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 THE 
 
 ARCHITECT, 
 
 I?IBii©^ll®iiIL IH®W§:^ © AIBIPIlSr^IMIB 3 * 
 
 ILLUSTBATEO BT 
 
 SIXTY-FOUR EI¥GRATI]¥GS, 
 
 WHICH EXHIBIT THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 OTELER ELEMENTS OF TEIE ART; 
 
 FOR THE USE OF CARPENTERS AND BUILDERS. 
 
 By ASHER BEIVJAMIN, Architect, 
 
 AOTHOB OF THE "AMERICAN BQILDER'S COMPANION," THE "RUDIMENTS OF ABCHrTECTUBB," THE 
 "PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE," AND THE "BUILDER'S GUIDE." 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY L. COFFIN. 
 
 1843. 
 
Entend aeeoTding to Act of Congren, in the year 1840, 
 
 Bt B. B. MassET, 
 
 In tfas ClcA'i Office of the Diitrict Court of the Distriot of MiiuuuubiMlMa, 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 I v/rable manner in which my former pubUcations on 
 
 Architecture have been received, and the M^ant of a practical 
 treatise on that subject, adapted to the present style of building 
 in our own country, are the principal motives which induce me to 
 place this work before the public. 
 
 Since my last publication, the Roman school of architecture has 
 been entirely changed for the Grecian. Very few things of the 
 same nature differ more than the Greek and Roman creeds of the 
 orders. The Roman orders are chiefly composed of small and 
 ungraceful parts, and the mouldings are made up of parts of a 
 circle, which do not produce that beautiful light and shade, so 
 happily effected by the Grecian mouldings. These latter are 
 composed of parts of ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas and other 
 conic sections, and consist, mostly, of large, bold parts, which are 
 so strongly marked, that each member of the profile is plainly tceu 
 at a very considerable distance ; and can likewise be executed with 
 less expense than the former. I confess myself to be an admirer 
 of Grecian architecture, yet I am not disposed to condemn the 
 general proportions of the Roman orders, none of which, except 
 the Doric, differ essentially from those of the Grecian. The 
 cohmin of that order was generally made, by the Greeks, about 
 
iy PREFACE. 
 
 five diameters in height ; but the same order was generally 
 made, by the Romans, from seven and a half to eight diameters 
 in height. It is therefore evident that the latter proportion comes 
 nearer to our practice than the former one, especially when the 
 orders are used in private houses. The members of the Grecian 
 columns and entablatures, however, are certainly better proportioned 
 to each other than those of the Roman. 
 
 With a strong desire to make this work useful to the practical 
 builder, I have endeavored to divest myself of any prejudice I might 
 have for or against any school of architecture, and to select, from 
 all the books on that subject, those parts which I thought would 
 best promote my object. With this view, I have first given an 
 example of the Tuscan order, which is of Roman origin ; then one 
 of the Doric order, from the Temple of Theseus at Athens, exactly 
 corresponding to the measures taken of that celebrated building by 
 Stuart and Revet ; again, a second example of the Doric order, 
 from Sir William Chambers, whose orders are esteemed the most 
 perfect and beautiful of the Roman school ; and lastly, a third 
 example, composed from the two first, but chiefly from the Temple 
 of Theseus, which I believe better adapted to the practice of our 
 own country, at the present time, than either of the others, — but 
 those who differ from me in opinion have one of the most perfect of 
 the Greek, and one of the best of the Roman examples, to make 
 their selection from. I have proceeded in the same manner with the 
 Ionic orders, giving first an example from the Temple of Minerva 
 
PREFACE. Y 
 
 Polias at Priene, which is considered one of the best Greek exam- 
 ples ; secondly, an example from Sir William Chambers; and 
 thirdly, one of my own compiling, which is chiefly Greek, the capi- 
 tal being taken from the Ionic temple on the river Illyssus at 
 Athens. The Corinthian order having been little used by the 
 Greeks, the Roman examples are generally esteemed the most 
 perfect ; I have therefore given an example of this order from the 
 Temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome. Although the Composite order 
 was evidently of Roman origin, and is not much in use here or 
 elsewhere, I have nevertheless thought it proper to give an elevation 
 of that order from that most beautiful example, the Arch of Titus 
 at Rome. I have also given a profile of the entablature and capital, 
 taken from the Choragic Monument of Thrasyllus at Athens, and 
 the Ionic entablature from the Temple of the Muses, at the same 
 place; and also several other examples for entablatures and capi- 
 tals, which will often be found useful. 
 
 I consider it necessary that all practical house carpenters should 
 be fully acquainted with the orders of architecture, particularly 
 those who reside in the country, where they have no opportunity of 
 consulting an architect: I have therefore been very particular in 
 the descriptive part of the orders ; which care, together with that I 
 have taken in drawing and representing the most difficult parts on 
 a large scale, will, I am persuaded, make them so plain and easy, 
 that a workman of ordinary capacity can make himself perfect 
 master of the orders, without the aid of an instructer ; and when he 
 2 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 fully comprehends them, he will be able to understand the whole 
 subject of this book. 
 
 With a view to render this work completely a practical one, and 
 to facilitate and assist the efforts of master carpenters, I have 
 drawn all the architraves, base and sur-base mouldings, and all 
 other examples where it was possible so to do, at full size for prac- 
 tice, and I trust they will be found particularly useful to those car- 
 penters who have not had an opportunity of learning- to draw archi- 
 tectural subjects. 
 
 I am indebted to Mr. Peter Nicholson's ingenious treatise on 
 stairs for the principles of handrailing. I have made the drawings 
 on that subject somewhat different from his, and have explained 
 them in my own way, I therefore believe that this book will be found 
 to contain the most direct and best method of handrailing, and will, 
 I am persuaded, be more useful to the stair builder than any one of 
 his books on that subject. 
 
 Three editions of this work, each containing one thousand copies, 
 having been sold, the author is encouraged to publish a fourth. He 
 acknowledges his gratitude to the public for their liberal patronage, 
 and hopes the work will still be found useful to them. 
 
 A. BENJMIIN. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Plat*. 
 
 fJpoN a given straight line to construct any regular polygon I. 
 
 The method of drawing Grecian and Roman mouldings II. 
 
 Tuscan order III. 
 
 Doric order from the temple of Theseus at Athens IV. 
 
 Doric order as approved by Sir William Chambers V. 
 
 Doric order, Example No. 3 VI. 
 
 Raking mouldings, triglyphs, &c VII. 
 
 Planceer of the Doric cornice, and base mouldings VIII 
 
 Ionic order from the temple of Minerva Polias at Priene IX 
 
 Plan and elevation of the Ionic capital X 
 
 Ionic order as approved by Sir William Chambers X^ 
 
 Ionic order. Example No. 3 XII. 
 
 Entablature and capital from the Choragic monument, and an entablature from the Ionic temple 
 
 of the Muses . . XIII. 
 
 Two composed entablatures, and a capital for a pilaster XIV. 
 
 Ionic entablature with modillions . XV. 
 
 Best method for drawing the Ionic volutes .... XVI. and XVII. 
 
 Corinthian order from the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome XVIII. 
 
 Corinthian capital, modillions, &c XIX. 
 
 Composite order from the arch of Titus at Rome XX. 
 
 Tuscan, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian pedestals XXI 
 
 Impost mouldings and architraves XXIt 
 
 The method of fluting and diminishing columns .... XXIII. 
 
 The method of gluing up and finishing shafts of columns .... XXIV. 
 
 Designs for key-stones and for balusters XXV. 
 
 Designs for vases XXVI. 
 
 Design for a frontispiece to a door XXVII. 
 
 Design for a frontispiece to a door with pilasters XXVIII. 
 
 Plan and elevation for an Ionic portico XXIX. and XXX. 
 
 Design for a window, shutters, cap and sill XXXI 
 
 Design for a dormer window XXXII 
 
 Designs for wooden fences ... XXXIII 
 
vfii INDEX. 
 
 Designs for eave cornices XXXIV. 
 
 Designs for eave cornices with friezes XXXV. 
 
 Designs for stucco cornices XXXVI. and XXXVII. 
 
 Designs for sash frames, sashes and shutters XXXVIII. 
 
 Designs for inside doors, with mouldings at large XXXIX. 
 
 Designs for sur-base mouldings, full size for practice XL. 
 
 Designs for base mouldings, full size for practice XLI. XLII. XLIII. and XLIV. 
 
 Designs for architraves, full size for practice XLV. XLVI. and XLVII. 
 
 Method of fitting the architrave to the block at the angles, and to the plinth XLVIII. 
 
 Designs for chimney-pieces XLIX. L. and LI. 
 
 Designs for frets and guiloches LII. 
 
 Designs for roofs LIII. and LIV. 
 
 Designs for truss girders, floors, &c LV. 
 
 Designs for truss partitions, angle brackets, &c LVI. 
 
 Designs for stair newels and sections for handrails LVII. 
 
 Designs for scroll, curtail step, face and falling mould LVIII. 
 
 Reciprocal spirals and scrolls LIX. 
 
 Construction of the moulds for a circular staircase LX. 
 
 Construction of spring moulds for circular stairs LXI. 
 
 Plan and elevation for a circular staircase LXII. 
 
 Plan and elevation for a pulpit LXIII 
 
 Moulding in detail for a pulpit * -.iXIV 
 
THE 
 
 PRACTICAL HOUSE CARPENTER. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 In a given square, A B C D,to describe a regular octagon. Witli 
 one half the distance A C or B D, and on A B C D, as centres, 
 describe the arcs g m d, e m k, c m h, and fm i ; joinfe, d c, ki, and 
 h g, and it will be the octagon required. 
 
 FIG. 2 
 In a given circle to describe an equilateral triangle. Upon anv 
 point, A, in the circumference, with the radius A G, describe the arc 
 B G F ; draw B F, and make B D equal to B F ; join D F and 
 D B, then B D F will be the equilateral triangle required. 
 
 FIG. 3 
 In a given circle to describe a square or an octagon. Draw t!ie 
 diameter A C and B D at right angles ; join A B, B C, C D and 
 D A, and A B C D will be the square. For the octagon, bisect 
 A B in E, and carry A E eight times around the circumference. 
 
 FIG. 4, 5 and 6. 
 
 Upon a given line, a b, to construct any regular polygon. Upon 
 o and b as centres, with a radius equal to a b, describe two arcs in 
 3 
 
10 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 tersecting each other at f; from h draw the perpendicular h c, and 
 divide the arc a c into as many equal parts as the polygon is to have 
 sides. Through the second division d draw h g ; make c/ equal to/ 
 d, and through e draw a g, meeting b g at g ; then g will be the cen- 
 tre, and g a the radius of a circle, that will contain a & to any number 
 of sides required. 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 To describe the segment of a circle by means of a triangle. Let 
 A B be the length of the segment, and C D the perpendicular height 
 in the middle ; through the points D and A draw D A, and draw 
 D E parallel to A B ; make D E equal to D A, and join E A, 
 which makes the triangle EDA. Put in pins at the points A D B ; 
 then move your triangle around the points D and A, and the angular 
 point will describe half the segment. The other half will be de- 
 scribed in the same manner, which will complete the whole segment 
 required. 
 
 FIG. 8. 
 
 The transverse and conjugate axes A B and C D of an ellipsis be- 
 ing given, to find the two foci, and from thence to describe an ellipsis. 
 Take the semitransverse A E or E B, and from C as a centre de- 
 scribe an arc cutting A B at F and G, which will be the foci. 
 
 Fix pins in those points, a string being extended about the points 
 F C G, then move the point C around the fixed points F and G, 
 keeping the string tight, and the ellipsis will be described. 
 
 FIG. 9. 
 To describe an ellipsis by an instrument called a trammel. Set 
 the distance of the first pin, B, from the pencil at C, to half the short- 
 est diameter, and the distance of the second pin. A, to half the longest 
 diameter ; the pins being put in the grooves, as shown in the figure ; 
 then move the pencil at C, and it will describe the ellipsis required. 
 
MOULDINGS 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 FIG. 1, 2 and 3. 
 
 To describe the Grecian echinus, or ovolo to any given height and 
 projection. Figures 1, 2 and 3 are all of one height, but of differ- 
 ent projections. Divide their heights (excluding the quick) and their 
 projections, each into a hke number of equal parts ; through the di- 
 visions 1 2 3 and 4, on the line of height, draw lines parallel to the 
 moulding, and also from A, at the extremity of the outline, draw Hnes 
 to 1 2 3 and 4, on the line of projection ; then throtigh the points, 
 Avhere these lines cut those first described, trace the outline of the 
 echinus, and continue it as judgment directs from A around the quick 
 to the fillet. The outline just described is a parabola, and that of fig. 
 4 is an hyperbola, which may be drawn by leaving off the lower 
 fourth part, or more or less of the line of height A D ; or, which 
 produces the same thing, from the points on the line of height at C, 
 draw lines which, if produced, would meet in a point at a distance of 
 once or twice the projection of the moulding, or more or less, remem- 
 bering that the nearer the moulding these lines meet, the nearer will 
 the outline of the echinus approach to a straight line. 
 
 It will be plainly seen, that, by the application of the conic sections 
 either to the echinus cimarecta or cimareversa, an endless variety of 
 beautiful outlines may be obtained. 
 
 To describe the cimareversa, fig. 5, divide A B and 3 D each into 
 a like number of equal parts, into six for instance, as here, and draw 
 A I, A 2, A 3, and C 1, C 2, C 3; then trace the curve as before di- 
 rected. 
 
12 TUSCAN ORDER. 
 
 To describe a scotia, fig. 6, join the ends of each fillet by the 
 right line A B ; bisect A B at D ; through D draw CDF parallel 
 to the fillets, and C D and D F, each equal to the depth of the sco- 
 tia ; divide D A, D B, A G and B F, each into the same number of 
 equal parts ; from E, and through 1 2 3 on A G, and also through 1 
 2 3 on B F, draw lines. Then, from the point C, and through the 
 points 1 2 3 on the line A B, draw lines, cutting the former lines at 
 12 3 4 5 6, and trace the curve through those points. 
 
 TUSCAN ORDER. 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 The Tuscan order is nearly the same in its proportions as the 
 Doric. Of this order we have no complete example remaining from 
 antique buildings. There is one given by Vitruvius, from whom we 
 derive all we know concerning the origin of the order, of which the 
 column is seven diameters high, including base and capital, and di- 
 minishes one fourth part of its lower diameter. But the cornice pro- 
 jects more than one fourth part of the height of the column, which 
 renders the example unfit for our practice. 
 
 In the example here given, I have, in imitation of Vitruvius, made 
 the column seven diameters high, including base and capital, and 
 the entablature two diameters ; although in practice I do not always 
 follow this rule, since, in different situations, both column and entab- 
 lature require different proportions. They should in all cases be 
 proportioned according to the weight, or apparent weight, which 
 they have to sustain. It will sometimes be convenient to loAver the 
 entablature, in which case it may be reduced to one hundred and 
 
TUSCAIN ORDER. 13 
 
 ten minutes, (^r any where between one hundred and ten and one 
 hundred and twenty, taken in about equal proportions ffom the 
 frieze and architrave, and leaving the cornice its full proportions. 
 The base given in this example may, when expense is to be avoided, 
 be kept oflf with propriety ; and particularly when the column is seven 
 diameters or less. The mouldings in the capital and cornice are 
 Grecian, although the order is of Roman origin. 
 
 To draw the Tuscan order to any given height, the height given 
 must be divided into nine equal parts, because, the column being 
 seven and the entablature two diameters, one ninth of the height is 
 the diameter of the column just above the base. Suppose it be re- 
 quired to find the diameter of the column to a height of twenty-one 
 feet. One ninth of twenty-one feet is two feet four inches. Of that 
 length make a scale of sixty equal parts, which are called minutes. 
 First divide two feet four inches into six equal parts, like the scale 
 a b ; then divide a 10 into two equal parts, and a 5 into five parts. 
 Each of the last divisions will be one minute, or a sixtieth part of 
 the diameter of the column. 
 
 Under H and against each member of the order is figured the 
 number of minutes in their respective heights, and under P, the 
 number of minutes which each member projects. The measures of 
 the order are to be taken from the scale of minutes above, as will 
 be seen by the following directions given for drawing the base. 
 Against the plinth c d is fifteen minutes ; take fifteen minutes from 
 your scale, and set it down on a vertical line drawn for the side of 
 the column. Against the torus is twelve minutes ; set that down 
 on the same line ; and against the fillet ef is three minutes ; set that 
 down also. Under P and against the plinth at g is ten minutes, the 
 projection of the plinth ; set that down at right angles with the coJ- 
 4 
 
f4 DORIC ORDER. 
 
 umn, and draw the line g across the phnth. Against the torus at 
 h is ten minutes, its projection ; with six minutes in your compasses 
 describe the half circle, which completes the torus. Against the 
 fillet at i is four minutes, which set oif for its projection ; then, with 
 four and a half minutes in your compasses, describe the part of a 
 circle which joins the fillet to the column, and the base is complet- 
 ed. Go on in the same way to describe the remaining part of the 
 order. 
 
 A is a section of the cornice showing the bedmould recessed up 
 into the sofiit of the corona. 
 
 B is a section of the band to the architrave. 
 
 C is the capital drawn on a large scale for the purpose of showing 
 the exact curve of the ovolo. 
 
 GRECIAN DORIC ORDER. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 The district of Argolis first received colonies who mtroduced 
 civilization into Greece. It has been reckoned the cradle of the 
 Greeks, the theatre of the events which produced their earliest an- 
 nals, and the country which produced their first heroes and artists. 
 It was in the temple of Juno at Argos, where the Doric order first 
 arose to a marked eminence, and became the model for the magnifi- 
 cent edifices afterwards erected in the other cities, states, and islands. 
 After the Doric order had been established in the temple of Juno at 
 Argos, it was employed in the temple of Jupiter Nemeus, between 
 Argos and Corinth ; Jupiter Olympius, at Olympia in Elis ; in a 
 
DORIC ORDER. 15 
 
 splendid triple portico in the city of Elis ; and also in three temples 
 in the same city, to Juno, Minerva, and Dindymene ; at Eleusis, in 
 the great temple to Ceres ; in that of Minerva, at Sunium ; in the 
 temple of Minerva Parthenon ; in the temple of Theseus ; in the 
 entrance to the Acropohs, and other public edifices, of great magni- 
 tude and splendor, at Athens. In many of the islands there were 
 also temples of the Doric model ; that of Apollo in the isle of Delos ; 
 Juno in Samos ; Jupiter Panellenius, JEg'ma., and Silenus, in Sicily ; 
 and innumerable in places of inferior note. Even in Ionia, it was 
 employed in the temple of Apollo Panionius. Many of these edifices 
 were of great magnitude. The temples of the Greeks were univer- 
 sally of an oblong form ; in some, the porticos were at the ends only ; 
 in others, they were extended quite around the cell, some in single, 
 others in double ranges ; some were covered with roofs, others 
 were left partly uncovered ; and some of them were divided by ranges 
 of pillars along the middle of the cell. The superstructure was pla- 
 ced upon a platform composed of three steps, which surrounded the 
 whole edifice, and upon which the columns were all placed without 
 bases. The number of columns was either six along the ends and 
 thirteen along the sides, or eight along the ends and seventeen along 
 the sides, counting the angular columns twice. When formed upon 
 so large a scale and the ranges of columns so distinctly insulated, 
 and when artists of the first talents not only formed the models of 
 the edifice, and directed its execution, but also, under the strongest 
 influence of rivalship and thirst of glory, with their own hands clothed 
 those edifices with sculptures, and enriched them with statues, under 
 these circumstances the essential parts of the Doric order produced 
 effects not to be exceeded for simplicity and majesty. 
 
 That the proportion which the different members of the Doric 
 
16 
 
 DORIC ORDER. 
 
 order bore to each other was practised by the Greeks with consider ■ 
 able latitude, and that the ancients did not scrupulously adhere to 
 any precise proportion, will be evident from the following table, 
 which exhibits the dimensions of the principal parts of this order in 
 many of the ancient Greek edifices, which have been examuied with 
 accuracy. The dimensions here put down are in diameters and 
 minutes. 
 A Table of the Proportions of the Doric Order of Architecture. 
 
 Names of Examples. 
 
 Portico of the Agora, at Athens . . 
 Temple of Minerva, at Sunium . . 
 Temple of Jupiter NenicEus . . . 
 Temple of Jupiter Panellenius . . 
 
 Temple of Theseus 
 
 Temple of Minerva, at Athens . . 
 
 Temple at Corinth 
 
 Portico of Philip 
 
 Temple of Apollo 
 
 Temple of Minerva, at Syracuse . . 
 Temple of Juna Lucina . . . . 
 
 Temple of Concord 
 
 Pseudo-Dipteral Temple, at Psestum 
 Hexastyle Temple, at P.-cstum . . 
 Hypaethral Temple, at Pscstum . . 
 Inner Peristyle of ditto . . . . 
 Upper cohmins of ditto, ditto 
 
 Temple at Selinus 
 
 Temple of Jupiter, at Selinus . . . 
 
 Temple at ^gesta 
 
 Theatre of Marcelius 
 
 S 5 
 2 <5 
 
 a 
 
 Min. 
 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 (iO 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 
 Min. 
 
 o c 
 '5j o 
 
 Diam. Min. 
 
 47 
 
 45f 
 
 49 
 
 44^ 
 
 46f 
 
 47 
 
 44f 
 
 494 
 
 424 
 
 46" 
 
 45^ 
 
 46 
 
 40^ 
 
 43 
 
 41i 
 
 43 
 
 Ui 
 
 46 
 
 35^ 
 
 44f 
 
 48 
 
 oi 
 
 6 
 
 5 54 
 
 6 31 
 5 24 
 
 Min. 
 
 42^ 
 
 334 
 4' 
 
 6 324 
 
 6 3| 
 
 24^ 
 
 42 
 
 45^ 
 
 27 
 
 47f 
 
 8 
 
 13i 
 50 
 21J 
 
 7 51J 
 
 40 
 
 484 
 
 38f 
 
 5H 
 
 50 
 
 43 
 
 48f 
 
 384 
 
 49| 
 
 444 
 
 55' 
 
 46i 
 
 50 
 
 45f 
 
 42^ 
 
 89 
 
 68 
 
 46i 
 
 52 
 
 49£ 
 
 30 
 
 Min. 
 
 42 
 
 484 
 
 43i 
 
 514 
 
 49| 
 
 43 
 
 21 
 
 32 
 
 43i 
 424 
 40 
 45 
 
 46i 
 
 44f 
 
 404 
 
 44§ 
 44f 
 52f 
 45| 
 
 !54 
 
 24f 
 
 21^ 
 
 S-5 
 
 Diam. Min. 
 
 1 28 
 
 1 41 
 
 1 37^ 
 
 1 17f 
 
 1 14 
 
 2 42f 
 
 1 
 
 54 
 
 1 15 
 
 lOf 
 
 H 
 
 4f 
 
 26 
 
 40f 
 
 57| 
 
 1 22f 
 
 2 49 
 
 1 2i 
 
 1 11 
 
 In every Greek Doric, the vertical face of the architrave projects 
 beyond the inferior diameter, but is within the superior one. In the 
 
 * Where the members have not been measured, they ire noted in the table by this mark, . 
 
ri.i. 
 
 rill. 1 
 
 Fill. y. 
 
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 Fi,,. 0. 
 
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 Till. 11- 
 
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 PI,. :s. 
 
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 10 
 
 11 
 
 30 : ^</ 
 
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 JO 
 
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 mill 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
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 llillllilllBIlillllll 
 
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 illltl!liliiii|iililiPi!lil!Pflllliiii««' 
 
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DORIC ORDER. I7 
 
 temple of Corinth, and the Doric portico at Athens, the ovolo or 
 echinus is of an elliptical shape ; but in every other instance of Greek 
 capitals, it is hyperbolical, excepting the single instance of the porti- 
 co of Philip, king of Macedon, which is a straight line. 
 
 The nuinber of annulets in the capital varies from three to five ; 
 and the number of horizontal grooves which separate the shaft from 
 the capital varies from one to three. 
 
 Elevation of the Doric Order on the Temple of Theseus at Athens. 
 
 This temple is one of the most ancient and beautiful examples of 
 that order now existing. It was erected about ten years after tho 
 battle of Salamis, by Cimon, the son of Miltiades. The ceiling of 
 the porch is remarkable for its construction, having large beams of 
 marble with the upper sides level with the bed of the cornice, and 
 the ends corresponding exactly to the triglyphs in the frieze, which 
 gives the idea of the disposition of the timbers first used in building-.s, 
 and from which the Doric order had its origin. This building is 
 adorned with beautiful sculpture. The metopes of the frieze are 
 charged with historical figures, in which are represented various 
 exploits of Theseus. 
 
 The height of the column is five diameters and forty-two and tv 
 half minutes, and that of the entablature two diameters and ten 
 minutes, so that column and entablature, both together, are seven di- 
 ameters and fifty-two and a half minutes. If the column was seven 
 and a half minutes higher than it is, its diameter would be one eighth 
 part of the entire height ; and it will be near enough in practice to 
 divide the whole height into eight parts ; then, giving one part to the 
 diameter of the column, proceed to draw it as before directed in the 
 5 
 
,_ DORIC ORDER. 
 
 Tuscan order. The column diminishes thirteen minutes, and its 
 sides are composed of straight hnes or those gently curved. 
 
 Ficr 2 is a plan of the soffit inverted, showing the distribution of 
 the drops, which are two and a half minutes in diameter, and one and 
 
 a half in length. 
 
 Fiff 3 is a section of the cymatium on a large scale. 
 
 Fig. 4 shows the capital on a large scale, in which the cantor of 
 the ovolo, and also the shape of the annulets, are more plainly seen. 
 
 ROMAN DORIC ORDER. 
 
 Doric Order, as approved by Sir William Chambers. 
 
 - Vignola's Doric being composed in a greater style, and in a man- 
 ner more characteristic of the order, than any other, I have chosen 
 it for my model ; though, in particular members, I have not scrupled 
 to vary, when observation taught me they might be improved 
 
 - Perfect proportion, in architecture, if considered only with regard 
 to the relations between the different objects in the composition, and 
 as it merely relates to the pleasure of the sight, seems to consist in 
 this • that those parts which are either principal or essential, should 
 be contrived to catch the eye successively, from the most considera- 
 ble to the least, according to their degrees of importance in the 
 composition, and impress their images on the mind, before it is af- 
 fected by any of the subservient members ; yet, that these should be 
 so conditioned, as not to be entirely absorbed, but be capable of rais- 
 ing distinct ideas likewise, and such as may be adequate to the pur- 
 poses for which these parts are designed. 
 
DORIC ORDER. 19 
 
 " The different figures and situations of the parts may, in some de- 
 gree, contribute to this effect ; for simple forms will operate more 
 speedily than those that are complicated, and such as project will 
 be sooner perceived than such as are more retired ; but dimension 
 seems to be the predominant quality, or that which acts most power- 
 fully on the sense ; and this, it is apprehended, can only be discovered 
 by experience ; at least to any degree of accuracy. When, there- 
 fore, a number of parts, arranged in a particular manner, and under 
 particular dimensions, excite, in the generality of judicious specta- 
 tors, a pleasing sensation, it will be prudent, on every occasion where 
 the same circumstances subsist, to observe exactly the same arrange- 
 ment and proportions ; notwithstanding they may in themselves appear 
 irregular, and unconnected. 
 
 " In composing the orders and other decorations which are contain- 
 ed in the present publication, this method has constantly been ob- 
 served ; the author having himself, with that view, measured with 
 the utmost accuracy, and not without some danger, many ancient and 
 modern celebrated buildings, both at Rome and in other parts of 
 Europe ; strictly copying such things as appeared to be perfect, and 
 carefully correcting others, which seemed in any degree faulty, rely- 
 ing therein not alone on his own judgment, in doubtful cases, but 
 much on the opinion and advice of several learned, ingenious artists 
 of different nations, with whom he had the advantage of being in- 
 timately connected when abroad. 
 
 " The height of the Doric column, including its capital and base, 
 is sixteen modules ; and the height of the entablature, four modules ; 
 the latter of which being divided into eight parts, two of them are 
 given to the architrave, three to the frieze, and the remaining three 
 to the cornice. 
 
 " In most of the antiques, the Doric column is executed without a 
 
2Q DORIC ORDER. 
 
 base ; Vitruvius likewise makes it without one, the base, according 
 to thlt author, having been first employed in the Ionic order, to imi- 
 tate the sandal or covering to a woman's foot. Scammozzi blames 
 this practice ; and most of the moderns have been of his opinion, the 
 greatest part of them having employed the Attic base in this order. 
 Monsieur de Chambray, however, whose blind attachment to the 
 antique is, on many occasions, sufficiently evident, argues vehement- 
 ly against this practice, which, as the order is formed upon the model 
 of a strong man, who is constantly represented barefooted, is, ac- 
 cording to him, very improper ; and ' though,' says he, ' the custom 
 of employing a base, in contempt of all ancient authority, has, by 
 some unaccountable and false notions of beauty, prevailed, yet, I 
 doubt not but the purer eye, when apprized of this error, will easily be 
 undeceived ; and as what is merely plausible will, when examined, 
 appear to be false, so apparent beauties, when not founded in reason, 
 will of course be deemed extravagant.' 
 
 " In imitation of Palladio, and all the modern architects except Vig- 
 nola, I have made use of the Attic base in this order : and it certain- 
 ly is the most beautiful of any ; though, for variety's sake, when the 
 Doric and Ionic orders are employed together, the base invented by 
 Vignola, of which a profile is annexed, may sometimes be used. 
 Bernini has employed it in the colonnades of St. Peter's, and it has 
 been successfully applied in many other buildings. 
 
 " The ancients sometimes made the shafts of the Doric column 
 prismatic, as appears by a passage in the fourth book of Vitruvius : 
 and at other times they adorned it with a particular kind of shallow 
 flutings, described from the centre of a square, no interval or fillet 
 being^left between them. Of this sort there are now some columns to 
 be seen in the temples of Pestum, near Naples ; in different parts 
 of Sicily ; and in the church of St. Peter in Catenis, at Rome. 
 
DORIC ORDER. 21 
 
 " Vitruvius gives to the height of the Doric capital one module ; 
 and all the moderns, except Alberti, have foUow^ed his example. 
 Nevertheless, as it is of the same kind with the Tuscan, they should 
 both bear nearly the same proportion to the heights of their respect- 
 ive columns ; and, consequently, the Doric capital ought to be more 
 than one module, which it accordingly is, both at the Cohseum and 
 in the theatre of Marcellus ; being, in the former of these buildings, 
 upwards of thirty-eight minutes, and in the latter, thirty-three 
 minutes high. 
 
 " In the design here offered, I have made the height of the whole 
 capital thirty-two minutes, and, in the form and dimensions of the 
 particular members, I have deviated but little from the profile of the 
 theatre of Marcellus. The frieze or neck is enriched with husks 
 and roses,' as in Palladio's design, and as it has been executed by 
 Sangallo at the Farnese palace in Rome, and by CigoH in the Cor- 
 tile of the Strozzi at Florence, as well as in several buildings of note 
 in this metropolis. The projection of these husks and flowers must 
 not exceed that of the upper cincture of the column. 
 
 " The architrave is one module in height, and composed only of one 
 fascia and a fillet, as at the theatre of Marcellus ; the drops are coni- 
 cal, as they are in all the antiques ; not pyramidal, as they are im- 
 properly made by most of our Enghsh workmen ; they are supposed 
 to represent drops of water draining from the triglyph, and, conse- 
 quently, they should be cones, or parts of cones, not pyramids. 
 
 "The frieze and the cornice are each of them one module and a half 
 m height ; the metope is square, and enriched with a bull's scull, adorn- 
 ed with garlands of beads, in imitation of those on the temple of Jupiter 
 Tonans, at the foot of the capital. In some antique fragments, and in 
 
 *The hueka, roses and ox sculls, are left off in this example. 
 
 6 
 
22 
 
 DORIC ORDER. 
 
 a greater number of modern buildings, the metopes are alternately 
 enriched with these ox sculls, and with pateras ; but they may be 
 filled with any other ornaments of good forms, and frequently with 
 greater propriety. 
 
 " Thus, in miUtary structures, heads of Medusa, or of the Furies, 
 thunderbolts, and other symbols of horror, may be introduced ; like- 
 wise helmets, daggers, garlands of laurel or oak, and crowns of va- 
 rious kinds, such as those used among the Romans, and given as re- 
 wards for different military achievements ; but spears, swords, quivers, 
 bows, cuirasses, shields and the like, must be avoided, because the 
 real dimensions of these things are too considerable to find admit- 
 tance in such small compartments ; and representations in miniature 
 always carry with them an idea of triviality, carefully to be avoided 
 in architecture, as in all other arts. In sacred buildings, cherubs, 
 chalices, and garlands of palm or olive, may be employed ; likewise 
 doves, or other symbols of moral virtues. And in private houses, crests 
 or badges of dignity may sometimes be suffered, though seldom, and 
 indeed never, when they are of stiff, insipid forms. 
 
 " Too miich variety in the ornaments of the metopes must be avoid- 
 ed, lest the unity of the composition shoidd be destroyed. It is best 
 never to introduce more than two different representations, which 
 should not consist of above one, or at most two objects each, of* sim- 
 ple forms, and not overcharged with ornaments. In the disposition 
 of these, care must be taken to place them with regard to symmetry ; 
 those on the right in correspondence with those on the left. Where- 
 fore, when a triglyph happens to be in the middle of a front, it be- 
 comes necessary to couple the middle ones, by filling the two met- 
 opes, on each side of the central triglyph, with the same sort of 
 ornaments ; distributing the rest alternately as usual. It is likewise 
 
DORIC ORDER. 23 
 
 to be observed, that ornaments in metopes are not to project beyond 
 the triglyphs, which ought to predominate, as being essential and 
 principal parts in the composition. Palladio, in his Basihca of Vi- 
 cenza, has given to the most elevated part of the ox sculls and pa- 
 teras, with which the metopes are filled, very little more projection 
 than that of the triglyph ; and in this he has copied the ancients, who 
 seldom or never gave more projection to any ornament, than that of 
 the frame or border in which it was enclosed ; as appears by those 
 inimitable fragments in the Villa Medici, and many others in different 
 parts of Rome, and elsewhere. The channels of the triglyph, on 
 their plan, commonly form a right angle ; but, to give them more 
 effect, a narrow square groove may be cut in the inner angle, from 
 top to bottom, and into the solid of the frieze. 
 
 i " In the cornice, I have deviated very little from my original. Le 
 Clerc, who, in his Doric profile, has imitated that of Vignola, makes 
 the mutules as broad as the capital of the triglyph. But Vignola's 
 
 \ method is preferable, vrho makes them no broader than the triglyph : 
 as it is more sightly and more conformable to the carpenter's art, in 
 which the width of the rafter never exceeds the width of the beam 
 or joist it stands upon. The ornaments of the soffit are nearly the 
 same as those of Vignola. They should be entirely sunk up, wrought 
 in the solid of the corona, and never drop down lower than its soffit. 
 There is no necessity for cutting them deep : in most of Palladio's 
 buildings, they do not enter above two minutes into the corona, and 
 that is quite sufficient. 
 
 " Of all the entablatures, the Doric is most difficult to distribute, on 
 account of the large intervals between the centres of the triglyphs, 
 which neither admit of increase or diminution, without injuring the 
 symmetry and regular beauty of the composition. These constant- 
 
24 DORIC ORDER. 
 
 ly confine the composer to intercolumniations, divisible by two mod- • 
 xdes and a half, entirely exclude coupled columns, and produce 
 spaces which, in general, are either too wide or too narrow for his 
 
 purposes. 
 
 " To obviate these difficulties, the triglyphs have often been omit- 
 ted, and the entablature made plain, as at the Coliseum in Rome, 
 the' colonnades of St. Peter's, of the Vatican, and in many other 
 buildings both at home and abroad. This, indeed, is an easy expe- 
 'dient; but, while it robs the order of its principal characteristic dis- 
 tinction, leaves it poor, and very little superior to the Tuscan. The 
 remedy seems desperate, and should never be employed but as a last 
 
 resource. 
 
 " The ancients employed the Doric in temples dedicated to Miner- 
 va, to Mars, and to Hercules, whose grave and manly dispositions 
 suited well with the character of this order. Serlio says it is proper 
 for churches dedicated to Jesus Christ, to St. Paul, St. Peter, or 
 any other saints remarkable for their fortitude in exposing their 
 lives, and suffering for the Christian faith. Le Clerc recommends 
 the use of it in all kinds of military buildings, as arsenals, gates of 
 fortified places, guard-rooms, and similar structures. It may likewise 
 be employed in the houses of generals, or other martial men, in mau- 
 soleums erected to their memory, or in triumphal bridges and arches, 
 built to celebrate their victories. 
 
 " I have made the height of the Doric column sixteen modnles : 
 which, in buildings where majesty or grandeur are required, is a 
 proper proportion ; but in others, it may be somewhat more slender. 
 Thus Vitruvius makes the Doric column in porticos higher by hall 
 a diameter than in temples ; and most of the modern architects have, 
 on some occasions, followed his example. In private houses, there- 
 
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DORIC ORDER 25 
 
 fore, it may be sixteen and a third, sixteen and a half, or sixteen 
 and two thirds, modules high, in interior decorations even seventeen 
 modules, and sometimes, perhaps, a trifle more ; which increase in 
 the height may be added entirely to the shaft, without changing either 
 the base or capital. The entablature, too, may remain unaltered in 
 all the aforesaid cases ; for it will be sufficiently bold without altera- 
 tion." — Chambers on Civil Architecture. 
 
 DORIC ORDER, EXAMPLE No. 3. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 
 This example is compiled chiefly from the best Grecian specimens 
 of the Doric order, with such alterations, as, it was thought, would 
 render it more simple, less expensive, and better adapted to the mate- 
 rials of which it is usually composed in this country. 
 
 In the capital the annulets have been changed for those of the Roman 
 character, because it is supposed that the annulets of the Grecian 
 Doric are too small and indistinct to comport with the other mem- 
 bers of that massive composition. Not that the Grecian annulets are 
 not, of themselves, beautiful ; but, their number being constantly from 
 three to five, and the space they occupy not generally exceeding two 
 minutes, when three, the smallest number, are used, it requires nine 
 hues for angles to separate them from each other and the adjoining 
 members, which lines, or angles, if equally divided, could not occupy 
 a larger space than one fourth of a minute each. It is therefore evi- 
 dent that, when the column, which they adorn, is not of large dimen- 
 sions, they must, from the smallness of their size, and the small space 
 which they occupy, appear confused and indistinct. 
 7 
 
an DORIC ORDER. 
 
 26 
 
 In practice, I have sometimes retained the Grecian arrangement of 
 the annulets, but reduced their number to two, and made them occupy 
 a space of two and a half minutes. In imitation of the Roman and 
 modern practice, the faces of the frize and architrave are both m the 
 same plane. The face of the architrave, and those of the triglyphs, 
 were likewise in the same plane in the best specimens of the Grecian 
 Doric • but, in order to have these in the same plane, the frize must be 
 recessed back the whole thickness of the triglyph-a practice which 
 would be inconvenient for us, when the material is of wood, because a 
 difficulty will then exist in preventing leakage between the fnze and 
 architrave ; whereas, in the former practice, that difficulty was removed 
 by the tenia covering and securing the joint between the frize and 
 
 architrave. 
 
 The size and form of the drops below the triglyphs have been made 
 to assume the Roman character, because those in the Grecian exam- 
 ples are supposed to be too small and indistinct. The mutules over 
 the metopes have been left off in further imitation of the Romans ; 
 and, where simphcity only is desired, it is believed that object is ob- 
 tained with one over each triglyph. As practice seems to require 
 that some determinate height should be given to the column, in com- 
 pliance thereto, I give it seven diameters including its capital. This 
 is a h.rhter proportion than the Greek, but heavier than the Roman. 
 The entablature is two diameters in height. The shaft of the col- 
 umn is decorated with twenty flutes without fillets, the sections ot 
 which, when made of wood, may be segments of circles, or nearly 
 so, because, if made of a part of an ellipsis, as in the Greek origmal, 
 there will not be sufficient strength in the wood to prevent the edges 
 between the flutes from fracture ; when the material is stone, or iron, 
 they should invariably form a part of an ellipsis, as the eff-ect produced 
 
DORIC ORDER. 27 
 
 thereby is more beautiful than that of the stiff, tasteless segment 
 of a circle. The shaft of the column diminishes thirteen minutes, and 
 the line of its sides may be straight, or, which is preferable, slightly 
 curved, the convex side of the curve turning outward. The triglyphs 
 in the frize are thirty minutes in front, and their distance from each 
 other, reckoning from the centre of each, is seventy-five minutes. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents a drop of the mutule, the corona, cimatium and 
 the ovolo. 
 
 Fig. 2 represents the capital on a large scale, figured in minutes. 
 
 The curves of these mouldings have been carefully drawn, and it 
 is believed that they will appear very gracefiil, if correctly imitated. 
 
 A, on fig. 2, "shows that the face of the architrave is in a vertical 
 fine with the upper fillet of the capital, which projects three and a 
 half minutes from the neck of the column. 
 
 In the Roman and modern examples, a difficulty exists, where col- 
 umns and undiminished pilasters were employed in supporting the 
 same entablature, because there is given to the pilasters the lame 
 diameter as to the column, and the lower fascia of the architrave is 
 situated in a vertical line with the neck of the column. It therefore 
 happens that the neck of the pilaster projects beyond the face of the 
 architrave ; which defect they endeavor to avoid by diminishing the 
 pilaster. But pilasters of the same diameter with the columns have 
 the appearance of being larger than the columns, on account of their 
 form being angular, and that of the column round; and a pilaster cer- 
 tainly is larger, viewed from any other situation than directly in front. 
 
 I have, in this example, endeavored to avoid both defects, by mak- 
 ing the diameter of the pilaster equal to that of the upper fillet of 
 the capital, which, in this order, is fifty-four minutes ; so that the 
 lower fascia of the architrave is in a vertical line with the neck of 
 
28 RAKING MOULDINGS. 
 
 the pilaster. What is here said with regard to the diameter of pi- 
 lasters will apply to both the Tuscan and Ionic orders. 
 
 It will be observed, by reading the description of pediments, that 
 the Grecians never employed either rautules, dentils or modillions in 
 the cornices of the sloping sides of their pediments. I have therefore, 
 on plate 34, fig. 1, given an example of a cornice suitably constructed 
 for that purpose, which is figured in minutes. 
 
 RAKING MOULDINGS 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 Let A be the given moulding, B the raking moulding, and C the 
 return moulding. Draw a 9 in A, a 9 in B, and « 9 in C ; make a 
 9 in B at right angles with the rake of the pediment, and a 9 in C 
 and A both perpendicular. Take the projection 8 9 in A, and set it 
 from 9 to 8 on both B and C ; draw « 8 in A B and C ; divide 
 the given moulding A into eight parts, and draw lines through each 
 of these parts parallel to the rake of the pediment; then take the 
 distance 1 1 from the given moulding. A, and prick it down from I 
 to 1 on the line a 8 in both B and C, and take the distance 2 2, 3 3, 
 5 5, 6 6, and 7 7, and set them down on the line o 8 in B and C, as 
 before directed ; then, through the parts so set off, trace the curve, 
 which will be the outline of the raking and the return moulding. 
 
 At fig. 3 is shown a design for a triglyph, including the fillet and 
 drops below it, drawn, on a large scale ; the sides of a drop would 
 
IONIC ORDER. 29 
 
 meet in a point if produced to e. Fig. 4 is a section which is taken 
 from ctof. On fig. 3, and on fig. 2 at A B, is shown a section of 
 the triglyph and its capital, also the under side of the ovolo and its 
 fillet, showing the method of capping the triglyph, and disposing the 
 fillet over the metopes. And on fig. 4 is shown the size and shape 
 of the lower end of the drops ; the dotted line shows the size and 
 shape of the top end where they join the fillet above it. The differ- 
 ent members are figured in minutes on the plate. 
 
 BASE MOULDINGS 
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 
 A REPRESENTS the soffit of the Doric cornice to example No. 3. 
 B is a design for a Doric base by St. Le Clerc. 
 C is a design for an Ionic base by Vignola ; and 
 D is a design of the Corinthian base, taken from the portico of 
 the Rotunda at Rome. 
 
 GRECIAN IONIC ORDER. 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 In Ionia, the temple of Apollo Panionius was built after the Doric 
 manner ; but that refined people, not satisfied with the simplicity 
 8 
 
30 IONIC ORDER. 
 
 of this order, invented another of a more delicate character, and 
 named it after their own country, the Ionic, They made the height 
 of the column greater in proportion to its diameter than in the Dor- 
 ic ; the capital was totally different in principle, the entablature was 
 changed in its members and proportions, and a base was added to the 
 bottom of the column. Vitruvius says that, as the Doric was strong 
 and masculine, the lonians modelled their order with female delicacy, 
 and that the volutes were taken from the curls of hair on each side 
 of the face. 
 
 In the architrave and frieze, all appearances of triglyphs and gut- 
 t£e are omitted ; and in the cornice, instead of the bold mutules of 
 the Doric, the ends of smaller pieces of wood, to which the covering 
 tiles were fixed, are represented by what are termed dentils or teeth. 
 This order differed from the Doric, by having a base at the lower ex- 
 tremity of the shaft ; the propriety of this might have arisen from the 
 diameter of the shaft being much less than that of the Doric, in pro- 
 portion to the height of the order, or the weight it had to sustain. 
 
 The volute is the great distinguishing feature of this order. In the 
 Athenian Ionics, and in the temple of Minerva Polias at Priene, 
 the lower edffc of the channel which runs between them is formed 
 into a curve, bending downwards in the middle, and revolving about 
 the spirals on either side. In the temple of Erectheus and Minerva 
 Polias at Athens, each volute has two channels, formed by two dis- 
 tinct spiral borders ; the borders forming the exterior volute, and the 
 under side of the lower channel, have between them a deep recess 
 or spiral groove, which diminishes gradually in breadth, till it loses 
 itself in the centre of the eye. In the temple of Bacchus at Teos, 
 the great theatre of Laodicea, and in all the Roman Ionics, the chan- 
 nel whereby the two volutes are connected has no border on the lower 
 
IONIC ORDER. 31 
 
 edge, but terminates with a horizontal hne, falhng in a tangent to the 
 commencement of the second revohition of each volute. 
 
 The capitals of both Greek and Roman Ionics have the echinus, 
 astragal, and fillet ; the echinus is always cut into eggs, surrounded 
 with borders of angular sections, with tongues between them ; the 
 astragal consists of a row of beads, having two small ones inserted 
 between two large ones. In all the Roman buildings, except the 
 Coliseum, these mouldings are cut in the same manner. The height 
 of the Ionic column was originally eight diameters ; the moderns have 
 increased it to nine. The shaft is generally cut into twenty-four 
 flutes, with as many fillets. 
 
 The section of the flutes of the columns, in the temple on the II- 
 lyssus at Athens, is elliptical ; the flutes descend and follow the curve 
 jf the scape of the column in the following specimens, viz. : the tem- 
 ple of Minerva Polias and of Erectheus at Athens ; the temple of 
 Bacchus at Teos ; and 3Iinerva Polias at Priene. 
 
 The base of the Athenian Ionics consists of two tori, having a sco- 
 tia between them, separated from the tori, above and below, by two 
 fillets ; the fillet above the inferior torus projects, in general, as far 
 as the extremity of the superior torus, and the fillet beneath the up- 
 per torus projects beyond both. The scotia is very flat, its section 
 forming an elliptic curve, which joins the fillet on either side. The 
 tori and scotia are nearly of equal altitudes. In the temple on the 
 Illyssus, there is a bead and fillet on the upper torus, joining the fillet 
 to the scape of the column ; the upper torus of the base is fluted ; 
 but the lower part, which joins the upper surface of the fillet above 
 the scotia, is left entire. 
 
 On account of the frieze beinff wanting in most of the Asiatic 
 remains, although the architrave and cornice have been accuratelv 
 
32 IONIC ORDER. 
 
 measured, the height of the entablature cannot be ascertained. The 
 only instance in which a frieze has been discovered is in the theatre 
 of Laodicea ; and there it is rather less than one fifth of the entabla- 
 ture. The height of the entablature may, in general, be two diame- 
 ters ; and it may be increased in works of magnificence. 
 
 In the temple of Erectheus and Minerva Polias at Athens, the 
 architrave has three fasciae and a cymatium. In the temple of Bac- 
 chus at Teos, and Minerva Polias at Priene, the architraves are 
 also divided into three fasciee below the cymatium. Their proportions 
 are very different from those at Athens, though also elegant in char- 
 acter and efiect. 
 
 In all the Asiatic Ionics, the crowning mouldings of the cornices 
 are cimarecta, less in projection than in height. The dentil bands 
 are never omitted. The cymatium of the denticulated band is recess- 
 ed upwards, being almost entirely wrought out of the soffit of the co- 
 rona, which nearly conceals its height. 
 
 When Ionic columns stand in' the flanks as well as in the fronts of 
 buildings, two volutes at the corner of each angular column are con- 
 trived so as to present the same form in the flank as in the front, as 
 in the temple of Bacchus at Teos ; of Minerva at Priene ; Erecthe- 
 us, and that of the muses at Athens ; and likewise of Fortuna Virilis 
 at Rome : the angular capitals have, in all these instances, one volute 
 on each side, projected in a curve towards the angle. Amongst the 
 ancient Romans, as at the temple of Concord at Rome, the capitals 
 of all the columns are made to face the four sides of the abacus ; and 
 it was from this specimen that Scammozzi, encouraged by the exam- 
 ple of Michael Angelo, composed the capital upon this principle^ 
 which bears his name. 
 
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TONIC ORDER. 33 
 
 Elevation of the Ionic Order on the Temple of Minerva Polias at 
 
 Priene. 
 
 The great height of the cimarecta and its small projection is of it- 
 self beautiful, and well calculated for ornament. 
 
 The dentils show to great advantage, their bold projections making 
 them a striking feature in this order. 
 
 The architrave and capital are well proportioned and elegant ; and 
 the surprising delicacy of the ornaments, their bold relief, and the 
 grand ratio of the parts to each other, render this example one of the 
 most beautiful of the Ionic order. 
 
 GRECIAN lOMO CAPITAL, 
 
 PLATE X. 
 
 Fig, 1 represents one half the plan of an Ionic capital ; fig. 2, a 
 side ; and fig. 3, a front elevation of the same capital on a large 
 scale. 
 
 ROMAN IONIC ORDER, 
 
 PLATE XI. 
 
 Ionic Order, as approved by Sir William Chambers. 
 
 "Amongst the ancients, the form of the Ionic profile appears to 
 have been more positively determined than that of any other order ; 
 9 
 
34 IONIC ORDER 
 
 for in all the antiques at Rome, the temple of Concord excepted, it 
 is exactly the same, and conformable to the description Vitruvius has 
 given thereof. 
 
 "The modern artists have likewise been more unanimous in their 
 opinions upon the subject ; all of them, excepting Palladio and his 
 imitators, having employed the dentil cornice, and the other parts of 
 the profile, nearly as they are found in the Coliseum, the temple of 
 Fortune, and the theatre of Marcellus. 
 
 "In this plate of the Ionic order, there is a design of the antique 
 profile, collected by me from different antiquities of Rome. The 
 height of the column is eighteen modules, and that of the entablature 
 four modules and a half, or quarter of the height of the column, as 
 in the other orders ; which is a trifle less than in any of the regular 
 antique Ionics. The base is Attic, as in all the antiques, and the 
 shaft of the column may either be plain or fluted, with twenty-four or 
 with twenty flutings only, as at the temple of Fortune ; of which the 
 plan should be a little more than semicircular, as it is at the temple 
 of Jupiter Tonans, and at the forum of Nerva ; because then they 
 are more distinctly marked. The fillet, or interval between the flutes, 
 should not be broader than one third of their width, nor narrower than 
 one quarter thereof. The ornaments of the capital are to correspond 
 with the flutes of the shaft ; and there must be an ove or a dart above 
 the middle of each flute. 
 
 " Vignola and Scammozzi, Serlio, Alberti, and others, have, in their 
 architraves, imitated those of the theatre of Marcellus, and of the 
 Coliseum, having composed them of three fasciae, distinguished from 
 each other only by small projections. This has but an indifferent 
 effect ; the separations so faintly marked are not sufliciently striking, 
 and the architrave is left too destitute of ornaments for the rest of 
 
IONIC ORDER. 35 
 
 the profile — a defect most striking whenever the mouldings of the pro- 
 file are enriched. 
 
 "On the other hand, Palladio's and De L'Ormes architraves ap- 
 pear too rich, being likewise composed of three fasciae, separated by 
 mouldings ; I have therefore, in this particular, chosen to imitate the 
 profile of the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, where there are 
 only two fasciae, separated from each other by a moulding. 
 
 "The three parts of the entablature bear the same proportion to 
 each other in this as in the Tuscan order ; the frieze is plain, as 
 being most suitable to the simplicity of the rest of the composition, 
 and the cornice is almost an exact copy from Vignola's desicrn, in 
 which there is a purity of form, a grandeur of style, and a close 
 conformity to the most approved antiques, not to be found in the 
 profiles of his competitors. 
 
 " If it be required to reduce this entablature to two ninths of the 
 height of the column, which, on most occasions, is a proportion pref- 
 erable to that of one quarter, particularly where the eye has been 
 habituated to contemplate diminutive objects, it may easily be done 
 by making the module for the entablature less by one ninth than the 
 semi-diameter of the column ; afterwards dividing it as usual, and 
 observing the same dimensions as are figured in the design. The 
 distribution of the dentil band will, in such case, answer pretty nearly 
 in all the regular intercolumniations ; and in the outer ano-le there 
 will be a dentil, as in the temple of Fortune at Rome. 
 
 "In interior decorations, where much delicacy is required, the 
 height of the entablature may be reduced even to one fifth of the col- 
 umn, by observing the same method, and making the module only 
 four fifths of the semi-diameter. 
 
 " The antique Ionic capital differs from any of the others : its front 
 
36 . IONIC ORDER. 
 
 and side faces are not alike. This particularity occasions great diffi- 
 culty, wherever there are breaks in the entablature, or where the 
 decoration is continued in flank, as well as in front ; for either all the 
 capitals in front must have the baluster side outward, or the angular 
 capitals will have a different appearance from the rest ; neither of 
 which is admissible. The architect of the temple of Fortune at 
 Rome has fallen upon an expedient, which, in some degree, remedies 
 the defect. In that building, the corner capitals have their angular 
 volutes in an oblique position, inclining equally to the front and side, 
 and offering volute faces both ways. 
 
 "In this order, I have employed the Attic base. Of the antique 
 base, described by Vitruvius, and used by Vignola and Philibert De 
 L'Orme in their Ionic orders, and by Sir Christopher Wren in some 
 parts of St. Paul's, I think there is no example among the antiques ; 
 and, being universally esteemed a very imperfect production, I have 
 not even given a design of it. 
 
 "As the Doric order is particularly affected in churches or temples 
 dedicated to male saints, so the Ionic is principally used in such as 
 are consecrated to females of the matronal state. It is likewise em- 
 ployed in courts of justice, in libraries, colleges, seminaries, and other 
 structures having relation to arts or letters ; in private houses and 
 palaces, to adorn the women's apartments ; and, says Le Clerc, in 
 all places dedicated to peace and tranquillity. The ancients employ- 
 ed it in temples sacred to Juno, to Bacchus, to Diana, and other de- 
 ities whose dispositions held a medium between the severe and the ef- 
 fpminate." — Chambers on Civil Architecture. 
 
lOMC ORDER. 37 
 
 IONIC ORDER, EXAMPLE No. 3. 
 
 PLATE XII. 
 
 I>" selecting the following example, regard has been had for the ma- 
 terials of which it is usually wrought, for economy, and for its adap- 
 tation to present practice. In imitation of Palladio and other modern 
 architects, the column is nine diameters in height ; the shaft is deco- 
 rated with twenty-four flutes, and as many fillets ; the base is Attic, as 
 with the Romans in their best examples, and is decidedly preferable to 
 those employed by the Greeks in their early practice of this order. 
 The capital is taken from a beautiful capital found at the little Ionic 
 temple near the river Illyssus at Athens, which is a fine example for 
 our imitation. To the height of the entablature two diameters of 
 the column have been given. The architrave is thirty-seven and a 
 half minutes in height, and is divided into two fascies, separated by a 
 rectangular projection, and capped by the echinus, which is finished 
 by a fillet above and below it. The frieze is plain, and thirty-six min- 
 utes in height. Tiie cornice is forty-six and a half minutes in height, 
 the bed-mould of which is enriched with the dentil, its legitimate orna- 
 ment, finished with the echinus and bead below, and above with the 
 echinus and fillet, both of which are recessed up into the soffit of the 
 corona, so as to be concealed from a direct front view. The corona 
 is eleven minutes in height, and is capped by a compound moulding, 
 which pretty nearly imitates the Grecian specimens. 
 
 Fig. 1 is a section of the cymatium, shoAving the fascia and cima- 
 recta on a large scale. 
 10 
 
38 ENTABLATURES. 
 
 Fig. 2 is a design of the ovolo and fillet above the dentil, complete- 
 ly recessed up into the soffit of the corona. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows a profile of the mouldings of the capital on a large 
 scale. 
 
 GRECIAN ENTABLATURES 
 
 PLATE XIII. 
 
 On this plate are exhibited two ancient examples of entablatures. 
 That of fig. 1 is imitated from the little Ionic temple near the river 
 Illyssus at Athens. It is two diameters and seventeen minutes in 
 height, and is remarkable for its simple plainness. Its details, beau- 
 tiful in themselves, are judiciously arranged, and appear dignified ajid 
 chaste. The dentil, however, which, it must be allowed, is the legiti- 
 mate and characteristic ornament of the Ionic order, is here omitted. 
 It will be wise, nevertheless, to imitate this example when simple dig- 
 nity only is required, because a very considerable portion of labour 
 in its execution will thereby be saved, which would be required to ex- 
 ecute an entablature more abundant in mouldings, and in which the 
 dentil should form a part of the bed-mould, especially if the material 
 be stone. 
 
 Fig. 2 exhibits a capital and entablature imitated from the Chora- 
 gic monuments of Thrasyllus at Athens. Although this example is 
 neither Doric, Ionic, nor Corinthian, it is beautiful in both character 
 and effect. It is believed, however, that a deviation from the original 
 in some of its details will render it more conformable to modern prac- 
 
ENTABLATURES. 39 
 
 tice than it would otherwise be. It is with great deference to its an- 
 cient author, that the following deviations are proposed; — first, to leave 
 off the cimatium, which crowns the capital, because the capital is too 
 abundant in mouldings ; second, to leave off the drops or guttae, 
 which are suspended from the fillet of the regula, because they are 
 so small, and, when placed in a row, produce the idea of finery rather 
 than of dignity to the composition ; and, lastly, to give a greater pro- 
 jection to the bed-mould, and a less height to the fillet by which it 
 is crowned. 
 
 PLATE XIV. 
 
 ' On Plate XIV. are two designs for entablatures. Fig. 2 has the 
 Doric proportions, and is intended to be used with plain columns or pi- 
 lasters of that order, without a base, and where plainness only is 
 desired, or expense is to be avoided. The capital accompanying this 
 entablature is intended to be used with pilasters only, and was design- 
 ed as a substitute for that beautiful but complicated one belonging to 
 the Choragic monument of Thrasyllus, at Athens. The great num- 
 ber and delicacy of the parts of this capital render it expensive, and 
 very difficult to be worked, even in wood ; and it is almost impossible 
 to work it in granite. 
 
 The one on this plate, intended for a substitute, is composed of few 
 and large parts, and is of such a construction as to be easily worked 
 on either wood or granite. 
 
 Fig. 1 is intended to be used with Ionic columns, or pilasters, 
 where simplicity of character is desired. Fig. 3 shows the band of 
 the architrave on a large scale ; and fig. 4 shows the crown moulding, 
 also on a large scale. 
 
40 IONIC VOLUTE. 
 
 PLATE XV. 
 
 On Plate XV. is a desion for an Ionic entablature with modillions. 
 
 The modillion does not properly belong to the Ionic cornice, but, 
 as it has been so frequently used by Palladio and other modern arch- 
 itects, I thought it best to give a design of one here, for fear that, 
 otherwise, I might disappoint some, who rigidly adhere to the Roman 
 school of architecture. It will be seen by the plate, that the capping 
 of the modillion is a square instead of an ogee, and that it is recessed 
 up into the soffit of the corona, and by that means forms a pannel 
 between the modillions. 
 
 Fig. 1. To draw the soffit of the modillion, divide the line a h into 
 six equal parts ; on 2, with the distance I 2, draw g h; on e, with the 
 distance two and one half parts, draw h i : and with the same dis- 
 tance, and on d, draw i b. 
 
 Fig. 2 is a design for a cornice. See explanation of Plates XXXIV. 
 and XXXV. 
 
 VOLUTES 
 
 PLATE XVI. 
 
 To draw the Ionic Volute. 
 FIG. 1. 
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 centre N, and with a radius equal to one half the diameter of the 
 eye, describe a circle, cutting N A at O ; divide O A into two equal 
 parts at E, and divide O E into one part more than you intend to 
 have revolutions in the volute ; then take one of those divisions for 
 
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IONIC VOLUTE. 41 
 
 the side of the square 9, 10, 11 and 12, and divide it as is shown on 
 a larger scale at fig. 3 ; then, with the distance 12 A in your com- 
 passes, and on 12, draw the quarter of a circle A B. Then on 11, 
 and with the distance 11 B, draw the quarter circle B C ; on 10, and 
 with the distance 10 C, draw CD; on 9, with the distance 9 D, draw 
 D E. This completes one revolution. On 8 draw E F ; on 7 draw F 
 G ; on 6 draw G H ; on 5 draw HI; on 4 draw IK; on 3 draw K 
 L ; on 2 draw L M ; and on 1 draw M O ; which completes the out- 
 side circle. Draw the inside circle, from centres one fifth part of one 
 of the divisions of the square nearer the centre of the eye of the 
 volute. 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 The height of the volute D E being given, divide it into eight equal 
 parts ; take one of those parts for the diameter of the eye, leaving 
 four parts above and three below the eye ; then draw the diagonal 
 line A B, cutting the centre of the eye at C, and divide 1 2 into six 
 equal parts, as is more clearly seen on the eye at large, fig. 4. With 
 the radius 1 F, and on 1, draw the arc FA; on 2, and with the dis- 
 tance 2 A, draw A B ; on 3, with the distance 3 B, draw B G ; and so 
 on, until you have completed the outside of the fillet; draw the in- 
 side of the fillet from centres one fifth part of one division nearer the 
 centre, as before directed. 
 
 PLATE XVII. 
 
 To draw a Spiral Line to touch a given Circle, whose Centre is the 
 Centre of the Spiral, to any Number of Revolutions ; the ichole 
 Height being given. 
 
 From the height of the spiral F E, set off the diameter of the eye 
 E G. If three revolutions are intended, divide G F into twelve equal 
 11 
 
42 CORINTHIAN ORDER. - 
 
 parts : if four revolutions, divide G F into sixteen equal parts. Take 
 seven of the twelve parts, together with one half of the eye or one 
 half of E G, and set it from F downwards, and it will extend to the 
 centre of the eye, A. In fig. 2 the centres are drawn on a large scale, 
 from which I shall make the description ; which will also make plain 
 fig. 3, which is calculated for two, fig. 4, which is calculated for four, 
 and fig. 5, which is calculated for five revolutions. 
 
 A is the centre of the eye just found ; make A B perpendicular to A 
 C, and each equal to one half of one of the twelve parts of G F. Fig. 
 1. Make B 1, B 2 and C 2 each equal to A B or A C ; draw A 1 and 
 A 2 ; divide A C into 3 equal parts, or into as many parts as it is in- 
 tended to make revolutions in the volute : divide A 1 on A C into two 
 parts at D ; draw D 4 parallel to A 2, D 3 parallel to A 1 : then draw 
 lines cutting the diagonals at 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12, which 
 will be the twelve centres, from which the volute is to be drawn. In 
 fig. 1, and on 1 as a centre, with the distance 1 a, draw the quad- 
 rant of a circle a h ; on 2, with the distance 2 b, draw he; on 3 
 draw c d ; on 4 draw d e ; on 5 draw ef; on 6 draw/^ ; on 7 draw 
 g h ; on 8 draw h i ; on 9 draw ij; on 10 draw j k ; on 11 draw A- 
 I ; and on 12 draw I m ; and the outside of the fillet is completed. 
 Draw the inside line, as before directed. 
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 PLATE XVIII. 
 
 The artists of Grsecia proper, perceiving that, in the Ionic order, 
 the severity of the Doric had been departed from, by one happy effort. 
 
CORINTHIAN ORDER. 43 
 
 invented a third, which still much surpassed the Ionic in delicacy of 
 proportion and richness of decorations : this was named the Corinthi- 
 an order. The merit of this invention is ascribed to Callimachus, an 
 Athenian sculptor, who is said to have had the idea suggested to him, 
 by observing acanthus leaves growing around a basket which had 
 been placed, with some favorite trinkets, upon the grave of a young 
 lady of Corinth ; the stalks which arose among the leaves having 
 been formed into slender volutes by a square tile, which covered the 
 basket. The whole fabric of the Corinthian order is composed with 
 great delicacy of taste. It is admirably fitted for the most highly or- 
 namented states of architecture, and is strongly expressive of the 
 refinement and excellence to which the Greeks had carried their taste 
 and skill in architecture and sculpture. 
 
 The Greeks, having invented and established three orders, with 
 each a separate character, calculated for edifices, gradually ascend- 
 ing from the most simple to those which were highly ornamented, 
 completed a distinct and perfect school of architecture, to which there 
 remained nothing to be added. 
 
 In all the examples in Stuart's Athens, this order has an Attic base ; 
 the upper fillet of the scotia projects as far as the upper torus. In 
 the monument of Lysicrates, the upper fillet of the base projects far- 
 ther than the upper torus, which is an inverted ovolo. 
 
 Vitruvius observes, that the shaft of the column has the same pro- 
 portions as the Ionic, except the difference which arose from the 
 greater height of the capital, it being a whole diameter ; whereas 
 the Ionic is only two thirds of it. But this column, including the 
 base and capital, has by the moderns been increased to ten diameters 
 in height. If the entablature is enriched, the shaft should be fluted : 
 the number of flutes and fillets are generally twentv-four; and fre- 
 
44 CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 quently the lower third of the height has cables, or reeds, husks, spi- 
 rally twisted ribands, or some sort of flowers inserted on them. The 
 great distinguishing feature of this order is its capital, which has for 
 two thousand years been acknowledged the greatest ornament of this 
 school of architecture. The height is one diameter of the column ; 
 to which the moderns have added one sixth more. 
 
 The best specimens are, the monument of Lysicrates, the Stoa, 
 and arch of Adrian, at Athens ; and the Pantheon of Agrippa, and 
 the three columns of the Campo Vaccino, at Rome. 
 
 This order seems never to have been much employed in Greece 
 before the time of the Roman conquest ; but this powerful people 
 employed it almost exclusively in every part of their extensive empire ; 
 and it is accordingly in edifices constructed under their influence that 
 the most perfect specimens are to be found. Vitruvius says, that Co- 
 rinthian columns were sometimes surmounted by a Doric entablature ; 
 which is not supported by any antique example now to be found. His 
 observation respecting the Ionic entablature over the same kind of 
 columns is verified in a number of instances. 
 
 The arch of Adrian, at Athens, has a cornice with dentils, a plain 
 frieze, an architrave with two plain fasciae, and an Attic base. 
 
 A temple at Jackly, near Mylassa, has a cornice with dentils, a 
 swelled frieze, an architrave with three plain fasciae, and an Attic 
 base. 
 
 At Salonica (the ancient Thessalonica) a building called the In- 
 cantada has a cornice with dentils, a swelled frieze ornamented with 
 flutings, an architrave with three plain fasciae, and an Attic base. 
 
 The temple of Vesta, or Tivoli, has a plain cornice, with the den- 
 til band uncut, an ornamented frieze, an architrave with two fasciae, 
 divided by an astragal, and an Attic base. 
 
CORINTHIAN ORDER. 45 
 
 The portico of Septimius Severus, in the same city, has a plain 
 cornice, with a small uncut dentil band, a plain frieze, and an archi- 
 trave with three fascia?, divided by mouldings. 
 
 In all these instances, the entablature and base are similar to those 
 generally observed in the Ionic order, from which these Corinthi- 
 an examples differ only in the form of their capitals. But it will ap- 
 pear that the Romans attempted to give the Corinthian order a more 
 distinct character, by appropriating to it a peculiar entablature and 
 base, and thus making a complete order of what might be previous- 
 ly regarded as a composition ; in which light Vitruvius seems to have 
 considered it. 
 
 The portico of the Pantheon has a cornice with modillions, and an 
 uncut dentil band, a plain frieze, an architrave with two fasciae, divided 
 by mouldings, and a Corinthian base. 
 
 The temple of Peace, at Rome, has a cornice with modillions and 
 dentils, a plain frieze, and an architrave with three fasciae, divided by 
 mouldings. 
 
 In the Campo Vaccino, the three columns, supposed by some to 
 have belonged to a temple of Jupiter Stator, and by others, to a tem- 
 ple dedicated to Julius Csesar, have a cornice with modillions and 
 dentils, a flat frieze, an architrave with three fasciae, divided by mould- 
 ings, and a Corinthian base. 
 
 The temple of Jupiter Tonans, at Rome, has a cornice with mo- 
 dillions and dentils, a flat frieze, and an architrave with three fasciae, 
 divided by mouldings. The arch of Constantine has a cornice with 
 modillions and dentils, a plain frieze, an architrave with three plain 
 fasciae, and an Attic base. 
 
 At Ephesus, the temple supposed by Chandler to have been erect- 
 ed by permission of Augustus, in honor of his uncle Julius, has a 
 12 
 
46 CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 cornice with modillions and dentils, a swelled and ornamented frieze, 
 an architrave with three fasciae, divided by mouldings, and an Attic 
 base. 
 
 The Maison Quarre, at Nismes, has a cornice with modillions 
 and dentils, a flat frieze, an architrave with three fascia3, divided by 
 mouldings, and an Attic base. 
 
 Of the modern architects who treated of this order, Palladio- 
 makes the column nine and a half diameters high ; one fifth of 
 which he gives to the entablature, consisting of a cornice with mo- 
 dillions and dentils, a flat frieze, and an architrave with three fascioe, 
 divided by astragals : the base is Attic. The design of Scammozzi 
 bears a general resemblance to that of Palladio, but his column has 
 ten diameters in its altitude ; his entablature is one fifth of this 
 height ; the cornice has modillions, the architrave consists of three 
 fasciae, divided by astragals, and the base is Attic. Serlio, following 
 Vitruvius, has given this order an Ionic entablature, with dentils, and 
 the same proportion of the capital ; his column is nine diameters high, 
 and has a Corinthian base. Vignola's Corinthian is a grand and 
 beautiful composition, chiefly imitative of the three columns. He 
 makes the column ten diameters and a half in height ; the entablature 
 is a fourth of that altitude, the cornice has modillions and dentils, the 
 frieze is plain, the architrave of three fasciae, divided by mouldings, 
 and the base is Attic. 
 
 In the following table will be found the proportions of some of 
 the principal examples of the Corinthian order ; in examining which, 
 it is to be recollected, that the several members are measured by the 
 lower diameter of the shafts, which is divided into sixty parts, which 
 are called minutes. 
 
CORINTHIAN CAPITAL. 
 
 47 
 
 Portico of the Pantheon .... 
 Temple of Vesta, at Tivoli .... 
 Temple of Antonius and Faustina 
 Three Columns in the Campo Vaccino 
 The Basilica of Antonius, at Rome . 
 The Arch of Constantine .... 
 
 Temple at Ephesus 
 
 Temple at Jackly, near Mylassa . . 
 
 Poeile, at Athens 
 
 Arch of Adrian, at Athens .... 
 The Incantada, at Salonica . . . 
 
 Palladio 
 
 Scammozzi 
 
 Serlio 
 
 Vignola 
 
 Height of 
 Column. 
 
 Heiglit of 
 Capital. 
 
 Arclii- 
 trave. 
 
 Frieze. 
 
 Cornice. 
 
 Diam. Min. 
 
 Mill. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Min. 
 
 9 34^ 
 
 67f 
 
 42f 
 
 39^ 
 
 54 
 
 9 21f 
 
 57 
 
 30 
 
 37^ 
 
 32* 
 
 9 36^ 
 
 68f 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 52* 
 
 10 6f 
 
 6% 
 
 i^ 
 
 m 
 
 m^ 
 
 10 Uf 
 
 69^ 
 
 iSi 
 
 324 
 
 Missmg. 
 
 9 37 
 
 65f 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 58t^ 
 
 10 15 
 
 64 
 
 48 
 
 45* 
 
 48 
 
 9 31 
 
 63 
 
 43f 
 
 40 
 
 Missing. 
 
 9 32 
 
 64f 
 
 39* 
 
 34J 
 
 38f 
 
 9 52 
 
 72 
 
 41 
 
 38f 
 
 46 
 
 9 31 
 
 66| 
 
 46 
 
 41* 
 
 42* 
 
 9 30 
 
 70 
 
 38 
 
 28* 
 
 47* 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 48 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 37 
 
 39 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 This example of the Corinthian order is taken from the temple of 
 Jupiter Stator, at Rome, and is considered one of the most beautiful 
 examples of the order. 
 
 A is a design of the base on a large scale. 
 
 CORINTHIAN CAPITAL. 
 
 PLATE XIX. 
 
 Projection of the Corinthian Capital. 
 
 Fig. 1 is the plan. Make the length of the diagonal of the aba- 
 cus two diameters ; the centre of each side is determined by the 
 vertex of an equilateral triangle ; the semi-plan is divided into eig-ht 
 equal parts, which being carried up perpendicularly to fig. 2, the 
 elevation gives the centres of the leaves of which the projections 
 are formed by those unon thf' nlnn. f»« is .sshown bv dotted lines. To 
 
48 COMPOSITE ORDER. PEDESTALS. 
 
 draw the faces of the abacus : With the distance a h describe the 
 segments of a circle a b, b c, c d and d a. Fig. 3 shows the form 
 and manner of raffling the leaves ; fig. 3 being the front, and fig. 4 
 the side view. Fig. 5 is a design for a leaf differing from fig. 2, and 
 was taken from the three columns in the Campo Vaccino. Fig. 6 is 
 a design for the soffit, and fig. 7 the side view of a modillion. 
 
 COMPOSITE ORDER. 
 
 PLATE XX. 
 
 The example here given is taken from the arch of Titus at Rome, 
 erected soon after the destruction of Jerusalem, for the purpose of 
 commemorating that event. 
 
 This order was first used by the Romans in their triumphal arches, 
 to show their dominion over the nations which they had conquered, 
 and was by them generally covered with a great profusion of enrich- 
 ments. Although the capital, which is a distinguished feature in this 
 order, is in the lower part Corinthian, and the upper part Ionic, it 
 produced, nevertheless, a rich and martial effect, well adapted to the 
 use to which it was put by the Romans ; an effect which would be 
 sought for in vain from the delicate Corinthian capital. 
 
 PEDESTALS. 
 
 PLATE XXL 
 
 Pedestals are, I believe, a Roman invention ; they are useful for 
 supporting a colonnade or a pilastrade, and sometimes supply the 
 
mSlC TOiiTTI . 
 
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PEDESTALS. 49 
 
 office of a basement to a building. They consist of a base, die, and 
 cornice. 
 
 In the original examples of Grecian architecture, we find the col- 
 umns standing on the uppermost of three steps ; a rule to which we 
 know of but one existing exception, to be seen in the temple of The- 
 seus, at Athens, which has but two steps. The Romans, however, 
 when they raised the floors of their temples and other edifices high, 
 were under the necessity of discontinuing the front stairs, lest they 
 should prove inconvenient by occupying too much ground around the 
 building, and of adopting the pedestal raised to a level with the top 
 of the stairs, and projecting to the front of the steps which profiled 
 on its sides. 
 
 Wherever pedestals are introduced, the grandeur of the order is 
 diminished, as all the parts are proportionably reduced ; yet they are 
 indispensable in some situations. 
 
 In ancient Roman buildings, the proportions of pedestals are very 
 variable ; but some modern writers have endeavored to reduce them 
 to a resfular standard. Vicrnola would have them to be one third of 
 tlie altitude of the column ; but as this appeared to make them too 
 high. Sir William Chambers reduced it to three tenths ; but both 
 ratios must be subject to variation, according to circumstances. Ped- 
 estals still lower are to be preferred. 
 
 As to the decorations of pedestals, projecting tablets are inadmis- 
 sible. It is sometimes customary to adorn the dies with sunk pannels, 
 surrounded with mouldings ; and the pannels themselves are occasion-"" 
 ally occupied by bass reliefs or inscriptions. 
 
 Pedestals should never be insulated, though the columns sustained 
 by them be so. In the ancient theatres and amphitheatres, the infe- 
 rior orders rested upon steps, while all the superior orders stood upon 
 13 
 
50 ARCADES 
 
 pedestals, which formed a parapet for raising the base of the order 
 sufficiently high to be seen on a near approach to the building, and for 
 the spectators to lean over ; but they never exceeded the height 
 necessary for the prevention of accident. 
 
 On Plate XXI. are four designs for pedestals, which may be used 
 with the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, their details 
 being figured on the plate. 
 
 ARCADES 
 
 PLATE XXII. 
 
 When an aperture in a wall is too wide to be iintelled, it is arched 
 over, and receives the appellation of an arcade, which term, in the 
 plural number, indicates a continued range of such apertures. They 
 are not so magnificent as colonnades, but are stronger, more solid, 
 and less expensive. 
 
 In the construction of arcades, the piers require the utmost care 
 to have them of sufficient strength to resist the pressure of the arch- 
 es, particularly those at the extremities. In large arches, the key- 
 stone should never be omitted, and they should be carried to the soffit 
 of the architrave, where they would be useful in supporting the cen- 
 tre of the entablature, which would otherwise have too great a bear- 
 in f. The altitude of arcades should never be much more nor much 
 less than double their breadth. The breadth of the pier should 
 seldom exceed two thirds, nor be less than one third of that of the 
 arcade ; and the angular one should have the addition of a third, or 
 even a half more than the rest, according to the nature of the design. 
 The impost should not be less than a ninth, nor more than a seventh 
 of the breadth of the arch ; and the archivolt not less than a tenth. 
 
FLUTES AND FILLETS. 51 
 
 nor more than an eighth, of the same breadth. The bottom of the 
 keystone should be equal in breadth to that of the archivolt ; and its 
 length not less than one and a half, nor more than double its bottom 
 breadth. Make the height of the impost moulding equal to the 
 breadth of the impost. 
 
 FLUTES AND FILLETS 
 
 PLATE XXIII. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows the manner of setting out the flutes on the column 
 of the Doric order. A represents the size of the column at base, and 
 B at the neck. Divide the circumference into twenty equal parts, 
 that being the number of flutes for this column, and give one part to 
 each flute ; divide one part, as a b, into four parts ; with three of 
 these parts, and on 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, &c., describe the curves. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows the elevation of a part of the column, when fluted. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows a semi-plan, and fig. 4 an elevation of the Ionic col- 
 umn. Divide its circumference into twenty-four equal parts, and di- 
 vide one of these twenty-fourth parts into four parts ; with one and a 
 half of these four parts, and on 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, &c., describe the 
 flutes, making each of them a half circle, so that each fillet is equal 
 to one third of a flute. 
 
 Fig 3 shows the division of the flutes and fillets on a large scale. 
 
 Fig. 6 shows how to diminish a column after the Roman taste. 
 Divide the shaft of the column into four parts, and leave the lower 
 fourth undiminished ; divide the remaining three fourths into six equal 
 parts, as represented on the central line of the column. On A de- 
 scribe the circle h e, d c ; make e d equal to the diameter of the col- 
 
52 COLUMNS. 
 
 limn at the neck, and divide the circle b e into six equal parts ; draw 
 lines parallel to b c through each of these divisions, cutting the circle 
 ;)n each side of the centre of the column ; then transfer the distances 
 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, 4 4, 5 5, in A, to 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, 4 4 and 5 5, from the 
 ^.entral line of the column both ways, and through these parts trace 
 the curved lines of each side the column. 
 
 PLATE XXIV. 
 To glue up the Shaft of a Column. 
 
 On Plate XXIV. is shown the method of gluing up the shaft of 
 columns. 
 
 Draw the plans of the column intended to be made at both base 
 and neck, as shown in fig. 1 and 2. In this example, I have made 
 the column sixteen inches in diameter at the base, and have divided 
 it into eight staves. If the sides of the column be straight, two inch 
 plank will be sufficiently thick for the staves. Make the joints in a 
 fillet, or between two flutes. It will be seen that the plans show the 
 exact width of each end of the staves, and also the bevel of their 
 edges, and the curve of the outside. After the staves are got out by 
 an accurate plan and with great exactness, as they must be, or your 
 work will be bad, proceed to glue the edges of two of them. When 
 the glue is dry, glue in blocks on the inside, as shown in the plans at 
 c c c, &c. Let the blocks be from fifteen to twenty inches long. Fit 
 them exactly to the staves, and place the grain of the wood the same 
 way as that of the column, so that, if the wood shrinks or swells, the 
 joints will not open or be affected thereby. Proceed in the same 
 manner until you come to the last stave ; then get out the blocks 
 sufficiently wide to reach across the space left for the last stave ; then 
 glue the block on to each of the adjoining staves, and when the glue 
 
BALUSTRADES. 53 
 
 Ls dry, proceed to glue in the last stave. As it is wider at the base 
 than at the neck, an opportunity is offered to drive it up to a joint. 
 Then, after working oft' the superfluous wood, and completing the 
 flutes, give it a good coat of paint, to prevent its cracking or beino- 
 affected in any way by the weather. 
 
 In making large columns, a greater number of staves will be re- 
 quired, and it will also be necessary that the planks be increased in 
 thickness. 
 
 BALUSTRADES. 
 
 PLATE XXV. 
 
 Balusters are sometimes of real use ; as in stairs, windows, ter- 
 races, and on the sides of passages, open on one or both sides. At 
 other times, they are merely ornamental ; as when terminating the 
 up}>er part of the front of a building, as a screen to conceal the whole 
 or part of the roof, or as a finish to insulated triumphal arches. They 
 consist of short pillars of a peculiar outline, standing upon a phnth, 
 and covered with a small cornice. No remains of balusters have 
 been found in any ancient buildings. In the theatres and amphithea- 
 tres of the Romans, the pedestals of the upper orders were always 
 continued through the arcades, and served as parapets. The lower 
 seats next to the arena in the amphitheatres, and those next to the 
 orchestra in the theatres, were guarded by a parapet, called the podi- 
 um. The top of the monument of Lysicrates, at Athens, is finished 
 with a sort of parapet or ledge, composed of honey-suckles, solid be- 
 hind, and open between every pier. Each plant is bordered with a 
 14 
 
54 ANTM. 
 
 curved head ; and the bottom of every interval, with an inverted curve. 
 Bahistrades are represented in the works of the earUest Itahan writers, 
 who miffht have seen them in the ruins of Roman structures ; but 
 none have been discovered in modern times. When a bahistrade fin- 
 ishes a building, where an order is employed, its height should be 
 proportioned to the architecture which it accompanies, but ought nev- 
 er to exceed that of the entablature on which it is placed, or be less 
 than two thirds the height of the same. A good proportion, for bal- 
 ustrades of this kind, is to divide the whole given height into thirteen 
 equal parts, and to make the height of the base equal to three of 
 these parts, the height of the baluster to eight, and that of the cornice 
 to two. The baluster may be divided into seven or eight parts in 
 height, one of which will be the diameter at the base ; the one or the 
 other, as the work which they accompany is light or heavy. The dis- 
 tance between the balusters should not exceed half the breadth of 
 their plinth, nor be less than one third. On stairs and inclined planes, 
 the same proportions are to be observed as on horizontal surfaces. 
 
 I have fifiven foiir designs for balusters, which are floured on the 
 plate, as to both height and projection, so as to be made plain to in- 
 spection. The contour of the mouldings has been carefully drawn,, 
 and it is believed that they will appear graceful, if imitated. 
 
 ANTtE. 
 
 Though the earlier architects of Greece were either unacquainted 
 with the use of pilasters, or refused to introduce them into their de- 
 signs, they frequently placed a kind of square pillars at the ends of 
 
PILASTERS. 55 
 
 their walls, which they called antae, and which sometimes projected 
 to a considerable distance from the principal front, forming the prona- 
 os, or vestibulum. The breadth of these antae was always much less 
 on the flanks of temples, than on the front ; and sometimes they had 
 columns between them, in which case the return within the pronaos 
 was of equal breadth with the front. The capitals of the antse never 
 correspond with those of the columns, though they always retain some 
 characteristic marks by which the order may be distinguished. 
 
 PILASTERS, 
 
 Pilasters differ from columns in having their horizontal sections 
 of a rectangular figure, whilst the sections of columns are either 
 complete circles, or sections of circles equal to or greater than sem- 
 icircles. They are probably of Roman origin ; there being but few 
 Grecian buildings, and those of the later ages, (except the monu- 
 ment of Thrasyllus,) in which they are repeated at regular intervals, 
 as in the monument of Philopapus ; but of their application in Roman 
 works we have numberless instances. 
 
 When ranged with columns under the same entablature, or behind 
 a row of columns, they have their bases and capitals like those of 
 the columns, with the corresponding parts at the same heights : when 
 placed at the angles of buildings, the breadth of the return is equal 
 to that of the front. The trunks, also, have frequently the same 
 diminution as the shafts of columns ; as in the arches of Septimius 
 Severus and of Constantine, the frontispiece of Nero, and the tem- 
 ple of Mars Ultor at Rome. In these cases, the top of the trunk is 
 .equal to the soffit of the architravCj the upright face of which rests 
 
56 PILASTERS. 
 
 on the capital, in the same perpendicular with the top of the pilaster. 
 When the pilaster is undiminished, and of the same breadth as the 
 bottoms of the columns, the face of the architrave, resting on the 
 capital, retreats within the head of the trunk, as in the Pantheon of 
 Agrippa.* 
 
 Pilasters may be either plain or fluted, without regard to the col- 
 umns. Thus, in the portico of the Pantheon, the columns are plain 
 and the pilasters fluted ; but in that of Septimius Severus, the former 
 are fluted and the latter plain ; the architects seeming to be govern- 
 ed by no other rule than their taste. The angles, or coins, of fluted 
 pilasters, are frequently strengthened with a bead, as in the Panthe- 
 on, and the flutes are generally of a semicircular section. Sometimes 
 the faces of pilasters are sunk within a margin, and the pannels 
 charged with foliage, or other ornaments. 
 
 When placed on the front or outside of a building, pilasters should 
 project one fourth of their breadth at the bottom ; but in the interior, 
 or behind a row of columns, they should not project more than one 
 eiffhth of that breadth. 
 
 Pilasters are not only ornamental to a building, but they also tend 
 to strengthen it greatly; to which we may add that they become an 
 object of economy, as being less expensive than columns. In situa- 
 tions where they are cither placed behind a range of columns, or for 
 the support of the extremes of an entablature across an opening, they 
 are also more concordant w^ith the walls to which they are attached. 
 
 Clustered pilasters, or those which have both exterior and interior 
 angles, with their planes parallel and perpendicular to the front, may 
 be executed with good effect when the order is plain, as in the Tus- 
 can ; but in the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, where triglyphs 
 and capitals meet but imperfectly in the interior angles, such a junc- 
 
 • See Explanation of Plate VI. 
 
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COLONNADE. 5 
 
 ot 
 
 tiou should be avoided as much as possible. The same may be ob- 
 served of Ionic and Corinthian capitals of half pilasters, meeting each 
 other in the interior angles of rooms. In the Ionic order, a difference 
 must be made betvreen the capitals of pilasters and of columns ; for, 
 in the latter, the projection of the ovolo is greater than that of the vo- 
 lutes : but, the horizontal section of the ovolo being circular, the ovolo 
 is bent behind the hem or border of the volutes. It therefore be- 
 comes necessary either to give the ovolo but a small projection, or to 
 make it so prominent in the front that its extremities may appear to 
 retire behind the border of the volutes. 
 
 COLONNADE, 
 
 Colonnade, a range of attached or insulated columns, supporting 
 an entablature, is named according to the number of columns sup- 
 porting the entablature : tetrastyle, when there are four ; hexastyle, 
 when six ; octostyle, when eight ; and decastyle, when ten. 
 
 The intervals between the columns, measured by their inferior di- 
 ameter, are called the intercolumniation, whence the area between 
 every two columns is termed the intercolumn. 
 
 The intercolumniation is of five denominations, viz. : the arseos- 
 tyle, or thinly set, when the columns are at the distance of four diam- 
 eters ; the diastyle, when they are at three diameters ; the eustyle, 
 when at two and a quarter ; the systyle, when at two ; and the pyc- 
 nostyle, or thickly set, when at the distance of one diameter and a 
 half. Of these, the eustyle was in most general request nmong the 
 ancients ; and though, in modern buildings, both the eustyle and 
 15 
 
58 COLONNADE. 
 
 diastyle are employed, the former has obtained a marked preference. 
 The pycnostyle is frequently rejected from want of room. 
 
 The intercolumniations of the Doric order are regulated by the 
 number of triglyphs, one of which is placed over every intermediate 
 column. When there is one triglyph over the interval, it is called 
 monotriglyph ; when there are two, it is called ditriglyph ; and so on, 
 according to the progression of the Greek numerals. The interco- 
 lumniation of the Grecian Doric is rarely any other than the mono- 
 triglyph, there being but two deviations from it at Athens, in the Doric 
 portico and in the prophylsea ; and even in these instances, the ex- 
 ception applies only to the middle intercolumniations, which are ditrig- 
 lyph, and were necessary from their situation, being opposite to the 
 principal entrances. Indeed, from the massive and bold character of 
 the Grecian Doric, the monotriglyph succeeded best ; but in the 
 Roman Doric it would be inconvenient, because the passage between 
 the columns would be too narrow, especially in small buildings ; and 
 therefore the ditriglyph is to be preferred. 
 
 When the solid parts of the masonry of a range of arcades are 
 decorated with the orders, the intercolumns necessarily become wide, 
 and the intercolumniation is regulated by the breadth of the arcades 
 and of the piers. Vignola used the same intercolumniation in all his 
 orders, and, though this practice is condemned by some, it is founded 
 upon a right principle, as it preserves a constant ratio between the 
 columns and the intervals. 
 
 Coupled, grouped, or clustered columns, seem not to have been used 
 by the ancients. 
 
 The moderns seldom employ more than one row of columns in 
 either external or internal colonnades ; for in double rows the back 
 range destroys the perspective regularity of that of the front ; and 
 the rays of light, proceeding from both ranges, produce confusion. 
 
 € 
 
ORDERS VPON ORDERS. 59 
 
 Pilasters, placed behind a row of insulated columns, are liable to the 
 same objection, except that the relief is stronger, owing to the rotun- 
 dity of the one being contrasted with the flat surface of the other. 
 
 In buildings upon a small scale, the intercolumniations, or, at least, 
 the central one, must be broader than the positive dimensions of the 
 pillars would admit. 
 
 ORDERS UPON ORDERS 
 
 In placing one order above another, we shall be naturally led, by 
 the known laws of gravity, to give the strongest and heaviest the 
 lower place, and the weakest and lightest the upper. Symmetry and 
 strength will likewise direct us to keep all their axes in the same ver- 
 tical line. 
 
 In columns of equal diameters, the altitudes increase from the 
 Tuscan, by the gradations of the Doric and Ionic, to the Corinthian. 
 In this progression, we perceive that the Tuscan is stronger than the 
 Doric, the Doric than the Ionic, and the Ionic than the Corinthian: 
 consequently, if the Doric be the lowest order, the succeeding one 
 must be the Ionic ; if a third be added, it must be the Corinthian. 
 
 When a front of a building is to have two or more orders in the 
 altitude, the succession must be complete, or the symmetry will be 
 destroyed by the abrupt contrast of the parts. In attached columns, 
 the superior may be permitted to recede, without danger either of 
 greatly offending the eye, or of impairing the strength of the structure. 
 But when the stories of orders are insulated, the axes of the superior 
 and inferior columns must be kept in the same vertical lines. 
 
 The first and second orders should stand on plinths, as likewise the 
 
60 PEDIMENTS. 
 
 third, when there is one ; the point of view regulating those of the 
 upper stories. In this case, pedestals should be omitted in the up- 
 per orders ; but if there be one, or a balustrade under the windows, 
 the base and cornice should have but a small projection, and be con- 
 tinued to profile upon the sides of the columns. 
 
 When stories of arcades are raised one upon another, and the piers 
 decorated with orders, the inferior columns should stand on plinths, 
 and those of the upper stories on pedestals, that the arches may re- 
 ceive a due proportion. 
 
 In some cases, instead of employing several orders one above 
 another, the ground floor of a building is made in the form of a base- 
 ment, on which is placed the order by which the principal story is 
 decorated. 
 
 PEDIMENTS 
 
 These ornaments probably owe their origin to the inclined roofs 
 of the primitive huts. They consist of a horizontal cornice, repre- 
 senting a tie beam, and two others of equal inclination over it, indic- 
 ative of rafters ; or the latter are exchanged for an arched one. The 
 surface included within these cornices is called a tympanum ; which, 
 of course, is either a triangle or the segment of a circle. 
 
 In the ancient buildings of Greece, we find only the triangular ped- 
 iment ; but in those of Rome, both triangular and circular are to be 
 met with ; and in rows of openings, or niches, both kinds are employ- 
 ed in alternate succession, — though they seem to have preferred 
 the triangular form for doors, windows and gates, and to have ap- 
 plied the circular pediment to the covering of large or small bodies 
 promiscuously. 
 
PEDIMENTS. 61 
 
 Pediments, among the Romans, were exclusively appropriated to 
 sacred edifices, till Csesar obtained leave of the senate to cover his 
 house with a painted roof, after the manner of the temples. 
 
 The ancients introduced but few pediments into their buildings , 
 even the Romans usually contenting themselves with a single one to 
 adorn the middle or principal part. 
 
 Vitruvius has given the following direction for finding the pitch of 
 a pediment. " Divide the space between the extremities of the cy- 
 matium of the corona into nine equal parts, and take one for the 
 height of the tympanum." This rule has been considered as too low : 
 but it must be recollected, that of the octostyle portico of the Pan- 
 theon, at Athens, is nearly of the proportion here described ; that of 
 the hexastyle portico of the temple of Theseus is about an eighth ; 
 that of the Ionic temple on the Illyssus, and of the Doric portico, are 
 about one seventh ; and the tympanum of the pediment over the door 
 of the Tower of the Winds, is about one fifth of the span ; all which 
 edifices are Athenian. 
 
 From this comparison, a kind of reciprocal ratio seems to exist 
 between the extension of the base of the tympanum and its height ; 
 and, indeed, were a fixed ratio applied to both large and small pedi- 
 ments, the latter would frequently consist of a cornice only, without 
 any tympanum. It is therefore with good reason that the pitch of 
 small pediments is made higher than large ones. 
 
 When pediments are to be covered with either slates or shingles, 
 they cannot with safety be less in height than two ninths of their 
 base. 
 
 It is an observation of Vitruvius, that " the Greeks never used mu- 
 lules, modillions, or dentils, in the front, wherein the end of the roof , 
 tippears, because the ends of the rafters and of the laths, which sup- 
 16 
 
62 AITICS. 
 
 port the tiles, only appear at the eaves of the building ; and as mu- 
 tules and dentils originated from the projecting ends of the rafters 
 and laths, it would have been absurd to introduce them into the 
 pediment, where the exemplars are themselves to be seen." We find 
 in the Grecian remains, that, though neither mutules, dentils nor 
 modillions are employed in the sloping sides, mutules are constantly 
 used in the horizontal cornice. In edifices of the period of Roman 
 domination in Greece, indeed, we sometimes may observe them in the 
 sloping cornices ; but they must be considered as innovations. At 
 Rome, we find examples of modillions in the Pantheon, and in the fron- 
 tispiece of Nero ; and in the temple of Fortune dentils are used. In 
 the inchned cornices, the sides of the modillions and dentils are 
 planes perpendicular to the horizon, and to the front of the edifice, 
 and in the same vertical planes of those of the horizontal cornice. 
 
 It is to be observed, that the two uppermost mouldings of the cor- 
 nice are always omitted in the horizontal one of a pediment ; that 
 part of the profile being directed upwards, to finish the inclined 
 cornices. 
 
 The face of the tympan is always placed on a line perpendicular 
 with the face of the frieze. 
 
 ATTICS 
 
 Among the Athenians, it was a rule to conceal the roofs of their 
 buildings ; for which purpose they crowned their cornices with low 
 square pillars, of a form nearly approaching that of a pedestal, which 
 have obtained the appellation of Attics, from the country in which 
 
NICHES. 63 
 
 ihey were iirst or chiefly employed, though no remains are now to be 
 discovered among the ruins of the ancient city of- Athens. 
 
 Roman Attics are to be seen in the remains of the triumphal 
 arches, and in the piazza of Nerva. In the arch of Constantine, the 
 columns are surmounted with pedestals as high as the base of the 
 Attic, upon which are placed insulated statues. At Thessalonica, 
 there is an Attic over a Corinthian colonnade, with breaks forming 
 dwarf pilasters over the columns, as in the arch of Constantme. 
 The Attic, which is carried round the two courts of the great temple 
 of Balbec, is also broken into dwarf pilasters over the columns and 
 pilasters of the order ; which dwarf pilasters are surmounted with 
 blocking courses, wherein statues are supposed to have stood. 
 
 In all these remains, the Attics are disproportional ; some of them 
 being nearly one half of the height of the order. The moderns 
 make their height equal to that of the entablature ; and the propor- 
 tion of the members may be regulated as in the cases of pedestals. 
 
 NICHES 
 
 These, among the Romans, have either a circular or rectangular 
 plan. The heads of those of the circular kind are generally spher- 
 ical. 
 
 The plans of niches with cyUndrical backs should be semicircular, 
 when the thickness of the walls will admit of it ; and the depth of 
 those upon rectangular plans should be half of their breadth, or as 
 deep as may be necessary for the statues they are to contain. Their 
 heights depend upon the character of the statues, or on the general 
 
64 VASES. 
 
 form of groups introduced ; yet seldom exceeding twice and a half 
 their width, nor being less than twice. 
 
 In point of decorations, niches admit of all such as are applicable 
 to windows ; and, whether their heads be horizontal, cylindrical or 
 spherical, the enclosure nrny be rectangular. In antique remains, we 
 frequently meet with tabernacles as ornaments, disposed with alter- 
 nate and arched pediments ; the character of the architecture should 
 be similar to that placed in the same range with them. 
 
 Niches are sometimes disposed between columns and pilasters, and 
 sometimes ranged alternately, in the same level with windows. In 
 either case, they may be ornamented or plain, as the space will admit ; 
 but in the latter, they should be of the same dimensions with the 
 aperture of the windows. When the intervals between the columns 
 or pilasters happen to be very narrow, niches had better be omitted 
 than have a disproportionate figure, or be of a diminutive size. 
 
 When intended for statues, vases, or other works of sculpture, they 
 should be contrived to exhibit them to the best advantage ; and, con- 
 sequently, the plainer the niche the better will it answer the design, 
 as every species of ornament, whether of mouldings or sculpture, has 
 a tendency to confuse the outline. 
 
 VASES, 
 
 PLATE XXVI. 
 
 On this plate are a series of designs for vases. When vases are 
 used on pedestals, posts to fences, and for such like purposes, their 
 largest diameter may be made equal to the diameter of the pedestal, 
 or post, on which they are to be placed, or from that size to one fourth 
 
i5"K.s]p>'p! 1 OT; r-n- 
 
FRONTISPIECE. 65 
 
 part less, as judgment may dictate. As the heights and projections 
 of all the members to each vase are figured on the plate, I trust that, 
 by an examination, they will be clearly understood. 
 
 FRONTISPIECE. 
 
 PLATE XXVII. 
 
 On this plate is a design for a frontispiece of the most simple kind. 
 It may be used with success where the facade of the house is very 
 plain. To proportion the architrave, divide the width of the door into 
 five equal parts, and make the width of the architrave equal to one 
 of these parts. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows an elevation of the jamb to the door, and also a sec- 
 tion of the threshold and impost between the door and sash. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows a section of a part of the stile and panel of the 
 door, at full size. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows the moulding of the threshold, also at full size. 
 
 A scale of feet and inches is annexed, by which any part of the 
 design may be measured. 
 
 PLATE XXVIII. 
 
 On this plate is a plan and elevation of a Venetian entrance, 
 decorated with pilasters and an entablature, which are so plain and 
 simple, that they may be easily wrought in stone. The pilasters in 
 this example are seven diameters in height ; but they may be made 
 seven and a half, or eight, when a lighter proportion is desired. The 
 17 
 
66 IONIC PORTICO. 
 
 capital and entablature are taken from Plate XIV. The other parts 
 of the design may be measured by the scale of feet and inches an 
 nexed. 
 
 IONIC PORTICO. 
 
 PLATES XXIX. and XXX. 
 
 Ojs Plate XXIX. in fig. 1, is represented the plan, which clearly 
 shows how to place the columns and pilasters of the portico. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows the soffit of the cornice, architrave and ceiling, in- 
 verted. A A is that part of the soffit of the architrave which is di- 
 rectly over the capital of the columns ; and B B B B that directly 
 over the capital of the pilasters. 
 
 Fig. 4 shows a section of a part of the panelling. 
 
 On Plate XXX. is shown the elevation, the proportions of which 
 are taken from the Ionic Order, Example No. 3, Plate XII. 
 
 On Plate XXIX. fig. 3, is a section of a cornice, suitably con- 
 structed for the inclined sides of a pediment. I know of no deter- 
 minate rule by which the general proportions of a frontispiece can be 
 ascertained, in all situations. He who takes the most comprehensive 
 view of all the circumstances connected with the building to which 
 the frontispiece is to be attached, will be the most likely to produce 
 the most successful effects, by a true proportion. 
 
 The frontispiece must, in some degree, be in proportion to the 
 house it is to accompany, with respect to both size and character. 
 If the house be large, and highly ornamented, the frontispiece must 
 also be large, and the ornaments partake of the character of the 
 house. 
 
67 
 WINDOWS. 
 
 PLATE XXXI. 
 
 The size of the apertures depends chiefly on the size and destina- 
 tion of the building. The height ought to be about twice their 
 breadth ; and the breadth of the piers is generally from one to one 
 and a half the breadth of the window : but this proportion must 
 often be departed from, in order to admit of external and internal 
 decorations. The sills of windows should, in common edifices, be 
 placed at a height of from two feet two, to two feet six inches from 
 the floor. In elegant apartments, the sills are frequently placed at 
 a height of seven or eight inches from the floor, and, in that case, 
 the windows are made in height more than twice the breadth. It is 
 common in different stories to have different heights to windows, de- 
 creasing in the upper stories, until in the Attics they are often made 
 in height equal to their breadth. Windows ought always to be 
 placed vertically, one over the other, and not too near the angles of 
 the building. Fig. 2 represents a sash, frame, window cap and sill, 
 set into a brick wall. Fig. 1 shows a section through the sash, frame, 
 cap and sill, and a part of the brick wall. 
 
 A stone cap over a window indicates strength, its object being to 
 support the bricks which rest upon it. All embellishments, there- 
 fore, that are made on its front, must project from a vertical line of 
 the wall. Never suffer any of the cuttings to go beyond this hne, 
 because that would indicate weakness, and, of course, would be highly 
 improper. 
 

 68 DORMER WINDOW— FRONT FENCES. 
 
 DORMER WINDOW 
 
 PLATE XXXII. 
 
 On this plate is shown a design for a dormer window, suitably 
 constructed for being placed on the roof of a building. It is drawn 
 on a scale large enough to make it plain, without further explanation. 
 Fig. 1 shows a front, and fig. 2 a side elevation. 
 
 Fig. 3 and 4, on the same plate, show designs of a species of the 
 guiloche, which may sometimes be used with good effect on fences, 
 railings, &c. 
 
 FRONT FENCES. 
 
 PLATE XXXIIL 
 
 On this plate are three designs for fences, suitable for the enclo- 
 sure of a country residence, which may be made of wood, when iron 
 is not to be obtained, or when expense is to be avoided : also two de- 
 signs for gates, to be made of the same material. Mouldings do not 
 form any part of the composition of these designs. Their construc- 
 tion is bold and simple, and will, if well executed, produce a more 
 chaste and pleasing effect than if the cornice, top rail and base were 
 composed of small, trifling mouldings, and is the means of saving 
 considerable expense. 
 
 It is not supposed that the size of these examples will suit all 
 situations. There are many situations which require the size of 
 
EAVE CORNICES. 69 
 
 front fences to be varied ; as, for instance, when the house is very 
 large, and located on an elevated piece of ground, and at a considera- 
 ble distance from the road : in this case, the fence should be of the 
 largest dimensions. But if the house be small, and so situated as to 
 have the fence near it, the fence ought then to be small and low, so 
 that it may not appear as a principal in the structure. 
 
 EAVE CORNICES, 
 
 PLATE XXXIV. 
 On this plate are four designs for eave cornices. To proportion 
 their height, divide the height of the building, on which A is to be 
 used, into twenty-four equal parts, and make the height of the cor- 
 nice on the wall equal to one of these parts. If B or D is to be used, 
 divide the height of the building into twenty-five parts, and make the 
 height of the cornice equal to one of them. If C is to be used, di- 
 vide the height into thirty equal parts, and give one of them to the 
 lieight of the cornice. 
 
 PLATE XXXV. 
 On this plate are designs for eave cornices with friezes. In de- 
 termining their height and proportion, judgment is to be used. If a 
 house have a front of forty or fifty feet, it will be necessary to make 
 the cornice somewhat larger than if the front only occupy a space 
 of twenty or twenty-five feet. As a general proportion, give to the 
 height of the cornice on the wall, without the frieze, from one twenty- 
 fifth to one thirtieth of the height of the wall. 
 18 
 
7a STUCCO CORNICES. 
 
 STUCCO CORNICES, 
 
 PLATES XXXVI. and XXXVII. 
 
 On these plates are designs for stucco cornices. What has 
 heretofore been said with regard to the proportions of columns and 
 cornices, will apply equally well here. There are many circumstan- 
 ces which ought materially to affect the size of cornices in rooms 
 of the same height ; such as the size of the room, and the style 
 of the finish of the other parts of it. If the finish generally be 
 light, the cornice ought also to be light ; and if the finish of the 
 room be composed of large, bold parts, make the cornice conforma- 
 ble thereto. 
 
 As stucco cornices occupy more space on the ceiling than on the 
 vertical walls, I have thought it more proper to determine their 
 projection than their height ; and more particularly so, as, in many 
 situations, a very small height only can be had. In such cases, the 
 defect can in some degree be remedied by adding to the projection. 
 As a general rule, give to the projection of the cornice five eighths 
 of an inch for each foot in the height. If the room be ten feet in 
 height, make the cornice project six and a quarter inches, or fifty 
 eighths of an inch ; then divide that distance into as many parts as 
 are contained in the projection of the cornice you intend to make use 
 of, and give those parts to the different members of the cornice, in 
 both height and projection, as figured on the plate. 
 
FINISHING. WINDOWS. 7] 
 
 FINISHING. WINDOWS. 
 
 PLATE XXXVIII. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows a section of part of a brick wall, sash frame, window 
 shutters, back lining, rough furrings, stucco, grounds and architrave. 
 A, top of stone sill ; E, top of wooden sill to sash frame ; a, outside 
 casing ; c, pulley stile ; h, ovolo ; b back side casing next to bricks ; 
 d, inside casing to which the shutters are hung ; e, parting strip be- 
 tween weights ; q, r, weights ; /, parting bead ; g, inside bead to 
 sash frame ; I, back lining ; m, rough furrings ; n, grounds ; o, stuc- 
 co ; p, architrave ; and *', k, shutters. 
 
 Fig. 2 is a section of the cap to a sash frame, c, edge of outside 
 casing ; h, parting slip ; a, inside bead. 
 
 Fig. 3. g, section of sill to sash frame ; i, back under window ; h, 
 bead connected with sill and back ; d, inside bead ; e, parting slip ; f, 
 face casing. 
 
 Fig. 4 shows a section of the meeting rails, and parts of the upright 
 bars of the sash, drawn at full size. B is a section of a sash bar, 
 and C and D are sections of the stile, the mouldings, and part of a 
 panel to shutters, also drawn at full size. 
 
72 INSIDE DOORS. 
 
 INSIDE DOORS. 
 
 PLATE XXXIX. 
 
 Doors are generally varied in their dimensions, according to the 
 height of the story, and magnitude of the building in which they 
 are used. The aperture of those of the smallest dimensions must 
 be of a size sufficient to allow a man to pass easily through them : 
 the smallest door cannot, therefore, be much less than two feet six 
 inches wide, by six feet six inches high ; nor should they be more 
 than three feet eight inches in breadth, by eight feet in height, in 
 private houses. When folding doors are used for the purpose of 
 connecting rooms by large apertures, it will be advisable to make 
 them double the width of the other doors, and very often to exceed 
 that width ; their height ought in general to exceed that of the other 
 doors, in the same room, by twelve or fifteen inches. A good propor- 
 tion for small doors is three to seven, and for very large ones one to 
 two ; for rooms about sixteen by eighteen or twenty feet, and ten to 
 twelve feet high, a good proportion for the doors will be three by 
 seven feet. Fig. 4 is a design of a door with five panels, without 
 mouldings, as is shown by fig. 1, which represents a section of the 
 stile and panel at large. Fig. 3 is a design for a door with eight 
 panels ; and fig. 2 shows a section of the moulding, a part of the 
 panel, and also a part of the stile, drawn at full size. The doors are 
 drawn from a scale of one inch to a foot. 
 
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SUR-BASE MOULDINGS.— BASE MOULDINGS. 73 
 
 SUR-BASE MOULDINGS. 
 
 PLATE XL. 
 
 On this plate are six designs for sur-base mouldings, drawn at full 
 size for practice. I have given these designs a place here, although 
 the sur-base and dado seem at present to be quite out of fashion ; nor, 
 indeed, do I think it very desirable that they should be again received 
 into favor. It is my opinion, that a room finished vv^ith a base only, 
 presents a more chaste and pleasing appearance than when encum- 
 bered with a dado and sur-base. When plastering is substituted for 
 the boards of the dado, it is less expensive, and a greater preventive 
 against the cold air. 
 
 BASE MOULDINGS. 
 
 PLATES XLL XLIL XLIIL and XLIV. 
 
 On these plates are nineteen designs for base mouldings, all of 
 which are drawn in full size for practice. As a very good fashion 
 seems now to prevail, of not using either dados or sur-bases, it is 
 necessary to make the base somewhat larger than it was when these 
 were in fashion. It will be proper to make the plinth to these designs 
 for base mouldings about seven inches wide ; in small, low rooms, 
 their size may be somewhat reduced. Correct or incorrect judgment, 
 in considering the size and situation of the room, when base mouldings 
 are to be used, will always have a decided effect on their good or bad 
 appearance. 19 
 
74 ' ARCHITRAVES. 
 
 ARCHITRAVES. 
 
 PLATES XLV. XLVI. and XLVII. 
 These plates contain designs for architraves. They are all drawn 
 at full size for practice ; but as it is not probable that they will suit 
 every situation, I shall give some general rules for their proportion. 
 Doors and windows in the same room are necessarily of different 
 heights and widths, the windows always being considerably larger 
 than the doors ; but it would be highly improper to make two widths 
 of architraves. It therefore becomes necessary to make a compro- 
 mise between them. I have in practice generally divided the width of 
 the door into six equal parts, and given one to the width of the archi- 
 trave : say, if the door is three feet wide, one sixth would be six inches, 
 which would be rather too wide for the door ; but as the windows in 
 the same room would be from ten to twelve inches wider than the 
 door, six inches would be rather too narrow for the window, if its 
 size only was to be considered ; I therefore should make the archi- 
 trave one sixth of the width of the door. 
 
 PLATE XLVIII. 
 
 Shows the manner of applying the plinth under the architrave to 
 doors and windows, and also the application of the block at the upper 
 angles of the door or window against which the architrave butts. 
 
 D is a section of the block and architrave, and shows clearly how 
 far the block projects front of the architrave. 
 
 E is a section of the plinth and architrave, and shows how far the 
 plinth projects front of the architrave. 
 
CHIMNEY PIECES. 75 
 
 F is a section from a to 6 through the block, showing the formation 
 of the panel. It is both proper and common to ornament these pan- 
 els with rosettes, from the plainest kind up to the most rich and beau- 
 tiful ; and where the panel is large, it may be enriched with the honey- 
 suckle, or any other appropriate ornament. 
 
 All the figures on this plate are drawn at half the full size. 
 
 CHIMNEY PIECES, 
 
 PLATES XLIX. L. and LI. 
 
 On these plates are three designs for chimney pieces. These 
 designs are formed suitably for marble, but may be constructed of 
 wood. 
 
 In the decoration of chimney pieces, the wildest fancy has been 
 mdulged. Their composition should conform to the style and char- 
 acter of the room in which they are placed, whether of marble or of 
 wood. If of wood, they may be painted black and varnished, which 
 wdl give them a neat appearance, and render them less liable to be 
 soiled with smoke than when painted a Hght color. 
 
 A A on Plate XLIX. shows the plan of the pilasters ; C C, a sec- 
 tion of the jambs ; and D, the section of the back. The jambs and 
 back are intended to be made of soap stone, but may be made of any 
 other kind of stone which will stand the heat of the fire, or of iron. 
 a a a a represents the front edge of the cornice, or shelf E E shows 
 how the plinth of the pilasters, and that of the room, should be con- 
 nected with each other. 
 
76 GUILOCHE AND FRETS. 
 
 On Plate L. is shown the plan of the fire place, E E being the plan 
 of the pilasters, G G that of the jambs, F the back, and D D the 
 facings. C shows an elevation of one of the jambs, with the top end 
 narrowed off to its proper width. Every part of these designs can 
 be accurately measured by the scale of feet and inches annexed to 
 each plate. 
 
 Open fire places for burning wood ought to be proportioned, in some 
 degree, to the room in which they are placed. It is, however, diflicult 
 to lay down any precise rule for their proportion. An open fire place 
 cannot be made much less than three feet in breadth, if the room be 
 not more than twelve feet square, and should never exceed three feet 
 nine inches in any room, whatever be its size. A fire place of three 
 feet opening between the jambs should have an opening from the 
 hearth upwards of about two feet seven inches. 
 
 Where open fire places are made for burning coals, the grate set 
 in them should be about one inch in length for every foot in the length 
 of the room ; that is to say, if the room is twenty feet square, make 
 the grate twenty inches long, and about ten inches deep. The top 
 bar of the grate should not be less than eighteen inches, nor more 
 than twenty-four, from the hearth. 
 
 GUILOCHE AND FRETS. 
 
 PLATE LII. 
 
 On this plate are given seven various ornamental pieces of the 
 guiloche and fret, intended for friezes, bands, panels, and va- 
 rious other decorations, the use of which, if tastefully employed. 
 
CARPENTRY. 77 
 
 will not fail to produce a chaste and pleasing effect. They lay claim 
 to the highest antiquity, having been used by the Chinese in their 
 earliest periods, from whom they were carried into Egypt, and from 
 thence into Greece, embellishing their buildings as well as their vases. 
 From the nature of their construction, an endless variety of forms 
 may be obtained. 
 
 A is composed of parallel right lines, which form geometrical 
 squares of any magnitude, connected together by quadrants of a cir- 
 cle on the outsides. The proportions of the parts to each other are 
 figured on the plate. Fig. B, C and D are composed of circles, as is 
 evident from inspection, and their relative proportions are figured on 
 the plate. E, F and G are three different designs for frets, with their 
 divisions marked on the plate. 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 PLATE LIII. 
 
 On fig. 1 is shown a design for a roof, suitably constructed to cover 
 a dwelling house, where it is desired to use the space between the 
 rafters for lodging rooms. The height of the pitch is equal to two 
 sevenths of the base fine of the roof. This is a good pitch for either 
 slates or shingles. The span of this example is calculated for forty- 
 four feet, but it may be extended to fifty or more by proportionally 
 enlarging the size of the timbers of which it is composed. 
 
 A shows the method of confining the king post to the tie beams 
 by bolts. In this example^ the bolt should be about one inch in diam- 
 eter, with a strong head of about one and three fourths of an inch 
 20 
 
78 CARPENTRY. 
 
 in diameter ; and a plate of iron about one fourth of an inch thick 
 and of about four by five inches surface, sliould be placed between 
 the tie beam and the head of the bolt. The nut, which is let into the 
 king post, should be three fourths of an inch thick, and about three 
 inches square. One nut will be sufficient here, but when the strain 
 is very great, two will be required. 
 
 The tenon, connecting the king post with the tie beam, is not re- 
 quired to be more than two inches long. The size of the timbers of 
 this example may be as follows : tie beam, seven by twelve inches ; 
 principal rafters seven by ten at foot, and seven by eight at head ; 
 queen posts, seven by ten ; straining beam, seven by eleven ; purloins, 
 eight by nine ; small rafters, two and three fourths by five ; ridge 
 pole, four by seven ; braces, four by seven inches. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows a design for a trussed roof, which is of the same pitch 
 as that of fig. 1, and is calculated for a span of seventy feet. The 
 construction of this roof is very ancient, strong and simple ; it has 
 been executed with great success for churches, theatres, and other 
 large buildings, and is the least expensive and the best constructed 
 plan of any now in use. Size of timbers is as follows : tie beams, 
 eight by twelve ; principal rafters, eight by ten at foot, and eight 
 inches square at the head ; king posts, eight by twelve ; queen posts, 
 eight by ten ; purloins, eight by nine ; small rafters, two and three 
 fourths by five ; braces, three by seven ; plates, six by ten inches. 
 
 Fig. 3 is a design of a roof for a church, or any other large build- 
 ing, in which it is desired to raise a circular ceiling. It is drawn 
 from a scale of ten feet to one inch, and is calculated for sev- 
 enty feet span. The perpendicular height of the ridge is equal to 
 one third of the base line of the roof. It will be unsafe to lower 
 the ridge when the recess up into the roof is as great as in this 
 example. 
 
CARPENTRY. 79 
 
 A shows a longitudinal section of the tie beams and king post. 
 The tie beams are locked into each other, so that the outsides of each 
 are in the same plane. The king post is to be made in two parts, 
 and a space cut away in each half, as shown in B, so as just to 
 admit the tie beams, when locked together, to pass through them. 
 In this kind of roof, the strain on the tie beam is very great ; it 
 will therefore be necessary to make them eight by fifteen inches, 
 and each half of the king post eight by fourteen inches, so that when 
 they are bolted together, the king post will be fourteen inches 
 wide and sixteen inches thick. It will then admit the tie beam to 
 pass through it, and leave four by fourteen inches of solid wood on 
 each side. Diminish it in thickness and in straight lines from the 
 foot of the braces upwards to the head and thickness of the princi- 
 pal rafters. 
 
 C shows the method of connecting the tie beam and that of the 
 principal rafter. The joint at the foot of the rafter should be made 
 at right angles with its back, or upper edge. Make a c six inches, 
 cutting five and a half of them out of the tie beam. Make the joint 
 c rf as here represented, and make a tenon to the rafter two inches 
 thick and two and a half long, as shown by the dotted line h e. It 
 being of the utmost importance that those two timbers should be 
 strongly united, I have represented at g f a.n iron strap or hoop, 
 which should be two inches wide and three eighths of an inch thick ; 
 and, in addition to this, there should be at least one good strong iron 
 bolt. At i fe is shown the method of connecting the trusses for 
 the support of the vertical strain on the rafters, at F and E. The 
 foot of this truss must also be cut at right angles with its upper 
 edge, and let into the tie beam about two and tliree fourths of an 
 inch, and must be confined to it by an iron hoop one and a half inch 
 
go CARPENTRY. 
 
 wide and three eighths of an inch thick. A bolt will be necessary at 
 both G and H. 
 
 D shows the method of fitting the purloins to both the principal 
 and common rafters. The top of the principal rafter is to be notched 
 one inch only, in order to receive the purloin ; and the purloin is to 
 be notched, so as to be left four inches above the principal rafter. 
 Notch the common rafters on the under side about two inches. 
 
 The sizes of the tie beams, principal rafters, and king posts, have 
 already been given. Make the purloins eight by ten ; the king posts, 
 E and F, each eight by ten ; the braces three by eight ; the small 
 rafters two and three fourths by six ; and the plates seven by twelve 
 inches. The principal rafters should not be more than nine feet 
 from centre to centre. 
 
 PLATE LIV. 
 To find the Length and Backing of Hip Rafters. 
 
 Let A B C D be the plan of the building and the angles of the 
 roof; draw E A, E B, E C and E D, the base lines, over which the 
 hip rafters are to stand ; let 6 w m be the pitch of the roof; draw 
 E F at right angles with E A, and equal to o n, the pitch of the 
 roof; then draw A F, which is the length of the hip rafter; draw 
 g k h at any distance from the angle A, and at right angles with A E ; 
 make k i equal to k r, or from k to the nearest point of the top line 
 of the hip rafter, draw g i and i h, the backing of the hip rafter 
 required. This method will give the backing of the hip rafter, 
 whether the building be square or bevelling. 
 
 Fig. 2 is the plan of an octagon dome, a b being the base line 
 of the given rib. No. 2 shows the curve of the dome, which in this case 
 
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CARPENTRY. §1 
 
 is half of a circle drawn from the centre a. Draw a 6, cutting the 
 circle at 6, and at right angles with d b, and produce it to a ; divide 
 h 6 into six or more equal parts. Make a h No. 3 parallel and equal 
 to a 6 No. 2, 6 c equal to & c No. 1, and join c a. Then draw or- 
 dinates from a b No. 2 to a c No. 3, parallel to a 6, cutting the circle 
 in No. 2 at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and a c No. 3 at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 
 Draw a 6 at right angles with a c, also 5 5, 4 4, 3 3, 2 2, and 1 1, 
 parallel to a 6, and equal to 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, 4 4, 5 5 and a 6 in No. 2, 
 and then trace the curve c 1 2 3 4 5 and 6, which will, when placed 
 in its right position, correspond with the given circle. 
 
 PLATE LV. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows the method of framing floors with plank, or wide 
 joists. In this example, the joists are eighteen feet long ; for that 
 bearing the common joists should be twelve by two and a quarter 
 inches, and the trimmer joists, b b and c, twelve by four and a 
 half inches. They should be got out by a mould, made about 
 three quarters of an inch crowning. The girders, a and d, should 
 each be twelve inches deep and seven inches thick. A shows the 
 method of making the tenons to the common joists, and B those of 
 the trimmer joists. B also shows a section of the trimmer when 
 the mortise is made through it. D shows the section of a brick 
 wall, and C the shape of the ends of the joists when they lie on the 
 wall, /"and e show two courses of bridging. Great care is neces- 
 sary in fitting them between the joists ; they ought not to be driven in 
 so hard as to crowd either the wall or girders out of their places, nor 
 ought they to be too loose. They may be made of boards, but they 
 should be as wide as the joists, and the ends cut so as to fit the 
 21 
 
82 CARPENTRY. 
 
 sides of the joists in the most perfect manner. The expense of this 
 kind of floor is about one third less than that of any other kind, and 
 it certainly is more equal in its strength than is the timber and joist 
 floor. When a good ceiling is required, and the joists are over fifteen 
 feet in length, it is advisable to fur them vi^ith strips of boards of two 
 and a half or three inches wide. It appears, by an experiment made 
 by Professor Robinson, that the saving of timber is considerably more 
 than one third. The experiment is thus related : Two models were 
 made of eighteen inches square, one framed with girders, binding, 
 bridging and ceiling joists, and the other with single joists, containing 
 the same quantity of timber as the girders alone of the framed floor. 
 They were both put into wooden trunks, of eighteen inches square, 
 resting on projections within the trunks. Small shot were gradually 
 poured over each ; the framed floor broke down with three hundred 
 and twenty-seven pounds, and the single joisted floor with four hun- 
 dred and eighty-seven pounds. 
 
 Fig. 2 is a design for a truss, proper for the support of the front 
 of a gallery in a church, or any other place where the bearing re- 
 quired is so large that a single timber is not suflicient to support the 
 weight which is to be placed thereon. A and B show two difterent 
 methods for scarfing timbers, and C represents a mortise and tenon 
 proper for connecting large timbers ; the thickness of the tenon may 
 generally be about one sixth of the whole depth of the timber on 
 which it is made. 
 
 PLATE LVI. 
 
 Fig. 1 is an elevation of a trussed partition, in which it is conve- 
 nient to place two door ways ; and in that case it becomes necessary 
 
CARPENTRY. 33 
 
 to place the truss over the doors. The tie beam and king posts are 
 locked into each other at a a. 
 
 At fig. 2 is shown the best methods of framing the head of a princi- 
 pal rafter, and also of the braces to the king posts. It is preferable, 
 where it can conveniently be done, to make the joints of both at right 
 angles with their working sides, like a and c ; but where that cannot 
 be done, the next best method is shown oX d h. A represents a side 
 view of the tie beam, and B a section of the plate, and also the best 
 method of cogging them together. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows how to draw the different angle brackets, to form a 
 cove ceiling ; and by the same principles the different curvatures 
 for the ribs of a dome, or any other circular roof, may be drawn. 
 Let « 6 10 and c represent the angles of a room over which it is 
 desired to make a groin ceiling ; on the line c 10 on 5, and with the 
 distance 5 c or 5 10, describe the half or given circle ; draw the 
 diagonal line ch ; divide the circle A, from c around to 10, into any 
 number of parts, as here into ten ; draw lines from each of these 
 divisions, and parallel to c a, cutting c 10 and c h each at 1, 2, 3, 4, 
 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, and from those points on c h draw lines at 
 right angles from c h, and also from the same points draw lines 
 through 10 h, and at right angles with 10 h ; make the distance 1 1, 
 2 2, 3 3, 4 4, 5 5, &c. in both C and B, exactly equal to the corre- 
 sponding distance I 1, 2 2, 3 3, 4 4, 5 5, &c. in A, and through tliose 
 points trace the curves in both C and B, which gives the bracket 
 required . 
 
 Fig. 4 shows how to draw the different curvatures of the edges 
 of boards for the covering of a dome. Draw the vertical line 8 g, 
 and divide one half of the dome into as many parts as there are in- 
 tended to be courses of boards, as in this example into seven ; 
 
84 CARPENTRY., 
 
 through 1 and 2 draw a right line, cutting 8 ^ at^, and on J as a 
 centre, with the distances J 1 and j 2, describe both edges of the 
 board i, and through 2 and 3 draw a right Une, cutting 8 ^ at A; ; on 
 k, and with the distances k 2 and k 3, describe both edges of the 
 board h. Proceed in the same manner until the boards gjj", e and d 
 are completed. 
 
 General Observations on Carpentry. 
 
 The floors in a room of eighteen or twenty feet square should be 
 made crowning, about three fourths of an inch, and in the same 
 proportion if the room is larger. The curve should be that of a 
 segment of a circle, and rise equally from each side of the room to 
 the centre. Under doors, the floor should be raised a little, so that 
 the door may swing freely over it, without touching. Where this 
 precaution is not attended to, and the floor made straight, it will, by 
 its own weight and that put upon it, soon settle below a straight line, 
 and, of course, crack the plastering beneath it. It will be wise to 
 observe the same precaution in all horizontal and inclined framings 
 of any considerable bearing. 
 
 It is recommended, in many practical books on carpentry, to 
 make the mortises in girders, beams and other large timbers, near 
 the upper side of the stick : the reason given for this is, that 
 when the girder settles, it tends to compress that part above the 
 middle in the direction of its length, and proportionably to lengthen 
 the part below the centre ; and that, if the tenon be inserted near 
 the upper edge, the compression of the girder will press hard on 
 each side of the tenon, and thus prevent the girder from being 
 weakened by the mortise. But it is evident, that if the tonon be of 
 
CARPENTRY. 85 
 
 any tolerable width, its shrinkage will be greater than the compres- 
 sion, and that no advantage, therefore, can be gained by the above 
 method. As the centre of the girder is less affected by either the 
 compression above the middle, or the expansion below it, the middle 
 is the best place for the mortise, which may generally be made 
 about one sixth part of the depth of the girder. Great care is re- 
 quired, in making mortises and tenons, that they may fit each other 
 exactly. The same care is also required in making all kinds of 
 joints, so that the part out of sight may fit as completely as that 
 which is seen. Double tenons in house-framing are not admissible. 
 I know of no advantage gained by them, but, on the contrary, they 
 cut up the girder too much, and are not often brought up to so good 
 a joint as single ones ; nor does the pin have the effect to draw up 
 the joint ; for it generally cripples before it passes through the lower 
 tenon. 
 
 Joists in framed floors, purloins, common rafters, &c., will gain 
 much additional strength by being notched into their supports, and 
 made in continued lengths. In the framing of roofs, where bearing 
 timbers are not at right angles with each other, the joints should be 
 made a little open at the angular points, as there will always be a 
 shrinkage of the timber, which will cause a small settlement of the 
 roof; and the joints, being likewise made to bear on their angular 
 points, will either be crippled, or indented by the strain, and thereby, 
 unless the above precaution is taken, cause a further settlement. 
 
 All bolts, nuts, straps, and plates of iron, when used either in 
 damp situations or on green timber, should be well secured against 
 rust ; since, after the rust has once fastened upon them, (and this 
 visually happens very soon, unless provided against,) it will continue 
 to eat into the iron until its strength is destroyed. Mr. Sweaton 
 22 
 
95 CARPENTRY. 
 
 recommends, as a preventive against rust, to heat the iron to about 
 a blue heat, and immediately strike over its surface with raw linseed 
 oil, which will fill up the pores of the iron, and effectually protect it 
 against corrosion. 
 
 In the directions given for the size of the timbers in the foregoing 
 examples for roofs, I have supposed them to be of white pine : but if 
 they should be made of hard pine, the sizes may be somewhat redu- 
 ced ; or, if of oak, a considerable reduction may be made. It is best 
 to use hard wood for the king posts, and particularly when the roof is 
 of large dimensions ; for the tendency of the strain is to draw the 
 king post in the direction of its length, and that of the principal raf- 
 ters to compress them in the direction of their length. A great 
 pressure is therefore sustained between the head of the king post 
 and that of the principal rafters, which will cause the heads of the 
 rafters to indent themselves into the head of the king post, and there- 
 by cause a small settlement of the roof. The king post ought to 
 be well seasoned, and its breadth no more than is required for its 
 connexion with the head of the rafters, and the support of the strain 
 necessarily thrown upon it by the weight of the roof; for a shrink- 
 age in its breadth would cause a small settlement of the roof 
 
HANDRAILING. 87 
 
 HANDRAILING. 
 
 PLATE LVII. 
 
 DESIGNS FOR HANDRAILS AND NEWELLS. 
 
 Fig. 1 is a design for a stair post or newell, which is drawn at 
 full size. Fig. 2, 3 and 4 are sections of stair rails, which are also 
 drawn at full size for practice. It has been customary to lay down 
 rules for drawing sections of handrails composed of parts of circles 
 and straight lines ; but they certainly are not so graceful as those 
 here laid down, which are composed of parts of ellipses and straight 
 lines. 
 
 PLATE LVin. 
 
 To draw the Scroll for a Handrail. Divide a b, the width of 
 the scroll, into nine equal parts ; make b c and a d each equal to 
 one of these parts, and at right angles with a b ; draw d c ; join c b 
 and da; also join the diagonal line c a. Drawee perpendicular to 
 a b, and at a distance from c of five of the nine parts into which a b 
 is divided. Divide /"o" into two equal parts at h, on h, with the dis- 
 tance hf or h g. Draw the half circle f o g (see fig. 2, on which 
 the centres are drawn on a large scale) fromy, and through o draw 
 the diagonaiyo i ; also from g draw g o k, cutting o exactly where 
 the half circle J" o g intersects the diagonal c a; then draw g i, i k, 
 k I, I m, m n, n p, ]} q, Sec, at right angles with each other, cutting 
 the diagonals at g i, i k, k I, I m, m n, n p, p q, &c. Then, with the 
 distance fc, and ony, draw the quarter of a circle c e ; on g, and 
 
88 HANDRAILING. 
 
 with the distance g e, draw e a ; on i, and with the distance i a, 
 draw a r ; and so on, until you have completed the outside circle, 
 drawing one quarter of the circle from each centre. The inside 
 circle is drawn from the same centres as the outside. 
 
 V V show where to place the face of the two first risers. The 
 dotted line, e a d r I s, represents the extreme projection of the 
 nosing around the curtail step, and z z the extreme projection of the 
 nosing to the second step. The lines w x, which are drawn from the 
 same centres as the rail, show where to place the balusters. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents the method of making the curtail step ; a a a 
 represents the riser glued on to the block ; h b, keys for keying up 
 the riser around the curtail step, when glued on ; c, a block to be 
 glued on to both riser and step, for the purpose of keeping them firm 
 in their place. 
 
 To draw the Face Mould, for Squaring the twisted part of 
 the Scroll. Fig. 4 is a plan of the rail, in all respects like fig. 1. 
 a b c No. 2 is the pitch board, No. 3 the face mould. Draw d h 
 through the centre of the scroll, and parallel to a b ; draw a d at 
 right angles with a b, and h h h at right angles with a b, cutting 
 the upper edge of the pitch board at h ; draw h h No. 3 at right 
 angles with a c, the upper edge of the pitch board, and a d also at 
 right angles with a c. Make a d and h h No. 3 each equal to a c? 
 and h h No. 1 ; join d h No. 3. Draw ordinates through No. 1 at 
 e e e,fff, and g g g, cutting the upper edge of the pitch board at 
 efg, and from these points draw ordinates at right angles with a c 
 across the face mould, cutting dh at efg. Then, on the scroll No. 
 1, divide d e,fg and g h each into any number of parts, either equal 
 or unequal ; draw ordinates through each one of these divisions, 12 3, 
 
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HANDRAILING. 89 
 
 456 7, 89 10 11, parallel to those before drawn, cutting the upper 
 edge of the pitch board at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and from 
 those points, and at right angles with the upper edge of the pitch 
 board a c, draw ordinates across the face mould, cutting d /i at 1, 2, 
 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. 
 
 From d h No. 1 take the distance 1 1, and set it off from 1 to 1 on 
 dh ISo. S; then take 2 2, 3 3, e c, // 4 4, 5 5, 6 6, &c., on No. 1, 
 and set them off from d h No. 3, 2 to 2, 3 to 3, e to e,ftof, 4 to 4, 
 5 to 5, 6 to 6, &c. Proceed in the same manner to take from d h 
 No. 1 all the distances on both inside and outside of the scroll, and 
 set them off both ways on all the corresponding ordinates from d h 
 No. 3 ; then trace the curve through all these points, and it will 
 complete the plan of the face mould. 
 
 To draiD the Falling Mould. Fig. 5, a b c, represents the pitch 
 board. Divide h c, its height, into six parts, to give the level of the 
 scroll ; the distance b f is from the face of the riser to the beginning 
 of the. twist, and the distance from y to d is equal to the stretchout of 
 the scroll, from c, the beginning of the twist, to «, on fig. 1, each 
 being any part taken at discretion more than the first quarter of the 
 scroll ; divide e g, the rake of the pitch board, and g d, the level of 
 the rail, each into^he same number of equal parts, and, by intersect- 
 ing lines, complete the top edge of the mould, and make the under 
 edge parallel thereto. 
 23 
 
90 HANDRAILING. 
 
 PLATE LIX. 
 RECIPROCAL SPIRALS AND SCROLLS. 
 
 To draw the Reciprocal Spiral and Scroll. Suppose a circle 
 drawn from the centre of the intended spiral, and divided into eight 
 equal parts. Draw lines through the centre of the spiral, cutting- 
 each of these eight parts on the supposed circle, of a sufficient 
 length to intersect the curve of the scroll, as represented on fig. 1, 
 at P, K, L, R, S, T, U, V ; and suppose the length of the ordinate 
 O P to be given, make B A in fig. 2 equal to O P fig. 1, and 
 draw E D at any angle from A B ; the number of revolutions 
 intended to be made in the scroll will determine the number of 
 parts into which B D is to be divided. If one revolution is wanted, 
 it will require eight parts ; if one and a half, twelve parts ; if two, 
 sixteen parts ; and so on. Make E B and C A each equal to B 1 ; 
 from C as a centre draw C 1, C 2, C 3, C 4, &c., cutting B A at 
 a, b, c, d, &c. It has already been mentioned that B A is equal to O P 
 fig. 1. Make O K equal to A a fig. 2, and O L fig. 1 equal to A 6 
 fig. 2 ; make O R fig. 1 equal to A c fig. 2 ; also make O S, O T, 
 O U and O V, in fig. 1, each respectively equal to A d, A e, Af, 
 and A g, in fig. 2, &c., and draw the curve through P, K, L, R, S, 
 T, U, V, &c., which will be the spiral required. The scroll, fig. 3, 
 is drawn from the scale F G, fig. 2, the distance G J being equal to 
 that of o m, fig. 3 ; G F, fig 2, being equal to o a, fig. 3 ; and 
 the distances o b, o c, o d and o e are respectively equal to the dis- 
 tances G 1, G 2, G 3, G 4, &c. The scroll may be drawn by 
 centres, as follows : with the distance o a, and on f, draw k a b ; 
 with the distance o b, and on g, draw be; with the distance o c, 
 and on h, draw c d ; with the distance o d, and on i, draw d. e, &c. 
 
HANDRAIUNG. 91 
 
 It will be perceived that this scroll is not so open as that of fig. 1 : 
 the reason is obvious ; the lines A B and F G are not parallel ; 
 they make an angle of seventeen degrees, and the divisions on F G 
 are much nearer equal than those on B A. It is therefore evident, 
 that the nearer equal the divisions are, the closer will be the scroll, 
 as is more plainly shown by the scroll fig. 4, the divisions of which 
 are taken from the scale H I, which makes an angle with A B of 
 forty-five degrees. As this spiral can easily be made close, or to 
 expand at pleasure, and as its curve is more graceful than any of 
 those which are drawn by centres, it will be found exceedingly useful 
 in stair building', and it can be used with success for many other 
 architectural purposes. 
 
 PLATE LX. 
 
 TO FIND THE MOULDS FOR MAKING STAIR RAILS ON A SEMICIRCULAR 
 
 PLAN, WITH EIGHT WINDERS. 
 
 To draw the Falling Mould, Fig. 1. First draw the plan of the 
 rail and winders as in fig. 2 ; then draw the line d 8 equal to the 
 height of all the winders, eight in this example ; make d c and 8 c 
 each at right angles with d 8, and d e equal to the development of 
 E D, the quadrantal part of the rail ; in fig. 2 also make 8 c equal 
 to the development of the quadrantal part of the rail D 8. Make e k 
 and h i each equal to the rise of one step, and parallel to c? 8 ; make 
 k g equal to the tread of one step, and parallel to d f. 
 
 In fig. 1 join g e, e c and c i, which is the central line of the 
 straight part of the rail ; then set off on each side about an incli 
 for the depth of the rail, which is generally about two inches, 
 from e,- the point where you intend to have the straight and curved 
 
92 HANDRAILING. 
 
 parts of the rail join, as at e o and e p (see fig. 8). Divide e o and 
 e p each into the same number of equal parts, as here into six. 
 Through each of these divisions draw lines intersecting each other, 
 and these lines will produce the curve required for finishing the 
 falling mould. 
 
 Produce d e m. fig. 1 to f, and make ef equal to the straight part 
 of the rail E F; drawl's at right angles with d f, cutting the top 
 of the rail at«; draw s t parallel and equal to fd. Then make c I 
 equal to the straight part of the rail, 8 9, on fig. 2 ; draw I m at right 
 angles with 8 h, cutting the top of the rail at m, and m n parallel 
 and equal to 8 1; then join n 8 and s 4, and m, will show where the 
 rail is to be joined. 
 
 To draw the Face Mould. Take from the plan of the rail on fig. 
 2, D E B C, the quadrantal part, and E F A B, the straight part, 
 of the rail, and transfer them to fig. 3 No. 2 ; draw the chord line 
 A C, produced to 1 and 5 ; draw 5 D H. 5, C o ii c and 1 F G, at 
 right angles with the chord line A C, and G H parallel to the chord line 
 A C. Then take the distance from t to ti in fig. 1, and set it from u 
 on G H, fig. 3, to c ; draw G c produced to 5 ; then draw from the 
 chord line A C No. 2, 6 J u t 6, 4 I m s 4, S B I r S, 2 e E q 2 and 
 A k p a ; and at right angles with G 5 draw G F, a A;, 2 E, 3 /, 4 m, 
 6 n, c o and 5 D. Transfer the distances 5 D in No. 2 to 5 D in 
 No. 1, from C o No. 2 to C o No. 1, from 6 n to 6 n, from 4 m to 4 m, 
 from 3 / to 3 /, from 2 E to 2 E, from A k to a k, and from 1 F to 
 G F ; also from 6 J to 6 j, from 4 I to 4 i, from 3 B to 3 b, and from 
 2 c to 2 e; then trace the curves F k F, I tn n o D and cjih. The 
 lines h e a and F A; E are straight, and E 6 shows where the straight 
 and circular parts of the rail join. 
 
HANDRAILING. 93 
 
 Fig. 4 shows the face mould for the upper quarter part of the rail, 
 which, I think, will be clearly understood without further explanation. 
 The height of the face mould is taken from w to w on fig. 1, and ap- 
 plied to V n on fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 7 shows the edge of the plank on which the face mould fig. 
 3 is to be applied ; and fig. 6 that on which the face mould fig. 4 is 
 to be applied. The angle c a b, in fig. 7, must be exactly equal 
 to the angle H 5 G, in fig. 3, No. 1 ; and the angle c a b, in fig. 6, 
 to the angle v n u, in fig. 4. The points of the face mould at c and 
 a must be applied exactly to those at a and c on the upper side of 
 the plank fig. 7, and also to the points b and d on the lower side of 
 the plank. 
 
 PLATE LXI. 
 
 TO FIND THE MOULDS FOR A STAIR RAIL WITH A SEMICIRCLE OF 
 
 EIGHT WINDERS. 
 
 Let fig. 1 be the plan of the rail, on which the risers are marked 
 I, 2, 3, a, 5, 6, 7, 8, and let A D E H T I No. 2 be the quadrantal 
 part of the rail, and exactly equal to e a h i in fig. 1 ; and let 
 E F G H, the straight part of the rail in fig. 3 No. 2, be equal to 
 cfg h in fig. 1, I being the upper and F the lower resting points ; 
 make D, the middle resting point, equal to one half of the stretch- 
 out of the rail from A to F, and draw I D. In the figure of the 
 falling mould, which has been described in page 91, set up on the 
 line a b the height of each of the eight risers ; draw a e at right 
 angles with a b, and equal to the stretchout of the rail from A to E. 
 Produce a e tof, and make ef equal to E F, the straight part of 
 the rail. Draw f I parallel to a b, cutting the top of the falling 
 24 
 
94 HANDRAILING. 
 
 mould at /; draw li parallel and equal tof a; make i d equal to 
 the development of A D, and ef equal to E F. On a f make a d 
 equal to I D ; draw d m parallel to a b, cutting the upper side of 
 the falling mould at m, and draw m n at right angles with a b, cut- 
 ting a b at n. Draw d r parallel to a b, cutting m w at r, and from 
 the point o, on the upper side of the falling mould, and through r, 
 draw o q, cutting I i at q ; make I Q, equal to i q ; then draw Q, F, 
 touching the point of the rail at F, and produce it to K ; draw K L 
 at right angles with Q, K, and B I Z Z parallel to Q K ; make Z Z 
 equal to i o in fig. 2. Draw K Z, and produce it to L, and draw 
 ALL; also draw other ordinates from the outside of the rail, cut- 
 ting K L at Y 6, c, U, G, and from these points, and also from L, Z 
 and K, draw ordinates at right angles with K L, cutting the convex 
 side of the face mould at A, B, C, b, c, o, e, E, F ; then find the 
 points on the concave side of the face mould, and trace the curves as 
 directed in page 92. 
 
 Hoic to apply the Face Mould on each Side of the Plank, so that, 
 when the Wood is cvt away, the Curved Surfaces may stand per- 
 pendicular to the Plan. In fig, 5, let a b c d efg be the figure of 
 the face mould, placed in the proper position to the pitch line g i. 
 In fig. 6, let Y represent the edge, X the upper side, and Z the under 
 side of the plank from which the rail is to be made ; make the angle 
 ^ K L equal to the angle L L K. In fig. 3, place the points of the 
 face mould at g and i on X, and mark off the plank by the edges of 
 the mould. Draw L ^ at right angles with the arris of the plank 
 g i ; then make the angle L ^ K on Z equal to the angle g e i fig. 5. 
 And in fig. 6 make L g equal to ^ K ; draw g e parallel to the lower 
 arris of the plank, and place the points of the face mould at g and e, 
 and mark by both of its edges. 
 
STAIRS— CHURCHES. 95 
 
 STAIRS, 
 
 PLATE LXII. 
 
 On this plate are a plan and elevation of a circular staircase, 
 drawn from a scale of one inch to a foot. By an inspection of the 
 plate, the method of drawing the elevation of a circular staircase will 
 be clearly understood. 
 
 CHURCHES 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON HOUSES ERECTED FOR PUBLIC WORSHIP. 
 
 Their character should harmonize particularly with the purpose 
 for which they are designed ; for the same proportions which would 
 be beautiful in a room of a light or gay description, would be a de- 
 fect in one of a solemn or devotional character. A building erected 
 for public worship should therefore be so contrived as to produce 
 in the beholder serious and devotional feelings. This effect is ob- 
 tained by composing the building, generally, of large, bold, angular 
 outlines, by continuing the entablatures and cornices unbroken over 
 the columns and pilasters, and giving all the decorations, either of 
 mouldings or sculpture, a large and grave appearance ; excluding 
 all ornaments composed of slender, curved, or winding outlines, 
 which are expressive of lightness and gayety. The windows should 
 
96 CHURCHES. 
 
 be large, and so constructed as to admit the air to circulate freely 
 throughout the house, without producing a glare of light ; for a glare 
 of light, and bright and gay colors, are opposed to solemnity in a 
 house of worship. Ceilings are most appropriate when so arranged 
 as to cause the greatest quantity of sound ; and, if decorated at all, 
 when divided into compartments, and ornamented by deep-sunk 
 panels, surrounded by large plain fillets, or mouldings. 
 
 When columns are employed for the support of a gallery, they 
 should be surmounted by an entablature, and the general proportions 
 of the pedestal given to that part of the front of the gallery, above 
 the entablature ; and, as it is not usually convenient to make the 
 plinth either very high or thick, it will be necessary to leave the upper 
 edge square, or a little sloping. The face of the wainscot must be 
 in a vertical line with the frieze of the entablature, and the panels 
 deeply sunk, and surrounded by mouldings strongly marked, since, in 
 the cornice, slender mouldings, viewed at the distance they must 
 necessarily be, would appear indistinct ; it will therefore be advisable 
 to compose the cornice of a few bold parts. 
 
 The pulpit ought to partake of the character of the building in 
 which it is erected. It may with propriety be made of mahogany, 
 when pine is used for the finish of the other parts of the building ; 
 but the style of architecture, and decorations, must correspond 
 with those of the house. Its height from the floor should be about 
 seven feet, and the platform on which it stands should be raised at 
 least two steps from the floor of the aisles, for the purpose of giving 
 the congregation an opportunity of seeing the ordinances adminis- 
 tered there. It has been a common practice to make two stair 
 cases to a pulpit ; a custom which cannot be justified by the rule 
 of proportioning the means to the end, or any other, except that of 
 
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 /•^^ 
 
l'l..c.l . 
 
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 I' 1, .<■■•>. 
 
CHURCHES. g^ 
 
 uniformity. There does indeed seem to be a great impropriety in 
 erecting two stair cases, where only one person is to ascend, and who 
 cannot, of course, use but one at the same time ; but it is difficult to 
 preserve the necessary uniformity without two stair cases ; and it 
 will therefore be advisable to construct two, yet in such a manner as 
 to make the least possible show, that they may appear as small in the 
 composition as possible. 
 
 PLATE LXIII. 
 
 PULPIT. 
 
 On Plate LXIII. is a plan and elevation of a pulpit, drawn from 
 a scale of one half an inch to a foot. Its height is seven feet above 
 the platform on which it is to be placed. One end of the steps of 
 each flight of stairs finishes against a buttress ; this buttress is form- 
 ed like the pilasters, with the exception of the cap, which extends 
 back to the wall a a, and by the wall, in a sloping direction, con- 
 forms to the inchnation of the steps, until it butts against the pilas- 
 ters at h b. The dotted line on the plan, at c, represents the pro- 
 jection of the cornice, the bedmould and corona of which profile 
 agamst the pulpit on each side of both doors at d d d d. The crown 
 moulding with its fillets continues across the doors, which are 
 mtended to be hung on the front side of the pulpit, e e, and to open 
 inwards. 
 
 PLATE LXIV. 
 
 On this plate are designs for the entablature, pilasters and cap- 
 pmg, drawn at one third of the full size. Divide the entire height 
 25 ® 
 
98 CHURCHES. 
 
 into twenty-one equal parts ; give two to the diameter of the pilaster, 
 two to the phnth, four to the height of the entablature, and fifteen to 
 the height of the pilaster. The pilasters in this case are eight inches 
 in diameter ; divide the diameter into forty equal parts, and by that 
 scale draw all the mouldings. 
 
 Fig. 2 is a section of the pilaster at an external angle. Fig. 3 is 
 a design for the capping to the buttress. Fig. 4 represents a section 
 of the moulding for the panelhng and a part of the panel, and 
 also a part of the stile, at full size for practice. The guiloche in the 
 panel is not to project beyond a vertical line of the frieze. In fig. 1, 
 a should project four parts and two thirds from h, c should project 
 three parts from a, and d should project three parts from e. 
 
GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 99 
 
 THE GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS 
 
 Remarks on these Orders, their Application and Fitness. 
 
 It is possible that many ingenious builders, who have, for a long 
 time, rigidly adhered to the Roman system of the orders, particularly 
 those who live at a distance from any of our large cities, and have 
 not had opportunities for frequently visiting them, so as to witness 
 with what a rapid progress the Grecian system has advanced beyond 
 the Roman within the last fifteen or twenty years, may regard the 
 general recommendation of the Grecian system of the orders as a 
 whim of my own, and, without taking the trouble to give it a fair 
 trial, reject it as an innovation on their former practice. Fearing 
 this, and desiring to extend as far as possible the usefulness of the 
 Grecian orders with all the details, I have thought it best to give the 
 opinions and reasoning, on the Grecian and Roman orders, of Mr. 
 James Elms, a distinguished English architect, who, in addition to a 
 long and extensive practice, has had the advantage of visiting the 
 most celebrated temples, both in Greece and Rome. 
 
 The Greek architects had no difficulties to contend with, m pro- 
 portioning temples. According to Vitruvius, after the size of the 
 front and number of columns have been determined upon, if six 
 columns are in front, the whole front is to be divided into twenty- 
 four and a half equal parts, without reckoning the projection of the 
 
100 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 
 
 bases of" the two outer columns ; the diameter of the column to be 
 made equal to one of those parts, and the height equal to eight and 
 a half diameters. He means, I suppose, to employ the Ionic order, 
 as the Greeks always, when columns were employed on the flanks 
 of their temples, used double the number, and one more, than they 
 did on the front, counting the angular columns twice ; so that, if six 
 columns were employed in front, there would be thirteen along each 
 of the sides. Where columns were not used on the flanks, it ap- 
 pears that the length bore the same proportion to the breadth of 
 the building, as when they were used ; and as they had not, as we 
 have, to calculate for two or three stories in height, with windows 
 in each to accommodate different sized rooms, stair cases, &c., we 
 can suppose, that when the Doric order, in its full proportions, was 
 employed on buildings of the size of the temple of Minerva at 
 Athens, which was one hundred feet in breadth, and two hundred 
 and twenty-five in length, with eight Doric columns on each front, 
 and seventeen on each side, measuring six feet one inch in diame- 
 ter, and, including capital, thirty-four feet two inches in height ; the 
 entrance doors on each front being twelve feet six inches in 
 breadth, and twenty-eight feet eight inches in height ; a building, 
 moreover, constructed of the finest marble, and displaying the nicest 
 workmanship ; we may suppose, I say, in this case, that the pro- 
 portions of this building, on so large a scale, would produce effects 
 not to be surpassed by any alterations which could have been made 
 in them. 
 
 But we have now to proportion buildings of a totally different 
 character, and under much more embarrassing circumstances. If 
 for public use, they are chiefly churches, buildings for the accommo- 
 dation of our courts of justice, or banks. 
 
GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. IQ] 
 
 If a church is to be erected, the committee, chosen for that pur- 
 pose, will take care to instruct the architect not to make the building 
 larger than is necessary for seating all their congregation. The 
 architect is therefore under the necessity of making a gallery and two 
 tiers of windows, unless, by making one tier of windows, he submits 
 to the awkward appearance of the gallery crossing them. The in- 
 creased size, and the additional expense, which would accrue by erect- 
 ing porticos each side of the building, would forbid such an attempt ; 
 and the architect is confined to the front and rear of the house, where 
 he may, indeed, show his taste and skill, by embellishing them with 
 columns and entablatures, of the Greek proportions. The massive 
 Doric may there often have its full proportions. 
 
 In a court house, there are generally two tiers of windows, and two 
 stories — circumstances against adopting all the proportions of the 
 Grecian temple ; nevertheless, the architect may so construct such a 
 building that it will produce a chaste and pleasing effect. 
 
 Banks, being usually built in our cities, and situated in the most 
 crowded and business part of them, seldom show more than the front 
 on the street, and, on account of the value of the land on which they 
 are located, are often made three stories in height. This would 
 forbid the front being embellished with columns, supporting a pedi- 
 ment, whose roof is in the same plane with the roof of the building ; 
 but if it should be only two stories in height, and completely insula- 
 ted, then an opportunity is offered to the architect to decorate it with 
 the Grecian orders and proportions. 
 
 All the Grecian buildings which have been accurately measured 
 and transmitted to us, were erected for public purposes. Time has 
 swept from us every vestige of their private houses, and it is impos- 
 sible to ascertain, at the present day, whether or not the Grecian 
 26 
 
102 GRECIAN AND ROxMAN ORDERS. 
 
 architects gave the same proportions to the Doric order, when used 
 in their private dwellings, as when used in their temples. It is prob- 
 able, however, that they were much lighter in the former case. 
 
 I see no propriety in making a Doric column, according to the 
 Greek proportions, from four to six and a half diameters, when used 
 in dwelling houses. 
 
 Take the case of a country house, constructed of wood, the front 
 of which it is desired to decorate with a portico in the Grecian style. 
 A house having such an embellishment would not be less than twenty- 
 six feet in height. If it is to be of the Doric order, the example of 
 the temple of Corinth would make the column four feet four inches 
 in diameter,* and the entablature eight feet eight inches in height. 
 No one could tolerate this proportion, since it would require the thick- 
 ness of the column, at its base, to exceed the breadth of the doors 
 and windows, and the entablature would cover one third of the front 
 of the house. 
 
 Again, let us take the example of the portico of Philip, king of 
 Macedon, which is one of the lightest of all the Grecian Dorics. By 
 this example, the column would be three feet three quarters of an inch 
 in diameter, and the entablature six feet one and a half inch in 
 height ; which is still much too large, especially if the columns are 
 made of wood, as ours usually are. 
 
 Let us now take an example from the theatre of Marcellus, at 
 Rome. This would make the column two feet nine inches in diame- 
 ter, and the entablature five feet six inches in height. 
 
 No one, I think, will say that this last example is too light. If 
 any thing different is preferable, it is to make the column two feet 
 six inches. I therefore repeat what I have before said, that the 
 
 * I leave out the fractional parts. 
 
GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 103 
 
 general proportions of the Roman Doric orders come nearer to our 
 practice in private buildings than the Grecian proportions. The 
 Greeks and Romans did not differ essentially in their general propor- 
 tions of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. 
 
 It will be seen, by turning to page 16, on which is a table of the 
 proportions of all the Grecian Dorics which have been accurately 
 measured, that the column in the temple of Corinth is four diame- 
 ters and four minutes in height, and the column in the portico of 
 Philip, six diameters thirty-two and a half minutes in height ; makmg 
 a difference of two diameters twenty-eight and a half minutes in the 
 height of the columns of these two examples. The capitals, like- 
 wise, of these examples, differ as widely as the columns ; that in the 
 temple of Corinth being in height twenty-four and a quarter 
 minutes, and projecting sixteen minutes, while that of the portico of 
 PhiUp is in height fourteen and one third minutes, and projects six 
 and a quarter minutes. The contour of the echinus in the latter 
 capital is a straight line, and the contour of that at Corinth is 
 
 elliptical. 
 
 It seems to be supposed, by many persons, that the Grecian 
 orders must be executed without any deviations from the original 
 examples. Of such persons I would inquire, what example they 
 would choose ; for it is a singular fact, that no two can be found 
 which agree, either in their general proportions or in their details. 
 To those acquainted with this fact, it is needless to urge the impro- 
 priety of binding one's self to a servile imitation of the general 
 proportions of any of those examples, unless they happen to suit our 
 
 purpose. 
 
 I do believe, however, that it is wise in us to study all the sys- 
 tems of architecture, in particular those of Greece and Rome, and, 
 
104 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 
 
 in determining the general proportions of a building, to endeavor to 
 proportion the means to the end ; but, in the details, I believe no one, 
 who thoroughly understands the two systems, can hesitate for a mo- 
 ment in giving his decided preference to the Grecian. 
 
 I will give here the above-mentioned extracts from Mr. Elmes, 
 which, I think, will be read with interest, and, I hope, to advantage. 
 They are taken from his Lectures, published in 1821. 
 
 "The great superiority of the Greeks in architecture is to be 
 traced to causes similar to those which occasioned their pre-emi- 
 nence in every thing else ; namely, a deep investigation into first 
 principles ; an accurate perception of the elements of all that they 
 attempted to execute. 
 
 "A similar investigation, and a similar perception or knowledge, 
 and nothing else, will produce the like effects in our country and in 
 our times. 
 
 "To the Greeks, and to them alone, let the student look for gran- 
 deur of composition, and, indeed, for all the laws of architecture, 
 painting and sculpture. 
 
 "The grand divisions of the architecture of Greece are, first, the 
 three orders of columns, technically called the orders : secondly, the 
 several orders of temples, or their sacred edifices ; and, thirdly, the 
 various methods of intercolumniations, or manner of regulating the 
 distances of columns. 
 
 " It is these great or primary divisions, and their due observance, 
 which entitle the architecture of the Greeks to the dignified epithet 
 of the wisdom of the orders. 
 
 "Every order is composed of primary and divisional parts, which 
 differ in each of the orders, as will presently be described. 
 
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GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 105 
 
 "Every column, except the Doric, has three parts; the base, the 
 shaft, and the capital. The lowest or thickest part of the shaft is 
 used by architects as the universal standard whence all the meas- 
 ures which regulate and determine heights and projections are 
 taken. 
 
 "The bases of the various orders differ from each other in their 
 essential parts, and even among themselves, in non-essentials, al- 
 though not in character. The base of a column is composed of a 
 series of mouldings encircling the bottom diameter according to its 
 order. 
 
 " The Doric has no base. The Ionic differs in various specimens ; 
 but that which has been the most used for this order is called the 
 Attic base, and is composed of a cubical plinth, on which are a circu- 
 lar torus, a fillet, a scotia, and a compound moulding called an astragal, 
 consistinff of a small torus and two fillets, one above and the other 
 below. A small cavetto, or hollow, connects the upper fillet, which is 
 somewhat larger than a diameter, to the lower extremity of the 
 shaft. 
 
 "From this simple and beautiful base all the others appear to 
 have emanated, as it contains the component members and leading 
 characteristics of them all. It has also been more universally used 
 than any of the others, having been borrowed from its Ionian pro- 
 prietor by the Corinthian, and even occasionally by the Roman 
 Doric. 
 
 " Some of the Greek, or true Ionic bases, differ from the Attic in 
 their arrangements, but are generally inferior where the difference is 
 essential. 
 
 "The Corinthian base consists of a plinth, a torus, a fillet, then a 
 large scotia, next a fillet, sometimes two beads, then a second and 
 27 
 
106 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 
 
 smaller scotia, and the concluding astragal, fillets, and usual hollow 
 on the top to connect it with the shaft. 
 
 "The Composite base differs so little from the Corinthian, where 
 the Attic base is not used, that it is not worth detailing. 
 
 "Having thus defined the lower division of the column, its base, 
 our next step will be to the shaft. The shaft of a column is that 
 columnar conical body which is situated between the base and the 
 capital. In some examples, it is plain, in others, fluted, or divided 
 into perpendicular circular channels, which are diflferently formed, 
 and variously divided, in the different orders. In the Doric, that is, 
 the true Doric, they are formed without intervening fillets, and are 
 called by workmen arris flutes. Such are Doric flutes, which shoidd 
 never be used to any other order, nor should any other kind of fluting 
 ever be applied to the Doric order. These rules are sanctioned by 
 first principles, and the examples of the Greeks, and violated by the 
 Romans, the modern Italians, and the Anglo-Italian architects of the 
 present day. 
 
 "The flutings of the Ionic and Corinthian shafts are differently 
 executed. Between each flute there is a fillet or part of the shaft 
 left uncut, of half its width, and the flutes are channelled in equal to 
 half their width, forming semicircles on their plan. These are also 
 often fluted only two thirds of the way down, and then the lower 
 third is carved to resemble a circular staff placed in the flutes and 
 rounded on the top. 
 
 "The next and concluding portion of the column is the capital, 
 which differs, according to the order to which it belongs. The 
 capital is the most striking part of an order, and, to common ob- 
 servers, is the portion by which they best judge the name of an 
 order. In the pure, that ^s, the Greek system of classical architec- 
 
GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 107 
 
 ture, every other part of an order bears its character as completely 
 as the capitals ; but in the Roman and modern systems, they are 
 huddled, mixed and perverted, in a manner destructive to good taste 
 and correct classification. 
 
 "The capital of the Doric order agrees in character in all the 
 ancient examples, although it differs in minor parts, which difference 
 is specific, and does not detract from the generic characteristics of 
 the order : therefore the following general description is applicable 
 to all. 
 
 "The Doric capital is divided into three principal parts — the aba- 
 cus, the echinus, and the annulets. The abacus is the superior 
 member or covering of the capital, and appertains to each of the 
 three orders, but it assumes a different and characteristic form in 
 each. In the Doric and Ionic, the abacus is square in its plan, 
 plain in the Doric, and moulded in the Ionic ; and in the Corinthian, 
 each face is hollowed into a circular, and (with the exception of the 
 example in the portico at Athens, called the Poekile) cut off at the 
 angles. 
 
 "The abacus of the Doric capital is a parallelopipedon, or unequal 
 cube, varying from ten to twelve minutes, or about the sixth part of 
 the bottom diameter, in height, in the best examples. Immediately 
 under the abacus is the large elhptico-circular member, called the 
 echinus, the outline of which resembles a chestnut. The echinus, 
 in the finest specimens of the order, is either elliptical or hyperbolical 
 in its perpendicular outhne, but never circular ; and, with the annu- 
 lets under it, is the same height as the abacus. 
 
 "The annulets, as their name imports, are three rings, or circular 
 fillets, under the echinus, falling off under each other perpendicularly, 
 like an inverted flight of steps, and partaking of the general outline 
 of the echinus in the arrangement of its angles. 
 
108 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 
 
 "In many examples, at about thirty minutes below the top of the 
 abacus, is a channel sunk round the shaft, as if to determine the size 
 of the capital, situated in the place of the Roman hypotrachelion, or 
 necking, whether the shaft be fluted or plain. 
 
 "In no instance is the superiority of the Grecian style of architec- 
 ture over the Roman more apparent than when viewed compara- 
 tively, in this order. To the beautiful and characteristic abacus of 
 the true Doric, the Romans have added the moulded cymatium and 
 fillet on the top. For the chaste simplicity and elegant outline of 
 the echinus, they have substituted the clumsy and tasteless ovolo, 
 which they even have often spoiled by carving. For the annulet, 
 they often substitute an astragal, or a bead and fillet. For the 
 delicate and effective channelled hypotrachelion, they bolster round 
 the shaft the colarino of the Corinthian ; and, to complete the ab- 
 surdity, leaves have even been added in the part between the neck- 
 ing and the under moulding of the capital, which Palladio, oddly 
 enough, calls the frieze of the capital. To its beautifully propor- 
 tioned shaft they have added several diameters in height. For its 
 conical outline, they have substituted the swelling shaft ; and for the 
 shallow arris flutings of the original, the semicircularly hollowed 
 flutes and wide fillets of the other orders have not seldom been 
 misapplied. 
 
 "I shall now proceed to the investigation and description of the 
 Ionic order. The Ionic capital is divided into two principal or 
 leading features, the abacus and the volutes. The abacus is a 
 right-angled parallelogram, nearly square on its plan, and moulded 
 on its perpendicular sides, or edges, sometimes with a cymatium, 
 sometimes with an echinus. The volutes are two spiral mouldings 
 on each side of the front, perpendicular to the horizon, alike on two 
 
GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 109 
 
 faces, and the other two profiles or sides aUke in themselves, but 
 differing from the front ; the extremities of each are the same dis- 
 tance from the centre of the column. Each spiral, or volute, has 
 the same number of volutions, or spirals, which are differently con- 
 nected by mouldings, passing between and behind them, round the 
 shaft of the column. 
 
 "One of the most beautiful examples of simple dignity found in 
 this order, or perhaps in any other, is that of the small Ionic temple 
 on the banks of the river Illyssus, at Athens. 
 
 "Another fine and more embellished example of the Ionic order, 
 is taken from the beautiful temple of Minerva Polias, at Priene, in 
 Ionia ; the architect of which was Pytheus, who, requiring an en- 
 riched order, did not, like the Romans, corrupt the Doric with 
 misplaced ornaments, but rejected it entirely, and composed this 
 elegant specimen upon the pure elements of the ancient order. 
 The small projection of the cymatium, or upper moulding of the 
 cornice, and its great height, are beautiful, and well adapted to 
 receive its ornaments, as it is less obscured by the shadow of the 
 concave and convex parts of the moulding. The dentils are intro- 
 duced in the bed-mould of the cornice with great propriety and effect, 
 as their bold and singular projection relieves them completely from 
 each other. The architrave is well proportioned ; but, having three 
 fascife instead of two, it encroaches too much upon the Corinthian. 
 
 "The capital is an elegant and embellished variation of that from 
 the Illyssus ; it is more enriched, without destroying the harmony and 
 elegance of its proportions, and the spirals of the volutes are elegant- 
 ly and tastefully drawn. 
 
 "The hem, or border, of this capital, from volute to volute, with 
 its dehcate fillet resting on the grandly designed ovolo, connecting 
 28 
 
tlO GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 
 
 with a graceful curve the spirals of the volute, seems to keep them 
 in their situations, and greatly conduces to the beauty of the capital. 
 
 "Our next and last step, in the description of the orders, is to the 
 Corinthian. This is the richest and most embellished, and is, as it 
 were, the seal and completion of them all. 
 
 "This order, though the most embellished, is yet the most simple 
 and easy to use in either colonnades or porticos, having neither the 
 difficulty of the triglyphs of the Doric, nor the dissimilar faces of the 
 Ionic, which require much skill to adapt in angle columns. 
 
 "The principal examples of the Corinthian order, now remaining 
 m Italy and Greece, do not differ from each other so essentially in 
 character as either the Doric or the Ionic. 
 
 "The Corinthian order, as used in the Pantheon, at Rome, is, 
 although rather plain, of beautiful proportions : it is chaste, correct 
 and an excellent model for imitation and study. Another very tine 
 example is found in the three columns of the Campo Vaccino, at 
 Rome, supposed to be the remains of the temple of Jupiter Stator. 
 The elegance and beauty of this example, particularly the capital, 
 its graceful form, and the delicacy of its ornaments, render it one of 
 the most complete examples now existing of the Corinthian order. 
 
 "Another fine specimen of this order is that of the temple of Ves- 
 ta, or the Sybil, at Tivoli, near Rome. Yet no less to be admired 
 is the order of the Choragic monument of Lysicrates, near Athens, 
 called by some travellers the lantern of Demosthenes. 
 
 "Having- extolled the architecture of the Greeks above that of 
 the Romans, in a manner beyond M^hat the admirers of the Roman 
 style may approve, permit me to repeat, by way of explanation, 
 that it was not in costliness or magnitude, that the mighty genius of 
 the Greeks developed itself, so much as in invention, in taste, in 
 beauty, in refinement, and in leaving to posterity the best modch 
 
GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. m 
 
 for imitation. These qualities have given this gifted people their de- 
 served pre-eminence over all their imitators or competitors. 
 
 "No remains of architecture or sculpture are to be found in Greece 
 but what are canons of art, while Rome possesses more to corrupt 
 the taste of the young architect than all its excellences can counter- 
 balance. It is, therefore, to the rules, the forms, the proportions, the 
 taste of the former, that the attention of the student should be per- 
 petually recalled. 
 
 "The three essential and distinct qualities in architecture are 
 strength, grace and richness. The three orders of the Greeks 
 possess all these requisites, and the five anomalous orders of the 
 Romans possess no more. The aforesaid qualities are the land- 
 marks, the boundaries, the north and south poles of the art. The 
 Doric displays the first-mentioned quality of strength ; the Ionic, 
 the second, of grace ; and the Corinthian, the third, of richness. 
 The Corinthian is the maximum, uniting beautiful simplicity and 
 florid decoration ; while the Doric possesses pure simplicity, plainness 
 and robust strength ; and the Ionic is the connecting link between 
 the two. 
 
 "The orders and styles of architecture are but the means ; to build 
 with good sense, propriety and taste, is the end. 
 
 "Ancient examples, selected with judgment and pure taste ; 
 adapted, with the latitude of genius, to modern necessities ; com- 
 bined with the scientific inventions of modern construction ; and 
 perfected by study and practice ; are the best schools of true archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 "The Roman Doric order has been so altered and abused, by va- 
 rious architects, since the decline of Grecian purity, that some ex- 
 amples hardly appear to belong to the same order. This order is 
 by Palladio restored and compounded from all the best antique 
 
112 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 
 
 specimens found by him in Rome : his column is purer in style than 
 any single ancient remain. The bed moulding, or under part of the 
 cornice, however, is too complex and enriched for the simplicity and 
 manly character of the order. The liieze is divided as he found the 
 best remains in ancient Rome, and the triglyphs are consequently 
 misdivided ; the architrave has two faces, and the whole entablature 
 too small a proportion of height. The capital is also overloaded with 
 ornament, the abacus is destroyed by the addition of mouldings ; the 
 echinus is converted to a quadrant ; and the graceful channelling of 
 the Greek hypotrachelion is omitted, to make room for a clumsy 
 necking, belonging to any order hut the Doric. He has also added a 
 base to the shaft, and omitted the beautiful mutules which support the 
 corona over every triglyph and metope of the Greek original. 
 
 "The next order in the Roman system is their Ionic, which differs 
 almost as much in detail as the Doric. In its leading character, the 
 volutes, however, it has not been so violated as the Doric. 
 
 "The first specimen to which I beg leave to call your attention, is 
 from the temple of Fortuna Virilis, at Rome, an excellent restoration 
 of which, in all its details, may be found in Palladio's work on the 
 ancient temples, of Rome. Its order is undoubtedly the best to be 
 found in Rome, and resembles the one of the theatre of Marcellus, 
 but will not bear comparison with the beautiful Greek original, whose 
 name it usurps. 
 
 "It remains for the student to inquire from which source, Roman 
 or Greek, he can draw the most graceful proportions of the Ionic 
 order. In the Roman specimens, their overloaded cornices, their 
 ill-proportioned entablatures, their vulgar profiles, and the broken 
 spiral lines of their volutes, render them, in my opinion, utterly unfit 
 for models." 
 
GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 
 
 Aaron^s Rod; an ornamental figure representing 
 a rod with a serpent entwined about it, and 
 called by some, though improperly, the Cadu- 
 ceus of Mercury. 
 
 Abacus ; the upper member of a capital of a 
 column, serving as a kind of crown-piece in 
 the Grecian Doric, and a collection of members 
 or mouldings in the other orders. 
 
 Abutment ; a pier, upwn which the extremity of 
 an arch rests. 
 
 Accessories ; in architectural composition, those 
 parts, or ornaments, either designed or acciden- 
 tal, which are not apparently essential to the 
 use and character of a building. 
 
 A cropolis ; from the Greek ; the highest part of 
 a city, the citadel or fortress. 
 
 Acroteria ; small pedestals placed on the apex 
 and two sides of a pediment. They sometimes 
 support statues. 
 
 j^gricanes ; sculptures representing the heads 
 and skulls of rams ; commonly used as a deco- 
 ration of ancient altars, friezes, &c. 
 
 JEtoma ; a pediment, or the tympanum of a ped- 
 iment. 
 
 Aih, or Aisle ; a walk in a church on the sides 
 of the nave ; the wings of a choir. 
 
 Alcove ; a recess, or part of a chamber, separated 
 by an estrade, or partition of columns, and 
 other corresponding ornaments. 
 
 Amphiprostyle ; an order of temples among the 
 Greeks, having columns in the back, as well as 
 the front. 
 
 Alto-relievo, or High^elief; that kind or pwrtion 
 of sculpture, which projects so much from the 
 
 29 
 
 surface to which it is attached as to appear 
 nearly insulated. It is therefore used in com- 
 parison with Mezzo-relievo, or Mean-relief, 
 and in opposition to Basso-relievo, or Loio- 
 relief. 
 
 Amphitheatre ; a spacious edifice, of a circular 
 or oval form, in which the combats and shows 
 of antiquity were exhibited. 
 
 Ancones ; the carved key-stone of arches. 
 
 Angle-rafter ; in carpentry, otherwise Hip-rafter ; 
 see Hip. 
 
 Angular capital; the modern Ionic, or Scammo- 
 zian capital, which is formed alike on all the 
 four faces, so as to return at the angles of the 
 building. 
 
 Annulet; a small square moulding, commonly 
 used to connect the others. 
 
 Antm ; small projections, in Grecian architecture, 
 from the wall, to receive the entablature from 
 the columns of a portico, and having bases and 
 capitals different from the columns. 
 
 Apophyge ; the curve connecting the upper fillet 
 of the base, or under one of the capital, with 
 the cylindrical part of the .'^haft. 
 
 Areeostyle ; a manner of intercolumniation, in 
 which all the columns are distant from each 
 other about four diameters. 
 
 Arcade ; an aperture in a wall, with an arched 
 head. It dso signifies a range of apertures 
 with arched heads. 
 
 Arch ; a part of a building supported at its ex- 
 tremities only, and concave towards the earth or 
 horizon. 
 
 Architectonic ; something endowed with the pow- 
 er and skill of building, or calculated to assist 
 the architect. 
 
114 
 
 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 
 
 Architrave ; tlie undermost principal division of 
 an entablature. 
 
 Astragal ; a small moulding, semicircular in pro- 
 file. 
 
 B. 
 
 Back ; generally that side of an object which is 
 opposite to the face, or breast : but the back of 
 a handrail is the upper side of it ; that of a 
 rafter is the upper side of it, in the sloping 
 plane of one side of a roof 
 
 Back-shutters, or Back-fiaps; additional breadths 
 hinged to the front-shutters, for completely 
 closing tiie aperture, when the window is to be 
 shut. 
 
 Balcony (from the French halcon) ; an open 
 gallery, projecting from the front of a building, 
 and commonly constructed of iron or wood. 
 
 Baluster ; a small kind of column or pillar, be- 
 longing to a balustrade. 
 
 Balustrade; a range of balusters, supporting a 
 cornice, and used as a parapet or screen, for 
 concealing a roof, or other object. 
 
 Band ; a square member in a profile. 
 
 Base; the lower division of a column. In the 
 Greek Doric there is no base. 
 
 Battlement ; see Parapet. 
 
 Bay-window ; a window projecting from the front, 
 in two or more planes, and not forming the 
 segment of a circle. 
 
 Bed-mouldings ; the mouldings below the corona in 
 a cornice. 
 
 Belfry, anciently the campanile; the part of a 
 steeple in which the bells are hung. 
 
 Behuderc ; a turret, look-out, or observatory, com- 
 manding a fine prospect, and generally very 
 ornamental. 
 
 Boultin ; a name for the echinus. 
 
 Bow-idndow ; a window forming the segment of 
 a circle. 
 
 Broach (in Gothic architecture) ; a spire, or po- 
 lygonal pyramid, whether of stone or timber. 
 
 Bracket (in Gothic architecture) ; a projection to 
 sustain a statue, or other ornament, and some- 
 times supporting the ribs of a roof 
 
 Buttress (in Gothic architecture) ; a projection on 
 the exterior of a wall, to strengthen the piers 
 and resist the pressure of the arches within. 
 
 Cabling; cylindrical pieces let into the lower 
 part of the flutes of columns. 
 
 Caduceus ; an emblem or attribute of Mercury ; 
 a rod entwined by two-winged serpents. 
 
 Caisson ; a name for sunk panels of geometrical 
 forms. 
 
 Campanu ; the body of the Corinthian capital. 
 
 Campana;, or Campanula, or Chitta; ; the "drops of 
 the Doric architrave. 
 
 Canopy (in Gothic architecture) ; the ornamental 
 dripstone of an arch. It is usually of the ogee 
 form. 
 
 Canted (in Gothic architecture) ; any part of a 
 building having its angles cut off, is said to be 
 canted. 
 
 Capital; the upper division of a column, or pillar. 
 
 Cartouch ; the square blocks under the eaves of a 
 house. 
 
 Cant-moulding ; a bevelled surface, neither per- 
 pendicular to the horizon, nor to the vertical 
 surface to which it may be attached. 
 
 Cap (in joinery) ; the uppermost of an assemblage 
 of parts, as the capitaJ of a column, the cornice 
 of a door, &.c. 
 
 Caryatida, or Caryatides ; so called from the 
 Caryatides, a people of Caria ; an order of 
 columns or pilasters, under the figures of wo- 
 men dressed in long robes, after the manner of 
 the Carian people, and serving to support an 
 entablature. This order is called the Ca- 
 ryatic. 
 
 Case of a door; the frame in which the door is 
 liung. 
 
 Catacomb ; a subterraneous place for the inter- 
 ment of the dead. 
 
 Cavetto; one of the regular mouldings of Roman 
 architecture, hollowed in the form of a quad- 
 rant of a circle. 
 
 Chancel; the communion place, or that part of a 
 Christian church between the altar and balus- 
 trade wliich encloses it. 
 
 Chantry ; a small chapel on the side of a church. 
 
 Cincture ; a ring or fillet surrounding the top and 
 bottom of a shaft, with which it is connected 
 by the apophyge. 
 
 Circus; a spacious building in which equestrian 
 exercises are exhibited. 
 
GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 
 
 II; 
 
 Coin, or Quoin ; the comer or angle made by 
 the two surfaces of a stone or brick building, 
 whether external or internal. 
 
 Colonnade ; a range of columns, whether attached 
 or insulated, and supporting an entablature. 
 
 Column ; according to the best method of de- 
 scribing it, a column is a frustum of a very 
 elongated parabola, and circular in its plan. 
 It consists (in Greek and Roman architecture) 
 of three parts, viz. the base, the shaft, and the 
 capital. 
 
 Composite order ; one of the Roman orders of 
 architecture. 
 
 Conge ; a moulding consisting of a simple curve, 
 whether bending outwards, as the ovolo or 
 swelling conge, or inwards, as the cavetto or 
 hollow conge. 
 
 Conservator!/ ; a superior kind of greenhouse for 
 valuable plants, &c. , arranged in beds of earth, 
 with ornamental borders. 
 
 Console ; a bracket, or projecting body, shaped 
 like a curve of contrary flexure, scrolled at the 
 ends, and serving to support a cornice, bust, 
 vase, or other ornament. Consoles are also 
 called, according to their form, ancones or 
 trusses, niutules and modillions. 
 
 Coiitiiiited ; uninterrupted, unbroken, as a contin- 
 ued attic, pedestal, &c., not broken by pilasters 
 or columns. 
 
 Contour ; a French word for Outline. 
 
 Coping ; the stones laid on the top of a wall, to 
 strengthen and defend it from injury. 
 
 Corheih ; carved work representing baskets filled 
 with flowers or fruit, and used as a finish to 
 some elegant part of a building. This word is 
 sometimes used to express the bell or vase of 
 the Corinthian capital. 
 
 Corinthian order ; one of the orders of architec- 
 ture. 
 
 Cornice ; a crowning ; any moulded projection 
 which crowns or finishes the part to which it is 
 attached. 
 
 Cornucopia ; the horn of plenty, represented in 
 sculpture under the figure of a large horn, out 
 of which issue fruits, flowers, grain, &c. 
 
 Corona ; the upper member of a cornice, in 
 Greek and Roman architecture. 
 
 Corridor ; a gallery or passage, in large buildings, 
 which leads to distant apartments. 
 
 Counter-forts : projections of masonry from a 
 wall, at certain regular distances, for strength- 
 ening it or resisting a pressure. 
 
 Coupled columns ; those disposed in pairs, so as to 
 form a narrow and wide interval alternately. 
 
 Crosettes ; in decoration, the trusses or consoles 
 on the flanks of the architrave, under the cor- 
 nice. 
 
 Croten ; the uppermost member of a cornice, \xv- 
 eluding the corona, &-c ; of an arch, its most 
 elevated line or point. 
 
 Cupola ; a dome ; the hemispherical summit of a 
 building. 
 
 Cusp (in Gothic architecture) ; a name for the 
 segments of circles forming the trefoil, quatre- 
 foil, &c. 
 
 Cyma, Cymatium ; the cyma is of two kinds : the 
 cyma-recta, a moulding hollowed at the top 
 and swelling beneath, generally called cymali- 
 um ; and the cyma-reversa, or ogee, which is 
 swelled above and hollowed beneath. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dentils : small square projections used in the cor- 
 nices of several of the Roman orders, and in 
 the Grecian Ionic. 
 
 Diastyle ; a manner of intercolumniation in which 
 the columns are three diameters apart. 
 
 Die of a pedestal; the part comprehended be- 
 tween the base and cornice. 
 
 Ditriglyph ; having two triglyphs over an inter- 
 column. 
 
 Dome; a concave ceiling, commonly hemispheri- 
 cal. 
 
 Doric order; one of the ■^'■•ifirs .■*■ architecture. 
 
 Dormant, or Dormer ^Mndow [\u Gothic archi- 
 tecture) ; a window set upon the slope of a roof 
 or spire. 
 
 Drops ; in ornamental architecture, small pendent 
 cylinders, or frustums of cones attached to a 
 surface vertically, with the upper ends touching 
 a horizontal surface, as in the cornice of the 
 Doric order. 
 
 Drum, or Vase, of the Corinthian and Composite 
 capitals ; the solid part to which the foliage and 
 stalks, or ornaments, are attached. 
 
 Dye; the plain part of a pedestal, between the 
 base and cornice. 
 
116 
 
 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eaees ; the margin or edge of a roof overhanging 
 the walls. 
 
 Echinus ; a moulding in the Roman orders, con- 
 sisting of tiie quadrant of a circle turned out- 
 wards ; in the Greek, it is composed of one of 
 the conic sections. 
 
 'Embattled; a building with a parapet, having 
 embrasures, and therefore resembling a battery, 
 or castle. 
 
 Encarpus ; the festoons on a frieze ; see Festoon. 
 
 Untablaturc ; the horizontal part of an order, 
 supported by the columns. 
 
 Entail (in Gothic architecture) ; delicate carving. 
 
 Entasis ; the swelling of a column. 
 
 Epistylium ; or architrave of the entablature. 
 
 Eustyle ; the manner of intercolumniation in 
 which the columns are distant two diameters 
 and a quarter. 
 
 F. 
 
 Facade ; the face or front of a building. 
 
 Falling moulds ; in joinery, the two moulds which 
 are to be applied to the vertical sides of the 
 railpicce, in order to form the back and under 
 surface of the rail, and finish the squaring. 
 
 Fane, Phanr, Vane (in Gothic architecture) ; a 
 plate of metal, usually cut into some fantastic 
 form, and turning on a pivot, to determine the 
 course of the wind. 
 
 Fascia ; a band or fillet. This term is usually 
 employed to denote the flat members into which 
 the architrave is divid\3d. 
 
 Fastiginm ; see Pediment. 
 
 Festoon ; a carved ornament resembling a wreath, 
 attached at both ends, and falling in the middle. 
 
 Mllet ; see Annulet. 
 
 Flutings ; vertical channels on the shafts of col- 
 umns. 
 
 Flyers ; steps of which the treads are all parallel. 
 
 Fret ; a species of ornament commonly composed 
 of straight grooves or channelures at right an- 
 gles to each other. The labyrinth fret has 
 many turnings, or angles, but in all cases the 
 parts are parallel and perpendicular to each other. 
 
 Frieze ; the member of an entablature between 
 the architrave and cornice. 
 
 Fust ; the shaft of a column. 
 
 G. 
 
 Glyphs ; the channels in the trigljphs of the 
 Doric frieze. 
 
 Gola ; see Ogee. 
 
 Gothic ; a peculiar style of architecture, distinct 
 from either the Grecian or Roman. 
 
 Gorge ; see Cavetto. 
 
 Greek orders of architecture ; the Doric, Ionic, 
 and Corinthian. See these names respectively. 
 
 Griffin, or Griffon ; a fabulous animal, sacred to 
 Apollo, and mostly represented with the head 
 and wings of an eagle, and the body, legs and 
 tail of a lion. 
 
 Groin ; the diagonal line formed by the intersec- 
 tion of two vaults in a roof. 
 
 Groined ceiling ; a cradling constructed of ribs. 
 
 Grotesque ; the light, gay and beautiful style of 
 ornament practised by the ancient Romans in 
 the decoration of their palaces, baths, villas, 
 
 &.C. 
 
 Guilochcs ; an ancient ornament composed of 
 fillets, which cross and recross each other, and 
 generally encompass a plain or ornamented 
 roset. 
 
 GuttfE ; small cones, representing drops, placed in 
 the soflit of the mutules, and under the triglyphs 
 in the Doric entablature. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hall ; a word commonly denoting a mansion, or 
 large public building, as well as the large room 
 at the entrance. 
 
 Hyperthyron ; the lintel of a doorway. 
 
 Hypotrachelion ; the neck of a capital. 
 
 Impost ; any combination of mouldmgs serving as 
 the capital or cornice of a pier. 
 
 lutercoJumniation ; the distance between two col- 
 umns. 
 
 Insulated; standing alone, or detached from any 
 contiguous building. 
 
 Ionic order ; one of the orders of architecture. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jambs ; the vertical sides of an aperture, as of 
 doors, windows, &,c. 
 
GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 
 
 117 
 
 K. 
 
 Key-stone ; the centre or highest stone in an arch. 
 It is frequently larger than the rest, and orna- 
 mented with sculpture. 
 
 Labyrinth ; a building, tne numerous passages 
 and perplexing windings of which, render the 
 escape from it difficult, and almost impossible. 
 Hence, Laby rinth fret ; a fret with many turn- 
 ings, which was a favorite ornament of the 
 ancients. 
 
 LacunaricB, or Lacunars ; panels or coffers form- 
 ed on the ceilings of apartments, and sometimes 
 on the soffits of coronae in the Ionic, Corinthian 
 and Composite orders. 
 
 Lantern ; a turret raised above the roof, with 
 windows round the sides, and constructed for 
 lighting an apartment beneath. * 
 
 Larmier ; see Corona. 
 
 Lintel; the horizontal piece which covers the 
 opening of a door or window. 
 
 List ; see Fillet. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mechanical powers ; such implements or ma- 
 chines as are used for raising greater weights, 
 or overcoming greater resistances, than could 
 be effected by the natural strength without 
 them. 
 
 Medallion ; a circular tablet, ornamented with 
 embossed or carved figures, bustos, &,c. 
 
 Metope ; the space between two triglyphs in the 
 Doric frieze. It is frequently decorated with 
 sculpture. 
 
 Mezzanine ; a low story between two floors. 
 
 Minaret ; a Turkish steeple with a balcony. 
 
 Minute ; the sixtieth part of the diameter of a 
 column. 
 
 Modillion ; a projection under the corona of the 
 richer orders, resembling a bracket. 
 
 Module ; the semi-diameter of a column at the 
 foot of a shaft. 
 
 Mono-triglyph ; having only one triglyph between 
 two adjoining columns : the general practice in 
 the Grecian Doric. 
 
 30 
 
 Mouldings; the smaller parts of architecture, 
 whether Roman or Grecian, which are shaped 
 in regular forms. They are so called from 
 being worked with a mould. 
 
 Mutule ; those projections in the Doric cornice 
 supposed to represent the ends of rafters. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nave ; the body of a church, reaching from the 
 choir or chancel to the principal door. 
 
 NecJc of a capital ; the space between the chan- 
 nelures and the annulets of the Grecian Dorie 
 capital ; in the Roman Doric, the space be- 
 tween the astragal and annulet. 
 
 Netoel ; in a circular staircase, the centre round 
 which the steps ascend. 
 
 Niche ; a cavity in a wall, to receive a statue, or 
 other ornament. 
 
 O. 
 
 Obelisk ; a quadrangular pyramid, high and slen- 
 der, raised as a monument or ornament, and 
 commonly charged with inscriptions and orna- 
 ments. 
 
 Odeum ; among the ancients, a place for the re- 
 hearsal of music and other particular purposes. 
 
 Ogee ; a moulding of two members, one concave, 
 the other convex. It is otherwise called a cy- 
 matium. 
 
 Orlo ; the plinth of a column or pedestal. 
 
 Ovolo ; see Echinus. 
 
 Orthography ; an elevation showing all the parts 
 of a building in true proportion. 
 
 Pagoda, or Pagod ; an Indian temple common 
 in Hindostan and the countries to the east. 
 These structures, dedicated to idolatry, are 
 mostly of stone, square, not very lofty, without 
 windows, and crowned with a cupola. 
 
 Panel ; a compartment enclosed by mouldings. 
 
 Parapet ; a low wall round the roof of a building. 
 
 Pavilion ; a kind of turret or building usually in- 
 sulated, and contained under a single roof; 
 sometimes square and sometimes in the form 
 of a dome ; thus called from the resemblance 
 of its roof to a tent. 
 
118 
 
 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 
 
 Pedestal ; a square body of stone, or other mate- 
 rial, raised to sustain a column, statue, &c^ 
 It is therefore the base, or lowest part, of an 
 order of columns. A square pedestal is that of 
 which the height and width are equal. 
 
 Pediment ; an ornament, properly of a low trian- 
 gular figure, crowning the front of a build- 
 ing. 
 
 Pentastyle ; an edifice having five columns in 
 front. 
 
 Periptere ; a building encompassed with columns, 
 which form a kind of aisle around it. 
 
 Piazza ; a portico, or covered walk, supported by 
 arches. 
 
 Pilaster ; a pillar of a rectangular plan. 
 
 Pillar ; a column of an irregular make, not form- 
 ed according to rules, but of arbitrary propor- 
 tions ; free or insulated in every part, and 
 always deviating from the measures of regular 
 columns. This is the distinction of the pillar 
 from the column. A square pillar is sometimes 
 called a pier. 
 
 Pinnacle ; the top or roof of a building, terminat- 
 ing in a point. 
 
 Plniicccr ; see Soffit. 
 
 Platband ; a square member of slight projection. 
 
 Plinth ; the square solid under the base of a col- 
 umn, pedestal or wall. 
 
 Porch ; the kind of vestibule at the entrance of 
 temples, halls, churches, &-c. 
 
 Portico ; an entablature supported by columns, 
 and surmounted by a pediment. 
 
 Post and Railing ; an open wooden fence, con- 
 sisting of posts and rails only. " 
 
 Profile ; the contour of the parts composing an 
 order. 
 
 Pronaos; an ancient name for a porch to a tem- 
 ple or other spacious building. 
 
 Proscenium ; in a theatre, the stage, or the firont 
 of it. 
 
 Prostyle ; having columns in front only. 
 
 Pycnostyle; a manner of intercolumniation of 
 one diameter and a half 
 
 Pyramid ; a solid figure, having its base triangu- 
 lar, square, or polygonal, and terminating in a 
 point at top. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quadra ; any square border or frame encompass- 
 ing a basso-relievo, panel, &,c. 
 
 Quirk mouldings ; the convex parts of Grecian 
 mouldings, where they recede at the top, and 
 form a re-entiant angle with the soffit which 
 covers the moulding. 
 
 Quoin, external or internal ; the name is particu- 
 larly applied to the stones at the corners of 
 brick buildings. When these stand out beyond 
 the brick work, with edges chamfered, they are 
 called Rustic Quoins. 
 
 R. 
 
 Raiser ; a board set on edge under the fore side 
 of a step or stair. 
 
 Raking Moidding ; a moulding whose arrises are 
 inclined to the horizon in any given angle. 
 
 Wamp ; in handrailing, a concavity on the upper 
 side, formed over risers, or over a half or 
 quarter space, by a sudden rise of the steps 
 above. 
 
 Rcglet, or Right ; a flat, narrow moulding, used 
 chiefly in compartments and panels, to separate 
 the parts or members, and to form knots or 
 frets, &c. 
 
 Revels, pronounced Reveals ; the vertical retreat- 
 ing surface of an aperture, as the two vertical 
 sides between the front of the wall and the 
 windows or door frame. 
 
 Roman, or Composite order. 
 
 Rose ; an ornament in the form of a rose, found 
 chiefly in cornices, friezes, &.C. 
 
 Rotundo, or Rotunda ; a common name for any 
 circular building. 
 
 Rudenture ; the figure of a rope, or of a staff, 
 whether plain or carved, with which a third 
 part of the fluting of columns is frequently 
 filled up. It is sometimes called cabling : 
 hence the columns are said to be cabled, or 
 rudented. 
 
 Rustic; a manner of masonry in which the 
 stones are indented at their angles ; also stonea 
 left rough. 
 
GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 
 
 119 
 
 Saloon ; a spacious, lofty and elegant hall, or 
 apartment, vaulted at top, and generally having 
 two ranges of windows. 
 
 Section of a Building ; a representation of it, as 
 vertically divided into two parts, so as to exhib- 
 it the construction of the interior. 
 
 Stsfpool, or Cesspool; a deep hole, or well, un- 
 der the mouth of a drain, for the reception of 
 sediment, &:c. bv which the drain might be 
 choked. 
 
 Seirer ; a common drain, or conductor for convey- 
 ing foul water, &c. 
 
 Shaft ; the part of a column between the base 
 and capital. 
 
 Shank ; a name for the flat space between the 
 channels in the Doric triglyph. 
 
 Sock, or Zocle : a square piece, broader than A is 
 high, placed under the bases of pedestals, &c. 
 to support vases, and other ornaments. As 
 there is a continued pedestal, so there is also a 
 continued socle. See Pedestal. 
 
 So£ifa, or Sojit ; any timber ceiling formed of 
 cross beams of flying cornices, the square com- 
 partments or panels of which are enriched with 
 sculpture or painting. SoJit also means the 
 under side of an architrave, and that of the 
 corona, or drip, &c. : also the horizontal under- 
 sides of the heads of apertures, as of doors and 
 windows. 
 
 Sjphinz ; a favorite ornament of Egyptian archi- 
 tecture, representing the monster, half woman 
 and half beast, said to have been born of Ty- 
 phon and Echidna. 
 
 Spire ; a slender pyramid of a polygonal plan. 
 
 Squaring handrails ; the method of cutting a 
 plank to the form of a rail for a staircase, so 
 that all the vertical sections may be rectangles. 
 
 String-hoard; in stairing, a board placed next to 
 the well-hole, and terminating the ends of the 
 steps. 
 
 Stylobata ; see Pedestal. 
 
 Systyle ; an intercolumniation of two diameters. 
 
 T(Bnia ; the term for the fillet separating the fi'ieze 
 from the architrave in the Doric order. 
 
 J^alon ; a French term, either for the astragal or 
 cyma-reversa. 
 
 Terrace : an elevated area for walking upon, and 
 sometimes meaning a balcony. 
 
 Tetrastylc ; having four columns in front. 
 
 Torus ; a large moulding, semicircular in profile, 
 used in bases. 
 
 Tread of a step ; the horizontal part of it. 
 
 Triglyph ; the ornament in the Doric frieze sup- 
 posed to represent the end of beams. 
 
 Tripod ; a three-legged seat, from which the 
 priests of antiquity delivered their oracles, and 
 frequently represented in architectural orna- 
 ments. 
 
 Trophy ; an ornament representing the trunk of 
 a tree, supporting military weapons, colors, &c. 
 
 Tuscan order ; one of the Roman orders of 
 architecture. 
 
 Tympanum ; the space within a pediment. It is 
 sometimes adgrned with sculpture. 
 
 Valley ; the internal angle of two inclined sides 
 of a roof. 
 
 Vase ; a name for the bell, or naked form of the 
 Corinthian capital, on which the leaves are dis- 
 posed. 
 
 Vault ; an arched roof When more than a sem- 
 icircle, they are called surmounted, and when 
 less, surbased vaults. 
 
 V'enetian door ; a door lighted on each side. 
 
 Venetian window ; a window having three sepa- 
 rate apertures. 
 
 Volute ; the scroll which distinguishes the Ionic 
 capital. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wreathed columns ; such as are twisted in the 
 form of a screw. Not now used. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zocle ; see Socle. 
 
 Zophorus ; see Frieze. 
 
 Zystos ; among the ancients, a portico or aisle ol 
 
 unusual length, commonly appropriated to g.vro- 
 
 nastic exercises. 
 
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