^orti| Carolma ^tale Collrge This book iwas presented SM05 NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERSITV I S01949438 5G2S This BOOK may be kept out TWO WEEF ONLY, and is subject to a fine of FI\ CENTS a day thereafter. It is due on t day indicated below: ?Jdla'43V t2FE47S /9/; SEP ^5>s/g APR '- AUG 1 1 1^79 «cr 3 ■tm OCTi FLL- W ^jni/ ^ o NOV 2 1 ^64 Commission of Conservation Constituted under "The Conservation Act," 8-9 Edward VII, Chap. 27, 1909, and amending Acts, 9-10 Edward VII, chap. 42, 1910, and 3-4 George V, Chap. 12, 1913. Chairman : Hon. Clifford Slfton Members: Hon. Aubin E. Arsenault, Summerside, P.E.I. Dr. Howard Murr-w, Dalliousie University, Halifax, N.S. Dr. Cecil C. Joi^es, Chancellor, University of New Brunswick, Frederic- ton, N.B. Mr. William B. Snowball, Chatham, N.B. Hon. Henri S. Beland, M.D., M.P., St. Joseph-de-Beauce, Que. Dr. Frank D. Adams, Dean, Faculty of Applied Science, McGill University, Montreal M0N.SEIGNEUH Charles P. Choquette, St. Hyacinthe, Que., Professor, Seminary of St. Hyacinthe and Member of Faculty, Laval University Mr. Edward Gohier, St. Laurent, Que. Dr. James W. Robertson, C.M.G., Chairman, Royal Conamission on In- dustrial Training and Technical Education, Ottawa, Ont. Sir Sandford Fleming, K.C.M.G., Ottawa, Ont., Chancellor, Queen's University Hon. Senator William Cameron Edwards, Ottawa, Ont. Sir Edmund B. OsleR, M.P., Governor, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. Mr. Charles A. McCool, Ottawa, Ont. Mr. J. F. Mack,\y, Business Manager, "The Globe," Toronto, Ont. Dr. B. E. Fernow, Dean, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. Dr. George Bryce, University of Manitoba, W^innipeg, Man. Dr. W. J. Rutherford, Member of Faculty, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask. Dr. H. M. Tory, President, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta. Mr. John Hendry, Vancouver, B.C. Members, ex'officio : Hon. Martin Burrell, Minister of Agriculture, Ottawa Hon. W. J. Roche, Minister of the Interior, Ottawa Hon. Louis Coderre, Minister of Mines, Ottawa Hon. John A. Mathieson, K.C, President, Premier, and Attorney-General, Prince Edward Island Hon. Orlando T. Daniels, Attorney-General, Nova Scotia Hon. James K. Flemming, Premier and Surveyor-General, New Brunswick Hon. Jules Allard, Minister of Lands and Forests, Quebec Hon. William Hearst, Minister of Lands, Forests and Mines, Ontario Hon. James H. Howden, Attorney-General, Manitoba Hon. James A. Calder, Minister of Railways and Highways, Saskat- chewan Hon. Arthur L. Sifton, Premier, Minister of Railways and Telephones, Alberta Hon. William R. Ross, Minister of Lands, British Columbia Assistant to Chairman and Deputy Head : Mr. James White Commission of Conservation CANADA COMMITTEE ON FISHERIES, GAME AND FUR-BEARING ANIMALS FUR'FARMING IN CANADA Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged By J. WALTER JONES, B.A.. B.S.A. Ottawa: The Mortimer Co., Ltd. 1914 Committee on Fisheries, Game and Fur-bearing Animals Chairman: Dr. Cecil C. Jones Members: Hon. O. T. Daniels Hon. J. K. Flemming Hon. W. H. Hearst Hon. J. H. Howden Hon. J. A. Mathieson Dr. Howard Murray Dr. J. W. Robertson Hon. W. R. Ross To Field Marshal His Royal Highness Prince Arthur William Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught and of Strathearn, K.G., K.T., K.P., &c., &c., Governor-General of Canada May it Please Your Royal Highness: The undersigned has the honour to lay before Your Royal Highness the report on Fur-farming in Canada, new edition, corrected and revised. Respectfully submitted, CLIFFORD SIFTON, Chairman Ottawa. February 4, 1914 56224 Ottawa, February 3, 1914 Sir: I have the honour to transmit herewith the report on Fur-farming in Canada, new edition, corrected and revised. Your obedient servant, JAMES WHITE, Assistant to Chairman Hon. Clifford Sipton, Chairman Commission of Conservation Contents PAGE I. INTRODUCTION 1 II, EARLY ATTEMPTS TO DOMESTICATE THE FOX 15 III MANUAL OF FUR-FARMING Common Red Fox: the science of breeding 20 ranching practice 31 financial aspects 59 Polar or Arctic Fox: BLUE FOX-F.\ItMING 66 blue foxes of the pribilof islands 71 BIarakul Sheep 81 Raccoon 89 Weasel Family: MINK 90 marten or AMERICAN SABLE 97 FISHER, PEKAN OR PENNANT MARTEN 98 CANADIAN OTTER 99 SKUNK 104 Rodents: MUSKRAT 110 beaver Ill Reindeer and Moose: the reindeer in CANADA 113 moose 116 IV. PREPARING SKINS FOR MANUFACTURE 117 V. THE COMMERCE IN RAW FURS Centres of the Fur Trade 126 London Fur Market 127 Prices of Silver Fox Skins 131 VI. APPENDICES I. Value op Wild Animals 137 II. Experience in Raising Virginia Deer 139 III. Selected Articles from American Breeders' Association Reports: objects of breeding wild mammals 141 exotic species for domestication 142 breeding of the wapiti 144 breeding the VIRGINIA DEER 145 BREEDING FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 147 IV. Reindeer Progress in Alaska 152 V. The Romance of Fur 156 VI. The Muskrat 159 VII. Canadian Legislation Respecting Fur-farming 165 VTII. Notes Concerning the Conservation of Game in Quebec. . 182 IX. Statistics of Fur Production 186 X. Statistics of Fur Prices 215 XI. Fur-farming Companies and Fur-farmers in Canada 222 XII. Report of Fur Sales, March, 1914, Lampson & Co 252 VII. INDEX 257 vii ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE I. Sitting on the Box in Which He Made a Railway JotrnNEY, September Fttr Fronlispiece II. A FuLi^FCTRRED Fox, Decembee Ftjr 15 A FULL-FDRRED BlACK FoX, DECEMBER FuR 15 III. A Red Fox Two Months Old, Showing a Dark Line of Blood 24 A Cross Fox, Red on Sides, Neck and Ears, September Fur 24 A Dark Silver Fox with a White Patch on His Breast .... 24 A Black Female in October 24 IV. A Mated Pair, \'ery Dark Silver ALvle and Half Silver Female, October Fur 31 Pen in the ALvple Woods — Sunny in Winter and Shaded in Summer 31 V. The Best Location for a Ranch is a Woodlot 33 VI. Detail of Fence Construction with Sheet Iron 35 Detail of Fence Construction, Many Breeders Prefer an Alley Surrounding each Pen 35 VII. Usual Type of Kennt:l and Pen 40 Cheap Kennel Constructed from a Packing Box 40 VIII. Floor Plan and Vertical Section of a Fox I^nnel 42 IX. Types of Fox Ranches 44 X. Fox Kjttens Two Weeks Old 47 A Three-quarters Black Fox Badly Frightened 47 Keeping Watch on the Strangers 47 A North Shore (Que.) Fox in August 47 XI. PoL.\R Fox (White) Ranched in Russia 66 A Russian Red Fox 66 XII. Karakul Lambs, Three Days and Eight Days Old, Respec- tively 81 XIII. Karakul Ram 85 Full-blood, Coarse-wool Karakul Ewes and Lambs at Foot 85 XIV. Floor Plan of Minkery 93 XV. Min-k Ranch at Lac Chaud 95 Mink's Den, Artificial 95 XVI. A Successful Mink Ranch 96 XVII. Mink Sitting on His House 100 Otter 100 XVIII. Beav-er 106 Live Skunk, Long Striped 106 XIX. Stretching Boards and Traps 119 XX. A Collection of 34 Wild Silver Fox Skins 132 XXI. T. R. H. Duke of Connaught and Princess Patricia at St. Patrick Ranch 137 MAPS I. Range op the North American Red Foxes in Canada 20 II. Range of Raccoons in Canada 89 III. Range of Minks in Canada 90 IV. Range of American Martens in Canada 98 V. Range of Skunks in Canada 104 VT. Range of Muskrats in Canada 110 VII. Range of the American Beaver in Canada 112 viii Preface to Second Edition Rapid progress has marked the fur-farming industry since the publi- cation of the Commission's first report on the subject a year ago. From all parts of Canada requests have been received for information and for copies of the report. To meet this demand it was deemed advisable to issue a revised and enlarged edition, so as to make the report as up- to-date as possible. Assistance in the preparation of the original report, as well as the revision, has been received from various sources, many of which it is impossible to acknowledge here. It seems fitting, however, that special mention should be made of the courtesy and assistance rendered by Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton for helpful suggestions, as well as for permission to reproduce from his "Life Histories of Northern Animals, "^ the maps showing the ranges in Canada of the Red Fox, Raccoon, Mmk, American Marten, Skunk, Muskrat, and Beaver. Valuable statistics of fur production and sales were furnished by the Hudson's Bay Co., through the office of the Canadian High Commissioner, by Messrs. C. M. Lampson & Co., Messrs. A. and W. Nesbitt, Mr. Emil Brass, Mr. J. D. Whelpley and others. Messrs. Henry and Ernest Poland, of P. R. Poland & Sons, London, England, courteously revised a number of tables of statistics, in addition to providing considerable new material. Mr. R. H. Campbell supplied a short article on the Reindeer, Mr. Johann Beetz on the conservation of game in Quebec, and reports of the Ameri- can Breeders' Association, and the Fur News Magazine have been freely quoted. Mention should also be made of the kindness shown by Provincial game authorities and others who furnished the names and addresses of fur farmers and fur-farming companies given in Appendix XL Sitting on the Box in Which He Made a Railway Journey September Fur FUR-FARMING IN CANADA I. Introduction UR-F ARMING is a new industry in Canada, but its development has been rapid. A particular investi- gation conducted in the latter half of 1912 and further inquiries made during 1913 revealed numerous instances where animals of various species were being bred in captivity for their fur. Foxes of two species and of all colour varieties, skunk, mink, raccoon, fisher, beaver and muskrat were found upon fur-farms. The marten and otter are likewise being domesticated for their fur. During the past two years the number of fur-farms has multiplied exceedingly. In the province of Prince Edward Island, which may be considered the centre from which the fur-farming interest has chiefly radiated, probably six hundred ranches exist where one species or another is kept in confinement. In Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Newfound- land the industry is extending with great rapidity and at this date — November, 1913 — ^practically every trapper is trying to capture foxes, mink, marten, otter and skunk for purposes of domestication. A great and rapidl}^ extending interest is manifested in Quebec, Ontario, Western Canada and the New England states. Russia has realized her advantageous position for the prosecution of this industry and has passed an enactment prohibiting the export of her karakule sheep. An extensive development of sable, silver and polar fox farms is also taking place in that country. The great interest manifested in fur-farming is to be ascribed to the remarkable success attained in breeding silver and other colour phases of the fox common to Eastern Canada. The black and dark silver prime skins from foxes produced on Prince Edward Island ranches have rarely brought less than $500.00 each, and frequently bring over $2,000.00 at London auction sales. The pioneer fox breeders have acquired wealth in the business and their success has inspired their neighbours to engage in a similar line of work. Naturally the price of breeding stock, responding to the increased demand, has risen to many times the fur value, so that the ownership of even a pair of silver foxes is impossible to the average farmer. Library N. C, Stat© Colle/rr* 2 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Corporations and partnerships with a total capitalization of $I0,000,000or $12,000,000 have been established for farming the silver fox. A large proportion of the inhabitants of Prince Edward Island and a smaller proportion of those of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia have invested their money, sometimes even mortgaging their property, to buy stock in these enterprises. Others have attempted to breed fur- bearing animals which require less capital for foundation stock. Thus, in 1912 and 1913, upwards of 6,000 red and 1,000 cross or patch foxes were captured and made inmates of ranches in Eastern Canada. Probably more than 1,000 animals of various other species fared similarly. The industry has spread into Russia, where fur- bearing animals such as the Russian sable and the polar and the silver fox are now extensively farmed. Sables from the vicinity of Irkutsk and karakule sheep from Bokhara have, at great expense to the im- porters, been brought to America. The great enthusiasm for fur-farming in Eastern Canada has re- sulted in high prices for breeding animals and seems to have created in the popular mind the impression that the soil and the climatic con- ditions of that region are favourable to the production of the best fur. It is true that splendid fox and mink are produced there, but it should not necessarily be assumed that polar fox, Labrador marten and Russian sable will thrive and fur up as well as in their own habitat. But, what- ever the outcome of these experiments, the fact is that the reputed skill of its fur-farmers in caring for the animals has led to a centraliza- tion of the fur-producing industry on Prince Edward Island. It is probably true that at least 85 per cent of the silver foxes in captivity are to be found in the Island province. The high prices for furs prevailing during recent years explain why fur-farming has made such rapid progress in such a short time. This is particularly true of the black fox industry. The fur-value of a high-grade prime black fox skin ranges from about $500 to about $2,500; but the demand for breeding animals has been so great that the price has risen to $35,000 a pair for the best quality of breeding stock. Moreover, the promoter has entered the field and companies are being floated whose capitalizations are based on these high prices for pelts and on very rosy expectations of profits. It cannot be predicted with certainty what the price will be when even a few thousand more skins are marketed yearly. The price will certainly decline eventually in conformity with the increase in supply, but will probably always remain high on account of the fur's extreme beauty. Although there is ample basis for a sound industry in fox-farming, it is necessary that the general public should realize that the industry is a highly speculative one, and that the individual who puts his money in companies capital- F U R - F A R M I N G IN CANADA ized at from five to ten times the fur value of the animals assumes a great risk. Since the fur-farming industry is so intimately connected with the present high prices of furs, it will be worth while to enquii-e into the causes of these high prices and endeavour to forecast to what extent they will continue to operate. Demand and Supply Increasing Stated in general terms, fur has become scarce because less Demand for is produced and more is used than ever before. The remark- " able increase in the demand for costly furs in the past twenty years is due to a combination of causes. The population is growing. The relative number of people in the wealthy classes is increasing. The habits of travelling extensively and of living in metropolitan centres are rapidly increasing. Commerce and more efficient salesmanship have introduced furs all over the world, so that their admirers and users are multiplied. Dame Fashion, whose influence is predominant every- where, is responsible for a very heavy demand for certain kinds, and only the best and scarcest are in high favour with her. Then, too, our growing cities, which multiply the opportunities for gatherings and concourses, especially of the well-to-do classes, engender competitive habits in choosing personal adornments. The growing use of the automobile and the more general habit of living out-of-doors have made furs almost a necessity. In America alone, the valuation of automobiles is now about $2,000,000,000, and a proper equipment for the luxurious vehicles and their occupants necessitates the use of many millions of dollars worth of furs and leather. Better roads, more extensive travel, and cheaper automobiles are im- portant factors in determining the growing demands for fur and pelts generally. Lessening ^^ ^^^ keenness of the hunt is maintained, some species of Supply animals must soon be exterminated. When dead-falls, snares "*■ and the bow and arrow were used in hunting there was a chance for the game to escape; but with modern guns, smokeless powder, improved traps and the most alluring baits and scents that modern chemists can compound or trappers can invent, there are fewer oppor- tunities. Coupled with increased efficiency of destructive gear is the general diffusion by railways, steamship lines and hunting and trapping magazines, of knowledge respecting game resorts and the hunter's art. Railways and steamship lines are tapping new territory, corps of guides are organized, canned food and better camping equipment make the 4 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION hunter's life more enjoyable, and as a result, the uttermost sanc- tuaries of the fur-bearers are invaded. Their last retreats have been made and they must now slowly diminish in numbers year by year. The musk-ox, for instance, has figured in the London sales only for the past forty years because, prior to that time, Arctic hunters were unable to reach its habitat. Continued invasion of its territory may lead to its extinction. The usual method employed to prevent the complete extinction of a species is to establish a close season. Recently, a close season of three years was declared for the Russian sable to allow it to recuperate in numbers in Siberia. The chinchilla has similar protection in Bolivia, and the Canadian beaver is frequently protected in a similar way. Perhaps the most concerted effort on the part of nations to prevent the extinction of a species by establishing a close season is to be found in the case of the Alaska fur-seal. In July, 1911, the United States, Great Britain, Russia and Japan entered into a treaty which provides for the prohibition of pelagic or open sea sealing for a period of fifteen years. In the same 3^ear the United States enacted a pro- vision prohibiting land-killing of seals on the Pribilof islands for a period of ten years. The general decrease in the number of fur-bearers during the past twenty years indicates how ineffectual are the preventive methods employed. The ever-expanding areas of human settlements have of Haunts ° caused some kinds of fur-bearers to retreat farther into the woods. The clearing away of the forests and the grazing of the natural covers by domestic animals have destroyed their haunts and exposed them to their enemies. Draining swampy areas has destroyed the homes of the muskrat or musquash, the mink, the otter and the beaver. The fisher and the marten never seem to exist long near man's habitation. Even the fox, which appears to increase near human settlements, will decrease if the forests are wholly removed or burned. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA DECREASING NUMBER OF PELTS Statement, based on the London Sales of C. M. Lampson & Co. By Alfred Fraser, New York) Kind of Skin Decrease in Numbers, Percentage 1892-1901 1902-1911 1892-1911 over over over 1882-1891 1892-1901 1882-1891 10 45 50 5 65 70 53 2 55 34t 40 23 750t 25 510t 65t 55 20 5t 95 95 75t 55 20 sot 55t not 250t 10 215t asoot 80 700t 45t 30 5t 65 50 85 Fox, silver " cross " red " blue " white Marten, pine. . . Fisher or pekan Mink Skunk Muskrat Lynx Otter, land t Increase INCREASING PRICES OF PELTS {Statement based on the London Sales of C. M. Lampson & Co. By Alfred Fraser, New York) Kind of Skin Increase in Prices, Percentage 1892-1901 1902-1911 1892-1911 over over over 1882-1891 1892-1901 1882-1891 155 55 300 10 100 125 85 85 245 20* 145 100 120 100 350 470 15 580 430 430 60 150 300 20 110 150 230 230 2o 130 200 30* 170 80 110 65 240 Fox, silver " cross " red " blue " white Marten, pine. . . Fisher or pekan Mink Skunk Muskrat Lynx Otter, land * Decrease Notes. — 1. The increase in the price of pelts during the past twenty years has been general averaging about 25 per cent for the staple fur-bearers of Canada. 2. All pelts, except those of skunk, have decreased in numbers during the past ten years. 3. Pelts considered of little value twenty years ago are being hunted to the verge of extinction; e.g., fisher, lynx, marten, mink, cross fox, and even muskrat, show signs of failing. 4. The increase in numbers of pelts fifteen years ago was caused by keener hunting. This was inspired by the rising values. 6 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATIOX The extent to which these influences have diminished the number of furs marketed is well put in the Fur News Magazine, for November, 1912, which says: — "We present elsewhere in this issue a record of the collection of all fur skins centring at London, and the majority are sent there, for the years 1911 and 1912, both secured under the terrific pres- sure of a strong demand and record-breaking prices which induced strenuous and persistent trapping to the limit — and past good business judgment. "The figures are remarkably interesting, and definitely serious as showing the marked decrease in quantity straight down the column with rare and insignificant exceptions; in most instances the declines are very great and invite careful attention, particu- larly as it is perfectly true that every possible effort was made the country over to effect the opposite result, and which surely would have been noted if the fur-bearers were present in usual numbers in their customary haunts or new and unusual retreats. The few exceptions, where there is an increase instead of a decrease, include cross fox and fisher, both of which were so high in value that it paid better to catch one a week rather than waste time catching other animals twice a day every day; but the total increase for both is only thirty-two hundred for the entire year and country; wolf is the only other fur of moment showing an increase in catch over 1911, and the difference is due to a general impulse to effect extermination, and not to the fact that there were more wolves than in the preceding year. Not a few 1911 skins were held back and came forward in this year's sales. "A study of the figures further shows the same general de- crease in collections of Russian, German, Japanese and Australian skins. Every fur skin caught anywhere this year will have a value and not a skin should be sacrificed." Supplying the Demand Confronted with this condition of a decreasing and Domei^fc Fu'r^'*^^ «"PPly ^^^ an increasing demand, the fur trade has sought to prevent high prices by popular- izing the use of furs which were formerly considered of slight value. A large part of this work now devolves on the fur-dressers and dyers who can render stiff pelts more supple and change the colour of the fur to resemble that of other more valuable animals. The use of furs pro- FUR-FARMING IN CANADA duced under domestic conditions has also been enormously extended. Ponies, kids, lambs and even pups are killed in large numbers to supply the increasing demands for fur. The great vogue of Russian lamb skins of which about three millions are used yearly, emphasizes the importance of achieving production of fur from domestic animals. The costly baby lamb or broadtail, the Persian lamb, the astrakhan and krimmer furs are the skins of the karakule sheep. The various names have been supplied by the furriers and have no geographical significance at the present time. If the marten and mink had been domesticated a score or more years ago, they might now be supplying fur in the same way as the karakule sheep, and, with the modern addi- tion of the fox, would have served as a counterpoise in Canada to the monopoly now enjoyed by Russia — particularly Bokhara — in the pro- duction of domestic fur. When the perennially fashionable sable, ermine, chinchilla and silver fox did not supply the demand, the Persians, broadtail and seal became more costly. Gradually, too, from its ple- beian rank of coat-lining at fifty cents a skin, mink was adopted into the select family of valuable furs, closely preceded by marten and, latterly, followed by fisher and cross fox. To take the place of mink as a coat-lining, muskrat or musquash was chosen, sharing this promo- tion with the less valuable marmot and hamster of Europe. To supply the demand for a medium-priced black fur of beauty, a common animal, the skunk, has been chosen and named Alaska sable. The black domestic cat, Imown to the trade as 'genet,' is also utilized to meet the demand for black furs, while northern hares and conies are extensively manufactured into 'Baltic fox' or 'white fox' or 'black Ij-nx' or 'electric seal.' When the fur dressers and dyers produced a clipped and Furs^™*°^ dyed muskrat skin that resembled sealskin almost perfectly, it was found that it would not sell under its real name be- cause it was a common fur, used largely by the poorer classes. Conse- quently a name was invented for it and this popular and high-priced fur is now sold as 'Hudson Bay seal'. The fur of the coney, a very cheap and common animal in France, is the raw product in producing 'electric sealskin', 'clipped seal' and 'Baltic seal'. Raccoon, when first introduced, was cheap and was in little demand, but when given the name 'Alaska bear' and 'silver bear' it immediately came into favour. Skunk, which is an excellent fur of a dark hue, though beau- tiful and durable, could not be sold as skunk, but, as 'black marten', and 'Alaska sable', it is in high favour and likely to remain in the class of the medium and higher priced furs. It is worth remarking that, since the prejudice against the muskrat, skunk and other cheap furs has been 8 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION overcome, they can be sold under their real names. Muskrat backs are now sold as 'rat' fur at almost as high figures as the dyed product. The pressure of increasing demand has brought into l^snaming^" common use the fur of animals with harsh, brittle hair of any colour, which is sold under names which mislead the unwary public. Thus, the pelts of animals from the warmer zones such as Chinese goat, Thibet lamb, Manchurian dog, hamster, marmot, Tartar pon}-, opossum, raccoon, weasel, jackal fox, monkey, antelope, otter and many others are now worked up by dressers and dyers into very respectable-looking furs. They are inferior, however, to the furs from colder climates in suppleness of leather, closeness of underwool, fullness of overhair and silkiness of hair and, because they are dyed, they are less durable and less prized. The misnaming of furs has caused the London Chamber Deception^ ^° ^^ Commerce to give notice that misleading terms are not to be used and that offenders are liable to prosecu- tion under the Merchandise Marks Act, 1887. Even in the early days when misnaming was in its infancy, the manufactured furs were fre- quently misnamed as follows: Muskrat or musquash, pulled and dyed Seal Nutria, pulled and dyed Seal Nutria, pulled and natural Beaver Rabbit, sheared and dyed Seal Otter, pulled and dyed Seal Marmot, dyed Mink or sable Fitch, dyed Sable Rabbit, dyed Sable or French sable Hare, dyed Sable, fox or lynx Muskrat, dyed Mink or sable Wallaby, dyed Skunk White rabbit Ermine AMiite rabbit, dyed Chinchilla White hare, dyed or natiu-al Fox, f oxaline Goat, dyed Bear or leopard But, if laws were necessary twenty-five years ago to protect the public from frauds, what must be the necessity at the present time, when two hares reared by the same mother may pose on the same counter as 'white fox' and 'black lynx', respectively? The following is a list of common misdescriptions: FUR -FARMING IN CANADA Variety Sold as — American sable Real Russian Fitch, dyed Sable Goat, dyed Bear Hare, dyed Sable or fox Kid Lamb or broadtail Marmot, dyed Mink, sable or skimk Mink, dyed Sable Musquash (muskrat), dyed. Mink or sable Musquash, pulled and dyed Seal, electric seal, Red River seal or Hudson Bay seal Nutria, pulled and dyed Seal, electric seal. Red River seal or Hudson Bay seal Nutria, pulled, natural Beaver and otter Opossum, sheared and dyed Beaver Otter, pulled and dyed Seal Rabbit, dyed Sable or French sable Rabbit, sheared and dyed Seal, electric seal, Red River seal, Hudson Bay seal and seal musquash Rabbit, white Ermine Rabbit, white, dyed Chinchilla Wallaby, dyed Skunk White hare Fox and other similar names Dyed furs of all kinds Natural White hairs inserted in foxes and sables. . . .Real or natural furs The follo^ving list has been published K)}- the London Chamber of Commerce as permissible descriptions: Name of Fur Permissible Description American sable Canadian sable or real sable Fitch, dyed Sable fitch Goat, dyed Bear goat Hare, dyed Sable hare or fox hare Kids Karakule kids Marmot, dyed Sable marmot, mink marmot or skunk marmot Mink, dyed Sable mink Musquash (muskrat), pulled and dyed Seal musquash Nutria, pulled and dyed Seal nutria Nutria, pulled, natural Beaver nutria or otter nutria Opossum, sheared and dyed Beaver opossum Otter, pulled and dyed Seal otter Rabbit, dyed : . Sable coney Rabbit, sheared and dyed Seal coney or musquash coney Rabbit, white Mock ermine Rabbit, white, dyed Chinchilla coney Wallaby, sheared and dyed Skunk wallaby White hare Imitation fox or mock fox AMiite hairs inserted in foxes or sables Pointed fox or sable Reliable furriers, however, do not use the misdescriptive Semne Furs ^^^^^^ mentioned above. Many of the smaller furriers are doubtless ignorant of the real names of their stock; but cheap advertisers are frequently guilty of misnaming. Many adver- tisers giving private addresses mislead the public; when a lady who is 'going South' offers her 'new S150 Russian lynx set for $25', the con- clusion may readily be reached that it is 'doctored' rabbit. However, 10 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION the enterprise of furriers should not be wholly discouraged, as, other- wise, owing to the scarcity of really good fur, many ladies would have to appear in worsted scarfs and mitts for six months of the year. The pride they take in their 'ermines', 'foxes', 'minks' and 'chinchillas' and in their bargain 'fishers' and black 'marten' would probably be diminished if they knew they were only 'doctored' rabbit, marmot, opossum and wallaby. All the artifices of the fur-dressers and dyers in pre- Ace^Passfne^^^ paring the skins and of the furriers and jobbers in supplying fancy names for inferior stock have failed to compensate for the decreasing supply of fur of good quality. It is quite possible that the supply of all domestic animal skins like rabbit, lamb, and kid can be indefinitely and rapidly increased to the limit of demand, but it is not possible under present methods of breeding, to -secure an increasing supply of really good fur such as comes from the carnivorous animals — notably the mustelidoe or weasel family — unless they are domesticated. This one fact stands out prominently: the hunting and trapping of wild fur-bearing animals must be supple- mented by their domestication if the demand for furs is to be satisfied. The hunter-trapper age has passed its zenith. With the demand exceeding the possible supply, more economical methods must be intro- duced and the supply must be increased. The tearing up of trapped animals by carnivorous mammals before the trapper can reach the traps is common and represents a great loss. The killing of animals whose pelts are not in prime condition represents a large annual loss of val- uable fur. These and other wastes are eliminated when fur-bearers are domesticated. Apart from economic considerations the cruelty involved of"Trappine "^ trapping wild animals affords a powerful argument against the continuation of the practice. Trapping is notoriously cruel and tends to destroy the finer feelings of those engaged in the business. Trappers visit their lines only two or three times a week, and in the interval the captured animals, in most cases suffering excruciating pain, are exposed to frost, hunger, their natural enemies and, finally, their arch-enemy — man. Elliott Coues in his monograph on the North American mustelidoe, aptly describes the actions of a mink when caught in a trap: "The tenacity of life of the mink is something remarkable. It FUR-FARMING IN CANADA lives for many hours — in cases I have known, for more than a day and night — under the pressure of a heavy log, sufficient to hold it like a vice, and when the middle of the body was pressed perfectly flat. Nay, under one such circumstance which I recall, the animal showed good fight on approach. When caught by the leg in a steel trap, the mink usually gnaws and tears the captive member, sometimes lacerating it in a manner painful to witness; but, singular to say, it bites the part beyond the jaws of the trap . . . The violence and persistence of the poor, tortured animal endeavouring to escape are witnessed in the frequent breaking of its teeth against the iron — this is the rule rather than the exception. One who has not taken the mink in a steel trap can scarcely form an idea of the terrible expression the animal's face assumes as the captor approaches. It has always struck me as the most nearly diabolical of anything in animal physiognomy. A sullen stare from the crouched, motionless form gives way to a new look of surprise and fear accompanied by the most violent contortions of the body, with renewed champing of the iron, till, breathless, with heaving flanks, and open mouth dribbling saliva, the animal settles again, and watches with a look of concentrated hatred, mingled with impotent rage and frightful despair." When it is remembered that millions of animals are captured yearl}^ in traps the sum total of their sufferings must be so great that the cruelty practiced on dumb domestic creatures, which so greatly concerns the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, must seem slight in comparison. The methods of killing domestic animals are humane and painless, and it would seem that humane considera- tions alone present a sufficient argument for the domestication of fur- bearing animals. The first step towards raising animals for their fur was Fu™bearers taken years ago when kai'akule sheep — a domestic animal from which the Persian lamb and broadtail are obtained — began to be bred for its pelt. Up to recent years this animal was the only example of a valuable fur-bearer in captivity. It is a domestic animal merely, but, because of the difficulties in travelling, in language, in religious prejudices of the people who breed them, in knowledge of good stock, in quarantine laws and in remoteness of the district in which they flourish, it has been very difficult to secure specimens for breeding purposes. Latterly, exceedingly optimistic reports of suc- cess in karakule 'crosses' in the United States have been reported. If the Persian lamb can be economically produced in America, millions of dollars will be saved annually, as the use of this lasting and hand- some fur is increasing steadily. That the business is regarded in 12 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Russia as an important one, is indicated by the calling of a convention of breeders at Moscow in October, 1912, at the special request of the Czar. As a possible source of future fur supply, the karakule crossed with lustrous woolled sheep like Lincolns and Cotswolds appears to be one of the most promising. Experiments made recently have produced lamb skins of magnificent gloss and curl. Because, however, of a recently-enacted prohibition of export of fur-bearing sheep, from Bokhara and Russia, it is feared that the animals already brought to America cannot be augmented in number by new blood from Asia. Enough sheep have been imported to prove the practicability of pro- ducing on this continent the best grades of Persian lamb fur, and, if too much in-breeding can be avoided, it is possible that the industry may become established. Despite the progress that has been made in breeding FuSbearers"^ karakule sheep, it must be acknowledged that domestica- tion of fur-bearing animals has, thus far, failed to supply the demand for pelts which are highly valued for fur. The increasing demand and the ever-decreasing supply of desirable fur pelts is pro- ducing a state of trade that would be alarming were it not for the possi- bilities of domesticating and breeding other fur-bearers. The time has come when, on account of the high range of prices, every effort should be made to domesticate all wild fur-bearing animals of consid- erable value. There is a broad field for activity in this direction. According to Lantz' estimate, there are about five thousand species of mammals at present inhabiting the earth. About twenty-three of these are in a state of domestication, serving man as beasts of burden or furnishing food, clothing, or companionship. The hoofed animals (ungulata) comprise: The Asiatic elephant, horse, ass, hog, camel, drbmedary, rein- deer, goat, sheep, yak, buffalo (two species), ox (two species), and llama (possibly four species). The flesh-eating animals (carnivora) comprise: The cat, dog, ferret and cheetah or hunting leopard of India. The rodent animals {rodentia) comprise: The rabbit and the guinea pig. The Arctic fox (vulpes lagopus) and the common fox (vulpes vulpes) may be classed as domestic, as for twenty years they have been nurtured under man's care, and the rising prices of fur will probably make the FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 13 industry permanent. The marten is said to have been domesticated by the Romans and even to-day the mink is sometimes crossed with the domestic ferret to produce a more desirable disposition in the off- spring. THREE ORDERS OF WILD CANADIAN MAMMALS AND THEIR ECONOMIC USES Order Family Species Parts of Economic Use Hoofed Animals Deer Elk Flesh, hide, trophies {hoofed; large) Deer Moose « « « Caribou « Cattle Bison (Buffalo) a Rodent Squirrel Squirrel Pelt, flesh {no canine teeth; 4 Chipmunk Pelt incisors only, ex- Woodchuck " cept in rabbit) Beaver Canadian Beaver Pelt, flesh, castors Mouse Mice Voles Lemming Muskrat Pelt, flesh Hare Hare Flesh, pelt, hair Carnivora Cat Lynx Pelt (12 incisors; 4 largi " Cat {domestic) ,i canines; shearing " Wild cat " premolars) Dog Fox " " Wolf « " Coyote " Weasel Otter " {mustelid'x) " Weasel " " Mink " " Marten « " Fisher « " Wolverene « " Skunk Pelt, oil and galls " Badger Pelt, hair Raccoon Raccoon Pelt, flesh Bear Bear Pelt, flesh Seal Fur-seal Pelt, oil, flesh Hair-seal Pelt, oil 14 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION It is desirable to breed the species producing the most Fur-bearers^ valuable fur rather than those whose fur does not bring such a high price. The sea-otter, the silver fox, the Russian sable and the chinchilla are the precious fur-bearers of modern times. Baby lamb and Alaska seal are among the highest priced furs. Of the above named, Russian sables, Alaska seal, chinchilla and sea-otter are under close season restrictions for several years to permit them to recuperate in numbers. The silver fox and baby lamb are being bred successfully under domestic conditions and the others are being stren- uously experimented with. The Alaska seal may almost be said to be under domestic conditions of breeding as the herd is properly husbanded at the breeding season by United States Government agents. The sea-otter, Avhich probably brings the highest average price of any fur animal on the market and yields the most durable fur known, can hardly be domesticated. Little is known of its history or even of its domestic habits. Its extreme scarcity and remote habitations will probably prevent extensive experiments in domesticating it. The Russian sable is now kept in ranches, but Mr. Vladimir Generosoff, who furnished information and photographs of Russian sable farms and who has done excellent work in Russia for the encouragement of the domestic production of fur, did not state whether they have yet bred in captivity. The best sable skins bring over $500.00 but the majority fetch less than $50.00 each — the price usually depending on the colour — a bluish black being highest priced. They are found in remote parts of Siberia. It is evident that only the Russian authorities can secure a suffi- cient number of excellent wild specimens to conduct a practical experi- ment. In the meantime, in preparation for the time when the Russian sable will be available for breeding in Canada, experiments should be conducted with the Canadian sable, which is very closely related to the Russian and very similar in habit. Because of its ubiquitous character and its fondness for living near human habitations, the silver fox has been subjected to more domesti- cating experiments than any other valuable fur-bearer. When it be- came known that it was simply a pelage colour of the common red fox, experiments were multiplied with the cheaper red foxes to gain experi- ence in breeding the species. The breeding of the fox in captivity is proceeding on an increasingly large scale and no doubt exists now regarding the possibility of domesticating it. A Full-furred Fox December Fur A Full-furred Black Fox, December Fur II. Early Attempts to Domesticate the Fox IT would be futile to record all the early attempts to rear foxes in captivity and note has, therefore, been made of the experiences of only a few breeders at widely separated points. The experimenters, in most cases, were wholly unacquainted with the experience of others. It has been customary for trapper-farmers to keep alive, foxes caught in warm weather until the fur is prime. Thus, young foxes captured in July are kept until December before being killed. The earliest authentic record obtained of producing young from foxes kept in captivity on Prince Edward Island, comes from Tignish, where Benjamin Haywood reared several litters some thirty-five years ago; but they were destroyed by the parent foxes because they were not kept in seclusion and quiet. Doubtless there had been, in earlier years, numerous cases that were as successful as Mr. Haywood's, but it is interesting to record this experiment because he was a near neighbour of the men who finally achieved the greatest success in the commercial fox-breeding industry. Several furriers in Quebec have been connected with breeding experiments. Messrs. Paquet Bros, had a small ranch at one time at St. Joseph-d'Alma near the head of the Saguenay, which they finally sold. Revillon Freres were interested in a ranch on the north shore of the gulf of St. Lawrence a dozen years ago, but finally abandoned the experiment believing that fox raising was destined to faU. Holt, Renfrew & Co. have a ranch near Quebec the foundation stock of which was a litter of silver foxes from a pair of exhibition foxes in their me- nagerie at Montmorency Falls. In Ontario, Rev. George Clark, of St. Catharines, an experienced breeder of pheasants, bred a litter of reds from a pet pair of wild foxes in 1905. Two ranches were started about 1906, near North Sydney, and on the Lingan road near Sydney, N.S., respectively; but, after several years, they failed to maintain the foxes in breeding condition. These were later sold to Bruce, Cummings, McConnell, and others, who have proved to be successful ranchers. Excellent success in breeding the fox has been achieved by Breeders ^^' J^hann Beetz, at Piastre Bale, North shore, gulf of St. Lawrence, and Mr. T. L. Burrowman, of Wyoming, Ontario. The former is the scion of a wealthy Brussels family, and his roving spirit led him to Labrador and Alaska on hunting expeditions. He finally settled at Piastre Bale, about 1898, and attempted fox ranching with a pair of silver foxes brought from Alaska. There were trees at 16 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION several points in the neighbourhood, and at some ten or twelve wooded spots, a hundred or more rods from his dwelling, he kept his pens, having two females and one male at each point. He adopted the system of double mating. Large quantities of salmon, lobsters and game were caught for food for the foxes, while horse-meat was occasionally brought from Quebec city. He augmented his stock with native Quebec wild foxes and conducted feeding experiments with red foxes. Careful selection has improved his strain until they grade dark silver throughout.* Authentic reports state that the late M. Menier, who owned Anti- costi island, attempted to breed foxes there, and set at liberty silver and patched foxes to grade up the colour of the wild fox. Mr. Burrowman is a fur-buyer who, at an early date, ExDerim"nter I'^cognized the possibilities of domesticating fur-bearers. He kept foxes in captivity twenty-two years, but did not successfully rear young to maturity until about ten years ago, because, prior to that time, he kept more than one pair in a single pen. He may be called the father of the Ontario fox-ranching business. The only assistance he obtained was from the late Dr. Robertson of Fox- croft, Me. The placing of the fox-raising industry on a commercial DaltoS *°^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ *° ^^^® efforts of Robert T. Oulton, formerly of Alberton, P.E.I. , but now of Little Shemogue, N.B., and his former partner, Charles Dalton, now of Tignish, P.E.L Dalton began experimenting about 1887, with red foxes, which he kept in a shed at Nail Pond. Later, he bought silver foxes from neighbouring districts and from Anticosti island and continued his experiments with indifferent success for about ten years. During that time, Oulton was also experimenting with foxes, having bought silver foxes at various points in P.E.L, Anticosti and elsewhere, and working somewhat in conjunction with Dalton. All Anticosti foxes were subsequently slaughtered because they did not come up to the requisite standard of quality. One of their chief concerns was keeping prying neighbours from their ranch premises. While Beetz had little difficulty with neighbours, the obtaining of a sufficient food supply was a matter that gave no little trouble. Dalton and Oulton were more fortunate in their food supply as the thickly settled farming country all about them supplied horse-flesh and other cheap meat in abundance. Tallow, corn- meal, fish, oat-meal,flour and butcher's waste were available in plenty and a very small outlay in cash procured a large supply. ♦See memorandum by Mr. J. Beetz, Appendix VIII. F U R - F A R M I N G IN CANADA 17 Oulton pursued his work on Savage Cherry island, or as it is com- monly called, Oulton island, of which he was the sole inhabitant. He managed to impress the public with the necessity of keeping away from his ranch, and his pens, constructed within an outside enclosure a quarter acre in area, were the models for the present system of ranch- ing. Dalton joined interests with Oulton in 1896 or thereabouts, and, together, they used the present forms of wne enclosures which were first constructed by Oulton. In 1898, Dalton built a ranch at Tignish, still retaining a half interest in the Oulton ranch. He bought and sold skins and generally conducted the fur sales for the district. All Oulton's foxes were sold in Dalton's name. Dalton also conducted a general correspondence with the fur trade, and imported stock which proved of value for crossing. Up to this time — 1898 — ^no very high prices were realized for skins. The prices paid for silver f dx were not as high as at the present time and probably did not average more than thirty or forty per cent of present day prices. Moreover, the foxes of those days had not the advantage of good breeding and selection like the foxes of the present time. They were simply captured wild foxes or else, probably, not more than one or two generations removed from the wild state. The first high prices recorded were in London in the year 1899 or 1900 — when it is said about $1,800.00 were paid for a silver fox skin. This price of course gave a new vision to Messrs. Oulton and Dalton who up to this time had been operating with but meagre capital, and the expectation of only moderate prices for their skins. The neighbours of Dalton and Oulton, who were their companions on hunting expeditions in Cascumpeque bay, naturally chafed at not being able to participate in this profitable but carefully guarded fox-farming business. One of the most alert. Captain James Gordon, was able to purchase from Mr. Oulton, in 1898, a pair of silver foxes, which he ranched at the remote and secluded farm of his friend, Robert Tuplin, of Black Banks. It is said that this pair were pur- chased for S340, which demonstrates the value of the fur at that date. In the following spring, high prices were received at the London sales, and Dalton and Oulton attempted to buy back their former stock at a price SIOO.OO higher, but Gordon and Tuplin would not sell. For several years Gordon and Tuplin lost their litters on account of not providing small well-insulated nests for the young, but they finally achieved success with a nest constructed of small barrels within larger ones, the intervening space between being packed with dry, insulating material. To Captain Gordon must be given the credit of inventing the modern form of nest, while Oulton must be credited with designing the form of pen. Frank Tuplin of Summerside obtained the foundation 18 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION stock for his large ranch from his uncle, Robert Tuplin, Other neigh- bours were able to secure stock at various points, and as the years went by purchased from the older ranchmen, an animal or two for crossing. In this manner Silas Rayner, Harry Lewis and John Champion started their ranches. A large number of neighbours secured red and cross foxes and began breeding them for the purpose of per- fecting themselves in the art of rearing the silver foxes which, in after years, they were able to obtain. By the year 1909, a dozen or more farmers in the vicinity of Alberton, P.E.I. , were engaged in fox-farming. Two ranches were in operation near Summerside, P.E.I., several in Maine, two in Ontario and one in Quebec. Selling foundation stock became general in the following year and enhanced prices for breeders soon put a stop to the slaughter of animals for fur, the last sales of pelts being recorded in 1910 of animals slaughtered in 1909. Since that time only the pelts of old, accidentally killed, and diseased animals have been marketed. Most of the early attempts to rear foxes failed because : Causes of Early 1. No good fencing material, such as the woven wire Failure used at the present time, was available. 2. Warm, dry quarters for the young litters were not pro- vided, the principle of having a small well-insulated nest which would be sufficiently warmed by the mother's body heat not being recognized sufficiently. 3. The monogamous nature of foxes was not recognized and being quartered in one pen in large numbers, the young were kiUed. 4. The price of fur was not high enough to induce breeders to risk large amounts of capital in experiments, and those who had the aptitude for the business usually possessed but little capital. The rising prices of fur in the "nineties," the availability of woven wire fencing material, and the invention of a suitable nest and the persistence of men like Oulton, Gordon, Dalton, Beetz and Burrowman are responsible for the successful methods of ranching evolved. General details of feeding and management are still kept from the public and new ranchmen frequently pay considerable sums of money to older ranch- men for advice which, they, in turn, seek to retail to others. Other experienced ranchmen demand large salaries for their services as care- takers. A large proportion of the newer ranchmen have been less successful than the older and more experienced, for it is obvious that FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 19 the care and feeding of a wild animal in confinement is much more difficult than feeding and attending domestic animals. Yet results have been such that stringency in the money market and failures to rear any young whatsoever in some ranches, does not prevent an increasing enthusiasm for investment in the industry. The price of a pair of five months' old silver fox pups of the best Prince Edward Island stock has risen as follows: September, 1909 S3,000. September, 1910 4,000 September, 1911 6,000 September, 1912 10,000 September, 1913 16,000 The price of old, proved breeders is more variable. Usually few are sold as it is considered somewhat unsafe to remove them from the pens in which they have bred. When old stock of proved fecundity are sold they fetch from $25,000 to $35,000 per pair. ill. Manual of Fur'farming COMMON RED FOX THE fox is found on every continent and comprises a number of species. The common red fox, which exists in the greatest num- bers, has a range which "extends across Europe and northern and central Asia to Japan, while, to the south, it embraces northern Africa and Arabia, Persia, Baluchistan and the northwestern districts of India and the Himalayas." In North America, its range extends south to Virginia and includes all Canada (except some northern regions), and the northeasternmost portion of the United States. Its wide geo- graphical range accounts for many distinct local phases or geographical varieties. These phases, or sub-species, differ from one another in form, in size and, to some extent, in colouring; but the differences are often not apparent to the untrained observer. It is easy to distinguish the four species of foxes commonly seen in America, viz., the common red with its white tipped tail, the arctic or polar fox with its short ears and blue or white pelt, the kit-fox with its black tail and small size, and the gray fox with its gray and red colour and erectile hairs down the tail; but it is more difficult to distinguish the sub-species of the common red fox. The popular classification is by colour, as follows: Common Red Fox (Vidpes), found in some districts in several colours, \iz.: Red Fox — AMien red or yellow over sides and back. Silver Fox — When no red is present. Cross or Patch Fox — When the sides and ncrk are red and the ba(k, shoulders and hij-s are silver. .An intermcd'ate between filver ard red. The red, i-i'.ver and cross foxes are not distinct sp, cies and not even distinct breeds. Silver foxes umally breed true to colour, and continued s( lection will insure the distinctive colour rrarkings of each colour ^ ariety. Scientists, of course, follow the universal rule of measuring^the skulls and teeth for classification purposes. The colour is not a consideration with them. Merriam classified the North American red foxes as follows: V. fulvus — Ontario, Quebec, Eastern United States. V. bangsi — Labrador and North shore of gidf of St. Lawrence. V. deletrix — Newfoundland. V. ruhricosa — Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Gaspe, Prince Edward Island.* * As it has been segregated for ages, the Prince Edward Island fox is, possibly, distinct variety. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 21 V. regalis — Manitoba, Dakota, Montana, Alberta. V. macrourus — Wyoming, Nevada. V. abietorum — British Columbia, Alberta, North West Territories. V. alascensis — Alaska, Yukon. V. harrimani — Kadiak islands. V. kenaiensis — Kenai peninsula. V. cascadensis — Washington, Oregon, California. V. mecator — California. Investigation of the debated question of the colour phases Phases ^^ foxes has produced definite information regarding its occurrence. The fact that the cross, silver, black and red colours are all colour phases of the common red fox is of too common knowledge to warrant the citing of the many cases examined for evi- dence. The colours all exist and why they exist may be left to the discussion of biologists, some of whom say that ages ago foxes were originally dark coloured and that the silver is atavistic. It will be more useful in this discussion to describe how the costlier, darker colour is produced from cheaper, red parents. A summary of the facts may be given as follows : 1. Silver parents always produce silver pups — ^never red or cross pups. (See possible exception below.) 2. Red parents mostly produce red, but, occasionally, some cross or patch pups and even a small proportion of silver pups is produced. 3. Usually cross or patch parents produce cross or patch pups. 4. When a silver and a pure red are bred, they produce red pups with blacker markings on the belly, neck and points than the red parent. The pups are about of the colour known to furriers as /bastard'. 5. When a bastard red fox and a silver are mated often the litter is on the average 50 per cent silver and 50 per cent red. 6. Bastard red parents often produce a black or silver pup in a litter — the proportion of silver being about one out of four. 7. The exceptions to the above rules are that sometimes the colours do not segregate, but rather blend, as in roan cattle when red and white hairs are intermixed and not separated into distinct patches. Cross foxes are produced by mating a red and a silver and, sometimes, an intermediate colour is secured in the pups. Thus, in some districts, every combination of the red, white and black colours of foxes is found. There are foxes which are : 22 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION r Red. — Red above and white below, with dark points. Red \ Bastard. — Red above and dark below and on the neck, [ with darker points. Poor Cross. — Mostly red and dark as above with a silver patch down the back and over the shoulders and Cross hips. or -l Good Cross or Rusty Silver. — Slightly red on the sides, Patch neck and ears, dark below and silvery over the back, shoulders and rump. Silver or Light Silver. — Silvery all over, except possibly the neck; dark below and white only on the tip of the tail. Silver Black or Dark Silver. — Black all over, except Silver ■{ the tip of the tail and the silvery hairs on the hips and forehead. Black. — Pure black all over, except the tip of the tail, with, perhaps, dark silvery hairs only discernible on close examination. No two foxes are exactly alike in colour unless they be black. Three silver foxes exammed had no white tips on their tails and others had only a half dozen white hairs — yet the white tip is one of the marks of identification for the species. Others had white patches on the legs or breast, while the rest of the colouring was almost pure black. A silver fox when mated with a pure red usually produces silver pups in two crosses. If the first cross produces all red pups, two methods of breeding may be adopted : (a) A male and a female pup may be crossbred, producing, on the average, one silver pup to three reds. (b) A red pup may be bred to the silver parent, producing, on the average, 50 per cent red pups. It is a more unusual occurrence to secure a blend or intermediate colour from crossing a silver and a red. By breeding the pups for four generations to a silver, the red colour is eliminated from the pelage markings. The segregation of the red and silver colour appears to be very common in many localities, but, in others, the roan or inter- mediate form of colour is produced quite frequently, the parent char- acters blending and the hybrid usually breeding true. In this coimection it will be of interest to quote from a letter dated August 2, 1912, received from Professor W. Bateson of Cambridge FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 23 University, England, a naturalist of high repute and an authority on hair pigmentation. In the early stages of the investigation the usual opinion of naturalists and breeders was accepted and it was thus stated to Professor Bateson that silver parent foxes would produce an occasional red pup. This popular opinion has since been found to be usually incorrect. Professor Bateson's opinion has, therefore, been proved correct in every detail by subsequent development. Professor Bateson says: "At first sight I should suppose silver to be a recessive to red and that it would always breed true. This, however, you say, is not the case. If silvers, really, when mated together, throw reds, there must be some complication which we cannot yet represent. Provisionally, I should doubt the statement until incontrovertible evidence is produced. "I am not perfectly clear what a silver is, but I take it that a silver fox is to a red fox what a silver tabby is to a common tabby, viz., the same thing devoid of the red or yellow element. It may be difficult to disentangle the relations of the colour when there is a series of gradational forms* and, in the first instance, I should try to get a family in which the distinction between the reds and the silvers was sharp. Then I should breed the silvers together — brother and sister if need be. "From what you say, I infer that two silvers of opposite sexes cannot be gotten to start from. That being so, you must mate together the silvers produced which you will raise from the reds produced by mating red and silver — if only reds come. But, if silvers come, then mate them together or back with the silver parent. "Apart from the great practical difficulties which there are in breeding foxes in domestication, I think you will easily fix a strain of silvers." Professor Bateson outlined perfectly the fox-breeding experiences of ranchers. Those who have spent their time working with grad- ational forms like the cross or patched foxes do not know what they will get until mating tests are made. Those who have chosen two distinct colour types are able to breed out to the pure recessive type in two generations. * Such as cross foxes. 24 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Dr. Eugene Davenport makes an explanation of the 5!f*Hybrids^^ action of Mendel's Law of Hybrids that wiU prove instructive to many breeders. He says: "When diverse characters are thus brought together two very different results may follow. They may blend into a single new character, in which case our figures show the proportions within the blood, or they may remain distinct as two independent characters within the same individual. Stature and size as well as many colours blend freely, but not all characters behave in that simple way. For example, white and black blend freely in the human race, and the offspring of white and negro are mulat- toes of various shades, according to the respective infusions; but colours do not blend in pigs, which are either black, white, or spotted, never roan or mulatto. Some colours blend in horses (roan) ; some do not. Some breeds of cattle have blended colours (Shorthorns); in others, the colours remain distinct (Holstein- Friesian.) "And so with characters generally. Many will blend and many others will not. When they will not blend, then the appear- ance is still less a guide to the real hereditary qualities, and under these circumstances it is little or no index to what will happen when the mixture is bred. This fact was long a great stumbling- block to breeders, involving the business of improvement in unfortunate and as we now know, unnecessary mystery." Silver Colour Suppose that a breeder has a silver fox, which, being Reces^sVv^to I'^cessive, always breeds true, and he chooses a pure Red type of red fox for a mate, being careful in order to secure pureness of type to obtain the red fox from a district where no melanism exists. Let the red fox be denoted by R. R. and the black or silver fox by B. B. (As to results, the sexes are equal in influence.) R.R. + B.B. 1 R.B (red) 1 R.B (red) (red) 1 R.B (red) All pups are red, but of the bastard type mentioned above, with blacker points, — legs, muzzles and ears. They are really half black, but the colour is hidden or recessive in the first generation, red being dominant. Liibrarr 1. A Red Fox Two Months Old, Showing a Dark Line of Blood 2. A Cross Fox, Red on Sides, Neck and Ears, September Fur 3. A Dark Silver Fox with a White Patch on His Breast 4. A Black Female in October FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 25 There are now two methods by which he can proceed to secure the black colour or pure B.B. When diverse colours are mated in foxes the hybrid sometimes only, has the proportions within the blood and does not demonstrate its parentage by its colour until the second generation. When the crossing acts thus it is said to follow Mendel's law of hybrids. But often the result is a blend giving a hybrid which has a proportion of silver fur, i. e. a cross or patch fox. And it is not strange that foxes in different districts breed thus for colour, as there are various examples of the same phenomenon in different breeds of animals. Holstein cattle segregate the colours; Shorthorns blend in some cases. First method: R.B. + R.B. I i I i R.R. R.B. R.B. B.B. (pure red) (red) (red) (pure silver or black) Results: One-quarter of the litter is pure red One-half of the litter is red of the bastard type One-quarter of the Htter is black or silver Second method: R.B. + B.B. 1 R.B. b.'b. 1 B.B. (red) (pure silver (pure silver (or black) or black) I R.B. (red) Results: One-half of the litter is red of the bastard type One-half of the litter is pure black or silver Thus, it may be concluded that, in a district where melanism occurs, or where black and cross foxes occur, or either, there are very few foxes bred pure as to colour. If the unit of union be regarded as of gametes which are produced by each parent in the proportion of its ancestors — red and silver — the results may be forecasted by a simple mathematical calculation, the law of probabilities governing the mating of the gametes. R.R. + B.B. Red parent producing Black parent producing only red gametes only black Jill R.B. R.B. R.B. R.B. (red, bastard (red, bastard (red, bastard (red, bastard type) type) type) type) 26 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION R.B. Producing half red and half black gametes + R.B. Producing half red and half black gametes 1 1 R.B. R.B. R.B. Producing half red and half black gametes 1 R.B. + 1 B.B. B.B. Producing only black gametes 1 1 R.B. R.B. 1 B.B. 1 B.B. It will be noticed that when the black colour (B.B) appears the animal is always pure, while, R.R. is pure red and R.B. is also red with darker points. It is well to bring out clearly the average results to be expected, as considerable speculation is indulged in as to whether or not certain foxes when bred to a silver will produce some silver pups. As much as $500.00 each has been paid for red pups that have one silver parent, because it is expected that, if the pup is mated to a silver, the result- ing litter will be composed of silver and red foxes in about equal numbers. The hopes are realized in most instances; but many chances of securing silver pups are lost because the breeder gets only red pups the first generation and becomes discouraged. There is a wide-spread belief that the silver descend- Rearing Sil^r ^^^^ ^^ ^.^^ foxes are rusty black in colour and are Foxes from Keas •' not as pure a type as those bred pure for generations in the fox ranches. Professor W. E. Castle, of Harvard University, says that only experiments will prove what quality will be obtained in the silver young of a red parent.* The results noted in this investi- * Professor Castle, replying to an inquiry, says: " The several facts stated in your letter of November 14th, 1912, which I assume you have sufficiently verified, show clearly that black (or silver) coat character in foxes is a MendeUan recessive in relation to the common red coat and may be recovered in the second generation from a cross with red. WTiether it would be improved or deteriorated as a consequence, experiment alone could show. I should think that the 'patch' or 'cross' foxes occasionally obtained in the Fj generation might be well worth experimenting with, as indicating in that particular strain a tendency for the dominance to be reversed. If this tendency could be strengthened by judicious selection, a more potent strain of silvers might result. If, by this means, a strain potent enough to dominate F, could be secured, it is evident that silver foxes could be produced much more readily." FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 27 gation indicate that some of the best skins ever produced are those of silvers having a red parent. There was difficulty in obtaining inform- ation on this important point, as breeders were extremely reticent in giving information concerning their experiences in cross-breeding with reds, because of a great prejudice against such breeding on Prince Edward Island. The prejudice, no doubt, results from an ignorance of Mendelian principles in segregating types. It is interesting to note that Rev. George Clark, of St. Catharines, Ont., has in his possession a black dog fox obtained from near York Factory, Hudson bay, which, he asserts, has sired none but silver pups, when mated with any vixen. Of course, the five or six litters sired by one dog does not provide sufficient data from which to form a general conclusion. It may be that many of the six thousand or more red foxes kept in captivity will yet be crossed so as to produce a pro- portion of silver stock. As the red foxes were generally purchased from districts which produce very ordinary pelts, it is quite probable that, in many cases, the resulting silver will not be of good quality. The climatic conditions of Canada, however, which are very favour- able to the production of good pelts, may improve exotic sub-species. If a prepotent race of silver foxes can be developed which will produce silver young by mating to red, thus reversing the supposed dominance of the red colour, the silver colour could be more readily pro- duced; but the red colour would appear in the second generation. No record of such behaviour, other than the case mentioned above, was obtained, so that it is probable that breeders cannot get possession of prime silver foxes by breeding them from red ones other than by the usual method of mating a silver male of polygamic tendencies with red females. Breeders are generally better pleased if cross foxes are as*Breeders^ produced the first generation; but, as a rule, if cross foxes are bred out, the tendency to produce an occasional red pup will never be wholly eliminated. Having cross foxes in the ancestry of silver foxes means that a proportion of red gametes are thrown and, at any time, a red fox may appear among the other silvers in a litter. Some cases of red or cross pups bred out of silver parents were recorded, but general experience, together with some evidence produced, favours the opinion that the parent foxes were animals captured in the wilds and probably had cross or patch parentage. It may be declared generally, that the silver colour is easily fixed and will practically always breed true after one or two generations of silver colour. Silver foxes can be produced of good silver colour by top-crossing cross foxes with silver for several generations and, if the 28 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION silver foxes used in the crossing had ancestors of cross foxes, the pro- bability is that a proportion of red, bastard, and cross foxes would appear among their oflfspring. All evidence tends to show, however, that very few, if any, with red colour on them are produced, and it clearly demonstrates that the blackness of foxes can be made prac- tically permanent by top-crossing to silvers. After mixing red, cross and silver foxes for several generations, it is practically impossible to estimate the kind of pups that will come. Litters were seen that had red pups, cross pups and silver pups in them. Beyond a doubt, the finest foxes in captivity at the Furred Foxes pi'esent time are the descendants of foxes captured in Prince Edward Island. The best foxes, therefore, belong to the geographical species, vulpes ruhricosa; or, what is affirmed — and is not impossible — the Prince Edward Island fox, because it has been cut off from the mainland, is a distinct sub-species or geo- graphical race. No cranial and other measurements have yet been secured. If scientists admit the fact of its difference from the main- land species, a new name vulpes abegweit, could be chosen — ^Abegweit being the Micmac Indian name for Prince Edward Island. As London sales show that silver and red foxes from Prince Edward Island have been sold for the highest prices, the evidence seems to bear out the assumption of its superiority. Red foxes have, in some cases, sold for 80 shillings. Twenty-three red fox skins from Prince Edward Island, marketed in London in 1910, by one man, were sold for £68 sterling, or an average of $14.39 each. Other vendors claimed to have received as much as 88 shillings each, but no documentary proof was produced. When black colour phases of such animals are captured, they are usually of excellent quality in fineness and colour of coat. As a general rule, the ancestors of the highest priced foxes were dug out of dens, situated on Prince Edward Island. One instance of the capturing of wild foxes may be quoted, as the silver blood procured on this occasion flows strong in the highest priced animals of the present time. Two residents of Bedeque, P.E.I. , had seen a red vixen in that locality, and it was reported one winter that a silver fox was seen running with her. The following July (1900), Louis Holland and Louis Spence found the den and proceeded to dig the young foxes out. They found four blacks and three reds, which they sold to Charles Dalton for $300.00. Many other instances show that litters frequently occur in nature as described above — half of the litter silver and half of it red. One red female ranched in Nova Scotia and mated to a silver fox has produced F U R - F A R M I N G IN CANADA 29 fourteen pups in the years 1910, 1911 and 1912. Seven of the pups are red and seven silver. Most of the fox-breeders in other provinces have sold silver and dark silver stock to Prince Edward Island, where the demand has been greatest. Probably in all the dozen or more ranches in Ontario there are not three score silver foxes. The stock kept is bastard and cross foxes that produce litters with a proportion of silver pups. As their experience in selling fur has not led them to believe the present high prices for breeders in the Maritime Provinces were warranted by the pelt value of the animals, the attitude of Ontario ranchers has, in general, been to sell out at the high prices offered. The Best ^^^^ experts who have given special study to Localities for the fauna of Canada say that the red and silver foxes foimd on the Athabaska river and in the Yukon and Alaska are often of great value. These regions should produce a weighty pelt and, if good quality were secured in foundation stock, conditions for fox ranching should be ideal — especially if venison and fish could be easily secured for food. The rapidly rising price of meats may finally necessitate the removal of the fox industry to remote points where cheaper meat can be obtained. Newfoundland and Labrador would provide sites where meat and fish could be cheaply secured and preserved for long periods by inexpensive refrigeration. The foxes of these regions are often of considerable value especially in size and strength though the fur is usually coarse. The cost of feeding a pair of foxes on Prince Edward Island, where the price of the offal and cheaper grades of meat has risen, is about $50.00 a year, cash outlay, in addition to considerable labour in collecting the great variety of foods seemingly required. When the industry finally settles down to the production of pelts for fur, it is probable that founda- tion stock for new ranches will be obtained on Prince Edward Island at high prices and that the fur will be produced on ranches situated at distant and remote points. "Im ort d" ^° account of a lack of sufficient data it is practically "Foreign" Stock ^°^possible to discuss intelligently the vexed question of the relative merits of " imported " and " domestic " stock. As many animals— in fact the large maj ority of the animals caught in the wilds— are of poor quality, they will need to be subjected to methods of rigid selection for many generations to come, if fur of good quality is to be produced. Only a few of the domestic stock are as poorly fui-red as the average wild stock. The chief deficiency noted in fur quality of the domestic stock was in the thin coat of fur. Among 30 COMMISSION .OF CONSERVATION the wild stock the poor colour and the coarseness of fur are notable. There are exceptional individuals of excellent quality among the wild foxes, but none yet examined is the equal of the selected domestic animals in silkiness and sheen of coat. Those who favour the wild class of stock contend that wild foxes are stronger and will produce as good fur as domestic foxes after they have been penned up and fed properly. They argue that the lower average for pelts of wild animals is caused by the fact that they are killed out of season; that they are shot, are poorly skinned and carelessly handled before marketing and are not especially prepared for market like the domestic animals; and that the average price is thus lowered several hundred dollars a skin. The exponents of the domestic stock say that selection practised for eight or ten generations — when at least 50 per cent of the animals have been culled out and slaughtered — has produced a type of animal that will bring upwards of one thousand dollars each or five times as much as the wild animal. There is much to be said on both sides. In our opinion, however, the prime killing of the wild stock after careful fattening would probably increase the value of the pelts 100 per cent but they would still be less than half as valuable as the best grade of selected Island stock. Excel- lent foundation stock, improved through several generations by selection and feeding, has done its work in a fashion similar to the development of our breeds of domestic stock. The owners of selected stock will do well, however, to bear in mind that their animals can be still further improved and that it may require a Labrador, Alaskan, Newfoundland or Hudson Bay fox to grade up their stock in some particular quality. It is not probable, however, that improvement of stock can be effected by importations from Kansas, New Jersey and other southern states. To protect the character and reputation of their established strain of stock, all true fox breeders should discourage the practice of importing southern foxes for speculative purposes merely. When the great success of the Prince Edward Live F*ur-Ve\rers Island fox ranchmen was disclosed several years ago, a general search was made for wild silver fox by trappers and others acquainted with the situation. Until 1912, the business was not generally known. Up to that year, probably a hundred or more foxes had been imported and at least half the Island stock had "imported blood" in them. In the year 1913, hunting for wild silver foxes became a veritable craze. The digging out of dens and nests proceeded throughout summer, and in November, when the trapping season opened, the search was prosecuted with A Mated Pair, Very Dark Silver Male and Half Silver Female, October Fur Pen in the Maple Woods— Sunny in Winter and Shaded in Summer FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 31 greater zeal than ever because trappers hoped to receive larger prices for the live animals than they could obtain for the pelts. The business of the trapper has changed from that of securing pelts to the capturing of the animals alive and the fur buyers of the district have simply trans- formed themselves into live stock salesmen. An estimate of the number of wild animals shipped to Prince Edward Island in 1912 and in 1913 (till November) is as follows : Year Red Fox Cross Fox Silver Fox Mink Skunk Marten Polar Fox Beaver Fisher Russian Sable 1912 1913 500 1000 100 250 20 50 50 250 20 50 2 20 30 30 5 8 3 3 2 Inasmuch as Prince Edward Island protested against the importa- tion of foreign stock in July 1913 and induced the Federal government to establish a quarantine on all importations, many animals imported to Eastern Canada remained in New Bnmswick and Nova Scotia. Probably more " imported " stock is held there than on the Island. RANCHING PRACTICE While it is legal to keep fur-bearers in captivity in those provinces in Canada where there is no close season provided for them, it is unlaw- ful in most provinces to keep protected fur-bearers during the close season. In the close season, in all provinces except Prince Edward Island, it is also unlawful to catch fur-bearers for ranching purposes. Apparently it is lawful in Saskatchewan and Quebec to hold the animals during the close season, provided, they have been caught in the open season, or brought from a point outside the province. In all the other provinces, no ranching can be legally done without a permit from the provincial department charged with the care of game and fur-bearing animals. The various provincial authorities should encourage fur-farming by amending their game laws so as to allow the issue to residents of permits to catch fur-bearers at any season and to hold them in cap- tivity for breeding purposes. Requiring annual returns of production would prevent any abuse of this privilege. If foundation stock of excellent quality has been secured, the^Ran^h ^^® ^^^^ most important question to be considered is the selection of a site for the ranch where the quality of the stock can be maintained from generation to generation. Climatic 32 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATIOX influences are largely responsible for the value of the coat of fur. If an abundance of good food can be secured, an animal produces the heaviest coat where the climate is coldest. Humidity of atmosphere must also be considered. Poland* says that open waters, such as lakes and seas, render the fur thicker, probably owing to the high percentage of humidity in the atmosphere. Exposed sea coasts and exposed prairies, he says, render fur coarse, while woods and forests cause it to be finer. For instance, the timber or forest wolves have finer fur than those living on the exposed prairie. Mr. Wesley Frost, United States consul at Charlottetown, in a report to his government, Sep- tember, 1912, says: "The temperature and humidity on the island [Prince Edward] are a happy mean between the intense cold and the moist, dull weather of Newfoundland, Labrador and Alaska, and the warmer, drier weather of regions farther south. The far northern furs are said to be coarse and shaggy, while the furs produced in the northern states of our own country are light and thin." It is also said that the absence of limestone in Priace Edward Island and West- morland county. New Brunswick, gives a perfect soil for foxes to burrow in and is beneficial to the fur covering. As some excellent foxes do not burrow, the ranchers carefully stopping up the holes whenever a start is made, there cannot be much ground for this assumption. The following is a summary of the best conditions for fox-ranch- ing operations : 1. Foxes should be ranched in woodland areas with good drainage in a climate cold enough to produce a heavy fur and overhair and which is cool iu summer. 2. The value of the pelt depends on good health as well as on climatic conditions. Wholesome, varied food is a necessary condition for health and can be best secured in a thickly-settled rural district. 3. Foundation stock should be the best obtainable. The best foxes are those in captivity in ranches, and they have the additional advantage of being half-domesticated. There are some advantages to be gained by conducting extensive ranching operations in one locality, particularly because breeding animals may be easily exchanged and the dangers of close, or in-breed- ing, prevented. Neighbours can also impart to one another more freely what their experience has taught them. These advantages, however, may be offset by the difficulties of securing food for the foxes. In every rural township there is enough cheap meat and offal to supply *Fur-Bearing Animals in Nature and Commerce, p. xvi. By Henry Poland, F.Z.S. FOX-FARMING IN CANADA flesh diet to scores of foxes, but not to hundreds. ^Several hundred foxes, therefore, ui one neighbourhood, would necessitate the purchase of costly meat. An ordinary farm has enough waste meat scrap, dripping, bread, biscuits and game to support several animals. A wooded area, not subject to flooding, and where the si 16^°°**^*°** snow does not pile up in deep drifts in winter, is best adapted for the site of the ranch. The subsoil should be a hardpan to prevent deep burrowing and escape under the fences. Areas which produce a growth of birch, spruce, fir and cedar, with heath plants and blueberries in the open areas, have usually a good turfy cover and a hardpan subsoil near the surface. In such a situa- tion it is easy to erect pens as the fences have only to be extended down to hardpan to prevent the foxes from burrowing under and escaping. A sandy soil and subsoil, on the other hand, while provid- ing good dramage, entails an additional expense, as foxes can burrow to depths of six feet or more. A family of foxes working one behind the other will relay earth out of a sandy hole in a veritable shower. In ordinary loam, the fence is not considered safe unless it extends down a depth of over three feet or is founded on a subsoil of considerable hardness. Proximity to the dwelling of the keeper is also an important con- sideration. This is usually accomplished by building the ranch in a woodland lot a few hundred yards distant from the house, or, if the ranch is a considerable distance from the owner's dwelling, by buildmg a house for the keeper. It is not advisable to keep fox pens nearer than ten rods to a dwelling as, particularly during muggy weather, the peculiar and somewhat disagreeable 'foxy' smell is strong and unpleasant. The advantages of a large woodland ranch may be summed up as follows : 1. The outer fence and bush cover protect the foxes from curious sightseers, dogs, cattle and thieves, and give them a sense of being hidden from enemies. 2. The bush cover is especially valuable for nervous foxes to hide in and to provide shade for the fur. They will also sleep contentedly all day under a bush, where it is more healthful than in a nest or a burrow. 3. The outer fence is an additional insurance against escape to the woods. If a fox escapes from the paddock, he can be easily caught in the outer enclosure, or, if the door is left open, he may, of his own accord, go back to his pen at feeding time. 3 34 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION 4. Tlie snow does not pile in drifts, but lies level, on wooded areas. Huge drifts necessitate higher fences, or weiring over, to prevent escape. Fences do not need to be more than six or seven feet high if the snow never lies more than one or two feet deep. 5. A ranch in the woods has more equable climatic condi- tions. It is cooler in summer, less windy in winter, and is warmer for young foxes in the spring. There is less thawing and freezing up of snow to injure the fur. It also affords protection from rain and sleet. 6. The foxes can hide from thieves and could not be captured b}^ a stranger unless the house were broken into when they were shut in their nest. So much noise, however, would be sure to rouse the dog and the watchman. 7. The outer enclosure permits of protective measures being taken. The keeper sleeps in a house there. Dogs are kept chained. Traps for thieves are laid, as, e.g., bear traps, burglar alarms, elec- tric shocking devices; and some ranches are lighted with lanterns or electric lights and are equipped with telephones. 8. Large ranches seem to be more successful than smaller ones, because foxes in contiguous pens are company for each other. If a wood-lot is not available, the ranch may be built Chosen^ ^^ ^^ cleared ground and quick-growing trees planted. The Carolina poplar, soft maple, Manitoba maple {Acer negundo) , black locust and willow are among the fastest growers. One rancher living in an Ontario cit}^ in a grape-growing district has planted grapes vines about the paddocks and will train them over his pens. The predilection of the fox for grapes is well known since the time of .^sop, but life in a vineyard may not be more beneficial to reynard's health than life elsewhere. The vines provide a dense shade in summer no shelter in winter, fresh fruit in season, and exercise in securing food. The whole ranch is surrounded by a concrete wall. Such a ranch is impossible in a district where there is a heavier sno'wfall. The lack of ventilation through the pens is objectionable and the cost is considerable. It shows, however, that an experienced breeder can establish the industry on city lots in a populous neighbourhood. Sometimes an orchard serves as a suitable situation for a ranch. For instance, Mr. T. L. Burro wman, of Wyoming, Ont., has placed his pens in a four-acre orchard, the foxes being kept out of the trees by trunk shields. Barnyards, open fields about the houses, hill-tops where snow drifts off and many other situations are frequently chosen, but the Detail of Fence Construction with Sheet Iron OF Fence Construction. Many Breeders Prefer Surrounding each Pen kN Alley FOX-FARMING IN CANADA 35 ranchman, as a rule, regards such sites as temporary only. They usually contemplate larger ranching operations on better sites when sufficient capital can be raised. Sometimes a small island has been chosen as a site for as"a She ^ I'anch. When such is the case, visitors can be kept out of the vicinity more easily. Also a fox that has escaped is not apt to swim to the mainland away from the place where he has been fed. Prince Edward Island has an advantage over mainland areas as a ranching centre because a fox that has escaped can usually be traced and captured, whereas on the mainland, he could roam for hundreds of miles and get into uninhabited territory. When the site of the ranch is chosen, the bush surround- Fencfn^" ing the selected area is cleared for a width of four feet and the ground levelled for the erection of an exterior fence. The trees are trimmed or cut so that foxes may not climb over the fence by means of them. Post-holes three to four feet deep, depending on the depth the frost penetrates, are dug from 10 to 16 feet apart, cedar posts being used if it is possible to secure them. If cedar, locust or other durable wood cannot be obtained, the ground end of the post may be charred or treated with hot petro- leum or creosote to render it more lasting. Posts from 10 to 15 feet long are used according to the usual snowfall of the locality and should be sharpened at the end to prevent heaving by the frost. A post four inches in diameter at the small end and 12 feet long will cost from 30 cents in some districts, up to 75 cents in others. The corner posts need not be anchored when a purline is used. The latter is made of one-inch boards, five inches wide, or of straight poles. These are nailed to the posts to brace them and support the meshed wire on the upper side. They also support the overhang wire. The overhang wire is usually from 18 to 24 inches wide and is laid on brackets nailed at right angles to the posts and purline and then stapled to them. It is usually made of No. 16 galvanized wire having a two-inch mesh. The fence is composed of two-inch diamond meshed wire fas- tened to the purline with staples and hung on the outside of the post. If several rolls of wire are used, the selvedges are laced with a soft No. 16 wire. No. 16 galvanized wire is strong enough for the upper part of the fence and No. 15 for the lower part and No. 14 for the under- ground part of the fence. The wire is stretched at each corner with second class levers passed through the meshes, the post being used as a fulcrum. All corner posts must be perpendicular and when the 36 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATIOX whole area is not perfectly level, care must be taken to pleat the wire or gore it when a -change from one level to another is made; otherwise it 'buckles.' This occurs at corner posts on sloping land, and at changes of slope in the fence. The exterior fence is frequently built of boards 6 feet, or even 10 feet, high. The upper four feet are usually of wire with an overhang to prevent the foxes from escaping. On the ground, inside, is a carpet wire 30 inches wide, made of No. 14 wire having a two-inch mesh. It is laid on the ground and laced to the selvedge of the fence at the ground level, or stapled, if the fence is of boards. The other selvedge of the carpet wire is stapled to stakes driven in the ground. As a fox almost always begins to burrow close to the fence, the carpet wire will prevent him from burrowing under it. The most durable wire yet used has been imported from Used Great Britain. It is specially woven with an extra twist, and has a selvedge of three wires on the ends as well as the sides. In the smaller sizes a triple turn is made. The galvaniz- ing, which is done after weaving, practically solders the joints. It comes in bales of 150 feet length and is of various widths. The best wire will last only from eight to twelve years underground. Figures submitted by a hardware firm which has made a specialty of handling wire netting for ranches, prove that they alone, sold wire enough to build more than sixty miles of fox-proof fence. The following table shows the comparative cost of the various meshed wires manufactured. The Canadian price can be determined by discounting the list price for all sizes under gauge No. 14 by about 15 per cent. On account of a lower rate of duty, the list price of gauge No. 14 and larger gauges may be discounted by about 22 per cent. FOX-FARMING IN CANADA 37 The following list gives the prevailing prices of British-made diamond mesh ranch wire. They are from 10 to 20 per cent lower than the prices of ranch wire of United States manufacture : Price List of R.4.nch Wire V^idth Mesh Gauge No. Price per 150 lineal feet 18 2 16 $ 2.65 24 2 16 3.50 30 2 16 4.25 36 2 16 4.85 48 2 16 6.40 60 2 16 8.00 72 2 16 9.65 36 2 15 6.10 48 2 15 8.15 60 2 15 10.15 24 2 5.20 30 2 6.20 36 2 7.25 48 2 9.40 60 2 11.85 36 8.50 48 11.00 72 16.50 24 16 7.25 36 16 10.25 3 «-o "H*:^ ^ ar^ C- a Cs 3 iCiOt^ClOiOCOOOO 1— ieOXiX)0-*000'^'.OCOt^O'*»Oi©GO'-H-Ct^CC'*iOI^ t^OOO»0 0'*GOOCOC0'-iO COt^«D(MO'*SO't(N«OCOOO^CCT}. o •^ »o CO 05 c^ Tt* lO t^ Oi CO Tt< lO '^ :o re Lt -o 0003(NCCI^O»CCOOO'*-Cl COOOOTtCC^(NfO'4* »0(£iOOCCi^0«D(NCOCC»0.-H(NCO^^(N(NCO CCiHiCC^CCTf^C^iMCC^INIMCCTt*. C5 (N .-I rH (N M "o £ IK « CO o-r (33— .-r; CSQOt^CD'O-^O^OCt^COiCOOOI^O'-O-^OOt^CO'-'lTfi O C-l -H r-H 1 cc t- 05 oa -T^ t^ CO t^ oo -^ re iOCDOOO'^00'*'*f-0>'-i^^COQOCrj' Tt< lO t^ C35 . cot^ocorfo.ocor^cscO'^Ti'tot^ C(MC<)e^CCTh O ■* t- IM O IC "O -T}4 t^ lO CO O — HOO'-iOOiQi-HOOO'-HiCfOO (M (M fO >0 CD QO CJ IM CO T)H lO ^ Ol (N CO '^ »0 .-i (N (m' CO "^ 05»Ci(NlMC^Q0t^Ol^Tt<(N>O00C005Tj<(MiClC0rH00C0 »-i * >^ CO r-t (N M CO "+ -H — ( c^ c^i CO '^^ -H ^" c^i m' CO '2 l^ t! °'' "^ ^ "* ^ "^ "* "^ <^' f^ "^ ^ '^ f^ CM CO C2 03 rf iOO5iO(NrHCOCOCO^t^C0(M'*00COt^C0IMTt_ji 1 A '•'^ ^'K? J -%., ui — r-o 1 m A. J— ■n-sg-o 1 ''.:^ ^ Q b ^ '^^' 1 r- F ^ Q- fc- 1 r I-— I o ■- ' ^3 # ei^' Alley % ^ 4^ [-k-^>i ¥3fi V9-'A <* S' *^c3 ' :: a □ a a a a o a a a a a I n o : THE BEST TYPE OF FOX RANCH '53 % ^ <^ |5 ^S> ^- -B i3- .^^a^v ;><'::i _^v 4 coirpartir.enrs for • P- ^3^;^ .a- C^ 4^ €^4. "^ -- -^ a x^i:^ ^ -a *^ i A GOOD TYPE OF FOX RANCH FOX-FARMING IN CANADA 45 A perfect fox diet can be secured in the patent dog biscuits. Bi'^uits These are made with various kinds of food content, so that balanced rations can be provided. The biscuit medicines have also been proved excellent, and are easy to administer. It is possible that the manufacture of biscuit with meat or fish fibre will be an industry that will develop contemporaneously with fur-farming. The meat can probably be best preserved in this way and feeding made easier and pleasanter. Broken bone should not be fed lest some of it be ?oTFetding^'*'°°^ swallowed. Bone should be fed, especially to 3-oung foxes, to assist in building up bone and in removing the milk teeth. Some do not feed bony fish, e.g., perch, lest the bones rupture the delicate linings of the throat and intestines. Observation, however, leads to the belief that such injury is not likely to happen, as foxes are dainty feeders, and, unlike dogs, do not devour their food greedily. In addition to bones, growing foxes are fed a quantity of lime-water — about one teaspoonful a day — with their milk. This food gives a substance to the bone and insures stronger limbs. The pregnant mother should also be fed bone broth and limy foods to insure strong limbs for her offspring. Neither of the foxes should be allowed to become too fat for breeding. When the foxes are less than a year old, they can be fed almost as much as they will eat; after they are older, a full diet may make them too fat for good breeding condition. An average size fox should weigh from ten to fifteen pounds. Some feeders stint foxes in food in November and December and January, to get them into breeding condition; others endeavour to keep them normal always. In the mating season, foxes are very active, and fat pork is fed and a full supply of food is given to keep them in condition. Some roll the meat in sand and soil, claiming that soil is nature's medicine for woims. Some feeders throw food into the pen over the fence; others, in order to tame them, try to coax them to receive it from between the meshes of the wire. A skilful feeder can do moie to tame his foxes through feeding them than in any other way. If the food is always delivered at the same place, the tendency will be for the animal to approach nearer and nearer at each feeding. The science of foods is of less importance than a knowledge of the art of feeding. The mother should be well fed on an attractive and strengthen- ing diet for several weeks before the young are born. Milk, eggs and bone broth are good for the purpose . When the young are expected, a large meal is provided, preferably of game, such as a newly-killed 46 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION rabbit; a live hen put into the pen is a standard feed on such on occasion. It is said that a fox which eats the fresh brains and blood will never destroy her young. When the mother appears two or three days after the young- are born she should be fed well several times a day with meat, eggs, fresh new milk, meat broth, well-cooked oatmeal and other appetizing and varied foods, while a supply of clean, wholesome water in a clean trough should be constantly available. Live rabbits and poultry, squirrel and other game may be used to give variety to her ration. Despite the assertions of many experienced breeders Management ^^^^^ feeding is the most difficult of all operations in fox ranching, very little evidence was found to confirm this opinion. Few cases of failure due to bad dieting were noted. It is not difficult to keep foxes alive in captivity and, usually, the cause of nearly every loss can be traced. Occasionally mature foxes die sud- denly and no satisfactory cause of death can be found, even though post-morten examinations have been carefully performed by qualified operators. The proportion of deaths, however, is low, only four being reported in Prince Edward Island in 1912, and a like proportion in 1913 though probably more took place. In most cases, lack of success may be attributed to an inexpe- rienced keeper. When men who have never fed even a horse or cow, attempt to rear foxes, they may keep them alive, and may rear a few young, but the probability of failure is great. The failures are usually made in feeding to maintain good breeding condition, and in the care and feedmg at the critical period of whelping and rearing the young. The keeper's own character and disposition will have much to do with the success with shy and nervous foxes at this period. A good manager is always studying his animals at the breeding season and he carefully notes the dates of mating and whelping. He treats each pair according to their dispositions. In some cases, he separates the male and female before whelping and, in other cases, he leaves them together. He must be observant, resourceful and faithful, for he is dealing with animals which have had only several generations of domestic breeding or possibly none at all. The critical period of each year in breeding foxes is GestJfio^n *^ between the dates January 1 and June 30. At this time, as the wild nature of some of the foxes renders them exceedingly sensitive to strange sights, noises and smells, all ranches are closed to every one but the keepers. All domestic animals are kept at a distance from even the outer fence. Strangers are warned 1. Fox Kittens Two Weeks Old u_,„^ 2 A Three-quarters Black Fox Badly Frightened; No Hiding Cover to Retreat Into 3. Keeping Watch on the Strangers 4. A North Shore (Que.) Fox in August FOX-FARMING IN CANADA 47 not to approach the ranch premises on pain of being fined for trespass. In New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Quebec, laws have been passed making it an offence punishable by a heavy fine to approach near a fur ranch.* The keeper should move cautiously and quietly about the pens when feeding. He should have a post of observation from which he can see the pens and yet not be seen. A dark chamber with a hidden approach and a small window to look through may serve. From this post an experienced breeder can ascertain when mating occurs. At the earliest, whelping will take place fifty days after mating, though it may be fifty-two days, or, in rare instances, fiftj^-three or fifty-four days, especially with the first litter. Fifty-one days is the usual period of gestation. If the keeper plans to remove the male, he should have the the°Maie ^ pens built in such a manner that the male may be shut out (away from the female, though with only a fence or double wired fence intervening) without a suspicion on the part of the foxes of design in such a removal. The action of some breeders in entering the pen and catching the dog with tongs or catching box is universally condemned as very dangerous at this period. If the male is kept close by, he will watch and warn whenever he fears danger and, moreover, he takes an interest in the rearing of the young — frequently carrying his food along the fence, apparently with the intention of giving it to the female and the young. It is not usual for parent foxes to kill the young Excited^Mothers intentionally, but, when they become nervous, they sometimes remove the pups to another place. A mother will frequently become greatly excited and, dashing into her ne.st, will carry out the pups one by one and bury them in the snow or mud. This frequently occurs and is the great fear of ranchers in the spring months. It is difficult to tell what to do in such an emergency, except to see that the foregoing preventive measures are taken. The measures suggested in the following paragraph have been successfully carried out in more than one instance. A crate of chickens or rabbits should be kept near at hand so that if a mother carries her young about, a live chicken or rabbit may be put into the pen to attract her attention and turn her from her im- pulse of hiding the young elsewhere. One breeder says that he stopped one mother with an egg which he threw in front of her from outside the fence when she was carrying out her pups. ^See Appendix VII. 48 COMMISSION OF CONSE RVATIOX Some ranchers, during the whelping season, always keep posted regarding the whereabouts of at least one cat with young kittens. If the mother fox, for any reason, proves to be incapable of rearing her young they are taken from her and reared on the cat until four or five weeks old, when the cat will usually desert them. They are then able to lap milk. Young foxes have been found stiff and cold, but by warming them in hot cotton wool and providing them with a feline wet-nurse, have finally grown to maturity. A nursing bottle and a medicine dropper also might be kept on hand to feed milk. The young are blind for fourteen to eighteen days and do not Breeders l^^^e the nest, but, when they are about four weeks old, they venture out into the pen often in answer to the decoy call of the keeper. They soon learn to lap milk and eat. When less than three months old, the mother weans them and they may go to quarteis of their own. Foxes have only one litter a year, each litter consisting of from one to nine pups. The earliest noted litter came on March 12; the latest, on June 4. No instances are yet recorded of two litters in one year, but it is believed that it may occur Avithin a few years when the animals are more domestic in habit. According to the best authorities, foxes in the wild state are monogamous. In captivity, they are usually paired for life, and in many instances re-mating is said to be impossible. In some cases, however, foxes can be re-mated yearly. Some males wUl mate with several females during the same winter. Two systems of double mating are practised. Under one system, a male and two females of the same litter are given the run of three pens. After mating they are all separated into their respective pens. The other system also requires the use of three pens, the male spending alternate days with each of the two females. When mating is effected in these ways, success is not as certain as with single mating. The fox continues prolific until about ten or eleven years of age. If a pair fail to produce young after the eighth year, they are usually slaughtered. In the majority of cases foxes mate before they are a year old. Some breeders endeavour to mate a young female with a male a year older. Hveiene ^^ serious diseases were observed in foxes on Canadian and ranches. No sick fox was seen, except one that had Diseases produced no overhair and appeared to be in very poor condition generally. It was probably the type known to hunters as the Samson fox. Evidence furnished bv R. E. Hamilton of Grand FOX-FARMING IN CANADA 49 Valley, Ont., who once had one in similar condition in his possession, indicates that the lack of fur and the poor condition is caused by a tape- worm. Mr. Hamilton cured it by administering a violent vermifuge, using a biscuit vermifuge, puppy doses. Writers report that rabies and canker of the ear have been known, but no evidence of these diseases was found during the present investi- gation. Two cases of mange were reported in 1913. The usual remedies applied in the case of dogs seem to be effective wherever used and they are usually put up in a form easy to administer. The following quotation from a letter from Spratt's Patent, Ltd., who manufacture dog biscuits and medicines, contains a number of useful suggestions for the rancher: "In our pamphlet on dog culture, you will find chapters on all the diseases mentioned in your letter. If foxes, also, are subject to these diseases special precautions will have to be taken. Besides being wild animals, we presume they live in artificial or natural earths, and you can readily understand that, when an animal is suffering from ophthalmia, special precautions will have to be taken. "The same applies to mange; otherwise, all the animals will soon contract the disease. "When the animals are from four to six weeks old, they start changing their milk for permanent teeth and bone is a use- ful article to give, as this helps the shedding of the milk teeth. Sometimes, of course, they are so firmly imbedded in the gums that forceps must be used, and should you find an animal's head swelling, we strongly advise you to examine the mouth and re- move the milk, especially the canine, or eye, teeth." Dr. Alexander Ross, of Charlottetown, formerly of Alberton, P.E.I. , who has given much attention to fox diseases and their treat- ment and has acquired a rare experience in treating foxes on the numer- ous ranches situated within his practising territory at Alberton, has written the following article on fox diseases and surgery for this report: "Foxes bred in captivity are more liable to disease than those which roam the wilds. In confinement they are shut off from various foods they seek in the wild state, particularly when they are not well. They are also limited as to exercise, so their muscular tone is usually below par. They often show malformation in the bones of their limbs (rickets) which, I think, is due principally to their food being deficient in bone salts and to restricted exercise. On the whole, however, I have found, in an experience extending over fifteen j^ears, that the colonies of foxes in Prince Edward Island are remarkably free from diseases. 4 50 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION "As young foxes when born have but little fur to protect PupVoxes them from cold, the chief object among breeders was to make the pens warm enough. The provisions for ventilation t^eemed adequate enough for the usual weather conditions that obtain in Prince Edward Island during the time the young foxes remain in their dens. Last April, however, during a period of exceptionally hot weather a number of pups were smothered owing to msufficient ventil- ation. Now, many ranchers have a two-inch pipe leading horizontally from the inner den to the outer kennel. Although it is usually inad- visable to enter the kennel and open the nest about the time of whelping, yet, if the mother runs about the enclosure in an excited manner, the nest should be examined. During the examination the mother fox should be shut out. When the young foxes die, the mother usually eats them, and, as is the case with pigs, the mothers sometimes actually destroy and eat their young. Foxmen assign various reasons for this practice. It may be due to a craving for some ingredient lacking in the food supplied during gestation. The mother often destroys them if she is disturbed and apparently fears she and her young are attacked by enemies, or that her hiding place is discovered. It may also be due to an inverted maternal instinct and is then a vice. This vice is liable to occur in all animals that devour their placenta. When the pups come out of the nest about four weeks after birth and any one of them looks unthrifty it should be caught and examined for vermin. If lice are found, it should be washed with an infusion of quassia chips, made by pouring two quarts of boiling water on a half pound of quassia chips and letting the mixture stand for twelve hours. This infusion is non- poisonous. If fleas are found, the pups should be washed in a creoline bath — (one ounce to a gallon of water). The kennel and the den should also be washed with a stronger creoline solution and the mother should be washed with the infusion of quassia. Sometimes a pup is unthrifty owing to his being abused by the others. He should then be placed in a pen and fed by himself. Diseases of "Quite a few show rickets which is due largely to deficiency Malnutrition, in bone and tissue forming food. In those ranches where ic e s, e c. pj.Qpgj. p^j-g jg taken, very few of them have this disease. Where they are bred simply for quality of fur without due regard to physique, where they are in-bred, and especially when they are not properly fed, they are apt to develop rickets. The disease is characterized by deformities in the bony structures or by lack of growth. The legs are the parts principally affected. The animal cannot stand straight although otherwise it seems active and hardy enough. Ground bone, lime-water or cod liver oil and hypophosphites of lime and soda ad- FOX-FARMING IN CANADA 51 ministered with their food will help to arrest the disease at its beginning. Abundance of fresh air and sunshine should also be provided. "Foxes in confinement are prone to suffer especially from Digestfon ° disorders of digestion due to lack of knowledge in feed- ing them. The following are a number of the more com- mon of the diseases of the digestive organs, together with directions for treating them. : '^Diarrhoea. — Diarihoea is caused by abuse of purgatives, prolonged vegetable diet, feeding too much liver, exposure and specific causes e.g. germs, distemper, etc. Treatment: First ascertain the cause. If severe, give a purge of castor oil with a few drops of spirits of turpentine, followed by 10 to 20 grains of bismuth every two hours till the animal is better. The castor oil dose may be repeated more than once in smaller doses if the diarrhoea persists. At the same time, the food should also receive attention. Meats should be restricted, and mUk, biscuits and eggs given. No food should be left in the feeding-pans more than a few hours and the pans should be scalded out frequently. If the animal seems weak, liberal doses of brandy should be given frequently. If the pups are young, artificial heat must be provided by the use of hot water bottles, or some other efficient means. If the enclosures are dark and damp, they must be removed to a dry, sunny place or indoors. "Constipation. — They do not suffer much from this disease. It can be overcome largely by means of dieting. A dose of cascara acts well, and, when needed, injections of soap suds may be given. The diet should be of a laxative mixture and sloppy. Feed liver. "Inflamation of the bowels. — This is one of the commonest and most fatal diseases that affect the fox. Causes: Improper feeding, unhy- gienic surroundings, worms, irritant poisons, specific agencies, e.g. germs, distemper, etc. The symptoms are, — loss of appetite, diarrhoea, excreta often blood-stained, mucus, fever, listlessness, loss of flesh, coat dr)^, staring eyes, dull, pulse rapid. When the foxes show the above symp- toms a qualified veterinary surgeon should be immediately summoned. A short delay may prove fatal. When a fox is taken in hand early much can be done, but, if the disease has made much headway, it al- most invariably proves fatal. In pups it is apt to cause fits. The young ones will not eat; their coats lose sleekness and they become listless. If not promptly treated, they die quickly. Give castor oil and turpentine and feed judiciously. This can only be done by separating the ill from the well. After death the bowel is found to be dark red or black and gangrenous and, in some sections, a thin bloody fluid is found. As the disease is infectious, the diseased animal should be sep- S2 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION arated from those that are well, and the enclosures should be disinfected. I am of the opinion that nearly all the half grown and fully grown foxes that have died on Prince Edward Island, died from either this disease or from intestinal parasites. "Round Worms. — The commonest round worm is the acaris mar- ginaUi. It is present in a large proportion of foxes. It is a very fre- quent cause of convulsions in puppies and, if abundant, causes obstruction or inflammation of the bowels. In fact, in young foxes, this is the prin- cipal cause of that disease. These worms are from half an inch to several inches in length. They are cream coloured and tapering. Castor oil with a few drops of spirits of turpentine is a good and safe remedy. Santonin in doses of about ^ grain for a pup, given every day or two is also good; no food should be given and the santonine should be followed in three hours with a purge. Areca nut, in two grain doses is also fairly safe to puppies. "It is well to remember that all worm medicines are poisonous and should be followed with a purge. It is claimed that the feeding of mollassine dog biscuits will prevent intestinal parasites. "Tape Worm. — Foxes may be infected with several varieties of tape worm. They come from eating meat or fish infected by the worm in the larval stage. In this respect, they differ from the round worm which grows directly from the egg. There is the marginated tape- worm, the serrated tape worm, the tinea coenuris (larval stage in the brain of the sheep) and tinea cucumerina (larval stage in the hare). These worms are flat and in sections. They vary in length from several inches to several feet. It is rather difficult to rid foxes of these pests and a good veterinary surgeon should be called in. Many drugs have been recommended but they are all dangerous. Doses vary with the condition of the animal. "Sarcoptic and follicular mange, are caused by minute Diseases '^^in^al organisms that invade the skin structure. They can be seen only with a magnifying glass. The sarcoptic mite has an oval body and four pairs of legs while the follicular mite has a lobster-shaped body. The sacroptic mite lives near the surface of the skin and, for this reason, spreads much more rapidly over the animal and is much more easily communicated from one animal to another than the follicular. Sarcoptic mange if allowed to run its course, will, in a short time, denude the animal of hair and the skin becomes thick- ened and spongy. Follicular mange spreads very slowly and occurs in patches, usually about the head and along the back. Sarcoptic mange if taken in hand early, yields to treatment much more readily than follicular mange which can only be eradicated with difficulty. FOX-FARMING IN CANADA 63 "Owing to the highly contagious nature of these diseases, partic- ularly the sarcoptic variety, the animal should be isolated and no communication allowed with healthy animals. The keeper of healthy foxes, if exposed to the disease, should disinfect himself and his clothes. If an animal is badly affected, it should be killed and buried deep in quick-lime or burned. The kennel should be burned and the enclosure left unused for a long time. The treatment of these diseases should not be undertaken by an untrained person. I have seen two cases of sarcoptic mange in foxes; both in a very advanced state. They occured in a batch that were imported into Prince Edward Island. Since the disease was discovered in July, 1913, all foxes, when imported, must remain three weeks in quarantine and be twice inspected more particularly for mange and distemper. "This contagious disease is caused by a vegetable parasite. Ringworm There are two forms: the circular or tonsurate and the honey- comb. Foxes will take this disease from cattle. A circular patch covered with branny scales and stubby hairs, appears over parts infected with the circular form. The name ' honey-comb ' describe the appearance of the other. Keep the fox isolated; anoint the sore with an ointment of oleate of mercury. Painting with tincture of iodine is also good treatment. Ophthalmia "There is a specific or recurrent form of ophthalmia or Inflammation that foxes are subject to and may cause total blindness. ^®^ It usually attacks puppies 6 to 8 weeks old and is not accompanied by any of the signs of distemper. Cold, draughts, dirt, distemper or any irritating substance introduced in the eye may cause ophthalmia. Bathe the eye frequently with a hot saturated solution of boracic acid. Several times daily instil drops of sulphate of zinc solution (4 grs. to the ounce) into the eye. Between the lids insert night and morning, Ung. Hydrarg. ox. Flav, (4 grs. to the ounce lanolin) the size of a split pea. Distemoer "Although no case of this disease has occurred among foxes in Prince Edward Island, it has been reported in other localities among dogs and foxes and has almost decimated them. It is so highly contagious and so fatal that the below note has been added that fox-breeders may detect the initial symptoms and take it in time. Fortunately the quarantine adopted last July will be of the greatest service in excluding it from the colonies of foxes La captivity here. As dogs readily communicate it directly, or indirectly, to foxes they should not be allowed near ranches. The young are more 54 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION easily infected. Feeding utensils, hands and clothing of attendants, bedding, water vessels, contact of diseased with the healthy, wind carrymg dried up discharges, etc., are the usual media of commimica- tion. The preliminary symptoms are dullness, loss of appetite, sneezing, redness and heaviness of the eyes, slight husky cough, vomiting, con- stipation if the animal is young, or diarrhoea. Temperature in vagina or rectum 103°F or 104°F. Following these symptoms is a profuse discharge from the eyes and nose, — first watery, then creamy. The disease may go no further .than this, but it is frequently followed by bronchitis, pneumonia, pleurisy, pericarditis, disordered liver, a fetid breath, and pustular eruption on the belly and the inside of the thighs. These symptoms should be sufficient to indicate the character and gravity of this dreaded disease. "I have met with no case of disease of the respiratory organs. "There have been no epidemics of any kind among the foxes of Prince Edward Island. Now and again, a grown fox has died suddenly. Usually the fox seemed to be quite lively, and in a few hours the keeper found him dead. I performed autopsies on three or four of these and could in no case be certain of the cause of death. In one case, I found some congestion of the lung, which I regarded as post-mortem. In an- other, the gall bladder was abnormally distended. Most of them showed some redness of the alimentary tract. I am of opinion that death was due to some food poisons— ptomaine. In one animal that died there was a jell3^-like fluid between the pelt and the flesh of the hind legs. "When pups are shedding their milk teeth — usually at the age of three months — abscesses are liable to form at the roots of the tusks. The fox then swells around the snout. In such cases the tusks, which are quite loose, should be extracted. Give them large bones to gnaw so they can knock out these teeth. This will usually prevent the formation of these abscesses. "I have had more to do with foxes in a surgical than in a Sureerv medical way. They frequently break their limbs in fighting among themselves or in an effort to escape by climbing their enclosures. These fractures are usually compound and necessitate the amputation of the limb. The flesh is stripped back and the protruding bone is snipped off with bone forceps. The wound is dressed antisep- tically and the flesh is stitched over the bone. The whole part is well dusted with iodoform, and wrapped in gauze bound on with surgeon's adhesive plaster. The fox will not touch the dressing when dusted with iodoform. The operation is simple, no anaesthetic is needed and there is no danger from bleeding, because, as a rule, no arteries have to be tied. In fact, it is dangerous to give an anaesthetic. FOX-FARMING IN CANADA 55 "When the fracture is not compound, the limb may be set in splints of any light wood; maple saplings make good splints. Bind the splint on with adhesive plaster and with rabbit wire; the fur makes sufficient padding for it. Dust with iodoform to keep the fox from tearing the splint off. In winter, care must be taken that the leg does not freeze. "Judicious feeding can only be learned by experience. Feeding"^ ^""^ ^^'^^^ ^"^ ^^'^^^' S^^®^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^'^^^ ^^^'^^^ should be placed in the enclosures at frequent intervals, as the an- imals require something of that nature to keep them health}^ Their kennels should be kept as clean as possible and should be washed out once or twice a year with a hot solution of creolin, two drams to the pint. One breeder dips all his foxes, after the pups are weaned, in a weak solution of creolin to rid them of fleas and other vermin. "In general, it is far better to take good hygienic precautions before the foxes get sick, than to invite disease by permitting them to live in filth in small enclosures." In 1912, vague reports were circulated among the DiSes"^ ^°^ breeders of Prince Edward Island that a contagious pai-asitic disease was being introduced by blue foxes imported from Alaska. A definite warning was furnished the Commis- sion of Conservation by an eminent United States authority that such a dangerous disease exists and would prove fatal to the fox industry if introduced; but few details of the disease were presented. A letter of inquiry was sent to Mr. George M. Bowers, Commissioner of Fisheries, Department of Commerce and Labour, who has charge of the conserva- tion of foxes and seals at certain points in Alaska. The reply under date of November 25, 1912, is as follows: "The Bureau has not been informed of any particular para- sitic disease as existing among the foxes of Alaska. So far as known, fatal disease has been so rare as to be negligible in the con- sideration of fox raising. Improper feeding, accidental poisoning and tuberculosis have been known to cause the death of individual foxes, but nothing in the nature of an epidemic has been reported." Where in the cases reported, two ranches — one in Labrador and the other in Maine — lost all, or nearly all their foxes, it is very probable that the trouble was distemper. Capturing ^^ already stated, the capturing of escaped foxes presents Escaped little difficulty provided they do not get outside the exterior fence. They will often, of their own accord, return through 56 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION the open door after a few hours. Or, in the cases where escape has been over snow banks, they will usually return when hungry. They may be driven into the alleys from the outer enclosure when a temporary fence of meshed wire is stretched across from the pen to the outer fence. They can also be caught in the box traps, or in steel traps which have the jaws wrapped with muslin so that the limbs will not be injured. A live hen or rabbit makes excellent bait. The latter method will often prove effective when the fox has escaped to the woods, as they are likely, especially if ranch-bred, to remain in the vicinity of the ranch. The ownership of an escaped fox is a disputed point. Many people contend that a fox roaming at large is game for anyone, but, if the rancliman can identify the live fox or the skin, he can recover it as his personal property. Ranchmen have given serious study to the question of Id^ntifica^tion "^^^"^ii^g ^or identification. A numbered aluminum tag, which may be seen at a considerable distance, is often fastened into the ear. In some way, however, the fox manages to get it ofif. Marking the teeth by filing or tattooing them is also resorted to, and has, at least, proved practicable. But the disadvantage of not mark- ing the skin is obvious. Tattooing the skin with the owner's number or brand, could be done on the hide where it is least valuable; or, the ear could be marked as with sheep and cattle. The brand could be registered and the skin or the live animal thus identified. If such a method were practised, it would have the additional advantage of being undiscovered by thieves and of rendering it possible to identify the skin on the open market. Branding on the flank is also a possible method. The catching and handling of foxes in their pens pre- Hand/kil^"*^ sent little difficulty. Expert ranchers will catch and handle them without gloves or instruments, but the ordinary rancher provides himself with a pair of tongs the jaws of which will close to a diameter of two and a half inches. The fox is shut into his nest and when the cover is lifted, is grasped about the neck with the tongs. The fox may then be carried away on the arm and the rancher be in no danger of getting bitten. A catching box is also useful. It is made just large enough to admit the fox and has a slide door at each end. When it is placed at the end of the entrance to a house with one slide door opened, the fox may bo driven out of the nest into it. The slide door is closed and the fox is thus trapped in the box. If the catching box be made of stiff wire-mesh sides and top, the fur can be closely examined. In the case of the latter type of construction, how- FOX-FARMING IN CA N A D A 57 ever, the fox might not readily enter it unless a blanket was placed over the box to darken it. The usual method of handling them is with gloved hands and no instruments. When foxes are transported, they are put into a box which is lined with meshed wire so that they cannot escape by gnawing their way out. They can be kept without water or food for days, but are generally fed water biscuits or a bone and are watered, a can being nailed on the in- terior for that purpose. Express companies are obliged to feed them if food is provided. When foxes are brought to their pens for the first time, they should be liberated by making a small opening in the box and holding it up to the entrance of the kennel. They will then enter their nest and, after a minute's inspection, will come out into the pen. By this time, the keeper can be away out of sight, and none, or very few, will attempt to climb the wire or rush against it. If pens are provided with cover and built in secluded woodland, the wildest foxes will not climb the wire if the keeper is competent and no strangers are admitted. No foxes except a few old ones and culls were killed in firFur^"''^ Prince Edward Island for their pelts in 1910, 1911, 1912 or 1913. The pelt of a fox becomes prime in November, but is not as heavy then as in December. They are killed on Prince Edward Island in the last week of December. A fox eight months old is said to have as full and large a skin as an older one. Some breeders, how- ever, disagree with this common opinion and say that one year and eight months is the proper age for killing. The fox when young, has less silver than in the later years and this is an advantage in the present market, silver skins being more common than pure black. It is hardly necessary to remark that no fox should be slaughtered without a careful examination of his coat, and, if it be light and thin and the fox only a pup, he should be spared for a year in order to improve his condition if possible. Considerable care should be taken against injury to the coat dur- ing the months previous to killing. They should not be allowed to lie on damp places and thus have the guard hair frozen into the ground or snow and broken. Smooth, large passage ways should be provided. Fleas or mange or other skin affections or parasites should be prevented as they would induce scratching and thus wear off the hair on the shoulders and hips. It is claimed that heavy feeding of nutritious laxative food like molasses, patent food preparations, boiled barley or oats, will fatten the fox and improve the gloss of its coat. Some of the costliest skins marketed were taken off foxes with one quarter of an inch of fat over 58 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION their ribs. This is contrary to a popular, but incorrect, impression that starving makes the hair longer and improves the coat. Foxes are killed by crushing the chest walls. They are placed on their sides, and the slaughterer places the sole of his foot immediately behind the foreleg and bears down with his full weight. They are also killed by forcing the head back until the neck breaks. There is a danger that the sheen of the overhair — especially the silver hairs — may be somewhat injured with blood and dirt so that clean quarters and methods of killing are essential. The information available indicates that the adoption of some more humane method of killing, such as the use of chloroform or ether, would not injure the fur and, at the same time, be far more merciful. A small padded box with a wad of cotton batting in one of the upper corners upon which chloroform could be dropped from a hole in the corner of the box would be all that would be required. As soon as it is dead, the ani- mal should be removed from the chamber. In the case of such a valuable animal as this, it is not too much to expect of ranchers that they pro- vide one of these inexpensive lethal chambers. Poisons that are available are: cyanide of potassium, prussic acid, strychnine and white arsenic. A very small quantity of cyanide or of prussic acid will kill the fox instantly, but, as these drugs are exces- sively poisonous, it is dangerous to have them in one's possession unless securely locked up. Strychnine and white arsenic do not kill imme- diately, and, if another animal ate the flesh of an animal poisoned by them, it would be poisoned in turn. The cased method of skinning, described elsewhere, is used.* The only difficulty will be with the forelegs and tail. The forelegs become stiff and hard in a short time and should be turned fur side out after a day or two. If the tail bone is not wholly removed in the first at- tempt, the tail may be slit down the under side. The skins are mar- keted fur side out and are sewed up in muslin and packed flat in a box. The condition of the pelt in respect to primeness, proper Silver^Fo^ Skin ^^^^S; skinning, drying and shipping is important. Skins may be blue or unprime; springy, when the hips and shoulders are worn and the hair loose; dirty, shot, chewed, heated, or greasy. In such cases their value is largely decreased. The skin value of the live animal may be judged from the follow- ing standards: Colour. — Glossy black on neck, and wherever no silver hairs are found. The black must be of a bluish cast all over the body ♦See page 119. FOX-FARMING IN CANADA 59 rather than a reddish. The underfur must also be dark- coloured. The fur of silver and black foxes is a dark slate next to the skin. Silver hairs. — Pure silver bands — not white nor very prominent. In the costliest skins there are only a few silver hairs, which are well scattered over the pelt. Flakiness, which is the ap- pearance of whitish silver hairs placed close together in patches, is objectionable. Texture. — Buyers pass judgment on the skins by drawing the hand over the fur. The softest fur is the most valuable. The quality of softness is referred to as ''silkiness". Gloss. — ^The sheen must be evident. It is caused by the perfect health of the animal and the fineness of the hair, as well as by hereditary influences. Woods and humid atmosphere also favour this important quality. Weight. — A good fox skin will weigh at least one pound, the weight usually varying from ten to nineteen ounces. The thick, long fur makes the weight. This is a very important point, as heavy fur is more durable and handsome. Size. — The value of silver fox pelts increases with the size. FINANCIAL ASPECTS The amount of capital required to finance a ranch containing even three or four pairs of foxes, involves the organization of companies or ex- tensive partnerships among people of experience and in a situation suitable for fox ranching. In the autumn of 1912, at least $50,000 was required to build, equip, and stock a ranch in Prince Edward Island with five pairs of first-class stock, and, in 1913, this amount of money would hardly suffice to provide three pairs. Many ranches have been equipped for less money, but either cheaper wild or unselected stock from Newfoundland, western Canada or elsewhere was purchased, or options had been taken at an earlier date on pups for delivery at that time. Because of the keen demand for breeding stock, it has been on Stock customary to sell options for future delivery. Usually the options are taken on the unborn pups, and 10 per cent of the price agreed upon is paid when the options are taken. Time of delivery is made the essence of the contract and, if the rancher has not as many pups as he has sold options for, the orders are filled consecu- tively, i.e., the earliest orders are filled first. In case delivery cannot be made, the agreement provides that the deposit must be returned with 6 per cent interest per annum. In 1913, as in 1912, options were sold on 60 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION more pups than could be delivered because of the unexpectedly small number of young bom. At the present time (December, 1913), many options on 1914 stock at an average price of about SI 2, 000 per pair have been sold. As large ranchers carefully number the options, the holder of the first option has the best chance of securing the choice of pups when the deliveries are made. All over North America, wherever the common red fox is found, agreements are being made with lumbermen, miners, missionaries, fur traders, trappers, government officials and others for future delivery of wild animals captured in their respective districts. The supply of fur will be appreciably diminished by the capture of wild fur-bearers alive, in 1913 and probably in succeeding years. More trappers are working than ever before and practically all of them are seeking to capture live animals. In 1911, 1912 and 1913, all available foxes were sold for Breeding Stock ^^^'e^ders. The first general sales were made in 1910, at prices not far above the fur-value, viz, about $3,000 to $4,000 a pair. In 1911 the price rose to $5,000 a pair, and, about littering time in 1912, one pair was sold for $20,000. This, however, was for a pair of excellent proved breeders, which, a few weeks later, produced five whelps which were sold for $20,000 in August, 1912. By September 1, when the deliveries of stock began, the price was $8,000 a pair for pups and a month later, $11,000, By December, 1912, $12,000 and $13,000 was the ruling price, with few sales. Old proved breeders of good quality were valued during the last months of 1912 at from $18,000 to $35,000 a pair. In September, 1913, prices of pairs of young silver foxes ranged from $12,000 to $17,000 and advanced but slightly imtil December when all exchanges of animals from one ranch to another must cease. Options on deliveries for 1914 were selling at from $10,000 to $12,500 a pair. It can thus be readily understood how highly speculative fox trad- ing is at the present time. The tendency towards inflation is encour- aged and fostered by many of the older breeders. Their optimism is accounted for by the fact that they have become wealthy in the last three years, whereas six or eight years ago, some of them possessed only mortgaged farms and a few foxes. All but three or four have made their fortunes by selling breeding stock and, with the exception of, possibly, $200,000, obtained for pelts, all of the million or more dollars received by ranchers have been made in this way. The present system of buying for future delivery is another Futures indication of the optimism of investors. In December, 1912, many of the unborn pups of 1913 were purchased and partly FOX-FARMING IN CANADA 61 paid for, delivery to be made in the first week of September, 1913. The difference between purchasing futures in foxes and gambling in futures in May wheat or October cotton is more apparent than real. Fox ex- changes were opened at various centres for trading in stocks and futures. Naturally, the rapid rise of such an industry has unsettled Ownership* ^^^® peaceful rural conditions in a country like Prince Edward Island. Farmers are using the credit of their farms to purchase shares in silver foxes, or to buy outright cross foxes, red foxes, blue foxes, minks and any other fur-bearer likely to prove profitable. The banks report a serious withdrawal of deposits and real- ization upon outside investments, while the lawyers of the little town of Summerside, P.E.I., are reported to have recorded about $300,000 in farm mortgages in 1912. A goodly share of the savings banks deposits made by these prosperous islanders has also been withdrawn. Remarking on the great craze for shares of stock in fox ranches and for fox ownership, Wesley Frost, the United States consul at Char- lottetown, wrote to his government in January 1913: "In adjudging the soundness of the present position of the fox industry in Prince Edward Island it should be borne in mind that the community is an intensely conservative one, composed of Scot- tish and English farmers, intelligent and fairly educated, and with a per capita savings deposit figure to compare with almost any portion of the civilized world "It is true that a large number of the foremost citizens of the Island refuse to participate in the fox boom to any degree whatso- ever. Every large sale by one of the big ranches is hailed as an effort to unload before the tide turns. Investment at the present time is regarded as an attractive speculation — ^but with the specula- tive element too conspicuous. Granting nearly all that the fox men say, the sceptics fear that, in the readjustments involved in getting back to the pelt basis, the industry will injure many of its followers." It is maintained by some that the present craze is similar to Con^^ *^^ Belgian hare craze in America and the tulip craze in Europe, both of which collapsed with a heavy slump. It is contended that fox fur is only a poor quality; that silver fox has never been bought in large quantities and that, if production is increased, it ♦Appendix XI of this report gives a list of the fur-fanning companies and licensees operating in each of the provinces. Practically all of the companies named have been incorporated since the beginning of 1912, which shows that the develop- ment of the industry has been decidedly phenomenal. 62 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATIO N will become as cheap as rabbit; that wild foxes do not decrease in num- bers when a country is settled; that investments usually yield from 2 to 10 per cent per annum and that, therefore, the large profits made by fox ranchers during the season of 1912 were abnormal. A smaller propor- tion state that the fox boom was promoted by exaggerated statements respecting the prices received for pelts and by other misrepresentations. They assert that many of the skins marketed have not brought over $50.00 or SI 00.00 each and that a large proportion of the foxes now in captivity is of little more value than red foxes. They also state that the demand for silver fox has been supplied and that the Russian nobUity and some other Europeans are the only ones who will pay a high figure. It is also maintained that skins of ranch-bred foxes have not the gloss and quality of the product of the wilds. On the other hand, it is stated that the supply of valuable wild silver foxes captured is decreasing, that the demand for costly natural furs is rapidly increasing; that only a few hundred silver foxes are in captivity and that there is ample time for readjustment of values before enough are reared to warrant marketing for fur. The fact is also pointed to that the domestication of fur-bearers has been predicted and attempted for centuries and that those who achieved the work are entitled to reward. Furthermore, it is claimed that when fur is so valuable no animals will be sold unless enormous prices are paid; that it is proved that the fur is better in all respects than the wild product and that the best foxes have not yet been sold and will bring higher prices than the present high record, viz. $2,900.00. In addition, the best cus- tomers are millionaires and not the nobility. A general comment is all that can be made on the arguments ad- vanced. Some of the points are discussed elsewhere in this report, nota- bly those respecting the prices obtained for ranch-produced furs as com- pared with the wild, the decline in numbers of the natural wild supply , and the general excellent quality of ranch-bred stock as compared with the wild stock. The increased demand and its causes have already been discussed and little remains to be said on that subject. It is possible that silver fox will become even more fashionable than at present and that the demand will thus be increased, but no one can forecast definitely what fashion will do. It should also be noted that the Russian sable, chin- chilla, sea-otter and seal will be off the market for several years and, on this account, an increased demand for the fur of the silver fox may be created. The imitation of silver fox is also impossible because of the colours of the silver-banded black overhairs. The nearest imitation is the German-dyed pointed fox, made from a common red fox dyed black, FOX-FARMING IN CANADA 63 which has white hairs from the badger or other animals sewed into it or fastened in by adhesives. It is easily distinguished from the silver fox fur and is not favoured except as a medium-priced article. It is not nearly so beautiful as silver fox. The silver band in a genuine skin is not white, but silvery, and the whole skin possesses a gloss not equalled by a dyed product. The dyeing process, also, has the dis- advantage of rendering the fur less durable. With regard to the statement that much of the stock is of poor quality and low-priced, it must be admitted that this is true. While statistics of the low prices obtained for pelts obviously could not be secured, it is quite probable that at least 30 per cent of the silver foxes would bring a price of from S50.00 to $500.00. At the present quo- tations, probably another 30 per cent, would be priced between $500.00 and $1,000.00 and the other 40 per cent would bring from $1,000.00 to $4,000.00* each. The ability to recognize a cheap grade of fur instantly is essential in the present state ol the business as traders represent a silver fox as such regardless of quality; and, usually, only a short and distant examination of the animal is possible. Besides, the sales are made at a season when the fur is not in prime condition. If wild foxes do not decrease when a country is settled, it is not recorded that they increase. The number in unsettled regions, how- ever, is diminishing. Thus far, profits in the industry have been large, but, except from the pomt of view of the individual, the dividend on the money invested is not the main consideration. From the social and economic viewpoint, the discovery of how to breed high-grade foxes is what is important. It is akin to an invention; but, as it cannot be patented, the neighbours of the inventois have become the promoters of a new method of pro- ducing a remarkable commodity. No huge factories can be built m a few months to manufacture the article to the limit of demand; only the natural law of increase of foxes which is not much over 100 per cent per annum can be utHized. Thus, it will be several years before the supply will meet the demand, as it is sure to do eventually. If the investing public can be made to believe that future profits are assured, it is human nature to ask as large a premium on the shares of fox-ranching companies as can be obtained. The stories of the predilection of the nobility of Russia and of other countries for expensive furs like silver fox, sea-otter and sable are mostly drawn from the imagination. The current story that gold IS tipped on silver fox overhair was unknown to any of the furriers interviewed, some of whom have been purchasing furs in Europe and *Inasrnuch as Mr. Jones states (p. 62) that the record price of a skin is $2,900, the upper hmit— $4,000— seems too high.— Ed. 64 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION America for many years. The story of the Royal Russian furs is doubtless derived from the fact that certain sable and other costly furs were formerly given as tribute to royalty. Ermine happens to be a roj'al fur and is demanded at coronations and great court ceremonies, yet it is stated that much of the so-called 'ermine' at the coronation of King George V was really rabbit. The best customers of silver fox will be fashionable ladies who will use it in trimmings, stoles and muffs. Because of the removal of foxes to new ranches in inCapUvity °^*^ September, October and November while this inves- tigation was proceeding, no very exact data could be procured regarding the number of silver foxes. The following is an estimate of the number in captivity in each province in October, 1912: Foxes in Captivity in Canada in 1912 Bastard No. of Silver Cross and Red Ranches P. E. Island 650 150 1,000 200 Nova Scotia 32 30 150 13 New Brunswick 30 10 50 8 Quebec 40 10 50 6 Ontario 30 40 150 14 Other provinces and territories 18 10 50 Total 800 250 1,450 241 The silver fox industry is centred about the following points: Al- berton, Summerside, Charlottetown and Montague in Prince Edward Island; Port Elgin in New Brunswick; Piastre Baie on the north shore of the gulf of St. Lawrence, Quebec city in Quebec, and Wyoming in On- tario. In November, 1913, the number of silver foxes within driving distance of each point was approximately as follows: Alberton, 500; Summerside, 300; Charlottetown, 300; Montague, 50; Murray Harbour, 40; Port Elgin, N.B., 60; Quebec city, 30; Piastre Baie, 20; Wyoming, 20. In the United States there are several ranches in Maine, one in New Hampshire and one in Minnesota. In Russia, a number of fox and sable farms have been established since M. Vladimir Generosoff aroused interest by his re])ort on Canadian fox farms. Since, under present ranching conditions, silver foxes h?Numbers^^ increase in numbers approximately 100 per cent each year, it seems evident that the present prices for founda- tion stock must decline to near the pelt value before many years. The price of the scrub stock and of specimens with the poorer grade of skins will decline first. It is likely that this inferior stock will be used for mating with red and cross foxes which, by the year 1916, should be producing a large number of silvers, mostly of poor quality, however. F O X - F A R M I N G IN CANADA 65 With regard to statements frequently made that silver of silver Fox ^°^ ^^^^ ^® ^^ cheap as rabbit if produced as numerously, the point is not worth discussing, since production will not increase beyond the point where a profit can be made. The Lon- don importation of rabbits is now over 80,000,000 skins annually and Australia uses thousands more weekly in her great felting industries. An attempt was made to secure expert opinions from qualified furriers as to the final value of silver fox pelts when they are produced in as large numbers as those of red foxes are now. The concensus of opinion was that, because of its greater beauty and more favoured colour, silver fox fur would be three times as valuable as red fox, natural black furs not occurring commonly in nature. In this connection, it must be remem- bered that all ranch silver foxes are killed when the fur is prime and no injury whatever is done to the pelt, so that their pelts would be worth from $40.00 to $80.00 each for No. 1 skins, at the present valuation of the pelts of red foxes from Northeast Canada. But it wUl be a long time before the production of silver foxes will approach to the number of even high-grade red foxes marketed yearly. The total number of skins, according to the estimates of E. Brass is 1,337,000 yearly for the common fox. Even if the pelts fell to $30.00, foxes could be raised pro- fitably by a farmer who maintained other live stock. In many districts the annual cash outlay per fox for food need not exceed $5.00, and attend- ing to twenty foxes would not involve so much labour as attending to ten cattle. If fox ranch fences cost more, the land and houses cost much less. The fox, moreover, reproduces rapidly and comes to maturity in eight months. Because the silver fox has never been produced in considerable numbers, it has been impossible for furriers to carry a stock large enough to warrant advertising it and featuring its sale. It has been difficult to obtain even two matched skins at one sale. Under the new conditions, when thousands of skins may come to the market season after season, matching will be easy, and the best fur stores can carry in stock enough silver fox to warrant the featuring of it. An opportunity is now presented to the ranchmen to Among¥roducers ^^^*® ^^*° ^ strong co-operative association to pro- tect and promote the industry. Frauds could be ex- posed, breeding records kept, thieves arrested and prosecuted, legis- lation secured, the product advertised and the whole market situation studied. The publication of inexact and fanciful statements by pro- moters of stock companies is also injurious to the industry's future. The better protection of the stock from thieves could be achieved by 5 66 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION amending the provincial trespass laws so as to increase the fine for trespassing near fox ranch property.* Because of the mixing of various strains of foxes, it is difficult to secure reliable "performance" records of stock. The only "perform- ances" worth noting in foxes are the prices of the pelts of the an- cestors, and such features as fecundity, beauty, size and weight of the pelt. Well-organized provincial associations could keep perform- ance records, and the various provincial organizations could co-oper- ate with the Federal Department of Agriculture for registration. Quarantine is a question that may, at any time, become of prime importance. Thus, if disease breaks out in any district, the Fed- eral Department of Agriculture, if requested by a strong association of breeders, might be induced to undertake a quarantine. The whole problem of the protection of wild animals and the pos- sibility of propagating them in captivity are broad questions that re- quire more attention than has been given them in the past. A Dominion Furriers and Fur-farming Association organized along lines similar to the Canadian Forestry Association, and like the latter, publishing its own jom-nal, could do much to promote a healthy interest in protecting and propagating wild life. The organization of provincial associations would be the first logical step in such a movement. To establish a per- manent national organization, representatives of the fur trade, the fur farms, th^ game wardens and commissioners, and the government experts could be called together. POLAR OR ARCTIC FOX (Vulpes lagopus) The polar fox is found in the high latitudes. It is of two colour phases — ^white, and the so-called blue, which is really a drab gray re- sembling somewhat in colour a maltese cat. The white fox is brown in summer with the under parts lighter or drab. The white winter coat has a pure white long overfur with an underwool of a darker colour. The blue phase is of a gray-brown colour all the year round and is found more abundantly in the southern portion of the range of these foxes. It is said to exist in Greenland and Iceland. The number of blue-fox pelts sold annually is about one-tenth of the number of white-fox, and they sell for several times as much, bringing, at present market prices, from $20 to $75 each, and even higher for choice pelts. *See Appendix VII. Polar Fox (White) Ranched in Russia. This Animal is of the same Species AS THE Blue Fox which is Ranched in Alaska and Canada. The Fox is in Summer Coat Courtesy of V. denerosoff A Russian Red Fox POLARORARCTICFOX 67 A considerable number of blue foxes were imported into Canada during the season of 1912. Possibly a hundred or more were brought into the Maritime Provinces from Alaska, where feeding is now dif- ficult because the killing of seals is not permitted. One consignment numbered thirty-two and arrived in very fair condition. As no increase whatever was obtained from those imported in 1912, not more than 40 or 50 blue foxes had been imported into Prince Edward Island up to December 1, 1913. No authenticated instances of whelps of blue foxes being raised to maturity are recorded. Statements were made that a number of litters had been born, but investigation proved that very few, if any, of the young were seen by the ranchmen and they sim- ply surmised that birth had taken place because of the actions of the vixen. It is difficult to understand why blue foxes have not produced young in the Maritime Provinces. This failure can hardly be ascribed to the removal of the animals to more southern latitudes as, in many instances, common red foxes imported from Alaska have bred in Prince Edward Island. The southern latitudes would hardly affect their fecundity, though it might lessen their fur-value — particularly in weight of fur. The probability is that the facts concerning the feed, care, and general management of blue foxes are not yet known. In Alaska they are rarely, if ever, ranched in pens, but roam wild over the islands. It is probable that those now ranching blue foxes, who have spent considerable time studying their habits in Alaska will succeed in rearing young in the spring of 1914. The blue fox is a better climber than the red and an overhang wire of 36 inches is required. Otherwise, the pens are built similarly to those of the common fox. The following account of blue fox farming is taken from F^J^fng^ "Fur Farming for Profit," published by the Fur News Publishing Co., of New York. "For some years past the blue fox has been successfully raised in rather large numbers on several small islands off the coast of Alaska, and for a shorter period on the mainland. The blue fox thrives and multiplies in captivity, and can be raised with rather more satisfaction than the other members of the fox family, as it is more tractable and easily managed. An island makes an excellent blue fox farm for various reasons: there is no large outlay in cash for fencing; as the is- lands are surrounded by the sea, the water does not freeze over in winter and the foxes cannot leave the farm; no danger is to be appre- hended from the intrusion of other animals; a considerable supply of food may be obtained from the sea, which is to a considerable extent self-supplied; crabs are found along the shore, fish are washed up on 68 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION the l)each from time to time, and other food is found on the islands. While a number of the islands are now occupied by blue fox farmers, there are many more that are available for the purpose, and which can be leased from the United States government on reasonable terms. Farms on the mainland may be enclosed with wire fencing, and need not be larger than 50 feet by 50 feet. For raising the foxes on a larger scale than would be possible in an enclosure of the above-mentioned area, several little farms, adjoining each other, may be fenced off. "Blue foxes breed once a year, mating about February 1, and the young are born near the end of May, the litter comprising from three to seven. Artificial dens or hiding places in which the foxes may re- main secluded at will are provided. "Food for the blue fox includes fresh, dried and cured fish, crabs, fresh meats obtainable in the vicinity of the farms, cooked corn-meal cakes made of a mixture of corn-meal and chopped dried fish, and meal, tallow and fish preserved in oil. "Food should be supplied to the animals most abundantly from the first of July to August, as, at that period, the care of the young foxes makes it necessary for the old foxes to be better fed than at other times. "The price of blue fox skins is about $30.00 each, and even more is paid for well-coloured, full-furred and properly handled pelts. "Stock for beginning may be procured from persons raising blue foxes on the islands at a cost of somewhere near S200.00 per pair. "The Secretary of Commerce and Labor has authority to lease for the purpose of propagating foxes, such islands in the waters of Alaska, excepting the Pribilof group, as have been so leased by the Secretary of the Treasury prior to May, 1898. The rental in the past has been one hundred dollars per annum for each island." The rate of increase of blue foxes is said by Ernest Thompson Iifc^ase Seton to be good index to the increase of red foxes. He says: "St. George island, about 36 square miles, has about 270 pairs of foxes, and although they are fed and protected and the species has 5 to 12 in a litter, not more than 400 to 500 can be marketed each year without reducing the stock." The figures are about cor- rect for the annual increase of the silver fox, despite the claims of some ranchers of an average annual increase of from 200 to 300 per cent. Maj. Gen. A. Greely, in his Handbook of Alaska, published in 1909, writes: "Unwise exploitation has very greatly reduced the fur- Detaiis"^^ bearing productivity of the land animals of the Aleutian islands, as well as of the interior of Alaska. With the early BLUE FOX-FARMING extermination of foxes in prospect, there was organized about 1894 the Semidi Propagation Company, to domesticate and raise foxes on un- inhabited islands. The original fox farm was stocked from the Pribi- lof group and was situated on North Semidi island, whence the in- dustry has extended to thirty or more islands to the eastward, far the greater number being situated in Prince William sound, though there are seven in the Kodiak group. Most of the islands are occupied under lease from the United States, and, under the law, are not open for homesteading. The companies and several individuals have followed this industry, which has been only moderately successful from the financial standpoint. Considerable investment is necessary, it takes at least four years before any revenue is obtained, the life is most isolated, and skins are not very productive, usually varying in value from SIO to $20, according to quality and demand. In some instances natives have become fox breeders and, where private parties are so engaged, they have supplemented their fox breeding by fishing, farm- ing, or lumbering. "The largest fox farm is at Long island, near Kodiak, where there are nearly 1,000 blue foxes. The largest number of skins comes, however, from the Pribilof group, where about 700 foxes are annually taken by the natives, supplementary to the fur-seal catch. These foxes are not domesticated. "The very valuable silver-gray fox is too thoroughly savage to accept conditions necessary for profitable fox breeding and, in conse- quence, fox farming is confined almost entirely to the blue fox. The fox is monogamous, and an average of four foxes come to maturity from each litter. It is necessary to feed them the greater part of the year, and careful supervision is essential to their successful raising. "The blue fox thrives wild on the extreme easterly isle of Attn, and from that point several of the Shumagin islands, Chernabura^ Simeonof, etc., have been stocked with moderate success. The ex- tension and development of this industry is desirable as one of the much needed means to enable the Aleuts the more successfully to meet changed conditions of Alaskan life." 70 C O M M I S S I O X OF C O X S E R V A T I O X Blue Fox Breeders in Alaska'^ Island Locality Name of Breeder Post-office Address Little Xaked. . . Pr. William sound . Walter Story C/o Alaska Packers Assoc, San Fran- cisco, Cal. « „ Olaf Carlson « « Fred Lilyogren James McPherson EUamar, Alaska. Big Naked " " " " « Edward Elk « u Fairmount William Byers u « Blieh " u u