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PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 the Vive orders of architecture, 
 
 AND 
 
 AN ADDITIONAL COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE, 
 
 ELEMENTS AND DETAILS EXPLAINED AND ILLUSTRATED, 
 
 WITH ALL THEIR 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 CARPENTERS AND PRACTICAL MEN. 
 ®PK«> Sfptfi plates. 
 
 Br ASHEr\bENJAMIN, Architect, 
 
 Author of " The American Builder's Companion," " The Rudiments of Architecture," and 
 "The PraVical House Carpenter." 
 
 BOWON: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR AND CARTER, HENDEE &. CO. 
 
 NEW YORK-COLLINS & CO. 
 
 J 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year t*33, 
 
 by Asher Benjamin, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 
 
 £4- 
 
 C L A P P AND HULL PRINTERS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 I have endeavored, in this Treatise, to avoid a defect which is very 
 generally complained of in books of this kind ; that is, a want of parti- 
 cularity in the details, and of a clear, simple explanation of them. In 
 cities, where Architects are always at hand, this deficiency is not so much 
 felt ; since the Carpenters there stand in need of no further knowledge 
 upon the subject, than such as may enable them to put into practice the 
 drawings furnished by the Architect. But in villages, the case is different. 
 Those Carpenters in country villages who aspire to eminence in their busi- 
 ness, having no Architect to consult, are under the necessity of studying 
 the science thoroughly and without a master. To them, therefore, is this 
 book peculiarly adapted ; for it contains the principles of many expensive 
 folios, condensed into a narrow space and applied to modern practice. 
 
 The time has been, within my own recollection, when New England 
 did not contain a single professed Architect. The first individual who laid 
 claim to that character, was Charles Bulfinch, Esq. of this city ; to whose 
 classical taste we are indebted for many fine buildings. The construction 
 of the Franklin Street houses, of which that gentleman was the Architect, 
 gave the first impulse to good taste ; and Architecture, in this part of the 
 country, has advanced with an accelerated progress ever since. But though 
 Architecture has certainly improved, and rapidly, too, within late years, a 
 large proportion of the vast number of buildings which meet the eye, of 
 
 60Jf)H 
 
j v PREFACE. 
 
 all classes and sizes, and constructed for all purposes, are totally destitute 
 of architectural taste. This defect does not arise from parsimony ; for it 
 is not uncommon to see buildings of large dimensions burdened with a pro- 
 fusion of expensive and misplaced finery, which forms anything but ornament. 
 Buildings of this class, which under skilful hands might have become proud 
 monuments of public taste, are mortifying and repulsive objects to those 
 who take an interest in the science of Architecture. 
 
 It has been too prevalent a habit, among those who would not think 
 themselves capable of instructing a Carpenter in the art of planing or sawing 
 boards, or a bricklayer in laying bricks, to undertake the much more difficult 
 task of becoming their own Architects. The consequence is, that such 
 persons proceed to build without any fixed system ; unlooked for difficulties 
 are soon encountered, which lead to expensive alterations, and the harmony 
 of the building is destroyed. Nor is this evil confined to private buildings. 
 The committees selected to superintend our public edifices are apt to cramp 
 the invention of the Architect by their economy, or pervert it by their 
 fancies ; so that specimens of the taste of some member of the committee 
 can usually be discerned by a skilful eye, among our most scientific compo- 
 sitions. But the evil is certainly decreasing. Knowledge of the science is 
 rapidly gaining ground, and the increased attention attracted towards the 
 subject disposes those who have not the necessary information to confide in 
 those who have. 
 
 The principles and practice of the science are developed, in the follow- 
 ing pages, in a detailed and systematic manner. The text is taken from the 
 Grecian system, which is now universally adopted by the first professors of 
 the art, both in Europe and America ; and whose economical plan, and plain 
 massive features, are peculiarly adapted to the republican habits of this country. 
 
PREFACE. v 
 
 I have given examples of each of the five orders of Architecture ; first 
 in the usual way, then repeating their details upon a large scale. There 
 are likewise added a Column and Entablature, selected from the Grecian 
 antiquities, and standing, with regard to expense, between the Tuscan and 
 Doric orders. 
 
 I have also given six examples of Frontispieces and Porticoes, with 
 their details drawn on a large scale. To these are subjoined explanations 
 and practical observations on their proportions and adaptation to the build- 
 ings in which they are to be used : also, a variety of examples of Cornices, 
 for both external and internal finishings, and of Architraves and Base Mould- 
 ings, accurately drawn one half of the full size for practice, and accompanied 
 with practical observations on their size and fitness ; examples of Doors, 
 Windows, and their decorations ; Ornamental Mouldings, Stairs, and Car- 
 pentry ; together with all the elements of Architecture which are necessary 
 to supply the wants of the practical builder. To these are added a complete 
 drawing of a Church, with all its details laid down in imitation of working 
 drawings, with suitable explanations. 
 
 ASHER BENJAMIN. 
 
 Boston, March 19, 1833. 
 
CONTENTS OF PLATES. 
 
 Practical Gkometry Plate I. 
 
 Application of the Conic Section to Grecian Mouldings II. 
 
 Examples, showing how to draw Grecian Mouldings III. 
 
 Examples, showing how to draw Roman Mouldings IV. 
 
 Example of the Tuscan order V. 
 
 Details of the Tuscan order VI. 
 
 Example of a Column and Entablature VII. 
 
 Details of the Column and Entablature VIII. 
 
 Example of the Doric order IX. 
 
 Details of the Doric order X. and XI. 
 
 Example of the Ionic order XII. 
 
 Details of the Ionic order XIII. 
 
 Second example of the Ionic order XI\ . 
 
 Details of the second example of the Ionic order XV . 
 
 Ionic Volute, figured for practice XVI. 
 
 Example of the Ionic Capital, figured for practice XVII. 
 
 Example of the Corinthian order XVIII. 
 
 Example of the Corinthian Capital, figured for practice XIX. 
 
 Details of the Corinthian order XX. 
 
 Example of the Composite order XXI. 
 
 Details of the Composite order XXII. 
 
 Example of the Composite Capital, figured for practice XXIII. 
 
 Examples of Pedestals for four of the orders XXIV. 
 
 Example of a Frontispiece XXV. 
 
 Example of a Frontispiece, with side lights XXVI. 
 
 Details of do XXVII. 
 
 Example of a Frontispiece, with circular head XXVIII. 
 
CONTENTS. vii 
 
 Example of a Frontispiece, with pilasters Plate XXIX. 
 
 Example of an Ionic Portico XXX. 
 
 Details of the Ionic Portico XXXI. 
 
 Example of a Composite Portico XXXII. 
 
 Examples of Cornices for external finishing XXXIII. and XXXIV. 
 
 Examples of Cornices for internal finishing XXXV. and XXXVI. 
 
 Example of Centre pieces XXXVII. 
 
 Example of Architraves XXXVIII. 
 
 Example of Common and Sliding Doors XXXIX and XL. 
 
 Details of Sliding Doors XLI. 
 
 Examples of Sash Frames, Shutters, &.c XLH. and XLIII. 
 
 Examples of Base Mouldings XLIV. 
 
 Examples of Vases, Sur-base Mouldings, &c XLV. 
 
 Examples of Ornamental Mouldings XL VI. 
 
 Examples of Chimney pieces XL VII. and XL VIII. 
 
 Examples of Scrolls, Curtail Step, and Handrailing XLIX. and L. 
 
 Ground Plan of a Church, with some details LI. 
 
 Gallery Plan of the same Church, with details LII. 
 
 Front and side Elevation of the same Church LIII. and LIV. 
 
 Plan of the Ceiling, inverted, with details LV. 
 
 Plan and Elevation of a Pulpit, with details LVI. 
 
 Examples of Carpentry LVH. and LVIII. 
 
 Example of tlie Corinthian order, from the Monument of Lysicrates LIX. 
 
 Examples for Fences, Window Guards, and Frets LX. 
 
 ERRATA.— On page 78, line 14, for " first-mentioned" read " second-mentioned.' 
 " " 17, for " second " read " first." 
 " " 20, for " first " read " second." 
 " " 21, for " latter " read " first." 
 
I trust the following Tables will be found useful to those who are in the habit of making 
 estimates on Iron Work. In my own practice, I have often felt the want of something of the 
 kind. The fractions of an ounce 1 have given n6 further than the first decimal figure, supposing 
 that would be accurate enough for our purpose. 
 
 A Table showing the Weight of a square foot of Cast and Malleable Iron, Copper, and Lead, 
 from one sixteenth to one fourth of an inch thick. 
 
 
 
 CAST IRON, 
 
 
 MALL. IKON. 
 
 COPPER. 
 
 LEAD. 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 oz. 
 
 * 
 
 lbs. oz. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 OZ. 
 
 lbs. OZ. 
 
 One sixteenth of an 
 
 inch thick 
 
 2 
 
 6 T 6 o- 
 
 o 78 
 - 'To 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 3 11 
 
 One eighth 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 13 T % 
 
 
 4 ISA 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 7 6 
 
 Three sixteenths 
 
 a 
 
 . 7 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 ?tV 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 11 1 
 
 One fourtli 
 
 <« 
 
 9 
 
 io& 
 
 
 9 loft 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 14 12 
 
 A Tabic shoiving the Weight of one foot in length of Cast and Malleable Iron, from one half 
 to out inn! one half inch square; also of round Rods, from one half to one and a half 
 inch in diameter. 
 
 One half of an inch 
 
 Five eighths 
 
 Three fourths 
 
 Seven eighths . 
 
 One inch .... 
 
 One and one eighth of an inch 
 
 One and one quarter " 
 
 One and one half " 
 
 CA.ST IRON. 
 
 MALL. IRON. 
 
 ROUND RODS. 
 
 OZ. 
 
 OZ. 
 
 OZ. 
 
 12ft 
 
 13ft, 
 
 10ft 
 
 a 
 
 20ft 
 
 16ft 
 
 29 
 
 29ft 
 
 23ft 
 
 
 40ft 
 
 31& 
 
 . m 
 
 53ft 
 
 41& 
 
 
 67ft 
 
 52ft 
 
 ■ 80ft 
 
 83 
 
 64ft 
 
 116 
 
 1191 
 
 93 fo 
 
 A Table shoiving the Weight of a cubic foot of several Mnds of Timber, and other Materials. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Ash 
 
 47ft 
 
 Coal, Newcastle 
 
 79 3 o 
 ' y T55 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 35 
 
 Beech 
 
 &h 
 
 Earth 
 
 95 to 125 
 
 
 Marble 
 
 169 
 
 Brass 
 
 523 
 
 Elm 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 Oak 
 
 52 
 
 Brick 
 
 115 
 
 Granite 
 
 
 164 
 
 
 Pine, yellow 
 
 262 
 
 Brickwork 
 
 117 
 
 Gravel 
 
 
 120 
 
 
 Sea Water 
 
 621 
 
 Cast Iron 
 
 450 
 
 Iron, malleable 
 
 475 
 
 
 Water 
 
 62 
 
 Clay 
 
 125 
 
 Lead 
 
 
 709 
 
 
 Zinc 
 
 4391 
 
PI ATE 
 
 Fui 2. 
 
 Fiq 
 
 Fig. 6 
 
 Fiy. 5. 
 
 Siff. 8. 
 
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows a method of drawing an oval to any given length 
 and breadth. Let A C be the larger, D B the smaller diameter, 
 and g the centre of the oval. Deduct one half of the difference 
 between A g and D g from D g, and with the remaining part of 
 D g and from A and C mark the centres f and e. On f describe 
 the arc n A o ; and on e, the arc I C m. Make B h equal to A f or 
 e C ; join f h, and bisect / h at i ; draw i k perpendicular to f h, 
 intersecting B D at k ; from k draw k o, cutting A C at f, and k m, 
 cutting A C at e ; make g j equal to g k ; and from j draw j f n and 
 j e I. Then on k and j as centres, with either of the distances k o, 
 k m, j I or j n, as a radius, describe the arcs o B m and n T> I ; 
 and the oval is completed. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows a method of making a right angle with a ten foot 
 rod. Suppose A B and B C to be two sills to a building, and B one 
 of its angles. Suppose it required to place them at right angles 
 with each other. Measure off upon A B eight feet to a, and on 
 B C six feet to b ; then make the diagonal line a b exactly ten feet, 
 and B A and B C will be at right angles with each other. 
 
 3 
 
10 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 Fi<*. 3 shows a method of describing an ellipsis with a cord. Let 
 A B be the transverse, and C D the conjugate diameter. With 
 one half of the transverse diameter as a radius, and on C, describe 
 an arc cutting A B at e and /. At these points fix in pins, a cord 
 being placed around the pins and brought together at C ; then move 
 the cord round from C, towards g, and it will describe an ellipsis. 
 This method of describing an ellipsis is exceedingly useful in laying 
 out ground, where great accuracy is not required, and where large 
 ellipses are to be described. 
 
 Figs. 4, 5 and 6, show a simple method of describing a polygon 
 of any number of sides, one side being given. On the extreme of 
 the given side, and with a distance equal to that side or to any other 
 distance as a radius, describe a semicircle, and divide it into as many 
 parts as you intend to have sides to your polygon. Then draw lines 
 from the centre through these divisions, always omitting the two 
 last, and with the distance of the given side run the sides round as 
 in fifr. 4. For example, e d being the given side, with that distance 
 in your compasses, having one foot in e, let the other fall on a ; 
 then with one foot in a, let the other fall on b ; and with one on b, 
 let the other fall on c, and the same with c to d, and the sides are 
 completed. 
 
 Fig. 7 shows the method of finding a straight line nearly equal 
 to the circumference of a given circle. Let F D H E be the 
 given circle. Draw D E, cutting the centre at G ; and from G, 
 perpendicular to D E, draw G F C. Divide G F into four equal 
 parts, three of which parts set up from F to C ; from C, draw C B, 
 cutting the circle at D ; and from C draw C A, cutting the circle at 
 E. Draw B A parallel to D E, making a tangent with the lower 
 extremity of the circle at H, and B A will be equal to one half of 
 the circumference of the circle. 
 
 Library 
 
 «r r*. SZ+a+a r!cYll««v 
 
CT I K S OV SO h IDS. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 4 3 s l D 1 2 3 4 43ziDi234 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fn, 6. 
 
 Fig. 5 f a 
 
CONIC SECTIONS. H 
 
 Fig. 8 shows the method of describing a segment of a circle to 
 any given length and height. A B being the length, and E D the 
 height, join respectively the points A B, A D, and A C, and draw 
 D C parallel to A B, and equal to A D. Put in pins at A and D ; 
 and, with a point at the angle D, move the triangle ADC around, 
 until the angle D arrives at A, and it will describe the segment A D. 
 The othef side of the segment may be drawn in a similar manner. 
 
 Fig. 9 shows another method of drawing a circle nearly accurate, 
 by ordinates. Let A B be the length, and D C the perpendicular 
 height. Make B b and A a each equal and parallel to D C. Di- 
 vide D A, D B, B b and A a, each into a like number of equal parts, 
 as here into four, and draw lines from the points 1, 2, 3 in D B 
 and in D A parallel to D C. From C draw lines to the points 1, 
 2, 3 in both B b and A a ; and through the points where those lines 
 intersect the lines drawn from 1, 2, 3 in D B and D A, trace the 
 curve, which will be the segment required. 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS 
 
 PLATE II. 
 It is well known to those, who have a knowledge of Grecian 
 architecture, that every Grecian moulding is indebted to some one 
 of the conic sections for its beautiful variety of outline ; and that 
 that outline is regulated by the particular section made, whether it 
 be perpendicular to the base, or more or less inclined to it, or parallel 
 to the sides, or whether the sides of the cone be longer or shorter 
 than the diameter of the base. It is therefore evident that an end- 
 less number of different outlines can be obtained from the conic 
 
12 CONIC SECTIONS. 
 
 sections ; which makes it expedient to lay down the cone with seve- 
 ral of its sections, and to show the method of applying them to the 
 Grecian moulding. 
 
 If a cone be cut by a line parallel to its base, such a section will 
 be a circle. 
 
 If a line passes through the cone, intersecting both t>,f its sides 
 and inclining more or less to the base, as a b, a section thus made 
 will form an ellipsis or oval. 
 
 If a section be made by a line perpendicular to the base, as c i, 
 that section will be an hyperbola, as h g i. 
 
 If a section be made by a line passing parallel to one of its sides, 
 as d k, the figure of the section thus made will be a parabola. 
 
 Fig. 1. On d as a centre, describe the half circle Am/B, which 
 will be the semi-diameter of the cone's base. With a view to illus- 
 trate the subject, the lower extremity of the cone is thrown into per- 
 spective. Draw d I, perpendicular to A B. On fig. 2, make D A 
 and D B each equal to D I fig. 1, and make D C equal to d k in 
 fig. 1, and perpendicular to A B in fig. 2 ; draw A E and B F, each 
 equal and parallel to D C ; divide D A, D B, A E and B F each 
 into a like number of equal parts ; into four, for instance, as here. 
 Through the points 1, 2, 3, in both A E and B F, draw lines to the 
 point C ; also, through the points 1, 2, 3, in D A and D B, draw 
 lines parallel to D C, cutting the former ones at a, b, c, d, e and f. 
 Then through those points, and the points A C and B, trace a curved 
 line, which completes the section of the parabola. 
 
 Fig. 3 exhibits the method of drawing the hyperbola. Make 
 D a equal to d C, the height of the cone fig. 1. Make D A and 
 D B each equal to c m fig. 1, and perpendicular to D a fig. 2 ; 
 make D C equal to c i fig. 1 ; make A F and B F each equal and 
 parallel to D C ; join respectively the points E F, A a and B cr. 
 
CONIC SECTIONS. 13 
 
 Divide D A, D B, A E and B F, each into a like number of equal 
 parts ; as here, into four. Through the points 1, 2, 3, in both A E 
 and B E, draw lines to the point C ; also through the points 1, 2, 3, 
 in D A and D B, draw lines cutting the former ones, and which 
 would, if produced, meet in a point at a. Then, through A, C, B, 
 and the p6ints of intersection, trace a curve line, which will be the 
 hyperbola required. 
 
 Fig. 6 exhibits the method of drawing the section a b. On fig. 1, 
 which is taken lower down the cone with a view of representing the 
 lines more clearly, let A B C be the outline, and B d C the semi- 
 diameter of the cone. Produce F G to E, there cutting A E, which 
 is parallel to B C ; also produce G F to D, cutting the base line at 
 D. Divide the semi-diameter of the cone into eight parts, and 
 through these divisions draw lines perpendicular to B C, and cutting 
 B C at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 ; through these points draw lines meeting 
 in a point at A. Draw d D perpendicular to D E, and equal to B 4 ; 
 from a, b, c and d, draw lines parallel to D C, cutting D d at e, f, g 
 and d ; draw D d No. 2 perpendicular to G D, and equal toD<f No. 
 1. Make D e,ef,fg and g d, in No. 2, each equal to the corres- 
 ponding letters in No. 1 ; then draw lines from the point E, cutting 
 D d No. 2 at e, f, g and d. From the points h, i, k, p, v, u and y, 
 perpendicular to D E, draw lines cutting e E at b t, f E at m c, g 
 E at n r, and d E at o. Through these points, and through F and 
 G, trace the curve line FbmnorctG, which is one half of the 
 section required. 
 
 As three different sections of the cone have now been described, 
 and as the principal object of their description was to show their 
 application to the Grecian mouldings, I now proceed to apply them 
 to that object. The lines within A D B and E C F, in fig. 4, are 
 in all respects similar, and like those within the corresponding 
 letters fig. 2. 4 
 
14 GRECIAN MOULDINGS. 
 
 It will be seen, by inspection of fig. 4, that the outline of the 
 echinus there described from A to C is exactly that of a parabola ; 
 and that from C to b, where the quirk joins the fillet, is another and 
 shorter curve. In determining the size and outline of the quirk,' 
 and also the projection of the fillet beyond that of the extreme part 
 of the moulding, judgment is to be exercised. If ihe quirk is very 
 small, it does not mark the line of separation between the echinus 
 and fillet sufficiently strong ; and on the contrary, ifit be too large, 
 it then assumes too much the appearance of principal, when it ought 
 to be subordinate. 
 
 As the hyperbola fig. 3 is transferred to fig. 5, it is evident that 
 the outline of the moulding therein exhibited is that of the hyperbola, 
 with the exception of the quirk, which is, as in fig. 4, of another and 
 a shorter curve. 
 
 GRECIAN MOULDINGS 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 A and B are two mouldings differing in their projection only. It 
 will be seen that the principle upon which they are drawn is that of 
 the parabola, as exhibited in Plate 2, fig. 4. Let it be remembered 
 that the projection of the moulding must be divided into the same 
 number of equal parts as the height, be the difference in height and 
 projection ever so great. 
 
 The principle of the two mouldings C and D is that of the hyper- 
 bola, as exhibited in fig. 3, Plate 2. The lines drawn from the divi- 
 sions on the line of height would, if produced, meet in a point. In 
 order to determine at what distance this point shall be from the 
 
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GRECIAN MOULDINGS. 15 
 
 extreme projection of the moulding, we must consider what shape 
 the outline of the moulding is to assume. If it is to approach very 
 nearly to a straight line, then the centre must not be very distant 
 from the moulding ; but should it be desired to have the outline of a 
 shorter curve than C or D, then the centre must be farther removed 
 from the extreme projection of the moulding. 
 
 The only difference between the drawing of the mouldings E and 
 F, and that of the mouldings C and D, is that the line a 4 would, if 
 produced, meet in the same point with those cutting a F at 1, 2, 3 
 and 4 ; whereas the lines a 4 in C and D are both parallel with the 
 moulding. It is therefore apparent, that by this deviation the outline 
 approaches somewhat nearer to a straight line, and that the upper 
 extremity of the moulding is considerably reduced in height. 
 
 G exhibits a method of describing the cimatium on the principle 
 of the parabola. It will be understood by examining the Plate, with- 
 out further explanation. The turning in of the upper, and out of 
 the lower edge, is left to the judgment of the student. 
 
 To draw the cima-recta H. Its projection a d, and its height dc, 
 being given, bisect ad at g, and draw g h parallel to a b ; bisect 
 a b at e, and draw ef, cutting g h at i. Divide i g, i h, if, and i e, 
 each into a like number of equal parts, and from b draw lines cut- 
 ting i e at 1, 2 and 3. From a draw lines passing through those 
 last drawn, and cutting i g at 1, 2 and 3. Then trace the curve 
 through the points of intersection of those lines, and it will finish the 
 lower half of the moulding. The upper half, being drawn in the 
 same way, will not require further explanation. By this method, 
 the outline of the cima-recta may be correctly drawn, in imitation 
 of the Grecian practice, to any height and projection. It is however 
 to be remembered, that the projection should not in any case exceed 
 the height. 
 
16 ROMAN MOULDINGS. 
 
 The several different sections of the cone, with their application 
 to the outline of the Grecian mouldings, have, I trust, been so fully 
 explained, as to enable the student to comprehend how great a 
 variety of outline may be obtained from them. When the principles, 
 on which they are drawn, are fully understood, and the student has 
 accustomed his eye to distinguish the peculiar outline of each differ- 
 ent section, he may in practice, when the size and contour of a 
 moulding is determined, cut a thin piece of wood by that same eye 
 to the exact shape wanted, and by this mark the outline. 
 
 ROMAN MOULDINGS 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 Op these mouldings but little need be said in relation to the prin- 
 ciples on which they are drawn, the outline of each being some part 
 of a circle. 
 
 The astrigal, or bead, is one half of a circle. 
 
 The ovolo and cavetto are each one quarter of a circle. Their 
 projection and height are equal. 
 
 To draw the cima-recta, divide the line a b into eight equal parts. 
 With three of these parts as a radius, and on a and 4, make the 
 intersection c ; on c, describe a 4 ; on 4 and b, make the intersec- 
 tion d ; on d, draw 4 6 ; which completes the outline of the cima- 
 recta. 
 
 To draw the cima-reversa, divide a b into ten equal parts. With 
 four of these as a radius, and on a and e, make the intersection ; 
 on c draw a e, on e and b make the intersection d, and on d draw 
 e b. 
 
ROMAN MOHJLBIIG§ 
 
 
 Astrigal 
 
 Ovoio 
 
 Torws 
 
 Ca»etto 
 
 Scotia 
 
 fvn„i Recta -^—^ "J 
 
 Scotia 
 
 b 
 
 
 &T 
 
 V / 
 V / 
 
 Cyma,JRarersa 
 
 /A 
 
 1 ** 
 
 *e 
 
 
 a 
 
 
MOULDINGS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 17 
 
 The torus is, like the bead, a half circle, which finishes with a 
 fillet above and a plinth below. 
 
 To draw the scotia A, divide its height into seven equal parts, and 
 make a o equal to three of them and perpendicular to the fillet. 
 Make the fillet d project three parts beyond the fillet a ; make d b 
 parallel to a o, and equal to the height of the scotia. From b, cut- 
 ting a o at o, draw be; on o, with the distance o a, describe the 
 curve a c, and on b, with the distance b c, or b d, describe c d. 
 
 To draw the scotia B, divide its height into three equal parts. 
 Project the fillet c one part more than the fillet 3. On 2, with the 
 distance 2, 3, describe the quadrant 3 a ; with b c or b a, and on b, 
 describe the quadrant a c. 
 
 To draw the scape of a column, divide its projection into five 
 parts. With these five parts, and one more as a radius, from a and 
 b make the intersection c, and on c describe the scape a b. 
 
 MOULDINGS AND THEIR APPENDAGES 
 
 Mouldings, judiciously intermixed with plain surfaces, such as 
 fillets, facies, coronas, &c, are the elements to which architecture 
 is indebted for its most splendid productions. It is on the size, 
 shape and fitness of these details, together with that of the plain 
 surfaces which serve to divide and enrich them, that the beauty or 
 deformity of every production, composed of these elements, depends. 
 
 Any one, who is desirous of making himself a judge of these 
 details, must study the outline separately and critically, when affected 
 by shadow, and when by reflecting light. After he has accustomed 
 his eye to discern and retain the beauties and fitness of each for 
 
 5 
 
18 REMARKS ON MOULDINGS. 
 
 all the different situations in which he may wish to employ them, 
 he will then as faithfully study the size, shape and fitness of all 
 plain surfaces by which the mouldings may be separated and adorn- 
 ed. After this, he must study them collectively, by frequently draw- 
 ing and intermixing their details ; and he will thus be able to discern 
 the good and bad effects of his composition, and improve his taste. 
 Every composition is not only dependent upon the outline of its 
 details ; but upon the proportion which the size of one bears to that 
 of another and to the whole, and upon its adaptation to its intended 
 place. 
 
 REMARKS ON MOULDINGS 
 
 The ovolo, when used as a crown moulding, was generally made 
 by the Greeks to project about three-fourths of its height, and to 
 project to a distance about equal to its height, when used in the 
 capital of the Doric column. The great variety of outline, and the 
 strong shadow produced by the quirk of its upper edge, render this 
 moulding, when possessing the Grecian form, equally applicable to 
 a large or small projection ; so that it can be used in a great variety 
 of situations, with nearly equal success. It is peculiarly adapted to 
 flat surfaces ; such as architraves, doors, panels, &c. It is differ- 
 ent, however, with the Roman ovolo, whose projection cannot with 
 propriety be made much greater or less than its height ; for should 
 it project much more, or much less, the outline would then become 
 less than a quarter of a circle, which defect limits the application 
 of this moulding, compared with that of the Grecian, to a very few 
 situations. 
 
REMARKS ON MOULDINGS. 19 
 
 The cavetto, in its outline, did not differ very essentially in the 
 Greek and Roman practice. It was employed often, by the Ro- 
 mans, as a crowning moulding in their cornices, but never by the 
 Greeks. Its outline may often be improved by adopting some part 
 of the ellipsis for its curve. 
 
 The cymatium, as practised by the Greeks, was generally less in 
 projection than in height. Its outline was always some part of a 
 conic section ; so that it appeared equally beautiful, whether the 
 projection was great or small. When the moulding is very flat, it 
 is well to cause the lower edge to project forwards and the upper 
 edge to recede. The light and shadow are thus so distributed over 
 the surface of the moulding, as to cause a marked line of separation 
 from the adjoining flat surfaces. 
 
 The cymatium, as practised by the Romans, was generally com- 
 posed of parts of a circle, the outline of which at the two extremi- 
 ties of the moulding ended perpendicularly to the horizon. The 
 light and shadow were therefore very faint at the edges, and its 
 variation from a flat surface hardly distinguishable. The cymatium 
 was generally employed by the Romans to separate the crown 
 moulding from the corona, in the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite 
 orders, but seldom or never used for that purpose by the Greeks. 
 
 The cima-recta was always the finishing, or crown moulding of 
 the Ionic and Corinthian orders, as practised by the Grecians. It 
 had a great height and small projection in the best examples. Its 
 outline was made to imitate some one of the conic sections, and pro- 
 duced a shadow less abrupt and hard than the Roman, which was 
 always composed of parts of a circle. 
 
20 
 
 THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Each of these orders presents a distinct style or mode of building, 
 having a character peculiar to itself. The orders are the alphabet of 
 the art ; and to them and their elements, altered, varied and arranged 
 in a thousand different ways, we are to look for the most splendid 
 productions of architecture. A thorough knowledge of these orders, 
 and of all their constituent parts, is therefore necessary for the 
 composition of any architectural subject. 
 
 Of these orders, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, are of Grecian 
 origin. They exhibit three distinct and essential qualities in archi- 
 tecture ; strength, grace, and richness. 
 
 The Tuscan and Composite orders are of Roman origin. The 
 former appears to have been invented for the purpose of exhibiting 
 strength and rustic simplicity, while elegance and profusion appear 
 to have been the object of the latter. 
 
 By whom these orders were first invented, or at what time their 
 improvement was advanced to the state in which they are to be 
 found in the structures and fragments of antiquity, cannot now be 
 ascertained. We know nothing of their origin except what is 
 related to us by Vitruvius, a writer whose correctness in many 
 parts is much questioned. He is the only author upon Architecture 
 of the Augustan age, or for many ages afterward, whose works 
 have come down to us. His writings are justly held in great esti- 
 mation. It must be confessed, however, that his account of the 
 origin of the orders has more the air of a fable than of an historical 
 fact. Vitruvius informs us that " Dorus, the son of Helen, and the 
 nymph Opticus, who governed Achaia and the whole of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, in some period of his reign, dedicated a temple to Juno 
 
THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 21 
 
 in the ancient city of Argos. The order of architecture employed 
 in this sacred edifice, which from its founder was termed Doric, was 
 afterward adopted by the cities of Achaia ; although no certain 
 principles had been yet established by which its proportions might 
 be regulated. In a subsequent era, the Athenians, in conformity 
 with the response of the Delphic oracle, by the general consent of 
 the States of Greece, sent thirteen colonies into Asia, each con- 
 ducted by an experienced leader, and invested Ion, son of Xuthus 
 and Creusa, whom Apollo by his priestess acknowledged as his 
 offspring, with the supreme command. He led them into Asia, and 
 possessed himself of the territories of the Carians, in which he 
 founded the cities of Ephesus, Miletus and Myus ; the latter of 
 which being destroyed by an inundation, its rites and privileges were 
 transferred by the Ionians to the Milesians, likewise Priene, Samos, 
 Yeos, Colaphon, Chios, Erythrse, Phocsea, Clazomense, Lebedus 
 and Melite. The last was destroyed in the war, which was under- 
 taken by the general concurrence of the other cities to punish the 
 arrogance of its inhabitants ; and in its place Smyrna was afterwards 
 admitted among the confederated States, through the mediation of 
 Attalus and Arsinoe. 
 
 " After the expulsion of the Carians and the Leleges, the new 
 acquisition was called Ionia, from the name of the chief of the 
 colonists ; and temples were erected to the deities of the Grecian 
 mythology, the order of architecture of which was similar to that 
 observed in the sacred buildings of Achaia, and called the Doric, 
 from having originated in the Dorian cities. The Temple of Apollo 
 Panionius was the first they constructed in this manner. Desirous 
 of adorning this temple with columns, but unpracticed in the rules 
 of proportion, they were led to consider the proportions of the human 
 frame ; expecting principles to result from them, by the adoption of 
 
 6 
 
22 THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 which the great objects of strength and beauty would be obtained. 
 Finding that the foot was a sixth part of the height of the whole 
 stature, they instituted the same proportions in their columns, 
 whose height, including the capital, they made equal to six times 
 the diameter of the shaft at the base. Thus the Doric column, 
 formed according to the proportions of the human figure, and 
 emblematical of manly strength and beauty, was first introduced 
 in the temples of Ionia. In later times, however, when it was in 
 contemplation to consecrate a temple to Diana, they sought to 
 introduce a new order of columns by giving to them the propor- 
 tions of the female form ; and that they might be emblematical 
 of feminine delicacy, the height of the columns was made eight 
 times the lower diameter. Bases were also given to them in imi- 
 tation of sandals, and volutes were sculptured in allusion to the 
 ringlets which fell down on either side of the face. The cymatia 
 and encarpi in front were intended to resemble the hair as it was 
 then worn, and the shaft was channelled in such a manner as to 
 bear some resemblance to the folds of the matronly garment. 
 
 " Thus the invention of two different orders arose ; one exhibiting 
 the boldness and simplicity of the masculine figure, and the other 
 the more finished form of a woman, attired and richly decorated. 
 Later ages, however, advancing in refinement and judgment, sought 
 to give greater beauties to both by making the Doric column seven 
 times its diameter at the base of the shaft, and the Ionic nine times 
 its lower diameter. The order, whose use was adopted first by the 
 Ionian colonies, was called the Ionic. 
 
 " The third order, which is named Corinthian, derives its sym- 
 metry from an intention to make the form of the column accord 
 with the more delicate proportions of the maiden figure ; for at that 
 early period of life, the limbs are less robust, and the figure admits 
 
THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 23 
 
 of a greater display of ornament. The invention of the capital is 
 said to owe its origin to the following circumstance. A virgin of 
 Corinth, just as she had attained to a marriageable age, was attack- 
 ed by a disorder whose effects proved fatal. After her interment, 
 the vases, the objects of her admiration when alive, were collected 
 by her nurse and deposited in a basket, which she placed upon her 
 grave,. after covering it with a tile to protect it from the weather. 
 The basket was accidentally placed over the roots of an acanthus. 
 The natural growth of the plant being impeded by the pressure upon 
 it, the middle leaf and the cauliculi appeared in the spring around 
 the bottom of the basket. The cauliculi, attaching themselves to 
 the external surface, grew upwards, until their progress was arrest- 
 ed by the angles of the tile projecting over the basket, which caused 
 them to incline forward and assume a spiral form. At this stage of 
 its growth, Callimachus, who, from his great genius and talent for 
 sculpture, was called Catatechnos by the Athenians, chancing to 
 pass by the spot observed the basket and the beauty of the young 
 foliage around it. Pleased with its novel and fanciful appearance, 
 he adopted it in the columns which he afterwards employed in the 
 edifices of Corinth ; having first instituted laws for the proportions 
 of the order, which was thence termed Corinthian." 
 
 An order of architecture consists of one or more columns, stand- 
 ing perpendicularly to the horizon, and supporting an entablature, 
 which extends from column to column. 
 
 Each order is composed of two principal divisions, the column 
 and the entablature ; which are respectively subdivided into three 
 parts : the column, into the base, the capital and the shaft ; and the 
 entablature, into the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. 
 
 The base is the lowest extremity of the column. It is generally 
 
24 THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 thirty minutes in height, and consists of a plinth, whose base line 
 forms a square of four equal sides, projecting on each side of the 
 column about ten minutes, above which is a series of mouldings, 
 projecting equally all around, and encircling the shaft of the 
 column. 
 
 The shaft of a column is in shape a frustum of a cone. It is that 
 plain or fluted part, which is situated between the base and the 
 capital. In some examples it is plain, in others fluted ; and is 
 differently formed and variously divided in the different orders. 
 The diameter of the lower surface of the shaft is taken as the unit 
 of measure. It is divided into sixty equal parts, each part being 
 one minute. This scale of diameter and minutes is used by archi- 
 tects as an universal standard for all the measures that regulate 
 and determine the heights and projections. Unlike the measure of 
 feet and inches, it is as various as the diameter of columns. 
 
 The capital is the member which crowns and adorns the upper 
 extremity of the column, and is usually made the characteristic of 
 the order. It is both ornamental and useful ; for, while it decorates 
 the upper end of the column, it serves to prevent the angle from 
 fracture and the rain from penetrating the shaft. Capitals are clas- 
 sified according to the order they serve to adorn. The Tuscan 
 capital is distinguished by rustic plainness ; the Doric, by grave 
 simplicity ; the Ionic, by graceful elegance ; and the Corinthian and 
 Composite, by gorgeous richness. 
 
 The architrave is the lowest division of the entablature. It is 
 divided into one or more fascia, according to the character of the 
 order to which it belongs, and crowned with a single or compound 
 moulding. The Doric architrave differs from all the others, having 
 only one fascia, which is capped with a band of rectangular form, 
 and ornamented with six conical drops hanging from the lower 
 extremity of each triglyph. 
 
 Library 
 N. C. State Collee* 
 
THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 05 
 
 The frieze is that part of the entablature which divides the 
 architrave from the cornice. In the Tuscan order, it is always 
 left plain, the frieze of that order not admitting of any ornament 
 whatever. The Doric frieze is peculiar. It is ornamented with 
 triglyphs, and the metopes are sometimes embellished with ox skulls 
 or historical representations. The Doric frieze is also, to common 
 observers, the distinguishing part of the order. In other orders the 
 frieze is sometimes ornamented, but oftener plain. 
 
 The cornice is an assemblage of mouldings, crowning and finish- 
 ing the entablature. Each order has a peculiar cornice. Every 
 cornice is composed of three parts ; the bed mould, the corona, and 
 the crowning moulding. The details of the Tuscan cornice are 
 few, bold and strongly marked ; of the Doric, massive and simple, 
 the mutule being a distinguished feature in that order. The ele- 
 ments of the Ionic cornice are more numerous than those of the 
 Tuscan or Doric. The dentil, which properly belongs to it, is 
 sometimes omitted for the modillion. At other times, the dentil and 
 modillion arc both left out, and a plain bed mould used in their 
 stead. 
 
 The Corinthian and Composite cornices are embellished with 
 both dentils and modillions, and are often otherwise decorated with 
 a profusion of elegant ornaments. 
 
 The Tuscan order consists of a few prominent parts. Its charac- 
 ter is simple grandeur, impressing the beholder at first sight with 
 the conviction that its strength is adequate to the support of any 
 weight it may be employed to sustain. It may be used in all situa- 
 tions, where strength and simplicity is desired, or expense is to be 
 avoided. 
 
 Of the Doric order we have numerous ancient examples now in 
 existence, many of which have been accurately measured. It is 
 • 7 
 
26 THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 fortunate for us that we are not under the necessity of depending 
 wholly upon the account of Vitruvius for the proportions of this 
 order, as in the case of the Tuscan. As the description of Vitru- 
 vius does not correspond with the examples now to be seen, it is 
 probable that he has confounded the measures of the original Doric 
 with those of the Roman Doric as practised in his time. 
 
 The Grecian architects, in their practice of this order, were care- 
 ful to preserve in it the severe Doric character. It does not appear, 
 however, that they were governed by any determinate rule in other 
 respects. Indeed, they used the order with great latitude, some- 
 times making the columns only four diameters four minutes in 
 height, and at others six diameters thirty-two minutes, differing as 
 widely in the details. The Romans increased the height of the 
 column to seven and a half or eight diameters, which example is 
 worthy of imitation, especially in private buildings, to which this 
 proportion is certainly better adapted than the Grecian. This order 
 is likewise plain and simple, and can be employed whenever strength 
 and simplicity is desired. 
 
 The Ionic order stands second in the Grecian, and third in the 
 Roman system of the orders. In both Greece and Rome many 
 ancient examples have been discovered which have been accurately 
 measured and transmitted to us. We have therefore an opportunity 
 of critically examining all the various examples, and of deliberately 
 deciding what parts it will be wise to imitate and what to reject. 
 
 It is however to be remembered, that all the ancient Grecian exam- 
 ples within our knowledge were employed to adorn edifices erected 
 for public purposes, which were mostly of an enormous size and of 
 such a construction as to require columns very large and thickly 
 set. It will therefore be highly proper in us to take into considera- 
 tion the uses to which these elegant temples were applied, their 
 
THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 27 
 
 size, their construction and their decorations, and compare them 
 with our times, our customs and our wants, and then to imitate, in 
 the whole or in part, any of these examples, with such alterations 
 and adaptations as will render'them conformable to our purposes. 
 
 This order was borrowed of the Grecians by the Romans, in 
 whose hands it certainly lost much of its original character. Al- 
 though in the general proportions of the Grecian and Roman exam- 
 ples, the difference is not so striking as between the Doric examples, 
 yet in their details the difference is very apparent. The examples 
 most worthy of imitation are those of Grecian origin, except in a 
 few of the details, where the Roman are preferable. This subject 
 will be more fully treated of in the description of the Ionic order. 
 
 As the elements of this order are of a more delicate character 
 than any of the above-mentioned, and as it stands in an equipoise 
 between the massive proportions of the Doric and the original 
 delicacy of the Corinthian, it may be employed wherever graceful 
 elegance is desired. 
 
 The Corinthian order stands third in the Grecian, and fourth in 
 the Roman system. In Greece there are a few, and in Rome 
 many fine examples of this splendid order, which have been accu- 
 rately measured. It is of Grecian origin, and, as in the case of the 
 Ionic, was borrowed of its original proprietors by the Romans, 
 though it did not, like the latter, degenerate in their hands. It will, 
 I trust, be readily admitted that the Roman examples of the Corin- 
 thian order are as much superior to the Grecian, as the Grecian 
 examples of the Ionic are to the Roman. 
 
 " This order," says Sir William Chambers, " is suitable and 
 proper for buildings where elegance, gaiety and magnificence are 
 required. The ancients employed it in temples dedicated to Venus, 
 to Flora, to Proserpine and the nymphs of fountains, because the 
 
28 THE ORDERS OP ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 flowers, foliage and volutes with which it is adorned, seemed well 
 adapted to the delicacy of such deities. Being the most splendid 
 of the five orders, it is also extremely proper for the decorations of 
 palaces, public squares, or galleries, and arcades surrounding them ; 
 for churches dedicated to the Virgin Mary, or to the Virgin Saints ; 
 and, on account of its rich, gay and graceful appearance, it may 
 with singular propriety be used in theatres, in banqueting, and in all 
 places consecrated to festive mirth or convivial recreations." 
 
 The Roman Composite order. Many fine examples of this order 
 have been discovered in its native city, Rome, where it was held in 
 greater estimation than it has ever been elsewhere. It was gene- 
 rally employed in their triumphal arches. The elements are nearly 
 all borrowed from the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The base, the 
 shaft, and the lower part of the capital, are Corinthian ; the upper 
 part, Ionic ; the architrave, often a mixture of the Ionic and the 
 Corinthian. The frieze is splendidly ornamented. The cornice is 
 mostly Corinthian. The modillion is peculiar to this order, and has 
 never to my knowledge been used in any other. It is composed of 
 a large block, enclosed on three sides by two fascia and a crown- 
 ing moulding. 
 
 Some writers on architecture deny this composition the rank and 
 name of an order ; and indeed the objection is made with more 
 propriety than a similar one against the Tuscan order. I do not 
 see, however, that we gain any particular advantage by depriving 
 this ancient composition of a name and rank which it has held for 
 many centuries. This, in fact, is with us the only honor paid it, as 
 we seldom or never employ it in any of our structures. 
 
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29 
 
 THE TUSCAN ORDER. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 The Tuscan order is said to have been invented by the inhabi- 
 tants of Tuscany, before the Romans had any intercourse with the 
 Greeks, or had become acquainted with the;r arts and sciences. It 
 is to be lamented that no regular example of this order has been 
 discovered among the remains of antiquity. An example of Vitru- 
 vius, with his explanation, is the only source from whence we can 
 derive information upon this subject ; and this, taken as a whole, is 
 not worthy of our imitation. It may be divided into two distinct 
 parts, the good and the bad, or the column and the entablature. 
 The column is the good part, and has been pretty generally imitated 
 by all the modern architects ; the entablature is the bad part, and 
 has been as generally rejected. Some architects indeed have pre- 
 tended to admire the entablature ; but they have shown more wisdom 
 in practice, by rejecting it in most of their structures. The cornice 
 projects one fourth of the entire height of the column, and has 
 neither bed-mould nor corona. It consists of a cima-recta and its 
 two fillets, and is apparently supported by a few straggling, dispro- 
 portionate canti-leaves, with the cimatium of the corona wrought 
 across the end of each, and placed so as to form the Ionic crown 
 moulding against each of the canti-leaves, and the Tuscan crown 
 mouldings between them. Trajan's column, at Rome, is thought 
 by some to be of this order. This column is nearly eight diameters 
 in height, having a base nearly a copy of that left us by Vitruvius ; 
 but its capital and its general proportions partake strongly of the 
 Roman Doric character. 
 
 8 
 
30 THE TUSCAN ORDER. 
 
 Some architects are unwilling to allow this column and entabla- 
 ture the honor of being ranked as one of the orders of architecture. 
 Say they, " It is nothing more than the Doric deprived of the 
 mutules and triglyphs, and a diameter or two added to the height 
 of the column." I cannot perceive the justness of these remarks. 
 If any one of the orders is to be altered into the Tuscan, the Ionic* 
 would certainly be more suitable for that purpose than the Doric. 
 Change its capital and base for those of the Tuscan, leave off the 
 flutings on the shaft of the column, and deprive it of a diameter or 
 two in height, and the change is complete. 
 
 In the examples of this order, as here exhibited, the column is 
 seven diameters in height, including the capital. This seems to 
 have been the universal standard of its height, from the time of 
 Vitruvius down to the present. Nevertheless, during a long course 
 of practice, it is probable that in half of the instances, where I have 
 had occasion to draw either of the orders, I have found the estab- 
 lished proportions ill suited to my purpose. Many circumstances 
 render different proportions both proper and necessary. The pro- 
 portions in fact depend upon the judgment. He who takes the 
 most comprehensive view of all the circumstances of the case, and 
 governs his judgment by the simple and undeviating rule of propor- 
 tioning the means to the end,, will generally be the most successful. 
 
 Take the case of a Venetian entrance recessed into a dwelling- 
 house, embellished by two columns, and two antee, their front line 
 corresponding to that of the front of the building. The whole front 
 above and directly over the entablature apparently depends on the 
 two columns for support. Under such circumstances, any one who 
 should fail to make a column nearly or quite a diameter less in 
 
 * Aa found on the Ionic Temple on the River Illissus. 
 
THE TUSCAN ORDER. 31 
 
 height, than he would if the columns projected and were completely 
 insulated from the front line of the building and had nothing but 
 their entablatures to support, would soon be convinced of the error 
 in his judgment. When columns are to be erected, consider for 
 what end they are to be made : if for the support of any great 
 weight, then make them of a size sufficient to answer that end ; if 
 for ornament merely, and not for the support of any great burden, 
 construct them accordingly. 
 
 The example here exhibited does not differ essentially, in its gene- 
 ral proportions, from that left as by Palladio, its column being seven, 
 and its entablature two diameters in height. There is a difference 
 however in the details, between this and Palladio's, and most or all of 
 the other examples. The character of the Grecian Doric has been 
 imitated in several particulars. First, by leaving off the base ; and 
 in the capital, the echinus and the channel which divides the capital 
 from the column. The necking is fluted in imitation of that in Tra- 
 jan's column at Rome. The architrave has only one fascia, the 
 crowning moulding of which is in Grecian style. The cornice is 
 divided into three parts ; the bed-mould, the corona, and the crowning 
 moulding. 
 
 The bed-mould is recessed up into the corona, so as almost to 
 conceal the ovolo. This allows all the parts of the cornice to be 
 somewhat enlarged and more strongly marked ; which gives them 
 more of that robust simplicity of character, which is peculiar to this 
 order. The corona and crown moulding of this example are some- 
 what increased in altitude, compared with those of Palladio. The 
 projection of the cima-recta is less than his, its outline forming a 
 part of an ellipsis. The column diminishes twelve minutes. The 
 diminution may begin at one fourth from its base, and the outline 
 of its sides be curved, as practised by the Romans ; or, which is 
 
32 THE TUSCAN ORDER. 
 
 believed to be preferable, the diminution may begin at its base, in 
 the Grecian style, and the outline of its sides be straight or gently 
 curved outwards. 
 
 To draw this order to any given height, divide the height given 
 into nine equal parts, and give one to the diameter of the column 
 just above its base. Suppose a height of fifteen feet be required. 
 Divide fifteen feet into nine equal parts. One of the parts must be 
 one foot eight inches : this is the diameter of the column. Then 
 divide one foot eight inches into sixty equal parts, which are called 
 minutes. In practice this is easily done, by dividing one foot eight 
 inches into six equal parts, each of which will of course be ten mi- 
 nutes, and then dividing each sixth into ten equal parts, one of which 
 will be one minute. By this scale all the members of the order are 
 to be proportioned, either in height or projection, each member being 
 so many minutes of the scale, as is figured on the plate. 
 
 The directions here given for making a scale of minutes will 
 serve for all the remaining orders. 
 
 DETAILS OF THE TUSCAN ORDER. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 The outlines of which the mouldings of the Tuscan order are 
 composed, are exhibited on a large scale. These outlines are in the 
 true Grecian style. It will, therefore, be very important to the 
 student to examine the particular shape and character of each dili- 
 gently and carefully, and to imitate them exactly in his practice, 
 be they enlarged or diminished. For he must remember, that the 
 beauty or deformity of every composition of this kind depends mostly 
 
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THE TUSCAN ORDER. 33 
 
 upon the fitness of its mouldings. In the Grecian system the stu- 
 dent must especially strive to accustom his eye to discern the true 
 outline of each moulding ; since the superiority of the Grecian 
 system over the Roman is in nothing more conspicuous, than in the 
 beautiful variety of the outlines of its mouldings. 
 
 In the Roman system, a severe study of the mouldings is not 
 necessary. The outline, being a part of a circle, can easily be 
 described with the compasses. 
 
 Fig. 1 exhibits a true method of drawing a raking moulding, 
 which will coincide with a given moulding, and also a return 
 moulding, which in like manner coincides with the raking moulding. 
 
 Let A be the given moulding. Draw the vertical line a e b and 
 c d, and join b d, whose length is equal to the projection of the mould- 
 ing. Divide the outline of the moulding from a to c into any num- 
 ber of parts, either equal or unequal. This example is divided into 
 seven equal parts. From each one of the divisions draw vertical lines, 
 cutting b d at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Make the back line of B, the 
 raking moulding, at right angles with the raking line ; and that of C, 
 the return moulding, vertical or parallel to that of A. Make b d in 
 B, and b d in G t each equal to b d in A. The projections of each 
 will then be equal. From the outline of A, and at the points a, 1, 
 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and c, draw lines parallel to the rake and extend them 
 through both B and C. Make b 1, b 2, b 3, b 4, b 5, b 6, and b d, 
 on B and C, equal to the corresponding figures on A ; then from 
 the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, on b d, in both B and C, draw lines parallel 
 to the back line of the mouldings, cutting the raking lines before 
 described at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Through these points, and 
 at a and c, trace the curve in both B and C, and the outline is 
 completed. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows the outline of the moulding and fillet to the archi- 
 9 
 
34 COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE. 
 
 trave. Fig. 3 shows those of the capital. The necking of the 
 latter is decorated with twenty flutes, in exact imitation of Doric 
 flutes ; to the directions for fluting which, the reader is referred for 
 a knowledge of forming these. The line a b shows the depth and 
 termination of the flute under the annulet of the capital. 
 
 Fig. 4 shows an example of a base suitably constructed for this 
 column, if one is to be employed ; though it is believed that the 
 column will generally succeed best without it. 
 
 Fig. 5 exhibits a capital for a pilaster, having the breadth of the 
 pilaster figured upon it. 
 
 COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE. 
 
 * 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 I am aware that the publication of anything in the shape of an 
 order, unless it be really one of the Grecian or Roman orders, is, 
 by persons well versed in architecture, thought to be little less than 
 heresy. Although I am not much disposed to differ with them in 
 their opinion, I have deemed it advisable in this case to depart from 
 it. My reasons for so doing proceed from the fact, that more than 
 one half of all the columns and entablatures erected in country 
 situations, for either internal or external finishings, belong neither to 
 the Grecian nor Roman system. The same fact holds true in rela- 
 tion to our cities and large towns. Any person who will take the 
 trouble to compute the number of instances, in which some one of 
 the regular orders is employed in any street of our cities, or villages, 
 will be convinced of the truth of this assertion. I have made the 
 comparison in two streets, which present more buildings of the first 
 
sSSTB EBSy'S'&IBIL.&.TI'tmiB , 
 
 HI.ATK, VII 
 

COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE. 35 
 
 class, in proportion to their number, than any other streets of their 
 length in this city, and have found the regular orders employed in 
 only thirteen places, while other columns and entablatures were 
 substituted in twenty-three places. 
 
 I have often inquired the reason of this, from very intelligent 
 workmen, and have as often received for answer, that the Tuscan 
 order is too massive and plain, the Doric too expensive, and the 
 Ionic too rich, and that they are therefore under the necessity of 
 composing a column and entablature which will conform to the 
 views and purses of their employers. 
 
 With these facts before me, no doubts rest in my mind but what 
 it would be better to give a design here of a column and entablature, 
 constructed on scientific principles, and of a character capable of 
 meeting the views and practice above mentioned, than to leave 
 it to be composed by unskilful hands. 
 
 In the composition here exhibited, the shaft of the column, 
 together with its flutes and fillets, are injmitation of that found in 
 the interior of the Temple of Apollo at Bassse. This column was 
 crowned with a very singular Ionic capital, of an angular form. 
 Its base was also singular in its composition. Neither of them, 
 however, were deficient in beauty. The shaft has here been adopt- 
 ed on account of its novel, graceful and simple aspect. The flutes 
 in their section are in exact imitation of the best Grecian Doric 
 flutes, but differ from any of the Doric examples by being separated 
 by very small fillets, which are in breadth equal to one fifth or sixth 
 of the breadth of the flute. The flutes are twenty in number, and 
 descend and terminate on the scape of the column, in an elliptical 
 form, like their section. They also terminate at their upper extre- 
 mity on the scape in the same manner. All the details of the flutes 
 and fillets, and also those of the whole composition, are very accu- 
 
36 COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE. 
 
 rately drawn on a large scale and figured in minutes. Great care 
 has been taken to give to the outline of all the mouldings the true 
 Grecian character. 
 
 The base is in its general form somewhat like that given by 
 Vitruvius in his Tuscan order ; but the torus is elliptical, and 
 fluted, in imitation of some of the best Grecian examples of the 
 Ionic base. The base is not therefore either Tuscan or Ionic, but 
 it stands in equipoise between the two. 
 
 The capital is imitated from that found on the newly discovered 
 temple at Cadachio, in the island of Corfu. In its annulets, it par- 
 takes of both the Grecian and Roman schools ; but in the remain- 
 ing details it is purely Grecian, and a beautiful specimen of their 
 system. 
 
 The entablature is two diameters in height, and is divided into 
 three parts : the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice ; the details 
 of which have been selected with a view to economy and an adap- 
 tation to the column and to modern practice. In the cornice, the 
 corona has a great projection and height ; the crown moulding has 
 also a great height, but a small projection. The bed-mould is some- 
 what singular in its form, and about one half its altitude is recessed 
 up into the plancer of the corona, which allows the members of the 
 cornice to be somewhat enlarged. With one single exception, each 
 moulding of this composition is indebted to some one of the conic 
 sections for its beautiful variety of outline. As the selection and 
 arrangement of the elements, which compose this column and enta- 
 blature, have been the cause of much research and great solicitude, 
 I hope that, when it shall be decided not to employ either of the 
 regular orders, this composition may be found worthy of being 
 made a substitute. 
 
 It is supposed that the larger and better class of edifices will 
 
t & 
 
 fig. I 
 
 
 - - 
 
 M /'• 
 
 
 L5 
 ** / 
 
 8? 
 
 / 
 
 ft 
 
 <2 
 
 % 
 
 
COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE. 37 
 
 always be decorated with some one of the orders, as the proprietor 
 will be amply compensated for the difference in expense, by the 
 chaste and classic appearance of his building. It is to be expected, 
 therefore, that this design will be used only on the smaller and 
 cheaper class of buildings ; in which case it will seldom be required 
 to make the column larger than the Ionic proportions, say. nine 
 diameters. 
 
 If this example is to be used for a portico, where the house is of 
 small dimensions, tjle windows and door likewise being of a small 
 size, it will be most proper to make the column, at least, nine 
 diameters in height. On the contrary, if the house be of a large 
 size, as also the doors and windows, it will be advisable to make the 
 column about eight diameters in height. 
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 
 On this plate are exhibited, on a large scale, the details of the 
 Column and Entablature of the preceding plate. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents the cornice, with its members figured in minutes. 
 It must be remembered, that those mouldings, which are recessed 
 up under the member next above them, show here their whole height, 
 and they are figured accordingly. But in the preceding plate, that 
 part only is figured which is seen in a direct front view. 
 
 Fig. 2 exhibits the outline of the architrave ; fig. 3, that of the 
 capital ; and fig. 4, of the base. The lines d c, on the shaft of the 
 column near the base, and also b a, on the neck of the column, 
 represent the depth of the flute, and its termination at each end. 
 
 Fig. 5 exhibits the plan of the plinth and base of the column. 
 The line f shows the extreme outline of the base moulding ; e, the 
 outline of the fillet, which joins the scape ; c, the line encircling the 
 lower diameter of the column ; b, the upper diameter ; and a, the 
 
 10 
 
38 THE DORIC ORDER. 
 
 depth of the channel which separates the capital from the shaft of 
 the column. j» 
 
 In order to flute the shaft of this column, first divide its- periphery 
 into twenty equal parts, and subdivide one of those into six equal 
 parts. Make each flute equal to live, and each fillet to one of these 
 parts. Make the section of the flute elliptical and in imitation of 
 this example, which is one and three fourths of a minute in depth 
 at the lower diameter, and one and one half minutes at the upper 
 diameter. The lines, at the letter d', exhibit the termination of the 
 flute on the scape. 
 
 THE DORIC ORDER 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 In the early practice of the Doric order, by the Greeks, the alti- 
 tude of the column was usually about four diameters ; but in later 
 times, this altitude was increased to six, or six and one half diame- 
 ters. Most or all of the details of the order experienced, in like 
 manner, a change. It does not appear that any two, of even the 
 best specimens, and those too which were erected at the same period, 
 agree either in their general or their particular parts. 
 
 But nowhere are to be found omitted, the twenty flat flutes with- 
 out intervening fillets, the triglyphs in the frieze and the mutules in 
 the cornice, with all their appendages. These formed the distin- 
 guishing features of the order. Their distribution has always been 
 uniform. No deviation whatever was allowed. It was by the 
 undeviating arrangements of these elements that Grecian architects 
 were enabled, notwithstanding the latitude used in other less impor- 
 
SD®IR!I<S ®SId)1S^,„ 
 
 PI. IX 
 
THE DORIC ORDER. 39 
 
 tant respects, to maintain rigidly the Doric character in all their 
 structures of that order. The Grecian architects, therefore, were 
 not servile imitators, though followers of a general system. They 
 evidently understood well the universal rule of proportioning the 
 means to the end ; a rule which has been mentioned here often 
 enough to show that it is thought to be of vital importance. 
 
 The diminution of the shaft of the column was different in 
 different examples. That of the Temple of Minerva was thirteen 
 minutes. The lines making the boundary were straight, or gently 
 curved outwards. The periphery was generally divided into twenty 
 equal parts, each part being the breadth of a flute ; which, in most 
 of the best examples, commenced at the lower extremity of the 
 column, and terminated under the first annulet of the capital. In 
 some of the best specimens, however, the flutes extend up the column 
 only about ten minutes, and, at the upper extremity of the column, 
 from the first annulet of the capital down to the channel, which 
 divides the capital from the shaft. There are also one or two fine 
 examples, in which the column is divided into only sixteen flutes, 
 the section of which is elliptical. 
 
 When the section of the flute was a segment of a circle, it was 
 drawn from the summit of an equilateral triangle, whose sides were 
 equal to the breadth of a flute. Its section was generally elliptical, 
 and when so its depth was about the same as when a part of a 
 circle. 
 
 The capital was divided into three parts ; the abacus, the echinus, 
 its annulets and the necking. The abacus varies from nine to twelve 
 minutes in height, having the faces plain. Under and adjoining it, 
 is the echinus, whose outline resembles that of a chesnut, and is, in 
 the best specimens, either elliptical or hyperbolical. This moulding, 
 together with the annulets, is generally equal in height to the 
 abacus. 
 
40 THE DORIC ORDER. 
 
 The annulets are in number from three to five, falling off under 
 each other vertically, like an inverted flight of steps, and partaking of 
 the general outline of the echinus in the arrangement of their angles. 
 In the best examples, at about thirty minutes below the top of the 
 abacus, is a channel, of about one halftof a minute in breadth, and 
 three in depth, sunk equally all around the shaft, which divides the 
 capital from the shaft of the column. 
 
 The height of the entablature varies in different examples. The 
 example taken from the Temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis, which 
 is one of the most perfect specimens of the order, is very near two 
 diameters in height. It is divided into three parts ; the architrave, 
 the frieze, and the cornice. These members, also, vary in different 
 examples. The architrave and the frieze in the same examples are 
 very nearly equal in height. The height of the cornice varies from 
 twenty-one to thirty-two minutes. The frieze and architrave of the 
 Temple of Minerva are each forty-three, and the cornice thirty- 
 three minutes in height. The face of the architrave is always one 
 uniform plane, divided from the frieze by a band or tenia of rectan- 
 gular form, which continues along the entablature in one unbroken 
 plane. Under this band, and immediately under each triglyph, are 
 regula, or fillets, to which are attached six conical drops. The 
 ends of each regula, and the extremities of the drops, are in the same 
 vertical line with the edges of the triglyph above. The drops are 
 frustums of very acute cones, approaching nearly to cylinders. 
 Their height never exceeds three-fourths of their diameter at the 
 base. 
 
 The frieze is decorated with triglyphs and metopes. The trig- 
 lyphs are from twenty-seven and one half to thirty-one minutes in 
 breadth, and about three minutes in thickness. Their length is 
 equal to that of the breadth of the frieze. The angle of the frieze 
 
THE DORIC ORDER. 41 
 
 is always finished by two triglyphs, meeting each other in such a 
 manner that the channels are common to both. The metopes in 
 the temples of Theseus and Minerva, were enriched with historical 
 representations of the most exquisite workmanship. None of the 
 embellishments, however, were allowed to project much beyond the 
 frame which enclosed them. 
 
 The cornice is a distinguished feature in this order. It has a 
 sloping plancer to indicate the inclination of the rafters in the roof; 
 and under the plancer, mutules, with three rows of drops, six in each 
 row, hung to their under surface. The mutules are equal in breadth 
 to the triglyphs. They are so distributed, that the centre of one is 
 exactly over that of a triglyph ; and of another, exactly over the 
 centre of every metope. The centres of a mutule and triglyph are 
 to range over that of each column, except the one supporting the 
 angle of the entablature. The corona is very broad, and the crown- 
 ing moulding, in most of the examples, and in all of the best speci- 
 mens, is composed of a cymatium and fillet, or ovolo with a fillet 
 above it. 
 
 This ancient order, as practised by the Romans, and also by the 
 moderns until after Stuart and Revet published their splendid work 
 on Grecian architecture, lost much of its original character. It does 
 not appear to have been much a favorite among the Romans, who 
 have left us but few examples of it. That of the Theatre of Mar- 
 cellus is esteemed the most perfect. The column of that example 
 is seven diameters and fifty-eight minutes in height, without a base, 
 and stands on a step. The shaft of the column is not fluted. The 
 capital consists of three parts ; the abacus, the echinus with its 
 annulets, and the necking. The abacus is capped by a cymatium, 
 which renders its appearance so small and trifling that it will not 
 compare with the Grecian original. The outline of the echinus is 
 
 11 
 
42 THE DORIC ORDER. 
 
 a part of a circle, and consequently likewise inferior to the Grecian 
 original, which is either an ellipsis or an hyperbola. The annulets' 
 under the echinus are large, and well proportioned to themselves and 
 to the capital. 
 
 The capital is finished by a .necking, encircling the column at 
 about thirty minutes from the upper extremity of the abacus. This 
 necking, in imitation of that employed at the base of the Corinthian 
 capital, is a substitute for that graceful channelling, which encircles 
 the neck of every Grecian Doric column, and is one of the charac- 
 teristics of the order. 
 
 As a part of the cornice of this example is wanting, the exact 
 height of the entablature cannot be ascertained ; but it could not 
 have been far from one diameter fifty-three minutes. The archi- 
 trave is thirty-one minutes in height ; the frieze, forty-six ; and the 
 cornice, thirty-six. The architrave is in one plane, capped by a 
 tenia of rectangular form, also in one plane. Under each triglyph 
 is a regula, whose length is equal to the breadth of the triglyph, to 
 which are hung six conical drops. The face of the frieze recedes 
 about two minutes from the vertical line of the architrave. The 
 triglyphs, therefore, project about one half of their thickness, or two 
 minutes. They are thirty-one minutes in breadth, and forty-five min- 
 utes distant from each other, and are decorated on the face with 
 two channels and two half channels. A centre of a triglyph is 
 placed over the centre of each column. The cornice has a sloping 
 plancer, ornamented with mutules, one over each triglyph, and en- 
 riched with three rows of drops, six in each row. Both mutules 
 and drops are recessed up into the corona behind a small moulding, 
 so as to be wholly concealed from a direct front view. The next 
 member below the mutules is a denticulated band, supported by a 
 cymatium. The corona and crowning moulding are both large and 
 
THE DORIC ORDER. 43 
 
 well proportioned. The cornice has a great projection, and is well 
 proportioned to itself and the entablature ; nevertheless, the beau- 
 tiful dentil in this cornice is out of its place, as it belongs pecu- 
 liarly to the Ionic cornice, of which it is characteristic. 
 
 There were other examples of the order discovered among the 
 Roman antiquities, which were very rich and beautiful, although 
 the legitimate Doric character had been departed from. 
 
 That at Albano, near Rome, holds a high rank amongst the Ro- 
 man examples. Its general proportions do not differ essentially from 
 those of the Theatre of Marcellus. The column is left plain ; and 
 in the capital an astrigal is substituted for the annulets. The echi- 
 nus and cymatium of the abacus are both enriched. The architrave 
 is divided into two faces, and separated from the frieze by a bead, 
 with a fillet above and a fillet below it. This moulding is broken 
 over the triglyphs, and the drops under it are hung from the lower 
 extremity of the fillet. The triglyphs in the frieze are so distributed 
 as to form the metopes into a geometrical square ; and the metopes 
 themselves are decorated with sculpture of a very rich character. 
 A mutule is placed directly over each triglyph, the edges of which 
 are composed of a cymatium with a fillet above it ; and, hung to its 
 plancer, are thirty-six conical drops, six in front and six in flank, 
 whose lengths are equal to their largest diameter. The mutule fin- 
 ishes against a band, or fillet, which is immediately above the capping 
 and separated by it from the triglyph. The corona has a great 
 projection, and together with the crown moulding has likewise a 
 very respectable breadth. The cornice and frieze are well propor- 
 tioned to each other and to the whole composition. They partake 
 more strongly of the original Doric character than those of any 
 other Roman example. The architrave is too low and in bad taste. 
 The capital is too rich ; and, in imitation of all the other Roman 
 
44 THE DORIC ORDER. 
 
 examples, a clumsy necking is substituted for the beautiful channel- 
 ling of the original Doric column. 
 
 In selecting the example here offered to the public, my.mtention 
 has been to adopt such parts of the ancient examples, without regard 
 to the school or country from whence they were taken, as after 
 due consideration were supposed to be best adapted to the present 
 practice. 
 
 I have given eight diameters to the height of the column, in imi- 
 tation of Roman and modern practice ; and to the entablature, two 
 diameters of the column ; because, after a long practice and due 
 consideration, I am persuaded that, for a general proportion, it is to 
 be preferred to any other, and that the average of the Grecian 
 entablatures were nearly of this height. 
 
 Sir William Chambers and some other modern architects have 
 proportioned the entablature by the height of the column, and not 
 by its thickness, making it one fourth part of that height. This 
 practice should not be imitated. A Doric column, one foot in 
 diameter, would be eight feet in height. The above rule would give 
 one fourth of this height, or two feet, to the height of the entablature. 
 But a Corinthian column, one foot in diameter, would be ten feet in 
 height ; and therefore the same rule would make the height of the 
 entablature two feet six inches. Now it will be readily admitted, 
 that the Doric column, of one foot in diameter and eight feet in 
 height, is capable of sustaining a greater weight than the Corinthian 
 column of the same diameter and ten feet in height. This rule is 
 therefore defective ; because the Corinthian column would not be 
 capable of sustaining so heavy a weight as the Doric, at the same 
 time that it would be loaded with an entablature one fifth higher 
 than that of the Doric. On the authority of Vitruvius, we suppose 
 that the proportions of the Doric order were taken from those of a 
 
THE DORIC ORDER. 45 
 
 robust man ; and of the Corinthian, from those of a young female ; 
 and it appears inconsistent to load the latter, therefore, with a 
 
 greater burden than the former. 
 
 It is not however supposed that two diameters of the column will 
 at all times and in all places be the best proportion for the entabla- 
 ture. Circumstances may require the proportion to b» varied. 
 When used for inside finishing, or any other place where lightness 
 is desired, the entablature may be lowered to one hundred and ten 
 or fifteen minutes ; and when it is charged, or apparently charged, 
 with any very heavy burden, it may in that case be raised to the 
 height of an hundred and twenty-five or thirty minutes. 
 
 There is not, to my knowledge, a single instance among all the 
 ancient examples of this order where a base is added to the column, 
 the column being so large as not to require one for the sake of an 
 appearance of stability. 
 
 In this example I have adopted the ancient practice. There rfiay, 
 however, cases arise in practice, where it would be proper to add a 
 base ; as, for instance, when the whole composition is small, and the 
 column apparently required to support some heavy burden ; and, 
 when the lower extremity; viewed in connection with the burden 
 upon the column, does not appear capable of sustaining the weight 
 without indenting itself into the plinth or step on which it stands ; 
 in which cases the attic base would add to the beauty and apparent 
 stability of the whole composition. 
 
 In the fluting of the column, and also in the formation of the 
 capital, the Grecian practice has been imitated, with one deviation ; 
 which deviation is to be found in the number of annulets in the 
 capital. In the Grecian practice, from three to five was the con- 
 stant number employed ; but the largest number occupies a space 
 of only two minutes, which, when divided into nine lines or angles, 
 
 12 
 
46 THE DORIC ORDER. 
 
 the number required for* their formation, reduces each member to so 
 small a space as to render it indistinct. They are not therefore 
 in keeping with the massive details of. the remaining parts of the 
 order. In this example the Grecian arrangement of the annulets is 
 preserved, but the number is reduced to two. 
 
 In the divisions of the entablature, the Grecian practice has been 
 imitated, ^e frieze is in one plane, capped by a tenia, under 
 which, and directly under eacfi triglyph, is a regula, to which are 
 suspended six drops or gutta?. They are not in imitation of either 
 the Greek or Roman practice, but a mean between the two. 
 
 The angles of the frieze are finished by two triglyphs, meeting 
 each other so that the half channels on the edges of each triglyph 
 are in the same plane. The triglyphs are thirty minutes in front, 
 and seventy-five from centre to centre, leaving the metopes forty- 
 five minutes. A triglyph must be placed exactly over the centre of 
 each column, except those which support the angles of the entabla- 
 ture. Under the plancer of the cornice, and directly over each 
 triglyph, and also over each metope, is placed a mutule, whose width 
 is equal to the breadth of the triglyph ; and to the under surface of 
 each mutule are hung eighteen drops in three rows, of six in each 
 row. 
 
 PLATE X. 
 
 Fig. 1 exhibits a method of diminishing the shaft of a column in 
 the Roman style. Let the line A B be the centre and height of the 
 shaft. On A, with a radius of one half of the diameter at the base 
 of the column, describe the half circle o c. Draw 4 a, parallel to 
 o c, and equal to the diameter of the column at its neck. Divide o 
 4, on the circular Une, intc*four equal parts, ancKjoin 3 e , 2 d, and If. 
 Divide A B into four parts. Make the diameter at 1 equal to 1 f ; 
 
 ^-* -^ . % 
 
THE DORIC ORDER. 47 
 
 at 2, to 2 d ; and at 3, to 3 e ; and draw the curve lines o h and c g, 
 which will give the outline required. 
 
 This method of diminishing columns is introduced here, because 
 custom seems to require it, and not as a recommendation for its use. 
 I do not know of any situation where the Grecian system is not 
 decidedly preferable. It is said that the shafts of columns were at 
 first made of trunks of trees, and afterwards in imitation of them. 
 But although the trunk of a tree diminishes upwards, yet the lines 
 of its sides are straight, or nearly so ; so that the Grecian architects 
 showed their wisdom in closely adhering to this natural and grace- 
 ful form. It is well known that a column, whose sides are in straight 
 lines, will appear as though its sides were gently curved inwards ; 
 for which cause the Grecian architects undoubtedly made the sides 
 of their columns to swell gently outwards, with the intention that 
 they should appear to be straight to the eye. This practice should 
 be imitated. 
 
 Fig. 2 exhibits a design for a capital to a pilaster ; fig. 3, that of 
 a column. Fig. 4 shows one quarter of the plan of the column at 
 both base and neck, having described upon it the section of^the 
 flutes. The clotted line d a is the boundary of the diameter at the 
 base, and e b that at the neck. The line cf shows the depth of the 
 channel, which separates the shaft from the capital. Fig. 5 shows 
 a method of describing the outline of a Doric flute bv centres. Di- 
 vide o 5, the breadth of a flute, into five equal parts ; and on o and 5, 
 with a radius equal to o 5, make the intersection d ; and from d, 
 through the points 1 and 4, draw lines produced to b and c ; then 
 divide each of the lines d 4 and d 1 into five equal parts ; on a and 
 a, with the radius a 5 or a o, describe o b and c 5. Lastly, on d, 
 with the radius d c, or d b, describe b c. 
 
 This method of describing a flute by centres has been exhibited 
 
48 THE DORIC ORDER. 
 
 more for the purpose of showing the student some rule by which he 
 may be governed in relation to the general shape and depth of the 
 flute, than of recommending it as the best method of forming the 
 outline. It should be remembered that a real ellipsis is in all situa- 
 tions to be preferred to an imitation made by parts of circles. 
 
 PLATE XI. 
 
 On this plate are represented the details of the Doric Entablature, 
 the outlines of which are accurately drawn on a large scale, and 
 figured with all those members uncovered, which are necessarily 
 concealed in a direct front view behind the member next above 
 them. 
 
 Fig. 1 exhibits the cornice with the plancer inverted. H H shows 
 designs of the mutules, with all their parts figured in minutes. G 
 shows a section of the triglyph with its cap. The honeysuckle here 
 introduced was frequently employed in the best Grecian examples 
 to decorate that plain part of the plancer, and it is admirably adapt- 
 ed to that purpose. It may, however, be left off with propriety, 
 when expense is to be avoided, or when plainness is desired. 
 
 Fig. 3 exhibits an example of the triglyph with its details, all of 
 which are accurately figured in minutes. A represents a front, and 
 B a side view of one of the guttao, drawn on a large scale. C shows 
 the inverted plan of A, and D that of B. The circular line / en- 
 closes the base of A and e, the neck. B is supposed to match the 
 angle of the architrave, as is shown at E. h at D shows the larger, 
 and g the smaller diameter of the guttse. F shows the depth of 
 the channelling of the triglyph, and also its form at its upper 
 extremity. 
 

2®SS"2© ©IB! 
 
49 
 
 THE IONIC ORDER 
 
 PLATE XII. 
 
 I shall here speak of the examples and practice of this order by 
 its original proprietors, the Greeks, and likewise by the Romans. 
 
 There have been many fine examples discovered among the 
 antiquities of Greece : and although, like the Doric, the Ionic order 
 appears from these examples to have been practised by the Greeks 
 with great latitude ; since some were decorated with a profusion of 
 mouldings, which were covered with the most beautiful enrichments, 
 while others had but few mouldings, and these exceedingly plain ; 
 yet all adhere strongly to a certain original and peculiar form. 
 
 The height of the column was originally eight diameters. Its 
 shaft was decorated with twenty-four flutes, and as many fillets. In 
 many of the best specimens, the flutes descended and followed the 
 curve to the scape of the column. The base was generally about 
 one half of the diameter of the column, and wholly composed of 
 mouldings ; the step on which it stood, answering for a plinth. When 
 of the attic kind, the scotia was very flat, its section forming an 
 elliptic curve, and was divided from the upper torus by a fillet. 
 It generally projected as far as the extremity of the torus, and was 
 therefore very much exposed to fracture, especially if of small 
 dimensions. It had a very unsolid aspect, and was in fact inferior 
 in solidity and fitness to the attic base, as practised by the Romans. 
 The base to the columns of the Ionic Temple, on the river Ilyssus, 
 had its upper torus fluted. 
 
 The great distinguishing feature of the Ionic order, is the capital. 
 In the best specimens, the lower edge of the channel, which runs 
 
 13 
 
50 THE IONIC ORDER. 
 
 between the volutes, is formed into a curve bending downwards in 
 the middle and revolving about the spirals on either side. In some 
 examples, each volute has two channels, formed by two distinct 
 spiral borders. The borders forming the exterior volute and the 
 under side of the lower channel, have between them a deep recess, 
 or spiral groove, which diminishes gradually in breadth till it is lost 
 to the eye. 
 
 In this last example, there are so many spiral lines revolving about 
 the eye, that, unless the volute be extremely large, the parts will 
 appear confused and indistinct. It will not therefore be the best 
 example for imitation. 
 
 One of the best examples of this capital, for imitation, is taken 
 from the Temple on the river Uyssus. The simple dignity and 
 grandeur of its parts, the beautiful contour of the volutes, and the 
 graceful curve of the hem hanging between them, are in themselves 
 calculated to render it superior to most others. Another very beau- 
 tiful and more ornamented example of this capital is taken from 
 the Temple of Minerva Polias, at Priene. The proportions are 
 somewhat varied from those of the last example ; but they are 
 equally elegant and worthy of imitation. 
 
 In most of the Asiatic remains of this order the frieze is missing, 
 and therefore the height of the entablature cannot be accurately 
 ascertained. The only instance in which a frieze has been disco- 
 vered, is in the Theatre at Laodicea. There, it is somewhat less 
 than one fifth of the height of the entablature. In the Asiatic prac- 
 tice, great deviations were allowed. For instance, in the little Ionic 
 Temple near the river Uyssus, we see the cornice deprived of its 
 legitimate ornament the dentil, and the architrave separated from 
 the frieze by an ovolo, which was finished by a bead below, and 
 above by a fillet, the fascia of the architrave being very broad and in 
 
THE IONIC ORDER. 51 
 
 one vertical plane. The bed-mould consists of a cirna-reversa, fin- 
 ished below with a bead, both of which are recessed up into the 
 soffit of the corona. The corona has a great projection and height. 
 The crown-moulding is a cima-recta of great height and small 
 projection, separated from the corona by a cymatium and fillet. The 
 mouldings are all left entire, without any enrichments whatever. 
 
 In other examples, such as the Temple of Bacchus at Teos, and 
 the Temple of Minerva Polias at Priene, the entablatures have 
 the dentil, accompanied by a number of chaste and appropriate 
 mouldings, the contours of which are ornamented with a profusion 
 of delicate enrichments. Although a marked difference is to be 
 seen in the proportions of these two examples, they are, notwith- 
 standing, both of them extremely beautiful. The architrave is com- 
 posed of three plain fascia?, separated from the frieze by an ovolo, 
 which is finished below with a bead, and above with a cavetto and 
 fillet. It has before been stated that the frieze was missing, and it 
 cannot, therefore, be ascertained whether it was ornamented or 
 plain ; but as the other parts of the composition were highly orna- 
 mented, it is reasonable to suppose that this member was so like- 
 wise. The cornices in these two examples do not differ essentially, 
 the dentil being common to both ; but, in the Temple of Minerva, 
 they are singularly prominent, having a projection equal to that of 
 the modillion employed in this order by Palladio and other modern 
 architects. The moulding which separated the dentil from the frieze 
 is wanting ; but probably it was an ovolo and a bead, like the one 
 which crowns and finishes the bed-mould. This moulding is recessed 
 up into the soffit of the corona, which nearly conceals its height. 
 The corona has a great projection, and is finished above by a cyma- 
 tium and fillet, and crowned by a cima-recta of great height and 
 small projection. In all the Asiatic Ionics, the crownings of the 
 cornices are cima-recta less in projection than in height. 
 
52 THE IONIC ORDER. 
 
 Among the Roman examples we observe great deviations, the 
 effect of which is to degenerate the beautiful Ionic, so happily pre- 
 served in all the Greek examples. In the shaft of the cplumn no 
 marked difference appears to have existed, except in the example 
 from the Temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome, which had only 
 twenty flutes and as many fillets. The base of this example is of 
 the attic kind, and its details are well proportioned to themselves 
 and the columns. Taken as a whole, it is a beautiful specimen, 
 much superior in arrangement and effect to any of the Asiatic Ionic 
 bases. The different members of which the capital is composed, 
 do not bear that harmonious proportion to each other which appears 
 in the beautiful Greek original. The echinus, and the astragal 
 below it, are too massive for the remaining part of the composition, 
 and the space between the upper extremity of the echinus and the 
 lower edge of the fillet of the volute is too small. The entablature 
 is one hundred and thirty-eight minutes in height. The architrave 
 is thirty-nine minutes, of the same height, and is divided into three 
 fascise, the upper edges of which recede about one fourth of a minute 
 from a vertical line. The middle fascia is singularly decorated with 
 an ornamented bead, situated near its centre, and is capped by a 
 very flat cima-reversa and a broad fillet above it. The frieze is 
 twenty-nine minutes in height, and is profusely ornamented. The 
 cornice is seventy minutes in height. Its bed-mould is composed 
 of a dentil band, faintly marked, and is separated from the frieze by 
 a cima-reversa with its fillets, and a band of singular shape, above 
 which is an ovolo, which finishes the bed-mould 
 
 The corona is very low, and in shape and arrangement resembles 
 that in Palladio's Tuscan order. The mouldings above it consist 
 of a cymatium, a broad fillet and a cima-recta, of great height and 
 projection. All the mouldings in the entablature, except the cyma- 
 tium under the crown moulding, are highly enriched. 
 
THE IONIC ORDER. 53 
 
 A leading defect in this cornice is, that the corona does not suffi- 
 ciently predominate over the other members. It seems to have lost 
 its honorable" station as principal. This defect might have been 
 removed by giving to the corona more projection and more height. 
 Another striking defect is in tl-e too great abundance and magni- 
 tude of the mouldings, particularly of those above the corona. The 
 cornice occupies the large space of seventy minutes, which is in 
 itself a defect, incapable of being remedied by the most judicious 
 distribution of its details. 
 
 The next Roman example of which I shall speak, is taken from 
 the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome. The capital is more defective 
 than that last described ; but in the entablature, the proportions are 
 more judiciously arranged. The cornice is not so massive, nor so 
 abundant in mouldings. The architrave is composed of three plain 
 fasciae, separated from the frieze by a cima-reversa and fillet. Al- 
 though this entablature, both in the whole and in its parts, is decid- 
 edly preferable to that of the foregoing example, still it falls far 
 short of the Greek originals, and is not therefore worthy of our 
 imitation. 
 
 Another example, taken from the Coliseum at Rome, is, in its 
 entablature, divided into three parts. The architrave is similar to 
 the one last described, having the fasciae not in a vertical line, but 
 receding by their top edge about three-fourths of a minute. The 
 frieze is plain. The bed-mould of the cornice is composed of a 
 dentil, finished below by a cymatium, and above by an ovolo. The 
 corona has a good projection, and is tolerably high. The crown 
 moulding is composed of a cymatium, fillet and cima-recta of good 
 proportions. The capital is slightly finished, the volutes ending 
 after about one and a quarter revolutions. It is in its proportions 
 similar to the two last described. 
 
 14 
 
54 THE IONIC ORDER. 
 
 Only one more Roman example will be mentioned, and this not 
 as an example worthy of imitation, but that we may avoid it. 
 
 This example is from the Temple of Concord at Rome. The 
 capital being of the angular kind, its volutes are very small and 
 bolstered up on a series of mouldings of large size and not at all 
 adapted to the capital. Although the mouldings are highly enrich- 
 ed, yet the capital is defective in all its details, no one seeming to 
 be well adapted to the place it occupies. 
 
 The architrave consists of two plain fasciae and a cavetto. The 
 projection of the frieze is equal to that of the architrave. The 
 architrave did not extend across the front of the temple. The whole 
 space between the lower extremity of the cornice down to the capi- 
 tal is in one plane, without any intervening moulding. 
 
 The cornice is of itself singularly constructed. In the bed-mould 
 it has dentils and mutules, the dentils being small and the mutules 
 of a novel construction. The plancer of the cornice is enriched 
 with a panel recessed up into the soffit of the corona, and between 
 each two of the mutules, in which is a very rich rosette. This cor- 
 nice, with some alterations, might be used with success in many 
 situations ; but it does not belong to the legitimate Ionic. 
 
 The example here exhibited is decidedly Grecian, the base being 
 the only member which can claim any affinity to the Roman prac- 
 tice. The different members of this composition have been care- 
 fully selected from the most approved specimens of this order, with 
 such deviations therefrom as were supposed necessary to adapt them 
 completely to the American practice. Nor were they hastily brought 
 into the form which they now assume ; for my practice, as an 
 architect, has favored me with frequent opportunities of having this 
 example* wrought by the most skilful workmen, and of removing 
 
 * The other orders, and nearly every example, in this publication, have gone through the same process as 
 that of the Ionic order. 
 
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 THE IONIC ORDER. 55 
 
 original defects, after a diligent examination of each member sepa- 
 rately and collectively. 
 
 The column is here supposed to be nine diameters in altitude ; a 
 height which seem:- ■>• be the standard for modern practice. Its 
 base is attic, and in imitation of the Roman practice. The shaft 
 of the column is divided into twenty-four flutes, and as many fillets. 
 The capital is, with some deviations, taken from that found on the 
 Ionic Temple on the river Ilyssus at Athens. The entablature is 
 two diameters in height. The architrave is divided into three fas- 
 ciae, of nearly equal height. The cornice is decorated with its 
 legitimate ornament the dentil. 
 
 PLATE XIII. 
 
 On this plate are exhibited the details of the Ionic order. Those 
 of the preceding orders having been fully illustrated in their proper 
 place, it is hardly necessary to repeat nearly the same explanations 
 here. 
 
 B exhibits a plan of one quarter of the column at its base, and 
 also at its neck, with the flutes and fillets drawn thereon. It has 
 been stated before, that twenty-four flutes and as many fillets are 
 the constant number employed to decorate the column. If you 
 divide this quarter, therefore, into six parts, and one of these again 
 into four parts, three of the latter will be equal to the breadth of a 
 flute, and one to that of a fillet. On 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, as centres, 
 describe the flutes. The outline of each flute will then be one half 
 of a circle ; which is, perhaps, the most suitable shape for the sec- 
 tion of the flute, if the column be of small dimensions and does not 
 exceed about fifteen inches in diameter ; but if its size be much 
 increased, it will be wise to cause the outline of its section to form 
 
56 THE IONIC ORDER. 
 
 an ellipsis, the breadth and depth of which may be in about the pro- 
 portion of A. A section of the latter fund is drawn, by dividing the 
 breadth of the flute into four parts, ^nd on 1 and 3, and with the 
 radius 1 3, making tiie intersection a ; through 1 and 3, drawing a 1 
 produced to c, and also a 3 produced t&'e ; on 1 describing b c, and 
 on 3 describing 4 e ; and then on a describing e c. 
 
 It may be asked by some, why the section of a flute should be a 
 half circle on a column of small dimensions, and an ellipsis on one 
 of large dimensions. The reasons are, that a flute of one inch or 
 less in breadth will not be too strongly marked when its depth is 
 equal to one half of its breadth ; nor is the tasteless outline of a half 
 circle so apparent in that case as in a flute of larger dimensions. 
 And again, when the flutes are of large dimensions and wrought on 
 stone, the elliptical form saves considerable labor ; and if made of 
 wood, the same form will not require planks of so great thickness 
 as the half circle. 
 
 Second Example of the Ionic Order. 
 
 PLATE XIV. 
 
 This example is in imitation of that taken from the little Ionic 
 Temple near the river Ilyssus at Athens, with such deviations as 
 were supposed necessary to adapt it to modern practice. The 
 column is an exact fac-simile of its prototype, with the exception 
 of a little more diminution in the shaft. The base is without a 
 plinth, and the upper torus is fluted. In the proportion of its mould- 
 ings and their outlines, a considerable deviation is perceptible. In 
 the capital, the height of the volutes is exactly equal to that of 
 the original ; but their breadth is somewhat reduced, so that they 
 approach near to the elliptical form. The fillet which forms the 
 
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THE IONIC ORDER. 57 
 
 boundary of the volutes is plain, the bead in the original being left 
 off. This fillet is not in a vertical line, but projects in its course 
 to the eye about one minute. The honeysuckle, whose stem springs 
 from the point of separation between the volute and hem, which 
 connects the two volutes, is somewhat enlarged, and extends down 
 over a part of the echinus. 
 
 The entablature is only two diameters in altitude. The archi- 
 trave and frieze are nearly equal in height. To the band of the 
 architrave is added one moulding more than is found in the original. 
 The frieze was ornamented with sculpture ; and the circumstance 
 that a large space was required to give it sufficient boldness, was 
 probably the cause of the entablature being made of an extraordi- 
 nary height, and of the bed-mould being reduced in size. It was 
 wholly recessed up into the soffit of the corona. In this example, 
 as the frieze is plain, the bed-mould is considerably enlarged ; but 
 the same outlines of mouldings are retained as are to be found in 
 the original. The other parts of the cornice do not differ essentially 
 from their prototype. 
 
 PLATE XV. 
 
 On this plate the cornice, architrave, and the base of the preced- 
 ing plate, drawn on a large scale, are exhibited. The base is in 
 the Grecian taste. Its upper torus is fluted ; and the lower one is 
 elliptical, and supposed to stand on a step. The student has already 
 been advised of the importance of faithfully imitating the outline of 
 Grecian mouldings. 
 
 PLATE XVI. 
 
 On this plate is exhibited a method of drawing the Ionic volute, 
 particularly adapted to the two preceding capitals. At the distance 
 
 15 
 
58 THE IONIC ORDER. 
 
 of two minutes from the shaft of the column, draw the vertical line 
 a 6. On the point o as a centre, which is twenty minutes distant 
 from a, describe the eye, giving it a diameter of seven minutes. 
 At the distance of one and one fourth of a minute above and below 
 the eye, draw lines at right angles with a 6 ; and at the distance of 
 one and one half of a minute from 6 a, and parallel with 6 a, draw 
 the line 10 11. This completes the outline of the square. Then, 
 from the point o, draw diagonals to 10 and 11 ; divide o 10, and o 
 11, each into r three equal parts, and from those points, and at right 
 angles with 6 a, draw lines, cutting the diagonals at 2 6, and 3 7 ; 
 and those points, together with the angles of the square, and 12, 
 will be the twelve centres, from which the volute must be drawn. 
 
 On 1 in the square, and with the radius 1 c, describe c d. On 2, 
 and with the radius 2 d, describe d e. On 3, and with the radius 
 3 e, describe e f. On 4, and with the radius 4 f, describe f g. 
 This completes one revolution. From 5, describe g h ; on 6, de- 
 scribe h i ; on 7, describe i j ; on 8, describe j k ; on 9, describe 
 k I ; on 10, describe I m ; on 11, describe m n ; and on 12, which, 
 it must be observed, is one minute on the left hand side of the square, 
 describe n p ; which completes the outline of the volute. To draw 
 the inside line of the fillet, divide its breadth into twelve parts, and 
 make the fillet at n equal to eleven of them. Then make m equal to 
 ten parts, and I equal to nine parts, and continue to diminish the fillet 
 one twelfth at each quarter of a revolution, until it loses itself in a 
 point at the upper extremity of the eye. 
 
 B exhibits the extreme outline of the fillet and eye of the volute, 
 figured in minutes. 
 
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THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. 59 
 
 PLATE XVII. 
 
 On this plate is exhibited an inverted plan and a front and side 
 elevation of the Ionic capital. Its different members are figured in 
 minutes ; and it is believed that these details will be clearly under- 
 stood, without further explanation. 
 
 THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 PLATE XVIII. 
 
 Before selecting and arranging the members, of which the 
 example here exhibited is composed, the few remaining examples 
 in Greece, and many fine ones in Rome, and also the drawings of 
 this order by the most celebrated modern architects, were carefully 
 and critically examined, with a view to select from them such of 
 their details as were supposed to be best adapted to the composition 
 of the order. 
 
 In the shaft of the column, less deviation is observed in the exam- 
 ples above alluded to, than in any other of its members. When 
 the periphery of the shaft was divided into flutes and fillets, twenty- 
 four of each was the constant number employed. In its altitude, 
 greater deviation was visible. Vitruvius makes the shaft, excluding 
 the capital, just equal to that of the Ionic. It however was some- 
 times made ten diameters in altitude, though it generally fell short 
 of that height. In the capital, great deviations are also visible. 
 Vitruvius limits its height to one diameter of the column; but it is in 
 the best examples about seventy minutes, and this height is gene- 
 
60 THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 rally adopted in modern practice. In some of the ancient examples 
 of this capital, the angles of the abacus extend beyond the volute, 
 and terminate in an acute angle. This practice is not, however, 
 mentioned here as being worthy of our imitation, but to be avoided. 
 In the details of the sculpture of this capital, there does not appear 
 to be any two examples which are exactly alike. It is therefore 
 reasonable to suppose that the architects, after having arranged the 
 general proportions, exercised their own fancy and judgment in 
 filling up the smaller and less important parts. The capital here 
 exhibited is in imitation, with some few trifling deviations, of that 
 beautiful one left us by Andrew Palladio. Its fine graceful form, 
 and the chasteness of its sculpture, render it most worthy of our 
 imitation. The base is that known by the name of the attic base. 
 When it has been rejected in this order, its substitute has generally 
 been composed of a great variety and profusion of mouldings, many 
 of which must consequently be small, and the effect of course 
 confused and unstable. It is believed that the attic base, as here 
 exhibited, approaches nearer to perfection than any other ; for in 
 the mouldings of which it is composed, a peculiar fitness one to the 
 other is observable, whether they be viewed in relation to their size 
 or shape, which could hardly be found in any different form. 
 
 The entablature is two diameters and eight minutes in height, 
 and similar to that of many others, though not an exact imitation of 
 any one. The architrave is forty minutes in height, and divided 
 into three fascia? of nearly equal height. The first and second are 
 divided by a rectangular projection, and the second and third by a 
 bead. It is capped by a compound moulding, consisting of the 
 echinus, with a bead below and a fillet above it. 
 
 The frieze is thirty-six minutes in height, and is left plain ; but it 
 was profusely ornamented in many of the ancient examples, the 
 
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 Elevation 
 
 Section 
 
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THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. 61 
 
 character of which uniformly partook of that of the structure which 
 they served to adorn. 
 
 The cornice is fifty-two minutes in height. Many difficulties 
 must be encountered in composing and adjusting its members, caus- 
 ed principally by the great height and bulk of the bed-mould, when 
 compared with those of the corona and crown moulding. Every 
 cornice is divided into three parts : viz. the corona, which is the 
 centre and principal member, and to which the other two are only 
 subservient ; the bed-mould, which is to support and strengthen the 
 corona ; and the crown moulding, which is to fortify and defend it 
 from falling water. It is therefore wise to reduce the altitude of 
 the bed-mould, as much as possible, without lessening too much the 
 height of the mouldings therein contained, and to add so much to 
 the height of the corona as to place it in its proper and honorable 
 station as principal ; and also to give so much height to the crown 
 moulding, that it will appear sufficiently strong to fortify, strengthen 
 and shelter its principal, the corona, without projecting so much as 
 to cause the appearance of weakness and instability. 
 
 PLATE XIX. 
 
 This plate at A exhibits a plan of the capital inverted, showing 
 the section of the flutes on the shaft of the column, and also a sec- 
 tion of the leaves and stalks, and their projections from the' body of 
 the capital. The lower extremity of the projections of the leaves 
 of the volutes and abacus is also shown. The circular outlines of 
 the plan of the different faces to the abacus are drawn with a radius 
 equal to the chord line of the whole extremity of the circle. 
 
 B exhibits a front elevation, on which the breadth and height of 
 the leaves, volutes and abacus are clearly represented. C exhibits 
 
 16 
 
62 THE COMPOSITE ORDER. 
 
 a section on which the heights and projections of the leaves, scrolls 
 and abacus are figured in minutes. 
 
 PLATE XX. 
 
 This plate exhibits all the members of which the entablature is 
 composed, together with the base. They are all drawn to a large 
 scale, and figured in minutes. In the cornice, is a front and side 
 view of the modillion, and also its under surface, showing the par- 
 ticular form and outline of each of them. 
 
 THE COMPOSITE ORDER. 
 
 PLATE XXI. 
 
 It has before been stated that this order is not now in public 
 favor ; nor does it appear to have been held in much estimation 
 since the days of the Roman emperors. It nevertheless has had a 
 place assigned to it in all, or nearly all, the practical books on 
 architecture for the last century. This order was employed by the 
 Romans in their triumphal arches, and in other similar structures. 
 It was ornamented in the most profuse manner ; every member, 
 where propriety did not forbid it, being covered with the most costly 
 and beautiful ornaments. It is, therefore, reasonable to suppose 
 that it could not have been viewed with that impartiality with which 
 it would have been, if dressed in plain attire ; in which case the eye 
 would, at a glance, comprehend the whole outline of the order, and 
 
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THE COMPOSITE ORDER. 63 
 
 immediately decide on its merits, instead of being, as it in fact was, 
 so fascinated in viewing the great profusion of the most costly and 
 elegant enrichments, as to overlook the general outline of the com- 
 position. Believing these views to be correct, and that this order 
 ought either to be left out, or in some way to be revised and 
 modernized, I have been induced to examine in the most critical 
 manner all the examples in my possession ; and the result has been 
 a determination to try my skill on its reform. How well I have 
 succeeded, it is not my part to decide. Had it been one of the 
 established orders, I should have shrunk from the task ; but as this 
 composition is denied the name and rank of an order by many of 
 our most eminent modern architects, it is thought to be a fit subject 
 to work upon. The shaft of the column does not require any 
 alteration from that found in the ancient examples of this order, it 
 being there a close imitation of the Corinthian shaft, as described 
 in the explanation of that order. 
 
 The base of the column has been left off, because it was generally 
 the same in character and effect as that which adorned the Corin- 
 thian column. The one here substituted is in the Grecian style, 
 inasmuch as the upper torus is fluted, in imitation of many of the 
 best examples of Grecian bases ; and the lower torus terminates, 
 and is supposed to stand, on a step without an intervening plinth. 
 
 The lower Corinthian part of the capital is in exact imitation of 
 that found on the arch of Septimus Severus at Rome : but in the 
 upper, or Ionic part, there are many deviations ; such as the drop- 
 ping of the echinus and bead lower down, the effect of which is to 
 reduce the plain, naked and awkward space, left between those 
 mouldings and the termination of the long leaves, and to make a 
 union between the upper and lower parts of the capital, so as to 
 give it the appearance of one piece of composition. Before this 
 
64 THE COMPOSITE ORDER. 
 
 deviation took place, there was a complete separation between the 
 upper and lower parts of the capital. 
 
 Again, in each face of the upper part of the capital, the stiff 
 awkward form of the Roman Ionic capital has given place to the 
 graceful Grecian. The latter change cannot fail to be approved 
 by all those who are judges of this art. 
 
 In the cornice, the modillion, which generally made one pretty 
 large member of the bed-mould, has been left off, and a dentil sub- 
 stituted in its place. In this procedure, the cornice of the example, 
 from which the leaves of the capital were taken, has been imitated ; 
 but in no other respect can I claim protection for that, or any other 
 example of that order. 
 
 I have endeavored to give to this composition a more systematic 
 arrangement, than that which it has heretofore possessed. It has 
 already been stated, in describing the origin of this order, that it 
 was borrowed from the Corinthian and Ionic ; that, from the upper 
 extremity of the long leaves, down to the termination of the base, it 
 was Corinthian ; that the upper part of the capital was Ionic, and 
 the entablature a mixture of both orders. 
 
 The only difference in expense, between this composition and the 
 Ionic, is, then, that of the leaves, which form the lower part of the 
 capital. As now modernized and reformed, it will probably in 
 many situations be found worthy of imitation. 
 
 PLATE XXII. 
 
 On this plate are the base, the architrave, and the cornice, all 
 carefully drawn on a large scale and figured in minutes. 
 
 The volute of this capital is much smaller than that of the Ionic ; 
 and it therefore became necessary to give a rule for describing the 
 
 
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PEDESTALS. 65 
 
 outline of one adapted to this example. The vertical height of the 
 volute is twenty-eight and one half minutes, and its breadth twenty- 
 four and three fourth minutes. The eye is six minutes in diameter ; 
 and the square within the eye, where are to be seen all the centres 
 on which the outline is described, is two minutes in height and one 
 in breadth. In all the other particulars, the directions given for 
 drawing the Ionic volute will apply here. 
 
 PLATE XXIII. 
 
 On this plate is exhibited an inverted plan of the Composite capi- 
 tal, and also a front elevation and section of it. Care has been 
 taken with the drawings that they should be correct, and their 
 different members be figured in minutes. 
 
 PEDESTALS 
 
 Pedestals have been considered and treated as a part of an 
 order by most of the authors who have published practical books 
 on this subject, from Palladio down to the present time. They 
 seem properly to belong to the Roman system of the orders ; for, 
 in that practice, the columns, which served to support and adorn the 
 superb Roman Temples, were based on a continued pedestal, which 
 extended a sufficient distance front of each portico to permit the 
 steps ascending into the Temple to terminate against its sides. 
 In those cases, the floor of the portico was in the same plane with 
 
 17 
 
66 PEDESTALS. 
 
 the upper extremity of the pedestal. Nor was this the only situa- 
 tion in which the Romans employed pedestals. They were used 
 by them in the second and third orders, when placed one over the 
 other, as in the Coliseum, the Theatre of Marcellus, &c. The 
 pedestal was also employed in their triumphal arches, and in several 
 other places. It seems, indeed, to have been quite a favorite with 
 that renowned people ; whence those architects who, having never 
 seen the Grecian antiquities, had drawn their information from those 
 of Rome, naturally imitated the Roman practice by adapting the 
 pedestal to their times and circumstances. 
 
 But those who have lived in later times, and had the advantage 
 of studying, not only the antiquities of Rome, but also those of 
 Greece, have very generally adopted the Grecian practice, in which 
 but few pedestals are found. The columns which adorned their 
 magnificent temples, always stood upon the uppermost of three 
 steps, which extended all around the buildings, each step being in 
 height proportioned to the size of the building, and not, as in com- 
 mon stairs, to the human step. There is not, I believe, a single 
 instance, where the Greeks employed columns over columns on the 
 exterior of any of their temples. They, therefore, had no use for 
 pedestals. There are, however, a very few instances, in which 
 pedestals were employed ; such as in the Choragic Monument of 
 Lysicrates at Athens, and also at one wing of the Erictheas, &c. : 
 but these instances were innovations, which took place subsequently 
 to the loss of Grecian independence. 
 
 It cannot, therefore, be supposed that the pedestal will be held 
 in very high estimation by those who adopt the Grecian system 
 of the orders. Nevertheless, there will arise, in practice, situa- 
 tions where the pedestal will be not only proper, but absolutely 
 necessarv. 
 
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* 
 
 
PEDESTALS. 67 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
 The proportion of the pedestal to the order which it supports has 
 not been determined. Sir William Chambers proposes three tenths 
 of the height of the order for that of the pedestal.' He then divides 
 the height of the pedestal into nine parts ; one of which he gives to 
 the cornice, two to the base, and six to the dye. It is, however, 
 generally admitted, that no determinate rule can be given, which 
 will suit all situations where the pedestal may be required. It must, 
 therefore, be left to him who sees and knows all the circumstances 
 of the case, to give to it such a proportion as seems to him best 
 suited to the occasion. * 
 
 When pedestals are employed in balustrades over an order of 
 columns, the dye should be, in breadth, equal to the thickness of the 
 column at its neck ; and in height, equal to that of the entablature 
 on which it stands. A pedestal should be placed exactly over each 
 column and pilaster in the facade. The plinth of the pedestal must 
 be placed vertically over the frieze of the entablature. 
 
 When pedestals are employed for the support of columns, the 
 breadth of the dye must be equal to the diameter of the base of the 
 column ; and the height, generally from two diameters fifteen minutes 
 to two diameters forty-five minutes. 
 
 PLATE XXIV. 
 
 On this plate are examples of the bases and cornices to four 
 different pedestals. Care has been taken, in selecting their details, 
 that they should harmonize with the orders with which they are 
 respectively associated. The base and cornice, selected for the 
 Ionic order, are in imitation of fragments of ornamented mouldings 
 found in the area of the Temple of Rhamnus ; and those for the 
 
68 INTERCOLUMNIATIONS. 
 
 Corinthian order, of the base and cornice of a tomb found at Car- 
 puseli, in Asia Minor. Both examples are singularly beautiful in 
 arrangement and effect. 
 
 INTERCOLUMNIATIONS 
 
 Intercolumniations form a great and distinguished division 
 among the elements of Architecture. In this division are comprised 
 the various modes of adjusting the distances between columns, 
 determined by laws founded on reason, and looking to strength and 
 beauty. Thus the distances of columns from each other are not 
 determined by chance, nor by the caprice of one ignorant of this 
 art ; but according to the rules of proportion, guided by knowledge, 
 discretion, and a refined taste. 
 
 Porticoes, or colonnades, among the ancients were classed under 
 the following names, or styles. 
 
 The first style is called Pycnostyle, or columns thickly set ; and 
 the distance from one column to another in this style is one 
 diameter and a half. The second style is called Systyle ; and the 
 distance between the columns is two diameters. The third style is 
 called Diastyle ; and the distance between the columns is three 
 diameters. The fourth style is called Arreostyle ; and the columns 
 are four diameters from each other. The fifth and last style is 
 called Eustyle ; and the columns are two and one quarter diameters 
 distant from each other. The latter style is said by Vitruvius to be 
 the most pleasing of them all for general use. Besides these styles 
 
INTERCOLUMNIATIONS. 69 
 
 of intercolumniations, porticoes likewise take their names from the 
 number of columns of which they are composed. Having four 
 columns, they are called Tetrastyle ; six columns, Hexastyle ; eight 
 columns, Octastyle ; and ten columns, Decastyle. 
 
 Among the ancients, thedistribution of the columns of their splendid 
 temples was governed by rules, which were at once easy of appli- 
 cation and sure of accomplishing the desired effect ; for, the size 
 and relative position of the columns being first determined, the 
 building of which they made a part was then in most respects made 
 subservient to it. Thus it appears, that, after the extent of the 
 front, the number of columns to be employed, and the order to 
 be imitated, had been determined, the whole of the extent of the 
 front was divided into a number of equal parts, depending on the 
 order and number of columns to be employed, and then one or more 
 of those parts, according to the intended intercolumniation, taken 
 for the diameter of the column. The height of the column and that 
 of the entablature resting upon it were settled according to the 
 order to which they belonged. Thus the facade of the building was 
 formed according to the most rigid rules. The extent of its depth 
 was determined by making the number of columns in the flank 
 equal to one more than twice the number of those in front, counting 
 the angular ones on both front and flank. So much for the practice 
 of the ancients, which was easy and direct. But however much we 
 may desire to imitate this practice, we seldom or never can have 
 that pleasure. Our buildings, whether large or small, one, two, 
 three, or four stories in height, generally have their several apart- 
 ments conveniently and economically distributed, and provided with 
 a sufficient quantity of light, admitted by one, two, or more windows, 
 of a suitable size for that purpose. These circumstances, to the 
 architect desirous of following as much as possible the ancient rules, 
 
 18 
 
70 FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES. 
 
 are jarring elements ; and he finds it a serious business so to adjust 
 them with the proportions and distance of the columns, as to pro- 
 duce a perfect harmony throughout the whole composition. 
 
 It sometimes happens that one order of columns is employed over 
 another. When they are so employed, the stronger should be made 
 to support the weaker ; that is to say, the Tuscan order should 
 support the Doric, and the Doric the Ionic, and so on. Stability 
 also requires that the axis of the upper and lower columns should 
 be in one vertical line. The diameter at the base of the upper co- 
 lumn shoirld be equal to the diameter of the lower one at its neck. 
 
 FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES 
 
 In some specimens of this important portion of architecture, 
 one frequently discovers a strange fancy, exhibited in the unmean- 
 ing cuttings, carvings and twistings of the details, and their frequent 
 breaks over columns, pilasters, tablets, &c, which renders their ap- 
 pearance quite ridiculous to a well-tutored eye. We frequently see 
 a failure, likewise, in the general proportion of their outlines ; such 
 as a disproportionate quantity of glass over and at the sides of the 
 door. It should be remembered that the door is the principal, and 
 the windows are subordinate. The side and fan lights should not, 
 therefore, occupy a larger space than is necessary to admit a suffi- 
 cient quantity of light into the entry ; and where a door is accom- 
 panied by side lights, and a fan light extending over both door and 
 side lights, the outline of its upper extremity should be a segment 
 
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 pi 
 
 
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FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES. 71 
 
 of a circle, and not a straight line. In the latter case, the distance 
 from the upper extremity of the division which separates the door 
 from the fan lights to its top edge, will be so great as to produce the 
 appearance of instability ; which appearance, by the use of a curved 
 line bounded by an arch, is wholly avoided. But where the fan light 
 extends over the door only, a straight line, for its upper extremity, 
 is preferable to any other. 
 
 In adjusting columns, pilasters, architraves, &c. to this species of 
 architecture, nothing will direct the judgment of the student so unerr- 
 ingly as the often-repeated maxim of proportioning the means to 
 the end. Let him therefore bear in mind the extent, situation and 
 character of the building, of which his frontispiece or portico is to 
 make a part, together with the size and decorations of all their 
 elements, as well as the burden which the columns or pilasters to be 
 employed have really or apparently to sustain ; and, if he possesses 
 a good knowledge of the art, the result of his labors will probably 
 be successful. 
 
 PLATE XXV. 
 
 The example of a frontispiece exhibited here, is suitably con- 
 structed for the front of a house of pretty large dimensions. The 
 door is divided in the centre by a vertical line, one half of which 
 will be sufficiently large for the ingress and egress of one person. 
 The advantage gained by this practice is very important in boiste- 
 rous situations, as it will admit but one half as much cold air when 
 opened, as it would were the whole door opened at once. 
 
 This example, together with the preceding ones, are drawn from 
 a scale of one half of an inch to one foot. All their details can, 
 therefore, be accurately measured. This door is four feet two 
 
72 FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES. 
 
 inches in width, and eight feet in height. The width of the narrow 
 rails is four inches and five eighths. That of the bottom rail is 
 nine inches, and that of the middle one seven and three fourth 
 inches. The height of the lower panel is twelve inches ; of the 
 small middle one, seven and one half inches ; and of the upper or 
 frieze panel, nine inches. 
 
 A exhibits sections of a part of the style and panel of the door, 
 and of the mouldings, drawn one half of the full size. B exhibits 
 an example for a tablet, decorated with sculpture, which may be 
 substituted for that in the elevation, when a more ornamented one 
 is desired. The tablet is drawn from a scale of one inch to a foot. 
 m and n represent the fillets which butt against the tablets. They 
 continue round and form the fret. C exhibits a section of the 
 pilasters, as they are connected with the door and wall of the build- 
 ing, drawn from a scale of one fourth of an inch to one foot, d and d 
 show the sections of both front and side of the pilaster. To pro- 
 portion the mouldings to the pilaster, divide the breadth, which is 
 here nine inches, into twelve equal parts ; make the bead equal to 
 one part ; each of the fillets to one and three quarters ; the deep 
 recesses or fillets between the ellipsis and fillets, each equal to one 
 half, and the ellipsis 1o five and one half parts, s represents a small 
 portion of the section of the door, where it shuts into the rabate. 
 
 D exhibits a section of the threshold ; g, the front line of the plinth 
 on which the pilaster rests ; f, a vertical section of the lower extre- 
 mity of the door, extending nearly half of its thickness front of the 
 rabate on the threshold ; and i j, a channel on the under surface 
 of the door, which is intended to prevent the rain, when forced by 
 the wind against the door, from being driven between the door and 
 threshold into the house. When this precaution is attended to, the 
 rain will fall off on its arrival at i, down to the threshold, and descend 
 to the steps. 
 
FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES. 73 
 
 E shows a plan of the steps and threshold, and also a part of the 
 wall on each side of the door. The elevation of these steps is not 
 here represented. Their width is twelve, and their rise eight inches. 
 The upper surface of the top step is in the same plane with that of 
 the buttresses, which are represented at a and a. The buttresses 
 will be three feet in length, two in height, and one foot thick. The 
 distance between them will be equal to the united lengths of the 
 threshold and the plinths. 
 
 PLATE XXVI. 
 
 The plan and elevation of the frontispiece here exhibited is suita- 
 ble for a house of moderate size, or where the story is not sufficiently 
 high to admit a fan light over it, or when a fan light is not desired. 
 The frame of the door and side lights are recessed into the house 
 seven inches. All the details of this example are figured in feet 
 and inches. The tablet and the spaces between the side lights and 
 the threshold are decorated with diamond panels. A represents the 
 tablet, drawn on a scale of one and a half inch to one foot ; C, a 
 side view ; D, the front elevation ; E, the upper surface of the 
 buttress, against which the ends of the steps terminate ; and C 
 exhibits a section of the threshold. 
 
 On Plate XXVII. are exhibited some of the working plans, drawn 
 one quarter of the full size. A and G on fig. 1 represent a section, 
 and A on fig. 2 an elevation, of the large pilaster ; B and D on fig. 
 1 the sections, and D and D on fig. 2 the elevations, of the small 
 pilasters. C on fig. 1 represents the section, and C on fig. 2 the 
 elevation, of the diamond panel. I on fig. 1 represents the section, 
 
 19 
 
74 FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES. 
 
 and I on fig. 2 the elevation, of the plinth on which the pilaster rests ; 
 H on fig. 1 the upper surface, and H on fig. 2 the front view, of the 
 threshold. J shows a front view of a small portion of the threshold, 
 which extends under the door and is moulded on the front. 
 
 PLATE XXVIII. 
 
 The example of a frontispiece here exhibited shows a fan light 
 extending over the door and side lights, its upper edge bounded by 
 a segment of a circle. The spandrels made by this curve, and by the 
 angles of the pilaster and cap, are decorated by a plain honey- 
 suckle, the dimensions of which in practice will be so large that 
 they may be wrought by a carpenter when a carver is not at hand. 
 The tablet and panels under the side lights are likewise decorated 
 with sculpture ; but should this be thought too expensive, plain panels 
 may be substituted. A exhibits a side view of the pilaster and a 
 section of the cap ; B, a section of the steps and a part of the side 
 elevation of the buttress; C, the tablet, drawn from a scale of one 
 inch to a foot ; and D, the plan of the buttress, steps and threshold, 
 and also sections of the pilasters, plinths, &c. As all the essential 
 parts of this example are figured in feet and inches, and as the 
 explanation of the foregoing plates was so full, no further explana- 
 tion will be required here. 
 
 PLATE XXIX. 
 
 The example of a frontispiece on this plate, is, in its door, side, 
 and fan light, similar to the one last described, but differs very 
 widely from that in its other decorations. The pilasters and enta- 
 blature, in their proportions and the outline of their mouldings, are 
 
JPdMMSE©®. 
 
 T130. 
 
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 IV 
 
 __ 
 
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FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES. 75 
 
 in imitation of the column and entablature on Plate VII., with the 
 exception of the capital to the pilaster, which is taken from the 
 Doric antse capital. The panels which decorate the lower part of 
 the door, and those under the side lights, are intended to be diamond 
 panels. In other words, the panel is intended to project forwards 
 in the centre to a right line with the stiles and rails, and from that 
 point to incline on a straight line, and on each of its four sides, to 
 the thickness of the other panels, at its termination against the 
 groove which separates it from the mouldings. A exhibits a plan of 
 the steps, showing the sections of the pilasters and the upper surface 
 of the buttress. 
 
 B shows a section of one half of a pilaster, drawn to a scale of 
 one quarter of the full size. 
 
 The sculpture which crowns the entablature, if thought to be too 
 rich or too expensive, may be left off without affecting the symmetry 
 of the composition. 
 
 PLATE XXX. 
 
 The example of an Ionic portico exhibited on this Plate, is in its 
 general proportions, and the outline of its details, in imitation of the 
 example of that order as represented on Plate XIV. 
 
 A similarity may be remarked in the size and construction of 
 the doors and side lights of this and of all the preceding examples. 
 This sameness I do not strive to avoid, from the belief that a great 
 variety in the size and construction of these essential but subordi- 
 nate portions of architecture, is not required by a correct taste, nor 
 adapted to the place they occupy. 
 
rl 
 
 7£ FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES. 
 
 Jf decorations are desired on these windows, let them be made 
 with a sparing hand, on stained glass, and of a proper size and 
 figure ; for the student must remember that it is a maxim in archi- 
 tecture, that the ornament must be made for the place, and not the 
 place for the ornament. A practice has heretofore prevailed among 
 designers and makers of side and fan lights, and is not yet quite 
 extinct, of exerting their ingenuity in the contrivance of a great 
 variety of crooked, winding outlines, which "they applied to the for- 
 mation of the internal divisions of these sashes ; and their imagina- 
 tion was again taxed in contriving a great profusion of Rosettes, stars, 
 beads, &c. After the elements had thus been adjusted upon the. 
 sash bars, their surface was often adorned with gold leaf. These 
 gorgeous windows a are often seen in dwelling-houses of exceedingly 
 plain exterior, and present a contrast quite ridiculous to a well- 
 tutored eye. The sculpture over each side light should not project 
 beyond the frame which encloses it. A exhibits a section of the 
 pilaster which separates the door from the side light ; C, a part of 
 a section of the sash and bead ; B, a part of that .of the stile of the 
 door ; and D, a section of the mouldings, and a part of the stile and 
 panel to the door. These sections are drawn one half of the full 
 size. 
 
 PLATE XXXI, 
 
 A exhibits a plan of the steps, buttresses, columns and pilasters 
 to the Ion*& portico represented on the preceding plate ; B, the under 
 surface of the architrave ; C,that of the panel enclosed by the archi- 
 trave B, and recessed up just the width of the architrave ; D, the 
 moulding of the panel one half of the full size. 
 
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 B 
 
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EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CORNICES. 77 
 
 PLATE XXXII. 
 
 This Plate exhibits an example of a Composite Portico, having 
 four columns in front. The proportions are in imitation of the 
 example of that order as shown on Plate XXI. 
 
 Its character is rich, and its size sufficient for a building of large 
 dimensions ; nor can it P indeed with propriety be employed on a 
 small building. It is surmounted with a railing intended to be made 
 of cast iron, which may or may not be employed, as taste or conve- 
 nience may dictate. 
 
 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CORNICES. 
 
 Cornices have heretofore been pretty fully treated of, as a distin- 
 guished member of each order. They nevertheless require further 
 notice, as employed separate and distinct from the orders ; as they 
 necessarily will be in various and important situations, such as the 
 crowning and finishing under the eaves of all kinds of buildings, and 
 in many other external situations. It is highly important that when 
 so employed, they should conform to the character of the building 
 which they decorate. Cornices are also used, in various internal 
 situations ; such as in rooms, halls, staircases, &c. When so em- 
 ployed, they are generally made of stucco. But wherever used they 
 will be considered subordinate, and must therefore be in keeping 
 with the rest of the apartment. 
 
 20 
 
78 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CORNICES. 
 
 Some architects have attempted to determine the size of a cornice, 
 by making its virtual height equal to a certain portion of the whole 
 height o£the building, from its base to the upper termination of the 
 cornice. But these attempts have not been, and in fact cannot be, 
 carried into universal practice ; for buildings of equal heights may 
 have such different situations as t.o require cornices of unequal sizes. 
 We will suppose, for instance, Iwo buildings,, one measuring twenty- 
 five feet in front and the same number of feet in height, and the other 
 the same in height but fifty feet in front. It is plain that the doors, 
 and windows with their decorations, of the latter building, require to 
 be somewhat larger than those of the former one. Of course the 
 cornice of the latter must have a proportionate increase in size. 
 We may however. assist our judgment by the above rule. Divide, 
 for instance, the altitude of the first-mentioned building into twenty 
 equal parts. One of these parts will be fifteen inches, which will be 
 a suitable height for the cornice of that building. But for the cor- 
 nice of the second building, take one twenty-third of its height, or 
 thirteen inches. Suppose each of the above described buildings 
 extended to the height of forty feet. In that case, one thirtieth part 
 of the height of the first, or sixteen inches, and one thirty-third of 
 the latter, or fourteen and one half inches, would be a size suitable 
 for their respective cornices. 
 
 Internal cornices, as for rooms, staircases, and the like, differ in 
 their construction very considerably from those already described. 
 Their height is generally much less in proportion, and their projec- 
 tion much greater. This practice is both convenient and natural ; 
 because the cornice cannot be viewed at any great distance, and 
 its height being only observed at such a short distance that the spec- 
 tator is obliged to look up from under its projection, its front is 
 never fairly seen. In low rooms, where the space from the upper 
 
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EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CORNICES. 79 
 
 termination of the architrave to the window and the under surface 
 of the ceiling is very small, it is sometimes expedient to confine the 
 height of the cornice to a space not exceeding two inches ; and in 
 this case it will be wise to increase its projection, so that its height 
 and projection together shall be about equal to what they would 
 have been if this expedient had not been resorted to. This great 
 difference between the height and projection might at first thought 
 be considered disagreeable ; it is, however, adapted to the peculiar 
 situation of such a cornice, and much more pleasing than the usual 
 proportion would be. 
 
 In adjusting the proportions of these cornices, the size and height 
 of the rooms should be taken into consideration. If the ceiling be 
 high and the other dimensions of the room small, the difference 
 between the height and projection of the cornice should not be very 
 great ; because in that case a large projection would reduce the 
 size of the ceiling, and the whole room would appear smaller. But 
 if the room be of large dimensions, and the ceiling high, the projec- 
 tion of the cornice may then be considerably more than its height. 
 There is less difficulty in determining the size of these cornices by 
 fixed rules, than of those employed externally ; because the differ- 
 ence in the heights of rooms where cornices are used, is not very 
 great. A room less in height than ten feet is not often decorated 
 with a cornice ; and it is not common to see a room more than 
 fourteen feet in height. A method of adjusting the proportion of 
 cornices to rooms, which gives much satisfaction, may be obtained 
 by making the joint extent of the height and projection in inches 
 equal to the height of the room in feet. 
 
80 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CORNICES. 
 
 PLATE XXXIII. 
 
 This Plate exhibits four examples of cornices for external finish- 
 ing. A has a sloping plancer, which is decorated with three elliptical 
 flutes, terminating at the angles of the cornice against the fillets of 
 the panel a, which is recessed up into the plancer and decorated 
 with a rosette. 
 
 B has also a sloping plancer ; and it is decorated with three 
 channels, or grooves, which terminate at the angles in the form of 
 a fret, b shows a panel recessed up into the plancer, and decorated 
 with a honeysuckle. » 
 
 C exhibits an ellipsis recessed up into a reverse curve in the 
 plancer. The inverted plan of the plancer shows the finish at the 
 angles, a shows a panel, and b the ellipsis. 
 
 D exhibits an example of a plain bold cornice, which will produce 
 a pleasing effect in practice. On Plate XXXIV. are exhibited 
 four examples of cornices, which do not seem to require any other 
 explanation than an examination of the Plate will give. 
 
 On Plate XXXV. are exhibited four, and on Plate XXXVI. 
 three different examples of cornices suitable for internal finishing. 
 A rule for determining their size has already been described, which 
 gives for each foot in the height of the room, one inch to the height 
 and projection of the cornice. We will suppose in practice a room 
 ten feet in altitude, and the cornice M, on Plate XXXVII. to be 
 selected for use. That cornice is forty-five parts in height, and 
 projects* sixty-four parts, which added together make one hundred 
 and nine parts. Ten inches, or one inch to each foot in the height of 
 the room, must therefore be divided into one hundred and nine equal 
 parts. Then each member of the cornice, both in height and pro- 
 jection, is equal to as many of those parts as are figured thereon. 
 
CENTRE-PIECES. 81 
 
 The height of the cornice is taken from a down to b. The orna- 
 mental part below b may with propriety be considered as a part of 
 the frieze. 
 
 CENTRE-PIECES. 
 
 PLATE XXXVII. 
 
 In parlors and other apartments from whose ceilings a lamp is to 
 be suspended, the decoration encircling the hook from which the 
 lamp is suspended is called a centre-piece. I do not know of any 
 precise rule by which the proportions of the centre-piece can be 
 ascertained. In a room of about eighteen by twenty feet, the diame- 
 ter of the centre-piece should be about three feet, or one sixth of 
 the width of the room, exclusive of the architrave which encircles 
 it. Although this cannot be taken as a general rule, it will never- 
 theless assist the judgment in adjusting the proportion. Three 
 different examples are exhibited here, and two examples for the 
 mouldings which encircle them. These mouldings are drawn one 
 half of the full size. A and A show the depth to which the flowers 
 are recessed up into the ceiling. 
 
 21 
 
 
82 
 
 AR C H I T RAVE S. 
 
 No one of the elements of Architecture is more frequently employed, 
 or of much more importance, than the architrave. Doors windows, 
 niches, &c. are all more or less indebted to the architrave for their 
 principal decoration. It is therefore of importance that the con- 
 struction of this element should be as perfect as possible, in relation 
 to its size, symmetry, economy, and adaptation to its place. The 
 mouldings which decorate its face should be few, bold, and 
 expressive. 
 
 The breadth has generally been determined by a given portion of 
 the breadth of the door, window, &c. of the room where this 
 element is employed. But this rule will not always apply ; since 
 the breadths of the door and the window in the same room are not 
 equal, and sliding doors, when employed to connect the two parlors, 
 are generally something more than twice the breadth of the other 
 doors of the room. The door to a room of common dimensions, 
 say sixteen by eighteen or twenty feet, and ten feet in height, will 
 be about three feet in breadth and seven in height. One sixth part 
 of three feet will be six inches, which would be a proper breadth for 
 the architrave, if there were no other circumstances in the case. 
 But the windows in the same room would be about four feet in 
 breadth. One sixth of four feet is eight inches, which would be too 
 much for the breadth of the architrave, as would likewise a medium 
 between the two. Judgment, improved by practice, must therefore 
 settle this question. The proper breadth in this case would probably 
 
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 DOORS AND THEIR DECORATIONS. 83 
 
 be about six and three fourth inches, except in the case of a sliding 
 door, which would increase the breadth to seven or seven and one 
 fourth inches. 
 
 PLATE XXXVIII. 
 
 This Plate presents twelve examples of architraves, of different 
 construction and width. They are drawn one half of the full size. 
 The members are figured in such a. manner, that if drawn by a 
 common two foot rule, calling each number figured on the Plate one 
 eighth of an inch, an architrave will be produced of just double the 
 size of the one imitated. 
 
 DOORS AND THEIR DECORATIONS 
 
 No department in any building can be complete, without one 
 or more of these useful and ornamental portions of Architecture. 
 Their beauty or deformity depends on their construction and adap- 
 tation to their place. To arrange the size and proportions of his 
 doors, the mechanic must resort to his own judgment, which, though 
 not assisted here by any precise or definite rule, will by a course of 
 attentive practice soon acquire sure and infallible guides. 
 
 A door cannot be useful, unless it be of sufficient size for persons 
 of full stature to pass and repass freely, without stooping or pass- 
 ing sideways. Two feet two inches in breadth, and six feet four 
 inches in height, is therefore the smallest size. No internal door 
 
 
84 DOORS AND THEIR DECORATIONS. 
 
 should be more than four feet in breadth, and about eight and one 
 half feet in height, be the room ever so large. If a greater breadth 
 is desired, make the door in two parts. 
 
 If a room be fifteen by eighteen feet, and ten in height, three feet 
 in breadth and seven in height will be a good proportion for the 
 door ; but if the size of the room be increased to eighteen by twenty 
 feet, and twelve in height, three feet two inches in breadth and 
 seven feet six inches in height will be a suitable proportion. 
 
 Folding qr sliding doors are frequently employed to connect the 
 two parlors ; in which case it will be proper to increase their alti- 
 tude above that of the other doors of the same room, about one foot ; 
 and as they are made in two parts, divided vertically, each part 
 should be somewhat broader than the other doors. 
 
 PLATE XXXIX. 
 
 This Plate exhibits a design for an eight panel door, and a pair 
 of sliding doors, suitably constructed for the same apartment. They 
 are decorated with their usual ornament, the architrave, showing 
 the termination against the block at the upper angles of the door. 
 This block should project about one eighth of an inch beyond the 
 outer edge and front of the architrave. A shows the tablet and the 
 block at the angles, with the sculpture recessed into both. This 
 kind of sculpture should not project much beyond the frame that 
 contains it. 
 
 This example is drawn from a scale of one half of an inch to a 
 foot. B exhibits another example for the finish over sliding doors, 
 drawn from the same scale as A ; and C, a section of the moulding 
 one half of the full size. The doors with their details are figured 
 in feet and inches. 
 
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WINDOWS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 85 
 
 PLATE XL. 
 
 The example of a pair of sliding doors here exhibited, decorated 
 with pilasters and an entablature, as a substitute for the finish of 
 those on the preceding Plate, is not in bad taste ; nor will it inter- 
 rupt the harmonious proportion of the apartment, by means of its 
 decorations. These doors differ from the other doors and windows 
 in their magnitude, situation, and construction. 
 
 Two other examples of doors with their decorations are also 
 exhibited here. 
 
 WINDOWS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 
 
 PLATE XLI. 
 
 No room or apartment can be useful, of course, unless it is capable 
 of receiving a suitable quantity of that necessary article light. The 
 windows, therefore, constitute a very important part of the room. 
 No determinate rule can be given, by which the size of the windows 
 can be adjusted with regard to a due admission of light. The other 
 circumstances to be considered in their arrangement and formation, 
 embrace the height and extent of the building, the number and 
 dimensions of the interior apartments, the number of the windows, 
 and in fact the general style and character of the building through- 
 out. Stability requires that the windows should not be placed too 
 near the angles of the building, and that the piers between them 
 should be nearly equal in size. 
 
 22 
 
86 WINDOWS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 
 
 Practice seems to have fixed the altitude of the first story win- 
 dows to twice their breadth ; of those in the second story, to some- 
 thing less ; and those in the third story, still less. 
 
 A suitable proportion for the windows of a parlor of twenty by 
 eighteen feet, and twelve feet in altitude, is- two windows, each con- 
 taining twelve lights of glass of twelve by nineteen inches. 
 
 The second story would require the same number of lights of 
 glass, and of the same width, but seventeen inches in length. In 
 the third story, the length of the glass should be fifteen inches. 
 
 In parlors and drawing rooms it is a common practice to add to 
 the length of the windows by extending them down within about 
 seven inches of the floor ; and in that case, to divide the height into 
 two casements, the lower one containing three lights of glass in 
 height, and the upper one two. 
 
 Venetian windows are sometimes employed in rooms and other 
 apartments, and in some instances properly ; but these instances 
 rarely occur. It is advisable to avoid their use, if possible ; because 
 they are seldom made to harmonize with the other portions of 
 architecture by which they are surrounded, and it is exceedingly 
 difficult to accommodate them with either shutters or blinds, without 
 sacrificing some other convenience. The centre window may be in 
 height twice its breadth ; and each side window in breadth not less 
 than one third, nor more than one half of that of the centre window. 
 
 PLATE XLII. 
 
 This Plate exhibits a vertical section of the sash frame, showing 
 its cap and sill, the soffit, architrave, and grounds, and their con- 
 nection with each other ; also the back, and its connection with the 
 
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WINDOWS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 87 
 
 plinth and sill of the frame. It gives likewise an elevation of the 
 sash from the upper extremity of the shutter, and a part of the brick 
 work, together with a section of the stone cap and sill, with their 
 details figured in inches. C exhibits a horizontal section of the 
 sash frame, showing distinctly all its details ; and also the back 
 lining, grounds, shutters and architrave, with their connections with 
 each other. These details are drawn one fourth of the full size. 
 E and F represent sections of a part of a stile and panel, and the 
 moulding for shutters, drawn one half of the full size. 
 
 PLATE XLIII. 
 
 A exhibits an interior elevation of a window, clearly showing all 
 its details placed in their proper position, drawn from a scale of one 
 half inch to a foot. 
 
 B shows an interior elevation of a window differently constructed 
 from the last. It is supposed to be situated where a sufficient quan- 
 tity of room cannot be spared for folding the shutters into the wall. 
 In such a case this example makes a very good substitute ; and where 
 the piers between the windows are large, or when only one window 
 is situated in the same side of a room, it makes a finish far from 
 disagreeable. 
 
 C exhibits a horizontal section of the sash frame of the shutters, 
 back lining, jamb casing, grounds and architrave, drawn one fourth 
 of the full size. E shows the block against which the architrave 
 finishes at the upper angles of the window, with a turned rosette 
 in its centre. A section of it, taken through the centre from a to b, 
 is exhibited at F. 
 
88 
 
 BASE MOULDINGS AND THEIR PLINTHS. 
 
 These important members make a finish at the lowest extremity 
 of the room. Until recently, they made the lowest member of the 
 base, dado, and surbase ; but it is fortunate, as it regards economy 
 and correct taste, that the two latter members have been expunged 
 from that kind of finish. The base and its plinth, therefore, assume 
 a more important character than when they constituted only one of 
 the members of the pedestal, or dado ; and its height must be some- 
 what increased, and bear some relation to the altitude of the room. 
 Although the exact size cannot be determined by any given portion 
 of the room, yet a proper consideration of the altitude and size of 
 the room will direct the judgment to a correct proportion. 
 
 PLATE XLIV. 
 
 On this Plate are exhibited six different examples of base mould- 
 ings, including their plinths, drawn one half of the full size for 
 practice. The height and projection of each member are figured in 
 parts. 
 
 Like the architrave before explained, each one of these parts is 
 equal to one eighth of an inch. These mouldings will be found 
 expressive and imposing, though neither of them projects more than 
 seven eighths of an inch. 
 
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 VASES. 
 
 PLATE XLV. 
 
 At A and B, on this Plate, are presented two designs for surbase 
 mouldings, which are drawn one half of the full size. For the 
 convenience of enlarging or reducing their size, ihe members are 
 figured in parts. 
 
 C exhibits an example for a baluster, which is four diameters in 
 height ; but it may be adapted to any situation, by either increasing 
 or diminishing its height, as the case may require. Its members 
 are figured in parts. 
 
 D, E, and F, present three examples for vases of different forms 
 and proportions. It will be wise to imitate carefully the particular 
 form of their outline. They are suitably constructed for the termi- 
 nation of pedestals, or posts. The largest diameter of these vases 
 should not be quite equal to that of the pedestal or post which they 
 decorate, nor less than three fourths of the same. Each member 
 is figured in parts, and the proportions are reckoned from the 
 central line. 
 
 23 
 
90 
 
 ORNAMENTAL MOULDINGS 
 
 PLATE XLVI. 
 
 Ornaments are more or less valuable, as they harmonize with 
 surrounding objects. It is wise and prudent to use them with a 
 sparing hand ; for their absence from the composition does not 
 necessarily imply defect, though it might present an appearance too 
 plain and naked to a good judge. But a work unnecessarily loaded 
 with ornaments will be disfigured, not embellished, by them. In the 
 execution of ornaments, the subject intended to be imitated, whether 
 it be the chestnut, the egg, or the acorn, they being the usual 
 enrichments of the ovolo, should be so deeply cut into the moulding 
 as to produce the appearance of their being almost detached from 
 it. The same observations will equally apply to the berries, or 
 beads, which are the standing ornament of the astragal. 
 
 When ornaments are liable to close inspection, every part should 
 be well expressed and neatly finished ; but when their situation is ' 
 such that they can be seen only at a distance, the nice finish may be 
 omitted, but their details must be strongly expressed. In sculpture, 
 a few rough, bold strokes, from a skilful hand, express the subject 
 intended for imitation more effectually than the most elaborate 
 unskilful efforts would be able to do. 
 
 A presents an example of an ornament suitably formed for flat 
 surfaces. It is of Grecian origin, and expresses the simple, chaste 
 character for which all their examples of ornaments are so remark- 
 
i.'irnYm'iJ^aV-i'.Ai W WW'M'JJ'SVi &Sa 
 
 /'/. 46 
 
 OJ JOOOOOOO 
 
CHIMNEY-PIECES. 91 
 
 able. B, C, and D, are likewise Grecian. They are suitably con- 
 structed for mouldings, and if well executed will have a handsome 
 appearance. 
 
 CHIMNEY-PIECES. 
 
 This portion of Architecture is highly ornamental, when tastefully 
 constructed. The magnitude of a chimney-piece does not always 
 correspond with that of the room in which it is situated. A room, 
 for instance, of fourteen by eighteen feet, requires a fire-place of 
 three feet in breadth and two feet ten inches in height ; but one of 
 twenty by twenty-eight feet, does not need a fire-place more than 
 three feet six inches in breadth and three feet in height. A due 
 consideration of all the circumstances of the case is therefore 
 necessary, to give to the chimney-piece such a size as will best 
 harmonize with the magnitude and finish of the room. 
 
 Columns are often employed in their decoration. This practice 
 is, however, in small plain rooms, to be avoided ; because the 
 chimney necessarily projects into the room about one foot, and if 
 the projection of the columns be added, it will have the effect of 
 reducing the breadth of the room very considerably, in a place, too, 
 where the width of the room is of the most importance. Besides, 
 although a column and its entablature, when of sufficient magnitude, 
 is one of the most beautiful portions of Architecture, yet it must be 
 remembered, that when reduced to small dimensions its details are 
 also proportionably reduced, and their appearance rendered small 
 
92 CHIMNEY-PIECES. 
 
 and indistinct, by which means the order loses a great portion of its 
 beauty. In large apartments, and where the space occupied by the 
 columns is not important, they may sometimes be employed to 
 advantage. But it is believed that there are few situations, in 
 common practice, where pilasters cannot be so constructed as to 
 render them more appropriate and less expensive than columns. 
 
 PLATE XLVII. 
 
 This Plate presents, at A and B, two examples for chimney-pieces, 
 suitably constructed for common-sized and plainly-finished rooms. 
 They are drawn from a scale of three fourths of an inch to one 
 foot. D exhibits the finish of the flutes at the upper extremity of 
 the pilaster, and E a section of the same. F shows an elevation, 
 and G a section of the block ornament and diamond panel, drawn 
 one quarter of the full size. H and H represent the plans and 
 projections of the pilasters, the plinths, and also the projection of 
 shelf or cornice. 
 
 • 
 
 PLATE XLVIII. 
 
 Two designs for chimney-pieces are exhibited on this Plate, of a 
 richer character than those last described. They are suitably form- 
 ed for rooms of something more than the common size, a presents 
 the elevation, b the section to the block ornament to A, and c shows 
 a vertical section of the block ornament to B, taken through the 
 centre of the fret, e is a section of the fillets of the fret passing from 
 the block to the tablet, jfis a section of the band to the architrave, 
 and g a section of the frieze, drawn one quarter of the full size. 
 i and i present sections of the plinths, and also of the cornice. 
 
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93 
 
 STAIRS 
 
 Every building consisting of more than one story is indebted to this 
 portion of Architecture for ornament, as well as utility. The height, 
 breadth, and length of the steps, should be proportioned to the situation 
 and use for which they are constructed. This remark, however, is 
 subject to this qualification, that the height should never exceed eight 
 inches, nor the breadth twelve. Every workman is supposed to 
 have a sufficient knowledge of all kinds of stairs, except those on a 
 circular plan. The method most practised, of forming the circular 
 part of the rail without a cylinder, is comparatively of recent date. 
 To the ingenious Peter Nicholson, of London, we are all indebted 
 for this method. It was invented by him and published in the year 
 1792, and since that time it has wonderfully extended itself into 
 practice. In the year 1795 I made the drawings and superintended 
 the erection of a circular stair-case in the State House at Hartford, 
 Connecticut ; which, I believe, was the first circular rail that was 
 ever made in New England. This rail was glued up around a 
 cylinder in pieces of about one eighth of an inch thick. Since the 
 first discovery of the true principles of hand-railing, Mr. Nicholson 
 has made several important improvements ; for one of which, about 
 twelve or thirteen years since, the Society of Arts in London 
 awarded him a gold medal. This improvement renders the subject 
 the most simple and direct of any of his methods. I have therefore 
 adopted it as my model here, with some trifling deviations. 
 
 24 
 
94 STAIRS. 
 
 PLATE XLIX. 
 
 This Plate exhibits two examples for scrolls, which terminate the 
 lower extremity of hand-rails ; one of a curtail step, and one of a 
 newell. 
 
 In order to describe the scroll, fig. 1, make a circle of three and 
 one half inches in diameter, as is shown by dotted lines. To illus- 
 trate this subject m a clear and distinct manner, the circle is repeat- 
 ed on a larger scale at No. 2. Divide the circle in the centre by 
 the horizontal line a o b ; draw the vertical line o e ; divide o e into 
 three equal parts at c, d, e ; through the point c draw 6 c 5, parallel 
 to a b. Divide c d into three equal parts at f, g, h, and make c 6 
 equal to o f. Then from the point 6, and through the centre o, 
 draw the diagonal line 6 o 4, and intersect it at right angles by 
 another diagonal line passing through the centre o, and cutting 6 5 
 at 5. At right angles with 6 5, draw 5 4, cutting 6 o 4 at 4 ; and 
 parallel with 6 5, draw 4 3, cutting 5 o 3 at 3. Draw 3 2 parallel 
 to 5 4, cutting 6 o 4 at 2 ; and 2 1 parallel to 6 5, cutting 5 o 3 at 1 ; 
 which completes the six centres on which the scroll is drawn. We 
 will now return to fig. 1. On the centre 1, with the radius 1 j, 
 draw j i ; on the centre 2, with the radius 2 i, draw i h ; on 3, with 
 the radius 3 h, draw h g ; on 4, with the radius 4 g, draw g f ; 
 on 5, with the radius 5 f, draw f e ; on 6, draw e d ; which com- 
 pletes the outside circle. The inside line, and also those of the 
 nosing of the steps, are drawn from the same centres. 
 
 To draw the face mould, No. 1, the rail is supposed to be glued 
 to the scroll at the line 8 11. A exhibits the pitchboard ; c b, the 
 base line ; and a b, the raking line. Divide from d, the beginning 
 of the twist, to b, into any number of parts, making one intersect 
 the edge of the rail at 8, and another at 11. Then draw these lines 
 
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STAIRS. 97 
 
 Construction of the Face Mould, No. 3. 
 
 Let A D E F G H I be the plan of the rail, and E F, G H, 
 a portion of the straight part ; I being the upper, F the lower, and 
 D the middle resting points. Make the stretchout of A D equal to 
 that of D F. In the figure of the falling mould, produce the base 
 a e to f, a e then being equal to the development of A E ; make 
 a d equal to the development of A D, and ef equal to E F. Draw 
 f I parallel to a b, and cutting the upper side of the falling mould 
 at I ; parallel tofa, draw I i, cutting a 6 at i ; in i I, make i d equal 
 to I D ; draw d m parallel to a b, cutting the upper side of the fall- 
 ing mould at m ; draw m n parallel to f a, cutting a b at n ; and 
 d r parallel to a b, cutting m n at r. Join o r, and produce it to 
 meet i I at q ; make I Q, equal to i q ; join F Q,, and produce 
 F Q, to K. Through G draw K L perpendicular to K Q, ; 
 through I draw I Z parallel to K Q, cutting K L at Z ; make Z Z 
 equal to a o, and join K Z. Then produce K Z to L, and draw 
 ALL parallel to Z Z. 
 
 To find the Face Mould. 
 
 Draw L A perpendicular to K L ; make L A equal to L A, 
 Z I equal to Z I, and join A I. Then A I will form the part of 
 the face mould represented by I A on the plan. Draw K F per- 
 pendicular to K L, and make K F equal to K F. Draw G G 
 parallel to Z Z, cutting K L at G, and join G F. Again draw H U 
 parallel to Z Z, and cutting K L at U ; draw U H perpendicular 
 to K L, and make U H equal to U H. Draw H E parallel to G F 
 and F E parallel to G H ; then E F G H will form the part of the 
 
 25 
 
98 STAIRS. 
 
 face mould corresponding to the straight part E F G H on the plan. 
 The intermediate points of the face mould, which form curves of 
 the outside and inside of the rail, are thus found. Through any 
 point C, in the convex side of the plan, draw C Y parallel to Z Z, 
 cutting K L at Y ; and in the concave side of the plan at T, 
 draw Y C perpendicular to K L ; and in Y C make Y T equal to 
 Y T, and Y C equal to Y C. Then T is a point in the concave 
 side, and C a point in the convex side of the face mould. A suffi- 
 cient number of points being thus found, the curved parts of the face 
 mould may be drawn by hand, or by a slip of wood bent to the 
 curve. No. 5 exhibits a face mould for the upper half of the 
 rail, which is constructed in the same manner with the one just 
 described. 
 
 How to apply the Face Mould to the Plank. 
 
 Let a b i g, No. 4, be the figure of the face mould, placed in due 
 position to the pitch line K L, as when traced from the plan. X 
 represents the upper side, Y the edge, and Z the under side of the 
 plank, from which the rail is to be taken. Draw g L perpendicular 
 to the outside of the plank. Make the angle g L K, on the edge of 
 the plank, equal to the angle K L L, No. 3 ; and the angle §-LK, 
 on the under side of the plank, equal to the angle G Z I, No. 3. 
 Make g L equal to L K, and draw the chord g i in the plane Z 
 parallel to the arris line ; and then apply the points g and i of the 
 face mould to the line as exhibited in the figure, and draw the form 
 of the face mould. 
 
 Fig. 2 exhibits the section of a hand rail, drawn one half of the 
 full size. On B, with the radius B A, describe the half circle 
 CAD, and divide it into three equal parts. Draw B 1 and B 2 ; 
 
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CHURCHES. • 99 
 
 divide A B into four equal parts ; draw 3 i parallel to D C, and 
 cutting B 2 at i ; draw i I parallel to B 1, and equal to one and one 
 half of the four divisions between A and B ; on t'i with the radius 
 i 2, describe 2m; and on I, with the radius I m, describe m n, and 
 draw n o. 
 
 CHURCHES 
 
 The liberality displayed by the members of this community, in 
 the ample appropriations which they so frequently make for erect- 
 ing houses of public worship, is highly creditable to them. 
 
 The magnitude and beauty of many of these buildings render 
 them honorable monuments of public munificence ; and if many of 
 them likewise exhibit a barrenness of invention and ignorance of 
 Architecture, this defect is to be ascribed, not to any fault on the 
 part of those who provide the funds, so much as to the disadvan- 
 tages under which those labor who are selected to construct the 
 building. We cannot expect a carpenter to shape an edifice in so 
 classic and correct a style as one who confines his labors to the 
 study of Architecture. Let an architect of competent skill be em- 
 ployed to prepare the draught of the building, together with the 
 working drawings for the workmen ; and especially, when a plan 
 has been once determined and begun upon, let it not be in any 
 important respects departed from, and buildings of the latter class 
 will soon disappear. Alterations are generally expensive, and are 
 apt to destroy the symmetry of the building. 
 
100 CHURCHES. 
 
 A House erected for the worship of the Supreme Being, should 
 correspond in character with the reverential feelings of those who 
 assemble within it. While, therefore, we aim at elegance in the 
 form of the columns, pilasters, entablatures, ceilings, windows, and 
 doors, let it be a grave and simple elegance, and not of the gaudy 
 kind. The details should be free from any unmeaning cuttings or 
 twistings. Light, gay colors, and all symbols of heathen worship, 
 should be avoided. 
 
 The interior of a church would have a more chaste and correct 
 appearance, if without galleries. But to the omission of galleries 
 there are objections. Where the society is large, they cannot all 
 be seated upon the floor of the building near enough to the speaker 
 to hear his voice distinctly ; and the increased expense of erecting 
 a building of sufficient size without galleries, is considerable. It is 
 but seldom, therefore, that we see a church of any magnitude free 
 from this encumbrance. It is a practice with some to make only 
 one tier of windows. This is a very becoming practice so far as 
 the exterior of the building is concerned ; but in the interior, where 
 these windows cross the galleries, they present a very awkward 
 appearance. 
 
 The plans, elevations, and other drawings, which I have given in 
 this example of a church, hare been made more for the purpose of 
 conveying a clear and distinct view of the relation which the several 
 parts should bear to 'each other and to the whole, than with an 
 expectation that they will often be executed in this manner. 
 
 Plate LI. gives a plan of the first floor, containing one hundred 
 and two pews, with their size, and also that of the house, and all its 
 details, figured in feet and inches. A exhibits a section of the 
 architrave for the windows ; B, the capping for the pews .; C, a 
 
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CHURCHES. 101 
 
 section of the moulding and a part of the stile and panel for the 
 wainscot of the pews, drawn one half of the full size. D shows a 
 section of the back of the pews, and of the seat and riser, figured 
 in feet and inches. E exhibits an example of the pew door, and 
 the piece of wainscot required to fill in between the doors, .also 
 figured in feet and inches. Each side of the interior of the building 
 is intended to be decorated with columns and pilasters of the same 
 order as represented on Plate XIV. 
 
 PLATE LII. 
 
 Exhibits a plan of the gallery floor, showing the size and number 
 of the pews. A shows a section of a truss for the support of that 
 side of the gallery fronting the pulpit ; and B an elevation of the 
 finish of the front of the gallery, drawn on a scale of one eighth of 
 an inch to a foot. C shows a section of the moulding which is to 
 enclose the panels of the front of the gallery, drawn one half of the 
 full size. 
 
 Plate LV. shows a plan of the ceiling of the interior of the 
 house, and also that of the portico, both inverted. The under 
 surface is intended to appear as if straight ; but to produce that 
 appearance, it must be gently curved upwards about four inches 
 above a straight line, a, a, a, and a, show the projection of the 
 cornice of the entablature. A is an example of the stiles and rails, 
 and the moulding which is to enclose the panels, figured in feet and 
 inches. 
 
 D shows an example of a sash, which is intended to be glazed 
 with stained glass, for the admission of light from the roof to the 
 pulpit. B shows an example of the moulding which is to crown 
 
 26 
 
102 CHURCHES. 
 
 the architrave under the ceiling of the portico, figured in minutes ; 
 and C, the cornice which finishes the upper extremity of the front 
 of the gallery. 
 
 Plate LVI. contains an example of a pulpit. It is drawn from a 
 scale of one half inch to a foot, and figured in feet and inches. C 
 exhibits the outline of the mouldings intended to enclose the panels, 
 drawn one half of the full size ; and D, the cornice which is to 
 finish the upper extremity of the desk, figured in parts. It is 
 intended to be three and one half inches in height. 
 
 Either of the examples of mouldings on Plate XXXVII. may 
 be imitated in the outline of the face of the pilasters. It is also 
 intended to finish the vacancy between the blocks at the upper 
 extremity of each end of the pulpit, over a and a, with the same 
 outline of moulding. 
 
 On Plate LIII. is exhibited a front elevation, with the scale of 
 feet by which it is drawn annexed. D shows a plan, and C an 
 elevation of the cupola, drawn from a scale of one eighth of an inch 
 to a foot, figured in feet and inches. 
 
 A exhibits an example of the vane and the iron work connected 
 with it, drawn from a scale of one fourth of an inch to a foot, figured 
 in feet and inches ; and B, an example of the honeysuckles which 
 are to decorate the upper extremity of the cornice to the portico, 
 figured in minutes. 
 
 On Plate LIV. is a side elevation, and at A an example of one 
 of the second story windows, drawn from a scale of one fourth of 
 an inch to a foot. 
 
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 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 103 
 
 On Plate LVII. at fig. 4, is exhibited an example which shows 
 the construction of the timber work of the roof of this church, and 
 a plan and elevation of the frame of the cupola. The details which 
 are represented here show the best method of framing the various 
 joints in the roof. They are drawn from a scale of one fourth of 
 an inch to a foot, and figured in feet and inches ; which will render 
 them sufficiently plain. 
 
 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 
 
 The principles of this science should be familiar to every 
 practical carpenter. Carpenters who do not profess a thorough 
 theoretical knowledge of their art, are apt either to load their work 
 with timbers unnecessarily large and expensive, or on the other 
 hand to provide timbers too small and weak to resist, for a suffi- 
 cient length of time, the strain imposed upon them. A knowledge 
 of the stiffness of timber and other materials employed in Carpentry, 
 theoretically as well as practically, will be of the highest utility. 
 This information is furnished by the results of various experiments, 
 made for the purpose of ascertaining the different strains which 
 different sizes of those materials can bear, by several scientific 
 gentlemen of Europe. Of course these experiments were made on 
 European timber. We therefore must make proper allowances 
 for the difference of timber. Different individuals have arrived at 
 
104 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 
 
 different results in their experiments. We cannot, therefore, put 
 implicit confidence in any of them ; but taking them collectively, and 
 making proper allowances for difference in timber, we may assist 
 our judgment and obtain correct views on the subject. 
 
 The principal strains to which timbers and other materials are 
 exposed, are the following : 
 
 First, that strain by which a beam is drawn in the direction 
 of its length. The strength by which the beam resists this strain, 
 is called its cohesion. The experiment by which the cohesive 
 power of a beam or stick of known dimensions is ascertained, is 
 easily performed in the following manner. The stick is suspended 
 vertically by one extremity, and to the lower extremity are attached 
 weights, which being increased until the stick breaks, thus deter- 
 mine its cohesive power. To this strain, king posts, tie beams, &c. 
 are liable. 
 
 The second strain is when the load tends to compress the beam 
 in the direction of its length. To this strain, truss beams, pillars, 
 struts, &c. are exposed. 
 
 The third strain is when the load tends to break the beam across. 
 This is called a cross or transverse strain. To this strain all kinds 
 of bearing timbers are liable. 
 
 The following list, which gives the cohesive strength of several 
 beams and bars an inch square, is taken from one made by Mr. 
 Emerson. The rod of cast iron is taken from the experiments of 
 Rennie. The amount placed opposite each kind expresses its 
 cohesive strength, or the weight which will be required to break it 
 when drawn in the direction of its length. 
 
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 
 
 105 
 
 
 Iron Rod an inch square will bear 
 
 Cast Iron *\ . " 
 
 Brass " ■ " 
 
 Hempen Rope " 
 
 Ivory " " 
 
 Oak, Box and Plumtree 
 
 Elm, Ash and Beech 
 
 Walnut and Plum 
 
 Red Fir, Holley and Crab " 
 
 Cherry and Hazel " 
 
 Alder, Asp, Birch and Willow 
 
 Lead .... 
 
 u 
 
 76,400 pounds. 
 
 18,656 
 
 35,600 
 
 19,600 
 
 15,700 
 
 7,850 
 
 6,070 
 
 5,360 
 
 5,000 
 
 4,760 
 
 4,290 
 430 
 
 It is also given as a practical rule by Mr. Emerson, that a 
 cylinder whose diameter is six inches, will carry, when loaded to 
 one fourth of its absolute strength, as follows. Iron, 135 cwt. ; 
 Good Rope, 22 cwt. ; Oak, 14 cwt. ; Fir, 9 cwt. 
 
 By these experiments we see what an immense load a rod of one 
 inch square is capable of suspending. And we likewise see that 
 this strain is not likely to be overrated in practice. 
 
 Suppose it required to know the weight that an oak joist of three 
 by four inches will sustain. Multiply the depth by the breadth of 
 the joist in inches ; and that product, which is twelve, by the number 
 of pounds set against oak in the table, 7850. The product, 94,200 
 pounds, is the answer. 
 
 We now come to the second strain, that of compression in the 
 direction of its length. But few experiments on this strain have 
 been made, and the results of those few do not agree. It is main- 
 tained by some writers that the resistance to compression is about 
 equal to that of extension ; but the experiments of Du Hamel on 
 cross strain, seem to prove that the resistance to compression is not 
 
 27 
 
106 
 
 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 
 
 more than two thirds of that to extension. It is however fortunate 
 for the practical workman that this strain is not often overrated ; 
 for it rarely happens in practice that a body employed to sustain 
 a heavy load is found insufficient for that purpose. 
 
 According to Mr. Rondelet's experiments on cubic inches of 
 oak, it required from 5000 to 6000 pounds to crush a piece of that 
 size ; and under this pressure its length was reduced more than 
 one third. 
 
 Mr. Rennice's experiments produced results considerably lower. 
 A cubic inch of elm was crushed by 1284 pounds ; American pine 
 by 1606 pounds ; and English oak by 3860 pounds. 
 
 We now come to the cross strain, to which all bearing beams, 
 joists, &c. are liable. The resistance to this strain is much less 
 than that of either of the others. 
 
 A Table of the Cross or Transverse Strain of different kinds of Wood, each 
 Piece being one foot long, one inch broad, and one inch deep. 
 
 Oak . 
 
 Ash 
 
 Beech 
 
 Elm . 
 
 Walnut, green 
 
 Spruce, American 
 
 Hard Pine, do. 
 
 Birch . 
 
 Poplar, Lombard 
 
 Chestnut 
 
 The above table is selected from Tredgold's Carpentry. It 
 expresses the breaking weight of each piece. It will not, therefore, 
 be proper to permanently load either of the pieces with more than 
 
 660 
 
 pounds 
 
 635 
 
 (i 
 
 677 
 
 « 
 
 540 
 
 (C 
 
 487 
 
 Ci 
 
 570 
 
 ll 
 
 658 
 
 it 
 
 517 
 
 II 
 
 327 
 
 u 
 
 450 
 
 u 
 
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 107 
 
 one half of the breaking weight. The effect of this strain produces, 
 on the upper part of the beam, a compression in the direction of its 
 length ; and on the under part, an extension in the direction of its 
 length. To illustrate this subject more fully, I will here introduce 
 some of Du Hamel's experiments on the stiffness of beams, the 
 results of which ought to be well understood. 
 
 Du Hamel took six bars of willow, three feet long and one and 
 one half inch square. After suitable experiments, he found that 
 they were broken by 525 pounds on an average. Six bars were 
 next cut through with a saw one third of the depth from the upper 
 surface, and each cut was filled with a wedge of dry oak, inserted 
 with a little force. These were broken by 551 pounds on an 
 average. Six other bars were broken through by 542 pounds on 
 an average, after being cut half through and filled up in a similar 
 manner. Six other bars were cut three fourths through, and broken 
 by the pressure of 530 pounds on an average. A baton was then 
 cut three fourths through, and loaded until nearly broken. It was 
 then unloaded, and a thicker wedge was introduced tightly into the 
 cut, so as to straighten the bar by filling up the space left by the 
 compression of the wood. In this state the bar was broken by 577 
 pounds. 
 
 From these experiments we perceive that more than two thirds 
 of the thickness of a beam contributes nothing to its strength. And 
 here we also see, that the compressibility of this kind of strain 
 appears much greater than its dilatability, which circumstance 
 greatly increases its power of withstanding a transverse strain. 
 
 We see likewise that gains may be cut from the upper surface of 
 a beam downwards, to one third or one half of the depth, and joists 
 inserted tightly therein, without reducing the strength of the beam. 
 Observe, however, that the size of the joists is not reduced by 
 
108 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 
 
 shrinkage. It is worthy of remark, that in all the experiments made 
 for ascertaining the resistance to pressure, the strength of the beam 
 is found to be as the breadth and square of the depth directly, and 
 inversely as the length. The strength of a beam therefore depends 
 chiefly on its depth, or rather on that dimension which is in the 
 direction of the strain. If a beam two inches deep and one broad 
 support a given weight, another beam of the same depth and double 
 the breadth will support double the weight. But if a beam two 
 inches deep and one inch broad support a given weight, another 
 of four inches deep and one inch broad will support four times the 
 weight. Hence, beams of equal breadths are to each other as the 
 square of their depths. Again, if a beam of a given cross section 
 and one foot long support a known weight, another beam of the 
 same cross section but two feet long will support only half the 
 known weight. 
 
 Buffbn's experiments, which were made on large scantlings, and 
 were therefore free from those irregularities unavoidable on small 
 specimens, would seem to show that the strength diminishes in a 
 ratio greater than the inverse proportion of the length. Both reason 
 and experience seem to confirm the truth of these experiments. 
 
 A simple arithmetical rule, derived from these experiments, is 
 therefore given, by which the breaking weight of any scantling, 
 the breadth, depth and length being given, may be known. Divide 
 the breaking weight by the length in feet ; subtract 10 from the 
 quotient ; multiply the remainder by the breadth, and that product 
 by the square of the depth, both expressed in inches. The result is 
 the greatest load in pounds. 
 
 For example. Required the resistance of a spruce joist 17 feet 
 long, 12 inches in depth, and 2 inches in breadth. The breaking 
 weight placed against spruce in the above list is 570. Divide 570 
 
iiiiiiF:*; iy -.rirr . 
 
 /•/. .;; 
 
 }>«. j 
 
. 
 
 
 
 
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 109 
 
 by 17, the length in feet, and you have 33 for the quotient nearly. 
 Subtract 10 from 33, and the remainder is 23. This remainder 
 being multiplied by 2, the breadth in inches, the product is 46. 
 Multiply this product by 144, the square of the depth in inches 
 (the square of any number being obtained by multiplying it by itself), 
 and you have 6624 for the answer. I have left out the fractions in 
 the above operation, knowing that any deviation which makes the 
 result smaller, is on the safe side. Arts. 6624. 
 
 Required the resistance of a hard pine beam, 20 feet long, 12 
 inches in depth, and 10 inches in breadth. Ans. 31,680. 
 
 We must recollect that all the experiments, from which the above 
 results are obtained, were made on wood of the most perfect kind, 
 free from knots, shakes, spots, or rot, and not cross-grained, &c. 
 Every practical workman knows that in roofs, floors, or any other 
 piece of framing of any considerable magnitude, such perfection in 
 timber cannot be expected. It will be wise in him, therefore, to 
 make all due allowance for imperfections in timber. 
 
 PLATE LVII. 
 
 Fig. 1 exhibits an example of a truss simply constructed for a 
 roof of 30 feet span. I shall describe the different strains to which 
 this truss is liable, and the best means of resisting them. 
 
 If a load be laid on the rafters of this truss, it is evident that the 
 downward pressure will cause the heads of the rafters to press hard 
 against the king post, and the lower ends to press equally hard 
 against the abutment at each end of the tie beam. The rafters are 
 thus strained by a compression in the direction of their length ; and 
 if no other strain were to be resisted, a stick of timber of small 
 dimensions would be sufficient. But it is evident that a cross strain is 
 
 28 
 
HO PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 
 
 also to be provided for. The latter strain must be resisted by struts, 
 and by making the rafter of a size equal to the resistance of that 
 strain. The pressure of the rafters against the abutment at each 
 end of the tie beam, causes that beam to be strained by an extension 
 in the direction of its length ; and moreover the load laid upon this 
 beam, together with the ceiling which is suspended from the under 
 surface, produces a cross strain, which must be resisted by suspend- 
 ing this beam by the king post, and by making it, as in the case of 
 the rafters, of sufficient size to resist the pressure. 
 
 The strain on the king post is an extension in the direction of its 
 length. A small piece of timber is therefore adequate to resist that 
 strain ; for we have seen that an oak joist of three by four inches is 
 capable of suspending 94,200 pounds. The pressure of the rafters 
 against the head of this post being very great, they will be apt to 
 indent themselves into the head of the post, and cause a small settle- 
 ment of the roof, unless the post be made of hard wood. But let it 
 be observed, moreover, that this part of the king post should be 
 made as small as the strain on the post will admit ; otherwise the 
 shrinkage of the post will produce the same effect as the indentation 
 of the rafters. The strain on the strut is wholly that of a compres- 
 sion in the direction of its length, which a small piece of timber 
 will be able to resist. 
 
 Having now given the theory of the principal strains of this 
 section, we will give some practical advice in relation to the exe- 
 cution of the work. All bearing joints ought to be made at right 
 anoles with the strain. A exhibits the best method of constructing 
 the joints at the head of the rafter and at the ends of the straining 
 beam when they butt against the queen post. The dotted lines sliow 
 the length of the tenon, which need not be more than one and one 
 half of an inch in length, but must be made to fit the mortice in the 
 
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. m 
 
 most perfect manner. The bearing surfaces of the post, rafter, and 
 straining beam, should be in one even plane, that the joint may be 
 perfect throughout its whole surface. The ends of the tenons should 
 likewise fit exactly at the bottom of the mortice. Pins are not 
 required here. These observations are intended to apply to all 
 other joints in framing. 
 
 B exhibits the method of connecting the foot of the king post to 
 the tie beam. The tenon in this case is only two inches long. 
 The bolt shown here is intended for a large roof, where two nuts 
 are required, and in this case need not be more than one and one 
 eighth of an inch in diameter. It will require a thick, strong head 
 and nuts, three-fourths or seven-eighths of an inch in thickness ; and 
 care should be iaken that the thread be of a suitable size and well 
 cut, and that the iron of which they are made is of the best quality. 
 We shall not doubt that the size here mentioned is sufficient, when 
 we consider that a bar of iron one inch square is capable of 
 suspending 76,400 pounds. 
 
 C exhibits a method of connecting the head of the queen post to 
 the principal rafter. The tenon in this case is not required to be 
 more than one and one half of an inch, and this length is quite suffi- 
 cient for the tenon at the head and foot of the struts. E exhibits 
 an elevation of a part of the tie beam, the principal and small rafter, 
 a section of the plates and purloins and method of connecting them 
 together ; also the best way of securing the foot of a principal rafter 
 by an iron strap. F shows the upper surface of a part of the tie 
 beam. Two inches in the centre of the beam is left uncut, whilst 
 the wood on each side of it is cut away to form the abutments for 
 the foot of the rafter. 
 
 D shows a piece of the principal and small rafters, and a section 
 of the purloin. That part of the purloin expressed by dotted lines 
 
112 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 
 
 against the principal rafter, is notched on to the rafter, the purloin 
 being nine inches deep. Two and a half inches are cut out of the 
 under surface of the purloin, one half inch out of the principal 
 rafter, and three inches out of the small rafter. The distance 
 between the two rafters is three inches. 
 
 Fig. 2 exhibits an example of a truss for a roof of forty-four feet 
 span. It is constructed with iron queen posts as a substitute for 
 wood, and thus avoids the difficulty of shrinkage and indentation of 
 the heads of the queen post. A bar of iron one inch square is 
 sufficiently large to resist any strain which may happen to these 
 posts. 
 
 I and J exhibit a method of connecting the heads of the principal 
 rafters with the straining beam. 
 
 Fig 3 exhibits an example of a truss for a roof of eighty feet 
 span. The depth of the timbers is figured on the plan, and they 
 may all be nine inches in breadth, except the small rafters, which 
 may be three inches. 
 
 PLATE LVIII. 
 
 A exhibits an example of a truss partition suitably constructed 
 for a situation where the timbers, either below or above it, require 
 support. The truss being placed over the doors, it does not there- 
 fore interfere as to these doors being placed in any situation 
 desired, a a show two iron rods, to which the' timbers below may 
 be suspended. Three inches is quite sufficient for the thickness 
 of this partition, unless the story be made more than ten feet in 
 height. 
 
 B shows a method of framing the principal rafters through the 
 king post, their ends bearing against each other. C exhibits a side 
 
C AlEi IF'-Ii Vi 'J'Ji'T . 
 
 
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 -•:>' 
 
 w 
 
 26 
 
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 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 5S 
 
 
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 IT 
 
 K 
 


 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 113 
 
 view of the king post, showing the mortice made through it, which is 
 six inches in breadth, and leaves two inches of wood on each side 
 of it. If this example be faithfully framed, it leaves no chance for 
 shrinkage or indentation. 
 
 D shows an example for a wrought iron truss of twenty-six feet 
 span. This truss is capable of being extended to a greater length 
 if desired, a, b, c, are pieces of wood used for the purpose of 
 preventing the truss from tumbling. 
 
 F and G exhibit different methods of scarfing timbers, figured in 
 feet and inches, and plain to inspection. The ends of the iron 
 straps on F are let into the beam. 
 
 E shows the best method of constructing a floor for a dwelling- 
 house. The beam lying under the partition which separates the 
 rooms from the entry, is six by twelve inches ; the one in the centre 
 between the rooms and under the sliding doors, ten by twelve ; 
 the trimmer joists four by twelve, and the common joists two by 
 twelve. 
 
 a, a, show two rows of stiffeners, which may be made with pieces 
 
 of inch boards that are of little or no value. They should be cut 
 in, so as to make a perfect joint against the sides of the joists, and 
 fitted in with a little force. They should never be omitted in a floor 
 of this sort, where the joists have more than ten feet bearing ; for 
 they stiffen and strengthen the floor exceedingly. H shows the 
 method of framing the trimmer joists ; J, the joists into the beam ; 
 and K, the end of a joist cut so as to rest on a brick wall. 
 
 If a floor of a dwelling-house be loaded with people, to which it 
 is always liable, the load is then equal to one hundred and twenty 
 pounds on each square foot ; we therefore see that the floor of a 
 room of twenty by seventeen feet, must be capable of resisting a 
 pressure of 40,800 pounds. 
 
 29 
 
U4 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 
 
 The bearing weight of one of these joists (supposing them to be 
 of spruce), is obtained as follows. The breaking weight of spruce 
 is 570. Divide 570 by the length of the joist, which is 17 feet, and 
 you obtain 33 feet nearly (for I leave out the decimals). Deduct 
 10 from 33, and the remainder is 23. Multiply 23 by 2, the breadth 
 of the joist, and you obtain 46. Multiply 48 by the square of the 
 depth of the joisi, which is 144, and you obtain 6624, which is the 
 breaking weight ; and the breaking weight of the 20 joists collec- 
 lively which are in the floor (I call each of the trimmers equal to 
 two common joists), is 132,480 pounds. And they contain 680 feet 
 of timber, board measure. 
 
 We will now see, in the same manner, what the resistance to 
 pressure is, of a floor framed in the common way, with a beam lying 
 lon<ntudinally through the centre of the room, twelve inches square, 
 and filled up on each side with joists four by four inches. The 
 breaking weight of the beam, if of spruce, is 31,104 pounds. In 
 this calculation I do not allow any diminution in the strength of the 
 beam on account of the gains cut into it, because if the joists are 
 tighdy pressed into the gains and prevented from shrinking, the 
 beam will not be weakened. 31,104 pounds is one half of the 
 ultimate strength of the floor. Double this sum, and you have 
 62,208 for the ultimate strength of the whole floor. It requires 602 
 feet of timber, board measure, to complete this floor. By this cal- 
 culation we see that with the same quantity of timber in the wide 
 joist floor, we have more than double the strength that is obtained 
 by a beam and joist floor. 
 
 If a church be made of wood, and without a gallery, it is common 
 to frame the sides with a girt, placed about midway between the 
 plate and the sill. The posts and girts in this case cannot be less 
 than ten inches, and the studs four by four inches. Let us suppose 
 
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 115 
 
 a building, fifty feet long and twenty-five high, to be framed in this 
 way. The mortice made in the middle of the post cannot be less 
 than two inches ; and the pin-holes, which pass through the tenon 
 of each girt, than two inches more. The tenon and pin-holes reduce 
 the solid part of the post to eight inches, and even less : for, in 
 taking the square of the depth, it must be taken in two parts ; first, 
 from the face of the post to the mortice, two inches, the square of 
 which is four ; and the remaining part of the post beyond the 
 mortice is six inches, the square of which is thirty-six, which 
 with the four added makes forty ; whereas the square of eight is 
 sixty-four. 
 
 If these posts be of spruce, the bearing weight of each will be 
 3840, and collectively 15,360. Double this sum, and we have 
 30,720 pounds ; which is the ultimate resistance to any strain to 
 which the whole side of the house is liable. The greatest force 
 produced by the wind on a vertical wall is equal to forty pounds on 
 a square foot. It will therefore be unsafe not to afford a resistance 
 fully adequate to overcome that strain. The posts, girts and studs, 
 will contain 2083 feet, board measure. We will now suppose this 
 facade to be framed with spruce studs, twenty-five feet long, two 
 inches thick, and eight inches deep. The breaking weight of one 
 is 1944 ; and of thirty-seven, the number required to complete the 
 side, 71,928 pounds, which is the ultimate strength of the whole 
 side ; and they contain altogether 1354 feet, board measure. 
 
 I leave this subject without comment, trusting that the practical 
 workman will see the immense advantage gained by the deep joist 
 and deep stud 1'raming, and decide in their favor. 
 
116 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 
 
 PLATE LIX. 
 
 On this Plate is exhibited an example of the Corinthian order, 
 as taken by Stewart & Revett from the Choragic Monument of 
 Lysicrates at Athens. It is figured in feet, inches, and decimal 
 parts of an inch. Had I intended to publish this example at the 
 commencement of the work, I should have given it a place by the 
 side of the Corinthian order ; but as that was not the case, being 
 aware of the high estimation in which this composition is held by 
 the lovers of the art, I have supposed it better to give it a place at 
 the end of the book than not at all. 
 
 PLATE LX. 
 
 On this Plate is exhibited a series of designs for Fences, Win- 
 dows, Guards, &c. In this construction a view was had to their 
 being made of cast iron. They are drawn from a scale of one 
 half inch to a foot. H and I exhibit two different examples for 
 frets. H is divided into seventeen, and I into nine parts. I have 
 given here the manner of forming the angle of each design. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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