JJortli (Carolina S>tatF This book was presented by Animal Industry Deut. SF487 H35 i CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES iillll'llllll 801949435 Z 3^.^95 S?:2! This book may be kept out TWO WEE! ONLY, and is subject to a fine of FP CENTS a day thereafter. It is due on t day indicated below: 3Je'476 7Jl'47H 28Ja49g llfeb49f 6M— D-45— Form 3 Earl B. Hawks. Science and Art of Poultry Culture By Earl B. Hawks, LL. B. ve\ A Practical Textbook of Poultry Husbandry in Its Various Branches Illustrated Price, $2.75 Published by the Author 1909 / COPYRIGHT, J 009 BY . EARL B. HAWKS. PREFACE. In placing this volume before the public, the author fully realizes the responsibility that rests upon one who assumes so grave an undertaking. The poultry industry has reached such proportions, the amount of capital invested is grow- ing so rapidly and the ultimate success of the individual is so necessary, that a treatise on the poultry industry should be compiled in the most careful and painstaking manner. Since childhood, poultry has had its allurements for the author, who spent his early years upon a farm. The train- ing given by the high school, the college, the university, and the subsequent practice of the law, has enabled the author to enjoy keenly the fancier's labors and assisted him to fully realize that in the field of poultry culture it is brains, not brawn, that win success. Whatever of merit is to be found in this treatise is largely due to the years of assistance given by various Govern- ment experiment stations throughout the United States and Canada, to the efficiency of the poultry journals, to the special treatises of value, to the splendid exhibitions, and to the practical experience of the author as a fancier, each of which has had a share in the general education leading to this volume. This education is opening to the author the possibilities that lie ahead for the student in poultrydom, and the vast extent and importance of this field in the com- mercial world. To Wm. E. Becker, is due the credit for valuable aid and the excellent chapter upon the " Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases of Poultry and their Proper Treatment," and who in turn wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Sal- mon and other prominent authorities. The author will feel that this volume will not have been in vain if it shall prove helpful and instructive to poultry lov- ers, whether they are beginners or veterans in the business or whether they are in college, on a city lot, or on the farm. Clinton, Wisconsin. Earl B. Hawks. " 87295 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter. Page. I. Introductory, 1 11. Poultry Anatomy, 10 III. Classes, Breeds and Varieties of Fowls, 12 IV. Practical Principles of Breeding and the Man- agement of Breeding Stock, 16 V. Egg Structure, Formation and Germ Develop- I ment, 38 ^^VI. IncuI)ation, 46 VII. Brooding 74 VI TI. Foods and Feeding 119 TX. Conducting an Egg Farm 120 X. Five Methods of Selecting the Laying Hen, ..129 i^XJ. Malting, 135 XII. Poultry Houses, Fixtures, Fences and Yards, .137 '' XIII. Conditioning and E.xhibiting Poultry, 195 iXIV. Poultry Judging, 218 pXV. Methods of Preserving Eggs, 223 JlXVI. Food Value of Poultry Products, 231 XVII. Capons and Caponizing, 265 U-XVIII. The Crate and Milk Feeding Industries, 272 v-XIX. Marketing the Commercial Egg 279 XX. Disposing of Stock and Eggs for Breeding Purposes 291 L-XICI. The Day-old Chick Industry, 296 ^XXII. Prel5aring and iMarketing Poultry and Its By- products 300 QCXTII. Carving a Fowl 318 -XXIV. A Few Table Delicacies P'rom Eggs and Poultry 321 , OCXV. Ducks and Geese 334 XXVI. Turkey Culture, 355 XXVII. Guinea Fowls, . . .371 X5^VIII. Raising Pigeons and Squabs 375 i/XXIX. Pheasant Culture, 389 L XXX. Accounts and Records 398 XXXI. Principles of Advertising, 411 XXXII. Organizing Associations 428 XXXIII. Vices Enemies, Parasites and Diseases of Poultry and Their Proper Treatment, 438 TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Area Studies, 144-145-147-148 Barred Plymouth Rocks, 80-98-135-425 Bird's Eye View of Poultry Plant, 75 Black Minorcas, 399-454 Black Orpington, 79-456 Black Langshans, 273-316 Breeding Chart, 23 Brood of Chinese Pheasants, 395 Brooder House, 165 Brown Leghorn 285 Buckeyes, 412-429 Bufif Cochins, 36-49 Buff Leghorn, 18 Buff Plymouth Rocks, 8-34 Caponizing Instruments 269 Catching Hoek, 184 Celeny Reuses and Coops, 160-161-162-163-164-166 Cornish Indians, 415-432 Egg Production Chart, 288 Helmet Pigeons 376-385 Light Brahmas, 310-319 Mottled Ancenas, 418 Poultryman's Chart, ■ 5 Rhode Island Reds 12-66-81-441 Score Card, 220 Silver Laced Wyandottes 232 Skeleton of Fowl 11 White Cochins, 3 White Plymouth Rocks, ■ • 202-207 White Wyandottes 27-31 Yard Studies, 187-188 INDEX. Accounts and Records and Forms 398, 426 Advertising: Ascertaining Value of ..424 Caring for Inquiries ...424 Copy 422 Eggs and Stock for Breeding 291 General Suggestions ...411 Mediums 414 Records of 426 Sliow Room 216 Ar Duckwing. Red Pyle. White. Black. Black-breasted Red. Brown Red. Birchen. Duckwing Golden. Duckwing Silver. Red Pyle. L White. ( Cornish. > White. -Black-breasted Red. — Black-breasted Red. — Black. Game Bantams 4 iSIalays I Malay Bantams L Sumatras ''Booted -White. B'-ahma ) ^^^ r Black. ; Buff. ; Partridge. I White. { Black-tailed. Japanese < Black. ' White. ( Bearded White. Polish - Buff Laced. ' Non-bearded. <, Black. ■ Wliit( Cochin Rose Comb I Seabrights j g^^l^J^P- Silkies — White. Sultans — WHiite. Frizzles — Any color. Classes, Breeds and Varieties 15 XII. TURKEYS XIII. DUCKS XIV. GEESE Aylesbury Cayuga . Call Crested East India Indian Runner . . Muscovy Pekln Rouen Swedish African Chinese Embden Egyptian Toulouse .Wild or Canadian Bronze. Black. Buff. N'arragansett. Slate. White. -White. —Black. ( Gray. "/ White. —White. —Black. — Colored. \ White. > White. —Colored. —Blue. —Gray. ( Brown. I White. —White. —Colored. —Gray. —Gray. Chapter IV. PRACTICAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING AND THE MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK. GENERAL. In presenting this chapter the aim will be to keep away from the too technical and the too scientific as largely as is consistent with a clear and lucid presentation of the subject. It should be borne in mind that the laws governing the reproduction of any living ^^rganism are very complex and as yet their depths have scarcely been fathomed. In the light of this, there is untold hon- or for the students who shall continue to unfold to the breeders of any living creatures such general or specific laws as will enable them to more surely attain to the object sought. A''ery earnestly do poultry lovers seek light in respect to improving their strains and this in- telligent study combined with careful selection seems to be accomplishing splendid results. In successful breeding there are so many specific. cau- tions, so much of applied knowledge, such simple yet intensive application to details that one is prone to sum the whole subject up and conclude by saying that the secret of success is brains, good foundation stock, proper mating and care. These elements well blended spell advance for poultry breeders. To ignore them means one more added to the list of failures. Again, a splendid sign of success is the fancier who is still pressing after further knowledge, whose flock show careful breeding and whose voice is never raised against 16 Practical Principles of Breeding 17 a brother fancier's birds. Start right and keep right is to end right. Objects of Breeding. In applying scientific principles to poultry raising, the central aim or the object in view will govern what course to follow. If the sole aim is egg production, or meat production, or the producing of a bird to con- form to Standard requirements, or the creation of a new variety, or whatever the object, it is clear that entirely different procedure will be required. Therefore, de- cide upon the object to be attained and let every energy spent be along scientific lines which will further the de- sired end. Technical Terms Explained. Breed. — A breed is a race ©f fewls having common characteristics. \'arieties are sub-divisi©ns ©f breeds. Strain. — A strain is a family of any variety ©f fowls line bred to a peint of development which differentiates it in some characteristic fr®m seme other family of the same variety. In those varieties where double mating is practiced each pen is really a sex strain. When new blood is introduced, the strain is temperarily br©ken. The mixing ©r amalgamati®n ®f strains is a ver)- dan- gerous procedure, especially in parti-C9l»red birds. ]\Iuch dishonest practice is prevalent in advertising strains. Alany so-called strains are in fact only trad';- marks. Heredity. — This term is capable of many defini- tions and its secrets are in part unknewn. For our pur- pose, it is that power in f©wls. when properly mated, to transmit to the egg-germ certain individual qualities or characteristics possessed by the parent stock. The poor qualities seem to be as easily transmitted as the good. Heredity is the powerful c©rnerstone of ad- 18 Science and Art of Poultry Culture SIxVGLE COMB BUFF LEGHORN. Courtesy of F. A. Tecktonius. Practical Principles of Breeding 19 vancement toward higher ideals. Some of the prin- ciples granted are as follows: Heredity is sometimes dominant or apparent. Again it is latent or obscure. These sometimes take a reversal in different genera- tions, the dominant becoming latent and the latent be- coming dominant. When this occurs, it is called atavism, reversion or tlirozving back. It is claimed that certain dominant characteristics of the sire usually appear in the female oft'spring, while those of the dam appear in the male progeny. Upon the heels of this comes a claimed principle that in each generation after the first a tendency is present for the females to revert to the type or characteristics of the original dam and the males to the original sire. In conjunction with both these prin- ciples, direct heredity tends to transmit the characteris- tics of both sire and dam to the offspring. The im- portance of known ancestry and line breeding now be- gins to appear. Mendel's Law of Heredity or Segre- gation is a new discovery of much value to science, al- though its application has but just begun. It is one more step in known principles of heredity and when the Alendelian characters are worked out in reference to poultry breeding it may prove of great interest to breeders. It should not be confused with dominance, as the latter is revertible while Mendel's law is uni- form and regular when the Mendelian characters are known. It is also claimed by men of character that they have succeeded in bringing about an organic modification of certain parts of a bird by the use of instruments, such as trimming an e.xtra point off a comb during several successive generations, thus inducing nature to transmit the constant correction of man. Hereditv is evervthing 20 Science and Art of Poultry Culture to poultry breeding and a study of this subject beyond what can be given in an article of this nature should be pursued. Intelligent stutly and application of the laws of breeding will govern heredity. The laws of heredity are also often affected by prepotency in either sex, by environment and other laws. Prepotency. — The tendency or ability of a parer^ to transmit to an offspring a certain characteristic m a more than ordinary degree is called prepotencv. Upon this depends the building up of a strain. Also the usual laws of inheritance may be overruled by prepotency. This is valuable in a bird of high qualities and is also ground for discarding a poor bird. Only by actual test can a bird's prepotency be determined. No breeder ever pens a male bird with his flock until he has determined what he will beget. Correlation and J'ariation. — Each bird has its own in- dividuality arising from inheritance as expressed by domi- nant and latent characteristics as changed by environment. This is variation. Correlation is the harmonious working together of all parts and functions of the body. When we force egg production, we weaken germ fertility. When we force early growth for market purposes, we also les- sen vitality along other lines. Aim to keep all parts in healthy condition and only by the slow, methodical process of selection can we correctly increase a special characteristic in a strain. Environment. — Environment may be defined as the sum total of every external influence surrounding the fowl from the passage of the germ life in the egg to the death of the matured bird. When one talks of incu- bation, of brooding, of feeding, of care, of climate, of temperature, or of any other phase of poultry culture, dealing with the germ life in the egg form or the later Practical Principles of Breeding 21 development of that life, he is talking directly of en- vironment. Therefore, in reality, we might justly say that right inheritance combined with correct environ- ment makes for perfection in poultry culture. Cross Breeding. — Cross breeding is the mating of fowls of different breeds, varieties or families. This is often used to accomplish some definite end, such as im- p.oving a low grade flock by the introduction of a pure- blood male, to improve a strain by new blood and, by some, to combine heavy breeds with the lighter egg- producing strains to obtain a better utility fowl. This latter is not considered the success that formerly was attributed to it and is falling into disuse. A pure-bred egg strain of any variety has proven the more satisfac- tory. Inbreeding. — Breeding very closely within the mem- bers of one family is called inbreeding. Some confuse line breeding with inbreeding and, in their lack of correct knowledge, decry line breeding. Line breeding and inbreed- ing may, in certain cases, be one and the same ; but no line breeder of judgment will allow inbreeding to be car- ried to a harmful point because he knows that inbreed- ing will transmit defects in double degree as quickly and often more quickly than strong points if certain conditions of vigor and prepotency are not considered. The novice need have no fear of correct line breeding because in any other way he must fail beyond a certain point. Line breeding may, in certain cases, be the ex- treme of inbreeding where justifiable. Line Breeding. — Line breeding is continuously mating in one line of descent. Inheritance is the natural law and intelligent selection of matings the human factor in successful line breeding. There must be a close study not to go beyond a certain limit in relationship 22 Science and Art ok Poultry Culture unless the characteristics and tendencies are harmon- ious. Upon the other hand, too close a limit may breed defects where vigor and prepotency are lacking. No intelligent line breeding can take place without the use of trap-nests or some method equally as certain in des- ignating the dam. Pedigree records are therefore es- sential, as will be clearly seen in the breeding chart shown. The pedigree may be made a valuable aid if it is used in conjunction with careful judgment in the selection of the individuals to keep up the line of de- scent. Close observation in mating is in fact placed by many as the most powerful factor in line breeding. On the other hand, breeding by pedigree without the proper mating selections has been the ruin of many a splen- did prospect. Let the pedigree record and the yard study go hand in hand. Proper mating requires a knowledge of many of these forces of heredity, breeding and care and a study of one involves a study of all. The breeding chart of that veteran poultry iancier, Mr. I_ K. Felch, is given with an explanation by ]\Ir. Felch which clearly shows the method of line breeding from an original pair of fowls and points out the truth of the statement that the original sire or dam may be the all-important factor in a strain. Many combinations may be made by a careful study of the chart, any of which are within the proper limits of line breeding. " Each dotted line represents the female as having been selected from the connected upper group, while the solid line shows the male as having been taken from the indicated upper, group. Each circle represents the progeny, to wit: female No. 1 mated with male No. 2 produces group No. 3, which is ^ the blood of the sire and dam. " Females from group No. 3. mated back to their own Practical Principles of Breeding 23 &k @;i © 24 Science and Art of Poultry Culture sire No. 2, produce group Xo. 5, which is ^ of the blood of the sire, No. 2, and ^ the blood of the dam, No. 1. " A male from group No. 3, mated back to his own dam, No. 1, produces group No. 4, which is ^4 of the blood of the dam. No. 1, and >4 the blood of the sire, No. 2. " We select a cockerel from group No. 5 and a pul- let from group No. 4, or zicc versa, wdiich will produce group No. 7. This is mathematically half the blood of each of the original pair. No. 1 and No. 2. This is a second step toward producing a new strain. " Females from No. 5 mated back to the original male, No. 2, produce group No. 8, that are J^s the blood of No. 2. And a cockerel from No. 4, mated back to the original dam, No. 1, produces group No. 6 that is Ys the blood of the original dam and only ^ of the blood of the original sire. " Again we select a male from No. 8 and females from No. 6 and for a third time produce chicks (in group No. 11) that are half the blood of each of the original pair. This is the third step in securing complete breeding of our new strain. In all this we have not broken the line of sires, for every one has come from a group in which the preponderance of blood was that of the original sire. Nos. 2, 8, 13 and 18 are virtually the blood of No. 2. " We have reached a point where we may wish to establish a male line whose blood is virtually that of our original dam, and we now select from No. 6 a male which we mate wnth a female from No. 4. and produce group No. 9, which is 13-16 the blood of the original dam, No.l, and 3-16 the blood of the sire. " Again we select a male from No. 9 and a female of the new strain No. 11. and produce group No. 14 Practical Principles of Breeding 25 which becomes 21-32 of the blood of the original dam, thus preserving her strain of the blood. "A male from No. 13, which is 13-16 the blood of the original sire. No. 2, mated to females from No. 10, which are 5-16 the blood of the original sire, No. 2, gives us a group No. 17, which is 9-16 the blood of said sire, while in No. 16 we have the new strain and in No. 18 the stram of our original sire No. 2. Thus we have three distinct strains, and by and with this systematic use we can go on breeding for all time to come." Helps in Mating. Equipment — \'ery little need be said at this place re- garding specific equipment, such as houses, lands and fix- tures, since any such will do so long as the elementary fac- tors of health and vigor in the stock may be maintained. Good and handy equipment saves time and possible danger from undue exposure and also assists in proper care. In short, make the surroundings as nearly ideal as the means at hand will justify. One indispensable fixture is the trap-nest or a substitute which is of equal value. Mating — ]\Iating is the key to the satisfactory advance in poultry breeding. It is the zenith of the applied knowl- edge of every known principle of breeding. All that is achieved by mating is the result of that application. Therefore, assuming that the fa.-.cier has studied well and understands the various laws of inheritance and environment, what follows will be more in the nature of aids to the memory. The first consideration will be to determine just what object we have in view in our matings. If it is for market poultry we must choose a breed or variety which matures quickly into the size and shape called for by t>. W, HULL UB^AKY North Carolina State College 26 Science and Art of Poultry Culture the consumer. If it be for eggs mainly, then the fowl which places the kind of egg demanded, the largest number of them in a }ear, and gets down to that busi- ness the earliest, is the bird wanted. If a perfect bird in type and color is desired, then choose as nearly a perfect parentage as is obtainable. No matter what the object, the future depends upon bu}ing the founda- tion stock of a reputable breeder who has line-bred it to a successful point, and at the same time maintained a vigorous constitution and strong reproductive power in each fowl. If the mating is to come from the breed- er's own flocks then this knowledge of the fowl's an- cestry is assured. The beginner should not fail to take cognizance of the fact that in mating the majority of varieties of chick- ens, two separate matings are required, one for males, called cockerel mating, and one for females, called pul- let mating. The pullets from the cockerel mating are not standard and are only valuable for future cockerel matings while the cockerels from the pullet mating are not standard and are valuable only for future pullet matings. This system of mating is termed double mat- ing. Single mating is where standard males and fe- males are both obtainable from the same mating. Double mating has grown to a point where single mating for exhibition birds is almost unknown in parti- colored fowls and is used extensively in solid colored fowls to produce sex, shape of body and other parts. Because of this, we really have two distinct sex sub- varieties in each variety. The breeder desires the stand- ard plumage of the barred rock cock bird. He choos- es dark females to mate to a standard male, thus ob- taining exhibition cockerels. He desires an exhibition pullet, so he chooses standard females with which he Practical Principles of Breeding 27 WHITE WYANDOTTE. Courtesy of Arthur C. Duston. 28 Science axu Art of Poultry Culture mates a male of pullet coloring. He has a breed whose combs are erect in the male and lopped in the female. He mates a standard female with a male whose comb is lopped, or a standard male with a female whose comb is erect thereby producing a greater proportion of birds with standard qualifications. The student will note that this breeder is merely taking advantage of certain laws of inheritance to produce certain results. Whether single or double mating is used for a definite result, the skill in mating lies at the basis of success. Whether one or the other is the better, or the more scientific, or the more natural, or the more complex, matters little since the fact remains that both are in vogue and are practiced, hence must be understood. Having decided upon the object to be attained and the method of mating, the next step will be to choose indi- vidual birds for the mating. From the breeding chart one can see that either the sire or the dam may be chosen to govern the ultimate preponderance of blood according to the selection made for the line of descent. The ideal would, perhaps, be to have both the dam and sire equally good for the object in view, at the be- ginning, thus gaining time and a nearer approach to perfection. If either were the better, then lean to the best original blood. Many claim that better result? flow from a strong sire because of certain influences ex- erted over a female by a male and that the male has much to do with shape. In either case, the sire and dam should be well known and then the results of their breeding will be fairly certain. Watch carefully every tendency in the offspring, again choosing in- telligently the second and future matings with an eye single to improvement. If a sire or dam proves to be an excellent getter do not fail to breed him or her as Practical Principles of Breeding 29 long as fertility exists. But do not use a sire later than the original sire whose powers have not been test- ed, even though he may be the son of an exceptional bird. To ignore this caution is to spell disaster to the progeny of such haphazard matings. In choosing the fowls for mating, health and sound bodily vigor are essential. A tendency to weakness is often inherited. [Maturity and an even, all around de- velopment are desired. Any faults in the male should not be evident in the females and z'ice versa. The male should be alert, aggressive and businesslike. Both sexes should as nearly approach the standard of excellence for the object as is possible, not neglecting weight. Results have usually been found satisfactory where the younger of either sex is mated to an older fowl of the other sex. For example, a cockerel to a yearling hen, or older hen, and a pullet to a cock-bird. This combination seems to combine vigor and fertility. Improving a Strain — All that has been given is ap- plicable at this time and in addition the introduction of new blood into the strain may at times be considered beneficial. To do tliis without running into the dan- gers of out-breeding is accomplished by proving the new^ blood. This is done by mating a known sire or dam to an outside female or male whose qualifications come within our intelligent judgment. Pf the offspring of this mating conform in their characteristics to the strain we are improving, then it is safe to introduce the blood of this ofifspring into our strain. Both in the introduction of new blood into the strain and in the improvement of the old, study to pick out for future matings the very best of the flock. Improvement should be general and not sectional. Consistent eflfort will be amply rewarded. 30 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Sterility — Sterility often occurs from causes well with- in the control of the breeder. Where a male has too many females, he is very apt to tire out and become sterile. He may even be valueless for more than one season because of this. A rest and better care is need- ed in such cases. Too long a rest may result poorly for his general health. Many times the male is not well matured or receives too little food because of his attention to the females at feeding- time. Weakness results and sterility follows. Sterility in either sex can only be told by tests. Females are also given to sterility from removable causes. Too many females to a male may result in non- service. Many male birds have favorites to the neglect of the non-favorites. A new male usually corrects the latter, while the former needs a division of the females. ]\Iany hens become sterile from being out of condition. Being excessively fat is the greatest enemy of fertility. Too many fluff feathers may often interfere with serv- ice. An excessive Qgg production may weaken the germ life. Serving Capacity of a Male— The number of females to male depends entirely upon the age and vigor of the male bird. No set rule can be laid down. An ac- tive cockerel well cared for has often run with and served well as many as forty birds. The same cock- erel in different quarters might be able to handle no more than ten or fifteen females. This also depends somewhat upon the number of laying hens in a flock a> they are usually more attentive to the male and therefore obtain more service to the neglect of the less productive hens. Again, this question depends upon the mode of serv- ice. Many claim that a vigorous male need impregnate Practical Principles of Breeding 31 WHITE WYANDOTTE. Courtesy of Arthur C. Duston. 32 SciEiNXE AND AkT OF PoULTRV CULTURE a female but few times during her laying period. Im- pregnation ma}- occur in a da}' or the sperm life may lie in the oviduct for a longer period awaiting a ripe ovum. One service has often impregnated a small clutch of eggs. Therefore it will be seen that a lusty cockerel under right management might serve many dozens of hens successfully. To stand a cockerel in stud in this way could easily be abused, hence judgment must be exercised not to impair the power of the male and at the same time surely impregnate every ovum. Cocks are not as strong servers as cockerels, as a rule, and should not be crowded as much as a younger bird. Every year weakens the reproductive powers of a male. A valuable bird should be given less to do and thereby his powers conserved ihr a longer period. Where more than one male is at large with a female, no set time can be assigned when one male will predom- inate in the offspring. If one is withdrawn, his in- fluence has been known to impregnate eggs for many days. It is usually safe to sa\- that three weeks will see a complete clearance. Nor is it safe to say that the first service will produce uniformity until tlie sperm is exhausted as it often happens that the second serv- ice will fertilize an ovum or a series of them which es- caped the first service in some manner. In conclusion, it is better to give a valuable male but few females to serve, although his powers may be much greater, and lessen his duties with age if it is de- sired to keep him. The service of other domestic fowls which do not pair off should be about one-half of that of chickens to be the most satisfactory. CoNniTIONING BREF.nERS. To have breeders in jjood condition for the best re- Practical Principles of Breeding 23 suits, one should begin several weeks before the eggs are to be saved for incubation purposes. Avoid any tendency to force for egg production. The care, the feed- ing, the yarding, every step taken should look only to develop a strong, active, vigorous sire and dam, and the result should be a perfect germ in every egg. Keep down mites, lice or other irritating troubles. If the fe- males are overfat, short ration them for a few days and be certain to give the male all he needs to eat as he rarely ever becomes overfat. If they are returned from some show, be sure to quarantine them for about two weeks to insure freedom from disease. Make the females exercise heavily as that imparts vigor and health. The germ life of an egg taken from a healthy, vigorous, well-cared-for mating will repay all effort spent in obtaining it. Care of Breeders. Feeding and Exercise — Having prepared the breeders to I^roduce a good germ, the care should now be to continue right conditions. The feeding should be considered with reference to climatic conditions and be balanced to give germ vitality. This means that the dam and sire should each receive such food as will give strength and vigor rather than tending toward the production of fat. Too much mash will tend to make the eggs watery or the offspring weak, or may force extra egg production. Too much of any one ration tends toward weakness in the parent stock. The chapter upon Foods and Feed- ing will give valuable information upon this subject. The main thing, after all, is not how scientific you feed but that variety enough be given that each bird may receive an opportunit\' to obtain not only what its own physical needs demand but also that the germ life may be as well supplied. To this add the other essential, ex- 34 SciExcK AND Art of L^oultkv Culture ercisc, and success is certain. Plenty of range is al- ways desirable when available. Season and Climate — The season of the year' and the climate will both be factors in the care of breeders. If they have been shijipcd from one climate to another, BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCK. Courtesy of N. M. McCullough. the difference in altitude or temperature, or both, may cause discomfort. The inconvenience from tempera- ture may be entirely overcome by varying the protec- tion and the feeding to meet the conditions. The vary- Practical Principles of Breeding 35 ing seasons must be considered as more of the heat- producing foods are desirable when dampness or chill- iness is present, while higher temperatures during warmer seasons would require less of such foods. Judgment should be exercised to harmonize the var- ious factors of environment to the fowl's comfort and needs. Special Care of tJic Sexes — Some care is needed for one sex that is not essential to the other because of individual needs. The males frequently fail to obtain enough food when given no extra care. Their tendency to call their mates, show them the food and keep away intruders very often takes their attention until all the food is gone or nearly so. To overcome this loss and at the same time not overfeed the females attach a small trough or receptacle to the wall of the pen just high enough to be out of the reach of the hens and yet within the reach of the male bird. This receptacle must be very narrow, or otherwise arranged not to allow the females to alight upon it and thus obtain the food. For some males,' where there is little difiference in the height of the sexes, other means, such as a private feeding place, are necessary. During the height of the breeding season, it may be well to give the sire extra meat and green food as well as grains. If a male is serving a number of females, removing him from their sight and hearing for a day or two will rest him and be no loss to the females. Such a rest every few days will beget stronger germs. Do not pen males together or keep them too long from fe- males, except during molt. Even young cockerels in- tended for breeding purposes are better raised with a few hens to teach them gendeness and attentiveness, 36 .Scii:.\ei-: a.xi Art P..L- ;v Culture as well as insure better developnient of the j^encrative organs. If the male should seem rather inattentive to his mates, it is well to arouse his latent nature by puttins? another active male in an adjoining pen for a short BFFF COCHIN. Courtesy of Dr. J. J. Haro. time. It is surprising how this influence stirs a sire to prompt and courteous attention. It sometimes hap- pens that the male is too attentive for the well-being of the flock. In such a case, it is well to provide more females or stand him at stud as often as is necessarv. Practical Principles of Breeding 37 Many use two males to a pen and keep more females by allowing each male the freedom of the flock every other day, but this destroys line breeding records where records are desired. The females require much less attention and should be raised apart from the young males, since the latter are inclined to attempt the exercise of their powers long before any necessity exists. This activity worries and retards the best development of the quieter sex. Pedigree. Line breeding is of value only when the record of such breeding is available. A pedigree makes this al- ways obtainable since the recorded ancestry is what constitutes a pedigree. Any breeder who is looking for success must record not only the names but also the characteristics of each bird in the line of descent, which will serve as a guide to each bird's value as a breeder. Line breeding by the use of trap nests is the best available method. Many breeders trap nest for pedi- grees the first year and use that record to pick out the breeding pens for the second year where a laying record is sought. It must not be forgotten that heavy producers during the fall and winter cannot at the same time be good breeding stock for the following spring, therefore an added reason exists for pedigrees for the first season so that the stock may be held nonproductive until the breeding season of the second year. Chapter V. EGG STRUCTURE, FORMATION AND GERM DEVELOPMENT. Structure. Shell — Take one or more eggs for study. The outer surface seems to be a hard mass of an even color. This is composed mainly of crystals of calcium car- bonate, colored by certain pigments which give the eggs of certain breeds and strains an even and char- acteristic color. This wall of calcareous crystals is porous, permitting of the ingress and egress of certain necessary and oftentimes unnecessary gases and other substances. These pores are, to a certain extent, closed by a mucilagenous coating given it just before expul- sion. This protection is not of long duration. This porousness is the basic condition upon which depends success or failure in egg preservation and incubation as well as of other important processes. The shell is ten per cent of the normal egg. Lining — Two layers of very thin tough lining lay next to the shell in an egg and closely adhere except where they separate to inclose the air cell at the large end of the egg. White or Albumen — Chiefly surrounding the yolk lies the white or albumen of the egg. It is in layers of varying density, the outer layers being the more watery. Extending from the yolk toward either end and almost passing through the albumen are two twisted, cordlike 38 Egg Structure 39 projections called chalazae. Some claim their office is to hold the yolk in position. The white is fifty-seven per cent of the normal egg and consists of eighty-six and one- half per cent water, twelve per cent protein and one and one-half per cent fats, minerals, etc. Yolk — The yellow portion of the eg-g is reallv soon composed of two separate and distinct parts, the em- bryonic and the vitelline, the former the life or em- bryo and the latter the food storehouse. The former surrounds the latter except that the embryonic portion below the blastoderm and toward the center of the vitelline is thickened, being connected to the outer por- tion by a narrow neck. The yolk is thirty-two per cent of the normal egg and consists of fifty per cent water, sixteen per cent protein, thirty-three per cent carbohy- drates and fats, and one per cent minerals, etc. Germ — The germ is the life or cell which develops into a distinct creation. The blastoderm is the skin or surface of the germ or embryo. The fertility of the germ can be determined by close observation. Some will more readily note the parts by means of a mag- nifying glass. If an egg is broken into a saucer, one will note, imbedded in the upper surface of the yolk, a small circular spot about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. Tlie fertile germ spot will appear with an outer rim or circle, clear or opaque, in the center of which are little white dots. The infertile germ lacks the circular rim and has a whitish appearance, covered by small clear spots. The fertile germ may shift some- what in appearance because some development may have taken place before the expulsion of the egg and the consequent checking of the growth of the blasto- derm by the egg becoming cool. Again, the subsequent 40 Science and Art oe Poultry Culture warming of other hens in the act of laying may have varied it to a small extent. ihe reason for keeping eggs intended for incuhation in a cool place is now becoming apparent. Egg Formation. Attached to the rear of the diaphragm, just below and to the left of the spinal column, will he found a cluster of minute egg cells in any female which may or may not lay in the near future. These will vary in size and development. This is the ovary region of the fe- male fowl. The more mature the female, the more cells seem present. Each one of these yellowish capsules contains an undeveloped egg or ovum enclosed within a membrane called the ovisac. This ovum has upon its surface a minute light spot which is the formative cen- ter of the egg' or its germ spot. This ovum enlarges and develops until it bursts from the ovisac and leaves the ovary passing down into the fallopian tube or ovi- duct. This oviduct, or egg tube, when in service, var- ies in size and folds within the abdominal cavity. Its actual length varies from eighteen to thirty inches in mature fowls. Within this duct, passing from the ovary to the cloaca is carried on the development of the ovum into the completed egg. Just before the egg cell leaves the ovary or soon after passing into the ovi- duct, the sperm from the male fowl enters through the membranes of the cell and unites with the formative center or germ life of the egg and fertilizes it. Pass- ing down the oviduct, the fertilized germ cell begins to divide, each half enlarging and again dividing un- til these units make up all the possibilities that lie latent in the egg. In rare cases this process of germ devel- opment has been carried out for too long a period Egg Structure 41 within the oviduct and when the egg is expelled and laid the cooling process kills the germ life. Passing through the mucous linings of the oviduct, forced through by a twisting movement of the muscles, the ovum develops, takes on the layers of albumen called the white of an egg, acquires the chalazae, next the soft shell or two outer membrane linings just below the shell, and lastly the coloring and the shell itself. The air cell between the linings is also provided for. Be- ing completed, the egg passes through the lower mouth of the oviduct called the cloaca and thence out of the vent into the nest. Frequent gathering and proper care will give good results when incubation proceeds. A few words upon deformed eggs will be proper at this time. Some discussion has arisen with refer- ence to the value of deformed eggs. Some have claimed excellent results from fowls raised from such eggs and claiming that the stock therefrom did not reproduce the errors. True it is that Nature tends to right her errors, yet there is the other law that like tends to be- get like. The general consensus of opinion leans strongly to the view that good fowls are not the com- mon result obtained from deformed eggs and that there is a strong tendency for the evil to be transmitted. The latter view seems the more tenable since a deformed egg is the result of some unnatural condition. If the unnatural condition was due to an accident, the ten- dency to produce a poor bird would not be strong. If due to some fvmctional disorder, then certainly the weakness would tend to be a constant evil in the line of descent. Otherwise, our laws of inheritance are of little force. The safe way would be to keep within the bounds of safety and reproduce only from well-shaped eggs. 42 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Practical Germ Development. The practical study of germ development or embry- ology, is one of great interest. The equipment needed is inexpensive. A few pure white plates or saucers, a mag- nifying lens, a -few sitting hens or an incubator, a sup- ply of eggs and a good tester are all that are required. Tester — The most important part of the equijjnient is the tester. The ordinary tester usually sent with an incubator will do, yet one which gives a stronger light is more desirable. Such may be obtained by using a strong calcium or electric light and a reflector or even a bicycle lamp may be brought into use. Either of these lights will need a hollow galvan- ized iron cylinder cover about six inches in diameter and twelve inches high. In one side of this cylinder, make a circular hole about five inches in diameter, the cen- ter of which will be on a level with the flame or light. Fit this opening with a tube about three inches long and which narrows down to a three inch mouth. .\ piece of thick black cloth is next placed over the mouth of the tube and held in place by a ring which fits over the tube closely. In the middle of this cloth an opening is made, a little smaller than an egg. Air may be sup- plied to the cylinder by several small holes near the bottom in the side opposite the tube. Testing — A dark room is best, although with all the shades down one can sometimes see fairly well. It is bet- ter to wait until late in the evening when a dark room is not available. Many use a small closet which has no window, for an egsi; testing room. Eacli egg is held against the light sidewise or endwise, depending upon whether one wishes to look against the light. While holding the egg against the opening, shift its position to facilitate observation. The large end toward the Egg Structure 43 opening will be found a good position at certain stages of incubation. P.rcparation — Having at hand the necessary equip- ment and a good source of supply for eggs (both white and .dark shelled), one may set quite a number either under a hen or in an incubator or both. Each day for several days, start to incubate a few more eggs properl}- dated in order that a comparison may be made between those several days along and those less devel- oped. Begin the study with the white-shelled eggs, since they are much more easily observed. Do not fail every day to study the eggs tested, by breaking them into a saucer. Groivth — Assuming that the eggs being incubated are of even fertility and strength, we find that by the ap- plication of heat the interrupted activity of the egg- germ is being resumed. Cells are multiplying rapidly. The formation of the various organs of the young fowl has begun. The blastoderm is increasing in size and shows a faint shadowy circle nearly one-half inch in diameter at the end of the first day. The brain and spinal cord are forming and many other parts will be- come visible to a good lens within a day or so. The blas- toderm will always float on the upper side of the egg. The second day the naked eye will note an increase in the size of the blastoderm as well as a deeper shad- ow. A streak, in front of which we will look for the embryo, has now appeared. The third day of incubation shows the blastoderm still larger and of a reddish color. The circulation of blood has begun. Note that the outer rim of the blas- toderm is darker than the center, caused by a larger border vein. Note a germ but one day old as well as one two days old and compare them with the one at hand. 44 Science and Art of Poultry Culture The ramifying circulatory system is quite visible with a small glass and should be plain to the naked eye. The third and fourth days may show eggs with no signs of development, they being infertile. Replace them for a little further study. Some may show a dark or red circle possibly an inch in diameter. This means that the germ has died through weakness or injury and the ring of blood is the result of a hemorrhage. If the germ had developed another day and died, a dark spot may have appeared which is the dead embryo. When unnatural cloudiness appears at the fifth or sixth day, the germ has died. Always open and study these va- riations in comparison with the live germ. Do not be penurious with eggs when studying germ life, as it is expense well invested. At the end of the fifth day, the embryo should be very distinct with the circulatory system at least half- way around the yolk and pushing across the air cell. If evaporation has been too hasty it dries out the al- bumen between the yolk and air cell causing it to thick- en and toughen thus hindering complete action. The embryo will be quite dark with a spot near one end which is the eye formation. Upon careful inspection there should be motion visible. By the eighth day the embryo should be a pretty lively creature with the blood vessels nearly or quite enclosing the yolk. The veins of the allantois or respiratory organ of the germ life has by this time ex- tended over the entire surface of the inner membrane or lining lying near the shell and enclosing all the e^g contents. Oxygen is furnished by the allantois to the developing germ. In about three or four more days the germ has assumed its real shape with every organ de- veloped and from now on it is a question of steady Egg Structure 45 growth under right conditions. About the four- teenth day the temperature rises in the incubator, caused by the increased activity of the developing hfe with- in. Any variations in appearances should be studied carefully. The air cell still shows empty and is rapidly increasing, due to the escape of gases formed within the shell and perhaps, by undue evaporation. Beginning about the nineteenth day, the tempera- ture again rises, caused by still further activity upon the part of the imprisoned birds. The air gell may be dif- ficult to find in some eggs. This is because the wee fowl has broken through the inner membraneous lin- ing into the air cell. This marks the beginning of the use of the lungs and a peep is likely to be heard from within the prison walls. In a few hours the pipping should begin and by the end of the twent}--first day all live chicks should be in their new world. Now make a study of the eggs not properly incubated. Note the enclosing of the yolk within the abdomen of the baby fowls just before pipping time and the sub- sequent closing up of the navel. Note through the whole period the obstruction given by the dark-shelled eggs against the rays of light. Study well to under- stand the causes of the failures in incubation, such as wrong temperatures, lack of vein development and the consequent starvation of the embryo, strangulation by unused albumen while pipping, death by exhaustion due to lack of sufficient air or by excessive early venti- lation, trouble from toughened or thick shells, and from many other causes really beyond and back of the period of incubation. Some of these causes will appear more clearly if one will study the natural and artificial in- cubation side by side, assuming that the natural method is the nearer correct of the tv/o. Chapter VI. INTUBATION. Gexeral. In suggesting a few of the principles of incubation we would desire the reader or student to realize how little is really known about the subject. One investi- gator believes he has solved aright certain elementary principles while another obtains the same results in an entirely different and seemingly antagonistic method. One believes that the cooling of eggs is a minor matter, another that it is all important. One supplies extra mois- ture, another does not. Some turn eggs kept before incubation, others deem it useless. One says a better hatch is obtained if the hen is denied free access to oyster shells, while another says nature will not allow the egg- shell to be unduly thick or hard. These and many other elements are the subject of much difference of honest opinion and we believe that science is traveling rap- idly toward the correct solution of these many problems. The investigations of the author have forced him to shift his position upon various matters of belief and unless one enters the subject of incubation with a mind open to conviction regardless of former ideas he or she will contribute but little to the advance of poultry science. Again one must realize that no one problem can be solved without taking many others into consideration at the same time ; hence, conclusions may be widely variant from the real truth and yet one be honest in reaching his decisions. 46 Incubation 47 However let no person hesitate because there are conflicts of opinion and unsettled or variant methods employed. Success is certain to one if due care and judgment are exercised in following any one of the meth- ods now in being, especially if he will intelligently handle the hens or follow the directions of the manufacturer of the incubator used. That either is no child's task would be well to remember. The science and art of artificial incubation is of ancient origin. In China and Egypt it was practiced before the Christian era in crude ovens and has become a distinct business zealously and secretly guarded, being handed down from, father to son in many cases. In fact, the present chicken of Egypt is the exact proto- type of the carvings known to date back two thousand years before the Christian era. The native hen of Egypt has, centuries ago. lost her desire or instinct to sit. The same question has been raised in America and answered by the owners of long bred strains to the effect that the broody habit was being lessened from year to year. Incubation may be defined as the development of the fertile egg germ from its conception to the exclusion of the chick from its shell. Some may take exceptions to the point at which it begins and place it at a later time, but we prefer to think of it in the above manner, if for no other reason than to suggest earlier consider- ation and care than is usually given. Incubation may be either natural or artificial or a combination of both methods. The importance of either is little realized and the latter has supplanted the for- mer in all large establishments. \Miatever of disfavor artificial incubation may receive is due mainly to poor machines and ignorant operators. The percentage of 48 Science axd Art of Poultry Culture hatches raised to maturity with the same eggs and the same intelHgence will not differ by either method. It then resolves itself into other considerations which ^vill be discussed later. The object of this chapter is to assist in obtaining better results in incubation, and before one sets their hens or obtains or uses a machine let them consider well such information as will enable them to better appreciate the hen and to purchase a better machine as well as to operate it more satisfactorily. Whether the natural or artificial method is employed, if fifty per cent of the original eggs used are incubated and raised to maturity, the operator should feel that he or she has accomplished average results. Eggs for Incubating. Kind and Care. The first consideration in choosing eggs for incubation is to select the class, breed and variety of fowl you wish to reproduce. Affecting that choice is the purpose for which you intend the product. Show stock, broilers, capons, eggs for market or other objects would mate- rially influence one's selection of eggs. That being de- termined a few principles should be kept in mind. If you desire certain knowledge of the source of your eggs the trapnest is essential. Select eggs that are uniform and normal in size and perfect in shape. When possible use the eggs of one class or breed since they will incubate more evenly. An egg that is small, large, thin-shelled or has lime in excess in the form of warty- like excrescences is very likely to be deficient in other respects. If intended for fancy chicks or flock improve- ment, evenness of color would also be considered. Eggs have been known to incubate after having been kept for many weeks. Age tends to weaken the germ life. Incubation' 49 Two weeks under right conditions is as long as eggs should be kept and the fresher the better. Pullets' eggs do not throw as strong chicks as eggs from yearling hens, nor is the fertility usually as high. To insure a RITF COCHIN CHICK. Courtesy of Dr. J. J. Hare. strong and fertile germ the parent stock should be prime, sound, healthy and vigorous and their breeding should be correct. Proper feeding is also one of the most important factors as an underfed or overfat hen cannot reproduce satisfactorily. 50 ScUi.NCE AND AkT OF i'oULTRY CuLTURE The care of eggs intended for incubation is also a subject regarding which many differ. We will give gen- eral principles upon which the majority of breeders are agreed. See that they are gathered often as the weather will require. They must not be chilled. Keep them in a place where the temperature will stay around fifty- five degrees Fahrenheit and not vary more than ten degrees. Pure air without draughts is essential. Many lay a cloth or paper over them to insure protection. If the eggs have been sent from a distance or subjected to some disturbing motion allow them to rest a day before using. Handle as little as possible. Turn them or not as you desire. Personally we believe turning them occasionally is of some benefit if done gently. Just before placing in the incubator or under a hen many give them an antiseptic bath at a temperature of sixty degrees. This cleanses and disinfects the eggs and many claim much better results. It also lessens the danger of contagion from eggs shipped in from other pens. IMany substances are used, chief among them a two per cent carbolic acid solution and a five per cent solution of pure creolin. About seven tablespoonsful of creolin to one gallon of water makes a good wash. Determixixg Sex and Fertility Before axd Durixg Incubatiox. Sex before exclusion is a subject which had better be left for further and more accurate investigation but to give a few ideas which have been put forward may result in more interest along this line. Alany claim that sex is indicated by the shape of the egg, a roundish egg, more blunt if ycu please, is the tendency of eggs throwing pullets. Also that the most active embryo in point of development is apt to be a male. ]\Iany claim Incubation 51 that the position of the air-cell indicates sex. They claim that the air-cell which has a base parallel to the width of the egg- will usually produce a cockerel, while the eggs, the base of the air-cell of which tend to vary wide- ly from such position, will throw a pullet. Others claim fairly good control in mating correctly for such re- sults, keeping in mind the age of the male and female. In many cases where pullets are desired satisfactory results have been attained by using the eggs produced during the first part of the laying period of a hen, while those eggs laid in the later portion tend to throw cock- erels. This is applying a known principle in animal breeding. This theory may be entirely thwarted in many instances by exceptional vigor in either male or female. Known fertility before incubation is claimed as fol- lows : Upon breaking a perfectly fresh egg and putting it under a magnifying glass the infertile egg shows simply a white disk marked with a number of irregular clear spaces. The fertile germ would have an opaque white rim surrounding a fairly transparent center in the middle of which is a lighter spot of variable ap- pearance. This can be of little practical value to the poultry raiser. A practical method is claimed as follows : Place the egg sidewise against the tester, or better yet, with the big end upwards. A strongly fertile germ will cast quite a shadow so that there is a discernable division between the yolk and the albumen with a darker spot or shadow at the gemi centre which always floats at the top of the yolk. In the more weakly fertile egg germ this diistinction or division will be less marked, while in the egg with an infertile germ the contents will appear clear or milky with practically no distinction between the yolk and the albumen. This method is claimed bv manv to be 12 Science and Art of Poultry Culture very accurate in the hands of an experienced person. Certain it is that a strong germ does have the tendency toward the above result which is increasingly true as in- cubation proceeds during the first few days. To what extent that light colored yolks or fertile germs whose de- velopment was less at the egg expulsion period would influence to a wrong decision the author is not yet pre- pared to state. The fertility of eggs during incubation will be treated under the testing of eggs later on in this chapter. Table of Time Required to Ixcur.\te Eggs. Time to incubate de- pending upon Kinds. breeds and varieties. Canary 15 to 18 days Chicken 20 " 22 "' Duck 28 " 30 " Goose 28 " 30 " Guinea 28 Pea Fowl 27 to 30 " Pigeon 17 " Swan 40 " 45 " Turkey 28 " 30 " N.xtural Versus Artificial Incubation. Where one wishes to raise but a few chicks and is satisfied to raise them during the regular broody season, there is no particular reason for not allowing them to have a natural mother. Again in the hands of busy per- sons who can give but scant care to a brood the mother hen might give better results. However, to the average poultry raiser, where more than one hundred chicks are to be raised, the incubator will appeal for the following reasons : Incubation 53 Earlier hatching is possible. Higher markets are made available. Always ready when eggs are ready. Hen is kept in the producing yards. Capacity does not depend upon having hens to set. Requires less building space than hens.'" Good operator will hatch higher percentages. Less labor required for same capacity.-* Absolute immunity from vermin. No breakage or desertion by hen.— ' Can have poultry ready for fall shows. Does not require two breeds to raise non-setting breeds. Cleaner work to care for same capacity. Natural Incubation. Breeds — Choose a breed and .strain of that breed which produces good sitters and good mothers. Do not set a fussy hen which is quarrelsome and easily disturbed. Rather take tlie quiet, docile hens so that breakage and loss by trampling is reduced to a minimum. Nesting — Any nest made roomy and hollowed out so that the eggs can neither roll out nor pile up will be serviceable. The materials are not important so long as they are not harsh or disagreeable. Put in the bottom a little earth, or many prefer the nest upon the ground if it be in a dry place. Do not make the nest in a box where the hen does not have sufficient room to turn around without forcing her to be awkward thus en- dangering the eggs. Old barrels make fairly good nests. When the nest is complete sprinkle into it a little sul- phur, powdered tobacco, or insect powder. Lice and chicks are difficult to brood together. Place — The place is not so important if it be dry and not subject to draughts. It should be apart from other poultr}'~Tn — utliei — broody hens. IT should be free from rats and similar prowlers. If several nests 54 Science and Art of Poultry Culture are desired in one room or building, each hen should be fastened into her own nest, or careful watchfulness given, to see that no eggs are left uncovered because of two hens seeking one nest. Setting the Hen — Having chosen a hen dust her well with insect powder and remove her at night to her new quarters. She will rarely give any trouble about sitting where she is placed. If she is not inclined to be satisfied, shut her in for a few hours until she set- tles down to business. Give her an egg and if she is alone let her out to feed and water twice a day. If warm arrange water in her nest to save bowel trouble from overdrinking. If she does not show a tendency to return to her nest, gently catch her and replace her on the nest or its edge and allow her to settle. If after two days she still gives trouble, discard her as she will doubtless be easily disturbed and be of little value as a sitter. If she is entirely satisfactory you may now give her the eggs you desire her to hatch. Do not give too many eggs. Fewer will give better results. Feeding — Place good grain, grit, green food and water where the hen can supply herself with what her nature demands. If she cannot be trusted to leave her nest at will, give her attention at least twice a day in warm weather and see that she has water within reach of her nest. General Care — Test out the eggs at the same periods as incubator eggs are tested and, unless it is in a very dry climate or a dry season, do not supply moisture. If in a dry place sprinkle the material under the eggs with warm water twice during the last week just as the hen goes back to her nest. The time is important so that evaporation will not cool the eggs unduly. Dust the hen again well about three days before time for her Incudation 55 to hatch her brood. Do not let any opinion interfere with the dusting of the hen with lice powder at the be- ginning and end of the hatch. Taking off the Hatch — Prepare a warm dry coop in a place free from draughts and vermin. Gently remove the hen and her brood after you are sure the incubation is complete. Place them into the coop prepared and give them plenty of fresh water but no food for at least two days. See that they cannot wander away from the coop and do not fail to shut them away from all night intruders. Artificial Incubation. The Machine — In buying an incubator do not fail to get the best, as they are far the cheapest, regardless of the relative price one pays. Pay no attention to the fairy tales in the advertising but go over the various makes, point by point, and advise with others using the different machines. What follows may assist in de- ciding. No machine has brains. Do not expect a ma- chine to be satisfactory unless you follow explicitly the manufacturer's directions in unpacking, setting up and operating. Different makes of machines cannot be operated in the same manner. Their circulatory sys- tems may be vastly different. The details of some ma- chines are valuable time and labor savers. While gen- eral principles of all machines are alike yet the appli- cation of principles vary. No success can come to an operator whose habits and attention are irregular and whose memory is uncertain. Do not abuse a machine and blame the maker. A poor machine will hatch well the first season and under good conditions, a good machine will hatch well for many seasons and under more unsettled conditions. Detailed 56 Science and Art of Poultry Culture instructions are with every machine and are usually very plain and simple. Do not purchase too small a machine, as the cost of a larger one is but little more, the cost of operating it is not much higher if any, and it will hatch few or many eggs. It is very hard to dispose of a small machine in the event one wishes to replace it by a larger one. Again do not show each friend how the machine works, if to do so requires touching it. The machine should be level to insure an evenness of tem- perature in the egg chamber. If you have no spirit level use a pan of water, which for the purpose will do very well. The Main Objects to Be Attained — In all artificial incubation, as in the natural, certain objects must be kept in mind for success as follows : 1. To keep a uniform temperature of the eggs at the required degrees. 2. To furnish pure air in a correct current. 3. To control evaporation. 4. To prevent the egg contents from remaining in one position. The Essentials of a Machine — There are many essen- tial parts to a machine as well as many minor parts which are important because they tend to save or hin- der by the handiness of their construction. In obtain- ing an incubator these minor matters should receive some consideration. The case or body should be made of good substan- tial material, well joined and well insulated so that it will heat evenly and easily when once warmed through. Its shape is unimportant. The egg chamber and nurs- ery chamber should be roomy. The regulating device is the brain of the machine and is usually its weakest point in that it will operate Incubation 57 well under normal conditions but fails under certain variations. For example one machine has the smoke flue passing through the machine. In warm weather the heat of the smoke flue plus the heat generated by the chicks at certain stages is more than the machine requires, hence the regulator is valueless after a certain temperature is reached, and without special attention loss would result. Not all makes of machines with smoke flues passing through the machines are thus, yet caution is needed to choose the better ones. A regulator is really made up of several parts including the thermometer which enables the operator to adjust the device. The thermostat, the connection and the damper arm are other parts. The thermometer should be a good one and well tested. Sometimes it may have been handled roughly in transportation and the mercury separated, in which case it is easily joined by inverting the thermometer and starting the mercury downward into the top end un- til it fills the stem. Then by a downward swinging motion the main column will be driven against the sep- arate parts and united thereto. If not a complete suc- cess repeat the operation. The location of the ther- mometer varies in different machines. It may hang above, lay on or between the eggs in the egg chamber. The connecting rod and arm with a damper or other controlling device, are simple in principle, being governed by a thermostat of some kind. Thermostats differ wide- ly in kind and composition. The principle of expansion by heat pervades them all and its mechanical effect oti the connection and damper arm lessens or increases the heat units held for use. Some are round, concave, flat or corrugated disks of metal joined and sealed at the outer edges and coetaining a liquid which is very 58 Science and Art of Poultry Culture volatile at a given temperature. One side of the disk is stationary and the other moves the rod or connection of the damper arm or other device used for the same purpose. The expansion of the liquid within the disk located in the egg- chamber, governs the regulator's ac- tion. Other thermostats are made of metal only, having the action of a spring when expanded by heat. Many de- vices are used. The greater the expanding power of the thermostat when attached to a proper regulator mechanism, the more perfectly under control is the tem- perature of the egg chamber. Therefore it is clearly important to look carefully to this device for proper re- sults. It is the safety valve of the incubator. The heating parts of an incubator are present to hold the temperature of the egg chamber at an even and desired degree and in an effective manner. This is ac- complished in various ways and by various devices. Dif- fusion and radiation both contend for recognition with the former in the majority. Hot air, hot water, elec- tric and gas machines are on the market. The first two named are the most frequently found and heat the air or water above the flame, passing the heated current into the body of the machine in a manner to warm the egg and nursery chambers. Some machines have single pipes, some double pipes, some flat pan-like heating sur- faces as well as other variations of the same principle. Some pass a warm current of fresh air into the egg cham- ber and nursery while others simply radiate heat and have other means to supply air to those chambers. All have some form of heater about the flame, assuming many forms and many different positions upon the machine. The main consideration is handiness of access to fill and trim the lamp. The smoke flues of some machines pass through the body of the machines, while in some makes the Incubation 59 smoke never enters the machine at any point. The lat- ter plan makes the regulation a little more certain es- pecially in warm weather. The regulator on all ma- chines allows the excess heat to pass away from the ma- chine except on those machines where the regulator controls the amount of heat generated. Practically all machines grant the principle of overhead heating as best. The advocates of hot air machines claim that the warm fresh air diffused over the eggs at a right current, is the best method since it both supplies the necessary amount of oxygen to the germ life and also carries away by right ventilation the gases thrown off by the developing germ. They also do away with the labor of filling a water pan or tank as well as any danger of a leak. The hot water enthusiast claims a greater econ- emy of fuel, better circulation, and hence more even heat as well as less danger of loss since the water would hold the heat for a longer period in case of accident or neglect. Both methods are obtaining correct results but the majority of operators seem inclined to the hot air machines. In a heating lamp there is but one object and that is heat. Light is of no importance. The fuel may be anything which forms a gas and is made from many sub- stances, the most common of which is coal oil. Where natural or artificial gas is used a special burner is re- quired and will be furnished by the manufacturer. Where kerosene is used the lamp consists of a bowl or fount, a flue or chimney and a burner. The bowl need be no particular shape but should be large enough to necessitate filling but once every day and should con- tain an inner division open at the bottom to reduce the danger of spilling by careless handling. The material 60 Science and Akt of Tuultky Culture may be glass or metal. The latter is less liable to break, but for convenience in filling- should contain an extra large filling cap or a device, to show the amount of oil in the bowl or fount. A small air hole should exist in every filling cap for safety. The chimney or flue is more safe when made of metal than of glass. Glass might break at a time when no attendant was present and cause much loss of time and property. A metal flue should have a mica window to allow the attendant to notice the height of the flame. The flue should be of the size and shape to allow a proper draught of air to supply sufficient oxygen to the flame. If the flue should begin to accumulate soot and grease clean it thoroughly to avoid danger of fire. Some heat- ers contain the chimney or flue. The oil burner is the important element in a lamp and the greatest source of danger in a careless operator's hands. The story is ever old of lamp explosions and their results. The wick may be of various substances but no invention has ever displaced the cotton wick. Clean oil, a clean wick, and a clean wick-tube are essential. Do not burn a wick until it is short. Burners are usually of brass and the wick-tube should have a ventilating tube. The perforated base should be kept clean and open to the passage of air. The size of the burner should be governed by the heat required but should be of sufficient capacity to give the required heat without the necessity of using a high flame with its consequent dan- ger. The oil should be of the best with as little odor escaping as possible while burning. The flame is fed by a hydro-carbon gas formed at the base of the flame and being a miniature gas plant the generation should be under perfect control. The wick-tube becoming hot and forming an excess of gas is the real danger and to Inculjation 61 avoid this many devices are used to keep it normal. The cool air passing to the flame through the perfor- ations about the tube, metal tongues to dissipate the heat, water jackets about the wick-tube and many other methods are used to avoid this danger. The methods of regulating the heat supply also vary. Some allow the excess heat to escape into the outer air by means of an automatic damper, while others reg- ulate the height or size of the flame by a mechanical de- vice and by the old-fashioned way of trimming the wick to a point. Some combine two methods. Lamp boxes are of many kinds and in many cases economize oil. save accident, allow the lamp to be out of the way and make for a more uniform heat because the lamp is not exposed to outside atmospheric changes. The position and holding device of the lamp relative to the ease of attending it, is a very important factor when one must use it for any length of time. Another important feature of every incubator is the internal arrangement. Is the thermometer where it can be easily read? Is there a roomy egg chamber? Is the nursery tray covered with cloth so the chicks will not slip upon it? Is there ample space between the egg tray when pushed back for the chicks to drop into the nurs- ery and to pass and repass next to the door without crowding and trampling each other? Is the circulatory system good? Are the trays and other parts handy to remove for necessary purposes? Are the trays sub- stantial and well adapted for ease of egg turning? Is the heating device easily removed for cleaning in case of accidental smoking? Alany matters have been omit- ted or lightly touched upon which are really important but enough has been suggested to show the importance of choosing a good machine regardless of price. 62 Science and Art of Poultky Culture Location of Machine — The ideal place to operate an incubator is where pure, fresh air is easily introduced without drafts ; where some sunlight can enter, yet where sudden outside temperatures cannot vary a uni- form degree of the incubator room. Gases and burned- out air are injurious for egg and beast alike. A half cellar is a good place if ventilation is provided. A cellar, an inner room, a cave or other place can be used if they approach the requirements. Fluctuations of tem- perature and bad air are the most serious evils to be overcome. If placed in an ordinary cellar the fire in- surance policy should be examined and a permit be obtained if not already included in the policy. Ordinary tremblings or jars if not too sudden or severe have not proved injurious as successful incubation has been done adjoining a railway track where heavy traffic passed. If choice were involved a quieter place would be pre- ferred. Heavy electrical storms have been thought to in- jure hatches at certain delicate stages of development. Avoid hitting or otherwise jarring the egg trays or machine as the germ at certain stages of development is very sensitive. Therefore a roomy place is desirable. A location would also be better if arranged so that the temperature of the room could be kept in the vicinity of 70 degrees. Starting the Machine — If the machine is new, is set up and in place, cleaning and disinfecting are not necessary. If not then carefully dust and wash the en- tire interior until it is sweet and clean. Provide new burlap parts if necessary. Next paint the interior of the machine with a ten per cent solution of zenoleum or cre- olin. If they are not obtainable use a wash of mer- curic chloride. Directions for the use of the latter will be given by the druggist as the size and strength of Incubation 63 the tablets or powder will determine the quantity to use. If it be a hot water machine fill the water pan with reasonably hot water. The use of hot water enables the attendant to fill it without danger of its expanding and hence spilling and also allows the machine to warm up more quickly. Next close up the doors and inspect the heating appliances and the regulator. See that the thermometer is still correct by comparing it with a second thermometer in tepid or lukewarm water. Be careful about water being too warm or both instru- ments will be broken. Place one in its position in the egg chamber and the machine is ready for the lamp which should have a new wick and every part clean. Operate the flame moderately and never leave a machine until you are satisfied the flame is in full combustion. Often upon filling the lamp the full blaze does not be- gin for several moments after it is lighted, owing to the time required for the oil to climb the wick. If it is cold weather the machine may take more than one day to warm up. When it reaches the desired temperature ad- just your regulator and wait a day to see if everything is running well and the temperature remains steady. The eggs may now be placed in the trays. Do not try to place them in rows as more will go in when placed promiscuously. Close up your machine and do not touch the regulator when you find the temperature dropping. It will recover when the eggs get warmed through. If anything herein conflicts with the instructions given with the machine then follow the instructions explicitly. If desired pedigree trays can be employed to keep apart all chicks until they can be marked. Care of the Lamp — ^Each day the operator should note that the burner is clean and the wick well trimmed at filling time. Trim the wick, removing the charred 64 SciEXcii AND Art uf I'uultkv Culture portion by passing a match stem or back of a knife over the wick. Then give just a Httle attention to the corners that they be rounded or at least free from charred mat- ter. See that no crustations accumulate on the sides of the wick-tube. Always begin with a moderate flame and before leaving, adjust it to avoid smoking or over- heating. Use only the best oil as poor oil makes a bad odor. Before taking a lamp from a machine note the height of the flame and when replacing it attempt to turn the flame to the same height as before. If the pipes should become smoky clean them thoroughly at once. Never leave a lamp in a machine while not light- ed as the oil will draw up and on the metal and cause it to smoke and smell when next used. Temperature — To maintain an even and correct tem- perature requires careful and watchful attention. Note the paragraph on thermometers and see that no errors occur. If you are using a hanging or suspended regis- ter a different rule will be followed than when a con- tact register is used. In the latter be certain to keep the bulb upon a live germ. In the former be sure to place it wiiere the directions indicate. Violent fluctuations or prolonged changes of temperature are usually very injurious especially at the earlier part of incubation. Authorities differ as to the exact degree yet are in ac- cord within certain limits. Beginning the hatch at from lOr to 1023^2° seems to be the best for the first week, 103° for the second week and until pipping time for the third week. If a contact bulb is used the temperature should be 3^° lower. During the end of the second week the temperature will rise, owing to the radiated animal heat from the embryos. Readjust the regulator and again at hatching time, note and meet the conditions arising from the heat generated at pipping time and also Incucation 65 the loss of heat caused by rapid evaporation when many chicks are drying off at the same time. Do not be alarmed if the temperature runs up to 105° during the exclusion period. No harm will result and many claim that it is better. Hatches have been taken off where the chicks before, and at the time of exclusion, were sub- ject to a temperature of 112°. Certain it is that such treatment resulted in harm to the vitality of the chicks. Long drawn out and uneven hatches would indicate un- even temperatures during" incubation. When incubating eggs of the Mediterranean breeds or other lighter va- rieties, a degree lower is often used with good results. If the chicks pant at the time of exclusion do not be alarmed, but they may need better ventilation or a little less heat if the temperature is running high. Unless one knows his business at this point it is better to fol- low the incubator instructions and not experiment. A high temperature at the beginning of a hatch is more in- jurious since" the tissues are more tender at that pe- riod. Also in incubating duck eg^s the temperature for the last three weeks should range Yi" lower than that of hens' eggs for the second and third weeks. Turning the Eggs — Operators vary in methods of turning eggs during incubation, and some even go so far as to deny the necessity of such turning, but they are in the small minority. Avoid sudden or quick, jerky mo- tions in handling eggs. Begin turning the eggs about the third day and cease turning the evening of the eighteenth day for hens' eggs, or if duck eggs omit turning after the twenty-fourth day. Never touch an egg with soiled hands nor after filling the lamps unless soap and water have been liberally used. Some turn the eggs once a day but the majority of operators turn them twice a day as nearly twelve hours apart as possible. Be regular in this work. 66 Science and Art of Poultry Culture It is not necessary to turn the eggs over just half way in fact it is much better that they be turned differently each time. See that no eggs are left standing on end and do not try to keep the eggs in rows in the tray. Many patent devices are used to turn eggs, but none are as satisfactory as the hand method, especially with a slightly sloping tray. This is accomplished by removing to the ends the two middle rows of eggs next to the SINGLE COMB RHODE ISLAND RED. Courtesy of Lester Tompkins. partition and rolling the remaining eggs down toward the tray center with the flat of the hand. Many believe that the turning should be done just at the end of the cooling period and just before the trays are replaced. This method allows the contraction to take place first after which comes the movement of the embryo. In the double tray machines turn the trays end for end at night and from side to side in the morning after the first Incubation 67 day. This evens up the temperature of the eggs regard- less of where they were placed originally. In single tray machines end for end once a day is sufficient. Many operators in order to assist their memory write the word " night " on one end of each tray and thus see that the turning brings this word outward each evening. When replacing the eggs do not touch the regulator as the heat will soon bring the temperature to normal again. Cooling the Eggs — The importance of cooling has been largely underestimated in artificial incubation. A few manufacturers are emphasizing the importance of this fact. The relation of cooling to evaporation of moisture is not yet clearly defined but is an interesting study. The aims and amount of cooling are difficult to clearly explain and much experimenting along this line is in progress. Certain it is that during the period of in- cubation a definite amount of heat is required to bring out a perfect or ripened chick, and that heat should be spread over the whole of the natural period as well as be balanced by a right amount of cooling. Proper cooling lends vitality to the embryo and by a gradual process accustoms the developing chick to the new world it is about to enter. The question of ventilation and oxygen supply enters here to a slight extent but under right conditions is of little consequence. The length of time cooling should take can be fixed by no exact rule. Experience will tell an operator much which cannot be stated. The " feel " tells its own story and takes into consideration the temperature of the room, the stage of incubation and the previous tern- perature of the incubator. The best one can do is to give approximate temperatures and let judgment act as a supplement. 68 SciEXcii: Axi) Art of I'ol-ltrv Culture Daiuv Cooling Table. Room Operating Tool i I IS Time Second Week and Thereaftei Temperature Temperature First Week 30 to 40 103 Degrees 3 to 5 min. 5 to 10 min. 40 to 50 103 Degrees 5 to 10 min. 10 to 15 min. 50 to 60 lOZy. Degrees 10 to 15 min. 15 to 20 min. 60 to 70 102!/> Degrees 15 to 20 min. 20 to 25 min. 70 and above 102 Degrees 20 to 25 min. 25 to 60 min. The above \vill be the latitude usually given, but one must again follow instructions, as some machines have circulatory systems which do not require so much cooling of the eggs as do others. When using the suspended thermometer the above rule holds, while with a contact thermometer one degree lower within the machine is the rule. Unless the incubator cellar or room is free from draughts it is better to cool by simply leaving the incubator door open. The time spent in turning may be sufficient for the first few days and should be de- termined so that overcooling may not result. In test days do not cool. Begin to cool upon the second day and discontinue the evening of the eighteenth day except duck eggs, which discontinue upon the evening of the twenty- fourth day. Testing Out Eggs — Xote carefully the chapter on " Egg Structure, Formation, and Germ Development." The purpose of testing out. eggs is to save infertile ones for commercial gain, make more room for fertile eggs, discard those whose germs have died, and more than all to better understand the many problems leading to stronger egg germs and better incubation. The lessons of testing and the deductions therefrom cannot be satis- factorily given in the form of photographs or cuts. Real experience in the testing room is the surest and most IXCUBATIOX 69 rapid method of education in egg testing. Do not be afraid of using a few dozen eggs in this work. The best time to test out eggs is in the late evening, thus doing away with the necessity of a special dark room. A tester is furnished with every machine and if not any tinsmith can make one from cuts shown in every catalogue of incubators. For daylight or night candling a pasteboard rolled into the form of a horn is sufficient. Place the egg into the small end and hold up to the sun or a lamp. In handling eggs do not use quick, violent motions as they injure the delicate struc- ture of the. embryo. Allow no draught in the testing room. The temperature of the room should be about sev- enty degrees, but if it is not convenient to gain this tem- perature, test out at each cooling period until the test- ing is completed. Test out dark shelled eggs about the seventh day, light ones about the fourth day and re- peat the test at any time before the eighteenth day. Beginners should test more often and mark all doubt- ful eggs replacing them for future study. Be careful to keep a contact thermometer upon a live germ. Duck eggs can be tested as easily as the egg of the hen and about as early. In placing an incubated egg to the light it will show perfectly clear if infertile. If fertile a small dark spot will appear and a bulky shadow will also darken the interior. If well started the germ will have spider- like threads or blood lines radiating from it. If not clearly seen turn the egg slowly or reverse ends. Do not keep the egg held to the heat and light but an in- stant and use quiet motions in handling it. If a weak germ has started and died a dark red circle or circu- lar streak will appear, or perhaps a black spotted ap- 70 SciENci-: AND Art of Poultry Culture pearance may be present if the egg is decaying. The second test should show a dark, well filled shell. Many will state that the first test ought to show the air cell to be about the size of a quarter of a dollar and at the second test the size of a half-dollar. Others will ad- vise that the air cell during incubation should occupy from one-third to one-fifth of the shell's space. If it varies either way there is too much or too little moisture. The beginner had better take all this advice but not use it, as there is no set rule which will apply to all kinds of eggs or under all conditions. In dry countries and in moist climates this will bear study, but in medium climates it is of much less consequence. Moisture and l^cntilation — The questions of temper- ature, moisture, ventilation and cooling have much of inter-dependence. Circulation and humidity are really but ventilation and moisture in different language. About these words there centers much of unknown in- terest to the student of poultry science, but in touching these questions herein only practical and elementary statements will be made. While temperature is ex- tremely important, so also is moisture and ventilation. The real object desired is to obtain proper ventilation in the egg chamber without an excessive current of air. Here also hinges the moisture question as it is the air current or circulation which robs the egg of its mois- ture if it be excessive. Some machines have special ventilators or air passages while others depend on pass- ing pure air through the machine. Some evaporation is necessary, so the real problem is to obtain tempera- ture, circulation, ventilation and evaporation combined to the right degree. In order to handle this problem in any intelligent manner one must consider the sea- son, air humidity, make of machine, room tempera- Incubation 71 ture, room ventilation, and dozens of other minor mat- ters which have a bearing. Impure air is as fatal to a strong hatch as any other one cause. A query arises as to how one is to know when he is handling the moisture question aright. Given pure air by diffusion or otherwise in the egg chamber and a scale which will weigh to the ounce, the evaporation may be governed to a very practical degree as this subject is now understood. By weighing the eggs when they enter the machine upon a dry tray and weighing them at any later period the actual loss is readily obtained. If too dry moisture could be added or the circulation checked. By this means one could study the relative space oc- cupied by the air cell until he became proficient and could judge well enough for all practical purposes of the real condition and progress of the germ develop- ment. Moisture registers are now available. The evaporation of hen's eggs for the first nineteen days of incubation should be about sixteen per cent of the total weight at the beginning of the hatch. Duck eggs would require that about the twenty-fifth day. It also must be understood that evaporation should be slight at the beginning of a hatch and gradually in- crease. ]\Iany prefer that the first week should only have three per cent of the total of sixteen and then in- crease to about the fifteenth day, after which a slight decrease should result to the nineteenth day. Duck eggs really require a little more moisture and ventilation than do hens' eggs, yet cooling will often be neglected for moisture to the detriment of the hatch. The presence of too much moisture tends to not al- low the chick or duckling enough room in the shell to pip easily as well as weakens the constitution of the bird. Too little moisture renders them unable to get 72 SciKNCK AM) Art of PorLTRv Cui/ruKR out of the shell after pipping in part and if excluded often becomes a cripple. In supplying moisture many methods are used other than lessening the air current. Many put the moisture into the machines while others keep water in or sprinkle the room. Except in dry cli- mates a properly ventilated machine will need no water within it and rarely needs it sitting in the room, although the latter method can do no harm and may often be of some real service. If the door of the machine shows a sweaty condition during exclusion or before do not let it trouble one as it will often appear under normal conditions. Do not open the door during the exclusion period, as more invisible damage will usually result than any good accomplished. If the lairds pant they may need just a little better ventilation or the temperature may be running high. A machine with a fair sized nursery chamber is most desirable as the oxygen will be used up less rapidly. Hatching Time — Cease turning and cooling the even- ing of the eighteenth day. Push back the ^^g trays to allow ample room in the nursery front. Use any pedigree tray, thermostat guard or other appliance required and do not again open the incubator door until after exclusion. A chick is not worth helping out of the shell when the good of the entire hatch is considered. Because one or several do not die when the door is opened leads many to believe no harm comes of such act, the results of which are always in the fu- ture. The chicks ought to begin pipping on the twenti- eth day and be fully excluded upon the twenty-first day if all has been well before and during incubation. Hold the temperature steady until pipping begins when it may fluctuate as before described. If the chicks are excluded and dry and seem to need air fasten open the Incubation Th incubator door just a trifle or ventilate more freely. Allow the temperature to run down to 100° and if the room is 70° or above quickly take the chicks out of the incubator, place them into a lined basket, cover them over and take them to a brooder properly prepared for their reception. Some prefer to leave the wee birds in the incubator for two days. With correct care it is immaterial when they are transferred if they are all excluded and well dried ofif. Do not neglect to clean the machine at once after each hatch and when another hatch is to be put on begin as though the machine were not ready, which insures better results. One cannot be too particular in the care of a machine. AA'hat Causes the De\eloping Germ to Die in THE SHELLf This question is constantly being asked and following are given some of the causes in brief form : Parent stock weak reproducers by inheritance. Parent stock imature or diseased. Parent stock ill-fed, ill-bred, or ill-housed. Eggs saved too long. Eggs kept in wrong temperature before incubation. Eggs chilled before collecting. Eggs saved out of natural season. Forced feeding for eggs. Careless choosing of eggs. Handling eggs with oily hands. Impure air during incubation. Moisture improperly governed. Heat improperly supplied. Improper cooling. Drafts present at turning, testing or cooling time. Chapter VII. BROODING. The subject of brooding is of equal importance with that of incubation. It is an old saying that " a chicken well hatched is half brooded." Brooding is a term used to indicate the developing of the young of fowls from their incubation to their matur- ity. It is a comprehensive term and includes every environ- ment which makes for better or for worse in the younger life of a fowl. In treating this subject the reader's knowl- edge of brooder houses will be assumed as it properly comes under poultry house construction. That success- ful brooding is confined to a few principles carefully applied does not seem to lessen the unnecessary loss so prevalent in the poultry business, although a gratifying tendency toward better results is in evidence throughout the entire country. Natural and Artificial Brooding — Brooding may properly be divided into natural and artificial brooding ; the former by the female fowl, tlie latter by many meth- ods which really are one with the former in principle and practice. In choosing which method is the better one must consider each individual case since the number of young to be reared, the experience of the operator, the room available, the equipment obtainable, the ques- tion of labor assistance, and many other problems are to be weighed and considered carefully. Where but few are to be reared it may be more economical to brood by the 74 76 Science and Art of Poultry Culture natural method. The main claim for the natural mother is in the care and teaching she gives her young at the approach of a storm or other danger, the hovering when the young express a desire for warmth and the teaching of the proper food her young should eat. The artificial ) brooding advocates follow with the argument that the brooder is always ready and willing to hover, does not drag the young in the dew and rain, lessens the danger of lice and mites, gives the young its choice of degrees of heat, makes the young more self reliant and domesti- cated and materially lessens the care expense when any numbers are considered. Mortality in the Brooding Period and Causes — The loss of young stock during the brooding period should not exceed over five per cent of the total hatch under normal conditions. By normal condition is meant the exercise of knowledge in a careful and practical way. The science and the art of brooding should be combined to a reasonable extent and good results are bound to come. In showing some of the causes of chick mortality we will divide them into two main classes, which relative to brooding will be designated as primary and secondary causes. The former are controllable before brooding, the latter during brooding. The one is beyond the brood- ing operator, the other entirely within his control. The loss which can be blamed to the one or the other cause is not always easy of recognition. No brooding can make a success of a chick not well incubated. Primary Causes — Unsound parentage from breeding or age. Unsound parentage from care and feeding. Eggs poorly selected and poorly kept. Improper incubation for any reason. Brooding 17 Secondary Causes — Enemies like hawks, crows, rats, foxes, weasels, etc. Too much heat or cold and draughts. Ragged brooder curtains and carelessness in handling. Stealing, sudden storms, wet grass, etc. Open holes, open water barrels, watering receptacles, etc. Overcrowding and consequent trampling. Lack of fresh air and pure drinking water. ^lash feeding when great care is not exercised. Improper feeding of grass, grains, meat and too little grit. Lice, mites and other parasites and diseases. Allowing larger sizes to run with smaller sizes. Many other causes may be enumerated, but enough have been cited to impress upon the operator that to begin with good, strong, vigorous chicks is one half of the brooding, and that the secondary causes are well within his or her power to overcome. A primary cause is often present with a secondary one and is a favorite excuse with some operators to shift the blame when it really is brooding neglect that is at the base of all the trouble encountered. X.XTURAL BrOODTXG. Natural brooding in most cases follows the incubating period of the mother. In many cases a few hens are set at the same time as an incubator and all the incubator chicks are divided among the hens, giving to each from twelve to twenty-five according to her size and disposi- tion. As a rule fifteen should be the Hmit to any one hen. Many times when the incubator is about to hatch, a few quiet sitting hens are procured and given an ^^g or two apiece from the incubator and allowed to hatch them out. Nearly all the hens will adopt the baby chicks and they are then given those from the incubator. Capons have been thus used, being motherly in their disposition. One should 78 Science amd Art of Poultry Culture tiever use a sitting hen with scabby legs or other diseases. A hen which has not incubated her own eggs for the natural period rarely ever stays with her chicks as long as does the hen having fully incubated her flock. Place — It is essential that the hen be restrained either by the limits of the coop or by a yard small enough so that the chicks may not suffer from the wet grass, rains, and too much exercise. Have the coop dry, warm, well ventilated, without draughts, ratproof, and easily cleaned. Keep it on fresh ground and well cleaned at all times. Feed and Water — The same care should be given the chicks as given in the artificial brooding. The brooding hen should be given grain and water and such other feed as will keep her in condition for her duties. Perhaps one of the strongest reasons for failure in natural brood- ing lies in too little attention being given to the manner of feeding and the amount of food given. It is quite essential that the feed be of the right amount and kind and still more important that it be where the mother bird is not able to deprive the chicks of their rightful share. Again a foul place to feed arising either from droppings or a soured feeding place will bring disease and its con- sequent loss. If one cannot use a separate compartment in which to feed the chicks it is best to have a pail of whole grain from which to feed the adult fowls so that the brood may have a better chance to obtain the food intended for them alone. Watch that the drinking founts do not become unfit for use. Development — As to general care and treatment every- thing which applies to the artificial brooding will also apply to the naturally brooded chick. The separation of the sexes, the weaning, the feeding to attain a certain object are the same in either case. Brooding 79 Artificial Brooding. Artificial brooding has long been practiced even before artificial incubation came into existence. Some of the old fashioned ways were quite as successful if not as convenient as the later methods. Artificial brooding has become quite necessary to breeders who raise poultry in large numbers and at a time of year when hens are not obtainable. For the commercial broiler and duck raisers they are indispensable. In fact but few poultry farms grow the young stock in any other way than by artificial means. It is a delightful sight to see a brooder full of happy SINGLE COMB BLACK ORPINGTON. Courtesy of Fo.xhurst Farm. and contented chicks lying stretched out upon the floor of the hover. On the other hand no more pitiable sight could exist for the lover of poultry than to see a listless, uneasy brood, going through the varying periods of chilling, sweating, and struggling for existence due to an ignorant, careless operator, especially when one knows that it has an uneven battle for life. Give a healthy chick half a chance for life and it will win, but to confine it in a death trap in which no form of animal life could long survive and expect it to develop is to be both ignorant and cruel. 80 SCIENXE AND ArT OK POULTRY CULTURE Essentials of a Cold Brooder — Operators arc claiming success in the use of a brooder which is suppHed with no artificial heat even in zero weather. The aim is to retain the body heat of the chick for its own benefit by means of a warm hover which is insulated against changes of tem- perature from without and at the same time conserving A VETERAN BARRED ROCK. the body heat within. If entirely practical when rightly handled it would have many advantages. We merely give the principle as above stated pending further experi- ments, therefore we decline to doubt the sincerity of either its advocates or its critics. All other elements of brooding would be in common with warmed hovers as found below. Essentials of a JJ^anii Brooder — In purchasing a brooder one should correctly understand what constitutes its essentials and to do this is to keep well in mind the object to be attained. The construction of the various parts of the brooder should allow certain results to be easily and certainly attained. Brooding 81 There should be a steady flow of properly warmed, fresh air supplied by overhead diffusion so located and protected that the chick can easily find the source of warmth as well as be able to get away from it when uncomfortable. To secure this the lamp, heater and piping" should be examined and if inadequate should be ROSE COMB RHODE ISLAND RED. Courtesy of Lester Tompkins. rejected. It is not important whether it be a hot water or hot air system but if the latter the supply of fresh air must be insisted upon. An accurate thermometer is very essential to a beginner, although the older operators watch their birds more than the reading of the ther- mometer. A regulator is also used by some. There should also be provided plenty of exercise and a choice of temperature secured by a hover, day or exercising room, limited run and yard. \"entilation should be carefully watched as pure, whole- 82 Science and Art of Poultry Culture some air is one of the main factors in all animal life. In the warm air brooders this problem is half solved but in every brooder other provision should be made to allow the exhausted air an opportunity to escape. Dryness, a reasonable amount of sunlight, roominess, an adequate place to feed and water, a movable device to keep the wee chicks within bounds and the entire brooder so built and arranged that it is easily cleaned, all these are well worth careful consideration. While a brooder is simple yet that simplicity is most exacting. Kinds of Brooders — Putting aside the different modes of supply heat among which are hot air, hot water and electricity, there are several styles of brooders in opera- tion, chief among which are indoor, outdoor, and plant brooders. The two former are usually individual and movable while the latter one is stationary and is usually spoken of as a brooder house. The brooder house is often a combination house and utilizes a portion of the floor for steam pipe or air heating over which is a hover arrangement to accommodate the chicks or other young fowls. These buildings often have more than one brooder floor or shelf, thus increasing the capacity by as many times as there are floors. This also lessens the care tak- ing to quite an appreciable extent. It is the main purpose here to divide brooders into two classes only, indoor and outdoor machines. By indoor brooders are meant those machines which are so built that some extra shelter from wind and storm must be pro- vided. It is usual to place them within a brooder house, protected shed or any other place where conditions will be favorable and the heat maintained to the right degree. \^ery few of them will maintain a correct temperature unless the chill be taken out of the room wherein they are located. The outdoor brooders are often recommended Brooding 83 for both outdoor and indoor work, since it matters little what the temperature is without. Properly constructed they should give very little trouble even under adverse conditions. The question of a heating system in a building as com- pared with the individual brooder is largely one pertain- ing to the number of fowls to be kept and the operator's experience. Where the stock to be raised will only num- ber a few hundred it doubtless is economy to use individ- ual brooders, since it costs as. much to warm up the system for a few fowls as for the full capacity. However where many are to be raised the system is essential to economy. In the individual brooder a mistake or ac- cident affects only the one brood while a similar trouble in the system affects the entire output. Setting Up a Brooder — If the machine is purchased of a manufacturer do not assume to be able to set it up with- out carefully reading over the printed instructions. Many errors and faultfindings are due to this one cause and no matter how familiar one may be with brooders the instructions of the manufacturer m.ay be able to save time and needless criticism. Capacity of a Brooder — Apparently contradicting the thought expressed in the preceding paragraph we now caution the operator against one of the greatest evils of artificial brooding, that of overcrowding. When any manufacturer claims that any one compartment hover will accommodate more than fifty chicks at one brood- ing it is time that the individual should exercise some sound judgment on his own account and save consequent suffering and loss among the brood. The claim of the average manufacturer should be reduced by one-half. Each justifies himself in his false claim upon the ground that he is rating his machine according to the standard 84 Science and Art of I'oultky Culture set by other manufacturers. In no way is it justifiable es- pecially in the light of the fearful chick loss caused by the consequent overcrowding. Fifty chicks in one hover is the outside limit that should be allowed and fewer would give better results. A liberal floor space under the hover, a spacious nursery or exercising room which is cooler than the hover, and later a run are all very important to successful poultry brooding. Locating^ a Brooder — Indoor brooders during cold weather should be placed in a room or building with some provision for heating it to about seventy degrees. If it is late spring or summer any place protected from the sun, storm and wind will be sufficierit. Placed in brooder house runs the machines are easily cared for and the chicks have their liberty even during stormy days. A colony house is an ideal place for a brooder if the floor space be large enough and the right temperature can be maintained. Outdoor brooders may be used in any location desired although if one chooses the best available place the chicks have that much more in their favor. Avoid extremes of sun and wind. Keep each size of chickens or duck- lings by themselves. Give every advantage to natural shelter in location, thereby saving fuel and possible dan- ger of lamps becoming extinguished. Be careful to choose level ground or use artificial means for that pur- pose. Preparing tJie Brooder — When the brooder has been chosen, set up and located, it should then be made ready for the brood at least a day in advance of the time needed for use. Start the iamp, taking every precaution used in the lamp and heater of an incubator. While the temperature is rising to the desired point scatter dry fresh sand or soil upon the floor Brooding 85 of the hover and day room, covering it with a little fine cut clover or chaff free from barbs or thistles. This will allow dryness, exercise and cleanliness. Many use gravel instead of sand while some use grit in the sand. Many prefer to let the chick wait for its grit until time for its first feeding and then use it somewhat sparingly. Their reason is that many brooder chicks do not discriminate enough in their feeding and overload on bright, attract- ive grit. When the temperature has risen to a proper point and the hatch is ready to take off place fresh water into a proper receptacle and the machine is ready for its downy dwellers. Temperature — There should be three or four different temperatures for each machine and its environment. The hover, the day or exercising room, the limited run and the yard should each have its own degree of temper- ature. The last two named in mild weather will be of like degree. This vacation allows the young to choose their own temperature fitted to secure comfort according to its size, weather and brooder conditions. The hover should not be a place where a healthy robust chick or duckling would wish to stay for more than a short time during the day. It should range warm enough so that a short day stay would suffice, and at night to allow of a well spread out brood. What this temperature ought to be is very hard to define, since like in human beings any two days might be widely variant. A damp, bleak day requires a higher temper- ature to maintain a certain degree of vitality than would a bright sunny day. Again during the winter months a different degree would be desired than would be necessary in warm weather. In the winter a dash from a cold run into the hover should meet with a quick warmth while on a mild day a lesser degree would warm 86 Science and Art of 1'oultky Culture up the young quite as quickly. These are matters of the judgment. This also explains why some authors advise a hover temperature of 90° while some advise as high as 105°. The happy medium for a beginner is from 95° to 100° until one can learn from observation the real needs of the brood. Again as the brood grows older the need for arti- ficial warmth grows less and to obtain robust birds the heat must accordingly be reduced week by week until weaning time when it is entirely taken away and if deemed necessary a dummy hover used to keep the nat- ural body heat confined to some extent. The average heat reduction varies with different operators from 2° to 5° per week depending upon the w^eather and the season. It is better to carry too high a temperature than to allow the brood to huddle and crowd and then sweat. Too high a degree devitalizes, although better too warm than too cold. When they are comfortable they will be well spread out and peeping out of their hover. When they wander about, are listless, crowd and are complain- ing, attention should at once be given. Also remember that the flame or other source of heat should be ample to keep up the temperature in the early morning when the outside conditions are most unfavorable, the vitality of the brood is lowest and the oil and wick at least ef- ficiency. Control the temperature from the flame and ventilators. Teaching and Caring for the Brood — In handling a newly hatched brood intelligently one must understand that they come into the world motherless, with certain instincts more or less developed and at the mercy of the caretaker. They know nothing of the ways of their new world and must be taught. That they are apt pupils Brooding 87 is needless to say. They have an instinct to move sHghtly upward when in motion, an instinct to eat and drink, an instinct for warmth, and an instinct or early habit formed to recur to the place where these comforts of life were once obtained. Therefore to take advantage of the last named tendency will save one much waste of time trying to change their early habits because they were not given somewhat permanent conditions the first few days. The first named instinct is often taken advantage of by placing the hover higher than the day room, also al- lowing an advantage of temperature. The hover teaching is best attained by leaving the brood in the incubator un- til they are about two days old so that they may be placed into the brooder toward evening in time to par- take of a light supper, fresh water and then at once be placed under the hover for their first sleep. Having been warm and comfortable during the night the ten- dency the next day is to return to the hover when chilly, and by a little close attention for the next two or three days they will care for themselves readily. If they have been neglected during that period and should have hud- dled in a sunny spot when chilly the recurrent tendency will exist for days. To teach them easily and save time the operator should have a small device covered with fine screening which will fit the hover so that when set in any position desired it will not allow the brood to get more than a short distance from the hover, or it desired quite confine them to the hover. By placing this in position the first evening one can rest assured that none of the brood will wander away and get chilled dur- ing the night and at the same time no air will be shut off. By giving more room about the hover each night the teaching is completed with very little effort. The 88 Science and Art of Poultry Culture same device is used during the day to place the brood entirely under the hover for a very short time until they have learned that the hover is the source of warmth. By gradually limiting their entrance to the day room, to the run and to the yard, only a short time will elapse until they are independent except in the case of sud- den storms, which is another new object lesson. Be on hand when it begins to sprinkle and drive the little ones into shelter at once. After a time or two they will at once seek shelter upon the approach of a storm. This is especially important in the case of outdoor brooders. The attendant whose personal comfort is placed above that of the brood will allow plenty of loss during severe storms. They easily drown while small and cold rain will also chill them. IMany operators who raise but a few often assist the chick or duckling by dipping the beak into the water and tapping the floor to show them the food. We be- lieve both a useless practice and also impractical with large broods. Instinct will suffice for nearly all and the more backward ones have the example of the more forward ones. The teaching of the brood to come by call is accomplished by the voice, a whistle, tapping on a pail and numerous other devices. Watch every discomfort and especially any overcrowd- ing and correct them. Always shut in the brood at night to protect them against all kinds of enemies. Protect them against lice and mites, for even brooder chicks will sometimes become infested by means of the English sparrow. The care of the lamps and heating system is the same as with the incubator except that the outdoor brood- ers should receive closer attention during rough weather. Brooding 89 and during hard storms the attendant should inspect them more often. The cleaning of the brooders should be regular. Twice during the first week, three times during the second and third weeks, and daily thereafter is sufficient. Air out the brooders daily if the weather and age of the brood allow. Sunlight is the deadliest enemy of poultry diseases known. Keep the brooder sweet and sanitary. If possible remove the hover for cleaning and airing. Do not throw the refuse upon the ground as the ground soon becomes filthy and unsanitary. Have a place for all refuse and at stated times place it upon the proper fields or sell it. Whenever a brooder becomes empty always disinfect it with any good disinfectant and air it out well before using again. Diseases such as white diarrhea will infect a coop or brooder for many seasons unless precaution is exercised. Watch the brood for the appearance of any disease. Bowel trouble is the one most likely to attack the brood and may result from many causes, principal among which are weak parentage, improper incubation, wrong feeding or careless brooding. ]\Iake a study of any good work on poultry diseases and their remedies in order to be- come more capable of detecting any approaching trouble. Feeding and Exercise. Exercise is to the young of fowls just what it is to all warm-blooded life, an absolute necessity. Keep the brood busy and strength and vigor result. This is accom- plished by feeding in litter in the day chamber and run. At first place it only about a half inch deep increasing the depth each week. Some breeders will place an al- ternate layer of litter and feed to the depth of several nches and feed no more until it has been well gleaned. This method saves labor but is much discouraging to the 90 Science and Art of Poultry Culture weaker members of the brood. What kind of Htter to use is a pertinent query and inch-cut clover best an- swers it because of the food and medicinal value of the leaves. Any litter will do which does not afford too much irritating dust or barbs and is fine enough for ready movement by the brood. Litter placed upon dry soil or sand affords more exercise since the seed is less available by small effort. Feeding is a subject regarding which there are a great variety of opinions, yet when analyzed are all based upon common principles as will be seen on a study of our analysis of foods in " Foods and Feeding." The young of any common fowl should not be given food ^t once upon exclusion, since just before hatching the yellow or yolk of the egg is absorbed by the de- veloped embryo and retained by it for use as a food for the first few days of its free existence. To introduce other food into its system before this yolk has time to absorb is to do for the newl}' hatched fowl what severe bilious- ness does in the human family. By giving the system time to digest this food provided by nature the start in life will be vigorous and responsive. The first food should be given at the end of the sec- ond or third day and should be doled out sparingly. Water, fresh and pure, should be given freely from the first and kept constantly within their reach. Charcoal and cut clover should also be a daily supply. Grit of such size as can be easily swallowed should be supplied early. Some claim they should have all they can be induced to eat before any food is given. Others claim such a course leads to disaster because the wee birds do not know when to stop eating the attractive looking objects. We believe in a liberal allowance in the food for a few days, then placed before them in a hopper. Brooding 91 Besides water, grit, clover, charcoal and shell a cor- rectly balanced ration for complete and normal devel- opment is necessary. Note under " Foods and Feeding " a discussion of balanced rations. The controversy over dry and wet mashes is unnecessary as either method is correct if properly handled. In wet mash feeding it is quite essential that only enough be given to satisfy the appetite, thus insuring a clean place to feed again. All dishes, pails and feed troughs should be well cleaned each day. It is the decomposing matter in the cracks and crevices that harbor bacteria so deadly when put at work in the digestive tract of a little bird. In dry mash feeding this danger does not seem to exist to the same extent. Weaning. 'IX Weaning in connection with brooding by either nat- ural or artificial means is the gradual process of re- ducing the supply of exterior heat to the point of total i extinction. Under the mother the brood gradually outgrows its quarters and only by crowding one another away can a temporary shelter under the mother wing be enjoyed. This process alone tends to wean the brood until a point is reached where the mother refuses longer to be thus abused and returns to her former childless world. If the natural mother hurries this weaning she can still be made to hover them at night by confining her in the coop in which her brood stays, and if she will not allow them to enter such coop then she must be discarded and a cloth hover afforded until such time as the brood can shift for itself at night. In the artificial brooding it is a question of heat re- duction week by week, as explained in " Temperature," until they can do without any artificial supply unless 92 Science and Art of Poultry Culture a cloth hover be furnished to retain their own body heat. The weaning should be a gradual hardening process so that no sudden change will check or stunt the rapid and vigorous development of the brood. Pay the clos- est attention to their feeding and comfort at weaning time. Therefore no set time, limit or age can be given for weaning since the breed, the season of the year and their general development would govern in large meas- ure. Six weeks might be a fair age in warmer weather and mild climates while ten weeks might be required in cold seasons and farther north. Again judgment must be exercised for the best results. About this time if the weather is moderate the brood will begin to show a tendency to desire a roost. A low roosting bench may be given and in a few days the cloth hover may be taken out entirely. Nearly all the half grown chickens will seek the low roosts given them. The roosts may be. left out a few days until the colony house shall be occupied if the brooder is otherwise lo- cated. The last step in passing from a brood to a grown flock is the putting them out into colony houses upon free range, if possible each sex by itself. Do not put into each house more than twenty-five birds and even less would be better. Ducklings need only a little litter to sit upon but should be kept in a cleanly condition. Separating the Sexes. At or soon after weaning time the young males begin to show signs of sex awakening and begin to develop their combs and wattles. They become important and quarrelsome if kept with the females and cause the lat- ter needless worry which retards development. When apart both sexes do better and are more easily and eco- nomically kept, unless intended for breeders. Chapter VIII. FOODS AND FEEDING. General. The subject of foods and feeding is of the most vital importance to every poitltryman regardless of his age or experience. It is a subject which is rapidly develop- ing and toward which some of the most earnest thought of our experimental stations is being directed. Upon it depends not only the health and welfare of the poultry but also the profits to be derived will flow from the proper balancing of food, the manner of its feeding and the economy of its selection. It is well known that the mar- ket value of food ingredients differs widely in various localities and the wide-awake man will study the food problem carefully, ^^'hat follows is an earnest attempt to put forward clearly and logically a few ideas that may assist in the better understanding of the important prob- lem of correct feeding. Requirements of a Proper Food. Xo hard and fast principles apply in considering the requirements of a proper food for poultry. Fowls of dif- ferent ages, in varying climates, and for definite purposes require nutriment of a different kind and in a different degree. How irrational it would be to give the same ra- tion and treatment to a hen producing eggs for incuba- tion, to a hen for forced laying for commercial profit, to a moulting hen. to a hen intended for the showroom and to a hen desired for market. Such a lack of fore- 93 94 Science and Art of Poultry Culture sight must ultimately lead to failure. In short there must be a proper food, fed in the proper manner and at the proper time. The requirements of a proper food then should contain these essentials : Economy of cost and ^ availability ; non-injurious to the color, flavor or texture ; contain all the elements that promote growth and pro- ductiveness ; a variety of ingredients relished ; adaptable to the age, breed, climate and purpose ; sufficient bulk to allow of normal digestion ; limited in fibre to allow of no waste of energy ; enough whole grain and grit to properly use and exercise the muscles of the digestive organs, and in a form to induce sufficient exercise. Explanation of Terms. A ration as applied to poultry feeding means a fixed daily allowance of food to each individual fowl. A balanced ration is therefore a perfect food or one fulfilling every natural requirement of each fowl consid- ering its age, its stage of development, the climatic con- ditions, and the mission in poultrydom it is to fulfil. It is a happy medium between a narrow and wide ration for the use intended. The term narrozv ration in feeding is sometimes ap- plied to a poultry food in which protein exists in equal or even in much 1 s proportion than carbohydrates and fats, while the term wide ration is where the carbo- hydrates heavily predominate. Protein is often used interchangeably with the terms nitrogcnons and albuminous. It is the important element in the making of blood, flesh, feathers, eggs and the main organs of the fowl, hence its value can readily be seen. Carbohydrates and fats furnish the fats or starchy ele- ments of foods. They furnish the heat of the body and renew the energy, muscles, and certain tissues. Extra quantities of carbohydrates are deposited as fat. Foods and Feeding 95 Water is contained in some degree in all foods, but be- ing supplied in the free form is largely ignored in the analysis of foods. Ash or mineral matter in food is important in the form- ing of bone and egg shells, and being fed in the form of grit, bone, and shells is not so important in the study of rations. Composition of Poultry Products. A chemical analysis of fowls of all ages, their products and excretions has given to mankind a better understand- ing of what foods are required for their production. Un- der the chapter devoted to the " Food Value of Poultry Produce " it will be seen what elements enter into the different kinds of poultry produce and in w^hat propor- tions, and thus a more intelhgent study may be given to the formation of a balanced ration. Rel.vtion of Feeding to Food \'alues. Both the kind of food and the manner of feeding affect the value of the product obtained thereby. The flavor of eggs and flesh is affected by foods as is often evidenced by the use of fish, onions, celery or other highly flavored articles. Ducks in process of fattening or finishing for market are often fed celery seed because there is a de- mand for duck flesh so flavored. The color of the fin- ished bird when dressed as well as the plumage of the fowl intended for the showroom is governed to quite an extent by the kind of food given. A narrow ration, espe- cially if it be very nitrogenous, will tend toward a darker flesh while a wide ration will tend toward a lighter flesh. Growers have long fed an oat, buckwheat and milk mash to whiten the dressed product : also if a fowl is not fed what the age, breed, climate and purpose demand the product will be lacking in vitality and development. The manner of feeding has little to do with flavor or color 96 Science and Art of Poultry Culture but everything to do with the texture of the flesh. If the fowls are fed sparingly on a ration not relished or even where the ration is relished but given on large range or under compulsory exercise the flesh will tend toward being hard and stringy. Again the ration being correct for the purpose, exercise compelled only for actual needs, a quick growth or fattening process will result in a plump, juicy, tender, well-colored and well- flavored product. Soft foods fed in a correct form and properly balanced are better for quick finishing and fat- tening purposes than are unground foods. Whether they are fed warm or cold seems to make no difference to the food values. It is assumed that the time of feeding and amount to be given to promote healthy and vigorous re- sults are understood. The effect of the kind of foods and the manner of the feeding is plainly important and is easily controlled. Digestibility of and Preference for Foods. The duty of the digestive tract is to prepare the nutri- tive values of foods for the use of the fowl. This prep- aration completed, the circulatory system becomes the messenger or carrier of this nutriment to all portions of the fowl. The blood therefore must be well supplied with whatever is necessary to promote growth, renew worn tissues, furnish heat and allow of productiveness. This tract is made up of the beak, a mouth without teeth, gullet, crop (in almost all fowls), orifice leading to a stomach and beyond the stomach to the gizzard, the intestinal canal several feet long and folded upon itself many times, cjecum, cloaca and vent. The mouth, crop, stomach, gizzard, pancreas, gall bladder, and intestines furnish secretions which aid complete digestion. In the gizzard the food is ground, moistened and mixed and the lack of teeth is thus provided for by nature. Foods and Feeding 97 In studying the problem of feeding it must be borne in mind that the amount of a given food which can be assimilated, or in other words the amount that is digest- ible is the real test of its value. Again the age and general condition of a fowl, as well as the influence on other foods fed at the same time, all have their influence in determining the real value of a specific food. The crude fibres in man}- grains and vegetables are really indigestible, yet are useful as a diluent of other more concentrated foods and as a distender of the digestive organs. Variety in foods is the most important aid to digestion the poultryman can employ. It avoids the cloyed appetite and its consequent evils. The grain products vary widely in composition and form and therefore the digestibility varies. The prefer- ence shown for such foods also varies to a large extent. The latter is also somewhat governed by what grains the fowl is accustomed to, as well as by the weather con- ditions, yet a marked preference is shown for the grains which have the least fibre covering. Wheat and corn are preferred to oats or barley. Experiments have proven that fowls are not entirely to be trusted to regulate their own diet of grain unless the sole object is to fatten them, or because of age, range, breed, temperature or exercise the choice of grains will be less important, ^^l^ile they will choose a diet containing all their needs, yet the ten- dency will be to take upon themselves too much of a store of surplus fats. The grains containing fibre or cov- erings of fibre are not so digestible as those with less. Again some grains seem to tax the secretions to a greater extent than others and for this reason caution should be exercised in feeding rye, cottonseed meal, bran and other similar substances. In warm weather the carbohydrates are taxing to the system as they are heat producers. The 98 Science and Art of Puultrv Culture BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK. Courtesy of Peerless Poultry Plant (Inc.). Foods and Feeding 99 highly concentrated foods should be handled with care or disorders result. Lack of variety impairs the vitality and cloys the appetite. A fairly-balanced ration of vari- ous grains solves the problem of digestibility. These are a few of the main dangers with grain and such other evils as appear are due more to the neglect in the man- ner of feeding than in the foods. The animal products are usually very rich in protein. They are also subject to wide variation in analysis, hence buyers must be careful and purchase from a responsible source. All are digestible if not allowed in too large quantities at one time, especially where that element has been lacking and the fowl craves it. Fowls will choose fresh-cooked lean meat over all forms of animal food (excepting worms and bugs) if given a choice. The better grades of meat scrap, dried blood and meat meal are richer in protein and produce the best results although variety must also be observed. It has been well demonstrated that a ration of grain and vegetables which contains the same elements as one in which ani- mal products also enter in part does not give as good results as when the animal elements are included. Over- feeding of animal foods disarranges the intestinal tracts and produces leg weakness in young fowls. The narrow ration element aids digestion when properly fed and is the source of a large supply of the nutrition needed in the normal development of a fowl and its products. The manurial value is also increased. Leaving animal prod- ucts before the fowls at all times has shown no evil effects, unless for some particular purpose it has been too strongly protein. Green bone may sour if kept for any length of time in warm weather, but in winter it may be frozen and kept indefinitely. Green-food values lie as much in the assistance ren- 100 Science axu Art of Poultry Culture dered in the digestion of other foods as in their own food values. They add variety, a spice to the appetite, and in some mysterious way do wonders for the sys- tem. Experiments which have furnished every element needed by the fowl or its products without allowing ac- cess to green food in any form have proven the absolute necessity of green food for the best results. Some forms of green foods which are highly relished by fowls, such as apples or cabbage, should be fed cautiously unless the fowls are accustomed to them. In fact overeating on any green food where the fowl is unused to it may cause digestive disturbances. A constant supply of any green food will avoid this danger. \'ariety is preferred by all fowls. Gravel or grit of any kind increases the digestibility of certain forms of protein and fibre because of the aid it renders to the digestive liquids. The finer the food the more easily the secretions can reach and act upon them. Oyster shells or some form of lime is sought for by hens especially while laying. It is estimated that one pound of oyster shells will furnish lime enough for eight dozens of eggs. Some mineral matter is furnished in grains, vegetables and bone. Leave the choice of selec- tion to the average hen and she will choose some oyster shell, some bone and always pick out grit of the size between the grain of wheat and the grain of com. In short a fowl will pick out the size desired if given a chance. Some authorities claim the grit is not needed to assist digestion but only for such minerals as it may furnish, but when those are furnished the hen will still choose to take grit. She must be controlled by her needs or she is sadly devoid of the usual natural good sense of the dumb creation. Charcoal furnishes certain food ele- ments as well as medicinal properties corrective of intes- Foods and Feeding 101 tinal disturbances. The furnishing of grit, oyster shells and charcoal of the right size and grade, considering the age and breed of fowl, and where it may be freely obtained will be economy in feeding because of their aid and influence toward proper digestion. The preference of fowls will not lead to error in these elements. A pinch of salt in the rations occasionally is excellent for poultry. Pure and fresh water is a strong aid to digestion and hence to good assimilation. Some breeds of fowls are more dependent upon water than others, as for example the duck while feeding. A constant supply makes for better conditions with any kind of poultry. The amount required by any fowl will vary widely with the weather, the humidity of the air, the breed and physical condition of the fowl, the nature of the food given and other fac- tors. Snow is often used and questions arise as to the use of warm or cold water. These are answered most nearly by the statement that pure, fresh and a constant supply of cool (not cold) water will produce the best results when every other condition is alike. There is danger in disturbing the digestive value of water by the use of impure water, thereby creating diseased conditions and also by allowing excessive thirst to be followed by a liberal quantity which often results seriously, giving what is known as water colic. Table of Food Analysis. Of the various substances used for rations some have higher values for certain purposes than do others. Again the same grains or vegetables may not contain nutritive elements in exactly the same proportion where they have been grown in different soils and under different degrees of cultivation. Climatic conditions and extent of matur- ity might also affect the analysis. Therefore any table given may vary in some degree from other similar tables 102 Science and Art of Poultry Culture and all be correct as far as any practical use is concerned. The table following is made up largely from data the credit for which is due to Prof. James E. Rice. Food Supplies. Digestible Nutrients. rt Cfl ol !> ^ S *^ $ Q een wintered through on many farms by means of straw sheds whose inner sur- face was kept intact by means of wire netting nailed to the posts supporting the roof, the straw walls being held in place by a second fence of netting. These could be made rat-proof by using inch-wire-mesh netting. In any plan the floor space per fowl may be reduced somewhat Conducting an Egg Farm 127 over breeding houses since fertility and vitality are elim- inated. The size of the flock is not so material as their care, but flocks containing from ten to fifty birds usually give the better results in the average hands. Whether one should use the colony plan or the con- tinuous house is largely a matter of choice. The former gives freedom and range, thus reducing the food element of cost while the latter lessens the labor expense by con- siderable. Again the question of artificial heat arises. There is no question but that artificial heat under right control and management increases egg-production, yet many question the advisability of using it when they con- sider that the added expense may or may not be coun- terbalanced by the reduction in the feeding expense. The care of fowls for egg- production should begin with the parent stock and continue to the point where they are beginning to repay a person for the care given. \'arious chapters herein go fully into these details. After the stock is ready to produce results the same principles of correct sanitation, ventilation, regular and intelligent feeding and watchful care will be necessary. Do not coddle or pamper the fowls, but make them comfortable and happy. Keep males out of the pens unless intended for breeders and then do not tire out a good male before the breeding season by giving him an excess of females for company. The intelligent operator will constantly observe conditions. He will see that dust baths are fur- nished, that properly cleaned quarters are kept, that the food and drink are provided aright, that the combs and plumage indicate health, that the droppings are normal and that the actions are such as show that all the func- tions of the fowl are in proper exercise. One reason why so large a majority of women are successful is that they are close observers and profit thereby. 128 Science and Art of Poultry Culture One entire chapter is devoted to an important phase of egg-fanning and after reading " Marketing the Com- mercial Egg " any active person will soon acquire an outlet for his produce which will at once be both profit- able and satisfactory. \\'ith each member of a flock lay- ing a yearly average of from 120 to 175 eggs which are properly marketed it leaves the investor to multiply the average annual profit of one dollar per fowl by the num- ber of dollars in his desired income to find the number of fowls he shall keep. Then he may work out his invest- ment and at the same time if of the right material for egg-farming he may increase that profit by the close ap- plication of his business acumen.. If he may not devote his whole time he still may keep a limited number. The housewife by a little efifort may make the poultry a ble'ssing to the home by both the increased variety af- forded the table and also by such cash sales as may be made from time to time. Lastly, let it be impressed that egg-farming differs but little from any other branch of the poultry business and that the studies throughout this volume will afford an intelligent person with much of value. If this chapter shall have called the attention of the present or prospective egg-farmer to the data he is seeking and to seriously see how simple yet how complex is the subject, then its aim shall have been satisfied. Chapter X. FIVE METHODS OF SELECTING THE LAYIXG HEX. One of the most important matters in the pouhry world is to breed correctly for the result one wishes to accom- plish whether it be for fancy points, meat or eggs or any combination of these three aims. A>ry essential it is then to know which birds of your laying pens are the egg producers and if your breeding is governed by in- telligent selection your future hens will be made that much more profitable. Every animal or fowl will trans- mit to their progeny any traits or other tendencies pres- ent in the parent stock. In presenting a few methods of selecting the laying hens we fully realize that certain skeptics will scoff at some ideas advanced, but they will do well to study and experiment more fully before uttering adverse criti- cism. Our forefathers used some of these methods with much success, and while they are not all infallible used separately, yet some truth exists in each and when used intelligently and in relation to each other are of much value. Science is approaching a better solution of this important problem. In adopting any method it is bet- ter to use leg b£.nds and a small record book so that one may not confuse the various birds and hence do them injustice. In using the full crop method it is just as es- sential to note that hen number ten has been a contin- uously hearty eater and that hen number twenty has 129 130 Science and Art of Poultry Culture averaged a much smaller crop as it is that proper ac- count be kept of their trap-nest records. One essen- tial before any method will be of value is that the care and feeding shall be entirely proper and uniform. 1. Trap-nests — The certain method of ascertaining the record of each hen or other fowl is by the use of the trap-nest. This gives to each bird its exact record day by day throughout the year. The only objection is the time involved, yet considering results it is worth the cost. Only the pullet need thus be trap-nested and then breed them the second year, unless it is desired to use a trap-nest for a longer period. Do not fail to breed to a cock or cockerel of a known hen or all effort will be largely lost. 2. Shape and Expansion — One of the best and oldest methods for a careful observer is the shape and expan- sion method. By shape is meant the hen that carries a rather long body being fairly broad at the rear consider- ing the breed type. The standard Leghorn is an egg producing type and is one of the largest tgg producers known. In any other breed the type must be considered, yet the above tendency will prevail with the best layers. By expansion is meant that element present in every known animal or bird to become gradually relaxed and broader in and about the vent region previous to and during the birth of their young and in birds while pro- ducing eggs. In former years, while experimenting, the expansion of a hen during egg expulsion was a rev- elation to the writer, especially when remembering that the entire egg had to pass between the lower points of the pubis bones and those of the ischium above, this be- ing the location of the vent. Note the location of these bones in the skeleton shown elsewhere, taken from Chau- Selecting the Laying Hen 131 veau. Were not this principle of expansion true only pain and death could result from reproduction under the present physical construction of fowls. " In the non- breeding season, when the parts are in repose, the ovary and oviduct are reduced in size and almost disappear " (Salmon) and nature's relaxation and enlargement of the rear parts of the laying hen are replaced by a set- tled and restricted condition. Now this principle is as old as science and w'hen care- fully studied and applied is the most valuable next to the use of the trap-nest. To become proficient it is nec- essary to study the shape and condition of the parts in and about the vent in a hen which is laying and one which is not producing eggs. It is best to pick out two or more hens from the flock and isolate them. Handle each care- fully and quietly for a few days, thus accustoming them to being picked up at any time without disturbing them. Feed and care well for tliem to place them in laying con- dition. Now each day as they are picked up run the fingers slowly across just below the vent, noticing that there are two hard points v/hich are the rear extrem- ities of the pubis bones forming the framework of the female within and Lelow which lie all the entrails, the reproductive organs, and the egg channel or oviduct. Now just as we breathe and enlarge the chest and thereby spread apart the lower ribs, or as the rear part of an animal relaxes to expel its young, so does the rear frame- w^ork of the hen expand when filled w'ith eggs from the regular size and on down to the smallest one of the clutch. These knobs will gradually spread during the development of the clutch in the same proportion as the clutch of eggs growls and is greatest at the time when the clutch contains the first developed egg ready to be expelled or in younger hens it may be a few days later. 132 Science and Art of Poultry Culture The only other time when these two knobs are spread apart to a greater extent is just while the female is ex- pelling the egg. So by finding the bones and measuring their distance apart with the thumb or fingers one can study their relative distance apart in each breed and each hen both before and when the hen is laying as well as when she ceases laying. In this way proficiency will result so that one may become fairly accurate in choosing the hen that is laying or is on the way to lay. One must not forget that age, time of year and breeds 33 well as individual fowls vary in their development and expansion and what would be a proper spread or expansion to indicate laying in one bird might not hold true of another bird of the same breed, variety or flock. Again a greater expansion may indicate that the hen in question is laying a greater relative number of eggs per week than at another time when the parts are somewhat more contracted. The greater number of well devel- oped eggs contained the greater the expansion. Again let the principle be impressed that the framework of the rear of the hen is attached to the backbone above and free below, hence the egg-filled chamber can expand in only one place, thus giving the breadth and bone expan- sion of the laying hen. 3. Crop and Roosting — Another method used quite ex- tenLjively by keen poultry observers is that of noticing which fowls enter the coops and go to their roosting places late. It is quite true that the laying hen does not have time to go to roost early, as she is too busy and active finding that last bug or other morsel. Closely associated with the roosting habit, since it springs from the same cause, is that of a large crop. As the fowls are upon the roost at night examine their crops. Those full extended crops of good size belong to the laying Selectixg the Laying Hens 133 class. To produce eggs in plenty requires a large amount of food. The laying hen not only requires it but obtains it while her sister of the smaller crop usually proves to be the non-producer. The useful hen is also the first one up at daybreak rustling about for a plentiful breakfast. 4. Development — Those pullets among a brood which develop earliest are said to be the best layers. Certain it is they will lay earlier and therefore in a given time be more valuable. 5. Condition — First sell ofif the over fat hen w^hich is usually a non-producing hen. One will always see her seek the roost early in the evening and leave last m the morning. Then notice the bird which is active, rug- ged and always hungry. Note a bright red comb and wattles. This hen is the producer. If none are thus distinctive something is wTong. Either the feeding is imperfect or lice are drawing the life blood from the hens as fast as food can make it. Chapter XL MOLTING. The functions of the feathers are many, the chief among which is clothing the body. This covering is an excellent non-conductor of heat and cold, is light and strong, repels dirt and is an ornament of no small beauty. Molting of fowls is the annual shedding of their plumage and the growth of new. A protracted or con- tinuous molt is unnatural. The importance of the molt is often underestimated and proper food and care with- held when most needed. The earmarks of the molt appear in the dropping off of egg production, loose feathers in evidence, loss of appetite and the ragged appearance of the fowls. This is the time of large demand on the system and of low vi- tality. A fowl in this condition easily contracts dis- ease if neglected. At no time should attention be more carefully given than during the molt. Provide the fowl with strength and save it from catching cold by supplying dry, warm quarters during stormy or damp weather. Keep them free from lice, as at no season of the year is a fowl less abje to stand the drain upon the system caused by vermin. If the molting stock is weak and droopy you are safe in assuming it infested. IMany put epsom salts in the drinking water twice a week at this time, using just enough to taste slightly. Birds intended for shows should be given plenty of shade as the hot sun injures the plumage. Often the male birds become very cross and 134 Molting 135 ugly during their molt and are best separated from the females. The feeding during this period should be such as to promote a quick, healthy growth of feathers. Grain BARRED PLY:\I0UTH ROCK IX MOLT. Courtesy of Peerless Poultry Plant (Inc.). and grass alone are improper because the composition of feathers is highly nitrogenous and mineral. Less wheat and corn and more green foods, meats, bone, bran 136 Science and Art of Poultry Culture mash, grit, charcoal, and pure water are needed. A long continued narrow ration of nitrogenous food would tend to produce a continuous molt. Since feathers con- tain much sulphur many give a mash about twice a week containing a tablespoonful of flour of sulphur to every eight birds fed. Black and buff feathers are especially improved. Too much is not best for white plumage. Forcing a molt is often desired especially to get a flock in show room condition or to obtain winter layers from otherwise non-profitable hens. The natural season is from June to November and often a fowl will take three months or more for the process. Again the same hen w^ill not molt at a corresponding time each year. It is a recognized fact that an early molting female be- comes an early layer and the opposite is also true, hence the desire to force an early and uniform molt. To, ac- complish this the daily allowance of food is withdrawn and but very little is given for several days or two weeks, after which feed heavily of nitrogenous foods such as linseed meal, beef, bone, middlings, oats and of other grains sparingly for a few days. Egg production wdll drop off and upon changing from the scant rations to the feather-forming foods the molt will be rapid and uniform. Winter layers will usually result from this forced molting. Pullets hatched late rarely molt while those hatched early do so to some extent. Chapter XII. POULTRY HOUSES, FIXTURES, FENCES AND YARDS. In presenting this subject it will be the aim to keep well within principles rather than to give specific plans, believing that by this method the greatest help will be given to the largest number of persons. No one plan is adaptable to every location or to every purpose, there- fore each plant presents a special problem because of diverse soil, surface, objects, capital, markets and many other considerations. An expert employed to assist in laying out a plant would be ultimate economy. Of all farm buildings erected for various purposes the poultry build- ings bring in the best income and yet on the average are the most neglected of all. Of late years much interest is being given to this subject with encouraging results. In their order will be taken up the choosing of a location, the general arrangement of a plant, the investment, build- ings and their fixtures, yards, parks or ranges and fences. Choosing a Business Location. The main point to be considered in location is first to choose the county, state and locality in which one wishes to reside, if that point is not already settled. Next will come transportation facilities, markets, soil, drainage, climate, water and sewerage to consider. Following will appear points along these lines which may assist in taking advantage of natural and existing conditions favorable to success. Transportation — If a poultry plant is located near 137 138 Science and Art of Poultry Culture good transportation the saving of time and extra charg- es will be quite a factor in showing profits on 'the ledger. Transportation may be by rail, trolley, steamboat, stage or better yet, one may be within a wagon journey of a good market, A junction or railway center offers ease of reaching diiTerent markets and more than one outlet makes it easier to adjust claims. However do not let the matter of transportation outweigh the other ques- tions of investment and cheaper feed as a large city has no advantage over a country village except that egg and dressed poultry routes are more obtainable if one desires that method of disposing of produce. On the other hand the small center offers cheaper living, cheap- er land, cheaper foodstuffs and a better opportunity of locating nearer transportation and at the same time al- lows the family better church, school and social oppor- tunities. Another very important point is to get within the express limits of a good market and if possible on a direct route to avoid transfers of freight and express. With our splendid means of transportation the matter of location is much simplified. Markets — The question of markets is important, yet not vital, as good markets exist in every part of the world as well as in every part of the United States and Canada. The larger the city the better the market, un- less that city should have a rich country on all sides to draw upon. Where cities are placed, geographically, in a somewhat isolated position, they often are strong markets. Yet when other factors are considered the in- creased market price may not afford an extra profit. The centers are not the only available markets, as many of the smaller cities are excellent points, espe- cially at certain seasons of the year when they are com- pelled to draw upon the larger cities for supplies. Poultry Houses and Yards 139 Methods of marketing are given elsewhere and the sug- gestions therein may assist in deciding upon a location. Some plants are located near summer resorts and en- joy a nice trade which often leads to more permanent contracts. The object one has in raising poultry often has a di- rect bearing upon choosing a location, since many mar- kets which would take a larger output of eggs might take but few broilers. In other localities fancy stock might be more profitable than either and therefore it is well to settle upon a course and then locate near a mar- ket for the specific thing chosen to produce. Soil and Drainage — Much discussion has been given to soil and its relation to the poultry industry. Much of it has been of little value. That relative to drain- age has not been emphasized enough. Soil and drain- age are also rather difficult to treat separately as the latter is almost dependent upon the former except as slopes may be considered. It is entirely fitting at this point to state that one soil may be much better than another, yet any soil rightly handled, will yield good results. A point w^orth remembering in some sections of the country is that certain grounds are liable to be flooded by excessive freshets and for this reason should not be chosen. Light sandy soil makes an excellent drainage and al- lows a thorough cleansing of the filth that may touch it. It is never muddy and sticky and always is free from snow early in the spring. On the other hand it is usu- ally non-productive and hot in the summer, thus afford- ing scant comfort in the summertime except as some shade exists. For close confinement pens it does very well. Heavy clay soil becomes very annoying to fowls in 140 Science and Art of Poultry Culture wet weather. The surface water fails to seep away quickly and the droppings do not leave the surface read- ily. Crustations of filth are often found upon the sur- face while the snow does not leave it early in the spring. The vegetation is better than upon sand, affording more green food and better crops. Where runs are made in this soil a subdrainage of tile and surfacing with sand is desirable. Frequent plowing is often necessary. A sandy loam with a good gravel subsoil or a sloping surface is the ideal soil and drainage for poultry. It allows the advantages of both without the evils, and also gives the fowls as much contentment as soil can furnish. Being at the same time rich and loose, every kind of a crop and vegetation suitable for poultry can be grown. It insures the cheapness of grain and usu- ally is well supplied with transportation facilities and nearness to markets. A low damp soil is always to be avoided. The lo- cation should be chosen with a view to a sloping sur- face if possible to make drainage of both water and air complete. Many low or level tracts of land at certain seasons are foggy and cold at the surface. This is det- rimental, or at least must be considered in rearing poul- try. The air flows in currents, as does water, the cold and damp air always seeking a lower level because it is heavier. Those living in a perfectly level country can- not realize this as well as those who are living in a more broken country, yet it should be borne in mind in choos- ing a location, since a possible profit will be reduced by extra feed for warmth and vigor. A poultry house located upon a bank of a stream in a rolling country may be more free from damp soil or air than a house upon a level country miles from surface water. In air- drainage altitude plays quite a part. Poultry Houses and Yards 141 Climate — This subject is one upon which advice from any source is not in order without it is much quahfied. Every cHmate has its drawbacks at certain seasons. In judging the merits or demerits of a chmate one must take into consideration not only the best season but all seasons of the year. We well know that while certain warmer sections and climates are keeping the breeder busy fighting heat and vermin, breeders of other sec- tions may be fighting away the cold. In short we have yet to find a climate that is beyond reproach for poultry rais- ing. It is well to avoid extremes of heat or cold, of severe winds, of atmospheric stagnation, of lake influences where damp winds prevail, or any other condition which tends to drain the system, thus requiring offsetting feed and care. Outside of some local climatic conditions let not climate alone govern a choice of location. Good fowls are being raised everywhere. Water and Sezverage — This question arises often and must be settled by what is available in the locality other- wise chosen. However it is wise to keep this in mind. Some plants are located where a stream flows through the premises, thus solving both problems. If the stream is a good current, a dam is often arranged and the water forced into every part of the premises with a sew- er system emptying below the plant, to take the overflow. Others use different means than gravity to care for the pressure. Where one lives in a city or near a water svstem, suitable arrangements can often be made to obtain a supply. Still others use windmills or gaso- line engines to raise the well-water to a gravity tank. Where good natural sewerage is not obtainable, a cess- pool may be used. This may be cleaned once in about two vears or as often as necessitv demands. Never 142 Science and Art of Poultry Culture choose a location for water only if thereby a damp or unhandy yarding will result. General Arrangement of a Plant. Arrange carefully the entire plant in order that econ- omy of time and labor may result, that yarding will be as inexpensive as possible and that the general plan will be attractive. An office or central building should be handy to the plant and highwaw The incubator cellar, the brooder houses, the chick houses, the hen- neries, the shipping room and the storerooms should be so arranged that a continuous journey would enable an attendant to perform his duties and return him to a desired point. Water arrangements should be con- venient. Also consider any other buildings necessary to the kind of a plant being erected. To do arrangement justice a complete plan should be worked out which is drawn to permit of the purpose in view and which will allow of expansion. Then follow it as each step is taken. It is not possible to take a set of plans used by one person and follow it, as no two locations are alike in natural surroundings or in reference to highways, dwellings, outbuildings, or points of the compass. Each plant, be it large or small must be planned individually to be the most satisfactory. Investment. The amount of capital is entirely one to be determined by the means at hand and the object for which the plant is to be built. A start can always be made upon a few dollars or a large investment. If the person in charge is not experienced in the business it is well to make a modest beginning and grow into it by degrees. The real object determined, one *can soon obtain estimates upon the various lands, buildings, yards and other needed equip- Poultry Houses and Yards 143 ment to attain to a certain amount of business desired. The amount of time one desires to give, the income he expects and many other considerations enter. The real intent of this heading was not so much the amount of the investment as whether it were better to lease a property or buy one outright. The leasing has in its favor the argument that the investment will be less and a subsequent loss less in case of failure, while the purchase lends an idea of stability and permanency to the enterprise. It also gives the owner a better incentive to improve and add to the plant. In either case one may sometimes obtain fairly good plants or places with available buildings of various kinds much more reason- able than a first cost to construct them upon vacant lands. Buildings and Their Fixtures. Before taking up the individual buildings a little space will be given to a few practical studies. Relative Area Studies — There are three types of roofs most frequently used — gable, combination and one-pitch roofs. 144 SciENcii AND Art of Poultry Culture Given the same pitcli and floor plan the areas of the roof of each type of house are equal and where these relative heights of sides are kept the total areas of the sides of each of these types are equal. Therefore at these dimensions the material for each house will be of equal value except for the variation of the ends. The ends of the gable type are the largest, the one pitch type the smallest. Poultry Houses and Yards 145 ( )nc side of eacli tj-pe of house being of the same height while the ground plan and pitch remain the same the areas of the sides become unequal. The areas of the ends and sides of the one pitch roof be- ing the greatest and of the gable roof the smallest. 146 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Where one has a like floor plan and the same pitch, the same material is required to build a j^able roof, a combination roof or a one-pitch roof. However the shape of the roof does influence the cost of the sides to some extent. The pitch of a roof affects the cost since the steeper the roof the more material it takes for both roof and sides, yet the lon^i^er the roof will last. One-third pitch for shingles and one-fourth pitch for patent roofing are the usual measurements. The gable roof gives the most garret room for stor- age or for straw loft ventilation, gives the best chance for an alley in the rear at the least expense and gives the greatest number of cubic feet air space per fowl. It is the most attractive roof of the three. The single or one-pitch roof is the best for patent roofing since the sun does not strike it vertically, it al- lows for high windows, saves half of the expense for eaves trough and is the easiest to construct. The combination roof partakes of the advantages of both the gable and the one-pitch roof. Poultry Houses and Yards 147 60 The floor areas of A and B are equal. The distance around A is 70 feet while it is 130 feet around B. This illustrates the principle that the nearer square an area becomes the shorter the distance around it. The form of a building has to do with the cost of construction. Continuous houses save ends. The more nearly square a house is built, when of a given area, the more economical it becomes. The lower a building is, without making it difficult of use, the easier it is warmed. This is with the pro- vision that ample air space is retained for the use in- tended. 148 SciiiNCE AND Art of Poultry Culture ^"^zcmTner Showing the relative floor space covered by the sun at different angles. These angles vary with the seasons as well as during each day. The area of a floor covered by the smi's rays depends upon the opening through which sunHght enters. Too much glass is not desired because of the variations in temperature caused. A medium which will afford the most sunlight upon the greatest floor area will be found in a long and narrow window placed upright rather than horizontal. From the cut shown the rel- ative areas can be readily seen to shift with the size of the opening. The horizontal window of an equal size allows the same area of sunlight to fall upon the floor, but in the course of a day does not pass over the equal area covered by the light from a perpendicular window. Openings should be placed high enough so Poultry Houses and Yards 149 that at all seasons the sunlight may fall well to the rear of the house instead of being limited to a small area in the front. A sash of small panes obstructs light while if the panes are too large they are easily broken. A medium size should be employed. J^eiitilatioii Studies — This is really the keynote to suc- cessful results all along the line of poultry raising, or it might be better said that lack of right ventilation has caused more failures in the poultry business than all oth- er reasons combined. In the incubator, in the brooder, in the colony house or in the regular houses there seems to exist gross carelessness in supplying fresh air. Yet its very simplicity seems to be its difficulty. There is only one principle to announce in connection with sane ventilation — that of supplying fresh air with- out creating a draught. Many schemes have been pre- sented but are really reducible to about three types — side openings, loft circulation and special ventilation. The special ventilators are in many cases worse than none at all, because they are so often neglected that they operate at times when they should be closed and too often create a strong current toward some other open- ing. They require expert handling for real use and therefore are not only inclined to be impracticable, but dangerous in the hands of the average attendant. The loft ventilation is quite satisfactory. This is not accomplished by a small opening to create a draught downward, but by covering almost the entire area of joists with cloth or burlap, or by placing thereon netting or narrow strips upon which are placed straw, hay or other like material to the depth of about one or two feet. The straw also absorbs dampness and with proper openings above the straw or cloth the fresh air sifts down 150 Science and Art of Poultry Culture without creating a draught. This method is only avail- able for certain houses. The ventilation by openings is the one in most favor at the present and varies from the fresh-air house, with its one side entirely open, to the placing of curtains over a door or window opening. Some dispense with the sash entirely, using cloth-covered frames in their place. Others use the sash but place a cloth curtain in such a po- sition that it may be adjusted at pleasure. The simplest and at the same time convenient arrangement for a cur- tain either upon a door or window frame is to slide the curtain on a wire at the top and bottom so that it may be pushed aside entirely or spread over the whole open- ing. Others use a door which has both cloth and wood- en shutters to care for severe weather, thus doing away with the regular door entirely. Where an open scratch- ing shed plan is adopted the door leading from the house may be left open or not used at all. In either of the last two methods care should be used to place the openings to the side of the house where the least wind will enter, even if glass has to be used to furnish sunlight from the south. In most coun- tries in the temperate zone the south is the side usually chosen, although in some localities it is not best. More important it is that no other openings exist so that the building can be wind-swept. A volume of air is not so harmful as a current, regardless of the size of the latter. Climatic conditions will govern the manner of ventilating to a large extent. The evils of poor ventilation can hardly be described without going over much ground. With proper ven- tilation the majority of poultry diseases will be elim- inated, since dampness and draughts will disappear and with them colds, roup and nearly all of the other Poultry Houses and Yards 151 ills that beset fowls. Extremes of temperature are held in check while comfort and cleanUness are increased by proper ventilation. Foundation Studies — A few suggestions will apply in all types of buildings, no matter where constructed. Drainage is important both for durability of the foun- dation as well as the subsequent health of future in- mates. Where no set place is given always choose ground sloping slightly away upon all sides. If the position desired will not admit of natural advantages, then artificial means must be employed. If a hollow exists it should be graded full ; if level, plan that the excavated soil gives the immediate ground a slope. Al- ways plan that within the foundation walls the sur- face shall be higher than the surface without, unless a basement is to exist. Also the durability of any wall is enhanced by providing against surface water or seep- age reaching it, thus giving frost an added advantage. In certain localities a sub-drainage, by means of tile, may be essential. This is often placed just beneath or near the bottom of the wall. At the same time with water drainage one must study the local conditions as to air drainage, remembering that cold and damp air settles rather than rises. It seems needless to caution against having the top of the foundation wall higher than the ground surface, yet such mistakes have been made. The materials used for foundations are w^ood, stone, brick or cement. Choose the one cheapest and best, con- sidering durability. Stone or brick laid in cement are excellent. Grout formed by using gravel five parts and cement one part, well mixed, makes an excellent foun- dation. Cement and gravel are mixed dry and then with water to flow slowly. If sand is used four and one 152 Science and Art of Poultry Culture respectively is better, since there are more faces to ce- ment together and therefore a greater surface to unite. Piers of cement, stone or brick are excellent where warmth is not a factor. Cedar posts last several years. Glazed draintile set upright and filled with cement grout make neat and durable posts. Adobe or sod houses require no foundation as they are used only in dry climates. In building a foundation its size and strength depend entirely upon the purpose for which it is to be used, the soil in which it is to be built and the climate in which it is located. In a sand or gravel soil or in a very dry climate, freezing plays a very small part in con- struction beyond seeing that the work is completed and ripened before cold weather sets in. When cement or mortar is once dry freezing will not injure it unless at or below the surface in case there is moisture pres- ent. In dwelling house foundations on sand or gravel or in dry climates, the walls are started upon the surface unless a cellar is desired. In such soil frost will not heave a wall or moisture harm it since the drainage is perfect. Therefore no necessity exists for a better plan in the foundations of out-buildings in the same soil. In heavy soil one must go below the frost line of that locality if heaving is to be entirely avoided. Heaving on level ground where the thawing and settling back would be uniform, would not harm a small and strong building to any extent, but might be injurious to adong building. Upon a hillside a better foundation is es- sential. The thickness of a wall depends upon the material used, the weight it will be required to^carry, the climate and the soil. In a heavy soil, in coM, moist climates, where heaving is frequent, a thicker wall has greater re- sisting power against the lifting or pushing of frost. Poultry Houses and Yards 153 A thin wall in an alley-way or cellar will frequently be pushed in by lateral pressure. Therefore consider this point and the weight of the building in deciding the thickness of the wall. In sand or gravel one has only the weight of the building to consider. Stone laid in mortar would need to be thicker than a good grout wall. Grout is used from six to twelve inches in thick- ness while a stone or brick wall is required to be from eight to eighteen inches. The depth depends upon the soil and the frost line as already seen and whether rodents are to be excluded or a cellar used. In the latter case the depth of the cel- lar would govern ; in the former one could use any one of several plans. If a cement floor is to be laid, then a depth of wall is unnecessary to exclude rodents. A wall three feet deep is rarely burrowed under. If that depth of full width foundation is not needed, a narrow ditch- ing spade may be used to continue a narrow trench which may be filled with grout or with cobble stones over which may be poured thin cement. Some use inch mesh wire netting laid flat in the bottom of the ditch and extending six inches out from the outer edge of the wall where the wall is to be shallow. When the rodent gets to this wire it gives up rather than burrow outward and away from the wall. This netting is also used in a similar way where wooden posts are employed, but in either case is not very durable. Where posts are used it is quite necessary in northern climates to keep the air out from under the building during the winter. This may be done by boarding up well below the sills. Some bank up with straw or other litter during the winter. A good foundation is more economical when labor, material and comfort are all considered. 154 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Insulation Studies — Combined with proper ventilation insulation aims to protect against extremes of heat, cold and to a certain degree against moisture. This is accom- pHshed by means of a proper foundation which has been discussed and by a good roof and sides. Some of the methods of constructing the roof and sides wiU now be suggested. Heat or cold penetrates chiefly by contact and by cur- rent. In building, both these factors should be con- sidered, the one to lessen, the other to avoid. In both roof and sides the same elements enter, although the shingles in the roof answer to the boards of the walls, and the attic in some buildings answers to the dead air space allowed between the walls. The method employed must rest in the discretion of the builder Vv^hen he con- siders the climatic conditions with which he has to contend. The simplest method is the one-thickness wall of boards, shingles or metal. In all board siding the lum- ber should be thoroughly dry to avoid subsequent shrink- ing. If matched, the tongue and groove should be oiled before using, then well joined against sufficient sup- porting timbers and well nailed to avoid warping. If unmatched, then closely laid and well battened. In either case lumber placed upright rather than horizontal will afford a dryer interior and hence a warmer house. The reason is that in driving rains the capillary attrac- tion will allow water to creep in and overflow a level, matched joint, while in the upright joint the grain of the wood tends to draw it downward. One can easily test this to his entire satisfaction by using the same ma- terial with like matched joints running either way. The outer surface should be well painted to protect it and allow it to retain less moisture. Thrift and attractive- Poultry Houses and Yards 155 ness are also suggested as a sufficient reason for paint- ing. In shingling more openings exist for air currents than in siding. Metal or patent roofing, and sidings are more current-proof but are less effective against exterior temperatures. Two or three thicknesses brought together are often used very satisfactorily in different climates. They are usually quite current-proof and transmit by contact less readily. In the roof are used tight roof boards upon which paper is placed and over which shingles are laid or patent roofing employed. The walls are sheathed well, papered and then matched or battened lumber or patent siding is placed over both. This makes a warm building which is free from draughts if well built. The cold or heat will penetrate to some extent although shut off fairly well by the paper between the two thicknesses of boards or other material. The double wall with a dead air space or specially insulated is frequently found. In some cases the stud- ding or rafters separate the two walls. Special care must be used to construct a double wall or air will push through the outer one and then through the inner one, making very little better protection than a one-thickness wall. To overcome this, paper is usually placed within both walls and should be held closely against the walls by lath or other strips. If this is not done the paper will soon blow apart and be of little value. Others fill in the space with some non-conducting material such as hay, straw, or sawdust. This often becomes a breeding place for rodents. Double walls are also made of cement, cement blocks or by the regular lath and plaster for one or both walls on both sides and ceiling or upon the rafters. Cement and plaster in some cli- mates is quite apt to be damp under ordinary care, 156 Science axd Art of Poultry Culture while in others warmth and lack of draughts are well secured by lath and plaster. Double walls are often erected on all but the least exposed side. Doors are usually placed upon the least exposed side and therefore are made of single thickness matched lumber where not designed for ventilation. In any outside wall a thorough coating of paint will keep out dampness and also help fill the joints, thus preventing air circulation unless the walls be of cement, stone or brick. Incubator Biiildijig and Its Equipnioit — An incuba- tor cellar should be situated conveniently near the brood- er house. Sometimes it is an integral part of the brood- er house, being made under the same roof and separated therefrom by a double wall. Where a large capacity is not desired a portion of a cellar under a dwelling house may be remodeled to a good advantage. In any case the drainage should be almost perfect or at least under control from seepage or surface water. The sole aim in constructing a special place for in- cubation purposes is to control the temperature, humid ity, and purity of the atmosphere surrounding the incuba- tors. Otherwise the operator would be compelled to keep a constant watch over his machines because of the ever shifting conditions of the essentials mentioned. There are several types of incubator cellars, all aim- ing at the same result and all securing fairly uniform conditions. Proper insulation against variations of tem- perature requires careful construction, and the secur- ing of protection from cold is no more expensive than an equal protection against heat. Therefore climatic conditions vary the types but little. The two leading types are the whole cellar and the half cellar structures, while some are wholly above ground where made neces- Poultry Houses axd Yards 157 sary by lack of drainage or the utilizing of some build- ing already constructed. The advantage claimed for the whole cellar is a more even temperature ; for the half cellar, better ventilation and light. Hillside cellars are often used, facing either east or west to avoid direct sunlight during the day and the wintry blasts from the north. Having secured a proper drainage and also having excavated properly for the type and size chosen, one is ready for the foundation and side walls. The type will govern the depth of the excavation. A whole cel- lar built in level ground would require a deeper pit than any of the other types. The size will depend upon the capacity desired and may be determined by measuring the standing room of an incubator to be used, and from that unit compute the area needed. The walls and floor- ing may be of cement, stone, brick or plank. If the drainage be perfect, side walls and floors of dirt may be used, or a natural cave in some countries is avail- able. Unless located in a dry climate, plank will decay and give off an ofifensive odor. In the all-cellar plan the end walls will be built up to fit the roof plan, while in the half-cellar plan the side and end walls are of equal height. The above-ground plan requires merely a wall to give the floor protection and warmth. The hillside type must be built as the individual location may sug- gest. The floor should be level. All woodwork will be benefited by painting. Where sills are used, lay them upon the foundation in cement to keep out all draughts. The cost will entirely depend upon the local conditions, upon the type, the size and the cost of available materials. The entrance and such windows as are needed should be double to assist in keeping the temperature even and the air sweet and wholesome. Where a cellarwav leads 158 SciEXCE AND Art of Poultry Culture to the incubator room a door at cither end is preferable. The windows should be so hung as to allow any de- gree of ventilation desired. Top ventilation for the in- coming air has the most advocates. Protect all win- dows, skylights or ventilator shafts with one-inch mesh wire netting. The roofing plays a more important part than that of merely turning rain and snow. It must also insulate against heat and cold. In a whole cellar the roof may be made entirely of wood slanting one or both ways, supported by the beams and containing a dead air space. Shingles or prepared roofing may cover it. On the other hand many are roofed with rough lumber upon which is laid straw or tar paper and over this several inches of dirt. In either of the above methods a double sky- light is necessary. In all other plans a good roof in which an air space exists will serve the purpose very well. A good preservative will prolong the life of all wood used. The admittance of light is optional. There is an ad- vantage in being able to have some light when desired. It can always be excluded by a handy curtain arrange ment. The direct rays of the sun are not desirable, since variation in temperature results and sanitation is easily controlled by artificial means. The temperature of the incubator cellar is not so im- portant as it is that it remain even. The regulation of the machines will be in accordance with the normal temperature. Seldom is artificial heat, other than that given off by the incubator lamps, desirable or necessary. When taking the hatch ofif during cold weather it is sometimes well to raise the temperature with an oil stove if it be below sixty degrees in the cellar. Poultry Houses and Yards 159 Ventilation is all-important in incubation. It should be borne in mind that the developing embryo in the shell is a living organism just as truly as the same life in the brooder, and hence requires pure air to develop well. The incubator has no way to tell a negligent operator its needs. A damp, musty place is not fitted for any form of animal life.' Neither is a dry, vitiated atmosphere. When ventilation is secured by means of windows in the walls, they should open at the top to deflect the incoming air upward. If shafts are used they should contain a regulator for better control upon windy days and during severe weather. Within the incubator room a convenient arrangement will save much time. This will depend upon the size and shape of the cellar. A dark room may be desir- able if one cannot obtain darkness by shades upon the windows. Many operators do all candling in the even- ing and thus do not need a dark room. Shelving for needed articles is always handy. A chair, a table upon casters, an egg tester, baskets, trays, lamps, oil recep- tacles and a supply case complete the equipment. A hygrometer is a valuable instrument and almost indis- pensable to a careful operator. Brooder Houses, Coops and Their Equipment — The situation of a brooder house should be chosen only after a careful and painstaking study of the local conditions which often will almost entirely govern a location. Keep in mind the location of the incubator house, the general plan of the plant, the general direction of the winds, the drainage, the natural protection from wind, the sunlight and such other items as will make for conven- ience. Some set the length of the building toward the south while others place it toward the east. The former claim too much variation in temperature with 160 Science and Art of Poultry Culture the sun shining directly into the runs at midday, while the latter claim that the early and late sun does not give equal vigor to the chicks. Both ways succeed in proper hands. The one requires more attention to lighting; the other to regulate the temperature evenly. These same considerations apply in placing an out- door brooder or a colony coop except that range is also at times to be considered. The internal arrana:ement should be convenient for Poultry Houses and Yards 161 the operator, easily cleaned, easily ventilated, vermin and rodent proof, well lighted, evenly heated, com- fortable for the fowls and economical in cost. The kind of house or coop is not important so long as the above essentials are complied with. The aver- age brooder house is sixteen feet wide and as long as the demands of the plant require. This allows of a liberal alley-way lengthwise of the house which is usu- ally excavated enough so that the operator need not stoop when attending the 'broods. Above the alley-way a carrier is often installed which saves much labor 162 Science and Art of Poultry Culture at feeding and cleaning times. The main floor is di- vided into runs, which should have provision for en- trance upon the main floor and from the alley-way and also have a small door leading to the outside runs. The doors should all be provided with automatic devices to open and close without extra attention. The coops available are of many kinds, as is shown by the few types given in the illustration. Coops for natural and artificial brooding will vary somewhat with the climate and the number of young in each brood. Each coop must be dry, warm and well ventilated. Ease of clean- ing and tending the brood are just as essential if the profits are to be of the right proportions. The construction of every detail should be of the best. The materials used should be durable and well adapted to the purpose, that of furnishing warmth, dryness and evenness of temperature. Considering durability and Poultry Houses and Yards 163 first cost, local or native materials may be utilized in some places. The floors are better if made of wood, although cement is used in some plants. The chief ob- jection to cement floors is the tendency of many oper- ators to allow the birds to touch the floor instead of seeing that litter is constantly present to insure pro- tection to the broods. The walls and roof must be so constructed that an even temperature may be maintained. An extra thickness of siding is much cheaper than ex- tra fuel or loss among the broods. The shape of the brooder building and of the roof thereon is left to the option of the builder who is referred to the " Relative Area Studies " in this chapter. The long brooder house is popular, although a double house is often used. The outdoor coops should be made warm and substantial since wind and storms are to be encountered in the early 164 Science and Art of Poultry Culture spring. Many use brooders in outdoor colony coops with splendid success. The floor space per fowl in the brooding houses and coops depends somewhat upon the age of the chicks. Many crowd them to the full capacity in the beginning, and as the brood develops the principle of the sur- vival of the fittest is applied. When disease thins or destroys the brood, they give up the business as an un- 166 Science and Art of Poultry Culture profitable one. The average successful operator rarely gives each compartment more tlian thirty-five birds. The outdoor colonv house or brooder should allow one- half of a square foot of total floor space for each chick or other young, and that with the further proviso of a small yard or run for pleasant weather. As they grow older and more crowded the hover and divisions may be taken out, giving the brood the entire coop. Over- crowding is profitless. The space per individual of the Poultry Houses vvnd Yards 167 brood in a brooder house should be more Hberal. One square foot to each is usual. The capacity of some brooder houses is doubled or trebled by shelf brooding, which is the placing of one lioor above the other, always giving the top shelf to the younger chicks because of the higher temperature toward the top of the room. The runs must not be neglected, so that in all pleasant weather the brood may have freedom and exercise. Lit- ter in the brooder runs and in the day chamber of the coop, brooder or colony house will induce exercise in stormy weather. The outside runs should be so con- structed that they may allow but little freedom for the young brood, but as they grow older the runs may be increased. Then in case of sudden storms or chilling winds the brood will find no difficulty in regaining their proper quarters. Keep the brood of each size by itself for good results. This is accomplished easily by means of the runs. The lighting in a brooder house should be good, but avoid an excess of glass because of its effect upon the temperature in cold weather and at night. The same is true in a coop or colony house brooder. Slanting fronts are used by some in the construction of brooder houses and coops, to gain more direct light. Slanting fronts must be well built to keep out rain or melting snow. The correct temperature is attained in the brooder house by lamps, stoves or a heating system. Many use individual brooders, one in each pen, and depend upon their heat alone to take the chill out of the air. With two or three compartment brooders this may work out nicely. Others use a hard coal stove to supplement their lamp heat. Nearly all the large plants are equipped with a steam-pipe heating system, over the pipes of which in each pen is placed a hover board. With any 168 SCIKNCE AND ArT OF PoULTRY CuLTURE mode of heating the secret of success Hes in hokhng an even degree of temperature and so arranged that the brood can seek it or leave it easily. Much experiment- ing with gasoline-heated brooders is being earned on with much success. Ventilation without draught is the keynote to all brood- ing ; therefore in all construction use the greatest of care in providing for fresh air. This one point is of more consequence than nearly any other and the one the least studied by the average operator. The principles set forth in " \''entilation Studies " apply here. The equipment needed in the average brooding house consists mainly of good brooders, drinking receptacles, feed troughs or hoppers, a chick marker, grit boxes, a coal bin, a boiler for vegetables, mixing troughs, a spra} pump, buckets, shovels and various other small appliances. Low movable perches at weaning time must be supplied. Coops for hen and chicks and growing stock should be warm and well ventilated. They should be handy and easily cleaned. Rather than give definite descriptions of each type a few styles from many sources will be shown which may be studied and such as are desired may be reproduced. General Purpose Houses and Their Equipment — There are various types of utility houses in use throughout the country. They are serving the same purpose there- fore each must contain certain essential parts or prin- ciples which may vary according to the tyyic of con- struction used and the needs of each particular climate or location. That one type is superior to the other is entirely a matter of individual choice so long as these essentials are present and properly operated. The location of the houses should be chosen to con- Poultry Houses and Yards 169 form with the general plan of the plant. The general plan doubtless considered every matter of labor, econ- omy and convenience. It also had in view surface drain- age, of fresh air and water as well as any natural pro- tection. The one who plans and builds each individ- ual house should see that the drainage of the surface under the building is complete or that the walls are free from standing water, also that they face in a direction to obtain proper light. The type of house is next to be determined. It should harmonize with the surroundings and yet be adequate for the purpose intended. No type will suit all plans or persons, nor yet all climates. The open scratching shed, the curtain front house, the slanting front house, the colony house, the continuous compartment house, • the double house, and many others are types which are the same in essentials yet vary in their application. Each type must supply fresh air without draughts, light prop- erly admitted, protection from extremes of heat and cold, freedom from moisture, opportunity for the fowls to exercise, cleanliness of quarters and a reasonable first cost as well as economy of operation. To obtain these no one can advise a certain type unless the loca- tion, the local environment, the amount of land pos- sessed, the capital to be invested, the labor available, the purpose, the climatic conditions and many other fac- tors are known. The continuous houses are more eco- nomical in first cost, are warmer because less exposed,, require less labor to operate, although they do not give the range or yard room that colony or individual build- ings permit. Types of buildings best adapted to water- fowl, pheasants and pigeons will be discussed more fully under chapters devoted to those fowls. " Foundation Studies " elsewhere in this chapter have 170 Science and Art of Poultry Culture given such principles as apply in general purpose houses. iMaterials are also there discussed. Rodent-proof walls and floors are economy when the trouble and loss of feed by rodents are considered. The matter of fresh air has been presented under " Ventilation Studies " in this chapter. Fresh air without draughts is essential, yet what would do in a southern house would be rather harsh in the more rigorous northern climate. One can carry any good idea to ex- tremes and the fresh air idea has often been thus treat- ed. When furnished a place where they may find pro- tection, fresh air will, never injure fowls, but when cer- tain temperatures are reached enough air should be excluded to enable the food and body warmth to pro- tect them. Fresh air is not injurious, but the extremes of temperature and moisture are the evils to avoid and must be considered at the same time. Lighting is essential yet one must avoid extremes. Note in this connection the " Relative Area Studies " in the earlier part of this chapter. Take advantage of all the sunshine possible with such openings as are needed, but use caution in the amount of glass or open- ings placed in a building. One must constantly guard against extremes of temperature and to avoid draughts. The open shed, the open front and other similar plans may work admirably in certain climates and locations, yet in others they should have some means of shutting out wind and cold, either by means of glass or by cloth. In closed buildings we deem two medium-sized sash to each pen sufificient where the capacity is from twenty to forty fowls. While light is desired and while we prefer it to come from the most protected side, yet local con- ditions may vary the location of the openings. Do not shut off plenty of fresh air in any plan adopted. Poultry Houses and Yards 171 The temperature of general purpose houses, as in all others, should be kept as nearly uniform as is practical. There are advocates of artificial heat for utility stock as well as for breeding stock. While they claim that less food is required and less loss of vigor results, yet on the other hand those opposed claim it weakens the constitution of the fowl to resist weather changes and that the fuel used would pay for any extra food con- sumed. They also claim stronger chicks from natural conditions. If artificial heat is used great care must be exercised to maintain an even temperature and in the spring to wean them gradually from the artificial heat. At all times draughts must be kept out of the houses. Nothing is more fatal to poultry than draughts of air even though they be slight. Colds and finally roup are the logical result. It is just as important to observe this caution during the summer as it is in win- ter. Cloth windows or doors should be used rather than openings through which the wind may blow. Cur- tains about and above the roosts will insure protection from cold and draughts at night. Some plants in north- ern climates use a brooder lamp in their houses during the snappiest weather or when dampness seems to be too prevalent. Care should be exercised against the use of too much glass in a house since it tends to vary the tem- perature too rapidly. Dampness must be kept from the buildings. Dampness is the result of vapor condensa- tion. This vapor comes from the breath of the fowls, from the droppings and from the water receptacles. It may also come from a damp floor. This moisture afifects the temperature unless it be allowed to escape hf prop- er ventilation. A fowl can resist a low temperature if the air is dry, but when it is damp evil results are 172 Science and Art of Poultry Culture bound to follow. The floor and air space required for each fowl will depend upon the breed and the housing used as well as upon the care given. Where care has been exercised and where almost free range was available good results have been secured with a floor space of three square feet and an air space of ten cubic feet per fowl. However, this is not advisable as a general practice. The aver- age condition would warrant giving each fowl from five to ten square feet of floor space and from twenty to thirty cubic feet of air space. The climatic condition must necessarily vary the space required per fowl. No hard and fast rule is applicable anywhere. The best re- sults come from a flock of twenty-five or thirty, and smaller number of ducks, geese or turkeys. Larger flocks do well with proper floor and air space and give a good net profit in the commercial sense. Breeding stock should not be crowded for high fertility. Scratching floors are usually the living room floors except in the houses of the scratching shed type. In speaking of the floor space per fowl the area usually includes the scratching floor. Exercise being one of the main items of success with poultry no plan should be without this floor space devoted to scratching litter. The droppings board, the water receptacle shelf, the wall hoppers, and the vegetable holder leave the entire floor free to the fowls for their litter. In the scratching shed type of house one must shut out the snow and rain that the litter may be kept dry. The dust has a better op- portunity to escape in the latter type. The floor should be dry regardless of its material, but if of cement, thelitter should be of sufficient depth to keep the fowls from touching its cold surface. Poultry Houses and Yards 173 Alley-ways are an expensive luxury and are not em- ployed in many poultry houses. The chief reasons ad- vanced against them are their expense, the room they oc- cupy and the taking of the attendant away from among the fowls, which last is, in the opinion of many, the most serious objection of all. Many beginners install alley- ways in utility houses to remove them later. If one is desired it should be made on the side of the house which is away from the sun and as narrow as practi- cable, so that all available space shall be kept for the fowls. The droppings board is found in all well-appointed poultry houses to catch and retain the offal until it can be removed by the attendant each day or as often as is advisable. This board should extend ten inches be- yond the roosts in every direction and upon all but one side a narrow strip should be nailed to keep the contents from littering up the floor. It is better to be made of matched lumber. Support the board from above, using the same supports which are used for the roosts. Use land plaster, ashes or dry dirt to absorb the droppings. When cleaning the board the attendant can note the condition of the fowl as indicated by the droppings. When fairly firm and containing a whitish substance at the side or end, the droppings are normal. The whit- ish substance answers to the urinal discharges of animals. Roosts should be made comfortable and at the same time one should gauge their height and size to con- form with the age and breed of poultry kept. A nearly flat roost somewhat rounded at the edges is the most popular and the size should be somewhat smaller for the lighter breeds and still smaller for young stock. Soft wood is much better than hard wood since it is easier on the foot and less liable to splinter. Every 174 Science and Art of Poultry Culture three months all roosts should be well treated with crt- olin, zenolum, crude oil or other similar preparation. ]\lites will not bother poultry roosting on such sub- stances. The height of the roosts, to avoid bumblefoot and other evils, should vary from one foot with young stock to two or three feet with the heavy breeds and slightly higher if desired for the lighter breeds. Waterfowl need no roosts. Turkeys are desirous of a fairly high roost- ing place. All roosts should be placed upon a level to avoid undue crowding upon the rear roosts where higher than those in front. A droppings board is always cleanly and a friend of the fowl if properly cared for. During cold weather and in open houses a cloth cur- tain which will hang upon every side of the roosts as w^ell as above the fowls will save frosting the combs and wattles of the stock. There w^ill be sufficient circu- lation of air through the cloth curtain at the top for ven- tilation, while enough of the body heat wall be retained for warmth. During the day time the curtains may be raised. At intervals they should be fumigated or sprayed with a disinfectant. The roosts should be removable. Some make a notch in the supports into which the roosts drop while others nail cleats on the roosts to fit on either side of the supports. Each fowl should have from six to twelve inches of room upon the roost, de- pending upon its age and breed. Locate roosts away from all doors or other openings and support them from above, leaving the floor space free. Nests should be sweet, clean and plentiful. At least one nest to each four hens should be provided. To in- sure ease of cleaning they should be so constructed that either the bottom or one side is removable. All nest- ing materials are thus readily removed and a spray or brush may easily reach all parts. Some secluded or Poultry Houses and Yards 175 dark place is often sought for by a fowl and because of this tendency many place the nests under the drop- pings board or against the wall and allow the hens to enter them from the dark side. Less quarreling and its consequent evils result from this seclusion. The nests should not be placed too high for any fowl. The water- fowls usually lay upon the floor litter or in the yards and some lay during the night or very early in the morning. The size of the nests vary according to the needs of the fowl kept. A Bantam and a turkey W'Ould not fit the same nest. The nest of an average hen should be at least one foot square. The front of any nest should be a narrow board to keep the nesting materials in place and the eggs from rolling out. Place an alighting board in front of each nest. Nests with wire doors are often very handy. The nesting materials should be soft and pliable. Soft hay, straw and leaves are good materials for the purpose. Sawdust stains the eggs and excel- sior is too harsh. Pains should be taken to hollow out and settle well each nest, giving it a China or other arti- ficial nest egg. The thin shelled China egg is excellent since it is easil}- warmed by the body heat of the fowl. Trapnests are the most valuable equipment known to the poultr}- breeder. Without them labor and investment must increase or results be uncertain. There are many kinds upon the market but homemade devices are com- mon, some of which are given. In one trapnest the box is twenty-eight inches long, fourteen inches high and twelve inches wide. Within this box is placed a second box, eleven inches square and five inches high, which contains the nesting ma- terial and which may be shoved lengthwise in the longer box. The bottom of the main box should be of slats two inches in width and placed one-fourth of 176 Science and Akt of I'uultrv Culture an inch apart. One end of the box may be soHd or slatted. At the entrance end of the box a door should be fitted and hinged at the top so that it will swing inward and upward, leaving an inch opening when closed down, for air and the extension of the peg. Nail a cleat upon one side against which the door may swing when closing. This door may be made of narrow strips to permit of more ventilation and also allow the operator an opportunity to observe the interior of the nest when it is closed. Next, take some stiff number six iron wire twenty-one inches long. At one end bend three inches of its length to form a right angle and at the other end a similar bend of nine inches so that both legs are perpendicular to the plane of the remain- ing part of the wire which should also measure nine inches in length. Now bend one inch of the three-inch leg to point away from and at right angles to the other leg. The end of the longer leg is now bent in such a manner that it forms a loop two inches wide, the leg and loop now measuring six or seven inches. The loop should be bent so that the flat of the loop will be at right angles to the length or body of the wire. It is now ready to fasten lengthwise to the middle of the top of the main box. The center of the loop leg should hang directly over the nest box when that is shoved to the rear of the main box, and the short end of the wire should miss the raised door by one-fourth of an inch. Fasten loosely yet securely at each end by a staple driven into the top of the main box. Next, bore a small hole into the lower edge of the door at a place opposite the point of wire on the small leg. Into this hole drive a triangular peg each face of which measures one-fourth of an inch across and see that a flat side is down and projecting one-half inch beyond the edge Poultry Houses and Yards 177 of the door. The nest is now ready for operation. The door is raised until the ridge or top of the triangular peg strikes the wire point which crowds the wire aside until it falls under the flat side of the peg and holds the door up and open. A hen enters the box, seeks the nest and thereby crowds the long or loop leg to one side which action slips the wdre point from below the door peg allowing the door to drop. The attendant takes the band number and releases the fowl, marks the egg and resets the trapdoor. A series of these nests may easily be made, allowing the under side of a droppings board to be the top. Across the rear ends may be a hinged board which, when let down, makes a dark en- trance to each nest when not used as a trapnest. In this event the cleat which holds the door from opening outward should be removed to allow an attendant to gather the eggs from the front as well as to allow the nest to be drawn tiway from the rear entrance. The hinges in this plan should permit the door to open either way. To hold the door shut without a cleat, a piece of number thirty sheet brass, eight or ten inches long and one inch wide, bent in such a manner as to form a catch opening, with an inclined or slanting ap- proach at either side of this catch depression, is ex- cellent. Tack the longer end to the floor of the main box so that the catch depression is beneath the lower edge of the closed door. Open the door and bend the brass strip upward until the depression will hold the door in position when closed. When properly placed and bent correctly the falling door will strike the slanting surface of the brass strip, forcing it down until the de- pression catches the door and locks it in position. An alighting board should be in front of every nest. A trapnest wdiich is quite effectual is made like the 178 Science and Art of Poultrv Culture one above except as to the door and trap features which are as follows : The main door is hinged at the side and contains in its lower portion a smaller door, seven inches square, which slides upward by means of a stiff iron wire on either side bent and stapled at the ends. The door is fastened to these wire sliding posts by means of staples driven over the wires and loosely into the door. This door may be merely a frame cov- ered with slats or netting to allow one to view the in- terior of the nest. Into the center of the top of the opening or smaller doorway drive in a staple about half way. Take a heavy iron or steel wire about four feet long and fold it closely together with the ends even. Bend one and one-quarter inches of the closed end (opposite the two ends) at right angles to the length of the wires. Five inches from this bend, again bend the wires at right angles to run parallel to the short length. Once more bend the wires at right angles six or seven inches from the last bend, which will make the final part of the wires parallel to the five-inch length Now spread these two wires apart just above the inch and one-quarter length so that the rest of the wires are about four inches apart and parallel. Now the five-inch length of each wire is placed against the up- per portion of the main door and loosely stapled at the bend of each wire so that the short length of wire passes through the staple first driven into the lower side of the opening, thus allowing the trapdoor, when raised, to rest upon its tip end. The staple assists this tip to bear the weight of the trapdoor. Six inches from the doorway the loose ends of the wires should hang within a few inches of the floor in the front part of the nest and be four inches from each other and from the sides of the coop. The hen passes into the nest, Poultry Houses and Yards 179 brushing- past the hanging wires which are moved, there- by throwing forward the inch and one-quarter or trip wire from under the door, which drops into place. The hen is now a prisoner. If made well this plan is auto- matic in setting. The main door is opened, bring- ing out of the way all wires so that one may draw out the nest-box or remove the fowl imprisoned. Still another trapnest which is quite convenient and easily made is as follows : Instead of a door in front of a two-compartment nest, take an inch board twelve inches wide and three feet long. At each end attach crosswise an inch piece to avoid warping. Fourteen inches from one end attach a pair of hinges with which fasten the board to the lower and front end of the nest in such manner as will allow the board, when free, to swing perpendicularly. This forms a door to the nest, the longer end of the board hanging down- ward keeps the opening above closed by holding the short end in place against the opening to the nest. By swinging the lower portion of the board upwards and against the bottom of the nestbox, one will discover that the short end or door now forms an alighting step for the hen as she enters the nest. In the bot- tom of the nest three or four inches from the center of the doorway bore a hole about one inch in diame- ter. Insert a screw eye into the lower portion of the trapdoor boar/il so that when the board is raised to al- low the hen to enter, the top of the screw eye will have passed up through and above the hole at least a half-inch. Now the trap feature must be arranged to hold the board in a horizontal position until it is sprung. This consists of an arm at one end of which is a cross- bar and at the other end a bent iron wire, which just hooks into the screw eve. Near the crossbar end of 180 Science and Art of Poultry Culture the arm is attached a hinge which in turn fixes this arm to the edge of the inner nest. The iron wire is fastened to the opposite end of the arm and of such length and angle as to just catch and hold the screw eye. The hen flies upon the apparent lighting board, enters the box and quietly steps upon the two-inch crossbar of wood (at the edge of the nest), which lowers because of her weight and thus draws the iron hook out of the screw eye, permitting the board to drop into place. She is now a prisoner. The main point to watch in building this trapnest is to see that the portion of the arm which bears the iron hook, is slightly heavier than that portion which bears the cross- bar. Adjust this when the hinge is placed. The length of the main nestbox will determine the length of the arm. The crossbar is always just within the edge of the inner nestbox which should be merely a five-inch crosspiece within the main box, the floor of which lets down for cleaning. Were an inner box left movable as in the first two plans, the trap feature would not prove easy of adjustment from time to time. A long box in any plan saves the plumage of the birds as well as makes them less liable to be frightened. The door may be made of a mere framework or of lath if de- sired. To make it into a regular nest take a spike or piece of wire and pass it through the screw eye to hold the board in position. There are many other types of trapnest but enough have been described to give any practical person a choice. Variations may be made in these to fit any house or plan. If one has plenty of room for runs the nests may be left open at the back side and each leading into a separate compartment, thus doing away Poultry Houses and Yards 181 with Ijhe caretaker's frequent visits to release the fowls. A. cock cage or broody coop may be placed upon the wall or in some convenient place out of the way of the attendant and where draughts will not strike it. The bottom should be slatted ; it should be curtained for cold nights and contain hanging food and water receptacles. Exit doors for fowls should be large enough to allow the breed kept to pass through easily and should be about eight inches from the floor to avoid the litter being scratched out. The doors should be placed up- on the yarding side, yet in the position least subject to draughts upon the inmates. They should also be placed away from the attendant's door to permit of a better retreat from the fowls in case they are easily frightened, as happens in some of the lighter breeds. Upon many of the larger farms or plants, an auto- matic release or exit from the poultry house has been adopted to keep out night " varmints " and yet permit early rising on the part of the fowls. This is built up- on the trapnest plan reversed so that the screen door opens at the far end as the fowl enters the runway. At night the operator shuts the trap door and at day- break as the fowl seeks the yard it enters from the runway, steps upon the trip or false floor which' re- leases the door, causing it to open for the day. From without no prowling marauders may enter the house, The door may also be permanently secured by a hook if desired. Dust-boxes are almost an absolute necessity in a poultry house even though it makes the air very dirty and dusty for the fowls to breathe. In the open scratch- ing shed this is largely avoided whereas in the average 182 Science and Art of Poultry Culture house they are placed in the living room. A small box with a glass side to the sun, into which the fowls may enter by a small door will save much dust in the main room. The fowl enters, dusts herself and comes out. The only dust in the main room comes through the small door or from the fowl as she shakes herself upon emerging from the dust-box. Good soil finely pulverized or sifted coal ashes, into which is mixed a little land plaster or dirt, make a good dusting material. Dry, fine and light dust kills lice effectually. Water receptacles should be of such capacity that they will require filling but once a day, although in warm or cold weather attention should be given them much more often. It should be of material that will not break when roughly handled, light in weight, easily cleaned and not break when its contents are frozen. The ma- terial best fitting these requirements and at the same time reasonable in cost, is a good grade of galvanized iron. The top should be larger than the bottom and the latter corrugated. A cover should be over all water receptacles to keep the water pure. This cover may be in the form of an inverted fountain or receptacle hold- ing the required amount of water which feeds into the pan through a small hole at the water level in the pan. When the water is lowered by use or evaporation to a point which exposes the hole, air enters the tank or fountain, allowing water to flow into the pan untjl the hole is again covered with water, when further flow ceases. Where open pans are used a slanting cover of wire or slats attached to the wall above the water stand, will keep fowls from be- fouling the water, yet allowing them to drink freely. To fill or remove the pan, lift the protecting cover. A water stand is a low, slatted shelf attached to the wall. Poultry Houses and Yards 183 When upon this shelf, no Htter is scratched into the water. The shelf stand takes no floor space from the fowls. There are many kinds of water receptacles up- on the market, some of which are arranged to be heated by means of a small lamp, in the cold winter weather. Some operators advocate feeding snow dur- ing the winter months, placing it in open recep- tacles or allowing the birds to go out of doors for it. Plenty of fresh water will certainly not harm or dis- please any flock. Vegetable holders avoid needless waste and keep the green food free from dirt and filth. Some operators use a board through which have been driven nails or spikes, depending upon the age of the chicks. Upon these nails are placed potatoes, cabbage or other desired vegetable. When not in use, these boards may be hung upon the wall. If the nails or spikes are driven in slantingly the board may be hung upon the wall while in use by older fowls. An excellent vegetable holder is made by suspending a box by two parallel corners, one side of which has very thin, narrow slats or rods placed three-quarters of an inch apart. This side will hang below at a slant and one of the upper sides will answer as a cover through which the box may be filled. . As the fowls pick the vegetables from below, those above keep sliding down to replace those eaten. This same plan may be used against a wall like a feed hopper. Some use inch wire mest formed into a hopper, the chief objection to which is the tear- ing of the combs upon the meshes. An overhead trolley and carrier in all continuous houses reduces the labor expense. Upon the carrier may be placed water, food, oil and all other necessary 184 Science and Art of Poultry Culture supplies, thus saving other trips for these various ar- ticles. At cleaning time the same saving may be at- tained. A simple catching hook used by the author and by others consists of a heavy wire bent as shown in the illustration given. The extra bend at the end of the hook is to keep the wire from injuring the birds. The handle is one taken from an old broom or mop. The handle is not necessary if the wire be long enough to form a handle. The wooden handle not only makes tlie catcher more stifif but the chickens watch it closely, therefore, not noticing the hook portion as it ap- proaches them. Miscellaneous equipment such as hoppers, feed troughs or pans, clover cutters, bone cutters, spray pump, legbands, or other articles may be installed as necessity demands. Miscellaneous Buildings and Their Equipnic)it—lt is hardly within the province of a work of a general na- ture to take up the scientific construction of certain buildings. A brief mention will suffice. A hospital is a building apart from the main plant into which all fowls being added or returned to the plant are brought for quarantine, and all fowls showing symptoms of disease arc brought for treatment. It should be equipped as is any poultry house with the addition of a medicine cupboard and operating table. Poultry Houses and Yards 185 The medicines are kept at the hospital temporarily, during a specific treatment. An office building should be convenient to the pub- lic and also to the plant. It should be supplied with chairs, a desk, a table, filing cases and a typewriter. A feed house or granary building, when separate, should be specially strong of floor timbers, be lined at all corners with tin to make it mice-proof, provided with bins, measures, scales, mixers, cookers, buckets, shovels, and containers. Where two stories are util- ized, there should be shutes for ease of handling the grain. A shop should have the ordinary carpen- ter's tools, benches and a small smithy. A small in- vestment judiciously placed, will save much to the av- erage farm or poultry plant. A helper's house needs to be warm and comfortable and each bedroom supplied with a bed, chairs, washstand, clothespress and table. Breeding pens and sitting houses are but variations of general purpose houses, being arranged for the con- venience of the attendant in either case. Cold storage plants are usually located in large cities or -in some center where produce is plentiful. Their central principle is the circulation of pure air above, at or just below the freezing point. The cold storage industry is one of immense proportions. Packing plants have departments devoted to crate- feeding, killing, dressing, cooling, packing, shipping and by-products. They are also assuming, in recent yfears, large proportions. Yards, Parks or Ranges. The ideal life for a fowl while developing and when mature, is to enjoy unlimited range, except such tem- porary confinement as is best under certain weather 186 Science and Art of Poultry Culture conditions. Where the object and the location allow, plan a range. Where questions of economy or nearness to other property or limited room enters into the con- siderations, then the next choice will be ample yard or park room. Yarding restricts liberty and increases ex- pense of food and attention. Ske, Shape and Location — The size of each yard, for mature stock, is a matter of what room is available and what expense for fencing one wishes to assume. It is well to keep in mind that plenty of room cuts down an expense for green food as well as reduces the attention needed. The greater confinement requires the greater care of details. Therefore more yard room may be real economy. Each fowl ought to have at least one hundred square feet of }'ard room and more is desirable. True it is that excellent results have been secured in very small yards where care has been given. Again the more active the breed the more discontented they become in a small yard and the greater effort is needed to keep them busy and contented. In every branch of the industry overcrowding is advised against and its application here is essential for the best results. For younger stock it is often advisable to allow them less room. Sudden storms, rainy days and damp morn- ings are detrimental to brooder stock. Breeding yards are also smaller, inasmuch as but a few fowls are kept in each enclosure. The shape of yards will vary. The square area re- quires the least fencing but would throw buildings far- ther apart and thereby be less economy of time. Where area yet compactness is desired, long narrow runs are used. The location of the yards will have been settled when the building site is chosen since they must be adjacent. Poultry Houses and Yards 187 -ra- a- ■n- I ! •-d- ■di- o ■-d- ■---d — a- d- --d- tf- d----d-- 1 CoZo-niJ Plan,. 188 Science and Art of Poultry Culture . 600 1 j ( c 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 . j ContiTt,vcOic3 P/an. Poultry Houses and Yards 189 The way the yard Hes relative to the building will be largely a matter of economy and how the various build- ings are arranged. Where it is possible the yards should be so placed that they are upon the side of the build- ing which is protected from the prevailing winds. Some have a double yarding, one to the north for sum- mer and one to the south for winter. They should also be so arranged that the attendant will not need to pass through the yards to enter the buildings or their sub-divisions. The plan followed by many is to adopt the double yarding _ system, which enables one yard to receive a rest as well as to furnish greed feed. A third yard is often used in a similar manner. In the first illustration an attendant must travel 2,630 feet each trip. In this plan double yarding is possible by fencing on the heavy dotted lines. In the second illustration an attendant \valks but 600 feet and entirely under shelter unless he prefers to pass back through the yards. Soil and Drainage — All that was stated under the sim- ilar sub-head under "Choosing a Location " applies at this time in so far as it is local in nature. If needed, a tile sub-drainage may be employed to keep the surface in better condition. In case of larger yards, where plowing may be resorted to, filth may be kept down. In smaller yards a top dressing of sand is employed with pockets of sand reaching to the tile through which the top filth is washed into the drainage system. Shade — Shade during the heat of summer is essen- tial to health. It is better to avoid such trees or shrubs as hold their foliage throughout the winter months and thus, cut off sunlight and warmth. If no other shade is 190 Science and Art of Poultry Culture available a few boards or other material may be arranged to afford needed relief. The best shade is afforded by fruit trees, which also furnish som€ income. Plum trees seem to be the favorite because of their quick growth and hardy na- ture. Some one variety of plum will do well in any cli- mate. Berries, grapes, cherries and apples do well. It is always better to choose a tree, bush or vine native to the section in which one lives, keeping in mind its commercial value to assist the ledger accounts. Where more than one yard is emplo}-ed and shade is absent, one yard may be sowed to some plant of rapid growth, such as sunflowers or corn, which also give some food value in return. Asparagus beds are often used for this purpose. Care — The yards should be kept clean and sanitary. Do not allow filth to accumulate upon the surface to breed disease. If the runs are not grassy they may be stirred with a plow or spade. Where alternate yard- ing is employed a crop will take up all filth and make the ground sweet and clean. About the doorway of the poultry houses a few shovelfuls of sand or gravel will prove beneficial. In case of very small enclosures a little disinfectant is always desirable. Fences. Situation — The situation of the fences depends en- tirely upon the arrangement of the yards, as it is clearly evident that the fencing must be the yard limits. How- ever, a great saving may be obtained by an arrange- ment which utilizes the fencing of one yard to sur- round a portion of the other yard or yards. The gates or other openings must also be placed conveniently to insure economy of time and the least annoyance to the attendants. Poultry Houses and Yards 191 Materials and Their Cost — The chief materials used in various parts of the world vary entirely with the local product available and the relative cost of ma- terials shipped into the locality. Stone, wood, metals and natural hedges, or some combination of these, are the chief factors. Aim to build a satisfactory fence at the lowest cost. It is not the first cost that should govern. A small, poorly galvanized wire upon small posts will not last more than half as long as stronger and better wire upon larger posts. The cost of the larger wire and better posts will not double, and the cost of construction will be the same in either case. Therefore the better fence is the more economical. The cost of a suitable fence will vary widely in dif- ferent localities. The labor, kind of material avail- able, climate and the purpose will all govern the original cost. No one of these factors will be the same in every country or locality. Again, it cannot be too deeply im- pressed that a cheap first cost is often an expensive fence. Build well regardless of the first cost if thereby ultimate economy is gained. From the above consideration it will be evident that specific costs cannot be given that will apply generally. Certain it is that any fence well made and entirely suitable will be difficult to obtain at a price usually found in the average estimates given. Study the materials, the construction and make the most of the local situation, thus reducing the cost to a minimum. Height of Fences — For the heavier breeds of chick- ens, for ducks and any fowls not given to much flight, a three- or four-foot fence will suffice. The medium weight fowls are better confined by a five-foot fence. The lighter fowls are usually kept within a six-foot fence, yet it often happens that no fence will stop cer- 192 Science and Art of Poultry Culture tain varieties unless the runs are covered. There are other factors to consider than the mere abihty of any fowl to fly. A contented fowl where plenty of range is available will not bother an ordinary fence, while a fowl closely confined and but poorly cared for will seek freedom and food. Again, a fowl will go over a difficult enclosure in an effort to return to its roost- ing place. ]\Iany use wing clasps, while others clip the flight feathers to prevent flying. Either way is detri- mental to fowls wished for exhibition purposes although the latter is less annoying to the bird. To keep males within bounds some special method is often advisable during the breeding season. Many cover small runs with netting. Pigeon yards are usually covered in this manner. Construction — After determining the kind of fence and where it should be erected, the setting of the posts is the next consideration. The posts may be made of wood such as oak, cedar, locust, chestnut or any other wood which will prove durable. Where cedar is ob- tainable it gives the best satisfaction although some woods native to the locality are excellent. In choosing posts give a thought to the length of time they will last, size being considered as well as the kind of wood. To make them last longer apply to the portion to be buried a coating of hot tar and copperas, and char them or soak them in hot oil. Posts of iron are often used, as well as of concrete. The iron posts are treated with tar or waterproof paint. The distance apart that posts should be placed varies with the kind of a fence, its height, and what it must turn. If intended for poultry only then the posts may be farther apart. The appearance should also be con- sidered. Sagging fences are not a very good adver- Poultry Houses and Yards 193 tisement for aii}' poultr}' establishment. From ten to sixteen feet apart will handle all fences. An outside limit of fourteen feet is adhered to by many. In placing the posts do not fail to allow for both large and small gates. The small gates should be at least four feet wide while the larger ones will be ample if fourteen feet are allowed. All posts should be at least three feet in the ground with the end and anchor posts four feet. The corner and end posts should be larger and longer than the oth- ers to allow for the better setting. Either fix firmly the end and corner posts by crossbars nailed firmly upon the bottom, or much better and more substan- tial would be a foot or two of cement grout well tamped about the post and allowed to set before the balance of the hole is filled. Do not stretch the fence until the cement is hardened well. Alany other methods of an- choring posts are in vogue, any of which are good if well done. Do not fail to brace well from the end or corner posts to the brace posts. Four by four inch timbers are the best for this purpose, although to keep the poultry from walking up these posts a V-shaped tin or galvanized iron is inverted and attached to the brace lengthwise. Some use a series of tin obstructions which stand up several inches from the brace and bar the further progress of the fowl. Watch that the ground grade from post to post and along the whole line is correct. If this is not attended to it will be but a short time until the poultry' will be finding or making openings under the fence. The baseboards, the crosspieces or other means of attaching the fencing proper must now be built. Base- boards are used to keep the males from quarreling and the young stock confined, although in places where 194 Science and Art of Poultry Culture the cost of lumber is high, some use two-foot one inch mesh netting stretched upon the opposite side of the posts from the main fencing. Baseboards should be two feet high to serve their purpose well. The body of the fence may be entirely of boards, of wire, latticed with wood or made of pickets and wire. Some even build solid stone walls where stone is very plentiful. Where wire fencing is used, it is well to buy heavy fencing, which will turn both stock and poultry. It is but little more expensive and much more durable, as well as less trouble to stretch. If netting is used it needs a top-board as well as a base board to keep it in form. With any fencing, where wire is concerned, use a good stretcher and galvanized staples, thereby saving the wire at the point of contact from rusting apart. With any fence follow the instructions of the maker. If one does not understand fence-building very well, it is better to secure the services of a builder for a time. Gates — The main idea to observe in gate-making is that they be made substantial and well braced. Each gate should have heavy hinges, a hook or latch and springs to keep it closed, which avoids much labor. It is assumed that they are arranged conveniently for all purposes when the yards are laid out. Gates of iron frames with wire coverings may be purchased, or a wooden frame covered with wire fencing is easily made. Chapter XIII. CONDITIONING AND EXHIBITING POULTRY. To ignore the financial gain derived from attend- ing the poultry exhibitions with a string of birds still leaves one enough incentive to satisfy even the most ex- acting. The raising of pure blood stock and the subse- quent fitting or conditioning necessary to place them in competition with others of their class alone affords fas- cination enough for this popular pastime. To become an expert fancier in the showroom is the product of a patient thoroughness combined with hard study. What is to the beginner a discouraging task becomes to the fancier hours of enjoyment among selected pets. Spare time to read the books, journals, reports and other poultry literature, to attend the shows and to associate with poultry organizations. This education is the necessary foundation for future pleasure. The next step is to possess the very best stock correctly mated with sub- sequent care, feed and management to produce eggs that will hatch strong chicks capable of thrifty growth. It is not material whether these chicks were raised by natural or artificial means so long as they are well raised by either method. The final step is the proper selection and handling until the blue ribbon is evidence of ul- timate success. Value of Exhibiting — This is considered purely from the standpoint of the exhibitor and falls naturally into four advantages. 195 196 Science and Art of Poultry Culture 1. Better breeding results because of realizing that com- parison with others will follow. 2. Education results from seeing other birds and having defects exposed by competent judges. 3. Personal contact with poultry lovers, having an exhibit and winning prizes all contribute to sales and financial gain. 4. Every exhibit tends to create new recruits to the pleas- ant and lucrative pursuit of poultry raising. Growing Winners — In raising birds that will meet the requirements of the showroom one must begin with the parent stock and follow the offspring to maturity, sur- rounding it with every intelligent care needed to pro- duce a winner. In other chapters will be found the prin- ciples of breeding, incubation, brooding, foods and feeding and care of poultry in general, which must be studied and practiced. A vigorous tgg germ with high latent possibilities developed by an even, steady, con- tinuous growth is the object sought. A forced and un- natural growth can never result in the best product. Especial care should be given to incubate early if early shows are to be attended. For the late winter shows a later development is fully as well. For winter shows late molting often gives better plumage. Examine often for vermin among poultry, as no other one cause can so retard normal development. The best fanciers also begin an early study of their birds with a view of culling out such defects as wry tail, crooked toes, curved beaks, uneven hips, defective combs and many other deficiencies. This gives the good birds a better chance for development. Culling for color of plumage is quite difficult and the novice had better allow full plumage to grow before he discards for color. Many in- juries occurring to the pin feathers, lack of balanced rations, and many other reasons conspire to cause white and other colored feathers. Alany specimens in certain Conditioning and Exhibiting 197 varieties completely change their plumage when devel- oped. Comb and wattles are also difficult to judge too early. The early separation of the sexes adds to the more even and vigorous development of both since the males while very young are often stronger and tend to deprive others of the brood from their due proportion of food and care. Finally place a mark or band upon each bird so that indi- vidual study may be better carried on. JVhen to Exhibit and Number of Entries — Many weeks before their dates one should decide as to which shows he wishes to attend and how many entries ought to be made. Who will judge the birds of the class wherein entries are to be made is a very important factor. All judges have tendencies to make more severe cuts in certain sections than in others. How important it is then that these facts be known when we select our en- tries. Why enter a bird under one judge when one has another bird which is certain to be more in keeping with the ideas of the judge in question? Each fancier or judge has just a little different way of applying the standard and it is only justice to one's birds to con- sider this when entering stock. How many entries to make is purely a matter of opinion. Many prefer to enter only such birds as is believed will win, and if they cannot choose to their own satisfaction will often enter more than one bird for the same purpose. These fanciers aim to sell t^g? and stock upon the showing made by the limited string, thus saving the expense of more entries. Some believe that enough added prestige and sales result from showing a long string to more than pay the added cost to enter them. Selection of Prospective Entries — All that has been written upon the subject of poultry judging is applicable 198 Science and Art of Poultry Culture here in the selection of one's best birds for show pur- poses. Upon the proper scoring of the birds picked out, keeping in mind the latent possibilities of each, rests the ultimate success or faihire in the show room. The making of a true fancier is a process of slow yet steady self-education, firstly among his own birds and secondly on the exhibition floor. Begin at least eight or ten weeks prior to the date of showing to choose prospective entries. This allows suf- ficient time to grow new feathers to replace those plucked and to correct any other physical defects which are remedial. The number of birds chosen will depend upon avail- able stock and if this has no limitation then it becomes a question of the size of the string. If a believer in a large number of entries, choice must be governed there- by and enough more added to allow of a second choice at the termination of the fitting period. From a complete knowledge of the standard of the va- rieties to be exibited exclude specimens having a disqualification. Of the others choose those of the best shape, plumage, and head, looking well to other minor sections. It is not the purpose of this work to take each variety with its shifting standard, thus making it a valueless guide, but the endeavor will be to present principles that are common to every variety, leaving for the standard of each to teach specific details not common to all. Look well to every marking in this work of selection and if choice must be made a glaring defect should be discarded for a bird having several minor defects. Weigh each bird picked out as some may be too light to gain a standard weight by exhibition time. Any ofif-colored feathers in any bird examined should be plucked out to allow new feathers to grow. In nearly Conditioning and Exhibiting 199 all cases such defects have been the result of injury or mal-nutrition and will not reappear. Conditioning Quarters — A proper place in which to condition the fowls will depend somewhat upon the season and temperature as well as upon the breed of fowls. We will assume the place chosen is capable of being regulated to meet desired needs. Not enough caution can be given in respect to careful conditioning of fowls intended for exhibition as this is where nearly all western breeders are outclassed by eastern breeders. Many a prize has been lost to an inferior bird whose con- dition gave it a point or less advantage. If the selec- tion of the possible entries has taken place eight weeks prior to the entry the quarters for the first month or six weeks should be in a dry, roomy place upon the floor of which is spread several inches of dry, clean, short litter. The temperature should be as cool and com- fortable as possible in warm weather or climates and as warm in cold or damp weather as will secure the comb and wattles against becoming frost bitten. Upon the walls, some three feet high, should be placed train- ing coops for proper handling. All the roosts in these pens should be low and at least fifteen inches from any wall, thus saving wing and tail feathers from injury. The ventilation should give volumes of fresh air without draughts and all dust in the air should be guarded against. A drying or fluffing room will be discussed under " \\'ashing and Cleaning." Dark rooms, warm rooms and other special features are a part of the cor- rection of defects found therein. The runs of all pens should be so arranged that the birds may be kept within certain bounds or within the pens at pleasure because of adverse weather conditions. Shade in plenty is desirable. Too much sun in certain 200 Science and Art of Poultry Culture pluma.c^c is not desirable. For the smooth-legged fowl a grassy run in early fall is desirable while such would be disastrous to the feathered kind. Have pens enough so that males and females are entirely separate to allow the cushion part of the hen's plumage to become uniform. Cooler or darker pens are sometimes desirable to stop the female from laying or hold her in check until show time. A female is always in the prime of condition just as she begins to lay her clutch of eggs. It is also well to have some arrangement in the pens so that the fowls are easily caught without injury until they are accustomed to being handled. Many place them at once in the training coops for a few days so that they will more easily handle when out. The training coops should be made as nearly like those used in the exhibitions as is possible. For the last four weeks or less the birds will remain in these same quarters or be removed to others if correcting defects or severe weather should war- rant. Never leave quarrelsome birds in pens wath others. Feeding — In feeding poultry for exhibition special care is necessary and yet precaution must be exercised that they are not coddled. A female too fat is not her best in shape nor for subsequent breeding while a male car- rying good flesh is usually at his best. Both sexes should be plump, although it is better to get a cut for under weight than for over weight. Weigh several times and feed accordingly. One must not assume that one method of feeding will do for all varieties and colors. It most decidedly makes a difference for the worse in white plumaged birds if they are fed yellow corn while buff and some other va- rieties are benfited in plumage by it. This is a hotly contested point with many and the only way for one to satisfy himself is to test it. Fresh water, grit, shell, Conditioning and Exhibiting 201 granulated charcoal and some kind of green food, hop- per fed, is desirable under all conditions. If the birds are below weight they can be brought up by feeding mashes of wheat, corn and oats into which is plenty of fresh meat scraps or other protein food. Some use sweet milk to stir the mash, thus supplying the meat element. Care must be used in wet mash feed- ing or one will easily throw the fowls out of condition. Plent}' of dry grain should also be fed in the litter to induce scratching. When up to weight feed a balanced ration with plenty of exercise. For regular feeding use a dry mash of wheat, corn and oats of equal parts ground together and to this add a little meat scraps, ground bone or meat meal. Use this mash once a day and use white or yellow corn as the plumage of the birds requires. This mash may also be alternated with a mash of ground oats and buckwheat in equal proportions to which meat is added sparingly. The latter mash is especially good for birds of white plumage. It is preferable to give this mash at night although some hopper feed it. If the weather is cool or cold always scatter some whole wheat in the litter early enough at night so that each fowl may eat what it desires before going to roost. At noon scatter some cracked corn or some wheat in the litter. Using corn and wheat on alternate noons will please the fowls and once in a while add a handful or two of sunflower seed to several fowls. In the morning a feed of oats and wheat is good and if the weather is cold add some cracked corn. A little German millet in the litter fur- nishes inexpensive exercise and a choice morsel to eat. As to the amount to feed one should be governed by the variety of fowl, the climate, the season, the weight of the birds, their vigor and many other considerations. 202 Science and Art of Poultry Culture WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK. Courtesy of U. R. FisheL Conditioning and Exhibiting 203 Keep them hungry yet satisfied. Allow them to go to the roosts with full crops and aim to make them comfort- able and happy. One may have to look more closely to the males than the females, the latter being more apt to express their desires. Keep whole grain before both sexes as ian all mash ration is not desirable. In the mashes do not fail to note the condition as the meat may be lessened if too much flesh is forming. Again if the plumage is backward or dull crowd it along by a mash of linseed meal or hemp seed to assist the feathering and to give them gloss. If one has clover chaff allow the birds plenty of it. Many use a little tincture of iron in the drinking water of colored breeds to give the coloring richness. Before the exhibition prepare some food to be used ex- clusively in the show room. In case of all birds and es- pecially the games, bantams and IMediterraneans the show room diet should be made narrower and not so rich as the heat of the show room will cause rapid comb and feather growth to the almost ruin of the string. Especially lighten the rich mash before show time. Some feed no mash to the above varieties since weight is less important and conditioning easier. Correction of Defects — How far one can go in cor- recting defects in a specimen being prepared for the show room is very difficult to say. In part it is a ques- tion of duty and in part a question of morals. The form- er when by so doing no harm results but positive ben- efit, the latter when it is misleading to the public and when the defects are transmittable to the progeny, thus buyers of eggs and stock being positively swindled. Where to draw the line is within the reach of every per- son's conscience and will in time be enforced by poul- try associations to such extent as is practicable. Such 204 Science and Art of Poultry Culture practice as trimming off extra points on the comb, re- fashioning the wattles and coloring plumage is strictly fraudulent and will disqualify the entry. The better judges often discern these things even if they do have several men's work to do each day. The Comb — If the comb is developed as one wishes it for the show room keep the fowl in cool quarters. If not place the bird in a warmer pen for a few days and feed liberally of meat and the comb will develop very rapidly. Many comb defects are curable by rub- bing and other manipulation by the thumb and finger If the spike of a rose comb should not be straight with the body injure it with a rough instrument on the op- posite side and each day press it into position until healed. The spike of a Wyandotte type sometimes does not fol- low the contour of the head and by scratching it slightly underneath and pressing it each day it will soon train down. In cases where the other defects are slight the pressing alone is often all that is required. A similar method is used to correct the angle of the spike in lighter varieties where it does not tilt to the proper angle. If a single comb tends to lap to one side while develop- ing or thereafter a scratch at the base upon the opposite side to the right length will rectify the defect. Some also use a wire to hold them in place or beyond place while healing and upon removal the comb is upright. This wire must run around the base of the comb, then upward and backward with the free ends holding the comb. Very light pieces of wood have also been used, one upon each side of the comb, fastened at the ends. In case of small wart-like growths or uneven places upon the comb, trim with a sharp knife and apply beef tallow to heal it. For lack of color in the comb use Conditioning and Exhibiting 205 a little oil composed of fresh hen fat once or twice and thereafter rubbing the comb daily. It will soon respond readily and as the color improves omit the oil, rubbing with a soft flannel only. The oil tends to cause enlarge- ment and flabbiness if used too freely. Sweet oil is quite apt to do this. A^inegar irritates the comb but is used for quick results. Keep pullets from laying if possible as quite often the combs grow out of shape thereafter. The Beak — About a week before the show wash the beak carefully with warm clear water being care- ful to remove all foreign matter. Next rub it well with a little alcohol and sweet oil once only and polish with the chamois skin. During the succeeding days use the chamois skin only. Be careful to keep the alcohol and sweet oil out of the face. Do not stoop to the per- nicious practice of using coloring matter or stain upon the beak. Once detected one's reputation will equal his character. The Face, Earlobes and Wattles — For paleness of col- or treat the face and wattles, repeating the instructions given for paleness of comb. To whiten earlobes rub into them daily an oxide of zinc ointment. Plumage — Examine carefully each section for broken, faded, or off-colored feathers. If not in the wing or tail pluck them out if it is desired to conform to common practice. It is assumed that at the time of selection this was done and that new feathers have grown in. This second examination is the one to be final. In any plucking do not take out a defective feather until its quill is hard and mature, since removing while green is quite apt to renew the evil. On young fowls do not be dis- couraged upon their first feathering out as upon second feathering the plumage may be almost perfect. The tendency toward brassiness in white fowls is often over- 206 Science and Art of Poultry Culture come by placing in a somewhat dark place and feeding the ration suggested under the paragraph on feeding, the idea being that the action of the sun and of the yel- low corn were in part to blame for the brassy tendency. Other breeders laugh at this method and prepare their white birds by allowing them in a run, claiming that air is the one essential to ripen up the feathers so that the creamy effect will disappear. There is truth in both views. One of the best ways is to be careful of the rations and give the birds a shady run. General health has much to do with the bird's plumage. The male birds should be almost fat to make the plumage give the best symmetry. Those fowls with feathers upon the legs should not be allowed in the wet grass or off from a clean sandy floor for a few days prior to the exhibition. Females of any class should not be allowed to lay before exhibition time as they will do so at the sacrifice of body development and to the detriment of their plumage. A hen or pullet are usually at their best in plumage just before laying and any means is justifiable to keep her in such condition until in the exhibition coop. If the birds are not in good plumage and require hurry- ing, feed them meat, linseed oil, or hemp seed to force feather growth. Defective wings and tails are often improved by hand manipulation. Incisions to procure corrections of the tail are sometimes resorted to by the unscrupulous. Legs and Feet — In the early fall when no feathers are to be protected a clean grassy run is always good to bring out color in the legs and feet. Some remove short feathers or stubs in time to allow the places to heal. This practice and coloring are both unprofessional and will disqualify the entry. Conditioning and Exhibiting 207 WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK. Courtesy of U. R. Fishel. 208 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Brin(2f out color by rubbing in oil and polishing witb a flannel cloth. U^ashifii:; and Clcanui^^ — Cleaning the comb. face, beak and wattles is easily done by warm water and a sponge or cloth and carefully drying. To bring out color note the suggestion under correcting defects. The legs and feet are cleaned by brushing them well with a good grade ■oi soap and soft water. If the dirt under the scales resists the soft brush use a toothpick to loosen it and then brush well. An old tooth brush is splendid for this purpose. Finally rub in alcohol and sweet oil or better yet just a touch of vaseline well worked into the cloth so that there will be none to work under the scales and then polish well with a flannel cloth. Repeat the polishing several times and after reaching the show room. Never oil shanks to any appreciable extent be- fore shipping as it will soil the plumage en route. Washing and Cleaning the Plumage — This is the only real work there is in connection with preparing the fowl for the show. The other parts are comparatively easy. On all parti-colored birds where richness and har- mony of coloring are essential washing is distinctly harmful because it tends to spoil the gloss, and where two colors are to show a sudden line of division or demarkation the washing tends to make tthe distinction somewhat blurred. Solid colored birds are given richer tones by other methods than washing. Others maintain washing and good after treatment good for any color or colors. Where a flannel cloth or chamois skin are used exclusively the rubbing of the plumage is always in the direction the feathers grow. The dirt and soiled spots will give way in a very short time and be replaced bv a rich gloss just as it is accomplished in a well Conditioning and Exhibiting 209 groomed horse. The natural sheen is left and the color- ing is difficult to imitate by any other method. The washing room should contain rain water, a stove for heating water, a means of keeping up the temper- ature of the room, a drying arrangement, three tubs, a large dipper, a hand brush, a tooth brush, a sponge, several soft towels, a hi^h grade soap and a table. The drying arrangement is the most important of the equipment. This may be any device which is open below except for a wire netting and whose sides and top have cloth curtains. The wire floor is to protect the fowls from touching the stove or other source of heat in case any of the fowls attempt to fly downward. The curtains are to regulate the heat. This device may be placed over a stove or over oil stoves or even large parlor lamps if one is careful to place a big sheet of tin or other metal over such stoves or lamps to spread the heat when it rises toward the fowls. Lay the tin in the drying crate upon the wire bottom, leaving room on the outer sides for the heat to pour into the crate. A broad roost runs lengthwise of Miis crate which will hold six or eight fowls. Having been washed they will not quarrel upon this roost even if a part are strange to the others. Care should be taken that the tin does not heat enough to injure a bird if by accident it should fall below the roost, in which case the tin had better rest upon some wire supports below the wire floor of the coop. The tem- perature is controlled within the crate by means of the curtains. If the birds are not inclined to remain in the dryer the front may be made of two sliding doors which are covered with wire netting. The lifting of the curtain then in no way allows the birds to escape. This crate will be found much more valuable than the 210 Science and Art of Poultry Culture radiated heat from an open fireplace, stove or furnace. With the temperature of the room at about 90° Fahren- heit and the drying and fluffing crate ready, take each fowl and see that its head, legs and feet are cleaned. Stand the fowl to its knee-joints in a tub of quite comfortably w^arm water. Lather the sponge well and rub the soap into every part of the fowl's plumage, be- ing careful to always rub with the feathers and begin- ning upon the back. Open or part the plumage upon the different parts of the body, making it easier to reach the under plumage. Spread the wings and tail against the palm of the hand while washing. When satisfied that the plumage is clean place the bird into the second tub containing an equal amount of lukewarm water or water from which the chill has been taken. Thoroughly rinse all soap from the plum- age after which repeat the rinsing in a third tub. If the plumage is white the third water should be slightly blued. Taking the fowl from the third water, place it upon a table or a box where it is allowed to drain for a mom- ent. With the sponge wipe ofif the plumage after which dry it carefully with the towels. Be careful not to use too much bluing and if quite a tint is visible it may disappear in a few days. Xever rub plumage the op- posite way to the direction of the shaft. The bird is now ready for the drying and fluffing crate upon the wide perch of which it is placed. The temperature is controlled by the curtains. One person should constantly attend to the opening and loosening up of the plumage of the fowls upon the perch while others are being washed, after which entire attention is given the birds in the crate. Much manipulation of the loose feathered varieties is beneficial while just enough for drying is best for the tight-feathered fowls. When the drying Conditioning and Exhibiting 211 process is completed allow the room temperature to lower until it has reached the temperature of their regular quarters, thus avoiding possibiHties of a cold being con- tracted when the transfer is made. A little whiskey in the drinking water will assist to ward off danger of cold. Fowls should be washed for the last time at least four days before entering the show room. This gives time for the oil and gloss to return by frequently rubbing the plumage with a chamois skin. Training — A number of times each bird should be placed in a training coop. If rather wild at first let them get quite hungry. Then approach quietly but firm- ly and give some choice morsel of which they are fond. Repeat this and in a short time they will be ready for one. Compel them to eat out of the hand. Next have some of the family join the feeding rounds. Begin handling them being very careful not to injure the wing and tail feathers. Never show the least temper with a bird, no matter how severe it may try the patience, and soon it will be as docile as any of the flock. When they have become accustomed to being handled and are quiet use a stick about two feet long and thus when the judge carries one there will be no nervousness shown by the exhibit. One is now ready for the real training. Symmetry is desired and therefore place the fowl in position outside of the coop by raising its head with the stick until it learns to pose without the stick upon a mere approach. This enables a judge to catch its natural position easily. A tail carried too high or too low may also be helped by the use of the stick in ad- dition to the manipulation previously mentioned. In- side of the coops teach the bird to come to the front of 212 Science and Art of Poultry Culture the coop and pose quickly, rewarding it with a dainty now and then. These are small points but they have won many blue ribbons where the contest was close. Well trained birds seem at home in the show room and ac- tually act as if they were proud to be compared with their neighbors. Final Selections — The birds that are finally chosen for exhibition should be those which at the end of the con- ditioning and training season most closely approach the standard. The final weighings should govern subse- quent feeding. The number of birds to each class should be governed by the policy chosen relative to the size of the string. While the outward appearance is much it must not be forgotten that health and vigor have most to do with the bird's bearing, sprightliness, and symme- try. Lastly take a thorough look over every section of each proposed entry, both as to shape and color, making sure that everything has been done to win every avail- able point in the final score. Marking or Banding — If the specimens chosen have not already been banded do so, using only the best sealed or riveted bands which will not allow of changing or stealing in the show room. The rules of nearly all the shows require banding and many poultry fanciers so mark all of their flock to facilitate records as well as recover lost property. It is also handy to refer to when prospective customers are looking over your flock as many orders are placed in this way. Many fanciers have a secret marking placed with certain inks to serve various aims. Some birds do not become accustomed to the bands readily, so it is necessary to band such early. Shipping — Shipping Coops should be light and dur- able. A hinged top with padlock arrangements is wise, '^ach coop should be distinctly painted and the name Conditioning and Exhibiting 213 and address of the owner stenciled upon each end to present a more attractive appearance as well as to afford greater ease in finding. Handles upon each coop are desirable. The sizes vary but standard coops are twenty- four inches deep, thirty inches high and twenty-four, thirty and forty inches long respectively,^ as they are intended for one, two or more fowls. Turkey coops are thirty inches deep, thirty-six inches high and forty-eight inches long. If the exhibitors are to furnish their own coops at the show the shipping coop may be a com- bination shipping and show coop either made or pur- chased from any poultry supply house. Some use dry goods boxes made into suitable form. Each coop must provide for ventilation and also for closing against cold draughts. They should be well cleaned and ven- tilated each time before using. Only clean, fresh, dustless litter should be used for bedding. Muslin or canvas cur- tains, tacked or fastened securely will protect the fowls as well as keep all persons from bothering while en route. Sufficient air will pass through the curtains. Now place the fowls singly in their respective coops according to the mode of entry unless for good reason of economizing more than one entry is desired in each ship- ping coop. In the latter case the birds to be shipped together should be housed together prior to shipping. One should be on hand to coop his own or mistakes are very liable to occur. Fasten and lock each coop and upon the shipping tag write the sex, variety and band number of each fowl enclosed as well as the name and address of the shipper. One should also designate the express company handling the shipment. It is bettei that the shipper take the same train to the place of the exhibition that carries his birds for he can then watch for any neglect his coops may receive in the express 214 Science and Art of Poultry Culture wagon, upon the station platform at either end, a hot car in transit, a delay in the dehvering trip to the show room or exposure at the door of the show room. These are possibihties which quite often come too true. Show Room Care — Attend all shows in person when possible, thus being present when assignments are made and coops furnished. Seek to obtain a location where the light is favorable, the air fresh but free from drafts and as far from a stove as is possible. Have at hand a case containing carbolic acid, sweet oil, alcohol, naptha, vaseline, brandy, a sponge, towels, basins, soft brush, shears, chamois skin and flannel cloth. With a solution of one gallon of water into which has been stirred five tablespoonfuls of carbolic acid wash out well all exhibition coops to be used, thus avoiding possible contagion from former occupants. At this time the color effects should be added if any are to be used. Cloth tacked upon the inside will answer where one's own coops are not used. All coops should be made to open at the top, using inch wire mesh for covering, in order to get good light. The sides and back covered with a pale blue and the bars black show off white birds to good advantage. Red for fowls with a reddish tendency with pea green front, black for buff fowls with pea green bars, white for black fowls and blue for bluish tinged plumage. Many believe that the use of color effects is wrong unless the same varie- ty are all provided with uniform coops. Place plenty of litter in the coop and insert the fowls. Try to avoid all unnecessary grooming and handling as the latter ruffles the plumage. Protect the exhibit from the handling by others who are always prone to take such liberties. Any plumage soiled in transit clean with ilanncl cloth or if necessary dampen the sponge slightly Conditioning and Exhibiting 215 with naptha and go over the spots lightly. Rub the legs, beak, wattles, and earlobes with a damp flannel cloth, or some use alcohol and sweet oil while others use just a touch of vaseline. These little attentions are important. The feeding is best done by one person, preferably the owner or his attendant. The superintendent of the show will usually grant this request and instruct the show attendant accordingly. Each exhibitor would better take his own feed supply from home, consisting of a mixture of equal parts of wheat, oats and cracked corn of the right color to which has been added some grit, shell, charcoal and sunflower seed. Feed in small, deep basins, taken along for the purpose, putting but little feed in each dish and leaving them in the coops only long enough to allow each bird to eat a sufficient amount. Water in a similar way. This done three times daily will suffice. Use care that no feed drops among the shavings or sawdust. Each morning bring the birds a relish of raw cabbage and a little lean hamburg steak to those whose combs wall not be injured thereby. Water should remain in the coops no longer than to allow the birds to eat and drink a reasonable amount. If there is a tendency for fowls to become tired out or they catch cold take steps at once to correct it by giving a little brandy in the water, and if the cold is severe give such fowls a two grain pill of quinine night and morning. Be sure at night to leave the coop protected from all draughts by a cloth front and top securely fas- tened. Attitude of the Exhibitor iu the Show Room — Many a breeder has made or lost a host of friends and cus- tomers by his bearing in the show room. It is possible to be uniformly courteous to every visitor, interested 216 Science axd Art of Poultry Culture in and helpful to every exhibitor, and graceful in ac- cepting the decision of the judges. To conduct one's self in any other manner no matter how discourteous others may be, how underhanded and small certain ex- hibitors may seem, or how unjust a decision is ren- dered would be to lose sight of one's own best interests. If there is to be a protest made make it firmly and gentlemanly. If overruled accept it W'ith quiet dignity. How many times have we seen an exhibitor lose our re- spect by his behavior when he really had our sympathy at the outset. Especially one should not make his presence obnoxious while the judge is working at his exhibit. If you have anything to say take the judge to one side and lay your grievances before him and aSk him to point out where the weakness lies. This will insure much bet- ter treatment than by hasty words unwisely timed. Advertising in the Shozv Room — To just what extent and in what manner one should advertise in the show room is difficult to define. Any method employed which does not savor of vulgarity seems to be justifiable. Everyone will respect dignified business-like methods of bringing before the public the merits of the stock ex- hibited. The bare presence of the entries calls attention to them while a prize won is the best attraction a coop can have. That these advantages may be utilized many have a small, neat business card attached to the coop and loose card or other literature for visitors to take at their pleasure. Others have a large placard giving more information and by its size and color enforcing at- tention. A placard upon every coop of a long string is often the means of calling more attention to a breeder. Cards bearing a photograph of the bird or birds en- tered, with the name and address of the breeder neatly printed is a strong method of advertising. Much can also Conditioning and Exhibiting 217 be done by being near the exhibit and supplying visitors with such information as they desire, thus often getting in touch with prospective customers. Use wisdom in approaching strangers who are looking at the exhibits, as only a few are really interested to a point of be- ing possible customers, although nearly all would be pleased to have the exhibits explained and shown to them. Care After the Exhibition — When the show is over the owner or capable assistant should personally return the birds to their own shipping coops. To trust this to some one who is not dependable is to incur the risk of colds, poor placarding, careless handling by draymen and their evil consequences. As in going to the show the attendant should return upon the same train and note that proper care be given the birds en route and at their destination. So many times the long exposure upon an express truck has cost fanciers their best winners. Upon arriving home and there is another exhibition to attend the poultry should be replaced in the condition- ing rooms. If they are to return to their pens a quar- antfne of ten days is essential unless one wishes to ex- pose the whole flock to some contagion brought home from the show. They may be returned to their old rations at once, but they should be somewhat accustomed to a different temperature by degrees and not placed in their old quarters in too severe weather. Chapter XIV. POULTRY JUDGING. Defined — Judging is the determining, point by point, how closely the fowl being judged compares with the standard set for an ideal bird of the breed or variety to which the fowl belongs. Importance — The business of judging poultry has grown to be almost a distinct profession and many of the leading poultry judges are known the world over both by reputation and having actually judged at shows in many different parts of the world. Many schools are making poultry judging a special branch of their course of study. Qualifications — It is easy to lay down what quali- ties a man should possess to become a successful poultry judge, but when one attempts to develop and exercise those peculiar faculties, he finds that the pub- lic is very exacting. One must possess the judicial qual- ities of earnestness, fairness and fearlessness. Having these and a complete knowledge of the true type of each variety and breed of fowls as laid down by the proper authorities, a judge ought to deliver decid- ed and impartial rulings in every case. To be apt and highly successful he should love poultry for the pleasure to be derived in their handling. His stock of " horse-sense " should be large, as in no place is its exercise more necessary than in tactfully handling poul- try breeders in a show room. Uniformity and fairness in decisions are essential and will gain a judge the con- 218 Poultry Judging 219 fidence of all exhibitors. An aptness for symmetry is is found in all our leading judges. Preparation for Judging — There is no one royal road to an appointment as a poultry judge. Some have been students of poultry in the field of practical experience for many years. Others have reached the goal by their love of poultry raised and studied as a sideline, while still others have gone to the various resident or corre- spondent schools and taken the courses of study in poul- try husbandry. All have had to study the ideal type of each variety as laid down by the American Stand- ard of Perfection until it becomes to them a second nature. All have had to keep informed of the changes made from year to year. All have had to begin judg- ing at local shows and gain their proficiency by hard and careful application of their knowledge until, step by step, they have climbed the ladder of success in poul- try judging. Many have aspired to this mark and failed to get a certificate of appointment from the proper author- ities through a lack of preparedness for the work. It is more than likely that a series of examinations will be required by the proper associations or committees in the near future and a certificate issued to all success- fully reaching the required standard. A close study of the Standard of Perfection and its instructions to judges is necessary, after which its practical application to the fowl by class, breed and variety, will determine how well fitted one is for the task. Scoring — The Standard of Perfection arranges a scale for each variety admitted to the Standard, giving to each part or section of a fowl a certain number of points, and the total points of all sections amount in all to one hundred. vSymmetry, weight and condition are consid- ered sections for all practical purposes. Symmetry is '20 Science and Art of Poultry Culture SOUTHWESTERN POULTRY ASSOCIATION. Official Score Card of the American Poultry Association. Dat(^ /njn/ar Ownpr (/WCv^ JiL^ Entry Na £A. Band No. Weight XL /a z. Shape Color Remarks Svmmetrv A Weight or size ConHitior] „ -f^ Fve^ CnmVf ^f Wattles and ear-lobes_ ; A Nerk -^ \-\ Wintry ■¥ y.^^ Rrirl, ^y 4 AJj:f^^^ Tail ^^ 4 Rrpast 4 Bodv and flnff ^? ^C^n^U^ e<^i;: Science and Art of Poultry Cultukk in the meat products of poultry is marked by dififering color, texture and flavor. The poultry products industry has grown very rapidly in the last few years and has assumed a leading place in the government experimental station work and in its commercial proportions. A'ery few animal or field prod- ucts reach the annual grand total of this industry. Its SILVER LACED WYANDOTTES. Courtesy of Julius Bachmann. many distinct lines lend employment to a vast army of people which is rapidly increasing each season. The time has long since passed when any Qgg or fowl was as good as any other of its kind. The public is discriminating closely in favor of the clean, fresh, well- shaped and fair-sized Qgg because it is realizing that the food and health value is impaired by age, filth and other conditions. Candling is the usual test of the condi- Food Value of Poultry Products 233 tion of an egg. The public also has learned to distin- guish between a }oung, well fed, fresh and properly dressed fowl and the bird which has seen age and mal- treatment. If the bird is young the breastbone will be pliable (if not broken to deceive), the feet and legs will be soft and smooth, the claws will be sharp, the spur straight or undeveloped, the comb and wattles not developed or not shrunken, the wing feathers more pointed, and the general appearance of the dressed bird should be plump and fresh. The methods and form of marketing poultry products are given elsewhere. The flajor and quality of any poultry product is affected by the sex, age, exercise and methods of feed- ing. Males are usually more tough and more highly flavored. Age and exercise give toughness and a stronger flavor. Special foods tend to impart flavor to both the eggs and tlie flesh. Feed onions or fish in quan- tities and both will be tasted in the product. The special flavor of certain wild game is due to the nature of the food obtained from their feeding ground. The ease with which a food is digested may also affect the tenderness of the flesh. Therefore ground grain seems better than whole grain to prepare flesh for food, and rich nitro- genous foods or special grain will affect the color and flavor of the flesh. Methods of feeding any food affect the tenderness and flavor, depending upon whether the fowl is kept quiet so that all the tissues may take on fat more evenly or the deposits are made in certain parts only. The advocates of crate fattening and those who claim as good results from free runs are about evenly divided in the United States. A well-balanced ration gives better flavor to both eggs and flesh. Cooking Poultry Products. Eggs — The following regarding eggs is taken from a 234 Science and Art of Poultry Culture United States government report edited by C. F, Lang- worthy, Ph. D. Cooked in various ways eggs are a favorite animal food, taking the place of meat to a certain extent, while raw eggs, usually seasoned in some way, are by no means infrequently eaten. Boiled eggs are often used for garnishing or orna- menting dififerent foods. Eggs are combined with other materials in various ways in many made dishes. They are used in making cak.s and such foods to improve their flavor, color, and texture, while in custards, creams, etc., they thicken the material and give it the desired consistency. The white of the egg is also employed in making icings and confectionery. Well-beaten or whipped egg white is used to leaven many forms of cakes and similar foods, as well as to improve the flavor. The beaten white incloses air in small bubbles, which become 'distributed throughout the mass of dough in mixing. The heat of cooking expands the air and makes the walls of the air bubbles firm, so that the porous structure is retained. The power to inclose and re- tain air when beaten varies, being greatest in the fresh egg and much lessened in packed or old eggs. Convenient leav- ening powders have lessened the number of eggs used for tl.is purpose. Sponge cake, however, is a familiar example of food so leavened. This use of eggs explains some of the recipes in old cookery books which call for such large num- bers of eggs. These uses are all familiar; th reasons for them are doubtless seldom thought of. There are several simple ways of cooking eggs which are very commonly followed. Thus, the egg in the shell is cooked by immersion in hot or boiling water or is less com- monly roasted. After removal from the shell, the egg is cooked in hot water or in hot fat. In the latter case it may or may not be beaten or stirred. Combined with other ma- terials to form various made dishes, eggs are boiled, baked, steamed, or fried, as the case may be. The total number of methods of serving and preparing eggs is very large, but in nearly every case it will be found that the method of preparation is only a more or less elaborate modification of one of the simple methods of cooking. Changes in weight, which are dependent on the methods Food Value of Poultry Products 235 of cooking, are commonly noted when foods are prepared for the table, losses in weight being due in general to the volatilization and gains to the absorption of water. Carpiaux found that when eggs were cooked for an hour in a steam bath the loss in weight was insignificant, ranging from 0.03 to 0.01 gram per egg. Camus found that with boiled eggs there was more or less loss owing to evaporation of a little water through the porous shell. If the egg cooled in the water it absorbed a little of it and gained in weight. The method of manipulation must have some effect on the changes in weight, for Lebbin reports that boiled eggs gained on an average about 0.5 gram, probably because a little water passed through the shell. From the tests as a whole it is evident that the changes in weight in all cases are small and not sufficient to modify the food value to any appreciable extent. When cooked in different ways there are marked changes in the appearance and structure of eggs. As ordinarily ap- plied, the term "boiled eggs" refers to eggs cooked in the shell in hot, though not necessarily boiling, water. The resulting product varies greatly, according to the length of time the cooking is continued, the method of procedure, etc. Perhaps the most usual household method of " boiling eggs " is to immerse them for a longer or shorter time in boiling water. An egg placed in boiling water not over 2 minutes will have a thin coating of coagulated white next the skin, the remainder will be milky, but not solid, while the yolk, though warm, will be entirely fluid. This stage may be called "very soft boiled." If the egg is kept in boiling water 2 minutes, or a little over, the white becomes entirely coagulated. The egg thus cooked may be termed " waxy." If the boiling is extended to 3 minutes or so, the egg shows a tendency to rise in the water and will be solid throughout, i. e., " solid boiled." If the boiling is continued up to 10 minutes or longer, the " hard-boiled " egg results. The white of such an egg is hard and elastic and the yolk crumbles readily. All these changes are due prinicpally to the more or less complete coagulation and hardening of the albumen of the egg by heat. Numerous experiments have been made to show the changes which actually take place when egg albumen is 236 Science and Art of Poultry Culture heated. If the egg white is gently warmed, no change is noticed until the temperature reaches 134° F., when coagula- tion begins. White fibers appear, which become more nu- merous, until at about 160° F. the whole mass is coagulated, the white almost opaque, yet it is tender and jelly-like. If the temperature is raised to 212° F. (the temperature of boiling water) and continued, the coagulated albumen be- comes much harder, and eventually more or less tough and horn-like; it also undergoes shrinkage. When the whole egg is cooked in boiling water, the temperature of the in- terior does not immediately reach 212° F., several minutes being probably required. It has been found by experiment that the yolk of egg coagulates firmly at a lower tempera- ture than the white. The changes in the albumen noted above suggest the idea that it is not desirable to cook eggs in boiling water in or- der to secure the most satisfactory product. Those who have given attention to the science as well as the practice of cookery recommend " soft-cooked," " medium-cooked," and " hard-cooked " eggs, all of which are cooked at a tem- perature lower than 212° F. In soft-cooked eggs, properly prepared, the white resembles a soft, thick curd, while the yolk is fluid. Except for a suggestion of rawness, there will be little flavor, provided fresh eggs are used. Medium- cooked eggs are more thoroughly cooked than those just mentioned, the results being secured by longer cooking or by a somewhat higher temperature. The white is soft and tender and the yolk slightly thickened. The flavor (which is developed by cooking) is more pronounced than that of a soft-cooked egg and is generally considered more agree- able. When an egg is covered with boiling water in a bain-marie or double boiler, and the temperature of the water in the outer vessel maintained at 180-190° F. for 30 to 45 minutes, the hard-cooked egg results, with the yolk dry and mealy and the white solid, yet tender. The directions given for preparing soft-cooked, medium- cooked, and hard-cooked eggs vary. The methods described in standard cookery books without doubt give the desired results if sufficient care is exercised. The chief difficulty en- countered by most cooks is to secure uniform results, Food Value of Poultry Products 237 especially with soft-cooked and medium-cooked eggs. It must be remembered that such results can not be expected when conditions vary. The time of cooking, the amount of water used, the number, size, and freshness of the eggs, and the kinds of vessels used are important factors. Thus, eggs which have been kept in an ice chest require more heat to warm them before cooking begins than do those which have been kept at room temperature. Again, so apparently trivial a detail as the sort of vessel used (whether earthen or metal) or the place where the vessel, stands during cooking may produce very different results. ]\Iany persons prefer to have eggs cooked at table in a chafing dish or other suitable vessel. In such cases the conditions may be controlled with comparative ease and uniform results obtained with a little practice if care is observed. The following methods of preparing soft-.cooked and medium-cooked eggs have been found to give uniform re- sults in laboratory tests at the University of Illinois: Using a granite-ware stewpan of 1 quart capacity, 1 pint of water was heated over a gas flame; when the water boiled the gas was turned oflf and an egg which had been kept in a refrig- erator was dropped into the water. Without disturbing the vessel it was covered closely and the egg allowed to remain in the water 6 minutes. It was then soft cooked. As shown by tests, when the egg was dropped into the water, the temperature fell almost at once to 185° F. and then slowly to 170-171° F. If the egg remained in the water 8 minutes, it was medium cooked, the temperature of the water at the end of the period having fallen to 162-164° F. Uniform results can be obtained in the kitchen as well as in the laboratory if sufficient attention is given to details. Bearing clearly in mind the end desired, each cook must experiment for herself, as it is impossible to give directions which will apply to all cases. The same changes which have been noted above as taking place in egg yolk and white when heat is applied in preparing boiled eggs take place when other methods of cooking are followed, though they are not always apparent. Poached or dropped eggs are removed from the shell and then cooked in water. Thudichum recommends the use of salted water to which a very little vinegar has been added. 238 Science and Art of Poultry Culture The reason for this is perhaps that acetic acid (vinegar) tends to precipitate alhumen — that is, to prevent a loss due to some of the egg being dissolved in the water. Flavor may also be one of the objects sought. Fried eggs are generally cooked in a flat pan, in a little hot fat, oil, or butter, and may be either soft or hard, ac- cording to the length of time employed in the process. Eggs are also occasionally baked in much the same manner that they are fried. The omelet is generally regarded as one of the most ap- petizing forms in which eggs can be served. It consists of the beaten egg with a little milk, water, and cream or melted butter added, quickly cooked in a little fat or butter in a suitable pan, and folded over so that it may be turned out of the pan in a half-round form. Some cooks insist that the best omelets are made by using hot water instead of milk or cream. The hot water is stirred into the egg yolk in the proportion of 1 tablespoonful to an egg. Scrambled eggs resemble an omelet in method of preparation, but no efifort is made to preserve the characteristic form and appearance of the omelet. Generally speaking, lightness is desired in an omelet and thorough mixing in scrambled eggs. The former is secured by beating; the latter by stirring. Omelets are sometimes made with the addition of various materials, such as parsley, jams, etc. Many so-called omelets are made in which flour is used. These are more properly pancakes, and vary very greatly according to the ingredients used. Such dishes, as well as sweet omelets, etc., are treated of in cookery books, as are also many other ways of serving eggs which are in principle the same as those already noted, but in which the final appearance is more or less modified. The foods in which eggs are combined with other ma- terials range from a simple custard or cake to the most elaborate of the confectioner's products. In all such dishes, as previously noted, eggs are used to give consistency, color, flavor, or lightness. Eggs are especially rich in protein (the nitrogenous ingre- dient of food). This material is required by man to build and repair the tissues of the body. Some energy is also furnished by protein, but fats and carbohydrates supply the greater part of the total amount needed. Combining eggs Food Value of Poultry Products 239 with flour and sugar (carbohydrates) and butter, cream, etc. (fat), is perhaps an unconscious eflfort to prepare a food which shall more nearly meet the requirements of the body than either ingredient alone. Wlien eggs, meat, fish, cheese, or other similar foods rich in protein are eaten, such other foods as bread, butter, potatoes, etc., are usually served at the same time, the object being, even if the fact is not real- ized, to combine the different classes of nutrients into a suitable diet. The wisdom of such combination, as well as of other generally accepted food habits, was proved long ago by practical experience. The reason has been more slowly learned. As previously stated, egg white when heated at the tem- perature of boiling water for a considerable time becomes hard and contracts. This explains the curdling of custards, shrinkage and toughening of omelets, souffles, meringes, sponge cake and similar mixtures. The firm coagulation of albumen at 212° F. explains the use of egg white for clarify- ing coffee, soup or other liquids. The albumen, which is mixed with the liquid before boiling, coagulates and incloses the floating particles, leaving the liquor clear. When eggs are removed from the shell, a little of the white usually clings to the inner surface unless it is scraped. Such egg- shells are often used for clarifying purposes instead of the whole egg. The clarifying properties are, of course, due to the egg white and not to the shells. It is a matter of common observation that when eggs are boiled the yolk where it joins the white has often a more or less marked greenish color. Contact with the white renders the surface of the yolk somewhat alkaline. Experiment has shown that when egg white and many other proteids are heated hydrogen sulphid or some other volatile sulphur body is quite commonly liberated in small amounts, and Rubner has found that the discoloration of the egg yolk is due to the action of the hydrogen sulphid thus produced on the iron of the vitellin of egg yolk in the presence of alkali. Flesh of Poultry — From a United States report by Helen W. Atwater the following is quoted : The heat of cooking develops pleasant flavors, but this is only one of several uses which cooking serves. If carried 240 SciExcn: and Art of Poultry Culture far enough, tlic licat kills dangerous parasites or micro- organisms, if such be present, and produces certain chemical and physical changes which probably make the meat some- what more digestible. The muscular tissues which form the greater part of poultry flesh are composed of fibers and connective tissue of varying toughness. Long, slow cooking, as in stewing, gradually softens these fibers and connective tissues, and thus gives the digestive juices a better chance to act upon them. On the otiier hand, the protein (nitrogenous sub- stance found in the lean of meat) is hardened by the strong heat, much as white of egg, which it resembles in chemical composition, hardens in boiling. Protein thus hardened or coagulated is probably less easily digested than slightly cooked or raw protein, but this disadvantage in the cooked meat is more than compensated by its more attractive taste and appearance. The heat of cooking also develops acids in the lean of the meat, which soften the fiber much as the digestive juices themselves do, and thus aid digestion. The fats, too, are afifected by the heat, being separated from the flesh to some extent and in part changed in flavor by brown- ing more or less. Of course in cooking some fat tries out from the meat, and water is driven off as steam or vapor by the heat. Hence a fowl or any piece of meat when cooked will weigh perceptibly less than before it went into the pot or oven. Such loss is less noticeable in poultry than in cuts from larger animals, in which a greater surface of the flesh is directly exposed to the action of the heat. Boiling, stewing, roasting, broiling, and frying are the methods of cooking ordinarily used with poultry, as with other meats. In boiling and stewing the heat reaches the flesh through water in which it is placed, and the chief difiference between the two lies in the amount of heat applied at one time. The choice to be made between them should depend on whether the flesh only is to be used, or the poultry and also the water in which it is cooked. If the flesh only, the bird should be boiled; that is, plunged into water wliich is already at or near the boiling point and allowed to stay at that tem- perature for from ten to twcnt}' minutes. This exposure to the greater heat will cause the protein near the surfaces to Food Value of Poultry Products 241 harden and form a sort of coating througli which the juices of the interior cannot so readilj' pass. Later the pot should be set in a cooler place and the meat be left in water below the boiling point until the desired changes have taken place in its inner parts. When, on the other hand, the water also is to be used, the bird should be stewed; that is, put into water while it is still below the boiling point and kept there until thoroughly cooked through, since at a moderate tem- perature no impervious coating of coagulated protein will form, and part of the juices, etc., will escape from the meat into the water. If a bird is cut up before it is stewed, greater surface will be exposed to the action of the hot water and more material will pass into the water. Part of the nutritious material in the bones, which would otherwise be wasted, can be cooked out in this way, adding to the nutritive value of the broth. If the stewing is kept up long enough considerable material, especiall}^ the bodies which give flavor, will pass into the broth, leaving the rather taste- less muscle fibre. But it must be remembered that these fibers are the most nutritious parts of the flesh. Well-made broth is fairly rich in nutritive ingredients and is thought to be more easily digested than the original meat, and for this reason chicken broth is often given to sick persons who need their nourishment in return for a small amount of work of digestion. Furthermore, the broth often enables the invalid to take with it the more nutritious bread, rice, or other food which would not be relished otherwise. An old fowl can sometimes be made tender without having all its flavor stewed away by cooking, as in a French bain- marie, where the pot is kept in warm water for a long time, or in a special oven with walls which do not conduct away the heat readily, where it is set for hours in a warm air chamber. In roasting and broiling poultry the heat reaches the meat through the air instead of through water. As in boiling, the flesh is put at once into a high temperature which causes the protein near the surface to harden, thus partially preventing the escape of the juices. If recourse is had to basting, or pouring the escaped juices over the hot meat, a coating is formed over the surface which aids in keeping in the remain- der of the juices. The larger the fowl the longer the time 242 Science and Art of Poultry Culture required for the interior to become hot. With a large fowl there is not much danger of drying up. On the other hand, if the bird is small there is more danger of this, and it should be cooked as quickly as possible. Hence the rule that the smaller the bird the hotter the oven and the shorter the period of cooking should be. When the layer of meat over the bones is very thin, as in young chicks or squabs, broiling is preferable to roasting. Here very intense heat is applied to one side of the meat until the surface is coated over with coagulated protein, then to the other side, the interior being cooked at the same time. In this way almost all the juices are retained and the bird is cooked through without drying up. In frying the meat is surrounded by fat instead of water or air and, like broiling, this process seems appropriate only for thin pieces of meat. The hot fat, coagulates the protein on the surface, forming a coating which keeps the juices in. It should be very hot when the meat is put in, else it will soak into the flesh and spoil the flavor. Fat, if overcooked, is commonly believed to be quite indigestible, and chicken or other meat not properly fried is probably less easily digestible than that cooked in other ways. The amount of heat needed to soften the fibers and develop the flavor of a bird, of course, depends largely on its age and toughness. Long, slow cooking, as in stewing or boiling, softens the fibers more thoroughly than a shorter exposure to intense heat, as in roasting. These methods are therefore preferable for an old, tough bird. An old rule given in many cookbooks is to boil or stew a fowl " an hour for each year of its age and one for the pot." A large bird, of course, needs a longer exposure to the heat than a small one, and a general rule for roasting chickens and turkeys is twenty minutes to the pound. Ducks and geese, having tougher fibers, require a longer time for thorough cooking. Some persons, however, prefer ducks, especially wild ducks, rare. Composition, Digestibility, and Comparative Nutri- tive Values. Eggs — From a United States government report by C. F, Langworthy, Ph. D., the composition, digestibihty Food Value of Poultry Products 243 and comparative nutritive values of eggs are given as follows : The shells of hens' eggs constitute about 11 per cent, the yolk 32 per cent, and the white 57 per cent of the total weight of the egg. The proportion of white and yolk varies somewhat with dififerent breeds. According to recent inves- tigations the proportion of yolk is greatest in bantam eggs, and in general is greater with those breeds of poultry which are best suited for fattening than with other breeds. As shown by tests made at the New York State Experiment Station, white-shelled eggs have a somewhat heavier shell than brown-shelled eggs. The shell of a duck's egg consti- tutes about 14 per cent of the total weight, and that of a plover egg 10 per cent. The following table shows the com- position of hens' eggs, raw and cooked, brown shelled and white shelled, and of egg white and yolk, as well as the com- position of the egg (whole egg white and yolk) of the guinea fowl, duck, goose, turkey, plover, etc., also evaporated eggs and egg substitutes. For purpose of comparison, the com- position of beefsteak and several other familiar animal foods, and of wheat flour and potatoes, is also added. As is shown by analysis, eggs consist chiefly of two nutri- ents — protein and fat — in addition to water and mineral mat- ter or ash. Carbohydrates are present in small amounts and are usually not determined in analyses. According to recent figures, duck eggs contain 0.3 per cent, hens' eggs 0.67 per cent, turkey and guinea eggs each 0.8 per cent, and goose eggs 1.3 per cent of carbohydrates. Plover eggs contain con- siderably more, the amount reported being over 2 per cent. In the case of domestic poultry about one-third of the carbo- hydrates occurs in the yolk and about two-thirds in the white of the egg. The protein or nitrogenous matter is the nutrient which is needed to build and repair body tissue, as already stated, while the fat is useful for supplying energy Some energy is also derived from protein. Mineral matter is required by the body for building bones and other tissues and for other purposes, but less is definitely known concern- ing the kind and amount required than in the case of the other constituents. In composition, eggs of all sorts resem- ble such animal foods as meat, milk, and cheese, more than 244 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Averagre Composition of JiggB, Eg-fiT Products, and Otber Foods. ^ Ph c u 01 Ph (Ii fcfc 11.9 9.3 13.4 10.5 12.3 .2 15.7 33.3 13.2 12.0 11.8 10.8 11.9 11.2 12.1 12.5 13.3 14.5 11,1 .03 16.8 36.2 12.9 12.3 13.8 14.4 11.6 .02 17.3 36.2 12.2 9.7 13.4 11.2 11.5 .03 17.4 32.9 11.9 9.9 13.5 12.0 11.6 0.03 16.7 31.8 9.7 10.6 10.7 11.7 18.1 11.1 18.8 9.8 12.0 9.2 46.9 36.0 73.2 .3 33,3 51.6 73.9 .3 2.1 3.4 25.9 33.7 16.5 16.1 18.9 18.5 3.3 4.0 1.2 9 6.2 1.2 11.4 1.0 1.8 .1 2.2 .1 3 5 d fc CO Hen: Whole egg as purchased Whole egg, edible portion White Yolk Whole egg boiled, edible portion White-shelled eggs as pur- chased Brown-shelled eggs as purchased Duck: Wliole egg as purchased Whole egg, edible portion White Yolk Goose: Whole egg as purchased Whole egg, edible portion White Yolk Turkey: Whole egg as purchased Whole egg, edible portion White Yolk Guinea fowl: Whole egg as purchased Whole egg, edible portion White Yolk Plover: Whole egg as purchased* Whole egg, edible portion* Fresh-water turtle eggs* . . Sea-turtle eggs* Salted duck eggs* Evaporated hens" eggs: Whole egg White* Yolk* Egg substitute Pudding (custard) powder* Cheese as purchased Sirloin Steak as purchased Sirloin steak, edible portion Milk Oysters in shell as pur- chased Oysters, edible portion . . . Wheat flour Potatoes as purchased . . . . Potatoes, edible portion .. 10.7 10.9 13.7 12.8 65.5 73.7 86.2 49.5 73.3 64.8 60.8 70.5 87.0 45.8 59.7 69.5 63.5 73.7 86.7 60.5 72.8 86.6 49.7 67.3 74.4 65.9 76.4 I 6.4 11.7 5.9 11.4 13.0 34.2 54.0 81.4 20.6 7.0 12.0 62.6 78.3 635 720 250 1,705 765 695 750 860 210 1,840 760 865 215 1,850 635 720 215 1,710 640 755 215 1,655 625 695 778 738 590 2,525 1,501 2,794 1,480 1,690 1,950 985 1,130 325 45 235 1,650 310 The above figures represent av mens vary more or less from th'^ erage values. Individual specl- nverage. *Europoan analyses. Food Value of Poultry Products 245 such vegetable foods as flour and potatoes. As will be seen by the figures in the above table, hens' eggs and those of other domestic fowls do not differ greatly in composition. Neither does the cooked egg vary materially in composition from the raw, though it varies markedly in texture. The yolk and white differ greatly in composition. The yolk con- tains considerable fat and ash, while the white is practically free from fat and has a very small ash content. The white contains somewhat less protein and about twice as much water as the yolk. As is usually the case with our familiar foods, the water is not visible as such, but is combined or mingled with the other constituents, so that the whole food is more or less moist, liquid, or juicy. The figures quoted in the table show, that there is practically no difference in com- position between hens' eggs with dark shells and those with white shells, although there is a popular belief in some local- ities that the former are " richer." This point was studied by the New York State and California Experiment Stations, many analyses of the two sorts of eggs being made. At the California Experiment Station the brown-shelled eggs were laid by Partridge Cochins, Dark Brahmas, Black Langshans, Wyandottes, and Barred Plymouth Rocks. The white- shelled eggs were laid by Brown Leghorns and Buff Leg- horns, White Minorcas, and Black Minorcas. The Michigan Experiment Station also analyzed the eggs of a number of different breeds, though the special object was not to deter- mine whether there was any relation between the color of the shell and the composition of the eggs. However, no con- stant variation in the eggs of the different breeds was observed. These tests and others like them justify the state- ment that the eggs of one breed, whatever the color of the shells, are as nutritious as those of anotlier, provided thej'' are of the same size and the fowls are equally well fed. As shown by their composition, eggs are nutritious food. They are less concentrated — i. e., contain more water — than cheese, but are more concentrated than milk or oysters. In water content they do not differ greatly from the average value for lean meat. The kinds and amounts of nutrients in eggs indicate that they may be properly used in the diet in the same way as most other animal foods, and this belief is confirmed bj' the experience of uncounted generations. 246 Science and Art of Poultry Culture The table shows the nutrients in different kinds of eggs and in a few other foods. Many studies have been made of the chemical bodies making up the different classes of nutri- ents. Egg white is sometimes said to be pure albumen. In reality it consists of several albumens, and, according to many observers, a little carbohydrate material. The phos- phorus in the albumen of the egg white is equivalent to about 0.03 per cent phosphoric acid. The chief ash constit- uent is sodium chlorid (common salt). A very extended investigation of the white of egg was made at the Connecticut State Experiment Station. The " albumen " or protein of egg white was found to consist of four bodies — ovalbumen, conalbumen, ovomucin and ovom- ucoid. The ovalbumen is the chief constituent and makes up the greater part of the egg white. The conalbumen has much the same chemical properties as ovalbumen. Ovom- ucin and ovomucoid are glycoproteids, and are present in small amounts. Egg yolk contains a number of different bodies, including about IS per cent vitellin (a proteid) ; 20 per cent palmatin, stearin, and olein (the fatty constituents, and 0.5 per cent coloring matter, besides some lecithin (a fat-like body con- taining phosphorus), nuclein, etc. The yellow coloring mat- ter in egg yolk has been separated and studied somewhat, and though its exact character is not yet known, it is related to the yellow coloring matter of animal origin called lutein. The total phosphorus in the yolk is equivalent to a little over 1 per cent of phosphoric acid. Besides phos- phorus, the yolk contains such chemical elements as calcium, magnesium, potassium, and iron in the form of salts and other chemical compounds. The protein of egg yolk was studied extensively at the Connecticut State Experiment Station. According to these investigations it contains a large amount of proteid matter combined with lecithin. The name lecithin-nucleo vitellin is proposed for this compound, which behaves like a globulin. It is soluble in a solution of salt. As prepared in the laboratory, the lecithin-nucleo-vitellin contained from IS to 30 per cent lecithin. A lecithin-free body insoluble in salt solution was also isolated. This was called nucleo-vitellin. The lecithin present in egg yolk and other food materials Food Value of Poultry Products 247 has come to be regarded as one of the very important food constituents, as, in addition to other elements, it furnishes the body with phosphorus in a form in which it ma}^ be readily assimilated. Eggs have always been recognized as a valuable food in invalid dietetics. The investigations which have been made with lecithin furnish additional proof of the truth of this belief, and egg yolks in abundance are often prescribed where it is desirable to supply a very nutritious and easily assimilated diet. One of the constituents of egg albumen is sulphur. The dark stain made by eggs on silver is commonly and doubt- less correctly attributed to the formation of silver sulphid. The albumens are readily decomposed with the liberation of hydrogen sulphid. The bad odor of rotten eggs is due largely to the presence of this gas and phosphureted hydrogen, which is also formed. The shell of the egg is porous, and the micro-organisms which cause the egg to ferment — i. e., to rot or spoil — gain access to the egg through the minute openings. Like the mold spores, these micro-organisms are widely distributed. Composition of shell — In the table no figures are given for the composition of the eggshell, which, of course, has no food value. The shell of the hen's egg is made up vcy largely of mineral matter, containing 93.7 per cent calcium carbonate, 1.3 per cent magnesium carbonate, 0.8 per cent calcium phosphate, and 4.2 per cent of organic matter. The shells of goose eggs, on an average, have the following per- centage composition: calcium carbonate, 95.3; magnesium carbonate, 0.7; calcium phosphate, 0.5, and organic matter, 3.5. The shells of ducks' eggs contain 94.4 per cent calcium carbonate, 0.5 per cent magnesium carbonate, 0.8 per cent calcium phosphate, and 4.3 per cenf organic matter. The shells of other eggs are doubtless of much the same com- position. Raw eggs or eggs only slightl}^ cooked are commonly said to be very digestible, the idea being obviously that they digest readily, without giving rise to pain or other physical discomfort. The term digestibility has another meaning, and one which is commonly intended when it is used in the discussion of food values. This refers to the thorouglmess of digestion — that is, to the total amount of material which 248 Science and Art of Poultry Culture any food gives up to the body in its passage through the digestive tract. Since only soluble or possibly emulsified matter can pass through the walls of the stomach and intes- tines and be taken up into the circulation to nourish the body, it follows that only material which is soluble or is ren- dered soluble by the action of pepsin, trypsin, and other ferments in the digestive juices, is truly digestible. The original condition of food, the method of cooking, and the amount eaten at a given time, are among the factors which determine the quantity of any given material which can be digested. Statements are frequently made with regard to the length of time required to digest different foods. Many of these are doubtless far from accurate, as the subject is not easy to study. By methods of artificial digestion the length of time required to render different foods soluble has been fre- quently tested. It is possible to use in the experiments the same digestive ferments which occur in the body and to approximate body temperature, etc., but it is quite certain that all the conditions of digestibility in the body cannot be reproduced in the laboratory. The results obtained are inter- esting and often valuable, but it is worthy of note that careful investigators are much slower to make sweeping deductions from them than are popular writers on the sub- ject. More than fifty years ago Dr. Beaumont, a United States Army surgeon, had an excellent opportunity for studying digestibility in the stomach. A healthy young man was arci- dently wounded in the stomach by the discharge of a musket. In time the large wound healed, leaving a permanent open- ing into the stomach. This was ordinarily closed by a valv- ular flap made by a fold of the stomach lining, which could be easily pushed aside and the interior of the stotnach exam- ined or the stomach contents removed as desired. Strange as it may seem, this could be done without giving the sub- ject pain or annoyance, nor was his general health abnormal after the wound had healed in this curious way. For many years after the time of the accident (1822") the man was under Dr. Beaumont's care and observation. Very many experiments were made on the length of time required by different foods for digestion in the stomach, or " chymifica- Food Value of Poultry Products 249 tion." ^lany artificial digestion experiments were also made, using gastric juice removed from the man's stomach. Although these investigations were carried on long before the theories and methods of physiological chemistry now accepted were known, so much care was taken in making the experiments, and in recording the experimental data, that the work has never ceased to be of great -value as well as mter- est. However, it should not be forgotten that Dr. Beaumc>nt studied only digestion in the stomach; his work throws no light on digestion in the intestines. This is of especial importance in the case of starchy foods, as the digestion of starch, which is begun by the saliva, ceases in the stomach but is resumed in the intestines. The experiments reported include among others tests of the length of time required to digest eggs, hard and soft boiled, fried, roasted, and raw. The raw eggs were sometimes whipped and sometimes not. In all the tests fresh eggs were used. Hard-boiled and fried eggs each required 3^ hours for digestion in the stomach, i. e., for the formation of chyme; soft-boiled eggs required 3 hours; roasted eggs, 2;4 hours; raw eggs, not wh'pped, 2 hours; and raw eggs, whipped, l]^ hours. When tested by the methods of artificial digestion followed by Dr. Beau- mont, which approximated bodily conditions as closely as he was able to make them, the hard-boiled eggs required 8 hours for digestion; soft-boiled eggs, 616 hours; raw eggs, not whipped, 4^^ hours; and raw eggs, whipped, 4 hours. The two methods gave results which agree in the relative length of time required for the digestibility of the dififerent samples, though not in the actual time required. Similar results were obtained by the two methods with the greater part of the large number of foods studied. One of Dr. Beau- mont's general deductions was that most of the common foods required from 2 to 4 hours to digest in the stomach. He says further: The time required for the digestion of food is various, depending upon the quantity and quality of the food, state of the stomach, etc., but the time ordinarily required for the disposal of a moderate meal of the fibrous parts of meat, with bread, etc., is from 3 to 3j^ hours. As regards the time required for digestion in the stomach, it will be seen that in this investigation eggs compare favor- 250 Science and Art of Poultry Culture ably with other common foods. It must be remembered that digestion continues in the intestine, and that no data are furnislied by these experiments for judging of this factor. This is an important matter, as food material which escapes digestion in the stomach may be thoroughly digested later in the intestine. This fact seems to have been often over- looked in the discussion of Dr. Beaumont's work. Some German investigations which have to do with the length of time different foods remain in the stomach have also shown that two eggs eaten raw, poached, or in the form of an omelet, leave the stomach in two to three hours, being included in the same class as milk, oysters, white bread, etc. The ordinary kinds of fresh meat leave the stomach in three to four hours, and some smoked meats and salt fish in four to five hours. Another investigator, who has divided com- mon foods into four classes according to the ease with which they are digested, includes raw or soft-cooked eggs in the most digestible class, along with beef tea, milk, etc. Few investigations have been reported regarding the comparative digestibility of the different parts of the egg. On the basis of a number of experiments, Stern concludes that raw or half-raw egg yolk is very readily digested. He found that two to four raw yolks leave the stomach in seventy to one hundred minutes, and that one or two yolks taken in a cup of hot cofifee with some sugar and milk leave the stomach in sixty to seventy minutes. Among later experiments on the digestibility of eggs by artificial methods, the work of the Minnesota Experiment Station may be cited. The object was to study the thor- oughness as well as the ease of digestion. Five experiments were made by means of a pepsin solution with eggs cooked under dififerent conditions. Eggs were cooked for 3 minutes in water at 212° F., giving a " soft-boiled " egg, and for 5 minutes and 20 minutes at the same temperature. The egg boiled 3 minutes and digested for 5 hours in pepsin solu- tion, compared with one boiled 20 minutes and treated in the same way, showed 8.3 per cent undigested protein in the former, against 4.1 per cent undigested protein in the latter. Under similar treatment the'egg boiled 5 minutes gave 3.9 per cent undigested protein. In all cases the eggs was quite thoroughly digested. Another trial was then made in which Food Value of Poultry Products 251 the eggs were cooked for periods of 5 and 10 minutes in water at 180° F. — that is, the albumen was coagulated at a lower temperature than that of boiling water. In both of these cases the protein was entirely digested in 5 hours. These results would indicate that while the time and the temperature of cooking have some effect upon the rate of digestion, they do not very materially affect the total digesti- bility. As regards the general deduction that eggs cooked for dif- ferent lengths of time vary somewhat in the length of time for digestion under the experimental conditions, the results agree quite closely with those obtained by Dr. Beaumont. Experiments have also been made with man to learn how thoroughly eggs are digested. In such tests it is usual to analyze the food and the feces, the latter being assumed to consist principally of undigested food. Deducting the amount of the different nutrients in the feces from the total amount consumed, shows how much of each nutrient was digested. Such an experiment was made at the Minnesota Experiment Station with a healthy man. A very consider- able portion of the nitrogenous material and fat of the ration was furnished by eggs, the other foods eaten being potatoes, milk, and cream. About 90 per cent of the total nitrogenous material and over 90 per cent of the fat con- sumed were digested. In experiments at the University of Tennessee with healthy men on a diet of bread, milk, and eggs, from 9'3 to 95 per cent of both the protein and fat were digested. The conclusion therefore seems warranted that, as shown by composition and digestibility, eggs possess the high nutritive properties which are popularly assigned to them. A German investigator, Rubner, some years ago tested the digestibility of hard-boiled eggs with a healthy man. No other food was eaten with the eggs. It was found that 95 per cent of the total dry matter and 97 per cent of the pro- tein were digested. The fat was also very thoroughly assim- ilated. The percentage of total dry matter and protein digested was about the same as was found in similar exper- iments in which meat only was eaten, while the percentage of fat digested was larger. Discussing these tests, Rubner says in effect: 252 Science and Art of Poultry Culture From the fact that eggs are as completely digested as meat, it does not follow that they are digested in the same time, or that hard-boiled eggs do not produce more dis- turbance in the digestive organs. It is highly probable that there is no difference in the thoroughness of digestion of hard-boiled and soft-boiled eggs. Jorissenne, discussing the digestibility of eggs with refer- ence to some recent European work on the subject, states that he regards the yolk of raw, soft-boiled, and hard-boiled eggs as equally digestible. The white of soft-boiled eggs being semiliquid, offers little more resistence to the digestive juices than raw white. The white of a hard-boiled egg is not generally very thoroughly masticated. Unless finely divided, it ofifers more resistance to the digestive juices than the fluid or semifluid white, and undigested particles may remain in the digestive tract many days and decompose. From this deduction it is obvious that thorough mastication is a matter of importance. Provided mastication is thor- ough, marked dififerences in the completeness of digestion of the three sorts of eggs, in the opinion of the writer cited, will not be found. Perhaps the most extended study of the digestibility of eggs on record was carried on at St. Petersburg by Tikh- vinski. Two experiments, each divided into two periods of seven days, were made with a healthy man. In the first period of the first experiment, the diet consisted of hard- boiled eggs, bread, and meat; in the second, of soft-boiled eggs with bread and meat. The second experiment was made under similar conditions, except that the soft-boiled eggs were used in the first period and the hard-boiled in the second. The eggs furnished about one-fifth of the total pro- tein and two-thirds of the total fat of the diet. Considering the average results of the whole investigation or those of each experiment, the rations containing the eggs cooked in the two ways proved equally digestible, 90 to 91 per cent of the protein and 95 per cent of the fat consumed being retained in the body. As the only factor in the experiments wliich varied was the time of cooking the eggs, the deduc- tion seems warranted that the hard and soft boiled were equally digestible. In connection with the nutrition investigations of this department, the average coefficients of digestibility have been Food Value of Poultry Products 253 deduced for different kinds of food materials, that for the protein of eggs being 97 per cent and for the fat SIS per cent. From all the evidence it seems fair to conclude that eggs are quite thoroughly digested and that the length of time of cooking has less effect upon this factor than upon the time required for digestion. In a healthy man the latter consideration is probably not a matter of much importance. In the diet of sick persons and invalids it may be more important. Diet in such cases, however, is a matter for the attention of skilled physicians. In some of the experiments referred to above the eggs were used alone; in others, as a part of a more or less simple mixed diet. Tlie effect of one food upon the digestibility of another is a matter concerning which little is definitely known. It is possible that when two foods are eaten together the digestibility of either or both is (1) unchanged, (2) increased, or (3) diminished. Apparently no experiments have been made in which the problem was studied with special reference to eggs combined with other foods. However, artificial digestion experiments were made by Fraser on the effect of beverages on the digestibility of a number of foods including raw and cooked egg albumen, which led to the deduction that tea, coffee, and cocoa retarded somewhat the digestibility of the nitrogenous constituents of eggs, although the effect was less marked with coffee than with the other beverages. Water did not have this effect. Though interesting in themselves, too wide application should not be made of the results of such tests, for even if the beverages retarded digestibility somewhat, it does not necessarily follow that this effect was harmful, or that the thoroughness of digestion was altered. The following' paragraph is also interesting : For convenience, eggs may be divided into two groups: (1) Those from which the young are hatched full fledged and ready in a great measure to care for themselves, and (2) those from which the young are hatched unfledged and entirely dependent upon the parents for some time. Domes- tic poultry eggs are familiar examples of the first group; robins and sparrows, of the second. The eggs of the two classes differ materially in composition. It seems evident that more nutritive material is needed proportionally in the Proportions of Dii;;cstiblc A^iitricnts and Fuel J'aluc Per Pound in Poultry. Kind of Food Material. Digestible Nutrients. Capon, as purchased Capon, edible portion Capon, flesli,* Capon, giblets, Chicken, as purchased Chicken, edible portion, Chicken, flesh,* Chicken, dark meat Chicken, light meat Chicken, giblets Chicken, broiler, as purchased, Chicken, broiler, edible portion. Chicken, broiler, flesh,* Chicken, broiler, giblets, Duck, as purchased Duck, edible portion, Duck, flesh,* not including breast Duck, breast Duck, giblets, Duckling, as purchased | Duckling, edible portion, . . Duckling, flesh,* Duckling, giblets, Fowl, as purchased Fowl, edible portion Fowl, flesh,* Fowl, giblets, Goose, as purchased Goose, edible portion, Goose, flesh,* Goose, giblets Green goose', as purcliased. Green goose, edible portion. Green goose, flesh,* Green goose, giblets, Guinea hen, as purchased, Guinea hen, edible portion, Guinea hen, flesh,* Guinea hen, giblets Pheasant, as purchased. . . Pheasant, edible portion, . . Pheasant, flesh,* Pheasant, giblets Pigeon, as purchased Pigeon, edible portion Pigeon, flesh,* % 1 Vc '/o '/c 1 17.5 46.8 1.6 17.2 16.6 56.7 2.0 20.9 20.1 .4.S.8 2.0 21.0 21.(1 63. :< 1.6 19.9 13.9 18.8 55.5 1.1 17.3 6.8 68.4 1.4 21.2 8,5 66.9 1.5 21.9 9.6 70.1 1.3 20.2 7.8 70.3 1.4 21.2 7.0 71.0 1.2 19.2 6.1 25.5 h\A> 1.1 14.9 6.0 69. V 1,4 20.0 8,1 69.2 1.3 20.4 8.3 72.8 2.3 18.1 5.8 I.S.9 51,4 1 6 14 9 15 2 61.1 1.8 17.8 18.0 55.5 2.0 16.9 24.8 73.9 1.1 21.6 2.2 73.2 1.2 17.3 4.8 16.2143.3 1 9 11 6 26 6 51,7 2.4 13,9 31,7 48,3 2.4 13.1 36.0 70.2 1.4 18.3 7.7( lirt.l 49 9 1.4 16,6 15,4 59 5 1 9 19 8 18 2 58,9 1,9 19,9 18.9 64.7 1.6 18.1 13.0 11.1 48.0 1.9 14.4 24.2 54.0 2.2 16.1 27.3 51 8 2 3 15,7 29 9 70,0 1,4 19 5 7.8 !>.fi 43.6 2 2 13.3 31.0 48.2 2.5 14.6 34.2 45.7 2.6 13.9 37.4 68,7 1,4 21 6 6 9 16.4 57,7 1.4 18.8 5.1 169.1 1,3 22 4 6.2 168.9 1.3 22.7 6.2 169.9 13 20,2 6.7 12.0161.5 1.0 20.9 4.0 169.9 1.2 23.7 4.6' 170.0 1.2 24.0 4.4 168.9 1 4 19 5 6.8 13.6155.2 1.4 19.1 9.0 164.0 1.7 22.1 10.4 63.2 1.6 22.2 11.5 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.3 0.6 0.7 0.6 1.1 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 ! 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.1 ♦Not including giblets. 254 Kind of Food Material. y 1 *:; Digestible ' Nutrients. +j C 0) ^ m •;^ bs -d ■n 3 c ■3 ^ > L J -r^—X 1 4- 1 ^_ g O 10 Q «0 K K 0"00 'OO'OO "OOio^iiJO Marketing the Commercial Egg 289 that the price of eggs varies monthly with the egg pro- duction in ahnost exactly the same ratio as the produc- tion, still the price does not go as low in the spring or as high in the winter as formerly. Overpro- duction for the entire year can never exist. Prices have steadily increased for years. Another strong ad- vantage in the tgg market is the fact that the market reports covering the same months for several years will show similar conditions at like seasons varied only by weather conditions. This makes for regularity in prices and easy planning for the future. It will be found that March, April and May are the months of low prices and they then steadily crowd upward, reaching their highest point in November, December and January. The season of low prices is the natural breeding season of the fowd, hence its productiveness. The season of high prices follows molting and during cold weather. The price paid for the egg product is also governed by the quality of the eggs as well as by the attractiveness of the package. From dirty to fancy is always one hundred per cent gain and often a greater gain. The answer to the question, does preparation pay, is strongly affirmative. If the eggs are sold to a commisision house the day's demand fixes the price. If sold to a retailer a certain agreed advance over the market quotations is usual. When sending to private customers several methods of fixing the price are employed. Some make a contract for a stated number each week for the year at a fixed price per dozen for the entire year. Some fix the price at a certain per cent over the quotations at the end of each week. Others agree upon two prices per year, thus equalizing the extremes. Still others have a fixed running scale for each month of the year based upon 290 SciENCi-: AND Art of Poultry Culture the averasi^e current price plus from five to ten cents per dozen. One of the best ways is to make a monthly rate based upon former years to which has been added an agreed advance. In this way there can be no mis- understandings or delays in making remittance. Chapter XX. DISPOSING OF EGGS AND STOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES. Advertising — The method of disposing of any com- modity of commerce is by bringing it to the attention of the prospective purchaser. In short, by advertising. There are many wa}-s of doing this, chief among which are constant and effective advertising in pouUry and other periodicals, exhibiting at the various fairs and winter shows, placards upon all packages sent out, neat and attractive stationery, business cards placed to advan- tage, invitations to visit the poultry yard and by per- sonal solicitation. In another place more will be given upon this subject of advertising. However, none of these methods will be available long unless integrity follows in all dealings. Contracts — In disposing of an article, the transac- tion does not cease at the finding of the prospective buy- er. The agreement must be made actually or by im- plication. Actually if a set price is asked and agreed to for a certain article of a stated grade. Impliedly if in the usual course of business an order is placed and consideration paid. For an example of the im- plied contract, a buyer notices an advertisement of a setting of eggs from a certain variety of fowl for five dollars. The statement contains no other information. By usage there is also implied that a setting of eggs at that price shall be of the very best quality, that they shall be reasonably fertile, that they shall be correctly pre- 291 292 Science and Art of Poultry Culture pared for shipment and that they shall be sent at the earliest possible moment after being gathered. The same holds true in other dealings in the world of com- merce. Therefore every action of the vender of eggs and stock for breeding purposes is really a part of a con- tract, express or implied. If more would realize this, there would be less necessity of the frequent complaint of unfair treatment among poultrymen. Upon the other hand, it is just as much the duty of the vendee to receive and properly handle the eggs upon arrival. There is much responsibility resting upon both parties. When a statement is made that the goods advertised are the result of years of selective breeding, have been carefully pedigreed and trap-nested each year, there is something serious to consider. The prospective buy- er is after just such eggs or stock and for him to get anything else is the highest form of dishonesty, since he must leave it to the honor of the vender. Where Sales arc Made — The sales of many breeders each year run into thousands of dollars for both stock and eggs. They go everywhere in the civilized world. Breeders buy to improve their strains, some to begin a strain, others for exhibition purposes. Still others for the mere pleasure in owning a nearly per- fect fowl. Many eggs have been sold to owners and manufacturers of incubators and brooders in order that an even looking hatch may better advertise their wares. The large egg and poultry farms buy thousands of dol- lars' worth annually. In fact, the field is amazingly vast when looked at with reference to the volume of busi- ness each year. Many breeders sell no eggs at all, while others do so reluctantly since better satisfaction generally results from the sale of stock which one can see and appreciate. Also many breeders believe there Eggs and Stock for Breeding 293 is more money in the sale of stock than of eggs, even if the unsatisfactory side of the latter is not considered. Whenever a sale is made, it ought to be that the buyer knows the stock and the vender so that those unscru- pulous in their transactions could not exist. There is some satisfaction in the knowledge that the Govern- ment mail service is weeding out the worst among them. Many send stock on approval if the purchaser remits the purchase price and agrees to pay the charges both ways if the stock is not accepted. The Form of Package — The stock is usually shipped in boxes of some kind unless they are day-old chicks for which note the chapter upon " The Day-old Chick Industry." Shipping coops vary somewhat, but should be large enough to allow standing room for each fowl without being crowded either in height or in head room. Turkeys require a higher coop than chickens or ducks. Arrange the coop so that no direct draught will reach them. Many shipping coops are upon the market at very reasonable prices. Ventilation is usually given at the top and also near the top at the sides so that if the top should be covered in shipment the fowls would not smother. A front of wire over which is stretched a thin cloth makes a good ventilation. Eggs are shipped in a number of different kinds of packages, chief among which are baskets, corrugated and sectional cardboard boxes and wooden boxes. The aim is to give the least jar possible while in transit and also to protect them from possible carelessness by the employees of the various public transit companies. The baskets may or may not have handles, which are conven- ient for handling yet make them more easily knocked over. Some baskets are furnished with a dome cover, while others are open at the top. All boxes should be 294 Science and Art of Poultry Culture deep enough to permit of proper packing. The cor- rugated boxes are becoming popular as they are yield- ing and break a jar more readily than wooden boxes with cardboard divisions. All packages should be broad at the base to avoid tilting easily. Preparation for Shipment — All fowls to be forwarded need attention before sending them on their journey. Just before they are to be cooped, water and feed plen- tifully. Place a little hay or other agreeable litter in the shipping coop in which scatter some corn and wheat to give them food on the journey. If the dis- tance is long and the weather warm, fasten a tin cup upon the side of the coop and put upon the placard a request that the employees of the transit company give some water while enroute. Nearly any one is humane enough to do this, even though not stipulated in the contract. It is always better to make a special con- tract to this effect, thus making their liability a motive since extra compensation has been accepted for this duty. Eggs need special attention to the details to ensure uniform success. If the weather is cold and hence ex- posure almost certain, a lining of several thicknesses of paper should be placed in every package regardless of its kind or the distance it is to go. In the bottom place an inch or more of excelsior or hay and a sim- ilar protection around the sides. Next choose only such eggs as are proper to ship for incubation purposes. Mark them in any way desired and wrap each Qgg in paper, placing them small end down in a layer on the excelsior padding. When one layer is completed put in another pad of excelsior or hay and proceed as be- fore or until the shipment is completed. Upon the top layer place a thick padding over which place such Eggs and Stock for Breeding 295 paper protection as the weather may demand. Paper is a good insulation against both chilling and overheat- ing. If a compartment box is used, each egg should be wrapped with soft paper before placing it in its cell. Always pack eggs, for any purpose, small end down. All boxes ought to have a pad on the top and bottom to take away some of the jarring incident to shipping. Next, fasten the covers securely, or, in the case of bas- kets, sew over the top a piece of strong cloth upon which is pasted such instructions as are desired. Any egg package should bear a large type placard calling attention to the fact that the contents were eggs for hatching and to handle with care. A tag bearing the names and addresses of both the shipper and the con- signee should be attached to the package. Some paste strips of paper over the cover to thwart any attempt at purloining the contents. Modes of Shipment — The usual way of shipment is by express in the United States. The parcels post carry eggs in Europe and some other countries. Freight is used but very rarely. Rough handling is often the cause of poor results, the eggs being fairly addled in transit. If a stage or delivery wagon is to have a hand in the journey, they should be cautioned about the ex- pected shipment and requested to give the package special attention. Chapte XXI. THE DAY OLD CHICK INDUSTRY. While it is true that this industry was quite fully developed centuries ago in Egypt, China and to some extent in Japan, and again is now well developed in England, yet in America it is in its infancy. That it has come to stay is a settled fact and as an industry has made rapid progress. The advantages of this industry accrue to hoth the buyer and the seller. The buyer often wishes to raise chickens but has no incubator and perhaps no breeding pen to start with. Day old chicks make it possible for him to secure a nice start with very small equip- ment. Again the lack of time and inexperience often com- bine to the same end. Many breeders are heavy buyers as well as are egg farms of large capacity. The seller has this extra outlet for his surplus egg production and often has an incubator capacity larger than a brood- ing capacity. The same outlet for rascality exists in this industry as with the selling of eggs and one must always be cautious when purchasing to know the character and methods of the advertiser. It is a known fact that many day old chick hatcheries do not own a chicken and buy all their eggs from farmers and other sources. Such hatcheries evidently would need to exercise much care and judgment in their securing of eggs to give satisfaction to any customer. One advantage to the buyer is that he can count upon a certain number of 296 Day Old Chick Industry 297 chicks, while in buying eggs he must take into account many more unknown factors. In purchasing day old chicks the vigor and quality of the foundation stock, the care and proper incubation of the eggs and the correct preparation of the chicks for shipment are all factors beyond the control of the buyer. The integrity of the seller must be trusted. At the same time upon arrival proper care and brooding is just as essential and if the chicks arrive in lively condition a failure to rear them may be due entirely to their brood- ing. Orders are secured almost entirely by the various methods of advertising employed and it is always best to place an order early in the season before other orders crowd one into a later part of the hatching season. The price secured for day old chicks varies from ten cents to twenty-five dollars apiece, depending entirely upon the quality and quantity of chicks ordered. The ordinary farm or utility stock is often sold as low as ten cents, while chicks from certain strains or from a certain standard range higher. Twenty-five cents apiece buys fair stock unless the chicks must meet certain higher requirements. Considering the cost of eggs and the average percentage of incubation it would seem fair that the charge should be at least two or three times the cost of the same number of eggs of like breeding The shipments of chicks are most easily made directly from the incubator since nature has supplied them with enough nourishment to last them for two or three days or even longer if necessary without resulting injury. Express is the only means employed at present in the United States and has been found very satisfactory ex- cept in isolated cases. The express employees have been very considerate of the wee travelers whose welfare was 298 Science and Art of Poultry Culture entrusted to their care. During transit they develop into a robust, hungry brood ready for their new foster home. The package usually employed is a basket or box carefully lined and having a prepared cover, which also contains a lining in certain seasons. If a basket be em- ployed it may be any kind so long as its capacity is sufifi- cient and it has a broad base to avoid tilting or turning. The boxes used vary from four inches to eight inches deep and of capacity sufificient to not overcrowd the chicks. Not more than fifty chicks should be placed in any one compartment. To give specific directions is difficult as the number of chicks, the season and the distance to be shipped are all to be taken into con- sideration. In lining the package with burlap, cheese- cloth or other material one must be governed by good judgment. The aim is warmth, ventilation, and comfort. It is evident that for early shipments the sides should be padded well and some protection placed over the top for both warmth and ventilation, while for a mid-sum- mer shipment, ventilation without draughts is the sole aim. The body heat of the chicks in either case must pro- vide warmth. The ventilation therefore must fit the weath- er to avoid chilling or smothering. An easy package to handle is also aimed at yet one not subject to easy acci- dent. Upon the bottom of any package should be scat- tered some soft clean chaff. Do not put feed of any kind in the package. Each package should be properly placarded with some wording to explain the contents and asking care in handling to keep out of the cold and draughts and that no food or water he given. Many kind hearted messangers are prone to share their lunch with the chicks to the injury of the latter. The loss is very light in shipping day old chicks con- sidering they have been sent as far as two thousand miles Day Old Chick Industry 299 with the loss of only a very few. They make from three to four hundred miles a day and a three days' journey is really quite enough. Most shippers put one or two extra in the package to make up for the usual one to two per cent loss. Before arrival the buyer should have received notice of shipment from the sender so that the express could be delivered at once upon reaching its destination. A brooder should be fully ready to receive the youngsters or if a broody hen is to be used she should be dusted and prepared. Do not trust the hen to own them without watching her for quite a period. It is better to have more than the number of hens actually needed, then one may discard the least motherly of the number. Caution is essential that food and water be given them in small quantities but rather often upon their arrival. More young chicks are killed by overkindness than otherwise. This industry is being also applied to ducklings and the young of other fowls. The same principles apply. Chapter XXII, PREPARING AND MARKETING POULTRY AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS. General. In other chapters have been discussed the placing of the commercial egg upon the market, the selling of eggs and stock for breeding purposes and the disposal of day- old chicks. In this chapter will be taken up the various phases of the preparation and marketing of poultry and the by-products not treated as above noted. The rearing of poultry is an important step, but the successful sale of that poultry for the highest possible price is quite another thing. The expert in the prepar- ation and marketing of the finished product must not only be skillful in its preparation but he must know when and where to obtain prices which will insure a financial profit. The producing, the collecting of the poultry and its products, its preparation and its marketing are not commonly in the same management, but where they are well combined in one person there should result the high- est possible margin of profit. Immense plants have been constructed throughout the United States by certain large firms who collect and prepare poultry products for market. These firms handle a large proportion of all poultry produced in the vicinity in which they are located. The methods employed by the great packing and pre- serving firms in Europe and America will not be taken up in this work since it would be highly impracticable. 300 Preparing and Marketing Poultry 301 Suffice it to say that the preserving of poultry products, even to the whole cooked chicken in glass containers, is a widespread industry. We of America, perhaps, are not quite the equal of our English cousins in that respect. Yet a wonderful industry is being built up in America, some of which product is finding its way into foreign markets. Even with the advent of rapid transportation and specially-constructed poultry cars for both dressed and live stock, the increased production has not kept pace with the demand. The public appreciates good poultry and one of the most important factors behind this increas- ing demand is the exhibit of poultry products held in various cities each year. The more the public sees of these attractive products the greater is the demand cre- ated. Let not the producer forget the value of other advertising when seeking to dispose of his products. Classes of Poultry Products. Among the more common products of poultry may be named the following. The seasons named are the natural seasons without regard to the effect of cold storage upon their extension. However, prices are affected to a large extent by cold storage. The beginning of the season for each class usually pays the highest price. Broilers — Squab broilers are small chickens weighing from three-fourths of a pound to a pound and one-half. They are also known as club-house or individual broil- ers. They are in demand from January to May. Spring broilers are two-pound fowls and are chiefly in demand from January to Jul}-. Fries — Young chickens ranging from two to three and one-half pounds are termed fries and are not strong in price. Late spring and summer find them quoted most frequently. 302 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Roasters — Small and large roasters weigh from three to five and from eight to twelve pounds, respectively. The fall, winter and spring find them in demand. Soft roasters and roasters are the same except that a special fattening process is usually thought of in connection with the term " soft roaster." Caf^ons — Capons are castrated cockerels. They grow to a large size, retain a tender, juicy flesh, fatten evenly and well, bringing an advanced price. The season be- gins in December and lasts well into the summer. They are dressed in a distinctive manner, the feathers being left upon the neck, wings, rump and thigh. The head and feet are also left, since the head is a distinguishing mark. Folds and Roosters — All through the year a steady demand is kept supplied by shipments of fow'ls of all ages, sizes and breeds. The hens are sold separately from the cocks in all markets. The highest markets are usually at the seasons of the Jewish holidays. Turkeys — While the turkey is thought of in connec- tion with the holidays, at which time it brings the highest price, yet other times of the year find it in the market. Ducks and Geese — All through the summer and fall green ducks and geese are in demand, while adult stock is salable during the entire year. The late summer finds a brisk market. Squabs — The fall and winter find the highest prices in squabs. The demand is continuous throughout the year. The market is desirous that squabs be plump, full- breasted and wdiite-fleshed. As with all other stock the best grade brings the highest price. This industry is growing rapidly. Guinea Foxi'Is and Game Birds — Tn some markets there is a growing demand for these fowls, both young Preparing and Marketing Poultry 303 and adult. They are usually displayed with all the feathers left on. Feathers — All kinds of feathers are salable. They should be well cured by means of drying- racks or thin sacks, being in the air and sun. Special drying devices with artificial heat are used in larger plants. They bring good prices, depending upon the kind, color, quality and purposes for which they are to be used. They are used for bedding, pillows, novelties, mil- linery goods, clothing ornaments, dusters, feather-bone goods, artificial bait and countless other uses. Dry- plucked feathers command the best prices. They must be well graded and cured to obtain the top quotations. Blood — Evaporated or dried blood forms a valuable by-product in all large packing plants. The fresh blood from local killing would be valuable for growing and laying stock as an ingredient in a mash. Offal — In all packing plants certain parts that are not available for the manufacture of soup, bone or meat scrap, are dried and ground into fertilizer for the en- richment of land. No small part is wasted or lost in this striving for profits. Droppings — The manure of fowls is very rich for fertilizing ground. Market gardeners who understand its value are willing to pay twenty-five cents per bushel for this by-product. Tanneries use it whenever avail- able, paying therefor as high as one dollar per barrel for it where unmixed with absorbents or other foreign mat- ter. Preparation for Market. For the purposes of this chapter it is assumed that the seller has possession of the poultry products and that 304 Science and Art of Poultry Culture they are in a marketable condition. Poorly raised or poorly bred poultry is not profitable to anybody or in any market. On the other hand a good quality of poul- try is both attractive and profitable. In the face of these facts the American poultry producers are awakening to the realization of the loss they incur by raising other than pure-bred stock. Beyond this they are also real- izing the benefits of the proper fattening and cram- ming processes. Killing — Before any fowl is killed and dressed it should be kept without food for a period of from twelve to twenty-four hours to permit of the complete clearance of the crop and intestinal tracts. Water should be given freely to assist in this result as well as to keep the fowl comfortable and insure a minimum shrinkage. Food left in the crop soon sours, thus tainting the dressed prod- uct and impairing its keeping qualities. There are different methods of killing, chief among which are " sticking " and dislocating the neck. Each aims at thorough bleeding, speedy unconsciousness and relaxation. The former is learned only by practice on live fowls. The fowl is usually hung by the feet by means of a looped cord. The bird should hang about even with the elbows. The head is held in the left hand, comb downward, and the bill is opened to expose to view the slit in the roof of the mouth. With a pointed double-edged killing-knife in the right hand, insert it in the slit and thrust it backward toward a point directly back of the eyes. When correctly done the brain is pierced and there will result a convulsive struggle, shud- der or " squawk." The knife should now be given a quick twist half way round and as it is withdrawn the arteries across the roof of the mouth on either side will be severed and bleeding will be free and effectual. A Preparing and Marketing Poultry 305 small pail may be suspended from the bird's lower man- dible or jaw to catch the blood. This is accomplished by means of a sharp hook fastened to the bail of the receptacle. It saves the blood and keeps it away from the operator. Most operators sever the arteries before piercing the brain. Others sever the arteries, then stun the bird with a sharp blow upon the back of its head, using a short heavy club. Piercing the brain first seems the better of the two methods, although the bleeding may not be quite so free. Killing by dislocating the neck is accomplished as fol- lows : Hold the legs and wings of the fowl with the left hand. Grasp the neck between the first and second fingers of the right hand with the head lying in the palm of the hand. Bend the fowls head backward as far as possible, giving it a sudden jerk or pull downward. The head will separate readily from the neck and should be pulled nearly two inches from the neck to allow suf- ficient space for the blood to empty. xA-t the time the head is removed the blood comes away also. The advan- tages claimed for this method are cleanliness in dress- ing, less loss of weight and that germs cannot enter the circulatory system. For cold storage this method is not recommended, since the dislocation of the neck lessons the salability of the fowls. Plucking — The two methods employed are " dry pick- ing " and " scalding." The former is the preferable one and begins at once after " sticking." ]\Ir. F. H. Stan- burn, in a Storrs' Agricultural Experiment Station Bul- letin, gives an excellent description of dry plucking which we quote : Dry picking usually gives the beginner considerable trouble. Cramped fingers, backache, and discouragement are merely incidentals. But every market poultryman should learn the process, and this comes only by practice. 306 Science and Art of Poultry Culture After a time a certain " knack " is acquired, and the work becomes easy. Much of the success of dry picking depends upon how the bird has been killed. If properly stuck in the brain or struck with the club, the feathers may be removed with comparative ease. Otherwise they will frequently act as if clinched under the skin. It is not to be expected that a bird will not be torn occasionally. The most expert pickers have frequent accidents of this kind, as often a bird will be picking easily and smoothly, and then for some un- explainable reason the skin will tear. The best thing to do, then, is to work carefully when picking the portions of the body most liable to tear, and hurry on the remainder. Have the bird hung at a convenient height, neither too high nor too low, as either height becomes tiresome before many birds have been dressed. Most pickers prefer to work with the bird about opposite the elbows. Begin to pick immediately after the bird has been stuck, as the feathers come easier while the blood is flowing. Operators differ in their ideas as to which portions of the body should be plucked first, but many experts work as follows: First, the coarse feathers of the wings are removed, one sweeping motion of the hand usually being sufficient for each wing. The tail feathers are next snapped out. As the breast is the most tender part and the one most easily torn, it is next attacked. On each side of the breast bone lies a nar- row strip differing in appearance from the rest of the breast, and these are extremely tender. After the feathers have been removed from them, the rest of the breast can be picked without great trouble. Next come the thighs, and here, too, are found some small tender spots which must receive careful treatment. The wings follow next in order, and they usually cause no trouble except at the joints. Finally the back is stripped, and the carcass is ready for pin-feathering. It is a mistake to grasp a handful of the body feathers and attempt to remove them with one pull, as a tear usually results. The same feathers can be removed without danger by a rolling motion of the hand which is hard to describe, but which once learned is never forgotten. A dish of water in which to dip the hand is a great con- venience to the picker, as damp fingers give a much better grip on the feathers. Preparing and AIarketing Poultry 307 During the process of picking, the worthless feathers should be discarded by being thrown upon the floor, while all that are salable should be caught in a barrel or box di- rectly beneath the bird and the hands of the picker. This is very convenient, and the danger of soiling the feathers with blood is eliminated by the use of the pail as described above. A common stool can be used while working at birds hung up by the feet, if it is considered desirable to sit while pick- ing. If this is unsatisfactory, proceed as follows: Kill the bird as directed above, and take the body across the knees, holding the head firmly between the right knee and the feather-box, the latter being knee-high. Use the left hand to hold the body, turning it in the most convenient posi- tion, and with the right remove the feathers. Most rapid pickers prefer to stand while at work, as both hands can be used to better advantage. As before stated, the appearance of the carcass in great measure determines its value, and hence careful pin-feather- ing becomes important. Unless the stubs and pin-feathers are practically all removed, the carcass will be anything but attractive. A short, dull knife is a great aid while removing " stubs " and " pins." After the picking is finished the birds may either go into the cooling tank or be hung up to cool, according to the weather and the way in which they are to be packed for shipment. The scalding process is not so satisfactory as the dry picking, but it is quicker. The water should be just be- low the boiling point. If the water is too hot or the fowl left in too long the skin will become cooked. If the water is not hot enough the feathers will not pluck well, the skin will tear, while tender surfaces will peel and discolor. When the head and feet are to remain on the fowl they must be kept out of the water or they will lose their natural color. If the " scald " is correct the feathers will loosen up because of the contraction of the skin and plucking will be easy. Immerse the fowl 308 Science and Art of Poultry Culture quickly, withdraw to the air, reverse its position and immerse again. Pick as in dry pkicking. After picking dip in hot water about twelve seconds, then put into cold water. This treatment will insure plumper birds and better keeping qualities. Dealers claim longer keeping qualities for the dry-picked fowl. All fowls will be plucked clean except as special mar- kets require certain forms of plucking. In plucking capons feathers are left upon the neck, wings, rump and thigh. Turkeys are clean-plucked for some markets and in others feathers are left upon the neck, first joint of the wings and rump. Feathers are left upon the lower joint of the wings and a part of the neck in ducks and geese. Dressing — After whatever plucking has been done to conform to the kind of fowl and the demands of the market to be emplo}'ed the next step is to draw the fowl if drawing is required. This is accomplished by making a slit from near the end of the keelbone toward the vent to admit about two fingers. Carefully cut around the vent but do not touch the intestines in so cutting. Insert the fingers, detaching and drawing out the gizzard and other organs. By severing the gullet and windpipe at the throat the crop can usually be drawn without opening the breast. Replace the giblets. Doubtless a majority of all fowls dressed and marketed are sold undrawn with the feet and head intact. The reason for the trade ask- ing for undrawn poultry lies in the claim that the inci- sion admits molds and other germs where they multiply rapidly, often causing a fowl to be unfit for food which otherwise looks marketable. Never singe a fowl intended for market. The heat injures the skin and brings out oils, giving an unsightly appearance. If the head and feet are to be removed sever the neck Preparing and Marketing Poultry 309 Courtesy of Klee Bros. LIGHT BRAHMA. 310 Science and Art of Poultry Culture close to the head. Do not cut the windpipe or gullet, but draw them out while attached to the head. Push back the skin and remove a section of the neck-bone, wash off any blood and replace the skin, tying well with a cord. Next cut off the shanks, pulling out the sinews which run into the drumstick by means of a hook upon the wall over which is hung the sinew of the shank while the operator pulls away the bird. If the giblets have been replaced draw the drumsticks down and tie firmly. Fold the wings behind the back. One will find the fowl attractive and appearing plump and chunky. The head and feet are left attached to a capon since the former is one of its distinguishing features. Shaping — Some American and nearly all European markets prefer the bodies of dressed poultry to be shaped. This is accomplished by manipulation or by a shaping- board. Where manipulation is employed a smooth wooden paddle is used to break down the point of the breast-bone, after which the muscles of the breast are worked forward by the thumbs, giving a round and plump appearance to the carcass. A shaping board is made by nailing two six-inch boards together lengthwise to form slightly less than a right angle. Use the wide side for the back, the narrower for a base or front board. Grade the fowls as to size and before they are cooled place them side by side, breast down, on the front board. The head and neck will hang down over the front edge while the rear end of each body will press against the backboard. Upon each trough or row of fowls place a smooth board some three or four inches wide, so that it will come just back of the wings. On this weight-board place enough glazed bricks or other weights to press the fowls compactly together. A brick to hold in position Preparing and ^Marketing Poultry 311 the last bird placed upon the shaper is handy. Remove the fowls when cool and rigid. They should appear blocky and plump. Variations in methods will be found in different countries. Cooling — After plucking, dressing and shaping fowls are plunged into ice water or hung in a cooler to chill them before packing. If it is cold weather an open room may do. Sudden chilling contracts the skin and gives them a smoother appearance as well as makes them look plump. It also insures safety in long-distance shipments as well as makes them keep better in cold storage. Never cool or dry birds in a draught, since they will show that they were " wind-dried." Unless packed in ice all fowls must be dry before shipping. Animal heat must be en- tirely absent before packing. Never let poultry freeze unless it is to be kept and later sold as frozen stuff. Thawing injures the quality of meats and they easily decay. Frozen birds should thaw out slowly. Grading — Before packing all poultry products should be sorted according to age, size, color and condition. This results in uniiorn'.ity in quality and appearance. Better prices will be obtained for all grades. This applies equally to live or dressed stock or the by-products of poultry. Inspection — While grading inspect each fowl or prod- uct carefully. See that no blood clots are visible or are collected in the mouth. Wash the head and feet to in- sure a fresh appearance. Sew up any tears in the skin with fine white thread and a curved needle. Where bruises or dark places occur they may be improved by washing well with soap and water. Note that all fowls are uniformily plucked and dressed. In the handling of feathers watch the sorting into grades while plucking. Packing and Packages — After grading and inspecting 312 Science and Art of Poultry Culture the packing- may proceed. If the package is superior and attractive the prospective purchaser is ahnost justified in feehng that the contents are also of a high grade. If the interior and contents justify that feehng a neat mar- gin of profit is assured. The package for dressed fowl should always be neat, clean and convenient to handle. Pasteboard boxes for one or more birds are used, which are made to fit into a larger wooden case as does an egg carton. Boxes hold- ing one-half and one-dozen lots are often used and may be purchased for the purpose. Barrels of various sizes are popular when shipping with ice. Larger boxes are also employed when ice is used. Both boxes and barrels are iced above and below with layers between the fowls in hot weather. Burlap covers over each insure proper handling en route. All barrels and boxes should be of some material which will not taint the flesh. For this reason cedar is worthless for box material. The stand- ard-sized boxes of the proper material for any given pur- pose may always be ordered through a commission mer- chant. Each package should be lined with fresh parchment paper. Some wrap each fowl with waxed paper. If they have been bled it is well to wrap the head of each fowl with paper so that no blood may run from the mouth and soil the contents of the package. When fowls are packed in boxes they should be arranged with their breasts up, with the heads of the first row laid straight out on the bottom, and the backs of the next row are laid against them. If a deep box repeat for each layer, laying paper between each. Live fowls should be shipped by the best methods available. The most common package is by crate where limited numbers are shipped. Crates should be comfort- Preparing and Marketing Poultry 313 able for the fowls, not too large to handle easily and as light of weight as is consistent with durability. If too long they should be divided to avoid danger of piling and suffocating through rough handling en route. A crate holding ten to fifteen matured chickens or eight to ten turkeys is large enough. The average crate is four feet long, one foot high and thirty inches wide, and cor- respondingly high for other fowls. Uniformity in grad- ing live stock is also essential. Cars are especially built for shipping live poultry which are both convenient and comfortable for the birds. They are divided into sec- tions and also into coops holding about three dozen fowls each. They may be arranged for any kind of poultry. They have storage and feeding arrangements for both food and water en route. A^entilation is provided for. Shrinkage in transit is not large and 'sometimes not appreciable if weather conditions are favorable. Feathers are usually shipped in light wooden cases or burlap sacks and shipped by freight. Dried blood is shipped in sacks. Droppings when shipped are some- times placed in sacks and sometimes in barrels. Each package should be plainly stenciled with the name of the shipper and the consignee together with the weight and quantity of the contents if desired. An advice by mail to the consignee will insure prompt attention and often an advantageous sale. Disposing of the Prepared Product. The disposition of the prepared product is made much easier by an attractive package. One satisfied customer gets another. Xo salesman can plead more eloquently than a neat, clean article of high quality. But first this article must be seen to be appreciated, therefore what ways of reaching a buyer lies open to the producer need to be considered. 314 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Direct Fancy Retail Trade — This method holds the highest possibiUties of profit to the producer. It cuts out all the profit which is divided between the commission merchant and the proprietor of the retail store. It is a trade easy to cater to if one has the right class of goods and easy to keep if one does what is right. It requires tact and time to build it up, but will be easily held if the goods prove satisfactory. Unless one has the ability to furnish a regular consignment throughout the season of the contract, or annually, there is no use of consid- ering this method of marketing. The customers that are obtained for this class of trade are private families, hotels, restaurants, hospitals, clubs, schools and other city organiations. The prices obtained are usually fixed by contract, being a certain amount over and above that paid for the same product in the local retail stores or that given in the local market reports. Some take the average market for the previous year and make an annual price, others a monthly price in the same manner, while still others make it a stated advance over the aver- age current price each week or month. What shall be the basic market price used, what the advance and who shall pay express charges must be well talked over to avoid any misunderstandings. The smaller cities sur- rounding larger ones often furnish a good direct retail market since the larger city is shipping produce to the smaller at certain seasons. Always economize by having stated times to prepare and market produce, thus not breaking up other plans for other days. Retail Stores — Where one does not feel warranted in seeking a private trade and still has good produce and a uniform supply there can always be found retail stores which are glad to take the produce for their fancy trade. The prices received will always save the commission Preparing and Marketing Poultry 315 man's profit and usually bring a premium over the reg- ular price. Associations — In many places associations have been formed which handle all local products of their members or of their community. The officers or employes are paid for services only and all goods are graded, packed and marketed. Each member receives the actual net returns for his products which are obtained by the association for that grade of produce. Commission Merchants — Sending the produce to com- mission men is the simplest and really the cheapest method of disposing of it. Xo matter what the product is there may always be found some firm who handles it as a specialty and in many cases a good quotation will be made for a good product. Transportation and a commission will reduce the profits somewhat. \A'here one has no regular supply this is almost the only method available. Packers' Plants — \Miere one is located within a rea- sonable distance of the " cramming " or " fattening " plants owned and operated by the large packers one may find a ready market for all poultry at a price equal to that paid by the commission houses. Not having any commission to pay one realizes more than when sending them to a regular market. Shall One Market AUtc or Dressed? — The dressed product by killing, picking, drawing and severing the head and feet loses weight, almost one-third, the leaving on of the head and feet intact leaves the loss less than one-fourth, while merely killing and plucking without bleeding or drawing reduces the loss to about one-tenth of the original weight. Therefore from the quotations sent out by each city one can approximate which method will bring the best returns. Each market should be stud- 316 Science and Art of Poultry Culture led, as there are certain markets which will not receive live poultry, while others will not pay enough more for the dressed product to warrant that expense. A near-by market usually causes very little shrinkage to live poultry if they are properly fed, watered and shipped. Study each market dealt with and then dress or ship alive accordingly as the margin of profit warrants. Jllicn to Market — Always plan to market produce when it is ready and always plan to have it ready when BLACK LANGSHAN. Courtesy of Jes.sie T. Bateman. the market is the best. In short, ])e seasonable with prod- ucts where such a course is possible. A bird which is in- tended for market only is not to be kept beyond a profit- able age. Many keep a two-pound broiler which in June would fetch forty cents until fall, when the same bird brings the same price, thus losing the care and food Preparixg and ^Marketing Poultry 317 given the fowl to develop it. Also many shippers lose money because they ship at the wrong- time of the week. Each market has its strongest days each week, of which one must take advantage. Shipping — In choosing a shipping route be certain to consider which is the cheapest, the most careful in han- dling produce, the most prompt in dehvery, the fairest in settling damages and the one most direct when other considerations are equal. The nature of the product will determine whether it will go by freight or express most economically. Seasons will also affect this ques- tion. The time to ship will be determined by the local conditions as well as by the market to which the produce is sent. Some markets are almost dead upon certain days of the week. Each shipper must study these vari- ous conditions for himself and decide which course will be the most profitable. Chapter XXIII. CARVING A FOWL. Every head of a family and each member of every family should be able to use a knife and fork skillfully and gracefully. Imagine the discomfiture of guests who must sit and watch the unnecessary awkwardness of a host which arises because of his ignorance of a fowl's anatomy. Even though the act of carving was com- pleted without accident, yet such a festive event should be begun as happily as possible. Skillful carving is a pleasure to both the observers and the observed. It requires knowledge, patience and practice. There are certain essentials required to allow of neat carving. The knife and fork should be well balanced and of high-grade material. They should be sharp and responsive. A dull blade is unforgivable. The platter containing the fowl should be spacious enough to permit of turning the fowl if desired and of holding the product of the carving knife. A well roasted fowl is essential. The last and most vital requirement is a person who will tend strictly to the duty before him and proceed in a quiet, orderly and intelligent manner. Some carvers sit while others stand. The latter seems to be the least awkward position with many and re- quires less moving of the bird. Hold the implements light, but firmly. Let the motions be largely of the wrists. Never allow the hand or fingers to touch the tools below the hilt. A good carver never allows the handles of his 318 Carving a Fowl 319 LIGHT BRAHMA. Courtesy of Klee Bros, 320 Science and Art of Poultry Culture knife or fork to become greasy. He never misses a joint thereby striking a bone. The fowl should lie upon the platter on its side and the breast towards the carver. Insert the fork into one leg and as it is lifted away from the body the knife should follow, cutting the flesh until it passes easily through the joint at the body. Divide this detached por- tion into the drumstick and thigh piece and place them neatl\- upon the edge of the platter. Likewise dispose of the other leg and second joint. Each wing in turn finds its way upon the edge of the dish. If one hits these joints properly they will klmost appear to drop apart. Next place the bird upon its back, holding it firmly with the breast easy of reach. Carve the breast meat into thin, dainty slices. Now remove the oyster piece at one stroke. The guests may now be served with their choice of meat and with dressing if the latter be present. Some serve the skeleton of the roast and in such cases the sidebones form a helping while the balance of the fowl usually makes two helpings. The neat handling of the knife and fork will add much to the attractiveness of a dinner and no person should cease experimenting at home until he can take the place of honor at any table and upon any occasion success- fully carve a fowl. It is simple yet exacting and pleas- urable. Chapter XXIV. A FEW TABLE DELICACIES FROM EGGS AND POULTRY. Poached Eggs. Eggs should be dropped in hot, salty water to which have been added a few drops of vinegar. Set pan on back of stove and keep hot until cooked. Remove from wate'r, butter and pepper to suit taste. Steamed Eggs. Break into buttered cups and season to suit indi- vidual. Cook in an ordinary steamer for about five minutes. Very nice for an invalid if beaten light, sea- soned and steamed until well warmed through. Eggs with Toast. Carefully toast the required amount of bread and take an equal number of eggs and drop in hot (not boiling) water. When the eggs are sufficiently cooked put on the buttered toast, adding salt, pepper and but- ter to the egg. Serve on hot plates. Egg Cups. Cut slices of bread an inch thick. Trim bread in round form and cut out center enough to put in an egg. Butter bread and set in oven until slightly crisp. Break fresh egg in center, season with salt and pepper, moisten with cream and put in oven until egg is cooked. Boiled Eggs. Place the eggs in a covered dish holding at least two 321 322 Science axd Art of Poultry Culture quarts to each dozen. Pour over them boilin^^ water, cover tightly and set aside for twenty minutes. The flavor is retained by this method. Boil from three minutes to one hour and serve as commonly used, with dressings, with currie, or as fancy may dictate. Fried Eggs. Break the required number of eggs into the butter or grease they are to be fried in and after cooking a moment add a tablespoon or more of water. Cover tightly and eggs will cook over tops easily. Scrambled Eggs. Butter or lard any receptacle. Heat well and drop therein the eggs. After cooking a moment add a table- spoonful of water, season to taste, then stir and cover. Stir at very short intervals until thickened to suit. Serve with toast or bread and butter. Eggs Swiss Style. Cover frying pan with fresh butter and sprinkle over it grated cheese. Drop the eggs on the cheese and .season with salt and pepper. Pour a little cream over eggs and sprinkle with grated cheese. Bake in oven until eggs are set. Omelet. Break eggs in a bowl and add salt and pepper to season, beat with fork and add cream or milk in the proportion of one tablespoonful to an egg. Put butter in frying pan, when melted put in eggs and cook over a quick fire until they are set. Roll and turn on hot dish. The French omit the cream or milk, adding the same amount of water instead, and claim the omelet to be su- perior. Table Delicacies From Eggs and Poultry 323 Omelet with Ham. Three eggs, yolks and whites, beaten separately. Add salt and a cup of rich cream in which has been stirred a heaping spoonful of flour. Have a frying pan very hot in which is a tablespoon of lard and pour in the mixture, adding a cup of finely chopped ham. Fold to- gether when a rich brown. Egg Custard. To one quart of milk add six eggs well beaten. Sweeten and flavor to taste. Bake or boil over a slow fire and no longer than necessary to form a custard. Too much heat or too long continued will separate the constituents. Placed in cups and cooked by surround- ing water is an excellent method. Devilled Eggs. Select perfectly fresh eggs, boil until hard. Drop in cold water and leave until cold. Remove shells, cut eggs in half, separate yolks from whites and carefully mix yolks to a paste with mustard, salt and vinegar to suit taste. Carefully fill the halves with the mixture and arrange daintily with lettuce leaves. These are nice for picnic dinners. Pickled Eggs. Boil eggs hard. Take one-half teaspoonful of salt, one-half teaspoonful of pepper and add a little mustard. Mix well and heat in sufficient vinegar to cover the eggs. Pour over eggs while boiling hot and add some slices of beet pickles. This gives the eggs a pretty color. Cover closely and let stand for several days. Noodles. Into an egg well beaten work in flour until a smooth dough is formed. Roll out thin, cut in very small strips and cook in soups. 324 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Egg Sandwiches. Chop finely the whites of hard-boiled eggs. Mince the yolks with a fork and mix with whites and season with salt and pepper. Moisten with Mayonnaise or cream salad dressing. Cut thin slices of bread, remove crusts and spread evenly with the mixture. Put to-' gether in pairs and cut in triangles. Eggs with Dried Beef. Take one cup of dried beef, one cup of tomatoes and two tablespoons of grated cheese. Season with onion juice and cayenne pepper. Melt butter and heat the mixture, adding three well beaten eggs last. Cook care- fully until of a creamy consistency. A nice receipe for the chafing dish. Jell-O With Eggs. A pretty dish is made by preparing jell-o as usual and when nearly cold break into it the whites of five eggs and whip to a froth. Sweeten and flavor to suit taste. White of Egg Frosting. Boil two cups of sugar in a little water until it threads from the spoon. Remove from fire and add one white of egg beaten stifi^. Beat thoroughly and put on cake. White Sauce. One and one-half pints of milk heated, add three tablespoonfuls of butter and stir into this three table- spoonfuls of flour which has previously been stirred smooth in a little milk or water. Add salt and pepper to taste. Used in many egg preparations. Egg Sauce for Fish. One cup of white sauce and three hard-boiled eggs chopped well. Add one teaspoon of lemon juice and Table Delicacies From Eggs axd Poultry 325 one tablespoon of chopped parsley after taking from fire. Egg Sauce for Pudding. Combine the whites of two eggs, well beaten, one cnp of sugar and one-half cup of cream. Two cups of berries mashed and stirred in make a delicious addi- tion. Egg Salad Dressing. Yolks of two eggs well beaten, one-half cup vinegar, butter size of a walnut, . one-half spoonful of mustard, a little salt, one-half cup sugar and one-half cup water. Two teaspoonfuls of flour to thicken. While cooking if it gets too thick add either water or vinegar to thin if the vinegar is not strong. It is better to make it quite thick and when done add cream to make it of proper consistency. Egg Salad. Boil six eggs hard. Remove shells and cut in half. Arrange in salad dish with lettuce leaves. Choose fresh, crisp lettuce and make little nests with two egg halves in each. Pour over the whole a cream salad dressing. Eggnog. Two cups of milk and its cream and one egg thor- oughly whipped. Add vanilla and sugar to suit the taste. Use the milk hot or cold as desired. Egg Broth. To hot meat broth add one well beaten egg and drink before cooling. Egg Beverages. Add a well beaten egg to any drink desired. They go nicely with all beverages. 326 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Specl\l Uses of Eggs. The white of an egg makes a good mucilage. Whites of eggs in large quantities are good in cases of poisoning where the poison is acid in its nature. Add the white of an egg to a mustard plaster and it will not blister. Frosting made of confectioners' sugar is much nicer if it is mixed with the white of an egg. An egg is excellent for settling coffee. Clean water bottles with egg shells and salt. The white of egg beaten to a froth and milk added, sweetened and flavored is a good substitute for wdiippcd cream. Yolks of eggs should be beaten until a spoonful can be easily dipped up without stringing. Whites of eggs should be beaten to a stiff froth. Ten ordinary-sized eggs are equal to one pound. Gravy for Roast Poultry. Use the drippings left in pan. Mash liver and chop heart and gizzard. Add milk and cream and thicken. Bread Stuffing for Food. Take sufficient dry bread, soak with milk and cream. Work until smooth with the hands, adding a good- sized tablespoon of butter, add salt, pepper and sage to suit the taste. Some like the addition of finely-chopped onion, which is especially good when stuffing a goose. Stuffing for Roast Goose and Duck. One large onion chopped fine, two cups of mashed potato and one cup of dry bread crumbs. Add butter, sage, salt and pepper to suit the taste. One large onion chopped fine, three pints of bread crumbs, six ounces of butter, a taste of salt pork, salt, sage, and pepper to suit makes an excellent stuffing. Table Delicacies From Eggs and Poultry 327 Chestnut, Celery, or Oyster Stuffing for Poultry. Two cups of fine bread crumbs. Two cups of French chestnuts boiled and shelled. Chop chestnuts fine and add salt, pepper and parsley to season. Add one-half cup of melte«i butter. Celery may be substituted in place of chestnuts for celery stuffing. Also oysters carefully picked for oyster stuffing. Sauce for Roast Poultry. Boil one sliced onion one minute, pour off the water, add one pint of milk and cook well. Add one cup of fine bread crumbs, two tablespoonfuls of butter and bring to a boil. Add boiling milk or water if too thick. Season to taste. For flavor add any herb, extract, or any vegetable to suit those served. Parsley, saxo-ny, sage, thyme, lemon, marjoram, carrots, and many other flavors are available. Onion may be left out entirely if desired. Fresh Fried Fowx. Cut up and boil until fairly tender. Alake a batter of beaten eggs and fine bread crumbs seasoned to taste with pepper, salt, mace or nutmeg and a few sprigs of parsley. Dip each piece into this batter and fry to a nice brown. Pour over this a rich butter and flour gravy flavored with mushroom or other catsup. Serve with sippets and sliced lemon. Jellied or Picnic Poultry. Boil any fowl very tender so that bones may be easily picked out. Put back in the water and let it stand over night. In the morning chop very fine and season with salt and pepper, also butter if the fowl is not very fat. Mix well and put in molds and turn out after it has cooled and hardened. Slice thin for sandwiches or medium for serving. Any seasoning may be used to suit 328 Science and Art of Poultry Culture the taste. Celery, onions or other vegetables or herbs are often added just before the hardennig takes ]^lace. Hard boiled eggs, sliced, may be used to line the molds. Roast Fowl. Fowls of any size or breed may be roasted in the same manner by using judgment as to the length of time they should be left under the heat and by basting frequently or using other means to prevent burning. Prepare the food, stuff it or not to suit the taste and tie or truss it to keep the wings and legs in position. If not stuffed put a little seasoning, with or without butter, within the fowl. If the oven is hot upon the bottom use some- thing under the pan to protect it. Place the fowl in the pan, which should contain hot water and butter. Watch often and bake under a fairly hot but even fire. In game or domestic fowls the secret of flavor is to keep the juices within the meat. This is accomplished by but- tering the fowl when placed in the oven and by frequent basting. Some rub or dredge flour over the butter when first placed in the oven. Still others leave the flour until they wish to brown the fowl, then add the flour just after basting well. Serve with or without gravy. Roast Goose or Turkey. Obtain as young a goose as possible. Stuff and close openings well. Truss it carefully. Place in baking pan with a little water under an even fire. Baste frequently with a little salty water to which has been added a little vinegar. Turn often. Bake until tender and brown. Remove from pan, pour out fat and add the chopped giblets which have previously been stewed tender. Add butter and flavoring, then thicken to taste. If a double- roasting pan is not available, use an even fire and baste often. Some cover with a greased cloth over which is Table Delicacies From Eggs and Poultry 329 placed dry, stiff brown paper. Keep an excess of oil out of the pan if the bird is fat. Boiled Turkey. Truss or tie the legs and wings firmly. Boil in a large kettle, placing the bird breast down in boiling water into which has been placed such vegetables, seasoning or herbs as suit the taste. When tender let drain well. Pour over it any special sauce best liked or prepare it as other fowls by use of butter or a gravy. Braised Turkey. Prepare bird as for roasting, using a forcemeat made of finely chopped chicken, sweet breads and mushrooms with the bread. Cover the breast with shreds of fat salt pork. Place turkey in a large stew pan, breast upper- most, and vegetables and chicken broth to cover. Set on top of stove and when hot put in oven and cook slowly. Baste often. Should be done in one and one- half hours. Guinea Fowl — Southern Style. Cover the bottom of a frying-pan with sliced onions slightly browned. Then lay on the pieces of fowl cut as for fricassee, putting thin strips of bacon over the meat, adding w^ater and cover pan tightly. Cook until w^ell done. Guinea fowl may also be cooked in the same manner as game birds. The very young birds are best broiled. Roast Duck. Cleanse thoroughly. Singe and broil. Remove the pinions and long neck. Stuff and skewer the wings close to the side. The feet are to be scalded, cleaned and twisted across the back. Roast from thirty to forty- five minutes, basting often and dredging with flour. 330 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Serve with brown gravy. Remove all oil possible when basting. Broiled Squab. The birds should be full-grown but not more than a day or two out of the nest. Singe, draw, split down the back and crack bones and flatten. Season with salt and pepper and broil slowly. Serve on hot dry toast with hot butter poured over. Garnish and serve at once. Giclet Pie. After thoroughly cleaning the giblets stew in a little water until nearly done. Add salt, onion, pepper and sweet herbs. Cool and add small pieces of beeif or veal. Put the liquor left from the stew with the giblets. If not very rich add butter. Cover with paste and bake. Chicken Soup. Cut in small pieces all the meat from a chicken weigh- ing about three pounds. Break up the bones and put all on to cook with about two quarts of water. Cook about four hours and skim thoroughly. Strain and add one-half cup of cooked rice, one teaspoon of minced parsley, salt and pepper. Stewed Chicken. Carefully dress and cut up chicken and put in kettle with water to nearly cover, \\niile boiling skim thor- oughly. When tender add salt, pepper and butter to season. Cook until nearly dry or add milk or cream, thicken and serve with chicken. Some prefer without gravy. Creamed Chicken. Two cups of milk, two cups of well-cooked chicken and one tablespoon of butter. Heat and thicken with two small tablespoonfuls of flour. Add salt and pepper. Table Delicacies From Eggs and Poultry 331 Chicken Fried — Plain. Clean and cut up a young chicken. Have ready a frying pan with lard very hot. Flour chicken and put in pan and fry until tender. Season with salt and pepper while cooking. If the fowl is tought it is best to put a little water in a kettle and stew until partly ten- der. After chicken is fried put sufficient water and milk in the pan for gravy and thicken with flour. Breaded Chicken with Tomatoes. Cut up two small chickens, roll the pieces in bread crumbs, dip in beaten egg and again roll in crumbs. Season with salt and pepper. Fry the chickens until well done in lard and butter. When done place pieces on a hot dish, make a gravy of the butter, etc., in the frying pan and pour over the chicken. Garnish with fried tomatoes. This should be served immediately. Fricassee. Stew poultry slowly until tender. Add seasoning, cream and butter. If juice is not thick enough it may be thickened. When ready to serve add finely chopped celery, onion or parsley to suit taste. Pour over hot buttered toast or serve alone. Chicken with Peas. Prepare as in fricassee except that the cooking in- cludes young shelled peas. The peas may be added after the chicken is partly done so that they may become tender at the time the chicken is ready to serve. Chicken Currie. Cut chicken up into as many joints as possible. Slice and fry one onion in butter over which has been sprinkled a teaspoonful of currie powder. When the onion is nicely browned put in the chicken, another teaspoonful of currie powder and salt to taste. Fry until nearly ten- 332 Science and Art of Poultry Culture der and brown. Now pour on sufficient rich milk to cover the chicken and stew until tender. Serve with toast, dry cooked rice or alone. The currie powder best for use is composed of coriander seed, two ounces ; ground mace, cloves and cinnamon, each, one drachm ; black pepper and cardamon seeds, each, one-half ounce cayenne pepper and ginger, each, one-quarter ounce ; mix well, grind fine and botde. Chicken Pie. Boil two chickens until tender, season well and thicken with flour. For the crust take one quart of flour, two tablespoonfuls of unmelted butter and two large tea- spoonfuls of baking powder. Mix up with sweet milk and knead dough as little as possible. Chicken Dumplings. Take two teacups of sweet milk, one-half teaspoonful of salt, add flour to thicken into which has been sifted two teaspoonfuls of baking powder. Make quite a stiff batter. Cook with chicken which is nearly done for fifteen minutes or more. Dip the tablespoon into the hot liquor of the chicken each time before using it to place the batter in the pot and it will leave the spoon nicely, making well-shaped dumplings. Do not boil too rapidly. Chicken with Oysters. One cup of cooked chicken cut up, one cup of oysters, two tablespoonfuls of butter, one cup of milk, three tablespoonfuls of flour, one-half teaspoonful of salt and pepper to suit. ]\Ielt butter and add flour, etc.. when well mixed add milk, then oysters, and last of all the chicken. Cook until oysters arc plump. Then serve on toast. Pressed Chicken. Boil two chickens until tender, then remove meat from bones-, removing skin. Mince fine and season with salt, Table Delicacies From Eggs and Poultry 333 pepper and butter. Mix this well with chicken and pack tightly in an earthen dish, covering with plate. Put a weight on top and leave until cold. Chicken Sandwiches. Cut thin slices of bread in fancy shapes and cover with cold boiled chicken chopped fine and mixed with mayon- naise. Chicken Croquettes. One cup of chicken chopped fine. Add one cup of cracker crumbs and one-half cup of milk. Season with salt and pepper and' add a little butter. Mix in the white of an egg, dip in yolk and roll in cracker crumbs. Fry in hot lard. Eggs Fried with Milk. Three eggs, one tablespoonful of flour and one cup of milk. Mix flour with eggs and add milk. Turn in pan in which has been melted sufficient butter to fry and after cooking gently on one side turn and cook* until done. If more salt is desired it may be added. Chicken Salad. Cook till tender ; pick the meat into small shreds. Chop fine the whites of twelve eggs, some celery and tender cabbage. Mix them well with the meat. Into this work a sauce made of the twelve yolks well mashed, one tea- spoonful of mustard, two tablespoonfuls each of butter and sugar, one-half cup of vinegar with salt and pepper to taste. Some vary this by using cucumbers, lettuce, and other ingredients. Chapter XXV. DUCKS AND GEESE. Many breeders of waterfowl go to a great length in describing the advantages of their particular breed or variety over the many other breeds and varieties of poultry. It is well that each variety of all breeds of poultry has its enthusiastic admirers to keep its merits and improvement constantly before the public eye. Again our individual preferences and local conditions lead us to obtain better results from one breed or variety than we could obtain from others. So it is not at all strange that ducks and geese have strong advocates everywhere and they are justified in their advocacy by the results obtained in the*" showroom as well as in the commercial world. The advancement in this industry during recent years has been phenomenal. It has averaged equally remu- nerative with other kinds of poultry and with many breeders has proven the means of a handsome income, while to thousands of homes the returns from the ducks and geese have helped to pay ofif the mortgage or bought for the home what otherwise would have been denied. The East has been the seat of the most rapid develop- ment, while the West is now rapidly waking up to the possibilities of duck and goose culture. That all kinds of waterfowl are attractive no one can deny. It is generally considered easier to raise than ordinary poultry, while the specimens which are fit for the showroom are equally as difficult of production if the 334 Ducks and Geese 335 leading breeders are to be believed. They are less liable to disease, are rarely troubled with vermin and always bring good prices because of a steady demand. While they eat more than ordinary fowls in a given time yet they mature more quickly and lay a larger egg. The tendency to be noisy under provocation is usually justi- fiable and for those who understand it has a meaning. Running or still water or range is not a necessity in raising waterfowl as is generally believed, although in raising geese pasturage is almost essential. Every farmer should have a few ducks or geese to assist in the family exchequer. Success in duck and goose culture requires the same knowledge, system and experience as in any other busi- ness. Alany things in this industry can only be learned by constant contact with it. It has both pleasure and profit for the one willing to serve a reasonable appren- ticeship and grow with experience. Varieties — The " Standard of Perfection " will show from year to year the breeds and varieties admitted to the standard and among those will be both utility and ornamental varieties. Where the dividing line lies may not always be agreed upon by all breeders, but among the so-called ornamental varieties of ducks may be classed the Call and Muscovey. The former is the Bantam among ducks, while the latter is the oddity be- cause it has no quack, nests quite regularly, roosts high by choice and under provocation will sometimes scratch like a cat. Its flesh is of very fine flavor and quality, it is a good layer and requires five weeks to hatch its eggs. Of the utility varieties the Pekin holds the popular place as the best commercial duck in America with the Aylesbury leading in England. The Indian Runner is the greatest egg producer of the duck family. 336 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Of the geese the Toulouse is one of the larger and most popular commercial birds, being followed closely by the Embden in many localities. The Chinese are the greatest egg producers and have a trumpet-like call. The African has a dewlap under the throat and by epicurians is pronounced of superior flavor. The Egyptian is raised largely for ornamental purposes in America. The Can- adian is also termed Wild (although there is more than one variety of the wild goose) and in some sections is crossed with the domestic goose, the goslings from which are called " Mongrels " or " mules " because they are sterile. They are prized for their special flavor. Requirements of Housing, Equipping and Yarding — The expense of suitable quarters for waterfowl is not as high as with many other kinds of fowl. The secret of proper housing for ducks and geese lies in dry, wind- proof and well ventilated quarters. The general prin- ciples of location, drainage, ventilation, insulation, gen- eral arrangement, type of buildings, manner of yarding and other items vary but little from those applying to other poultry and such variations will be herein noted. Near a large city is the best location for marketing these products although a limited output is quite easily dis- posed of in smaller cities. The types of buildings vary but little, all shapes and sizes being utilized. As a general rule for breeding houses a shed plan is adopted upon the large farms, although the gable type is also quite popular. The aver- age width of houses used is twelve feet, the length being divided into pens according to the number of breeders kept in each pen. The breeding pens are used through- out the entire year, being occupied by the young stock to be held over for breeding purposes w^hen old birds are sold. The incubator and brooder buildings differ in no Ducks and Geese 337 way from those described in the chapter devoted to them. The pens occupied when the young stock is taken away from the brooder house are called cold houses or fatten- ing- sheds. These usually are much similar to the breed- ing pens although on some of the large farms or ranches these houses form a separate group of buildings. On many fanns the fattening sheds are so arranged that }arding runs both ways from them and their sides are hung by hinges so that in warm and pleasant weather they may be raised and form added shelter. When it is windy or cold they are lowered, thus forming a closed building. All general-purpose buildings for waterfowl are usually as low as is consistent with convenience. The shed type are frequently only three or four feet upon the low side. The sidewalls of nearly all build- ings used for growing or breeding stock are of one thickness matched lumber well laid, with a fairly good light allowed by means of double-glazed windows. Ven- tilation is cared for by cloth curtains to allow for fresh air without draughts. The floor of all buildings used for waterfowl should be warm and dry since their feet are the only parts needing special protection from cold. Dry, open sheds are often used especially for geese. Dry, clean, comfortable quarters wnll soon pay for the orig- inal cost in the lesser quantity of feed needed to main- tain health and vigor in the fowls. Upon a large w-aterfowl farm a convenient feed and mixing house is essential as nearly all the food given is in the form of a mash. This is distributed by means of a tramway. Devices for mixing quantities of food are upon the market. Homemade mixers are easily devised by using the revolving-cylinder idea in their construction, using thumbscrews to hold the cover in place while revolving the mixer. 338 Science and Art or Poultry Culture Alleyways are rarely used in breeding pens although nearly always provided for in brooder houses and some- times in fattening sheds. Where none are used the attendant steps over the low divisions between the pens when passing from pen to pen. Tramways and cars are used on all large duck and goose farms, which lead from the mixing or feed house to all the pens or enclosures containing stock. This saves labor and expense in feeding and these tramways are also often arranged to pass by or through all build- ings to facilitate cleaning and bedding them. Sometimes within the buildings overhead tracks are used for this purpose, the car being adapted for both track and tram- way. The tramways on some plants are upon the ground, passing between yards or pens, while in others it passes just above all yard enclosures or pens. The equipment in a duck or goose house is very sim- ple. No roosts are provided since they sleep upon the ground or floor. Nests are not used by many since geese and many varieties of ducks lay an egg and cover it with litter. Geese are more prone to nest in one place than are ducks. A few breeders provide low divisions upon the floor for nesting purposes. A broody coop would not be amiss but will be rarely in use. Feed troughs are usually about one foot wide, four inches high and from six to twelve feet long. All are provided with a cover which allows the birds to feed yet does not permit of wasting or befouling the contents. The troughs are less liable to become sour if made of galvanized iron. The covers may be of lath, of stiff wire or a rack in which the divisions run up and down and whose base sets just without the trough. This last named arrangement leaves the top of the trough free to receive feed with no interference on the part of the fowls. Ducks axd Geese 339 The width of the spaces in the cover will vary according to the size of the birds which are to feed therefrom. The water receptacles should be close to the feed troughs and many use a similar arrangement except making the water troughs narrower by a few inches. Others use galvanized iron founts of a capacity sufficient to last between watering periods. The pans containing these founts will need to be of a size to allow the duck or goose to get its entire bill under water. Hoppers for grit, charcoal or other necessities should be provided. Exit doors are always low and convenient. Yarding waterfowl requires much less expense than for any other class of poultry. The fencing need rarely be more than two feet high and of any material which is available and economical to the locality. One-inch mesh wire netting about two feet high is used to a large extent and is supported by substantial stakes driven firmly into the ground except at or near the ends or corners which should be well held by posts to hold the wire from becoming slack and unsightly. Some plants have a few sections of fence which are movable to use as cross- fences, thus enabling them to enlarge the yards as the growth of the young and the conditions of the weather warrant. Some plants provide gates while others use only the track or tramway for all purposes since one can step over all fences when passing from yard to yard. The size of yards varies with diflferent breeders from twenty square feet per bird in the brooding yards to one hundred square feet in the breeding yards. The size of yards must be decided upon when all local conditions are considered as well as the number of fowls in each flock. It should be borne in mind that too much range or yarding cannot be given geese or ducks used for breed- ing purposes except when the expense factor is to be 340 Science and Art of Poultry Culture ignored, and also that ducks and geese intended for market cannot be profitable if fed when allowed much liberty. Geese not intended for market will not thrive well while yarded. They seem to need range and con- siderable liberty while ducks can be handled in small quarters. Sometimes a goose will be found which will not respect a two-foot fence but as a rule any fence which will confine a hog will also confine geese. Drainage is an important item in the yarding of water- fowl. If possible always locate them upon a slope so that the rains will assist in cleansing and purifying the yards. Ground poisoning can be avoided with proper care. All water receptacles in the yards or buildings should be so arranged that all excess water spilled for any reason can at once get away or much dampness and filth will result. Live water is not necessary to raise either ducks or geese, although a running stream properly located and not upon low ground would be a very desirable asset for the breeding stock at certain seasons and for certain varieties. However, young ducklings or goslings are never allowed by good breeders to get into the water until fully feathered, since they do not grow so rapidly and very often die from the wetting they receive before being fully protected. When intended for market they should be kept from the water so that they may fatten more readily. A pond, tank or stream is often utilized near the killing room to allow the waterfowl to cleanse the plumage before they are plucked. Usually access for a day or two will accomplish the desired results. Run- ning water properly handled would be ver>' desirable. Shade is absolutely indispensable during the heat of the summer. Heat will kill ducks and geese as certainly as they have no protection from it. If one has no trees Ducks and Geese 341 in the runs then good artificial protection must be fur- nished. To neglect this is to invite certain loss. Breeding — In picking out stock for breeding the " Standard of Perfection " should be well understood and size, shape, points, vigor and development carefully considered. Use only pure stock except as noted in breeding for " mongrels." The leading breeders select their stock from healthy, quick-maturing birds hatched in January, February or March. This allows of the full maturity of ducks. Geese are not fully matured for twelve or fourteen months and therefore do not make the strongest breeders their first season. A good size and large proportion of meat rather than fat is the aim of breeders. The breeders kept from late stock or from the slow-developing ducklings of earlier hatches will soon prove the downfall of their owner. Ducks are in their prime for breeders during their first and second seasons. Many use only early-hatched year- lings. However, the second year usually finds a stronger average fertility and vigor throughout the entire season. The drakes usually mature three months later than the ducks. Both should be well developed at nine months of age. Geese are their best as breeders from the second to the tenth years. Ganders usually are better replaced at seven years of age and before if they become dan- gerous to children. An ugly gander is no mean antag- onist when well aroused. Geese mature in from one year to fourteen months. Penning and mating should occur in Xovember. Four ducks to one drake is enough at the beginning of the season, increasing to seven or eight later if the drakes get rough and maim the ducks. Put discarded drakes in a separate pen out of sight of the ducks, reduce their rations at least one-half for a short time or thev are 342 Science and Art of Poultry Culture liable to kill each other. Later give less meat in their mash. Geese mate quite often yet a gander will serve two or three geese satisfactorily, giving particular atten- tion to the one chosen for a mate. In some varieties the males and females are rather hard to distinguish. The drake has a whistling sound while the duck has a quack. In some varieties the drake has curled feathers on the back just in front of the tail. The size, shape and carriage in all varieties are distin- guishing marks to the practiced eye. In many varieties the color of the males and females differs. Sex in geese is told by the shrill call of the gander and the hoarse answer of the goose, by the masculine appearance of the head and neck of the male as compared to the slim neck and. smaller head of the female, by the difference in size in favor of the gander and by the actions of the gander when around the females. In purchasing stock many believe that excessive prices are asked by breeders. They seem to forget that the same stock when ten weeks old was worth from one to two dollars each upon the open market and that it has been housed and fed for many months. It costs as much to raise a good duck or goose as any other fowl and to obtain a good standard fowl from a reliable breeder one must pay a reasonable price. Avoid the pernicious, and seemingly cruel practice of plucking the breeding stock for the little profit made on the feathers. It saps the vitality of the birds and the subsequent loss will be many times the income from the feathers. The practice has almost ceased in America and the advertisements of live-plucked feathers put out by firms is no more than an old trademark. Reputable breeders recognize that even one plucking is detrimental and have entirely ceased from the practice. Ducks and Geese 343 Eggs — Waterfowl lay at night or in early morning and usually cover their eggs with nest litter. Some vari- eties of ducks and geese will lay in nests properly placed. Where waterfowl have range they may be confined in the pens or yards until about eight o'clock in the morn- ing at which time all will have laid. When yarded the attendant gathers the eggs in the morning while the fowls are feeding and again during the middle of the forenoon. The majority of them will lay in the houses on the litter, although many eggs will be found in the yards. These are cleaned of mud or filth but the greasi- ness is not washed oflf. The eggs within the pens in cold weather are usually kept from chilling because of the ducks or geese remaining over the eggs during the night. The litter also assists, while again several ducks or geese may lay in the same place and thus keep the eggs comfortable until the attendant arrives on his first rounds. , The color of eggs varies with the breed and variety from almost black to green or a clear white. The age of the fowl also varies the color of an egg. They should be well formed, of medium size and of sound shell. If kept for incubation they should be in a temperature of about forty-five degrees and handled as little as possible. They are turned carefully by some breeders about twice a week. Duck eggs should not be more than two weeks old to incubate well. The duck as a producer of eggs is very sensitive to weather changes and to the variations in rations. This is also somewhat true of all fowls. The duck lays from eighty to two hundred eggs per year depending upon the variety and care. Pekin ducks often average one hundred and fifty eggs per year, while Indian Runners have been known to exceed two hundred. The eo;^ is 344 Science and Art ov Poultry Culture larger and richer than those of a common hen. Ducks often begin to lay at six months of age. The goose begins to lay when about one year old, producing fifteen to forty each year as age and conditions warrant. When the feeding has been balanced and housing has been uniform the fertility of eggs will run quite high. This is assuming that healthy, vigorous stock is kept. Forced laying should be avoided. From eighty to ninety- five per cent fertility is usual. In certain years it seems to be better than in others the country over. Incubation — Nearly all duck eggs are incubated by artificial means and no very different principles apply than those used in the incubation of hens' eggs. The temperature for the first fifteen days is run a degree lower, while most operators furnish more moisture after the eighteenth day. Some sprinkle the floor of the cellar twice a day, some place a pan of water in the machine while others sprinkle the eggs daily with water of the same temperature as that of the &^g chamber, closing it at once to keep the eggs from cooling by evaporation. A burlap cloth laid under the eggs in this tray assists in conserving moisture after sprinkling. Any method used cautiously and intelligently will bring results. The machine should not be opened after the twenty-sixth day. Watch the rise in temperature due to animal heat. Some do not believe in cooling but all believe in airing. Turn the same as in hens' eggs. The twenty-eighth day will see the ducklings begin to pip, but they do not break the shells at once upon pipping. IMuscovey ducks do not pip until the end of the fifth week of incubation. Goose eggs hatch in from tliirty to thirty-three days. Moisture is also added toward the end of the hatch, depending upon the evaporation. Artificial incubation of the eggs of geese is not so commonly practiced. Ducks and Geese 345 The natural incubation of the eggs of waterfowl is largely done through the medium of the common hen, since neither the duck nor the goose is a reliable mother. Six or eight duck eggs or four or five goose eggs are all that the average hen can cover well. At pipping time the hens will bear watching closely as the appearance of such strange little creatures arouses the hen's suspicions and sometimes she will kill them. Some hens will refuse to sit upon such large eggs as are given them. Choose quiet, trustworthy hens of the heavier breeds and do not give them more eggs than they can comfortably cover. In testing out the eggs of waterfowl the first test usually is made the third or fourth day and all clear eggs sent to market. The second test usually is given about the tenth or twelfth day, and the last or final about the twenty-fourth day. Dead duck eggs decompose very rapidly and any not tested out may give ofif an odor which challenges attention. Such should be " smelled out " and removed at once. Some operators tell them from their marbled appearance. When the hatch is well cleaned up the ducklings may be left in the machine for a day or so before removing them to the brooder. Some operators leave them for forty-eight hours before removing them. Brooding and Grozving Period — Nearly all ducklings and but few goslings are raised by artificial means which differs in no way from the chick brooding plants in construction. In fact it is not so difficult to raise duck- lings as it is to raise chicks. The hot-water pipe heating s}stems with box hovers are universally used. In nat- ural brooding with hens the principal business of the hen is to follow the brood during the day and hover them when cold and at night. They care very little for their stepmother's company and pay no attention to her 346 Science and Art of Poultry Culture various calls. Old geese will brood, but as a rule they are too valuable for eggs to let them take such a vaca- tion as motherhood would entail. Keep a hen and her goslings away from adult geese. The ducklings or goslings are usually placed in the brooder about a day or so after incubation. They must be taught to seek the hover for warmth. A movable board usually is placed so that the wee birds may get only a few inches away from the hover until they learn to seek its warmth, after which the board or division is moved farther away until entirely removed. They soon learn to eat and drink and one may now be prett}- certain of raising them if other conditions are observed such as warmth, dryness, cleanliness and proper feeding. The temperature of brooders for young waterfowl is not as high as for chickens. The pipe 3 should not come within six inches of the back of the birds and the bulb of the thermometer should be protected so that no body heat of the birds will affect it. The first week they should be kept quite warm, keeping the temperature around ninety degrees or slightly warmer if the weather be cold. The house should be warmed to eighty degrees. Just as soon as the ducklings understand the source of heat one can begin lessening the heat until eighty-five is reached, and if the spring is advanced they may be entirely weaned from heat at five weeks of age. However, if it remains cold and chilly do not take all the heat away from their hovers. The best bedding for young waterfowl is planer shav- ings, cut straw or cut hay, but never sawdust as it gets mixed with the food and causes trouble. Bedding must be kept dry and clean. This enables the birds to keep their feet warm and dry. There are a few cautions to observe with young geese Ducks and Geese 347 that are important. Diarrhrea may result from over- feeding, from sour food, from filth and from too much meat. The appearance of diarrhea may come from over- feeding on hard boiled eggs or bran, the little birds retain the solids while the liquids only pass. Lack of good ventilation and wet bedding will prove fatal to young stock. Geese will not stand the confinement that ducks will thrive under. Again, overcrowding is certain to cause trouble. Many make it a rule never to place more than fifty ducklings or twenty goslings together. Lack of shade in the summer has proved fatal in many cases. Do not allow the broods to have access to water in which to swim until they are well feathered out, since their growth will be slower and many often die as a result of the wetting and subsequent chilling. Goslings often go lame if allowed to swim while young. When it is prac- ticable separate the sexes when they are four or five weeks old and one will find both doing better. Keep the different sizes by themselves. Watch the heat and reduce it as they grow older. If they are inclined to lie under the hover too much shut them out often until they reform or they will lose strength in the legs, will stag- ger about and the . eyes and nose will be affected by catarrh, which becomes contagious. Going " crazy " or " running wild " is often the cause of loss where young stock are turned into larger areas all at once without gradually enlarging their quarters. They run themselves to death. The most important caution is to avoid nerv- ousness in the flocks. They are sensitive to any change and are especially so after dusk. Keep away from their quarters at night all dogs, rats or even people. When possible to avoid it do not allow even the attendant to go among them, and if it is necessary always carry a light. Be careful of shadows. Many growers keep Ian- 348 Science axd Art of Poultry Culture terns in the pens of growing stock. This may seem rather unnecessary, but once disturbed in the darkness they will not become quiet for hours. An alarm given by one pen will be spread throughout the entire plant. ]\Iuch loss of weight results from nervousness and in a large plant this item is one to be carefully watched. Foods and Feeding — The rations chosen will depend somewhat upon the purpose for which it is given. Herein is suggested in table form the principal ingredients as used by growers. There can be no binding or set rule because of certain local conditions of the weather and the availability of these ingredients. Good results are obtained on entirely different formulas. However, these approximate what the average grower practices : One will notice the table does not state specifically in what form the corn is fed. For infants, meaning the first five or six days, the corn should be ground. There- after opinion is divided as to whether it should be ground or cracked. Those preferring the latter claim it allows the gizzard to perform more of its natural functions. In any group one can use one or more of the foods mentioned, but caution should be exercised in the wheat group, since bran or any one of them would not be as well as to combine two or more to make up the given percentage. The vegetables may be ground, cut fine or cooked as the time of year or age of the birds may sug- gest. Steaming clover or alfalfa and grinding or chop- ping and cooking the others on alternate days will give variety. Also if on range both the meat and vegetable portion of the ration should be varied. Too much bran is sometimes loosening to the bowels. Many breeders give a little whole oats and corn occa- sionally, while others claim it is not good for ducks since they have no crop in which to prepare it for the gizzard. Ducks and Geese 349 Table Showing Average Percentages of Foods by Meas- ure Used for Mash Feeding of IVatcrfozcl by Growers. Food Groups 11 la £ fe H CU Fattening Period Non-breeding Period ll 10 1 ^. 30 15 . 25 Hominy chops Wheat bran 53 50 40 45 30 Ground wheat Low grade flour Buckwheat 3 Millet seed Oat meal 20 5 3 5 5 Ground oats Soaked dried blood . . . Soaked meat scrap .... Soaked animal meal . . Soaked tankage Cut green bone 5 10 10 5 10 8 10 12 23 Mangel-wurzel 22 Alfalfa . . Green cornfodder Sand Fine grit 3 5 4 5 Charcoal Hopper Hopper Oyster shell Fine grit 1 jHopper Hopper Fresh water Founts Founts Founts |Founts Founts Buttermilk 1 Skim-milk 1 Whey M'ater The corn element of the chet may be increased shghtly if the cold weather and the condition of the fowls warrant. Over-feeding corn may result in leg weakness. Never cook the mash nor make it gummy. ]\Iix it wet-dry so that it will pack somewhat yet crumble at the touch. Some growers add celery seed to the fattening rations 350 Science and Art of Poultry Culture to give a delicate flavor to the meat in imitation of the Chesapeake Bay ducks which feed upon the wild celery about the bay. To all mash should be added a little salt. Be certain to get a good grade of meat foods and add a higher percentage at molting time. The infant fowls should have feed and water before them constantly for the first two or three days. It is assumed that nothing but water is allowed them for at least thirty-six hours after hatching. For a week after the third day they should be fed five times, beginning at sunrise and ending at sunset, taking away all food as soon as they are through eating. The object to be attained is to create an appetite for each feeding, which assures good digestion and assimilation. Next, until about six weeks of age they are fed only four times each day and thereafter three times daily until matured or marketed. IMatured stock are usually fed twice daily, at sunrise and sunset; at sunrise to keep them from being uneasy and losing flesh. That would be a splendid rule in caring for all kinds of poultry. The fattening pens usually are given special rations for about two weeks although some breeders never change from the growing ration until marketed. Except during very stormy weather or with young brooder stock the feeding and watering should be done outside in the yards. Always water when feeding since waterfowl depend upon water to assist their eating. Place both receptacles near each other. Never keep feed before waterfowl constantly unless they are on range or it will cloy their appetites. The water receptacles should always contain a plentiful supply of clean, fresh water and deep enough to allow stock to insert the head at least to the eyes. Water colic often results from allowing fowls to become too thirsty and then gorging themselves. Do not Ducks and Geese 351 give milk except in mash as it often brings about sore eyes. Fine grit, oyster shells and charcoal should be accessible to the flock. Some prefer to add charcoal to the mash twice each week rather than allow it to be hopper-fed. Ducks and geese require but little feed when out on range. They are splendid foragers if given an oppor- tunity. Geese are even thriftier in that respect than ducks and will if given limited pasturage eat the grass to the ground. It is often' claimed that cattle and geese do not thrive together and that the latter befoul the ground, unfitting it for a cattle pasture. That is true only in so far as one tries to keep both on an area suffi- cient only for one. On good pasture geese will find their own living, but with all waterfowl it is well to give a light feed at night to keep them at home and away from harm. General Care — Aside from the general principles that apply to all poultry a few suggestions will be of assist- ance. Take pains to keep the quarters of all stock dry, sweet and well ventilated. Dampness is a sure fore- runner of rheumatism. The bedding may be of planer shavings, hay, sand, straw or other material. Change as often as it becomes filthy or damp. Remember it is their only bed. Allow no sour or dirty feed or water recep- tacles to breed disease. Any food not eaten should be removed within one-half hour to avoid cloyed appe- tites, and if clean and sweet it may be used again. Many use it for hog feed only. A thorough cleansing of feed receptacles should occur as often as the weather and necessity demand. Healthy waterfowl will not be troubled with lice or subject to diseases such as roup, cholera or canker. Rodents and such enemies as the fox, mink, skunk, 352 Science and Art of Poultry Culture weasel or other " varmints " should be guarded against. Sometimes they contract the habit of feather-pulling when the meat or vegetable element has been lacking in their rations. In such cases remove the culprits and sup- ply the proper ration. It is a bad habit and one hard to stamp out if let go for any length of time. Always handle waterfowl by the neck or by the whole body and never by the wings or legs which are tender and often break when thus used. Exercise is not so important to duck or goose raising as in chickens, for the reason that they are active by nature, being always on the move. It is important to keep them from being nervous since they are instinctively timid. While grow- ing or fattening much money can be lost by being care- less in this regard. Quiet movements and the same attendants are best. Good attendants always speak when nearing ducks of any age. Note other cautions pre- viously given. Be regular and systematic in feeding and keep growing and fattening stock from going into the water if best results are desired. A swim is often fatal to a young bird while in down. Waterfowl are easily raised if surrounded by healthy conditions. Crowding, lack of shade in warm weather and filthy yards are disease-breeders. Crowding pro- duces weakness in certain members which contract and spread disease. Lack of shade allows apoplexy to thin the -ranks. Unsanitary yards produce diarrhea. Yards may be kept from ground-poisoning for many years if well located as regards drainage and if before storms the attendant will sweep up and remove the droppings. In large yards this is not so practicable unless one has a sweeper. In both small and large yards one should arrange to plow and plant them to a green crop as often as possible. This renews the ground and keeps it sweet. Ducks and Geese 353 Preparing JJ'atcrfozcl for Commercial Markets — Meth- ods of fattening, killing, plucking, cooling, plumping, grading, packing and shipping are substantially the same as given elsewhere with a few minor exceptions. After the usual fasting and killing the plucking on large farms is usually done by women, who on an average are more at from three to seven cents and geese for from eight to twelve cents each, depending upon the season and avail- ability of helpers. The feathers just about pay for the plucking. Green ducks and geese are plucked just before the pinfeathers start or they must be held for another month at a loss. What few waterfowl are " live-plucked " are left till after the breeding season and when the feathers are ripe. Only the valuable feathers are taken. No good grower will " live-pick '' stock to be kept for breeding purposes. After the " roughing " is done it is often difficult to remove the down and small pinfeathers. This is espe- cially true of geese. Three methods are employed by different dressers. Care must be exercised when steam or hot water is used as a '' scald " will make a fowl look stale and unattractive and command a lower price. Also in the use of steam or hot water always keep the head and legs from coming into contact with it. Some oper- ators remove the down and pinfeathers by shaving the fowl with a sharp shoe-knife. Others place melted rosin in hot water and dip the fowl into it two or three times or until the water has penetrated the down, after which a rolling and rubbing motion of the hand removes it. Still another method used is to steam the fowl and rub powdered rosin into the down, then steam again for a moment after which proceed as above. Practically all waterfowl are dry-plucked, leaving the wing-feathers on the last joint of the wing and a few 354 Science and Art of Poultry Culture feathers upon the neck near the head. A few markets demand them free from all feathers. Also the head and feet are left intact and the wings are sometimes folded close to the sides or crossed over the back. All markets desire them undrawn. In no other manner does the pre- paring of waterfowl differ from previous descriptions. A large, plump, white-skinned and well-dressed fowl is the aim of all growers of market waterfow^l. Marketing — Very little of a specific nature can be stated as to markets and prices. The eastern cities are by far the stronger commercial markets for waterfowl be- cause of being the seat of the development of this indus- try. To the pioneer breeders of that section is due the credit for creating that market. T"st as good an oppor- tunity lies in the West. Again, the prices are governed to some extent upon the grade of goods, the manner of marketing, and the ability to supply a stated quantity. The eastern markets often open up in April around thirty or thirty-five cents per pound for green waterfowl, rap- idly declining to twelve or fourteen cents later in the season. May and June see the height of the season. Even at twelve cents per pound money may be made by correct management. The methods of marketing of eggs for incubation and stock for breeding are identical wath other poultry. To obtain good stock from reliable sources there is but one royal road to success and that is to find reliable stock and pay an honest price to obtain it. Such a course is real economy. What would be an honest price depends en- tirely upon the kind and grade of stock, its previous breeding and somewhat upon the reputation the owner has built up for himself. Waves of popularity often affect the supply and demand. Chapter XXVL TURKEY CULTURE. The awakening of an added interest in turkey rais- ing has kept pace with the growth of the poultry industry along other lines. Persons in every state in the Union and in many foreign countries are giving thought and study to the better development of turkey culture. State agricultural institutions are also as- sisting in the common advance. Not only are Thanks- giving and Christmas reminders of the fact that such fowls exist, but they are now found upon the markets along with ducks and chickens at other seasons. The origin of the turkey seems to be conceded to the American continent. Certain it is that the early settlers feasted upon the wild turkey and set the fash- ion for the prevailing dish at Thanksgiving time. The beauty of plumage and excellent flavor of the meat was soon heralded throughout Europe, with the result that shipments of the wild birds began almost at once and thus the industry grew across the ocean. Even now there are ranches devoted exclusively to rearing wild turkeys whose orders are beyond fulfill- ing even at fancy prices. Many are using the wild fowl to introduce new blood into their flocks. That a good flock of turkeys is a money-maker when rightly handled goes without saying. Naturally, they are the best of foragers even to the extent of be- ing a neighborhood nuisance. They are harder to raise than are many other kinds of poultry and it is 355 356 Science and Art of Poultry Culture the general impression that they will not stand con- finement. Their roving disposition requires a little more attention at times to teach them that home is the proper place at night, since it seems to be a tur- key's habit to stop where night overtakes it. The young of a turkey is called a poult. Its breed- ing, its incubation, its brooding, its feeding, its housing and its general care are very similar to that of other poultry as stated herein under the respective chapters. Any variations from those principles when applied to turkey culture will be noted. Standard Requirements — There will not be an at- tempt made to outline in detail the requirements of shape and color in each section as laid down by the " Standard of Perfection." Suffice it to say that in breeding turkeys, as well as other poultry, there is a set type for each of the several varieties, to approach which is the true aim of all turkey raisers. X'o breeder should be without this official guide. The question of weight seems to be the one least under- stood and the one over which the most dissatisfaction arises. Depending entirely upon tlie variety, the standard places the weight of a cock at from twenty- six to thirty-six pounds, a cockerel, eighteen to thirty- three pounds, a hen, sixteen to twenty pounds, and a pullet twelve to sixteen pounds. Heavy cuts are made at all exhibitions for underweight. There seems to 1)e a tendency for the turkey fanciers to seek size, often at a loss in reproductive powers. Again, the ignorance of the fact that a turkey sometimes grows for at least three years leads many purchasers to be dissatisfied with a purchase which is really a good one except that its weight has not had time to develop. Also, in sliipment turkeys lose weight Turkey Culture 357 rapidly. At mature age, some specimens have been known to weigh as much as sixty-five pounds. A novice may learn to distinguish a young bird from an old one by noting that the covert feathers in the mature birds are much longer. Foundation Stock — Get only birds that have been line bred, the best and most vigorous from reliable breeders. So much depends upon the foundation stock that the caution is doubly urged. It is always discouraging to perform faithfully every detail of incubation, brooding and other care, and then have the efiforts come to nought. No one can advise as to the best variety to secure. Personal likes, local con- ditions and many other factors enter into each de- cision. The two varieties most frequently found are the Bronze and the White Holland. The former are the larger variety, lead in the numbers produced, and are the more inclined to roam away from home. The hens hide their nests more persistently. The White Holland are the next in number raised, are more domesticated and stay closer to their home surround- ings. They do not grow ciuite so large as the Bronze variety. Mating and Breeding — Line breeding is just as es- sential in turkeys as in other poultry. In addition to what is urged in " Principles of Breeding and the Care of Breeding Stock," a few suggestions are in order. Since turkeys seem to be a little more susceptible to inbreeding, many breeders never use a tom more than one year, while others allow him to serve two years. In any event it is more in the correct mating than in the number of seasons kept. Where all birds 358 Science and Art of Poultry Culture are allowed in one tiock, then a change at least every two years is imperative. The number of hens to a cock or torn is usually placed at ten, unless under confinement, when six is enough. The mating of a cock to pullets is recom- mended by some and decried by others. The objection seems to be the injury an old tom inflicts upon a pullet. This objection will be overcome by cutting or rounding off all sharp points on toes and spurs, and by avoiding over-heavy males in the breeding pens. Good results are never obtained from extra heavy breeders. Overfat breeders throw weak-germed eggs which result in a loss of nearly every poult. See that breeding stock is in condition at least four weeks be- fore the breeding season is to begin. ^Mating should take place in February for May poults. When arranging the breeding pens, choose only such males and females as conform to standard re- quirements, paying especial attention to shape and plumage in each sex. While weight is also important, it is usually made secondary by the leading breeders. Avoid shortness in shape, as it is the rangy birds that fill out into good form. In buying or selling breeding stock, use care that the sexes are not related directly. They should be line bred, but not closely. This point cannot be guaranteed by a breeder who does not mate and pen during the breeding season and therefore cannot sell a male from one sire and dam and a female from another. Nor should breeders be late hatched birds for the best results. Maturity is essential and not so early obtained as in chickens. Range I'S. Confinement — It has always been the consensus of opinion that turkeys will not stand con- Turkey Culture 359 finement. However there are many turkeys which are reared and kept in that way, although they are much more difficult to keep contented and free from ailments than when on range. They are not domes- ticated to that point where the wild nature is entirely obliterated. They yearn for liberty and such confine- ment as given has been more liberal and natural than other kinds of poultry have required. In reality they are not so many generations removed from the wild state. Range will depend somewhat upon the State and locality in which one is raising turkeys. In those States where land is cheap or woodland frequent, and homes not crowded together, good range is usual. In those sections where land is high in valuation and houses frequent, the land is closely cultivated, afford- ing less of real range, more of excessive grain diet and more of a tendency to annoy neighbors with a flock. In either case, careful attention is required to bring them home each night or until they come home of their own accord. A choice feed at night with a some- what natural roosting place will often combine to turn them homeward at the setting of the sun. An enclosure for turkeys should be as nearly ideal as possible to obtain the best results. It must be roomy. A small woodland, orchard or other ground covered with trees or vines for shade makes a good yarding place. Make them a good, comfortable roost- ing place protected from storm and high winds, not too close to the ground, as a turkey believes in keep- ing out of the way of prowlers of any type. The larger the yards, the more contented the inmates. The woodland has an added advantage for a turkey park in that it makes an ideal place for young poults 360 SCIENCK AND ArT OF POULTRY CULTURE to run in the early morning l)efore the dew is off the grass. A fence for a turkey park is usually placed about eight feet high to hold the young until they acquire some size. The older birds may be paddled. This consists of taking a piece of thin board, alx)ut three or four inches wide and long enough to reach across the turkey's back from wing to wing. In each end bore two holes near the sides. Catch the bird, lay the board across its back, pass a cloth strip down through one hole, under its wing, back up through the oppo- site hole on the same end and tie the ends of the cloth securely. Repeat the same process with the other wing. Sometimes a lath is used, in wdiich one hole exists at each end. The main idea is to allow the free ends of the paddle to pass beyond the wings far enough to prevent the wings lifting. It must not be too loose for value, nor yet tight enough to make sores under the wing. Examine the hobbled birds once in a while to insure comfort. Clipping the wings of the hens interferes with her setting and brooding well. Neither is necessary with covered yards. In case of yarding, it is well to begin before laying time so the birds will become accustomed to their new quarters. If yarded during the laying period, they will often refuse to lay at all. Housing — The only changes suggested over the regular poultry house construction are as follows : the openings should be large enough for a full-grown turkey to enter easily, the roosts should be somewhat higher with a ladder arrangement for paddled or hobbled birds to reach the roosts which may be a little broader and stronger than for chickens, and plenty of fresh air provided. Dryness is especially Turkey Culture 361 essential to young poults. All other esentials of housing have been carefully considered. Eggs — The special points about eggs to observe in turkey culture are that all eggs shall come from sturdy, vigorous and well-chosen stock, that they be of even size, color and shape, that they be gathered often and that they be well cared for pending incuba- tion. Turning each day is practiced by nearly all breeders. A hen will usually lay an average of about thirty- five eggs annually, or about two settings. Some have been known to go as high as seventy in one year, while others have been almost non-productive. About fifteen eggs is enough for an ordinary turkey hen to cover well at a setting. Fertility usually runs quite high in the eggs. N'esti)ig and Incubation — If the hens have been yarded, the gathering of the eggs and the arranging of the nests are simplified. Old barrels, nests behind brush projections, odd corners or in secluded places in buildings adjacent to their yards are suggested. Always arrange these possible nests so that if natural incubation is followed the hen may remain in that place for setting. A turkey hen is much harder to change about than a chicken hen. The nests should be high enough to allow the hen standing room and broad enough for comfort while sitting. A dry nest is essential. Do not clip the wings of a hen intended for setting, since it does not allow her to give as good protection to her eggs or young. Turkey hens are very sensitive about being dis- turbed while laying or sitting unless they are quite tame. When the flock is running at large, care must be 362 Science and Art of Poultry Culture taken to know the nesting places so that the eggs may be secured before chilling or destroyed by small animals. As good a way as any is to confine the hens every few days until about three o'clock in the afternoon and upon being released every hen possess- ing a nest will go directly to it. In this way all new nests will be found by following at a safe distance. When the nest is robbed, place one china egg to satisfy the mother hen. If the nest, as located, is in a satisfactory place, or if it can easily be made so, then the hen may be allowed to sit there. When the hen is broody and is properly located, either in a yard or on range, give her no eggs except false ones for a day or two. Then dust her well with insect powder and if she is not disturbed she may be given her quota of eggs, usually from thirteen to eighteen. If a hen is changed upon range, or some- times in yards, they will attempt to revert to the former location. In such case they should be con- fined to their nests for a few days allowing them food and water at stated times when attention can be given to replace them upon the nests and again con- fine them. When she returns of her own accord for two or three times, one may begin to relax their watch- fulness. In yards they sometimes seem to prefer some other nests, hence need attention. Dust each hen every week to insure freedom from lice. If on range, try and take a look at the nest once in a while to see if the eggs are not broken or the nest dis- arranged. In case of broken eggs in any nest, wash the remaining ones with warm water and put in fresh nesting materials. The surplus eggs may be placed under chicken hens with good success, allowing eight or nine to each. Turkey Culture 363 Many claim better results with turkey hens, while others use both for incubation purposes, giving all the poults to the turkeys to brood. Artificial incubation and brooding are being practiced with the best of success. The only variation is in the fact that the incubation period is twenty-eight days, and that closer attention for like results is required for both incubation and brooding. The reason seems to be that turkey young are less hardy than the young of chickens or ducks. Do not try to bring a hatch ofif before May, as often much wet weather comes in April. When the twenty- eight days are about up, dust the hen for the last time and be careful not to put too much in the nest and fluff to cause the little poults to be uncomfortable while hatching. If the bird is very tame, the hand may be run under her while hatching to keep the nest free from shells. Ordinarily she had better be left alone at this time. When the poults are a day old, they may be taken from the nest, marked and put in the brooding quarters. Brooding — The principles of brooding vary only slightly when applied to poults. Less of artificial brooding is practiced, although when properly handled it is successful. More attention is required in artificial brooding to see that they are kept from chilling and that they return to the brooder properly during the day and at night. For this reason, some prefer natural brooding. Ordinary hens are some- times used for mothers, although when the poults are a few weeks' old the turkey hen makes the best mother of the two. Many allow a portion of the eggs to be hatched by common hens and then give all the 364 Science and Art of Poultry Culture poults to a turkey hen whose poults hatch at the same time. At hatching time leave them under the hen for a day at least, and if incubated in a machine allow them to remain for thirty-six hours or even longer. Upon re- moving them from a nest, powder well the mother hen and all the poults. Give them a chance against the lice which seem to have a preference for young poults. Mark such as are desired to be kept on record by a web punch or such other means preferred. Each chicken mother should not be given more than eight, while a turkey hen may be given nearly twenty. Do not crowd poults. A brooder should not be gi\cn more than thirty. The first week in a brooder is the difficult period. Care to details will bring through a brood in nice shape. The early home of young turkeys should be dry, roomy, and free from draughts. A coop high enough for the comfort of the old bird and large enough to allow her to walk about is excellent. Attached to this coop should be a covered runway. This allows freedom and can be changed to fresh ground every day. Other places such as outbuildings, barn basements, and empty corn cribs may be utilized if they are free from rodents. When a few days' old, the poults may be allowed some freedom. They will not go far from the reach of the warning voice of the mother hen, and very soon upon pleasant days the hen may be allowed to range about near by. If in an inclosure, paddle her to keep her within bounds. Remember that turkey hens will but rarely return to a coop at night without be- ing reminded of their duty and will be apt to stop where night finds them. After about three or four Turkey Culture 365 weeks, free range may be allowed the poults, unless they are to be kept yarded. Each week they should be examined for lice and powdered or greased upon the head if necessary. Be careful in the use of grease not to overdo it. After the poults are about one-third grown, turkey hens make the better mothers. Even though they may not hover the brood they keep the brood com- pany and otherwise care for them. A domestic hen will leave them entirely and the poults seem to get disheartened. Xor will the poults raised by domestic hens unite as well with a flock of young poults raised by turkey hens. The latter will not abuse one an- other's young, even though of different sizes, except upon rare occasions. Feeding — If only three or four words were allowed in instructing the beginners in turkey culture, the most valuable would be " Do not overfeed," or " Feed little and often." These words heeded are more im- portant than what one shall feed. The first two days of a poult's life it should have nothing but fresh water. Clean receptacles at all times is imperative. The first week they receive different rations from different breeders with the same success. Again, care in feeding is the main factor. Keep them hungry instead of suffering from indigestion. Feed several times a day, but give them very little at a time. Stale wheat bread soaked in milk, custard, hard boiled eggs, eggs baked with bread and milk, and cornbread are the favorite foods. They are all good. Some give just a few kernels of cracked mixed grains. Grit is essential at the beginning in very limited quantities. A little shell, charcoal and chopped greens should be fed. The greens fed are mainly onions, dandelions, 366 Science and Art of Poultry Culture cabbage or lettuce. A vegetable diet is very necessary to poults. Keep plenty of water before them all the time. The second week the same diet is continued with a lessening of the cooked food and an increase in the cracked grain. Wheat, corn, sunflower seed and millet are the grains most used. Other grains fed judiciously are just as good. Cottage cheese may be given them at this time, butwnot to overload them. Change rations slowly. A little beef scrap may be given them in their food at this time. By the third week they will be where more grain and no special food need be given except what cottage cheese and table scraps can be spared. Keep up the green food unless the weather is such they are able to take a daily run away from the coop. With both young and mature turkeys green food is important. Where plenty is given them for their needs one will have but little loss from their becoming crop bound. After the third week if they are on range they will thrive with fewer feedings. Keep them ranging but always give them a choice feed at night to teach them to come home as well as to keep them growing. A light feeding in the morning before they go out is well. Do not let the mother hen go out with them while there is a heavy dew until they are well grown. The matter of care and feeding thereafter is one of judgment according to the character of the range. If all woodland then more grain is needed. If over grain fields when or after ripened, then less grain is needed. If the turkeys are yarded, the balanced ration is needed so that the meat and green elements are important. In the fall there should be an effort to fatten those Turkey Culture 367 meant for the early market. All small turkeys should be held for the holiday trade, since small birds are not wanted at Thanksgiving time. To fatten, give more corn and less other grains, although do not use one grain exclusively. Do not give the corn suddenly, but feed it in increasing quantities until the birds are abJe to take it without injury. Watch them that they do not become unable to eat it readily. A temporary change of rations may become needed at times. The breeders should be sorted out and kept from the fattening diet. Should they become overfat they should be conditioned quite a while before used for breeding purposes. Do not sell the early hatched poults and keep the late ones for breeders unless a profit balance on the ledger is not desired. A word at this point as to the expense of raising turkeys. To say the least, the grain fed and turned into flesh is certainly worth more per pound hence it comes down entirely to the labor element. Each can decide that for himself. But before judgment is passed think of the bugs, grasshoppers and other enemies to man the range turkey consumes during a season. Is this of service and did it cost much to the owner? It is estimated that yard-raised turkeys will cost about ten cents per pound to mature without counting the labor, losses or investment. Therefore, each one can decide what a turkey costs in their local- ity by figuring up these elements and adding it to the cost per pound. If they are on range it is certain that ten cents is an excessive cost. Were it figured closely, taking into consideration their being raised in confine- ment, it seems probable that the average person would make more clear profit from some other fowl. General Care — Under this heading will be gathered 368 Science and Art of Poultry Culture a few miscellaneous ideas of value, some of which have already been suggested. Turkeys are lovers of liberty because they are not long under domestic con- ditions and yet possess many of their wild instincts. When deprived of certain conditions, of fresh air, and when overfed, they soon succumb to disease. In other words, they as yet are harder to rear under domestic conditions and it is only when we approach natural conditions that the best of success comes. Cleanliness of all water receptacles, of food pans and troughs, of droppings, board, and of yard grounds is very important. The young are tender and must be well protected from dampness and draught in their early housing, yet given plenty of fresh air, increasing its openness with the age of the poults. Protect them from heavy rainfalls and early dews. Let their brood- ing coops be roomy, clean and free from dampness. Remember the poults like to roost early, and hence provide them with a suitable place before they seek one elsewhere. They seem to instinctively seek a night shelter where the evening shades find them rather than returning home, except when special training has been given. They do much better when given quarters by themselves instead of being com- pelled to live with other domestic fowls. The principal dangers one must guard against are diseases such as crop bound, blackrot. blackhead, and indigestion. The first is mainly a lack of green food, the last, improper and surplus food, while the other two are treated under another chapter on diseases. Lice must be diligently fought and four-legged ani- mals foiled. Many small poults have been known to die from eating cherry and plum pits found in orchards where confined. Turkey Culture 369 Finally, remember that it is the attention to the details in the early life of the poult that is really the keynote to brooding and that an ounce of forgetfulness outweighs a good many pounds of cure. Like a mother, one must give the first thought in the morn- ing and an early thought in the evening to the flock or evil results are sure to follow. Turkey culture is simple and interesting, yet exacting. Marketing Turkeys — The late fall and holiday sea- sons are the national time to market turkeys. The reason for this seems to be that custom has made this savory meat paramount at Thanksgiving time and al- most so at the holiday season, while a second reason lies in the fact that there is a tendency at that time to be more free with expenditures which at other sea- sons would seem extravagant. There is a nice trade in both live and dressed tur- keys. Some markets prefer them alive, while others refuse them except when dressed and well packed. Live turkeys shrink quite heavily in transit, which accounts for the dissatisfaction which arises over many shipments which have been weighed before be- ing consigned. Do not market small poults at Thanksgiving time as they will be more profitable ordinarily if held for the holidays. Still others sell their entire output to a private trade whose orders are taken in advance. Some breeders have built up a nice business with stock and eggs for breeding purposes w'hile others have not been willing to take the pains required and therefore left the ranks with discredit due to their business methods. Exhibiting Turkeys — As in other lines of poultry, ipecial care must be taken of stock which is expected Z70 SciKxcE AND Art of Poultry Culture to win over other entries whicli liave had every care known to the science. The f^eneral remarks found under the chapter on " Conditioning and Exhibiting Poultr}^" apply here, except that less confinement is needed if the stock is fairly tame. Every caution as to picking out the best, their feeding for standard weight, their washing if of the white variety, their grooming and cleaning, their banding and shipping, their show room care, and their subsequent treat- ment are all in point and with attention to detail it will take a better bird with just as good preparation to win. Chapter XXVIL GUINEA FOWLS. While the Guinea-fowl has received but scant attention in this country, yet with the limitations that are being placed upon wild game, together with the demand for game-flavored fowl by epicurians, it seems certain that the Guinea will soon claim better recognition. The flesh when well cooked is of a darker color than that of a chicken, is attractive in appearance, is tender and of a fine, gamelike flavor. In Europe, in the South, and in the large hotels the Guinea holds a place far above the average fowl. The connoisseurs of meats will have no substitutes for this often-despised barnyard fowl, which feeling springs from ignorance as to its true merits. The habits of the Guinea are such that its good points are apt to be overlooked. Its noisiness and ability to go everywhere at will, as well as its tendency toward self- importance, are more than offset by its ability to care for itself, its foraging instincts, and its always being found in the right place w^hen evening draws near. The Guinea is raised in confinement, yet it is more easily raised on a free range and separately from other fowls. In this respect it differs little from all other fowls. It approaches more nearly to the turkey in manner of handling than it does to any other fowl. It is often accused of being a quarrelsome bird among other poultry. There are several varieties of Guineas, the pearl and the white leading all others. They grow to a fair size, 371 372 Science and Art of Poultry Culture the adult birds weighing; three and four pounds each. The age of a Guinea is told mainly as in other fowls. The flexible breast bone, the smooth legs and feet, the sharp claws and pointed wdng feathers are indications of young stock. The eyes and face become more wrink- led and the rich head-coloring grows more dull or pale with age. The housing, general care, foods and methods of feed- ing, as well as the shipping of stock and eggs, vary lit- tle from the methods employed with other poultry. Mating — Guineas mate in pairs, and the male is a great help to the female in caring for the young brood. One must be very careful to keep away from inbreeding, yet the general principles of breeding differ in no way from other poultry. Eggs — The Guinea-fowl is apt to drop her eggs any- where, or with another hen, until about the time when she wishes to enter the incubation period. At this time she usually nests in some hidden or protected place, lay- ing an average clutch of about fifteen eggs, which she will hatch in about twenty-eight days. Fertility usually runs very high and the eggs maintain vigor much longer than the ordinary hen's egg. No different care is needed in caring for Guinea eggs for incubation than for the eggs of other fowls. No special market exists for Guinea eggs in this country, although many claim them to be superior for culinary purposes. When served for table purposes their delicate flavor places them ahead of the common egg. They are soiiiewhat smaller than the common egg, — they have a thicker shell and vary in color from white to a dark brown, flecked with dark- er spots. This thick shell requires their freshness for market purposes to be tested by some other means than by candling, unless the facilities be above the average. Guinea Fowls 373 Specific gravity is about the only method available. Their food value is very similar to that of other eggs. Incubation and Brooding — The young are hardy and free from disease when on range and require little food for a time if the weather be good. They are easily raised if the Guinea hen incubates and broods them, but more difficult to handle by other means. Some few operators use hens to incubate Guinea eggs with much success. If allowed to handle incubation and brooding in the natural way a secluded spot will be chosen from where, after twenty-eight days the mother Guinea will lead forth a brood of from ten to twenty infant Guin- eas. The father Guinea at once assists in all the forag- ing expeditions and protects the mother from molesta- tion from other males. Several pairs and broods often run together, but at night each brood goes to roost with its own mother. This instinct to forage begins with their first days and it is surprising how the young- sters develop. If the weather or other conditions do not warrant this natural nesting and brooding then ap- ply the regular methods of natural incubation and brood- ing, handling them quietly and giving them the best of attention. When the times comes that the mother wish- es to teach them to roost, a noisy time may be antici- pated until the last member of the brood has attained a position upon the family roost. Marketing — The preparation of the Guinea for market is the same as for other fowls, especially the chicken. The fattening, killing, cooling, packing and shipping are almost identical. The dressing varies from pluck- ing and drawing to merely killing and cooling, depend- ing upon the market in which the bird is to be sold. The unplucked Guinea presents the best appearance. In favorable markets a good profit is made in the fall and 374 Science and Art of Poultry Culture winter, while in some eastern markets the prices are better. In the middle west and in the southern parts of the United States the prices are not so high. The broilers bring good prices in the early spring. Many markets quote prices upon Guineas throughout their seasons. Chapter XXVIIL RAISING PIGEONS AND SQUABS. Like the other branches of the general poultry indus- try the raising of pigeons and squabs holds a peculiar attractiveness to a class of people who are looking for a business which offers an immediate living from a small investment. This attitude is jointly brought about by the greed and unscrupulousness of unprofessional breed- ers and dealers the country over, whose literature reads like a fairy tale, and the tendency of the average public to believe what they read without weighing it carefully. This result is not the fault of conservative breeders of pigeons, although they have to b,ear certain inconven- ience and financial loss because of the failures resulting from the " wildcat " policies of their dishonest competi- tors. That many are making money out of their pigeons goes without saying, but as in any other business it is " brains " combined with a proper investment that results in success. If any one desires to enter the pigeon or squab byiisiness as such let him not hesitate to do so if he will enter it with a care to studying its essentials, with a mind disabused of any idea that he has nothing but ease before him, and with a sufficient capital to keep enough pairs to insure steady deliveries. In short it is purely a business proposition stripped of all enchant- ment. However, one may start with a few pairs, taking less profit but obtaining experience at the least risk of financial loss. What follows we trust will assist in a safe 375 Z7(^ Science axd Art of Poultry Culture and sane consideration of the business The same prin- ciples as found in other chapters regarding choosing a location, breeding, buildings, marketing, and diseases, also apply in this industry except as herein stated to the contrary. There are two main branches of the pigeon industry: the sale of breeding birds and the raising of squabs for CRESTED HELMET. Courtesy of A. E. Robst. the market. A bird beyond tlic squab period becomes less valuable unless it is to be kept for a breeder. Of the large number of varieties of pigeons the Homer seems to be the favorite for squab-raising. Many vari- Guinea Fowls 377 eties are kept only for their beauty and for exhibition purposes, while several are used for the commercial end of the business. Avoid crossing of varieties. A pure strain kept in vigor is without doubt the best method since the principles of breeding combined with intelli- gence will insure success. In this respect the poultry business is upon a par with the breeding of any domestic stock. Like begets like, and the only good that cross- breeding can bring about is to impose new strength and vigor into the lofts, which can be more easily accom- plished by adding good standard blood. Pigeons may be kept as a side line or with poultry with both pleasure and profit. Tlic Breeding Stock — Obtaining poor foundation stock has resulted in more " squab " failures than any other one cause imless it be ignorance of the essentials of the business. The latter might have been overcome but the former never. Poor breeding stock results from any of numerous causes. The vender may have been a mere broker who buys from any source to resell. The birds may never have been line-bred. The lofts may have been infected with roup, cancer or other diseases which weakens the constitution and makes a bad history for breeders. They may have been chosen from the late birds which are often weakly. They ma\-. have been from haphazard matings with nothing known as to their vigor or productivity, or the mating may have been too young to breed for pigeon stock. The desirable breeding stock should be from a reliable and trustworthy breeder who absolutely knows his birds and their record. They should be from strong, mature, vigorous and productive parentage, which has been line- bred. They should be hatched during the natural breed- 378 Science and Art of Poultry Culture ing season of April and May, when their development will be quick and vigorous, regardless of the price of squabs at that time. The parentage and lofts should be free from all vermin and disease. Abnormally pro- ductive parentage should be avoided as their offspring is usually weak. Well bred, well tended and vigorous par- entage will insure a good foundation stock. Then arises the query, How shall such stock be ob- tained? This is not so easily answered. The first effort will be to find a trustworthy breeder having stock for sale. If one is not personally known the next best plan is to make haste slowly until one is satisfied on that point. We assume the variety has been decided upon but the matter of age is also very important. Many advocate purchasing " working mates," a term employed for pig- eons which have mated and are breeding. This is a satisfactory method, but no breeder can guarantee " working mates," since the change may result in break- ing up the mating. For honest working mates of good quality a liberal price must be paid to insure both quality and proper age. Pigeons are at their best between the ages of two and seven years. One can afford to pay a liberal price per pair for birds which are two years old rather than paying one-half as much for birds whose breeding capacity has been drained. Young stock have a whole lifetime ahead of them. The method of obtaining breeding stock as practiced by breeders of Europe and by many in America is to buy them from the nests. Place an order with a reliable breeder who will ship an equal number of males and females according to specifications in the order. They will arrive when but few days older than prime squabs. Cull out any not considered standard and place the rest together in temporary quarters or in the regular loft. If Guinea Fowls 379 placed in the regular quarters separation of non-mating or other undesirable birds will be more difficult. In a few days the birds will begin to mate and when it is a certain fact that a pair are working mates catch, band and remove them to their regular loft where they can begin work. In this way a loft of truly mated pairs will be built up permanently. Give the birds time to mate well before removing. There is nothing gained by hur- rying them. By this plan only mated birds will be in the loft. The advantages of this method are that better and more permanent matings result, the birds' entire productive period is utilized, more satisfactory stock is assured at a much cheaper cost, they become accustomed to their new quarters more readily than older birds and the transaction usually proves more satisfactory to both vender and vendee. The only objection ever raised is that the females being more delicate, and also a light mortality existing among young stock, the matings are often broken up. This objection is not a serious one as all unmated birds are taken from the breeding lofts at once since they disturb the peace of the loft. Eggs are sometimes sold for breeding, but this never proves to be a satisfactory method of buying new blood. Many new varieties have been introduced, but it is bet- ter to begin with an established variety and strain. The general care of the breeding lofts and of the breeders is the same as for other fowls, with the added caution against unduly disturbing the birds. Mating — Nearly all varieties of pigeons usually mate for life when such mating has been natural and free choice has been given. It is also claimed by reliable breeders that related pigeons will not mate if other choice is allowed them. They are constant and home- loving mates. However, there are exceptions to this 380 Science and Art of Poultry Culture general rule. When matings are forced, when the selec- tion is very limited or when removed to new quarters there often occur separations and subsequent remating with other birds. There often appear abnormal males or females which will not mate at all ; also some males will drive more than one female, and there are females which receive attentions from more than one male. Any such tendencies should at once be suppressed by removing the transgressors from the loft. ISecause of the greater delicacy of the females there is usually a greater per cent of males than there ought to be in a loft. These should be removed as soon as dis- covered. It is quite an impossible matter for the beginner to sort out mated pairs and to distinguish sex in a loft containing a number of pigeons. Even with two persons to follow the pair caught driving mistakes often occur and an unmated pair placed in the regular loft. A com- mon mistake of beginners is to take love-making for mating. A male may be teasing and enticing a female and yet not be mated. When the male is caught driving a female, when they begin to build a nest and when they roost together (or one in the nest with the other above or near by) then the mating is an assured fact and removal is justified. Too early removal often breaks up a mated pair. Never place working mates in a perma- nent loft without banding and recording each. Band males on the right leg and females upon the left leg. If either dies the band and record show the sex and the unmated bird can be much more easily detected since only the half of the birds bearing bands upon the oppo- site leg to that on the dead mate need be caught to find the band number sought. Never leave an unmated bird among working mates. Instead of taking out the un- Guinea Fowls 381 mated bird some place another in the same loft and trust to the immated birds to mate. In buying pigeons from dealers one must beware of terms used. Some advertise pairs, meaning two regard- less of sex ; others adopt such terms as " band-mated " and " special-mated," which are birds placed together until they take up with each other. " Mated pigeons " and " guaranteed mated " usually mean pigeons taken while driving. If the term " working mates " is used there should be no misunderstanding as to its meaning and all the above terms used in pigeons-breeding should in all justice be synonymous with '* working mates," or instant mates which are actually producing stock, since this is the interpretation of all terms by the uninitiated. Young pigeons mate very early, but this should be discouraged as much as possible since the first few hatches are often quite weak and the squabs are small in size. The mating often begins at three months with a nest of squabs at eight months. Full vigor should be gained at two years of age after which breeding stock may be produced with good results. If the squabs of a particular mating result in dark skins the mating should be broken up and remating take place. Dark beaks and feet are usually begetters of dark-skinned squabs, but not so with the plumage which is often jet black, yet clear white-skinned squabs result. Never mate off col- ored nor defective birds, as the effects will follow for many generations. One should not be discouraged if five per cent of the young breeders die during their early months. AA^atch the lofts very closely for any abnomial tendencies in the matings. Ef^gs, Iiicitbofioii and Brooding — Both male and fe- male of working mates assist in nest-building, in incu- bating and brooding. The female usually occupies the 382 Science and Art of Poultry Culture nest at nij^^ht. The nest is composed of twi.c^s, straw, dried grass and other similar material. Tobacco stems are used exclusively by many to avert lice. Pigeons usally lay two eggs, a day apart, and begin brooding at once. There often occur infertile and weak-germed eggs, yet the percentage is light. The period of incubation cov- ers seventeen to eighteen days. When the hatch comes off it is claimed that a male and female squab are the usual result and when a little older they may be told apart in the nest by the pugnacity of the male and the timidity of the female. If this be true, to keep their sex identity, one may clip the wing of one sex or the opposite wing of each sex. If either dies it is usually the female. ]\Iany breeders consolidate the squabs that are left alone in nests combining only squabs of equal ages. A young pigeon is a squab until it begins to fly and its beak hardens. It is ready to market just before it leaves the nest when the feathers under the wing are developed. This is usually about the end of the fourth week although the strain, the variety and the weather have much to do with the development. The first month after leaving the nest there is often as high as a twenty per cent mortality among the young pigeons. A high class wholesome feed ration influences results in squab raising very materially. The new nest or a new family or both are often started before the young squabs are ready to market, and in fact the new nest is started as soon as the pigeon-milk diet for the squabs ceases. However, the young birds are not neglected as long as they are on the nest and are often fed while on the floor. The average number of pairs to each working mating is from three to six per Guinea Fowls 383 year. As high as fourteen pairs have been known, but this is very unusual and weak offspring results. Foods and Feeding — The first five or six days the young birds are given nothing but " pigeon-milk "' from the crop of the old bird. Both male and female assist in feeding the squabs until they can care for themselves. About the sixth da}' the old birds begin giving the young birds an almost exclusive grain diet. The young squabs to do well must have their meals regularly and there- fore an attendant should feed early in the morning and again in the middle of the afternoon so that the old birds may have sufficient time to feed the broods before dark- ness sets in. Fresh water twice daily in clean dishes is necessary. Furnish a dish of water for bathing purposes during the summer, but see that it is emptied within an hour of the time given to keep the birds from using it for drinking purposes. A dish each of grit, salt, charcoal and oyster shell should always be before them. As to the main ration of a pigeon, it should be of the best grain and perfectly sweet. New and musty grain are both injurious to squabs. Feed what they will clean up unless they are at liberty, when place feed constantly before them to keep them away from set-traps and other lofts. Do not try to economize on feed, as such economy is expensive. The average cost per annum to feed each pair of breeders is about $1.50, not counting labor or investment. The balanced ration suggested may be varied to suit the needs of the locality and availability of the ingredients. Do not drop out the peas, wheat or corn, and during molt the hemp seed and millet seed are essential. Combine hard wheat thirty per cent, cracked corn ten per cent, buckwheat ten per cent, Can- ada peas fifteen per cent, Kaffir corn ten per cent, hulled oats ten per cent, millet seed five per cent, hemp seed 3S4 Science axd Art of Poultry Culture five per cent and beef scrap five per cent. Hopper feed- ing is not satisfactory to the majority of breeders. Loft and Fly — The principles governing- the building of a pigeon loft differs in no way from general poultry- house construction. The only recommendation for pig- eons would be a double floor one foot from the ground, rat-proof and free from draughts. An alleyway should be arranged, although not an absolute necessity. It is an added means for giving the birds freedom and quiet sur- roundings. Partitions between lofts should be boarded to the top of the room. Above these divisions should be stretched poultry netting to form a ceiling to the lofts, the space above giving excellent ventilation. Too much glass is not well, nor openings which allow of draughts. The fly or yard should be the width of the house, eight feet high, and about twenty-five feet long, house, eight feet high, and about twenty-five feet long, and of inch wire mesh to exclude the English sparrow. The longer the yard or fly the more freedom given the inmates. The capacity of each loft will depend upon the indi- vidual and the buildings. A floor space of one and one- half square feet to each pair and a fly space of about six square feet per bird make an excellent house for them. How many pairs should be in each loft is a debated question, but from twenty-five to fifty pairs seem to be the better number, although a few claim as high as one hundred and fifty pairs do just as well. About thirty-five pairs in each loft has the most advo- cates. The usual feed. grit, shell, water and other recep- tacles are used. A bath tray is also needed. Roosts are little used in the house and four-inch roosts in the fly give the birds a chance for a dailv sun bath. Xests should Guinea Fowls 385 PLAIN HELMET. Courtesy of A. E. Robst. 386 Science and Art of Poultry Culture number nearly double as many as there are birds and a handy arrangement that draws out and cleans easily should be provided. The sizes of the nests usually run twelve by twelve by twenty inches. This gives ample room for nesting and brooding. No artificial heat should be supplied. Fresh air without draughts is essential. Ventilate by cloth openings. Have an alighting board each side of the exit. All birds when changed should be given permanent quarters quite early so that they may become used to them and get down to business at once. The first open- ing they leave will be home to them and to that point they will return. These permanent buildings should not cost to exceed $1.50 to $2.00 per pair, and each year depreciation should be figured to replace the building when worn out or decayed. Care — Pigeons should be given close observation daily to see that all is progressing well. Vermin should be kept away, for if once present much difficulty will be found in getting rid of it. All new stock should be quar- antined and if necessary treated before being introduced into the lofts. See that food and water are regularly given. Each flock should be of the same age for best results, and also when a loft is too old for breeding it can all be sold at once and a new flock placed therein. Flocks of the same age breed better and get along more peacefully. Pigeons should be kept congenial and as free from molestation as is practicable. The premises should be kept sweet and clean. How often the lofts and yards should be cleaned is not agreed upon by breeders. Some clean often while others clean but once a month. There is a happy medium which will fit each plant when the local conditions are studied. Disturb the birds no more often than is necessary. Guinea Fowls 387 The time taken for an average two hundred-pair plant will be about two hours each day and one full day to care for the marketing of squabs and cleaning up gen- erally. Killing and Dressing — Squabs are usually ready for market at four weeks of age if the matings have been vigorous and the weather not too severe. The variety and strain will also have some effect upon the maturing of the young stock. When ready for market they should be fully feathered under the wings. They should still have soft beaks and be unable to fly from the nest. If killed too early they are classed as " soft " and heavily discounted. If they are allowed to remain too long they will be classed as pigeons and sold as such at a loss. Squabs begin to decrease in weight at once after they are ready to leave the nest. The killing is done by bleeding at the mouth, although some pull the neck. For nearly all markets they must be plucked. After plucking they are chilled, graded, inspected and tied by the feet in bunches of six or packed in a box in neat order. If sent any distance they should be packed in layers of ice. Do not put odd sizes together or dark skinned squabs in the regular bunches as they will be accepted only at a heavy discount. Empty crops are secured by gathering the squabs before feeding time. Markets and Prices — Breeding stock is marketed at any time of the year, but the summer and fall sees the bulk of shipments made. Where " birds out of nest " are to be shipped they are usually taken from the nests and fed a week before sending away. The same meth- ods are employed in disposing of pigeon-breeding stock as in other poultry, and the chapters upon that subject will apply here in most part. Breeders command per 388 Science axd Art of Poultry Culture working pair from $2.00 to $25.00 for good stock from a well-known or reliable breeder. The marketing of squabs is not difficult in any large city. If they are of good size, well dressed and attract- ively packed they will command a ready sale at a good price. They are classified in the markets by weight and quoted by the dozen. Light birds are cut heavily in price and heavier squabs are not given their just dues at all times. To command a high price a person must be able to furnish a steady quantity and of a good quality weighing from eight to ten pounds per dozen. The season of high prices is during January, February and March. Four dollars per dozen is not uncommon for good squabs on a steady output. Do not attempt to put other than white-skinned birds upon the average squab market. Fashionable clubs, ho- tels and restaurants are the best private customers where one is able to make a contract for a given supply. Chapter XXIX. PHEASANT CULTURE. The writer's knowledge of pheasants had its incep- tion a few years ago while residing in the American home of the China pheasant, the Willamette Valley in the State of Oregon. Early one morning while flying past the residence of a neighbor, a China pheasant cock struck the telephone wires, dislocating its neck. Pick- ing it up the neighbor brought it over to show to the writer. A more beautiful bird would be difficult to im- agine. In Europe the pheasant has been propagated in cap- tivity for a considerable period, all the large game pre- serves being restocked for several decades. As in the case of certain other fowls its introduction into the United States has been quite recent. Anything like suc- cessful introduction dates from the year 1882 when Judge Denny, of Oregon, then United States Consul Gen- eral at Shanghai, China, sent a shipment of China pheas- ants which were liberated in the Willamette Valley. They were a native of northern China. For sever years they were protected by law; then an open season each year was granted to sportsmen. So rapidly did they multiply that during the open season each year, it is estimated that fully one-half million China pheas- ants are killed. This is in the face of considerable law- breaking, although the farmers are lending effective aid to the State authorities against this evil. Many sportsmen claim the pheasant to be the gamiest 389 390 SCIENCR AND ArT OF POULTRY CuLTURR bird in existence and without well trained dogs the pheasant is in Httle danger. Its tendency to stay in open country, its ability to keep away from a dog when winged and its cunning when danger is near, all tend to make the pheasant the delight of the true hunter. Its beauty, its harmlessness to crops, its value as an in- sect scavenger and its delicacy of flesh recommend it for stocking any portion of the civilized world, since the hardier varieties do well as far north as Canada and Sweden. Varieties — The leading varieties or those classed so, pheasants regardless of a true scientific basis, are Chi- nese, English, Golden, Silver, Reeves, Amherst, Jap- anese, Mongolian, Soemerings, Swinhoe and many others. The Chinese and English seem to be the chosen game birds, while the others are bred more for orna- ment or exhibition. The females of all varieties do not approach the males for beauty. The favorites for beauty are the Chinese and Golden. The former is in full plumage at five or six months old, while the second year finds the Golden at his best. The English is also a hand- some cock. The pheasant's grace and its plumage of delicately blended colors are not capable of description and it would be folly to attempt it. Let each person see one and feel the truth of the above statement. The Chinese and the English are very similar in size and traits, yet the former is perhaps more timid than the latter. The Golden is less timid and has a somewhat higher coloring. The Reeves are noted for their long, beautiful tail feathers. The others are all attractive. The sales of eggs and stock are greatest from the first three named, while the others bring higher prices be- cause they lay fewer eggs and are considered more difficult to raise. Pheasant Culture 591 Place of Confinement — It is very desirable in raising pheasants in captivity to allow each of them to have sixty square feet of space, although some give them less. Arrange for the maximum of dryness and sunshine. Keep the premises clean and fresh. The only building furnished in mild climates is a shed which comes low enough to keep out heavy rains and any excess of wind. In dry climates a low evergreen tree is sometimes the only protection. In cold climates it is better to give the birds a good protection. Grown pheasants are very hardy and in a wild state rarely seek trees at night. They often roost upon the ground and seem to prefd a place to roost where thy can see above and around them. Because of this tendency they will often roost in the yards instead of in the buildings until taught. The yard fence should be of boards for one or two feet, above which should be inch mesh wire. One has the choice of covering the pens or of clipping the flight feathers of the wings to prevent flight. All wire should be loosely attached to prevent injury to the birds when they become frightened and thus fly against the wires. Arrange gates and doors to close quickly as pheasants are very active and quick in motion. In all other respects the general principles of poultry house construction apply. Mating — Pheasants differ somewhat in mating char- acteristics. The China cock will mate with three or four hens. So will some other varieties. The cock bird should be changed once in a while to make him the most attentive. Care must be exercised that males do not get together during the breeding season, since om- only will survive the battle that is sure to follow. Sil- vers and Swinhoes are mated in pairs. The tendency in wild pheasants is to mate in pairs, the cock bird often 392 SciEXCE AXD Art of Poultry Culture assisting in the care of the brood. In stocking estates, birds should be selected and liberated by pairs for the best success. The Chinese, English, Japanese, ]\Ion- golian. Reeves and similar varieties will breed the first spring, while the Golden and Amherst should be older and the Silver and Swinhoe are mated at two years of age. I\Iany males are quite fearless during the breeding season, even attacking the attendant with much violence at times. ^SS^ of Pheasants — In the Willamette Valley tht pheasant nests in the tangles of brush and grass where it takes an adept to discover themT The nesting takes place in any country during the natural breeding season for birds and and two or three broods of about fifteen chicks each, in a season are common. Some of the eggs are of a greenish tint, others nearly white, and are the size of an average Bantam Qgg. In confinement the hens do not nest readily, laying in the yards like cer- tain varieties of water-fowl. Neither are they good mothers, yet in the wild state no better mothers exist. The eggs should be gathered often and cared for like any other egg. More eggs are produced in confinement, since the sitting and brooding periods are not factors. Fertility in pheasant eggs runs high where good care is given. During the laying season one must exclude strangers from the yards if the best success is to be gained, since their timid natures are easily disturbed. Incubation — The incubation of pheasant eggs is large- ly done by chicken hens or Bantam hens. The heavily feathered Bantam hens seem to give better results be- cause they are not too heavy and their temperature is more nearly like the pheasant mother, wdio \\\\\ not sit in captivity. Artificial incubation can be used, but like poults, the first few weeks of the life of a pheasant are Pheasant Culture 393 very important. Like poults, they are hardy when be- }ond a certain age. Very few attempt incubation in any other way than by hens. Apply the same principles to setting pheasant eggs as in hen's eggs, except the can- dling is often omitted. The same care is given the hens. Pheasant eggs will begin to hatch about the twent> third day, but do not allow the hen to leave the nest with the wee birds for a day after the hatch is well cleaned up. The same care against lice should be given to the hen and little pheasants as in the case of other poultry. Each brood should be limited to what a hen can easily cover. Brooding — Any good brood coop for hens will do for pheasants. They need sun (without too much heat) and air, yet must be dry and clean in every way. Confine the brood quite closely to the coop until accustomed to the call of the hen. In a few days the wee birds may be allowed a small run in front of the coop and finally the hen may be allowed the run of a small yard. Each night, for a few days after each change, the operator must see to it that the small pheasants are under the hen, and if not, gently place them there. Do not forget that the wild instinct develops rapidly in the little birds, therefore be quiet in movements and avoid any unneces- sary change in clothing or surroundings. Changes should be made in the evening when possible. As the young- sters grow, their wings may need clipping to hold them in the yards, and in doing this, use care not to cut the portion of the wing that protects the lungs. The flight feathers only need clipping. About the end of the first month the plumage will begin to change. The females will change but little, while the males will take on the harmonious gorgeous- ness which makes them so attractive. At anv time one 394 Science and Art of Poultry Culture finds the little birds refusing to go under the mother hen, it is time to remove her, as they are stubborn in this matter. In handling the young, or even the older pheasants, do not take them by the extremities, but hold them by the body. To catch them, many recommend a net with a five-foot handle. Foods and Feeding — Pure and fresh water is abso- lutely essential. Do not let either the water or con- tainers become tainted or impure. After a day give green food consisting of chopped cabbage, lettuce, man- gels, clover or other tender greens. Keep a little char- coal and fine grit where the hen can get it and so the pheasants may go to it at pleasure. Keep a little chick food before them which consists of millet, corn and wheat in equal parts. These will form the constant side dishes for the brood. Now comes the real meal which is served about five times a day during the first week. It should consist of fresh hard-boiled eggs mixed with equal parts of oatmeal or a lesser quantity of corn- meal, or shorts may be used. Do not give it as a wet mash but feed dry. This may be varied once a day with fine fresh meat cuttings dusted with flour or shorts. The meat must be lean and well ground. Dry boiled rice or other grain is good when broken up. Another commonly fed diet is one of worms, which takes the place of the meat and tgg entirely. This worm diet is the common maggot. Fresh bone and meat trim- mings are placed in a pan over an inch of fine dirt. Leave exposed to flies during warm weather and in three days the bones should be removed and some thin slices of fresh meat or liver laid upon the dirt and the bone replaced. Replace the liver each day with fresh. One will soon determine how much to use. After about a week the larvae will be developed and ready to feed. Pheasant Culture 395 396 Science and Art or Poultry Culture The number of birds and the weather will determine the operations in worm culture. Begin in time to have larvae on hand at hatching time. The birds cannot overeat on larvae. Don't try to produce too many larvae in one pan and thus overheat it. About the third week reduce the worm diet gradually until the full grain diet is given the fifth week. After the first week feed only three times a day. Where a w^orm diet is not given fresh meat should be fed sparingly nearly every day until a month old, when ev- ery other day will suffice until grown. Some meat during breeding seasons is almost essential. Too heavy a meat ration may produce leg w^eakness as in other poultry. Older birds may be given a grain diet with plenty of green food. In short, the same care is needed as in other fowls. They are very hardy after they are three months old. General Care — It is no harder to raise pheasants than many other kinds of fowls if a few precautions arc ob- served. They are yet almost in their wild state. While all is regular and only their usual keeper is about, they become quite tame, following him about the yards, hunt- ing worms at his spade, even resting upon the arm or hand if not molested. The moment a strange sound is heard or a strange person appears, a warning cry is heard and a reign of terror exists in every pen. If it be a sudden alarm, the birds are apt to injure them- selves by flying against the sides of the pen or the build- ings. Strange costumes, or even a new dress worn by the keeper will cause much fright to the more wild among them. While in captivity they do not use their wings much, do not nest, do not sit or brood their young. They can stand much cold w^hen able to obtain food. Their care is a pleasure. When wild, they seem to be Pheasant Culture 397 able to know when danger is near, yet many of the beau- tiful China cocks may be counted from the train win- dow in the Willamette Valley during the closed season. While passing along the wagon road the crow of the cock is heard frequently. Shipping Stock and Eggs — The shipping of the pheas- ants or eggs is the same as with any other fowl, using the same care in crating and shipping both stock and eggs as given in other chapters in this volume. They have been shipped from China, from England and across the United States with a low loss. The care en route always is provided for as in other poultry ship- ments. Give them plenty of room and ventilation with- out draughts. Provide a drinking cup within the ship- ping coop. Notify the consignee to be upon the watch for the consignment. In conclusion, let each section of the country where China or English pheasants are not in a wild state, be urged to import a few pairs, protect them by adequate laws and await the results, which will be both surprising and gratifying. Chapter XXX. ACCOUNTS AND RECORDS. Very few persons who are carrying forward a business will deny the value of accounts and records, even though the business may be small and simple of detail. The value lies in being able to use system, thereby growing more systematic, in the restraint imposed upon ones tendency toward liberality in expense, in the enforced study of existing conditions, in the reducing of the mis- takes which lead to discord and litigation, in the knowing why profit or loss has been possible and in the count- less other ways apparent to the one so keeping accounts and records. Their form is not so important so long as the results are attained, unless thereby the labor is simplified. The countless systems devised and placed before the public consist mainly of cards or loose leaves or sometimes com- binations of both. Both have much merit when properly handled. The cards need suitable holders or filing cases, which are not expensive, while the loose-leaf method re- quires a holder or finder which may be bought or made. A clean and handy place to put records is desirable. It may be best to copy certain records one wishes to pre- serve where it is found handier to have the original rec- ord or account at some convenient place upon the prem- ises. They should be so arranged that comparisons may be easily made and studies thereof be the means of im- provement. And the systems are possible of wide application. 398 Accounts and Records 399 400 Science and Art of Poultry Culture The}- may be arranged to show any and every phase of the business in which one is engaged. Any of the forms shown herein may be used under this system. Each per- son may arrange card records to suit his needs and his preferences. One may wish to file them alphabetically, while another may prefer filing by locality. Still others might use both methods. Upon these cards may be placed a wide variety of information and under "re- marks" miscellaneous data recorded. An example of the value of the latter may be given by referring to the two incubation record forms herein shown. Under "Re- marks" one might easily note the oil purchases, age of eggs set, accidents during incubation, methods of man- aging the parent stock, the various qualities of the par- ent stock, to which brooders the hatch was transferred, and other items which in the future would be highly prized. In the accounting plan, simple forms only are sug- gested. They may be varied or enlarged to suit local con- ditions. As many different sub-accounts may be intro- duced as the individual business may require. The an- nual statement may also be amplified to show much inter- esting detail. Every business man in any line should always carry a memorandum pad and a pencil to jot down such items as he may desire, to recall or record at his convenience, make notes of odds and ends to be caught up, of a re- pair here, a change there, an engagement made, in short make the pad an invaluable aid. A diary is often of much interest. A cash account strictly adhered to is al- ways desirable. Accounts and Records 401 w o t, O w E o u E^ o +J c rt E c c" o m 1 (^ C ■ C M 'O c d h4 M 3 E SoJ u ss s ? ft s^ ?^ X o 1i Sw ■5 s F^ >< ~j; W o c o m 1-1 ^ o O fo (D ^ s 1 CD 1 w rt o H g _o ft 0) p OJ ^ M 3 O c rt o w 03 •3 § u m " U o >. 3 m % t- Ci^ 1 2 o ^ 0) ■s » - 1) o 6 ffi ti E b£ o 1 c m E m 0/ a ^ o m cii g PU m g c M suon^H JO puix suoijipuoo sqiBaa SIBJOJ, « S§ 1 S 1 g 13 S ^ i §3 1 N S 2 so ^ S S 3 eo 23 S 2 OS 00 f- 5D in ^ 93 W OS ^ muoK 404 Science and Art of Poultry Culture S 3 ^ fa O S Pi fa 1 rt 1 o H 1 M s g ?? s g i3 s s §i M g 2 t-^ 2 3 2 w ;5 o to 00 t- «o in 1 ^ 1 OT N ^ 1 ll "1 1 2 ^" . o -S « •^^ § e 2 £ « W « fc Eh ;il3noe lan^ A^ipiiunH uonBinu.5A imsin SuiiuoK XU( I aE8iC pui muoM ^ a! : s " ^2 c o > o 0) c U PU M s ^ Xi o S.2 Zfe 3 ° U o aj s- > K a H 0) tf ^2 6 ^ O 3 2 CIh fa p a K* d i- o 3 E PlH -a c W >> a; >H ^ ,C q 3 PL4 § m ai Q 3 « o H 408 Science anu Art of Poultry Culture 1 1 M % ^ d = o ^ ^^ to o - c ^, a'5 '-' - ^^"p OVh o S i % t. p. c PL, E 1 ^ o ■2 Sfc ^-o-SS ^ C * CO -«55- C ^> o : ° • ^ 8 tn . >. >. >. >, >> • >. a > >- Ih ^ t. ■» O o o • o a; c c m <1i • > > (T| c n c C c c a rt 'rt 03 oj cS • 'c! c3 ^H 5 s g5 CCCCCCtnC m m . 4) 0. D O; ^ ^ •2 -J .5 ':3 "O > JJJJJJ JhI tH£H Hh Chapter XXXI. PRINCIPLES OF ADVERTISING. General. The science of advertising, and it is a science in the highest sense of that term, is the zenith of every poul- tryman's success. In fact many a poultry keeper raises exceptionally fine birds but seems to lack the ability to get in touch with the buying public. This sounds the keynote to a definition of advertising as applied to the disposal of all poultry products. Therefore advertis- ing is making known to prospective purchasers or sel- lers, the fact that one has for sale or wishes to buy cer- tain poultry produce. The advertisement is the means whereby this notification is given. Thus far and no farther can advertising go. It merely brings the buyer or vendee and the seller or vendor together. It then has performed its mission and the subsequent success or failure is within the vendor's ability to make the sale or fail in the attempt. If the vendor, or would-be seller, or the vendee, thinks that his duty has ceased with the placing of the copy or other means, then he is absolutely doomed to fail- ure unless fortune is kind. While the copy is in itself an advancing study and one well worth spending time and money upon, yet that is merely the notification to the buyer or seller or an introduction. The real test comes with the handling of the inquiry or of the buyer or seller, if he comes in person. Back of all that is the ability to produce the quality and quantity as advertised 411 412 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Courtesy of Eugene Cowles. Principles of Advertising 413 or desired and the integrity to consummate a bargain which will make the buyer or seller a constant friend and customer. So many fanciers and market-poultry- men look no farther than to the customer at hand, not seeming to realize that every satisfied customer is the means of still others without one cent of expense be- yond right treatment and courteous manners. Every means of advertising is some expense, either in money or time. Therefore it must be profitable or loss results. To be profitable it must be of the right kind, it must be constant and well timed and its results must be properly cared for when obtained. Each separate field of the poultry industry has its own peculiar season when buyers are most active, and in view of that the live advertiser creates the greatest stir at that particular season, yet never ceases entirely unless his capacity has been reached or his output en- tirely taken. The vendor of eggs for setting purposes relies mainly upon February, March and April ; of eggs for culinary purposes, all seasons except the spring, when prices are undesirable ; of stock for breeding pur- poses, from fall until early spring holds the preference; of turkeys for market, the late fall and holiday season ; of broilers, the late spring brings the main demana , of roasters and capons an entirely different season. Thus one could run through every branch of the vast field of poultry produce were it not useless for the fact that markets dififer somewhat in diflerent climates and each producer should understand the demands of his own market. In order that some assistance may be given the thou- sands that have not had the opportunity to study this science, a few practical suggestions will be given under the subheads of the mediums through which to reach 414 Science and Art of Poultry Culture the public, the kind of matter to place before them, the care of inquiries and the value of such mediums as are chosen. AIediums. In choosing a medium tlirough which to reach the bu\er in case one has something for sale, or the seller or vendor, in case one is seeking a place from which to buy, the chief thought should be how to reach that end with the least possible investment. In speaking of in- vestment or expense, it is not the object to confine our amount expended to the original sum of money spent, but to the sum total expended to accomplish a given result. What might seem a lavish expense if placed by one method and in one medium, often would bring adequate returns as against very meagre returns if spread over many mediums and by several methods. On the other hand the reverse might be true of a dif- ferent product. We are now able to see that the product, the location and the available mediums are the three chief factors in becoming introduced to those with wdioni business may be transacted. The product is the first consideration. Of what does it consist? When fully understanding that fact, then oc- curs the query, who would desire or be possible pur- chasers of this class of produce ? The class is here spoken of purposely, since various classes, and grades of those classes, of poultry produce would be desired by entirely dififerent buyers. Again, if the business is to be built upon hqnor the class must be conformed to and the grade must be understood and be strictly adhered to or subsequent failure will be justified. This applies to every part of the business, whether one has poultry, commercial products, or in any other field of activity. Principles of Advertising 415 CORNISH INDIAN. Courtesy of T. D. Moore. 416 Science and Art of Poultry Culture The location is also a chief factor in choosing a me- dium for reaching the pubhc. A good medium might exist which would place one in touch with a right market, yet because of the distance from such market and the poor facilities for getting produce to that market in proper condition, would be sufficient reasons for cau- tion. Upon the other hand, rapid transportation and better methods are doing wonders for the poultry pro- duce business and distance is becoming less and less a factor in location. The main thought in location is to know what each available market demands and choose only the best market or territory for the out- put of the branch of the business being advertised. The field in almost any direction from any location is nearly limitless. The available mediums is the third great factor in careful advertising. They are legion in number, and one's ability may reach any height in choosing or cre- ating ways or means of advertising. Salaries of goodly proportions are being earned by experts along these lines. The creation of methods is not within the scope of this work, but the aim will be to suggest some of those ideas which are proving practical and in extensive use. Personal solicitation is one of the most valuable me- diums of advertising wherever and whenever it is prac- tical. Personal contact gives both parties the best op- portunity for becoming acquainted and fully under- standing the need upon the one hand and the property for sale upon the other. No other way is open to such a searching of character or such a chance to cement a business friendship. The principle is the same whether one is buying produce or stock or selling the same, whether one is at home or abroad. When of most ben- efit to the buyer, he must go to the places where the Principles of Advertising 417 sellers congregate or to their homes, while the seller must go where the buyers are apt to congregate or go to their homes. The product would determine a choice to some extent. Vendors and vendees of eggs and stock for breeding purposes find poultry exhibi- tions and agricultural fairs a profitable meeting ground. As they gather around their own or the exhibits of others they become acquainted and have large oppor- tunity for the study of their mutual needs. This is also just as true of their meeting in the home or at the place of business. Publications which accept advertising matter and are of such character as to be taken by the class one wishes to reach, make excellent mediums. One advertising high-bred cattle would hardly use a hardware journal as a medium because hardware men as a class care nothing for cattle. Upon the same principle, one sell- ing fancy fowls and eggs for hatching should adver- tise in a poultry publication of some kind, because it reaches those interested in poultry. To a certain ex- tent farm journals may be valuable. Besides the reg- ular poultry journals there are poultry books and cer- tain catalogues in which one may buy space and which are quite permanent in their nature, which fact adds value to the space bought. In the journals one has two factors to consider — the circulation and the territory one wishes to reach. A guaranteed circulation means a certain number of people reached each month or week as the case may be. In contracting for advertising, some claim it would be a waste of money to pay one journal the same rates which will buy the same space in one with four times the circulation. Others claim the local journal, even with the smaller circulation, will prove the better since it reaches more prospects for that 418 Science ane Art of Poultry Culture Principles of Advertising 419 territoty which is one's natural district. Each must set- tle this point by considering what the conditions will warrant. Again, if one is selling eggs and poultry in a commercial sense a poultry journal would be almost useless. It is the city home one wishes to reach in this case, and therefore the city daily or other medium that reaches most of these homes is the only one of value. So it must be clearly borne in mind that judgment is the important element in choosing a medium of this kind. Steady, not spasmodic, advertising is what counts, yet one can be unwise in the amount of space used out of season. Position in a publication is often important, although more depends upon the form and substance of the ad- vertisement than on position. Stationery is often little considered in the advertis- ing sense, yet is by far the most potent of all the or- dinary influences that go to make up the impression a breeder or dealer gives to the public. Letters are si- lent yet expressive salesmen. They give a wonderful clue to the general make-up and habits of the sender. We unconsciously give these matters more consider- ation than we are willing to admit, whether it is justi- fiable or not. The writing itself need not be criticised except as to its thought, since a poor writer may result from lack of training or other cause. It is the general tone and appearance of the letter that counts. Always choose a neat and reliable printer and one whose fa- cilities will allow of the grade of work desired. A neat and attractive letterhead is a valuable aid to any busi- ness. It should show clearly the character of the busi- ness, but withal have a quiet dignity. Catalogues of one's products, nicely illustrated, to send out to prospective customers and in answer to in- 420 Science and Art of Poultry Culture quiries are always an excellent means of advertising. Unless care and good judgment are exercised one may waste considerable in catalogue expense. Some charge a nominal sum for catalogues to stop the demand from those not really interested. Others claim it a poor practice. Exhibitions and agricultural fairs are excellent places to exhibit a product in the lines of stock for breeding purposes or for the purpose of inducing a purchase of eggs for incubation. A neat card should always be upon the coop and others placed where they may be se- cured by prospects to which they may refer in the fu- ture when wishing to place an order. The commercial side of the poultry business is better shown in such places and upon such occasions as will be seen by the city consumers of these products ; neat and tasty ex- hibits at church and society bazaars, at special associ- ation meets, in windows of fashionable retail stores or other places where the consuming public will see the exhibit and be led to desire such a grade of produce. The advertising value of a premium won at any com- petitive show should not be overlooked, nor from the purchaser's standpoint should it be forgotten that such ribbons are often won because of no competition. The thousands of visitors to such places usually note these facts, yet when reading the subsequent advertisements such fact does not appear. Business cards nicely worded and distributed among various interested persons are always a good method of advertising. Keep a supply near an exhibit, hand them to interested visitors, enclose them in business letters, place them discreetly among friends or acquaintances, send them to breeders or producers or consumers of the line of produce for sale, whose names are obtainable Principles of Advertising 421 from many sources and tack them up in conspicuous places frequented by prospective customers. Always carry a few about the person to use at such opportune times as often occur. Placards upon all packages of any description shipped to any market or to any destination are always effective means of spreading a reputation either for better or for worse. If the package contains excellent goods and is attractive in appearance the result will be for the bet- ter. Many use business cards for placarding all ship- ments. Where the package is to be returned for further service a stenciled notice should be used. The neatly painted and stenciled package attracts notice anywhere. Catchy advertising schemes are always on the market and each one must judge for himself of their value. Any scheme which places before the prospect an ad- vertisement in such a form as to make it permanent is what is often desired. This idea is pressed by vendors of calendars and other novelty advertising. The greatest advertising medium that could possibly exist is a satisfied customer. Each customer tells his friends and neighbors of his purchase and at the same time shows or expresses his pleasure or displeasure. This friend has other friends and thus an almost end- less chain of approval or disapproval is formed from each transaction. Rascals in the poultry business in ev- ery branch have justly found this out to their sorrow. Use strictly honest methods in advertising and success is inevitable if other management is even of common ability. The right kind of goods properly placed be- fore a buying public will bring good returns. A splendid medium is an attractive poultry plant or farm. Let each department be kept up in a businesslike manner, where thrift and good management are vis- 422 Science and Art of Poultry Culture ible upon every hand. Special features such as egg records, trap nests, modes of handling produce, are al- ways of interest to visitors. Copy. The copy or matter placed in an advertisement is very important. The secret, in a few words, is to catch the attention and hold it until such time as the reader is led to the gist of what is intended for him to read. The methods of doing this are varied. This is true because there are many different personalities or characters aiiiong the prospective customers or people to be reached. What would challenge the attention of one person would not be seen by another. What one would see if placed in a certain journal or location would never be seen by another whose habits lead him in entirely different channels. What is being aimed at by thousands of professional advertising writers is to compel the atten- tion of the greatest number of people by means of the fewest mediums and at the least expense. Whatever medium is chosen, now arises the question of the forming of the copy. A few principles will be suggested which are general in nature and the applica- tion of which should be practical. Upon all copy, where possible, give a good local bank reference. Where copy is to be used in journals, catalogues, or other printed publications, determine just how much space is to be used each month and then fit the copy to the space. IMany send in an advertisement which seems neat and attractive and upon receipt of the printed form are disgusted with its appearance. No one is to be blamed but the composer, since the printer was in- structed to place a given amount of matter in a given space. Do not overcrowd since many will not stop to Principles of Advertising 423 read it where they would glance over it if it were not so crowded. J\Iake some one part of each copy a strong line or attrac- tion. Some compel attention by a cut or picture, some by strong headlines and some in other ways. No mat- ter what the method employed the strong or attractive feature should bring out the central thought or thing for sale. One hunting for or interested in a particular product is not liable to look beyond headlines or illus- trations for the object of his search. Throw variety into advertising. An advertisement repeated month after month receives little attention. Change the entire copy quite often. Many follow cer- tain advertisers for the pleasure derived in noting their live methods. This invariably leads to results. ^lake no claims that are not absolutely warranted and which can be backed by actual test or can be shown to a customer to be as claimed. This kind of dishonesty will always prove a boomerang. Aim to be original and pointed in all copy. Remember that you are trying to catch the interest and then to hold it until the matter is laid before the mind and a favorable impression made. Do not lean too much to sensationalism, which may attract attention and hold it, yet it rarely inspires confidence. Quiet and dignified yet original and pointed copy will more often succeed.' Catchiness is not necessarily sensational. Do not fail to be seasonable in the copy. Day-old chicks or eggs for incubating would avail but little if ad- vertised in the fall instead of during the natural or spring season. Use more space in season and lesssen it out of season. If one sized space is used let the central idea keep pace with the output of each season. Let letterheads be also properly timed and in season or else 424 Science and Art of Poultry Culture general in their nature. Placards and business cards are subject to the same principle. Caring for Inquiries. Advertising is merely being introduced to a possible customer, yet it seems in place at this time to treat of the subject of caring for inquiries so that the value of advertising may be taken advantage of and its bene- fits secured. If the inquiries are personal, honesty and frankness will win an order if other requisites are pres- ent. It is the written inquiry of which one needs to be most careful. Promptness in answering inspires confidence in one's business methods as well as leaves no necessity for the inquirer to look elsewhere. Keep a copy of all cor- respondence, for both convenience and to insure no sub- sequent loss through misunderstanding. Look over each inquiry to be certain that every point is fully covered by the answer, thus avoiding delay and a wrong im- pression of carelessness in the one who answers the in- quiry. In every statement hew to the strict truth and live up to every promise made.' The copy kept is al- ways handy for a reminder. Use nothing but the best grade of stationery and a neat little letterhead thereon. In language and style be courteous, dig- nified and straightforward. No one likes to waste time on correspondence, therefore, be concise. Remember that in caring for inquiries comes the test of salesman- ship. Use a follow-up system and if these letters do not bring results allow the prospect to rest for a period. Ascertaining \^alue of Advertising. One of the greatest perplexities of the advertiser is to find out what returns are being received from the various advertisements which are being employed. Even though only one journal carries space, yet business cards Principles of Advertising 425 ■1 m^:?."- '.-j-Tf :■"•■ -^''•''-'oiSB^Hl^B^BBB^^BBi ^ ^1^1 A ^iJH ^^^9 ^Bu^^^nS^nMr^^!^^^! ^9H^9MM^^^^"Wi^iLlllflill^^H i^^^3 ^^^^^SSbSJB^^^^^I YOUNG BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK PULLET. Courtesy of Peerless Poultry Plant (Inc.). 426 Science and Art of Poultry Culture and other advertising are also in existence. Therefore each advertiser should have some method by which the advertising that pays should be ascertained and all other discarded. To do this successfully each piece of mail that is received should bear upon it the evidences of the source of the inquiry. This is accomplished by a variation in the address given to each separate medium of advertising. Some accomplish this by giving a dif- ferent street number to each, some by using ficticious postoffice box numbers above those in existence (with the consent of the local postmaster), some by different room numbers and many by department numbers or let- ters, which last named method is the preferable. These methods are essential because very few inquirers will state from what journal or other source they obtained the address. They are more careful to observe the full address. In this way let the advertising by card or placard bear as a part of the address, depart- ment A, that in a given journal, department B, and in another publication, department C, and so on indefinitely. While all the letters may not be thus designated, enough will be properly addressed to clearly indicate what mode of advertising pays best for a given investment. Record of Advertising and Its Results. To know to whom one has written, from whom one has inquiries, what medium is bringing the best results, and other valuable data, is easily acquired by means of a card system. Each medium through which one is seeking business may have its own card upon which one may enter daily the inquiries to be credited to it and its expense. Each name thus acquired together with its address and its source may appear upon a card in another set arranged al- phabetically, and also by states and cities if one desires. Principles of Advertising 427 Upon this same card the date and nature of each trans- action with this addressee should be entered. From this set of cards one may determine at any time which me- dium is bringing the best cash sales regardless of the number of inquiries. Where sales have been made they will also be a splendid reference in case other inquiries come from the same locality. Subsequent transactions may result from using these cards for a mailing list. A follow-up system may be made of these cards by tem- porarily removing such cards as are under correspond- ence and placing them under the proper date in the au- tomatic monthly tickler or desk file. When they have served this memorandum purpose replace them in the regular file. Chapter XXXII. ORGANIZING ASSOCIATIONS. Many times a group of persons are desirous of unit- ing for some specific purpose and because of inexper- ience and a certain natural timidity they fail to take the necessary steps to complete the desired organization. Even those more experienced sometimes wish to refer to some authority to refresh the memory. It is to as- sist either of these two classes that a few simple sug- gestions are given on the organization of associations. The objects for which associations are formed are without number. Nearly all the business of the civil- ized world is now done in that manner, although much of it is under various forms of corporate and partnership existence. To these organizations we do not refer, since the special laws covering these vary widely in different States and countries. The associations which desire such a character of organization should employ an attorney or other competent person to properly pre- pare the necessary papers and see that all the legal steps are correctly followed. Associations are frequently formed to promote the culture of certain varieties or breeds of stock or poultry, to hold exhibitions or ag- ricultural fairs, to obtain better prices or treatment in handling fancy or commercial poultry, to buy or to collect, ship and distribute eggs or other produce, to educate its members in better methods, and for count- less other objects. The advantages to be gained in thus associating to- 428 Organizing AssocixMions 429 BUCKEYE. Courtesy of Eugene Cowles. 430 Science and Art of Poultry Culture gether may not always be apparent at first thought. However, as one studies the power of organization the ernment of the local town, the county, the State and the United States. We see the benefits brought back from benefits gradually unfold to the view. We see the gov- having a representative of the local organization in the higher organizations. In local associations the same idea holds true when affiliation with other similar organ- izations takes place. United effort arouses a widespread interest which not only enhances the self-interest and influence but in turn spreads knowledge and usefulness among others. The public at large is benefited by what- ever is of benefit to the few. The righting of wrongs, the obtaining of just recognition, the wielding of in- fluence and the enlargement of opportunity are all better attained by the well-directed effort of an association than by the individual effort of many. Lectures, insti- tutes, exhibitions and other useful ends are thus more easily accomplished, bringing people to the community rather than requiring them to go elsewhere for these benefits. When a person or a group of persons have detei mined to attempt the organization of an association for some specific purpose, the first step is to issue a call for a temporary meeting of all those interested in the object in view. This call should clearly state the pur- pose, the place and the time of the meeting. The call may be by special letter, by newspaper notice, or by per- sonal solicitation. Before the time set for the meeting those instrumental in the call should inform themselves well on the subject at hand. If the local association is to become a member of some general organization, then full data should be at hand to show what requirements the hiHier bodv will demand of the lesser one. Orgaxizixg Associations 431 When the temporary meeting has been called to order a temporary chairman and a temporary secretary must be chosen. The chairman will explain, or call upon someone to explain, the object of the call, the benefits to be derived, the expenses to be met, the plans where- by the object may be attained, and such other items as are necessary to place everything clearly before the as- sembly. After a full discussion, some one will move to organize the association as planned, which, if carried, will place matters in the way of a permanent organization. The decision may be reached by voice, by hand or by written slips. The next step would wisely be one of membership. While the enthusiasm is high let the secretary take the names of all those present who will become members. They may pay the membership fee at this time or at a later date. Only those becoming members are rightly entitled to continue in the shaping of the business af- fairs of the association. A committee should now be appointed or elected to recommend a constitution and by-laws. A consti- tution for our purpose is the fundamental or basic prin- ciples or laws governing a body of persons. The by- laws are the less important provisions of the laws, sub- sidiary to the constitution ; or in short, they are the rules governing the details. The constitution says that there shall be a president, while the by-laws define the duties of the president. Some member of this committe usu- ally has a draft of the proposed constitution and by- laws. Sometimes the whole assembly take up this mat- ter of forming a constitution and by-laws. In the former case the committee usually withdraws for a time, to get ready their recommendations. In case this will take longer than is feasible, the committee may merely sug- 432 Science and Art of Poultry Culture CORNISH INDIAN, Courtesy of T. D. Moore. Orgaxizixg Associations 433 gest the number and names of the officers, the name and object of the organization, the fee to be charged and other main items, leaving the other details of the con- stitution and by-laws for the next regular meeting. The election of permanent officers is now in order. A President, Mce-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Di- rectors and any other special officers such as Auditors. Superintendents of special features. Departmental Man- agers, or other needed officers are chosen. The need of more than one Mce-President or of the special officers, will depend upon the object for which the association is formed. The permanent President and Secretary usu- ally take their respective places at once upon election. The Board of Directors ordinarily includes the Presi- dent and the Secretary and sometimes all the officers of the association. Having decided upon the name and object of the organization, the membership fee, the term and compensation of officers and other vital points, the organization is completed except as to the final adoption of the detailed constitution and by-laws in case they were not ready for full adoption. The meeting will usually be smoothly conducted, by each person being courteous to all, yet the adoption of certain rules of order would not be out of place. The election of or appointment of permanent committees to look after certain interests is often a good plan. A simple copy of a constitution and by-laws is given as a guide while organizing clubs or associations, varying such portions as do not conform with the needs at hand. A copy of the constitution and by-laws of any organiza- tion may usually be secured by application to the secre- tary of that organization. 434 Science and Art of Poultry Culture CONSTITUTIOX AND BY-LAWS OF THE CLINTON POULTRY ASSOCLATION. Constitution. Article I. Xatiic and Object. Section L This organization shall be known as the Clinton Poultry Association. Section 2. The object of this association shall be to promote and encourage the raising of better poultry, hold exhibitions and institutes and otherwise dissem- inate knowledge of poultry culture. Article If. Membership. Section L Subsequent to the charter membership all applicants for membership shall be recommended by one or more members of the association and approved by a majority vote of the association, or of the committee to whom this power may be delegated. They shall also be required to deposit one dollar each which must ac- company the applications. Section 2. The annual dues shall be one dollar, pay- able on or before September first of each year. Section 3. Members becoming more than six months in arrears shall lose membership in this association, said members having been given thirty days' notice of such delinquency by the secretarv. Section 4. Any member found guiltv bv the directors of willful misrepresentation or dishonest dealings in con- nection with the subject matter of this association shall be expelled. Article HI. Meetings. Section 1. Regular meetings shall be held once each month upon the first Tuesday evening thereof unless changed by the board of directors. Section 2. The annual meeting shall be held on such Organizing Associations 435 date and at such place as the board of directors may des- ignate. At this meeting shall occur the annual election of officers of the association and such other business as may come before the association. Proxies shall be al- lowed at the annual meeting but not more than four may be held by each member present. Article n\ Officers. Section 1. The officers of the association shall be a President, one or more A'ice-Presidents, a Secretary, Treasurer, Superintendent of Exhibitions, and a Board of ten Directors, of which all other officers shall be members. Section 2. All officers and directors shall hold office for one year or until their successors have been elected and qualified. Section 3. Officers of the association shall be elected by ballot by a majority of the members or legal prox- ies present at the annual meeting each year. Section 4. Vacancies occuring during the year shall be filled by the board of directors. Section 5. Proxies may be allowed at the annual meeting in the election of officers, but no more than two proxies shall be voted by any one member. Section 6. All new officers shall assume their duties two weeks after the annual meeting. Article ['. Ouoruui. Section 1. A quorum shall consist of eight members of the as.sociation present at the regular meetings and one-tenth of all members present in person or by proxy at the annual meeting. Article VI. Ainoiduiciits. Section 1. The Constitution and P>y-Laws of this as- sociation may be changed or amended by a two-thi.-ds 436 Science and Art of Poultry Culture vote of the members present at any meeting of this as- sociation. By-Laws. Article I. Duties of Officers. Section 1. It shall be the duty of the President of this association to preside at all its meetings ; appoint special committees ; preside over all the deliberations of the board of directors; and in other ways perform all the duties of a presiding officer. Section 2. It shall be the duty of the Vice-Presidents, in their order, to act in the absence of the President and to perform such other duties as may be prescribed by the board of directors. Section 3. It shall be the duty of the Secretary to keep the minutes of each meeting of the association and board of directors ; to conduct the correspondence of the association and keep proper records thereof; to distribute notices of meetings; to have charge of all books and papers pertaining to his office ; to collect the membership fees and dues and all other monies of the association, turning them over to the treasurer at the proper time and place ; to notify all members of their election ; to keep a full list of entries at all exhibitions, together with all awards placed ; and to otherwise care for such duties as are laid down by the board of directors for him to perform. Section 4. It shall be the duty of the Treasurer to have charge of all the funds of the association; to pay all bills properly approved by the President ; to keep ac- curate records of his office ; to make an annual report of his office at the annual meeting each year ; to hold his records open for inspection at all times to members of Orgaxizixg Association?; 437 the association ; and to otlierwise perform such duties as may be given him by the board of directors. Section 5. It shall be the duty of the Superintendent of Exhibitions to superintend all exhibitions held by the association under such rules and regulations as shall be laid down by the board of directors. Section 6. It shall be the duty of the board of di- rectors to have general charge of all the business of the association and be responsible therefor ; to define and supervise the duties of the officers ; and to report at each annual meeting, the condition of each office and of the association. Four members shall constitute a quorum. Article II. Compensation of OfUccrs. Section 1. Xo officer shall receive compensation for service performed, but all expense in connection with each office shall be borne by the association. Article III. Order of Business. 1. Roll call. 2. Reading minutes of preceding meeting. 3. Reports of officers. 4. Reports of committees. 5. Unfinished business. 6. Election of new members. 7. New business. 8. Election of officers and directors. 9. General discussions. 10. Adjournment. Article IV. Rules of Order. Robert's Rules of Order shall govern this organiza- tion in all cases where not inconsistent with the by- laws of this association. Chapter XXXIII. VICES, ENEMIES, PARASITES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY AND THEIR PROPER TREATMENT. Introduction. Fowls, like members of the human family, are sub- ject to disease and in many of the common ailments the symptoms are similar and the remedy much the same, except in a modified form. The bird catches cold, chills, has fever, difficulty of breathing, indiges- tion, nerve troubles, and responds as readily to mis- treatment, poorly ventilated quarters or improper feeding as does a person. In view of these facts, one can often get at the real symptoms and diagnose the case very accurately by the use of some good, practi- cal common sense. Many fanciers ridicule the idea of doctoring fowls, giving a sharp axe as their remedy for all ills. In a great many cases, especially among contagious dis- eases and where birds are not valuable specimens, this is the satisfactory thing to do. Many times too, the time expended in looking after and caring for the fowl is more valuable than the cured bird. On the other hand, unless one is willing to take this time necessary to observe and study symptoms, it is better that he keep out of the poultry business. Most fail- ures among poultry men are due almost entirely to diseases, while success in poultry raising depends 438 \^iCES. Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 439 upon the ability of those engag^ed in this industry to keep their birds free from all causes of disease. While we have not gone into details such as would be expected in a treatise devoted exclusively to poul- try diseases, yet this portion of the work aims at clear and concise causes and symptoms and practical com- mon sense methods of treatment. This subject will not be divided technically but rather according to the commonly accepted division among poultry men, attempting at all times to present plain truths in plain language divested of all technical terms so that all may understand. It is hard to diagnose exactly as symptoms are mis- leading and it is often difificult to tell where one dis- ease ends and another begins. One should strive to catch the disease in its early stages, as it is much more easily handled. At the commencement of dis- ease, local medication is liable to give better results than internal administration of remedies. Both are needed, however, for most satisfactory results. Prevention Better than Treatment — This is a well- worn precaution among poultry keepers, but one we cannot overlook as it is of much more value to be familiar with the prevention of disease or how to check its spread than to be able to diagnose and pre- scribe. We believe in the prevention of disease, for it takes time and money to doctor sick birds. Sick stock is a decided hindrance and a menace, hence a knowledge of the nature and common methods of preventing disease among fowls is essential to success in this im- portant industry. A sound constitution is the only real safeguard against disease. A bird is regarded as being in go3d health when it appears lively, has a 440 Science and Art of Poultry Culture clear eye, l)rii;iit red com1). is quick and active in its movements, has a good appetite and all its organs performing their respective duties. Given healthy stock, the problem of how to keep them so is usually solved by observing careful meth- ods of feeding and housing. From the time the chick comes into the world till the day of its death, this question of how to feed continually presents itself. It is taken up fully under the chapter of " Foods and Feeding " elsewhere in this volume, and if followed carefully will do much towards the rearing of strong, vigorous stock. Keep clearly in mind the fact that no one ration will supply the many needs of a bird. A fowl needs a variety of grains, plenty of meat and vegetables and a good supply of grit for masticating. To overlook these plain truths in feeding is to lay the groundwork for almost any of the troubles common to poultry. Neglect and carelessness in the housing of fowls, using poorly ventilated, dark, filthy, pest-ridden quarters are responsible for 95 per cent of all the poultry ills. Close confinement in a poorly ventilated house alone will more than counteract all known remedies. " Cleanliness next to Godliness " is nowhere more applicable than in poultry raising. In fact, filth, to- gether with the accompanying parasites and disease germs, is inexcusable and at the bottom of coimtless failures. Keep all poultry c[uarters clean and let the sim get at the germs and stimulate the fowls. Scien- tists are unable to exactly explain what there is in sunlight to produce growth, yet we know it to be es- sential for healthy growth of both animal and ]ilant life. Lice and mites cannot be termed disease, but thev Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 441 are the cause of disease and the most taxing of pests. Over half of the diseases to which poultry is subject to can be traced to this cause. There is no excuse for their presence. A careful study of the subject of parasites will enable one to combat successfully with these pests. All dead fowls should be buried immediately, . ^^ te^ \ i t ^^ ■ 1 r^ ^H F Vts^* Wfr- * >■'/' ^*^P ^^S^-^ ^pr single comb RHODE ISLAND RED. Courtesy of Lester Tompkins. thus preventing others from becoming contaminated by eating the putrid flesh or the maggots that so soon accumulate in such cases. All new birds or birds returning from the show room should be placed in quarantine until their health condition is exactly known. A small building apart from the main plant is very essential for this purpose and is not overlooked by the careful poultryman. Do not go direct from the sick birds to the well ones with- 442 Science and Art of Poultry Culture out first using antiseptic soap on the hands and care- fully disinfecting the clothing. It pays to take the time necessary to shelter the fowls prior to a storm. This is especially true with the young stock. Over- fat stock is subject to many diseases, as well as liable to such malformations as double-yolked eggs, soft-shelled eggs, egg within an egg and eggs that are undersized and off-shaped. Use care in selecting strong, healthy breeding stock and then breed for health. Preventive measures are far more satisfactory than medical treatment, and if due attention is paid to what has been written along this line there will be little cause for administering medicines. Disinfectants and How to Use Them — Every poultry- man realizes that to get the best results from a flock of chickens it must be kept perfectly clean. Coops, houses, runs or any of the poultry-house fixtures har- boring vermin or disease causes irritation among the fowls, resulting in nonthriving, nonproductive stock. There are no flocks absolutely free from infection. Parasites of some sort are very apt to be found in the initial flock. Wild birds or persons may carry conta- gion and spread it among the members of the flock. Some multiply upon the bodies of the fowls, others breed and develop in the houses or in the soil of ad- joining grounds, hence the necessity of systematic and efficient measures employed to check or eradicate these pests. Some are easily brought under subjec- tion, while others tax the skill and patience to the limit. Disinfection, then, is to remove or destroy all animal and vegetable parasites together with all forms of contagion. There are various methods of disinfecting and it is quite necessary to understand those which are most Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 443 available and which can be used with the least danger both to persons and fowls. For the interior of houses and their fixtures, a hot lime wash is one of the best applications obtainable and should be used at least twice each year. To pre- pare the wash, slack a half-bushel of lime in boiling water, after which strain to remove all sediment. To each gallon add one-fourth pound carbolic acid. Add one pound common salt and mix to the proper con- sistency by using skim milk. By putting in the proper coloring matter this wash may be made to compare favorably with a good quality of paint. When the poultry yards or runs have been in use for some time and have become contaminated with disease germs, a good disinfectant is necessary and there is nothing better than a five per cent solution of carbolic acid. It may be applied with an ordinary sprinkling can and should be done both before and following a thorough spading. When a gaseous disinfectant is required, there is nothing more effective than formaldehyde. Use a five per cent solution and spray over the inside of the in- cubator, brooder or house, then close tightly all win- dows and doors to confine the fumes. Fumigating with formaldehyde may be intensified by adding same to w^ater and boiling. If a stove is not available, an ordinary, small alcohol lamp may be used. After fumigating, allow air to circulate for some time before using as these fumes are deadly to fowds. The use of sulphur in fumigating is highly recom- mended where the building is sufficiently tight to re- tain the fumes. Place some sand or ashes in an old pan or kettle and upon this start a fire by using small pieces of wood saturated with kerosene. Upon this, 444 Science and Art of Poultry Culture or live coals taken direct from the stove, place the sulphur. Close all doors, windows and cracks, and do not open for several hours. The fumigating- may be made much more effective by spraying just before the fumigating. One pound of sulphur to eight or ten square feet is sufficient. Many poultrymen overlook the disinfecting power of the sun's rays in their poultry house construction and in the exposing of all movable fixtures to the di- rect rays of the sun as frequently as possible. Germs cannot live in the presence of sunlight. Keep in mind, too, that everything in nature is started in the dark, which in itself should be sufficient warning against dark and poorly ventilated houses. The Various Organs Grouped and Their Functions — The fowl, like the human body, is an individual made up of several distinct parts each of which has its special function to perform. These parts may be com- bined into groups or systems according as they are associated together for a common purpose. Hence the digestive apparatus is made up of the beak, tongue, oesophagus, crop, gizzard, liver and intestines, each separate and distinct in itself but when combined perform the work of obtaining, preparing and assimi- lating nutritive material for the sustenance of the whole body. Again, in the body of the bird we find the nostrils, larynx, trachea, lungs and air-cells which, when taken together, form the respiratory apparatus. The pur- pose of this wonderful system is the supplying of oxygen to the lungs and the ultimate purifying of the blood. Then there is the circulatory system composed of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries and lymphatics, Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 445 combined for the carrying of the nourishment and oxy- gen to every part of the body and bringing away the waste and worn-out material. The urinary apparatus is made up of the kidneys and the ureters that separate the impurities from the blood that cannot be handled through the lungs. There are the reproductive organs which in the male consists of a testes, ras deferens, and in some varieties a penis, and in the female of the ovary and oviduct, the purpose of this system being the repro- duction and perpetuation of its kind. The framework and muscular systems are made up of the bones, ligaments, tendons and muscles, giving shape and movement. The nervous system is composed of brain, spinal cord and numerous nerve fibres communicating from the brain to every part of the body. Lastly, there is the tegumentary system, comprising the skin and feathers, the object being to cover and protect the body from heat and cold and for the ex- cretion of waste matter. It very often happens we are able to determine that there is some derangement of some one of the above systems before it is possible to locate the trouble in one or more of the organs. To get at the seat of a disease and understand its nature, we must know these different organs, the work each does and how they are associated for the accomplishment of a com- mon purpose. Simple Outfit for the Poultryiiiaii — This outfit need not be made up of numerous and costly instruments, but it should contain a few simple tools and some of the common remedies. A pair of good forceps is al- most essential. A sharp penknife is one of the requi- 446 Science and Art or Poultry Culture sites, also a silver teaspoon and tablespoon. For in- jections, a small hand syringe is required and an atomizer for the light spraying. There should be a glass dropper with a small rubber bulb, useful for measuring and dropping liquids. A glass tube is handy for blowing various powders into the throat. A catheter, or rubber tube one foot long and one-half inch in diameter is necessary at times for conducting medicines direct to the crop, together with a small funnel to fit the opposite end of the tube. There should be a good spraying pump for applying the liquid disinfectants. One should keep constantly on hand a few of the more simple remedies, such as castor oil, sweet oil, turpentine, alcohol, witch hazel, epsom salts, carbolic acid, carbolated and plain vaseline, arnica, aconite, calomel, glycerine, boric acid, chloride of potash, qui- nine, tincture of iron, delmation powder (Persian in- sect powder), bicarbonate of soda (baking soda), sul- phur, creolin and some unslaked lime. Douglass mixture, which is regarded by most poul- trymen as a good tonic, is prepared as follows : Sul- phate of iron (common copperas), 8 ounces, sulphuric acid, one-half fluid ounce and one gallon water. Place water in a jug and add the copperas. When dissolved, add the sulphuric acid and when the compound clears it is ready for use. It is highly recommended for roup or bowel troubles, as well as a tonic. Parasites. Parasites cannot be termed a disease, but they are the cause of disease and the most troublesome and annoy- ing pests. Few realize to what extent these parasites prevail among their fowls and upon their premises. There are many kinds of these pests but they can be Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 447 grouped as external or internal, according as they operate outside or within the body. External Parasites — Principal among those that prey upon the outside of fowls, are lice and mites. There are others that injure the feathers, causing them to fall off. Others burrow under the scales of the slianks or toes, and others gnaw at the skin and tissues. All of these are enemies to successful poultry keeping, and to neglect them is to fail at raising poultry. Lice — This question of lice on fowls is recognized as the most important one confronting the poultry- man and the successful breeder must use every known means and spare no time or expense in the eradica- tion of this pest. Lice are directly responsible for over half the poultry diseases, as they sap the vitality and leave the fowl weak and susceptible to any dis- ease prevalent. Bad as lice are on mature stock, they are ten times as bad on young chicks because the bird is tender and growing and needs all its strength for natural development. Young turkeys die more readily from lice than from all other causes com- bined. The heads of all young stock should be ex- amined each day for lice. This is essential and should be done very carefully as they are very easily over- looked. All being familiar with the bad results from lice, now let us consider some simple methods for their extermination. There are three successful methods of destroying lice : (1) The providing of dust or earth wallows in which active hens will dust themselves. These dust baths should be provided for yarded stock, a box for each pen being placed on the south side of the build- 448 Science and Art of Poultry Culture ing. Dry earth should be stored for use during the winter months, giving the fowls access during the warm days. Sitting hens should be allowed this privi- lege. (2) The second method by which lice may be de- stroyed is the use of insect powder. Pyrethrum pow- der is regarded as best for this purpose, although it is regarded as somewhat expensive and difficult to obtain in the pure state. This powder is harmless to the fowl, but certain death to the lice. Many of the so-called insect powders prove harmful, especially to chicks. Ordinary tobacco dust is used for the same purpose. Insect powder is applied by holding the bird by the feet over a barrel or box and thoroughly working the powder into the feathers and fluff. All cock birds and sitting hens should be given frequent applications as they are apt to neglect the natural dusting. Where large numbers of young or half- grown stock are to be treated, it becomes too tedious and expensive to dust each one separately. Place fifteen or twenty in an ordinary, tight barrel. Throw the powder over them, put on the head of the barrel and roll the barrel for a short time. This is effective but causes the birds some annoyance. (3) The third method applies more particularly to young chicks and consists in applying some oil or grease on the head, under the wings and about the vent.. Do not grease them all over. With strong, vigorous stock and careful management, the natural dust bath is about all that is necessary to fight lice. Mites — This subject, like that of lice, is more or less familiar to all and yet vermin has been the cause of many discontinuing the poultry business and pre- vented many others from going into it. They are the Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 449 cause, either directly or indirectly, of many diseases. They suck the lifeblood from the fowl by day and night and are a constant worry from the time the chick is hatched. Mites are about one-fortieth of an inch in length and very hard to detect. When not full of blood they are yellowish, whitish or almost trans- parent. They are often found in. clusters and after some time seem to disintegrate into dust, powder or webby mass. After having filled themselves with blood through the skin of the fowl they are red in color and sometimes called " red spiders." They do not remain upon the fowl after being filled with blood but retreat to hiding places in cracks or crevices near the roosting place. During sultry summer weather, they propagate very rapidly and if the houses are not cared for they may remain upon the fowls during the daytime, especially if the fowls are inclined to remain about the house. Sitting hens may be driven from their nests or die from loss of blood from these little blood- suckers. IMites are injurious, not only on account of the blood which is abstracted, but because of the itching, pain and loss of rest which is a necessary consequence of their activity. Young pigeons and cage birds are con- stant sufferers from these pests. The English spar- row is regarded as their chief disseminators. The only way to treat mites successfully is to begin early in the season and keep constantly after them. Alites do not breathe through the pores of the skin as do lice so that the same remedies used for lice will not apply. The ordinary method of fumigating with sulphur is very detrimental to mites, however, the application of liquids is the most satisfactory method 450 Science and Art of Poultry Culture for their complete extermination. There are various liquids to be used, the cheapest being scalding water. Hot water destroys the eggs as well as the mites. Whitewash is a good remedy as it buries and destroys both mites and the eggs. A solution of one pint of carbolic acid to a gallon of kerosene makes an ex- cellent spray. Fumigating with carbon disulphide is very effective where building is sufficiently tight to retain the fumes. The liquid lice and mite killers on the market are usually very effective, killing by con- tact as well as by the vapor. One successful grower uses nothing but crude oil as it comes from the rock. This mixed with creolin makes an excellent spray. All movable fixtures should be dipped frequently in this mixture. One authority recommends and uses only hot alum water as a spray. Throw powdered ashes over the droppings and into the cracks and crev- ices. Zenoleum is also very effective. Depluming Mites — These small insects live on fowls at the base of the quills and by their operations weaken or cause the removal of the plumage. The neck and head may become bare, the skin being soft, smooth and of a pinkish tint. These little mites may be detected upon the base of these quills in the region afflicted. The most satisfactory treatment for this mite is the free use of carbolated vaseline. Internal Parasites — Worms are frequently present in the intestines and ceca of chickens, particularly young chicks, often causing considerable loss by tak- ing the nourishment that should be used for the re- plenishing of the blood of the fowl and when present in large numbers interfere with the digestive processes. They may cause severe cases of diarrhoea or a com- plete stoppage of the intestinal tract. Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 451 There are three kinds of worms that warrant sug- gestion for treatment. The round worm and tape worm are more or less common in the digestive canal and will be treated here while the gape worm is dis- cussed under the heading of gapes, elsewhere in this chapter. The round worm takes its name from its shape and is the most common of parasitic worms, varying in size from a half to five inches in length. A few of these cause the fowl but slight inconvenience, but when present in large numbers there is a tendency towards stoppage and consequent diarrhoea. They are rarely expelled in any considerable quantities or if they are they soon decompose or are eaten by other fowls so that the presence of worms is rarely known until the bird dies or is killed. The external symptoms are very similar to those accompanying indigestion, the bird being thin, a pale- ness of wattles accompanied by some diarrhoea. If worms are suspected, make an effort to remove them. Give two grains of santonine for each bird, followed in two hours by a teaspoonful of castor oil. Watch for results, burning all worms. The tape worm is much less common than the round w^orm. They are made up of short, flat sections, each section capable of development into the complete worm. Portions of these worms may be seen in the droppings. Onions or garlic are excellent for ex- pelling or preventing worms. They should be chopped fine and fed early while fowls are hungry. If the worms are suspected or discovered, give three-fourths of a teaspoonful of powdered Areca nut, or five or six drops of male fern. Follow this with epsom salts or castor oil. 452 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Objectionable Habits. Feather eating is properly termed an objectionable habit and one that is quite difficult to cure. The fowl may pluck out and eat its own feathers or feathers of other members of the flock. A cock may be found standing quietly and holding his head down while the hens pluck the feathers from his head till it becomes bare and oftentimes streams with blood. In other instances hens have been seen picking feathers from each other until they were almost naked. The young and tender feathers containing blood are preferred, which would indicate that a lack of proper ration is one of the chief causes. Lack of exercise, the over- feeding of too stimulating foods are among the many causes that may bring on this trouble and habit. This vice is acquired during the spring or at molting time and characterized by the loss of plumage and redness of the posterior part of the back. Anointing the feathers about the picked area with an ointment made by mixing a teaspoonful of aloes to a cupful of lard is usually sufficient to stop the habit, but where it fails some use a "poultry bit " which is made of soft leather large enough to permit bird to eat but pre- vents holding to a feather. These bits are held in place by fine wire run through the comb. Keep the birds busy by keeping plenty of bones in the pen for them to work on together with plenty of clean scratching material. If none of these sug^^ested remedies prevail, it is better to kill the one or more causing the trouble, thus lessening the danger of its spreading throughout the whole flock. WHien there is trouble of this nature, it is well to feed plenty of sulphur. Give a teaspoonful to every three fowls in a daily mash. Also supply meat and vegetables. Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 453 Egg Eating — This habit sometimes becomes a very serious vice among fowls. The heavy breeds, due to their clumsiness are much more liable to the trouble. The trouble is almost invariably caused by frozen eggs or the accidental breaking of an egg in the nest. A broken egg is a tempting morsel and once the habit is developed it is almost impossible to eradicate the trouble. Whatever is recognized as causing the breaking of the eggs is regarded as the cause of the habit. An attempt should be made to remove this cause. The shells may be too thin or the hen may lack the proper ration to supply a firm shell. Feed plenty of lime or oyster shell and see that the nests contain plenty of straw or other good nesting material. Keep the nests dark and each supplied with a glass nest egg. If the habit is formed, blow out the con- tents of an egg and fill the shell with a paste consist- ing of mustard, aloes or other disagreeable compound and place where readily found by the hens. Remove all egg-eaters from the flock and unless especially valuable, they had better be served. Picking One Another — Birds sometimes develop a habit of picking at each other and especially is this true among young and improperly fed stock. It is noticeable where there has been an insufficient supply of meat rations. Birds are very apt to start this habit if they secure a taste of blood from some member of the flock through injury. They develop the cannibal instincts very readily, not stopping till the unfortunate victim is dead and utterly devoured. If the trouble is discovered in time, by using lard and aloes on the injured part and removing from the flock for a few days the chick may be saved and the progress of the vice checked among the members of the flock. 454 Science and Art of Poultry Culture ROSE COMB BLACK MINORCA. Courtesy of Lloyd C. Mishler. \'iCES, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 455 Enemies. Every poultryman realizes only too well the annoy- ance to his flocks from such enemies as hawks, crows and owls, also rats, weasels, minks, skunks, coyotes, foxes, etc. The section of the country and local con- ditions determine to what extent and with what form of enemy one is troubled. Hawks are troublesome only during- a short time, when the mother hawk has to feed her young. x\t such times they become quite brave and will succeed in doing considerable damage unless constant care is given. Shooting at them from time to time is very eflfective in keeping them at a distance. Hawks are apt to be a source of annoyance throughout the whole season. The loss from hawks and crows is very slight among the fanciers within the city limits, but among farmers and those depending upon open range it sometimes becomes a very serious matter. One of the most satisfactory remedies in such cases is to take some weak or inferior chicks and coop them with a hen in an exposed position. Mix some strychnine and apply to the chicks on top of the neck near the head and under each wing. One chick is sufficient for each hawk or crow. Old buildings or board piles, trash heaps and neg- lected quarters are very apt to be infested with various forms of rodents, such as rats, skunks, weasels, etc. Rats may be exterminated by means of a good rat terrior dog or ferret. An effective method is to pour sulphate of hydrogen into their holes or runways, catching them with a dog when they appear. Another remedy is to mix equal parts of corn meal and plaster of Paris and place where the rats can easily find it. 456 Science and Art or Poultry Culture The hardening of the plaster of Paris kills the rat. Skunks, weasels, foxes and coyotes give but little trouble except where the flocks are left almost entirely to their own keeping. There is but little trouble from the above, except at night time and this can be easily overcome bv careful liousing and right care. All BLACK OKPINGTON. Courtesy of Foxhurst Farm. foundations should be of cement and where wooden floors are used should contain a layer of very fine wire mesh which will prevent any boring from under- neath. Foxes, skunks and coyotes may be shot, trapped or poisoned. Diseases. Anemia — A wasting and weakness of fowls caused by too poor or lack of blood, due to improper nourishment or the draining of blood by parasites. The comb and wattles turn pale and the bird appears listless. House such birds in a clean, well-ventilated pen and encourage exercise by scattering food in clean litter. A tonic of ten drops of tincture of ferric chloride to Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 457 one pint of water may be given. Allow no other drink for a short time. Apoplexy — This is a disease of the nervous system of the fowl, due to an excessive flow of blood to the brain. The victim is attacked very suddenly and may fall while feeding or may be found dead upon the nest or under the perches. But slight warning is given and few cases survive. The victims of this disease are usu- ally the plumpest and apparently the healthiest of the flock, the disease being caused by the overfeeding of too stimulating foods. The first s}mptoms are giddiness and staggering, followed by drooping of the head and spasmodic move- ments of the limbs. ]\Iedical treatment in such cases is of little avail. Should the sufferer be alive when found, open a vein on the neck or under the wing. This reduces the pres- sure on the brain and may perfect a cure. The bird should then be kept on a limited diet of green food in order to reduce the surplus fat. As a preventive meas- ure, regulate the diet and induce exercise. Black Head — This is a disease common to turkeys and dift'ers in many ways from any other malady af- fecting poultry. The disease has been common for a great manv }ears, but it has not been described until its study w-as undertaken by the U. S. Government. The symptoms are obscure and not capable of ready detection until after the disease has made some progress. Young birds are most susceptible and it is thought infection occurs very early in life. The disease is caused by a parasitic germ which is taken into the sys- tem with food or water. The disease begins in the caeca but the inflammation may spread to other parts of 458 Science and Art of Poultry Culture the intestine or to the abdominal wall. The liver is usually affected in such cases. The treatment consists largely in methods of pre- vention. All roosting places, runs and yards soon be- come infected where the disease has been prevalent for any length of time. All infected stock should be killed and the quarters thoroughly disinfected before intro- ducing new birds. The medical treatment of diseased turkeys has not proved satisfactory in the majority of cases. Salmon rec- ommends a combination of sulphur, five to ten grains, and sulphate of iron, one grain, to be given at a dose to mildly affected birds as a preventive measure. Turkevs should be reared entirely away from where other fowls are kept. Black Rot — This is a disease of the comb and is con- fined almost exclusively to the tall-combed varieties. The trouble is due to impaired circulation through the comb and seems to be associated with diseases of the liver. The trouble indicates itself by a darkening of the comb. It changes from purple to blue then to black. If the fowl is otherwise healthy, the diseased portion of the comb may become separated from the healthy. This necessarily leaves an unsightly stub and unfits the bird for show-room purposes. Some choose to term the dis- ease " dry rot " or " moist rot " according as the dis- eased portion is dry or moist. But little idea can be given as to the exact cause of the disease, but in most cases it can be attributed to sudden chilling or the result of confinement in close, damp houses. The bird is usually inactive, having but little appetite, and loose- ness of bowels. If taken in time, the disease will respond to treat- ment. Relieve the liver trouble by adding one tea- Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 459 spoonful muriate of ammonia to a pint of drinking water. Correct the regular ration and give plenty of green food, keeping the fowl in a dry, clean, sunny room. Use carbolated vaseline on the affected part of comb. Brain Congestion — This is a disease quite common among fowls that are constantly exposed to the direct rays of the sun, over-fat fowls and male birds during the breeding season. It also may result from a blow upon the head of the fowl or it may accompany some of the infectious diseases. Fowls subject to worms are prone to the disease. The bird staggers as it attempts moving about or may walk backwards or in a circle. It may fall to the ground accompanied by convulsive movements of the limbs. Get the pa- tient to a cool place and apply cool applications to the head. Give thirty grains of Epsom salts or a table- spoonful of castor oil. Breakdown — A disease not uncommon among young hens and characterized by the dragging down of the abdominal walls giving the hen an ungainly ap- pearance. It is the result, usually, of an excessive corn diet or the over feeding of other fat-producing ele- ments. In the majority of cases, it is well to market birds at once as they are unfitted for breeding or lay- ing if cured. Avoid the trouble by exercising care in feeding. Broken Bones — Unless a bird is especially valuable as a breeder, it is not advisable to attempt repairing a broken bone. The better way is to prepare such for the table at once. However, should it seem wise to set a broken bone, bring the ends together, making a perfect union of the parts. ]\Iake splints of pasteboard, and bind them over 460 Science and Art of Poultry Culture the break after being wrapped with coatings of adhesive paper or court plaster. Separate bird from the rest of the flock and keep as quiet as possible. Should fever result, bathe parts in cold water and give aconite internally. Bronchitis — This trouble is really the result of a neg- lected cold. As a result of this, the bronchial tubes have become inflamed and, as we often speak concern- ing ourselves, the cold has settled on the chest. It is often spoken of as bronchial catarrh and rattling in the chest. This disease is most prevalent during the fall and winter seasons when sudden changes in the cli- matic conditions are not uncommon. Old birds, and especially those having weak constitutions, are more liable to the trouble. It is usually caused by exposure to dampness, drafts, foul quarters or irritating dust and sudden change from warm to cold quarters or z'ice 7'crsa. Too close con- finement accompanied by sweating is one of the surest means of bringing about this and similar troubles. One of the main symptoms is the excessive temperature of the fowl accompanied by a decidedly thirsty condition. Coughing, difficulty in breathing and in some cases a whistling are among the other symptoms. First place the patient in warm, well-ventilated quar- ters and offer a mash of bread and bran or middlings moistened with sweet milk and containing two grains of black antimony. Give this twice daily. If taken in time, one drop of tincture of aconite every four or five hours usually allays the trouble. Give ten drops of turpentine in a scant tablespoonful of castor oil, dis- continuing the oil as soon as bowel is relieved. If breathing is difficult, clean mouth and nostrils with a weak solution of creolin and give syrup of ipecac. Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 461 Biiiiiblcfoof — A tender, inflamed condition of the bot- tom of the foot. Some pronounce it an inflamed corn. Bumblefoot may be the result of a bruise caused by fowl jumping from a high roost to the hard floor or the presence of splinters or glass in the foot. Remove any foreign substance and if pus has formed open the bruise and squeeze firmly. Wash out the wound with a one per cent solution of carbolic acid. By soaking the foot in strong vinegar, cases of this kind may be avoided if taken in time. Sometimes it is wise to poultice with linseed meal before lancing. Canker — Canker borders so closely on a mild form of diphtheria that any soreness of the mouth should be regarded with alarm and all suspects sent to the hos- pital at once for treatment. All fowls, vigorous and weak alike are liable to canker, but the games seem to be the most susceptible. Birds subjected to travel or the show room seem especially inclined to the trouble. If possible, remove the ulcers with a quill and wash out the mouth and throat with a solution of equal parts of chlorate of potash and alum. Blow powdered pot- ash into the throat b}- means of a paper funnel or straw. This simple treatment should relieve the most stubborn cases. Catarrh — This is one of the most common dis- eases of birds and is a result of undue exposure to cold and dampness or subjecting fowls to keen drafts of air. Simple catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous mem- branes of the air passages above the windpipe. We are apt to confuse this disease Avith roup. A bird sick with catarrh is liable to roup if exposed to continued unsan- itary conditions. One of the first symptoms is a bubbling at the nose. Mucus secretions form and col- lect in the eves, nose and mouth which thickens and 462 Science and Art of Poultry Culture causes wheezing and choking. In some cases birds be- come drowsy, plumage is erect and nostrils entirely close. If the cause is allowed to persist, the bird soon dies. The disease is best prevented by keeping fowls in a clean, dry and well-ventilated place free from drafts. A simple treatment is to wash out the mouth twice daily, with a boric acid solution (15 grains borasic acid to a pint of water). A solution of witch hazel or car- bolic acid is er^cellent for cleansing affected parts. Place fowl on a diet of raw eggs and bread soaked in milk and house in clean quarters. Chicken Pox — This is a contagious disease common to chickens, turkeys, ducks, pigeons and sometimes geese. It is especially destructive among young chick- ens throughout most of the Southern States. The dis- ease is most prevalent during the warm, damp days of the autumn months, hence the late hatches are most liable. The disease is characterized by an eruption of yel- low nodules or scabby ulcers that may be found on any part of the body but most liable to be on the head or underneath the wings. The liquid that comes from the ulcers tends to dry and form a rough scabby surface. But little medicine is needed and for the eruption there is nothing better than plain carbolated vaseline or a five per cent solution of creolin. Feed a simple mash containing chopped clover. This trouble is not dangerous unless there is great neglect in housing and feeding. Choking — Frequently a piece of bone, grass or some foreign substance becomes lodged in the throat of a bird, causing evident distress. Without much trouble, the irritant can be located and by using care and good Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 463 judgment, be successfully removed. Sweet oil aids materially in such cases. Cholera — Of all the diseases, cholera is the least un- derstood and most dreaded. It is very contagious and most prevalent where corn is the chief diet. It attacks all varieties of domesticated fowls and is found among some species of wild birds. Many of the symptoms are identical with other dis- eases like indigestion, enteritis, etc. The external symp- toms of a cholera patient are a dejected, sleepy, droopy appearance. Birds have great thirst, a slow, staggering walk and gape frequently. The bird may fall from weakness. Comb and wattles turn pale and dark. Another early indication of the disease is a yellowish color of the urates, or that part of the excrement com- ing from the kidneys. In the healthy bird this is pure white though it may be slightly discolored from the effects of other diseases. While this is not absolute proof of the presence of cholera, it is a valuable in- dication and an effort should be put forth at once to check its course. At first the droppings may be of a greenish color and afterwards becomes thin and frothy. Prostration follows and death soon results. A post- mortem examination shows a gizzard with dried-up food and the crop inflated with sour mucus and food. Liver is large, tender and flabby and often found split open. Intestines are inflamed and filled with a green- ish matter. The treatment or manner of combating cholera must be prompt and active and all sanitary precautions strictly followed. At the first intimation of the disease, quarantine all doubtful birds. Scald all drinking dishes and feeding utensils and thoroughly clean and disin- fect every house and run. Make an honest effort to 464 Science and Art of Poultry Culture kill every germ. All suspected or sick birds should have one ounce of sulpho-carbolate of zinc added to two quarts of drinking water — this to constitute the only drink for several days. There are many internal rem- edies recommended but should one be so unfortunate as to have real cholera in his flocks the most satisfactory remedy is the block and axe. Vaccination cannot be recommended as a preventive, as it is known that a. vaccine which is safe for one breed may be deadly for another. Burn or bury deep all cholera victims. Colds — Fowls have " bad colds," causing inflammation of the throat, nostrils and eyes, with a thin, watery dis- charge from these parts and a wheezing and sudden shaking of the head. A cold is liable to lead to any of the more serious troubles such as catarrh, canker, bron- chitis, pneumonia or roup, hence one should be on guard for the first symptoms. A cold may be contract- ed very readily if the fowl is allowed to roost in drafts, on the damp ground or in too crowded quarters, even in warm weather. To ward off or check a cold, mix together equal parts of black pepper, ginger, mustard and flour, adding enough lard to form a small pellet, giving two or three of these each evening. Place the birds in dry, sunny quarters, feeding pure food and water containing a small amount of kerosene wdth green food sufficient to keep bowels in good order. Inject into the nostrils and roof of the mouth a mixture of sweet oil, kerosene and a small amount of carbolic acid or turpentine. Quick relief can be obtained by smoking birds with resin. Congestion of the Lungs — Birds that are molting and young fowls are liable to be troubled with conges- Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 465 tion of the lungs. It may also occur in overfat birds and those containing an oversupply of rich blood. This blood becomes too thick and circulates with more dif- ficulty than under the normal condition and as a result the circulatory system in the delicate vessels of the lungs become clogged or congested and are liable to rupture. The bird seems sleepy and stupid with no disposition to move about. A bloody mucus may es- cape from the moutli. Comb turns dark. The symptoms are very pronounced and come on very suddenly, the bird living but a short time. As most of the well-developed cases prove fatal, the.. treatment consists largely of preventive measures. The young fowl should be protected from cold and all forms of exposure while molting. Plenty of green food, roots or fruit should be given any fowls subject to confinement. Any trouble having to do with the lungs is serious and should be strictly guarded against. Constipation — Constipation is a dryness or hardening of the contents of the intestinal organs. It is met with in both young and old fowls, but is most frequent in young stock. Brooder chicks are very susceptible to this trouble. Any portion of the intestinal tract may be- come obstructed and distended, caused from accumu- lations of gravel or parasitic worms. It may be caused from feeding too dry foods or follow attacks of di- arrhea. Very often, in brooder chickens, the vent may be completely stopped by the saturation of the feathers in this region, followed by becoming dry and hard, stopping the passage of the bowels. Soften the mass by soaking in warm water and gently picking away the obstruction. If the cloaca contains any hardened matter, it should be softened by injecting warm water or olive oil followed by manipulations which should 466 Science and Art of Poultry Culture expel the obstruction. In the more severe cases some blunt instrument is necessary for the removal of the contents of the cloaca. Should the obstruction be too high for external treatment some good laxative be- comes necessary. Twenty grains of Epsom salts in a small amount of water or a tablespoonful of castor oil usually affords prompt relief. Care and skill in feeding will reduce the number of cases of diarrhea and con- stipation. Consumption — Consumption is apt to follow a neg- lected case of pneumonia, bronchitis or roup. As in the human race, the disease is limited to the lung tissue. The patient weakens without any apparent cause and becomes thin and light. Comb, wattles and skin turn pale in color and in a short time the bird is dead. Like tuberculosis, it does not appear in sturdy, well-cared- for birds. There is much satisfaction in keeping stock bred to the highest standard of health, so that these chronic troubles find poor soil for development. The hatchet is the best and most satisfactory remedy. Thor- oughly disinfect the premises. Corns — Corns are the result of bruises caused by fowls alighting upon hard floors from high perches or by the use of small or too narrow roosts. Pare down the thickened portion and apply tincture of iodine until inflammation is removed. Remove the cause by making perches near the floor and of wide flat boards. Cover the floor with a layer of dirt and straw. ? Crop BoiDid — Due to the overloading of dry grain or the eating of dry grass, leaves, strings or feathers, the crop may become impacked and distended. The usual method of handling such cases is to give sweet oil, suspend the bird by its legs and work the contents down and out of the mouth. In severe cases, Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 467 a surgical operation becomes necessary, in which case phick the feathers over a square inch of surface cov- ering the breast. Cut the outer skin lengthwise of the fowl about an inch long. Then make a small incision in the crop and by using good judgment the contents can be removed. After removal, sew walls of crop to- gether, using sterilized catgut which will absorb. Then make three stitches in the skin. It is well to wash out the inside of the crop with a weak solution of carbolic acid. For a day or two do not feed solid foods, giving only water containing a grain or two of baking soda. Give soft mashes for a few days and return to the ordi- nary food as the wound heals. If taken in time the operation is not a serious one and fowls usually recover. Pigeons rarely survive the operation, due to excessive tenderness of the mucus membrane. Diarrhea, White — The great loss resulting form white diarrhea is too frequently met with. Poultrymen throughout the country claim that from 50 to 75 per cent of all the chickens hatched die of this disease, hence the necessity of careful study that the real cause may be reached and a prevention or cure found. We choose to treat it as a separate and distinct disease, although many regard it as a symptom accompanying pneumonia, congestion of the lungs, tubercular troubles, inflammation of the bowels and acute indigestion. The exact cause of white diarrhea has been sought after by many of our large poultry plants, agricultural colleges and experiment stations. Supposedly the cause has been found in the barometric conditions of the in- cubators, in the temperature of the incubator nurseries and brooders, in the organism of the chick itself, un- absorbed yolk, lack of sufficient grit and irregular feed- ing. Due to careful investigation made by George B. 468 Science and Art of Pour-TRv Culture Morse under direction of the Department of Agricul- ture, it was found that white diarrhea persisted where none of the above causes were to be found. Air. Morse describes the disease as an intiamniation of varying se- verity of the bhnd intestinal pouches of chickens, caused by the presence of coccidium tcnellum, an intracellular parasite belonging to the lowest form of animal life. This parasitic germ is frequently found in the intestines of birds of all ages, but mainly in chicks between two and five weeks of age. The symptoms are dullness and weakness, accompa- nied by a white, pasty discharge that mats the feathers and tends to close up the vent. This discharge contains the coccidium tenellum or parasitic germs by which the disease is s.pread to other birds through the droppings or unsanitary surroundings. The treatment in such cases is of no practical avail and necessarily resolves itself into methods of prevention. Calomel, one-tenth grain, or a dose of castor oil contain- ing a few drops of turpentine, should be given. Keep five to ten grains of copperas in a gallon of drinking water. Following the cleansing of the bowels feed rice- water or scalded milk. In getting at methods of prevention, one must begin with the eggs used for hatching. They should be from sound, healthy stock and thoroughly cleaned by wip- ing in a five per cent creolin solution. If artificially in- cubated, the incubator should be thoroughly disinfected by using formaldehyde, carbolic acid or some other germ destroyer and then expose the parts to the sun. The egg tray and floors to the nursery should be taken out and sterilized. The brooders should be treated likewise. The exposed soil should be sprayed with a five per cent solution of carbolic acid or creolin and spaded. If nat- Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 469 ural incubation is the method, the hen should be given calomel or castor oil occasionally and one-half grain doses of sulphate of iron (copperas). Clean the eggs as directed above placing them in a perfectly clean nest in which a little lime is sprinkled from time to time. After hatching, keep brood upon thoroughly sterilized ground. Quoting from the Government report : White diarrhea of cliicks, although forcing itself upon the breeder's attention as a definite disease, should really be regarded by the farmer and poultryman as but one mani- festation of a positive poultry pest. It is the evidence ex- hibited among the w^eakest of the flock that coccidiosis has invaded the farm; that the causative agent, coccidium tenellum, has located itself in the intestines of the adult fowls. He must remember that it lodges on the eggs that leave the cloaca of infected hens; that it infects the drop- pings; that the roosts, the nests, the floors of the houses and scratching pens, contaminated by these droppings, are all sources of further invasion; that the soil of the run or even of the farm where the fowls range at liberty is an- other and subtle source of invasion, holding moisture and warmth of sun for the development of the invading sporozo- ites within the permanent cysts; that the incubators harbor the parasite, the egg tray being infected by the soiled eggs and the nurseries by the droppings of the infected chicks; that he can no longer hope to be successful in raising turkeys; that if he lets loose his pigeons his chances for squab raising are diminished; that "leg weakness" will sweep away his ducklings; that the intestines thus denuded of their epithelium have become an easy port of entry for the bacterial agents of virulent infections; and, finally, that in spite of the best rules for egg production most scrupously carried out the almost complete suppression of absorption activities will diminish his egg yield to a minimum. .-Xud when he realizes that this organism has to be grown in the laboratorj' in solutions so strongly antiseptic as to kill all bacteria, the poultryman is forced to appreciate that it is no mean foe with which he has to battle. 470 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Diphtheria — This is a contagious disease character- ized by the presence of a false membrane or diseased growth in the throat and inside of the mouth, resembhng raised patches of pale, yellowish skin which may in- vade the entire mouth. In simple canker, these patches are removed without any inconvenience, but in diph- theria they are removed with difficulty. Birds present a sleepy, droopy appearance, neck may be somewhat stiff, plumage rough and the throat, after the second or third day, shows a bright red color. Tie some cot- ton on the end of a stick and swab out the mouth and throat with hydrogen peroxide. Remove any growth that comes away easily. Then blow powdered calcium sulphide into the throat. A mild solution of creolin or carbolic acid is good for clearing the nasal passages or other affected parts. The affected birds should be placed in clean, dry, warm and well-ventilated quar- ters and fed one grain of calcium sulphide in hot mash each day. The disease may run ten or fifteen days and may prove fatal within four or five days. It is to be dreaded by all poultry men as it leaves a flock in doubtful condition for breeding purposes and impaired to some extent as layers. Dropsy — This is an abdominal disease caused by a collection of watery fluids in or between the tissues of this region. This condition is shown by the enlarge- ment of the abdomen until it nearly or quite reaches the ground while the bird is standing. If examined by a slight pressure of the hand, the swelling is found to be soft and fluctuating. It gives the sensation of a filled rubber water bottle. Ordinarily, it is not wise nor profitable to attempt a cure. Some improvement may be expected from tonics and careful handling. Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 471 Some authorities recommend tapping by inserting- a hollow needle and letting much of the liquid escape. This is not advisable unless the fowl is especially val- uable. Birds having had the disease should not be used for breeding purposes. Dropsy of the Feet — This is a swollen and inflamed condition of the legs and feet, caused mainly by over- feeding and insufficient exercise. It may be due to frosting or the result of any disease causing a sluggish circulation. Give plenty of green food and induce ex- ercise by feeding all grains in deep litter. Keep the bowels open with castor oil. Dropsy of the Heart — This is not uncommon among fowls. The symptoms are easily confused with other ailments and the disease is not recognized till after death. The bird is decidedly weak and carries the head thrown back, with labored breathing through the open mouth. Give bicarbonate of soda in the drinking water. Dysentery — Dysentery is the direct result of careless- ness in handling stock. Filthy surroundings, lack of care in the introduction of infected birds, failure to keep all premises properly disinfected or a neglected case of diarrhea are among the principal causes of the trouble. The disease is characterized by a looseness of the bowels, the discharge being thin and watery and often showing a trace of blood. Birds soon grow weak, with failure of appetite. All sick or suspected birds should be sent to the hos- pital at once. Give a tablespoonful of sweet oil or Ep- som salts as a laxative to free the bowel of any iritat- ing matter that may be in the intestinal tract. Do not feed mashes but keep plenty of rice-water and scalded milk before the patient. In severe cases, give five to 472 Science and Art of Poultry Culture ten drops of laudanum to each bird. Keep all feed and drinking receptacles cleaned and disinfected. Eczema — This is a noncontagious skin disease. It may attack any part of the bird but usually appears upon the wattles. Fine white points appear, covered by a thin skin. These points multiply till the skin bursts, allowing the liquid to escape, and drying upon the surface forms a rough scurvy. The disease is not transmitted from bird to bird, but is caused by the over- feeding of foods containing heavy quantities of nitro- gen. The birds present a tired appearance with a loss of appetite. Improve the diet by feeding a mash containing a lib- eral amount of cut clover and vegetables. Feed no meat. Give a pill each day composed of citrate of iron and quinine, equal parts, for clearing up the system. Use some healing ointment on the affected parts. The pa- tient should be given plenty of exercise. Egg-bound — A condition common among the heavy varieties of fowls and most prevalent during the late winter laying season. The hen will be noticed making frequent visits to the nest but without dropping an egg. She will be uneasy and evidence pain. Many cases during the early stages may be relieved by injections of sweet oil. If this does not accomplish the desired- results insert oiled finger and break the Qgg if possible then removing all the contents. Soaking the vent in warm water may cause enough relaxation to pass the tgg. If tgg cannot be induced to pass from external treatments, give twenty drops of extract of ergot in some warm water. Do not feed any fat-producing foods for several weeks, giving plenty of clover and veg- etables. Give a good tonic. Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 473 Enteritis — A disease common to all domesticated fowls, but growing stock and molting fowls are most apt to enteritis attacks. The disease is characterized by its long duration and in this way can be distinguished from cholera. The germs that set up the inflammation in the intes- tinal tract are introduced by means of contaminated foods or drinking water. They soon multiply and set up the inflammation that results in poisoning the fowl, ulceration and necrosis of the tissues with the infection of the liver and other vital organs. It may be caused by the feeding of decomposed grain or vegetables or by bringing sick birds upon the place. The symptoms develop rapidly. There is excessive thirst but no appetite. Birds stand with back rounded, plumage erect, head drawn close to body with eyes closed and wings drooping. The comb and wattles are pale. Ex- crements are solid at first and of a greenish color, but later may be soft, liquid and bluish green. Where enteritis is known to be prevalent, the first thing is a thorough disinfection of the premises with a five per cent solution of creolin or carbolic acid fol- lowed by a lime wash. To cleanse the bowels, give a tablespoonful of olive oil at a dose, three times daily, or castor oil once each day. To check the diarrhea, give three grains sub-nitrate of bismuth, one grain powdered cinnamon or cloves mixed with food or given in pills. Follow this with a tonic. The food should be nutri- tious, easily digested and not too wet. Feed sparingly until the diarrhea is checked or some improvement is seen. Epilepsy — Epilepsy or fits may be caused from the pressure of a tumor upon the brain or from internal parasites. 474 Science and Art of Poultry Culture The characteristic symptoms are unconsciousness and convulsive movements of the body. The victim lies upon its back with the head thrown back and the leg-s spread. Eyes rolled to back part of the head, open- ing and closing alternately with the bill. After the at- tack, the bird may go about as usual. Should the trouble be due to worms, remove the cause. Otherwise, but little can be done and the bird should be killed unless especially valuable. Fish-skill Disease — This is very similar to scaly leg in appearance, only it is not transmitted from one bird to another, although some strains seem more susceptible to the trouble than others. There seems to be an in- sufficient supply of oil in the skin of the legs and toes, causing them to become dry and scaly. The irritation resulting causes fowl to pick and scratch the parts. Keep the legs and toes well lubricated with car- bolated vaseline. Changing the rations seems to pro- duce no decided effect in the disease. Frostbite — Birds having tall, thin combs are apt to be frozen during severe weather. The healthier the bird and the better the house, the less danger of freez- ing. The frozen part turns dark and resembles black rot, excepting the fowl retains its appetite and vigor. If taken in time the frozen part can be saved by thawing out gradually with snow. Keep fowl in a cool room. Apply witch hazel or vaseline for a few days. Gapes — Gapes is a disease common to chicks from two to six weeks old and seems to be most prevalent in the dry, sandy sections of our country. The disease is caused by the presence of small, red parasitic worms which are attached to the mucous mem- brane of the windpipe, causing it to become inflamed and often resulting in the death of young chicks. These Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 475 wonns obstruct the passage of air to and from the lungs, thus causuig the characteristic gasping symptoms. The infection is caused by eating the adult worms contain- ing the eggs or by taking the embryos in the food or drink. The common earth worm contain these gape embryos. The early symptom is a little hacking cough, as if to eject some foreign substance from the windpipe. The breathing is difficult and swallowing is accompanied with coughing. AIucus flows freely from the mouth and nostrils and may become so plentiful as to be drawn into the air passages, resulting in the death of the fowl. Many good authorities recommend removing the worms by means of a horse hair or a feather dipped in kerosene, but the trachea is so small and so easily in- jured that it is impossible to dislodge and remove all the worms by such means. One of the most common and satisfactor>- treatments is the use of lime dust. Sift it into a barrel containing the diseased fowls and the irritation from the dust will cause sneezing and the dislodging of the worms. Do not use too much lime and admit plenty of air. The same end can be attained by burning a small amount of sulphur, or the vapor from turpentine or creosote. One authority recommends rubbing the neck from time to time with three parts lard or vaseline containing one part turpentine. This treatment should begin early, however, as it does but little good in the last stages of the disease. Pure turpentine will very quickly kill a chick if applied to the trachea. Separate the sick birds from the well ones and thoroughly spade all runs and yards, and disinfect all yards, runs and equipment with a five per cent carbolic acid solution. Put a teaspoon- ful of creolin to a gallon of drinking water. Give a cam- 476 Science and Art of Poultry Culture phor pill or two grains of sulphur twice daily. One is never sure of gapes unless the worms are in evidence and this fact should be known before treatment is un- dertaken. A tablespoonful of antimony sulphate or black an- timony sprinkled in drinking water or fed in mash once a day for several days will destroy the eggs of the gape worm and thereby prevent the reproduction of the par- asite. It will not injure young poultry as they will eat sparingly of it and it should be removed as soon as they have discovered its disagreeable taste, so as not to discourage future eating. Keep it from all breeding stock. Gastritis — The so-called fowl stomach is a compara- tively small organ or enlargement of the oesophagus between the crop and gizzard. Inflammation of this or- gan is not uncommon and accompanies any derange- ment of the crop. Anything that hinders perfect di- gestion is a cause for the trouble. Lack of grit, excess of food, insufficient exercise, or irritation caused by swallowing small nails, pins or sharp substances may set up the irritation. The taking of poisons, such as are frequently used for rats and mice, or swallowing match heads, will cause the trouble. The trouble is in- dicated by a loss of appetite, quickened respiration, and excessive thirst. Plumage stands erect and wings droopy. Diarrhea may appear one day and constipation the next. In serious cases prostration follows. Get at the cause early and remove it. Give easily di- gested foods, feeding in small quantities and regularly. Feed mostly cooked foods and some meat, giving bar- ley-water or milk for drink. If constipated, purge with Epsom salts or castor oil. Use twenty grains of soda to the quart of drinking water. If the disease is due Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 477 to poisoning, it usually proves fatal before any remedy can be applied. Going Light — This disease is characterized by loss of flesh and has been termed " going light." The bird may have excessive appetite and still continue to lose flesh. The comb and wattles turn pale and gradually the bird shows decided emaciation. It may be due to a poorly balanced ration, disorders of the intestinal tract, internal parasites, etc. Check this w^asting by giving three grains of nitrate of bismuth and one grain powdered cinnamon or cloves twice daily. Follow this with a tonic of thirty grains each of powdered fennel and anise and fifteen grains of powdered sulphate of iron mixed together and add- ed to a mash of wheat middlings and boiled milk. If possible, detect the cause of the trouble and check it. Indigestion — As with the human family, indigestion means sickness. It is usually the first step towards a deranged system. It may be the result of naturally weak organs but more apt to be the result of overfeed- ing a poorly balanced ration. In a great many cases, we feel the cause is due entirely to an insufficient sup- ply of grit. The heavy varieties of fowls are more susceptible to derangements of the digestive organs, hence the neces- sity of keeping such supplied with an abundance of clean litter to induce exercise. Common sense in feed- ing and caring for fowls has much to do in warding off cases of indigestion. Give the fowl a clean, well-venti- iated home, plenty of sunshine and fresh air. together with pure, fresh water in free-from-germ drinking re- ceptacles and cases of this kind will rarely if ever ap- pear. Regulate the diet by cutting down on the grain and meat ration and supplying cut clover and vegetables. 478 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Give for one week one teaspoonful of sulphate of magnesia to a quart of drinking- water and follow with one eighth grain of strychnine to a pint of water. Xux vomica, one drop every three hours, usually corrects troubles of this nature. Indigestion, if not cared for, is followed by liver troubles, " Going light " and death. Inflaniniation of Oviduct — This condition may result from an egg-bound condition or may be due to bad effects of over-stimulating egg-producing foods. The Qgg pas- sage is a very sensitive organ and too frequent laying of too large eggs or the breaking or holding back of an tgg are sufficient causes to produce the inflammation. The symptoms are noticeable early, there being con- stant straining as if to expel an tgg. The vent is hot, red and in active motion. Exhaustion soon follows, the comb and wattles turn purple and death soon re- sults. If treatment is to be effective, it must begin earlv. Unless the cause can be removed, there is no need of attempting a cure. Keep the hen quiet. Grease and insert a small finger into the vent and either remove or break the egg, if a retained egg is thought the cause of the trouble. If successful in this, separate bird from the flock and feed on cut clover and well-cooked bran. Give a small drop of aconite and move bowels by use of Epsom salts or castor oil. Inflammation of the Vent — The first symptom of this trouble is frequent passing of excrement. This mav be attempted when the cloaca is entirely empty, due to an irritation causing a fullness and produces the muscu- lar contraction. At such times the mucous membrane is red, dry, swollen and hot. Later, a thin, wliite, of- fensive discharge makes its appearance, collecting about Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 479 the vent on the feathers and skin, obstructing the vent and setting up an inflammation. Clean all the parts with a weak solution of cre- olin and water, then apply an ointment made from one part finely powdered iodoform to twenty parts pure vaseline at the same time working same into the vent. Feed the patient on stale bread crumbs and sweet milk. For drinking water use one teaspoonful of nitre to a pint of drinking water and allow no other drink. The disease is transmitted by copulation. Jaundice — This is a disease common among corn-fed fowls. It is due to an over-production of bile and en- largement of the gall bladder and, due to the oversup- ply, is absorbed by the blood vessels and carried through- out the whole system, giving the yellowish color to the skin, comb and wattles. Very frequently, the disease is not suspected till after death. Give one grain of aloes and make a complete change in the food, giving a great variety. Leg JVeak)iess — This is a disease especially common among chicks brooded indoors during the winter months. It is more often seen among half-grown birds and in heavy varieties instead of the light. Cockerels are more sus- ceptible than pullets. Young brooder chicks are very apt to be troubled with leg weakness when the heat is unevenly distributed or where the bottom heat is too great. The first evidences of the disease are scarcely notice- able except to the interested and careful observer. The movements are unsteady at the first and in a short time the bird may be found sitting while eating. Even at this stage, the victim shows no constitutional derangement but as time passes he presents a dififerent appearance. He becomes sluggish in movement, less apt to assert 480 Science and Art of Poultry Culture his rights in securing his share of food, and becomes thin and lousy. Place all the weak birds to themselves and avoid over-stimulating foods. Give plenty of cut clover and do not feed corn or corn meal. Green peas or beans are helpful in building up the bird. Bathe the legs with tincture of arnica. Give some good tonic. Do not con- fuse this disease with rheumatism. The joints will be swollen in the latter case. L'unbcr Xcck — Limber neck occurs where chicks have eaten quantities of decomposed iiesh or other in- digestible or poisonous matter or during excessively hot weather. It is characterized by a limp condition of the neck to an extent that all control of the neck muscles is lost and the head rests upon the ground. It is re- garded by some as a symptom of several other diseases. Dissolve a teaspoonful of hypo-sulphite of soda in a half-cup of water and give a teaspoonful every three hours. One authority suggests giving a small piece of asafoetida in the gum form. Again, mix one to two teaspoonfuls of turpentine with an equal amount of sweet oil and give through a rubber tube. In the case of young chicks, give the oil and turpentine by mixing into pills. Another simple remedy is made by taking equal parts of pure lard, ginger, mustard and cayenne pepper and making small pills to be taken every three hours. Paralysis — The nature of this disease, like apoplexy, is an overflow of blood to the brain. The preliminary symptoms are giddiness and staggering. Should uncon- sciousness follow, the trouble is, no doubt, apoplexy, but if a blood vessel burst it is paralysis, and death is liable to result. Apply cold water to the head, driving the blood from Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 481 the brain, or tap a vein of the neck or under the wing to reduce the pressure. If there is any fever, give some aconite. Regulate the bowels with castor oil. Peritonitis — This is an inflammation of the delicate membranous lining surrounding the delicate organs in the abdominal cavity and is regarded as a serious and fatal disease. The inflammation may be due to a bruise, a ruptured intestine or blood vessel of the oviduct or it may be the result of tuberculosis. Peritonitis fre- quently results in cases of caponizing. The symptoms are similar to other troubles, there being difficult breath- ing and loss of appetite, together with extreme tender- ness to the touch over the abdomen. The bird is uneasy and may fall to the ground with legs drawn close to the body. It is rare that medical treatment in such cases is of any use. The suffering may be relieved by giving opium. Give liquid foods such as beef juice and milk, Pip — Pip is not a disease but rather a symptom of certain inflammatory conditions of the respiratory organs appearing in such diseases as roup, catarrh and bron- chitis, where the nasal passages become clogged and the chick breathes through its mouth, causing the tongue to become parched and scaly, especially about the tip. Any attempt at removing this crusted portion causes inflammation. Some resort to the cruel practice of clipping the end of the tongue, but this is unnecessary as the application of equal parts of glycerin and water win soften the scale and cause it to disappear. If there be any inflammation, bathe with fifteen grains of boric acid to an ounce of water. This condition is not dan- gerous except as it is associated with diseases of a serious nature. 482 Science and Art of Poultry Culture Pneumonia — Pneumonia is an acute, infectious, croupy inflammation of the air cells of the lungs. It js a ser- ious disease and is generally regarded as being con- tagious. It is not so common among birds as animals and some authorities claim that typical pneumonia is not found among birds. The symptoms and effects are the same in both cases, however. Pneumonia fol- lows very closely congestion of the lungs. The dis- charge from the blood vessels of the lungs hardens, ob- structing the intricate passages, excluding the air and rendering the lung useless for respiration. Pneumonia may attack the bronchial tubes as well as the lung tis- sue. Over-cared for fowls or where they are housed in too close quarters, even in severe weather, are made the more susceptible to any lung derangements. The position the bird assumes in its effort to breathe is one of the main symptoms of the disease. It is a half-squat- ting, half-standing position, with wings drooping and held away from the body. The breathing is labored and by placing ear to the chest a snapping or crack- ling sound may be heard. In young stock the symp- toms are not so marked and there seems to be no sure sign of the disease. The disease is very rapid and fatal, and the treat- ment should be prompt and active. Remove birds to moist, warm quarters at a temperature ranging about 65 degrees Fahrenheit. Should fowls be too cold, cover with a blanket, leaving head exposed for fresh air. One drop of aconite every two hours is one of the best rem- edies. Another authority (Salmon) recommends flax- seed tea, made by taking a pint of boiling water to an ounce of the seed and steeping for a few hours, using care to not allow it to boil. Strain out the seeds and al- low fowls to drink the liquid. If the bird will not drink \'iCES, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 483 it may be given from a spoon or through a glass tube. It is not best to give any quinine. Give no sohd foods but allow milk and raw egg for some time. As the bird regains strength, change to the normal temper- ature and food but do not return to the flock until fully recovered. ]\Iany regard the open-front type of build- ings and scratching sheds as strong factors in the pre- vention of pneumonia. Rheumatism — All species of fowls are subject to rheumatic tendencies. It is most common among old fowls. However, brooder chicks are very susceptible if exposed to damp quarters or cool brooders. As rheumatism is usually caused by exposure to dampness, it should be sufficient warning for improvement in ven- tilation and drainage of the poultry- quarters. Careful attention given to these matters, the disease may be avoided or any tendencies checked. The disease attacks all parts of the body, but the most prominent sxniptoms are located in the legs and feet. There is a drawing up of the legs and toes, and any attempt at straightening them causes pain. There may be a slight rise in temperature. House rheumatic patients in clean, dr>-, sunny quarters and give a dose of epsom salts to free the bowels. Fol- low this with common soda in the drinking water. Feed almost exclusively on green foods. Bathe the swollen parts with witch hazel, alcohol or arnica. Roup — Roup is the most common disease in the poul- try yard as well as the most dreaded. It is a catarrhal affection of the air passages and is to the fowl what croup or the inflammation of the lungs and trachea is to the child. Two-thirds of the supposed cases of roup are simply the symptoms leading up to it and 484 Science and Art of Poultry Culture beginners, particularly, are apt to become confused and alarmed wben tbere is no need of it. Genuine roup, however, is deadly and is character- ized by the roup smell. This odor is peculiar to the disease and is very lasting and penetrating and when once recognized there is but little danger of confusing any other disease with roup. Old and run-down fowls seem most liable, but all are subject to it. Roup is a germ disease and hence contagious and large num- bers have been lost from the thoughtless introduction of a roupy bird into a healthy flock. It is doubtful if ever a case of roup has been perma- nently cured. It is possible that the bird apparently re- covered but the truth remains that when roup once takes hold of a bird it will forever contain the germs of the disease. Hens are not fit for breeding after having had roup as the chicks will be weak and very susceptible to the disease. The eggs are good for the table, however. Authorities dififer as to the nature and exact cause of roup. It is due to a microscopic germ or parasite that multiplies and develops within the mucus membrane of birds. This germ finds good ground for develop- ment in birds affected with severe cold, or catarrh. The cold or catarrh may prove fatal, but it is necessary for the roup germ to be introduced before having a case of roup. The germs are blown about, getting into the eyes, nos- trils and beak, thus setting up the irritation that devel- ops roup. One authority openly asserts that filth and sudden variations in temperature are the two main causes of the diseases resulting in roup. Persistent in- breeding will tend to weaken a flock and make it sus- ceptible to diseases of this character. Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 485 The symptoms develop from two to five days follow- ing infection and at first are the same as catarrh. There is a severe cold accompanied by a dryness and inflamma- tion of the mouth and throat, followed by a thin dis- charge from the nose, mouth and eyes. The eyes are bulging and remain closed a part of the time. The bird presents a most miserable appearance. One author says: " Cold in the head, swollen and watery eyes, sore throat, rapid breathing, general depression, intense thirst — that is roup." A false membrane forms in the nose and mouth, causing the difficult breathing and swal- lowing. By visiting the perches at night, it is easy to detect any obstructed breathing. Birds should be exam- ined under the wings mornings for the presence of any discharge from the nostrils during the night. The " roup smell " is the surest evidence of the disease. The most satisfactory remedy for a well-developed case of genuine roup is a sharp axe and a block of wood. The secret of success in handling roup is its prevention or the successful treating of those diseases that are the breeding places of the roup germs. If roup is suspected, keep finely chopped onions containing plenty of red pepper constantly before the fowls. Give frequent doses of castor oil, a teaspoonful at a time, and wash out mouth with castile soap and water, fre- quently blowing powdered borax into mouth and throat. Yet roup responds to treatment if taken in time. If a bird has watery eyes and is sneezing and discharging at the nose, spray all the surfaces that can be reached with a solution of witch hazel four tablespoonfuls, car- bolic acid three drops and a small amount of water, giv- ing a quinine pill each night for two or three nights. Permanganate of potassium kept on hand and properly used is an excellent preventive. To one pint of warm 486 Science and Art of Poultry Culture water add one five-grain powder of permanganate of potassium, one two-grain powder of sulphate of quinine and ten drops of aconite. When well mixed, wash the head of the fowl, using a syringe for injecting the mix- ture into the throat and air passages, A teaspoonful may be given every hour. The above remedy has saved hundreds of severe cases. In extremely severe cases, double the dose and, should no improvement follow, use the block and hatchet. Care should be exercised in using the aconite as it is a deadly poison. If pus forms in any of the swellings of the head, it should be removed and the sore treated with a two per cent solution of carbolic acid. Should there be any canker fomiation, swab out the mouth and throat with a chlorate of potash solution followed by blowing pow- dered borax into these parts. Should the birds show signs of improvement, give tincture of iron or some other good tonic. Almost every one has a roup cure, but no known remedy will cure all cases. In selecting any of the remedies mentioned, it is well to use the mild- er ones first, resorting to severer treatment only in case of necessity. Burn all dead fowls. The diet should be light and all mashes contain one-third cut clover. The quarters should be dry, sunny, well-ventilated and kept at an even temperature. Roup is a hard disease to stamp out when once introduced. The infectious matter from the discharge of the mucus surfaces seems to retain the germ life for months. Drinking receptacles, feed pans and feeding grounds readily hold the germs of the dis- eased birds. The sick birds under treatment, should al- ways be closely quarantined apart from the rest of the flock. This applies to all contagious diseases as well. Sca!y-lcg or Scabies — This disease is very closely Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 487 identified with fish-scale, but the causes are entirely difi:erent. Scaly-leg is caused by a small insect or par- asite that burrows underneath the scale on the legs and is highly contagious, while fish-scale is a constitutional disease. It seems to be most prevalent among the heav- ier breeds, but all are subject to it. The disease may be transmitted from another bird or from an infected house or brooder. Prompt and active measures should be taken to prevent its spreading. It usually begins between the toes and spreads slowly until it may cover the whole leg. The scales thicken and raise slowly, forming unsightly bunches if not attended to. In severe cases the joints become afifected and the toes may be detached. Birds arc apt to peck and scratch these af- fected parts, causing raw sores. To properly treat this offensive disease, the legs should be soaked in soapy water until these bunches soften and can be removed. Follow this by dipping in Balsam of Peru or apply a salve made from lard and sulphur. Some recommend dipping in kerosene by placing same in a bucket of water. The oil comes to the top and a sufficient amount adheres as the legs are drawn through. One can do much towards avoiding this trouble by keeping careful watch of the flock and check- ing any early tendency along this line. Do not fail to thoroughly paint the roosts with kerosene or some other good insecticide. Tuberculosis — Tuberculosis is very closely allied to consumption but is more rapid and intense. There is but one way to make a satisfactory diagnosis and that is by a microscopic examination of the excrement for the presence of the bacillus or disease germs that pro- duce tuberculosis. The bacillus of tuberculosis in birds resembles that of man but is larger and more vigorous. 488 Science and Art of Poultry Culture The disease is most common in the European countries and is coming to be quite prevalent in our own coun- try. It attacks fowls, pigeons, pheasants, turkeys and peacocks in an epidemic form. The symptoms in tuberculosis are easily confused with those of many other diseases. There is a decided rise in the temperature but a constant decrease in weight and wasting of the muscles. The comb loses its color, and a drowsiness takes hold of the fowl. A constant di- arrhea is present and continues until death. The above symptoms are those observed when the disease attacks the inner organs. It may attack the joints and bones and be evidenced by lameness, swelling of the joints or the formation of pus in ulcers containing the dis- ease germs. Treatment is of no avail in this disease. It is a safe rule to quarantine every bird showing any symptom tending toward tuberculosis and should an actual case be found, it is wise to kill and burn the victim. Ship- ping of eggs or stock for breeding purposes should be stopped at once when it is found there is any tendency towards tuberculosis. It is claimed that one-fifth of th«_ loss of brooder chicks is due to this disease. It is dif- ficult to trace the origin in such cases, but the death rate from this disease gradually increases as the brooders con- tinue to be used. As we know, the disease thrives in dark and foul quarters. The average brooder is built on the wrong principles. Healthy stock comes from the incubators to the brooders only to die from lack of sunlight and fresh air, the de- stroyers of germ diseases. Many so-called modern brooders furnish an excellent breeding place for this dreaded disease. We are sadly in need of a brooder that supplies a large quantity of fresh air and affords Vices, Enemies, Parasites and Diseases 489 a well-lighted warming chamber. With the present brooder one should disinfect frequently and thoroughly, avoiding, if possible, diseases having a tuberculosis tendency. Quoting from a recent report from the Rock Island Experiment Station : " The simple expedient of remov- ing the houses and setting them out of doors in the full sunlight reduced the evidences of tuberculosis in the post mortem examinations from nearly fifty per cent to only three per cent." Vertigo — Vertigo and apoplexy are very similar in s}'mptoms and treatment. Vertigo is seen mostl\- in over- fat fowls, in male birds during the breeding season, or in chicks exposed to the direct rays of the sun. Molent exercise or straining in laying stock may cause the con- gestion of the brain. The blood rushes to the head, causing the fowl to stagger from dizziness, running about in a circle, or it may fall prostrated and power- less to move for a time. When this blood pressure is released, the fowl will' recover unless the pressvire has been sufficient to rupture a blood vessel, in which case the bird dies at once. To reduce this pressure, apply ice or cold water and confine in a cool, dark place. Give Epsom salts or cas- tor oil at once and follow with bromide of ])otassium, three grains three times a day. Reduce the fat-produc- ing elements in feeding. Wasting of the Liver — The liver is one of the largest and most important organs of the fowl. Atrophy, or wasting of the liver, is a hardened condition due to com- pression caused by a great accumulation of fat in the ab- dominal cavity. There are not many definite symptoms to point out during the life of the fowl. The bird grows light in weight, depressed and drowsy. 490 Science and Art of Poultry Culture The excrements are of a bilious order ending in a dark or blood-stained condition. Convulsions follow in some cases and the bird soon dies. Common sense in the use of preventive measures is the surest way to avoid this as well as other diseases. Encourage the fowl to exercise and avoid feeding any musty grain or any decomposed animal or vegetable matter. Give a half grain of calomel followed by cas- tor oil or epsom salts. Windpuff — This condition is most common among young stock. The chicken inflates with air and dies if not relieved. The cause is not known, but it is seldom found in flocks that are kept in clean, comfortable quar- ters and are well fed and cared for. Plenty of grit and charcoal should be fed in addition to green food and meat. The air may be removed by cutting a small V-shaped opening in the skin to allow the air to es- cape. D. H. HILL LIBRARY M«rth Gw^olina State Coll*i»