledges, or " settings back," which become necessary when it diminishes as it ascends, is expressive of strength ; and the excess of the length and breadth of a building, relatively to its height, is indicative of stability. The value of these kinds of expression is found by contrasting them with whatever, in the elevation of a building, is indicative of weakness, temporary duration, or deformed construction. The reader will easily be able to supply, from his own observations or experience, innumerable instances of the same kind as those here given ; the tendency of all which is to prove, that the expression of fitness of construction for the end in view, is a beauty in Architecture as positive, as that of the expression of fitness for the end in view itself. Chap. IIL Of the Expression of Architectural Style. 2201. Tlie Expression of Architectural Sti/le, as may be inferred from the two preceding chapters, is not an essential beauty in a building. An edifice may be useful, strong, and durable, botli in reality and in expression, without having any otlier beauties than those of use and truth; that is, of fitness for the end in view, and of expression of the end in view ; or, in familiar language, of being suitable to the use for which it was designed, and of appearing to be wliat it is. The object of Architecture, as an art of taste, is to add to the beauties of use and truth other beauties, the creation of which is its peculiar pro- vince. The beauties of use and truth address themselves chiefly to the reason ; those of Architecture, as an art of taste, address thenxselves jointly to the reason and to the imagin- ation. All the arts of ta-ste produce their eifect upon the m.ind through the senses. Thus, music affects us by sounds, painting by colours, and poetry and oratory by words. Architecture and sculpture operate almost exclusively by forms ; and they differ chiefly in this respect, that sculpture has for its object the production of the imitations of natural forms, while Architecture operates by combinations of fornis entirely artificial. 2202. The Beauty of Architectural Forms arises from two causes : the expression of certain qualities which result from combinations of those forms, such as unity, variety, symmetry, &c. ; and the expression of certain forms and details which have been con- secrated to Architecture by long-continued use. The first may be called the univei-sal and inherent beauties of all architectural styles ; and the second, the historical or accidental beauties of particular styles. The first kind of beauty is altogether inde- pendent of any style of Architecture which has hitherto existed, or which may here- after exist ; its eifect resulting entirely from organic impressions, and associations of a general nature : the second depends on the addition, to the first class of beauties, of the associations connected with the known forms and details of the different styles of Architecture hitherto in use, or which may hereafter come into use, in this and in other countries. Sect. I. Of the universal and inherent Beauties of Architectural Composition. 2203. The Production of a Whole is the first object in every composition ; because the mind can only comprehend with ease and satisfaction one object at a time. If two objects of different natures, in the same scene or view, present equal claims to attention, we can derive pleasure from neither, unless we have the power of abstracting the mind fi-om one of them, and directing the attention wholly to the other. 2204. Unity. Hence it is that unity is the fundamental principle of all compositions whatever. If the reader will turn to the designs given in this work, and examine them one by one, without the slightest reference to their fitness for dwellings, or to their arclii- tectural stvle, he will find that a principal cause of the pleasure which he derives from observing them arises from their expression of unity. He will find that thek general arrangement indicates a imity of mind and of system ; that the prevailing forms, in any one design that strikes him ;is beautiful, are of the same kind ; that the shapes and sizes of the openings arc similar ; and that the prevailing or most conspicuous lines are chiefly in one direction, and either perpendicular or horizontal. So much, indeed, is this the case, that we will venture to assert, if the reader finds the lines of some of the masses in any one design exceeding in a vertical direction, and those in other masses of the same design exceeding in a horizontal direction, that design will not give him much plciisure. Hence it is that a Grecian church with the long horizontal and depressed lines of its architraves and cornices, and a lofty spire at one end with its preponderance of perpendicular lines, never pleases so well as a Gothic church and spire, where the principal lines of the buttresses, and even those of the steep roof, all tend upwards, in unity with those of the spire. Hence, also, the reason why a portico to a cii'cular building never forms such a EXPRESSION OF STYLE. 1115 good whole with it as when it is placed against a right-angled building, or where the jjediment over it forms the termination of a roof. For the same reason, a dome rising from a square base, or seeming so to do, is never so pleasing as one obviously forming the termination of cylindrical walls. The Architect, therefore, must have constantly in view the production, and the critic the discovery, of unity of system and principle, unity of conception and composition, miity of plan and elevation, unity of decoration, unity of style and taste, unity of the nature of the materials of which the building is composed, and unity even in the age, the. colour, and the appearance of those materials. This fundamental principle of criticism the Architect ought to keep continually in view ; not that the knowledge of this or of any other principle will insure his success in com- jiosition ; but that, having a composition before him, or in progress, the principle o{ unity is one of the very best by which he can test what he has done, or proposes to do. To the critic this principle is also of more value than any other, from the great ease and certainty with which it may be applied. 2205. Variety. In order to keep aUve in the human mind an interest in any subject, it is necessary that it should be operated upon by alternate excitement and repose. Now, as unity, wlien carried to its utmost limits, degenerates into monotony, the introduc- tion of contrasts into every composition is necessary for the purjiose of relieving it, and producing vai-iety and harmony. "N'ariety differs from harmony in having reference more to the details of the different component parts of a biulding, than to the eflFect of tlie building as a whole. Both variety and harmony are produced bj- contrast ; but liarmony, implying a greater combination of parts, admits of more numerous and powerful contrasts. (See Harmony, § 2217.) To produce variety in any composition, a certain degree of contrast becomes requisite in the lines, forms, colours, light and shade, and even, sometimes, in the nature of the materials. In introducing contrasts, the dangers to be avoided are, too great feebleness on the one hand, in which case they lose their effect, and produce insipidity ; or, too great opposition on the other, when their effect is too powerful, and they produce discords. Discordance of form is one of the most conspicuous faults in Architecture ; because, form being the principal attribute of matter with which the artist works, an error in this important feature of his composition is greater than one in lines, in light and shade, or m the nature of the materials. The introduction of contrasts, for the purpose of producing variety, is not only liable to end in discord, but it is also apt to degenerate into diversitj'. Diversity differs from variety, much in the same manner as complexity does fi-om intricacy. Variety may be produced by a few kinds of lines and forms varied in their disposition, but always with a certain degiee of connection ; diversity is produced by many different kinds of lines and forms, also differently disposed, but having no leading principle of connection, and so little accordance among themselves as not to compose a whole. In attempting to produce variety, therefore, by the only mamier in which it can be done, viz. the introduction of contrasts, the artist must be on his guard against creating discord, by having his contrasting forms of too large a size ; or diversity, by having them too numerous, and of too many difftrent sizes and shapes. For example, if to add some variety to the outline of a building, in ■nhich a square tower arose above the roof, a circular tower were added beside it, of the same height and general size, the effect would be discord ; because the two objects, being of the same kind, of the same bulk, and at the same distance from the eye, would present equal claims to attention : while, from the total difference of their forms, that attention would be divided. Let, however, the circular tower either be of the same diameter as the square cne, and raised only a few feet above the roof; or, let it be of the same height as the square one, and only a few feet in diameter, and the effect will be variety ; because the attention will be then directed to tlie large tower, and the very low or very narrow one will not interfere with the claims of the large one. At the same time, the small tower, by being something different from the large one, will also excite a certain tliough less degree of attention, and thus occasion a vaj-ied exercise of that faculty. To show how diversity or complexity may be produced under similar circumstances, we have only to suppose that, instead of one tower, several were added, all of diflerent forms, and all of the same size, and equidistant. Tliey would, consequently, have all equal claims on tlie attention, which woidd thus be distracted ; and the mind would be unable to trace anv principle of order, by which so many different forms could be reduced to a whole. 2206. Intricacy is produced by number joined to variety, by which a certain degree of concealment is effected. It is a beauty chiefly sought for in the details of ornaments but sometimes also in the composition of elaborate elevations, or in extensive interiors. The opposite of intricacy is confusion, into which this beauty is in continual danger of degenerating. To prevent this, a certain degree of unity of system, and unity of forms and lines, must pervade the whole composition ; the same forms must frequently occur, and also the same manner of connecting them. " Nothing," says Alison, " is more delightful than, in any subject where we at first perceived only confusion, to find 1110 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. regularity gradually emerging, and to discover, among the apparent chaos, some uniform principle which reconciles the whole. To reduce a number of apparently dissimilar par- ticulars under one general law of resemblance, as it is one of the strongest evidences of wisdom and design, so it is also productive of one of the strongest emotions of beauty which design can produce." (Essays, &e., vol. ii. p. 68.) Something of this kind of beauty may be felt on approaching an extensive villa in the Gothic style, with numerous towers and projections : seen in distant perspective, blended with trees, it appears a mass of parts which the mind cannot reduce into any order ; in advancing towards it, some of these parts appear larger than others, and the smaller seem to be grouped around them ; but, on arriving at the front of the building, the whole assumes a symmetrical disposition, and the mind and the eye become alike satisfied. 2207. Symmetry, Uniformity, and Begularity are terms which are considered by many as constituting the principal beauties of arcliitectural productions. The reason is, that every one can recognise by these properties, in any object whatever, the evidence of de- sign, and the idea of a whole. The rudest mind sees the evidence of design in a house with a door in the centre of the front, having a window on each side of it. This is symmetry ; and it conveys the idea of unity, or a whole, because every thing that is to be found on one side of the door is to be found also on the other. The prevalence of one form for all the general masses, and of one form for all the doors and windows of a building, is what is called unifonuity or similarity ; and this gives pleasure for the same reason as symmetry ; viz., that it gives evidence of design, and indicates the idea of a whole. The regular recurrence of any form at certain distances is also an evidence of design, and gives pleasure for the same reason ; viz., that of assisting the mind in com- prehending what is before it. These beauties are also more easily produced, and com- prehended, than many others ; and are, therefore, very properly, of universal application. The opposite extremes, into which they are apt to degenerate, are, dissimilarity in form and irregularity in disposition. 2208. Irregularity, when not carried so far as to produce confusion, is, liowever, desii'able, as it joins to the beauty of uniformity the beauties of variety and of intri- cacy. " In general," observes Alison, " regular figures are more beautiful than irregular ones ; and regular figures of a greater number of parts are more beautiful than the same figures of a smaller number of parts : they cease only to be beautiful when the number of their parts is so great as to produce confusion, and, consequently, to obscure the expression of design. It is the same principle which seems to produce the beauty of intricacy." (Essays, &c., vol. ii. p. 67.) See, on this subject, the remarks in § 119. 2209. Simplicity may be considered a negative quality in objects, since it does not imply any thing produced, but merely the absence of something else ; that is, of com- plexity. The value of simplicity chiefly consists in its facilitating the comprehension of a whole ; but, by contrast, it may become a positive beauty. In situations where all the buildings are of several stories, and elaborately finished, a shed or a cottage, with plain walls and a plain projecting roof, will be hailed as an object of simple beauty, from the repose which it aflbrds to the eye, as contrasted with the excitement produced by the variety and intricacy of the more finished edifices by which it is surrounded. Simplicity, ■however, as Wood observes, " may be carried to an extreme, and persons of the best and piu'est taste will differ as to the precise degree of it required." Mr. Hosking, the author of the verj' excellent article on Architecture, in the seventh edition of the Encyclo- pcEclia Britannica, mentions simplicity as one of the fundamental elements of beauty in Architecture. Simplicity in form and outline he considers above all things essential, . and he illustrates his opinion by reference to various existing examples. It appears to us, however, that he has, in some cases, made use of the word simplicity, where the term unity would have been more appropriate. For example, he says, " few can admire the external effect of the Pantheon in Rome, or of the Colosseum in London, tliough certain features in both may be indisputably good. To these may be added the church in Langham Place, London. The complication of straight and circular in the com- position of these buildings, and their consequent irregular forms and discordant outlines, totally destroy both simplicity and harmony." We entirely agree with this criticism ; but we think that the want of harmony is not produced l)y the absence of simplicity, but by the want of unity of form. At all events, this would be o\ir mode of expressing what we consider wanting in such a case ; and we have thought it necessary to state this here, to show that two critics may entirely agree in their opinion of a work, and yet differ in the use of terms for expressing that opinion. As a farther example of want of simplicity, Mr. Hosking refers to the more simple form of the Egyptian obelisk, as compared with the monumental column ; and in this use of the term simplicity we wholly concur. Not so, however, in comparing the monument on Fish Street Hill with the shot tower at Waterloo Bridge. " They are both of cylindrical form," Mr. Hosking observes ; " but the one is crowned by a square abacus, and the otlier by a bold cornice, EXPRESSION OF STYLE. liT/ which follows its own outline. , The greater simplicity, and consequent beauty, of the latter is such as to strike the most unobservant." To us it appears tliat the chief cause of this beauty is the unity of form in the two parts, and not the simplicity of the cornice, because the square projection, wlien taken by itself, is equally simple witli the round one. Langham Church is objectionable, not from its want of simplicity, because nothing can be more simple than the form of the main body of the building, which is that of a parallelogram, with a roof and sides as plain as those of a country barn ; or than the spire, which is that of a cone ; but from the want of accordance between tlie forms of a cone and a parallelogram ; or, in other words, from the want of unity in the whole, which is thus attempted to be produced. Suppose the Architect had taken simplicity as a prin- ciple by which to test his design before it was executed; how far would that have enabled liim to correct his work ? Not far, we think ; for both forms, as we have just shown, are simple enough. Suppose, on the other hand, that he had tested liis work by the prin- ciple of unity ; the want of unity of form between the body of the church and its spire must at once have taught him the risk which he incurred of producing that discordant result, which is now one of tlie most glaring deformities in the public buildings of the metropolis. It is singular that, among all the different criticisms which were made on this church at the time it was completed, not only in the newspapers, but in parliament, no one ventured to assign any cause for the dissatisfaction which every one felt. Had the principle of unity been familiar to its ci'itics, the cause would have been assigned at once ; and, indeed, in all probability, the bad effect of such a discordance of parts would liave been foreseen before the building was erected, and an alteration would have been made in the Design. 2210. Order and Propriety. Order, in Architecture, implies the relation of one part to another, with reference to the production of a regular or symmetrical whole. The ap- pearance of windows on one side of a building, if not followed up by windows on the next side, indicates a want of order ; as it does, to find the windows of one side differ in size and disposition from those of the other. It is in the order of parts rela- tively to uses, that a porch, or portico, should protect a door ; but, if, under such a projection, we find a window, instead of a door, while the door is perhaps seen in the same elevation without any protection at all, we feel the want both of order and pro- priety. The indication of a roof, where, according to the construction, a roof could not be placed, or would not be required, is, in like manner, a violation of both these prin- ciples. The opposite of order is disorder, which would be conspicuous in a building showing, on the same floor, windows of different sizes, and scattered irregularly over the surface of the elevation, without being grouped, or on a regular axis, vertical or horizontal. 2211. Proportion is one of the principal beauties of Architecture, as an art of design, though none appears to be more difficult to explain satisfactorily. Perhaps the principle on which proportion is founded may be defined to be, that relation between the dimen- sions of things of tlie same kind, which, in the given age and country, is generally con- sidered the most pleasing. The origin of our received ideas on the subject of proportion must have been habit, perhaps founded on some reasons relative to fitness in the material employed. It is altogether unreasonable to suppose that the same proportions are in their nature equally beautiful, when applied to supports of timber, stone, and iron ; but, from the habit of studying, with profound deference, the proportions of the columns used in Grecian Architecture, these proportions become familiar to the eye, and afford satisfaction, even when applied to different kinds of materials. The idea of certain pro- portions of columns, and of intercolumniations, possessing absolute beauty in tliemselves, without relation to the associations connected with them, appears to us a species of archi- tectural bigotry altogeth.er unworthy of an enlightened mind. " Our sense of propor- tion in every form," Alison observes, " keeps pace with our knowledge of the fitness of its construction : where we have no acquaintance with the fitness of any form, we have no sense of its peculiar proportions." {Essays, Sec, vol. ii. p. 1S4. ) 2212. The Proportions of Rooms are nearly agreed upon by British Architects. Sir "William Chambers says " that these proportions depend, in a great measure, on the use and actual dimensions of the rooms ; and that all figures, from a square to one in which the length is to the lircadth as three to two, may be employed in the plan, and great licence taken with regard to elevation. Inigo Jones extended the plan to a double square ; and galleries are frequently made four or five times as long as they are wide. When this is the case, however, they are better divided into moderate lengths, by piers projecting from the sides, as in the galleries of the Louvre in Paris, and that of Sana Souci, at Potsdam. " The heights of rooms," Sir William Chambers continues, " depend upon their figures : flat-ceiled ones may be lower than those that are coved. If the plan be a square, the lieight should not exceed five sixths of the side, nor be less than four fiftl-.s; and, when it is an oblong, the height may be equal to the width. But 1118 COTTAGE, FARM, AND* VILLA ARCHITECTUllE. coved rooms, if square, must be as Iiigh as broad, and, when oblong, their height may be equal to their width ; increasing the height one fifth, one quarter, or even one third of the difference between the length and width, as may be thought desirable ; and galleries should, at the very least, be in height one and one third of their width, and, at the most, one and a half, or one and three fifths." ( Civil Architecture, &c. Gwilt's edition, vol. ii. p. S90. ) These precepts may be taken by the critic as those generally received by most European Architects and amateurs ; and, tliough it is always a mark of a narrow mind to judge of any work solely by a reference to rules, instead of trusting to first impressions, and afterwards testing those impressions by general principles ; yet it is well to know the limits within which an Architect supposes himself to be confined, in so important a matter as the proportions of rooms. 2213. Magnitude. " The Architect Vanvitelli," Forsyth observes, " sought, in his design of the palace of Caserta, grandeur from every dimension;" and it is certain that a building, like that palace, of great magnitude, regular in its general form, and enabling the spectator from one point of view to conceive an idea of its height, its length, and its breadth, produces an impression on tlie mind at once simple and grand. " There is always," says Wood, " something to admire in works of great magnitude and expense. One cannot walk along the covered way, about three miles long, from Bologna to the church of Madonna del IMonte, without feeling impressed with admiration at the courage and public spirit which could undertake such a work, and the perseverance neces- sary to complete it." (Letters, Sec, vol. i. p. 285.) 2214. Magnificence is an expression produced by the union of magnitude with general simplicity of form, and with great richness in the details. A large house, simple in its general forms, with large spaces between the external indications of the diflerent floors, and between the windows of the same floor ; but with the walls terminating in a highly enriched cornice, and with richly decorated architraves round the windows and doors, must be felt by every one to convey an idea of large and lofty apartments within, and of great wealth in the builder. " To produce the effect of magnificence in Architecture," Wood observes, " three things seem to be necessary; viz., greatness of dimensions, sim- plicity of design, and richness of decoration. To satisfy the mind after examination, three other things are requisite ; viz., correctness of proportion in the parts; graceful drawing of the details ; and delicate execution of the mouldings and ornaments. Great space left between the ranges of windows gives an air of solidity and magnificence to the front, and suggests the idea of lofty rooms within ; and it is a great point gained, when, in addition to tlie magnificence which is seen, the artist can excite the idea of the magnificence which is not seen." (Letters, &c. ) In general, magnitude, in connection with any circum- stance which gives evidence of great wealth, is favourable to the idea of magnificence. The stables of the Prince of Conde, at Chantilly, are magnificent, from their magnitude, and their costly finishing ; though, as the traveller Duppa observes, they are in the highest degree unfit for their purpose. They are without accommodation for a bushel of corn, or a single truss of hay ; but they are upwards of forty feet high from the floor to the ceiling, and GOO feet long, with walls of polished freestone, and a magnificent dome in the centre. In the interior of towns and cities, it is an evidence of great wealth to find mansions situated in the midst of trees and gardens, surrounded by lofty walls, and entered by magnificent gates. Such mansions are more common in Moscow and Warsaw, and even in Paris, than in any other cities in Europe. In London, on the contrary, though there are numerous mansions, in all respects superior in accommodation, com- fort, and luxury, to those of any other city in the world; yet, from their being in close contact with each other, and ranged in lines without any thing to distinguish them from common street buildings, but the absence of sliops, and their having a somewhat more extensive frontage, they are totally without that expression of magnificence, to wliicli they are amply entitled from the expense incurred, and the accommodation produced. In the last great square which has been, or perhaps, ever will be, erected in London, IJelgrave Square, where the houses rent from 5001. to 1000/. a year each, there is not one of them that can have the slightest pretensions to inagnificence. They have not even an element of this quality; and if a city tradesman, on his entering the square for the first time, were informed that liouses, which are at present occupied by dukes, and other nobles of the first families in the land, were the residences of city merchants, or wealthy retired tradesmen, there is nothing in their appearance which could lead him to express the slightest degree of surprise. Let such a person go to Paris, and observe the hotels, which here and there occur, enclosed by walls, entered by magnificent gates, and surrounded by thickly-wooded gardens ; and the evidence of gi-eat wealth, which these appearances afford, will prevent a doubt from arising in liis mind of the grandeur and magnificence of their occupants. Tlie impression will be still stronger if the traveller proceeds to Warsaw, to Moscow, or to Florence, Rome, and some of the other great cities of Italy. The truth is, tliat Englishmen excel in displaying magnificence only in the EXPRESSION OF STYLE. 1119 interiors of their town houses ; reserving all external magnificence for their palace-like viUas in the country. 2215. Elegance and Grace, in objects of art, are terms generally understood to imply lightness of form, or delicacy of proportion, as contrasted with inelegance; that is, heavi- ness or clumsiness of form, and want of proportion. The terms lightness and heaviness are frequently applied to buildings by general observers ; but they seldom convey any definite ideas to the mind. The term liglitness seems to be commonly applied to elevations, in cases where the openings are more numerous, in proportion to the plain spaces of the wall, than usual ; and, when the contrary is the case, the term heaviness is made use of. The same idea may be extended to the intercolumniations, and proportions of the columns of porticoes, and to various other parts of buUdings. 2216. Effect is a painter's term, and in some cases it is synonymous with the word result ; but in others it refers only to the light and shade of a picture or a building. Where there is a striking prominent part or principal light in a building, supported by a broad receding mass or a mass in shade, the effect is said to be good ; but a building so plain in its principal front as to produce no striking lights and bold shadows is said to have no effect. The Italian manner of placing wuidows close together in series, and, alternating with these, large blank spaces without any openings (see § 1929.), produces a result which, in building, may, to a certain extent, be considered analogous to the effect of light and shade in painting. 2217. Harmony is a term transferred from music to Architecture, and implies such a composition of lines and forms as will produce a powerful, a varied, and an agreeable whole. Where great contrasts exist among the parts, and yet all of them are in accord, the elTect is harmony ; and this is the highest result, with reference to organic impressions, that can be produced in an edifice, short of, or next to, the beauties of decoration and character. Harmony, therefore, supposes unity, contrast, variety, order, proportion, and various other subordinate beauties. Notwithstanding this, however, harmony in Archi- tecture, as in music, may exist independently of ornamament or of any distinctive character. 2218. Ornament or Decoration, in Architecture and furnishing, is the addition of some- thing, not necessary to unity of expression, but added solely for the purpose of enrich- ment. Considered in an abstract point of view, the effect is produced by a certain degree of variety, and intricacy of outline ; and, by blending, in a harmonious manner, lights, shades, and colours. The ornaments in exterior Architecture may be considered as exclusively sculpturesque ; but those of the interior include colours, gilding, and mirrors, and may be called scenic. The too general distribution of ornament, or lich- ness, on an elevation or a piece of furniture, is destructive of that simplicity and repose, which is necessary to the full enjoyment of any scene ; but, on the other hand, when decoration is judiciously introduced, and correctly executed, it gives an air of high finish- ing and completeness, which leaves in the mind of the spectator nothing to be desired. Every thing in a building, or a piece of furniture, may be considered as ornament, which does not form a necessary part of the construction. In this point of view, the Hues and mouldings of architraves and cornices, the facings of windows and doors, and the pro- jecting mouldings of chimney-taps and other parts of dwelling-houses, may all be con- sidered as ornaments ; and, as they necessarily ai-ise out of the construction, they mav be termed ornaments of the simplest, hut, at the same time, of the most appropriate kind. A step higher in the progress of ornament or decoration, consists in the introduction of carving or sculpture, such as foliage and flowers, on the members of architraves and cornices, or other appropriate ornaments. The introduction of sculptures in high or low relief, in sunk or raised panels, or other compartments prepared on purpose to receive them, constitutes a third step. The last step is that of introducing vases and detached figures, in suitable situations, such as on the summits of pediments, or as terminations for piers, pilasters, columns, &:c. ; and these may be considered the noblest ornaments of all, since they are without any other use than as such. This scale of ornament will enable any one clearly to understand in what ornament consists ; and it will also show the propriety of consistency, in the degree of ornament to be applied. For example, in a very plain elevation of a house, without facings to the windows, or a porch to the door, or a terminating cornice to the wall, it would be an improper style of decoration to add vases or statues. The first step in ornamenting such an elevation would be, to add facings or architraves to the doors and windows ; next a porch, and a cornice under the roof, or near the top of the walls. After this was done, if a degree higher in the scale of orna- ment sliould be considered desirable, perhaps vases might form terminations to the sup- porting pillarsof the porch, or projecting balconies might be added to some of the windows. Instead of proceeding in this manner, we frequently find Architects, when they are called upon to decorate a naked elevation, introduce ornaments of the highest class, such as sculptures or vases ; while all appropriate ornaments, such as finishings to windows li'2U COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. and doors, are omitted. It must be clear to our readers that this is in the very worst taste : as bad as it would lie in a lady to wear a peail necklace and diamond tiara with ihe costume of a kitchen-maid. A number of the Designs in this volume, when tested by this principle, will be found sadly deficient. Let the reader turn to them, and exercise his critical skill ; he will gain far more in doing so, than if we had presented him with a series of faultless objects ; for we are convinced, with Wood, tliat the young Architect will learn much more by the discovery of faults, and their causes, than by the mere admiration of beauties. As afFordmg much valuable instruction on this subject, we would strongly recommend the young Architect to consult Quatremere de Quin- cy's Essai sur l' Imitation, and the Preface to Percier and Fontaine's Decorations Interieures. 2219. Character, in Architecture, as in physiognomy, is produced by the prevalence of certain distinctive features, by which a countenance, or a building, is at once distinguished from every other of the same kind. Hence, numbers of buildings, like numbers of human beings, may exist without exhibiting any marked character. On the other hand, there may be edifices, wliich, from their general proportions being exalted, and from all their parts being justly distributed, exhibit what is analogous to nobleness of character : edifices having, as a conspicuous feature, a form not common in Architectiu'e, will assume a character of singularity ; others, having a common form placed in an un- common position (such as a large window in a spire, or, as is tlie case in some of Sir John Vanbrugh's buildings, and in the offices of one of the houses at the north-west corner of Belgrave Square, a doorway introduced in the parapet to a roof), will appeiir to possess a character of extravagance or caprice. In general, whatever is productive of character in a building must be conspicuous and distinctive ; and it should rather consist of one than of many features. 2220. Novelty. In all arts, novelty is a source of pleasure ; because every new object that is presented to the mind excites it to action ; and the mind of man, to be kept in a healthy state, requires exercise as well as his body. The effect of novelty can be felt by the most ignorant and also by the most learned observer ; and, though it has been customary for critics to rail at it under the denominations of fasliion and innovation, yet nothing can be more certain than that this quality is what all artists are in pursuit of, in connec- tion with other kinds of excellence. It is equally certain that this incessant desire for novelty has been the cause of great departures from pi'opriety of design in all the arts ; and, therefore, though the artist ought to be unceasing in liis endeavours to attain it, he ought never to indulge in novelties which are in opposition to what are considered established principles. Precepts and rules, however, are subordinate to principles ; and a precept or a custom may be departed from for the sake of novelty, provided tliat in so doing no infringement be made on such principles as those of fitness, utility, or propriety. For example, it would be a novelty, in the elevation of a house, to have the windows broader at bottom than at top, or circular at bottom as well as at top ; but, the unfitness of these forms for the application of window-shutters, and other ordinary purposes, would occasion the innovation to be instantly condemned, when examined by the principle of fitness. It would be a novelty, in this country, to connect the different apartments of a house by means of outside stairs and balconies, as in Switzerland ; or to have the kitchen in the attics, as in Italy ; but these innovations would be objected to in Britain, on the principle of unsuitablencss for use. A window used as a door, and a door used as a window, are also objectionable, from the obvious want of propriety in their application. The attempts at novelty, which have ended in absurdities, have been much more numerous in the interior and furnishing of houses, than those which have been made in exterior elevations : the chief reason is, that the interior finishing and furniture of a liouse are mucli more frequently changed and remodelled than the house itself j less care and skill are bestowed upon them, and less exertions are made to procure the opinion of Architects of taste (as we have before recommended), on every change, however small. As examples of bad taste, resulting from a desire of novelty without regard to con- sistency, we may mention, that of graining wood witli blue veins, blue being a colour never found in nature in the interior of timber ; and that of reversing the positions of the vase and the sarcophagus when placed under sideboards as wine-coolers, thus converting some of the most beautiful forms of antiquity into the clumsiest and most inexpressive shapes. Yet, we have seen both these examples of bad taste perpetrated in the houses of wealthy Londoners. The great aim of the artist ought to be to create, and that of the critic to search for, the union of novelty with other beauties, without any greater innovation of established rules than is consistent with fundamental principles. For example, let the artist introduce a new style of Architecture and furniture, if he can ; but, in doing so, let him never violate tlic principles of unity and harmony. Let him introduce a new description of porch or chimney top ; but let the one always be a protection to a door, and the other afford a favourable outlet to smoke. One of tlie EXPRESSION OF STYLE. ll'^l safest manners of introducing novelty, without any violation of established precepts, is by the revival of ancient styles of art ; by which is produced what is at once new and vet familiar, instead of what is new and at the same time strange. Hence, the satisfaction that has, for some time past, been produced, in this country, by the revival of the Gothic style, in external elevations, and by its application to modern uses in internal finishino- and furniture. More recent examples of the same kind will be found in the present taste for the Elizabethan style, and for that of Louis XIV. in furnishing. To imitate freshness in an old building by renovation, or the appearance of age in a new buildino- by weather stains, are both sources of novelty, of no great value certainly, but still suitable for occasional use. For example, the general effect of an old ruin may be increased by renovating, and producing an appearance of freshness in a small part of, or in some appendage to, it. In a line of detached villas newly built, all exactly of the same form, material, and style of finishing, one may be rendered strikuigly diflerent from all the rest, solely by weather stains. 2221. Other Terms of Art might here be introduced, and their application to Archi- tecture explained; but to do justice to the subject would require much greater space than would be admissible in this volume : it would, indeed, require a volume itself The truth is, that all the works of man are only manifestations of himself, representing the qualities of his own mind, moral and intellectual, good or bad, ignorant or refined. Hence, most of the terms that are applicable to manners and to mind are applicable also to art ; and a building or a picture may exhibit beauty, deformity, boldness, timidity, strength, weakness, nobleness, meanness, grandeur, littleness, wisdom, folly, reason, caprice, and many other qualities. For example, the projections of the cornice of a building carried rather farther than usual would be considered bold, and give that character to an elevation ; carried too far, they would be considered rash ; and not far enough, timid. Walls thick in proportion to their height indicate strength ; and the contrary, weakness. Dimensions and proportions of all the parts, and especially those which regard height, larger than what are usual, produce an impression on the mind analogous to nobleness ; and smaller than usual, and especially as regards height, mean- ness : to be mean, a building must be low. The expression of grandeur is easily understood ; that of littleness is produced by comparative smallness of dimension applied to objects generally seen large. The want of wisdom will be conspicuous in any building, the expression of which does not satisfy the mind as well as the eye ; for example, if the artist appears to have bestowed too much strength or skill on one part, and too little on another. The folly of an Architect would be conspicuous, were he to sacrifice the main body of a building to any inferior part, as for instance to the portico ; or to attempt to build and ornament a cottage in imitation of a palace. Nothing is more common in the works of Architects even of genius, such as Vanbrugh and Borromeo, than caprice. It is the business of a critic, after he has allowed the full effect to be produced on him by the first impressions of an object, to search for its defornaties as well as its beauties ; and to point out the one to public attention, as well as the other. 2222. Relation. After the critic has applied all the preceding principles to any edi- fice, and various others of the same nature, which will readily occur to a thinking mind, it remams for him to examine it in its several relations. If it is seen in the same view with other buildings, it must be considered not merely as a whole by itself, but also as forming a whole in connection with the other buildings which are near it. In this point of view, an edifice may be so plain in itself, as to exhibit little or no variety or intricacy; and yet, when viewed along with the other buildings, it may produce one general combination of harmonious forms. For example : suppo'se a line of five or six detached but nearly adjoining houses, already existing, each house broken into several parts, and that an Architect were required to add an additional house at one end of, or any where near, the line ; it might reasonably become a question with that Architect, whether it would not be advisable for him to render the additional house one simple and grand mass, so as to form with the whole line, when taken together, a predominating and principal part. In like manner, in judging of a building of any particular age or country, the circumstances of that age or country at the time, require to be taken int4 consideration. In judging of the modern buildings of Italy, for instance, it must not be forgotten that almost all the modern Italian Architects were painters as well ai Architects ; and that almost the whole of their public buildings are addressed more to the eye than to the reason. In judging of the buildings of the reign of Louis XIV., it must be considered that the great object of the Architects was to follow the taste of the court, which was that of extravagant decoration. In judging of the taste of churches, and of sumptuous public buildings in all countries, it must not be forgotten that the great object was to excite the admiration and the astonishment of the spectator. In judging of those public buildings in Britain, in the Grecian style, which were erected previously to the publication of Stuart's Athens or "Wilkins's Magna Gra-cia, it C 11 11"^'^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AUCHITliCTURE. would be altogetlier unreasonable to compare them with the designs constructed since that period. The Gothic Architecture of Batty Langley (a name sneered at by modern critics), or even that of Inigo Jones, it would not be just to compare with the Gothic of the present day ; a knowledge of which has been matured by the excellent publications of Carter, Murpliy, Britton, Pugin, Cottingham, Lamb, and a number of other authors. Thus, a critic must always have two standards of comparison to judge by : the one, that (as well as he can conceive it) of the time when the building was erected ; and the other the beau ideal of perfection in his own mind. There is another point that must not be lost sight of, in judging either of ancient or of modern productions in Architecture ; and that is, the means which the Architect had at his command, and the control which he was under from his employers, at the tiine of erecting the building. There is not, perhaps, one edifice in a hundred, either public or private, where free scope is left to the Architect, even where he is previously informed of the amount which will be allowed to be expended for the work, and keeps within that amount. Numerous local circumstances, which could not be foreseen, or over which he has little or no control, continually interfere to prevent him from completing his designs agreeably to his own taste and judgment. Since, then, few persons have ever an opportunity of doing their best, charity should, in all cases, be exercised by the critic. To those who wish to pur- sue the subject of this section farther, it is satisfactory to be able to recommend three works which are within the rer.ch of every one ; viz., Alison's Essai/s on Taste, Wood's Letters of an Architect, and the Dictiomiaire Historique cV Architecture of Quatremere de Quincy. The works of Durand, Repton and Papworth, Aberdeen's Inquiry, and Carlisle's Hints (or rather sci'aps), may also be read with advantage, by those who wish to unite the study of Landscape Gardening with that of Architecture. Sect. II. Of the different Styles of Architecture. 2223. The different Styles of Architecture have grown up with mankind, and are easily recognised by every one as beauties of art, originally composed to be admired, and subsequently sanctioned by the admiration of ages. Hence it is that the Architect who erideavours to effect his object through the medium of any known architectural style *vill be nmch more likely to attain it, than he who depends for success on the organic impressions and general associations which form the subject of the preceding section ; or on what an Architect might call the abstract composition of lines and forms. In that section, we have chiefly endeavoured to show that every thing in Architecture connected with use, the expression of use, and the expression of those qualities which are common 'o all the fine arts, can be effected without the introduction of a single form or line vhich is considered characteristic of any known architectural style. It must be obvious to the reader who has understood our preceding observations, that, in the employment of any of the architectural styles which fonn the subject of the present section, the Archi- tect, to produce a satisfactory whole, must be governed by the abstract principles of com- position already laid down, as much as if no style were resorted to. Tl>e principle of unity must govern a composition, whether it consist of mere walls with openings; or, as a painter would say, of mere light and shade ; or of Grecian columns and entablatures ; or Gothic gables and buttresses. Variety is required for a Grecian or a Gothic com- position, as well as for one of mere lines and forms ; and simplicity is as necessary for the general form of a Gothic cathedral as it is for that of a Grecian temple. There are, however, great advantages in the employment of style in Architecture. 2224. By the Employment of Style in an Edifice, the Architect takes immediate pos- session of the prejudices of mankind. He gains a positive beauty at once by the mere exhibition of style ; because thousands of spectators in Europe and America, for example, have some crude ideas of what is Grecian and what is Gothic, while comparatively few understand what constitutes a whole in mere combinations of form. Style, therefore, ought never to be neglected by Architects who wish to gain general applause. 2225. The different Styles of Architecture are so well known by Architects, and this knowledge is so readily accessible to the general reader, that very little need be said respecting them in a work like the present. All the styles which have ever existed, or wliich now prevail in the world, may be reduced to two, the Gothic, or perpendicular, and the Grecian, or horizontal ; or that in which perpendicular lines, and that in which horizontal lines, predominate. As it is essential that all walls be built erect, it is not probable that, in any style whatever, curved lines should prevail over straight lines ; unless, indeed, fitness and reason should be entirely laid aside. 2226. The Grecian Style may be considered as characterised by porticoes of columns, with pediments joined to parallelograms, in regard to general forms ; and l)y a particularly beautiful description of mouldings and ornaments in the details. The porticoes and pcdirnents are altogether unfit for private dwellings, and there is no evidence that they were ever so applied by the Greeks. At all events, that there is " great difficulty," as DIFFERENT STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. li^O Mr. Hosking observes, " in applying pure Grecian Architecture to modern practice," is evident from the buildings of the Romans, and from the want of success which has attended the attempts which have hitherto been made in Britain to introduce the pure Grecian style into villas and private dwellings in the country. We may pass over this style, therefore, for that modification of it known as the Roman or Vitruvian, which, till the publication of Stuart's Athens, and similar works, was considered by Architects as Grecian. Before proceeding to Roman Architecture, we may briefly notice the alleged prototype of the pure Grecian style; viz., a wooden hut; the roof supported by trunks of trees, and these trunks joined by horizontal beams. That there is a semblance of truth in this is evident : a hut may have given rise to the Grecian style ; but if it did, still its construction appears to us to afford Little or no information as to the management of Domestic i\rchitecture in that style. All arts have had their origin in some very rude beginning ; and the first artificial human shelters must, no doubt, have been either huts formed by the trunks or branches of trees, or caves dug in the sides of hills or banks. The hvpothesis before noticed, of Laugier and others, that Architecture on this accomit is an imitative art, we consider to be altogether fanciful ; and, if we were asked to refer to any work where this h}-pothesis was disproved, we should point to the Dictionary of Quatremere de Quincy, and to the articles in tliat work attempting to prove it. 2227. The Grecian Architecture of the Romans is characterised by the introduction ot arches ; by the placing of several stories one over another ; and by great licence in every thing relating to proportion. It may be described as having little or none of that sim- plicity which is one of the greatest beauties of the Grecian temples ; but, on the other hand, it admits of all that variety of form, disposition, and details which is suitable for the construction of private houses. It is, in fact, the prevailing Architecture of Europe, and of the civOised world ; simply because it is the easiest, and, when without columns and decoration, the most economical, style of building. 2228. The Modern Roman, or Italian, Style of Architecture differs from the ancient Roman partly in the introduction of still greater licence in regard to columns and their dis- position, but chiefly in its aim to produce painter-like effects. There are several varieties of the Italian style, distingiushed by the names of the centuries in which they prevailed ; and some of these varieties contain a mixture of Gothic forms and mouldings. The great object of the modern Roman Architect seems to be, to produce harmony by means of various contrasts of form, and of light and shade. Enough of Roman details are exhibited by this manner, in even the plainest buildings used as country residences, to keep up the idea of style, and to create allusions to Roman Architecture ; but, when this is done, the next grand object appears to be, to please the eye of a judge of general com- position, rather than that of a senile follower of the five orders. We have already expressed (§ 1933) how highly we approve of this stjle, as being economical, and suit- able for dwellings for the general mass of society. 2229. The Gothic Style, characterised, as we have already observed, by vertical lines, or lines pointing upwards, consists of many varieties : some of them so delicate and peculiar, that they are difficult to describe. In almost all of them, Hosking obsenes, " the arch is considered the index to the variety, as the column is to the different orders in columnar Architecture." After the very excellent essay by Mr. Trotman on this style (§ 1872), it is unnecessary here to enter into details; but we must obser\e, that all the different varieties of Gothic Architecture are, in an especial manner, adapted for domestic use. In no style is xmity of form and system more easily given and main- tained ; and, in Britain more especially, none is better calculated for producing emotion, for the reason before stated; vi2., that almost every one who has been in the habit of frequenting a country church is familiar with its details. The superiority of this style to the Grecian, Roman, or Italian, in a scientific point of view, is well known to every one at all acquainted with the principles of construction. This superiority was for the first time pointed out in detail to the English reader by Dr. Anderson, in a series of essays, published in his Recreations in Arts and Xatural History. Before the appearance of these essays, the merits of the Gothic style were not at all understood. It is now acknowledged by the first Architects, that the ancients knew very little of the science of constniction ; and the precepts of Vitruvius and Pliny on that subject are considered as imperfect or erroneous. It is also allowed that " the strength and duration of the EgT,-ptian, Greek, and Roman structures are more owing to the quantity and goodness of their materials, than to any great art in putting them together." ( Chambers.) There is more constructive skill shown in Salisbury and others of our cathedrals," Mr. Gwilt observes, " than in all the works of the ancients put together." An ingenious hj-po- thesis on the origin of Gothic Architecture, by Sir James Hall, who considered wicker- work and the interlacing of young trees as its original type, is about as plausible as the h}-pothesis of the hut as the type of Grecian Architecture. In the admirable work of Seroux d'Agincourt, it is proved that the first Gothic building in Italy was an excavation 112h COTTAGK, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. in a soft rock ; the coved ceilings and the arches to the doors and other openings being finished in imitation of the Grecian ogee inoulding. It is clear also from Mr. Trot- maiVs essay, and the work of Mr. Rickman, tliat the Gothic style originated in an imitation of tlie Roman. Tlie reader who wishes to study the different varieties of Gothic, or Pointed, Architecture inay turn back to Mr. Trotinan's essay, or have recourse to Mr. Rickman's succinct, and, at the same time, comprehensive, work on that subject. 2230. The Elizabethan, or Old English, Style, or rather manner, of building, is to the Gothic, what the Modern Italian is to the Roman : it is a mongrel style (inore so, indeed, than the Italian), composed of Roman and Gothic details. From its extensive use in the mansions of this country, at a time when some of the largest were built, it has come to be considered as peculiarly appropriate to country residences. Perhaps, as a British domestic style, it has more interesting associations connected with it than any other ; and there is nothing in its forms and details but what may readily be adapted to every modem convenience and luxury. 2231. There are various other subordinate Styles or Manners of building, to which the student may have recourse, in order to store his mind with ideas, and enable him to produce novelty in connection with excellence. Tliere is the Egyptian style, character- ised by its colossal forms and massive grandeur ; from which, however, but few ideas can be derived applicable to domestic purposes ; and the Chinese style, the tyi}e of which is a tent, but which, as far as it is known in this country, seems by no means a complete system in itself. There appear to be two styles or manners in India ; one, the Hindoo Arcliitecture, analogous to the Egyptian, tlie type of both being an excavation in the fi'ont of a rock, or on the side of a hill ; and the other, bearing some resemblance to the European pointed style, and which has been called the Indian Gothic. This style is also sometimes called Arabian, Saracenic, or Moorish Architecture ; and is an interesting and fanciful style, which owes its birth to the Mahometan religion. All these styles and varieties of styles will be found described in Letters on the Principles of Design in Architecture, and in tlie History and Analysis of all the Principal Styles of Architecture ; both small and cheap books, easily to be procured. See also the very excellent Treatise on Arcliitecture and Building, by William Hosking, Esq. 2232. On the Subject of Style in Architecture much more might here be said; but we conceive it of far greater importance that the reader should understand the general principles of composition, than that he should become learned in the details of any par- ticular style. Hitherto Architecture has been too generally considered as consisting of an accurate display of the features and details of the best precedents of some particular style, without reference to abstract principles of composition ; but we think that tlie student who would excel in this art should, in the first instance, have recourse to the study of general composition ; and should consider the study of the Grecian and Roman orders, and of their various proportions and mouldings, as altogether subordinate. We are persuaded that the leading causes why Architecture has made such little progress in this country are, the general neglect by Architects of imiversal principles, and the almost exclusive attention paid by them to precedents and to established rules. Were we to direct the studies of a youth intended for the profession of an Architect, the very last part of the course of instruction which we should prescribe to him would be the study of the five orders. We consider them about as necessary to good sense, and good taste, in Domestic Architecture, as the study of the Greek and Latin languages is to the knowledge of what is good sense and good taste in the general conduct of life. Before, however, we recommended any youth to study Architecture as a profession, we would endeavour to ascertain, upon phrenological principles, or from general observation, whe- ther his organisation was favourable for that pursuit. One of the grand causes of the slow advancement of all the arts of taste, and of the great prevalence of mediocrity among artists, is, the utter neglect of this preliminary measure on the part of their parents or advisers. Young men are articled to Architects, or sent to study painting or sculpture in academies, on the same priiicijile as they are brought up to the common trades of life ; and the result is, that, instead of men of native genius being, by cultivation, rendered skilful artists, the same degree of instruction, bestowed on men not possessing any natural talent, only produces mechanical artisans, or servile imitators of what has been done by their predecessors. LIBRARY North Carolina State College GLOSSARIAL INDEX. The Referencet are to the Paragraphs where the Term occurs for the first time j and where it is explained and illustrated, when necessary, by a Figure. XlBACVS, a square forming the upper member of tlie capital of a column, on which the architrave rests. Aberthaw limestone; 1(>24. Abutment, the sohd part of a pier from which an arch springs. lu carpentrj-, the junction of two pieces of timber, one supporting the other, at right angles. Acrospire, l£o2. A. .v., So7. Angle of repose, S05. Angle rack, 751, fig. 771. Angular chimneys, 463, tigs. 409 and 410. AntiS, 1835. Anthracite, or blind coal, a peculiar kind of coal, emitting very little smoke. Anti^orrosire paint, 546. Apez. summit. Apron for a veranda, 156. Apron lining, 8oo. Aprons of lead in Scotland, 83, fig 1 1, 935. Arabesque, 2023. Arbor, Hot. Arris, 235. Arris girders are thicker in the middle than at each end, 1270. Arris rails, S69. Ashlar work, 185. Ashlering. or ash-lining, 1597. Astragal and hollow sash bar, 239, fig. 233. Astragals, 168. B. Back laps, 928. Back putty, ?^. Back-filled rabbet head, 282. Back-lilted, oi filleted, 200. Backings, °:39. Backs and elbows, 239, fig. 237. Bag of hops, 1274. Bailey's comvosition, 527. Balk, or Baulk, 1207. Bails and points, 10S9. Baluster, a short circular pillar, from a Greek word signifying the flower of the wild pomegranate: it is commonly a small column, bellied out in the middle, soniewbat in the form of that fruit. See figs. 151, 1&4, 241, &c. Bands, 983. Banker, a stone or wooden bench. Bank hurdle, 1038. Biirgate stone, 1244. Barge boards, 200, figs. 181, 299. Barge stones, 114. Barn cloth, SS9. Barn-door lift, 889. Barrel curb, 238. Barrel drain'', 1596. Bartisan, 18C0. Bast matting, 688. Bat, 1125. Batted, 933. Battening, 2-35. Battering, 234. B.iulks, or Balks, 1 102. Bay window. See Oriel window. Bays, divisions of a barn^ 776. Brad and batten, o,. Bead, hutt, and square back door, 239, fig. 233. Bead flush door, 2.39, fig. 239. Beadinsfor ceilings, 470, tig. 418. Beam-filling, 234. Bearers, 83. Beauchamp's British plate, 698. Bedding and pointing, 468. Bedding bond plates and lintels in loam, 245. Bedding ovens, ^c. \S53. Bedscrew, 662, fig. 701. Bell trap, 237, figs. 222 to 224. Beveled, 82 ; grounds, 239 ; caps to gate-posit, 869. Bilgets, 1066. Binders, tie-beams. See fig. 142, k. Binding joists, 83. Bird's-eye view, 1826. Bird's-mouth splay, 4i2, fig. 375. Blinded, 1206. Blocked, 1585. Blocking cornice, ng. 1683. Blocking course, 74. Blushes in plastering, 982. Botection mouldings, 1889. Bond stone, 95l. Bond timber, 235. Bonnet blinds, 558. Boothy, 01 Bothy, 1131. Borders, 239. Bore of a pump, the hoUow inside: Bosses, no, fig. 369. 5oMi>, or Booihy, 1330 and 1337. Boulk, or .BflK/A", 1311. Box-beds, 658, 1338. Boxes for blinds, o5i. Boxes for hunters, stables containing each only onj horse. Braces, 83. Bracing, 921. Bradded, 238. Breaking joint, laying bricks, tiles, &c., in such manner as to have the joints of one line come in the middle of the other. Breaks forward, 2093. Breast water-wheel, 1242. Breast tree, 1103. Brechin, 757, 1390. Brestsummers, girders. Brick coins, 79. Brick dressings, 459. Brick nagging, 79. Brick-on-edge vails, 302. Brick trimmer, lo/6. Bricks laid in bed, 79. Bridlings, 1066. Broached, pointed. Broached ashlar, 1089. Broached tails, 1074. Buhl work is a term applied to borders of coloured wood or metal, let into articles of furniture. The process is as follows: — Two pieces of veneer, of two colours, are put together, with paper between them, each being glued to the paper. Upon the surface of the upper one is placed the print or drawing of an ornamental border, the outlines of which are cut through by means of a very fine saw, made of a watch-spring. The parts are then separated ; that which was taken from the dark wood is let into the light wood, and vice versd. Built in the hjart, 910. BulFs-eye, Id, i. BuiPs-eye rack, 751, fig. , ,3. But and ben, a kitchen and parlour. Butt and square door, 84. Butt back fiaps, i39. Butt hinges. &4. fig. 65. Bush faggots, 1038. Byres, cowhouses, 894. C. Cabers, 1081. Campanile, bell turret, or watchtower. Canted corners, 939. Canterbury, for holding music books, 2123. 1126 GLOSSARIAL INDEX. Cantilevers, 53. Caoutchouc, Indian rubber. Cap (^a mill, 12G0. Capping, 2.'39. Carcass of a building, 524. Carriage for staircase, 2>9, 250. Cart shades, 1089. Carved trusses, 2093. Catacombs, 91fi. Cat bar, 1072. Catch-pieces, 8SP. Causeway, 1073. Causewayed, paved witli pebbles, or irregular. shaped stones. Cenotaphs, 1985. Centre.point hinges, 1112. Centring, 238. CAacf, 1311. Chacked, 1066. Chain-plate, fig. 884. Chain-work, 321. Chamfered, or Champhered, 1204. Chased, 85. Chasings, 79. Checked down on, 1778. Cheek-pieces, 889. CAfcse of apples, 1297 and 136. Dutch barns, 816. Dttic/i rick-stand, 816. Dynamics, the science of moving forces. E. Eaves, the margin, or edge, of a roof, overhanging the walls. Edges shot, 15S4 and \B9~. Elbow-buckets, 1243. Endless cloth, a piece of cloth sewed together at the extreme ends. Enfilade, 1852. English bond, 338. Entablature, the horizontal mass placed upon Grecian columns. It consists of three parts, the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice. Equidistant, 1221. Escutcheon of a lock, 624. Expanding recess, 1849. Expanding rising, 1849. Expression, such a disposition of the forms or lines of a building, as to show or express the purpose for which it is designed. See 60. Facings, 168. Fali of land, 36 square yards. Falling style of a gate, the style in which the latch is fixed. False ebony, 551. Fan blinds, 557. Fan groin, 1897. Fanners, a winnowing machine. Farmery, 7<)4. Fascia, a band or broad fillet. Fastening rods, for cattle, 887, fig. 904. Feather-edged, 83. Feeding-ports, 1 136. Ferrol, 15S9. Figure of a drain, 1141. Fillet, a narrow vertical band. The slips between the flutings of pillars are also called fillets. Filleted rooms, figs. 470 to 476. FUling ill li.itels, 1066. Finials, 1836, 1883. Finished off, 238. Fir, as used by builders, 84. Fir keys, strutting-pleces. Fire-bricks are formed of a clay very free from sand or iron, which does not vitrify from heat, 599. Fire of malt, 1262. Firestone, 238. Fireiuood, wood used for building in Paris, of the same dimensions as that employed as fuel, 767. Firrings, 1584. First floor. In Scotland, the first floor is the ground floor ; in England, the first-floor is up one pair of stairs. Flagstones, large stones, sawn or split into thin laminae, having a flat smooth surface. Flanched np, 234. Flanches of grating, 306, fig. 282. Flanged. A flange is a projection round the edge of a pipe, or other article in metal, to admit of its being fastened to a similar projection by screws or rivets. Flank trees, 1102. Flaps, 61.3. Flat, 182!. Flat-bedded stones, 909. Flat. ruled joiat, 234. Flatted crown glass, 2093. Flatted point, 242. flattened, or obtuse, arch, 1884. Flemish bond, 338. Floats, and Float-boards, 1241. Floorcloths, 687. Flush, 79. Flush brass bolts, bolts let into the woodwork, so as not to project beyond the face of it. Flushed solid in inortar, 234 Flushed up between the joints ; pointed, or filled up smooth,with mortar. Fly.board, fig. 1155. Fly-brackets, 631. Flyers, 1586. Fly.wire, 853. Fodder-cribs, 969. Fodder-rack, 889, fig. 908. Foddering-bay, a place in a stable or cow-house for keeping green food, hay, &c. Foddering-passage, for conveying food to cattle. Foils and cusps, 1850. Folding camp bed, called also a horse bed, 653. Folding floors, 239. Foldiitg gates, gates opening in the middle ; or hinged, like folding window-shutters, so that one part may fold back over another. Folding handles, 1115. Folding hinge, 694. Folding register grate, 145S Footing, foundations. i Footings of walls, fig. 883. Fotherum, 912. Frame, four pieces of wood joined together at right angles. Framed work, frames of wood, having the panels filled in with mud, lath and plaster, turf, &c , to serve as walls. Freestone, any stone that can be worked by the saw and chisel. French casements, windows opening in the middle, and hinged on the sides. French polish, 2109. Fresco, 578. Fret, an ornament consisting of one or more fillets, at equal distances either vertically or horizontally. Fuel, orflre, chamber of a grate, the space enclosed by the bars, where the fuel is ignited Furnace pot, 981. Gable tops, 1088. Galley, the kitchen of a ship. Gallinaceous fowls, common cocks and hens, tur- keys, &c. Galloivay cope, 1204 Gangway, 1176. Gargells, 1893. Gargoyles, 1893. Garnet hinges, 84. Garreted joints, 79. Garron nails, 1066. Ga'ige for tiling, 819. Gauged arches, 234. Geometrical stairs, stairs having a circular well-hole in the centre. German silver, 698. Getting malt well up in the back, 1262. Gin wheel, a wheel with an upright shaft, and with the teeth or cogs in a horizontal rim ; used for raising materials from pits. Girder, the principal beam of a floor. Giving malt gi-ound, 1262. Glazed tiles, 954. Go-cart, 697. Go-gin, 697 Good astragal windows, 927. Good blocking-courses, ^1. Gothic Architecture, 1871. Gothic framework for windows, 552, figs. 480 and 481. Graining, a mode of imitating the veins of difierent kinds of wood by painting. Gravid, in calf. Grecian architraves and mouldings, 60. Grey lime, 234. Gj-ey stocks, bricks made of mavly clav, 234. Grieve, 1050. Grip, 941. Grooved gates, 732. Grounds, beveled, 84. Grounds, in carpentry, 232. Groundshot waterivheels, 1241 Gi-outed, 234. Grouted foundations, 478. Gudgeon, 609. Guiding rod, 1278. Gussets, 1586. Gymp, 1684. H. Hair for hops, 1270. Half couples, 920. 1128 GLOSSAillAL INDEX. Half-tester bedstead, 650. Halved and spiked, 83, 2 i8. Halved on joists, 44+. Hamlin's mastic, or Mastic cement, 527. Hammels, 1129. Hammer.dressed, 1092. Handrail, or Upright rail, 2)9, fig. 241. Hanging.post, the post to which a gate is hung. Haras, studs, 751. Hardware, 984. Hardwood, 1103. Harling, or roughcasting, 529 and 530. Harvesters, 972. Hafch.hole, 888. Hatchway, 115.5. Headboard, a board at the back of a bedstead, covered with a part of thebed-hangings, called the headpiece. Headrail, fig. R95. Headstyle of a gate, style to which is fixed the hasp for the latch. Headers and stretchers, 25. Hearted and packed, 1088. Heel.post, 753. Hewn works, parts composed of hewn stone. Hip rafters, 83. Hipped. A roof is said to be hipped when the ends present a sloping surface, instead of a gable or pediment. Hips, truncated parts of a roof Hips and valleys, 238. Hobs, ledges by the side of a grate, 601, fig. 539. Ho/c^ast, 251. fig. 246. Hollow tile drain, 79. Hollow-workedframes, 445, fig 576 Holm, 1354. Hood-moulding, fig. 1625. Hoop chips, ^ffl . Hop-bine, 1274. Hop. oast, 1270. Horns to doors, 1066. Horse bed, origin of the common folding beds. Horsed, 983. Hot plate, 1481. Uot-water box; fig. 276. Hough, 1141. Housed, 239. House place in Cheshire, 1152 Hummelling machine, for taking the awns oflCbarley Husking oats, cleansing them from the husks. Hutches, small boxes, or dens, for keeping rabbits. Hydrostatic bed, 667. I. Imitation marble, 1916. Impost, fig. 869. Jn and out bands, 981. In and out tie, 981. Inband rybats, 1074. In.bonds, 910. Ingoings, 911. Ingoing windows, 944. Inlaid floors. See Parqucllcd floors. Inverted arches, 234. 7ron 6>vc/t, 177.5. />-on A-Aofi, 1943 ; cases of cast iron for the ends oi pieces of timber in the construction of roofs, or bridges of large span. Iron straight-edge, 234. Iron turn, a piece of iron, two or three inches long, with a square hole at one end, which works on another piece of iron, of about the same length, fixed in the wall like the hook of a strap hinge, by means of two projecting studs. The lower part of this hook is square, so as to fit the square hole in the iron turn ; and the upper part is cjMindri- cal, so as to allow the turn, when lifted up, to move round upon it. Hence, to fasten back a shutter, the turn must be slipped on the square part of the hook, where it will remain fixed ; and, to relieve the shutter, the turn nuist be slipped up, so that it may move round on the cylindrical part. In the accompanying figure, a is the shutter ; b, the turn ; c, the pin on which the turn moves ; and d d, the two irons into which the latter is riveted, and which are leaded into the wall. Isonietrical perspective is a term applied to a pro- jection made in rays parallel to the diagonal of a cube, upon a plane perpendicular thereto. Italian style, 1993. Jack can, 1443. Jib brackets, 613. Joggled on, 83. Jointer, 234. Jumper, 613. Jumping-holes, 613. Jutted sills, 1778. K. Keeps, 1108. King.post, the middle post of a roof, 85. Kiln tile, 798. Kneading-trough, 629. Knot, 242. Knotted, 986. Labels, 213, fig. 314, 485, 486, 488. Lacing-courses, 1758. Lancet ivindow, 1882, Landing-stone, 237. Landlord's fixtures, 586. Lantern skylight, 1856. Latchet, 983. Latent, hidden. Lateral thrust, the weight, or rather pressure, of materials sidewise. Lath, 80. Lath, plaster, float, and set, 235. Lathing diagonally, 235. Lead aprons, 85, 240. Lead-headed nails, 8,% Lead flashings, 85, 234. Lead lights in quarry, ISfli Lean-to roof, a roof the rafters of which lean against the waii of another building. I.ever handle, 754. Linie riddlings, pieces of lime which will not pass through a riddle. Li7ne shells, 1283. Lime-white, 80. Linings, 83. Lintels, 83, 22a Lip of a cider press, 1297. Liquor for making malt, 1262. Listed boards, sorted, or rather matched, so as to make the floor appear all of one colour Listings, 849. Lithic paints, stone paint, 528. Loggia, a porch or small veranda, 1450. Loose horse, a horse not tied up in a stall. Loose house, 1091. Loose stable, a stable not having any division oJ stalls, or place for tying up a horse. Lopers, 624. Lord Stanhope's composition, 1789 Louvre. See Luffcr-boards. Louvert, lantern. Low-pitched roqf, where there is little slope from tlie ridge.tiles to the eaves, 185. Loiu room windmvs, 983. /.. P. F., 1806. Lujf'er-boards, 5,5.5. I.itggajie chair, 147"'. GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 1 129 M. • Make good, 79. Malic acid, acid found in apples, pears, &c Mail chamber, l'id5. Malt couch, 798. Malt plough, li;62, 6g. 1126. Mange, 1938. Manhole, opening in a cess.pool, drain, &c., large enough to admit a man to clean it out when re- quisite. Manholes are usually fitted with a close cover when not in use. Mantels, 82. Marquetterie, 2010. MUled lead, 85. Milled slate, 237. Match planes, 297. Mathematical tiling, 547, figs. 461 to 465. Meglip, for painting in imitation of oak, 638. Metal spouts, 984. Middle to middle, 983. Milk paint, 575. MiU loft, 1100. Mitre wheel, a wheel fitted in a particular manner, so as to work one into another. Mitred, 1122. Monied out, 1058. Mortise holes, 1586. Mortised locks, 239. Moulded nosings, 250. Mowsteads, 889, fig. 909. Mud walls, 159. Mullions, or Munnions, the fixed vertical divisions of a window in the Gothic or Elizabethan style. Munting, or Muntins, the centre vertical piece which divides the panels of a door, 512. Must, 1324. N. Neckings, 1586. Newcastle second crown glass. See Crown glass, Neivels, 239. fig. 241. Nagging flat, 83. Norfolk thumb latch, 84, fig. 67. Northumberland nuirtar, 980. Nosings to stairs, 849. Oak stages, 238. Office-houses, farm buildings. Ogee moulding, called also cyma reversa ; a mould, ing nearly in the form of an S. Old tiles preferred, 849. Open filleting, 869. Open sparred frame, a frame filled in with lattice- work at short distances asunder. Oriel, or bay, window, 215 ; called also a compass window. An oriel window is a projecting window in an upper story ; a bay window is a similar one on the ground floor, generally consisting of two beveled sides and a centre ; and a bow window is a projecting window, also on the grouna floor, but semicircular, or curvilinear. Overlap, 154. Oversailing, 4o9. Overshot water-wheel, 1243. Ovolo moulding, or egg-shaped, generally applied to Doric columns. Ouolo sash-bars, 84, 239, fig. 23t Pair of grates, 988. Palliasses, 663. Paneled piers, piers having sunk panels. Panels, sunk surfaces in frames. Pantiles, hollow tiles, 114. Paper carpets, 685. Papin's digester, 1353. Parapet, a dwarf wall or palisading. Pargelted, 79, 234, 849. Parquetted, or inlaid, floors, floors laid with small pieces of wood, fitted into each other in regular figures, 2010. Parting, 983. Paste fur papering rontns, %c., 685. Patent fircad line, 675. 6 Patent windmill sails, 1260. Patera, 851. Pavilion roof, a roof sloping or hipped 'equally on all sides. Pebble-dashed, 1435. Pebble.pave, lay with small round stones. Pediment roof, roof with a pediment at one end. Pendants, fig! 181. Penstock, 1241. Penslones, 987. Penthouse, 238. Pickling wheat, steeping it in salt and water. Piece, a quantity of half-malted corn, 1262 and 1263. Piends, 1216. Pien- trees, 1102. Piens of a roqf, 935. Pier, a pillar without any regular base or capitaL Pigeon-hole manner qf building walls, 374, fig. 334. Pilasters, rectangular pillars. Pillar, an upright support of some regular figure in the plan. Pinacotkeca, 1851. Pine, as used by builder Pining, 990. Pinnacle, 99. Pin-raU, 983. Pis^ walls, 25. Pitched roof, 983. Pitching yards, paving yards. Pivot, 798. Planceer, 239, fig. 241. Planishing, 2043. Planted moulding, 983. Plate, 1137. Plateau glasses, 677. Platiing-course, 1300. Plinth, 64. Ploughed and tongued, 478, fig. 422. Pocket of hops, 1274. Pointed, 79. Pointed Architecture, 1872. Pointed perpendicular, 1884. Poleplate, 168 ; a beam, or piece of timber, supported on the ends of the tie-beams, or principal rafters of a roof, over which are fixed the lower ends of the common rafters. See fig. 142, m. Polished pavement, 1778. Polygonal Tiails, 551, fig. 477. Portable legs, 651, fig. 67a Post windmills, 1258. Press bedsteads, 655. Prime, 242. Poudrette, 743. Principal quarters, 83. Principals, 983. Profile chiimicy-pieces, 237. Proper boxings, 239. Proper door-cases, 84, 239. Proper ledged door, 84, 239. Properly gathered, 234. Puddled. Puddle is a mixture of clayey loam and water, well incorporated together ; and to puddle is to place this material in a stratum in any posi- tion where it will prevent water from penetrating through. Pug mill, 1291. Pugging, 1806. Pulborough stone, 1244. PuUey rack, 669, fig. 707 Pulley sides, 983L Puncheons, 869. Purlins, horizontal pieces of timber, supported by the principal rafters of a roof. Puzzle latch, 832. Puzzolana, volcanic earth, or rather decomposed lava, found near Naples. It consists of silica, alumina, and oxide of iron ; and is used princi- pally to form cement under water. Py> amidol label, 1883. Pyroligneous acid, acid extracted from wood. Q. Quarries of brick earth, square paving-tiles. Quarries of glass, 213. Quarry-slone, 248. Queen-posts, the side-posts of a roof. Quill of a fountain, 1975. Quirk moulding. A quirk in a moulding signifies a sharp turn. Quoins, corners. IISO GLOSSARIAL INDEX". R. BkIi and dah, 840. Jiahhct-licads of ivinduws, or Ribhcl-licc.ds, 282, fig. mi, '2(K. liahhit hutches, 7fiO. Itacc for tail-water, 124+. lUicIc 'and horse, HM, , 467, fig. 416. Sinking on collars, 1477. Sizes fixed for bricks, 274, Skeleton roofs, 766. Skewback, 79, 234. Skewstones, 947. Skirting, 84, 237. Slabs of trees, 5i9. Slate-boarding, boards placed on the roof, on which to nail the slates : the same as sarking. Slates are generally known by the following names, the sizes of each description being annexed : Doubles, 1 ft. by 6 in. ; Ladies, 1 ft. 3 in. by 8 in.; Countesses, 1 ft. 8 in. by 11 in. ; Duchesses, 2 ft. by 1 ft. ; Imperials, and patent slates, 2| ft. by 2 ft. ; and Welsh rags, and Queen's, 3 ft. by 2 ft. See Jf'i/att's patent slates. Slates rendered, 935. Sleepers, 442. Sleepy Water, 1975. Slider, 627. Sliding hatches, covers or shutters fitted in grooves. Sliding shackle, 942. .S7;> centres to arches, 219, fig. 245. Slips, 82. Slots, 1316. Sluice, 1243. Small couples, 920. S7nithy, forge. Smock windmill, 1259, 1260. Sneck, 990. Soffits, 234, 239. Sole tree, 1206. Sorted in courses, 81. Span of an arch, 79. Spandrils for doorsteps, 79, 237 ; for staircase, 2.;9, fig. 241. Spare house, place for a sick horse, &c. Spark-plate, 799. Sparrow pot, 550, fig. 468. Spars, common rafters, 98i Spai-s, 985. Specification, 233. Spei/ timber, 1064. Spiked, 83. Spit, spade. Spits for drying haddocks or herrings, 739, Spits, or broaches, 122. Splashing trails, 542, Splats, 2108. GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 1131 Splayed elOoas, 239, fig. 237. Sp/aj/s, 79. Spring roller for closing doors, f g. 274. Spring stay irons, 8-1, 2^9, fig. 23tj. Spurs, 1015. Spur.w/ieel, 1100. Square of slating, 90. Square qf carpenter's work, 860. Stacked, horsed. Stajff heads, 2.39, fig. 24.3. Stalks for chimneys, 935. Stanchion bars, 239. Standard, -Ho. Standard grates, 981. Slaiulard rack, 153, figs. 783, 784. Steening a tvell or cesspool, 79. Steilsfor sheep, 766. Stenciling, 578. Sfcp-Jtashing, 1589. Stepped gable, I89a Stercoral, 743. Stink-trap, SS. Stirrer, 1313. S/ocA /ocAs, 84, fig. 69. Stone for a cider mill, 801. Stone joggles, 1305. Sfowe »«orff/, 1244. StoHe tabling, 363, fig. 321. Stones laid tn random courses, 79. Stones prepaixd, 79. Stones pruperly headed, 79. Stoothed, 925. Sfoothing, 925, 980. S/<>/)i, 2j9 S/o;-e p/gs, * earing pigs. Storm-head windows, 455, fig. 386. S/orv »os/.', posts supporting a building, 869, fig. 891. Stourbridse lumps, 599. Straighteil, 936. Strop-iro>is, 1584. String-course, horizontal band, 451. String courses, 344. String 7nouldings, 440, fig. 370. Strings of the stairs, -235, figs. 241, 242. 67)7- tion of a bust. Thill, or train, horse, the horse winch is put between the shafts of a cart or waggon. Thorough, the space in which a water-mill works. Three-barred doors, lOSl. Thresh ing.mill course, the circular space upin which the horse walks when turning the gin wheel be- longing to a threshing-machine. Th roughed, U35. Throated, 82, 237. Tic ken, Qoo. Tie, a piece of timber or iron, acting as a string or tie, to keep two things together wl)ich have a tendency to fall asunder. Tie-beams, 83. Tie-rods, 420, fies. 351, and 354. Titters, 1584. Tilting _miets, 83. Tongued, 239. Tontine system, 1568. Ton weight, ship measurement, 510. Tooled, 82, 237. Top plates, wall plates. Top stones, 1092. Torched, 1302. Torus moulding, a semicircle bttivccn two rectan- gles, 239, fig. 240. Toirel horse, 692. Tower windmili, 1259 and 1260. Tracery, 1882, fig. 1617. Transept. When a church is built in the form of a cross, the two shorter limbs are called transepts. Transom, a cross beam forming the horizontal bar of a window in the Gothic or Elizabethan style. Tread, the horizontal part of a step or stair. Trap to water-elosel, 4(U, fig. 413. Trelliswork, reticulated or netlike framing, made of thin bars of wood, and generally used as sup- ports for verandas, &.-c. Trenail, 1940, a wooden pin, or nail. Tressel, 2.'!5. Trevises 1070, or Travis, 1 136. Trimmed, 83, Trimmer arches, 234. Trimmers, 234. Tripoli, a kind of stone used by lapidaries for po. lishing jewels, 2(X)7. Truncated, cut off. Trundle, or lantern, 1260. Trunks, or tubes of boards, for ventilation, 750. Tubular legs for chairs, 639, fig. 65a Tumbler luck, 1585. Tinn latch, 602, fig. 54.3. Turnpike staircase, 1909 ; astaircasewherethestairs wind round a central newel reaching from the tc^ to the bottom. Tympanum, 1577. U. Urate, 743. Underground braces, 867, fig. 8S8. Under-racks, 1214. Underpinned sills, 234. Undershot water-wheel, 1241. Union Joints, 1443. V. f'alley gutter, 1350. Vanes, 1241. I'enetian blinds, 556. f'enetian frame, 1585. f'ents, 981. Verge slates, end slates, 83. Verges, 849. Vertical and horizontal bond. A'ertical bond is a course of bricks, stone, or other materials, tend- ing to support or strengthen the building verti. eally : horizontal bond is a similar course, tentUng 1139 GLOSSARIAL INDEX. to bind or tie together the building horizontally. See fig. 32C. Vertical windmill, 1257. Vestibvle, an ante-hall, or lobby, or inner porch. Voussoir, 805. W. Wall-docJis, 925. Wall head tablings, 93a Wall-hold, 1100. ffall-fiooks, 85. Jf'all-plales, horizontal pieces of wood laid on wall s to support the rafters, 83. Wall-straps, 925. Wanes, 238. ll'arpings, 1070. Washed off, 1117. Water-boxes, in Derbyshire, 1377. Water-tables, or Weatherings, a species of ledge left in walls at the place from which upwards the thickness of the wall is diminished. Water-trunks, 84. Water -verged, 1117. Wattled work, frames filled in with stakes or osier twigs, interlaced in the manner of basket work. Ways, 234. Weather-boarding, feather-edged boards, lapped and nailed on each other, ^o as to prevent wind or rain passing through. Weather -tiling, tiles for covering walls, 459, figs. S92 to 402. Weathered, 939. Webbing, 630. Welding, the union of two pieces of iron by heating and hammering. Well-holes, 234. Well-seasoned timber, S>oZ. Welsh cornice, 4,'»9. "■"'** htmps, large bricks made of fire-clay, 599. Wet larder, 1707. Whinstcnes, 912. Whitewash, 533 to 536, and from 570 to 572, Wicker hurdles, 1038. Winders, 1586. Wind-pinnings, 234. Wind-shaft, 1260. Wijidlass, wheel and pinion for raising weights. pyindoiu boards, rounded, 84. Window canopies, 561, figs. 496 to 500. Window dressings, 1929. Window frames, deal-cased, 84. Window frames, properly bedded, 79 Windows, hung folding, 445. Windsor chair, 639. Wire blinds, 560. Wirecloth, very fine latticework of wire. Wire spi-ings, 66.'>. Wire stays, 639, fig. 650 Wooden bricks, 83, 238. Wooden model for a mill, 1244. Wooden palisade, 16 1, tig. 134. Working floo}-s, 1262. Worm tube, for heating wine, 1443. Wyatt's patent slates. Wyatt was Arcliitect to George III. : he introduced a new mod;; of slat- ing with very large thin sl.ites, laid on rafters of much less elevation than any other kind of slating, and with the breadth of the laps much less. Im- perial slates are usually employed for this purpose, as they have their lower edges sawn smooth, and have, consequently, a much neater appearance. York landing, 1586. Y, Zostira marina, or sea.wrack grass, 650l GENERAL INDEX. mere the letter p. does not occur, 5 '^ fo be understood. iiDJUSTMEXT of construction to pecuniary means, principle of, i!lSl. Agreement for building a watcrmill, 1250, 1252, 1254. Agricultural manufactures, buildings for, 803. Air-trap, or stink-trap, for cottages, 2-37, 502. Alton Towers, valley-garden of, 1669; scenery of, 1669. American scrubbing-brush, 1384. American stove, 1377. Apparatus for cooking by gas, 1445 and 2044 ; for baking by hot water, loll ; by steam, 1510. Approach roads to villas, principle* of laying out, 1647. Arabesque ornaments for villas, 2023. Architect's fee for designing cottages, 254. Architects, their efforts hitherto chiefly directed to public buildings, 1. Architectural conservatories, 1952. Architectural flower-garden, 1963. Architectural gardens of villas, 1650. Architectural ornaments for gardens, 1967. Architectural style relatively to natural situation, 1652. Architecture, influence of, on taste and morals, 1. Armorial sculptures on the exterior of villas, 2000. Aviaries and menageries, 1949 ; at Cobham Hall, 1951. Aviary at Knowlesly Hall, 1950. B. Bakehouse for farmeries, 727. Baker's oven, improved form of, 1507, 1508; with pouitry.house over, 1,508; improved form, by Mr. Hicks, 15(»9; for high-pressure steam, 1510; by hot water, 1512 ; by gas, 1515. Baker's patent mangle, 1381. Barge-boards for cottages, and other external orna- ments, 550. Barley-chor>per, or hummelling machine, 1402. Barn for ii jy, 781 ; for maize, 782. Barns for corn, 774. Barns, fittings-up for, 1395. Beau Ideal Villa, 1675. See English villa, beau ideal of. Bed cupboard, 2132. Bedding. See Cottage furniture. Bed.room and dressing-room, furniture of 2128. Bed-rooms, proper colouring for, 2021. Beds. See Cottage furniture. Bedsteads for villas, 2166. Bed.steps, 2131. Bee-houses for a farmery, 792. Bell-hanging for cottage!-, 590 ; for inns, 1473 ; for villas, 2069. Billiard tables, 1856, 2081. Blinds, outside, for villas, 2002. Boilers for cottage washhouses, 598. Bookcases for villas, 2093, 2158. Book-stands, 2121. Boothies, or lodges for single ploughmen, 1335, 1337. Bowling greens ir inns, 1430. Box-beds, use of, 1336. Brandt's test for proving building stone, 2185. Brewery for ■I'lllas, by Mr. Vokins, 2050 j by Messrs. Cottam and HaUen, 2051. Brewhouse of farmeries, 728. Brick-kiln, 1290. Bricklayer's work for a water-mill, 1246. Bricklayer's work of a farmery, 849, 86S, Bricks of the time of Henry VJll., 274. Bridges for gardens, 1970. Bridle for cows, 1390. Bronze, to imitate by painting, 551. Bruges stove, 59i. Building-stone, test for proving, 2185. Bullet-proof blinds, 557. Burges's stove, 2060. Bury Hill farmery and farmhouse, 846 ; specification or particular for, 849. Busts in gardens, 1982. Calf.houses and cattle-sheds, fixtures for, 1390 Calf.houses, models for, 760. Candelabras, 2127. Card table, 2117. Carpenter's and smith's yard for farmeries, 820. Carpenter's and joiner's work of a farmery, 852, 869, 919, 983, 989, 1064, 1100, 1207. Carpenter's and joiner's work for a water-mill, 1251. Carpenter's shop and smithy for a farmery, 790. Cascades for garden scenery, 1971. Cast-iron bedstead, 1407. Cattle, houses, models for, 756. Cattle-sheds, models for, 761 to 763. Cattle-sheds and calf-pen, fixtures for, 1390. Cellars of farmeries, 713 to 718. Cements for stuccoing cottages, 527, 532. Cess-pools for liquid manure, construction of, 16. Chadley's chimney-bar for cottages, 602. Chailey, cottage villa at, 1823. Chairs for a nursery, 2145. Chairs for drawingrooms, 2108, 2162, SIGS. Chairs for the dining-rooms of villas, 2(i8G, 2156. Chairs for the halls of villas, 2078, 2152. Cheese-press, 1380. Chess tables, 2120. Cheval glass, 2140. Chiffoniers, 2113. Chimney-glass, 2129. Chimney-pieces for cottages, 588, 589. Chimney-pieces for villas, 2063. Chimney-pots, called tall-boys, 432, 4<)3. Chimney-tops, designs for, 1794. Chimney tops for cottages, 29, 64. Cheese-room of farmeries, 732, 733. Chubb's patent latches, 1598. Churns for farm dairies, 13S0. Cider.house, 735, 801. Cider-house, mill, and press, 1295, 1310. Cider-press, 1295, 1318 ; implements, 1312 ; Kent's cider-press, 1316 ; stirrer, 1313 ; scoop, l.;i5 ; racking-can, 1319 ; tunpail, 1320 ; dropjiing- bag, 1321; bottling-bench, 1322; bottle-box, 1313. Cinder-sifter, 1385. Cinder-sifter for a farm-house, 1365. Circular stables, 1937, Cleaning-place of farmeries, 723. Coal.house and wood-house of farmeries, 721. Colouring of furniture, 642 to 646. Colouring of rooms, 2013. Colouring the interiors of cottages, 570 to 574. Colonnades of villas, 1665. Compositions for the exterior colcurnig of cottages, 534 to 541. Conditions, specification, &c., for building a v. U, 1802. 1134 GENERAL INDEX. Conservatories, arcliitcctural, 1932 ; aspect and position, 1953 ; dimensions, 1954 ; mode of grow- ing the plants, 1955 ; construction, 195fi ; mode of heating, 1957 ; architectural style, 1958 ; economical conservatory, 1959 ; detached con- servatory, 1960 ; conservatory at Alton Towers, I960; conservatory not architectural, 1961; at Bretton Hall, 1961. Conservatory at Alton Towers, 1070. Consol tables, 2110. Cooking and heating by gas, 1-145, 2044. Cooking.hearths of confectioners, how formed, 1502. Cooking-stoves for cottages, 594. Copper cramps, why prelFerred to iroli, 1599. Cornices for cottages, 566. Corn-mill, portable, 1404. Corn-mills, 797. Corn. mills to be driven by water, 1240 ; by wind, 1256. Corrugated iron for roofs and other parts of con- struction in farm buildings, 420. Cottage, ambulatory, 515 ; ambulatory and co- operative, 516. Cottage, one constructed of turf, and lined with brick, 386. Cottage at Chingford in Essex, 438. Cottage-building, as generally practised, 400. Cottage, English, for ploughmen, 1341. Cottage, French, for ploughmen, requisites of, ac- cording to Morel-Vind^, 1361 ; construction of the oven and warming-stove, 1362. Cottage for ploughmen by Mr. Marriage, 1368. Cottage ovens, how to form, 1356. Cottage, portable, for emigrants, 509 ; sent to the Swan River by Mr. Manning, 513; used as a sub- stitute for a country residence on the banks of the Thames, 514. Cottage villa in the Gothic style, 1759 ; at Edin- burgh, 1776. Cottages, castellated, 164,439; Indian, 171 ; Eliza- bethan, 164, 310, 320; Scotch, 455. Cottages, co-operative, 308. Cottage, covering tiles for, 1368. Cottage colleges, 486, 493. Cottage decayed, improvement of, .359. Cottages, double, observations on, 370. Cottages erected at Shooter's Hill, 4S0 ; at Aber. sythan, 481. Cottages, external ornaments for, 1368. Cottages, exterior finishing of, 517, 526. Cottages, fitting-up of, 519, 586. Cottages, fixtures of, 520, 591. Cottages for farm labourers, 1331. Cottages for labourers, competition, plans for, sent in to the Highland Society of Scotland, 1368. Cottages for ploughmen, fixtures and furniture for, 1406. Cottages for ploughmen of the Carse of Gowrie, 1.j35. Cottages for ploughmen, specification for, 1351. Cottages for farm servants, "795. Cottage for a village tradesman, 362. Cottages for lodging horses and cattle in the ground floor, 203. Cottages for milestones, 142. Cottages for Northumberland farmeries, 988. Cottages, furniture of, 521. Cottages, heating the floors of, by steam, 1334. Cottages, heating of, from the back of the kitchen fire, 314; heating of, from the back of the parlour fire, 340. Cottages, interior finishing of, 518, 564. Cottages on the Duke of Buccleugh's estate, in Dumfriesshire, 260 ; in Wigtonshire, 260. Cottage ovens, 596. Couches, 2104. Covered seats for gardens, 1969. Cow-houses, models for, 757 to 759. Cribs for villas, 2144. Criticism, principles of, in architecture, 2175; ana. lytical criticism, 2176 ; synthetical criticism, 2176 ; fitness, 2179; of purpose, 2180; of construction, 2181 ; in strength and durability, 2182 ; mortar, 2186; soliditv, 2187; preservation from decay, 2187; from "fire, 2188; expression of purpose, 2195; of style, 2201. Cubic form, advantages of, in buildmg, 2194. Cnbitt's patent mill sails, 9.55. Cupboards, rising, for inns, 1457 ; rising cui)board used by confectioners, 1457 ; in large inns, 1457. D. Dairy and poultry-house, at Sj ndal House, 1947 i at Alnwick castle, 1948. Dairy furniture, fittings-up, &c., 1.380. Dairy of farmeries, 729 to 731. Decoration of villas, 1994. Demesne and park of Beau Ideal Villa,17:34. Designs for buildings, use of, to an architect, 3. Devonports, 2114. Dining-room, proper colouring for, 2018. Dining-tables for villas, 2085. Dog-kennels at Garth, 1945. Dog-kennel for a farmery, 793. Door-hinges for cottages, 70, 84, 210, .317. Doors of cottages, to render ornamental, 551. Doors of the rooms of villas, 2067. Drainage of a farmery, 821 to 825. Drawingroom, interior of, 2131. Drawingroom, furniture of, 2104. Dressers and sideboards for inns, 1459. Dressing-room and bed-room, furniture of, 2132. Dressing-tables, 2138. Drying.closet for cottages, 306. Drying-closets for villas, 2053. Drying-shed of farmer;. Ecart^ table, 2 9. Edinburgh ref m mangle, 1381. Egyptian orna ents for villas, 2024. EUzabethan furniture for villas, 2168 ; chairs, 2169 ; tables, 2170. English villa, beau ideal of, 1675; situation, 1676 ; approach, 1677 ; architecture, 1678; gardening, 1679 ; porch, 1680 ; entrance hall, 1681 ; gallery, 1682; saloon, 16S3 ; drawingroom, 1684; library, 1685; dining-room, 1086; study, 1687; stairc.ise, 1688; up-Sr gallery, 1689; bed-rooms, 1690; nurseries, 1691 ; governess's sitting-room, 1692 ; servants' bed-rooms, 1693 ; housemaid's closet, 1694; bath-room, 1695; servants' offices, 1696; housekeeper's room, 1697; still-room, 1698; store-closet, 1699 ; china.closet, 1700 ; butler's pantry, 1701 ; servants' hall, 1702; men's washing and dressing closet, 1703; knife and shoe cleaning place, 1704 ; kitchen, 1705 ; scullery, 1706 ; lar- ders, 1707; salting-room, 1708; smoking-room, 1709; w.ishhouse, 1710; kitchen court and its appu- inances, 1711; cellars, 1712; ice-house, 171' stable offices, 1715 ; dog-kennel, 1721 ; kit i-garden, 1723 ; pleasure-garden, 1724 ; far. 726, 1729 ; dairy, 1728 ; village, 1732 ; de. mesiii. 1734; appendages to, 1934. Entran ' ^-'oif and gates, 1987. Estimate -'■ 107o^.,V"' 1146, 1199. Excavator t .y, '• V'^. Expression in collates, ..lustration I/., ,, • Farm house, model plan of, 740 ; larger plan, 741 ; French model farm house, 742. Farm house and offices, finishings, fittings-up, and furniture for, 1369 ; recesses for cupboards, clo. sets, and pantries, 1372; parlour fireplace and grate, 1373 ; furniture for the living and sleeping, rooms, 1374; Vokins's bookcase, 1374; Saul's bookcase and writing-desk clock, l')75 ; farm, house sideboards, 1376 ; kitchens, 1377 ; tables, 1377 ; kitchen ranges,1377 ; back kitchen furniture and fixtures, 1378 ; store-room furniture, 1379 ; weighing-machine, 1379; dairy fittings-up and furniture, 1380 ; washing-machine, 1381 ; mangle, 1381 ; brewhouse fixtures and furniture, 1382 ; cider-house, 1383; cleaning house, 1384 ; cinder. sifters, 138.5. Farm houses and farmeries, designs for, 703; model designs, 709. Farmeries, miscellaneous designs for, 845 ; Bury Hill farm and bailift"'s house, 846; Halstone farm house and farmery, 882 ; Gatestack farm house and farmery, 885; farmhouse and faimery in Buckinghamshire, 888; in Ayrshire, 891; .at Inglestonc, 894; at Alton, 89() ; at Grebten, 900; in Dumfriesshire, 902 , at Kiddenwood, 904 ; in Norfolk, with a windmill attached, 954; in North- umberland, 956; at Cocklaw East, Farm, 960; GENERAL INDEX. 1135 at N'ewnham Barns, &'H; in Northumberland, lor fourteen ploughs, 96$ ; for ten ploughs, 971 ; for five ploughs, 973; for three ploughs, P/j; at Hallington NewHouses, 977 ; Calley,9y7 ; French farmery, KiOl ; Chalfont Lodge, 1019; farmery in Strathniore, lOiti ; in tlie Carse of Gowrie, KJ29 ; of Harlestone, 1033; in the West Highlands, IWl ; in the west of Scotland, 10*5 ; inRoss-shire, 104S ; in the parish of Tarbet, 1051 ; Greendykes, 1085; Elcho Castle, 1130; for a publican and a butcher, 1149; for a cheese dairy, 1152; for a mixed stock farm in a hilly country, 1154; for a garden farm, 1173; for a farm of 5t)0 acres, 1176 ; for a dairv farm of 5C0 acres, 1182; for a clay, land farm' of 500 acres, 11S6; for a feeding and breeding farm, 1190 ; for a cottage farm of 25 acres, 1193; for a cottage farm of 30 acres, 1196; a farmery displaying architectural style, 1220 ; temporary, portable, and ambulatory farmeries, 1229. Farmeries, finishings, fittings-up, fixtures, and furniture for, 13S7 ; chimney-tops for the steam- engines of threshing-machines, 1387 ; chimney- tops for ploughmen's cottages, 13S7 ; internal finishing of stables, 1389 ; harness pegs, 1389 ; gruel troughs, pails, and other utensils, 1389 ; cow- house fixtures and furniture, 1390; Normandy brechin, 1390: pi— -^r!-'; 1392; rabbit, poultry, r •■ , 'i3&4 ; barns, 1395, steam ...;„ mocnine, 1S95 ; sawmills, 1400; porta- b.c threshing-machines, 1401 : corn-milU, 1402 ; steaming apparatus, 1405; furi lure and fixtures for single ploughmen's rooms, i ^ ij. Farmeries, situation for, 833, S'_}i size of, 835; position of the farm house, fT^i; materials of, 838 ; roofs, 843 ; details of consti'tiction, 844. Farmeries, temporary, portable, and ambulatory, 1239 ; to convert monasteries, manufactories, and other buildings into, 12;>4. Farmeries, yards for, 807 ; corn-yard, 808 ; rick, vard, 809 to 816 ; hay.yard, 817 ; dung-yard, 818 ; poultry-yard, 819 ; carpenter and smith's yard, 820. Farmery, details of the various parts pf, 744. Farmery, extra-buildings for, 7t'6. ;' Filtering of water for cottages, 30, 305. Filtering-machine, 698. Filtering-machine for villas, 2077. Fire, protection against, by public institutions, 1793. Fireplaces for inns, 1458. Fireproof houses, general remarks on, 1809. Fireproof kitchen ceiling, 1803. Fireproof villa, 17S1 ; Mr. Varden's plan for render- ing villas fireproof, 1787 ; Mr. Frost's plan, 1788; French method, 1789; to render comi<]pn houses fireproof, 1790 ; to render houses all Sdy built comparatively fireproof, 1791 ; to rendei. ' ()• build, ing completely fireproof, 17t2. ^ ' Firescreens, 21'-'8. ^.' Firescreens for the dining-rooms of viVI;>(!.^2('S9. Fitness in architecture^T^3Z ; foot- stools. 634 ; forms, SjH ; benches, 636 ; chairs, 637 ; lobby chairs, 63S ; kitchen chairs, &j9 ; parlour chairs, 640, 647, 648 ; bed-room chairs, 649; sofas, 650; sofa beds, 651; beds of various sorts, 652 ; folding camp-beds, 653 ; stump bedsteads, 654 ; press bedsteads, 655 ; half-tester bedsteads, 656; couch beds, 657; box beds, 658; French beds, 659; tent beds, 660; four-post bedsteads, 661 ; cribs, 662 ; bedding, 663 ; substitutes for stuffing cottage beds, 664 ; wire springs, 665 ; air- beds and cushions, 666; hydrostatic beds, 667; bed-furniture, 668 ; window curtains, 669 to 672; window blinds, 673 to 675 ; looking-glasses, 676 ; dressing-glasses, 677 ; fenders, 678 ; carpets and their substitutes, 680 to 685; hearth rugs, 686; floorcloths, 687; mats, 688; scrapers, 689; hat and umbrella stands, 691 ; towel-horse, 692 ; clock- cases, 693 ; folding-screen, 694 ; firescreens, 695 ; clothes-horses and stands for brushing coats, 696; children's furniture, 697 ; other articles of cottage furniture, 698; pictures, sculptures, and other internal ornaments, 699. Furniture for inns, 1470. Furnitureof villas, 2071 J of villa offices, 2074; for halls, &.C., 2078. Garden structures, 1967. Gardener's house, model of, 1751. Gardens on the roofs of dwelling houses and offices, 1963. Gas, apparatus for boiling water by, in inns, 1445. Gas-cooking apparatus, by Hicks, 1445; by Mallet, 2044. Gas-lighting the rooms of villas, 2055. Gates and entrance-lodges, 1987. Gates for farm-yards and fields, 827 ; Buchanan's field-gate, 8-8 ; Cottam and Hallen's field-gate, 829; the Closeburn field-gate, 830 ; gates to open by machinery, 831 ; a gate with a puzzle latch, 832. Gates of farmeries, 953. Ge"graphical carpets, 683. German stove, 2058. Gilding in decorating villas, 2035. Gladstone's improvement on the threshing-machine. 1391'. Glazier's, painter's, and plumber's work for a water- mill, 1253. Glazier's, plumber's, and painter's work for a farm- ery, 854. Goathouses, 768. Gothic architecture, essay on, by Mr. Trottman, 1871 to 19f(7. Gothic architecture, as adapted to farmeries, 837. Gothic furniture, 2117; for the hall, 2149: for the parlour and dining-room, 2154 ; for the li. brary, 2158; for the drawingroom, 2162 ; for bed- rooms, 2166. Granary, model for, ; /8 ; French granary, 779. Grass-plots for drying clothes for cottagers, form- ation of, 188. Grates for cottage parlours and bed-rooms, 599, 6C0. 601, 692. Guttering for cottages, 180, 190. Gutters between roofs, mode of preventing thesnow, when thawing, from penetrating the roof, 1350. H. Hand mill for cottages, 612. Hanging of pictures in villas, 2062. Hangings for the rooms of villas, 2012. Harness room for a farmery, 787. Hat and cloak pins for cottages, 611. Heating and cooking by gas, 1445. Heating cottages by hot water, S06, 498 ; Perkins's method, 500 ; by steam, 498. Heating the rooms of villas, 2056. Hedge alehouse, design for, 1446. Hedges for cottage-gardens, 128. Hicks's improved oven, 1509,1510; apparatus for cooking by gas, 1515. 1136 GENERAL INDEX. Hop.kiliis, 799; BR constructeU at Faniham, 1270: as improved by Read, 1272. 1. Ice-house, 736 to 738. Inlaid floors, 2010. Inn, design for, iri the Italian style, 1422, 1438, 1450 ; in the Gothic style, 1426 ; in the Italian Gothic manner, 1434; in the old English style, 1442; hedge alehouse, 1446 ; in the Swiss style, 1452. Inns and public-houses, principles Cor designing. Inns, appendages to, 1417; garden, 1417, 1423, &c. ; skittle-ground. 1429; bowling-green, 1430; tea- garden, 1431. Inns, finishing, fittings-up, and furniture for, 1460; general store-room, 1460; larders, 1461; napkin press, 1460; cast-iron wine binns, 1462; bottling and corking machine, 1463; Mallet's air-peg for ale and beer casks, 1463 ; washing and wringing machine, 1464; drying-closet, 1466; water-closet, 1467; cleaning-shed, 1468; heating-stove, 1471; apparatus for lighting by gas, 1472; system of bells and speaking-pipes, 1473; descending table, 1474; system of distributing water; bath, 1476; Anglo-American stove, 1477; chairs of cast and wrought iron, 1477 ; benches and tables, 1477 ; other articles, 1478 and 1479. Inns, fittings-up and fixtures for, 1443 ; bar, coun. ter, beer, and spirit apparatus, 1443 ; gas cooking apparatus, 1445 ; water-closet, 1453, 1467 ; for the bar, 1456; rising cupboards, 1457; folding register-grates, 1458 ; sinks, 1459 ; side-tables and dressers, 1459; for the store-room and larder, 1460, 1461 ; cellars, 1463 ; washing and wringnig machine, 1464, USS; for the laundry, 1466- cleaning-house, 1468 ; baths, 147-'. ' Inns of Germany and other countries, 1410 ; of re. creation, 1410 ; motlel designs for inns, 1413 ; accommodations for the house, 1414 ; of the bar or ofllce, 1415; of the stable-court, 1416; of the grounds, 1417. Inns, situations for, 1419 ; style of, 1420. Interiors of rooms, in the Grecian style, 2091, 2103 2131 ; in the Gothic style, 2157, 2161, 2165; in' the Elizabethan style, 2173. Iron boards and fixed flaps for cottages, 613. Irregular buildings, beauties of, 117, 119, 120. Italian architecture, observations on, by Mr. Lamb. 1918 to 1933. Jeakes, his mode of fitting up sfewing-hearths in kitchens, 1501. Jerninghain, rich Gothic mansion at, 1864. Joiner's and carpenter's work of a farmery. 852 869,919,983,989,1064,1100,1207. ' Kilns for malt, 1262; for hops, 1270, 1272; for lime, 12S1 ; for bricks or tiles, and other purposes 1290. Kilns for malt, 798 ; for hops, 799 ; for general pur- poses, 800. "^ Kinzigthal, cottages in, 205. Kitchen-range in use near Leamington in War. wickshire, 2029. Kitchen-ranges, and cooking-apparatus, for inns, 1481. Kitchen-ranges, with baking and roasting ovens, 1504. Kitchen-ranges for cottages, 592; Mallet's cottage, range, 593. Kitchens of inns, finishings, fittings-up, and furni- ture for, 1480. Kitchens of villas, fittings-up and fixtures for . 2029 ; a kitchen, by Mr. Mallet, 2030. Kitchens, principles and rules for fitting up, as laid down up Count Rumfor^^, 1482 to 15U0 ; practice usual in London, 1501. Knife-board, 1384. Ladder for cottage garrets, 180. Ladies, how they may educate themselves in Archi- tecture, and influence which that will have on tlie art. 1. Lady's work-table, 2115. Landscape architecture of Italy, specimens of. 1658. Landscape-gardening, how it may be acquired by an Architect, 1674. Larder and pantry of farmeries, 719. Laundry of farmeries, 726. Laxton's cinder-sifter, 1385. Library, interior of, 2161. "Library furniture for villas, 2092, 2158 Library tables for villas, 2(195, 2160. Library, proper colouring for, 1'020. Lighting the rooms of villas by gas, 2055. Limekiln, 802. Limekiln, as improved by Menteath, 1282 ; other forms, 1289. Liquid manure, tanks for, in a farmery, 825 826 * Locks, and other fastenings for cottages, 84. Lodging-places for animals, principles for designinsr 745 to 749. e 6> Loo tables, 21 la M. Mallet's apparatus for cooking by gas, 2044 Malt-houses, 798. Malt-kilns, designs for, 1262. Mansions, to convert into fjirmeries, 1234. Map of Beau Ideal Villa, park and farm, 1734 Mason's work for a farmery, 851. Mason's work for a farmery, 871, 90'), 981 1073 1088, 1201 ; for a water-mill, 1249. ' Menageries and aviaries, 1949; at Cobliam Hall. 1951. Menagery at Chiswick, 1951. Men's lodge (or a farmery, 794. Mignionette boxes of artificial stone, or Stafford. shire ware, 222. Milk.pans for dairies, 1380, 1947. Mill for cider, 1295, 1310. Mills for grinding corn, buildings for, 1237. Monasteries, to convert into farmeries, 1234 Mortar, prip.ciples of making, 2186. Music-room, furniture of, 2122. Music-stands, 2123. Music-stool, 2124. N. Normandy brechin, 1390. Notts stove, description of, 2059. Nursery furniture, 662, 696, 2143. O. . Oriel window for cottages, 215. Ornaments, Egyptian, for villas, 2024. Ornaments, mural, for terrace parapets, and archi- tectural gardens, 1966. Ottoman footstools, 2107. Ottomans, 2106. Outside blinds for cottages, 555 ; Venetian, 556 ; other varieties, 559 ; wire blinds, 560 ; for villas. 2002. Outside shutters for cottages, 553 ; shuttcr-blinds, 554. f ' , Ovens for baking bread, 1505 ; for burning green wood, 1506; for burning coal, 1507 ; for cottages, 596, 597; for inns, 1480; for roasting meat, construction of, 1503. Oxen-houses, models for, 764. Pagoda at Alton Towers, 1670. Paint, cheap sorts for cottages, 575, 577. Paint, the most suitable for the outside work of cottages, 546. Painter's,plumber's, and glazier's work of a farmery, 854, 870. 9H6, 993. Painter's, plumber's, and glazier's work for a water. mill, 1253. Painting of rooms, principles of, 2013. Painting the woodwork of cottages, 544 ; tiles for biicks, 545. Pantry and larder for villas, SOU. Papering the walls of cottages, 581 to 584; natural history paper, .584. Papin's digester, use of, for cottages, 1353.