(lihe i. in. Bill ICtbrara
3fartl( ffiarulina Statt MmofrHitg
/
"t— — ■' ■ ■■ ■
( '^^
Bu.
-U„_
A FAT OX.
The Lotidon cutting Names; and Proportioned Prices of the
Pieces; according to Mr. Campbell in 17 Annal.
No. SUrllng.
d.
f. m. 1
1. Sirloin,
5i
lO-Z
2. Rur,ip,
ii
lo-a
3. Etch Bone,
4
7-4
4. Buttork,
4i
8-3
4*. Mouft Buttock.
3
5-3
5. Veiny Piece,
4
/•4
6. Thick flank, part grow-'
)
ing under the fat of the
■4
7*4
buttock,
\
.7. Thin Flank,
4
7-4
8. Leg,
l|
a-6
9. Pieces in hind quarter,
No. Stirling-^
9. Fore Rib, containing j?*f,
10. Middle Rib, contg. four^
11. Chuck, containing /irr.r,
la. Shoulder, or leg of mut-T
ton piece growing on the >
chuck &. p:j:t of the briiket j
13. Brifket,
14. Clod,
15. Sticking piece (neck)T
part growing under part S-
of the clod, J
1 6. Shin,
— >
8. Pieces, in fore quarter.
f. IK.
lo-a
8-3
6-5
7-4
J -3
3-7
2-6
The whole beef cuts into 34 pieces : the head tongue and feet omitted.
On application by Mr. Cam^bd to the principal gentlemen of the trade,
jn the belt markets of London, he was enabled to fend to Mr. Tcvng, a rough
outline fketch of a good ox, with the names and propcnicnste prices of all
the pieces. lie could not defcribe the pieces by the lines better than on the
drawing, as fonie pieces grow under or partly under other pieces. This is
copied from Mr. Campbei's ; tut the oft horn ftands rather too diltant at the
root, frcm the ne" hurn— too much behind it ; and the legs are rather too
Icnj:.
HUSBANDRY
AND
RURAL AFFAIRS.
By J. B. BORDLEY.
Still let me Country Culture fcan :
My Farm's my Home : " My Brother, Man :
" And God is evciy where."
The second edition with ADDITIONS.
PHILADELPHIA:
PRINTED Br BUDD yl X D BARTRA\f,
FOR THOMAS DOBSON, AT THE STONE HOUSE,
NO- 41, SOUTH SECOND STREET. •^"
180I.
\X:opy-Right Secured according to La-j,:^
V
-^
PREFACE.
X HE writings of the refpedable Mr.
TuLL firfl excited the author's atten-
tion to agriculture: but, to Mr. Young
he is chiefly indebted for his knowledge of
its prefent flate and the modes of pradiice
in Europe.* It was a happy firft thought
which led Mr. Young to make his farm-
ing-tours, for colleding faEis of the then
exifting flate of hufbandry in England : the
reft followed ; and the world has the fruits
of his labours, his ingenuity, and his pub-
lic fpirit.
On
36265
IV
PREFACE.
On the turn of middle age and whilft
gradually quitting public employments, the
author fat down on a farm in Maryland,
and became enthufiaftically fond of huf-
bandry. Farmers in the neighborhood
informed him of their modes of prad:ice ;
but they taught him nothing of the princi-
ples of the art. Whilft they knew how
to pradlife in the manner common to
the country, he knew neither principles
nor practice ; but began however with
obferving their practices, which he con-
tinued to imitate ; until gaining infornia-
tion from a number of inftru(5tive expe-
riments, he was encouraged to deviate
from fome of them ; and became more
and more affured that great improvements
might be made by profefTed farmers, in
this firft of all employments, if they could
be brought to relinquilh the worft of their
habits.
It was hoped the Society of Agriculture
in Philadelphia would have induced farm-
ers, in Pennfylvania at leaft, to feek im-
provement
PREFACE.
provement in better pradices. Succ'efs
was chiefly looked for from perfons who
becoming farmers had been of other pro-
felTions (foldiers, failors, &c.) and were
never trained to follow mere habits, un-
examined ; and moreover whofe fupport
fhould not altogether depend on the pro-
duce of their farms ; but who with minds
unfhackled, would pradife upon well di-
gefted and approved principles tefted by
experiments.
Little effays have been occafionaily writ-
ten and difperfed amongfl: his friends ;
which, with others hitherto remaining in
manufcript pertaining alfo to the concerns
of hufbandmen and country affairs, com-
pofe the prefent work. If fortunately they
Ihall induce improvements and better atten-
tions, for afluring competency with do-
meftic and focial comforts, his firfl wifh
will be accomplilhed.
PREFACE
PREFACE
To the Second Edition.
T
H E former edition of the EiTays and
Notes on Hufbandry and Rural A5airs being
difpofed of, and a new edition called for, and
the Editor having received from the Author
conliderable additions, the contents of many
pages, upwards of eighty, which are chiefly dif-
perfed in the work as is mofl fuitable to the
refpe£l;ive fubjefts, this fecond edition is now
offered to the public, embelliihed with two
additional copperplates : but, that the price
might not be increafed, the work is printed on
a fmaller type than the former.
The frontispiece to the prefent edition, will
be particularly valuable to country families,
in the copy of a drawing, given of a fat ox,
by the attentive Mr. Campbell, with mai-ks
pointing out from the London practice, the
method of cutting up a beef to the beft ad-
vantage ; alio with the names and proportion-
ate prices of the pieces, from the firloin to the
hock a portion of information which is
greatly delired in the country. See the ij An.
CONTENTS.
CONTENTS.
Page.
I. SrSTEMS and Rotations r
II. Grdfs-rotations 2
III. Grain-rotations jy
IV. Defignfor a Grain Farm 40
V. Grain and Meadow-rotation 56
VI. F arm-Tar d 74
VIL Clover 85
VIII. Wheat on Clover 02
IX. Bea7is go
X. Maize and Wheat-culture 100
XI. Hemp 108
XII. Farm-yard Manure 118
XIII. Barns
XIV. Cattle Stalls
XV. Cattle Pastured and Soiled; Kept
and Fattened 141
XVI. Obfervations on Cattle, Sheep,
and Hogs i5i
XVII. Maize and Potatoes as Fallow-
Crops and Fattening Materials 1 89
134
139
Vlll CONTENTS.
XYllL Fences
194
XIX. Treading Wheat
202
XX. Method of Registering Experiments
213
XXI. Principles of Vegetation
223
XXII. Neceffaries best Produd; of Land
244
XXIII. Family Salt
259
XXIV. Butter
271
XXV. Rice
275
XXVI. Country Habitations -
279
XXVII. Ice-Houfes
304
XXVIII. Intimations on ne^u Sources of
Trade, Is'c.
3^9
XXIX. Potato-Spirit a?id Beer
321
XXX. Diet in Rural Economy
330
XX XL Gypfum Manure
344
XXXIl. State Society of J gri culture
356
XXXIII. Of the Hujbandman*s Choice of .
Siibjecls, between Li-ve -Stock and
Grain
369
XXXIV. Thoughts en hired Labourers
and Servants^ Cottages and Cot to-
gers
3^7
XXXV. Pointing Roofs of Houfes
396
XXXVI. Flas
398
XXXVII. Sleds Cabbage Plants
400
XXXVIII. Fat Cattle
401
XXXIX. Notes and Intimatio?is
402
ESSAYS AND NOTES
O N
HUSBANDRY, &c.
" Agriculture is coufeflcdly the moft ufeful of all the Arts. Bodily health
" aiid adirity of mind are eminently promoted by the Exertions it re-
" quires. It is better calculated than other Occupations, for prcferving
" the fimplicity of manners, and purity of morals, which conflitutc the
" fureft BaCs of a profpcrous TranquiUity iji States."
Amdersok.
SYSTEMS AND ROTATIONS IN
FARMING BUSINESS.
ARMERS bleffed with dlfpofitions to improve
on what they know, will acknowledge there are
great deficiencies in the modes of common farming,
for want efpecially of well digefted fyflematic appli-
cations of labour with a proper choice of crops j
and that, there are great irregularities and mifappli-
cation of labour and attentions in the pra(flices of
hufbandmen.
A It
Library
N. C. State Collerre
2 GRASS ROTATIONS
It is not long fince wc began to read and talk of
rotatic?2s cf crops, without applying any adequate
meaning to the expreffion. It feems as if farmers,
in common, undcrfland little more by it than the
praflices or courfes, irregular and wild as they may
be, in common farming. They indeed are not apt
to elevate their minds to views of improvement ;
but rather fet themfelves againfl it : for, improve-
ment implies new labour and attention ; although it
may be in heu of and lefs than the ufual courfe of
labour; and they cannot give up their eld habits,
already and inleniibly acquired, with httle expenfe
of thought.
A recurring rofaticn cf crops is the completion of
as many years crops of the famie kinds, in regular
chanees from field to field, as there are fields culti-
vated ; and which form a cycle or round of fuch
crops as will recur in the fam.e order for ever. But
where, for inftance, there are feven fields, if the
farmer proceeds £»n the defigned fyftem yet flops
fliort of the, feven years, it is not a rstaiicn, but is
only a courfe of crops for fo many years as it has
been continued ; for there is no cycle or round of
crops completed.
Experience teaches, and a little refieftion on view-
ing defigns of fyllematic recurring rotations of crops
and bufinefs aiTures thinking perfons, that well
chol'en
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. j^
chofen fyftematic bufinefs muft have important ad-
vantages over random pra^ices and courfcs.
GRASS ROTATIONS.
A valuable friend of the focial virtues, the late
Mr. Rigai, a gentleman from Manheim in Germa-
ny, afked me how he fliould cultivate a fmall farm
near fo confiderable a town as Philadelphia. On
v/hich the following was written for him ; and it is
here inferted entire, becaufe of the principles and
intimations contained in it, which may be ufeful,
as well as the fyflem of bufmefs propofed.
" Commerce feeds the paffions :
** Agricultars calms tliem."
Intending to retire from the buflle of a town
life, to a fmall feat, a few miles in the country,
confiding of a corifortable houfe, offices, garden,
and ^6 acrco of arable land having a clay-loam
rather impoveriihed, tut knowing nothing of huf-
bandry from experience, and but little in theory,
I confult practical farmers j who allure me labour
is fcarce, hirelings are with difficulty managed, even
by experienced hulbandmen, and that many pecu-
liar attentions with much of complicated work are
appendant to a grain farm. In fliort, that the
mofl: fimple, the m.ofl: plealing, and the mofl ad-
vantageous ufe that I can apply my land to, is to
keep it in grafs.
A 2 It
C GRASS ROTATIONS
It is alfo faid that feme fuch mode as is offered
in the defign below, is bed adapted to my talents
and fituation. It is my wilh, however, to have it
approved or amended by experienced perfons, or
that a better be propofed.
DESIGN.
No kind of grain is to be cultivated. No horfe,
ox, cow or other beafl is to graze on paflure. They
are to be kept up the year through. There then
will be httle need of divillon fences. Such as are
on the place may be removed, and the out fence be
made perfeft. The fields will then be under one
general incloCng fence ; and exhibit a beautiful unit
of grafs, unbroken by fences, but dotted here and
there with clumps of trees, and marked off in equal
divifions by headlands or turnings, and cultivated as
below.*
The
* The trees may be locuils, fugar-maples, black mulber-
ries, black-walnuts, black-gums, dogwoods, faflafraffes : none
whereof materially injure grals growing under them. If it
Ihould be requifite to guard againll bleak winds, divifions
may be formed with hedges, or only trees planted clofe in
rows. Other trees may be two or three weeping-willows,
for their Cngularity ; the yellow willow for ufe. The fugar-
maple is a handfome clean tree, which gives a deep Ihade. A
grove of them, two or three acres, would give comfortable
fnady walks, and fugar for family ue ; the making whereof
would require but a ihort time, and be an entertaining har-
veft. The trees 30 feet apart, are above 48 on an acre j
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. 5
The llve-ftock may be two oxen for a plow, har-
row, roller, and cart, occafionally ; four oxen in
harnefs for a waggon, the journies being {hort ; and
two good cows, belides carriage or faddle horfes.*
Much
which at a low reckoning would yield 200 tb. of fugar an
acre. Two acres, yielding 400 lb. would pay an annual rent
of 30 or 40 Dollars an acre, deducting only a trifle, not fo
much for labour as for a (hort attention in the leifure month
of February. From feeds, it may be 20 years before the
trees yield fufficiently of fugar : but they foon form a de-
lightful fhady grove ; and they grow readily from feeds . In-
ftead of 48 trees, there may be 48 clumps of three or more
fugar maples in each clump. Sugar maples growing in
fields, uncrowded, give 7 lbs of fugar a tree : then clumps
of 4 trees may yield 24 Jt)S a clump ; and 48 fuch clumps
maybe reckoned to give 1 150 to 1300 lbs from an acre.
* Mr. Rigal for whom this was written, lately died in eafy
circumftances. Others, lefs able, may conduft the bufinefs of
their grafs-farms with fewer cattle, and even without owning
any, by occafionally hiring teams, for drawing hay, carrying
out manures, plowing. Sec. But, four oxen, a waggon, a
plow, a roller and a harrow, would pay well when kept on
the farm, always at command. Indeed oxen cannot be deemed
coflly, expenfive, and in the end a dead lofs, as horfes are.
An ox coils . . .
40 Dollars.
3 years keep, at 24 .
72
1 year ditto, and fatting
40
He gains from 4 years but partial work
1 60
4 years dung (winter and fummer)
40
fold, for . , .
80
IJ2 .. 280
6 CRASS ROTATIONS
Much of inconvenience and but little profit would
attend the making butter for fale, by any other
than a proprietor who is of the clafs of dairy peo-
ple. Rather prefer buying butter and grain want-
ed. The hay^ a fimple unit of attention and pro-
duce, pays for them to the befl advantage : and a
complication of attentions is to be avoided.
Some ground for potatoes, truck-patch, and ex-
periments will be wanted : therefore eight acres are
referred ; which are to have no connection with
the other fields ; nor are ever to grow any corn or
grain, which would require the ihrajher to be intro-
duced. Thefe eight acres may contain a garden for
the market, or for pleafure, according to the views
of the owner.
In the firfl year plow up all the arable, deep as
the foil will admit of. Then fow buckwheat, and
plow in the plants before they produce feeds. Re-
peat this, for proteding the fallow from exceflive ex-
halation ; and for adding a manure to the foil as
often as the buckwheat is plowed in. On the fields
A and B, lay a quantity of rich dung : bed done
in the fall, on the lafl: turning in of the buckwheat.
Sow thefe and the other four fields with rye, for
giving hay, AVhen, hereafter, clover and timothy
feeds are fown, rye will firfl jhelter thefe graffes in
their tender flate, and then be cut and cured into
hay.
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. })
bay. In the fecond year, give dung alfo to C and
D fields ; and in the third to E and F fields. I have
not indeed ever feen rye-hay ; but have heard farm-
ers fay, it is good in quality and the crop great.
To dung the v^^holc in the firfl year might be be-
yond your pouter, or be very inconvenient. There-
fore a third part is propofed to be dunged in each
of three years : which, however, rather difadvan-
tageoufly poftpones, till the feventh year, the com-
mencement of the defired courfe, for giving yearly
two fields of rye-hay, two of clover, and t%vo of ti-
mothy,*
For effeding rotations of recurring crops, four
articles of produce, if all annual, v/ould require
four fields. If of three articles of crop, one is an-
nual, as in the fubfequent table, and two are bieniiial^
then fix fields are requifite. With fewer fields the
fyftem would be defedlive, and the round of crops
could not be continued. For infl:ance : if thefe ar-
ticles
* If die ground is already in good heart, after plowing in
the firft fowing of buckwheat for a manure, in July you may
fow buckwheat for a crop, and clover fted immediately on it.
Thus in the very firft year, a crop of iuckivheat is gained ;
and in the fecond year a crop of clover, from the whole 48
acres. If the ground is fuitable to gypfum, tlien reftorc with
gypfum or limeftone duft as far as the dung falls fhort, which
will greatly reduce the poftponement of the intended grafs-
crops.
L GRASS ROTATIONS
tides annual and biennial, as above, were cultivat-
ed in only three fields, in the feventh and eighth
years there would be no clover. If of two articles
of crop one is annual and the other triennial^ then
four fields are requifite.
The firfl fix years of the above defign are rather
preparative to the intended round of crops (fee the
table). It is the feventh year which enters upon
the defigned and proper recurring rotation of crops,
manuring^ and imrk. A regular fyflem of recurring
crops and bufmefs in hufbandry exifls on the princi-
ples of the fpiral line, as well as of the circle.
This is illuftrated by reading the plan diagonally,
-Vom A field in the feventh year, downward through
1 field 8, C field 9, &c. to F field in the twelfth
ear inclufive ; being in all fix fields, and fix years ;
all whereof direct to " mow timothy, plow in timo-
■ hy, dung, fow rye.'* The like of the other arti-
cles. By wrapping the paper plan or table round
a cylinder, the fpiral line of crops is clearly under-
ftood. The plan is alfo advantageoufly read direft-
ly downward^ taking any one field at a time ; and
alfo laterally through all the fields of either year.
Though the firfl: fix years, in the fyfl:em exhibit-
ed in the table, give crops, except the fixfl: year,
yet they are not according to the defigned variety j
as they arc moflly in rye-hay, inflead of two fields
of
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. 9
of ryf, two of cloicr, and two of timoihy. Bnt
the proper courfe being once entered on, the in-
tended crops will regularly recur as long as you
pleafe to continue it.
Manurings alfo recur in rotation and fpiral order ;
and being frequent are applied in lefs quantities at
a time than would be requiiite afi he ufual
lengthy delays in renewing them : and , "apply-
ing them frequently in moderate quantities^ -c^ . r'.ch-
es nearer to the economy of nature ; whi^ n-
ftantly commits to the earth the food of plan:,
the means of obtaining that food, in moderate p.
tions : not in gluts to furfeit, nor at diftant inter-
vals of time which might flarve the plants.*
Not only the crops and manurings, but the plow-
ings and the work in general, recur orderly and of
courfe, without the hazard of a wrong bias or falli-
ble reafoning leading you into error, confuficn, or
ill judged and irregular practices and courfes. Such
are important advantages, which fyflematic hufband-
ry has over random or common practices.
Your
* This mediod of applying manures, gradually, it may be
expefted will be effetSual, after being for fometime repeated :
but it need not prevent laying on manures in full quantities
at once ^Yhere they can be obtained.
lO GRASS ROTATIONS
Your live jflock will give the dung requifite, after
the third year : and beeves bought and foiled on
cut green grafs, will add to the dunghil.
Rye is fovved in September or October. Clover
in Maryland, in March, by flrewing the feeds on
the grc'nd which is already fown with fraall" corn ;
'or in ' on buckwheat, without any attempt to
cove ^m. The dikted flate of the ground, and
xhc Mon given to its particles by the alternate
V frods and thaws of March, and winds or
s of July, fuffice for the growing of the feeds ;
id the fun is too feeble to injure them, fheltered
as they are by the buckwheat or other cornplants ;
yet in fome cafes it may be well to run a light roller
over it. Some farmers in Pennfylvania of late,
prefer flrewing clover feed on their wheat fields in
April. For the climate of Maryland about the 20th
of March feems the bcfl time.
Timothy fown in the fpring, would fometimes be
injured by drought and heat of the midfuramcr
fun, whilfl in its feeble flate on the lofs of its grain-
fhelter. On the other hand, though timothy is more
perfect from being fown on grain in autumn, yet
it fometimes overgrows and injures the crop of
winter grain. But when the grain is fown for the
purpofe of hny and Jhelter only, the objection is
avoided: and autumn is generally the preferable
feafoa
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. II
fcafon for fowing timothy feed. On rye being, in
September, fown and harrowed in, immediately,
before the foil can be fettled down by time or rain,
flrew the timothy feed over it ; and either roll it in
or leave it to the crumbling of the foil in its fet-
teling with the aid of wind and rain ; which in ex-
perience is found to be generally fufficient.
Clover and timothy grow admirably well when
ib^vn in "July on Bucku-heat. The feedling plants
are thus well fhekered againfh the fcorching fun, and
will have a good length of time for growing ftrong
for withftanding the winter's frofls.
Two years are the moft that clover ought ever to
be continued in the ground. Timothy would con-
tinue good feveral years longer. But this is of no
confideration in a rotation courfe, which does not
well admit of any grafs or clover being continued
two years on the ground : and it is of great ad-
vantage to turn up the ground, Jhift its furface, and
bury thefods of grafs. The expenfe of feed for re-
newing grafs is thought too much of by farmers.
It is a trifle, when oppofed by the advantages gain-
ed.
The following rotations further illuflrate the
aforementioned principles j and fhew other varieties
of crops.
Clover,
12
GRASS ROTATION
S
C.'cvtr, with Rye.
TVwor^y, with Rye.
Chver and Timofiy,
without fhelter.
ifl rRCC
I ft rRTTT
I ft rCTCT
Round 4CRC
Round J TRTT
Round J CTCT
of tCCR
of i TTRT
of i TCTC
Crops.
Crops. (,TTTR
Crops. (,TCTC
rRCC
Zd, -JCRC
CCCR
rRTTT
rCTCT
I TRTT
2d. -J TTRT
,' J CTCT
2a. -J TCTC
(_TTTR
l^TCTC
The want of a flieltering crop to the young clover
and timothy, in mofl years might prove very ma-
teriaJ.
In the inflances where tiinothy is propofed, orchard
grafs may be fubftituted.* In forae particulars they
have a fimilarity of chara£ler : in others they ma-
terially differ. Both arc blade or fpire graffes, tufty
and fibrous rooted. Their principal difference is in
the forw'ardnefs of their fpring growth, the time of
their arrival to maturity, and their continuance to-
wards winter. Orchard grafs comes early, is ma-
tured foon, and continues green late in the feafon ;
jufl
* It is faid there is a grafs called orchard grafs in Eng-
land ; wliich from the defcription given me, is very different
from the orchard grafs of America — fo called from its grovv'-
ing better under trees than other grafs.
:)F CROPS AND BUSINESS, i^
jufl as clover does. Timcthy is late in its coming in
the fpring, and late in ripening.
It is not uncommon in the ordinary hufbandry,
to fow lots of ground with clover and timothy
feeds, mixed. But a better companion for clover
is orchard grafs. Yet in a rotation fyftera, clover
ought not to admit any kind of grafs feeds to be
mixed with it.
When clover is grown, it muil be cut : it ought
to be fooner than is ufual. Timothy growing with
clover, is cut with it, in a young and very imper-
feft flate. In this cafe the clover gives matured
hay : the timothy a crude food containing little of
nourifhment. Horfes prefer ripe, full-grown timo-
thy in hay. Mr. Gettings, of Gunpowder Foreft,
Maryland, preiTcd with work, could mow but a
part of his timothy before harveft. He ordered
the pretty green hay from this mowing fhould be
referved for his favourite horfes. His hoftler in-
formed him, they preferred the brown hay cut after
harveft j and he faw and was fatisficd of the hd:.
Afterwards, Col. Lloyd, of Kent, cut a part of his
timothy before harveft, and the reft in July after
harveft. He attended to the feeding his horfes
with thefe, in confcquence of what he had heard
of Mr. Gettings* experiment, and afiured me his
horfes
14 GRASS ROTATIONS
horfes preferred the brownifli matured hay to what
was cut before harveft.*
* " In fome meadows I faw timothy grafs ftanding very
thick and high ; and clofe to it, it was much thinner. On
inquiry, I found the part where it was thin had been mowed
twice; and what flood thick had been mowed once only, and
thai after wheat harvefi. Mowing timotliy only once in a fea-
fon, and that after harvefi^ gains almoft as much as if twice
mowed (once before han'efl: and once again in autumn) : be-
fides, horfes and cattle will eat ripe timothy when tliey will not
look at the other." Journ. from Hope, in New-Jerfey : Co-
lumb. Mag. Sept. 1788, p. 502. It is a prevailing opinion,
that it is the moft beneficial to mow timothy but once in a
feafon. The hay of the fecond cutting is not confiderable ;
and it is faid, cfpecially in the German diftrifts, that a fe-
cond mowing injures the foil greatly. They think that die
fine aftermath is fuperior in value to tlie hay of a fecond cut-
ting : moreover a due ripenefs of the timothy is more certain-
ly obtained when only once mowing is pradlifed ; and the
aftermath of a fecond growth, when eaten down, leaves the
meadow naked and unfheltered late in the feafon, to damage
from frofts and cutting winds of the winter. I have wifhed
to be well experienced in ryc-grafs ; as it has a pretty blade,
is hardy, coming early in the fpring and ftanding late in the
autumn. European farmers are fond of it ; and we ought
to give it a fair trial.
Tab L E
Of CROPS ANB BUSINESS.
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t Not Ray or Rye Gn^/x ; but Rye Corn ; to be cut snd
cured into /:ay, when the heads are fliooting out of die ilieath.
i6
(SRASS ROTATIONS, &C.
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GRAIN
GRAIN ROTATIONS.- tf
OR J IN ROTATIONS.
If reducing the cultivation of grafs to regular
fyflematic rotations be advantageous, bow much
more fo muft it be to apply fuch rotations to the
more complicated and various bullnefs of grain
farms !
Of the Englifli Old Courfes of Cropsi^
Unril about the middle of the i Sdi century, one of
the befl: common courfes of farming, in England,
confilled of a fallow^ which broke up and cleaned
the ground, by feveral plowings, but left the foil
cxpofed to the fcorching fun, during the hotteft iea-
fon, without any iliading crop, and on this wheat
"Was fown j peas or beans following the wheat : then
barley (or oats or both) in fuccefTion, on one moie-
ty of the farm, during ten to twenty or more years:
the other moiety during that time being in common
pallure graffcs.* When a change was to be made,
the moiety in grafs was plowed and prepared ; and
then thrown into the courfe of crops as above ; and
that which had been in crops, was fown Vvith mixed
B grafs
* " In good land tlie worfe rotation o^ fallow — 'u)heat — le.7Hi
(or peas cr barley) more ufually prevailed." This and th«
following notes diftinguillic-d by an S. were writcen with a
pencil, in tlie margin of or.e of my elTays, by an Englilh
fisuntry.gentkmnn.
18 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
grafs feeds (not clover) to lay as before ten or twen-
ty years. The whole arable or plowable part of
the farm thus divided into moieties, or nearly (o,
was excluiive of the homeflead and flanding mea-
dow. So that a farm of 300 acres, admitted of
150 acres in grafs, lay, or old field, and 150 in
crops. Their fields bearing crops were feldom equal
in quantity : but in the following deCgn they are fo
confidered.
No. I.
Acres.
37 fallow, naic'd, yields nothing — exhausting*
37 wheat, bufhels ^^^ — exhausting
37 peas or beans 555 — ameliorating
J
7 barley 740 — exhausting
150 in crops, 4 fields 1850 bufhels.f
150 in grafs or lay.
300 acres.
The
• The richnefs of a clean foil is in a ftate of wade, vihen
expofed to the exhaling hot fun. But the Englifh fallows arc
manured. The plowings open and clean the foil for receiving
feed and producing the crop defired ; though in left perfec-
tion than vihen the fallow is protected by fhade during its
being plowed or horfehoed. Exhaujiing here means no more
than tliat the fallow, when expofed naked to tlie fun, is rob-
bed by exhalation of a part of the nutrition of plants depoCt-
f S:i its next page for tbi quarJitiet of the crop.
GRAIN- ROTATIONS. 1^
The manure added, ameliorates : yet the fun
iSiining on the naked foil, in the hot feafon, is
thought to exhale much of the valuable contents of
the manure, and of the ground.
B 1 The
ed In the foil, more than if it were {Keltered by plants groTA'-
ing in rows on tie fallow : yet naked fallow is fo fur advan-
tageous Uiat it breaks and cleans the foil, without \vhich feed
ftrewedon the ground wot" Id yield no crop. But the ground
broken and cleaned whilft under (hade, is ccnfiderably de-
fended from the exlialing fun and wind ; and is alfo meliorat-
ed hj perfpiration, from juicy plants growing in the rows. If
what voyagers fay be true, that fome dews, particularly in
die Perfian Gulf, are fait, the fa:mer may readily apprehend
that a part of the riches of Lis foil may ?Mo be exhaled bv
the fun ; and he will refort to fisjhig crops on his fallow, for
defending it againft wafte. He knows the value of mere
mcljiure, and how foon it evaporates v^'hen the earth is expofed
to the fun and wind without {heltcr. Befides what I have
read of this in Harris's CoUedicn of Voyages, a celebrated
late traveller into Egypt and Syria, aifures me it is true ;
and that he has tafted the fait from dew on his lips, in thofe
countries. Th.o\x^afou:ksrn countries are the be:ter for ihading
fallow crops, yet northern countries m.ay be better without the
fliade. In the high latitudes of England, fhaded lallows are
contended for : how is it in Scotland or in Szvedcn ?
t The quantities given, of the crops, are not meant as real
or even as eftimatcd quantities ; but are noted at random,
and continued at the fame rates in fubfequent courfes, for
comparing the grain products of entire farms, as they are
differently divided. All contain 300 acres. — The Maryland
and Pennfylvania bulhel, like the London mcafure tn ufe , \s
fomewhat larger than the EnghOi Rututs bufwel— about ^V"-
ao
GRAIN ROTATIONS.
The above is of the crops of one field during
four years ; or of the four fields in one year. The
following is a plan of the whole farm (homeftead,
meadow, and lay excepted) with the courfcs of the
crops in thofe four fields during four years *
Years. A B C Ti ^j^j^^^
1791
1792
1793
1794
The medium produce of thefc fields, in England,
is more than is above ftated. But it is well to fuppofe
the quantity they produce per acre is as in this and
the following flatements : nor is it material what the
quantity is, when how much the Englifli foil or how
much the American gives, is not under confider-
ation.
Englifli
* Four years crrps, of four feveral articles, interchanged
on four fclds, complete a rotation of four years ; -which if
properly defigned, will recur as often as you pleafe ; and on
die plan will read, diagonally, the fame through every Ro-
tation.
A
B
c
D
Fal.
Wh.
Pc.
Ba.
.* W
\ P
B \
F
; p
B
F
w ;
• • *
; F
• • •
• • •
; p ;
1 • • •
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 21
Englijh New Courfes or Rotations of Crops.
The better courfes of crops arc founded on thefe
principles : To fallow^* and to have growing on
the fallow, whilfl it is yet under the plow or hoc, a
Jhading and ameliorating or mild crop : never to fow
any fort of corn immediately after corn of any kind :
to fow clover or an equivalent on every field of
fmall grain : and with a courfe of well chofen crops
and the Jhaded fallows, prevent the foil from rest-
ing^ hardening and running into weeds.
Thus entire farms are continued in a conflant ro-
tation under 4 to 6 or 8 divifions or fields ; fo as
with the clean, mellow flate of the whole arable,
to give a pleafing fyftem of bulinefs, improve the
foil and procure a confiderably larger income.
Plowing the fields every year, bids fair to annihi-
late even Joh?i^s-wort and garlick — indeed every
growth but of the crops defigned. The rotation
fyftem warring againfl: weeds and all coalefcence or
fettling
* The intention in fallowing is to plow up and pulveri:e the
ground ; fhift its furfaces ; deftroy weeds and bring up or
cover feeds to be fprouted and deftroyed. " ffi/li Ihould be
plowed ohliqufly to the right hand, frcm the top, down ; by
v/hich the furrow turns readily : as it aUb does when the plow-
returns obliquely up hill, pcirallel to the former furrow made
in going do^v^ hill."
52 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
fettling and binding of the ground, vzill not allow the
land to rest. It urges you on to perpetual culture:
but rest, being a friend to iveeds and a hardnefs of
the ground, cannot belong to culture. There is a
flron^ exprelHon among hufbandracn, of " land
untiuiny itfelf." They apply it to ground which
has been cultivated, and afterwards neglected ; fo
that it rests, fettles, and returns to its wonted
hardnefs.
No. II.
60 acres barley bufhels 1200 — exhaufling
60 clover . . — ameliorating
60 wheat . 900 — exhaufling
60 clover* . . — ameliorating
6c peas or beans 900 — atnelioraling
;oo acres in 5 fields.
3000 bufhels.
In
* " I believe it is never practifed to fow clover twice iwjive
^^ years. The ground would foon be exhaulied of die pabu-
" lum of clover, and the feed would not vegetate. The rota-
*' tion of clover, fown cnce 'n\ four years, cannot be long con-
*' tinned without occafionally changing the clover for feme
** other grafs, ufually hop-clover or trefoil irJxed w!.;h rye-
** grafs. Without fuch change the ground becomes fick of
** clover, and the clover will no longer thrive. — The beil ro-
*' taiion on jtrong \.\vA that will not bear treading with fheep,
" is barl^ — clover — zuheat — Itaus : or barley, beans, wheat,
*' clover two years. In light land, d;e beft and almoU univer-
" iA rotation is karlcy — clover — nukeat — iurr.ips." S. The
Hhove is faid of clover in England. And it alfo is there
GRAIN ROTATIONS* 23
In their fandy light lands, turnips in a well pre-
pared foil are a common fallow crop, inllead of peas
or
faid of their clover, that It fails much more than formerly ;
for that it comes up very thick and fine, but " dies aivay In
" winter." 2 E. Tour 128. And again, the fame book, p.
165. — " Land Is tired of clover. It comes up thick and fine,
" but is all eaten off in February, by a red worm ; which did
" not ufe to happen.'* Home's Pr. Agr. 161, fpeaking of
change of f pedes •, fays, — ^ fome plants are defigned to^x the
" foil ; others, to open it ; xSx^ fihrotis rooted and the tap rcot-
** ed." So far at leaft change of /pecks is advifable, andfowing
cornsy which have fibrous roots, and hgumies 01 clover, which
have tap-roots, alternately, tend to efFeft this ameliorating
purpofe, and preferve a due medium between too clofe and
too open a foil. Though change of fpecies may be nccefiary,
T do not believe that change oifeed of the fame kind, at leaft
of wheat or other common corns is. I never could perceive
any difference. Many Ideal old fayings pafs current without
examination. What more current than that acid of vitriol is
a pollbn to foil, or to vegetation ? yet Doflor Home proved it
to be a powerful manure ; and plafterof Paris is but a caicari-
ous earth faturated with acid of vitriol. So it is faid of ani-
mals, that it Is neceflliry to crof the firahu To be furc a horfe
of fuperior breed, may be expected to give a better colt than
your prefent inferior breed. Mr. Bahzvell fays, propao-ate
from your own horfes till you meet with better. Certain feeds
of exotic -plants, may be changed to advantage, yet the corns,
common to all the world, it fcems, require not a change of
feed. It is faid that, " In Egypt, the French are obliged to
*♦ import, annually, the feeds of caulifiowers, beets, caiTots,
** and falfify ; and apricots, pears, and peaches, tranfported
" to Rtjelta, degenerate." Vol. Syv. And fo itib in Kmt-
'*4 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
or beans ; the turnips being thinned greatly, and
frequently hand-hoed, or if in rows, horfehoed, fo
as to keep the ground clean and well flirred ; and
they are always on manured ground.*
A
rica, refpecling raulif.o'X'er feeds. Yet Kliyogg, the noted
Bwiis Farmer, is warm lor changing his feed-corn frequently.
* Oar American farms arc lo to 15 degrees fcudi cf the
farms in England ; yet fo keen are our frofts and fo fudden
and frequent the changes from thaw to froft, that commoa
turnips do not ftand the winter through in our fields. The
Swediih plant, called ruta-Liga^ or r:ia'baga., is likely to
ftand our winters ; for fupplying cattle and fhcep with a juicy
food in winter and fpring, — a fauce to their dry food, for
keeping them open ag?,inft the coftive effects of ftraw. Doc-
tor Collin, Swedifh Millioner in Philadelphia, fays it is con-
fidered in S-x^den as a fpecies of ikole or Colwort, and is call-
ed Rot-kol, having fmooth leaves. I have but once had an
opportunity of fovving its feeds : the roots irom which flood
through the winter peiiecHy found, in the ground. But it
was the mild winter 1795-6. The common courfe of crops
in England, of turnips ^ barley^ clover, ivheat, a change on (y^-
\j four fe'ds, cf their light lands, after t-juenty years tT^tr'icncCt
is thought by fome farmers to furteit the ground, by the fre-
quency of the repetition or recurrence of the fame crops,
Cj" zuhsn they are nuiihcut mnnurings : the fame crops returning
in the ftiort fpace of e\crj four years. Here inftead of allow-
ing the foil to be impoverifhed in confequence of its being 20
years under crcps ^ju'ithout b/itigdunjtd, the mind flies to fancied
furfelts of the ground. Call it what you will, in half twenty
years mofl foil will fhew fome degree cf impoverifhment,
from the crops taken cf luithout manure given to the foil. Mr.
Library
N. C. State College
GRAIN ROTATIONS.
25
Years.
179:
^7^:,
794
^795
B
D E Yiddi,
Ba
CI
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CI
Pe
. C
. w
C
* p
B '
• W
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; c
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C
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• p
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B -
• • •
C
w
c .
I79I
PUtf an excellent farmer in England, who mentions this to
Mr. Young, thinks it is very bad tillage, elpecially on iveak
foils., unkfs the land is marled or twice cj" manured in the ro-
tation. He adds, that on breaking up the turf, fome have
with fuccefs, taken Jpring corn, followed immediately, after
working the land well, in "jjhejt, turnips, larky with grafs
feeds, and manuring upon th: feeds and for the turnips; which
courfe, he adds, proves good, and the crops heavy. The
fuperiority of crops in this courfe, he thinks, is caufed by
manuring on the feeds, and by a fifth of the land laying fivt
years in grafs. 4 An. 478. This fuggefts the propriety of hav-
ing, in every rotation of crops, one field extraordinary to lay in
grafs, not clover, till the courfe ends : that is, whilft the four
to five or fix fields are revolving in crrps, one other field is to
be laid dov.n and continued in grafs, or rather (landing mea-
dow. For inftance : "juhsat^ clo'B.-r, rye, clover., peas or beans or
foots, interchange whilfl die grafs-field continues vinb;ok;:n.
26
GRAIN ROTATIONS.
I79I
1792
1 793
1794
^19S
Ba
Here the crops are the fame as the
preceding — but the courfe is differ-
ent. In that the clover is annual :
in this it continues two years. When
clover is continued tvro or more years,
it lets in weeds and forae binding of
the ground, to a degree that may have
occafioned the faying, in England, of
the ground becoming, in that country,
" clover fick." But 'pearly renewing
the clover in a rotation of crops, neither admits of
iveeds or a binding of the ground. The clover in
this cafe, being fufficiently thick and well fown, ef-
feclually (liades and mellows the foil, without having
time allowed it or the foil to decline.*
CI
CI
Wh
Pe
Comparifon
during the five years crops of grain and clover. Then this is
broke up, and put into a courfe of crops, as the others : and
one of the crop-fields is laid down in grafs. Accordingly un-
der the article recurring crops, is a defign of rotation crops at-
tended vrith a permanent meadozu ; and another defign of a
field in meadozv, and another in Hemp, during the time of other
crops in rotation.
* The climate and the foil of America may be believed to dif-
fer greatly from thofe of England, refpefting the growth and
perfection of fome particular plants. Wheat fown there 2 to
3 bufhels an acre, yields great crops of com. Two bufhels
an acre fown in Maryland or Pennfylvania, would yield ftraw
without grain. In Maryland three pecks are commonly fown.
I never had better crops than from half a buftiel of feed wheat
e
aRAIN ROTATIONS. 2/
Comparifon between the EngUfi Old ana New CouT'
fes of Craps.
Upon comparing the old with the new courfes iri
England, it occnrs that the 120 acres in clover, may
be confiderably fuperior to the 1 50 acres^of common
grafles on the hide-bound foil of the lay or old field ;
and that the grain and ftraw is fuperior as 300 to 185.
Peas
to an acre, in a few inftances. In diefe inftances, the ground
was pcrfcftly clean and fine, after many plowings or hovfe-
hoings of maize ; on v/liich the wheat was fown in Septem-
ber, whilil; the maize v/as ripening. It was a clay-loam,
highly pulverifed. But becaufe of the lofs of plants at other
times, I preferred to fo">v three pecks an acre. — The attentive
Mr. E. an excellent farmer of Pennfylvania, made a farming
tour in England ; and obferved that cloA'-er there is inferior
to what it is in Pennfylvania, This may be owing, partly, to
the climate and foil being Icfs friendly to this plant than in
America : and certainly it is againft clover to continue it
growing for years, fo that weeds and fibrous rooted gralTes
arc let in to rob the clover and bind the foil. It is even an
Englilh pradlice to fow rye grafs with clover : and rye grafs
is a very fibrous rooted binding plant. The ground bccont-
ing " clovcr-fick" is unknown in America, — unlcfs its being-
reduced by a long continuance of the clover and introduiUon
of v/eeds and graffes, will admit of the exprellion. But clo-
ver-fick in the fenfc fpoken of in the note page 22, is unkno\\'n
and unfufpected in America. Red clover is only meant.
Ground be'mg clovcr-Jick or furfeited with clover, is atlributcJ
by a Surrey cultivator to fliallow plowing. His land was firfc
.of clover, baring been fown every fourih ye.]- '.-.' ■ -^ ' -
SS GRAIN ROTATIONS.
Peas and beans are inofFenlive,* as is clover, and
even are ameliorating. They all Jhade the ground
during the hotted time of the year. All corns im-
poverifli ; and withal, the f?nall kinds let in weeds ;
which with rest, bind and foul the foil. But they
check the wafliing away of foil ; which maize culture
greatly promotes, by repeated plowings or fcratch-
ings given Vv^hilft the maize is growing.
No. I. has two fields flirred and cleaned : the fal-
low, a naked one, and the pea or bean field when
in rows. The growing crop of the laft flickers the
foil from extreme exhalation j and is the only ame-
liorating crop againft the two exhaufting crops,
wheat and barley. No. II. has one horfehoed or
plowed field, in a fallow crop of peas or beans ;
and three fields of ameliorating productions, which
are peas, clover, clover (that is continued two years)
•againfl the two exhaufl:ers, wheat and barley. The
field-bean in England, though fmall, is of the na-
ture of the garden or Windfor-bean. It grows up-
right, and giving but a partial fhade, is not fully
an
plowing 12 inches ^eepy manuring greatly, and then fowing
clover every third year, Mr. Young marked the refult for 9
years, and never faw finer crops, — 2 An 366.
* " Not unlcfs they are kept clean from weeds by hoing,
** which cannot be performed, unlefs tliey arc fown in
« drills." S.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 2^
an ameliorating crop, unlefs well horfehoed in the
intervals, between the rows.* Neither are turnips
or potatoes good fallow crops unlefs they are manur-
ed and cultivated in the like manner. They there
are always on manured ground. Englilli peas fooa
covering the ground, even when fowed broad-caft,
are good fallow crops, although not horfehoed.
Having but little root, moft of their nourifliment,
it feems, is derived from the atmofphere. The
plants are juicy and emit much perfpiration on the
ground.
American Old Courfes of Crops.
When in Maryland a farm is divided into three
fields, the common courfe is maize, wheat or rye,
and fpontaneous rubbifh paflure. When in four
fields, it is maize, naked fallow, wheat, and the like
mean pafture : or maize, wheat, lay or poor paflure
during two years. And whiJft in feme parts of A-
merica, the fields are four or five, in other parts the
divifions
* " Beans are ufually drilled In rows 1 8 or 20 Inches afun-
•• der, in England, and kept clean by haiidhoing, m York-
" fliire, the diftance not admitting of a horfehoe ; nor did I
*' ever hear of one being ufed, except perhaps In fome part
«* of Kent, where beans grow with an unufual luxuriance,
" and are confequently fown at an unurual diftance." S. —
In Maryland I ihimmed (a kind of horfehoing) peas, beans
and potatoes, growing In rows iS or 20 Inrhcs apart, equal
to two of my plow furrow 5.
30 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
dlvifions are as low as two. Two exhaufting corn
crops repeatedly taken from three or four fields, af-
ter fome years of fuch crops, would fcarcely admit
of eight bufliels of wheat an acre being produced on
common land, one year with another :* but fuppofc
No. III.
ICO acr. maize, at 12 buihels
1200
100 wlieat, 8
800
100 lay, or mean paflure
300 acres in 3 fields
2000 bufliels.
No. IV.
']c^ acr. maize
75 wheat
IS i^y
IS i^y
300 acres, in 4 fields.
No.
* A few years fince, It was a general belief that fix bufliels
of wheat an acre, was the medium produce of a large extent
of country within the peninfula of Chefapeak : but fmce then,
till the Heflian fly took poirefTzcn of the wheat growing there,
the wheat ciilture was improved fo as to gain a larger pro-
duce, in that difl:ri(ft. I Ciinnot fo well judge of the crops in
Pennfylvania ; but believe they exceed tv/elve buihels of wheat
on an acre, when clear of injury from the Heffian fly j and
that they are progrefling with the Increaflng ftate of clover
and manurings with dung, gypfum and lime. Here the
corn-ground is manured^ for raaize, Vv'heat or barley. In
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 3I
No. III. and IV. give light crops, moftly of a cheap
corn, very poor pafture, and but little hay (if any)
for keeping a flock of hide-bound beafts and prefcr-
vation of a foil which is in an obvious confumption.
Under fuch fevere treatment, land is continually lo-
ling ftrength ; and it may be, greater productions
arc here allowed than the old fettled maize farms
yield, and than new ones can long continue to yield,
under the old habits of farming, if it may be called
farming.*
We almofl: univerfally culiivatc one field in maize,
whatever may be in the other fields. The maize
being frequently plowed or horfehoed,t the ground
is
Maryland, alas ! the manuring entire /Ms, is fcarcely known
in any inftance.
* Wliat is above faid, applies to Maryland rather than to
farming in Pennfylvania, where watered or irrigated meadows
have long been in common ufe : and it is remarkable that the
irrigated and bottom meadow lands are now thought lightly
of, in comparilbn with die very high eftimation they were in
before clover came into field culture. Still irrigated grounds
are, as tliey ever will be, very valuable : but fo fure and plen-
tiful are clover crops, that the Pennfylvania farmers are lefs
fohcitous about meadows. Till lately a firm without irrigat-
ed or bottom meadow, was never much valued. Now, pur-
chafers are Icfs anxious for thofc articles, as they are fure of
abounding in clover and hay from the arable upland.
f Horfehoing, is (lining and cleaning from, weeds the in-r
terval ground, with a plow or any inftrumsnt which cuts.
3^ GRAIN ROTATIONS.
is thereby kept light and clean ; and it gives a fal*
low with a crop : but it is an ill chofen crop for a
fallow, becdufe of its giving only a trifle oi Jhade
to the frefh expofed foil, and becaufe it is corn, to
be fucceeded commonly by other corn : and all corns
are terrible exhaufters. Some farmers fow wheat on
this maize-field, in September before the maize
is ripe, on a clean, light foil. Others delay fow-
jng it till the enfuing autumn, when the foil be-
ing fomewhat fettled and much in ftrong weeds, they
plow, harrow, and fow it with wheat. Of the two
methods farmers differ in the choice. I have known
fome who had practifed in both methods, return to
the former ; becaufe the latter was, as they judged,
more injurious to the foil than the former method.
But it is againft wheat to fow it on hard weeds or
flubble, which keep the ground hollow ; and
though this may be favourable to rye, it is olher-
wife of ivheat,
American Fallow-Crops ; and New Rotations, with
and without Mdize.i
Maize taken into a rotation under the new fyftem,
according to the newly adopted principles of huf-
bandry,
divides and bre-iks it by the prm'er of horfes, at the fame time
that a crop is growing in rows bc^ween the parts horfehoed.
Whilft cur maize is growing, we repeatedly horfehoe it ; and
fe call it, " plowing the corn."
f Thefe methods are rather propofed than as yet pradlifed
xa America. But, a beginning is made. Mr. M'Donough
CRAIN ROTATIONS. -^
bandry, occafions feme difficulty, which feems beft
overcome by increafmg the number of fields. Our
hufbandmen aj-e fo ufed to maize crops, that fcarce-
ly any appear difpofed to give up the culture of this
corn, for productions much milder in their effe<5l on
land. Nor is it advifable that they fhould relinquifli
it, unlefs it may be on thin foil very liable to be
waflied away, and the land apt to be broken into
gutters. Maize is the beft of all the corns. It is
food for moft animals, and its plant yields a great
increafe of grain. Seafons or plagues which injure
other corns do not alFedl maize: the growing it
therefore gives many chances againft want. As a
food to man it is remarkably wholefome and nourifli-
ing, and admits of the greateft variety in its prepa-
rations. In cultivating it the foil is cleaned and
lightened, preparative to other crops : though it is
inferior to preparations with ameliorating crops giv-
ing more lliade, and moifture from perfpiration."
C No.
of Delaware has praSifed fome kind of rotations on the new
principles, with the moft pleafmg fuccefs : and Mr. Pearce,
of Maryland, in leafing out his fine eftate in Salfafras Neck,
referved 1 20 acres, which he cultivates in fix fields, and gives
his neighbours an inviting example of the fupcrlorlty of the
new, over the 0I4 modes.
3^ cRAiN rotations;
No. V.
A MAIZE COURSE.
50 acr. maize 750
50 wheat or fpring barley 750
50 clover
50 rye or winter barley 900
50 clover
50 clover, pulfe, or roots
300 acres in 6 fields 2400 bufhels;
It is a fault in this fyflem that wheat fucceeds
maize, that is corn fucceeds corn. Rye or barley
might have been in the place of wheat, but thefe al-
fo are corns, which exhaufl: the foil. Clover after
maize which has not been manured is not likely to
fucceed, efpecially when fown without a Jhcltering
crop ; and this flieltering crop being from any grain,
would introduce the mifchief incident to corn on
corn. But even this faulty fyftem is far preferable
to any of our old courfes.* Had there been only
five
* On tiie above maize courfe No. V. Mr. S. Obfcrves that
— " iinlefs there is fomething in the foil and climate of Ame-
" lica, far more favourable to clover than in thofe of Eng-
*' land, this rotation could not be repeated, for reafons before
** given. It probably is not fufficiently afcertained how fre-
** quently clover can be fcKTi in America." i>. Duch-
GRAIN ROTATIONS. .^^
five fields, it would have teen worfe for the foil ;
becaufe a courfe of only two fields in ameliorating
crops to three in exhaufling corn, mud in time ren-
der the ground weak, and comparatively unproduc-
tive. Yet corn may follow com, where manure
has been duly applied, occafionally but not gene-
rally, nor of choice.
BETTER MAIZE COURSES.
No. VI.
50 acr. maize
750
50 pulfe (or root
SCO
50 barley
I coo
50 clover
50 wheat
75^
50 clover
300 acres, in 6 fields
30C0 bufliels
C 2 No. VLl.
'wheat is an Gzc&Mcnt Jheltering crop to clover, fo\vn in July, If
iTiaize has been manured, a crop of buckwheat, from a fowing
in Julr, may be taken off in October, after it has fhelter^d
clover fo^^^l alfo in July on tlie buckwheat being fo\v-n. See
tiihe note page 7. 50. American beans are meant in Ameri-
can crops.
i^^ GRAIN ROTATIONS.'
No. VII.
43 acr. maize
^45
43 pulfe or roots
430
43 barley
860
43 clover
43 wheat
645
43 clover
43 clover (a fecond
year)
;oo acres iu y fields
2580 bufliels.
Here the corn crops are interpofed by clover
and pulfe : both of them ameliorating to foil ; efpe-
cially when the pulfe grows in rov\-s fo near as to
JJjadg the well plowed and cleaned intervals ; and
thefe crops are of three or four amehoratcrs, to
three exhauflers.*
BEAN-COURSES.
Farmers having wafliy foils, who would exclude
maize from their crops, may adopt No. II. in five
fields ; or one of the following in 6 or 7 fields ; ob-
ferving that the beans mufl be the American forts.
No. VIII.
* Wheat, barley, rye, maize, oats, and generally all foris
■jf gi-ain of which l/rear! is made, arc ctrnj.
«RAIN ROTATIONS,
n
No. VIII.
50 acr. beans and roots
50 barley
^50 clover
50 wheat
50 clover
50 rye
300 acres, in 6 fields
No. IX.*
43 acr. beans and roots
43 barley
clover
wheat
clover
43
43
43
43
■43
rye
clover
300 acres, in 7 fields
500
1000
750
3000 buihels.
430
860
•
645
645
2580 bufliels.
Beans or peas, following clover, are drilled on
one deep plowing in June. Barley is fown in Sep-
tember or October, on otie plowing ; the ground
having been left clean and mellow after inning the
beans.
* " For reafons before given this muft be die word rotation
" yet pointed out ; the clover being ro\\-n three times in leven
« years." S.— This in England. But, in America, clover
is free from the difordejs imputed to it there.
jS GRAIN ROTATIONS.
beans. Wheat is fown in September on one plow-
ing in of the clover. What a faving of work ! —
Three crops on only one plowing for each, and per-
formed at lelfure ! on ground in the mellowed con-
dition. The beans are plowed for in June ; the
wheat in September ; the barley in Oclober, or Sep-
tember : or on ibme crops in March. One of them,
2. cleaning crop, is horfehoed or fhimmed without
any interference with the plowings and other work
in fowing the wheat or barley. The clover which
is to be plowed in for beans, may be paftured till
June, if not mowed for hay : this would be efpe-
cially advantageous on farms deficient in meadow ;
as there will then be two clover fields for grafs and
hay ; and moreover the ground of that mozvri^ will
be preferved in a light and mellow flate, for receiv-
ing the bean feed on the one plowing. Thefe beans
are American. But if inftead of beans, the choice
be o^ peas, then I fliculd expeci the Englijhpea would
be beft ; and from what Mr Farkinfon fays of peas
of the early Charlton garden forts, I would make
an experiment of that fort, fowing them early in
'March as they would bear. His propofed prepara^
lien zL-ith turnips and garden Englijh peas, is very
promifing.
The following are plans of all the fields in No.
VI. a maize Jj-stem, and No. VIII. a bean Jystem ;
ihewing the whole of their crops during fix years.
No.
GRAIN ROTATION?.
No. VI.
3^
6 Tears. A B C D E F , ^.,/,,.
I79I
1792
1794
^795
1796
Ma
Be
Ba
CI
Wh
Cl
: Be '
Ba
C
w
: c
M ;
• Ba
c
W
. c
. M •
Be ;
: c
. w
: c
; M
: Be
: Ba ;
: w
c
: M
: Be
: Ba
C ;
: c
M
Be
: Ba
: c
. W ;
6 Tears.
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
No. VIII.
A B C D E
Be
Ba
Cl
Wh
Cl
Rye
Be :
: Ba ;
C
w
C
R
: c
w
C
R
Be
Ba :
: w
C
R
. Be
: Ba
c :
: c
: R
Be
. Ba
C
w :
: R
• Be
Ba
C
W
• c :
• • . .
6 Fields,
Three
4^ GRAIN ROTATIONS.
ITiree valuable crops produced on only one plo^v-
ing for each, is very important : and they are on
ground in the mellowefl: condition. Other valua-
ble crops may be procured from ground not even
once plovvcd for them. Every American farmer has
his maize field ; "which is or ought to be highly
plowed or borfehoed, and if not fown with the ex-
hoiistcrs wheat or rye, it is fuffered to run up in
ii-eeds : but,
Inflead of fowing v.beat or rye on the maize
ground, or leaving it naked, why not profit of the
maize pk-u'Ings and cultivation, in obtaining milder
crops en the fame ground which require no other
cultivation than what are neccflarily applied to the
maize, unlefs it be to flrew^ manure along the rows
of roots, below mentioned ? Wheat and rye are
fown in other fields, on clover.
If the maize is 4 feet apart in the rows ; and the
interval ground between the rows 7 feet, the cluf-
ters or hills of maize are 1550, fay 1506 on an acre.
Between the cluilers of maize, in the rows, may
grow cabbages, or potatoes. One cabbage in that
fpace J or two holes cf potatoes, a foDt apar:.*
Along
* An acre of maize would d:us be accompamed with 15CO
cabbages, and 3000 potatoe plants ; both whereot mufl be
dunged. Query — of the difference between placing ^t feeds
of cabbages where the plants are to Jiand and grovi to maturity^
and iraKj'^.:antlng tbe voung plants as ufual ?
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 4I
Along the middle of the 'intervals, turnips i o or 12
inches apart : or ruta baga the fame dlftancc, fown
in May, in the four foot flep or fpacc, inflead of
cabbages. Plows or fliims are to be worked length-
ways of the intervals, in a fpace of 34- feet on each
fide of the rows of turnips, whilfl the maize and
other plants are growing.
Near the end of September or firfl: of October,
with fliarpened hoes, cut up the maize ftalks clofc
to tjie ground-; having firft ftripped the blades and
cut off the tops, but always leaving the cars on :
and pile the flalks and corn in pyramidal form, ia
fmall parcels, on the turnings or head-lands, to cure.
What of the potatoes or other roots cannot be fav-
ed in cellars and holes, may be covered with earth
by plowing.
The greatefl quantity of grain produced in a ro-
tation is not alone a proof of its being the beft fyf-
tem. A large quantity of good meadow would yield
much hay. It is a fin againfl good hufbandry to fell
off the hay of a farm. Unlcfs it be with great cau-
tion, where the farm is near a large town ; from
whence or otherwife it is plentifully fupplied with
manure. Numbers of cattle well fed and well litter-
ed, give the manure, in addition to other manures,
requifite for invigorating the foil : but numl.^ers of
cattle
42 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
cattle cannot be kept in good condition through the
year, unlefs clover or grafs as well as hay or draw
abound. The fummer food and that of fhe winter
are to bear a due proportion to each other : and the
fields of grain are not to exceed the fields of amelio-
rating crops. Thefe preferve the foil, as well as
produce crops : but grain reduces the foil in produc-
ing the crops. Aim at income from livestocky which
improves, rather than from grain which impoverijhes
3^our land. '
It is reafonable to expert that the better courfes
No. VI. VII. VIII. and IX. would yield by the acre,
more of every article of produce than the inferior
courfe No. V, But they are dated alike. Of the
feveral forts of white beans, I have only cultivated
the white dwarf or bufh bean, in my fields, which
was in rows 1 8 inches apart, and the intervals were
flirred and cleaned with a flbim. the blade whereof
was a little convex in the line of its front or edge,
and 1 2 inches wide. The ground perfeftly clear of
ftone and gravel. Thefe beans confiderably fhaded
the ground, though not fo fully as was wiflied. It
was therefore intended to have tried the fort of white
beans which would run and Jhelter the ground more
perfectly, after being horfehocd with a fliim* re-
peatedly,
* Shims are in various forms, acute or obtufe, as the ground
is ftony or not. In general, it is a hos drawn by a horfe.
GRAIN ROTATIONS, 43
pcatedly, as long as that inftrument could be admit-
ted to pafs between the rows to advantage. Re-
moving
The blade of the one I ufed, was 1 2 inches wide, and was
welded to a fmall coulter on each fide of it, ferving alfo as
flandards to the blade. Two ftilts are faftened to the coulters
with fcrews and nuts, which could be Ihifted to different holes
for fetting the fhim to go deeper or ihallower in the ground :
but the fhiftinfT tliem was little ufed. The Ihim is not ufed
in half plowed ground : but this being previoufly well plowed
and harrowed, the fhim runs 3 or 4 inches deep, and crum-
bles the earth into fuch minute parts that, as it proceeds, the
earth feems to pour over the blade of the fhim like water. A
coarfe rake of 4 or 5 teeth, hung to the tail of the fhim, as
it worked. The two coulters or fide ll:andards feemed to in-
terfere with the growing vines, when they were advanced to
a confiderable fize : but there appeared no real damage from
it. A fingle flandard of wood or iron would be clear of even
full grov/n vines. I did not always hill or ridge up potatocb"
and beans, nor even maize. For though maize is the better,
yet tlie ground and future crops are the worfe for it. But it
is well to edge up fome moderate quantity of earth to plants
cultivated in rows with the horfehoe or fhim. The intention
whereof is to fmother infant weeds which have jufl broke out
clofe to the crop, and beyond the reach of the fhim. Hills
and ridges are not otherwife (o advantageous as is commonly
thought: and there are advantages in keeping the ground
nearly level when under maize. A flip of iron is made to
fhift off and on each fide of tlic blade of the fliim, for occa-
fionally edging up light ridges of earth. The fhim is an ci'-
ccUent .inftrument againfl young weeds ; but is infufficiont
where grafs and weeds have obtained flrcngth. When the
ground is in good condition, it performs a vafl deal of work,
very fatisfadorily.
44 CRAIN ROTATIONS.
moving to refide in Philadelphia, prevented the ma-
king this experiment. It is faid that white beans
arc generally in great demand in Madeira and the
fouthern countries of Europe. I have feen letters
from Barcelona ilating the price of " white beans"
higher there than of wheat. Other forts of Ame-
rican beans as well as feveral forts of American peas,
I have cultivated ; and the crops of all were rather
precarious ; peas generally more fo than beans, ex-
cepting the lady pea, which is round and the fize of
duck-ihot. Thefe I preferred and chiefly cultivated.
They- make excellent foup ; bear well ; and are
dwarf or bufh beans. If fown, in Maryland the i oth
to the middle of June, they ripen nearly altogether ;
otherv/ife not. They were in rows t 8 inches apart,
and the cluflcrs lo inches apart in the rows. The in-
tervals v.'ere ihimmed two or three times : and the
plants handweeded and hoed once in the rows. Un-
til fome other plant fliall be introduced which will
anfwer better than beans for a fallow crop*, farmers
ought to think nothing of giving a dollar a bufliel
for them to be applied to produce a Jhading and
ameliorating article of fallow, although not a bean
ihould be gained from them : preferv'ing the fyftem
being fo very important ! It is not uncommon for
aftive
* Enghjb peas, efpeciaDy the earl^ garden forts, are the
plants that aniwer our purpofe ; as Mr. Parkinfon has indu-
duced vat to believe. See p. 38.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 45
aftive fpirited farmers in England, to fow feeds of
various plants, merely for improving their foil : fucli
as vetches, tares, buckwheat.* Thefe whilfl grow-
ing, /?^//^r their fallows; and being plowed in green,
they ferment and open the foil. Such alfo is the ef-
feft from clover ; which having wheat fown on it, up-
on one plowing, is followed with extraordinary crops.
In Italy farmers diftant from towns want manures.
They have no marl ; but they commonly apply lu-
pines thus : the plants in green full pod are taken up
by the roots laid in the furrows, and then earth is
thrown on them ; and it is faid they thus give a ve-
ry fat manure. Mr. Toung mentions an excellent
courfe of fliade and green drefTmg, preparative to a
corn crop ; by which feeds for producing three crops
were fown on the fame ground, between autumn
and autumn, with only three plowings, thus : win-
ter
* Vetches and Tares arc d'fFerent names foi the fame pulfe,
the varieties are great. Generally, they are divided into win-
ter and fummer vetches. Confult Mr. Anderfon's Agricul-
ture. He fpeaks of forts Avhlch are perpetual. I would pre-
fer a vetch hardy enough to bear out winters ; and that is of
quick growth and ripens early, whether it be of the perennirJ
kiiTd or not. With fuch a plant might be pra^ftifed Mr. I'oun^'s
** round and complete" mode, prefcntly mentioned in the tcxi
One fort of winter vetch, I have tried ; the feed imported
from Enaland. The feeds v/ere fown in two fnoccnive au-
tumns. The ground being rather of the fort called " water
" holding," only about a moiety oi the pl.mts Rood ihrou^U
the winters.
46 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
ter tares were fown in September with one plowing.
The were reaped early next fummer. Then imme-
diately buckwheat was fown on one plowing and har-
rowing. The buckwheat was plowed in, in Sep-
tember J* and wheat was fown on this, on one
plowing ; the crop whereof was great. " Thus,
*' fays Mr. Young, as the fpring advances, and the
*' fun becomes powerful enough to exhale the hu-
" midity
* Buchiuheat is to be plowed in before it feeds, left a new
growth becomes a weed to the crop of corn. The Aqua-
maque or Magothy bay-bean, cajfia chamacrijia Lin. has won-
ders imputed to it as an ameliorater of the light fandy lands
in the peninfula of Virginia. In fize and other particulars,
the plant may be confidered as being a Lilliputian locuft tree.
For, although it is an annual, yet its ftem is a hard locuft-
like wood ; and its leaves, flowers, pods and feeds greatly
refemble thofe of that tree. The woody hardnefs of the plant
is in appearance againft its being a choice ameliorater, as it
is not likely to ferment and as it were melt away in the
ground, fo foon as buckwheat and other juicy foft fubftances.
No plant, however, can exceed ^^JJoade it gave on a piece of
ground in my garden. A Lilliputian might have been there
loft in darknefs. This JhaJe and a perfpiration from the plants,
during die greateft heat of fummer, togetlier with an extra-
ordinary quantity of blqffoms, pods and hazes, which the plants
depofit on the ground are probably what give the great ma-
nuring and amelioration, which the people of Aquamaque
fatisfadtorily experience. But this plant, which is not the
Partridge pea, is fo difficult to eradicate, it is faid, that it
might become an injurious weed in other foils and courjes of
CT/>ps than thofe in Aquamaque. Their courfes being maize,
oats and lay, cu a f;indy loofe foil.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 47
*' mldky and with it the nutritious particles of the
*' land, the crop (which was from a full fowing)
** advances and fcreens it from the action of his
** beams. Whatever weeds are in the foil vegetate
" with the young tares, and are either ftrangled by
*' their luxuriance, or cut oiF with them before they
*' can feed. This crop is cleared from the land {o
*' early that the foil would remain expofed to the fun
" through the mod burning part of the fummer for
** three months ; and if fo left expofed, the three
*' plowings would do mifchief, except in killing fome
*' weeds. To give one plovying immediately and har-
*' row in buckwheat, fpares expenfe, and the grow-
*' ing herbage (hades the earth when it wants raoft
" to be fo protected : withal a dreiling of manure is
" gained at no expenfe. It is not in the power of
" fcience, of theory or of pra(ftice to introduce a fyf-
" tem more round and complete. Many have fown
*' tares ; and many have plowed in buckwheat ; and
** mofl have given a year to each ; but it is the cgjii-
" bination of the two that forms the merit.'*
We may count upon all the arable land of farms
yielding a yearly income, ivithottt any pari lying idle
in rubbifli old field ; not as what is the cafe at prc-
fent, but as believing that perpetual alternate crops
from the whole plowable land will infenfibly become
very general, as the fpirit for improvement fiiali,
though flowly, advance on the grounds of reafon and
experiment.
4? GRAIN ROTATIONS.
experiment. With thefe may be eflablillied fmnd
and familiar fy stems of the heft agricultural employ"
ment : in which ameliorating^ or mild crops, will be
at leafl as frequent as exhausting crops.
Improvements in agriculture will probably be firil
introduced amongfl us by foldiers, failors, phyfici-
ans, clergymen, or others who become hufbandmcn
with minds unfettered by the confined views and ha-
bits in which common farmeri are trained according
to thofe which had been fixed on and handed down
through many generations. Attentive hufbandmen
will at firil only look on, afhamed to imitate ; which
would imply deficiency in their own practices : yet,
after a while, they will cautioufly begin to adopt cer-
tain of the approved new praftices. Varying thefe
in fome unimportant particulars, they will cherilh
them as difcovcries altogether their own. It is a fort
of apology they make to themfelves, for their imi-
tating improvements pointed out by men they deem
ignorant of what themfelves praflife and deem to be
farming.
A Parti'
DESIGN, ^c. 49
A Particular Dejign for a Grain Fann.*
timothy grafs, when cut not before milk is in the
feeds, makes a brovvnifti and feeraingly harfli hay :
but horfes, the bell: of judges, prefer it to early cut
green hay. On fome accounts orchard grafs may be
preferred for permanent meadows. It comes early
in the fpring, lafts till winter, is hardy and gives large
crops. The feeds of it fhatter out before the heads
are generally changed from the green colour.
Watch the moment for faviag feeds of it.
Keep 20 acres of permanent meadoiu'm timothy or
orchard grafs, for hay. This lad comes early in the
fpring, with clover. They may be cue immediately
one after the other, or at the fame time ; and the
hay flowed away together, layer on layer which
may be a means of correcting fome fuppofcd bad
quahties in clover : at lead thofe dry hays would
abforb any redundant moiilure remaining in the clo-
ver hay. Befides you can (lack your clover hay out
of doors more fecurely, when you have a good quan-
tity of timothy or orchard grafs meadow for furniih-
ing the clover flacks with good toopings from its hay ;
D if
* Written for die late Mr. Riga! ; when he thought of fit-
ting down on a grain farm, at a confidcrable diftance irom
tow**
53 DESIGN FOR
if Tcu are not in the practice of thatching with
ftraw.
JHomeftead i o acres
Meadow 20
(^ Crops
120
150
Acres. Acres.
20 Pulfe and roots, fal- 17 Maize,
low crop. 17 Pulfe and roots,*
20 Barley, 1 7 Barley or ry-e.
20 Clover. 17 Clover, f The wheat being
I inned, this may be
^ ■TTT'U M. fown in July with
17 Wheat. ^Bw. & Clover, if
I the foil
20 Rye 17 Clover. ^°°"«^-
1 7 Roots, or cl. 2<i year.
I inned, this may be
20 Wheat. -rjji ! fown in July with
^, 17 ^»^C^t. < B^, & Clover, i
«0 Clover. I the foil is rich e
120 acres in 6 fields. 120 acres in 7 fields.
The
* Infiead of pulfe or roots, here, there may be a manur-
ing given by a fpring ib^wing of buckwheat turned to, and then
buch'-j.'beat fown in July for a crcp, with clover {tti. on it:
vhich would give a fyftem in maize ; buck'whaif preceded hj
a manuring with plants turned in green, and ibwn with clo-
ver on the buckwheat ; chver ; 'wheat : clover ; barley or rye
and roots ; clover or puife, in 7 fields : a great variety and
change of fpecies tlie whole eafily manured in every 7 years !
and according to page ^6, there, may be a portion allowed to
lay, in treado^j:., during the rotation of crops ; and another
portion 7 years in hemp. If the 7725/2- ground has been well
taenured, en the iaft plowing in July, huck'wkeat may be fcwed
A GRAIN FARM. 5 1
The maize courfe requires one of the fields to be
continued in clover, two ye?rs ; uniefs it be tended
in roots, buckwheat, &c. upon turning in the firft
year's clover, after the fpring mov/mg. Potatoes
are beft when planted in June ; by which their bulb'
ing ftate avoids the too dry feafon of midfummer, I
doubt however of the buckwheat crop ; as it is faid
to be impoverifliing when it feeds. Roots are gene*
rally excellent on feveral accounts : they are but lit-
tle injurious to the foil ; and when duly cultivated
are even ameliorating. They are peculiarly defira-
ble as a winter and fpring food to live flock, for
their nouriihing quality, and to correft the collive
tendency of their dry food, and moreover the culture
of them affords the befl preparation of the ground
for future crops. If you cannot think fo highly of
roots as I do, you may prefer fix twenty acre fields,
in maize, pulfe, barley or rye, clover, wheat, clover
one year.* In fome of the flates there is a ruinous
D 2 bias
for crop^ and Immediately on it, clover feed as above menti-
oned ; the ground being kept level 'vj-tkout any hill or
ridge to the maiz^ plants. Or if a field is meant to be
turned out, to lay in meadow daring a rotation of crops,
then inftead of clover, low timothy or orchard grafs \vith the
July fowing of buckwheat.
* The produce of roots and cabbages by the acre on
yix. Muir's farm, in England is as follows :
5S DESIGN FOR ^
bias for large fields of grain ^ efpecially wheat and
maize ; and this more efpecially in young giddy
farmers, wild after amuferaents, and wafteful of time
and income v.hich ought to be applied to dormstic
CQmfcrti. A great deal of ground is fcratched and
hurried over, with the delullve expectation of much
wheat and maize, for extricating them from debt,
or to fupport their habits of frivolous enjoyments
abroad^ inftead of improving their farms and promo-
ting happinefs at home. But, how miferable are the
crops ! — how irapoveriihed the foil 1 — and how en-
tangled the improvident farmer I*
A
Tons. lbs.
Scarcitv root 19T an acre ; 57 a bufheL
Turnips i64: ; 48.
Potatoes I o ; 60.
Cabbages 14 ; 4+-
* Fanners di5"er in the opinion whetlier buckwheat is an
impoverlfher or not of foil. Some fay it impoveriflies when
fuffered to run to feed : b-jt all, who bare tried it, admit that
it improves foil 'a:hen plo'xid in before it foims feeds. My ex-
perience of it is flight. Few farmers fouth of Pennlylvania,
kncvr the value of buckwheat : and being- igrxrant of its pro-
psnies, tbe)' hold It in no efUma-Jon, and avoid it. In Eng-
land a Mr. Farrers and Mr. Young have given their opinion
of it ai folic W3 ; and in Pennfylvania there are few farmers
who do not £r.d their account in it ; for all fovr it for crop,
and fame to turn in a portion for a manure to the foil. Mr.
Farrcrt, a coniiderabb com faSor, defires that all who have
horfes to feed, will try buckwheat mh:id ii-Ub bran, chaf^ u
A GRAIN FARM. 5^
A bean faIIo\v crop is where beans are fown ia
rows, about lo inches apart; and the /;2/^r-i'^/r, be-
tween
grains, either whole or broken in a mill. When ufed as grafs it
flulhes co-R-s vrith milk : it is tlierefore prefumed the meal
mixed with grains, would have the fame good effect, and en-
rich the milk. A bufliel of it, he adds, goes further tlian
two bufliels of cats ; even with beans mixed with four times
as much bran it will be full food for a hone a week, and much
lefs hay will do. Be affured, he fays, S bulhsh of luck-xheat
meal will go as far as i 2 bulhels of barley meal. He writes
this from experience, and concludes with obferving that the
advantages produced from buckweat are as follow ;
ift. To plc-v it in green, ameliorates the land:
2d. In dry fummers it is fodder (or as grafs) for cattle :
and according to the Farmer's Calendar, it will mow twice.
3d. If it ftands for a crot, it may be equal in qusniity with
oats.
On what Mr. Farrer fays, ^^r. Toung obferves that die ap-
plication of huciruheat as a food to horfes, has been very pro-
perly touched on by Mr. Farrer ; and that it is of very great
importance. On my own repeated experience, fays Mr.
Young, this plant ameliorates the foil fo much that the farmer
may have any crop after it, efpecially 'u:heat ; and fo it is com-
monly cultivated about Norwich. 1 An. 199. Yet farmers
in America fay it is an improper food for horfes on a journey
or any active bufinefs ;. but its meal mixed %vith ctlier com,
or perhaps with cut ftraw, anfwers well even for horf.s, in a
flow draugjht. But certainlv it is a cheap com., which a;; "wers
mjny g.od purpofs. I never have fcen ground tolerably pre-
pared for a buckwheat crop. In ccmmon it is fown u^oa 3
54 DESIGN FOR
tweeo row and row are i8 or 20 inches apai't, and
horfchoed or fhimmed repeatedly ; whereby the
ground is kept flirred and dean, fo as to be a well
prepai-ed fallow for receiving another crop. So it is
of a maize fallow crop.
If one field is manured in each year, then the fix
fields will be all manured in fix years, at 20 acres a
year: and fevcn fields in feven years at 17 acres a
year. The farmer who manures the whole of his
arable fields in every feven years, will accomplifli a
great object, tending highly to his domeilic comfort,
his reputation, and his independency of creditors !
The fi:anding meadow mud have its {hare of manure^
and milder ameliorating crops be attended to.
Manuring one field every year, is to be an un-
ceafing practice, in a regular rotation for ever. Ma-
nures arc to be faved in compact mafles, flieltered
from the fun ', and in feme meafure from the rain,
though what of it falls on the area of the dungheap
can
fingle flovenlv plowing of oat or other ftubble ; and die feed
is hurried in, as oats too commonly are, on ground we know
not how eUe to employ. If clover or timothy feeds are to be
fown during ihe hot weatlier of the fummer, buckwheat plants
give thj moil excellent fhelter, ti'l in Oftober the buckwheat
is cut for its crop : af.L-r Avhich the fun can nc longer injure
the clover; but gives it a due portion of warr.iLh, and pufhes
i: forvrard till cold of winter locks up ail vegetation.
A GRAIN FARM. 55
can fcarcely injure the dung, fome moillure being
requifite to its fermenting. It is advifable to make
fmall trials of your foil, with lime, gypfum, clay,
trench plowing, ^-c. on flips of your land : for no
one can fay beforehand, what will be the efteft of
thefe applied to your particular foil.
Every kind of manure is to be carefully colle<5led
and duly flieltered. On manure being carried to
the field, fpread and plow it in quick as poffible.
Have the implements and the labourers ready on
the fpot. Range the loads in lengths ; fpread and
inftantly plow the dung in, line by line. It dilTolves
better in the ground when turned in frefli ; and the
whole llrength of it is fecured to the foil.
For the fake of manure, and on account of the
cattle; keep all live ftock houfcd ; fully littered;
duly fed, including a iliare of juicy food added to
their flraw.* A lefs quantity of litter is requilite
to
* I farmed In a country where habits are againft a due at-
tention to manures : but having read of the apphcation of marl,
as a manure, I inquired where there was any in the peninfula
of Chefapeak, in vain. My own farm had a greyifli clay
which to the eye was marl : but becaufe it did not effervefce
with acids, it was given up ; when it ought to have been tried
on the land ; efpecially us it rapidly crumbled and fell to raud,
in water, with fome appearance of effcrvofccnce. l^lil'Vv;;cre
I fpeak of coTcimon ydlo'-ju'tjh day, turned up to two fee: at one
place, and three or four feet deep at auotlicr, proving very
^6" CROPS WITH MEADOW
to beafts houfed, than when they are in a wet, dir-
ty yard. Salt they {hould have at all times in arti-
ficial licks without flint. Mr. BakewcU for many
years gave no litter to his cattle. On the bare ear-
then floors of their flails, in houfes, they were
clean and ileek coated. What of flraw mufl in
yards have been difpofed of in litter and a mere
fhew of manure, was advantageouHy given as food
for keeping more cattle. Mr. Cook apphed his
flraw in the fame way — houfing the flock and cut-
ting up and feeding away every inch of flraw.
A System of Rccurr'mg Crops ; in 'which one Field is
in Mcado\v ivhilst the others are interchanging
Crops : '■cvith a Flan of a Farm Tard, and Build-
i!?gs, adapted to it. See pa. 25.
To farmers approving of the new methods of cul-
tivation, but who contend that a part of the arable
ground
produflive of mellon vmes. Mr. 2'curg fpeaks of clavs (4 E.
Tour 412.) where 8 loads pji acre on a fdrufj Icam^ anfwered
greatly. At another place, 40 loads of clay an acre, on rich,
light, mixed loam, lafted 40 years. All whereof was in a
country laid to underftand and to have experienced marl more
thin moll ; and they there prefer the chy to marl, where both
are to be hud. This is important ! and impels me to repeat
ir, that farmers are to makt trials of their foils, in fmail par-
cels, with chyt and other fiibftinces. Alfo trials of trench
plowiiJg, of varjoub depths.
IN ROTATION. "57
ground ought to lay out a number of years at per-
fect rest from being broken up or yielding any thing
elfe than grafs, the following delign is fubmitted ;
the rather, as a permanent meadow of fpire-lcaved
grafles certainly is very advantageous ; efpecially
if it be only cut for hay and never trod clofe in paf-
turing, except it may be, difcretely, the aftermath,
and alfo that it be fupported by manures. Any
found land may be brought to yield crops of grafs :
but clover, requiring renewal every fecond year, is
infufficient for a (landing or permanent meadow.
The prefent deflgn allows a feventh of time in
grafs ; and is accompanied as well with the fyftem
of recurring rotations of crops, as with eflimates
and obfervations which may afford ufeful intima-
tions.
Acres.
Fds. 30 Timothy, in standhig meadonv during the
years in which the other fields are
under a change of crops."
30 Maize. About the lafl: of July buck-
wheat and clover feeds are fown
on it; the maize having been pre-
viouily ma?iured, plowed, harrow-
ed, occafionally rolled, and left
quite /evci without the lead hill
or ridge.*
•^o Clover.
-^ 30
* New mode of cuUivatinof maize.
5S CROPS WITH MEADOW
30 Wheat,*
30 Clover. Gypfumed in the fpring ; if not
before on the clover fown on the
maize,!
30 Rye
* Mr. Middleton, fanner on Pool's Ifland, informs me,
that in December he gives his wheat a top-drefilng of frefti
dung from the ftable, and tlien rolls it. In the fpring he rolls
it again, and " finds the wheat is improved, and greatly re-
*' lieved from the Heffian Jly. The dung gives vigour to the
*' plants ; and rolling fmothers or crufhes many of the eggs
*• or maggots." — Mr. Middleton, bred to the fea, is an excel-
lent farmer ; and has practifed as above two years, for oppof-
ing the fly.
\ Where the manurings 2crt frequent ^ the quantity each time
applied may be moderate : provided that on the whole round
of crops they fliall amount to a full manuring. The gypfum
in this cafe may be only a bufhel ; the lime 20 to 40 accord-
ing to the quality of the foil ; the powdered limeftone (or
fliells) 5 or 6 bufhels ; the dung 10 loads, Thefe annually
applied to the fields in rotation, one after another, will keep
ground in good heart, where exhaufting crops do not predo-
minate over mild crops. Gypfum is not a manure to all foils.
£0 of trench plowing ; which improves mod foils, but not all :
and every farmer ought to try lime, gypfum, raw limeftone
or oyfterlhells in powder, clay, marl, &c. in fmall, before he
pronounces they are or are not manures to his particular foil.
Applying manures frequently in moderate quantifies, each time,
is not recommended witli a view to retard an immediate full
manuring at once where it can be accomplifhed, efpecially
refpe^ing thin or poor foil : but we are encouraged to expedl
^hat frequent moderate applications of manure will anfwer
our p-jrpofe ; although not fo fuddenly yet as certainly as if
penbrmed at once.
IN ROTATION. 5^
30 Rye and barley. § A top-drdTing with
raw limeftone, or (hells, pulver-
ized J 6 or 8 bulhels an acre.
30 Turnips znd potatoes 18 acres, beans or
peas 12 acres.
30 Buckzuhcat plowed in : and in July fown
for crop — Timothy feed on it.jj
240
20 Homeflead ; including manlion, farm-
yard, flackyard, orchard, &c.
260 acres, arable and meadow.
Produ&s
§ Rye, for its meal and ftraw to live flock ; barley for
beer, 6<:c.
II On covering the ludivheat feed fown for crop, lofe no time
in fowing the timothy^ leaving it uncovered. The fame of
clover on luckzvh.at. Settling of the foil ; or rains, dews, or
vind, will fuffice for bringing the grafs feeds to grow ; or run
a light roller over it : but beware that the foil is not left to
crumble dovai or fettle before the grafs feed is {own. Suffer
no time to run between fowing the feeds of buckwheat and
grafs : but perform the lafl as in the next breath after the
buckwheat is harrov/cd in. If however, the fun be very
powerful, it may be fafer to cover the grafs feeds with a very
I'l^ht harrow, or li^ht roller. Many clover feeds are fmother-
ed by even fmall lumps of earth ; and therefore more feeds
are requifite than when left altogether uncovered.
io CROPS WITH MEADOW
ProduSls of the Crops, by Estimation.
c.
Maize 30 acr. at 20 bufh. 600 at 50 cents 30000
Wheat 30 12 360 100 36000
Buckwheat 60 12 720 50 36000
Rye & Barley 30 15 450 60 27000
Potatoes, &c. 30 (pot. 4'- = 8oo^- turnips I4=''rr-j
5600^* at 8'=-= 51200"^- Beans 12^*= 140''- t 65200
= i40oo'^-* J
Hay 60^ 120 T. at 1000"= 120000
Clover, foiled 24 ; mow 4 z=: 60000
Straw, hufks and fodder of 00^ • — exclufive of 7 n
^ J- 18000
buckwheat flraAv. J
Buckwheat ftraw of 6o^* loooo
402000
Wliich 402000 cents, by dotting off the two figures on the
right hand are 4020 dollars.
Crops
* An acre ought to produce above 400 bufhels of turnips
or 200 of potatoes. Turnips when early thinned to about 12
inches apart, and well hoed, yield above double the quantity,
and more perfeft than what are fcarcely at all thinned or ho-
ed. Country people have not refolution to cut up plants in
hoing, however thick they ftand ; as it feems to them robbing
the ground. In eftimates of crops, the coft of cultivation or
lowed country price of produds, for country confumption, is
to be reckoned, without any regard to town price. For what
is confumed by cattle on the farm, the valfte is received out
of the ftock maintained and fattened, including their dung
and urine. An acre of 200 hujhds of potatoes at 10 cents a
budiel gives 20 dollars ; when an acre of 1 2 bujhels of -wheat
IN ROTATION. 6l
Crops expended in Food to Live Stock,
Stock cattle are ^^/ •• o\htrs, zxe. fattened. The
feeding is different. Cattle kept, need no kind of
grain ; and it would be wafle to give it them ; nor
even hay, unlefs to cows about calving time. Straw
with -s^nj juicy food, fuch as roots or drank,\ abun-
dantly fuiEces for keeping cattle in heart through
winter, provided they d.TC Jheltered horn cold rains.
Mr. Bakewell kept his fine cattle on straw and tur-
nips in winter. To the fouth of Pennfylvania flock
cattle are kept, though indeed meanly, in winter
on corn-huJks and ftraw, without roots or drank or
any aperient or diluent material that could correft
the coflive effeft of the dry food ; unlefs mayhap a
nibble of a few weeds and buds, when they ramble
abroad poaching the fields, and expofing themfelves
to debilitating cold rains and fleet. Water, often
too
0t loo cents gives but 12 collars. The feeding articles of
produce being fairly expended on the farm, the foil is the bet-
ter of it ; but when they are fold oj", the foil is foon weaken-
ed ; becomes unprodufcive, and keeps the farmer poor as it-
felf.
t The word drank is given us bj Count Rumford, who
underftands as well the German as the En^lifh lancruaze ;
and in a work of his in Engllfh, drank is preferred, for diftin-
guifliing his compofition from fim-ple water as a drink. It is
therefore preferred in the prefent work.
6Z CROPS WITH MEADOW
too cold to be drunk by them, is their only diluent :
and how common is it to fee them only fip and then
turn away from their water, in winter ; efpecially
when put to it early, before the fun has reduced its
cold.
A member of the Bath Agricultural Society, for
fcveral weeks boiled all the corn given to his horfes,
and alfo gave them the liquor in which it was boil-
ed : the refult was that instead of 6 hitjheh given
them unboiled, 3 ^z{/7;i'/iy6i^rf^^^rif(i anfwered, and
prcferved the horfes in higher vigour, and in better
working condition. A gentleman near Briilol con-
firms this faft by his experience ; and the inn-keepers
have adopted the pradice. — This practice coincides
with the ufe of drank.
ATabk
IN ROTATION.
OJ
CO
^
1 J- Sec the t'uio following pa^es. Uung
64 CROPS WITH MEADOW
Dung yearly procured from the above flock of
cattle, fheep and hogs, may be 5 from the cattle
820 loads; the fheep, i5o; the hogs 60: in all
1060
* Mr. Cook { drill inventor) fupported in ivinfer, 40 cait/e
near 7 months on 30 acres ofjlraw, cut into chaff, and 4 acres
of turnips ; and faved from them 400 tons of dung. 28. E.
Rev. 89. Thefe cattle had \htn Jiraiv cut f??iaU, but the tur-
nips vv^cre ranu. Had the cut-ftraw and turnips been loUed to-
gether in water with fait, as a dtanh (a term convenient to be
retained) it would have been of more advantage to the cattle.
A drank for keeping cattle may be made thus : roots, chaff or
cut-ftraw, and fait, boiled together in a good quantity of wa-
ter : tlie roots cut or mafhed. The cattle drink the water,
and eat the reft. Drank for fattening cattle, thus : roots,
meal, fiaxfeed, chaff or cut-ftraw and fait, well boiled together,
in a plenty of water. If given warm, not hot, it is better.
The 70 full eaters are thus ftated :
Cows 48 Calves 8
Bulls 2 Yearlings 8
Oxen 14 Two years 8
64 24=14
64
Off the fattened 8
Winter full eaters 70
In the note under the article Farm-Yard Manure com-
pared witli the above it may be feen tliat homed cattle were
lo'mtered in England, witli |tlis of an acre of^raw, and -j%th
of an acre of turnips : when in the above table is allowed i
and |d acre o( Jirazu, and tz^ acre of turnips. In general
IN ROTATION. 65
1060 loads.* At 10 loads an acre, the 1060 loads,
together with the other manures propofed, is dung
E enough
it may be reckoned, in •whiter-leeping, one acre oi Jirwj} and
Toth acre of turnips are eaten by cattle each head. The
above 70 cattle are fuppofed to yield 1 1 and |:ths tons of dung
each. When ^Ir. Cook's gave but 10 tons each. His is
pure dung without any ftraw \ the other is from cattle I'ltier-
eJ ; and therefore has fome ftraw mixed with it.
f Lambs to drop about 20th March, 60 : whereof raife 38
for fupplying the places of 13 ewes and rams, killed at 4
years old, and 25 weathers killed at 2 years old. There may
remain 20 lambs for fale. The winter kept fheep will be 52
ewes and rams, and the 38 lambs ; togedier 90 head. The
fame numbers are foiled in fummer. Not having feen any
inftance oi fieep foiled, I only believe from certain circum-
ftances and fads ftated by writers that it would anfwer well,
as with other beafts : and in Flanders, it is faid, ** their fheep
are al-u<ays in ftables, and every day let into the yard, to
breathe the air." 20 An. 466. — Sheep are a neceffary vari-
ety of live flock. Their meat is generally valued, and by
many preferred. Their wool is elfential in clothing. Their
dung is rich. Hogs alfo give rich dung ; and when atten-
tively faved it is in good quantities. Sheep are to have hay
or com blades in winter with roots and fait : for fattening
tliem add Indian meil. How would flaxfeed or its jelly agree
with fheep ? The turnips and potatoes expended above, are
more than need be for keepings according to Mr. Cook ;
though too few for fattening.
• Cattle in England, when /«//y Uttered., have given twelve
Urge loads of yard-manure, each, in the courfe of a winter
only. During fummer they ran on pafture. But in the pro
66 CROPS WITH MEADOW
enough for i oo acres. Twenty loads of fuch rich
dung, to an acre, would be a good manuring alone :
but the 1060 loads, laid on one of the fields of 30
acres, give above 35 loads an acre ; which arc abun-
dant. A variety of manures is defirable : gypfum,
lime, raw limeftone and fhells in dufl, marl, clay, Sec,
If no more live flock were kept, than fliould be
neceffary for labour and food on the farm, and all
the crops were fold off, the income for a few years
might, at the mofl, a little exceed what could be
derived
pofed cafe of cattle being houfed through the whole year,
though but partially littered, the dung being well faved, may
be expeded to amount to more tlian 10 loads each, of clofer,
richer manure. Mr. Bakewell was not in the pra(flice of lit-
tering his cattle, till fome years before his death : but he
carefully faved their dung, by dally fliovelling it up from their
ftalls, and ftoring it on the dunghill. A man and a boy at-
tended to 40 head of grown cattle. Not having feen dung
iaved from fheep or hogs, my calculation refpe(Sing their
dung is at random. Reckoning 5 llieep to a cow, it is then
fuppofed they make but half as much dung as one cow, and
the eftimate fliould be under rather than over rated. The
dung at the rate of five hogs to a cow, 68 hogs ought to
yield 136 loads : but there are only 60 of hogs dung ftated.
Great aitent'iQiis are due to faving their dung. Though hogs-
ieem to make much dung, and it is very good, yet it is ap-
prehended it will be long ere old habits will give way to
American farmers adopting proper methods of faving this
valuable article of produce. Geefe peimed every night on
litter, wQuld give dung worth the attention.
IN ROTATION* 67
derived from Tifull stock of beasts kept on the farm,
znd fattened for the market. But how great the
injuftice to the foil ! to what a heartlefs, unproduc-
tive ftatc it foon would be reduced ! — This it is
which has ruined the line lands in Maryland and
Virginia — plowing much land, and felling off the
produce, without reparation to the foil — This it is
which, with idle or wafleful habits, rivets on country
families frequent want, poverty, and debts, oft-tiraea
in the midfl: of a deceitful appearance of plenty ?
It is prefumed the foil of the farm under confi-
deration is in good heart j and in a way of becom-
ing better from a mode of farming far fuperior to
what is feen in the countries, of America, fouth of
Pennfylvania. In Pennfylvania and the eaftern
Hates, quick renewals of clover, in tntlrc fields,
are coming into pra(flice ; and with various manures
are feen to reftore abufcd foil, and yearly improve
it. But in the countries of noted bad hufbandry
there is only feen, what is bragged of, here and
there a lot, a patch of clover : a narrow aim at do-
ing fomcthing. It feeds a favorite horfe; but there
is nothing done towards improving enure fields : no
fyflem or great objefl or defign is in view. A third
of the whole arable of farms fown with clover yearly
upon fmall grain, and cut one feafon, then plowed
in together with the remains of old Hubble, might,
be cxpcftcd gradually to improve foil from poor clo-
E 3 ver
68
CROPS WITH MEADOW
ver nibbled to flout clover cut. Whilfl: this courfc
of improvement is in praftice, all forts of manures
are to be unceafmgly added. Here let it be repeat-
ed that, it is not immediate income alone whicb the
provident farmer aims at : for whilfl he wiHics to
obtain annual full crops, he knows it is neccffary
for the purpofe, that the foil fliould be prcfervcd in
full vigour. His cares are therefore chiefly appHcd
to the fiteans of preferring and improving the produc-
tive powers of the earth : and he fees that no randcwn
purfuits can enfure a fuccclEon of advantageous huf-
bandry.
INCOME, FROM THE PRODUCTS; BT ESTIMATIOh^.
c, c.
From WHEAT. Sold
CATTLE.
Veals 40 at 400 cents
Butter, 8olb, a cow, 384clb. at ao C.
Beef, 6 cows, a oxen, at a27j C.
Dung, 10 loads each, Sao at 5c C.
SHEEP.
Wool 40o]b. at 25 C.
Muttons 58, al 400 C. . . .
Lambs 20, at 150 C. . . .
Dung, 180 loads, at 50 C .
HOGS. ^
Pit a fows, 50 hogs of lomo. — 30 of ijmc.
— loooolb. at 6 dols. per loo
Lard, cf the mtcftines
Dung, 60 bad*, at 5 c C. .
a
16000
76800
i8aoo
■IIIOOO
41000
■ijaoca
lOOOO
15200
3000
aSioo
9000
37200
60000
3000
630CX5
3000
66000
Dis.
8912
Cts.
.00
Total income
ajiaoo
I164
.80
Expenccs,
4C
per
cent
116480
1747
.20
Net
174730
The
IN ROTATION. 69
The Farmer whofe paiTion is for cultivating grain
— and all grain, here fees how inferior his income
is to the produ(ftions from live stock. The maize,
buckwheat, rye, barley, &c. arc confumed on the
farm ; and the wheat is looked to for procuring mo-
ney. But fee the difference between grain at mar-
ket, and live stock at market ! The produce of the
farm is 2912 dollars; of which only 360 are im-
mediately from grain fold: fo that the income from
live stock is 2552 dollars— How fuperior the live
stock I for the foil, and for the pocket ! and that
the corn (grain) is all confumed ^except only the
wheat) by the family and the live ftock, to
the amount of 1720 bufhels. Sec page 6^. In
the Muf. Ruft. anno 1746, is a detailed flate-
ment of nine years com.parative experiments of
the produce of a grain farm of 20 acres, againft the
produce of 20 acres of a grafs and stock farm : when
the grafs and stock proved the most profitable in iiet
income as 23. 1 1. 2 are to 9. 15. 6. The graf and
stock ncating 23. 11. 2 per annum, medium, and
the arable or grain farm neated 9. 15. 6: a flrong
corroboration of our above eftimate, as alfo is the
account of live stock stallfed, on the Hanoverian
farms.
Illustration^
'}'>
CROPS triTH MEALO^'?
iLLVSTRAriDx, cf the ivhole rou?id of Crops during 7
years ; iLiih one Field continually in Meadow^ dur-
ing the Time of the Rotation,
yYrs.
3
4
5
6
B
D
G H
Tim.
Maiz CI. Wh. CI.
1
Rve.! Po.
Bw.
"Tim.
C
W
c
: R
: p
B
M :
Tim.
w
c
R
p
: B
]M
c :
"Tim.
C
R
P
B
; M
C
: w ;
[Tim.
R
P
• B
: M
: c
w
: C ;
]Tira.
P
B :
I\I
C
; w
C
R ;
'.Tim.
B
]M
C
w
: c .
R
p :
8Fde.
The crops of the first year, of this table, are
particularly treated of in page ^y -,. where it is feen
that the r\-e field contains fome barley ; the potatoe
field, fome turnips and beans or peas : the maize
field alfo gives buckwheat. The buckwheat field,
which is next after the potatoe field, is fown with
timothy feed, for giving a new meadow next year,
v.hich like the former is to ftand out the renewed
rotation of crops. This new meadow will be on
field B. The next on field C. and fo on.
IN ROTATION. Jt
In defignlng a recurring round of crops, their fuc-
ceflion is to be tried on a plan or table, drawn for
the purpofe, by reading the table, and flightly mark-
ing it with a pen diagonally downward, and feeing
that they run the fame throughout j and moreover
that there are not more nor Icfs in the number of
each fort in a year, any where in the table, than
are in the firfl year among all the feven fields, or
are in B field, during the feven years rotation. The
table anfwcring in thefe particulars, warrants a true,
orderly courfe of crops and employment, which will
recur for ever ; but as the farmer may, in future,
choofe to alter it.
AJketch of afysiem of crops ; in which one field is 7
years in hemp, and the fame field is followed with
timothy meadow another 7 years ; whilst other 7
fields are in annual changes of various crops : fo
that of the 9 fields, 1 are in hemp or timothy dur-
ing 14 years ; and 7 in various rotation, recurring
crops. Every field coming into hemp and timothy
in time.
7*
Years-
A B
c
D
E
F
G
H
I
I79I
He. Tim.
Maiz
i CI.
Wh.
CI.
Rye.
Bk.
Po.
■92
94
95
96
97
98-
99;
i8co :
2 :
3.'
4!
5-
6 ."
7^
8 ;
9 1
5810 \
li '.
; He. .'Tim.
: c
: w
: c
: R
: Bk"
p : M :
He. .'Tim.
w
: c
: R
: Bk
■ P
M : c :
. He. :Tim.
G
: R
' Bk
: p
: M :
c : w :
He. iTim.
R
: Bk
: p
: M
: c :
w : c :
He. ,'Tim.
Bk
: p
■ M
: c
w :
c : R :
He. :Tim.
< X
Tim.: M
p
>< —
c
: M
X — >
: w
C
< :
C
w
< — >
R
c : R : Bk :
< X X X
Bk : p : He. :
Tim.: C
w
:,c
R
Bk .
p :
M : He. :
Tim.: w :
c
: R
Bk.
p :
M :
c :He.:
Tim.: c :
R
' Bk:
p :
M :
c :
w : He. :
Tim.: R :
Bk
p :
M :
c :
w :
c : He. :
Tim.: Bk :
p
M :
c :
w :
c :
R : He. :
Tim.: p :
: — X >
M : He. :
M
c :
c :
< X
w :
w :
c :
. . . \
c :
C X
R :
vR :
Bk:
Bk : He. :
X — x^
p :Tim.:
c : He. :
w :
c :
R :
Bk:
p :
M :Tim.:
w :He. :
c :
R :
Bk :
p :
M :
c :Tim.:
c :He. :
R :
Bk:
p :
M :
c :
W :Tim.:
R :He. :
Bk:
p :
M :
c :
w :
c :Tim.:
Bk : He. :
p :
M •:
c :
w :
c :
R :Tim.:
p : He.':
M :
X
c :
X
w :
X
c :
X
R :
X
Bk :Tim.:
X X 3
Fieldji
ift Ro.
11
The ground, well prepared, is in April fown with
hemp^ and for 7 years fucceilively, after being plow-
ed and harrowed in the fall and fpring, fometimcs
with inanure added, it is repeatedly in hemp.
Timothy \t to follow hemp ; fo that in the feventh
year, the hemp being inned, and the ground plow-
ed and harrowed fine, you fow buckivheat and I'lmo-
ihy feeds, after the hemp crop.
This is continued 7 years in timoihy, mowed once
a year for hay j and now and then receives a top-
dreffing of manures,* When the 7th crop is off,
plow in the fward neatly, and harrow and roll it in
the direction of the furrows. The fward being
duly fmothered, heats and rots the better if done be-
fore cold weather. It refts thus till April for perfeft-
ing the rotting. Then lift, crofs, and plant maize.
Potatoes manured and well cultivated, clean and
mellow the ground perfcftly.
Hemp leaves the ground clean and mellow, there-
fore timothy is renewed after hemp. Timothy being
fowed when the buckwheat is fown, the plants gain
a neceifary ilielter from the buckwheat plants.
The maize culture cleans the ground, and pulver-
izes it after timothy, for future changes of crops.
A
* Why not generally give manure to grafs, rather tlian to
grain. Grain will receive the benefit to great advantage after
grafs. Ground that gives ^oo(/_j/\y^, ^wts good eveiy thing.
74 FARM YARD»
A FARM TARD,
Adaptlb to ihe Pp^cedjng System.
It is a.n efpeclal object in this deCgn that the
x^hole yard and its buildings, {hould be in view
from the manfion ; and that they be confbnicled at a
proper diHance, neither too near nor too far from
the manfion. The food {hould be near to the hoof-
ed live flock, for readily diftributing it. The yard
ought to be compact j and the doors of the build-
ings, and the gates of the yard, feen from the
manfion.* Plate 1.
The homestead includes this yard ; together with
its ftackyard, the garden, nurfery, orchard,! and
fome
*■ It is not to fave ground that compaclnefs is here defired ;
but t'h::>r attennoas due to the live ftock may be performed in
the readied and beft way. A yard containing cattle always
bcrafed, is nerer to be littered with draw, but all litter care-
lefsiy dropt on it, is to be raked off, for fecurity againft fire
dropt on the way to the boiling houfe ; and the beails are not
ioffered to ftroll about wafting dung and urine. When let
oat and ■watered, they are to be infhantly returned to their
ftaBs, regnlariy in detachments, one fet after another. See
pa. . On paper, aa octagon form of a farm yard is pleaA
ing to the eye : but the above is preferred.
■fBerr is always certainly attainable on farms ; but cyder is
rery precarious : therefore no more orchard need be eflablifh-
ed tb^n wo'uld plentifully fupply the farm with fummer and
•FARM YARD.
75
fome acres of grafs ; enough for occafionally letting
mares, or jQck beads run on, at liberty,
Expla?iation of Plate I.
1. Manfion.
2. Kitchen, Oven, and Afli-
liole.
3. Poukry-houfc, and yard,
4. Wood-yard.
5. Laboratory (Laborature).
6. Milk-houfe.
7. Ice-houfe.
8. Pigeon-houfe.
9. Cloacas.
10. Family yard.
11. Pump.
12. Watering troughs.
13. Sow and Pig flies.
14. Cow-houfe.
15. Boihng-houfe.*
16. Hogs.
17. Stercories.
18. Barn.
19. Sheep-houfc, and yard.
20.
winter fruit, for cookery and to eat. But In great fruit years,
cyder may be made for family confumption, without ever
laying out for It in quantities ; though it might be better to
fell the apples. Beer is the mod wholefome of all made
drinks,— the chief in all the countries where robuft health is
the moft confpicuous. It proved on my Wye farm, very ex-
cellent to harvea men ; who preferred it to rum ; and it kept
them In fteady good heart, without any inftance of fuch irre-
gularity as rum commonly produces.
* The Boihng-houfe here may be too near to combuftlbles,
hay and ftraw. Leaving this fpot for Swi/l-cijierns or tubs ;
the boiling would be better at 29. Which might, fo near the
manfion, alfo contain a brewing and diftilling apparatus. If
hemp is in the round of crops, it may be ridcd at 30, and
hroke and f'wingkd at a houfe at ^i.
•Tb
/ARM YARD
20. Chaife-lioufe and flable.
2 1 . Waggon and cart-houfe.
3 2. Implements of hufbandry,
houfe.
23. Workfhop.
24. Herdfmen's hovel.
25. Granary.
26. Stable, for farm,
27. Area of bridge and vault.
28. Bees.
29. Boiling-houfc.
30. Hemp in ricks.
31. Hemp here broke and
fwlngled.
a. Treading-floor.
b. Straw ricks.
c. Hay ricks.
d. Root pits.
e. Kitchen garden.
f. Nurfery, &c.
The Manfion, is airy on every fide. The offices,
being on the northeafl and northweft angles^ leave
the manfion open to the fouth, the eaft, and the
wefl:, in a clean lawn : and from the north rooms
there is*a view of the farm yard and its bufinefs.
The Kitchen^ has its oven and afhhole : this lall
opening ont of doors, for avoiding the difperfion of
aflics, in the kitchen, on moving them for ufe. No
flairs proceed from the kitchen ; as it would be a
paffage to dud and down from the bed-rooms to the
kitchen : the ceiling ought alfo to be water-tight.
^Lay an arch of brick over the ailihole and oven,
as a barrier againil fire, the flairs may be over the
arch, from without. Indeed here might a ivajh-
houfe have its roof extended, for covering the ftairs.
Inadvertently, the wafli-houfe is omitted in the plan:
but the laboratory may be ufed for wafhing and
ironing.
The
OFFICES.
n
The Poultry-houfe and yard are roomy j and kept
fwect by being frequently cleaned out ; and frcfh
fand and gravel are ftrewed in the yard. Their
food may be (learned potatoes and meal, in wintef ;
cut grafs, potatoes and a little meal in fummcr.
Poultry ranging at large, feed on grain, feeds, grafs
and infc(fis. Gravel is ncceflfary to them. In Lan-
guedock, geefe are fattened as follows. After they
are in full flefli on green food, the fattening of them
is not to be delayed, left the feafon be loft. About
the end of December they begin to couple ; after
which they cannot be fattened : foon as froft arrives,
efpecially about the end of November, they are fhut
up, never more than i o or 12 together ; in a dark
place, quite free from light, and where they cannot
hear other g^dc. Here they remain till quite fat.
This moment is to be feized for killing them j other-
wife they foon become lean, and at laft die. A
trough is filled with rice, to be eaten by them at
pleafure. Rice makes them very delicate. Others
give them boiled maize in the grain. The coop is
kept very clean. In two or three weeks they arc
quite fat ; they then arc let out, to go at large in
water 24 hours ; without which the flefh has a dif-
agreeable flavour. Probably malt, barley or oats,
would fucceed well, as their food. By an accident
it was found that coal for them to nibble (I undcr-
llood it to be charcoal) promoted their fattening
greatly at fea. Treat ducks in the fame manner.
If
7^ FARM YARD
If a chicken is not fat in a week, it is diflempered.
Poultry are fattened in coops kept very clean. Give
them gravel, but no ivatcr. Their only food is bar-
Icy-meal mixed vi'ith water, thin enough to ferve as
drink. Their thirft makes them eat more than they
would, for the fake of extracting the water from
among the food. This is not put in a trough, but
on a board ; which is ivajhed clean every time that
frefh food is put on it. It is foul and heated water
which gives the pip. Salt is faid to be a poifon to
fowls : it may be fo, as a cauftic, when they fwal-
low grains of it : but how v.-ould it anfwer when
dilTolved in water, not flronger of fait than fea-wa-
ter, and oflFered them in a veffel feparate from their
frelh water ?
The Laboratory (Laboraturc), is defigncd from
one invented by my valuable friend, the late Mr.
Law/on, of Fon thill, which anfwered many pur-
pofes in country houfe-wifery. No better name oc-
curs for dlflinguifhing it from other houfes on farms.
See a feftion of the houfe in Plate II. No. i. and
a further account of it, in the explanation of the
cuts.
The Milk-houfe, may be joined to the Labora-
tory, and this be a fcalding houfe to it ; or it may
be detached from the Laboratory, and funk two feet
under ground. The o5al milk is conveyed to the
pigs
OFFICES.
79
pigs in wheel-barrows, and might be conveyed
through a tube, under ground, to the pig-flie. Ice
is at hand for hardening butter as it is taken from
the churn and worked on a cold marble table. Wa-
ter cold from the pump is ufliered through pipes to
an upper fhelf, and paiTmg round the room, falls on
the under fhelves and runs off.
The Ice-houfe, will be beft detached from the milk-
houfe, that it may be clear of all moifture, and
receive air on all fides. The ice-houfe at Glofter
point, near Philadelphia, flrongly recommends that
it be chiefly above ground. Four feet under ground,
fix above ground and twelve fquare, would hold
1440 folid feet: which is enough for family and
milk-houfc purpofcs, though very freely expended.
Pigeon-bou/e, Pigeons feed expenfively, when it
is alone on the corns : but they alfo feed on many-
wild feeds. They make an agreeable variety on the
table ; but ought not to be fuffered to become too
numerous ; and therefore their houfe is to be of a
moderate fize; build it rather capacious in area,
than in height or with many ranges of ncfls.
The Fa7nily-yard, is a barrier againfl farm-yard
intrufions. It is covered with a clean, clofe fvvard
of fpire grafs. Its margin alone may be admitted
to grow flowers. It is fenced by a funk fence ; on
thq
So FARM YARD
the top whereof may be, a low, light palifadc;
which with the bank may be hid by rofe trees plant-
ed in the ditch, which is to flope gently up toivards
the manfion. The white rofc bufli or tree is the
hardiell:, tailed and handfomed fort ; but the damalk
is bed for yielding the fine didilled water.
The Fump ferves both family and farm-yard pur-
pofes, and is worked by a brake or handle on either
fide of the palifade. This large expcnfe of water
is advantageous to its quality. The pump nozlc
delivers the water 5 or 6 feet above the furface of
the ground : and at every time of its being worked,
a portion of the water is delivered into a vefiel, from
whence proceeds a tube three feet under ground
(for avoiding /rw/ and heat) to the kitchen, where
fome of it is depofited in a cidern : the red proceeds
alfo under ground, to the milk-houfe ; only leaving
on the way a fmall part in a receptacle of the man-
fion for wafli-bafon ufes. For the boiling-houfe,
which takes much water, either the water mud be
conveyed through pipes, or in caiks on barrows, or
a pump is to be placed near the boiling-houfe.
The ivaiering troughs are to have plugs in their
bottoms ; that when the cattle have drunk, the re-
mainder of the water may be immediately let out.
Indead of letting cattle out to water, it may be ad-
vantageous to convey water to tuciTT in their dalls
through
OFFICES. 8l
through pipes, at two or three flated time?^in the
day f and after allowing them time to drink, let the
remainder out of the trough, for avoiding flalenefs
or warmth in the fummer and froft in the ivinter,
Befides, fuftcr the cattle out to ftrole about the yard
and rub themfclves .daily, a few hours j 1 1 or 13,
to 3 o*clock.
The foxu and pig stiss. The o^al milk may be
conveyed to the troughs in the flies, from the milk-
houfe, by pipes under ground or orherwife. Sticks
in a frame are fo fixed over the troughs, rack like,
that the hogs cannot get into the troughs, further
than their mouths. The fwine are to be kept clean,
and littered in their flieltcrs. Salt water may be
off-red them in the pen.
The cow-houfe. Hay and ftraw are ricked at the
back of it; the houfe is 16 feet wide, including its
paflage ; 7 feet pitch for the cattle to fland under ;
and above this 7 or 8 feet pitch to the joifls and raf-
ters. Into this upper part llraw and hay are pitch-
ed up, to be at hand ; and ufcd efpecially in bad
weather : from whence it is thrown to the paiTage^
to be given to the cows. Wheel-barrows of drank
pafs along the paiTage to the cattle cribs. Thcfe
barrcrjjs carrying heavy tubs or barrels of drank,
would pafs with more fafety and fleadincfs, with
two wU,?eis ; fuch as every farmer can make, inde-
F^ pendently
§2 FARM YARD
pendently of wheelrights, by doubling inch plank.
In one corner of each crib is to be at all times a falt-
lick in a firm mafs of the purefl: impalpable potter's
clay or fuller's earth faturated with fait. The very
important article, fait, is fhamefully negle£i:ed, in
common. A siercory is in front of the cow-houfe,
"within eafy pitch of dung from ihovels. Carts ne-
ver need to pafs between the flercory and houfe :
fo that the fpace is defigned only for the cattle to
pafs along to the doors of their ftalls. llie dung
is carted av/ay from the further fide of the flercory.
The boilhig-houfe contains alfo the conveniences
for steaming. Care is to be taken that fire cannot
be blown about, and mix with any flraw neareft to
it. For the apparatus for (teaming, fee plate IIJ.
fig- 3-
The stercories, may be 4 feet under ground, 2 or
3 above ; and walled. Over them may be fupport-
ed, by (hort ftandards, a covering of brufli-wood
or draw, which will exclude the fun, but let through
rain. It would be faving labour, and anfv.er other
good purpofes, to cart the dung out of the stercories,
to the bead lands of fields meant to be dunged or
manured ; there mix with the dufjgy three times its
' quantity of the earib taken from the head land ;
and cnce mixing it ziell, day be better thau repeat-
iog
OFFICES. 8j
ing it : as often turning the compofl may weaken it
as a manure, and even check its fermenting.
The barn, 32 to 36 feet wide, has a pailage its
whole length, and flails on each fide of the pailage.
Straw is cut in the paiTage, and the cattle are fed
from it. At the fouth end of the houfe, a bridge
is raifed from the ground up to the fecond floor,
about 8 feet from the ground. The bridge is the
width of the barn, and has an eafy afcent for load-
ed waggons. Under it, next to the houfe, is a vault,
for ftoring roots, alfo the width of the barn, by 12
or 15 feet, and 6 or 7 feet deep. At the end of
the paflagc a door opens into the vault. The fecond
itory is high enough for thrailiing in.
The Jljcep-hoiife and yards, are to be roomy and
airy in divifions. Back of the houfe is the hay re-
quifite for the fhecp, in ricks. Its flercory is at one
end. The dung is to be carried to it in large wheel*
barrows.
The granary had better be longer and narrower
chan in the drawing ; with partitions acrofs it, with-
out any communication between the rooms ; by
which the different corns will be kept from mixing,
and a general accefs to the rooms will not happen
when only one fort is to be carried in or taken out.
A lock is tp be to each of the feveral out doors.
F 3 Windows
84
FARM YARD
Windovv's facilitate thefts. There needs none to
the lower rooms, if an air-hole be between every
two joifts, clofe under the fccond floor, the vapour
and heat naturally afccnding will pafs off at the air-
holes. The pitch of the rooms may be only 6^
feet.
Bees. From inftruftions given by an Englifh wri-
ter, I tried bees in lateral boxes. On the firfl: ex-
periment, in the morning of the firll of November
1787, after a cold night, the bees being all hosfed,
a pair of the boxes were leaned on one fide, and fhew-
ed the bees were all in one of the boxes : on which
the other box was taken away ; and proved to be
full of comb and honey, perfectly pure without an
utom of any thing foreign. Not a bee was killed or
even difturbed. This was on Wye Ifland, where the
bees had half a mile to fly over the river before they
could reach the main. Many at times muft have pe-
ri flied, in rains and fl:orms, whilil they were endea-
vouring to crofs the river ; and the diflance in return-
ing from the fields exhauiled their ftrength and re-
tarded returns of honey, lb as to render their parti-
cular fltuation very ruinous to them. In the next
fummer, a very wet one, they were reduced ; and it
being a bad feafon for honey, they all died in the win-
tcr, though no honey was taken from them. The
boxes were exaci: cubes of i o inches'^, clear. The- me-
tliod is promiimg.
iiic
OFFICES. 85
The trcading-floor. Though but fix or eight horfcs
fliould tread on it, yet it ought not to be of a lels dia-
meter than 80 feet ; and the track or bed of wheat
is narrowed accordingly. I was long and greatly
prejudiced againfl: treading wheat. But experienc-
ing the advantages of getting out the crops ys\i\ifpeed^
and very clean when on a permanent well preferveJ
floor, with horfes gently trotted in ranks, airy and
diftant each rank from the others, the preference in
my opinion is in favour of treading, over the moil: ex-
pert thralliing with flails. So much fo that, conli-
dering the greater opportunities for the thrafliers pil-
fering, and the greater length of lime of their trou-
blefomenefs whilil thrafliing out the crops, I would
prefer treading to having my large crops thraflied
for nothing.
CLOVER,
This IS an important article in the improved fyflfm
of crops in rotation : but its feed bearing fome price
or cofling/fl;;:^ labour to obtain it, renders it a bug-
bear to common hulbandmen, whofe habits have di-
verted them from a large ufe of it. It is indeed ab-
folutely neceflTary that clover fliould be a common
crop in rotation with other articles of crop, in entire
fields. It is hoped there are farmers fpirited and
determined enough to defeat popular obje(5lions ; and
who will confider the coil not chargeable merely to
tlic
86 CLOVER.
the crop of clover, but to the whole round of crops;
the clover being fo effential thereto that without it
the foil, the cattle and the corn-crops would greatly
fuffer ; and the farmer's income, his reputation, and
his independency would be leflcned.
If 4lb of clean clover feed, when fown with fuch
a box as is defcribed below, clothe the ground as
well with plants as lo or i2lb fown in the common
broad-caft way and covered, of which 1 have had a
little experience, then a bufliel of feed will fov/ 15
acres. The farmer can ameliorate 100 acres with
clover more certainly than he can 20 from his fcanty
dung-heap. While his clover \% Jljcliering the ground,
•pcrffiring its excrementitious efiluvium on it, dropping
its putrid leaves, and mellowing the foil with its tap
roots, it gives i\i\\ food to the flock of cattle, keeps
them, in heart, and increafes the dung-hill. Kor is
the amelioration by clover very inferior to that by
dung, as this is commonly managed. In fom.e rc-
fpecls it is preferable. "With dung innumerable feeds
of weeds are carried out and fovrn on the fields: not
fo of clover, when the feed has been properly clean-
ed. Clover is the beftipreparative for a crop of
wheat. Dung inclines wheat to run more into itrav/
than full' grain. Wheat on clover has the beft grain
and the fulleft crop.
A farming friend of Chefler county, gave me \
plcafing
CLOVER. S7
plcafing account of an improved method for gather-
ing and cleaning clover-feed. In general the heads
of the clover are rippled off, by a firaple machine
moved by a horfe, at the rate of 5 acres of them in
a day. The heads are carried to an oil mill, having
two flones rolled in the manner of a tanner*s bark-
ftones which feparates from the haulm, five bufhels
a day.
Of two fields, 50 acres each, in clover, one is kept
up for giving feed in Auguft, iifter cutting the early
growth. In 10 days the 50 :icres of feed may be
gathered at a fmall expenfe ; and in 10 more, 50
bufhels may be feparated fi-om the haulm, and clean-
ed with a fan or with fieves. Whatever may be the
medium produce, I count on only one bufliel of feed
an acre.*
A box
* Mr. UHommedieUy of New- York, fays : " T]ic feed ii
collefted both from xh&frji crop and from the f^cond: but the
largeft quantity is from tlie ^rfi. By fowing three o*- four
pounds of clover feed to the acre, on light loamy foils which
yield 8 or lo bufhels of wheat or rye to die acre, the clover
will not be profitable to mow : but ftanding thin on the
ground, the heads will be well filled \\'ith feed. Thefe fields
are kept up the next year, till the feed is coUeSed. When
above one half of tlie field has changed .its colour by the dry.
ing of the clover heads, then begin to colleft tiaem ; which is
done by a marhine drawn by a horfe and guided by a man
or boy, who will collc<fl from the field by this means, the
heads of clover growing on five acres, in one day. I'hc
machine (fee the plate) is an open box. of about 4 feet fqua&
88 CLOVER.
A box for fowing clover feed on flat wheat beds
(rather than ridges) five and an half feet wide, ex-
clufive
at the bottom, and about 2 feet high on three fides. The
forepart is open ; and on this part are fixed fingers, fimilar
to the fingers of a cradle, about three feet long, and fo near
together as to break off the heads from the clover ftalks,
which are taken between thofe fingers. The heads are thrown
back into the box, as the horfe walks on. The box is fixed
on an axle-tree, fuppcrted by two fniall wheels about two feet
diameter. Two hraidles Ire fixed to the box behind, by
which the man or boy at the fame time he guides tlie horfe,
lowers or raifes the fingers of the machine, fo as to take off
all the heads from the grafs ; and often as the box gets fuU
of heads, they are thro\vn out, and the horfe goes on again.
This machine is feldom ufed to colleci: from the fecond crop.
Thofe who do not own one, fuppofe tlie expenfe of hiring
with the lofs of feed trod down, nearly equal to the expenfe
of mowing die fecond crop. On rich lands, ordinarily, no
feed comes of the firft crop. If the land is lightly manured
or crherwife very good, the firil crop of grafs is fo tkkk that
it yields no feed worth gatliering : but the fecond crop being
fhorter and thinner is commonly well feeded. Sometimes,
indeed, ccnfiderable quantities of feed are gathered from the
firil crop, on land where wheat is cut the feme year : the
ftubble preventing the clover from growing too thick for pro-
ducing feed. The fecond crop of grafs in good land is mow-
ed fo high as to cut off the heads of clover, and as little of
the grafs as pofijble. A mm in this manner will mow 1 or
3 acres a day. The time of mowing is when at lealt one
half of the heads become dried. It is raked immediately in-
to fmall h:r,pi or cocks. la what manner foever collected, aU
cught to be put into fuch heaps in the field, and there expof-
e4 that the hulks may rot (about tliree weeks) or otherwilg
CLOVER. fifcj
clufive of the water or opening furrow, feven feet
inclufive, was made of light half inch boards, for the
fides, bottom, and partitions. It was feven feet
long, five or fix inches wide, that the feed lying thin
may eafily fliift about and not prefs heavily on the
outlet holes.* It was three Inches deep, and divided
into
the feed will be got out with great difficulty. Attention is
to be paid to the heaps, left they rot too much next to the
ground. If much rain falls, the heaps are to be turned.
When the heaps aie fufficiently rotted and dry, known by
rubbing fome heads in the hand, cart them into the barn ;
and afterwards tlirafh out on the barn floor, and clean with
a wire riddle. It was an extraordinary quantity of feed tliat
I once kncXv produced i bufhel and 4 quarts from ;j of an
acre ; equal to 44 bufliels an acre."
* The 7 feet lands were preferred to 54 feet lands which
had been before ufcd (the farm a very level, flrong wheat
foil). The clearing out or water furrows were included both
in the 7 feet and the 54 feet lands. After making a number ,
of inftruclive experiments on eleven acres ; of wheat harroiv-
ed in and compared with v>'!icat at the fame time plowed m ;
of wheat fown on a broad kve/t on round ridges of varioi^
heights, and on flat beds having deep parting furrows, the
ridges and bed§ with their water furrows being 7 feet wide,
and running fome N. and S. others E. and W. I clearly pre-
ferred hds to ridges ; becaufe it is immaterial in what direc-
tion they lie, the fun fliining equally on the whole horizontal
furface of tJie beds ; becaufe the foil being alike in quality on
the whole of the ied^ the wheat grew equally well from edge
to edge ; becaufe tlierefore, in reaping, the wheat v as better
fttved. there not being fliort wheat as on the edges of ilu^cs j
90 CLOVER.
into feven parts, each divifion or receptacle having
two holes bored through the bottom, half an inch
diameter, and placed diagonally. The holes were
finged with a hot iron rod to fmooth them. Square
pieces of ftrong writing paper, fany gummed paper)
were pailed over the holes, on the infide of the box.
A hole was burnt, with coarfe knitting needles,
through
■zad becaufe the furrows being opened deep the greateft rains
5)refendj' glided into the furrows and were by tliem conveyed
mto the main drains of this flat land, vsithout ever drowning
or fcalding the growing wheat, or hardening the ground on
the fl.it led:. Upon the ridges E. and W. the wheat on the
Borth-iide was inferior to that on the fouth-fide. This of the
ridges raifed fomething higher than is common. On the
higheft ridges, which were in the extreme for a ftiong con-
trail:, the wheat on the north-fide was nearly all dead, in the
^ring. In ridges the beft foil is heaped in the middle ; and
the thimier foil at the edges gave fhort ftraw and mean grain,
noxh whereof v.'as loft in reaping and gathering. The ridges
formed receptacles of rain which were angular at bottom,
fo that rain water rofe fuddenly half way up the fides of the
ridgey, and eventually hardened the ground on them, as well
as drov.ned or fcalded much of the growing wheat. On
riJges, clover ii more espofed to frofts, winds, and wafting
of the earth away from the plants, than when on flat bed: ;
nor is it fo ads'antageouily mowed. My beds were feparated
by deep water furrows, fo:-med by a double mould board
plow dipt deep by the power of only two horfes, not large,
and which had a good faare of the Englifh race blood in
them. This mixt breed bear heat well, are brilk, and wil-
^gly exert their powers. Plate III. fig. 8.
CLOVER. 91
through each paper; and trials were made with feed
gently fliook in the box, over a floor or carpet ; and
the holes are enlarged as far as there may be occa-
fion for dropping a due quantity of feed. It was
ufed for fowing turnip feeds : the old papers being
taken off, and new ones pafled on j and then holes
burnt fuitable to turnip feeds. At about a third of
the diflance from each end of the box were faften-
ed flrong leathern flraps ; by which the box was
held, and a little agitated in carrying it before the
feedfman, in a dire£lion croiTmg the beds, whilfl the
feedfraan walked along the beds. Plate III. fig. 5.
The only comparative experiment made by me,
of clover feed fown with the box above defcribed,
againfl: broad cad fowing, was thus : In the moment
when a feedfman long ufed to fow clover feed, was
fowing feed in the chaff at the rate of isib of clean
feed, according to his efumation, clean feed was
fowed on feveral lands or ridges of growing wheat,
with the box. After fowing about coo yards in
length, the feed put into the box did not appear re-
duced in quantity, and I feared it \^'as fown too
thin. But the growth from the box fowing, proved
to be thicker and much more equally diftant than
that from the broad caft, and the plants were fufE-
ciently clofe. Thefe operations left the feeds on the
ground of the field of wheat without any means ufed
to cover them. The time of fowing was about th^
middle
9^ WHEAT ON CLOVER.
middle of March, whilfl: there were yet light frofts.
It was a feafon in which I often had clover feed
Town in the chaff, and left if uncovered, without
ever experiencing any lofs or difappointment.
When clean clover feeds are fown on a clean
ground and harrowed in, numbers are fmothered
tinder fmall lumps of earth as well as under larger
ones : not fo of feed left on the ground uncovered
during the frosts^ in March rather than earlier. It
therefore feems proper that much more than 41b an
acre fhould be fown, when the feeds are to be co~
•uered*
Wheat on Clover.
The language of Englilh farmers on this head is,
that wheat on clover is to be fown on " one earth"
— one plowing. To conform to this idea, I con-
duced this bufmefs on 15 acres, in this manner :
1 . The clover having been cut once and then paf-
tured, though not clofe, was turned in deep and the
furrows laid neat and clofe by a plow.
2. The v;heat was fowed, broadcaft.
3. The
* Mr. E. is lately returned to America from a fecond vifit
to Ejigland, and is confirmed in his former opinion that clo-
ver is better in Pennfylvania than in England ; merely, as he
thinks, from the foil or the climate of America being mare
i'mtaUle to iv See page 27.
WHEAT ON CLOVER. p-J
3. The harrow followed twice, in the uime direc-
tion in which the clover was plowed in.
4. The fown wheat was then rolled ; though roll-
ing did not appear to be neceffary.
The crop flood well and yielded fatisfaftorily.
It grew near two miles from my other field wheat,
on a foil not quite fimilar j fo that a jufl comparifon
could not be made between them. The operations
immediately followed each other, without any paufe.
The plow, the harrow, the feed, &c. were all
ready on the fpot, before the plow proceeded.*
Mr.
* Mr. Macro's experience is againft this tmmediate fowin^
upon plowing in tlie clover ; and his experiments were repeat-
ed; mine ^Jingle inftance, which proved highly fatisfadtory,
in general^ without any pointed particulars occurring of a much
fuperior produce. Mr. Macro gives tlie following encourag-
ing detail of his praftice and fuccefs. " From upwards of
•* 20 years experience," he fays, " I am of opinion that, tlie
•' bed way of fowing clover lands with wheat, is to ploii> the
" land 10 or 14 dayr before you fozv it, that the land may have
** fome time to get dry, and after rain enough to make it dre6
** well, lay on the feed in September, two bufhels an acre^
*' in Odtober, tliree bufhels an acre ; and in November, fouj
*• bufliels an acre." Thefe quantities of feed are here merif)
tioned from Mr. Macro, for the entertainment of farmers in
America ; who may v-.onder that difference of climate or fqil,
lliould admit of fuch diflFerence in the qUvintities fown : Ame.-
rica, three pecks to a bufliel of feed : — England, two to four
bufhels, an acre ! The atmofphere in America Ls dry in com-
parifpn to that in England ; the Englllh atmofphere abound-s
94 WHEAT ON CLOVIIR.
Mr. Toung was requefted in Ireland, to inflruft
the farmers of that country in proper courfes of
crops
more in humidity than the American ; and affords drink and
with it food to more plants than the humidity of the air iiv
America can beftow. Jt leems, he plows in tlie clover on a
fall of rain, and then vraits for a due flate of the ground.
" The furrows, he continues to fay, ought not to be more
" than 8 or 9 inches broad : lefs is better if the plow turns
" them well ; and the two lad furrows fhould not be lapped
*' one on to the other, but plowed fo as to leave a fpace of
** near two inches between them, for forae feed to fall in. I
" am at a lofs, he fays, to account for the wheat thriving let-
** ter on lands that have been ploiced fome time, than it does on
**'frej}j plowed lands which drefs as well or better : but I have
•' often tried both ways on the fame lands, and always found
♦« the former anfwer befl." i An. 109. I conjecture that the
clover plants being buried, and the wheat fown at tne fame
time, they botli ferment and run into heat in the fam.e mo-
ment : the germ then fhoots and the root is extremely deli-
cate and tender for fome days ; during which the buned herb-
age obtains its highefl degree of heat ; which added to the
Internal heat of the germ may, though only {lightly, check
and a little injure the delicate fhoot of tlie wheat. In fprout-
hjg barley for making malt, a little excefs of heat in the bed,
checks, and a little more totally flops the fprouting or growth>
qf the roots. Botli modes, give crops fuperior to what are
produced from wheat fowed On fallow. Farmers may weU
try both methods, for determining which to prefer ; that is,
as well in the immediate fowing, on plowing in the clover, aS
in the mediod of fowing not till 10 to 14 days after having
plowed in the clover : fuppofe an half in each way. Botji
Siodes are exgellent, la letting the foil rell 10 to 14 days
WHEAT ON CLOVBR. 95
crops. In direfting them how to fow wheat oil
clover, he fays j " The clover is to be well plowed
in,
an opening Is given to heavy rains confelidating and leaving
it in an inferior ftate for receiving the wheat feed. If rain
falls after burying the clover, and before fowing the wheat,
it may fometimes be neceffary to wait for the ground becom-
ing only moift, rather than fow when it is wet and heavy.
If the farmer plows in the clover when the ground is dry, ht
may then choofe to wait for rain before he fows. Though
for tliis reafon alone, he need not v/ait. I have found it gene-
rally fafe to fow during a drought, when the foil is very dry :
but not when a light rain has fallen on tlie very dry ground.
In the former cafe the feed is fafe till a rain falls, which is
ufually in plenty after a drought : the feed now quickly
grow^s up : in the other cafe it is flightly damped, and it
fwells ; but the moifture is fo foon and totally evaporated as
to leave the feed to dry-rot and perifli. There may hav&
been fome peculiarity in Mr. Macro's foil : yet it probably
was but a light foil, little liable to be hardened in lo to 14
days ; as on a rain ftrong wheat land would. Farmer Kit-
yogg, the Swifs, fays that -zukiai ftoots ftrongeft when there is
an interval between the time of plowing and fowing ; but that
larky is mofl; vegetative when fown immediately after tlw
plow." Of all tlie modes of fowing wheat, I am ftrcmg>-
ly perfuaded that in clujiers it gives the beft crops. A num.-
ber of experiments made by me are the foundation of this
opinion. I'hefe experiments were made at Wye in Maryland.
There I invented a fimple flrong machine which dropt 5 or 6
grains of wheat in each clufter on above 8 acres. The cluflers
were 7 inches apart in the rows ; and the rows were about gr
inches from each other. A horfe on each fide of a bed walked
in the water furrow^ and fowed an enure bed in 3 rows a: a
95 . WHEAT ON CLOVER,
ill, with an even, regular furrow j and the wheat
iown and harrowed well."
One
time. A light pole extended between the horfes, from th»
neck of one to that of the other. Accounts of fome of die
experiments were publilhed in the Columbian Magazine : and
it appeared from them that as far as y grains in a clufter,
(being no further tried by me) and from Mr. Singleton s ex-
periments, made at the fame time in Talbot, as far as 15
grains in each duller, tlie produce in wheat was prog^efllvely
the better. At that time I had never tried wheat fown on
clover plowed in : but the machine was perfecHy adapted to
cluucring wheat on ground in that (late. The follov.'ing
mode of fowing and cultivating wheat and clover may be
introduced. Clover is to be plowed in deep and the furrow
neatly turned. On this is dra%vn by a horfe walking in the
water furrow on each fide the bed, a machine which fhould
open the ground about two inches deep in rows 8 inches apart,
and in the rows drop feed wheat in clu Iters, each clufter con-
fifting of 8 or 10 grains, at 6 inches apart, equal to about
a bulhei to an acre. The whole bed is finiihed in the horfes
walking once through the furrows. In November, a Ihim of
feveral blades or hoes 6 or 7 inches wide, and fixed in frame
ihould cut the ground between the S inch intervals of ground}
•which, cutting up the weeds and ftirring the ground, would
leave it in good condition till March or early April ; whci>
die {him fhould again clean and ftir the ground, and eradi-
cate the very injurious Mav-weed and (hepherd's purfe ; and
^t the fame time with the clover feed box and feed on the
^rame of the fhim, by jogging t!ie box the clover feed would
be fowed, immediately after the ihim. This alio is perform-
ed by the horfes walking in and being confined precifely by
the water furrows. A light barrow or rake may be attached
WHEAT ON CLOVER. 97
One of my neighbours intending to fow wheat on
clover, plowed up the clover a week or two before
feeding time ; and then gave it a fecond plowing,
acrofs, and fowed wheat on it : whether the wheat
was plowed or harrowed in, I know not.* Vail
numbers of roots of the clover were turned up,
G and
to It. In cluftering wheat endeavour to drop the feeds all in
a heap, in contadl witli each other if it can be. They thus
proved greatly fuperior, dropt in fmall holes made by a dib-
ble, to the fame number of grains fpread within circles of
three inches, the centres whereof were 7 inches from the cen-
tres of other like cluilers ; when the dibbled holes were only
6 inches apart, Befides fowing clover feed in the moment
of fliimming, gyjJfum, lime, or lotten dung, may alfo be
drfperfed as tlie machine proceeds in fhimming, thus : In 7
fields the rotation confifts of,
I Roots, the ground dunged beforehand.
I Spring grain ; In fowing it. In the fame Inftant and mo-
tion, clover feed is fcattered with It from the box, and
drew on each acre, lime 12 bufh. gypfum i bufh.
I Clover
I Wheat and clover feed, with 12 .... i
I Clover
I Rye or Barley and clover feed, with 12 . t
I Clover or Pulfe
7 Fields
• Had not tjiis been plowed a fecond time, it would have
been preclfely in Mr. Macro's method : but the fecond plow-
ia^ overfet tl.e good work.
9^ WHEAT ON CLOVER.
and left (landing erecl above ground, all over the
field. Here was unneceflary labour, an ufelefs and
even injurious plowing, by which the manure from
thofc fubftantial roots and a part of the green her-
bage, was lod to the crop of wheat.
Another neighbour proceeded thus, in fowing
wheat on clover :
1. Plowed in the clover, deep.
2. Harrowed.
3. Rolled.
4. Sowed wheat.
5. Plowed it in, Jhallow.
6. Harrowed it, in the fame dire^ion.*
BEANS.
* Whllft the former copy of tliis was at prefs, an account
of the eiFed of this experiment was expeded from the experi-
menter ; but I was obliged to fpeak of it from memory,
which proved to be incorred, and that part is now omitted.
Mr. Singleton, of Talbot, Avalking in his wheat field, was fur-
prifed to find the growing wheat much fuperior on the meaner
foil of the field ; it being higher with ftronger ftraw and
larger heads. This part of the field had been in clover, which
was twice moived, and in Augufl broke up, and fowed with
die wheat the tirfl: of September. The other part had the
clover p'oived tip in Marchy for tobacco : but tobacco being laid
afide, this ground was then repeatedly plaived in the fmntncr as
a fallow, and fown alfo the firll of the fame September, with
wheat : from which it yielded 14I bufliels an acre ; when th&
part twice mown and hut once plowed gave 2\\ bufhels an acre.
The difference is great : to which add the yalue of tlie clover
BEANS. 99
BEANS.
Let not the novelty or labour of fowing beans in
field hufbandry be made a difficulty to the applica-
tion of them in a rotation of crops. They may be
dropt by hand. Bat a fimple and cheap machine
may be made for dropping them in clullers, as
quick as a horfe drawing it can walk. Two wheels
made of inch plank doubled, turn an axis of about
5 inches diameter, having notches on one line round
it, from each of which 3 or 4 beans are difcharged
at the fame moment into a furrow opened by a
plowlhare or wooden coulter, the ground being
firft well prepared. A (lave at the tail of the ma-
chine may ferve to cover the beans, if occafion :
though the gr6und, being mellow, always tumbled
in on the beans, with me. If the wheels be two
feet diameter, they will have a circumference of 75
inches, which divided by icl- inches, give 7 for
the number of notches round the axis, for drop-
ping the beans, in cluflers, 10 ^ inches apart in the
rows. With fuch an inflrument beans were drilled
for me, at Wye.*
G 3 Neit
crops and the favlng of plowings. They abundantly prove
the fuperiorltT of wlieat on one earth. Mr. Singldon is to bs
depended on, and keeps a diary cf his farming bulmefs.
* Hufbandmen have frequent occafion to difcover the dia-
meters oi circHTOforenccs as well as the circumferences of
lOO NEW CULTURE OF
Nejv Practices in the Culture of Maize and
Wheat.
The common modes of cultivating the various
corns, are every where familiar : but the following
practices and obfervations are upon new modes, or
particular branches of the bufinefs.
In Maryland, mofl: of the wheat fown is amongfl
maize, whilfl it is ripening in September. The
farmer is urged to fow wheat early, for avoiding
damage from rmt, and from storms. A ilorra upon
maize having the tops on, would proflrate or en-
tangle the tall ftalks, fo as to render plowing in the
feed wheat difficult and lefs perfefl ; and the farmer
dares not cut off the tops till after the wheat is fown
and covered ; becaufe in plowing in the feed, the
fwingletrees catching and bending down the ftalks
and then fuddenly letting them go with a fpring,
throw off the ears of corn with fome force ; which
with the tops and taffcls on would be confiderablj
refilled. Another mifchief is common, as well from
horfehoing
diameters. In common, for finding a circumference, the
diameter is multiplied by 3 : but it is more exactly afcertain-
ed by multiplying with 3. 141 6. The difference on 5 inches
diameter is near 4^ths of an inch; it being as 15.7 to i^.
The circumference kno'RTi, to find the diamsier, muhiply the
circumference by '31831.
MAIZE AND WHEAT. lol
horfehoing the maize as plowing in the wheat,
which is that the roots are torn or cut by the plow-
Ihare.
For avoiding the above meniioned mischiefs^ and
that the feed wheat ihould be covered fokly by plows ;
and alfo that the wheat fhould grow on perfectly
fiat beds, and the plowfhares work partly above
the mat of fibrous roots of the maize, I introduced
the following praftices in my maize and wheat cul-
ture, which was on very large fields.
Obferving much irregularity in the (landing of
maize in the rows, which prevented plows from
working fufficiently near to the plants for covering
the feed wheat, and that much was left for the ex-
penfive and often bad work of handhoes to perform,
I caufed the maize feed, after lifting and croiling,
to be carefully placed clofe to the landfide of the
furrows ; not dropt in the carelefs fcattering man-
ner ufual. The maize thus grew very ftraight in
lines, and admitted the plows to pafs near the plants.
Thefe being up and a little grown, the defign was
formed of dire<fting the firfl or finger-like roots to
dip deeper than common before the lateral roots
fhould flrike out. The foil was plowed full five inches
deep ; and turned at firfl from the maize, on both
fides of the plants : but they being then very
young, it was neceffary to leave more (hoolder or
bed
I02 NEW CULTURE OF
bed to them than was defired, to avoid burying
them with the earth falling back : therefore the
plow, on having worked through the field, imme-
diately returned to the place where it began to
plow from the plants, and it now took oiF as much
more earth, flill turning lifrom them, on each fide,
as they could well bear without danger of their totr
tering. All now rested lo or 12 days, even in th?
dried weather, with intention that the lateral roots
fliould take their direction under the artificial fur-
face of the ground formed by the plowlhare. The
The plows next turned a furrow, on each fide of
the rows, to the plants, through the whole field ;
and then plowed through the balks or whole of the
intervuls not before plowed or horfehoed. The
handhoes performed as ufual, except that hilling
was wholly forbidden. Soon as plowing through
the intervals was finifhed, the plows again plowed
from the plants : and fo repeatedly continued to
plow through the intervals alternately from ^nd to
the rows and plants ; whereby another important
purpofe was anfwered : the keeping the whole field
levels for growing the wheat on flat beds, and
avoiding ridges or beds at all rounded. The alter-
nate \)\oyN\ng?. from and to were continued even dur-
ing the forming and filling of the grain, as far as
was requifite for keeping the ground clean and ftir-
red to receive the feed wheat ; and it was a continu-
al work to the plows, in which the plowfhares
palTed
MAIZE AND WHEAT. 103
paffed rather over the roots which fpread and
ran deeper than if they had taken their firfl: flart
under the common furface of the earth, and there-
fore they were not torn up, or the plants fired or
checked in their growth. Thus at the time of fow-
ing wheat the ground was fo perfeftly clean, fine
and Hght, that for feveral years fucceflively, half
a bufhel of wheat fufficed for feed to an acre.*
This thin fowing occaiioned fome attention by other
farmers, and a neighbour came to fee the. feedfmen
at work. He examined them feparately, they were
two ; then meafured the diftance of the maize plants
from each other ; faw a portion of the feed meafur-
ed and fowed ; then counted the clufters of plants
that the portion of feed extended to when fown ;
and he feemed fatisfied. He was not a man of
many words, and I afked no queftions. Great
advantages were obtained in cutting off the maize
tops before fowing the wheat ; which in common
would be improper, where wheat is to be fowed on
maize. That the fwingle-trees might not hang on
the maize-flalks, the rope traces were half buried
in
* The ftouteft, moll promifmg crop of wheat I ever had
growing was of 200 acres, from a fmall fradion lefs tlian
half a bufhel of {t^di per acre. Whilft this very flattering
crop -vas in head, ruft dindfcab (empty ears) reduced tlie crop
to a very trifle. The ground, to admit of fuch very tliitl
fowing, had been often and almoft inccffantly plowed, light-
ened, and made clean.
104 NEW CULTURE OF
in a groove cut in the ends of the fwingle-trees, by
which the corn ftalks were more gently glided off.
Light one horfe plows covered the feed wheat
clofe to the rows of maize, without any want of
handhoes : but a rake followed and levelled the
ridge, here and there formed by the one horfe
plows lapping the oppofing furrows which ought
not to be lapped. For chopping round (lumps, a
handhoe was ufed. The light plows went only a
bout or two, next to the matze plants : then follow-
ed the two horfe plows, for covering the refl: of the
feed ; and thefe left a narrow balk, which the dou^
ble mould board plow fplit. This was pleafingly
performed : the double mould board plow, dipping
deep, fliouldered up the earth on each fide and gave
fquare edges to the beds, leaving them with flat fur-
faces, and deep furrows as drains for receiving hea-
vy rains as they fall and gently glide off the beds,*
My maize was planted four feet apart in the rows,
with feven feet intervals betweeij the rows ; which
gave beds of wheat, after deducting the water fur-
rows, full 5 J feet wide. Concerning beds and wa-
ter
* The one horfe plows might have performed the whole ;
except opening and finifning the water furrows and edging
Vip the fides of the beds, which no plow elie than tlie double
mould board plow, could well perform : the foil a clav-loanij
ypr)' level, and without (lone or pebble.
MAIZE AND WHEAT.
105
ter furrows^ fee before, page 88. The maize fo
planted in fquares of 4 by 7 feet, takes 28 fquare
feet to each clufler of maize plants, commonly call-
ed hills of corn, bu.t which in the above method of
culture has no hill ; and there are 1550 of them on
an acre. By a fmgle dip of the double mould board
plow and progreffing along, the edges of the wheat
beds are formed and finifhed, the water furrow is
left deep and clean for receiving from the flat beds
and carrying off redundant rain, and for conveying
as funnels frefli nourilhing air to the growing wheat
in the fpring, and till the grain is ripe. When
ihimming wheat in autumn and fpring fliall be prac-
tifed, the water furrows will be as paths to the
horfes ; which afTure precifion in the work.
Near the end of September or early in Ocf^ober,
the wheat plants being up, with fliarpened hoes the
maize plants were chopt off clofe to the ground,
without injuring the wheat, even although a plant of
wheat was here and there cut up. Two of the peo-
ple take a row between them ; and bear off the com
and ftalks from the middle of the rows to the head-
lands : one perfon carries to one end and the other
to the other end of the rows. There on the head-
lands the flalks and all were itt up in conical heaps,
with the buts on the ground. They remained thus,
airy, in not too large heaps, till the corn was cured
on the (talks ; and then the ears with hu/ks on were
fcpai-a-
lo6 NEW CULTURE OF
feparated from the flalks and carted to the fodder
houfe, or hollow rick, made from the maize tops,
which were early cut for avoiding imprellions from
cquinoftial florms. The naked (talks were carted
to the farm-yard, for litter, at leifure ; the blades
having been dripped off in the field, before chop-
ping off the flalks.
In making experiments, it is well to have forae-
variety, progrefling from fmaller deviations into ex-
tremes : by which the bell medium is to be afcer-
tained, and the utmoft that the plants can bear is
difcovered. I had tried tops of maize cut off, foon
as the taffels and ears had fliot our, leaving here
and there a taffel for perfefting their farina ; and
thought the grain rather better for it. I had alfo
cxpofed infant plants eight to ten or twelve days,
to drought and fcorching fun, {landing on parched
narrow ridges, and then continually plowed the
ground to and from the plants, even whilft they
were in ears and grain filling, without any injury
to the corn. Now it was determined to try the
cffeft of plowing fo clofe to the young maize plants
as to rub the plowfhare along the mafs of roots,
turning the tdxxhfrom them, on both fides, and let
them (land expofed to the fun and wind fome days.
It was in a very heavy flrong piece of ground which
the horfes, flraddling the rows, plowed thus and
turned the earth from the plants, on both fides, fo
that
MAIZE AND WHEAT. I07
that the plants four or five inches high, generally
tottered, and a few were plowed up. They flood
fo eight days in very hot, dry weather. The earth
was then plowed to them : and from and to them,
alternately jufl as the reft of the field, from this
period. This was of four rov/s. When near five
feet high, fliewing the field to a neighbour, I a/ked
if he perceived any difference between the firft four
rows (the above mentioned) and the reft of the
maize in that cut, which was a fmall one. He
paufcd, but concluded that if there was any differ-
ence, the four rows were rather the beft. To me
there appeared no difference. The whole had been
plowed from and to the plants, but not fo clofc as
the four rows.
At other times I had ftripped blades bolder than
common: and now about 150 hills of maize were
pitched on for ftripping the blades and cutting ofF
the tops at a time when the corn was not hard, but
here and there might be fome nearly foft enough for
roafting ears. Injury was apprehended from this
feverity : but the value of fo few hills of corn was
difregarded, when it was fought to know how far
the maize would bear fevere treatment. Beyond
expeftation, no difference was obferved between this
iind the reft of the maize.
HEMP.
lo8 HEMP.
HEMP.
The extenfive ufefulnefs of hemp, the little inter-
ference of its culture with the other work of farmers
in America ; and when ivater-rotted daily as it is pul-
led, the eafe with which it is prepared for rope, as
well as the general certainty of the crop with a good
price, led me to prefer it to other uncommon -arti-
cles of crop.*
Ground, level and rather low, not wet, a mellow
loam, whether of the fandy or clayey forts, was
preferred. Thefc foils are not cold ; and when well
cleaned and prepared by plowings and a due quan-
tity of manure, are in condition to yield ma?iy re-
peated crops of hemp j a little manure being now
and then added.f
Farmers
* My hemp harvefts at Wye in Maryland, \rere always
after tl^ofe of wheat, and before feeding v-inter grain. In
England they inlerfeie with the grain harv^efts. Between
water-rotting, daily as it is pulled^ and the fpreading it in fields
to rot, is all the diflFerence in the world : the former is dif-
patched in a few days : the latter requires careful turning
once or twice a week, for a number of weeks ; and then is
found draggling or tangled : but ^vith attention it is gather-
ed up and the ftems are placed in fome order. In America,
hemp and flax are commonly dry before they are fpread to be
dew-rotted. If fpread before the laft of September, they be-
come fun-burnt, red, harfti, and dead.
f Mr. Young fpeaks of a piece of ground at Hoxne in
Suffolk, England, \vhich has been under crops of hemp for
feventy fucceffive years.
HEMP. lop
Farmers without experience, if not alfo without
thought on the fubjeft, fay their lands will not bring
hemp. Mod kinds of foil will yield good crops of
it, if not wet. If poor, manure them. Every
hufbandman can manure and cultivate land enough
for giving him rich crops of hemp. The plowings
for reducing ground to a mellow garden-like ftate
Ihould be many, preceding ihcjirst fowing. Every
time that young weeds appear, plow them in.
When the ground is thus well cleared of the feeds
of weeds, then fow hemp-feed, and, repeat it year
after year on the fame ground ; giving it now and
then a little manure and tzvo autumnal pickings ; and
the like plowings with harrowings in the next fpring,
immediately before fowing. If to cultivate an acre
thus highly fhould deter the farmer, let him at firfl
try a fourth of it ; which would give him more
than he would want of traces, leading lines and
other rope. The fpinning and working it up into
rope would be mere play : but, as is feen below,
making as much hemp as he can for market, would
yield him a good income.*
April,
• The tobacco planter thinks nothing of cultirating twen-
ty acres in tobacco, and erecting four or five large framed
houfes for curing it. But he %vould dart at a propofal that
inftead of tobacco he fhould cultivate the 20 acres in hemp,
although it would require but one fuch houfe, not an eighth
ot the labour and attentions, and is without any of the un-
certaintjr. It is ^ common miaaLc that hemp requires lev
no HEMP.
April,* when the ground is raoift, clean and mel-
low, in garden-like condition from plowings and
harrowings, is the time for fowing and lightly har-
rowing in hemp feed. The plants then foon appear,
and rapidly cover and flielrer the whole furface of
the ground ; whereby weeds are kept under, and
immoderate exhalation is prevented. My hemp ne-
ver fuifered materially from drought but once, and
that of a fowing in May, which grew rather thin.
It was never found neceffary to weed what was fown
for a crop ; but only fuch as was fown thin for pro-
ducing feed. Sometimes feed was faved from the
margin of the field, where the plants had room to
branch, and were coarfe : or a portion was fown thin,
for giving feed : or flill better, plants grew equidif-
tant and well cultivated, for feed alone.
When the male or impregnating plants fliewed
maturity by fome change in their colour, and by the
farina or duft flying off from the bloffoms, all was
pulled up, both male and female : and the pulling of
every day was put into a fait water cove, in the
evening of the fame day, proraifcuoufly bound up
in
abound or rich bottom land. Alnioft any land that is not
abfohitely wet, may be made to yield good crops.
* The middle to the end of April. If the ground is not
t77o}s! when the feed is fowed die hemp is apt to come up and
grow unequally.
HEMP. Ill
in fmall bundles, and funk 44^ feet in the water, in
a thick fquare bed. On the third day it was infpeft-
cd ; and from the third to the fifth it was enough
rotted, as it is called. In examining it, with finger
and thumb fome of the roots were broke, ^f they
bent or were tough, it was not enough : when they
fnapt off ihort like glafs, it was enough : but the
bark alfo was tried. The hemp was then taken out
of the water, and laid Hoping with the heads down
to drain till morning : for it was ufually taken out
in the evening. In the morning it was fpread, and
whilft drying, once turned. In a few fair days it
was dry, and then carted to an old tobacco- houfe,
where it was bulked up till the hurry of fecuring the
other crops was over.* It was broke and fwingled
in the next winter. Some of it was made into ropes
for my farms : the reft fold to rope-makers, from
the fwingle. The rope was bright and ftrong, and
the hemp faid to be of a quality entitling it to the
bounty then offered for ivater-rotted hemp.f
A
♦ For want of houfe room it may be flacked n\ oblong
Ricksy topped with thatch or ftraw.
i" It is faid tliat botli the drefling and fpimiing of hemp are
beft performed in a damp place. It is inclined to tzvist too
much in fpinning. Alfo that it is a /efs injury to the hemp to
pull the plants before they are ripe enough, than to leave them tot
lon^fiandtng : and it is a left h:jury, in foak'ing h:mp, to leave it
too long in the water than to take it out before it is fufficiently
foaked (Uvi or running water is meant and fpokc:n of). AvA
112 HEMP.
A fmall part of one of my crops of hemp vr2s de^M
rotted : which was fufficicntly difgufling to forbid
a repetition of that mode. It was a tedious while
on the ground. Winds blew it about and entangled
it. It rotted partially: not the whole of the fame
fibre alike. Here it was flrong : there weak,
^Vhere there is only a ftreara of water, it might
be proper not to place the hemp/;z the dream j but,
digging a deep oblong receptacle, let a fufficiency
of the ftreara pafs through it, when full, on one
fide of the tiatural current. There rot the hemp in
clean water ; which fhould conilantly be coming into
and pafllng through the pit, in a degree of plenty
for preferving the water from corrupting or being
ftagnant j but not fo rapidly as to fret off its bark:*
and
it is afferted, that putting the clufters containing the hemp
feed in heaps, to Iweat and heat, caujes many feeds to ripen.
The above obfervations on hemp are taken from a publica-
tion in London, in 1790 : in which the reader may be alarm-
ed at the boldnefs of the afiurance refpefting hemp being loBg
left in ■R'ater : but a diftindion is to be taken between water
Jiagnantf where it would rot ; and water running or ali^yc, m
which it cannot rot.
* The operation called retting of hemp, ought to avoid erery
tendency to rot the plant. Water when pure and lively does
not ret, but it difohvt a vifcous gumjny fubftance which had
bound the fibres of the bark together and to the body of the
f4ant. The pareH water is ths beH diffuktrit of fuch vifcous
Hemp. 21^
and the hemp fliould be fecured in the receptacle
againfl: torrents, by weights, or bars croffing the
bed ; and by the receptacle being Iheltered behind
fome point or artificial barrier or fence.
After pulhng the hemp, weeds grew up; which
were reduced, and the ground was left in clean con-
dition till the fpring, by plowino-s.
H Having
fubftances. I have feen hemp which had been rotted in ftag-
nant dirty water ; the appearance whereof was bad. The
hemp I rotted in cUar Ude-'u.'ater, had a light ftraw colour. I
fee no reafon for apprehending damage to the bark or firm
part of the hemp, if it remains in the running or liv: luater a
week after it is proved to be enough foaked for break-ing and
dreffing. It probablj- would be freer fVom the gummy mat-
ter, and would break and hackle eafier and better, without
being weakened. But, let experiment be made ! When the bed
of hemp in clean Ihs rjjaier is enough, let a part remain in the
water a day or two longer ; another part two or three days,
&c. that we may fee tlie effeft of its being continued in the wa-
ter till different periods after its bark is commonly enough for
being ftripped. The water muft be dive, not ftagnant. Ex-
periments carried on progrefllvely till in the extreme, have
their ule.
A Mr. jlntilizys, if hemp is put \v\io itngnant v>-ater, it will
be enough in four or five days : if in running water, in three
or four days : which ftrongly implies die fuperior diffolving
power of live water, and that the operation tStCt^jlh.thy,^ not
r*tftnnrft
114 HEMP.
Having no raluute of the quantity of feed fawn,
I can only recommend what feems beft. But, it
greatly depends on the flate of the ground, and the
purpofes for which the crop is intended. A httle
experience will afcertain the proper quantity. Tv.o
bufhels of feed to an acre, I believe are a full portion
for rope. That quantity or a little lefs might be
about what I fowed.* It is faid in a publication by
the Bofton Committee of Agriculture, that in the
common method of fowing by broad caft, " not lefs
than three bufliels are ufually fowed, and fometimes
more, according to the richnefs of the foil."
A defign was* formed by way of experiment, but
not put in practice, of fowing the hemp feed on flat
beds, having paths between them from w'hence the
hemp plants might be pulled, half v/ay acrofs the bed,
and then the other half; with intention that the male
hemp fhould be pulled and water-rotted alone, leav-
ing the female hemp to (land longer, which its de^
green colour and thriving appearances feemcd to re-
commend ; but why fhould this double work be im-
pofed, v/hen the crop which had been all pulled at
cnce^ foon as the male plants fhewed ripenefs, proved
fo excellent and fo unexceptionable ?
The plants of one crop, which grew too tliialy,
were
• Mr hemp feed was genei-^Uy fo\va too thin, as I fufpe^;-
iinJ the hemp w-as ralber too little rotted, from over caution.
HEMP. 115
were fo firmly fixed, that it was found neceffary to
cut them off near the ground; which left their nu-
merous fnags {landing : and they were dangerous to
fuch beads as might any how get into the ground ;
and to people walking there, cfpecially in the dark.
If the ground be good and well prepared, no crop
is more certain than hemp, fowed in time, and when
the foil is moift. But how uncertain is the tobacco
crop ! Failure of plants from froll, drought, or fly ;
want of feafonable weather for planting ; deftruftion
by the ground-worm, web-worm, horn-worm ; but-
tcning low, for want of rain ; curling or frenching,
from too much rain ; houfe-burning or funking
whilfl: curing ; frofl before houfed ; heating in bulk
or in the hogfhead ; infpe^don, culling. Sec. Cul-
tivating tobacco cleans, but expofes foil to exhalation
and wafhing away. It is only about a month that
it fhclters the ground : but hemp fliades it from
May till about the firft of Augufl: : and from early
Augufl it would be advantageoufly flickered with a
growth of buckwheat, till this bloflbras ; and then
(commonly) during a temperate flate of heat, it
would be a manure if plowed in.
Tliis buckiuhcat manure repeated every fall would
I believe prcferve the foil in good heart for yield-
ing rich crops of hemp, it not fuffered to go to
feed, during many fuccdljive yean;. Plants fuffercd
H 2 to
lie H£MF.
1o go to feed, remarkably impoverifli foil. Not fo of
what arc harrefted before they are in feed. Hemp is
pulled before it feeds : flax whilft in full feed. The
effects on the foil are accordingly. But if the m.ale
Hemp is pulled by the beginning of Augufl: and the
female not till September, the feed being then ripen-
ed, the foil is thereby greatly impoveriflied ; and two
hemp harvefts are produced inftead of one : the lad
whereof interferes with feeding of wheat, rye, and
barley.
Buckwheat mufl: not run io feed on ground to be
fown with hemp. I have had it fpire up and con-
tend with growing hemp, till the buckwheat has
been five feet high.
The heavieil work in procuring Hemp, is the
breaking and fcutching or fwingling it. But as it is
the work of leifure winter, and every pcrfon who
drips tobacco can break and fwingle hem.p : and
moreover as hirelings, if neceilary, are in that fea-
fon eaUly obtained, this bugbear part of the bulinefs
can aiTuredly be accompliflied, and the hemp got rid
cf at market in the fpring. — The riddance of crops
is aliuays advantageous to future operations.
A planter gaining 20 hogflieads of tobacco from
20 acres cf ground, value 800 dollars, might expeft
12000 or i6cGclbs. of hemp from the fame ground,
value icoo or izzo dollars. But, if the income
from
HEMP. 117
from the hemp flaould be a fourth lefs than from the
tobacco crop, yet I would, on feveral accounts, pre-
fer the hemp culture.
For the country houfe-wife who wiflies for infor-
mation, the following is inferted as what I have read
of a method o^ foftening and preparing hemp, for
making it into hnen. The Hemp is laid at full
length in a kettle. If the kettle is too fmall to admit
it at full length, the hemp may be doubled, but with-
out twilling it J only the fmall end of every hand is
twilled a little, to keep the hands whole, and from
tangling. Smooth flicks are laid in the bottom of
the kettle, acrofs and acrofs three or four layers, ac-
cording to the fize and depth of the kettle ; which
is for keeping the hemp from 'touching the liquor.
Then pour ley of middling flrength, half the flrength
of that for foap, gently into the kettle till it rifes
nearly to the tops of the flicks. The hemp is then
laid in, layer crolling layer, fo that the fleam may pafs
through the whole body of the hemp. The kettle
is now covered clofe as can be, and hung over a very
gentle fire to flew or fimmer, but not boil, fo as to
raife a good fleam for 6 or 8 hours. It is then ta-
ken off, and let fland co-vcred till the hemp is cool
enough to be handled. It is now taken out, and
wrung very carefully, till dry as can be : then hang
it up §ut of the way of the ivi?id, in a garret or barn
with all the doors fhut. Here it remains, now and
then
IlS FARM-YARD MANURE,
then turning it, till perfectly dry. Then pack it up
in a clofe^ dry place, till it is to be ufed. Yet at
times it is to be vifited, and examined if any part has
become damp* At leifure, twht up as many hands
of hemp as arc intended for prefent ufe, hard as you
can ; and with a fmart, round, fmooth hand-beetle,
on a fmooth (lone beat and pound each hand by it-
{t\^^ all over very well, turning it round till all is
well bruifed. Then untwifl: and hackle it through
a coarfe, and after it through a fine hackle. Hack-
ling is performed in the fame manner as if combing
a fine head of hair j beginning at the ends below as
thefe are entangled, rifmg higher and higher : at lafl
the top of the head is reached. The firfl tow makes
country rope 5 the fecond, ofnaburgs, Iheeting and
bagging j and the pure hemp excellent thread and
linen.
FARM- YARD MANURE.
For conducing the bufinefs of a farm to full ad-
vantage, the farmer is \.o purfue objefts which fyf-
tematically embrace fuch a regular courfe of parti-
culars as fiiall bell follow and depend on each other,
for obtaining the one whole of the defign of farm-
ing. It is not immediate produft alone that we aim
at : for, whilft we wiih to obtain repeated full crops,
our reafon alTures us it is indifpenfably neceifary to
that end, that the foil be preferved in full vigor.
The mind then is employed, principally, on the ob-
jefts
FARM-YARD MANURE. II9
jefts 0^ prefer vat ion and hnpro'vement of the prodii6lhe
powers cf the earth, Obfervations on the ftate of
common farming fix the opinion, th'at no unconneft-
ed random purfuits tend to enfure a fuccellion of ad-
vantageous hufbandry for any length of time.
Well chofen rotations of crops together with due
culture, are believed to be fo favourable to the
ground as to need but httlc of manure in comparifon
of what the common random or ill chofen crops abfo-
lutely require. Still the fleady and attentive appli-
cation of /nanures, is held to be an eflential duty in
farming, a great link of the chain, in every inftance.
If rich foils require, comparatively, but a moderate
quantity, in a rotation where ameliorating crops are
prevalent, yet middling and poor foils want all that
can be obtained; and, under the old Mary/and courfes
efpecially^ all foils eagerly demand more manure than
can he readily procured. Thefe exhaufling courfes
we fee continually impoverilh the foil. Too many
farmers therefore incline to move to frelh lands ;
where they would precifely acl the fame murderous
part over again.
The principal links in good farming are due tillage^
proper rotations of crops ^ which are treated of above,
and manures^ of which it is wiflied the occafion
would admit of more than the few obfervations
which follow.
« In
!lft<^ FARM-YARD MANURE.
" In the American praftlce, hay and fodder are
stacked in the jields ; and the cattle 2Xt fed round the
stacks and fodder-houfes : the difadvantages whereof
are,
1 . A wasteful ufe of the provender j
2. The dung lying as it is dropped without straw,
or other vegetable fubftance brought to it, the ma-
nure is little in quantity ; and
3. That little not lying in heaps, is reduced abun-
dantly by exhalation and rain; without leaving any
thing to the foil.
In the Englifli and Flemifli practice (feebly obferv-
cd by a few of our hufbandmen) cattle are carefully
houfed, or otherwife confined to a fold yard in which
zrefhelters againfl cold rains, during the whole win-
ter, and as far through the fpring as food will lafl :
the advantages of which are,
1. A fair expenditure of the provender, without
waste :
2. Lefs exhaustion of the juices 5 becaufe of the
dung lying together, in large heaps :
3. The dung being mixed with the straw, and
other vegetable fubflances brought to the beads as
litter, the whole is trod together, and forms a large
quantity of very valuable manure.
It
FARM-YARD MANURE. 121
It may be no exaggeration to affirm, that the dif-
ference in the quantities of manures obtained from
an equal (lock of cattle by thofe fcveral methods,
may be as three to one. If fix acres may be annu-
ally manured by the inferior method, then may
eighteen by the fuperior. Now on a fuppofition
that manured land is kept in heart five years u ithout
repeating, in the one cafe but thirty acres will al-
ways remain in good order ; in the other ninety
acres : a very important difference ! Indeed It is all
the difference between an hufbandman's poverty and
his riches."*
Do cattle, when foddered round hay-ftacks and
fodder-houfes or ricks, give twelve loads of manure
each ? Do they yield one fuch load ? It is a fa<5l
ftated I think by Mr. Young, that in the courfe of
a winter cattle, kept up and littered in a yard, have
yielded full twelve fuch loads, each beall ; and if
foiled or fed well during the fummer with cut green
grafs or clover, they may be expelled to yield more
and richer manure ; efpecially when they are kept'
z(p, on :ifidl quantity of litter. Here, by the way,
it may be noted that a portion of grafs only fuffici-
ent to keep one bead in pasturing, has fufficed five
in foiling : and v/hat is of immenfe importance to
the
* The above quoted paffage is from a friend, v-ho \vl{hed
to h.Tve fomething faid oi farm yard manure ; and in very fev.-
words he has here faid a great deal.
122 FARM-YARD MANURSr
the ilate of the ground and of future crops, the
ground being untrod, in foiling, is left light and 772*?/-
l&w. Another favourable circumftaucc attends foil-
ing: the beafls are kept mjhade, and confiderably
protected from flies ; efpecially when the houfe is
kept dark during the heat of the day, with only
airholes near the ground and above their heads.*
It
* In to%ms, 'Z9ajh is given to cows ; and in the country
ftuill to fows, &c. WaJJ} is compofed of wafhings from
difhes, and the oSA of roots and cabbage from kitchens.
SimU is meal, or rye, or buckwheat foaked in water till the
grains fwell, and with ftirring burft ; and fometimes maize
is fo foakei Swill is feid to be the moli nourifhing to hogs
"when foured by long {landing. The celebrated Count Rtun-
ford lays it is coming fafl into ufe in Germany to keep hom-
ed cattle confined in ftables, all the year round, and there feed
and frequently give thtm a drank, compofed of bran, grains,
mafhed potatoes, mafhed turnips, or cat meal, rye meal, or
barley meal, with a large proportion of 'zsaier and a good quan-
tity oi fait : and it is difcovered to be the moft nouriihing
when given ivarm, and when the mixture has been well hikd.
Another advantageous practice, the Count fays, is lo give
one- third of cut firazc, miit with two- thirds of chopt green
chvir ; with which homed cattle ruminate (chew the cud)
better than \cith green clover alone. Coach horfcs are kept
up in uahles, many of them fcarcely ever being permitted to
run out on grafs. My coach horfes for nine or ten years paft
have never been a moment at pafture, but in ail that time
have been kept in ilables, and fed on nothing but hay and
oats, and now and then a little bran and ihorts or maize ;
obicndng wiiiiai to give them fatf freqmntlj. Their health
FARM-YARD MANURE. 1 23
It will be faid, the ground round the flacks re-
ceives the dung dropt, as a dreffing to fo much of
the
and plight have conftantly been good in the whole of that
time. Then why need farmers fuffer their beafts to tread,
harden and untiil their foil, and wafte grafs and dung, by
running in paRures, when they may more advantageoufly be
kept up, houfed and fed during fummcr with cut green clover
andjira-jj, and in winter \\\^ fodder and drank. If no beafts
were ever fuff*red to pafture, there tlien fcarcely would be
any neceffity for having crofs fences— What a faving of la-
bour and wood ! But what is to be done with flieep ? Give
them a range of v/oodland and rough grounds ? Why not
keep them up ? Mr. Bakewell praftifed ftall-feeding them, if
he did not alfo keep fome in houfes the year round. Tliey
would require airy Ihelters and roomy yards, in dlvifions, for
the different conditions of Ihccp. In Italy are fheep-honfes
built of ftoae in rows, with divifions, a variety. Before them
is a large fquare wclofure, divided into/t;^ equal parts. In the
firft divifion and in tlie ftalls belonging to them, are the eives
big -with young ; in the fecond /aching lambs ; in the tliird and
fourth, the tzuo year old luTibs ; and in the fifth are tlie lamh
done fuching. Trav. through Naples, tranflated by Aufrere,
1789. In Flanders their (lieep are ahuays in ftables, and are
let out every day into the yard. 20 An. 466. — Mr. Cook
(inventor of the drill) fays that the benefits from Jlratu cut
into ch'.'ff, and paffing through cattle, irjlead of being trod uv.hr
foot as littery are very great. He fupported in winter, 40 cat-
tle near 7 months on 30 acres of yFrjo; ; and 4 of turnip J ;
and made from it 400 tons of dung— 10 tons of pure dung-
each bcall— How valuable! When he ^Tote tliij he wss
making experiments in feeding his borfes en green food, cic -
yer, vetches and grafs n./ ^Uhjlra-^; and expcded the Jun-
124 FARM-YARD MANURE*
tlie field. Alas ! we know this extends to a very
fmall diftance, and the effefl is in no part conCder-
able.
from it will more than pay for all their keep and the expenfe
of cutting. 28 Eng. Rev. 1796, p. 89. " It has, fay die
reviewers, long been ufed in Germany to chop green clover y
and mix it with choptjlra'w : two flone (zStb.) of clover, and
one (i4tb.) of ftraw. It is praftifed by thofe chiefly who
confiae horned cattle in flables, the year round ; feeding with
ihefe in fummer, drank in winter." — Sheds with large boilers
are fitted to ftables and cow-houfes, to prepare food for horfes
and cattle. Englifh farmers fay they find it highly advan-
tageous. The dranks being loHed are more nourifliing and
wholefome. Expenfe of fuel and attendance are compenfat-
ed by improvement of the food. They boil potatoes two or
three hours ; the longer the more the food is improved. But
of late Jieaming inftead of boiling potatoes is preferred, for
faving fuel. And now by recent improvements in the eco-
nomy of fire, by Count Rumford, the expenfe of fire and
fuel is reduced to a mere mite. They throw away the
water, as it is apprehended tliere is fomething noxious to
animals in raw potatoes y and in potatos-ivater. In Japan
tliey univerfally feed all beafts in hcufes ; in which they
are kept up the year through. They feem to know no-
thing of pafturing. — " I took the idea of maintaining cattle
in yards cr houfcs, fays Mr. Baker, from having frequently
heard that, in Flanders^ they fcarcely ever fuffer their cattle
to pajiure at large : but the farmers all feed them in houfes.
I have now purfued it three or four years ; and have fo miuch
re:ifon to be fatisfied with it, that I cannot fufficiently recom-
mend it to others." 1 An. 93. In foiling there is fome-
times a walling of 'the green food, by giving vmre than is
eaten ; laying it in L'aps ; where it remains till it ferments
FARM-YARD MANURE. 1 25
able. The place where, is fome eminence : the
rains and winds of half the year 'n-ajh- -aivay and
evaporate from the frozen ground mod of the rich
fubllance of the dung fo dropt about ; and the
ground, whilfl: unfrozen, is irod clofe and poached to
a degree that untills it nearly equal to the value of
the dung left on it uninjured. This is iliuflrated :
a fodder houfe (a hoilow rick made of maize tops:
in the way of thatch) was fet up in a field, as is
ufual : it was fenced in. At the fouth front maize
was hu/ked, and the hulks were fheltered in the
fodder houfe. In the courfe of the winter they
were given out to cattle, in front of the rick. In
April the fodder houfe being then empty was pulled
down, and the covering of maize tops was given to
the
and becomes four, &c. — Bv foilmg tn a yard littered, with
the food in racks and cribs, labour in cleaning and favinp-
urine is leiTened. But the value of this labour fo faved is loH
in the cattle thriving lefs, the quality of the manure, the beafts
pulhing and driving each other and illnaturedly preventing
others from eating, whilft they are worried by flies. Tramp-
ling dung and litter in the winter, or much rain, gives an ap-
pearance of rottennefs very fallacious. Water, is the proper
ferment for dung, togeth.^r witli the rich material urine ; but
treading dung as fall: as it is made, impedes fermentation.
Dung made under cover (the beafts kept up) is better than
made in a yard : cattle do better and the food goes further.
14 An. 160. — But is it not better that dung fhould be rotted
not more than partially when the ground receives it, that it
may ferment ind rot moftly v.hiil^ In the ground
>
125 JARIvI-YARD MANURE,
the cattle. The ground thus fljcltered by the fod-
der houfe for fix months, October to April, {hevvxd
marks of richnefs greatly fuperior to the ground on
•which the cattle were foddered during the fame
time : grafs, weeds and crops, during the four or
five following years of my remaining on the farm,
{hewed this in their great growth. Where the
fodder-houfe, three hundred feet long and twenty
broad, flood and flickered the ground the richnefs
of the foil was flrongly marked j when but a faint
fuperloriry over the common field appeared on the
part where the cattle were foddered.
Litter is an efTential, to cattle when let into ydrds,
inftead of being kept in houfes ; without which
yard manure is of fmall account ; and unlefs it be in
full proportion to the number of cattle in the yard,
it is not thought highly of: but is as a half done
tiling. Good farmers in England deem full litter-
ing of cattle, when /;; yards, of fuch importance
that after reaping with fickles and inning their
wheat, they chop the stubble with fithes, and flack
it for litter. Befides flraw and flubble for litter,
they apply to the fame ufe, fern and fuch other ve-
getable fubdances as they can procure: and they
buy flraw from common farmers who are not in the
practice of littering.* In all countries, common
farmers
* Mr. Bake-well kapt his beafts houfed vnthout Utter till of
bte. He prefers the dung from a given quantity of flraw
FARM-YARD MANURE. 1 27
farmers are indifferent to improvemeitts : they look
not beyond old habits ; and it is prudent that they
venture not on extenjive new projects, without firfl
making experiment. A full littering is three loads
of 12 or 13001b of ftraw to each grown beaft.*
In England ilraw is fold by farmers who are tenants
on (hort leafes, who jog on as their fathers and as
therafelves were trained, and from which they can-
not deviate.! It is prefumed that here alfo ftraw is
to be bought. Maize stalks will for a long while
cofl: little elfe than carriage. A fkeleton frame made
of a light wood may be contrived to carry a vafl
quantity when they are dry : but whilfl: yet uncur-
ed
eaten by catde, to a larger quantity gained by Uttering. On
which Mr. Young obferves, that his rcafoning is good where
Hubble, fern, and tlie like are to be had for littering with ;
but adds diat a fmall quantity of dung very rich, is not
equally efficacious with a large quantity of weak dung that
contains altogether equal richnefs. Mr. Bakewell afterwards
practifed littering his cattle in their llieds. 4 E. Tour 449.
* In England, 13001b. o£ Jlrawj heaped on a waggon is a
load. A load o{ hay is various : In fome places it is an exaft
ton, of 22401b. ; in otliers, 220olb.'; in others again 2500;
and about Z.o«^ii«, only iSoolb.
f " I believe it is never done, except in the vicinity of
** large towns ; where it is eafy to exchange flraw for manure
*' to a double profit. Maize (talks might undoubtedly be
" converted to excellent manure, but feein to be univcrfaliy
« wafted." S.
128 FARM-YARD MANURE/
ed they are better, becaufe of their fweet and iiou»
rifhing juice, which invites cattle to browfe on thera,
as they he under foot in the yard. When they are
much trodden they become of ^fponge-Iike consistence,
which retains the dung and the urine very efFeftually.
Let us not be fparing of expenfe, or be dilatory in
procuring the neceflary materials for d.full littering.
It increafes and preferves the inanure requifite for
the improvement and prefervation of the powers of
the foil, for enabling it to yield greater crops and
more of pecuniary income, and comfort.
In America, jflraw, flubble, maize ftalks, fern,
weeds before they feed, flags, wild oats, fea grafs,
and leaves of trees are to be applied as litter. Our
farmers fay, " there is no manure in corn flalks ;"
and they are left (landing in the fields. I have been
ufed to draw them into my cattle-yard, in the fall
and during winter ; where they were laid thick, as
litter to grown cattle, and were trod into a fponge-
jike ftate ; in which they catch and retain the dung
and urine of the cattle, fo as to give a great quan-
tity of rich manure. A farmer near Philadelphia,
after inning his wheat crop, mowed and fecured the
stubble : the motives whereof were to preferve his
young clover from being fmothered by a rank flub-
ble, and to ufe the ftubble as Utter to his beafls.
This is the firft inflance I have known of stubble be-
ing liived in America with any view to Utteri?ig cat-
tle!
fARM'YART) MANURE. I29
i/e/ Farmer RuJJj has thus given an important le{*
fon, for fhofe who are difpofed to fecond their judg-
ment with determined exertion !
The quantity of draw and ftnbble to be produced
in crops is eflimated at very great uncertainty before-
hand, becaufe of the various growths which crops
take in different years- It may be from ^o or 60
to 90 or I colt) of ftraw alone, for each bufliel of
wheat produced. In the Mufeum Rufticum, and in
the 8vo volume of feled papers from it, are accu-
rate details of a crop of wheat, with its proportions
of ftraw and chaff to that of the wheat.
In November all the cattle are to be conjimd from
wandering about the fields. The cattle-yard is then
well littered j and as often as the litter is trod into
the dung and muck, or is foaking wet, more litter
is added \ fo that the beafts may lye always dcart
and dry. They are thus confined to a yard and lit-
tered till there is a full bite of grafs in May. All
the cattle ought to be under flielter from cold rains
during that time. Litter is to be given them, as-
above. But it is flill better to keep flock altoge-
ther in houfes ; that they may there eat all the stravjy
and not be fulFcrcd to tread any of it into muck.
It is the moft advantageous to a farm, and the
jnoft profitable to the farmer to h^ve as numerous.
I a {lock
rja FARM-YARD MANURI'.
a ftock of caiik as can be kept well, and no more
than can he fo kept. Inftead of cultivating grain
for the 7i:jrket, let it with its ftraw be raifed as food
io live stock, for the market, efpecially whilfl wheat
crops are reduced, as at prefent, by the Heflian fly,
and until our foil is reftored to good heart by the
live ftock. The ftraw of grain crops will keep cat-
tle, and the grain in meal with ftraw or maize fod-
der v,'\]] fatten them. See p. 68. Yet I fliouid not
be fond of cultivating grain to be given to Hve flock,
if it were not for the neceffity of having strazv for
them ; and ftraw is a very good and very cheap
food, when duly prepared and applied. It is bet-
ter to have too few cattle than too many : yet in
fome parts of America, farmers exceedingly difpro-
portion their cattle to their provender. They will
have numbers of hidebound creatures, many where-
of die from mere want oi food and ^t//fr / To' that
Icfs meat and lefs manure are derived from a great
number fo poorly kept, than better farmers have
from a due proportion well kept. Befides, does
not the man feel fliame in the cruelty of ftar\-ing or
keeping in a ftate of want and mifery a fellow-crea-
ture com.mitted to his care? Is it not a tnift to the
CTeature man, from the Father of all creatures ?
The live-stock ought to be as many as can be kept
fielier^d from cold rains, with abu7idant iiinter and
fuviTner find. Of all the kinds, the borfe is the raoft:
coftly
FARM-YARD MANURE. IJl
coftly and the moft injurious to the farm. He bites,
clofc, is almofl continually treading and poaching
the ground j and eats more than the ox as 5 to 3 j
yet is not hirafelf eatable : when he dies he is loft
for ever. The ox is meat : after having given us
his labour, he becomes food to us. Steers arc un-
profitable : they coft five or fix years keeping, with-
out yielding labour ; and are then fold for lefs thaiL
the coft of keeping and fattening them. Coivs give
milk, and oxen give labour.* Sheep are profitable.
I 2 So\vs
* Cows and oxen may be fattened and difpofed of when 7
or 8 years old. If 6 are to be difpofed of, then the ftock is
to confift. of 6 calves, 6 of two yeais, 6 of 3 years, 6 of 4,
6 of 5, 6 of 6, 6 of 7, and 6 of 8 years ; m all forty-eight
Jiead; whereof thirty give milk, labour, or meat. After
marking fix calves, yearly, die very ie/i for cows and oxen,
the reft are to be fold: fo that ndt a fteer is to be raifed,
other than fliall be necelTiary for oxetl. An ox improves in
value, ten dollars a year from the time that he comes to be
ufed and fed as an ox. A horfe declines, till he comes to
nothing. " Mr. Cooper was much prejudiced againft oxen 1
but is now fuch a conA-ert as to have parted with moft of his
horfes. A horfe cofts as much as 4-^ oxen : and the ox's
keep is in fummer, gmfs alone ; jn winter, Jira-ju : on which
they may be worked moderately. If Inrd v.-orked, they have
hay. In harnsfs, they are ftill moro valuable. Their haniefs
is much tlie fame as for horfes ; except tJiat the collars, open,
are buckled on and worn contrary to thofe for horfes : tlie
narrow end of the collars, which, open, being downwards ; — •
rind as the chains are faftened to them in the fame dircdion
as in horfe-harnefs, the bcalls of courfe draw much higher
Vhnn horffs. Ilie lio« of ths chair.s is alnioft up to their
132 FARM-YARD MANURE.
Sozus and pigs ought to be efpecially kept \There
there is a dairy, as they make a confiderable part
of its profit, from the offal milk. Hogs are advan-
tageoufly kept on green clover ; and fattened on pc-
tatces viith rneal of maize.
Quantity
backs ; but much above the chelt : which is neceflary from
the different £hape of horfes and oxeu. They draw, when in
tamefs, ahreajl in pairs ; Jingle ; or in a line one before another ;
and walk as fail as horfes. An ox-tsam five in a waggon,
and a horfe-team, four in another waggon. Both went twice
a week, fourteen miles out, and fourteen miles home each
day : die load equal, about two tuns. The oxen were gene-
ralty at home two hours before the horfes ; and were in har-
nefs. Driving vi-:th gir.tlerufs and good tempir, without ever
hurrying, is found neceflary to procure their exerlions. A per-
fon who drew with oxen, two or three years, and made fair
experiments comparing tliem with horfes fays, an ox value
thirty dollars, is equally ftrong in tlie draught, with a horfe
value ninety dollars, and equally fit for plow, cart or har-
row ; and that the ex requires a fourth part lefs provender
tha^ the horfe : alfc that the ex works and increafes, from four
till he is ten years old ; but tliat feven hoiu-* work a day is
to him as much as eight to a horfe." See E. Tour, voL i.
p. 172 — vol. iii. 152 — ^vol. iv. 5. 8z. 269 — vol. Li. 398. 418
•—vol. Iv. 268. 273. An. vol. sriii. 68. 70. Oxen may eve-
ry way be ufed inftead ©f horfes : bruUed and rid ; harne/fed
ead driven in vraggons, plows, Sec. In Maryland one Sutton
Sicklemore rode on a bull about the country ; and I have
ijeen a woman going to a race, with her cheR of cakes and
fitting in a truck drawn by a bull bridled and guided by her-
felf. In Pcnnf} ivania, I faw a waggon drawn by t-zvo tuVt
*rd i^( cxe/if IriJLd and gtertd m kuriiejt Qud (olhrs.
FARM-YARD MANURE. 235
Quantity of land, alone, is no rule for fixing on
the number of cattle to be kept. Not only trie
quantity and quality, but alfo the fituation and the
crops will affeft the queftion : and the attentive far-
mer will determine from his experience, how far he
is to enlarge or reduce the numbers and kinds of his
live-rtock.
" In many fituations, fays j\fr. Toung, the de-
" pendance of a farm for manure, is on the (Iraw-
" yard. If in that cafe the fanner does not proper-
" ly proportion his arable crops which feed cattle, to
" thofe which Utter the yard, and both thefe to the
" quantity of his grafs fields, the farm will be long
" before it gets well manured."*
How advantageous for acquiring dungy fo eifen-
tial for preferving the produ£Uve powers of the
earth, is the praftice of keeping cattle up in yards,
well littered — How much more fo the keeping them
up in houfes, littered the year through ! — efpecially^
when they are fed with green food cut for them in
fummcry and juicy roots and drank with their dry-
food, in ivinter : but cattle may be advantageoufly
kept without having any litter^ provided they are in
flails in houfes, tied up, and their floor daily clean*
ed \ as Mr. Bakewell a long while kept his.
BARNS.
* Better to depend on xhtjlall and houfe ,■ where lilier may
bf diiperJlJ with, and flock incrcar^d.
134 BARNS,
BARNS.
Farmers in Pennfylvauia have a commendable
fpirit for building good barns, which are moftly of
flone. On the ground floor are flails in which their
horfes and oxen are fed with hay, cut-ftraw, and
rye-meal ; but not always their other beafts.* Roots
are feldom given to their live-flock, being too little
thought of. The fecond floor with the roof, con-
tains their flieaves of grain, which are thrafhed on
this floor. A part of their hay is alfo here flored.
Loaded carts and waggons are driven in, on this fe-
conid floor ; with which the furface of the earth is
there level ; or elfe a bridge is built up to it, for
f^jpplying the want of height in the bank, the wall
of one end of the houfe being built ck>fe to the
bank of a hill cut down. For giving room to turn
waggons within the houfe, it is built thirty-fix to
forty feet wide : and the length is given that may-
be requifite to the defign or fize of the farm. But
if
* " Barly, fays Sonnini, is the common food of kor/es in
*' Egypt, as it is in all parts of the Eaft, where rye and oats
*> are unknown. However prejudiced our farmers (in France)
*' may be againft barley as a food for horfes, they cannot
" jivoid being convinced of its excellence in this refpeft, v/hen
** they confider that in the countries where thefe animals are
" mofl eminent for tiaeir goodnefs and beauty, they eat no
*' other kind of corn."
BARNS. 135
if the waggon is driven direftly- into the barn, it
may be as direftly drawn back without turning it—
a great faving of room ; and the houfe need not be
fo wide as for the fake of turning waggons in it.
If waggons carry more to the barn at a time, yet
carts are briiker : their loads are Ihot down in an
inftant. and they turn fliort. Waggons are tedi-
oufly unloaded.
I have fecn a barn, in Chefler county, Pennfylva-
nia, which had a cellar under a floor of planks on
joifts, on which horfes and oxen flood ; and their
dung was daily fliovelled into the cellar. The farmer
faid this dung is the better for being thus kept dry :
but, may it not be there too dry F Dung drowned
with water mud be much injured. But if a deep
mafs of dung receives no more water than what falls
on its furface from the clouds, and is well flieltered
from the fun, is it then injured ? Is it better or worfc
for being rotten before it is applied to the ground
as a manure ? If firfl rotted, it will fprcad and mix
wirh the foil more perfec'tly. If but partly rotted,
and then fpread and plowed into the ground, inftantly
as it is carted out, will it not be flronger — more pow-
erful in opening and enriching the foil ? It there
finiflies its heat and fermentation, which precede and
bring forward rottcnnefs, whilft it is in the ground.*
There
* The 4 E. Tour, 453. fpcaks of dung being put uj) in a
fmall compafs, or coiupaft mafs, that thc/un, ti-ifii and ruin.
f^6 BARNS.
J
There are not many inflances of flieds tacked to
their modern barns. Their mode of buildine, of
late, does not well admit of them ; and room is gain-
ed by all being under one roof, covering one or more
flories, having deep fides or pitch. The roof is a
coflly part of buildings : but it cofts no more to cover
three or four ftorics than one.
Their barns on the fides of hills (which they chie^y
prefer) may be built three flories high, inftead of
the ufual two flories. Cut down the hill perpendi-
cularly feven or eight feet, and build up one end of
the barn clofe to the bank. The other walls are to
be quite free and airy from bottom to top. The
ground flory feven or eigbt feet high j the next thir-
teen
may have but little power over it, to do it mifchief. Of thefe,
the fun exhales without its rays adding any knov/ii virtue to
the dung ; and the rain when in excefs, would rob it by too
great dilution and wafiiing av/ay Its fubfliance : but the atmos-
pheric air might impart to ifc^on^e of its rich combinations.
For making gunpov/der, nitye is coUeded ia beds of ftraw,
earth and rubbifh, raifed in thin banks or walls above the
ground, expofed to the air ; and ftieltered only from /un and
rain. From fuch ihi» majfes, rains would wafii out the nutritive
ftores, and the fun would exhale them. But, would v.-hat my
ftercories receive of rain, foaked into a large deep majs of dung,
injure the dung, when there is fcarcely more than with the
urine may be reqQifite for producing a fermentation in the
dung and litter ? If dry dung is applied to a dry foil, it cannot
ferijncnt tilj a fufficisncy of rain fiills on it.
BARNS'. I35[
tften feet— the third alfo thirteen feet ; into whidi
grain in the ftraw is pitched up, and there thniilied
out. If the bank is not fo high as the fecond floor,
or if there is no bank, lay a bridge up to that floor.
The width of the barn being thirty-fix feet clear, a
paiTage in the middle, eleven or twelve feet wide,
will leave a range of cattle-flands on each fide of it^;
The cattle are fed from the paflage ; and there fl:raw
is cut and meal fl:ored. The doors are one to every
two flails or four beafts. They may be latticed, or
othcrwife airy : and at the end of the paflage next
the bank, may be a door opening into a vault exca-
vated from the bank, for keeping rooLs. The dung
may be thrown into a fl^rcory ten feet from the doors.
There will be no occafion for carts pafllng between
the range of doors and the dung pit or ftercory.
All is carted and flored on the barn floor, after paflf-
ine in at the end door of the fecond floor. The
llercory may be covered with whatever may flielter
the dung from ihefwi, although it fliould fuffer niins
to pafs through the covering : but no other rain or
water is to have accefs to the dung ; yet urine is to
be faved and thrown on it. One end of the fl:crcory
or pit may be open, where a hill will admit of let-
ting carts in. Air is admitted into the barn through
long loopholes in the walls, rather than windows.
A good thunder rod, half an inch diameter, infures
the barn againft injury from lightning at the cofl: of
]efs than fifty cents a year.
A
t^B BARNS.
A flone barn, lately built inPhiladelptua countyj
has its ground flory loi feet high ; the next 19 feet,
and the third 14 feet. Waggons are driven into the
fecond flory. Seven feet are high enough for homed
cattle. Horfes require more height ; and there are
mconveniencies in keeping horfes and horned cattle
in the fame houfe. The conflrucrion of their refpec-
tive houfes flaould be adapted to their feverai pur-
pofcs.
A foreigner aiks, if fleam from the perfpiration
and breath of the cattle, clofe houfed, would not
taint the hay and flraw on the floor above them ^
and if the houfe being built up againft the bank
would not occafion an injurious dampnefs to the
grain, the ftraw and the hay r 1 have heard no com-
plaint of either, and prefume there is no caufe for
any in a country of fo dry an air ; efpecially as thefe
ilone barns, built againft banks, ilored with cattle
oa the ground-floor, and containing grain, flraw,
and hay, on the upper-floor, continue to be pre-
ferred.
r
It is faid that cattle are kept very clofe and zl-jftti
in their houfes in Brabant and parts oi Germany. I
never knew of out-cattle fuitering materially by mere
cold, unattended with raiHy wetfncrjj or Jleet. But
as often as they experience thefe, their wretched-
nefs claims compaflion : and the owner, feeling for
himfelf
CATTLE-STALLS. I39
hiinfelf as well as for the beafls committed to his care,
at fome time or other may rcfolutely practife giving
them ducjhc/ier and attention ; and thereby profit of
the increafe of /iiill:, of labour, of meat, and of dungy
if not alfo of felf fatisfaftion on feeinor them throusrh
his provident induflry in comfortable good plight, in
no want.
Whatever the number oi floors or ilories are, the
bank is not to be higher than to the fecond floor,
which is immediately above the cattle floor : fo that
the bank is never more than feven or eight feet high;
and to that height at the mod:, one end of the bam
is attached to the bank. In Cheftcr county, I have
feen where a bank was cut down three or four feet,
and a bridge for waggons was from the top of it four
or five feet more, to the fecond floor of the bara.
See Plate II.
CATTLE-STALLS.
On this particular is here given what I have col-
letted of ]Mr. Bjkczceirs method of houfing his cat-
tle, from the Annals of Agriculture, or from Jo.bn
Burnet who was fenc to America by l^.Ir. Bakewell
with cattle, a few years fince.
Mr. Bake-icell keeps his cattle in houfes : in which
a paflTage is at the heads of them, to feed from.
The troughs out of which they eat their hay or
turnips
140 CATTLE-STALLS.
turnips (I prefume alfo their draw, for he feed*
largely v^ith flraw^ are 2^ feet wide at top, and flope
to the bottom which is of brick, three feet long,
eight or nine inches deep. The bottom of brick is
on the ground. No rack. Every flali is fix feet
wide for two cows : eight for two bull?. In each
corner of the flails is a fmooth poft, with a ring
Jarger than the poll for Aiding up and down. A
chain, not a foot long, connefts with the ring, and
alfo with a chain collar round the bead's neck, which
locks with a T. The cattle can but jufl: reach their
food next to the divifion between the two beafls.
Three feet for each cow are better than more room:
in which they lye down. More fpace would admit
of their dirtying each other. Their (landing is fix
feet : and behind is a ftep five or fix inches down
to where the dung falls. The houfe is cleaned once
a day ; and the cattle are driven twice to water.
He has forty-five in one place fo tied up : and they
are fed and taken care of by a man and a boy.
Cows In milk are fiot to want water. In the
American climate they ought to be watered three
times a day in fumm.er. Their water ought to be
near. Drivirxg cows any diftance is very injurious
to their milk. In England, dairy cows are faid to
give from 200 to 4oolb of butter. Do the Ameri-
can give ICO to 2C0 ? Many attentions are reqnifite
for
CATTLE PASTUAED life. I4I
for obtaining much butter, or good butter — and alfo
much and good milk.
In plate 111. is a /ketch of Mr. BakewelFs flails ;
which are without racks ; the manger is therefore the
wider : alfo a iketch of a flail drawn by a gentleman
lately from Yorkfhire ; which has a rack leaning
with its back part in the feeding pafTage ; a trough
for food ; afpace for the cattle to fland in ; a fink
for receiving their dung ; and a way behind the cat-
tle. Lord Holdernefs's fink to his cattle houfe is
faid to be without any drain ; fo that the dung,
wrinc, and refufe fcraps of hay are all mixed there,
and harrowed away from it, together, to the dung-
hill ; which feems a good pra^ice, at leaft where fer-
vants cannot be depended on for fsving the urine fe-
paracely, and then carrying it to the dunghill.
Catik Pastured and Soiled in Summer : Kept and Jfat,*
tened in Winter :
In fome of nTy little effays, are intimations of m<>
thods for keeping and feeding Irve-flock, very differ-
ent from the ufual pra^llces of hufbandmen j bu^
being concife or in notes, they are too obfcure to be
attended to. The fubjecl claims attention, from
farmers accuflomed to think with.a defire to iraprove»
Such particulars thereon as at prefeoL occur, are
therefore prefented to the confideratign of thU clal^
vf luvIbaHdnicii* . ^ '
A?
142 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED:
As well grain as grafs farms maintain live-flock :
but their kinds, Czc and number proportionate to the
means of fubfiflence are not fufficiently attended to ;
nor are the modes of keeping them, and faving their
manure. They are commonly raifed on the farm :
But, fometimes are bought full grown, of drovers j
and grazed in paftures.
The common farmer's live-flock runs on a fort of
paflure during fix or feven months. In the reft of
the year they are kept entirely on dry food, at leafl
in Maryland. Who among our farmers ever think
of procuring 3. Juicy winter food, for tempering the
coftive effcfts of dry draw and maize fodder eaten
by -their cattle r yuin' food in general terxds to keep-
their bodies open, their fkins and mnfcles mellow,
pliant and eafy for their better thriving. Hence
the fine eSFecl: of root and turnip-feeding, fo highly
Tallied by European farmers.
It is faid, cows require in England, from one to
two acres of paflure : but the medium of a number
of inftances is found to ' be one and a third acre.
Their paflures are ?rutck by fowing grafs feeds after
the grotmd has been a number of years producing
crops ameliorating as well as exhaufting, under manur-
vigs and good tillage. They continue many years af-
terwards in grafs, carefiiUy cleared of brambles and
ilrong weeds. During the ten or twenty yeais of
^ their
KEPT AND FATTENED. I45
t"heir being paftured, the cattle drop their dung, fcat-
tered and left expofed on the ground to exhauHiion by
fun and wind. If the foil obtains any good from it,
yet the continual treading (wheat foil) by the beads
paftured, reduces it in deadening and untilling the
foil. Neverthelefs, in fo long lying unimpoveriftied
by renewed corii crops, the ground may be partly
reftored from conftant though flow depofits from the
atmofphere, rather than from the dung dropt.
Have our American lay-fields equal advantages ?
Very frequent returns of corn crops of different forts
have robbed the ground, generally ivithoiit any appli'
cation of manure : the ground is then left to a fpon-
tancous growth of weeds and a four or poor gi^afs,
which give what farmers of eafc and pleafure con-
tentedly deem good enough pafture. On this their
ill fated horfes, cows, oxen, and flieep are promif-
cuouHy turned early in the feafon before there is a
bite : but they nibble off the fcanty growth of rub-
bifli as it rifes. Here they continue till winter:
fometimes through the winter j fo that the ground
becomes poached and trod to a dead clofencfs. The
dung dropt is but of one or two years, towards re-
ftoring the foil, when corn crops ai-e renewed, and
reduce it flill lov/er. The acquifitiou from detach-
ed fcraps of expofed dung and from the flow effect
of the atmofphcre, in tlrat flior^ time, is trifling : far
flacrt
144 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED :
fliort of repairing the wafle, from poaching' and
quick returns of corn crops.*
Oppofed to our unmade pailures, are the 7nade'
puflurcs of Europe and fome parts of America : and
oppofed to all pasturing, h foiling. Soiling is com-
mon in Flanders, and is advancing iiito cxtenfivc ufe
in Germany and in England. It is to the prefent
purpofe that thefe pracl:ices and their effects be com.-
pared.
Advantages mpasiurifig^ that rich grafs paflure
Iceeps grown cattle at the rate of one acre to a bead,-
during the fix or feven warmer months : common
pailure, at the rate oi two acres to a beaii. Attend-
ance on them in pafture is very little. They range
at pleafure and drop their manure on the field, fo
that labpur in heaping, caning out and fpreading it
is faved. The difadvantagcs are, the grafs and the
ground are trod and reduced in value : the paftures
require codly divifion fences : the dung is fcaitered
on the ground, expofed to exhalation and wafle by
fun and wind, fo as to be nearly worthlefs : the
horfea
* Witlings may fancy diey fee a palpable contradidion bc»
fvreen quick returns of corn crops as here mentioned, fo greatly
Irnpoverilliing and as they are rccommer.ded ill the rotations.
Eiit, their genius forbids them to fee the differenqe between
<T06d culture ivith manures and iaterven'ing ameUQrat'ing or mild
:iopy and bad culture withovt manures or araelioratirg ctops>
Kept and fattened. 145
horfes and oxen are driven to the flable with much
waflc of time, and feme vexation and conlequent
abufe.
The advantages o^ foiling are that the ground re-
quires but few or no divifion fences : grown cattle
are kept at the rate of a fourth part of an acre to a
beaft, during the fix warmer months ; their manure
is all well preferved, and given to the foil when and
where it is mofl wanted, and in the beft condition ;
the foil is untrod and left mellow and lively : the
horfes, oxen, and cows are always up,* ready for
ufe without lofs of time : they are kept cool, fliaded
and lefs worried by flies : they acquire good coats
and full flefh, on a Icfs expenfe of food. When it
is objected to the laying afide divifion fences, that
there would be, at times, bad fcafons when grafs
could not be cut and carried in, becaufe of great rains,
or of cold drying w^inds which check the growth of
grafs, fo that it would be requifitc there fhould be
K fome
* Except that for a few hours, after diey are returned to the
ftalls on the morning watering, being then well emptied, they
may be let out to ftrolc and rub thcmfelves in the flirm -yard ;
from 1 1 o'clock till 3, then put up in the flails ; by which they
will not have time to drop much dung in the yard : and
what is there di'opt fhould be harrowed to the flercory. Car-
ried immediately to the ftalls, after being watered, they dung
and flale plentifully in the flails : then being turned out they
do not dung much whillt in the yard. Rubbing pofls may ht
provided.
146 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED :
fome fields divided oiF for the beads to run on at thofe
times, the anfwer is that there is another way of
providing for the cattle, and that much better than
by pafluring them. In towns we fee horfes and
cattle are kept up on hay and straw the year round,
and that it agrees with them. A quantity of hay
is therefore to be kept in ftore, as a provifion against
fuch untoward feafens as fliall deprive the beads of
their mefs of cut grafs ; and they ifiay be tethered,
as Mr. Boys tethers his fine horfes. See the note
page 154. Prudent farmers deem it^equifite always
to have fome jftock of old hay.*
A
* Befides, as Mr. Duplaine advlfes, maize is to be fown
thick, 3 to 34 bufhels an acre, harrowing the ground even,
■when the taflels fiioot, mow and cure it into fodder. Or cut if
daily and give ii green to cattle. 9 Muf. 253. And in foiling
or ftall feeding during fummer, on clever cut green, for fupply-
ing the deficiency of clover during dry bad feafons, befides
feeding with /uy and hihcring, we may have made other pro-
vilion by fowing maize bioad-caft and thick on manured or
rich ground in April, in May and in June, and cut and feed
U'itli it occafionally as a green fodder : the remaining maize
notfo ufed may be cut and cured into dry fodder. The Ita-
lians praftife fuch thick fowing and feeding off the green maize ;
and fometimes the blades are ftripped and given green to cat-
tle, from the maize growing to produce a crop of corn. If
the maize be fovv-n in drills 14 inches apart, and the corn about
5 inches diflant in tlie drills, a fhim of 10 or 11 inches blade,
would clean and cultivate the maize well, drawn by one horfe.
Moreover, buciivhat is to be fown, and tlic herbage given as
a grafs ; and it is f;iid to admit of being cut Uvice.
KEPT AND FATTENED. I47
A farmer pastures his ftock : his neighbour foils
his. Each has 32 head of grown horfes, oxen, and
cows.
Pastured 32, at 2 a. of common pailure
each, - . - - 64 acr.
Soiled 32, at an acre of cut grafs to 4
beads - - - - 8
gained ^6 a. hy foiling ; which will keep 224 cattle :
or give 140 tons of hay^ worth 1400 dollars.
Accounts given of C2l\.\t foiled in England, make
the beads foiled to be 4 to 6 head from an acre of
cut clover. Mr. Wynn Baker, who was an accurate
experimenter, found an acre kept five head, the grafs
partly cut from head-lands.* A farmer in England
foiled 20 horfes and 7 cows, from 7 acres of clover,
without giving any corn or hay. He clofely watch-
ed the management of his tenant with the fame num-
ber of flock pastured in a field ; and it proved that
one acre mown went as far as fix paflured. When
his beads had eaten 5 acres, the tenant's had con-
fumed 30 acres, and his horfes were in inferior con-
dition.
When foiling is recommended, farmers having in-
veterate habits, or who are driving after plcafures,
K 2 equally
* See the note * page nz.
I4B CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED":
equally check all that might be faid, by vehemently
objecting to the labour and expenfe of cutting, cart-
ing and giving the grafs to the beafts ; and the far-
mer of lounging habits, ever feeking for fiort cuts and
even for ?iothing to do, can never find time for clean-
ing flails and faving and carrying out dung, cffential
as they are.*
A man and a boy perform all the work and at-
tendance in foiling 40 to 50 beafls. Thq^ cut grafs,
enough in the morning for fhe evening feed ; let it
lay to deaden a little, and cart it in, in the evening.
So the morning feed is cut in the evening to be car-
ried in, in the morning. Suppofing all the work
performed in 3 hours of the morning, and 3 of the
evening, there then remains 6 hours for other work.
The expenfe of the man and boy is therefore but one
half chargeable to the foiling account : but even let
them be 8 hours employed in foiling, or two-thirds
the expenfe.
Reckoning
* He is a bad farmer who feeks for nothing to do. A good
farmer knows how to accomplilh the ordinary round of work,
and it is without grudging full labour for having it complete.
The {hort cut which would do it but fomehow, and not per-
feftly, he fpums at. AVhen all this is done, with pleafure, he
feeks to improve the eftate : whilPc others feek pleafure abroad,
and all goes to ruin at horn:;.
KEPT AND FATTENED. 149
Reckoning on only 32 head, they give per year Dols.
320 loads of rich manure 300
Time daily faved in catching the beafts ; foil
left untrodandhvely; gentlenefs and do-
cility of the beafts, value 40
Wages and expcnfcs, a man and boy, a year
200, off I 140
Gain, in foiling, . . . 56 acres, or 140 tons
of hay, value 1400
1740
140
ISTet gain i6co
Will you fptirn at the oiFer of 1600 dollars that
you may avoid paying wages and expcnfes of a man
or two ? Thefe herdfmen would be rcquifite for win-
ier feeding, cleaning Halls and faving manure, even
if the beafts were paftured in fummer inftead of be-
ing foiled. How little then is chargeable to the
foiling !
It is in this cafe unwife to fufFer the mind to be
bialTed by apprehenfions of expenfes which evidently
mufl be greatly below the benefit acquired. Let
us make trials of this new method of managing cat-
tle : fuppofe at firft our horfes and oxen fo kept.
How docile, how well flefhed, what healthy coats,
and what a valuable quantity of manure of the riched
and moft perfect: kind on the fpot !
Many
150 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED:
Many harfes are kept up, in towns, the year
through J except only whilfl they are employed : and
all cattle thrive better, on lefs food, when tied up
than when at large in fields. Even flieep are fo
kept. The celebrated Mr. Bakewell, lately deceaf-
ed, tied up his favorites, at leafh during winter : I
believe too his cholcefl rams were tied up the year
through, except for the moment of giving them the
ewes, to run together in a lot, for they were not to
be feen out at other times. In keeping Jheep up,
they ought to have room, and much frefh air in fe-
parate apartments, according to their ages and fexes,
allowing to ewes with lamb a great portion of
room.*
Fancy induces a pretty current fuppofition that all
animals require fome confiderable range and change
of place ; which indeed, as far as for the feeking
food, difperfed as it is in their wild flate, is true.
The exercife of their legs and their wings is fo far
efpecially necelTary to them, as well as for avoiding
their enemies. But, experience proves that they
exifl in perfeft health and good plight when clofely
confined, in no want of food, as long for aught
that is known as if they had continued at large in
their wild flate. Cattle, horfes, and hogs prove
this in many countries : and the horfe, like the
deer,
* Of houilr.g and foiling fheep, fee raga (i$.
KEPT AND FATTENED. I51
deer, is of a very active, wild, and roving nature.
Sheep are efpecially imagined to require fucli Ihift-
ing of place : which may have arifen from the very
early and general pyaftice of letting them pafture at
large. They are in flocks commonly too numerous
to be conveniently houfed, and being hardy are not
thought to require it. But above all the habit,
continued down from the firfl of time, of people
called fhepherds (trolling after flocks of them, for
the fake of fcattered fpontaneous food, is the prin-
cipal fupport of the fuppofliion. On the other hand,
it is proved by the practices of the hufbandmen of
Flanders and other countries, that flieep thrive
well when kept up in houfes the year through :
even the heath fov^l, fo wild and roving as they are,
have been domeflicated, under a degree of confine-
ment very oppofite to their habits in their wild fl:ate.
A gentleman of Scotland, and his lady, of high
confideration, inform me, that they have feen the
black cock of that country, in the tame flate in a
yard. A Mr. Lewis Duval, formerly of Hawl-
ing's a branch of Patuxent river, Maryland, afllir-
ed me that he had groufe quite tame in his yard,
and that they raifed young ones. Their manner of
courtfliip as related by him was Angular. The male
was long in making his advances and coaxing the
hen, in vain till he fuddenly turned on his back,
flirieked, and quivered his wings as if in a fit of
agony.
152 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED!
agony. She then came up to him, walked round
and looked on him with fecming compallion.
Without knowing the quantity of cut grafs that
beafts may daily require, 75tb are afTumcd ; which
quantity would cure into 171^ of hay ; but it may
be that lefs of green grafs would cloy them than
what might when cured into a feed of hay.
It is faid, 2 8tb of green clover cut fmall and mix-
ed with i4rt) of flraw cut into chaff eqnal to i/lb of
hay are a feed for a day to one bead: ; equal to 751b
of green clover alone : what a faving of clover ! But in
the feafon of foiling, clover is plentier than draw ;
and flraw is an eflential in winter : fo that Sib or lefs
of llraw and 40 of clover may be better. "When
4^ft of green clover cures into one of hay, 281& arc
equal to 6\ of hay : to which add 141b of flraw ;
the whole is equal to 20 i of dry food. But the
flraw is inferior to the fame quantity of hay ; and
jy'tb of hay is a good allowance to full grown hearts
per day. As much flraw cut and mixt with green
clover as will but improve the cud, is fufEcient ;
and it feems Slfe of flraw to 40 of green clover will
anfwer, or even lefs : for clover alone anfwers for
the purpofe of rumination, though not fo well as
when aided by flraw or hay.
A Table
JKEPT AND FATTENED.
^53
A Table of Food for a Day^
Cattle,
in Soiling Grown
Bcafts.
Clover
Clover &
alone.
ftraw.
I
lb
7S
C c.40
I S. 8
10
750
C 400
I 80
20
1500
C 800
I 160
30
2250
C 1200
d 240
40
3000
C 1600
I 320
50
3750
C 2000
The herdfmen ought
to know how much
clover and flraw to
cut and give daily ;
that there may be
enough without wade.
If not enough the
beads fuffer : if too
much of green clover
or grafs is cut and
brought in, lying in
a heap it ferments, turns four and is loft. Till
herdfmen are well pra(fl:ifed, it may be well that
they meafure each mefs, and chalk down how much
a bafket and cart body hold of the articles, in
weight. The pradice will at leaft have a defirable
tendency of leading fervants to obferve method ; the ^
value whereof is conliderable in all bulinefs. With-
out method^ random flights predominate and divert
employment from its beft objects to unimportant or
wafteful purpofes.
On the fuppofition that 751b. of green clover,
alone, fuflices, in the morning are carried to the 32
beafts, i2ooIb. in the evening the like quantity.
Eieht
J54 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED I
Eight acres, cut four times* in the feafon of foil-
ing, is about once in every fix weeks : or near 30
perches are cut in a day : that is 15 in the morning,
15 in the evening ; or a fquare of near four perches
each time. Would it require fix hours to cut, cart
in and give to the beads a fquare of eight perches
of grafs, befides cleaning the ftalls and heaping or
depofiting the dung ?
But, in many parts of America are idle improvi-
dent people, mafters of farms, who fpend their time
in taverns or other places of wafleful amufement :
any where rather than at hom^. Thefe haunts are
at the expenle of their domestic and true happinefs.
Sooner or later they bring on them debts, wants
and grating claims of creditors. Such a people can
never be brought to foil cattle, or at all improve
their farms. Where is foiid comfort to be found if
not at home? The meannefs, the felfiihnefs and the
folly of thefe hujhands^ fathers or masters^ are con-
fpicuous, degrading and fhameful ; who, regardlefs
of 'ujijcy child and dependents claiming their protec-
tion,
* In fome years this might be accompli flied. In odier
rears the cuttings would be not more than thrice ; or even in
years of very fevere droughts might be not more than t-jJice.
Jn cafes cf neceffity the horfes and catde ca.n be tethered
awiiile ; and hay muft be referved to fupply fuch deficiencies
of grafs. Mr. Boys, (20th Anna!) ftakes his fine team
hcrles, all fummer on clover.
KEPT AND FATTENED.
'55
tlon, their afFeflions and their attentions, and even
regardlefs of the true interefts of their precious
felves, fly from their own happinefs in the moment
when they mount their horfes and hurry to the ta-
vern, the race, nine-pins, billiards, excefs upon cx-
cefs of toddy, and the mofl nonfenfical and idle
chat, accompanied with exclamations and roarings,
brutal and foreign to common fenfe and manners as
the mind of wifdom can conceive of depraved man.
Had thefe men, fo deficient in chara<^er, been train-
ed but a few years among the orderly, thoughtful
good farmers of fome neighbouring diftrifi-, they
would have learnt valuable leffons for condu£lino:
their farms, themfelves and their domestic affairs,
greatly to their comfort and advantage, and to the
comfort due to their families and dependents ; to
Vv^hom they owe more than they are accuftomed to
feel for them. There are on the other hand, thofc
who with induftry aim at providing for their fami-
lies, but it is not with an honed mind and fairnefs
of reputation. The llrength of thefe is in lov/ cun-
7iing : If indeed they wilh to be perfect in that de-
tellable of all qualities, they need not go far fropi
home ; unlefs for the lake of embellifliing the fata-
nical talent with fome variety. They might then
affociate with the villanous clafs of people diflin-
guilhed for more of this bafe quality than of provi-
dent induflry, fairnefs and honefl:, manly candour.
The
156 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED.
The foil of the flates fouth of Pennfylvania, has
been impoveriflied by the ftaple articles of produce
tobacco and maize. Maize being cultivated in large
fields for feeding fupernumerary negroes, and alfo
for the market without ever being manured, is the
chief exhauder. Tobacco ground in detached par-
cels is manured, and fo far is helped : but hand-hoe
fcratchings and fcrapings expofe the foil to be hur-
ried off by every gufl of wind or rain, and its nu-
tritive contents to exhalation by the fun and wind.
Another great evil attending tobacco-making is the
attentions to it which are unceafmg and unrivalled,
fo that the due culture of all other articles of huf-
bandry is loft in that of tobacco. Houfes are un-
grudged for curing tobacco, two to eight or ten
houfes are cheerfully built for this crop ; but not
one for live-stock ^ nor a -blade of hay for them,
though multiplied beyond the prefent means of
keeping them on the pretence that the more the cat-
tle the more the dung for the tobacco : but the to-
bacco planters herein deceive themfelves ; for, their
cattle being pinched in quantity and quality of food,
give a fmall portion of but lean dung 5 and becom-
ing hide-bound and expofcd to fleet and cold rains,
die in great numbers, yearly. Yoy renewing the
redundancy all calves arc reared — But enough of
thcfe gloomy and barbarous practices !
Humanity
OX-HOUSE. 137
Humanity ought, and felf intereft well underftood,
at (ome time or other, will induce the ere£ling boufes
for cattle. The like motives ought to make mea-
dows, provide great quantities of good food, and pro-
portion the cattle to the means of keeping them fo
as to have as many, and no more than as many as
can be comfortably kept in good heart. Numbers
ef cattle well kept, give the dung requilire for im-
proving and prefcrving the productive powers of the
ground.
Some account is already given of the houfes and
method of keeping cattle in (lalls, by Mr. BakeweU
and farmers in Pennfylvania.
The great difference, befides, in the American
and the European modes of winter keeping live-
ftock, is in the Europeans giving with dry food,
roots or juicy food ; which the Americans generally
negleft, whereby their cattle become colilve and
hide-bound. The Englilh give turnips, the Ger-
mans drank.
Mr. Toung gives an account of an ox-houfe, which
in England is reckoned very complete. The owner,
a Mr. Moody, keeps 26 beafts, each in a flail 8 htt
wide for large oxen^ 6 feet for fraaller. How dif-
ferent from Mr. Bakeivell^s of the fame country;
which are Halls 6 feet for i%vo cows, 8 k^i for i-icq
bulls.
158 OX-HOUSE.
bulls.* Mr. Moody's has at the head of each flail,
a fquare manger, for hay put in through a window
in the wall oppofite to the bead's head. The hay-
ftacks are in a yard at the back of the building ; fo
that the feed of hay is taken from the flack, and at
one ftep put into the manger. On one fide the hay
is a fmall flone ciflern, as a trough to eat oil-cake
out of. On the other fide is another flone ciflern
for water ; which is thus fupplied : outfide the houfe
is a pump which raifes the water into a ciflern, ex-
actly on a level with all thofe that receive water for
the oxen. A pipe of lead leads from this pump
ciflern to all the others in the houfe ; fo that it may
be feen by the height of water in the pump ciflern,
how high it is in all the refl. The houfe is fhut
quite up. In tlje doors are holes to let in air : but
flidins: fhutters exclude it at pleafure. At one end
of the houfe is a Imall room for oil-cakes, and a
ftove with a broad iron top, for laying on the cakes
to be heated a little for breaking. A block flands
by it, on which the cakes are broken.
Mr. Moody is lingular in the practice of fvveating
cattle, for promoting their fattening. He fays, the
hotter they are kept the better they will fatten.
He
* Mr. Bakewell kept beafts : Mr. MooJy fattened them.
Does this occafion the difference ; or is it not an error, ia
applying 8 and 5 feet ftalls lo Jingle beafts I
CATTLE KEPT, Efff. 1 59
He fliuts them up, and for forae time lets in no air
through the holes of the doors. The breath of fo
many and the heat of their bodies, foon bring them
to fvveat prodigioufly ; and when this is at its height,
they fatten beft and quickefl. After fweating two
weeks, the hair all comes off and a frefli coat comes,
like that in the fpring : after which they fweat no
more. He adds, thofe beads which do not fweat
at all fcarcely ever fatten well. His beafls are a
large fort, from So to 130 ftone.* He gives to
thofe of 100 Hone, two oil-cakes a day for two
months : then three, till fat : alfo 2olb. of hay each
a day; of which they eat only the prime part.
Lean beafls are kept on their offal hay. Such a
beafl in winter fattening eats above 30 dollars
worth ; but he improves in value more than to that
amount.
There is a great difference between keeping and
fattening. Mr. Bal<:ewell keeps : Mr. Moody fat-
tens : and there is much difference in the expenfe of
fummer fattening on grafs, and fattening on winter
food.
In America, we keep cattle through the winters,
on ftraw, maize fodder, and hulks, giving them wa-
ter ;
"* 1 1 00 to 1 800 ft) ; or 280 to 450ft) a quarter: or is it
meant a done of lefs weight by the cuflom of tlie place :
Such deviations fupported by local cuftqms are perplexing.
i6o CATTLE KEPT, '^C.
ter ; and fatten on hay, and cut flraw with mdl ;
or as in Maryland, with maize fodder and broken
ears of maize, in the ivinter : on grafs in fummer.
It is requilite that they have fait very frequently ;
efpecially when tied up : and it is a good way when
made up with fine clay into a firm mafs, to be lick-
ed at pleafure, as in the wild flate beafls lick earth,
in fpots, for obtaining fait.
Oil cake is faid to be a great fattener, and on
experiment has been proved to give doubly rich
dung; but becoming dear, linfeed jelly is taking
place of it in England. This jelly is a valuable dif-
covery j and ought to be apphed in America, for
fattening cattle, if not alfo fheep.* Hay, meal,
and linfeed jelly with drank, muft be excellent food
in ftall-fattening. Linfeed jelly is thus made : 7 of
water to i of fiaxfeed deeped in a part of the water
48 hours : then add the remaining water cold, and
boil gently 1 hours, ftirring conilantly to prevent
burning. It is cooled in tubs, and given mixed
with any meal, bran and cut chaiF. Each bullock
(large) has two quarts oi jelly a day : equal to a lit-
tle more than one q,uart of feed in four days. Cattle
fix
* Srfammm Oil, by the negroes m Carolina called B^mu oil,
is faid to fatten tsr/fs near the Nile, in latitude 14" rorth.
Eit)\TOe*s Travels. This plant gives the ^eateft portion of
oil ; and may anfwer inltead of Linfeed. Ne^oes eat Benni
Oil mixed in their meifes :made with Indian n:?al.
OF CATTLE, SHEEP " AND HOGS. l6l
fix or feven years old fatten moft advantagcoufly to
the grazier. Their furamer grazing is commonly
but a preparation to ftall-fattening.
Obfervatio?ii on Cattle, Sheep, arid Hogs*
In judging of the preference to be given to differ-
ent kinds of cattle, fize is far from being of the firfi:
confideration. Their being a large kind implies bulk
rather than charader. It may be prefumed the mafs
of meat and bone contained in three beeves^ gene-
rally requires no more food than the fame quantity in
one beef. But there is a rage in America for large
horfes, large cattle, large iheep, large hogs ; whe-
ther they are more or lefs docile, aftive and produc-
tive of net income, or are kept and fattened at more
or lefs cofl or not. This formerly was a diilemper
of the mind among farmers in England j of which
they have been cured by experience and the obfer-
vations and communications of ingenious invefliga-
tors on the nature and qualities of the feveral breeds
refpcfting ufe and net projit.
The common cow-kind of Maryland are valuable ;
as they are hardy, feed cheaply, yield milk of good
quality and in quantities if houfed and ivell kept ia
winter, are docile, laborious, and give a fine grain-
ed good meat, with a due proportion of tallow.
But being in common very meanly Iiepr, they want
L Hze
1^2 CATTLE.
lize. When well fed and houfed, they are of a
good fize for all ufcful purpofes.
Northward of the Sufquehanna, this old breed
is moilly fupplanted by new kinds, imported from
Europe and valued more for their great fize and
heavy appearance than good qualities. They have
large bones with a deep flat-Cded but maiTy appear-
ance, and their fore-quarters arc heavier than their
hind ; in fome breeds amazingly fo : which indicates
their keeping and fattening hardly and collly ; be-
jides that their meat is coarfe and they are difpro-
portioned in their weight of bone. The old breed
of the country have the fore and hind quarters
■weighing nearly alike : mine at Wye had the hind-
quarters a few pounds heavier than the fore. What
a contrafi to this is the weight of the quarters in
beeves foraetimes killed in Philadelphia ! The com-
mon weights of my — »
iVy e czXllt, from grafs, the fore quarters . 122, hind 124
A Ph'ilttd. ox, highly fed from a calf, . 403 280
The famous Blackwell ox has been reckoned the
fined though not the heaviefl beafl ever killed in
England. His hind quarters weighed more than the
fore^ nearly in the proportion of the old breed in
Maryland. His legs were very fmall-boned and
neat.
CATTLE. 1^3
neat, according to the pifture and account of him
publilhcd. — This Blackwell, not Bakewell, fine boned
ox weighed thus :
The two fore-quarters 1057^
hind-quarters 1067
2124
How very different from thefe are the huge lub-
berly beads, once in falhlon in England and now
becoming fo in America ! which are imported into
ditFerent parts of it. One of that chara£ler was kill*
ed in England, under five years old : a ihort -horned,
big-boned clumfy bead ; and weighed.
The two^or^-quarters iio7tb
/j/W-quarters 924
2031
A big-boned deer, killed in Philadelphia, weighed,
The two/orf -quarters 805^
Z'/W-quarters 560 : and
A big-boned deer in New-Jerfey,
The two^r^-quarters 7581b.
/jind-qu3iTters 525*
The Maryland old breed if ^-dlfid and fnsliersd,
TPOuld be a good fize : and if cautioudy raised with
L ii other
i64 CATTLE.
Other breeds, the mofl ufeful and produElive of net
income, would be improved. But it is with much
caution that we fliould admit other breeds. There
are better ; and certainly there arc much ivorfe,
A Mr. Fowler, in England, with great care and
judgment, changed for the better; in chieflyintro-
ducing Mr. Bakeweli*s long-horned beef cattle :
which are not {o remarkable for great fize or quan-
tity of milk though very r'tch^ as for their giving
meat on the parts which fell for the mofl money bj
the pound y>-^;» a given quantity cffood ; and for their
fattening on lefs food, and that on the mofl valuable
parts. The horns of the few I have fcen, though
Jong were very llim : either hanging downward, or
{landing wide nearly at right angles to the cheeks.
Yet the experienced Mr. B.:keivell allows for fuch
cattle but fix feet width of ftalls for two cows, three
feet each ; and eight feet for two bulls. More
room he faid would admit of their turning and dirty-
ing each other. The young cows, lean, appeared to
mc like racers compared with the heavy big-boned
cattle coming into falhion in America.
There may be breeds preferable for American
farms to Mr. BakewelPs valuable cattle ; efpccially
the Sujfex old red, Suffolk polled, and the Hereford
breeds : but /"/ r Jimins to be afcertained by experience,
Mr. Toung, fpcalung of Suffolk cows, fays the quan-
tity
CATTLE. 165
ti'ty o^milk they give exceeds that oF any other breed
he has met with, and there Is hardly a dairy of any
confideration in the county of Suffolk which has not
cows giving early in June, eight gallons of milk a
day ; and fix arc common among many for a large
part of the feafon ; and five gallons a day medium in
a whole dairy for two or three months. It is alfo
[ obfcrved by him, that this breed is much inclined
lo fatten, and the milk excels in richnefs as well as
being abundant.* Yet after Mr. Young had faid
this, and had kept of the Suffolk breed, and was
well acquainted with Mr. Bakewell and his breed of
cattle many years, he purchafed for his own farm, a
bull and two cows of the Sujfea old breed, having had
a great deal of riding in fearch for the pureft of that
breed ; they being eflecmed excellent for milk^ for
beef, and for oxen. He gave about fifty guineas for
the bull and two heifers, which were the beft he
could
• Lord Egremont has a Chinefe cow ; which gives milk fm-
gularly rick. One pint of it, on experiment, yielded as much
butter (4 ounces) as /even pints of the milk of a Sujfcx co'w ; both
vrere churned directly from the cows ; \rithout being fet for
cream. This Chinefe cow is defcribed as being fmaller than
any Aldemey cow ; feems very fat ; and as clean in the chap
as a deer. This fa<ft confirms other obfervations on the quality
ot the milk of different breeds of cows. It is the qu dity, not
the quantity of milk, that ought moftly to be attended to.
Suffolk cow's milk is not fo rich as that of Sujfex cows. 2c Ai».
281.
lS6 CA.TTLE.
could procure in Suffex. The Suffolk pjoUed cattle
coil rather lefs money.
Befides the Suffolk polled and the Suffex breeds,
there is a Hereford breed, preferred by Mr. Marfhal
and Mr. Canipbell, as the bed in England for oxen y
for dairy, and for fattening, • The European cattle
perhaps befl worth attention in America, are the
Bakeweli long horned, the Suffolk polled, the SuJJex
and the Hereford-, alfo the fmaller Englifh breed
mentioned below, having fmall line bones and being
well formed, with generally a brindle or red colour
and white along the back and acrofs the thighs and
fore l^gs or the (boulders ; and likewife the white
breed having a yellow Jkin and brown ears, alfo men-
tioned below.
There is on the other hand, a large, bony, coarfs
jneat breed of cows, which give a deal of milk and-
ivater, rather than milk, and feed expenfively. It
has had its run in England againfl other breeds, till
its bad qualities were noticed. Some of this breed
are imported into America, and eagerly fought after:
for they have ulk and certain faftiionable fancied
charms aboui: the hea and horns, Mr. Maurice, a
farmer in England, as Mr. Young informs us, chang-
cd his bct'er Shropfhire breed, for the then fafhion-
able Holdernefs and Dutch fliort- horned cattle, efpe-
cially becaufe they gave a great deal of milk j but he
foon
CATTLE. l6j
foon found they were co^Iy in feeding ; that they
were tender in keeping, and gave the poorest milk.
He thereon got rid of them for other breeds, chiefly
Bakeweirs.
Thofe fhort-homed cattle feed to vafl: weights j
yet are not profitable to the breeder, the grazier, or
the dairy-man. How poor the milk ! twenty-four
quarts of their fr^^;« yielded i6,rt) of butter ; and
the fame quantity from the long-horned gave 28 ft of
butter. From Suffolk polled cows, 1 8 quarts of their
milk have given a quart of cream ; which yielded
lift* of butter. " Holdcrnefs cows and their rela-
•* tions, the Fifes, give the greatefl quantity of milk 5
" and the coarfeft grained meat. Fine f.cjhed cattle
*' give milk of a better quality and higher richer fla-
*' vour." In refpeft to food, 30 long-horned, it is
faid- will winter 100 dollars cheaper than the fame
number of fliort horned. Mr. Young informs the
world of thefc obfcrvations and opinions of farmers
in England ; who attend to and well know the qua-
lities of the refpedlive breeds of cattle.
The rage for lar^e beafts is not now fo great in
England as it has been, or as it is in America. The
breeds having flat broad fides, large deep fore-quar-
ters, large bones and legs, and that with their deep
fore-quarters are lank on the hinder parts, have in-
jured our better common breed in fonae of their befl
qualities.
l6t CATTLE.
qualities. Our old breed milk well, if lioufed and
kept in good plight during winter : or, in other words,
if as ludl kept and attended to as the favourite new
comers. The Maryland old breed of fleers will fat-
ten in common 600 to 800. I have raifed and kill-
ed of them fed to upwards of 90c ft, at only five
years old.
There is a fancy in country people by which they
ofren eflimate the qualities of cattle from their co-
Jours : but this is a falfe ground on which to judge
of them. Different diflri^ls of people preferring
fome one and fome another colour. The red, the
black, brindle, brown, dun, pied, are favourite co-
lours with different people. A' cow is faid to be
good becaufe of the quantity of milk £he gives : but,
this cow and her offspring may be bad on all other
accounts, in comparifon with other cattle. She may
br tender, hard to keep, and give coarfe fiabby meat
and poor milk. It is indeed obferved of white cat-
tle that fuch as have a white Jhin are tender in keep-
in? : but there is a ilrikin^ difference between white
cattle having a w ite Jkin, and fuch as have a yel-
lowijhjkin. They are different breeds, of different
natures and qualities.
On my farm at Wye, wereufually wintered 170
bead of cow-kind, young and old ; of the old breed
of the country, and Qf various colours, though molily
red.
red, brown, and brindle. About the y^ar 1774, 1
began to mix this breed with a rather fmall but well-
formed, fmalUboned Englifli breed. The cattle from
this mixture were generally brindle or red with a
dafh of white acrofs the (houlders or fore-legs, the
thighs, and along the back. The flock was thus im-
proved in gentlcnefs and in milk. About the year
1785, thefe cows firH: had my fine bull, Horace, who
was out of a country cow by a bull imported by the
late Mr. Calvert, from Mr. Wildman a dealer in
England. My cattle were further improved from
this mixture, in gentlenefs, in draughty meat, milky and
Jize. As oxen they were active and powerful, and
very docile. Horace and his fire had white hair on
a yellowij}} Jhiriy and their ears and nofes were a red-
difh brown. Such Lord An/on found the cattle
were upon Tinian; and he efpecially commends their
gentlenefs and the good quality of their meat. Did
Lord Anfon or others import the breed from Tinian ?
Farmers are impofed on by butchers ; who by
praifes prevail on them to prefer the breeds having
large bones, and that are deep fore-quartered heavy
looking beads ; whofe fore quarters outweigh theh-
hind quarters, with the aid of their mafTy fcimitar-
like ribs. Why do butchers recommend this beafl
of bone ? Or farmers receive their fubtle recommen-
dation ? Is it becaufe their appearance is agreeable
to the farmer's pafiion for what is big ? The choicef!
meat
tyo CATTLE,
meat is on beads having fmall bones. The Bake*
well cattle and (heep have not the heavy appearances
of the clumfy, big-boned, and flat-Cded bcafls pre-
ferred by retailers of meat : but they arc greatly fu-
pcrior in their meat, and in cheap feeding.
Breeders of cattle will atteini to the difference in
ex^enfe of food requifite for the big-boned, and
the fmall-boned lighter formed cattle : and the cor^
fumer of meat may compare the weight of bone and
meat in a quarter of the fmall-boned with one of the
large boned breed. The greater the proportion of
bone, the oftener he recurs to the butcher. Iq gene-
ral, fmall-boned animals, carry it even to man, fat-
ten more readily and with \^i^ food than the large
boned.
The firfl great error in breeders of live-flock, in
America, is in their paffion for the largest kiruis*
The largest and the fmallest breeds are the very
worft ; and ought to be avoided in cattle, and ge-
nerally in all animals. The huge big-boned dray-
horfe is unprofitable. The fcimitar-ribbed, fiat-Cded
lubberly big-legged cattle, are expenfjve maffes of un-
important bone, with an inferior portion of coarfe
meat dearly obtained in the feeding,
*' No quantity or quality of food given infummer,
** will procure milk in good quantities, from cows
« that
CATTUE. «J7l
<« that have been poor in the pre ceding 'winter ;" whe»
iher their mean plight be owing to a fcanty allow-
ance or poor quality in the food, cr to a want of {hel«
ler. Dry food from draw, or from hulks and fodder
of Indian corn, cannot carry catrlc through winter
h\fullflt:fb, unlefs there be added iomc juicy cr nicist
food, to prevent their becoming coRive and hide-
bound. Turnips and the common fiefliy pompions
inay be given in the fore part of winter ; the red thin
ifiefhed more hardy pompion, potatoc, fcarcity root«
ruta-baga turnips, and other hardy roots or cabbages
afterwards ; and drank with any dry good food, till
there is a/«// bite of grafs in May. With common
care I have kept the lefs fie(hy pompion having a
deep orange-coloured rind, till the 25th of March in
a cellar having a fraall vent for vapour at the South
iront. Cows ought to have./'<7)' from a month be-
fore calving. The vines of field peas and beans ar^:
excellent for cows and for ilieep.
Thaty^// is advantageous to all live-flock is well
known : but the giving it to them is not .Efficiently
attended to and valued. For health it is admirable
and even necefiary. It is faid, it enables the farmer
to Incrcafe his flock, as ic nugjnents the nourijhvficnt
of the food eaten in proportion to the quantity or
fait eaten ; and that there can be no excefs in the
fait eaten, give as freely as you pleafe. It alfo is
faid that fult greatly improves wool in quality as well
lyi SHEEP7
as quantity. It ought to be without flint always
before the animals. Mixing it with water and pure
fine clay in a firm mafs, for them to lick it, as in their
wild flate, rather than to give the fait alone. In
twenty years refidence on my farm at Wye, a fait
ijuater river, and always having there upwards of 50
horfekind, I know of no inflance of their having
botts. Near 60 years ago a noted country horfe
doctor told me that once or twice a week giving fait
to horfes, efFe<rtually fecures them againft botts ;
which I have ever fmce well obferved, and believe it
to be perfectly jufl:.*
"6 H E E P.
Mr. BakeweWs fuperior difcernment and attenti-
ons, have produced a new breed of (heep ; which
is fpreading over England, and is diftinguifhed by
the name of Dijhley {heep. They are defcribed as
having fine lively eyes, clean heads, ftraight, broad
fiat
* Salt feems to be necefTary to all animals. In 1775, I
made experimen: s for producing ritre and common fait. A
tobacco hcufe yielded che former, and Wye river the latter.
From the firft trial of the river water was produced a pint of
fine grained fait. From a rapid boiling the fait was too fine
to be ftrong. It was fpread in a difh, and placed on the
ground in a yard to be dried and hardened ; and was fome
days espofed to fun and wind. Numbers of fmall ants pro-
ceeding in lines, like Indian files, bore off giains, to them huge
maffes of iklt, to their (lores.
SHEEP.
»73
flat backs, round bodies, very fine fmall bones,
thin pelts, with a difpofition to he fat at an early
age. They become peculiarly fat, with a very fine
grained and well flavoured meat, above all other
large long woolled flieep. There are much larger
flicep in England. The weight of the Difliley car-
cafs in general is, tu;es three or four years old,
from 1 8 to 261b a quarter; wethers, two years
old, 20 to 3o.'b. The wool on a medium 8ft a
fleece : the length from fix to fourteen inches.
There have been muttons of other breeds in En-
gland, which weighed above 60ft a quarter. But
large fize was no obje£l with Mr. Bakewell.
The wethers of the Diihley breed are killed when
iivo years old ; becaufe they then yield the moil:
profit ; and if kept longer they become too fat for
genteel tables. One killed when three years old,
meafured feven and an eighth inches of folid fat on
the ribs, and his back from one end to the other,
was like the fatteft bacon. At two years old, they
commonly cut four inches thick on the ribs, and
two to three inches all down the back. Ewes fat-
tened from July to Chriftmas give 1 8 to 24tb of
tallow. Country houfe-wives cut off redundant fat,
and make fuet dumplings or pafte of it : and foms
cure the fides as flitches of bacon. But, the great
object, to Mr. Bakewell, of producing this very
extraordinary breed of ihcep, was the fupcrior.
quantity
174 SHEEP.
juaniity and quality of the mutton obtained at the
least expenfe cffood and walle of time !
Mr. Cully, a noted breeder, fays the mode of
management of this breed is thus : " The e'wes lamb
in March, and then a few turnips are given for in-
crealing their raiik.* The laft of June or firfl of
July the lambs are iveaned and fent to middling paf-
tures. The e"j;es are thereon milked two or three
times, for eafiag their udders ; and fuch as arc not
to
*I preferred to have mv hrr.bs crop about the 20th of
March in general; allc-.vir.g at the rate of 8 or lo ewes in
a hundred to give lambs eariv as is common. Thefe few
Iambs, coming in 'December, January or Februarr, perilhed
at the rate of twenty- or thirty in a hundred. What of them
farvived had a ilart of what dropped brtween the 20th and
the laft of March ; but for want of green juicj food to the
ewes, they were bony and poor ; when the latter, from their
dams having grafs fcoa zhtr their yeaiing, and when the
lambs are fo young as to req.:ire k:'s m'lk at that time than
the early lambs, were always dtriTing and in good plight,
whilil growing of the graTs incr^afed with the growth of the
late Lmbs. By July thefe were equal to the early lambs ;
and what is very important fcarcely any of the March Iambs
died ; fo that in the one cafe near icx? lambs were railed ;
in the other fcarcely 80. It is proper to keep the March ewe
lambs from the ram till October come twelve months after
they are yeaned ; and even the early lambs would be the bet-
ter for it. My few early lambs were for early meat : but if
among diem there w s a promifing £n,£-formed ram or ewe
cr two, they were kept ever for uock. This at Wye-Ifland.
SHEZP.
175
CO be continued for breeding, are put to clover till
it fails : then they get turnips, and are fold about
Chriftmas, very fat, at the price of 750 cents to
9 dollars. His llerling money is reduced to dollars
and cents.
The /^;7;^j after being Tveaned adds Mr. Cully are
put to turnips in the beginning of November, and
continue at thera till the middle of April or firil of
May, and then are put into good paflure on fccond
year's clover. The fecond winter they have turnips
till the clover is enough grown, generally the mid-
dle of April. They are clipt about the middle of
May, and fold by the end of June for 9 to 1 1 dol-
lars.
One third of the Difhiey breed of ewes are reckon-
ed to have two lambs each : fo that 60 ewes have
8c lambs. They are put to the ram fo as to have
Iambs at two years old ; and are kept for breeding
until three or four years old ; except fuch as are of
particular good forms or other valuable properties :
thefe are kept as long as they will breed. Such as
are defective in £hape, fufpected of h^xngjlow-feeders^
or of having other unprofitable qualities are never
put to the ram."
It is a rule applicable to all forts of live-flock, to
breed from (Iraight backed, round bodied, clean,
fmall
176 SHEEP.
fmall boned, healthy creatures ; carefully avoiding
fuch as have roach backs and gummy hc:avy legs
with an abundance of external oiFal and lubberly
mafles of coarfe — any thing.
Fifty or fixty years ago the flieep in Maryland
were nearly all of one breed ; of which I fliould be
at lofs to find one at this time. They were light
made, and clean boned ; giving at four or five years
old the belt flavoured nvutton, dark, rich and juicy.
The wool was in but moderate quantities, yet of
good quality. They were called rat-tail flieep,
from the tail being fmall and round.
The only fhecp of Mr. Bakewcirs breed being in
America, that I have heard of, are what the Rev.
Mr. Toofy, an improving farmer from England,
brought to Quebec. Mr. Toofy lately died there.
A country gentleman in Maryland, who had a num-
ber of farms, was offered in a letter from England,
which I tead, what he might want of Mr. Bake-
well's Difliley (lieep, to be fent to him by the let-
ter-writer. But alas ! the gentleman declined all
thought of having them ; and even faid he fliould
not anfwer the letter. I therefore wrote to the per-
fon in England. But the fliip carrying my letter
fprang a leak and put b ick. That I never receiv-
ed an anfwer was, probably, owing to the letter
mifcarrying 5
SHEEP. 177
mlfcarrying ; from the Englifli flirmer who was to
deliver it not having renewed his paflage.
Sheep, on a Farm bordering on a Salt -water River
in Maryland.
I ufually (beared about 13c flieep, moftly ewes:
they padured through the fummer, with little other
attention than now and then counting them. In
winter they alfo fliifted for themfelves, in fields of
fpontaneous grafs and weeds, without being houfed^
or fed with aught elfe than a few corn blades, if
fnows happened to be fo deep as to deprive them of
their common pafture food, and fome green food
from tailings of fmall grain fown ; and alfo a few —
too few roots, to 18 or 20 muttons. The flock
however had a large range, befides the two fields of
rubbifli grafs and weeds, flieltered by pines at the
heads of coves. They found food amongfl: buflies
and weeds on points and broken grounds along the
margin of a fait water river.
An eftimate might be made of a fiock of fliecp
fuppofed to be improved v/hen in numbers affording
a fliepherd conftantly to attend them, feed them,
and ufe the bed m.eans to preferve them in fafety
and good plight. But the flatement below is of
100 Iheep as they were kept by me, v/ith too little
care.*
M Kllimates
* The Flock, about icoj was increaL-J to 130.
Xy9 SHEEP.
Eftimates vary greatly. Scarcely two men are
found to agree in the articles of charge and dif-
charge ; and the attentions and the neglefts of
fiieep, v/ith the modes of keeping them are vari-
ous : which may apologize for the prefent cftimate
being fo diiferent from others. No charge is made
of intereft : it is but ideal when not really paid,
and when inflead of paying intereft, I aftually re-
ceive from the fheep, as fo many bonds carrying in-
terefl:, an annual income of above fix times {ix per
cent, on their value, with rent and all expenfes.
No charge is made for common cafualties ; becaufe
a flock fyftematically managed, is not thereby lef-
fened or reduced below the defigned number whilft
new fheep are continually raifed, at no perceptible
expenfC; and fill up the place of thofe loft. So it
is of the fheep fold off: their place is filled by the
{lock lambs kept for the purpofe. It may be faid
of flieep fo attended to, as is faid of kings — they
never die. When inftead of their being loft they
are fold or confumed in the family, we receive the
Value ; for which the flock is to have credit in the
account kept of them ; juft as money received on
bonds. A lamb cofts fo little in raifing him., that
by the time he ceafes to be a lamb his wool pays
the coft. A charge might be made againft flieep
for damage in untilling ground ; from their tread-
ing it and thereby eventually injuring the future
rrop of wheat, on an arable farm, more than their
dung
SHEEP.
179
dung fcattered in fcraps improves it:* but then,
againll this diiference, may be let off in fomc in-
ftances at lead, the advantage derived from their
eating dov\n or preventing to rife up into feed many
dicky, dout weeds, which other live-dock fuder to
grow up, foul the padures, and reduce the foil. I
have doubted of making a charge againd my dicep
for their padurage ; becaufe in an arable fydem of
hudjandry fome fields mud neccdarily be in grafs,
fpontaneous or fown, and on thefe they graze : but
on a grazing farm there is no rubbidi field following
a grain crop, fo that grafs is the only tenant which
can pay the rent ; and it would be nice and difficult
to fatisfaftorily apportion the rent between arable
and grazing fields. If upon the whole, between
treading the foil and dedru£lion of weeds, and the
giving fome fraall improvement from dung v.hild
paduring, dieep do no notable damage to che foil
of an arable farm, I fee not fuiScient caufe for
charging the flock a full padure price for the pick-
ings they get from fields turned out from tillage, at
prefent, for the benefit of future corn crops or as
being necedary in a common arable fydem. The
little benefit which foil receives from dieep padur-
*69
• Sandy foil, not beir^ the coTnir.on or general fell of the
country, is not here under confideration. The foils, in ge-
neral, are loams and clays. The loam is of two kinds : that
%vhich partakes moHly of fand, called fandy-loam ; 3A\i Uiat.
u-hich partak^N moftly of clay, calhd clay ioaro-
l8o SHEEP.
ing, where there is not any fummer folding, may be
about balanced by damage in deadening the foil
(other than fandy foil) with their feet, as it feems
to me : but I conclude on charging 20 dollars for
their paflurage.
An eflimate of the income and cxpenfes of 100
flieep, as kept at Wye in Maryland ;
Cents.
Corn blades, occaflonally, 800
Winter green food and roots to 1 8 or
20 muttons 1000
Some flight attendance 400
Paflurage 2000
Taxes, wafiiing, (hearing 800
5000
2700
Wool 338!b, at 25 cents 8450
Lambs 40 out of 80, fold at 120C. 4800
Muttons, 20 wethers at 240 C. ^
15 ewes at 180 C. 5
Manure in pafturing, and treading
the foil, oppofed. ^595^
Annual Income 159 50
Annual Expenfe 50 00
Annual Profit Dls. 109-50
This
* Diftempers amongft my flieep were fo uncommon and
trifling that I recolleft no inftances of them. Accidents
•?vere very few ; and I counted upon all being in health that
iarvived their firft fummer.
SHEEP, I^t
This is a profit of 109 cents and 5 mills or 1095
milJs on each flieep ; which is more than lands dit
tant from fuch a river can give, with no better
management. In England, the Duke of Grafton's
accurate account of feven years ilieep builnefs, gave
an average of but 633 mills net profit on each iheep.
His expenfes were on keeping very fmall fheep,
which gave but about i|lb. of wool each, and were
for grafs, rent, county-poor and parifli-rates, rye,
rye paflurage, turnips, hay, barley, wailiing, ihear-
ing, carriage of wool, tithe, and interefl. The 633
mills amount to 25 per cent net profit, on his capi-
tal. Others in England reckon they gain 110 to
400 cents a head, on their flieep. They fpeak of
flerling money ; which is here reduced at the rate
of 100 cents for 43. 6d. fl:erling ; and ico cents are
a dollar, 10 mills one cent.
As far as dung is received by foil it ought to be
allowed for ; and this is meant of dung applied from
fiock kept lip or folded: but how far it is to be
valued when flowly dropt about in pasturing, is a
queftion. Beafls conflantly ramming the foil into a
clofe compaft ftate, untill it m.ore than is commonly
apprehended. That the foot of the bead does more
damage to '•juheat foil than his dung fo difperfed and
expofed to exhalation and wafie does good, is pro-
bable from feveral inftances related of clover fields
having been divided, and one half paflured on dur-
1 5^2 SHEE?.
ing the rnmmer, the other mowed twice, and both
fowed at the fame time with wheat on one plowing,
■when the mown gave confiderably the heft crops of
wheat. Let it be fuppofed that a lay of grafs has
teen left unpastured for three years ; another like
neld at the fame tim.e is pallured clofe as is ufual,
during the fame three years : now let the farmer
walk in chefc, and obferve how mellow, light, and
lively the one is ; how hard and dead the other.
Which of them would he prefer' for giving him a
crop ? If the former, it may then be fufpe61ed that
pafluring but very little, if at all, improves the foil.
When however paflure ground has been of many
years flandiog, efpecially if clothed with grafs for
fhielding the foil from the midfummer fun, it may
have gained forae little improvement from the at-
mofphere and the fcraps of dung together, that will
be equal to, if not greater than the injury from
treading the ground. After two or three years,
the fettling and hardening of the ground, probably,
will not much further be increafed.
Amongft the attentions to fheep, it is advifable to
fuffcr a fevi^ ewes to run with a ram, at large, for
giving farly lambs ; and that the reft of the ewes be
kept from the rams till the middle of Oftobcr, and
then be allowed a ram to 20 or at m.oft 25. ITiei*
Jambs wi!l come from ;hc middle to the end of March.
It IS aifo projj^er to ktc^ ewe and ra.m lambs apart
j8or
<H££P. 183
18 or 20 months, from January or March till Ofto-
ber come twelve months. It is bcft that there be
not more than one ram with a divifion of ewes at a
time ; where they can be parcelled off into feparatc
lots, for two or three weeks.
It is neccflary to obferve the ages of fiieep : and
fomc age ought to be fixed on by the farmer, be-
yond which nothing but great excellence in them
as breeders (hould induce him to keep them. At
(hearing time the mouth of every fticep and lamb is
to be infpe(5led ; and the Iambs having blackifli gums
or that are not ftraight, well made and promifmg,
arc marked for fale; as alfo are the aged rams,
€wes and weathers. Whatever is the af^e fixed on,
for clearing the flock of old (heep, as many Iambs,
the best, are to be turned out for breeders, and for
muttons, proportioned, as there are meant to be
aged fliecp difpofed of; and a few more for fupply-
ing lofles whilft they are growing up. The idea of
four or five years old, was long retained from the
pra^ice of keeping muttons of the old rat-tail breed
to thofe ages, for obtaining the befl flavoured meat.
But I prefer two or three years of age, for the new
breeds in America.
The farmer will firft fix on the number of grown
Ihecp to be kept by him : then on the age he means
to obferve for difpoiing of them j for he is to have
none
154 SHEEP.
-none in his flock that are not in full 'vigor. Divid-
ing the number in the whole flock, by the age at
which he means to difpofe of them, dire6ls to the
number of lambs he is to turn out, as a fupply for
the fame number of fheep to be dilpofed of from
the old (lock : and a few more lambs may be turn-
ed out with the flock Iambs, for making good any
loiTes. If two years are fixed on, for the full age,
and there are loo fli-ep, the twos in a hundred
being 50 times, direct to the difpofing of 50 aged
fheep ; and to the turning out 50, more 4 or 5 ; in
all ^^ lambs. But the ewes are to be 4 years old.
Then the fours in 60 ewes are 15 ewes to /ell ; and
the twos in 40 wethers (together 100 flieep) are
20 wethers to/ell. In all fell off 2)S old flicep ; and
turn out ^^ more 5, are 40 iambs to be raifed.
After 5 or 6 ) ears of age, {heep decline in figure
and wool. Brambles are charged by common far-
mers with taking off all the wool that flieep appear
to have lofl : but when fheep decline in vigour and
good plight, they decline in the quantity of their
wool, and look mean, even in paflures clear of
brambles.*
HOGS.
* Mr. Samuel Jones, in an addre's to the Philadelphia
county focietv of Agr.culturo, recommends that on account
of chc failure of whea' ciops, from depredations by the Hef-
fian fly. Indian corn, rjif and ; uckwheat [why did he omit
barley, fo efTen-ial to be r] Cio-ald be tVe only corns fovn ;
and that clover Ihoukl be increased, for food to an increafe
^OGS,
1^5
HOGS.
In Rhode Ifland a hog weighed 8241b. alive;
and 7151b. when it was cleaned for market. Was
it
of fheep. He fays 10 acres of clover, with a fmall help,
will pailure a hundred iheep. His eftimate of expenfe and
profit on the hundred fheep, is thus ftatsd :
Gents.
100 Sheep, value 12000: inter eft
Salt 10 bufli.
Buckwheat ftraw, 6 loads
Hay- 2 loads
Indian corn lOO bufti.
Deaths 5
Wool 3 00 lb
Lambs 80
Manure
Income
Expenfe
C.
20640
8199
Cents.
720
266
480
2133
4000
600
1 0000
8000
2640
8199
-2 06 '40
Profit on 100 Sheep I24'4i.
D. mills.
Each flieep 1.244
Of Buckwheat Jiraw, Mr. Jones fays : " it is found, by expe-
rience, valuable in feeding fheep during winter. The ftraw
is put up in fmall flacks, foon as thrafhed, round a pole fixed
in the ground ; fait being fprinkled amongfl it, in making up
the flack." This information agrees with that of an atten-
tive tenant, in Maryland : and yet, in general, but little ac-
count is made of the flraw of buckwheat ; and till within a
few years, it was but feldom faved. It Indeed feems to be
but lately that the grain has had its value and advantnges
i85 HOGS.
it fattened with a lefs quantity of food than would
fatten four hogs of i8olb. each? Wherein is the
advantage of having fuch a huge mafs of coarfe meat
in ene more than in three or four hogs of a better
meat ? The Chinefc hog mixed with the American
old breed of white hogs having ftiff, erc£i ears, as
I have experienced, gives an excellent breed, which
is hardy, feeds cheap, and weighs i6o to upwards
of 200. The meat of this breed is fine and clofe,
curing well and preferred by thofe who have raifed
them. Of this mixt breed I killed a litter of thir-
teen pigs at eighteen months old j and they weigl>
cd when killed and cleaned, odds of 3700^ : an
extraordinary inftance !
But, it is faid by farm.crs in Pennfylvania, that
lumps of fat of the coarfe flabby meat hogs fooneft
cloy labourers. This may continue to be an irrefifli-
ble
known : and it is daily coming more in fafhion and efteem.
Even whilfl growing it may be eaten as a grafs, by cows.
Its meal muft be excellent in drank, and for working horfes,
mixt witli cut ftraw : for hogs, at firft dufted on potatoes,
afterwards potatoes with maize meal ; and in all fwill and
'utajb : alfo for poultry : but is never to be given to faddle or
travelling horfes ; nor to horfes or oxen when to be put to
brilk work. It injures foil lefs than other corn ; and is the
jnoft excellent Jbehtr to grafs or clover, fown at midfummer.
Scarcely any thing equals it as a green dreffing manure — the
plants plowed in before they produce any feed j and it is the
cheapeft plant fo applied.
¥10GS, 18^
ble motirc with fome clafles of folks ; \\lien to
others it will be difgufting and contemptible. Yet
if we can oppofe the yijtb hog by one of 716,
though it ihould be a mafs of inferior meat, we (hall
have a fomething to give us confcqucnce — the
bigggst hog ! At a Ni(i Prius court, in Maryland, a
perfon was introduced to me, whofe horfe had lately
won a race. This victory, as I was told, recom-
mended him, though not before thought of, as being
qualified to reprefent the people in their legiflature.
An eleftion foon followed ; and the horfe — if you
pleafe his influence carried the eleftion for his mafter,
all hollow. So might 7 1 6 of even the coarfeft flabby
pork fucceed againfl 715 of better meat. Quality
is too /ittle attended to.
The 19 An. 291, fays wean pigs in nine weeks:
fell fucking pigs at three or four weeks old : wean
in March, and not later than July : litters average
feven pigs ; of which live are raifed, after all ha-
zards : and that in four months, feventy fat hogs
gave ! 06 loads of dung ; they taking that time to
fatten. In Maryland they are fattened on maize
given in ears, in little more than two months, from
fome time of 0£tober, and kiiled loth to 20th De-
cember ; weighing 150 to 200, after eating feven
or cisht bulhels of maize piven them in the ears :
with which no food in Maryland, is found compara-
ble for giving firir.nefs to their fat. It is good ceo-
noray
i8$ Hoo»*
nomy to pen them for fattening, the firfl: of Oftober,
eipecially where maft is not an obje£l. They thrive
bell in a miJd feafon ; and the bacon may be early
cured, before thr approach of fpring and warm wea-
ther. Salt is not given them that I know of; but I
would offer it to them ; to be taken or not at their
pleafurc, and not force it on them mixed among their
food. Why do fows fometimes eat their pigs, though
abounding with food r Is it for want of commonjhlt
that they feek to find the condiment in the animal
juices ?
The offal of milk is to be given to weaning-pigs,
andyoifj that have young pigs : and the number of
young pigs Just iveaned, andyWvr having young pigs
that can be rnaintained by the dairy. Ihould regulate
the number of hogs kept, and the food provided ac-
cordingly. In other words there fliould be fuch a
fuccejfimi in the litters, that the J^im-mi/k, butter-milk
and Cheefe-whey, may never be applied to other ufe
than feeding fuch young pigs, dnid/oius that have pigs.
Ten cows may yield of fuch food, enough for keep-
ing ten pigs, to be puihed forward into hogs. But,
in fome months the food will be deficient, and in
other months faperabundant. To make the moil of
fuch food, feed the pigs from out of Cisterns in w^hich
the milk is preferved. As I under/land it, offal-milk
and cheefe-whey are kept cool in Cisterns under
ground (fo is water kept for years, though stagnant.)
There
MAIZE AND POTATOES, ^C. 189
There the heat is temperate ; perhaps about 52. and
the milk that is excluded from the external air is lit-
tle apt to become putrid. If it ferments, yet it goes
not beyond the acidulous (late ; in which it may keep
a long while ; and common fwill from grain, is known
to be the bed for fwine, when it becomes four. At
any time, if there be more of offal milk than is wanted
for the pigs, pour the overplus into the cistern.
Maize and Potatoes confidered as Fallow Crops and
Fattening Materials.
In eflimating and comparing different materials for
feeding live-flock, the value of the rent and culture
expended for procuring them, and the condition in
which the foil is left by the culture and crop, ought
to be confidered.
When potatoes are cultivated under manurings
and repeated horfehoing or fhimming, and then are
plowed up and hoed out, the high (tate in which the
ground is thereby left, preparative to a fucceeding
crop, pays for cultivating the potatoes. The ground
is left in the befl: condition for receiving barley and
cltyver feeds in the fpring. Wheat cannot follow po-
tatoes to advantage, in Maryland, becaufe of the
latenefs of the feafon. But it feems juft that the
expenfe of cultivating and preparing the ground,
(hould be apportioned between the crops ; becaufe
190 MAIZE AND POTATOES AS
as it is nccciTary that the cultivation {hould he given
for gaining a good potatoe crop, it is equally i'o for
gaining a good barley crop ; and both partake of it.
Add the country value of both crops together, and
afcertain the apportionment arithmetically.
The cultivation given to maize alfo leaves the
ground clean and light for receiving feed-wheat or
other crop. It however is far inferior to the pre-
paration given in cultivating potatoes. No manure
or but little is given the maize ground ; and it is
left in hillocks and finks. Apportionments are alfo
to be made of the expenfe between maize and wheat
crops.
When maize ground is manured, it is befl not to
fow wheat on it ; but leaving it a clean fallow till
the fpring, then (perhaps after adding more manure
between autumn and fpring) fow barley and clover
feeds. Wheat is to be fowed upon plowing in this
clover.
Cultivating ten acres o^ poiatces may coft, dollars
36.60 ; and it prepares the ground for a crop o^ bar-
ley, to follow the potatoes. What portion oi the
coft ought to be charged to the refpe£tive crops ?
The value of the potatoe and the barley crops is
to be feverally afcertained. The potatoes produced
by ten acres are 1700 bufhels, at 1^ cents they
amount
FOOD AND FALLOW CROPS* 191
amount to 255 dollars ; and the barley, 300 bufliels,
at 60 cents, to 180 dollars : together 435 dollars.
Then,
D. C.
as 435 : 36.60 : : 155 = 2 1 .50. the apportionment on the coH
oi potatoes,
as 435 ; 36.60 : : 180 = 15.10, the apportionment on larky,.
So on the culture of the ^o acres of viahe, the
produce, 750 buihels, at 50 C. amounts to 375 dol-
lars ; and the wheat fown on it produces 600 buQiels,
■ at 100 cents, amounting to 600 dollars: together
gy^ dollars. The coft of cultivating the 50 acres
of maize is 250 dollars. Then,
D. C.
as 975 : 250 : : 375 = 96.1 1 apportionment of coft on maize:
as 975 : 250 v: 600 = I53'89 apportionment of coft on 'whsa't.
It is faid, a hog of 2241b is fattened in 60 days
with 24 buihels of potatoes and one bufliel of meal.
At which rate a hog of i6olb would require 17 bu(h.
of potatoes, and 4^ of a bufliel of meal. An acre
ought to yield not lefs than 200 bufliels of potatoes ;
fay 17c, and of maize 15 bufhels. Potatoes are
befl when boiled or fleamed ; but the water in which
they are boiled, is noc to be given to the hogs ; it
being thought unwholefome.
One hundred hogs weighing each 1 60!*), fattened
with 1 7 bufticls of potatoes and near three pecks of
192 MAIZE AND POTATOES AS
meal, each, will eat altogether 1700 bufliels of po-
tatoes, the produce of tea acres, and 70 bulliels of
meal, the produce of 4^4 acres : together 14-^!^ acres.
llie 100 hogs, if fattened with 7ibu(hels of maize,
each, would eat 750 buihels of corn the produce of
fifty acres.
See then the difference between fattening with /o-
iatces and with maize. An expenfe in rent and cul-
ture is paid on 50 acres, for producing the requifite
quantity of maize ; when the rent and culture for
producing the potatoes with a dufting of meal, are
only on I4j^ acres : and,
i4^acresof/>(//a,'e.'/ and »n<f^/ fatten 100 hogs D.
weighing i6oootb, value . . . 960
Kent and culture 3.66 an acre, ofT . . 54
906
5 o a. TOflzzf fatten no more . . . . 960
Rent and culture 5 doL an acre, off . .250
710
The potatoes and m£al coft 54 dol. — the maize 250
dol. The difference is 196 dollars, or 1.96, almofl
1 dollai-s per hog. So that there is gained on pota-
ioe feeding 196 dollars more than on maize feeding
100 hogs : near two dollars a hog.
Reckoning on four millions of fouls, and ten of
them to each farm, gives 400,000 farms. Each farm
fattening ten hogs weighing i6ooIb at fix dollars a
hundred
FOOD AND FALLOW CROPS.
»93
hundredj gains 96 dollars : and fattening on potatoes
gaining 196 cents a hog, more than fattening on
corn, gives an increafed gain of nearly twenty dollars
to every farmer who kills ten fat hogs, more than if
he had fattened on maize : the 400,000 farmers
gain 784000 dol. from fattening with potatots and
meal, more than if fattened with maize alone :
and the fuperiority among all the farmers would
be near 1,600,000 dollars yearly.*
Potato food requiring but 14/- acres produce for
fattening 100 hogs ; when corn food tc(\\\\tcs 50 acres
for fattening the fame number, is to each farm of 10
hogs 1.47 acres for potato ground, or five acres for
maize : fo that every farmer fattening ten hogs wich
potato food (including a dufting of meal) has the uf©
of 3AV acres; and the nation the ufe of 1,412,000
acres, more than if the hogs were fattened on corn»
But make an eflim.ate on what the farmers mio-hc
gain without difficulty, rather than on what is fup-
pofed they do gain with inferior attentions. InReai
of 1 .47 acre in potatoes, double the quantity. Then
2.94 acres at 170 give 500 bufhels of potatoes;
which at 17 to a hog (with feven-tenths of a bi^M
of meal) inftead of ten would fatten twenty ho^^s on
N each
* Perfe£t!on in edlrr.ates is not to be looked for. Different
fituations vary tliem, as well as difference in experience and
habits of ihinking. Principles are aimed at.
194 FENCES.
each farm. The fuperiority of potato food, would
give the farmer near forty dollars, on twenty hogs,
more than if he had fed with corn : and the fupe-
riority, among all the farmers in the nation, would
be near fixteen hundred thoufand dollars, yearly,
befides what the ground, faved as above, would yield
in other produce.
FENCES.
Whether we have large or fmall portions of rail
timber on our edates, it is advifable that a beginning
be immediately made towards acquiring permanent
live fences. It v/ithal would be a pleafmg work,
giving a kind of new creation on the cftates : and
would aiford the pleallng refle£lion to future poflef-
fors, that this is the ivork of a provident man, ivha
has thus henevolenthj promoted Jo much good, and Jet
this excellent example of a ivell chofen employment,
A fcarclty of timber and even of fire-wood, fcn-
libly affecls the apprehenfions of hufbandmen in
Biahy parts of the country j and it increafes rapidly.*
We
»
- ^* The chief dependance for /♦/?/, in America, is 'vjood. We
biive no Turl or Peat ; but there already is found Fitcoal, in
lower Virginia, and lower Pennfylvania, and in the interior
fs generally great appearance of coal ; which in time will be
©itrught to the coaft, down the rivers Potomack, Sufquehanna,
&:c. The coal from James River is good, Uiough much of it
FENCES,
195
Wc may afk ourfelves, how we are to inclofe and
divide our fields when in a few years timber fliali be
much more exhauiled. Inclination to plant and raife
trees from feeds, is too little felt ; and yet plantin';^ is
a very important meafure, which ought immediately
to have its beginning, and then be always attended to
in future, for redoring limber for all the purpofes of
agriculture. This bufmefs is avoided by fome peo-
ple, becaufe they cannot live to fee the plantation
grown up into timber : or if it might be expelled,
N 2 yet
fmall. Tn the ufe of fmall coal, there is an improved fiate of
It, as praftlfed in Flanderi. To the dufl; of Pitcoal rs added
fmall coal that is fifted from amongft ihe dull, pounded and
mixed with the daft coal. A tub is then tilled one third with
clay ; ivuer is poured on this and well mixed, till it is the con-
fiftence of thick cream. A hole is made on the heap of rW-
Jlacjiy and,tlie clay batter is poured in. All is then well airred
with a rake. Of this mafs bricks are made In the ufual man-
ner, or it is formed into balls by the hand. A.fter thefe are
dried under cover, for two or tliree weeks, they are ftacked for
future confumption. The quantity of heat produced frorat
tliefe and the length of their duration is fo much iucreafeJthat
a hifoel of the balls will make a hotter fire, and lall longer than
xhe. fame meafure r){ commoix coal, in the proportion of m/6/ to
Jive. Firft make a fire of common coal, fo as to half fill the
grate ; then pile the balls a little above the top bar. A com-
mon grate thus charged will require no ftirring, and will need
no frelh fuel for ten hours. How convenient, laftinq:, and fafe
would this be for ledchamhtrs , f.ud'us , koifs and rooms for hack-
ling, dreffing, fpinning, and handling the dangeroufly com-
buftible articles flax, &c. To which note the improvements
io expending heat by the Chinefe and Count RumfcrJ.
1^6 FENCES.
yet " there is enough to lad my time: let thofc plant
who come after me." Others delay it from lefs
blameable motives ; the aukwardnefs and doubt how
to begin it, in what method, where, &:c. Let them,
however, begin it any how^ rather than continue to
hefitate year after year.
There have been fpirited endeavours of fome far-
mers in Kent county, Maryland, to have fences re-
quiring lictle or no timber. They cut up turf, laid
it on edge, and filled in with earth fcooped up, fo as
to form a bank without a ditch. They faid, this
fence is quicker made, than they could make a com-
mon worm-fence from the tree ; which would require
felling the trees, cutting into lengths, mauling into
rails, carting in from the woods, and putting up.
But this fort of bank fence was foon given up. The
pretty green fides of the banks were cut down by
horfes, cattle and fheep ; and in fome inflances
droughts penetrated the thinner m.afles of earth, and
killed the grafs growing on one or both fides : then
all crumbled away, and the fence was foon proftrate.
Thefe farmers had merit in the attempt to promote
an improvement in fences. Their next defign was
to leffcn confumption of timber by erefting pods with
rails, inftead of the common worm-fence. It may
fave fome timber. Pods and rails look well, and "arc
not yet out of fafliion ; though being chiefly "of oak,
the pods ftand only a few years, and the fence fre-
quently
FENCES/ 197
qucntly wants repairs. Pleafed with the appearance
and the hope of faving timber, I completed a few
hundred yards of a pofh and rail fence ; when refle£l«
ing how foon it would require to be renewed, and
that timber then would fcarcely be at command, the
mind reforted to the ufage of the old counrries in
Europe where want of timber mufl: have long fmce
driven hufbandmcn to the experience of other modes.
On inquiry, I clearly preferred thc'w hedge and ditch
fence ; and gave up polls and rails.
Various kinds of plants have been recommended
for making live fences. Plants having fmall leaves
are preferred, and of thefe fuch plants as have thorns
and flubbed rigid parts growing clofe, for refilling
the preflure of beads.* In England are fences
made with hedges without ditches, as well as with
them. The lad are greatly preferred : and fome
farmers fay, " A hedge without a ditch is no fence.**
Being perfuaded that pods and rails mud ere long
give way to the more permanent ditch and hedge,
and that it is bed to take to thefe at once, I lod no
opportunity of gaining information concerning them ;
cfpecially it was a quedion how thorn plants might
be obtained in numbers requifite for making all my
fences. In the mean while ditches were made, with
intention to place pods on the banks, with two or
three rails indead of five, as is ufual when there is
no
* See OiBramlU Hedges, in mifcellany notes.
19^^ FENCES.
no ditch, until young thorns meant to te raifed
{hould be fit to plant on the banks. Having white
thorn trees from Europe, a quantity of their
ha\v3 was fowed, nor one whereof grew. In di^er-
cnt years and methods they were afterwards fown, as
were fweet briar feeds to no purpofe.* The late
General Cadwalader likewife fowed haws of the
country thorn without effeft, until he was informed
that young thorns were feen to be grown through
cow-dung dropt near a road. From this hint he
penned up a number of cattle and fed them during
'winter with bran mixed with haws. The place was
then plowed up and the dung of the cattle covered
\rith earth. In the next fummer the ^ound was
there abounding in young plants of the countr)- haw
or thorn tree : but they were foon much injured by
grafs and weeds, for want of the ground being pre-
viouily fallowed or cleaned.
Afterwards, about the firiT: of March 17S6, I
procured a quantity of the frefhed cow-dung to be
put in a tub : warm water was poured on it, for
reducing it to the confidence and warmth as if in a
bead's maw. Haws were then thrown in, and all
was ftirred up and placed near a conilant fire, for
keeping it warm as blood, but no great exadrnefs
was
* The foil was a clav loam. In the/in^ Icavt o^ Annap^
lis, haws of Englifh -wrhire thorn gr^w readilv, without being
prepared.
FENCES. J95
"was obferved. It flood thus three days ; and was
at times repleniflied with more warm water, for pre-
ferving its heat and confidence, and frequently llir-
red. A clean well cultivated piece of ground was
then opened with a hoe, and the whole contents of
the tub were drilled in the row and covered.
On the 26th March 1787, I firft noticed that
young thorn plants were grown up from thofe haws
in gDod numbers and in great vigour. Had the
feeds been fo prepared and drilled in the autumn
1785 when they ripened, they probably would have
given plants in the fpring 1786. With the like pre-
paration it is likely that poplar, afli, juniper, cedar,
fweet brier, bramble, coneiferous, and other feeds
would as readily fprout and grow. The ground
ought to be previoufly well prepared, that it may-
be clean and mellow for receiving the feeds : which
growing in rows admits of the plants being perfect-
ly and eafily hoed.
It was intended to procure the hedges In two
ways : by fowing haws along near the foot of the
bank, next the ditch where the foil is bed and
deeped, there to remain ; and by tranfplanting
quicks from a well cultivated nurfery. But it was
prevented by the failure of the feeds, as above:
and I removed from the farm before I could prac-
tife the new method of raifing thorn plants from
haws. To have good live fences there mud not
onlj
t06 FENCES*
only be ditches with the hedges, but alfo a clofe at-
tention is to be obferved to weed and keep the foil
clean, and the hedge defended from cattle and fheep,
cfpecially during the firft three or four years : and
the young plants are to be often vi/ited, and may
or not be trained to grow intwined together ; but
the fide branches are to be fhortened from time to
time, and in due time the whole may be plaflied.
Oaps on thefe vifits are to be looked for, and flop-
ped before they become frequented by hogs, dogs
pr boys.
My ditches were 4^-^ feet wide at top, 10 Inches
at bottom, 3 to 3 ^^-^ feet deep. The common la-
bourers of the farm, men with fpades, women with
dirt fliovels and hoes, after a few days of aukward
work, will rid off thefe ditches at a good rate ; and
make a permanent bank five or fix feet high from
the bottom of the ditch. Two or three rails on
this, whilfl the hedge is growing, make a tempora-
ry fence that nothing will attempt to crofs. When
the hedge becomes full grown, there then is a per-
fe£i live fence, without any expence of timber : an4
it is liable neither to rot or to be eafily pulled down.
It is a comfort to be aflTured that when dcfigning
to have thorn fences, we can readily procure any
number of plants from haws. The nurfery fhould
be of good fize, that the quicks may be very abun-
dant, for feleding from them the bcfl.
" It
FENCES. 201
" It Is a general pra£lice (befide? the law) in
Scotland, that if one proprietor of land wiflies to
make an inclofing fence for his own convenience,
adjoining to his neighbour who will not join therein ;
then the firft ere^s the fence entirely at his own
cxpenfe, without claiming any part of the expenfc
from the neighbour, until the neighbour avails him-
felf of it, by making it a part of a fence for inclof-
ing on his fide alfo ; at which time he pays to his
neighbour the half of the original expenfe in mak-
ing that fence, and is at half the expenfe of up-
holding it ever afterwards. This is alfo a rule
adhered to refpefting partition walls that mutually
belong to adjoining buildings ; and appears to be
confident alike with the ftric^eft equity and good
jieiglibourhood." And. EiT. Agr. 28.*
I revere the memory of the hufbandman who has
left to travellers, the handfome legacy on the main
road near New-Cafile, a view of an excellent thorn^
hedge-fence, a valuable pattern for their encourage-
ment or imitation ; and have wiflied to fee fome fort
of monument on the fpot, erefted by the neighbours
or the county, for perpetuating the memory of the
man who lb early inflituted the important lefTon.
^' Rewarding thofe who introduce advantageous prac-
tices
♦ By a law of Pennfylvanla, if one fanner makes a parti-
lion fence, regulators value it ; and the adjoining f iiinei:*
arc compelled to pay their proportion of the coft.
iOH TREADING WHEAT,
tices in hufbandry is good economy in nations ; as
hufbandry is the mofl general and moil neceffarj
employment of their people."
Doclor Hart alfo obferves that — " The true geni-
us of animating agriculture muft refide in thofe who
hold the reins of government, and in gentlemen of all
denominations : nor fliould rewards be wanting, nor
public premiums, nor marks of favour : for, as
agriculture is the most ufefulfo was it the first employ-
ment of man,**
TREADING WHEAT,
This is an univerfal pra£lice within the peninfula
of Chefapeak : and in the early ages was perform-
ed in the old countries by oxen ; as it ilill is in Bar-
bary and fome other countries. In Britain, and in
all the American dates northward of Maryland,
the flail is the common inflrument for thrafhing out
•wheat : both modes are fixed habits in the refpe£live
countries. Oxen have been tried in Maryland, by
a perfon who had been ufed to tread with horfes ;
and he found them very exceptionable, from their
immoderate and very frequent dunging as they trot
on. I have had wheat from Barbary, which was
extremely dirty from the tail of the ox.
Accounts of treading out fmall corns v/ith horfes
p.ay entertain perfons who are unacquainted with
th€
TREADING \^HEAT. 203
the praairc; and the method following may affiO:
farmers who are ufed to treading wheat, with feme
particulars for improving their praaices. Until
fome other as fpeedy a method fnall be difcovered
and introduced, treading cannot be dilpenfed with
wherever the deflruftive wheat-raoth-fly abounds.*
Prejudices againft treading wheat are great, in
thofe who are unacquainted with the fuperior me-
thods of performing it : mine were fo w^hilfl I was
but beginning to be a farmer in a country where the
flail was very little ufed, and when treading, as far
as I knew, was conducted in a flovenly manner.
Some farmers ftill fliift their treading floors fi-om
field to field ; from whence much rough-feeling dir-
ty wheat goes to market. Thofe who have a pro-
per earth, in a perpetual floor ufed for treading
crops of wheat, year after year, will have it gloffy,
and the wheat from it will have no more dirt than
if thrafhed on plank with flails ; provided they arc
attentive in taking off the horfe-dung direaiy as it
is dropped, and let not the horfes flop, to ftale,
until each journey ends and they are led off, and
provided that as foon as the treading feafon is over,
they cover the floor thick with flraw or rubbifh, to
remain till a week or two before they are to tread
in
♦ The thrnfmng^iU xertainly gives this method ; and In
every refpea is fuperior for getting out vheat trcni its ilriw.
But it is not ufed in America tliat I know of.
204 fREADING WHEAT.""
in the next feafon. They may fodder cattle on It
all winter, keeping it full of litter, for preventing
horfes from finking in and poaching the ground, in
winter, fpring or autumn : and thus improve the
floor to be harder, more glolTy and perfect.* When
horfes in halters are led in rank?, each rank kept as
far apart from the others as can be, time is given
for taking off dung dropt before the next rank tram-
ples on it : and in this detached way of travelling
the horfes are kept cool. It is important that they
do not clofe their ranks.
I was always much hurt by the injury done the
horfes in my former aukward manner (the common
praftice of the country) of drivmg them loofe ; and
wirhal their driving, kicking, and joftling each other,
helter-ikelter ; hut am now quite pleafed with tread-
ing wheat, fince haltering and leading them in ranks
prove the labour or injury is lefs than from plough-
ing them half a day in a maize field. The above
are the only objections occurring to me againfl tread-
ing wheat with horfes. The advantages are — an
entire crop of wheat beat out before the end of July,
' which perfectly fecures it againfl the moth-fly ; it
leaves but little opportunity to pilferers, and the
wheat is ready for an early market, often the befl:.
To hire thrafiiers or put my labourers to thraih it
out
* To xvet treading Soors vriih. a Treak extracl or tea of flai-
feed, might add to the clofenefs and glofs of their earth.
TREADING WHEAT. 205
out with flails, the time fpent would give abundant
opportunity for thieving, which is avoided by the
fpecdy method of treading, when in about a fort-
night three thoufand bufliels may be fecured, inflead
of eighty to a hundred days that flails would require.
Treading floors are fixty to a hundred feet dia-
meter. Some are only forty feet ; others again, a
few, one hundred and thirty or more. The larger
the diameter the eaiier to the horfes. I never knew
a horfe difordered on a large floor, but on a floor
Ibcty feet or under, it is not uncommon. The track
or path, on which the Iheavcs are laid and the horfes
tread, is twelve to twenty-four feet wide. In com-
mon, the floors are inclofed by fences ; and the horfes
are driven, between them, promifcuoufly and loofe,
each prefllng to be foremoft to get frefli air, jofl-
ling, biting, and kicking the others with bitternefs.
Their labour is thus in the extreme. Small floors
have a centre flake, to which hangs a rope, or a
pole and fwivel, and four or five horfes being fiift-
ened together, travel round, upon the Iheaves,
abreafl.
I prefume not to offer in(lru£lion to farmers who
are experienced in treading on large permanent floors
properly kept and with horfes in regular ranks : but
to the lefs experienced and judicious, I fubmit the
method I have ufed of late, as the befl within my
knowledge.
206 TREADING WHEAT.
knowledge. M7 floor is unincumbered with an^
fence. A barn fixry fcei fquarc is in the middle of
it;* around which the horles travel, on the bed of
Iheaves about twenty-five feet broad ; fo that the
diameter of the whole treading floor is one hundred
and thirty-five feet.
Previous to laying down the fheaves of wheat,
the prefent ftate of the air and probability of its
continuing, during the day, dry and fair, or its
threatening a thunder gufl with rain, is confidered.
If the conclufion be to tread, then the morning is
fuffered to pafs away till the dew is off the ftacks
and floor. A row of (heaves is firft laid flat on the
floor, with the heads and butts in a line acrofs the
track of it as a bolder for receiving other flieaves
with their heads raifed on them ; and thefe flieaves
range with the path and circle, the butts refling on
the floor. Other flieaves are in like manner ranged,
with
* This had been an old tobacco houfe, which was convev-
cd in pieces to a newly defigned, more convenient farm yard,
at a new choice for the homeftead and centre of bufmefs ; the
farm being full three miles long, and the old homeftead, Sec.
filed at one end of the farm. This old houfe, now re -built,
was rather for zJJyeher to my cattle than for holding grain in
the ftraw or for threftiing grain out. My grain was ftacked
out of doors, and trod out on the floor round the houfe.
Thsfarm was very incomplete : it was but in outline ; about
to be changed from an old tobacco plantaticrif to a regular
grain farmf divided into fix equal fields. ^
TREADING WHEAT. 20/
with the heads raifed on the former flieaves, till the
whole floor be filled, and appears with nothing but
heads of wheat, floping upwards. The thickntfs
of the bed of wheat depends partly on the length
of the ftraw, and clofenefs and high range of the
{heaves on the bed. Upon laying down the ilieaves
for the bed, their bands are cut on the floor with a
knife, layer by layer. It is wiflied that the wind
come from the weftward, when treading. From
the eaftward it is generally damp. It is preferred
to place the flacks eafl:ward of the floor, for giving
2, free pafl^age to the better winds from the weflward.
In my treading, twenty-four horfes are formed at
fome diftance from the floor into four ranks ; and
when the floor is ready laid, one of the ranks has the
word given to advance. For the fake of order and
regular work, the boy who is mounted on one of the
horfes advances in a walk with the whole rank hal-
tered or tied together, and enters on the bed of
wheat, walking the horfes upon the track laid with
wheat : another rank is ordered to follow, as foon
as the firfl: is fuppofed to have obtained a diflance
equal to a fourth part of the circumference of the
bed : and fo of the other ranks. They are forbid
to go out of a walk ; till having walked upon the
bed five or fix rounds, word is given to move on in
a fober, flow trot, and to keep the ranks at their full
diflance from each other, as the four cardinal points
Qf
2o8 TREADING WHEAT.
of the compafs. Regularity and dclibcrrate move-
ments are neceiTary, for preventing confufion. The
gentle trot is continued till the horfes have travelled
eight or nine miles ; which is their firfl journey, and
then they are led off to be foddered, watered and
reded, v^-hile the trodden light llraw is taken off as
deep as to where the {heaves flill lie fomewhat clofc
and but partially bruifed : this is called the firil: ilraw
£rit journey.
As foon as this firiT: ftraw is off, one- third of the
■v^idth of the bed is turned over on the other two-
thirds from the inner dde or circle of the bed. The
horles are again led on. and trot out their fecond
journey, till the (Iraw be again light and clear of
wheat. It is then taken off, as deep as to what lies
more clofe. The horfes are again foddered, and al-
lowed to reft whilft the outer third of the bed is
turned upon the middle part of the bed. Then
tread the bed a third journey, till enough. This
draw being taken off the whole remaining bed is
turned up from the floor and (hook out with forks
and handles of rakes. The horfes tread this well,
which fanithes their joumies ; unlefs it be to run them
awhile on the chaff and wheat, the better to fepa-
rate them. The whole being now fhoved up from
the floor, with heads of rakes turned down, the
wheat and chaff are put up into heaps on the floor,
five or fix on my great floor : and thus is finiflicd the
day's
TREADING WHEAT. 209
day's wqrkj in which mofl of the time is taken up
in breaking the (lacks, laying down the (heaves, car*
rying off the draw, turning and (liaking the grain
out from amongfl the ftraw : and laftly collefting the
chaff and grain into fecure heaps on the floor, which
is alfo fwept for faving fcattered grains in fcparate
parcels to be next day cleaned feparately from the
general raalTes of chaiF and wheat.
The firft journey Is the longed and mod laborious :•
but in the whole of the journies, the horfes travel
but about twenty-five miles ; and that is foberly,
with frequent intervals of red and refrefhment.
The heaps ought to be put up in a (harp conical or
fugar loaf form, with more care than dovenly peo*-
pie allow them ; the fides even and free from hol-
lows, and fuffer none of the fweepings to be thrown
on the heaps. If rain falls on them, the wet edges
next the floor ought to be flioveled up and thrown
on the heap to dry. It is better to clean and dore
the wheat without thus expofmg ic to rain j yet,
through necefllity, I have bad a great heap of trod-
den wheat and chaff which yielded near nine hun-
dred bufhcls of clean wheat, cxpofcd in the open air
above two weeks without damage, notwithdanding
fome heavy rains fell on it. Now that I have a houfe
at the treading floor, the wheat and chafTare dloved
together into it, from being once fanned ; and after-
wards the wheat is wcU cleaned. As long as the
O weather
310 TREADING WHEAT.
"weather was dry it \^^s found bed to continue tread-
ing tall the whole crop was trod out.
1 know of but three or four farms having houfcs
within the circle of treading floors. Mr. Smgleton*s
invention is quite new. Four rows of ftout locuft
polls deep in the ground, form three lengthy divi-
fions ; the fpaces between them being ten feet.
The middle part receives the flraw from the treading
floor : the other two are for wintering cattle, which
feed at pleafure on the ftraw, through rails let into
the polls, and which are moveable. The pitch is
eight feet ; and the whole building covered with
thatch, is thirty feet wide, one hundred and twenty
long, befides circular ends, according to the fliape of
the treading floor, for holding chaff, &c. ITic
width of the track, round this building, is about
fixteen feet ; and the circumference of the floor or
track is about 440 feet ; of which 240 is nearly a
flraight courfe, and 2 do circular from rays of 30 feet.
Some farmers have a barn clofe to the eafl, the fouth
or the north fide of their treading floor. Two in-
ftances occur of treading under Jhelter : but their
owners eameflly wilh their wheat, whilfl treading,
cxpofed to the fun.
A neighbour, viewing the treading of wheat on
my floor as above pradifcd, faid the method is ad-
mirably eafy to the hories, and that mofl of the time
is
TREADING WHEAJT. 211
•is fpcnt in taking off and carrying a\^'ay the Araw :
but he thought it would be a faving, if the outer
half of the bed fliould be trod till enough ; and then
.(hift the horfes on the inner half of the bed ; and
whilfl: this is treading, the flraw to be carried off
from the outer half, firfl trodden.
Fig. 9, plate HI. The common \Vay of driving
horfes promifcuoufly, inclofed by a fence; and one or
two boys on horfeback following and driving them j
in the prefent inftance, along the outer part of the
bed of wheat. In this -wayy on a floor 90 feet dia-
meter, I drove upwards of 30 horfes.
Fig. 10. My new method, with a bam in the mid-
dle, has no fence, which would obftruft the wind in
paiUng to the horfes : the horfes led on in ranks
quietly and orderly ; and then ileadily trotted round
on the bed of wheat ; at firft as in the plate, on the
outer half of the bed. Here my floor was 135 feet
diameter ; and the work better performed with 2^
horfes. It may be as good if not a better way, 16
have the houfc on the outfide of the treading floor,
as at the farm yard in plate 1.
Fig. II. A bam and treading floor, propofed,
on the principles of Mr. Singleton's barn or cattle
houfe and floor, a a Rooms, at the ends of the
houfe, clofcd on all fides, and floored, for ihrafliing
O 2 on.
212 TREADING WHEAT.
on, occafionally, or for ftoring wheat, chaff, &c.—
2. 2. Stalls, for cattle— !-3. Paffagc between the
ilalls, to feed from. The pitch from the ground, 8
feet — -A floor above to be lo or 12 feet pitch, for
holding ftraw, &c. — The dotted lines fhew the track
or bed of wheat in treading.
A houfe in the middle of a treading floor, gives
fomc ihade to the track on which the wheat is fpread
to be trod out; which is difadvantageous. The
treader of . wheat dreads Jhade ; and invites the
^reatefl: heat of the fun, as being eflTential for tread-
ing to advantage. A houfe on xhcfouth or north qf
the floor, with one end near the periphery of the
track, is as much preferable to a houfe in the middle
of the circle, as this lafl is to a houfe covering the
whole circle, where the horfes are more worried
whilft treading under cover, the wheat alfo being
jQiaded, than if they trod altogether in the hottefl
fun. The hotter the fun, the fliortcr the work, and
more perfectly finifhed. The houfe being on the
7iorth of the circle, cafts no ihade on the floor ; and
fcarcely any at a little diftance from the fouth fide.
The floor and the wheat are fully expofed to the fun ;
which is the firfl wifli of experienced treaders : and
for all purpofes this houfe is here as well placed as
if it was within the circle. In my deflgn of a farm
yard plate I. the treading floor and bam are fo fitu-
ated.
A Method
BXPERIMENTS, ^f. ^IJ
A Methsd of Registering Experiments,
The following ftatements are made partly onprevi*
oujly deftgned experiments j and partly from after
thought on refults of field hufbandry. This laft is an
eafy way of coUefting experiments, without the tedi-
oufnefs common in conducing previoufly defigned
ones. The refults of well regiftered procefs in crop-
ping, often afford fuch matter for ftatements ; efpe-
cially when there are comparative proceffes. For
inftance, you have juft now plowed in feed wheat, in
beds or ridges, and obferve the ground is left rough :
what, you fay, if it was to be now harrowed ? But
you determine on harrowing only every other bed
or ridge, and obferve the difference at harveft : and
whilft the wheat is growing you will obferve all par-
ticulars of it. You then regifter the procefs, the
rcfult, and ftate the qucftion and anfwer j with what
elfe occurs, in a note.
Experiments
^J4 EXPEai&fENTS
Experiments made in Maryland, in iy^$, x 786 •*
WHEAT SOWING.
No. I. ASHFIELD.
Process September 1785.
i/.>r?v 1.:..
Sowed the fouth end on maize ground, after it
was harrowed fat, under furrow ; which formed
h,eds. The refl: left gently rounded by harrowing,
was alfo fawn under furrow; and left in moderate
ridges.
Result — ■- — yuly 1786.
The beds gatve plants equally ftout from the very
edg.es, quite acrofs them. The ridgrs gave plant®
inferior about the edges*
Queflion — Are ridges or beds to be preferred ? —
JBeds are by this trial. (A)
(A) The maize had been thrice plowed yro;;z the
plants, twice fo them ; which left the ground rather
loweft near the maize, and higheft in the intervals.
A harrowing immediately before fowlng did not
quite level it. The wheat fown on this and plowed
in,
* This viethod of reglftering experiments is taken from Mr.
Jylarjhal. And the experiments here inferted are from adual
proceedings on my farm at Wye in Maryland.
IN MARYLAND.
^1$
in, and the water furrow or clofing furrow being
formed by a double mould-board plow dipt deep,
left the wheat on flat beds of foil equally deep at the
edges as in the middle : and the water furrow be-
tween bed and bed carried off redundant rain. —
Other part of this maize ground, was twice plowed
ffom and twice to the plants. This alfo laid the
ground well, and the wheat grew nearly as ft out on
thefe low ridges (nearly beds) a very little raifed
above the water furrow, as on the above beds : ex-
cept that fome of the field, having the lands more
raifed, was formed into ridges which every where
ihewed weak wheat at their edges. My idea of bed«
and ridges is, where the lands are rounded down on
each fide to nothing at the water furrow, they arc
ridges : water drowns the edges, and the foil is there
/hallow : but where the edges are abru^ (nearly up^
right like ftrawberry beds) whether the lands are a
little raifed in the middle or are quite flat, they arc
beds, whofe edges are raifed above the water in the
furrows, with a foil more equal in depth from edge
acrofs to edge. The endeavour is to have the beds
quite ^^/. In reaping ridges, on the right hand at
entering the fickle, and on the left at going out, the
reapers drop many heads of wheat, which are loft :
in reaping on beds^ they cut evenly as the bed and
its wheat range.
WHEAT
■^t6 rEXPXRIMENTS!
WHEAT SOWING.
No. II. MiDFIELD. 2j; ?3-b^
FjiOCESs Septemberiy^$.
Eight lands, each 250. yards long, 7 feet wide, (In-
cluding water furrows) w ere plowed into ridges, har-
rowed, fowed and harroived in : eight others florjced
in : thefe were alternately repeated through feveral
acres. The whole equally and highly cultivated to
5 plowings, 3 harrowings, and a rolling.
Result July 1786.
"^ All very fine : not the lead difcovcrable difference,
on repeated clofe infpe£^ion by different people.
Queftion Is under furrow or over furrow befl?
Equal in this clean, mellow, ridged or raifed
ground. (A)
(A) With great prejudices againft harrowed-in
wheat, I was agreeably furpvrifed to find this har-
rowed-in equal to the plowed-in ; or over furrow
equal to under furrow. Harrowing in, is not un-
common in the peninfula of Chefapeak (evidently
ufed for difpatch) : but their fallows, fo called, be-
ing twice rather flovenly plowed, are feeded in fo
foul
XK MARVLAND. Zlf
foul and imperfea a ftatc, that harrowing In the feed
proves greatly inferior to careful plowing in ; from
deficiency of preparative culture, as it feems. Their
fallows are generally full o£ tufts and hard weeds,
which fcratchings with plow or harrow cannot re-
duce. Even when fuch flrong weeds are turned in
together with the feed wheat, they keep the ground
hollow; which is a ^ifadvantageous ftate of the
ground to a good wheat crop — there is a want of
firmnefs— -of compaftnefs in the foil ; from whence
it is that even the richeft fand-land gives fraall crops
of wheat. But as rye yields bed in light land, a
clay foil might for rye be the better, fo kept hollow
by ftrong weeds. My hope now is, that it will be
found on clean, mellow, well tilled land (no feed
ought to be on other') harrowing in will generally
prove to be equal to plowing in wheat. If it fliould
not, yet I ihould feel deteftation in ufing that method
of covering wheat, merely for the fake of a ftiort cut.
From a pra£tice in the Fork of Gunpowder, in Ma-
ryland, where poor tenants often fowed rye upon
ftubble and then plowed it in (the foil a clay loam)
it was faid to give better crops qf rye than when
fowed on fallow. Upon fallow, they faid, the clay
ground foon becomes too clofe for rye : but, when
fown on ftubble, the stubble gives the ground an ar-
tificial opcnnefs when it is plowed in. Yet query,
of this fuppofed fuperiority, if it is not an apology
for indolence, or want of ability to fallow the
ixS EXPERIMENTS
gronnd ? But it is faid, we have not time— have noC
force for ploivin^ it in : alas ! *tis too true, whilft wc
feel not the value of fpirited exertion on critical oc-
cafions, or aim more at riddance than perfection.
That famenefs of motion we are ufed to indulge in,
is much againfl ftout crops.
WHEAT SOWING.
No. III. MlDFIELD,
PROCESS September 1785.
South end, fown in broad Jiat lands, and in ridges
y feet wide (^including water furrow) fingk and
double. A north and fouth direftion. The whole
five times plowed, thrice harrowed and once rolled ;
•—under furrow.
Result July iy86.
The preference very flriking : my overfeer won-
dered at it. The ridges much better than the broad
lands.
Queftion Are broad flat lands, or ridges pre-
ferable ? Ridges are in this inflance of a very level
field. (A)
(A) The foil, a good clay loam ("wheat land) ly-
ing pretty dry and level. The lingle raifed ridges
were (» a part of the field which was rather lower
than
IN MARYLAKDi lY^'
than where the double ridges were : from whence,
being wetter, the wheat intheni was inferior to the
latter. By Tingle and double ridges is meant raifed
fo often by the plowings — increafed in height, not in
breadth.
WHEAT SOWING.
No. TV. MlDFl.ELD.
PnocESs—'-'Septembcr 1785.
Six acres fown in ridges N. and S. — the reft with
mod of Afhfield^ fown in ridges and beds, E. and
W.— *Mbft of the ridges were fingle : forae double^:
» few triple.
Result July i/Sfi^
The north lides of the E. and W. ridges were uni-
verfally inferior to the S. lides. This difference was
greater in the double ridges than in the fingle ;.andt
very little wheat or flraw grew on the N. fide of the
triple ridges.
Queftion— Are ridges in a N. and S. or E. and" W.
direction preferable? North andfouth. (A)
(A) The beds fcarcely (hewed any difference be-
tween, their N. and S. fides, la fome fituations it
may^ be neceffary to fow in an.E. and W. dire£tion .;:
and then beds ; not ridges Ihould efpecialiy be made.
ROLLING
«5« EXPERIMENTS
R OLLING.
No. V. Sanfield.
Process — April 1786.
Fifteen acres in clover were rolled with a hea\7
roller, early in the month in a moift ftate of the
ground. Rains in May prevented mowing it till
June. Soil a clay-loam.
Result — August 1786.
The growth from April contmually inferior to
dovcr in a near field, fown and every way managed
as this ; except its not being rolled. The foils alike ;
and till the rolling, the growth of both was equal,
and equally promiling. '
Queftion — Is rolling clover in the Jpring advanta-
geous ? It is difadvantageous, as feems from this com-
parifon, on a moist clay-loam.
WHEAT SOWING.
t ■
No. VI. MiDFIELD ASHFIELD.
Process — September 1785.
Sown in ridges and beds, feven feet wide, inflead
of 5-i- as heretofore water furrow included : 200
acres.
Result
IN MARYLAND. 221
. Result — July 1786.
The 200 acres were reaped in 12 days with 23
fickles ; with as much eafe as the fame hands and
number of fickles were ufed to reap them in 12 days
on 54 feet ridges and beds.
Queftioh— Are fields fown in 5I feet lands, or 7
feet lands preferable, for reaping whpat ? Equal, by
this trial. (A; ^
CA) It was an agreeable furprife to find the field
in feven feet lands was reaped and fecured in as fliort
a time as formerly when in 5!^ feet lands ; thefe
narrow lands being efteemed beft with fmgle reapers.
But a flrong and a weak hand joining to cut down
the wheat of a broad land, performed it with great
eafe. Strong reapers cutting lands feparately from
weak ones, often flop for them j whilfl the weak
ones, hurrying to get up to the flrong, wafle wheat ;
but when they join to cut the fame land, the flrong
reaper readily takes the greater width of the land,
and they keep together. By their more orderly
proceeding, and not over reaching, as fometimes on
fingle lands is the cafe, they avoid cutting off heads
without flraw, where the fickles ^nter or quit the
fides of the ridges. My wheat was now cut cleaner
and better faved, with lefs hurry than ufual on fin-
gle or narrow lands. The reapers were men, wo-
men,
A2a JEXP£RIMENTS.
men, boys and well grown girls. The bed reaper
and the worft took a land ; a fecoiid beft and worft
.aootber land ; then two middling hands a third land ;
irom whence a fteadinefs and evennefs of work un-
.ttfual.
WHEAT SOWING.
No. MI. Eastfield.
PsocLSB'-^Sepiember 1 7 56.
Sowed under furrow, rather wet ; the foil left ia
clods. Every alternate four lands, each 7 feet wide,
was harrowed after plowing in the wheat j the other
-four left unharr owed.
The refult cannot be fbted till after the harvcft
X)f next year, 1787. At prefent November 17S5,
as in September and 0£lober, what "R-as harrowed
after plowing in, {hews wheat of much the bed
appearance. The great fallow harrow proved too
coarfe : the triangular maize harrow, with pointed
or nearly chifel teeth, performed well in t^Xi
bouts 10 each rid^e of feven feet width*
c^'
Tbougbts
PRINCIPLES or, fsfc, aa3
Thoughts on the Nature and Principles of Vegetation,*
The earth preferves plants in their place : and
contains water combined with panicles of matter
that promote their growth, and which the water
conveys to the plants, at the fame time that itfclf is
a diluent to them. The earth and the atmofphere,
even in the dried feaibus, contain moifture, which
includes fuch matter, however minute the parts and
proportions. The foil, then, bclides fupporting
plants in their vertical or proper pofition, and the
atmofphere imparts water with its nutritive combi-
nations to plants, as a food to tliem. The earth
and the atmofphere may be confidered as magazines
of the food of plants. The one gives it immediate-
ly to the roots ; the other to the leaves.
Different kinds of foil fuit different plants : Co
which hufbandmen and gardeners are attentive as a
faft known from experience.
I know of no foil incapable of producing ufeful
plants. We have a poor earth, a whitifh clay,
which though of a fine grain and not hard appears
remarkably dry, at times when you would expe£l it
fliould
• The purport of anfwers made to queiies fele.5led from a
paper of the Board of Agriculture, in London, an<i difperi-
cd anxongft niy friends.
2 24 PRINCIPLJE8 OF
fliould fhew conflderable raoifture. Oaks and chef-
nuts growing on it are all fcrubs ; but pines growta
fomc height and Cze. The pine tree has a noble tap
root. There is alfo as poor an earth which contains
much of a rotten ftone or granules of an imperfeft
ore, and another hungry looking foil, called black-
jack land ; it is fandy, gravelly, or clayey, topt with
a poor diminutive grey mofs : on- this grow chiefly
fmall fcrub oaks ; and in a foil fomething better,
grow oak bufhes four or five feet high, loaded with
acorns. Common clay I have known to gro\V' ftrong
plants : in one inflance dug up from two feet deepi
in the autumn, it was in the next fpring fown with
melon feeds : in another inftance, the clay was turn-
ed out from four feet depth in digging a cellar, and
two years afterwards the hillocks, as formed in turn-
ing the clay out of barrows, were fowed with me-
lon, cucumber and cimblin or fquafh feeds. In both
inflances, eighty miles apart, the growth and dura-
tion of the plants were excellent. Probably the food
to thefe plants, which have not much of a root, was
nearly altogether from the atmofphere.
When it is afked if there are any plants which will
grow perpetually in the fame foil ; and what are
they ? It may be anfwered, grafs will ; and that
hemp fcems likely to give perpetual, or at lead re-
pealed crops for many years on the fame ground a
little manured. It is on the contrary a prevailing
opiiiioQ
CJ
VEGETATION. 225
Opinion that flax cannot be continued, crop after
crop, on the fame ground, with all the manure and
culture that can be given It, But who has expe-
rienced it ? I grew hemp twelve years on the (iime -
ground, two acres, without manuring in the time ;
and the failure was very little. The ground had
been previoufly well manured ; and it had a few in-
tervals of reft : only a year at a time. , Maize and
tobacco impoverifli ground greatly : as it feems much
from a clean cultivation expofmg the foil, frefli and
frefli, to a powerfully exhaling fun with but little of
Ihade from April till September. But I have known
ground cultivated conftantly in tobacco, many years j
being frequently manured.
Some plants receive moft of their" food at their
roots, from the earth ; and it may be fome food is
received greedily by them, and other food is in part
rejected. Other plants fucceeding thefe, may re-
ceive it more al the leaves from the atmGfphere ; or
take at the roots, what was avoided by the former.
The peculiar nature and fitnefs of the food which
different kinds of plants require, muft be adapted to
the abforbing faculties, and the organization, or the
mechanifm and ftru^ture of the veffcis of plants, by
which they refpe^lively receive and afTimiiate their
nourifliment. From whence it may be expelled that:
foil no longer fuitable to fome fpecies of plants, will
produce and promote the growth of fome others.
V ^ Soil
226 PRINCIPLES OF
Soil is exhaufted by certain plants depriving it of
the vegetable food depofited in it. Every crop in
hufbandry takes forae : and though the atmofphcre
fupplies the ground with more, yet it is feldom equal
to what, in the fame time, the plants take from the
ground. Crops of grain often repeated, efpecially
caufc the impoverifliment or exhauflion. Food of
plants is gradually reflored to the ground that has
been exhaufted by fevere cropping. Whilft the
ground is fuffered to reft and fettle into hardnefs, the
accelTion is very flow : the ground cannot readily
drink in the moifture lodged on it from the atmof-
pherc. Depofited on the hard ground it is foon evapo-
rated. When the ground is not trod clofe by animals
pafturing on it, it will continue fomewhat open and
mellow, for readily imbibing moifture w-ith its nou-
riftiing combinations. But by long rcfting, ground
gradually fettles into a compadlnefs, and the tread of
beafts adds greatly to its confolidation.
In the extenfive. country of the peninfula of Chefa-
peak, there is no appearance oi calcarious matter in
the foil.* There indeed are on forae of the banks
of rivers, Indian colle£lions of oyfter fhells, clofely
confined to the edges of the banks. They are very
little applied to the fields : and I know of but one
inftance of their being fo applied. The clays there,
having
* This is faid of its appearance, ^\4thout any chemical exa-
rnination having been made of the foil.
VEGETATIOK. 22/
having the appearance of marl, tliat I have fcen, do
not cflFer vefce with a^ids. A gre^c deal of gravelly
and fandy poor land, is- within the peninlula ; and
there is much good wheat land, which yields the moft
perfect grain, preferred by miilers for producing fu-
perfine flour : and Eng'.ilh peas, fown early in the
garden way, are every where a fure crop. I know
lands in Maryland which have been under crops,
moftly maize, upwards of an hundred years ; and in
the lafl: forty or fifty years in maize and wheat, al-
ternately, with one year of reil, unfown ; and
though they fhew no appearance of any calcarlous
matter, yet they yield perfect grain. Pool's liland
1 have long known : in all which time it has been
cultivated in two fields, alternately in maizs and
wheat. Its former proprietor who fold to mc, and
other old people have aiTured me that maize with
one year of rell, had been the conTrant culture of it,
till wheat near fifty years ago took place of the lay
or years of refl ; W'hich introduced the conrfe to be
maize, and wheat \ fo that one field was in maize,
the other in wheat, without any manure. All ma*
nure v/as applied to lots of tobacco, till tobacco was
dropt about thirty years ago. The foil is a rich
hazel loam on a good clay, I believe it has been
cultivated abo^e 120 years chiefly in maize and to-
bacco : and dill the prefcnt tenant procures fure crops-
of perfeft grain, much above the medium of the
country in quantity and quality. His crops arc
P 2. maize
228 PRINCIPLES OF
maize and wheat alternately ; yet the foil fhews no
appearance of calcarious matter.
Till lately I never heard that calcarious foils are
more favourable to clover than other foils. At Wye
in the peninfula of Chefapeak, where there is no ap-
pearance of calcarious matter in the ground, clover
thrives admirably well. I once fowed there, on
wheat which was fown on maize, the ground having
been many years cultivated in corns, without being
ever manured, 70 acres with clover feed, which
gave good pafture : but war prevented its being re-
newed. I had before been ufed to mow good clo-
ver from lots of dunged ground, on this Wye farm.
It was intended to repeat fowing clover feed, and
extend it to all fields of winter grain ; with the hope
that the clover plowed in together with the remains
of the grain stubble ^ year after year would gradually
meliorate the foil.* Gypfum did not anfwer as a
manure (the farm being nearly furrounded by a fait
water river). The fields were about 200 acres each :
farm-yard manure not much j and a want of grafs
was
* For our encouragement herein fee 2dpartof Tranfaclions
of New-York fociety of Agriculture, pa. 106, where is the re-
port of a fuccefiful experiment, in improving '' very poor
" loomy land grown over with mofs, and yielding fcarcely any
" paflure. It being plowed in the Jpring, and fo'ZL/ed nvith do-
" ver feed alone, four quarts an acre ; the next year it pro-
** duced a confiderable quantity of hay ; which was the '.nlj
" crop, and the land was much better afterwards."
VEGETATION. 229
U'lis a want of live-flock, and of every thing propor-
tionable to the fize and quality of the farm.
Well plowed foils in general, and all mellow found
foils retain moidure a due time : but they iliould
have the faculty of readily imbibing moillure, rather
than of holding it long flagnant : every frefli accef-
llon of moifture brings with it an accelTion of the
combinations of water, as a food to plants : and it
is better that the accelBon be gradual and frequent,
than feldom and in gluts. Cleaning and pulveriling
foil are means of its receiving and imbibing moifture
from the air. Manures add to the means : and
fome are efpecially remarkable for attracting moifture
in the driefl times, when mod \ranted. Gypfum
dull is noted for having this property ; which there-
fore to the lands in xlmerica, diflant from the ocean,
gives great fertility. But in Britain furrounded by
the ocean, and otherwife abounding in moifture, it
is faid to be of Httle eiEcacy, as alfo it is the cafe near
our coafl and bays. Attentive obfervers fay, where
the gypfum dufl is applied to plowed land, an adlual
moiilure is to be feen in the drieft times.
There are fandy foils in America, nearly barren for
want of texture. "Water paifes rapidly through
them, and manures have little to a£l on. Sandy foils
are lefs adapted to manures of the warm fermenting
kinds, than clay foils. Great rains long continued
arc
53^ PRINCIPLES Of
2JC more injiiriotis to maize growing on fand fields,
than on day or loam. They waih and carry down
all before them, and the dilution is esceiUvc. Maize
thrires better on fandy foil in dry feafons than v.ec
feafons : provided the plowings or horfe-hoings have
been and arc continued ro be inccffant in changing
the furfaces of the foil, till the taiTel and cars ihoot
out. Droppings and remains of plants, as is expe-
rienced of the Magothy-bay bean, alfo green drcff-
ings from plants plowed in, improve fandy foil.
When it is faid, dung finks in fandy foil, it may be
better faid that having but little to aft on, its effeft
isfcarcely feen. Give the fand tenacity and body,
by adding to it a clay foil, and then dung it ; even
try virgin clay and fand well dunged. I have feen
hemp grown very high on a mafs of deep loofe fand,
near a tobacco houfe ; and doubt not but that the
richnefs in the fand was in vegetable food accumu-
lated chiefly from tobacco fcraps ; which are greatly
adapted to drink in moifture from the air, and to-
bacco abounds in vegetable falts. Manures which
ferment are beft for clofe foils. Dung and clay foil
meeting, effeft mnch good. Green dreifings from
buckwheat, clover and the like, are advantageous in
fandy foils, as well as in flrong foils. It therefore
feems they cot only ferment and open the ground
(beft in clay foils) but alfo depoiit their falts and
other vegetable matter, for attracting humidity from
the
VEGETATION. 2^t
the air, and gently flimulating as well as aftually
feeding the plants, in fand as well as in clay foil.
Soil is in the befl: Hate for receiving feeds of plants,
in fpring and autumn ; as being feafons of temperate
heat. The ground being clean and well pulverifed,
the feedfman is to follow and fow clofe after the plow
or harrow on the frefti earth ;* and the feed is in-
flantly covered, clofe after the feedfman : befl in the
evening and morning. A fermentation of manure*
in the ground, at fome times, and lively foils when
fuddenly warmed after winter, at other times, occa-
fion the ground to fmoke, as it is called. The fud-
den warmth dilates the ground and gives a fpring to
moifture, which afcends from the earth more vifibly
than in common. Rivers of ice andhoufe tops alfo
emit fuch vapour at times of fudden warmth and
thaw.
The fun evaporates a part of the humidity lodged
on ground expofed to it, before the moifture can be
foaked in. Shade defends it, againft the fun effeft-
ing a quick evaporation. Shade therefore gives the
ground more time for drinking the moifture in with
its nouriftiing contents derived from the atmofphere :
and low plants probably emit an effluvium to the
ground,
* Kliyogg, the Swlfs farmer, fays this of fpring Barley; but
the rcverfe of "juhcat ; which he fliys is better for being fown
fome days after plowing the ground : and fo fays Mr. Macro,
of wheat on clover. Pa. 93.
t^i PRINCIPLES OF
ground, of an ameliorating nature.* Sheltering
ground, in fumraer or winter, feems better than
wholly expofing it to the fun in furamer or to froft
in \rinter. Temperate heat is probably bed for the
foil. I think but little of froft as an improver of
foil. It indeed breaks clods ; but the attentive
farmer will not plow his ground too wet to occaCon
them. FroU: is cold, and fnow is cold ; but fnow
prevents fevers blafls from fweeping off the genial
warmth of the ground, which with moiflure nalu-
rally afcends to the furface of the earth. Moiflure
is chiefly evaporated by the heat of the fun in fumr
mer, and by keen winds in frofly weatherf. Even
ice is reduced by thefe winds. Pour water on the
fleps of the north fide of your houfe, in a time of the
feverefl freezing and windy weather : it quickly is
formed into a fheet of ice ; which continually dimi-
nifhes afterwards, and in fome days will be fwept
off, according as the wind is more or lefs powerful.
I do not believe that frofl or keen winter winds im-
prove foils by an introduction of nitre. If fuch wea-
ther
* ExceiUvc fliade, fuch as would deprive the plants altoge-
tlier of the fun, or of due light, or power to emit their effluvia
and extend an atmofphere of their own, or receive gentle and
invigorating air, is not meant ; but only a due fhelter and
defence againfl injury from 'in}7nodsrute exhalation.
7 It is not meant but that the wind is alfo a powerful mean
ef evaporation in fummer as well as winter.
VEGETATION. ^33
thcr improves foils, how rich ought to be the foils
of the high latitudes ! There is it feems, at leafl in
weather free from ice, a continual afcent and defcent
of moifture with its combinations, vibrating from the
earth to the atmofphere, and from this again to the
earth. Does fevere froft interrupt its rout or inter-
courfe ? What then is the confequence ? — When
ground (heltered by a hollow fodder rick, during a
frofty winter, Oftober till April, proved for years
more produftive than where cattle were fed, in front
of it, and there dropt their dung and urine,* was it
becaufe of particles of rich Hciflure rufliing thither
from all points, where being fheltered from frofl and
wind they were concentrated for future gradual dif-
fufion to plants ? Here the ground, protefted from
keen winds and left open and mellow, is in condition
for abforbing nutriment in moiflure from all direc-
tions, unobftrucled by frofi:, and unevaporated by fun
and wind. Or did effluvia from the fodder and
corn-huiks within the rick or fodder-houfe, effect the
improvement of the foil ? Or was it from both ; at
the fame time that the tread of cattle hardened and
untilled the foil which was unlheltered ?
The common air gives neceffary motion to plants ;
which with heat promotes digeftion, and a degree of
circulation within them conducive to their growth
and
♦ See of :iils, pa. 125.
^34 PRINCIPLES or
and perfection. Earth is not the food of plants ;
hat together with the atmolphere, it contains their
fcxxJ. Both are generally reqoifite to the perfection
of them. Soil receives from the atmofphere, and it
feems the atmofphere from the foil, in a vibrating
mode, the nouriihment of plants ; a due portion
■whereof, on its paifages, is caught and conveyed to
their roots and leaves. Heat caufes evaporation, or
promotes the afcenfion of particles of moii'hire from
the earth to the atmofphere. This afccnt of moifturc
is moftly in the day ; as the defcent of it is in the
night, whilil the heat c^he air is diminiflied : and fo
probably are the times of afcent and defcent of the
juices of plants, in a kind of circulation within them.
The air, which is never quiefcent, glides alon? the
forface of the ground, and commits to it particles of
water with its combinations nutritive to plants, which
it drinks in the readier and the deeper for the ground
being pulveriied and mellow. If the ground is clofe
and hard, fuch particles depofited on it are not rea-
dily imbibed, but are foon evaporated. Of this I
have obferved inftances in fields of maize. The well
pnlverifed and frequently ftirred maize field, ihews
moLlure on the ground till late in the morning, and
never any drops or fpangles of dew. The lefs ftirred
ground -flicws fuch fpangles early in the morning ;
but they are foon evaporated as the fun advances,
fcarcely any of the dew having funk into the ground.
I have viewed with admiration, in the drieft fummers,
2
TEGETATION. ^^$
a clay-loam which had been incejantly ph'xed and
harrowed, turned up by the plow with a fine colour,
given it by moidure. This earth had fome adhefion
of its particles and crumbled j for it was dry, in a
^uft, only on the furface, a little way, and moiil un-
der that from dews continually abforbed : and more-
over, in the driefl: times, in winter as well as furamer,
temperate warmth with moifture afcends from the
interior of the earth to its furface, and then to the
atmofphere. On the driefl fpot of earth, fcrape a
place level ; and put a glafs tumbler on it, bottom
up. The glafs will fliew moifture on its inner fur-
face. Well pulverifed foil will catch and abforb
much of the palEng moifture, for the benefit of
plants, which otherwife would proceed direftly to
the atmofphere.
Plants receiving a large portion of their nourifh-
ment immediately from the air, rather fertilize than
impoverifli foil, where they are not carried off from
the ground, or fuffered to run "to feed. There arc
ftrong marks of plants meliorating ground by their
leaves and other offal dropt, and probably from their
perfpiration ; efpecially of the pulfe kind. Grain
and all feeds rob the earth more than bulbous or tap
rooted fruit does.
Wheat ought to have antipathy to the barberry
bufli 5 becaufe for forae diflance round it whear is
ufual'y
236 PRINCIPLES or
ufually rufted, although the reft of the field be free
from it. The barberry leaf and fruit are very acid.
Is it an acid effluvium from the bufli that corrodes
the wheat plant ? If fo, is rui1: or blight or mildew
generally produced by means of acid or fharp effluvia
floating over entire fields of grain from other acid
plants or corroding fubftances ?
Under growing chefnut trees, fcarcely any plant
thrives ; nor under the oak. On the other hand the
locuft tree is an improver. Every thing thrives un-
der it : the ground about it is better than what is
not near it, evidently to the eye. The black walnut
and the native black mulberry trees meliorate the
ground : but none equal the locuft tree ; the pods and
leaves whereof feera to have the effefl that the hum-
ble annual plant called Magothy-bay bean has on
fandy foils. Ginfeng grows beft, and is fcarcely if
at all to be found growing but in ihady grounds in
clofe forefls : and this is the cafe with many other
plants. I never faw any kind of fnake-root grow
but in the woods. Maiden-hair grows in (hade,
Tvhere the fun fcarcely ever (liines. The mofies de-
light in ihade, under and on the north fide of trees.
Plants on the fea coaft, when not greatly expofed
to bleak winds, thrive well. I have feen great
growths of maize there, on very fandy foil : and on
the banks cf the Chefapeak, a wide fea-water bay,
the
VEGETATION.
237
the fields are thought to bear cropping better, and
fooncr recover, than lands diftant from the bay. AH
the old cultivated lands mentioned in page 227 are
en the bay or fait rivers.
Heat increafes faccharine matter in plants and
brings them to perfection. A fmall field of maize
was planted late. The Auguft following was very
wet and cool. There was little hope of the maize
ripening. I ihewed it to a fenfible farmer, who ad-
vifed me to let it grow merely for fodder. But
having read of the blades of fugar canes being fome-
times dripped off, in Antigua, for maturing the canes
in wet cool weather, thefe maize plants were very
early ftripped of their blades, from the joint where
the ears were peeping out down to the ground, for
gaining more warmth from the fun to the ground and
plants. We were afterwards both furprifed at the
ripening of a good part of the corn. Maize-ftalks
abound in faccharine juice. MelalTes and fpirit have
been produced from them, for domeflic ufes.
The germ of many kinds of garden feeds pcrifiies
when the feeds are fown in a hot feafon on a hot
ground, although raked in. I alfo fufpeCl the germ
of wheat is fometimes injured when fown in the hot
feafon, as in Maryland, and left forae time on the
ground before it is covered. But clover feed ftrewcd
in March or April on fields of v/hcat, or on barley
fown
238 PRINCIPLES or
fown in the preceding autumn, or in the fame March
or April, never fails, although uncovered. I have
generally fowed fo, in March ; and it is the common
practice in February, March or April. Thus lefs
feed anfwers : all comes up : none is fmothered un-
der lumps of earth.
Farmers fay, plants grow moftly in the night.
They obferve it chiefly of maize ; which at times has
furprifmg ftarts in growth.
Manure promotes the growth of plants by its fer-
mentation and warmth opening the foil for readily
admitting humidity from the air with its nutritious
contents ; and for facilitating the extenfion of the
tender fhoots of roots : or by attrafting moifturc
with its combinations from the earth and atmofphere :
or by its depofiting matter, that if not of itfelf nutri-
tious to plants, at leaft it promotes the accefs of fuch
as is nutritious to it. It is faid ground is fometimes
exhaufled by a ftimulus from manures. The plant is
a more likely fubjeft of flimulation, as liaving life;
and a ftimulus to the plant may be a mean of promot-
ing its growth. It alfo is faid, lime exhaufts land by its
ftimulus. It Indeed has injured ground v/hen applied
in too great quantities ; which tends to reduce foil,
in fome degree, to a mortar : and the cauftic quality
of lime when applied immoderately may, fo will fait,,
deftroy plants, and alfo a part of their nutrition de-
pofited in the foil. But in facl, it is nearly altoge-
ther
VEGETATION.
thcr repetitions of exhaufling crops taken from the
ground which effe<^ the mifchief. The farmer gives
once, and takes for ever. If lime exhaufts ground
by deflroying the nutrition depofitcd there, it muit
be without having promoted any growth in the
plants. The injury done by lime, is faid to be from
ftimulating the ground, and with a kind of violence
forcing it to yield great crops ; whereby the foil
is exhaufted : and indeed at length it is exhaufted
— by the crops — not by the manure. It is better
to give the ground a moderate portion of lime at
a time, and apply it more frequently. In England,
it is laid on to upwards of 300 bufhels an acre :
in Pennfylvania to ico, as meafured whilft unflack-
ed: and ought to be renewed in feven or cicrht
years. It fometimes happens with lim.e and with
gypfura, and even with dung, that after having per-
formed wonders, they are fo much thought of and
fo long depended on that the foil is cropped to death,
and then it is faid, the manure, though at ilrfl fuc-
ccfsful, has by its ftimulation exhaufted the ground
and left it fteril : when in fadl the numerous and fe-
vere crops exhaufted it— a common cafe. A farm
in Maryland, reputed a poor place, was bought by a
fpirited farmer, whom I foon after vifited when his
plows were breaking up its old lay, deep. It {hewed
a good wheat foil. The hiftory of this edate is,
that an Englifli fervant had procured extraordinary-
crops from it for feven years. His time our, he went
oft;
240 PRINCIPLES Of
off; and it was afterwards for many rears cultivated
by the mafler and his family in their own way. It
then obtained the character of being a poor place ;
for that Engliili John had worked its heart out by
deep and much plowing. But the farmer who now
bought it cheap, cultivated it boldly ; and thereby
reftored it to the good name it had in John's time.
"Wheat flrav.' trod {hort in getting out the grain,
proved to be fo conflderable a manure, on my Wye
farm, that wheat fown after it, in September, on the
ground to which this ftraw was given in April and
imfantly plowed in muck '•jcet 2ii^foft, gave much of
flraw with inferior grain ; in fome meafure as if the
ground had been over-dunged. From whence it
feems that flraw plozued in 'u;hiht muck -juet from
foaking rains that have foftencd it, and in a time of
due ivarmtb in the air for fermentation is a confl-
derable manure : when if it be plowed in under lefs
favourable circuraflances, it is fcarcely feen to effect
anv ?ood.
The turf dikes to folds, ufed in Scotland, prove io
be fuch excellent manure, as to fuggeft the making
trial of coarfe hay and grafs mixed 'u.'itbgood earth, and
heaped up together like the dikes, and {heltering
them from fun and rain, as for making fait petre ;
but leaving the fides open to receive the rich humi-
dity of the air.
Farmers
VEGETATION. 24!
Farmers plow the grounds of their orchards ; and
lake from them crops of potatoes, clover, or corns.
They think it advantageous to the trees, to p
the ground about them frequently.
!c\v
The earth is more thoroughly pulverifed by the
plow than the fpade : provided that it is in conditi-
on to crumble before the mould-board.
The kinds of vermin and infers in foil, which I
have found hoRilc to plants are chiefly worms and
ants ; and in the air, flies and fmall beetles of vari-
ous kinds. Until about the year 1772, the nioih-
fly, defcribed by Mr. Dubarnel, v.as extremely nu-
merous, common, and deftruclive in every year,
to wheat after it was reaped. They did not afFeft
plants. Although the taking notice of them in this
place is foreign to the queflion refpe<51:ing only plants,
yet the damage done by them to wheat corn, was
fo immenfe and fo conflant for near twsnty years,
in Maryland, whilfl all attempts to avoid them were
made in vain, the defpondcncy fo great, and the
accidental difcovery of the means of avoiding them
fo important, that the mentioning it, together with
the following circumftances cannot be here avoided.
In that year, encouragem.ent was held out, for the
approaching new crop of wheat to be Ihipped im-
mediately after harveil:. The farmers exerted their
powers, and fooner than till then was thought if
O could
242 PRINCIPLES OF
could be done, trod out, fold and delivered their
wheat to the fliippers, who were bold in this new
experiment ; which proved that wheat of this coun-
try, keeps well in ihips, when carried to Europe on
being Ihipped foon after it is reaped : and this get-
ting out wheat immediatel)' after harvefl:, has con-
tinually proved to be a perfect fecurity againfl the
moth-fly, from that time to this. From the year
1773, 1 ufually trod out and fold my crops of
wheat in July or Augufi:, of the year when reaped.
From 1785, in every year, on the third day that
ray reaping commenced, I began to draw in the
wheat, and then alternately trod and drew ic in,
every day during harvefl:. It was about the 19 of
June when the reaping began : 24 horfes, fix in each
of four equidiftant radii, gently trotting on the
wheat flieaves cut open, round a circle of near 400
feet, trod out near 200 bulhels a day, medium.
One day 416 bufliels ; the horfes driven hard, on
a wa^er of the overfeer.* Our wheat treads out
eafiefl in or foon after harveft, before it has fvvcat-
cd : and the feafon is ufually then very dry. This
moth-fly was fcarcely known, but in the peninfula
of Chefapeak, and the lower country of Virginia
and Carolina. The HeJJian flj is a new comer,
fuppofed to have been imported in the ftraw or beds
cf rh£ mercenary Heflian foldiers, in the year 1776.
It
* See pr.ge %^. 204. 205.
VEGETATION. 243
It dcpofits its nits or its eggs in the plant clofe to the
ground, whilfl growing. ITie young are there ia
the maggot (late, for fome time flationary ; and
feeding on the lender blanched part of the flalk,
wound and check the growth of the plant. No-
thing is known to be done, at prefent, better againfl
them than to give a vigorous growth to the plants,
by manuring and cultivating the ground well ;
which admits of late fowing : and this greatly
checks their progrefs. A few years ago they a-
bounded in the country near Philadelphia ; except-
ing in the highly cultivated diftri^l of rich land be-
low the city. There I could not difcover the leaft
llgn of them in the growing wheat of a number of
fields ; at the fame time that on the fide of the city
■ tow^ards Germantown, where the foil is thinner and
not fo well cultivated, few plants Vv^ere free from
them in the only field that I there examined. We
have alfo numbers of fmall infects popularly called
loufe, flea, 8zc. which in autumn injure much of
the young plants of wheat ; like the fly on turnip
plants, chiefly in dry weather. I never knew grafs-
hoppers do any uo table damage to wheat, but ia
one year ; when, in Maryland, they ruined mod
of the fields of wheat, in autumn. It is flill called
the grafshopper-year. On that occaflon I fowed
fome ground twice, and fome thrice over again. In
Tvlaryland is alfo a fly called, from its fmcll,
ckinch'bugi the fmell being fimilar to that of the
Q^ 2 chinch
244 BEST PRODUCT
chinch or bed-bug : and I fufpc^l that dropping its
wings at times, it alTumes fomething of the charac-
ter of certain ants, which are fometimes with wings,
at other times without them. The chinch-bug
chiefly injures maize plants, by wounding them a-
bout the lower joints. It is not fo generally mif-
chicvous as the moth and Heffian flies : but is it not
nearly allied to the latter, which alfo, in the au-
tumn drops its wings where it alights to depoftt its
eggs, as I am ajfured by an attentive farmer of Ches-
ter county.
NECESSARIES:
■ Best Produd of Land : Best Staple of Commerce,
In the winter, 1769, under this title, I wrote on
the fchemc, then agitated, for introducing into ge-
neral practice in the then American colonies the cul-
ture oi filk and wine. It was fome time afterwards
printed and difperfed among my friends.
The phiiofophers, rather than the politicians of
America, with the befl: motives, endeavoured to in-
duce the country people to apply their labour and
attentions to the culture of wine and fdk ; as it
feems, vrithont confidering they might therein be fe-
conding the wilhes of a jealous connexion that we
(hould apply ourfelves to cultivating thofe articles
of
OF LAND.
245
of luxury, rather than continue to depend on and
cultivate the materials of bread ; in which we then
abounded as the firfl: ftaple of our commerce, and
the firfl neceflary of life : and it was thought to inter-
fere with the Britifli farmer, though groundlefsly ;
as Britain buys more bread than flie fells, which has
fmce been declared to the king of Great Britain by
his council.
The tobacco colonies were already more depend-
ent than the bread colonics : and it was obfervable
that as the culture of wheat, and the manufafturing
it into Jlour travelled fouthward, from county to
county through Maryland, the tobacco culture de-
clined, and the people became more happy, and in-
dependent of the Britifli ftore keepers who had kept
them in debt and dependent.
The perfons in America who promoted the deflgn
of introducing the wine and filk culture, certainly
did not confider it as interfering with or tending to
eat out the better ftaple, bread: but it fo forcibly
flruck me with having this very mifchicvous tend-
ency that I could not withhold my opinion of it ;
efpecially as it was countenanced by a number of in-
rtances in hiftory ; which I confidered as being fup-
ported by the then a£lual flate of the wretched
parts of Europe compared with the more happy
countries of it — the fouthern with the northern —
246 ^^ST PRODUCT
xhcjilk and whie countries with the bread and beer
countries.
It is a principle of found prudence that whenever
in matters of government, law, and commerce, any
material alteration is propofed, we fhould beware of
latent confeqnences, and look forward and confider,
however flattering appearances are, what may be
the mifchievous tendency of fuch innovation when
adopted. Iris better to drudge on in a temperate and
middle state, than to aim at loo much ; and, " It is
*' not cafy to determine upon theory the fuccefs of
*^ pohtical innovations."
The firll great effential of life is bread. If Ame-
rica had adopted the fchcme, it may be fuppofed
that with her filk and wine fhe alfo would have
made fome bread : fo it is with the poor peafants of
fouth Europe ; but her labour and attention being
diverted more efpecially to railing the luxuries^ which
could neither properly feed or clothe her, fhe has
alas ! only aimed at growing a fcanty flock of grain,
barely for family confumption, and falling fhort in
that, becomes miferably dependent on foreign coun-
tries for a fupply from them.*
See
* Italy formerly exported com ; but after'A'ards became de-
penderj on other countries for its daily bread. This is afcribed
by the Roman authors to the nc^ks ofiiUaoe. Columjel. Pracf .
Suston. Aug. C. 42. " The country about Volifib, in the
OF LAND. ij47
Sec the condition of the fouthern countries of
Europe : all Italy, Spain, Portugal, a great part
of France, and till lately that the cultivation of corn
became the firll objeft of the attention of its govern-
ment, the whole of France, employing their chief
labour and care in cultivating wine or filk : and
though they are fine countries for yielding ivbeat^
and forae is cultivated in them, yet not aiming at
that article as a staple of commerce, how conilantly
are they in want of, and how dearly do they ^ay
Grangers for bread.*
In
iiland of Chio or Sciros, in the Archipelago, is very pleafant,
fpacious znd fruitful. The inliabitants raife 5000 v/eight of filk
yearly ; '•juUh which they pay their trilule. It is thought they lie
under a curie of being al-ways deflilute of bread" Thev. Trav.
— The curie is but the natural ccn£equencc of their negkfting
to cultivate a fruitful country in corn, for tlie fake of raifmg
the gew-gaw article filk. Had die tribute been referveJ in
corny their attention being thereby drawn efpecially to that ob-
jedl, the curfe of wajiting bread would never have fallen on
them.
" The Druzees, in Syria, do not grow corn enough to fup-
pcrt thcmfelves three months in the year. They have no
nianufa«5lures. All their exportations are confined to Jili and
cottons : the balance whereof exceeds very little, tlie importaticn
of corn ." Vol. Syr. vol. ii.
* It may feem an odd pof^tion, fays Mr. Hum;, that the po.
very of tlie common people of France, Spain, and Italy is in
Tome meafure owing to the fuperior riches of the foil and hap-
plnefs of the climate : and yet there want not many rc.ifous
24^ BEST PRODUCT
In the war of 1744, France in the midftof almofi;
uninterrupted victories and conquells, whilil her la-
bour and attention were applied to the cultivation of
wine and fiik, v/as compelled to make peace and re-
linquifli her conquells, merely from a ivatit of corn ;
when her enemies had only the barren ifland of Cape
Breton to give in exchange. Ever fmce that fore-
felt fcarcity, it has been her policy to encourage the
cultivation of corn^ in preference to all other articles
of land produce : feeing and feeling, that however
great and flouriihing they may be in other refpecls,
bread being wantingj fubmijpon must follow » This is
an
to juilifj this paradox. The fine vineyards of Champaign and
Burgundy are cultivated by peafants who have fcarce bread :
but the farmers and graziers are in better circumftances in
thefe countries. Hu. EJf.
Connevfllcut is valuable (or grain and padure. Any coun-
try is happy vrhere the people in common are plentifully and
■wholefomely fed, and warmly and decently clothed : thus it
is in Connecricut. Dottgl. Sum.
"The inhabitants o£ the zvine couniry abont Bingen on the
Rhine, are fome extremely rich, and others extremely poor ;
the happy middle ftate is not for countries the chief proJuci
whereof is nvine ; for befides that the cultivation of the vins-
yardis infinitely more troublefome and expenfive than the cul-
tivatlon of grain, it is fubjeded to fudden and great rcvolu-
ticr.-;, which at once reduce the landholder to a low condi-
tion." Tour through Germ, anon p. 64.
OF LAND. 249
an axiom applicable to individuals, as well as to na-
tions.*
It is reckoned by Mr. Hume, bad policy in Britain
to obflrua the ufe of French wines ; when they ought
rather to be encouraged in the application of their
labour in making more wines, by the free ufe of them
in England ; becaufe each new acre of vineyard
planted in France, for fupplying Britain with wine,
would make it requifite for the French to take the
produce of a Britifh acre fown in wheat, in order to
fubfiil themfelves : " and it is evident, he adds, we
" have thereby got the command of the better com-
" modityJ*
Intimations have alfo been thrown out, in Ame-
rica, encouraging the people with flattering prcfpefts
of
♦ After the battle of Blenheini, the French army -vvar.ted a
large fupply of recruits ; and there being a great fcarcity of
bread in the country, the French king ordered his public ftores
of bread to be well taken care cf. The foldiers alone were
well fed out of them, whilft the country people were ftarving ;
•which occafioned them through necejjity to flock to the army,
and inlift in crowds. 2 Ha. Huf. 538. Here then we have
an inftance of the application of the axiom to private as the
text is of a ^whVxc fubml^ion for 'want of bread, Mr. Hume
fays, " There are many edidls of the French king, prohibiting
" the planting new vineyards, and ordering thofe lately plant-
«' ed to be grubbed up : fo fenfible are they of the fuperior va-
*' lue cf corn ever every otber product.^*
250 BEST PRODUCT
of great wealth to them, would they employ their
attentions in cultivating ftlk. So it was that theilrfl:
'James of England, attempted to infe6l the minds of
the people of England. But it is an employment
equally inconfiftent with the genius of the Englifh^,
as of the American people — a feminine bufmefs at
leaft.*
Thcfilk raifed in France yielded fuch an immenfe
apparent profit, that king 'James repeatedly recom-
mended from his throne, the raifmg j*?//^ worms in
England :' but the people fell not into his fcheme,
although perhaps more earneflly preffed by him and
his fervants than moll other matters — even by the
Judges on the circuits, however foreign to their
office ; and there could be no doubt of the filk worm
thriving and working as well in England as in other
parts of Europe j as appeared from many experi-
ments, befides what are recorded in the tranfadtions
of their Philofophical Society.
It was not many years ere that brilliant bufmefs be-
gan to decline rapidly, in France ; where now it is
quite trifling to what it then was : for, the ^^ profit
being little elfe than apparent , was not realifed."
The
* Yet It has again been attempted, lately to be Introduced
into England, by the focicty of arts, Temp. G. III. Ttun^'s
Trav. in Fr. 98.
OF LAND. 251
The people of England rejected the royal fcheme
for making them rich ; the employment being fuitablc
only to effeminate, fpiritlefs, flow nations : and it is
obfervabic that, all the world over, the filk culture
flouriflies chiefly among people of that cafl: ; who are
every where in a ftate of miferabie oppreflion or
flavery. The very nature of the employment tends to
enervate that hardinefs and vigor, which is a general
effe^ of manly labour and employment, and to effe-
minate the nation that fliall ever ftumble on it.*
But it is faid,7r/,^ would be luomen's work. Be it
fo : yet if our wives and daughters, were to raife as
m\\c)\Jilk as would purchafe all the clothing and food
wanted, the men, undoubtedly, would become idle
and indifferent to other produce in quantities. The
lands would be but little, if at all, cultivated or im-
proved ; and the ivo?nen performing in a few weeks
the bufinefs 01 raifing wonns and reeling filk, would
become equally indolent for the refl: of the year.
Both the men and the women would, in time, become
ignorant of hufbandry and houfewifery. Nor could
the/ilk more readily purchafe what we fhould want,
than
* '• A large Jili nuork has lately failed in France. Eipe-
" rience convinces me of infinite difficultv in the fuccefs of
" fuch a manufaftory. HhzfJth z.nd Jlencb of the infeft are
" alib dilgufting. I abandon tlie fubjeit to its native climates ;
" for in houfes it is IntohralU to the meatieft ptafaiU'j." L.t-
tcr to Mr. Young, in 179 1. 17 An. 511.
ars BEST PRODUCT
than money would. If a mountain of dollars was
open to all the people, with which they fliould
purchafe what at prcfent they labour in the fields to
produce, can there be any difficuhy in conceiving
the wretchednefs and dependency in which a country
of people, fo circumflanced, would prefently be
plunged ? How totally ignorant the next generation,
of agriculture, commerce and the arts ! " The riches
" and fafety of a country confifl in the number of
'• its inhabitants 'u.-ell e:nployed,^^*
The people of Carolina, long ago, were to be made
rich from the culture of fdk, and they entered hear-
tily on the bufinefs, under every encouragement ;
yet, in twenty-five years, they exported only 2511b
of raw fiLk, from their worms ; and in the fame time
imported 40520!^, wrought j befides what was mix-
ed with other materials :
* '' Near Prmceion Nevr-Jeifej, Anno 1794, are large plan-
*' tations of the mulberry tree, for the culture of \hzjilk rvorm.
" Some of the farmers greatly objed to them, as interfering
" with more ufefol domeftic occupations and encouraging
" kahiis of Idlenefs .'' Wanfey's Journal, pa. 193.
A Tabic
OF LAND.
253
A Table of Raw Silk exported from the Carolinas
to Britain, in 25 years ; from 1731 to 1755: and
o/" Wrought Silk, alone, and ??iixt in Stuffs of the
Manufadure o/" Britain, imported from thence into
the Carolinas, -within the fame years :
Total.
Medium?
ptrann.5
EXPORTS.
Silk with
vrorfled.
th.
537
892
I34I
937
864
516
790
1177
877
1492
2452
^35^
T ofkO
Silk with
Inkle.
lb.
Silk with
Grogram.
15.
440
144
122
181
184
33"^
386
74
223
291
218
190
374
337
7
1296
615
590
2050
1658
1065
1258
1933
2060
2236
2300
2634
40
34
50
7
1 150
1
34982 3669
1400 . 1461
291
ThiT
254
BEST PRODUCT
This is .taken from a ftate of Carolina pubiiHied by
DodJIey^ in London, in 1761 ; in which the author
alio fays — " I cannot help exprcfung my furprife and
*' concern to find there are annually imported into
*' this country (Carolina) confiderable quantities of
" Flanders lace, the fined Dutch linens and French
" cambricks, chintzes, hyfon tea, and other goods,
" filk, gold and lilver lace, Saz. by which means we
" are kept in low circumflances ; and though it may
*' have the appearance of being, for the prefent, be-
" neficial to commerce, yet it retards our iucreafe,
" both in people and wealth."
It cannot be thought I mean we {hould be wholly
employed in cultivating ^r,j/;2. It is only wiihed that
we ihould not drop nor at all relax from cultivating
the articles of life, to the greatest estent ; that in a
courfe of traffic we may make luxuries and delicacies
fubfervient to them ; and never let ncceffaries depend
on luxuries. In railing all the neceflaries, " the bet-
ter commodities'' for ftaples of trade, that we can, a
fafe game is played j as we then have a m0r.1l cer-
tainty of our real w^ants being ever fupplicd ; and
there will always be a furplufage of the neceflaries
to fell or exchange with llrangers for their delicacies
and luxuries, whereby our imaginary or artificial
wants would alfo be gratified.
Nor need it be objected to the making ivine, by
perfons
OF LAND.
'^SS
perfons who may be difpofed to grow the grape and
produce the wine for family confumption ; but not at
all for fale, left it be extended to exportation. Indi-
viduals will choofe for themfelves, the application of
their labor : but it is hoped that legi/lators and men of
influence will rather difcountenance than encourage
the cultivation of articles of luxury, in quantities
efpecially.
It is not a great many years fmce wheat firil be-
came a confiderable article of exportation from Ma-
ryland, and then from Virginia. Before which time,
afts of the legillatures of Maryland and Virginia,
were not unfrequent for prohibiting exportation of
Indian corn, becaufe of 2. fear city of it for anfwering
the neceffary wants of the country : and fo inconfi-
derable was the quantity of wheat then fown, that
the prohibitory afts fcarcely, if at all, ever mentioned
wheat. As much Indian corn was cultivated as the
planter deemed fufficiont for giving bread to his fa-
mily, and food to his horfes and hogs. Some indeed
aimed to raife it for the market. Wheat was fown in
a lot or patch, for giving puddings, pics, and wheat
bread on high days. Tobacco engaged the chief at'
tcntion. The planter always aiming at making as
much of it as he could. All dung was given to the
tobacco ground. What of jnaize corn the planter
could fparc from family wants, was fold for rum :
the tobacco was partly configned, and the produce
laid
256 BEST PRODUCT
laid out as well in luxuries as neceflailes ; fo that
at the end of the year, if the planter was not left in
debt, which he often was, he had little or nothing
left but his land.
It was a flrikin;^ inflance 0^ wheat bein?- the better
commodity, that as the cultivation of it advanced into
Maryland, and then V'wginia, proceeding from our
northern neighbours, the demand and of courfe the
price increafed : and as the culture of wheat pro-
grelTed fouthward, the country people became more
improved in their fentiments, manner of living, and
independency of ftore keepers, dealers in merchan-
dize. Between tobacco and hemp, how great the
contrafl: ! Tobacco a luxury ; hemp a neccjfary in
great demand. It is in every fenfe the hufbandman
and politician can conlider it, " the better commodlty*^*
—for private and for public advantage.
It however may happen in another century, that
fine materials and raanufaftured goods will be arti-
cles of commerce from the interior country, far from
navigation, rather than bulky, cheap, and heavy ar-
ticles, becaufe of longhand carriage ; whilft heavy,
grofs, and cheap articles will be from the countries
near enough to navigation ; of which grain is one as
being too heavy, for its price, to bear a diftant land
carriage. Let us then continue to cultivate bulky
necfjfaries, for the flaple of commerce. The more
bulky
OF LAND. 257
bulky the better ; becaufe it employs more {hips.
Wheat is therefore better than filk, as alfo for the be-
fore-mentioned reafons. Tobacco j although a luxury,
is better than the luxury fur : and rice is every way
better than indigo.
Probably, the chief export of produce in the ma-
ritime country between Connecticut and James Ri-
ver, will htjlour : of South Carolina, Georgia, and
the Floridas, rice, cotton and viaize : North Carolina,
naval stores and maize : MaiTachufetts and other parts
of New England, j/^, cattle and horfes : MiiTiiGppi,
lumber, iron, hemp ! in (liips built there, and never
returning they are fold abroad.
It is faid that in all countries there are fpots of
land too poor for any other cultivation than of the
vine ; and that it is the cafe in America. I know of
no fuch foil in our America ; and believe there is no
foil fuitable to the vine that would not produce fome
more ufeful plant. There are indeed disirids of
countries, abroad, poor and rocky, which produce
delicious wines. They are in wine countries, where
that culture has been fomehow introduced, and then
rivetted on the miferable inhabitants, who moflly
want bread. There are other countries equally ^or-
iioned with rocks and poverty of foil, in as good cli-
mates. Thefe produce no delicious wine — no wine
R at
2^$ BEST PRODUCT, Iffc,
at all, or none for exportation : but they yield bready
abundantly ; and it is a requifite of comfort and con-
folation.*
Where of lands poor and rocky, snly an acre can
be cultivated to advantage, of better land clear of
rocks, an hundred acres can be well cultivated, with
lefs labour, in fields of grain. In the former, grain
enough yor a family cannot be obtained by culture.
The proprietor of it therefore looks for a plant which
will yield much of foraething from little land : and
he pitches on the grape. But the vine requires ma-
nure ; and the acre of grapes takes as much labour
and attention as the hundred acres of wheat. If
poor land is bed for the vine, it is fo only with the
additions of manure and the highefl cultivation.
Cultivate poor land equally well, and look about for
a plant of more value, at lead: in point of ufe ; hemp,
flax^ coiton. But why the vine ? If employment is
wanted, feek the better employment in the better land ;
and take example by the fufferings of a great nation!
If however you are pofitively impelled to grow the
vine and make wine, yet be fo conliderate as not to
lead
* The aboTe fpeaks of entire couniries, portioned with
rocky and poor foil, which is cultivated yi.r producing •wincy
and thefe want bread : but other countries equally rocky and
poor, regardlefs ofivine, are cultivated _/cr producing bread, and
therefore abound in it.
FAMILY SALT. 259
lead others to follow you in fuch barren foil, and
fiich inferior employment and purfuit. Rather ad-
vifc thera to beware of fuch an experiment ; that
they may make all happy at home in an abundance
of wholefome food, and decent clotbijig, with the
aid of their placid wives and rofy children, cultivat-
ing or manufacturing necejpiries within therafclves j
and fparing to ftrangers the furpiufage of their ^rtf/«,
their luool, and their hemp ; best commodities ! choiceil
materials of domestic and national employ-
ment I*
FAMILT SALT.
Many houfewives prefer blowr.^ or fine white fait
for all purpofes ; even for curing meat and fiih.
But their meat and fifh are cured lefs perfectly than
what the Hollanders and fome other people fait and
R 2 barrel
* Bread and clothing, in ever fo great plenty, cannot aiTurc
a permanency of enjoyments, but with the means of iL-'er.ce
againft plunctering nations. The eflentiiil means of defence
are arms and ammun'd'ion : thefe alfo are neccjanes : and expor-
tation of fuch of them as are manufailured in the nadon,
ought to be encouraged, till they become one of the Naples of
our commerce : for the more they are exported, L'le more will
our nation abound in them ; and the fecurer will be cur peace
and independence. Peace i? beft preferred by being r:adj tj
ri^f.
26o FAMILY SALT.
barrel up. Jn Americaj^ as far as I know, we make
no attempt to cleanfe or refine the fait we ufe : and
our meat and fifti are rather dirty, and apt to be-
come rancid and damaged.
The people of England have been ufed to refine
the fait wherewith they cure meat : but it is faid to
be in an inferior degree. The Dutch people it is
faid, are fuperior to all others in the purity of the
fait they ufe ; and that their method of refining it is
a fecreu among themfelves. How beautifully clean
and well flavored is their meat and their fifh in bar-
rels : They are it is faid obliged, by Iwivs '■x-ell obfer'V'
ed, to purify all the fait they apply to provifions in-
tended for exportation : and fo are compelled to reap
an advantage, in a preference at foreign markets ; as
well as incidentally to prefervc fuch articles, in a
fiveeter, ivholefomer condition for home confuraption.
The Dutch ufe bay-bXt from Spain, and Portugal,
after having made it very pure. Salt is produced,
generally, by evaporating fea water : and this is by
means of the fun and wind, or by boiling the water.
The method hj fun and ivind \s. flow and regular ;
which produces bay-idXi, (on the fides of bays in
ponds) and the fpirit of the fait is preferved in a
high degree. That hjfire is quick^ and gives blown-
fait J which lofes much of its fpirit by a rapid cv^po-
_^- ration
FAMILY SALT. 261
ration in boiling the fea water. This fpirit of the
fait is eflential for keeping provifions ; and when ex-
tra£led and applied to pickle, gives an agreeable fla-
vor : fo that ^i7^-falt, both as it has lefs of the ifad
fubftances, and more of the/pirit of the fait, which
is an eifential of it, is preferable in its qualities to
blown or boiled fait ; belides its greater weight in
the bulhel.*
Lord DundonalcTs method of refining fea fait,
(which he feems. to have applied only to Britilh
blown fait) is fimple and cheap. An account of it
will be acceptable to the houfewives who are happily
difpofed to have things perfe£l, and who would feel
aihamed to be behind their mod a£live and ingeni-
ous neighbours in the perfect neatnefs and ufefulnefs
of their produftions. With pleafure they will fee
their fait purified from the foreign mixtures, which
tend to foul, make rancid^ corrode and corrupt
meat. Befides Lord Dundonald's method, for
blown fait, given below, I venture to propofe a
trial of another mode, for coarfc bay-falt, and for
thofe who have not a conic velTel and the means of
conveying and continuing the heat through a flue :
though it is doubtful whether for want of fuch con-
tinued
* Thc/pirit of fea fait ^ is of the nature of both the vitrioGc
and the oitrout acid. Cavallo.
'2,62 FAMILY SALT.
Ihmed heat. It will prove to be efFeftual but with
vafl: iofs, with blown or fine grained fait ; when for
ordinary purpofes, mere wafliing large grained bay-
falt may fuffice.
Lord Dundoiiald' s Method of Rejining Common Salt.
A veiTel of a conical figure, having a hole in the
fmall end, is placed near a fire : the large end up-
permofl. It is fixed fo that it can be heated by a
flove, with a flue round the veflel. It is filled with
fait ; -2:V part whereof is taken out and diflblved in
' water, jufl; fufficient to difiblve it, in an iron veflel.
This folution is made to boil, and is then poured on
the furface of the fait, in the conic vefi"el. The hot
folution being already faturatcd, will diffolve no
moTeJea-falt ; but as it defcends and filtrates through
the fait in the veflel, will liquify and diffolve the mag-
nefia falita and magncfa 'vitriolata, which drop out at
the aperture of the veflel below. AVhen it ceafes
to drop, take out another -^^ part of the fait in the
veflTel, which diflx)lve, and proceed as before : and
repcR-t the like procefs with freih portions of fait
taken out of the veflel, until what fait remains be
. pure as is required. Three walhins^s as above, ren-
der Britifh made fait purer than bay-{2\i.* — Each
operation
* So that whatever dirty appearances ^.Tj'-falt has, more
tlian Englifh fait, it is fo much purer from thi corronve nau-
FAMILY SALT. ^^3
operation renders it 4I- times purer than it was be-
fore. Its purity will increafe in the following pro-
grcffion : the firft operation 41'^^^ Second 20 ; the
third 91 ; the fourth 410 ; and the fifth 1845 times.
The fuperior quality of the fait, thus freed from the
bitter, naufeous, corrofive falts and injurious 7?^^-^, is
he fays obvious to the taftc as it is fuperior in its ele-
gance and goodnefs in preferving fifli, meat and but-
ter. Newcaftle fait, he adds, contains -^V of its
weight of thofe bitter, putrefcible falts, which aid,
inflead of preventing putrefaaion. A buHiel, 561b*
of bloivnMt contains 54tb of thofe bad falts.and mix-
tures.*
Lord
feous bittern ^.ndjlack, that the Brilijh cleaner looking fine fait
requires three purifications, for rendering it barely better than
the %-falt ; although each operation purifies at a four-fold
rate. How very inferior, then, is the Mown fait for preferv-
ing meat, in the ftate we buy and ufe it, without being refined.
—Had Lord Dundonald any other fait refined, or in his view,
than Britifi bhivn-Jalt ? It feems as if barely wafhing bay/alt
in water, will refine it of its dirt, and make it fuperior to
bloivn-falt three or four times refined as above. To give fu-
periority to this bay-falt, after walhing it from dirt, it needs
only one of Dundonald's refinings. Then how fuperior would
it be on three fuch refinings ! yet I doubt of there being any
injurious fubftance attached to bay-falt than what is external,
on the furface of tlie grains,
• See " Thoughts on the Manufaaure and Trade ol' Salt ;"
by Dundonald in a pamphlet.
^64 FAMILY SALT.
Lord Dundonald refined 500 bufheh of fait at a
time, in one l^rgt conical hopper inverted.
Country families would find It advantageous to re-
fine their fait for a year's purpofes at a time. Octo-
ber is a leifure month, and fait is then cheap : but
August might be preferable for preferving heat to
the fait in the hopper. Thus would be always at
hand a coufideraole pure fait for curing fifii, beef,
pork, and butter. "When the fait is refined and
dried it is to be beat or ground down till Jine^ and
kept clofe from duft.
When fait is applied in a pozvdcr, it inflantly
flrikqs into meat, effects its purpofe, and goes fur-
ther than if it was coarfe. Meat ought to be struck
with poivdercd fait, in the moment when it becomes
cool ; and not left as is common, for hours longer
even in warm weather. Tendency to putrefaction
foon commences ; and long before it is difcerniblc.
Salting fhould precede this tendency, and fo prevent
it ; for fait cannot fo elFectually stop putrefaction, as
it can prevent its commencement.
A Method propcfed for Refining Salt, hi Country Fa-
milies, en Lord Dundonald's Principles.
Make a hopper of four fides, as for extracting ley.
Of the quantity of fait put into it, difiblve a twen-
^eth part, in as much cold water as will jufl diiTolve
it.
FAMILY SALT. iS^
it. The refl: of the fait, before ic is put into the hop-
per, fpread and make hot in a moderately heated
oven or pot. Whilfl: the oven is heating, the folu-
tion of the twentieth of fait is made to boil. Now
place the hot fait in the hopper ; and immediately
pour the boiling folution over it. For a fecond pro-
cefs on the/ame fait, take out of the hopper another
twentieth of the fait, about the time when the drip-
pings of the firft wafliing are nearly ceafed ; and as
before, after diiTolving it in cold water and boiling
this folution, pour it over the fait in the hopper : and,
preferving the heat well as you can, repeat it till
enough refined. ^
All the fait procured from fea water, before it is
refined, contains a very acrid, corrofive and ex-
tremely injurious fubflance called bittern ; fo aftive,
hot and fearching it is, that cafks can fcarcely be
made to hold it ; and alfo a magnefial fubftance
C3.\\ed JIack. They are fo connected with the pure
fait, and adhere to it with fuch firmnefs that it has
been fuppofed they cannot be fufficiently removed
by common wafliings in water : at lead not without
lofs of a confiderable part of the pure fait.
It feems that when common fait is cryilallizing,
the grains are pure ; and confifl; of httle elfc than
the muriatic acid, a purging fait, and a trifle of mag-
nefial earth, with fixed air : but when the fait is
drawn
266 FAMILY SALT.
drawn oat of the liquor -where it was formed into
grains there adheres to the furface of every grain,
an injurious porcion of bittern and of the magnefial
earth c^t.WcdjIack, and much dirt. It ahb feemed to
me that wafhing off the extraneous fubilances, would
leave the fait confiderably purified. In confequence
of thefe reflections, I made the following experiment.
A boK, open at each end's 3 feet deep, and i o
inches fquare, had a ledge nailed on, within it and
near the lower end : on which was placed a moveable
frame covered with doubled coarle open canvafs. for
keeping the fait. The fait was put on this. Upon
the fait a hke frame, covered with a fingle piece of
coarfe open canvafs, was placed for receiving and
fpreading the fpring water, which was then flowly
poured on the canvafs ; the box being fufpended.
The quantity of fait was half a bufhel, weighing
39:^., in its grofs moiil Hate. The firil portion of wa-
ter was two gallons, a quart pot full at a time ; which
carried down with it dirt, bittern, ficc. through the
mafs of fait and lower canvafs. The hquor fell into
a tub, under the box, and was very dirty. Four
hours afterwards, two more gallons of fair water
were poured on the upper canvafs ; and the fait in
the box was left all night to drain. It was then very
dean
TAMILY SALT. 'l^'J
clean and fair ; weighing in its moid (late (after hav-
ing been fo waflied) 28ft>
Dried in an oven i$\
Moiflure evaporated 2I
But it is more agreeable to confider it by the
bufliel. Then, a bujhel of this fait would weigh, be-
fore it is wafhed, 78^
— when dried, in an oven, be-
fore it ii wafhed, as below, 7 1
Moifture evaporated 7!^
A bufliel wajhed and left moht 561b* as above ; when
dry 51 fc pure.
— Inferior fait, obtained from
thewafliings, dry 15
-66^ for ufe.
—dregs, dirt, bittern and
flack ; and thrown away
in /kimming
Total grofs dry fal t, as above, 7 1 ^
7itb dry; grofs.
(i^ dry; fit for ufe, after being waflied: of
which 15* inferior.
5tb, lofl in ikimming, dregs, &c.
The i5fe of ordinary, and much inferior (lilt,
were recovered by boiling down the water which
drained
268 FAMILY SALT,
drained through the mafs of fait in the box, after
it had flood to be clear.*
An
* Tlie box ufed for wafhing the fait, had been applied to
fikrlng malt-wort in brewing family beer. In one of which
proceffes, not thinking of fuch an eflped:, I was furprifed to
fee, on pouring fair water on the fand in the box, the day
after wort had been ftrained through it, in order to wafli the
fand, that the wort, prefled on by the column of water, ran
off for a while quite rich in the extraft of malt ; and then, all
of a fudden, the water followed, with fcarcely any apparent
mixture of the two fluids. The ufe of this fand filtre to
wort, fuggefted the benefit that might be derived from fome
fuch contrivance In purifying the ordinary water drunk in
fome parts of the country : and the fad, of horfes running
on fand iflands on the coad of Maryland and Virginia and
fcooping holes in the beach on the fea fide, when the tide
falls, and thereby procuring frefli water, led me to defign a
hox of tubes vibrating in a fpace of about fix feet fquare, fo
as to admit of 50 or 60 feet of filtration tlirough fand ; tliere-
by I hoped that frefli water might be obtained from fea-water
poured into a refervoir, as a head, and paffing 54 feet do-^-n,
then as many up, and fo on to the end of the tubes ; fome-
what like the afcent and defcent of water, in ebbing and
flowing of the tides, through the fand on the fea-fhore : and
if it Ihould fail of procuring frefh water from fea-water, yet
it would be an excellent filtering machine, for clarifying
fpring-water. — Since writing the above, the experiment has
been made ; and a total failure to obtain frefh water is the
refult. The horfes may difcover fpots where frefli water
oozes out of the beach. And noAv I aik myfelf, how can
Jand pofllbly decompofe fait water ?
FAMILY SALT. 269
An objeftion is made by country people to bay-
fait, as being " too ftrong.*' Strong of what ?
too flrong of fait ? If a buQiel of %-falt weighs
84^, and a bufliel of blown-hXx. weighs but $6"^ ;
and a bufhel of the %-falt is applied to the fame
weight of meat, for which they find a bufliel of
the blown is fufEcient, the former mud then fupcr-
abound as 84 to 56 : and thus it is that meat is
fometimes " overfalted and hardened,'* If the large
gi-ained fait be ground down to the fize of fmaller
fait, meafure for mcafure will be nearer to an equa-
lity of fubftance, in both kinds of fait j but weight
for weight will be flill nearer.
Cents,
ao b. of bayizXt at 841b. = l68olb. at 80 c. p. 841b. or a bufli. . 1600
ao b. of i/ow/;-falt, j61b. =1120, at 80 c p. 561b. or bufh. 1600
Difference 560, at 80 c. p. ditto • '800
2400'
So that 80 cents worth of %-falt, performs as
much as 120 cents worth of blown'{d\\. ; and the lat-
ter, though it contains more of the bad fubflances,
cofls 50 per cent more than the former, for making
pickle. For dry-falt'mg the cofl of grinding would
be a trifle ; which in pickling is (lived.
It is faid by Lord Dundonald, that the diflblved
magneflal fiilts drop out : but what comes of the ■/, -
of
* Two figures on the right hand, in atiy fttm of cent u hemg
dotted off, all on the left are dollars.
C/O FAMILY SALT.
of fait in the folution ? Is this 4o attached to the
general mafs of fait, whilft the water of the folution
carries down the magneCal dregs ? If it is fo attach-
ed, there is no waiie of, the -^V of diffolved fait.
Chemifts, I believe, countenance the fuppofition
that the fait in the folution, attaches to the mafs of
undiflblved fait, whilil the dregs continue united
with the water, and are carried off by it.
Although the common rule for making pickle,
that it fhould bear an egg, may anfwer for fome
purpofes, as where the thing pickled is for early
ufe, yet for making 2i full and true pickle, fufficicnt-
ly flrong for preferving meat, fifh and butter during
a long voyage, it is prefumable that the folution
ought to be boiled down till the fait begins to cry-
flallize ; which is difcovered by a fine fcum on the
top of the liquid, whilil it is flill over the fire. The
water is then faturated with fait, and the pickle is
. perfe£l.
It would be a fortunate circumflance if houfe-
wives, butter-makers and falters, were impreffed
with a warm convi£tion of the very important fupe-
riority of the Dutch refined fait, over our grofs im-
pure/alt, and even over the Britijh refined fait ! the
effect of which fuperiority is f]:rikingly evident in
the fuperior condition of their barreled filh. I have
compared Dutch falted herrings with Britifli. The
Britilh
BUTTER. 271
Britifli herrings were fine and large : far fuperior to
the American ; and were clean and well preferved :
but the fuperiority of the Dutch herrings, though
fmaller than the Britifh, was great in the neatnefs^
and efpecially in the fai'or — Their filh, with the
pickle, were a perfume.
BUTTER.
The following method of making butter has been
recommended, from the practice of a butter maker
near Philadelphia : though feveral particulars of the
procefs are omitted, as not being remembered. The
chiuTiing was in the evening ; and when the butter
was come, the milk was drained off; and then the
mafs of butter was put in a wooden tray or bowl ;
and a good quantity of fine fait was thrown over it,
to remain undifturbed in a cool place till morning.
In the morning it was again drained, and daflied
with cold water for wafliing off the remaining fait
and milk.* It may be next dried by a foft cloth
taking
* Dafhing on water, and dien without paufe, clearing the
butter from every particle of water, is widely different from
wafhing butter by kneading and letting it remain at all in the
water. Very good butter for colour, flavor and confiftence,
is made by one who wafhes it twice, but never lets it remain
in the water a moment. Another butter maker fays, mix //v
fait in the lutter in the evening, and let it rejl till the morning ;
then work out the liquor ; but never let it be once touched
with water.
2/2 BUTTER.
taking up the remaining moiflure ; and without ever
wetting it again, flowly work it, and put it up for
ofe. The bell butter I ever faw-, had never at all
been wet with water ; as I was fatisfaftorily affured.
The following method of potting butter is pro-
mising without my knowing of it beiog practifed :
Bed common fait t^o parts
Sugar one part
5^/ peire one part : beat them together, blend-
ing them completely. One oance of the mixture,
for every pound of butter, is well worked into the
butter ; which is then put up clofe for ufe. — It is
£ud, a comparative exj>eriment has been made of
it, with butter only falted ; and its fuperioricy was
great: — That cured with the mixture being of a
rich marrowy confiilence, and fine colour, never
having a brittle hardnefs, nor tafle of fait : and at
three years old it is found perfectly fweet. — It is to
ftand 3 or 4 weeks before it is ripe for ufe : the
falts will not be fooner blended, i Rep.
Freih butter in balls, placed in kegs of brine bear-
ii^ an egg, probably would not keep long : but, a
brine fo weak would admit of the predominant wa-
ter rendering the butter rancid ; and might even
adnut of maggots in it. But would this be the cafe
of a tmefaJI brincy when a little of the fait cryflal-
lizinij.
BUTTER.
273
lizing, fliews it is at lead equal to the water ? If
balls or prints of frefli butter were barreled up with
fuch a pickle in tight kegs, perfeftly tight againfl
air, would not the butter keep a long while ? And
would it be without imbibing the brine ?* It how-
ever is known that the Hollanders praiftife a dif-
ferent method, with fuccefs. The late Mr. Hill,
when he reiided in Madeira fometimes received from
Amflerdam prefents of butter in very fmall tighc
kegs filled in mafs ; but without any fait or brine.
Thefe little kegs were, each one, contained in a keg
of flrong brine. On opening the little kegs, the
butter was perfectly freJJj, fine in colour^ in taste,
and m. fniell : but if not foon ufed, it became infe-
rior ; as indeed would frefli butter made on ihe fpot,
on being expofed to air and heat. This gentleman
alfo received compliments in fafted herr'.ngs of the
coafl of Norway, which were very fine. He ob-
ferved that large grains of fait abounded among the
herrings ; and fuppofcs they tend to preferve the
fifti, from the cool nature of fait; : but it is proba-
ble they were firfl (truck and cured with fine grain-
ed fait.
S " Butter
* Collins on Salt and Fillieries, an. 16S2. p. 138, fays thac
he made fuch very jiroug brins ; and in May potted up lumps
o^ frejb bulter, bought ut market. Near the end of Septem-
ber the brine had eat through the pot ; and then the butter
was put to .family u.e ; it being fweef, frejh, gf^od and \\d\
Li.'kd. Tlie lumps of butter were kept funk in the brine.
2/4 BUTTER.
" Butter is fent from the Crim and the Kuben to
Consianti?7ople, without being falted : but it is melt-
ed in large copper pans, over a very flow fire, and
whatever rifes is fkimmed off. It keeps two years,
fine tailed. Wafliing does not fo effeftually free
butter from the curd and butter-milk, as boiling or
melting. Salting the butter fo melted and iliiramed
is the befl method of prcferving butter. Melting
and boiling it down with care, does not difcolour or
injure the tafle.'* Nich. Journ. II. p. ^^6. But
it is apprehended that butter, Jlowly melted and
kept hot, without boiling, would be injured by ver-
digrife from brafs or copper veffels : if fo, stcne or
well tinned veffels may be preferred.
Every motion ought to htjicnv in making butter :
excepting perhaps in the aft of churning or bringing
the butter ; which may be fomewhat briiker, for
fpeedily effecting the purpofe. Till the butter is
come, there is nolhing, no body^ to be healed, by
mere friftion or quick motion. A medium is to be
found. The motion in churning may be, and often
is too flow.
Butter is the better for having never been in wa-
ttr, or at all wetted, even in clearing it from bur-
ter-miik. If with j7oio motion for mixing it with
very -pure fine fait, and flowly preiUng out the but-
ter-milk, the butter be never touched with water,
but
RICE. 275
but inflead of cooling it with water, Ice be placed
round and under it, fo however as not to wet it,
and all this be done rather on a cold marble table,
the butter may be expcftcd to be greatly fuperior;,
hi colour, in clofciiefs, and in Jia'vor. But it ought
not to be beat, nor even preiTed or fqueezed with ii
quick motion. Every motion ought to be Jlozv, m
making butter. For getting out the butter-milk,
fprinkle it with very fins fait, and after gently mix-
ing it in, let it fland awhile before the fluid is to be
. . . V
difcharged. It is faid, there is no making fine pafle,
but on marble tables ; which are cleaner, fiueeter
and cooler than any wooden tables ; and that French
pailry cooks ufe marble. The reafons are as flrong
for nice butter makers ufing marble. A flab of
fmooth if not polifned marble, on a flout oaken
frame, may be flrfl: made cold with ice ; and a
drawer ciofe under the flab, filled with ice, woulJ
continue the cold, whiltT: the butter is cleanflng.
RICE.
The farmers in Jcrfey, Pennfylvania, and Mary-
land, have for fome years had fuch dcftru*5lion in
their crops of 'n-heat, from the Hejftan-fiy, that they
now increafe fome crops and look about for other
articles of crop to fupply their lofl^es in wheat.
Some increafe their maize culture ; others rye.
Tliey might alfo increafe cr introduce barley, buck-
S % wlKat^
2'j6 RICEr
wheat, pulfe and hemp crops. As far north as
Sufquebanna rice may be tried : perhaps further.
But why muft ivheat be culti\^ted ; when fattening
numbers of li-ve stock fcr 7narket gives dung, and
procures more money than grain can ; and is beft
for the ground and beil for the pocket ! fome 'wheat,
and for live ftock others of the corns are to be raif-
ed : but never let a paffion for wheat reduce the
better defign of cultivating live flock for the market,
rather than grain for the market ; at leafl not until
our lands are reilored to good heart.
Sixty years ago, I experienced that rice grew to
perfeftion in the dry fandy foil of Annapolis ; and
a negro now living with me, has been ufed to grow
rice on the loamy foil of South river, near Anna-
polis ; the produce whereof was preferred by thofc
who bought of him by the quart, to the beft im-
ported rice. In 17S1, in a clay loam on upland,
in Talbot, Maryland, I grew a garden bed of it,
drilled and hoed ; the produce v^'hereof was good
in quality and quantity.
Rice has been cultivated in Italy from early in the
1 6th century ; but it will fucceed well either on ridi
or on poor land ; it requiring a foil of moderate fer-
tility. It alfo is faid in Italy that in valleys low and
wet, it may be continued a length of time : in light-
er and drier foils it requires a change, and is fown
everv
Rice.
'^n
every other year; firfl: r/V^, then 'wheat. Sec. old
writers recommend the cultivation of r/V<f, for mul-
tiplying food in countries,
Mr. Romans, in his Florida, fays rice will grow
in any foil j though it loves watery foil bed : and
that the reafon of letting water on it is chiefly to
fupprefs weeds. The time of planting, he fays, is
from the departure of frofl: till the loth of June;
and that an acre will yield i6 to iSoolb. manufac-
tured grain : a negro attending three acres very
completely.
If rice be fowed in rows, and horfehoed between
the rows, why may not a labourer cultivate as many
acres of rice as of wheat in rows ? In rows the
plants can be eafily and cffeftually kept clean of
weeds, and the ground light and mellow. The
ftalks of rice whilft growing are fo clofe and hard
that the Helllan-fly could make no impreflion on
them.
Staverinus fays there are two fpecies of rice : one
of which when planted, is fet nearly under water,
fo that the tops juft appear above the furface, as
the rice plants (in 'Java) would otherwife die, or
be deftroyed ; for being too weak to ftand againfl
the wind by itfelf, the plants require the furround-
ing water to fupport them. The other fort, which
is planted in the rainy feafon, on high ground, and
uron
27S RICE.
upon the moantains, receives the moirture it re»
quires folely from rains. Thefe two forts, fays
his Tranfiatcr, are always kept feparate. The
upland rice bears the higheft price, being whiter,
heartier, and better flavoured ; and has the advan-
tage in keeping. The low land or watered rice is
of a watery fubflance, increafes lefs in boiling,
and keeps not fo well as the upland. There are
varieties in the fpecles, efpecially of the upland.
The fmaller and the v/hiter kind is generally pre-
ferred in India ; and this upland kind is there alfo
called mountain rice. It was one of the obje^ls in
fending captain Bligh to the South Sea, to procure
feeds of this mountain rice. H# obtained feme from
Timor ; which Vv ere fent to the king of Great Bri-
tain's garden at St. Vincent, and other parts of the
West Indies ; where it is faid to be cultivated with
fuccefs,
Befides rice, maize, and cotton, which will be con-
tinued the principal llaple produce of the lanjjs in
Carolina and Georgia, the climate there will admit
of other prodnfls which cannot be matured in the
field hufbandry of the northern flates ; iuch as will
give frelh and dried exotic fruits, olives, olive-oil,
angola-pinder or ground-nut oil, (fuperior to olive-
o:!, from *n experiment I made in 1782) fefamum
or benni-oil, cotton, &:c. Cotton is an immenfe ar-
ticle ! by the climate forbfdden to grow in the north-
ern
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 279
ern ftates. The fouthern pofTefs this valuable staple,
unrivalled by the northern ftates.
COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
Security againft yfri? and houfehreaking is peculi-
arly defcrving of attention in building country ha-
bitations ; detached as they are from the immedi-
ate afliftance of neighbours.
In the time of the revolution war I loft two houfes
by fire, from accidents ; and living on a navigable
river, the houfe in which I then rcfided was befet in
the night by a number of armed men. Their num-
bers could not be known, nor could they be repelled
from within, otherwife than by firft opening the
door. They were let in upon terms. The houfe
was badly conftrufled for defence ; and I always dif-
liked the common mode of building with combuftible
materials without referve, cfpecially in the roofs.
The annexed drawing of a plan and elevation may
afford hints to perfons who would build in the coun-
try. It is not the intention to give a defign to be
particularly followed ; but principles only, on wliich
others may build to fuit themfclves. The principles
on which this plan is formed, afford many conve-
niences and much room j little being wafted in ufe-
lefs applications of the area, which divides, in va-
rious ways, very advantageoufly. The middle rooms
mufl
28o COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
miift be very comfortabJe in fummer, from being de-
fended on the E. and W. fides from the fun fhining
on and heating the walls, and being aired by of>en-
ing the S. and N. windows, and the partition doors
occafionaJly.
The floors of bafement ftories in dwelling houfes,
are wholefomer and better vfhai foHd and of the
common earth naked or laid with brick, ftone, or
cement, than floors laid upon joills over cellars or
near the ground. Floors laid on joilis near the
ground or over cellars, confine a damp air under
them long enough for becoming an unelailic dead
air ; which producing a mouldinefs and fmell of
vaults, is mixed with the air of the rooms above,
ib as to be even fmelt in fome. Delicate people,
afed to drv warm houfes of the towns, feldom take
a cold on fleeping in log pens or houfes having
damp earihen jizurs^ when they travel in the frontier
. of the country.*
Court
* In all CilrMj lays Mr. Faa Braam, the houfes are built
tipoD llje "sjoaiid, without aii'f cellar under diem. The apart-
ments are paved wuli flat, ^uars bricks ; a thing very agree-
able in ^■'fira ^■^atberi bat leii fo in fe\"ere cold weather, unlefs
covered widi 'Zi'volkxjcpTpieit. .To defend tfcem from the pinch-
ing cold cf vriater, in the northern parts of China j they have
fvhiaTaxteas jumjixcit outiide of their houfes, in eicavadons
made on pqrpoie ; from Avhesice tvhes branch cS" in all direc-
tions, vaiier fhe bricls ofibefiaort, and under a kind of platforms
cr eftrades. on vrhich the Chinese ileep. They even p?.li
pOUNTRY HABITATIONS. 281
Court houfes and oilier flone or brick buildings,
having paved floors, and which are not airy, when
fhut up for fome time, contain a foracwhat flagnant
unelaftic damp air, -which is alfo unwholefome : but
this is not at all the cafe of inhabited, viucb-frcqucnU
ed, or airy houfes with folid floors j when the air
has fome degree of current, and is all alive.
The floor of a bafement ftory may be of brick or
flag-fl:one upon the ground, raifed a foot above the
common fnrface. The fecond or beft ftory to have
its floor laid with rough flrong boards or planks,
only three or four inches wide, nailed down acrofs
ftrong fliifl'joifts, and covered with a thick bed of a
flrong
throu-rh the walls which divide the rooms,' fo that the heat
diffufed by thefe tubes produces In the apartments the tempe-
rature defired. The f re is hept up night and day, in the outer
ftove or furnace, without the leaft danger to the buildings ;
becaufe a coat of bricks clofely confines the fire . If the apart-
ments be fpacious and numerous, an increafed number of
ftoves and tubes always infure the fame refult. It is an Import-
ant advantage to enjoy, in cold weather, an agreeable heat
difFufed through all the apartments of a houfe. It is in thefe
places efpecially where thefe outer ftoves are wanting, and
where there is a necelTity of having recourfe to brafiers of char-
coal, (a kind of chafing dlili or warmer) diat the value of
this invention is the moft fenfibly felt. He had before fpoke
of die hrajiers or metal velTcls of charcoal, carried about for
communicating heat in the apartments." 2 ^'""W Cra.im on
China, pa. 65.
282 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
flrong cement, the colour whereof fhould yield to
utility.* Carpets may cover the whole. The
wafh-boards and furbafe may be of cut ftone or mar-
ble. The floor of the third llory to be laid with
thick narrow boards and cement as the floor of the
fecond ftory ; but the wafh-boards to be of cement
rounded off. Cellars to be under a detached build-
ing, or tfnder the flaircafe, or fome one room of
the principal houfe.
Wood is to be avoided as much as poflible. The
door and window frames may be of flone or iron,
and the doors faced or lined with iron.f The joifts
and
* Pieces between the joilts fliffen them ; and prevent lateral
■vreaknefs and cracking of the cement. The excellence of the
Venetian plqfterjloorst io much admired for their bardnefs and
beautiful />c>.V/2), fays Mr, Eaton's Survey, p. 231, depends en-
lirelv on their \>€\v.^Jir'jngh I eaten. The compoiition is only
frejh Ume and fand (^\^th pieces of marble) ufed almojl dry, and
leai till qvite hard, tlien ground even and polifhed. Common
earthy as well as lime-moitary acquires an incredible degree of
bardnefs by comprcJ-iUHt if it contains no more fnoijiure than is
ueceiTary to make its parts unite. A )dni.o£ artificial Jlotievazj
be made of gra^oel with 3 little lirne ftrcngly prfj^d, or beaten
into mouldi .
f In lialj, the doir and -zvindo-iu cafes of dieir houfes being of
frcejlone or marlle, ihejiocrs hrici, and the walls of the rooms
painted, contribute greatly to the fecurlty of their houfes
a^ainft fire. Brook on Italy, p. 236. They fecure doors and
window-fhutters agaiull the burglar's faw, by iron inlaid.
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 283
mid boards for the platform roof and floors, alfo for
the flaircafe If this fliould be of wood, are to be
defended from conta^: of fire by cements. No out-
fide cornifh is reqiiifite to a platform roof. Pent-
houfes and corniflies of wood, greatly facilitate the
progrcfs of fire in confuraing houfes.
Many houfes of the ancient civilized world had,
and the Afiatic and African houfes on the coaft of
the Mediterranean fea, ftill have platform roofs.
The houfes in Algiers are fo, and of one height ;
fo that the ladies vifit from houfe to houfe and ftreet
to ftreet, by walking on the roofs of the houfes.*
Platform roofs are cheaper than common ridge-roofs,
(hinglcd ; and are fafer againfl fire Infide and out,
and againfl: the preflfurc of wind. Moft houfes
burnt in country places take fire in the roofs whilfl:
the
♦ At yilc^po, the houfes not being burdened widi lieavy
clumfy roofs, gives the whole an air of inconceivable neatnels.
The roofs are »\\Jliit, and terraced with a hard cement. From
each houfe there is a communication witli the terrace above ;
by which the Inhabitants of whole ftr.;ets enjoy the fociety of
each other ; efpecially in cool plcaf<^.nt evenings, without going
mto the flreets. — During the time of the plague, it is particu-
larly ferviceable to the Chriftian European inhabitants ; who
then Ihut tlieir gates, and never go abroad ; but they enjoy
fociety, air and exercife, from the tops of their houfes. Their
food is then drawn up in a baflcet, and carefully fumigated
and purified, before i;: is made ufc of. i Tayl. Trav. p. 225,
pubhliicd in 1799.
;84 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
the family is gone on vifits or to church. Then it
is that children or fervants take candles or light-wood
to rummage dofets, cuddies, and cock-lofts, which
ufually are lumbered with combuflibles : or flakes
of burning foot fall on the {hingled roof.
A platform roof may be thus conftrucled. Joifls
12 or 13 inches deep at the big end, are to reft on
the middle wall, and from thence flope two-tenths
of an inch per foot to the fmaller end on the exteri-
or wall. Their thicknefs 2^ or three inches.
The dillance between them 12 or 14 inches, from
centre to centre. Or the joifls may be equally
deep from end to end ; and battens which flope are
to be fixed on them, for forming the platform roof
with the faid degree of flope. Between the joifls,
at every five or fix feet, fix to them at right angles,
pieces of plank, nearly the depth of the joifls.
Thefe would add to their flxength, as fo many
braces, preventing their weaknefs laterally.*
Stout, rough, narrow boards, 3 or four inches
broad, and a full inch thick, are nailed down
acrofs the joifls with large nails ; the better if rag-
ged. The fun is powerful in drawing nails. On
the boards lay a cement an inch or two thick, whilil
it is hot in flacking burnt powdered lime-ftone one
part,
* The joifrs of the floors are alfo to be ftiffened or braced ;
for preventing their being liiaken, fo as-to injure die cement
cf the fioors.
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 285
part, mixt with clean fand and brick-dud two parts.
No more at a time is to be flacked than what the
trowels can mix and work up whilfl hot.* When
the cement is dry, in a hot funfliine day, with a
brufli lay upon it hot tar three or four parts, and
o^fjh-oil one part, well mixed together over a gen-
tle fire. This coat may be repeated. Forbid walk-
ing on it for months after. Fifli-oil corrects tar in
hs faculty of letting water through it ; and the mix-
ture gives a clofe varniih. After this, lay upon the
cement tar and iifli-oil boiled down together till they
become half-ituff',\ and lift very coarfe fand or fmall
pebbles over the whole. Over this lay more half-
stuff, now without oil, and more pebbles without
fand. J
The
* Doffie. In ilacking no more water is ufed than what will
well wet through the heap of fand : then to this add and mis
up the unflacked burnt limeftone in powder ; and be careful
never to drown the mafs for a moment. This fault would be
incurable.
f What in Maryland arc called inch-planh, are loarJs in
Pennfylvania. Tar, long boiled, produces pilch. When tar
is but half boiled down, to a medium Ihicknefs, between tar
and pitch, it is tlien called half-Jluff.
X It may be tried by making a led of fand and pehlles dry,
and then levelling it pour on hot tar (or the mixture tar and
oil) barely to foak through the bed. So it is, a gentlemar.
of Carolina informed me he made beds of a fandy foil, formed
fomething higher than the comm.on level cf the ground, for
thralhing out hi$ rice crops. With gourds were gradually
285 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
The method ufed for covering platform roofs in
New-England, called there compcfition roofs, was
lately given me ; and is as follov. -;. *' Fir": boil a
compoiition of far Siud pitch, of about bait made ftufFj
and let it boil well. Fay over the boards : lay
down the paper ^ beginning at the eaves with a dou-
ble courfe ; always paying over the firft before the
next is laid on. Then lay the next courfe, about
one-third to the weather, the fame as fliingling ; and
lap each joint one upon the other, about two inches ;
and fo on till it is all papered over. Then pay it all
over. Now take gravel, about the iize of peas, or
a httle fmalJcr, perfectly clear of loam* Put the gra-
vel on about half an inch thick ; and having flood
two or three days, expofed to the fun, in the cool of
the day fweep what will come off in a heap : and then
pay it all over again, and put on gravel as before.
Then with a wooden roller three feet long and twelve
inches diameter, roll it well in the heat of the day ;
always adding gravel as it may require. A ftrip of
lead half an inch broad is then nailed in the top of
the
poured upon one of diefe beds, many barrels of hot tar. After
a while tlie beds became like ftcr^e. Above fifty years ago, I
was fbewn the kitchen of a Captain Lux of Baltimore. It was
a houfe which had been ufed for ftonng barrels of tar. The
floor was now a compoiition of tar and eartli, and appeared
like ftone. I chiefly noticed the fire place, which alfo was a
compofition of tar and earth, appearir.g like flone, and was
quite incombuftible. So on wharves are feen c/^fpots, where
tar had been fpilt, which cannot be burnt.
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 287
the eaves over all, to keep the wind fromralfing the
paper. The compofition is always to be put on
boilinsr. The roof to have about two inches in three
feet more or lefs. The joifts are not to be more
than 18 or 20 inches from centre to centre. The
boards are to be well jointed, and the joints well
broke. When they are nailed down, dub off the
joints fair and fmooth.'*
Mr. Volney, in his Syria, fays that that people
make ufe of a cement thus : " whiifl: the lime is
boiling (^according to the tranllation— ^^r/'/w^ I pre-
fumc) they mix with it one-third part of fand, and
another of aflies and pounded brick-dufl. With fuch
a compofition they form wells, ciflerns and vaults,
which water cannot pafs through." I am informed
this has been tried, from Mr. VoIney*s book, in the
weflern country ; and that it anfwers on a platform
roof there.
Mr. Latrobe permits me to give here the compo-
fition of a cement ufed by him, and the manner of
applying it to platform roofs. " The floor mud rife
about two or three inches in ten feet (two or three
tenths of an inch in a foot.) Firfl:, lay a floor upon
t\itraften,* of narrow well feafoned plank cut into'
fiip<;
* On fuch a flat roof are rafters requifite or not.' Joill?
■without rafters may have the proper yZ?/»<' ; v itliout the aid of
rafters for thai purpofc. But are not rafters better for rccciv-
\
28S COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
flips not wider than four inches, idly. Lay dowa
upon the floor with voi/ifig far, a coat o^ Jhe at hing pa-
per, fuch as is ufed for Iheathing Ihips. 3d]y. One
bufliel pounded chalk, or unjlackedlime ox lime flacked
in the air, or o'i loater Jlackcd lime dried and pounded
very fine. Two bufliels clean coarje fand, and as
much tar as is neceiTary to reduce it to a fubflance
that w ill fpread toughly \L'he7i hot. The tar mufh be
boiled and the materials gradually mixed with them
tilt they are in a proper ilate to lay on the paper.
The ftratum may be three quarters of an inch thick.
Skreen gravel, fo that the largeil particles may be as
big as large fizcd peas, and none much lefs than
fwan fhot. Take a i^ery hot day, when the compoil-
tion is fomewhat fofiened by the heat of the fun, and
with a garden roller, roll in as much of this gravel
as it will take. The floor will then be a beautiful
pavement,
ino^ the unavoidable great weight or prefTure of fnow and ice ?
They bear up againft the preihire, in lome meafare as an arch
would : and the feet of the rafters place it all directly on the
vrall. Not fo of joifts receiving the vreight. — Lengthy ftraight
pieces of timber lying horizontally, fwag with their own
weight when they reft with each end on a wall : and the great
preflure of weight bearing on them from end to end or wall to
wall, is increafed in proportion to their length or diftance
from the wall. Rafters are certainly requifite where the dif-
tance is confiderable and the beft fecuiity is fought. They
ought not to be avoided for tlie fake of fo little coft as they
would occafion. Indeed, v.-ith rafLcrs, tlie joifts may be fur-
ther apirt, or a little fmaller..
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 289
pavement, and may be worked in mofaick. This
covering is fo light, that very little timber is required
in the roof."
A refifter of water for fome purpofes, is equal
parts of rofin, turpentine and bees-'wax ; which ftands
any heat not more than 140 degrees of Farenheit.
Melt the ingredients together in a pot. When all
the volatile oil, which caufes the mixture to rife is
diiTipated, apply it hot with a bruili. But it wants
body for a roof. Add ochre.
In travelling from Philadelphia to Reading there
is much of an earth having the caft of red iron-ore,
and it occurred that it might be the fame as the re-
fifter of water called Pozzolani : but 1 was not well
enough to examine or view it oiherwife than as I
palled on. A facftitious Pozzolani has been produc-
ed ; which is faid to anfwer the purpofes of what is
natural : and that it is cheap, and keeps well. In
one hundred parts it contains 43 oifdkc, 2,5 of ircn,
1 7 of alu/Uy and a little of manganefe. Thofe compo-
nent'parts of Pozzolani, are found in the earths of
America. When earth or clay on the fide of a bank
looks froiled or hoary, as a fait exuded from the
ground, if tafted, it fometimes proves to be an alu-
minous fubllancc, which I have experienced on ihe
banks of the Chefapeak.
T Objcflions
29*3 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
Obje£l:ions readily occur to new projects ; and it
is right that they fliould be well weighed and corifi-
dered. It is faid plarform-roofs may anfwer in fou-
thern climates ; but that in our more northern coun-
try, the weight of fnow would be too great to be
borne. This objeftion has the lefs force with me,
who have had fome experience on this head. I co-
vered a houfe, thirty-fix feet fquare, with a flat roof
which floped about a quarter of an inch to a foot.
The joifis of poplar were two feet apart ; nine inches
deep at the upper end (the ridge of the roof j and
about fix and a half inches at the fmall end, where
they refted on a wall. From the ridge to this wall
was ten feet, and the joifts from thence continued
tapering further eight feet, where they refted on a
plate fupported by brick pillars. Pine fawed laths,
inch thick, were nailed acrofs the joifls. Common
weak oyfter-fhell mortar, from old Indian colle^ions
of fhells, was laid on the laths, three-fourths of an
inch thick. Tiles fix quarters of an inch thick were
bedded in the mortar. The joints were filled with
tar and fand ; and the tiles and joints were covered
and filled v^'ith half- fluff, on which fand was fire wed
thick and rolled. A gufl of wind carried off mofl
of the fand. Then again half-fluff and fheathing pa-
per were laid on ; and upon the paper half-fluff,
fand and pebbles. Gufls of wind blew mofl of the
paper off; and rain paffed eafily through. The pa-
per remained on the roof over only one of the rooms ;
which
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 29I
which was tight, excepting in one place, where rains
poured through, tillafingle thin coat o( tar andfijh-
oil^ laid on hot with a hair brulh, totally llopt the
leak. This roof bore the fnows of near twenty win-
ters, in Maryland, w ithout the leafl attempt made to
{hovel off the fnow, Mr. Latrobc*s cement feeras
the bell. It is tough, and cannot crack.
The leaking in this experiment was the more ex-
ceflive, from the mortar being made of rotten fliells ;
which made an imperfect cement : and m.oreover, too
much was expefted from tar and pitch, as reliilers
of water ; when in fact they let it through rapidly j
until mixed with filli-oil, which proved to be a per-
fe<5l corrector : neither v/as the paper properly iixed ;
for it could not be nailed down. Though the joifls
were of a brittle wood, flender and diflant from each
other, yet the fpan from wall to wall was but about
nine feet.
In the annexed plan is a main partition wall, acrofs
where the chimney is, from whence the joiils extend
2 1 feet to the exterior wall.* The weight of extra-
T 2 ordinary
* In laying down joiils, if s fmall chip or cleat be naikJ
on, near their ends, it would greatly ftrengthen the walls ; ia
liulding them as a tie, and preyenting their inclining either
inv.urd or outward. Short fpurs of fcantling may be fised to
tlie fide of the joiils nsxt the wall, and extend into the wall with
chips near their ends, for holding the lid 2 walls.
292 COUNTRY HABITATIONS,
ordinary quantities of fnow and fleet often repeated
in the coiirfe of a winter, is to be guarded againft.
If there was no chance of omilTion to fliovel off the
fnow every time it fliould fall, lefs ftrength would be
requifite : but there probably would be negleft in
this ; or the houfc might happen to be uninhabited
during fome winter or other ; I would therefore have
the joifts ftrong and numerous, and the joifts imrae-
diatelj' below thofe of the roof, fliould be made to
bear fome portion of the weight, by planks between
the lower and upper joifl:s ; which are to be two or
three feet apart, the depth of the fpace allowed for
the external air to pafs through and carry heat from
under the platform roof, fo as to cool tjie work and
chambers, and admit a perfon to go between the plat-
form and ceiling and examine defers.
Another objection is, that fudden changes of the
weather between great heats and torrents of cool rain,
are very trying. But it is pretty certain that atten-
tion in the choice of the materials and laying on the
covering will be effe£lual in preventing fuch injuries ;
cfpecially when relieved from much heat by the vent
between platform and ceiling.
The fl:air cafes in the above defign may be befl: In
tlie corner rooms, or the pafl'ages. To make thefe
corner rooms otherwife than fquarc, would give the
houfe the appearance of aii old caflle, if rounded,
and
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. ^93
and of a modern fortrefs if the extreme angles were
made at all acute ; which is to be avoided. It is in
all things to fupport the character of a houfe, a mere
habitation. Wood on (lair cafes may be coated over
with a cement.*
Preferving the principles, and the form ; the fize
will be according to the abihty and difcreet views of
the proprietor. In the annexed plan, the
Fiet. Fiit.
2 Paflages are in the clear 21 by 9,^ each 200, both 400
4 Rooms, the corners iz hj 12 144 576
2 Ditto, . . 20 by 21 420 840
Whole area 1816
The drawing is of an elevation and plan fronting
fouth. The entrance is at either of the fides, eaft
or wcfl : and thefe fides need but little of window
light. There are obje(5lions to balconies : but if de-
fired, the eafl: and weft fides of the houfe may be
preferred, for giving (hade ; in the morning on the
weft, and in the evening on the eaft. The width
may be 2^^ feet of the rccefs, and 5^ projecting ;
making 8 feet the width of the balcony.
Between
■* Nothing is faid of any ufe of tlie /ani/, formed by the re-
cefles of the exterior walls ; though holes in them would effed
feme good in airing tlie rooms. Among a civilized people,
and in a country of laiusy there ought to be ao occafion for any
extraordinafy application of them.
294 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
Between the ceiling of the uppermoft (lory and the
platform roof, is to be a clear fpace of two or three
feet in depth, with holes through the oppofire walls.
The hot air will thus be carried olf from the under
parr of che platform, and there will be a fpace for
examining the ftate of it. The air holes in the walls
may be 8 or lo inches diameter, with wire or twine
lattices well foakcd in the tar and oil compofition
(page 285J, for excluding birds; and during the
winter, infide clofe Ihutters are to exclude fnow.
A baluftrade of plain banniflers fquaring to 2 by
3 inches, thin fide outward, and leaving clear inter-
vals of 6 or 7 inches, will admit of fnow being more
freely blown off as it falls : otherwife a handfome
clofe parapet of wall, would be preferable. Turned
banniders would not be {o limply neat, nor admit of
{0 much freedom to the fnow being blown off, as
thefe plain bannifters. Rope-netting or lattice would
alfo admit of fnovr accumulating on the diagonal ropes
and their angles.
Height: Bafemfnt elevation of the walls 9 + 1 = 10 feet.
Second llory, '. 12 + 1 = 13
Third ftory, . . 9 + 1 = 10
Vent fpace, . . 2+1=3
Whole height 36
In proportion as the walls are hi^b, they fliould be
thick and ftrong. The ihree-siory houfe would have
-.6
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 295
;i^6 feet of wall above ground. A two-story, 26 feet,
and a one-story houfe 1 5 feet. So that if one (lory
requires a wall i brick thick, two llories may have
the bafement i^, and three ftories 2 bricks thick : or
fay 1^, 2, 2 1 bricks thick, the bafement or firil (lo-
ries. The foundation wall fliould be three feet in
the ground, for gaining firmnefs and to be out of the
reach of fevere froft.
It may be fufficient for fome families, and bell; fuit
their purpofes to have but one or two flories of rooms.
The lower the walls the ftronger. It would be no
great tafk to force water up, every evening in fum-
mer, for cooling the roof and other purpofes. At
Algiers, much of the women's work is done on the
roof, where water is always at hand. They cfpe-
cially wafli and dry their linen there. In Spain they
have their cloacas on the platform roof; where alfo
are two ciflerns of water: one for the ufe of the cook,
the other for more common purpofes, wailiing, ^'c*
From this the pipes of the cloacas are fluiced. At
Cadiz, water is received into the ciflerns on the tops
of the houfes, from refervoirs or heads of water on
the hills out of the town. Water might be raifed
to a head at the top of Mr. Morris's quarry hill, on
the
* In Oporto die kitchens are ufually in the attic story. Mur-
phy's Trav. So it is faid, the kitchens are on the tops of
many houfes in Spain : eitlier on the platform roof; or more
probably in the attic (lories.
296 COUNTRY HABITATIONS,
the Schuylkill, for fupplying referroirs on the tops of
the houfes in Philadelphia.* Confult ingenious men.
ITie tide falling eight feet ; and running 2^ ^ths miles
in an hour, at leall equal to the walking of horfes in
mil'-work, could not works be fo conftruftcd that the
impetus of the water of that river {hou!d move a
wheel (I think a horizontal one) which would force
the water wanted up to a refervoir, on the top of that
hill? A horizontal wheel under water would for
ever turn one and the fame war, whether the water
runs ebbing or flowing ; as near thirty years ago I
exoerieaced in a model.f
The :\- :T:'7;/ 2iAfecGnd sHries may be divided ac-
cording to the views of the builder, rather than by the
annexed plan ; pi. IV. The third story having the
four fqnare rooms, at the comers of the plan, thrown
into dofets about 2 J^ths feet deep, will admit of the
thin partition as above laid down, to be omitted ;
and) then the wkole_ area (clear of the clofets pro-
pofed) will divide into four roomy bed-chambers.
The
* With a. quadrsnt level, I find diat the upper part of die
brick psdeilal of Chiift church ft^ple, is nearly level with the
top of d:is hill : the obferration taken at a ftadon diftant froia
both objeSs : about two miles from the fteeple.
•* J From crater forced up throng^ pipes, erenr hoiife m'ght
hs^cfarjiHj bath near the bed-rooms, which wcjld be an iro-
pcifant improTement fpr promoting the health and comfort
of families. Ypa now rife from bed and waflj face and hands
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 297
The middle wall croifing the paffages and divid-
ing the large rooms, will bear mofl: of the weight
on
—your tip ends. Wliy not rife and plunge into your wafh-ba-
fon — a bath adjacent to your bedcliamber, inftead of ufing a
gallon vefiel of water, only for hands and face ? Every family
in this climate ought to have its iath ; and proper bathing
places fliould be provided for fervants alfo.
Bathing moiftens, foaks, waflies, fupples and refrefhes the
whole body. When the water is tep'id, bathing is always fafe,
cleaning and rcfrefhing ; when coU, or made more than blood
'warpit it is wholefome or not according to the ftate of health ;
but it is very beneficial in many cafes, when well advifed to
ufe the one or the other.
" Among the rules for preferving cleanlinefs and a found
" ilate of the fkin, an important one is to bathe once a nueek the
*' nuhole year throughy in tepid water : and it is wilhed (fays
" Mr. H'lf dandy in Germany) that puhlic baths were again
" ereded. that poor people might enjoy this benefit and be
" rendered ftrong and found ; as was the cafe in former centu-
" ries ; when on every Sunday evening, people went in pro-
" ceflion through the ftreets, beating on bafons, to remind the
" poorer claiTes of batliing : and people who labored at dirty
" work, waflied oflF in the bath the dirt which, undifturbed,
" would have adhered to them probably their whole lives."
2. Huf eland.
In Itah', ladies fomeiimes nfe the bath before they drefs ;
and therefore are capable of bearing the fummer's heat;
and are better prepared forbearing the change of air in their
enfuing winter. Their chambcr-haths are vtrj convenient. — In
iliape fomething like a cradle without a head, they have a
29B COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
on the roof, and mull therefore be particularly
firoDg. The joills of the platform run ixom this
wall north and loi:th to the exterior walls.
The
handle at each end, and ftand on four fbort legs, hij;h enough
to admit a chafing-difh under them ; lb that they can have a
tepid or hot bath whenever thev pleaft. It is made of copper
well tinned ^s^thir: ; and being thin and portable, is cafilv car-
ried from room to room. When ufed for medical purpoles,
the patient is eafiiy laid in it- Brooh on Ital^, p. 199. In
feme cafes water is xti^efab at tbefta. Thoie who uie eiui^r
tepid or hot baths, mtdkaUxy pat vinegar, brimilone, iron
filings, and fometimes aromatic herbs in the \rater. The^^Eo^
hmth is inconvenient for fick penbns in getting out of it.
In no fituations are lathi more ne ccfTary than in pnfoiu.
Wherever men are kept together in numbers, they are liable
to contagious fevers brealdng oat amongic them. It is fo even
Tfhen they are lefs conaned than in priibas. " In 1 792 a con-
•* tagious fever broke out in a regiment of foldiers quartered
«* at Liverpool, Ecglasd, and increafed rapidly againil all
•* oppofition, till by advice of the jAyfician the regiment was
** drawn up, and the men fevemUy examined by him ; when
*• 1 7 were found to have the morbid fymptoms ; and being-
•* drawn out, were ftripped naked in the fick houfe, and had
** a fail bucket of cclJ water thrown fuddenly on them, feve-
** rally ; which was repeated CEce or twice a day, and cured
•* them in a few days . The whole regiment then bathed daily
" :a the fea, (the water whereof contained one thirty-fecond
*• part of fait.) In two weeks this praSice, daily repeated, to-
*•' tally eilinguiiaed the ccz.tagicn and fever." This cold
bath (tbcfca *si2:'r) was 58 to 60® of Farenheit*s fcale. When
the bath bof fjrefii water, add one part of ialt to 33 of water.
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 299
The receffes of the walls are fliallow as may be ;
i^ foot clear of wall will do. If deep, they re-
tain or concentrate heat, and harbour muJketoes.
If the corner rooms be 10 feet fq. or ico X4 = 4-° f^^^
The middle rooms 18 by 20 ft. fq. or 360 X 2z=/20
The palf^ges 7tV by 25, or 187 X 2 = 374
Whole area ^494
Coiifl:ru(5lion of chimnies to the belt advantage is
very important ; yet, till lately, the principles have
been
The like practice is applicable in hofpUah and mamifador'tes as
well as in prifons.
Befides the ufefulnefs of baths in cafes of ficknefs in prifonsy
SiC. they would at all times be refrefhing, and tend to prevent
the occurrence of dilbrders. At leaft the ufe of them would
be ckanfmg and comfortable ; and for thefe purpofes the Ger-
mans formerly ufed bathing amongll the common people of
towns, as above ; and in great mealure fuch bathing by fud-
den effufion or immerfion, would fupply the want of cxcni/e,
, by the powerful and briflc aftion into which the mufcles, fibres
and nerves, would be thrown.
" CleanUnefs, fays Hajfar Imtnay is of the greateft importance
to all animal life. All animals are fubjecl to its laws. The
means of it arc always prefeut. The limpid ilream and the
briny wave are appointed to this purpofe. They purify the
furface, and brace and flrengthen tlie nerves and fibres of ani-
mals. The Deftinies have thus profcribed najl'tnefs, which is
the fource of many difeafes ; and is loathfome and deteftaitls
to human nature, and to moft animals.'*
300 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
been but little ur.derftood. Mr. Peak, of the Mu-
ieum in Philadelphia, has given me feme account of
the fine efiefts of his patent improvements, and fays,
that " fire-places which were ufed to fmoke, on his
" principles are cured of fmokicg ; and fuch entire
" command is had of the draught of air, that with
" but little of attention to the ftate of the fire, as
" to its fc'jming clear or not, by moving the Aiding
*' mantle downward for increafing the draught, then
** returning it for letting the heat into the room,
*' and clofing the valve or regifter in the throat of
" the chimney, jufli far enough for carrying off the
" watery particles of the fuel, only a fmall portion
" of the heat is fuffered to efcape up the chimney :
*• confcquentiy with verj' little confumption of fuel,
** even large rooms may be kept comfortable in the
" coldeft feafons, as during the laft winter he con-
*' tinually experienced ; and the houfe is perfectly
*' fecure from any fire left iathe fire-place at night."
1 have in the late winter feen one of Mj-. Peale's
fire-places in its improved ftate, where the room
was uncommcrJy large, 26 by 25 feet fquare and
15 feet high. On inquiry, it was afcerrained to
me that during the winter only fmall fires were kept
burning from the morning about feven o'clock till
nine or ten at night, when it was let go dovvn, and
the mantle of the fire place, and the valve or regi-
flcr of the chimney fine were clofed, or very near-
ij, and the family left the room to go to bed ; that
it
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 3OI
it preferved a warmth, not lefs than 48 of Faren-
heit, in the room till the fire was renewed next
morning ; and this was the cafe in the coldefl nights,
when out of doors the thermometer was at 10 de-
grees. That in the day the heat was fteadily kept
at 60 degrees. There is, next door to mine, a fire-
place very noted for fmoking. After many vain at-
tempts to cure it, it was clofed up with brick-work,
plaiftered over, and fo remained till lately, when
Mr. Peale direfted his improvements to be applied
to it. Now it is perfectly free from fmoking in the
very word of winds and weather. What further
proved to me the due portion of heat having been
fteadily preferved in Mr. Peak's above room, dur-
ing the winter, was the high perfection in which,
in March, I faw in it a colle£lion of green houfe-
plants, oranges, &c. that had flood there the win-
ter through. The room had two windows fronting
wefterly, and two foutherly, and I never faw green
houfe-plants more perfe<5lly kept.
CELLARS AND APERTURES ix HOUSES,
It is a general practice in America, in building
habitations, to have many windows ; and to leave
them open in hot ivcatbcr for letting in the common
air. When in fuch weather there happens to be a
breeze, fome benefit is received by the few perfons
who can fit clofe to the window. But as the air
from
302 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
from without when the fun (hines, is full 20 degrees
hotter than within doors, the air looked for brings
with it that increafe of actual heat : yet concentrat-
ed in a llream as it rufhes through the windows it
relieves perfons on whom it flrlkes, with fcnfations
of coolnefs. But if the houfe is Jhut up during the
hot fun-ftiining part of the day, the family feels
more coolnefs and comfort than when the windows
are open for letting in the wind which is actually
hot — and how is it in the time of a calm ? The hav-
ing only a fciv apertures^ in habitations^ is advan-
tageous both against cold and heat.
Cellar windows are improperly left open during
the whole time of the hot feafon, for letting in cool
air : when in fa£l the air let in is heated above 20
degrees more than the nearly quiefcent air in the
cellar.
I
The following attentions would be preferable to
the common pra<51:ice. Shut up the cellar during the
hot feafon, from May till 0£i:ober, night and day :
or open the windows after the fetting of the fun,
and clofe them by fun rife, if it be a wet cellar.
From the firft of Oftober the windows may be left
open, day and night, till the end of November, or
threatening of a fpell of freezing weather: then
again clofe them, till about the 20th of March or
early in April j when the windows are left open,
till
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 303
till May, as above. Yet, during winter, a few
fmail air holes may be left open immediately under
the joifts of the lirfl: floor, for preferving fome de-
gree of motion, as the life of air, and for a paiTage
to mufty vapours of the cellar. The lefs the cellar,
under habitations, the more healthful the family.
For a few purpofes a fmail cellar may be here. For
other pul-pofes have them under fome detached
building.*
ICE
* In live fucceffive days of June and July, I found the
medium mid-day heat of clear days Avas aii" more out of
doors, ten yards north of my houfe and 5 feet above the
ground, than in a recefs in a N. and S. paflage running
through the houfe. When cloudy, the heat out of doors, as
above, was only 3 to 54° more than in the paiTage. But,
thefe experiments having been made in a thick built town,
are lefs fatisfa<5lory than if they had been of heat in die coun-
try, where its effeds are much more estenfively felt, by huf-
bandmen, labourers and travellers. In fuch a nitch or otlier
Ihaded part within doors of a houfe in the country, obferve the
degrees of heat ; and alfo at five feet above tlie ground (the
thermometer hanging clear of what might add to its heat)
of an o-ptn Jield or main road.
In July, when in doors the heat was 80°, in the back yard
north of the houfe in tlic fun-lhine it was 100 at five feet
above the ground, .ind at the fouth doer lo.'S^' nine feet nbov-
the ftreet.
ICE HOUSLs.
ICE HOUSES.
Ice is applicabls to economical purpofes in hot
weather, efpecially in countr}^ families.*
In 1 77 1 5 I built an ice-houfe in the peninfula of
Chefapeak, -where the ground is flat and the furface
only feventeen feet above the high ^^-ater mark of a
fait water river, and 80 yards from ir. It was con-
ftrufted
* " I never was in better fpirits than here in this hot coan-
" try (Sicily), I believe the quantities of ice we eat, in ices,
" contribute to It ; for I find, in a very violent heat there is
" no Tach cordial to the Ipirits as ice, or a draught of iced
" water. Its cold ^racej the fiomach, and gives a new tome
** to ik:f,lr£s. I knew an Engliih lady, at Nice, foon cuied
^ of a threatening confiimption, by a free indulgence in the
" ufe of ices," — Probably attended with internal b!icJlng ;
which it is iaid cucumbers, cold in their nature, have cured.
** It is the common praftice here, Sicily, to give quantities
" of ice waters to drink in inflammatory fevers." Brjdone.
But great caution is to be obferved that it be not drunk when
you are '■warmed at all by any kind of motion : much Ids
when you are in a l:at from esercife.
'•' The cuftom in Sicily and Italy of taking ice, is confider-
" ed as a powerful remedy in many difeafes. The phyCcians
" cf thefe countries do not give many medicines ; but fre-
" quendy prefcribe a fevere regimen ; and prevent the bane-
" fill eflPeSs cf various difeafes, by fuffering the Cck, for fe-
♦« veral days, to take nothing but water cooled by ice, fvreet
" oranges, and iced fruits." Stolbsr^.
ICE HOUSES. 30J
ftrucT:cd with great care to prevent entrance of air, ac-
cording to the then univerfai pra£lice; and it was filled
with 1 700 fohd feet of ice, the pit being 1 2 feet
fquare and 1 2 feet deep : but it failed of keeping the
ice till fummer, bccaufe of its moiflure and clofenefs.
When the pit was dug it fliewed fome appearance of
moiflure near the bottom : the lead moiflure is too
much for an ice-houfe. Moiflure at the fides or bot-
tom of an ice-pit, is raifed to the infide furface of the
dome by a heat which, in the deepefl pits that can
be dug, is much above the freezing degree, and if
the pit be clofe it recoils on the ice for want of a
vent. If the clofe pit is not frequently opened it be-
comes very warm, and the ice is foft and pappy at
the top. The deepefl and coolefl pits are about
twenty degrees warmer than the freezing point : fo
that no depth of a pit can prefcrve ice from melting.
It is from a greedinefs for depth that- we too often
meet with duffip earth.
Some years afterwards, I made another ice-houfcj
150 yards from the above mentioned, on the prin-
ciples and in the manner following : vent was an
elTential obje^ ; and drjncfs with coolnefs led me to
the defign of infulating the mafs with a bed of flraw
furrounding a pen of logs which was to contain the
ice. The pit was dug on a fpot open to v. ind and
fun, for the fake of drynefs. It was 9 feet deep.
Within it was the pen of logs, of that depth, and g
U feet
3o5 ICE HOUSES.
feet fquare in the clear. It contained but a .tittle
more than 700 folid feet — only half the quantity
ftored in common ice-pits. A houfe was over the
whole ; rather for excluding rain than air. The
fides of the houfe were 5 or 6 feet high. The eaves
were boarded up, but not clofe, and the principal
vent was at the top of a pavillion roof.
Strazc is a cocMerable reliiler or non-conductor of
heat. Let it be clean, found and dry ; and lay it
clofe between the logs and bank, with an abundance
of it upon the ice. The fmall mafs of ice flored in
the above infulated pen, 700 feet, was daily ufed of
very freely, and iailed near as long as double the
quantity flored in a clofe ice-pit as commonly con-
llrucled, and which is on the hill in Union ffcreet,
Philadelphia ; the earth, whereof is dry and gravelly
from near the furface down to the bottom.
In plate V. is a fe£l:ion of this infulated ice-pit.
The pen or cell iniide of the logs, is 1 1 feet fquare,
1 1 feet deep, whereof 51 are under ground and 5!
above ground, and it contains 1330 folid htt. The
fpace between the logs and the bank, at bottom is
near one foot ; the fame at top is about 2 or il feet.
The link for receiving water from the melting ice
need be only 5 or 6 inches deep if it be good ground,
and 8 or 9 feet fquare. Logs are laid acrofs it.
An ice-pit of 1300 folid feet, if infulated as above,
I
ICE HOUSES. ^ChJ
I believe would keep more ice than any private fa-
mily could want j fuppoCng the pit is not deep, and
the ground is dry. If 1300 feet of ice (liould not
be fufficient, in another year heap upon it a foot
more in thicknefs ; and fo foot upon foot, as may
be rcquifite. Thefe additions are above ground.
Ice, in ice-houfes, melts more at the bottom and fides
than on the top ; unlefs it may be otherwife in very
clofe pits feldom opened. A pen of eleven feet
cube, requires a houfe over it of only eleven or
twelve feet fquare.
The winds raofl injurious to ice are from theycw/^
to the east. The door being on the 7iort/j fide, needs
no paflage. Rats are to be guarded agalnft. The
caves are to be clofed againft them : but openings
may be left on the north fide, at the eaves, for ad-
mitting the fleam to pafs out, there as well as at the
common vent on the top of the roof. Thefe open-
ings may be from lattice work in wood or wire : or a
plank may be projected below the opening, and be--
yond the reach of rats.
All the building materials are to be on the fpoty
ready to be put up as foon as the pit is dug, \ei\ rain
damage the pit before the houfe can be covered.
Pound the ice fmall, and prefer to (lore it in keen
Tcather. In fuch li-cathcr a neighbour dafned water
U c on.
3oS ICE HOUSZS.
on his pounded ice, a pailful or two to each cart
load, as foon as it was flored and pounded, load by
load : and he informed me it anfwered well, in doling
and cementing the mafs.
Ice-houfes are to be left oj>cn fome time, till dry,
before filling them with ice. When the houfe is to .
be charged with ice, firfl \2.j fniall fa^ois on the
grate ; and on thefe reeds, rather than iba.w as is
common. Corn or maize ilalks are very fpongy,
and holding water feem improper. The thiimer the
ice, the eafier it is broken to ponder ; and the fmaller
it is broke, the better it will unite into a clofe mafs.
— Ram the ice clofe as poffible in its place. Count
Stolberg, fays in Sicily they prefer y7;^zfj as it is more
eaiily prefer\xd than ice. The fnow is clofely packed
together, and covered with fir aw.*
INTDIA-
* Janiiary 1 797. Viewed the ice boufe at the tavern, on
Glofter point near Philadelphia. It is built Yrithin a few fteps
on the nortii fide of the tavera, and Bear the margin of a
drained low meadow of fome miles ertent, and of the river
Delaware ; but a few feet higher than the meadow and rlrer.
It was dug 5 feet deep (feemingly 3 feet too deep). Then
filled up 2 feet with logs, and ftraw upon them ; learing 5
feet cf ice under ground ; and about 6 feet above ground, iht
ice inclofed in llraw ; which ahb is a lining to die houfe or
flabs, coTcred with a flight roof of flabs. It was tlien fill of
ice, in pieces the fize of fmall apples. Sixty -one loads of a
one horfe cart filled it. In the year preceding 27 fuch loads
fupplied the tavern with ice till fome lime of Augu^.
INTIMATIONS, ^c. 5^9
INTIMATIONS;
On Manufa&ures ; — on the Fruits of Agriculture ; —
and on New Sources of Trade, interfering zvitb
Products of the United States of America in Foreig?i
Markets.
The countries of Europe abounding in manufac-
turers and failors j and fuperabounding in foldicrs and
minifters of religion, buy bread from other countries ;
chiefly from Ptland, America and Barbary ; and, ge-
nerally, the countries which fell fome, buy more than
they
January 1798 I again faw tliis ice ho\ife ; and was affured
that the 61 loads kept through the fummer, and that " fome
loads of ice were in it when ice came again." The only way
into it is by a fmall door, about 2i feet fquare at the gable
end into the roof.
July 5th, 1799, Mrs. Marfhal affures me, her ice kept in this
ice-houfe through the laft fummer, 1798, and until the Dela-
ware was frozen in the laft winter. It is aftonifhing ! Ice keeps
not fo well in the pits in the high grounds in Philadelphia.
Many people view her ice-houfe ; and admire at the keeping
ice in it fo much better — almoft in a drained meadow !
Above, Jlrarjj is fpoken of as being a confiderable refiftcr
or non-conduftor of heat. The Annals of Chemiftry, vol.
26, Fr. as cited by Tillock's Phllofophical Mag. 2, pa. 182,
fays, " It is well known that charcoal is one of the wcakeft
condudtors of heat." Hence the thought of double tvalls for
filling the inter medi . ite fpacewitlifWfoa/; and he appUes tht?
^ra INTIMATIONS OtT
they fell. ' The bread countr)^, England, buys more
than fhe fells ; and, at the fame time, it is a happinefs
to her that Ihe is fuperior in the number and the
excellency of her maniifad:iir€rs ; who, with her
failors, are the more defirable mere confumcrs of
bread, giving fupport to a conftant good market, oi
home, for the corn, the meat, the wool, and gene-
rally ail the productions of her land ; fo that England
abounds in the neceifaries and comforts of life, within
herfelf, from a well proportioned employment of her
farmers and tradefmen, who mutually fupply each
other's wants : and Ihe furniflies foreign countries
with a prodigious overplus of the fruits of her manu-
factories and commerce \ which has rendered her rich,
powerful, and lefs dependent than other nations.
The fifty or Cxty fhip loads of wheat which die buys
more than {he fells, are inconfiderable when compar-
ed with the great profits of her immenfe commerce
and manufactures. The yearly buying more bread
from abroad than fhe fells, afiures to her hufband-
men a conlfant demand and full price for the corn pro-
duced
idea to " ice-houfes above ground,^* He adds, *' at the fame
beat, a body incloled in charcoal does not receive but about
two-thirds of tlie heat of a body furrounded by quartzeous
fand ; and that the redudtion of fubjeds which do not melt
but at a heat of 130 degrees, cannot be effected in charcoal.'*
As often as the river tides are high its water oozes into tlie
ice pit ; a pump is therefore at one comer of the houfe, for
freeing it of the water.
NEW SOURCES, ^C 311
duced by their lands ; and this is a great encourage-
ment to a vigorous cultivation of them ; as it gives an
income to the induflrious countryman, independent
of uncertain demand by foreign countries.
A ftatute of the parliament of Great Britain, of
no long {landing, compels the mod minute entry to
be made in the Britifh cuflom houfe, of every fort of
corn, as well what is imported as exported. The
firfl report made to the parliament, under that fla-
tute, was of the firfl eight years after it was in force ;
by which it appears, on a medium of the eight years,
that there were imported into England about 600,000
bufliels of wheat yearly, more than were exported —
near 60 fbip loads,*
^Poland and America import no bread. For want
of numerous manufacturers and failors, the moft ufc-
ful confumers of bread, who make none, they have
not a demand at home for one half of the produce
of their lands : they therefore export great quanti-
ties ; America, efpecially, depending thereon for
fupplies of clothing and other comforts : which flie
might
* This is here dated from memory. It is liopcd it is not
materially, if at all erroneous. That there is a deficiency of
com produced in the united nation of England and Scotland,
we are afTured by a fubfequent report of a committee of the
Lords of council to tlicir king, on a bill then before the Parlia-
ment ; in which it is declared, that " Great Briuin is not able
to fupply itfelf witli bread, without aid from other countries."
312 INTIMATIONS ON
might foon, in a great meafure, manufafture within
herfelf. Ought fhc not, therefore, to prefer it to a
dependence ahogether on foreign countries ?
Somewhat has been faid, in pubhc, of manufafto-
ries in America ; whether it be advifable to promote
them in this early flage of her political exigence, or
to depend on procuring goods from other countries,
with the produce of her lands ? Have we not " room
for looms and the various arts ?" Why then fhould
not this nation, in its prefent youthful vigor, begin
to apportion her employment between hufbandry and
manufaftories ? which in experience prove to be fo
coincident, fo promotive of wealth and independence,
as to have rendered Britain rich in all comforts, with
a purfe pou erful in war; but which fome on both
fides of the Atlantic think has unwarily admitted of
a degree of pride in her, that, according to what is
common to that vice, bodes an approaching reverfe
in the current of her affairs. Belides, in the courfe
of a great influx of emigrants to America, many, if
not the greater number, are mechanics. When thefe
land on the fea coaft, and find little or no employ-
ment for them in the way of their profeffion, will they
generally go to country labour ? Pafl experience
fays they will recrofs the Atlantic, or travel farther
weflward, and fit down on lands eafier obtained, and
where they caji live on lefs labour than they could
among the old fettlements in the hither country.
Bur
NEW SOURCES, ^C, 313
But if manufa£lories were on foot among us, it would
be natural that they fhould geacrally prefer the em-
ployment they had been uf:d to ; and by fitting down
to their trades, they would gradually advance the
arts in America, whiifl: the more rapid increafe of
huibandry would be the means of fupplying them
with bread in payment for their goods, and leave
an overplus to be exported to foreign markets. " It
however is material to the vigor and worth of manu-
fa£lories, that they be not difperfed. They are
more or lefs advantageous, according as they are car-
ried on in towns, or in detached habitations in the
country. In general, the manufafturer in the coun-
try has his farm, or a lot of ground, which divides
his attention with that of his fhop, whereby both
crafts fufFer ; and certain it is, fays Mr. Toimg, their
hufbandry is always execrable — the fliop and the
field are coudu(5led with little fpirit : both are mean
in the quantity and the quality of the productions ;
and the living of the farmer -trade] man is according
to it. But in towns the trade is alone depended on,
and the productions are more and better : fo of the
thorough -farmer^ from whom he buys his bread, and
to whom he fells his goods."
When our employment fliall be duly apportioned
between huibandry and manufaftorics, the comforts
of life will be certain ; as they will be procured with-
in our country, independent of the caprice of foreign
countries :
314 INTIMATIONS ON
countries : with the overplus of thefe we are to ob-
tain exotic delicacies, luxuries, and bullion.
" From well chofen employments are derived the
riches, the flrength, the independency, and the hap-
pinefs of nations.*' If the employment be in things
neceflary and convenici^c, it is infinitely better than
when applied in producing luxuries. With necefla-
ries plentifully produced at home, we may be inde--
pendent of other nations. An abfolute independency,
which (huts out commercial and in effect focial inter-
courfe, is not meant. Nations do not all yield the
fame productions ; and few, if any, properly divide
their employment between hufbandry and manufac-
tories. Britain is the neareft to it. JEven where
the bed proportion prevails, luxuries and trifles will
have fome fliare of attention among the ar tills, al-
though common fenfe directs that, efpecially for the
Intereds of a young country, the firfl and principal
application fliould be to procure necejfaries as well for
staples cf commerce as for domefric ufes ; fuch as food,
clothing, ammunition, &:c. Yet legillators will not
over bufily warp employment againft its natural
bent. They may invite and gently incline it ; avoid-
ing dogmatical inhibition or command, unlefs it may
be on very extraordinary national occafions. Nor
will they ereft monopolies, directly or indirectly, or
give undue preferences. Temporary patent rights
for
NEW SOURCES, Effr. 315
for Inventions are not meant.* To fet about making
fine goods before we are full of necejjary comforts,
fcems a beginning at the wrong end.
The hianufaftures wiflied to be firft promoted arc
efpecially of plain clothing and blankets ^ arms and am-
munition. Manufafturcs of woollen goods are full in
our view — In promoting thefe, we increafe the quan-
tity of meat and ildns as well as of wool. They are
not exotic ; but precious materials furniflied by our
hufbandmen. A bounty on the exportation of arms
and ammunition made within the Tiation^ would foon
caufe thofe effentials to abound in the country for
its neceffary defence. Yet it is in a fpirited and
flourijfoing hujhafidry that the foundest health and
comfort of nations is found. It is 2i plenty of food
and clothing, plain and good, rather than fine things,
which gives content and cheerfulnefs to a people; and
it is the great mafs of the people that are induftrious,
rather than the idle poor or the luxurious few, who
are principally confidered by legiilatures.
What if to the bread wanted by fome countries,
which is at prefent fupplied by Poland, America and
Barbary,
* Perhaps It were better to grant retvards proportioned to
the ufefulnefs of difcoverie's or inventions, tlian exclufive patent
rights. There are confiderablc objcdions to die hitter, in ex-
pcri-cnce, however fair it (lands in theory ; and infinite advan-
tages would arife from an immediate free ufe of the invention,
at large.
3l6 INTIMATIONS ON
Barbary, oise or two great additional fonrces of tt
xhould be opened? How would the hufbandry and the
income of our country be affected by it? Would there
not be then felt a want of manufacturers, confumers
of bread who make none, yet who would preferve
the value of the produce of our hufbandry by fuch
confuraptioD, and furnifli other neceffaries and com-
forts from their various odtupations ? There is reafoa
to believe that yet a little while, and the productions
of the countries on the Nieper and the Danube will
ruih through the Straits of Constantinople into the
Mediterranean, and thence into all Europe. The
wheat of the Ukrain, hitherto fhut up by the Turk,
fells at if. to if. flerling a bufhel. The countries fo
fliut up alfo abound in cattle, hemp, tobacco, &c.
Trhich are to be conveyed through thefe ftraits to a
market new and important to thofe countries ; which
articles will greatly interfere w'ith and cheapen the
produce of our country. The Banat is faid to be by
far the cheapeil country in Europe, in all neceflary
productions, meat, bread, wine, fruits, &c. The
culture of rice was introduced there by the late Em-
peror with great and increafing fuccefs. Prices in
the vicinity of Tybifcus river are in flerling, as fol-
low:* vrheat at lyd. an Englifh bufhd ; rye iid.
barley
♦ Tnz Tybifcu?, or TeiiTe. is a large river, which takes its
r*d"e in the Carpathian mountains ; pafTes by Tockay through
Hungary, and falls into the Danube above Belgrade. The
Banat is the countrvof Temefwaer.
NEW SOURCES, '<^C. 317
barley yd.\ ; hay in towns, lo/: a ton ; in the coun-
try, 2>f' ^ '^^" ^^ 40/ to 50/ a cow 30/: to 45/.
(cattle are dearer than grain, becaufe they are rea-
dily driven to market : they are driven by thoufands
annually, from the Ukrmn, through Poland into 5/-
lefta and Germany) mutton, i^. a ft. beef, from id,
to id.i'y pork, id.i, to 2d. wine, 45 gallons new, in
a good vintage, 7/. to 42/. according to quality ; rent,
2/6 to 4/. the Englifli acre ; and all this cheapnefs we
prefume is owing to the want of a pafTage through
the ftraits of Conftantinople, to foreign markets —
the very markets hitherto fupplied by Poland, Jme-
rica and Barbary.* The Turk is to be forced by
the Czarina and the Emperor to fuffer. a palTage
through
* « The clogs to the exportatioaof the produce of ^wn^ary,
^ is an evil continually galling individuals. Wherever I
<* went (iays Mr. To'wnfon) I was led into cellars /«// of ivmc^
•« and into granaries /:J/ of corn^ and I was flicwn paftures
^^ full of cattle. If I felicitated the owners upon tlieir rich
«« ftorcs, I heard one common complaint — the tf^n/ of a mar-
«' ket, want of buyers. Wine bought in Hungary for 133 cents,
" has an additional expenfe on it of 177 cents, in all 310 cents
«« when it reaches the port of Triefie : and the com bought for
«« 44 cents, an expenfe of 1 33, both 177 cents at Triefie. The
« raw produce, unmanufadured, which Hungary exports, are
« cattle, hogs, Iheep, goats, metals, minerals, flour, wheau
" rye, oats, hnen, woollen cloth, wine, wool, wax, potafti, fill:,
" ftonewarc, tobacco, flax, hemp, feathers, fi(h, fkins, leather,
« furs, tallow, foap." The above fums in cen^s, are lite value
of the fterling money in the quoted pallag?.
3l8 INTIMATIONS ON
through thofe flraits : it already has been of late
nearly accompliflied.
You fay the above events are problematical, or
at a great diftance of time : but there is one of a
different nature and very influential in the argument
which is more certain and nearer at hand. With
the improvements in government, v.hich the phiio-
fopbical fpirit of modern times is producing, the
condition of mankind will be bettered, and in no
circumftance will it be more perceptible than in their
greater ikill in all the arts, as well in agriculture as
others. Then will France be fully equal, to fupply
her own demands for wheat, and Spain and Poi-tugal
will be fo in no long time.
Another new fource may be in hid'm, Sugs.r has
not become a common article from that quarter till
lately. When in 1792, it fold there i^f. or 18/I
near four Spanifti dollars a hundred, it was fold 50/I
to 6of. in London. A fudden and till then unknown
demand for fugars by Europe and America occaConed
an increafed price in India : and the demand having
continued and increafed, has Simulated the Indostans
to increafe the culture of fugar canes with great fpi-
rit, for fupplying Europe and America with fugar.
The Calcutta gazettes are full of the defigns of plant-
ing and cultivating the fugar cane : and now we are
aflured by fome of cur countrymen, who have been
lately
NEW SOURCES, ^C. 319
lately in India, that the ii'beat of that country is very
fine, and is fold at i id. fterling for an Englifli bufliel.
If then their fugar makes a freight and a profit when
carried to Europe, fo may their icheat ; provided it
Ihould bear fo long a voyage. It would fell at above
500 per cent, when their fugars would fcarcely ob-
tain 300. Bat will the bulk and price of wheat ad-
mit of a freight and profit fufficient for the adven-
turer ? Mr. Laxv, in his iketches of arrangements in
Bengal, for the year 1789, fays it would clear 50
per cent. " I faw, he fays, much extended cultivation
and increafing population xhvowgh Bengal : but there
is fome apprehenfion of a want of confumption ; grain
felling in fome places loofcand upwards for iid.
fterling, (equal to yd.- a bufliel of 6clb ) Wheat
might certainly be exported from Bengal with great
fuccefs. — It would be Ihipped for yf^ fterling, the
Englifli quarter which is under iid. 2l bufliel. At
58/'. a quarter in London, it would yield 50 per cent,
profit on coft and charges of freight," &:c.
Although wheat from India fliould not always bear
the voyage, yet the flour of it, which is very fine,
might. Flour carried from the Delazcare to the
Ganges, proved perfectly good when returned from
thence to Philadelphia in a late voyage. But if nei-
ther their wheat nor their flour could be carried to
Europe in good condition, yet their rice, the com-
mon bread of the country, could.. It ufually is very
cheap J
320 INTIMATIONS ON
cheap ; and whilfl their labour is but 2d. fieri, or 37
mills a day, all the fruits of that labour will continue
to be cheap.
Whether the great fources of the countries on the
Nieper and the Danube (hall foon be opened or fhall
not, there is at prefent fuch an apparent probability
of it as may induce us farmers to coDiider in time how
we are to avert the threatened ill effe£i:s of a change
that muft be as ludden as important. The farmer
of fiafliy oftentaticn may efpecially think of retrench-
ing waileful habits : and whilfl legiflators may wifh
that labour be apportioned between hufbandry and
manufa6lories, and gently promote it, they will be
cautious how they favour the one at the expenfe of
the other.
In the Ukrain and Poland, and on the Danube, la-
bour is cheap, whilfl with us it is the highefl in the
world. When we fhall have driven the Indians from
their country, what will be the condition of the peo-
ple of the hither flates, rcfpecting labour which al-
ready is fo much drained from them by the ultra-
montane country ? This will not immediately affecl
all the flates ; but it foon may, and who can fay how
fooD it will not.
POTATO
POTATO SPIRIT, ^C, XZl
POTATO SPIRIT; AND BEER.
What is called IriQi-potato, as if derived from Ire-
land, was firfl found in Peru ; and might therefore be
more properly called Peruvian-potato, according to
Mr. Romans : or globe-potato, from its fliape.
Doftor Anderfon, of Scotland, gives' an account
of an extraordinary fpirit which he procured from
this potato.
In February he boiled to a foft pulpy ftafe, a
bulhel of them weighing 72^^:* then bruifed and
paired them through a ftrait riddle along with fpring
water, keeping the fkins back, in the riddle, and
throwing them away. Cold water was added to the
pulp, and mixed up till the whole mixture was 20
gallons. It ftood till cooled to the temperature ufual
for applying yeafl: to wort. Yeall was then mixed
with it as if it was malt wort.
In 10 or 12 hours a fermentation began, and con-
tinued very brifkly 10 or 12 hoars ; and then began
fenfibly to abate. It was now hrijhly stirred, and the
fermentation was thereby renewed. The fame ope-
ration, as often as the head fell, was renewed every
day ; and the fermentation continued for two weeks.
It then abated, and could no how be further kept
X up,
* In coroOiou a bufl\el weighs about 6j.ib,
322 POTATO spirit;
up. The liquor had by this time obtained a kind of
acid flightly vinous tafte.
It was now diflilled with due caution : care being
taken to stir it in the flill, until it began to boil before
the head of the flill was put on ; and the fire was af-
terwards kept up fo ftrong as to keep it boiling brijkh;^
till the whole was run over. This boiling prevented
the thick matter from fubiiding to the bottom and
bein^ ftill-burnt.
" In confequence of thefe precautions and due
*' rectification I obtained, fays Mr. Anderfon, an
" Engliih gallon of pure fpirit, conCderably above
" proof, and about a quart more of a weaker kind,
*' a good deal below proof. It was in every refpecl
" the fined and mofl agreeable vinous fpirit I ever
" faw. It was fomewhat like very fine brandy :
*' but was milder, and had a kind of coolnefs on the
*' palate peculiar to itfelf. Its flavour was flill more
" peculiar, and refembled brandy impregnated with
" the odour of violets and rafpberries, A fingle glafs
" of it put into a bowl of rum punch gave it a flavour
" of half rum, half brandy impregnated with rafp-
" berries. There was no difierence in the tafle of
" the very weak eft of its fpirit, near the end of the
" diftiiling and that of the firft ; which is a great
" peculiarity."
The
AND BEER.
Z'^Z
The white pulp at the bottom of the fllll is, he
fays, every way applicable to domeftic ufes ; for the
table or for live-ftock, as the whole potato is. But
might it not, under fome circumftances, be better ap-
plied in producing ftarch ?
In the firfl: week oi August 1790, I made an expe-
riment, according to Mr. Anderfon, for procuring
potato fpirit, from potatoes then gathered for the
purpofe, from vines not dead, but only beginning to
be yellowifli. But in feveral attempts could never
get the math to ferment. The failure feemed owing
to the potatoes being not perfedly matured ; and ma-
turity is always an effential for obtaining a vinous
fermentation from vegetables. There alfo feems to be
another reafon for the failure. Mr. Anderfon made
his experiment in February ; a fpring month, when
doubtlefs his potatoes were coni\dQX2h\j fprouted ',
and fo far were malted. Grain is purpofely fprouted,
prior to fermenting it for making beer or for dlflilla-
tion ; and in Maryland thefe potatoes fpontanecully
fprout and grow in February and March : fo that
had I in either of thefe months chanced to have made
the experiment, it would without doubt have fuc-
ceeded.
Mr. Anderfon's candour and habits of accuracy
are eminent ; and leave no room to doubt that as he
a^ually procured the fine fpirit in the way above
X 2 dated.
^24 POTATO SPIRIT ;
dated, the like may be again produced, by the like
attentions.
I cannot exprefs my fenle of the ruinous habits in
a free ufc of drinks made from diftilled fpirits ; which
arc feen to debafe and deflroy very many men, and
even fome good men on whom the practice has fto-
len. In country famihes they are ufed with a free-
dom allonifhing to Grangers, who have been ac-
cuftomed to obferve a more temperate conduct, and
are in the habit of drinking mild beer. In our large
towns beer is taking place of diluted fpirits ; which
is a reafon why there is more fobriety now obferved
in the towns than formerly, when Wefl India rum
abounded at a third of its prefent price. Country
people pretend they know neither how to get malt
or to brew it. This is not generally true. Malt is
to be had at country malt-works, in the more provi-
dent ftates ; and maltilers can eafily be drawn into the
counties of other Hates, if country gentlemen would
in good earneit hold out proper encouragement.
Every houfewife knows how to brew, fomehow; and
would improve in it from practice.
It is better to buy malt, or exchange barley for
malt, than to make it in families ; and not every
farmer has conveniency for making it with cafe. The
principal diiliculty I found, was in the heats of the
malt whiUl growing. Finding no one to inftrufl me,
in
AND BEER. 325
in many attempts I failed from giving too much heat :
for, feeing it feeble in growth, it was thrown into
more heat, and thereby flopt in its power of further
vegetating. Till at length I fucceeded, on applying
the heats given by Mr. Mills in his Huibandry.
In Mills's Hufbandry, vol. 5. are good inflruftions
for making malt, and beer. The heats in the malt
whilft on the floor, were all that I wanted of him.
Thefe he gives, thus : During the firft ten days that
the malt was on the floor, the heat in it was between
50 and 60 degrees. During the next three or four
days, it was increafed from 60 to 65 and 6j degrees ;
and during the lafl days of its lying there, ro 80,
84 and 87, which lafl: was the degree of heat when
the malt was put on the kiln.*
In country families the good wife would delight
in brewing beer for her hufoand, to take place of
the mad, mifchief-making and, in the end, debilitat-
ing
* Great lofs and Inferiority occurs in America from the
hafty manner in malting. In England a ftatute obliges malt-
fters to work their malt three ii'eeks. Such deliberate work
renders the malt pci-feft. The Englifli laws alfo prohibit all
ufe of fugar or melaffes in brewing, becaufe of the duties on
malt. Yet I fufped, from tafte and obfervation, that the por-
ter formerly fo in vogue, and To excellent, called Bea. Kenton s^
liad a good (hare of burnt fugar or melaffes in it. How die
fugar could be fmuggled into that porter, can fcarccly b^ ac-
counted for.
J
iS POTATO SPIRIT ;
ing and ruinous brandy or fpirit beverage. The
truth is, drirxking beer is not a fafliion of the coun-
try. Vile habit? bear down all prudence ard every
rational practice that is recommended by the experi-
enced lober friends of mankind.
Whilfl fpiritous liquors continue to be ufed in
drink, the mildeft and belt ought to be preferred.
Of ihefe the potato fpirit feems the leaft caustic of
any of the home made fpirits. By drawing the fpi-
rit vranttdi from pctafoes, ,the culture of that root is
encouraged, grmn is faved and the befl preparation
of the foil for future crops is increafed.
During mofl: of the revolution war m^y reapers
had the choice of fmall beer or water to drink, after
an uninterrupted long ufe of rum. The beer had
body enough to preferve rheir flrength and a due
fiiare of cheerfulnefs, without ever fetling them
wild as had been not uncommon under the ufe of
rum. At the end of harveft there were no com-
plaints of forenefs and want of refi : but they con-
tinued cheerful and eafy, and expreffed a preference
in favour of beer. This beer v/as brewed, enough
of it, iufl before harveft. I never met with a fer-
Tant, black cr white, who did not like it ; and for
the moft part, excepting confirmed fots, prefer it to
rum, Generally, when I have aJked poor travel-
lers
AND BEER. 327
lers and mefTengers whether they would have a drink
of beer or a dram of rum, they preferred beer.
Our country is favourable to the production of
hops : and they grow wild. It would be a good
article to cultivate for the market, if labour was
plenty for gathering entire fields of them. Hops
arc bed cured by fire, as is tobacco ; and like to-
bacco, when cured they become dry and friable or
moid and tough, with the changes in the atmof-
phere : as they pafs from the moiil ilate to the dry,
a portion of their active qualities is loH in evapora-
tion : therefore it is proper to pack them away,
being thoroughly cured, the firfi: time .of their be-
ing " in cafe," as tobacco planters would call it :
that is when they will bear preffing in the hand
without being too dry or too moiil or high in cafe.
I am not recommending hops as an article of crop
for market, generally. But there are hufoandraen
fo circumftanced that, to them, it would be a pro-
fitable choice. Every farmer, however, would do
well to cultivate 50 to 100 hills of hops, for hav-
ing at command an article fo eflcntial to the making
good beer when may hap he (hall wifli to introduce
the mod excellent beverage in his family : an article
conducive to fobriety, health, vigor and content-
ment. If hovv'ever he meanly gives way to an im-
pulfe that Ihall unfortunately continue him in the
ufc
328 POTATO SPIRIT ;
life of an rmwholefome, debilitating, mifchief-mak-
ing choice of diflilled fpirits in his drink, then his
50 to ICO hills produce of hops irould annually put
20 to 40 dollars in his wife's pocket ; who proba-
bly would have the care of thofe few plants in her
garden.
In England, great preference is given to a kind
called Famkam bop. It is there a furer crop than
other forts. The crop is not only always greater,
t|^t is of a quality that gains a confiderably higher
price than other kinds. This hop was introduced
into Maryland by that pattern of manly virtues the
late Col. Sharp, when he was governor of ^lary-
land. Some of the roots he gave me ; of which I
planted 1 50 hills : and at the fame time and place
near 6co of a much admired hop, called the large
■white hop. ITie foil, againft appearances, proved
to be extremely nnfuitable. The white hop in five
or fix years fcarcely gave ten pounds weight a year.
The Famham, few as the plants were, gave five
times as much. The plants of the former w ere al-
ways exceHlvely rufty or mildewed : thofe of the
latter were much lefs io, and ripened the fruit
twelve days fooner than the former.
The following method of brewing is compared
with the old or common method.
A Tripartite
AND BEER. 329
A Tripartite Method of B reiving.*
1. Water is put into the kettle, divifion A. and
heated.
2. The malt is fpread in the divifron B.
J'
J. The hot water is pumped or poured over,
from A. to C. where it fpreads over a perforated
bottom ; and falling every where on the malt in B.
waihes out its fubftance, through another perforat-
ed bottom into A. The perforated bottoms aft
moveable. This operation is repeated, with now
and then flirring up the grains, and then, without
ftirring the grains, till the liquor is clear. The li-
quor is then made to boil bri/kly, from hence it is
let into coolers.
The old Method of Brewing.
1. The kettle is filled with water; which is then
heated.
2. The mafli vat is charged with malt.
3. The hot water is removed from the kettle to
the raafli. It there remains forae time, and then
4. The
• Tripartite, becaufe the kettle apparatus is worked in
tliree divifions. A Swcdilli method of brewing in camp, af-
forded me tlie hint for this invention. See the dimeniic;ns,
&c. in the Explanation of the plates.
35"^
DIET IN
4. The mafli is a long while flirred up with pad-
dles : it ftands fome time afterwards, and then
5. The wort is let out very flowly into the ua-
derback or vat : a lengthy operation.
6. It is again returned to the kettle and boiled —
and thence into coolers.
Mr. M'Cauley, in Front flreet, Philadelphia,
made my tripartite copper ; which fee in plate III.
£g. I.
DIET IN RURAL ECOJ^OMT.
Count Riuvjord has made many experiments on
diet ; and has written a bock recommending the befl
choice for labourers. His book is not now in my
poiTefuon : but as Do£i:or Lettfom has fince publifhed
on the fame fubjecl:, below are a number of mcffes
felected from his book of " Hints defigned to pro-
mote Beneficence, Temperance and Medical Sci-
ence j" publifhed in 1797.
Doctor Letrfom obferves, in general, that pies are
more advantageous than roafting or boiling. This
he illuftrares. Of mutton, 64 ounces in 2. pie made
with 24 ounces of wheat flour, and eaten with Si-
ounces of bread, in all g6^ ounces, dined 8 perfons
fully : whilfl 60 ounces of mutton, roasted znd eaten
with
RURAL ECONOMY. 33I
with 33 ounces of brciid, In all 93 ounces, dined only
-5 of the fume perfons.
1. IV^ilk pottage (thickened milk) he fays, is more
faUuary than tea and bread and butter ; and made
thus, is preferable to milk alone ; equal quantities of
milk and water, are boiled up with a little oatmeal ;
which breaks the vifcidity of the milk, and probably
is eafier digefted than milk alone. Oatmeal is a
warmer nouriihment than wheat flour, and agrees
with weak flomachs.
2. Of boiling potatoes he fays, in Ireland and Lan-
cafliire potatoes are boiled to great perfeftion, and
then are ufed inftead of bread. The potatoes being
good, are to be nearly all of the fa?ne fi%c. The
large and the fmall to be boiled feparately. Wa(h
them clean, without paring or fcraping. Put them
in a pot with cold water \ not fo much as to cover
them, becaufe they will add to the water from their
own juices. If large, as loon as the boiling begins,
throw in fome cold water, and occafionally repeat it,
till they are boiled through to the centre : they will
otherwife crack and burft on the outfide, whilft the
infide will not be enough. Whilfl boiling, add a lit-
tle fait. The Jlower they are cooked the better.
Pour off the water and place them again over the
fuc, for evaporating their moifture, that they may
become dry and mealy. Serve up with the Ikms on.
Steaminj:
JJ-
DI2T IN
Steaming them is very inferior to boiling or ftewing
in water, as above.
3. Potato Pltdding. Lctffom.
12 ounces of potatoes, boiled, fkinned and
maflied
I do fuet
I do m ilk, that is, 2 fpoonsful
I do cheefe. Mix all together with boil-
ifiZ water to a due confidence. Bake it. Inflead
of cheefe, there may be an ounce of red-herring
pounded fine in a mortar.
4. Potato Bread. Parmentier.
Crufli and bruifc potatoes well, together with
prepared leaven {jot yeafl) and the whole flour de-
ilgned ; (o that 4 be fiour, 4 potato. Knead all up
with warm water added. "When the dough is enough
prepared, place it in the oven lefs heated iban ufual
7isrjhui it upfofoon as is commoji ; but leave it longer
in tbe oven. Without thefe precautions, the crust
^ill be hard and fhort, while the itifide will have too
miuh jncisture, and not be foaked.* When potato^
are to be mixed zviih dough cf fiour ^ they are to be
made into a glutinous pafle ; for giving tenacity to
the fiour of grain. A fmall f>ortion of ground rice
anfwers, and makes it eat fhorter.
5. Fotah-
* See Leitfom, p. 404.
RURAL ECONOMY. 333
5. Potato bread, in England. A /I^illet of pota-
toes with cold water is hung at fome diftance over
the fire, that the water may not boil till the potatoes
become y^//. Then fkin, mafli and mix them with
their weight of wheat flour, and alfo with the yeaft,
fait and warm water wanted. Knead all together.
Lay the mafs a little while before a fire, to rife ; then
bake in a very hot oven [Parmentier in the preceding
page is directly contrary.] Flour of rice or barley
may be ufed inftead of that from wheat.
6. Another Englifti mode fays : after long boiling,
peel, fcle6l the mofl mealy, and bruife the potatoes.
To take oiFauy bitternefs of the yeaft, a little bran,
milk and fait are added ; and after (landing an hour
thefe are run through a hair lieve.
7. Another mode is given by the Board of Agricul-
ture. — It diredls, to felecl the moft mealy fort, and
boil and ikin them. Break and ftrain 1 2 lb potatoes
through a very coarfe fieve of hair, or a very fine one
of wire, fo as to reduce the pulp as near as pofGble
to a flour. Mix this well with 2ott) of wheaten
flour. Make and fet the dough of this mixture ex-
aftlyas if the whole were wheat flour. This quan-
tity makes 9 loaves of 5tt> each, in dough ; or when
baked about two hours, 421b of excellent bread.
Doftor Foikcrgill fays, if potato bread is cut be-
fore it is a day old^it will not appear enough baked ;
becaufc
334
DIET IN
becaufe of the potato moifture [Parraentier's mode
in the preceding page, cures this by baking flowlyj.
He adds, never flice potatoes with a knife, raw or
boiled ; but break and mafh with the hand or a fpoon,
otherwife they will not be foft.
Doctor Lettfom next proceeds to give the befl
foups ; according to Mr. Juflice Colquhcun*
I. Potato Soup. Colquhoun.
Sieiv 5* coarfefl parts of beef or mutton, in lo
quarts of water till half-done. Add a quantity of
potatoes, Jkinned, and fome onions, pepper and fait.
Stir frequently and boil enough. Bones of beef ad-
ded would increafe the foup in richnefs or quantity.
Mills.
Eflimate in raills.t 5^ coarfebeef at 60 mills 300
Bones, to enrich it, 50
Potatoes 24ft> or 4 a bufliel 20
Onions, a bunch 60
Pepper and fait 60
49.0
It
* Some of die receipts fij boil ; others JIcw ; others again,
Icil over ajlo-jufre. Page 342, fays, " iwcer boil foups brj/ily ;
but leave them long, long over the ^xo-tJimTTienng rather than
boiling." Doftor Johnfon fays, — " It is material that fiupt
be cooked in chfe ftew pans or vefiels that will icarcely admit
of any evaporation."
\ Small dealings, are conveniently ctiarged in mi/Zr ; or In
ctnts and mills, 10 mills make a cent, iod cents or 10 dimes
u dollar.
RURAL ECONOMY. 335
It gives lo quarts foup, meat and potatoes : and dines
ID men, at nearly 5 cents. — A red herring is fuid to
be a good fubftitute for onions, pepper and fait.
But red pepper may be added.*
II. Barley Broth. Colquhoun.
It admits of a mixture of almofl: every kind of gar-
den vegetable and is never out of feafon. Onions
or leeks and parfley are always a part of the ingre-
dients : belides which, cabbage or greens, turnips,
carrots and peas may be added. A tea-cup of bar-
ley fuffices for a large family. Pearl barley is dearer,
yet not fo good as the common hujked or Scotch drefTed
barley. Water 4 quarts, beef 4 pounds with bones,
barley 4 ounces [Count Rumford fays barley-meal
is better than whole barley, for thickening broth,
and making it more nourifhing]. 5/rTv' all together
two hours. Then add the herbs cut fmall, and fait.
The whole then boils till tender. Skim off the fat or
not, as you like it. Onions or leeks mud not be
omitted.
III.
* An EngliOi gentleman aiTures me he of:en ate of a plain
pottage or foup in Switzerland, which was very agreeable tr>
him ; and that having it made at his father's on his retuni to
England, the family liked it fo well that they often had it,
though fo plain and fimple as to be made only oi potjtc-eijhinned,
boUeJy nuijljedup, and tbenjlewed 'with fom^ butter and fait ; with-
out any potherbs orfpice : and yet thefe were opulent peopb,
ufed to good living. It is a good jubftitutc for pea fc:r> ; -vvl
made ot the fame confidence.
33^ I>i£T IN
III. A plain good food, ivith very little meat ; and as
ivholcfome as can be obtained from ivheat or bar-
ley. Colquhoun.
Cut half a pound of beef, mutton, or pork, into
fmall pieces ; add half a pint of peas, 3 fliced turnips,
and 3 potatoes, cut very fmall : an onion or two, or
leeks. Put to them fevcn pints of water, and boil
the whole, gently, over a flow fire for 2i hours.
Thicken with a quarter pound of ground rice, and
i- pound of oat-meal \ox ^^^ of oat-meal or barley-
meal without rice). Boil \ hour after the thicken-
ing is put in ; ftirring it all the time. Then feafon
with fait and pepper, or ground ginger. x\s only a
pint will be lofl: in boiling, it is a meallfor 4 perfons ;
and will cofl 2 cents each perfon.
IV. Cut into very fmall bits, 2^^ beef, mutton, or
pork out of the tub ; or hung beef, frefhened in wa-
ter; and put them in a pot with 6 quarts water. Boil
Jlow near three hours : or rather stew till tender.
Add 4* carrots or parfnips, and 4^ turnips, all
fliced finall. Sometimes inilead of them, a few po-
tatoes fliced : alfo add fome greens, cabbage, cellery,
fpinach, parfley, and two ounces onions or leeks.
Thicken with a pint of oat-meal (or a quart, to make
it very thick). Boil all well together, and feafon with
pepper, or ground ginger and fait. It will ferve a
family
RURAL ECONOMY. 337
family of fix, for a day. Or it may be thickened with
any kind of meal ; or barley, beans, peas or rice.
V. Take 4lt> beef, onions 4 ft turn'ps 2ft rice i^ft.
Parlley, favory, thyme of each a large handful ; pep-
per and fait : w-ater 17 quarts. Cut the beef into
fliccs, and after boiling it fome time, mince it fmall.
The turnips and onions infufed,and fweec herbs may
be minced before they go to the pot. Boil the
whole gcnth together, about 3 hours on :xj1o-j; fire.
Scarcely two quarts wiil be wailed in boiling. The
rell will ferve i8 perfons for one meal. Cod 3
cents each.
"Where fuel is fcarce, the materials in the three
above receipts may be ftewed in a pot, all night m
an oven ; and will next day require but a quarter
hour boiling.
VI. Bake in an earthen pot, a {hank of beef in fix
quarts of water, with a pint of peas, a leek, and
four or five turnips fiiced.
I. Pottages, by Ccl. Pjynicr.
Officers Mefs.
Three pounds of the (licking piece of beef, or a
1-z.xi of a fhiii, or any coarfe piece. Eoil it m
Y eleven
33S DIET IN
eleven quarts of water, two hours. Then add a
fjound Scotch barley ^ and boil it four hours more, in
which time add potatoes fix pounds, ojiiojis half a
pound, and fome par/ley, tbyme or favory, pepper
2ji6.falt, with other vegetables, and half a pound
of bacon may be added, the bacon cut into fmall bits.
It gives three gallons of pottage. Boil it over ■d.fivjj
fire, to be thick. If fatisfied twenty foldiers, 'with-
out bread ; the nature of the food not requiring any.
Col. Paynter adds that the men in the barracks liked
it very much ; and the oficers introduced it into
their mefs, and found it excellent. Its coft would
be 30 cents ; cr 15 mills a man.
z. A prcparat'rcefcr Puiagcs. Faynier.
It may be applied as above, or be eaten in mefs :
an excellent diOi. A pound of Scotch barley is
boiled, and draining the water from it, i^fet to cool
in an earthen pan. A pound of bacon is boiled in
two quarts of water. A few minutes before it Is
i iken cff the fire, put in the boiled barley, when it
w ill imraediately fall to pieces, being a jelly whilft
cold, and -avV/ fuck up all the juices, cf the bacon,
nearly. The remaining ijater is then poured off.
A few omons or leek: fhould be boiled with the ba-
con and herbs. Seafon with pepper and Ja'lt. A
pound of Scotch barley boiled four hours, and coaled
in
RURAL ECONOMY. 339
in a pan, becomes a fort of jclley ; which being put
into boiling ivater, inftantly falls to i;i<j!ces. When
the pound of barky is boiled^ cooled, and coagulated y
the coaguium weighs four pounds. This is an cxcel-
leht nourifhing food, feafoned with fugar ; or made
into a pottage.
Mr. Lcttfom then gives, from Docl:or fohnfon of
Haflar hofpital, a number of chofen mciTes ; the
refult of experiments on diet, made at the indarice
of Admiral Waldgrave, in 1795.
I. A Mess, according to Dr. fohnfon.
Beef lib, potatoes 2lb, Scotch barley ^^, onions
\Yb, pepper lud fait. Bacon 3 ounces. Cofl lo
cents. This, fays Doctor Johnfon, would be a
dinner and fupper for three men ; better than the
common meil'es of fat bacon and cabbage, with
which bread and beer are required. If one fuch
man eats a pound of bacon at nine pence flerling for
his dinner and fupper, that article alone is equal to
what might fupport three men; independent of
bread and beer. Coft, ^2) ^^^i^^^ ^ m-:.)^, or 3 c. 3m.
II. Mess. Dr. Johufcn.
The head of a flieep, barley -*ft, potatoes 3tb,
cnior.s 'fti, pepper ?iX\d fait, cabbage, turnips, carrots.
Water 11 pints. Cofl; 16 cents. Produce 6 quarts.
Y z This
34C DIET IN
This was preferred to the other, for richnefs of
flavor and tafle ; owing to the bon€s in the head,
which were broken /mail before they were put in the
flewpan. It makes a nioic conifortable dinner for
four men. Coil 40 mills or 4.0 cents a meal.
III. Mlss. Dr. Johnfcn.
Bacon 4ft>j barley ^'±, onions, pepper and fait.
Coft 9 cents. A dinner for three men, needing no
bread. '
IV. Mess. Dr. Johnfon.
An ox cheek, barley itb, potatoes 6rt>, pepper
and fait, onions i^. Cabbage, turnips, carrots.
Water 22 pints. Cod 30 cents. Produce 3 gal-
lons. A meal 18.7 m.ills or ic.8/^m.
This colts 30 cents, without bacon ; and gives
three gallons of very excellent pottage, for 8 men at
dinner and fupper (perhaps even for 10 men). It
v^as rich, and better than mj other pottages. Ox
cheek feeras to have the preference to the coarfe
pieces of beef commonly chofen. c^ In all ike aboi-e
cookery, fays Mr. Johnfon, a very clofe ste^d;'pan^v;-^s
ufed, vfhlxch. tm\it.Qd fcarcely any cvaporaticn : a ma-
terial cu-curallance. ?Ie adds : Thefe diihes are
not meant to be continual ; but to be three or four
days in the week.
V. Mess.
RURAL ECONOMY. 34I
V. Mzss. Dr, Jchnfon.
A fliln of beef, barley ifr, onions ift, potatoes
6;b. Cabbage, carrots, turnips, fait and pepper.
"Water ii quarts. Cofl 28 cents. Produce three
gallons. Dinner for 7 men. Coil 40 ir.IlJs, or
4.0 cents a man.
VI. Mess. Dr. Jchnfon.
Ox's head \. barley 4!fc, onions ifr, potatoes
31b. Cabbage, carrots, turnips. Salt and pepper.
Water 5 J- quarts. Produce 6 quarts. Cod 16
cents. A rich and high flavored pottage. In the
laft two above trials, the do(5lor omitted the bacon j
bccaufe the flavor of it, in fome other inflances,
was too predominant ; and it is a needlefs expenfe,
Oa the whole of his trials, he found that ox cheek
or Jhin beef are preferable to any pieces that are
ivithcut bones. See Prifon Diet.
PoMPioN Diet. Doclor Lettfcm.
^The fort common at the tables of the people of
Maflfachufetts, are diftinguiihed by the name of
" the winter, or long nechcd fquaj%.^* They weigh
10 to 15.0, This fquafli is boiled abuut half an
hour : then malhed up with flour or dough. They
make
342 DIET IN
make " bread, puddings, and mcft excellent pan-
cakes; by mixlD? certain proportions of this vege-
table, previouily boiled, with flour. But mofl
commoniy, they are eaten ftewed, the ikin being
firft taken o% and the entrails taken out. It is al-
niofl: a /landing diih at their tables ; even amongft
the moil opulent.'*
General Cautions in Country Cookery,
So'ups are never to be filled cp or have even a drop
of water, hot nor cold, added : and are never to
boil brijkly. They are to be k)ng, long over the fire,
fimmering rather than boiling. And all foups hav-
ing roots or herbs, are to have the meat laid on the
bottom of the pan, with a good lump of butter.
The herbs and roots being cut fmall are laid on the
meat. It is then covered ckfe and fet on a veryjlow
fre. This draws out all the virtue of the roots and
herbs, and turns out a good gravy ^ with a fine
favour^ from what it would be if the water was
put in at nxil. When the gravy is almofl dried up,
theyi fill the pan with water : and when it begins to
boil, take off the fat. — Never boil fiih ; but only
fimmcr, till enough. — Beef ^mck boiled, is thereby
hardened : Jimmer or flov/ boil it, in not too much
water. — Veal and poultry are to be dufted with
flour, and put into the keltle in cold -ivater. Cover
arrd boil Jlcw as poffible, /kimmicg the water clean.
It
RURAL ECONOMY. 34j
It is the worft of faults, to boil any meat fad.—
In baking pies, a quick oven -xcll chfcd^ prevents
falling of the cruft.
Wafteful or indolent people overlook calculation j
and too many may think but little of the wholefome
and nourifhing qualities of food. But here are well
informed and moft actively good men, recommending
to the world the refults of much inquiry and expe-
rience tlierein. However lightly may be thought
of a cent on a fmgle meal of visuals, when the fum
of a year's meals is calcular.ed,, for a perfon, a fami-
ly, and a nation, it becomes flriking and important.
A cent for a «eal, amounts to three cents a day.
* Dol.
One perfon, at 3 cents a day, faves
in the year . • • ^ '
One family of 5 perfons . • ' S':>
A nation of 5 millions of people 55,000,000
The cent thus faved by the good houfe-wife, on
every plentiful meal of the zuholefomest food, would
be fufficient for maintaining the mod defperate war
by the freemen of America, in defence of their
country, againft the wiles and the violences ot
the Great enlightened world !
GVPSUM
344 GYPSUM MANURE.
GTPSUM MANURE.
]^izz Prcn V. rote circular letters to feveral ex-
'Der:—':::, ::.r~=-;- zi PeriEiyivaDia, containing quef-
: ■ : vLich they g^ve him anfwers :
_. ;:ome whereof, follows.*
Queftion ift. How long have you ufed the plafter ?
Anfwcr, by Mr. West
11 years
Hanman
12
Price
6
Hand
lO
Curwen
"*
Sellers
Duffield
13
Roberts
7
Peters
25
QueftioQ 2d. In what flate was your land when
you began the ufc of it ?
Anfwcr, by Mr. West : tired down.
Hannum : Virgin foil and old land ; good
bad and indifferent.
Price :
* "his:. Cljl has the pamtJilet at large, for file ; in which
the aniwers are fbOf given, together with Mr. Petert*i obfer-
ratkms. And I have their penniflkm to publiih this epitome.
GYPSUM MANURE. 345
Price : Worn out ; but had been limed.
Hand: Exhaufted.
Cunven : Had been limed and dunged,
after being exhaufled.
Sellers: Poor.
Duffield : Had been in poor timothy.
Peters : Worn out.
Queftion 3d. What quantity per acre have you ge-
nerally ufed ?
Anfwer, by Mr. West : 4 1 to 3 bulhels.
Hannum .• i to 5
Price ; I to 2
Hand ; 3 to 4
Cur\ven : i began with 6 and funk to i
Sellers : 2r began with 4 or 5
Ditffield: 3 to 5 if fandy 3. If loamy more.
Roberts : 1 1^ to 4
Peters .-3.
Queftion 4th. What foils are the moft proper for this
manure ?
Anf. by Mr. West : Warm, kind, loamy.
Hannum : High ground, and fandy foils.
Price: High, warm, dry, gravelly or loamy.
Curzven : Dry loam ; better on hilly than level
land.
Sellers:
346 GYPSUM MAKURE.
Sellers : Too light and fandy or clay are unfa-
vourable : loam is befl.
Bufficld : Sandy or light loam.
Roberts : The fame ; and watered meadows.
(Sloping is meant.)
Peters : Light dry and fandy or loamy.
Queflion 5th. Have you repeated the application of
it with or withour plowing ? At what intervals,
and with what efie£l ?
Anf. by Mr. West. They have a good eiFeft. It fol-
lows lime equal to any manure.
Hannum. With and without plowing, with very
eood eSecl:.
Price. The like anfwer, with many inftances of
good effefts.
Hand, With good effefl 5 though with lefs at the
laft.
Cur\uen. On meadow and clover every other
year, with good effect.
Sellers. Sufpe<5ls the good efFefts will be lefs on a
frequent application, as of any other manure
often repeated. Improvement of land may be
fimilar to that of animal improvement, which
is better promoted by a change of nutriment,
than by being confined to any one kind.
Dufleld. Good on grafs every 3d or 4th year,
without plowing : on maize with plowing.
Peters.
GYPSUM MANURE. ^47
Peters. Good with and without plowing.
CJueflion 6th. In confeqaence do you find that it ren-
ders the earth fteril after its ufeful effefts are eone?
Anf. by Mr. West. Something of flerility it creates in
five or fix years by mowing.*
Hannum. Its ufefal effects have not ceafed ; ap-
plying one^ufliel a year.
Price. Never any bad effects ; and the good ceafes
not.
Hand. Quite contrary to flerility.
Curwen. Quite the reverfe of flerility. No kind
of manure gives flerility.
Sellers. Have not obferved any flerility.
Duffield. Not in the leaft degree.
Peters. No greater degree of flerility after plaf-
ter than after dunij.
Queflion 7th. To what produfts can it be befl ap-
plied ? grain and what kinds ? graffes and what
kinds ?
Anf. by Mr. West. It is befl adapted to grafs and
every kind of fumraer grain.
Hannum,
* Not the manure, but the many crops taken off, weaken the
foil ; and tlie ibur or five years of lay, give the foil time to fet-
tle, become hardened and untillcd : and moreover, fibrous
rooted plants take place and add to the milchief.
§4^ GYPSUM MAKURE*
Hannum. BeneSciaiiy to the production of wheat,
rye, barley, Indian-corn, buckwheat, f>eas, f>o-
tatoes, cabbage, clover, and all other gralTes
common amongftus.
Price, I have found it more beneficially applied
to Indian com than any other grain, having
never failed, except in two inftances : on^ was
in a field a third part whereof had buckwheat
in the year before. A row of com was left
unplaflered, which run acrofs the frefh broken
up land and the buckwheat ground. In the
latter no ei±e£l whatever was perceptible that
the plafter had on it. In the freih broken up
land the crop was very good ; more than
double the quantity where it was plaitered than
in the row that was not. The other inllance
W'as in 2.Jin£ mellow rich piece of land that bad
been well manured the year before ; from
which had been taken a good crop of potatoes
and pompions. Three rows were left nnplaf-
tered : but no difference could be feen be-
tween them and the others, where had been
fown two buihels per acre. The piece was
fown the fpring following with barley and
clover feed, and the plafter that had been put
upon the com without any advantage, had a
great efieft upon the clover, which was much
better than where the three rows were omit-
ted. The effects of the plafler here, as well
as
GYPSUM MANURE. 349
as in many other inftances where it has been
apphed to Indian corn in mellow /and without
effect, is, he fays, myilerious in its operations.
It has never had any effedl: (when lirft applied)
on any other grain except buckwheat, when
fowed on frefli broken up land.*
Hand. Oats and maize feed wetted and dufied
with it before fown, is very good. With
lime equal to 3 or 4 times the quantity put on
the corn after it is up.
Curzuen. Bell on red clover, and is good on
white clover and mixt grafles. It enlarges the
plant of maize more than the produft of the
corn. Is very trifling on wheat and rye.f
Sellers. All graffes, efpecially the clovers.
Duffield.
* MeHcw foils raoft readily imbibe and retain mo'iflure ; and
therefore have ]efs need of the attradion of moifture by the
acid and calcarious matter of gypfum. There is humidity in
the drieft common air that comes in contact with the foil ; and
this air is never quiefcent. The cultivation given to maize
cleans and mcllov.'s the foil. Buckwheat is fown on ground
fcratched over or very imperfcftly tilled, and fo the ground is
not mill(rjj ; and there the gypfum is ufeful in coUeding and re-
taining mo'ijlurcy which the fcratched half tilled ground cannot
alone.
' f If It enlarges tlie plant, it fo far promotes its condition
for yielding much com : but untimely plowing and breiking
the roots, and great drought or c.<ceirive rains afterwards
would Itorten tlie crop.
350 GYPSUM MANURE.
Duffield. GraiTes of a.11 kinds and maize, immedi-
ate. All other grain the next year.
Peters. Leguminous plants, buckwheat, flax,
hemp, rape and other plants producing oil.
Garden plants, fruit trees, maize, turnips : oats
and barley feed wetted and covered with plaf-
ter dud. Beft on red clover. Winter grain,
oats and barley are not benefitted by top drefT-
ing with plafter duft.
Queflion 8th. When is the beft time to fcatter it ?
Anf. by Mr. West, The fpring when vegetation is
abroad.
Hanfium : ift March if free from froft, to the ift
of May.
Price : Soon after clover comes up, and repeat
it foon as vegetation takes place. On Indian
corn inftantly after the firft harrowing and
moulding.
Hand: In April, or June on m.owing the firll
crop.
Curiven : At any feafon : beft w^hen vegetation
approaches rapidly in the fpring ; or foon after
mowing the firft crop.
Sellers : The various times in which it w'as fcat-
tered, prove equally good.
Duffield : Clover being fown w ith oats or barley,
ftrew it as thefe grains are taken off j which
gives
GYPSUM MANURE. 3^1
gives a good growih to the clover before win-
ter fets in. On ii fward, Itrew it at any time ;
and on Indian corn as fo6n as it is up j giving
three or four bufliels an acre, over the whole
ground.
Peters : If flrewed in the fall, and a dry frofly
winter fucceeds, much of the plafler is blown
away. He found it anfvver well fown from
beginning of February to the middle of April,
in milly weather.*
Quefliion 9th. What is the greatefl: produ<51: of grafs
per acre, you have known by means of plafler ?
Anf. by Mr. West : Equal to any ever fcen. Would
feed as many cattle as acres.
Hannian : Three tons from land really poor.
Price : Land manured and afterwards plaftered
two crops (cuttings) gave of clover 4^ tons an
acre : and poor unmanured land no^ likely to
give half a ton, frequently gave i '- or 2 tons.
Hand :
* •' In many parts of SnuUzerland I have {Qcngypfumy or the
parget ilone, ulcd witli uncommon fuccefs. Reduced to a
powder it hjirewedon the lark/, always ieffre the your.^ gf"f^ ^^"
ghis tojhoot ; otherwlfe, attached to the blades ofgrafs, the
cattle might fwallow it with the grafs, and its vifcous filmy
particles prove injurious to the cattle." Obferva. on Dcnm.
&c. p. 380.
^S^ GYPSUM MANURE.
Hand : Three and fix-tenths tons, and 2i tons
frequently : never lefs than i^ tons.
Curu-en : The firft crop 2 tons ; the fecond crop,
nearly one ton ; the tlurd rcierved for feed.
Without plafter this ground would not yield
-1 of the whole quantity.
Sellers : Before the ufe of plailer, little of pailure
was given fcarcely enough to fatten cattle for
the family ufe. But for feveral years back
(with the plafter appHed) 40 to 50 are fatten-
ed annually ; befides mowing from the fields,
hay enough for a team, family horfes, and 20
cattle.
Duffield: Three tons of hay.
Peters : Five tons an acre, at two cuttings.
Oueftion icth. Have you ever ufed it with other
manure, and what ? and the effects if any fuperior
to the plafter alone ?
Anf. by Mr. JVest : Never ufed of it with other ma-
nure.
Hannum : Yes : the land will in lefs time be much
more productive. I have not found my land
in good heart, in lefs than three years with
plafter only.*
Price:
* A manuring with Jung and a manuring with plajlery are
^ two to one ; t-xo manur'ings. Whether the plafter alone will
give good hsart to the kcd in one or in three years will de-
GYPSUM MANURE.
35S
Price : I have put it on after lime arid dung fre-
quently, and have always found the greatelT:
difference in the effe6V, where it has been put
on entirely ahne^ both on clover and Indian
corn. Where the manure has been put the crop
has been the greatest, but their operations are
entirely independent of each other.*
Hand: No more grafs is produced from his lands
previouQy manured for other crops, than from
thofe which were not fo manured, although an
equal proportion of plafter and grafs feed v/ere
fown on each : except in one inllance, where
afhes were fown on the plafter a few days
after it. <
Cur^juen : He never mixed it with manure previ-
ous to putting it on the ground, but gene-
rally ufed it on ground limed or dunged or
both not long before, and found its effects in
a great degree proportionate to the manure in
the ground ; though on ground exhaufted and
never manured, the effeft was confiderablcf
Z Peters :
pend on the quantity and the quality of the phifter ; and pro-
bably, other circumllanccs.
* Do dung and plafter improreeach other's powers ? How
does this appear ? Thery indeed ajfi/i the foil, as two to one ;
and plafter + dung -H lime = 3 m^murings.
t When it don't follow dung or lime cr o±cr manure, it aifti
alone — an unit, without addition or aid. ^^'hen gypfjm Ibl-
lows them, then the maaurings are tripled.
354 GYPSUM MANURE.
Peters : lands Hmed irefh and fome exhaulled are
all plaflered, and there is no ditlerence unfa-
. vourable to the limed.
Queflion nth. Is there any difference between the
European and the American plafter ?
Anf. by Mr. Hannum : No difference.
Price : None in the effects upon grafs or grain :
but the European is eafieft manufatlured, and
the American is found to make the ftrongeft
cement.
Sellers : The American is beff.
D II fie Id : Can diicover no difference.
Peters : The European generally befl : but has
ufed of the Nova Scotia plafter to equal ad-
vantage.
Queflion 1 2th. Its duration:
Anf. by Mr. West : The product for five years, mow-
ed twice a year, and the third plaftered, is
more than can be produced from dung.
Hand: In one inilance he mowed the fame
ground four years fuccelEvely after four
bulhels of plafter per acre had been applied ;
but'found that the blue grafs generally begins
to appear the third year : therefore he wifhes
to
GYPSUM MANURE. ^^$
to mow or pafture two years only, and then
plough again.
Curwen : With him it has not been uniform.
Whether it depends on the quantity applied,
the nature of the foil, the difference in feafons,
or the goodnefs of the pJafter, he cannot fay :
but it fometimes fails the fecond year ; fome-
times lafls four or five, and where put on the
hills of Indian corn and afterwards mixt with
the foil by plowing, the effe^bs have been vi-
fible for fix years, and continue the fame length
of time on an exhaufled foil never manured.
Diiffield : Its effects are perceivable for four or
five years.
Peters : Has had benefit from one drefling of
three or four bufhels to the acre, for five or
fix years, gradually decreaiing in its powers.
Has heai'd of fome who fov»'ed it frequently,
and in fmall quantities, and obtained good
crops of grafs for twelve years and upwards.
For fome years of gypfum being firft ufed as a ma-
nure in America, it was ground down to meafure
only about 20 bufliels a ton. It now is made io
meafure twenty-four or twenty-five bufiiels ; which
Mr. Peters*s experience condemns. He fays 20
bufliels a ton is to be preferred by the farmer ; for
that v.hcn too fine, it flics hway ia flrewing, and is
Z 2 not
356 A STATE SOCIETY
not fo donible as the coarfer. The miller who fells
plaftcr gains by its being made very fine.
We have, fays Mr. Perers, a fimple mode of trying
the quality of plafter. A quantity of the povrder,
when heated in a dry pot over a bre. emits a ful-
phoreous finell. If the ebullition is coniiderable, it
is good : if it be fmail, it is indifferent : if it remiias
an inert mafs. like fand, it is worthlefe.
A Propofdl for a State Society, for promoting Agricul-
ture : and that the Education tf Toutb Jhoidd direcl
them to a Knowledge of the Art, at the time tbej are
acquiring other ufeful Knowledge, fuitable to agri-
cultural Citizens.
A: :. S;:;:*:! -:::"-- -' :':.- Phi:if;'r^/- ^rricty
AGREED, That Mr. Bordley, Mi. Clymer,
IMr- Pc:e-: : .i: 7 7:. ?' ' ' . be a Committee to
prep-re O^ ""iblifhing a State
Socir : : .le P.'-. ure ; connecting
with it the Educatisn of . .s^ Knowledge of
th2Lt moil important Art, v: ; : - reacquiring
other ufefnl KnszvL. , for the agricultural
Cithern of the State .
And
OF AGRICULTURE. 557
And a Petition to the Legiflature, with a view to
obtain an Aft of Incorporation.
At a Special Meeting of the Society, Jan. 28, 1794.
The Committee appointed at the laft Meeting to
prepare Outhnes of a Plan for eftablilhing a State
Society for the Promotion of Agricuhiire, and a Pe-
tition to the Legiflature for an Aft of Incorporation,
made report. The Report was adopted. The
fame Committee are now requefted to fign the Peti-
tion, prefent it to the Legiflature, and attend the
Committee thereof which may be appointed to con-
fer with them on the fubjeft.
To the Senate and Houfe of Reprefentatives of
the Commonwealth of Pennfylvania.
The Philadelphia Society for Promoting i^gricul-
ture, beg leave to reprefent :
THAT finding the important objeft of their afTo-
ciation not to be fufficiently attained on the limited
plan, and by the means hitherto purfucd, they are
deflrous of promoting an eflablifliment on a broad and
permanent baCs, which may afford more certain
profpefts of advancing the interefts of agriculture.
They alfo conceive that the acquiring a knowledge
of it may be combined with the education which 13
prafticable
35^ -^' STATE SOCIETY
prafticabk and moft ufeful for the great body of ci-
tizens.
To Ihew wjiat in their opinion may, in procefs of
time, be accomplilhed, they take the liberty of pre-
fenting to the view of the legiflature, the annexed
Outlines of a Plan for eflabliihing a State Society of
Agriculture in Pcnnfyhania, which fhall embrace the
aforementioned objects.
They pray that a committee of the legiilature may
be appointed to confer with a committee of the So-
ciety on the fubject ; and, as the neceflary means of
conductin'Tf the execution of the plan, that an act of
incorporation may be granted to the perfons whofe
names fhall be prefented for that purpofe.
The above, with the Outlines, was prefented to
the legiflature, and a conference was held as propof-
ed ; but the proceedings were laid on the table, and
nothing more was done.
OUTLINES OF A PLAN
For EsiahlifrAng a State Society of J gri culture in Penn-
fylvania*
I. The legiflature to be applied to for an act of
incorporation of the fociety, which is to confift of ci-
tizens
• Brought into the coimnittee by Mr. Peters.
OP AGRICULTURE. 359
tizens of the ftate, as generally dlfperfed throughout
the fame as polTible. In the firfi; inftance, the fociety
to be compofed of fuch perfons as may be named, and
thefe to be verted with authority to make rules for
admiffion of other members, and by-laws for the go-
vernment of the fociety, as ufual in fimilar cafes.
Honorary members to be admitted according to rules
to be eftabliihed, and thefe may be of any (late or
country.
2. The organization of the fociety fhall be fo
formed, that the bufmefs thereof may be done by a
few, who will be refponfible to the body of the fo-
ciety, in fuch manner as their by-laws fliall direft.
3. The governor of the ftate, the fpeakers of the
houfes of the legiflaturc, and the chief juflice for the
time being, to be the vifitors of the corporation.
The tranfaftions of the aftlve members, i. e. ihofe
entrufted with the monies and affairs of the fociety,
by whatever name or defcrlption they may be defig-
nated, and all by-laws and regulations, to be fubmit-
ted to the vifitors ; to the end that the fame may be
fo conduced and eftabliflied as not to prejudice the
interefls of the corporation, or interfere with or op-
pofe the conditution and laws of the ftate. The vifi-
tors will alfo judge of the objects of the fociety, and
perceive whether or not they are calculated to pro-
more the ends of its inftitution. Reports may by
them
3^0 A STATE SOCIETY
them be made annually to the leglflature. Thefc
"will be ufeful, as they will exhibit, in a comprehen-
iive view, the flate of agriculture throughout the
commonwealfh, and give an opportunity to the le-
glflature of being informed on afubject fo important
to the profperity of the country, both as it relates to
political oeconomy and the individual happinefs of the
people. The legiflature will perceive, from their
reports, when and in what manner they may lend
their alSftance to forward this primary object : Whe-
ther by endowing profeflbrfliips, to be annexed to
the univerlity of Pennfylvania and the college of
Carlifle, and other feminaries of learning, for the
purpofe of teaching the chemical, philofophical and
elementary parts of the theory of agriculture : Or
by adding to the funds of the fociety, increafe their
ability to propagate a knowledge of the fubjefi:, and
Simulate, by premiums and other incentives, the ex-
ertions of the agricultural citizens : Or whether by
a combination of ihefe means the welfare of the flate
may be more efFeftually promoted.
4. Though it will be mod convenient to make the
repoiitory of the information of the fociety, and the
office or place of tranfacting its bufmefs, at Philadel-
phia ; yet it is intended that the fociety fhall be ren-
dered active in every part of the ftatc. To effect
this, there fhould be county focieties eftabliflied, or-
ganized as each fhall think proper. In union with,
or
OF AGRICULTURE. 361
or as parts thereof, there may be agricultural meet*
ings or eftablifliments, at the u ill of thofe who com-
pofe them, in one or more townlhips of a county.
Thefe may correfpond with the county focieties, and
the latter may annually inform the fociety of the (late
(of which the lefs focieties may be confidered as
branches) of all the material tranfa^lions of their re-
fpe^tive focieties. Societies already formed may re-
main as they are. They may, at their option, cor-
refpond direiflly with the ftate fociety, or through
the fociety of the county in which they meet, as fhall
be found raoft convenient and agreeable to them.
This will bind up together all the information and
bufinefs relating to the fubjeft. It will give an op-
portunity to the fociety of the flate, to fee where
their afliftance is moft neceffary, and afford a facility
of diffufing agricultural knowledge. The premiums,
books and other articles, at the difpofal of the fociety,
may pafs through the hands of the county or other
focieties, for many purpofes ; and they can judge on
the fpot, of the pretenfions of the claimants. The
county fchoolmafters may be the fecretaries of the
county focieties ; and the fchool houfcs the places of
meeting and the repofitories of their tranfa^lions,
models, &c. The legiflature may enjoin on thefc
fchool-mafters, the combination of the fubjecl of agri-
culture with the other parts of education. This
may be eafily cffefled, by introducing, as fchool
books, thofe on this fubjcifl ; and thereby making it
fauiiliar
^62 A STATE SOCIETV^
familiar to their pupils. Thefe ■will be gaining 3f
knowledge of thebuiinefs they are deftined to follow,
while they are taught the elementary parts of their
education. Books thus profitable to them in the
common affairs of life, may be fubftituted for fome
of thofe now ufcd ; and they can ealily be obtained.
Selections from the bed writers on hufbandry may
be made by the fociety. The eifays of our own ex-
pcrimentalids or theorifls, and the proceedings ol
the fociety, will alfo afford information ; and as many
of thefe will, no doubt, be good models of compofi-
tion, they may form a part of the feleftion for the ufe
of the county fchools. And thus the youth in our
country will effeclaally, and at a cheap rate, be
grounded in the knowledge of this important fubjeft.
They will be eafily iufpired with a thirft for inquiry
and experiment, and either never acquire, or foon
baniih, attachments to bad fyflems, originating in the
ignorance and bigotry of their forefathers, which in
all countries have been the bane of good hufbandry.
It will alfo be the bufmefs of the fociety to recom-
mend the collection of ufeful books on agriculture
and rural affairs in every county. The citizens of
the country fhould be drawn into a fpirit of inquiry
by the eflablifhment of fmall, but well chofen libra-
ries, on various fubjects. This would not only pro-
mote theinterefls of agriculture, but it would diffufe
knowledge among the people and aliid good govern-
ment.
OF AGRICULTURE. 363
ment, which is never in danger while a free people
are well informed.
5. The general meetings of this fociety, confiding
of fuch members as may choofe to attend, and parti-
cularly thofe charged with communications or infor-
mation from the county and other focieties, (liould be
held at Philadelphia, at a time, in the winter feffions
of the legiilature, when citizens who may be mem-
bers thereof, or have other bufmefs, can with moft
convenience attend. At thefe meetings, the general
bufinefs of the fociety can be arranged, its funds and
tranfactions examined, and its laws and rules report-
ed, difcuifed and rendered generally ferviceable and
agreeable to the whole.
6. It will be necefl'ary that a contribution be made
by each member, annually, for a fund. But this
fliould be fmali, that it may not be too heavy a tax
on members. The funds will, no doubt, be increaf-
ed by donations from individuals ; and if the ilate
fliould find the inflitution as ufeful as it is contem-
plated to be, the patriotihn of the members of the
government will be exercifed, by aifording affidance
out of the monies of the flate. They will perceive
that it is vain to give facilities to tranfportation, un-
Icfs the produfts of the country are increafed by good
huibandry : and though thefe facilities are important
to the objefts of this fociety, yet an increafed know-
ied.^c-
364 A STATE SOCIETY*
ledge of agriculture is the foundation of their exten-
Hve utility. The fubjeifts of both are intimately con-
nected, and mutually depend on each other.
7. When the funds of the fociety increafe fuffici-
ently to embrace the object, it will perfect all its
efforts by cddhWih'mg pattern farms, in different and
convenient parts of the Hate. Let the beginning of
this plan be with one eflablifhmenf, under the direc-
tion of the fociety, and committed to the care of a
complete farmer and gardener. In this, all foreign
and domeftic trees, fhrubs, plants, feeds or grains
may be cultivated, and if approved as ufeful, diflemi-
nated, with directions for their culture, through the
flate. The mod approved implements may be ufed
on this farm, and either improved by additions, or
limplified to advantage. Inventions may be brought
to trial, and the bed felefted. Models thereof may
be made and tranfmitted to the county and other fo-
cieties. Thofe who are fent to, or occafionally vifit
the farm, will gain more knowledge, in all its opera-
tions, from a ihort infpeftion, than can be acquired,
in a long time, by reading on the ufe and conftruftion
of inilruments, or the modes of cultivation. The
cheapefl, bell and mod commodious flyle of rural ar-
chitecture — the moil proper and permanent live-
fences — improvements in the breed of horfes, cattle
and flieep — remedies for occalional and unforefeen
vifitations of vermin-^the times and feafons for fow-
inc
OF AGRICULTURE. 2>^S
ing particular crops— the adapting foreign produfts
to our climate — and preventives againft all the evils
attendant on our local fltuatlon, or arifmg from acci-
dental caufes — may here be pra<ftically introduced.
The thoughts and fuggcftions of ingenious men may
here be put in practice ; and being brought to the
tcft of experiment, their utility may be proved, or
their fallacy deteftcd. This farm need not be large.
On it the bed fyflems now known may be carried
through, and farther experiments made ; promifmg
youths may be fent from ditferent parts of the flate,
to learn practically the arts of hufbandry. Ma-
nures and the beft mode of collecting them, may be
tried ; native manures ftiould be fought after, and
premiums given for their difcovery. Their efficacy
may be proved by fmall experiments on this farm,
which ihould, in epitome, embrace the whole circle
of praftical hufbandry. Similar farms m.ay be added ,
as the funds increafe ; and thus pra£tical agricultural
fchools be inftituted throughout the flate.
8. When the pecuniary affairs of the fociety be-
come adequate, it will highly contribute. tp the in-
terefl of agriculture, if, at the expenfe of the foci-
ety, fome ingenious perfon or perfons were fent to
Europe, for the purpofes of agricultural inquiries.
It would be well too, if a few young perfons, of
promifing abilities, were fent thither, to be inflruft-
cd in the arts of hufbandry, the breeding of cattle,
366 A STATE SOCIETY
&c. and to gain a pra£tical knowledge on ail fub-
je£ts conne£ied with this interefling, delightful and
important bnfinefs, on which the exiftence, wealth
and permanent profperity of our country fo materi-
ally depend.
9. Although it would feem that a great porrion
of this plan has reference to the older fcttlements
of the ftate, yet in faci:, many of its mod: ufeful
arrangements will apply to new fettlements, in aa
eminent degree. Thefe fettlements are, for the
mofl: part, firfl: eflabliilied by people little acquaint-
ed with a good ftyle of hufbandry. The earth, in
its prime, throws up abundant vegetation, and for a
lliort period rewards the raoft carelefs hufbandman.
Fertility is antecedent to his efforts ; and he has it
not to recreate by artificial means. But he is igno-
rant of the mod beneficial modes whereby he can
take advantage of this youthful vigour, with which
his foil is blelTed. He wafles its llrength, and fuf-
fcrs its riches to flee away. A bad ftyle of crop-
ping iucreafes the tendency of freih lands to throw
up weeds and other noxious herbage ; and that lux-
uriance, which with care and fylfem might be per-
petuated, is indulged in its own deftruftion. It is
difcovcred, when it is too late, that what was the
foundation of the fupport and wealth of the impro-
vident poifcfTor, has been, by his ignorance and ne-
vglecV, like the patrimony of a fpendthrift, permit-
ted.
OF AGRICULTURE. 367
ted, and even ftimulated, rapidly to pafs from Iiira
in wild extravagance.
The products of nature, in our new countries,
feldom have been turned to account. The timber
is deemed an incumbrance, and at prefent is perhaps
too much fo. The labour and expenfe of preparing
for tillage are enormous ; and, when the fole objeft
is that of cultivation, very difcouraging. European
books give us no lefibns in thefe operations. But
when the experience of our people is aided and
brought to a point, by an union of facts and the
ingenuity of intelligent men, now too much difperf-
ed to be drawn into fyftem, it is to be expefted,
with the fureft profpecls of fuccefs, that our difi-
culties on this head will be abated, if not overcome.
The raanufafture of potaQi, and the produ£ls of the
fugar-maple, raay be objefts of the attention of the
fociety. ^lore profitable modes of applying labour
will hereby be promoted, and returns for expenfe
In the preparation for culture, be obtained. Faci-
lities for clearing lands may be difcovcred. Mine-
rals, earths and foffils now unknown or neglected,
may be brought into ufe, or become objects of com-
merce. In fine, no adequate calculation can be
formed of the eil'c<fts which may be produced by a
confolidation of the efforts, and even fpcculations,
of our citizens, whofe interefts will llimulate them
to exertion. Channels of communication will be
eflabiifhed,
368 A STATE SOCIETY, ^f.
eftabliihed, and the whole will receive the benefits
arifing from a collection of the thoughts and labours
of individuals, whofe minds will be turned to a fub-
ject fo engaging and profitable, as well to themfelves
as to their countrv.
The application was rejected ; by hujbandmen
who were principally to be benefitted. So when it
was propofed to fupply London with water from the
river Lee, London itfelf oppofed it : but the bleffing
was forced upon London ; and it is chiefly fupplied
from thence.*
Of
* France abounds mfea-coal, as eaf:!)- to be procured as it
is in Englard ; but it is not at all ufed in families ; although
other fuel is fo very fcarce that verj many of the people are
obliged to lie in bed whole days, for keeping themfelres
warm in cold weather. This probably was formerly the cafe
in England, as it was with fome difficulty that the family -ufe
of coal was there introduced; for the people of England
were oppofed to it, on a fancied notion that cod-Jirts are un-
wholefome, which they could not fay from eipeiience. In
the time of Queen Elizabeth a bill in Parliament dated that
certain tradefnien ufed coal in London, icftead of wood, to
the prejudice of healdi ; and it propofed that the u''^e of it
fnould be prohibited. But fince the tmiverfal ufe of coal-
fircs, the people are perfuaded they render the air falubrious,
and they are not fubjeS to the peftilential fevers which ufed
fo feverely to aSi<a them. So much for inconfiderate oppo-
fition by the ignorant multitude to their beft interefts. St.
Fond's Trav. in England, 159. — " We want no informatica
on hufbandr}-, we kr.ow all about it — Give us labour, we
husbandman's choice, ^c. 369
0/ the Hiijhandman'' s Choice of Subjeds, between
LIFE-STOCK and GRAIN.
Meat is deemed a staple article of the produce of
the lands in Ireland, for exportation ; fo is grain of
the lands in the United States of America. Scarcely
any other country than Ireland makes 7neat a
flaple of its produce, but there are I'everal befides
America that aim at making grain their ftaple ;
fo that it may feera there is a greater opening for
enlarging the production and trade in meat than In
grain. Meat is raifcd at a lefs expenfe and ha-
zard than grain ; and, what is of the firft confidera-
tion to the landholder and hufbandman, the raifmg
of meat improves the foil, whilfl the cultivation of
grain is ruinous to it.
There is little danger that purfuits after the pro-
ductions of meat fliould be over-done more than af-
A a ter
want not your books of Infomnation." Farmers in Pennfyl-
vania to Dr. Fninklin, when he offered them Dr. ii7/o/'s cele-
brated Efiays on Field HufbanJry.
In Denmark, hufbandry is promoted by focietics ; whofe
firft objeft is to procure perfons capable of undertaking and
direding a fchool of kujhandry. Here Natural Philofopliy,
Botany, Chemiftry, Geometry, and Mechanics, are ftudi-
oully louglit after, fo far as thefe fciences are of utility to
Agriculture. The benefits already derived from this efla-
bliihmcnt ai e very great.
27© HUSBAKDMAN S CHOICE
ter grain ; both are ncccjfarks in uulverfal demand,
and fuch articles w ill always find their own value in
the market. Ivloreover it would be advifable to
contend for the pofTeffion of fuch ameliorating sta-
pies, although for a while it might be under fome
pecuniary difadvantage.
In what country is the manufa£hiring of grain car-
ried fo far, or to fuch perfection as in thefe flates ?
Whilil the hufbandmen of Ireland reckon on meat
produced and exported, the hufbandman of America
is alert in cultivating and felling in the market, for
exportation, all the grain that can be produced from
his labours and his attentions ; but not a thought
has he of railing meat for the foreign market : he
fees that meat is produced and applied to doraeftic
ufes, and for fupporting our feamen on their voy-
ages ; — any further he is inattentive X.o it. He is
not moved by obfervations on meat exported as mer-
chandife, and its producing an important income,
•with eifential improvement of the means of further
powers of production.
It was during fuch a ftate of inattention to live stock,
that there lately appeared a report of the officers of
government to the Congrefs of the United States, of
the general exports from hence into foreign countries,
for the year 1799; when, flruck with the am.ount
of 140,000 barrels of meat fent to markets abroad,
I
BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 37 1
I collected into one view, from the report, all the
articles of Ihe stock and its relations^ and alfo all the
articles of grain and its relations, exported from
America, and added thereto efiimates oi the value.
The refult of my obfcrvatiohs thereon, was a con-
viflion that live stock, whilfi: little thought of by the
hufbandmen oi Arnsrica as an article of the firll ini-
portance to theiTi and to their country, is equal at
lead to grain, great and important as this is.
A preference to live stock productions would tend
to reftore and fupport the vigor of our lands, whilfl
the prcfent rage for grain is the caufe of their po-
verty, which mufl increale whilll: we continue to
take all from the ground, and return nothing to it.
To flirmers propofing to m?J<:e live stock the choice
of their attention, it is objeCled there is a luant cf a
market for live stock. But that this is not really the
cafe, the following ftatement may be convincing;
for, it proves that America finds markets abroad
for live stock, in value as great as in grain ; and no
pcrfon obje£ls to cultivate grain " becaufe there is
a want of markets.'* For the nccejjary articles cf
life there ever mufl be a demand, a market. Then
of thofe neceiTary articles, whatever improves the
means, that is amends the land, mufl be a better
choice of attention than what, whilft it fills the poc-
ket, reduces the means by impovcrijhing the land.
A a 2 Univerlaliy
^•J^Z HUSBANDMAN'S CHOICL
Unlverfally throughout the United States, the
culture of grain is the anxious purfuit of hufband-
men. It is only in the New-England dates that the
railing and felling live stock is much attended to by
iqduftrious hulbandmen.
In the year' 1799, according to the faid report,
there was exported from the United States to foreign
countries, —
Dol.
Of grain and its relations, to the
eftimated value of
i 3,800,766
Of /ii-e stock and its relations, do. val. 3,783,044
Val. in grain, more than in live stock, only 1 7,722
— Almoft equal ; and may be coniidered quite fo in
eilimates.
If then live stock, which is no objcft of crop or
income with hufbandmen, except in New-England^
and on a part of the thin lands in the fouthera
country, infenllbly and with little of defign comes
fo near in the amount of value to the favorite and
coftly produftion of grain, how fuperior would live
stock be in value, if it was made the hufbandman's
favorite objecl of produce, inflead of ^rj/;;/* befides
preferving the foil ; v.hilil the production of grain
dcflroys the foil.
A Table
BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 37J
A Tabic of ProvifionSi the produce of the United States
of America, exported in the year 1799, taken froTii
the faid report, ^^ifi^g '^•f well from grain as from
live (lock, and their refpedive relations :
Dol.
Beans, bufli. 20,000 7
r> ^ c 07,60-1 at I del. 67,60-5
Peas, . . 47,6033 " -> /'J
Oats, . . S7^159 • • • S^cts. 17,207
Rye, 15957
' ""^f 2,147 . . . 70 . . 1,503
Barley, 5523
Wheat, 10,056 ... I dol. 10,056
Flour, bar. 519,265 = 2,596,325 buQi. 7 f^^
Wheat I dol. 5 ^090,325
Maize, bu. 1,200,495 • • 6octs. . 720,292
Meal of maize, 231,226"
Rye, 49,269
Bkwh. 7. M«''449-7oc. .97,°H
Oats, 200J
Bifcuit, bar. 47340 ... 3 dol. 142,020
Starch & Powder, 69ooolbs. 20 cts. 13,800
Ship-fluff, 1,747,088 . 2 . . 34,946
3,800,766
Beef,
or
HUSBANDMAN S CHOICE
5 :>y
Hories, Gzoz So
'J
10
cts
Beef, bar. 91,321 . . 12 dol.
Pork, 52,26s . . 16 . . .
Tallotr, !fe. 19926 ^ 1,080,317ft
Do. Candles, 1,060,39.1 j
Lard, lbs, 1,451,657 .
Buirer, 1,314,502 .
Cheefe, 1,164,590 .
Hams & Bacon, 1,412,005
Sheep, 9733 at 2 dol.
Hogs, 37S6 2 . . .
Cattle, c^oj. 2J. . . .
20
12
19,466
7^572
127,280
37/5400
1,095,852
836,288
? 149563^
145,166
262,900
163,042
169,440
Dung, remaining to the farms, from ^
livei^ck, 399/300 tons, at y^ cts. 5
531.718
321,637
Produced from grain, 3,800,766
/;-i- i^:r^ 3,783,044
DifFerence, ^7^7-^
3,783,044
For drawing atten'ion5 to live stock, the expref-
fions above are flrong ; but the idea is, that in thin
lands zLwifnig restoration, efpecial attention is to be
paid to live stock, at lead until the foil is recovered j
and that at all times elfe a due attention be paid,
in a courfe of ftinning, both to grain and live stock.
If the one impcvcrijhes, the other restores the foil.
All
BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 375
All which wc have now confirmed and greatly
ftrengthened on the evidence of the board of agricul-
ture in England, who have publiflied, among other
particulars, their declaration that " The hulband-
ry of every country depends moflly on the market
for cattle, Jheep, and -ivoolJ* They thereupon aflc —
" How Rir is the bad culture oi America owing to a
want of thofe particulars ?" — Further they aik —
" Is there a demand for beef, mutton, and 'ujqoI, in
any quantities for exportation, or otherwife ? —
And how far does the exigence of thefe circuraftan-
ces in the vicinity of large towns, remedy fuch bad
cultivation ?"
In an anfwer given to thefe queflions by a arming
gentleman of Yorkflure, after he had travelled in the
United States, it is faid that " cattle for the curing
houfes, in all parts of Ne%v-Engla7id, are calculated in
the drove, at i8s. pd. fterling per hundred ft. hide
and tallow included. Beef from 31s. 6d. to 45s.
(lerling per barrel of two hundred pounds, nett,
each, according to quality : the firfl he fays is very
bad, the lail excellent ; and the demand is far greater
than the fipply : Pork per barrel, not furpaffed by
any in the world, is 72 to 76s. flerling.* And fur-
ther, it is obfcrved, from the detail hereon, that it
is not only evident that the demand for expor-
tation
* Cattle at 18/9J fterling = 416 cents. Beef, medium 38/
3^ = 850 cents. Pork, medium 74/= 1646 cents.
3/6 husbandman's choice
tation must be greater than the f apply, but that the cott'
fumption by the great toxviis affords a price more than
fufficient for all the articles that are carried to them.
In other parts of the EfTays, it is contended that
foiling, or stall-feeding live stock, is much more ad-
vantageous than pasturing ; and that regular rotations
and Jystems of crops and bufinefs, are alfo greatly
fuperior to the common practices and random pur-
fuits. In fupport whereof, from a publication of
the Board of Agriculture, are here inferted the fol-
lowing :
" By direction of the Society of Rural Economy,
of Zell, in the Electorate of Hanover, the following
was prefented by Doctor Thaer, to the Board of
Agriculture, in England.
'' The two fyftems of rural economy, befi proved
by experience, and acknowledged to be the mod
perfect in the Electorate of Hanover, fay the focie-
ty, are the plan of ftall-feeding, and the Mecklen-
burg or Holilein Schlag, or Koppein Economy ;
whereof,
" The Koppein or Schlag Economy, confifts in an
equal partition of fields, into a certain number of
portions, and in ?i fixed, or a regularly varied ife of
them, either for cultivation, nuadov:;, or pasture.
It has from feven to thirteen portions, eflabliihed
upon
BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. '^']'J
upon certain determinate general principles. — There
certainly is no fysteni of hujhandry more regular, or
more to be depended on, fo far as it goes, fays Doc-
tor Thaer, the writer for the fociety. The number
of the o.\r«, of milch cows^ the manure^ the differ-
ent kinds of plows or implements, the yoic/;?^, the
fucceilion of crcps^ every thing is fixed in the mod
accurate manner. Every work has its proper iime,
and its regular Juccejfton^ fo as to be done with the
fmalleft: pofiible expence, either by the flrength of
men or cattle. A polleflion of many acres is kept
in order with the fame eafe as one of a few acres.
This fylfem refembles a clock, which is wound up
once a year by confulting the regifters : the value
of an eftate managed in this way, and the rent it
can afford, may be determined at once. The con-
ditions on which the ground may be let, are, upon
general principles, capable of being determined with
fuch accuracy, that it is not in the power of the far-
mer to impoverifli the land."
" But, whoever wiflics to draw the highest pojftblc
produce from his lands ; though undoubtedly with
a greater expence of money, labour, and attention ;
whoever choofes to employ a greater number of
hands in the ufeful occupations of huibanury, and
to keep a greater number of cattle, io odvjntage^
will, beyond a doubt, prefer the mode of stall fccd-
inz
'6'
TIk
373 husbandman's choice
" The Advantages of the System of Stnll-Feeding,
are founded upon the following incontrovertible
principles :
1. A fpot of ground, wliich, when pastured up-
on, will yield fufficient food for only o?ie head, will
abundantly maintain four head of cattle in the stable,
if the vegetables be mowed at a proper time, and
given to the cattle in a proper order*
2. The stall feeding yields, at leafl, double the
quantity of manure from the fame number of cattle ;
for the bed and mofl efficacious fummer manure, is
produced in the stable ; and carried to the fields at
the mod proper period of its fermentation.
3. The cattle ufed to stallfeeding, will yield a
much greater quantity of milk, and increafe fafler
in weight "when fattening, than when they go to the
field.
4. They are lefs liable to accidents, do not fufi*er
by the heat, hj flies and infects, and are not affeded
by the ivcathgr.
** For explaining thefe principles more accurately,
the following fhort defcription is here prefented, as
carried on at a farm called EJfcnrodc, belonging to
Baron
BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 37^
BaroQ Biilow, which confills of 700 acres of grafs
land.
" It had been tiUed many centuries ago, and con-
ijfted of a very good clay foil. The Baron broke it
up, and laid it oat mfeven partitims (koppeln), each
conlifting of 90 acres, and an additional one of lix-
ty acres adjoining to the farm. The farm has befides,
24 acres of meadow, and 22 acres of garden
ground.
" ITie fmaller portion, is deflined partly for lu-
cerne, and partly for cabbage, for roots and vegetables
for/ale. '
" Thtfeven main partitkns (koppeln) are manag-
ed in the following manner.
" One year, a divifion or koppeln is manured for
beans, peas, cabbages, potatoes, turnips, linfeed, Src. ;
2. rye; 3. barky mixed with clover ; 4. clcier, to be
mowed tv.o or three times ; 5. clvcer, to be mowed
once, at St. John's, then to be broke up, plowed 3
or 4 times and manured j 6. wheat ; 7. oats.
" The stock of cattle, amounts in afl to 100 head ;
namely, 70 heavy Fries land milch-co^a:s or oxen, to he
fattened, which are continually kept in the stable, and
about 30 head o^ draught oxen and young cattle.
"A
o^^
husbandmak's choics
" A fafficient, or rather fkntiful fupply of food
for one head of cattle, daily if kept in a stable, con-
fifts upon an average of ijOfb of green, or 3c!b of
dry clover, which anfwers the fame purpofe.*
Hence one head of cattle requires in ■t>^^ days
I0j95olb o^ dry chver, or about one hundred cwt.
of I lo'^ each ; the portion of food being, according
to this mode of feeding, alike, both in fummer, and
in winter. Hence 70 head require annually, 7000
hundred weight of dry clover.
** One acre of clover, mowed twice or thrice,
yields -:o quintals, and one acre mowed once, 25
quintals ; confequently 90 acres of the former, and
90 acres of the latter, produce 6350 quintals. The
deficient 650 quintals, are completed by lucerne, and
other vegetables, fit for food, from the finaller por-
tion (^koppeln).
*• Belides all this, the ofials of the vegetables of the
hy-lands^ the straw mixed ivith clrrcer. and the young
clover
* The difference in the quantity of food feems great. In
the EJkjiy are allowed 171b of tay ; in the prefent inftance
3oib, of what is called dry clover. But it is proper to confider
that the difference between hfepirg ■and.fattrning cattle is always
great ; iu the one inftance they are allowed only a fufficiency
lofufiain them in healthful plight ; which is much below what
they are encoaraged to eat and have without ftint for fatten-
ing them. Again, a difference is made between common Jiz^d
cattle, and large beaus : the EJfayt fpeak of comnizn caiiU, htpt :
the Hanoverian accotm: isof Zvj^, Friffljnd cattle, fattened. —
But hay is not neceflhry in fattening cattle.
BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 3S1
clover of the fifth portion, when laid down, joined to
the Hubble feeding, will produce fufficient food for
the draught oxen and the young cattle. The hay
mowed from the meadows, is preferved for the ufe
of the horfes.
" Each head of heavy ^ fat cattle, fed in the stable,
if a plenty of Utter be given, yields annually, ftxieen
fidl double cartloads of dung ; ']o head therefore yield
1120 fuder or cartloads. Add to this 30 draught
oxen and young cattle, at 6 fuder or cartloads, a year,
and the produce will be 1300 fuder.
A management of this kind, therefore, affords a
triennial manuring per acre, of 10 fuder or cartloads,
of good liable dung ; and as, to this is united a com-
plete and regular tillage andfuccejfion of crops, a double
produce of corn may be expected thus :
Acres. Rix dollars.
90 Wheat yield at 20 1800 at i dol. 1800
90 Rye 20 1800 24 1200
90 Barley 24 2160 24 1260*
90 Oats , 36 3240 12 1080
90 manured lay crop, and 30 acres in the
fmall portion, 120 acres at 15 1803
The heavy Friefland cows, fed with the fame
plenty, both winter and fummer, or the
Oxen that are yearly fiiut rp /icvV^ in the
flables
382 HUSBANDMAK S CHOICE
iiahles, fatie!ied, and fold at 40 rix dollars
a head. 2800
Thus the farm produces *9940
" That we may be able to afcertain the relafhe
proportion in point of produce, of our two most re-
nowned fysiems of rural economy, the fame farm is
now to be conCdered as managed after the koppcln
fystem of Mecklenburg.
"According to the quality of its /oil, which is
very good, yet flands in need of manuring, it ought
to be divided into 7nne portions, of 77 acres each ;
the reafons for which will foon appear.
" According to experience, thefe are moft advan-
tageoufly appropriared in the following manner :"
I. Fallows, plowed during the whole fummerand
left unfown ; 2. Wheat, unmanured j ^. Barky ; 4.
manured lay-land, with lay-crop ; 5. Rye ; 6. OatSj
with clover; 7. Clo'ver, once cut j then paftured j
S. Pasture ; 9. Pasture,
" By this mode of management, yy acres are ma-
nured every ninth year, each acre with 10 fudcr or
cartlcrvds.
* The R'lx dollar, in Hanover, is 3/6 ftsrling : elfevrhere, in
general, about 3/. fader, is a carthad.
BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 383
cartloads. As one head o^ grazing cattle yields eight
fuder, 97 head ought to be kept. Each head, on this
foil, requires two acres for its pasture ; confequently
97 head require 124 acres, or 2|koppeIn. Hence
follows the divifion 9 portions, as above.
" It may be admitted that aaiong thefc cattle there
are about eighty milch coils, the rest draught oxen.
This kind of economy feldom rears young cattle, but
buys them. The cous are of the fraaller breed, in
this koppeln fyftem, or elfe the paflure would not
be fufficient for thera. During winter, they live
upon nothing elfe but straw ; for what little there is
oi clover-hay, is deftined for the draught oxen ; hence
it comes that they do not produce more than ten rix
dollars a head. - - - 8 00
" Though by this fydem the land is manured only
once e-very nine years, which according to the Jystem
of stall feeding, is done every third year ; yet this is
made up in fuch a manner, by a three years reft,
and the lay left quite unfown, &c. that the return
of the corn may be admitted at the fame rate, but
not higher : confequently.
77 acres wheat.
yield
at
20
1540 at I
1540
77 Rye
20
1540 24
1026;-
yy Barley
24
1848 21
1078
yy Oats
36
2772 12
9-4
yy Lay. crop
15
^^55
Produc.;
384 husbandman's choice
Produce of the fiirm ^S^t,]-
From this ought to be deduced, for the
expenfe of houfe-keeping, 8zc. nearly
1500
Remains clear produce 5^33",
" But as fuch complaints are made of the expe?ifes
of houfe-keeping, S-lc* attending the fyflem of stall
feeding, though in this cafe the young cattle are not
bought, as in the other, which is a confiderable fav-
ing ; yet we will admit the higheft poffible fum, viz.
the double, or 3000 rix dollars, to be deducted
from the general produce of 9940 rix dollars.
" Hence there remains of clear profit, by the fy-
flem of stall feeding, 6940 rix dollars ; confequcnt-
ly it produces, upon 700 acres, a greater profit
than the koppeln economy of Mecklenburg, amounting
to 19064. rix dollars ; and every acre of its land is
employed at a greater advantage of 2i rix dollars.
" By this calculation, which may vary in fmgle
points ; but which upon the whole is proved by ex-
periencj, and confequently may be depended upon,
one would think that this fyftem of rural economy
mud become general, wherever it is knou-n ; but,
as yet there are few farms of any confequence ma-
naged in this manner, in the northeaftern part of
Germany.
* yhe ^'i;-. includes all expenfes f^i Jlod, fc:d, tillage, 5;c.
BETWEEN LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 385
Germany. In our country (Hanover) the number
of wealthy people who at the fame time are enlight-
ened, and diverted of prejudice, is too fraall. In
the countries of Mecklenburg and Holflien, there
is indeed a vafl number of rich and attentive huf-
bandmen ; but the farms in thofe countries are ra-
ther too extenfive, and the people of the lower clafs
are, comparatively few and indolent. It cannot
therefore be expefted that this kind of economy,
which demands much greater exertions, fhould be
foon introduced there. Bcfides, it is believed in
thofe regions, that the perfection of rural economy
has been already attained.
*' As a preference is but relucftantly given to fuch
things as a perfon does not incline to undertake,
t)bje(flions, ten times repeated, are repeated again
and again, to difcourage the attempt. A few cafes
in which this fyftem of economy would not anfwer,
are fure to be referred to. But it appears that the
managers of the eftates, and the people employed
thereon, were averfe to the meafure, and united to
crujh it ; or that on the firft outfet the aim was mif-
fed, either by parfimony or by raflmefs ; that there
was not a fufficient ftocR of clover hay, or that it
was mifmanaged when made; in Ibort, that they
had been negligent and carelefs in their procefs.
B b '< This
386 husbandman's choice
'• Xhis fort of hufbandry docs not admit of any
material errors ; and fnitab!e preparations ought to
be made againil every accident that is likely to be-
fall it. If once the requifite ftock of clover fhonld
happen to fail, the cattle ufed to an abundance of
food, viill wafte away in a manner beyond all poiu-
ble recovery. If on account of the deficiency of
food, the herds be lejfehed in nimiber, the lands ivill
be exhausted by the want of manure. If to obviate
the want of food, a portion is fuffered to lie longer
for raiding food, than it ought agreeable to the fy-
ftem above flated, there will be a want of strerw,
which is fo neceffary for litter, and the abfence of
which i« extremely pernicious to the health of cattle.
" As in fome years, though feldom, the quantity
of food produced, may be reduced to only one half,
the prudent farmer fliould endeavour to keep one half
of it, and like wife one half cf his sfraiVj ^tbm mie
year fo another, and ought not to fuffer hifcfelf to
be tempted by any price, be it ever fo high, to fell
it. As this fj-ftem is on fo great a fcale, grea^ dif-
ficulties mufl be conquered.
" In a fmall farm which I carr)" on in this man-
ner (fays the German writer to the Ibdety) at a
country houfe, a quarter of a mile from town, and
where from 18 to 20 head of milch cows are kept
and fed in a ilable, none were ever materially ill,
coce
fiETt^^EEK? LIVE-STOCK AND GRAIN. 387
none ever mifcarried, nor was there ever any left
barren. M. De Billcw can atteft the fame thing en
a greater fcale. The cattle, which in our country
graze in the fields, are, on the other hand, expofed
to many accidents.
" I have dwelt rather the longer (fays Do^of
Thaer) upon this fyflem of rural economy, becaufe
though in the Englifli writings on agriculture, I
have indeed met with fome remarks relative to the
stall feeding of cattle, yet I have feen none upon the
fyflem of economy biailt thereon : and in the pam-
phlet herewith fcnt to the Board, which I wrote a
few years ago, at the dcfire of our fociety, for the
ufe of the hufbandmen of Lunenburg, you will find
themoft necciTary rules for stall feeding, detailed.
It has already produced fuch beneficial effefts that,
at prefent, you will find from 6 to 8 head of cattle,
in the ftable of many a peafant, and the cornfields
much improved, by the greater quantity of manure
they fumifh."
Thoughts on hired Labourers and Servants, Cottages
and Cottagers.
V^htufJaroery {Iiall ceafe or be inhibited, in our
< ountry, where or how are means of cultivatino- the
lands of the fouthern and middle ftates to be found ?
The landholders and hufbandmen cannot too fcon
B b - T. •
388 LABOURERS AND SERVANTS J
begin the inquiry, that they may be prepared for the
change. Will they confult the practices of huiband-
men in the old countries ? The mofl we know of
hiifbandry has been received from them by our an-
ceftors ; and improvements in hufbandry during the
latter part of the late century have been great in
Europe.
Information from European farmers, of our time,
would tend greatly to improve us in the economy and
management of labour and labourers hired : we
fhoald efpecially beailiiied by information from them^
in the befl methods of conducing our rural bulinefs
with hired labour, which would be attended with
many particulars, to the wafteful and Icfs thought-
ful and refpe£ting hired labour confiderably igno-
rant American, equally new, convenient, advantage-
ous or necelTary and becoming his profeffion and Na-
tion in life, to be praftifed.
In Britain, the country from whence our anceftors
firfl; came, are various clafTes of farmers : generally
they are common farmers and gentlemen farm.ers.
The latter have their fle\v^rds, bailiffs, &:c. The
common farmers attend to and conduct their own bu-
linefs, with the aid of their children or a head fer-
vant, — nothing hke the impoling overfeers of Ame-
rica ; andthcy occaHonally hire what other labour is
neceHary.
The
COTTAGES AND COTTAGERS. 389
The flavc being done with in America, all muft
then be performed by hirelings ; who are diftinguilli-
ed into labourers 2indfervanfs. The fervaiit rcfides
in your family and contrafts to ferve you by the year,
feldom for lefs than half a year, though fometimes
it may be by the month. He receives wages, board
and lodging. The labourer hires to work by the
month, the day or the job ; is not of the family, but
boards and lodges abroad as he can, or rents a fmall
houfe, working for you or others occafionally, for
wages only.
Some particulars of labour and the economy of
conducting farms in Europe are now communicated,
for the confideration of the thoughtful clafs of Ame-
rican farmers, efpecially of the lefs experienced mid-
dle and fouthern ftates ; yet there are farmers, par-
ticularly in Chefter county, Pennfylvania, and as I
am informed, in fome of the Eallern dates, whofe
practices are very fuperior, and nearly altogether by
the aid of labourers or fervants, as above.
It is deemed advantageous for the farmer to have
fome number of labourers on his eftate at a rent, in
a fmall very confined houfe called a cottage ; and the
labourer taking it is called a cottager. The cottage
is a great convenience and comfort to the cottager
having a wife ; as it is a fnug home for her and their
little cares j and that this clafs of people are more
happy
39^ LA30UE^E.S AND SERVANTS;
bappy 2j:d independent tlian tbe farmer vrho hires
him, is evident from the known fact that they marry
more than the farmers^, as 9 to 6. Nine in 10
marry, and of farmers but 6 in i o.
The experience of ages fixes the cottage to be very
limited. It is recommended by an experienced
farnnsr, that for a man wife and children, it be in the
ckar 1 2 by 16 {€£:t area for the ground floor ; of
■which 12 feet fqnare is for the family to iit in, dine,
Szc. The refl of the area of the ground floor, 1 2 by
4 f^t, is divided for iiairs and clofet or pantry. The
^eps are 74 inches rife, 9 inches tread. Over the
ground floor are two rooms, for beds, partly in the
roof, and 3 feet from the eaves do-orn to the fecond
fioor ; that is the pitch or height of the wall or fide
is i I feet from the ground floor up to the eaves ; of
which 3 feet are ia the fecond flory or floor of rooms
upftairs ; the other 8 feet are the pitch of the room
on the flrii or ground floor. A fmall garden is al-
lowed to the cotELgc ; which gives employment and
comfort 10 the wife and children : but not an inch of
ground is otherwife allowed for czdti'vatiDn of any
fiKt, -K'hich might tend 10 draw the cottager from
the farmer's buflneis, to attend to an enlarged em-
ployment of his ©■R'n, when he would become a poor
fort oiyarmer^ inferior and mean, and therefore un-
eafy in himfcif, inflead of remaining in the comf(K-t-
sbk, ufefal and fettled alation of a decent, indq^en-
dent
COTTAGES AND COTTAGERS. 39I
dent and contented labourer. Yet in America, ra-
ther than to allow of ground for them to cultivate flax
in it, fell them very reafonably the flax they may
want, for employing the wife and her girls. The
rent for a cottage is about ten dollars. Some cot-
tagers keep one — a few, two cows j buying for thera
winter provender, and paying for pafturage : they
are fubjefts of the wife.
Many inftances there are of a fcandalous negleft
of decency, even in opulent farmers, in their not build-
ing a fingle necejfary, or houfe of office ; fuch ought
to be provided wherever there \% a habitation, be the
family many or few, rich or poor — the cottage, or
the hovel, — and d\{o fcreens, of fome fort or other,
efie(flual for decency fake between the beds of the fa-
mily children of both fexes.
On a fair flatement it may be made appear that,
dear as labour is in America, tillage by hired labour-
ers is cheaper, the net gain greater, than when the
farmer is a flave to his flave in cultivating his ground,
as is much the eafe from infinite advantages taken of
their mafter in very many ways — the little work done
by the flaves, — the burthen of their families, S:c.
Alfo the parent flaves teaching their children to plun-
der their maflers and imlruaing them that they have
a right to do it.
A
392
LABOURERS AND SERVANTS;
A farmer has ^^ fiaves : men 6
Women 6
Boys l _
Girh 3
Workers i8
Infants, aged, &:c. ly
35
Expence of the ^^. Com, meat, clothes,
bedding, &c.
Mifchief, wafte, pilfer, &c.
IXiUars.
T200
6oo
i8oo
If inflead of the t,^ (laves, i8 of them workers,
the farmer is to hire labour, few hands fuffice : the
following for the fame farm, might be a large pro-
portion :
Laboar hired, 4 men
4D0'
3 TTomen
120
3 boys
60
2 girls
30
Workers 1 2
6to
Board and k)dgmg
6cc
I2ICJ
With thefe are |>eacf,
quiet, order, economy, &c.
And but 2 of the men, and
2 of the women and 2 of the
boys need be in conflailt pay,
and refiding in the family;
cottagers or labourers doing
the reft of the labour.
Farmers
COTTAGES AND COTTAGERS. 393
Farmers who hire all their labour, have with it
the attentions of a manager, bailie, or head fervant ;
and occafionally the labour of cottagers ; which al-
together duly attended to introduces an orderly and
necelTary economy : — there then is not an idle hand,
nor eater, nor waiter yielding nothing profitable or
advantageous. The farmer having Haves, generally
has fupernumerary hands, eating, wafting, making
confufion, &:c. the year through without abatement.
He maintains twenty to pull down or extinguifh
what other twenty toilers in good works had pro-
duced with fatisfa^tion and repute.
A writer who has treated well of hired fervants,
labourers and cottagers, fets out with the important
obfervation that nothing is more ruinous to farmers
than their keeping more fervants than they have a
real occafion for ; and that there muft be a fixed
eftablifhment o^ fervants, proportioned to the extent
and nature of the farm : but then this fixed eftablifh-
ment is not fufHcient for the whole feafon of employ-
ment ; and there are times and operations which re-
quire additional labour. The farmer is fortunate
enough who can then find hands for his purpofe ;
for, generally, when one farmer wants additional
aid, others alfo want it. He concludes, there are
but three fources from whence the farmer can ex-
pert affiftance, — from towns, villages, or cottages.
The befl labourers are from cottages. Villagers arc
better
394 LABOURERS AND SERVANTS J
better than townfmen, thefe lafl being more wanton,
yicious, idle and inexpert.
If, fays he, the farmer is fo happy as to have fe-
veral well peopled cottages upon his land, there will
be no want of hands on extraordinary occafions.
The ereclion of cottages is therefore of importance
to the farmer : but he adds, it is neceffary for both
parties that they be on the beft: terms. That the
cottage family be regarded as a part of his own, in
attentions to them ; and that they look up to him as
their friend. But as fome may be ungrateful and
Jittle difpofed to prefer their landlord, they may be
held by a condition that in cafe they do not give their
aifiHance on preHing occafions, they fliculd pay fo
much more.
In fpare corners of the cftate that are dry and
iheltered, near good water, cottages fliould be built,
and the cottagers made eafy, with avoiding however
a.11 excefs of indulgence. About 6400 or 66co fquare
feet of ground arefufhcient for a cottage garden, or
a fquare of 80 to 90 or 100 feet. There are cot-
tages without any garden : but it was obferved by a
clergyman who relided in a village amongfl; cottagers
that during thirty years of his attention, cottagers
who had a garden were generally fober, induftrious
and healthy ; and thofe who had no garden, were
often drunken, lazy, vicious and ailing.
Cottagers
COTTAGES AND COTTAGERS. 395
Cottagers are limited in fuel, and are therefore
faving of it. Their fire place on the firfl floor is
but enough for their frugal and plain cookery ; and
in the parent's room above flairs the hearth is but
little more than will hold a chaffmg difli of coals,
ufed in ficknefs and to vent the room. Heat con-
veyed by a ftove flue from a fire below, would be
fafer and more frugal.
The firfl: floor of cottages ought to be raifed 8 to
14 inches above the common furface. A flaelter or
fmall roof over the out door is convenient and com-
fortable. Some tools may be flieltered there.
The time for changing fervants in England is well
fixed on Martinmas the 22 J November. A more eli-
gible time it is faid cannot be devifed. The flranger
fervants then enter in a fcene of tranquillity ; and
have all the winter to become familiarly acquainted.
The accurate Mr. Marjhdl fays, that on the ma-
tureft calculation, the yearly expence of hirelings is
thus :
A many in tlie hoiife co^%£, 35 fterling ; of which
wages are . . . £. 10 a year.
A loy cods ^•23 of which wages 3
A man, at day labor, even if he works every day
is but . . . 27 10 o
A hfiy^ , . , 13
396 POINTING ROOFS,
So that a man in ihe krufe is more than by the day _^7 i o o
befides rainy days. . .
A baj in the houfcj more than by the day 10 c o
AVhere there are more than one cottage requiCte
on a farm, it is advantageous that two be united ;
by which the conduct of the families is more public,
and their underhand or fecret improper movements
are feen, difcountenanced or prevented : they are
checks on each other in what is difadvantageous to
the farmer or themfelves ; and thereby abufes are
prevented, at the fame time that they are at hand to
aiBil each other occafionallr.
Of Pointing Rcc/s cf Houfes,
The difficulty of preventing driving rains from
entering where the fhingling of houfes and chimnies
join, or between houfe and houie or one part of a
roof with another, has been forely experienced, and
complained of without finding the means of relief.
Many fubftances and modes of curing the caufes of
complaint, have been tried without effecl. Brick-
layer's mortar alone, mortar mixed with black-
fmith's cinders — with brickduil — with plafter of
Paris^-of plafterer's common plafler, without as
well as with hair, all to no purpofe : the very firfl
rain that fell on the work, fweliing the fhingles and
preffing them clolJb to the brick work, uniformly
cracked
POINTING ROOFS. 397
cracked and generally forced out ferae part of the
oppc^mg fubftance, called pointing ; and thus left
openings for every future rain to enter, and the
frofts of the fucceeding -winters completed the de-
ftru6lion.
The defire formed by my next door neighbour,
in pointing, was to find out an elastic fubflance that
when preffed on by a fwelling of the fhingles, fhould
give way, and when the ihingles became di-y again,
Ciould by its own elafticity return to its former clofe
flate. It alfo was necelTary that fuch fubftance
jQiould be able to refifl: the injurious elfeft of driving
rains in not eafily giving way or decaying.
The tow of hemp my neighbour found to have
all the requifite elafticity ; and when defended by a
coat of glazier's putty was proof againft the wea-
ther for feven years that it had then lately been tri-
ed by him, although it was very imperfectly pointed
with the tow and putty ; fo that it required to be
renewed ; he therefore directed it to be better done,
thus : the joint or jun£lion between the lliingles and
brick work was well filled with tow forced in by a
bricklayer's trowel, and kept down half an inch be-
low the upper furface of the Jhingles ; then putty was
frejfed down with the trowel on the tow ; and laftly,
/craped off fmooth, even with the fliingles, — fo that
no part remained on the top of the fliingles, but
even
398 FLAX.
even with them. Several rains have happened
fince, yet his houfe proves perfeftly tight ; without
the leaft crack in the pointing, or deviation of the
fluffing from the (late in which it was placed. The
putty when partially dried, is yet fufficiently tough
to admit of being prelTed by the wet, fwoln fliin-
gles, without cracking : and he took fome putty,
ufed on the former trial out of a joint or bend when
it had been there above a year, which ftill retained
its toughnefs, and had not even then acquired the
ftone-like hardnefs that it Ihews on old glazed win-
dow fafhes.
The pointing (hould be done in dry, fettled wea-
ther, that the putty may acquire fome degree of
hardnefs in a hot fun, four or five days, left a rain
by occafioning the fliingles to fwell fliould prefs with
too much force on the putty. Soaking the tow in
oil would be an improvement, he thinks, if it fhould
hot deprive the tow of its elafticity — becaufe then
if any accident occafioned the putty to fcale off or
crack, the tow filled with oil vi^ould be indefl:ru<5tible
by the weather, and would keep the houfe always
tight.
FLA X,
The hufbandmen of America generally pay fome
attention in the cultivation oi jiax. Bnt it is noto-
rious
FLAX. 399
rious that where tobacco is taken into cultivation,
not only flax, but even bread and generally all other
articles of hufbandry are more or Icfs negle^led, for
giving a preference in labour and attention to to-
bacco. Both of thefe articles impoveriili ground ;
but then the flax, requifite, needs only a fmall por-
tion of ground, and this can be readily changed for
other ground, and is eafily manured and then culti-
vated in ameliorating crops, for relloring the foil ;
— ^befides it is a neceifary article amongit the great
mafs of farmers and country labourers. It therefore
mud be produced ; though folely for home confump-
tion — not a thread for exportation.
If, fays a farmer attentive in cultivating flax, feed
is to be raifed, fow only one bufliel an acre : if
limn is the obje(5l, fow two bufliels. But unlefs the
ground is previoufly well prepared by an ameliorat-
ing fallow crop, with a full manuring, weeding,
and fl:irring, fow not at all.
Flax is faid to be better for Handing till the bark
of the plant is pretty well matured, though not
fully fo ; that the lint may admit of being fplit into
perfect fibres the mod minute.
Tobacco itfelf, in its culture, will give a very
clean fallow ; but nothing exceeds p(ptatoe, turnip,
or
400 SLEDS CABBAGE PLANTS.
or pea-fallow crops, when hoed with fpirit ; and
they alfo are family comforts.
SLEDS,
A common, handy, light Jled is in univerfal cfti-
mation in Yorkfliire; and it is in continual ufe, both
in winter and fummcr. It carries harrows and other
implements, or rough pieces of fmall timber, to and
from the houfe and fields. On tender ground, tur-
nips, &c. are carried, rather than in carts. They
have two : one fmall, for one horfe ; another for
two or more horfes or oxen ; which is larger.
CABBAGE PLANTS.
Compared cabbages i ran/planted, with others not
once moved. The unmoved grew and were better
than the moved. 8 An. 1 1 8.
Propofed : that nearly equal portions of cabbage
feed and rich moift foil be put together in a box or
pot till the feeds fprout, or only fhow their white
pips. Hills of earth keep clean, and jufl on ftir-
ring the ground fow the feeds and foil together in
the hills, thin j and as the plants grow, thin them
to one. Of other plants, tranfplant, when of the
ufual fize ; and compare them, when full grown.
FAT
40 1
FAT CATTLE.
Oxen made half fat, or in good plight, on grafs
or turnips, are then very highly and foon finifhed
in France, upon a four food thus prepared : rye
meal (buckwheat or maize meal may be tried) with
water is made into a paste, which in a few days^^r-
ments and htcoTv^.^, four ; this is then diluted with
water, and thickened zvitb hay, cut into chaff, which
the oxen fometimes refufe the firft day, but when
dry they drink and prefer 'v{qq All the French huf-
bandmen are decidedly of foK^nioa they fatten much
better becaufe of [he acidity. They give it rhrice
a day, and a large ox tiius eat 22lbs. a day. Maize
meal, or maize fleeped till four Ihould be tried.
This four mefs is given during the lad three weeks
of their fattening ; and they eat about 74- buihels
of meal, value four dollars. Their cattle are of a
cream colour, and are very excellent and greatly
admired by Mr. Young. Their fat oxen weigh 900
to 9 20 lbs. an excellent fize.
C c NOTES
NOTES AND
^OTES jiND INTIMATIONS,
" The whabitaTtis of the inland country have more in-
** tegrtiy, fimplkity^ and getierojity ; and in all re-
^^ fpscfs baie -mare amiable manners^ than tlxtfe of
'• tbefea cDOsi. ^he latter have contraded a traf-
*•*■ fi eking keenfpiriij naturally i/iimicaJ to the virtues
*^ founded ex TnoderaSam and di/inierestednefs,**
Vol. Syr.
" An apparently grc"^ advantage J ivould be a real
" e^cily if it fended t<i T^-'Jich the morals <f the people :
" en wlatb prirsciple Kiiyoggyftf very little value
" on a fieurijhing state of Commerce ; as he corir-
" cerves its most general effects are, introducing an
** inordinate hve of money ^ debafing the generaus
^^ Jentiments ef the foul, and familiarizing it uith
^^ fraud and carcumveBiion.** Rur. Econ. This can
only touch the Ivwer order of traders : it refleds mt
en merchants y "wbofe friruiples and manners are ami-
able and exemplary.
VEAL S.
la fciliag veals to butckers their higgling w2Li ex-
tremely diikgreeable ; and to avdd it 1 fometimes
either at once broke o3", or gave up to their oSers.
At Icagth, after weighing veals killed for my family,
I
INTIMATIONS.
403
I fixed on a price by live weight, at which to fell.
The butchers at firft refuied to be fixed at any rate ;
they afterwards came to, and agreed at 3d. five
weight J 3 cents 3 mills -^V*
A veal alive weighed 146^'
— The four quarters 70 ' '
which is within ^^ of half the live weight :
At 3^. live weight, this veal would coft them T,6/i
6d. : but, for fueh, they ufed to give me ^2/. to t,'^/*
on the foot. The firft fold by live weight were 4
veals; medium live weight, 1334, which averaged
33/. 2d. a veal. They ufually fold at 7^/. fcarcely
any part under 6d* foraetimes 74 and 8^. Their
gain was above 40 per cent. Lord Kaims fays, but-
chers gain but 5 per cent, in Scotland. They diiliked
the method by live weight j becaufe of the certainty
reducing ufual profits, gained from their fuperior
/kill in efiimating the weight and value of veals.
H A M S.
1788. Dec. 2 — 20 of my family hams,
trimmed, weighed green,
1789. June 30 — They weighed, when
fulllnioked.
Evaporation
C c 2
ft.
ft.
321
or
ea
ch
16/^
2s6
I2v5
65
The
404 N0TE6 AND
The lofs cf v.-eight 20^ p. cent, or about fth.
Dec. 22. A tenant's hams ; 2 weighed,
preen and trimmeu ai
Aug. 1 1 . The fame when irnoked 26
Evaporation 5 or 16 p. cent.
The tenant's- w^rc net fo much fmoked or dried,
as he cured ihem for fale and to weigh.
FAMin" PICKLED BEEF.
" Two pounds brcivn fugar are mixed with a quar-
ter pound oi fait pet re pounded very fine. One half
of it is rubbed together with a little fmcfaJt over the
beef. Four gallons of brine, bearing an egg, are
boiled and ikimmed ; and when cold^ the remainder
of xhc fugar and nitre is added. The beef is then
funk in the pickle, and kept down with a weight.**
POCOCK's PICKLE for MEAT.
Admiral Pocock's pickle is greatly preferred,
when applied to family beef, pork or m.utton. — It
is thus made : [T'^j/^r 4 gallons ; Mufcovadoyl/^^;- for
melaffes) i[\h./alt petj-e 2 ounces ;y^//, the bay or
large fort, 61bs. Boil all together in an iron pot or
kettle, and fkira it repeatedly as long as any fcum
rifcs ; then take off the pot to ftand till the liquor
is cold. The meat being placed in the velTel meant
to
INTIMATIONS. 405
to hold it, pour the cold pickle on the meat till it is
all covered, and in that ftate keep it for family ufe.
The beef, after lying in the pickle ten weeks, has
been found as good as if it had not been faked three
days, and tender as a chicken. If the meat is to be
preferved a confiderable time, the pickle mufl be
boiled once in two months ; fivimming off all that
rifes, and throwing in during the boiling 2 ounces of
fugar, and half a pound of common y^/// .* thus the
fame pickle will hold good for 12 months. This
pickle is incomparable for curing haim, tongues and
hung beef.— VJhen tongues and hung beef are taken
out of the pickle, clean and dry the pieces : then put
them in paper bags, and hang them up in a dry
warm place. Some who have tried this method,
choofe their meat falter ; and inftead of 6, ufe 8 or
9lbs. of fait. In very hot weather it is necelTary, be-
fore the meat is put to the pickle, to rub it well
over with fait, and let it lie for one, two or three
hours, till the bloody juices run off. If the meat
in this cafe is in the lead: tainted before it is put to
the pickle, it will be entirely fpoiled in a day's time,
in hot weather.
tT Pocock's pickle is found fo valuable, that no
family ought ever to be without it : and perfons
known to me, keep it conitantly ready. The har-
nefs-tub always abounds in it, ready for new fupplics
of
4o6 NOTES AND
of meat to be immerfed ; and it is almofl a fine
non in houfewifery wirh them !
A prefent of fat hogs was made to a perfon u
ignorant of any method of curing hams and bacou
bat the hogs were cut up, and the pieces ivithout
being at al/falted, were put into the family harnefs-
tub, which contained the remaining brine of beef
cured according to Pccock. After being in the brine
full 6 weeks, the hams and bacon were hung up and
fmoked as ufual till enough. I ate of them, and
fcarcely ever met with any better. They were
greatly fuperior to haras commonly called " good
hams." The pickle in this cafe was according to the
above receipt. Dn falting and then pickling is the
moft commonly practifed : but fome houfewives fay,
dry falting hardens meat. It is advifable to fmoke
hams early ^ that they may be cured before the ap-
proach of fpring : the fame of bacon ; and green
hickory^ fmothered with a due portion of faw-duil or
tanner's bark, makes the fweeteft fmoke for hams, as
I am informed ; but for kiln-drying malt, I experi-
enced green hickory alone to be much preferable to
dry oak, a(h and locuft.
^ FJMILT DRIED BEEF.
" Rub the Beef with a mixture of i\h/ugar, -l\h,
cifalt'petre and a XiitXtfalt. The nitre, cfpecially,
in
INTIMATIONS. 4.07
in a very fine powder. The beef is to remain 3
days in a tub ; and is then again rubbed with a little
more of the fame ingredients. The beef, rel-urned
to the tub, is to lye two or three days more ; and is
then hung up to dry. It feems this is meant to be
dried without fmoke : but others fmoke it very lightly
and then hang it, expofed to wind and air, in a dry
room. — Cellars and all damp places are improper for
keeping meat, either fait or frefli."
WATER BISCUIT.
A great efTential, neceffary, is to avoid drowning
the flour. Give water, a Httle and little at a time.
The mafs of dough is to be worked up very dry, un-
der the hand : fo that when all is done that can be
by the hands, towards gathering the materials toge-
ther in a firm mafs, it ftiil is in parts dry and in cracks
with flour here and there untaken up. The rude
mafs is then committed to a brake (or heavy beacer)
with which it is worked a great deal, until it becomes
fmooth and folid, without any further addition of
water. The oven is heated to bake quick as may be
without burning. Thefe points obferved, prevent
flintinefs.
VINEGAR,
" Ten gallons of apple juice new from the prefs,
are fuflered to ferment, /i///y; which may be in about
two
4o8 KOTES AND
two weeks. Add then 8 gallons of like juice, that
is new ; for producing ^feccnd fermentation. In two
weeks more, add anoihcr like w/fvi' quantity, for pro-
ducing a third fermentation. This third fermeuta-
tioH is material.* Now flop the bunghole with an
empty bottle, or flalk, the neck down. Expofe it to
the fun for fome time. — ^Vhen the vinegar is come,
draiv (ff one half mto a vinegar cafk, and fet it in a
cool place, above ground, for ufe when dear. With
the oiber half'm the firil ca/k, proceed to make more
vinegar in the fame method. Thus always one calk
is to make in ; and another to ufe from.
In preparing malt wort for making vinegar, it is
neither boiled nor hopped ; but only fermented and
fet by the fire or in the fun. A few days produce
it, fays farmer EUis. Suppofe it managed as the
apple juice, above, for producing the three fermenta'
tims r'
The plant Tarragon, called by the French, Estra-
gon^ gives to vinegar the mod excellent flavor, with-
out difcolouring it. It is propagated by the plants,
and
* In crder that the vinaut fermentation {hall proceed fully
to the acciousy it is requilite that there be a temperate degree c£
hrat ; a qoantit}' cf vatfcrmenitd mnalage amd acul maffffr, filch as
i ariar j'^jid xht free accfft of external air. Thus circumflanced,
the liquor foon pafles into the arefoKt fermentation, and be-
ccmes vinegar ; favs the Edinb. Difpeat an. 1 794, p. 6.
INTIMATIONS,' 409
and It would be well to introduce it into our gardens
from Europe.
Tarragon jufl: as it is about to bloom, is ftript of
its leaves, and a gallon of beft vinegar is put to every
pound of Tarragon leaves, in a ilone jug or demi-
john, and left to ferment 14 days. It is then run
through a flannel bag. To every four gallons of the
vinegar put half an ounce of ilinglafs diffolved in
cyder : mix all well and put it into bottles to fland a
month to fine : then rack it off, and bottle it for ufe.
LOAF-BREAD.
A fimple and much approved method of making
good white bread, is given by Mr. Doflie, thus :
" Fine flour
lb.
6 :
oz.
Water 2' pints, or
Yeafl:, liquid.
Salt
2 :
:
;
; 8
4 or 8 fpoonsful
2
8 : 14
The water is ivarm, not hot.* A part of it is put
to the yeaft, and well mixed by beating them together
with
* A neighbour, nice in bread, obferving the fine bread in my
family made of dry or c.ke yeaft, was prefented with a bottle
of the yeaft ; but afterwards complained the dough could not
be made to rife, ^htfcalded the yeaft.
410 . NOTES AND
with a whiik. The fait is put to the other part of
the warm water, and flirred till diiTolved. Thea
put both the quantities of the fluid, gradually to the
flour ; and knead the mafs well, till the whole is per-
fectly mixed. The dough thus made, (lands four or
five hours : that is till the critical moment of its ht-
m^ fully rif en y yet before it falls any or more^hanjufl
to be perceived. It is now formed into loaves, and
immediately fet in the oven. Baking it properly is a
difficulty, to thofe not well praclifed : for this, the
oven is to be made hot as may be without burning
the crufl. If a green vegetable turns black when
put in, the oven will burn the bread ; and it is then
to ftand open till the heat has fomewhat abated.
The next care is to keep the mouth of the oxtn well
clofed till the bread has rjfen to \ts full height. The
time for this may be two or three hours. After
which, and ?iot before, the oven may be opened for
viewing the bread, at pleafure, to fee that it is baked
without being burnt or too crufty. If the mouth o£
the oven be not i-ei-y clofely ftopt at the first putting
in the bread, andy^ keit till the bread is fully rifen,
it will flatten and not be fo light, as otherwife it
would be. — When the bread is baked enough, the
above ingredients will have loil about i lb. i oz. fays
Mr. Doflie ; which leaves y lb. 12 cz. of well baked
bread." A French author (Delifle's ArithmeticJ
fays bread ought to be ~ more than the flour alone ;
and he appears accurate. But do the French bake
fo
Intimations. 411
fo brown and dry as the Englifli, who fometimes burn
and chip the cruft.
EABDV-CAKE or BREAD.
The good people of Long-Ifland call this pot-afh
cake or handy-cake ; and make it thus : wheaten
ilour 2lbs ; fugar 4lb, have added to them a tea
fpoonful of fait of tartar heaped, or any other form
of pot or pearl alh. The potafh is diflblved in a lit-
tle water before it is put to the other materials ;
and the fugar is ftirred into a pint of milk fthe bet-
ter if the milk is four or coagulated) and being freed
from lumps the whole is mixed and kneaded toge-
ther : this is done in a few minutes ; and the dough
is then instantly ftt for rolling out and baking. To be
light cake, it is neceiTary that it be baked brijkly.
X\vz first step therefore, is to kindle a fire, that fuf-
ficient of good coals may be feafonably provided.
Thus the dough, though flat and unrifen when put
on the baking pan, will be puffed up during the
baking into a fine, fpungy cake. Eggs mull be
avoided : they would entangle and obftruft the
rifmg ; it is therefore held as a maxim that the plain-
er and fimpler the materials are, the better is the
cake ; fome therefore add crea?n rather than butter.
More of potafh than is allowed by the rule,
would give an alkaline tafte and render it heavy.
The potalii raufc not be in its caufHc flate, but is
finl
41- NOTES AND
firfl expofed to the atmofphere long enough, in a
jar or the like, to be diiTolved and become mild.
— By omitting the fugar, if not alfo the butter, the
fo much admired muffins may be produced : at any
rate it gives a light wholfome bread more fpeedily
than in any other method. The potafli or fait of
tartar is moft excellent for health, efpecially of peo-
ple apt to be affefted with flow or bilious fevers,
in flat countries. This cake is noticed and recom-
mended by fome ingenious philofophical gentlemen:
for which fee 8 vol. Monthly Magazine, London,
anno. i8co. p. 873. Some to the ingredients add
butter 4 lb.
SHEEP.
Sheep do not fuffer by being tied up ; but fatten
extremely well on peas, oats, foil-cake, maize meal
and probably flaxfeed jelly). The ewes have pea-
ftraw and even oats, when they lamb; fays Mr,
Toofey. Y ox foiling and stall-feeding /keep, fee An-
nals 1 1 vol. 30 ; in Germany. Pa. t^j, in SuiEFolk;
and 12 vol. 234; 14 vol. 133 ; in Canady 17 vol.
287.
MANURE.
Fixed air, fays Mr. Amos, abounds in calcarious
and alkaline earths and falts j from ^ to | of their
whole
INTIMATIONS. 41'5
whole fubftance : from whence it is that they are
manures ; and they attrad this air from the atmof-
phere. That it is fo is evident from the abundance
of it that vegetables yield in putrefaftion. This
fixed air confills of earth, water, acids, and phlo-
giston. A tim oi caustic lime attra(fi:s ten to 15 hun-
dred pounds of it. — Limeftone, 100 parts, crude,
contains about 40 of fixed air, ^^ o^ calcarioits matter,
and yip^ of water. Calcining it, muft difcharge the
water, and moll of the fixed air which is fo impor-
tant to the mafs, as a manure. — But are not thefe
again reflored to the lime, in Hacking or after it is
flacked ? — He fays further, that quicklime unites the
watery and oily parts of foil, juft as it forms foap.
" It is, he continues, alfo in favour of lime, that,
expofed to the air it fooner or later acquires its ori-
ginal weight : fo that the foil on which quicklime
is fpread, acquires a great increafe of matter ; the
virtue of the lune consisting chiefly in its power of at-
traclion.'* Am. Drill. Hulb. 26. 44. 45. — It is
faid in America, that 6 or 8 bulhels raw powder
of lime stone, manures an acre of land, well. I am
by now informed of this ; when I can no longer
make experiments of the kind.
CALVES.
Calves running with the cows till 6 or 9 months
old, get a good growth. But the bed dairy method
414 NOTES AND
is this : — the calves fuck a week or two, according
to their llrength : new milk in the pail is then given
them, a few meah : then new and Jkimmed milk,
mixt, a few meah : then fkim mlk alone ; or por-
ridge made with milk, water ^ meal of oats, &:c.
until cheeie-making begins: after wiiioh. whey por-
ridge ; or fweet whey in the field ; being careful to
houfe them at nighl, till w^arm weather is fettled,
Marih. Midland Counties, 338. Soft fweet hay
and tender cut grafs may be laid in their way y with
a mafs o(falt clay, as a hck.
BUGS, CALLED CHINCHES.
'• The French fay, take rectified fpirit of wine
iVq, fpirit of turpentine ilb, camphor loz. Difiblve,
entirely, the camphor in the mixt liquor ; and rub
over bedfteads, S:c.** 16 An. 425. But, a clear
strong lime water, it is faid, anfwers perfectly well ;
is neater, and is even harmlefs to died filks.
BRINE OR PICKLE, ^
The rule of brine bearing an tgg, may do for
things to be foon ufed. But ought not a trut full
pickle, for keeping meat, fifh, and butter, to be
haikd down till the fait begins to cryltallize ? a flight
fcum
INTIMATIONS. 4I5
fcum on the top (liews this, vvhilil the pickle is yet
over the iire."
ICE .iXD ICE-CREAMS.
" Two pewter bafons, one large the orhtr fmcll :
the fmall one to have a clofe cover j in this bafon
the cream is put and mixt with ftrawberries, Sec. to
eive flavour and colour : fweeten it. Cover it clofe
and fet the fmall bafon in the large one. Fill this
with ice and a handful oi falty to ftand 4 of aa
hour : then uncover and stir the cream well toge-
ther : cover it clofe again, to ftand 4 sn hour
longer ; and then it may be turned into a plate.
Tin or copper vcflels may do.'*
FISH, CURED IX the SUN.
" Soon as poilible, after caught, Jplit down the
back, fpread them open and flat — gut and 'u,\ijh out
the blood — dniin them hanging by the tpjls, in the
cool of the evening or in a cool place — ilrew fait on
the bottom of the tub — fprinkle them well with
clean, Jine fait — place them belly to belly in the tub,
to lay there 1 2 hours — then luafn off" the fait, in the
pickle — again hang by the tails, to drain 4 an hour
— lay them to dry, OTifiones or fweet v»ood, inclin-
ing to xht.fun — never leave them out when the fun
is off — nor lay them out in the morning till the dtu
is
41 6 NOTES AND
is off and the fun fimies — a week of fine weather, or
lefs, cures them. When cured hang them up, bel-
ly to belly, in a verydry place.'*
HOUSE-CISTERNS.
Thev are becoming more common in Europe.
A roof of a houfe gives a fufficient fupply of water.
Rain-water, when confined under ground, becomes
very pure, palatable, and cool even in fummcr. The
cillern is in a yard or infide or outfide of the kit-
chen, in forae corner near the door. The deeper
the better the water will be kept. Where the
ground is not fo bad as to require a round form to
a ciflern, a cube is a good figure : a double cube
mud be better, as it gains depth and coolnefs, A
ciflern of 6 cubic feet holds i6 hhds. of ico gal.
each ; or 26 wine hhds. But the double cube of
5 feet feems better, and would hold above 1 8 rum
hhds. of 100 gal. or near 30 wine hhds.; and
would be 10 feet deep, and cool and fwcet in pro-
portion. The pit fliould be dug exaftly by fquare
and plum, for carrying up the wall to advantage.
On the face of the pit lay the clay plafterwife with
a trowel, coat over coat (as it dries and cracks) two
or three inches thick in all. Againft this firm even
face of plaftcr raife the brick or llone work. Bed
the bottom 3 or 4 inches thick with firong clay,
beat into a fmooth, even wax-like fabftance. The
clay
INTIMATIONS. 41/
clay is moderately wetted and beaten with fwitches,
withs, fmall hoop-poles : not with any thing heavy,
or having a broad furface. On this clay floor lay
a double bed of brick ; and on the margin of this
carry up the fide walls half brick thick, laying them
in terras. Cover the cillern over, clofe as may be.
Fix to it a fmall pump, of wood or lead, or whol-
fomer of iron : the pump to be two feet from the
bottom : or a roller and bucket raifes the water.
Upon thefe principles, but not exaftly like this
mode in all particulars, for clay fupplied the place
of terras, a ciftern was built for me fix years fince,
in Philadelphia, which has continued perfeft from
the beginning. In many places in Europe, rain
water faved in cifterns is the only water drunk.
And Stolberg's Travels fajr rain water in cifterns is
efteemed according to its age, as being more pure.
He drank of fome near Naples three years old ; and
it was excellent. How fuperior would ciftern rain
water be to the people on the flat coafts of Ameri-
ca ; and wherever elfe the water is not the pureft
from fprings and wells j efpecialiy when boilcdy
cooled and filtered.
TV A TE R I NG-P ND S.
Tlie I ft Bath Letters, and 6th and 8lh Annals,
fpeak of the practice in making thefe ponds in dry
fields and yards, for watering cattle. Dry lime is
D d fiftcd
4l8 NOTLS AND
lifted 2 or 3 irxches thick on the bottom of the place
fcooped out for the pond, for obflrufting worms and
beetles. On this lay clay, moist (fcarcely wet) well
fwitched and beaten, 6 or 7 inches thick. On this
lay gravel 6 inches thick. A pond 20 yards dia-
meter is firlT; dug out one foot deep, and then deep-
ened, iloping like a bowl, to the centre ; where it
is 4^ or 5 feet deep.
HERRINGS, SALTED— AND CURED.
Lord Dundonald, in his book on fait, gives the
Dutc/j method oi faking herrings — and then of cur~
ing them ; a diftinft operation from falting. Salt-
ing : immediately as taken, gut the herrings by
the finger and thumb tearing away the gills liver
and ftomach ; the long gut, to which a fat mem-
brane adheres, is drawn k> far out as to be left pen-
dent. Soon as gutted, fait the fifli and flow them
clofe in the barrel ; laying each layer in a contrary
dire£tion to the one below. The barrel is coopered
clofe up, foon as full. Be careful to have none but
perfectly tight barrels. The herrings remain thus,
to pine in this firft fait and in the bloody juices or
brine, 14 days "with, f mall fait, or 3 or 4 weeks
with large fait. — Curing : this prevents a tenden-
cy which the bloody liquor or brine has to putrify.
A proper curing depends on a procefs whereby the
oil contained in the prepared liquor or brine, by
being
INTIMATIONS.
419
being rendered mifcihle with ivater and reduced to
a faponaceous date, is preferved from the aftlon of
the air and turning rancid. — After the herrings
have been a fufficient time in fait to pine or throw
their hquor (part with their juices), empty the bar-
rels of them upon a large dreffer having a ledge
round it, and inclining one way for the liquor to
run off int6 a veiTel. Boil the brine in an iron vef-
fel : /kim and draw it into a wooden receiver ; let-
ting it cooL Take the melts of thirty male herrings
for every barrel. Bruife or triturate them in a
mortar : add fome of the liquor, as you triturate ;
and when well diffolved to the ftate of a rich emul-
fion or faponaceous liquor, mix it with the boiled
liquor in the wooden velTel. Then lay the herrings
in the barrels, and a layer of fait between the rows,
as in the firfl faking. Cooper the barrels clofe^
and fill them with the prepared liquor, at the bung
or head.
C Al^D LES.
" Difiblve 25^ Q)[ heef talloiv Tccidi 1^0^ mutton
tallow^ in a copper orbrafs veffel, with Jrt^ ox boiling
ivatcr to each pound of tallow. Mix therein i '-
quart of brandy^ when the tallow is melted, and 5
ounces fa/t of tartar, 5 ouwca fal ammoniac, 5 ounces
cream of tartar, and 2 ounces dry, clean poUiJh.
Boil all together A hour. Cool it. Next day take
D d 2 out
420 NOTES AND
out the cake, cut it into flices, and expofe to the dew
and air, till it becomes a fine white mafs, hard almoft
as vrax. Make the \ricks of best cotton fpun very
Jine and very even and clean. Steep the wicks in
fpirits of wine ; and harden them under a coat of
wax. Then pour the tallow on them, in moulds."
POKEMELT.
Green cucumbers, middle fized or rather large
and even tawny, are put into a jar or caik. Upon
each layer of them, add a layer of ivhite ozik
leaves, and black currant leaves. Over every layer
fprinkle dill feeds, mufliard feed, horfe-radifli and
garlic : and to CYcry twenty cucumbers, one bell of
pepper. ZMakc a brine of fait and water, not quite
follrcr.r : " 'ear an egg: to every gallon whereof
add u c_ ^:od white wine vinegar; and fill the
jar or caik; with the pickle, cold, after it has been
boiled 21.: :: . r. rd. A gentleman from RuiEa gave
this account, to fome friends in Philadelphia. He
faid the pickled cucumbers, according to the above,
are ufed in RufHa ; and that it is faid there, the
Eir.prefs had a calk of them for every day in the
year. Mr. Sziintcriy the traveller, gives another
way of r ;.t.c1v ; v.hich is this : — A layer
of oak leaves ;s tkiii put into the bottom of a cajk
which is beft of white oak : then a laver of cucum-
bers : and fo altemately till the cafk is filled. A
pickle
INTIMATIONS. 421
pickle is made, as is common, with fait and water ;
not too ftrong : and it is poured over the cucumbers
in the cafk. The cafk is kept in a cool cellar. The
cucumber is foon fit for ufe, and keeps good a year
or more. He imagines if fome vinegar was added it
would be wholefomer, efpecially to Ruffians whofe
great ufe of fait meffiss renders them very fcorbutic."
The gentleman who gave the firfl: above receipt faid,
the pickle was to be acidulated fo that the tafte of
vinegar fliould be very flight. He dire^led alfo that
the cafk be of white oak, and the cucumbers be ra-
ther full grown, and put in whole. I have eat of
them as made in the firfl above method, aifo fome
fplit into four lengths. It is a much admired pickle,
mild and winning, I faw a lady nearly make her
dinner of them : for they are ferved up in plates-full ;
and are in a ftile different from, and milder than
other pickles.
RENNET.
Mr. Marjhal, in his Rural Economy of Norfolk,
gives the following as the befl way of faving rei^pet
fkins. — Throwing away the curd, the ftomach of the
calf is waihed clean and falted thoroughly infide and
out, Cwith fine pounded fait, it is prefumed ; for he
adds) leaving a white coat of fait overy every part of
it. It is then placed in an earthen (better if flone)
jar, for 3 or 4 days. It is then hung up, 2 or 3
days,
422 NOTES AND
days, refalted and placed again in the jar, covered
tight down with a paper pierced with'pin holes ;
where it remains till wanted, for ufe. It ought to
remain fo 1 2 months, to be ilrong : but may be ufed
a few days after the fecond faking.
RENNET LIQUOR.
A handful of the leaves of fweet briar, another of
the dog rofe, and another of the bramble, are boiled
together in a gallon of water with three or four
handfuls of fait, for a quarter of an hour. Strain oif
the liquor. When quite cool put it into an earthen
or flone veffel and add the prepared maw or ftomach
iliin. Then add a found lemon, ftuck round with i.
ounce of cloves. The longer it is in the liquor the
ftronger is the rennet. When (Irong enough, take
out the fkin. Hang it up two or three days to drain.
Refalt it : put it again in the jar ; and thus continue
to treat it, till its virtues are exhaufted, which will
not be till ufcd feveral times. MarJhaL
' CURD.
The warmer the milk, the fooner it coagulates :
but if too warm, the curd is tough and harlli. The
cooler the milk and longer in coagulating, the more
tender and delicate the curd. — The length of time
between the fitting the milk and the conmg of the
cnrd
INTIMATIONS. 423
curd may be regulated by the warmth of the 7nilk
when fet ; or by the warmth in which it is kept vvhilfl
it is coagulating ; or by the strength and quantity of
the rennet. — ^Perhaps it is not the heat when yt"/, but
the heat when it comes, which gives the quality of
the curd. — The curd fliould be covered to make it
come together : it may otherwife be hard at the bot-
tom half an hour before it comes at the top. — Milk
immediately from the cow is 95° of heat — From a
number of experiments Mr. Marflial concludes that
curd of a good quality is obtained from 7nilk heated
from 87 to 103° of Farenheit ; provided that the ren-
net be fo proportioned that the time of coagulation
be from -i to 2 i hours ; and provided that the milk
be properly covered, during the procefs of coagula-
tion — But from thefe and numbers of other obferva-
tions it rather feems to him, at prefent, that from 85
to 90 are the proper degrees of heat : that from one
to two hours is the proper time oi coagulation, and for
keeping the milk covered ; fo as to lofe in the procefs
about 5" of its original heat. MarfJoaU
BEER.
It is fiiid Sir Jolm Dalrymple propofes that beer be
brewed with ivort-cake and hop-cake, combined with
yeast-powder : which may be with cold water. One
pound of the cake is to make a gallon of table beer :
and it is thought it would anfwer well at fea, and fave
Ilowage
424 NOTES AND
flowage. — I have cured yeaft in cakes, by fmearing
tubs with it, and cxpofmg it to evaporation in the
fliade and wind till perfectly dry. My dried cakes
of yeaft were broke fmall, and kept in bottles, quite
di-y and well corked.
EGGS.
Into a tub put abufliel quicklime, 2ft» fait, and 4^
of cream of tartar, mixt in water to bear an cg^ with
its top jufi: above water. Keep eggs in this ; which
may be two years, fays Repert. 177.
LEVEL.
Thz /pan-level is always ufed by irrigators of mea-
dows in Pennfylvania. The bifliop of Landiff (Doc-
tor Shipley; it is faid was fo pleafed with it that he
prevailed with Mr. E. a Pennfylvania farmer to direct
the making them for him. The Repertory of arts
has given proper direflions for ufing it thus : — At
the level of the water, where you begin, drive a pia
into the ground ; on which one leg of the level can
reft ; then bring the other leg round, till it touches
the ground on a level with the top of that pin : there
drive in another pin ; and having adjufted the level
perfefiiy, make ufe of this lail pin as a refl: for one
foot, turn the other about till you find the level in
the fame way ; and fo proceed on. Thus at once
vou
INTIMATIONS. 425
you difcover the precife dire^lions that the water
courfe fliould hold, without digging through heights
or fiiUng up hollows. This is to conduft \v2Xtr per-
feSfly level. — If declivity is to be given 4 4 '^ch or
more in every 12 feet (the fpan of the level), inftead
of wooden pins, make ufe of one pin of steel, having
inches, halves, and quarters, marked on the fides,
from the fquare top downwards ; and have a number
of wooden pins, cut neatly at the top quite fquare.
After fixing the iron pin quite level with the firfl:,
drive a wooden pin into the ground clofe by it, mak-
ing its head go i- or \ inch lower than the top of the
iron pin. Then pulling out the iron pin, and em-
ploying the wooden one as a rcfl: for one of the legs,
put the iron pin in again for the other leg, and driv-
ing another wooden pin into the ground, a quarter
inch lower, proceed forward in this manner, and the
canal will have the fame uniform degree of Hope,
throughout its whole extent. Thus the fall can be
regulated to any affignable degree. One of thefe
levels 1 ufed at Como, in Chefter county, with great
fatisfaflion, for directing water in irrigating the
land. See plate.
WILLOWS.
There are low, broken, fwampy lands little fuita-
ble for meadow, which may be profitably planted
with willows. A Mr. Lowe, in England, improved
V fuch.
426 KOTES AND
fucli ground ; by laying it out from 3 to 4 yards
wide, with a ditch on each fide, 3 feet at top, i foot
at bottom, 2 1 feet deep ; but the ditch is to be deep
and wide, according to the condition of the ground,
for giving near a yard of earth above the level of the
water ; towards which purpofe, the earth dug out
of the ditches, is thrown on the land. Then dig the
ground two fpades depth, unlefs it be very boggv.
The plants are to be kept perfectly clean, efpecially
the firft year. The fets or truncheons are cut 20 to
24 inches ; avoiding to bruife the bark in cutting or
planting : they are therefore cut in the hand, not on
a block. The ground is opened with a crow bar,
14 to 20 inches deep ; and 4 to 6 inches of the plants
are left above ground. The cuttings were from
poles of three years growth ; and placed 3 feet apart,
quincunx. — One, two, or three fhoots were left to
grow. At 8 years old he fold off near 500 dollars
worth on an acre. "Where the plants are puny and
weak, dig in manure to their roots. The poles fo
fold, at 8 years old, were 33 to 36 feet high, enough
for three rails, 2 at bottom and one at top. But
their great ufe was in making hurdles, gates and im-
plements of hufbandry. The time for planting is
from January to the end of March j and the fets are
to be cut from December to the end of February,
whilst tk»fap is dczun. Rep. — It is with caution that
the yelkzu 'luHIow fliould be planted near fprings and
wells of water. I have heard of thefe being damag-
ed
INTIMATIONS.
427
ed greatly by the willow roots, and of afpring being
flopt entirely. On a farm which I lately bought in
Chefler county, water was carried under ground
near 300 yards from a fpring which had been choak-
ed, as the tenant thought mifchevioufly, by twigs of
the yellow willow being cut and put into the tube
at the fpring. They drifted and lodged at different
parts of the tube, and there threw out malTcs of roots,
very fmall, fponge-like, and clofe, fo that the water
was, in a while, totally ftopt from paffmg through.
The whole of the tubes I have caufed to be taken up
and replaced ; and a flone houfe built, and locked
up, over the fpring. See, of Swamps, the next ar-
ticle.
SWAMPS.
I have read of a fwamp, of which meadow could
not be made ; and, being a difagreeable objeft, large
deep ditches were dug, and the earth thrown up into
little iflands ; which were planted wjth willows, and
formed beautiful clumps of trees, here and there ; fo
that nothing was feen but thefe trees, and various
peeps of water. The ditches anfwered for fifh-
ponds. See of willows ; the preceding article. m
Lombardy poplar is planted about habitations in
America for ornament : but an Italian gentleman fays,
in Italy it is fawed at mills whilfl green into boards
' ; to
428 NOTES AND
i 4- to one inch thick, and into plank 2 to 3 inches
thick ; and is greatly applied to making packages for
merchandize. Nails are not apt to draw in thefe
packages, the boards whereof are thii>; and the
wood being tender is eafily cut into thin boards with
handfaws. In 20 years their trunks, he adds, grow
to be 2 feet diameter and 30 long. Boxes of it made
ftrong for the ufe of vineyards lad there 30 or 40
years ; which induces the expeftation that they may
lafl long in fence-rails ,or logs. As fuel he fays it
makes a much ftronger fire than the willow. The
weeping willow is a fmgular and valuable ornament.
Of other willows and ofiers, the beft adapted to mak-
ing bafkets, hurdles, tool handles, &c. no hufband-
man ought to be without a permanent flock in full
growth. For the more general, extenfive and im-
portant purpofes, the Larch f Pinus Larix, Lin. J
mufl have the firft attention of landed men. See
DotStor Anderfon^s 3d volume of EfTays on Hufban-
dry, for a full and fatisfaftory account of it, and of
the extenfive propagation of it in Scotland ; with its
ofeful and durable qualities ; and its very quick
growth, fo much wanted in the oal<.
^ Mr. Young fpeaks of fifh-ponds ; and of four
ponds, an acre each, one above another, on aflream,
which turned a mill below the ponds. 19 An. 400.
BmriL^
INTIMATIONS. 429
DISTILLATION.
The Dutch method of preparing wafh, for malt
fpirit, faves much trouble and procures a large quan-
tity of fpirit. It is the mod profitable method, and
reduces the two operations o^brezving andfcnnenting
into one. It is this : — In proportion to ioit)of malt
v!\jine meal, and 3 ft) of common wheat meal, they
add 2 gallons of cdd water, flirring all well toge-
ther : then add 5 gallons of water boiling hot ; and
again ftir all together. When this is cold they add 2
ounces o^folid yeafl ; and ferment it in a warm place,
loofely covered. — In England, by drawing and mafh-
ing for fpirit, as they do for beer, pumping into
coolers, and running it into fermenting backs, and
fermenting it, they have twice the labour, and lofe
much fpirit, by leaving the grofs bottoms out of the
Itill, for fear of burning. Sibley's Hift. IMifcel.
pa. 352.
TOWER—DRAVGUr.
The 16 An. 562, fays, can ivitb one horfe are pre-
ferred ; and that they carry 1 60 large bricks, of
i4tb, equal to 22401*)- Thefe cars are about 5 feet
fquare, and i foot deep ; containing 25 feet : 27 f.
a cubic yard is a load of earth. The ivbeels tzi-o
feet diameter, run under the car, as in Ireland.*
The
* I direifled a cart to be made on the principles of Sharp's
waggons on rollers. The wheels of this cart, or rpther th-
43^ xorrs and
The 1 8 An. 1 79, fays, one-horfc carts prove macb
preferable for all works of hufb.mdry : and the form
of fcch a cart, '■Mitb an ox in thills and gears, and
bridled, is given. This cart is 5 feet long : t^~^
broad : 2 deep ; equal to t^6 cubic feet.
The firength of a common man, walking bonzov-
tally, with his body inclining forwards, is faid to be
equal to 27]^. If he walks backwards the force is
faid to be greater in pulling backward ; and it is fiid
to be known that a horfe draws horhcntally as much
as feven men ; that confequently his firength is equal
to I Splb, when drawing hori'z.ontaUy. Yet in afand-
ing, three men laden with ico^, each, will go up a
pretty fteep hill with more eafe and expedition, than
a horfe laden with 3001c.
I have often fcea about a tun weight drawn, and
fometimes up a trying hill as from Market ftreet
wharf, Philadelphia, to Front ftreet, by 07ie bcrfe in
a dray having wheels of three feet diameter. On
level ground, with fuch lov7 wheels, his whole power
is exerted to advantage j up'xard, from the centre of
the
rolhrsy "vrere fvro feet dJain?ter, and 1 6 inches tread, fa'S'ed
out of oak. They performed admirably, escept when run-
ning oTer old cornhills : they tien iumped condnually. With.
4cxen it carried 120 bulhels cf wheat, 7000!*). eafily. The
rollers were under the body ; and this was nsariy fquare with
equal fides. Carts are uied with cw cv, inflead of a horfe.
INTIMATIONS. 33I
the axis which is below his point of draught. Hori-
zontal draught, has but 189^^ of power to be added
to fome portion of the horfe's weight. But in draw-
ing upward it is with an increafed power. Contrary
to common reafoning, a horfe draws more in a dray
having three feet wheels than in a cart having five
feet wheels, or elfe I muft ftrangely be millaken in
my judgment of what I have feen and concluded were
facts. The line of draught, yrow the axis of a three
feet wheel, is elevated ; which gives the horfe a lift-
ing purchafe, with the aid of his legs, and better foot-
hold prelllng more direflly on the ground : but when
the wheel is five feet high, the draft is in a line
nearly horizontal, and the horfe pulls to difadvan-
tage ivith a horizontal exertion of the footlock ; which
is very inferior to the pov»'er exerted by \h^fooi and
leg, when drawing upward they prefs more diredly
on the ground.
SHEEP.
The univerfal food for flieep in England is, in
fumnier, common grafs and clover ; in zcintcr, tur-
nips for winter feed, and from tuiTiips to vetches in
the fpring : hay, only when turnips fail. Of stock
flieep, 100 require 5 acres of turnips, and 15 acre^
of clover. Good inclofed padure will carry fix fliecp
to an acre. 1 9 An. 295. 298. — A tun of hay a day
was eaten by 700 (heep ; which gave to each 3 j.\rfc
432
>50T£S AND
a diiy, and was rather fcanty. " Cabbages are bet-
ter for flieep than turnips two to one" — After the
flieep are a little accuflomed to their flails, they
thrive well. They are there fed 3 or 4 times a day,
and have clean htter. 18 An. 105. 111. — In
America, plant a cabbage in the flep betw'een every
two hills of maize, the partial (hade may be favora-
ble to them. It is faid that colliflowers fucceed bet-
ter when planted amongft maize, than when in a
garden, gooseberries alfo require fome (hade. Thus
they are ralfed without labour ; for the maize mufl
be horfe-hoed. What would be the di5erence be-
tween letting the plants grow into cabbages from the
feeds, without removal, and tranfplanting as ufual ?
FRESHENmG SALT PROVISIONS.
In my paffages on the Chefapeak, I obferved my
fkipper would foraetimes flice falted barrel pork, and
in a few minutes fre(hen the llices in a frying pan ;
and then boil them for his dinner. The pork llices
were put in ffe(h, cold water, in a frying pan, and
held over^fire till the water begafi tofimmcr (never
fuffering it to boil in the leaft). This water was then
thrown away, and other cold freOi w ater was put in
a pot together with the flices of pork. They were
then boiled till enough. — This was applied, in my
family, to frediening fait fidi ; efpecially cod founds j
and it anfwered admirably. Sometimes they were fo
over
INTIMATIO^rs. 433
over frefhened, that it was neceffary to eat fiilt with
them.
TURNIPS,
In Kent's Hints, page 128, is the following on tur-*
nips. — In crops they anfwer three great purpofes j to
clean the ground : fupport live stock, a vafl: deal : and
prepare for other crfjps ; particularly for barley and
clover, or grafs-feeds. The turnip crop is the Nor-
folkman*s flieet anchor; and he fpares it no pains*
The flubble of wheat, barley, or oats, is preferred for
bringing on turnips. They plow very iliallow ; fo
as to ikim off the rough furface only, fome time be-
fore Chriflmas. In the following March, it is well
harrowed (their foil is a fandy loam) and then is crofs
plowed to ksfull depth. In May, it is plowed again,
the fame depth : and if dry wearher and the foil ftifF,
immediately harroiv after this plowing. By the
first of June, it ought to be perfectly clean. Now,
I o good cart loads of manure are laid on an acre, re-
gularly fpread, and plowed in quite frejh, half the
depth of the other plowing. — It thus is left till about
the 2 1st of June ; and then is well harro--:ed, to blend
the foil and manure together. — It is then ploivcd to
Its full depth, and harrowed, once only, the way it is
plowed. — The feed is then immediately fown, on the
E e frejh
434 NOTES AND
frefn earth ;* not even ivaitingfor theplow'mg afecond
ridge. A quart of feed an acre is fown. The feed
is harrcr^ued in twice, the fame way the ground was
plowed. The barrcrj; is fhort tined, and the lighter
the better.
The niceft part of the turnip hufbandry now re-
mains to be obferved : It is hoing ; without which
all the former labour is thrown away. — When the
plants cover three inches in diameter, hoe them with
a lo inch hoe; and fet them at 15 inches apart;
without regard to the apparent health in the choice
of thofe left. About i o or at moft 1 4 days after the
firfl: hoing, the ground is hoed a fecond time, fo as
to stir the mould effectually between the plants, and
to check weeds. About 14 to 20 days after the
20th September, the turnips are fit for confuraption,
and fo to April, unlefs the froft injures them. —
% Where the land is ivet the whole are drawn, and fed
in cribs. On light dry land, every other ridge is
drawn.
He adds, 20 acres of a good crop of turnips fat-
fen 15 or 16 bullocks, 2.nd fupport 10 followers or
ftors cattle for 25 weeks ; or of (heep, as 8 to one
bullock.
* In Maryland, turnip feed is ufually fown a full irxnth
later than this.
/\
INTIMATIONS. 435
bullock. But the greatefl advantage is in cleaning,
meliorating and preparing the foil for other crops.
Tofave turnips in the field, they fink fome beds
in the ground where they grew, about two feet deep,
of a coniiderable width, and lay 5 or 6 layers of tur-
nips in them, one upon another, with a little yrr/zj
eart/j between every two layers, and cover the top
over with ilraw, to keep out the froit. Or pile
thera up in fmall ftacks, with the greens outward,
and a little clean ftraw between every two layers ;
^nd laftly cover or fkreen them with wattles lined
with Itraw.*
E e 2 MANURING
* At Wye, w'uh intention to tiy a new modf, my turnips
■were Ibvvn in broad-c;il^, thick. A plow having a narro\v fin
without its mould bo.ird, was run throiigh the young plants,
carefully, for leaving them on narrow ilips ot" earth. Hand-
lioes followed, working actofs the rows, and cutting near a
foot width of the plants quite up ; the hoers ftooping occafi-
onally to thin the clufters of turnips left by the hoes. A dou^
ble mould beard plow after^s-ards run through the intervals,
heaves up the earth on each fide and leaves the plants on clean
ridges. Advantageous r.s this proved, I could not procure
it to be repeated more than once more, a few years after-
wards. Overieers are fis fixt to old habits as tlie negroes
under them; and I was much abroad on other bufinefs.
I have indeed always found the negroes better dilpofed to
execute my defigns, than the overfeers, who invariably are
attentive and ingenious in taking fiiort cuts for fiurring over
all work, to foon get rid of it and go a frolicking. I ufually
fowed near the end of July though I felt diipofed to break
through the pra»5tice ; and fow a /iuU later^ for faving them
before they v.cre old in grcwth when tliey incline to be op:a
436 NOTES AND
MAlsURIhG ORCHARDS.
When a boy, I obferved that hogs were much
in orchards ; ftalks and trafh of tobacco were placed
round the foot of the trees, on the ground, in fmall
heaps, during winter ; and then apple trees in or-
chards bore better, and appeared much larger and
more perfect than at this time. Hogs feed on po-
tatoes. If orchards were planted irregularly with po-
tatoes or Jerufalem artichokes, * and hogs turned on
them
and fpongy, and therefore do not keep fo well as younger tur-
nips, clofe and in fail vigor. In that country turnips are but
little hoed and that flovenly : and to thin the plants the coun-
try people think ■would be dellroying what they had done.
Tliey count the rurnips by the number of plants, rather than by
the quantity of the roots.
Turnips in rows, having 12 or 14 inch intervals. Every
ether rcw taken up and faved, would leave intervals 24 to zS
inches wide. Cover the remaining turnips with long dung :
then in November, before the froft fets in, dip deep a double
mould board plow, and heave the eartli on the turnips, to
ftand the winter. Make the experiment. Such a plow is
highly valuable on many occafions. It efpecially faves 2 or
3 bouts in clearing out, when plowing maize. Of potatoes
every otlier row taken up would leave three feet intervals be-
tween the rows of remaining potatoes. The haulm cut off
and laid on thefe potatoes, may then be covered by the eartli
heaped on them by a ftout double mould board plow ; for
keeping this half of the crop through the winter. It may be
firit tried, in a few rows.
* But I fufpe^; artichokes are more Impoverlftiing than
potatoes.
INTIMATIONS. 437
them when ripe, two valuable purpofes might be an-
fwered : their du7ig fecured, and the ground stirred ^
the turning over whereof buries and fecures the
dung to the foil.
PORK KEPT FRESH A TEAR.
A Mr. Poultney, of Philadelphia, dined on board
a Spanifh (hip of war, at the Havanna, and ate of
boiled frefli pork which appeared as if jufl: killed.
He was told it was killed and put up near a year be-
fore, at La Vera Cruz. The bones were taken out,
and without any fait, the pieces were covered with
Spanifh brown (a red ochre). It was then packed in
bags, for the ofEcers. They fliewed him fome in
bags, where they were fmothered in red ochre :
which is waflied off with warm water, previous to
boiling it. I prefum.e any other pure, impalpable,
efpecially dry aftringent clay would anfwer as well.
Some clays fo far partake of alum, as to (hew it ex-
uded, like a white mould. Such I have feen and
tailed on the banks of the Chefapeak. But does
Spanifli brown contain alum ?
BARRELED BEEF.
Being at an inconvenient diftance from market,
and fcldom able to fell my beeves, on the foot, but
at a very low price, I found it advifable to depend
» rather
43S NOTES AND
rather on barreling up from tha grafs, than on felling
on the foot. From ignorance of a proper mode of
performing the byfmefs, part of my beef in the firft
attempt fpoiled. On four years experience, I prefer
the following ; which procured a good charafter to
my beef, at market. I killed between 24 and 30
beeves which were raifed on the farm, fat from the
grafs in the lad week of Oftober.
The beeves may be kept up from food and drink,
two days : the better if clofe and dark, and then
llaughtered ; after fo fading they are found to bleed
better, are handled lighter and cleaner, and every
way look better. 1 had experienced this ; though it
was not my common practice. I found that in com-
mon upon the firfl falting and the meat lyingin open
barrels/owr days, there has been drawn out by the
fait, ^gallons of bloody juices from 432^t-> of beef.
This is of the nature of pining of herrings, by the
Dutch. Compare that in pa. 418, with this method
oi falting and curing-
Tbe barrels are to be ready, fweet, and weU trim-
med ; and the fait previoufly waflied or refined, and
ground fmall, before the beeves are to be flaughter-
ed. — I killed 14 beeves as to-day, and falted them to-
morrow morning. Z>£'/^j' in falting is injurious : (o
is expofure to the air, even after it is falted. The
pieces are therefore packed into the tight barrels
piccp
INTIMATIONS.
439
piece by piece as they are faked ; inflead of bulking
them 6n a frame or drefler to drain, as had been the
practice : and inftcad of remaining two weeks to
drain, expofed to the air, they are now 6 or 8 days
left to drain, in clofe barrels headed up tight.
Having thus fecured the fn-fc day's beef, in barrels,
to drain (or pine) ; on the third day, other 14 beeves
were killed, and managed in the fame manner. Six
pofls framed into plates of timber on the top, v/cre
erefted high enough for the beeves to hang clear of
the ground. The entire carcafes were Hid back on
the plates, one after another as they were drefled.
The two front pods had holes through, at the fides
and front ; by which with handfpikes, or levers and
iron pin^, the beeves were raifed and dreiTed, a pin-
Iiole or two at a time, without rope or pully.
Coarfe fait, ivajhed but not ground, having alfo
been previoully read}'f is dilTolved in fair cold water
til! no more can be diflblvcd on (lirring. Let it fet-
tle a day or two : /kim olF the top : pour off all but
the dregs ; and keep it for ufe as below.
The meat is to be taken out of the barrels ; re-
fiilted^ and clofcly repacked in the fame barrels. Im-
mediately head them up perfectly clofe ; to remain
{o, till fold or ufed. In a few days after heading
up the barrels, bore a hole in one cf the heads,
or
440 NOTES AND
or the bulge, of each barrel, and fill it up firft with
the prepared and boiled juices of the meat, faved from
the firll falting and barreling, as under mentioned.
Every time of filling, the barrels being rolled leaves
room for more liquor. When there is no more of
xhe prepared juices , the barrels are next to be repeat-
edly filled with the plain flrong brine, made as above,
from the walhed coarle fait, till they can take no
more after ftanding a while,*
I
* It may be fomedmes requiute to kill cattle in the hotteft
■weather. A farmer's ox or cow may chance to break or flip
a limb — " Eeef dXmid-Jummer has been well preferred a; fol-
" lows. — The OS killed one day, and cut up and faked the next
" day. The i'alt, beat very fine, was well rubbed into the
'" meat, which was then prefled into a cafk with fpijnkling of
** fait between the lays. It thus flood 48 hours, when from
•* the clofe packing the bloody juices appeared above the meat,
*' and they were poured off. Then a brine was made fo ftrong
•* that the -water could diflblve no mpre fait. The meat was
** walhed in this brine, and again well fiilted, as before ; and
" laftly, the caiks were filled up with the brine. Related by
*'■ a Capt. Norr'iSi who .had often feen meat fo preferved."
Collins on Salt and Fiftxeries, p. 16. In Maryland, a Capt. Blnny
flau^-htered beeves in jJuguJi, and faked the meat into barrels,
as provifion for his feamen. — He immediately failed witli it on
a voyage to Barladoa : what of it remained he brought back
to Maryland, perfectly good. The cattle were killed from
the pafture, one by one, and immediately cut into pieces, and
thrown into tubs of cold water for cooling the meat ; the wa-
ter ofien renewed. When the meat was cool, it was drained,
aB.d inftantly faked. The pieces were then packed and prefTcd
INTIMATIONS. 44I
I believe then juices of meat cured with fait, and
the boiled^ are of an excellent mellowing quality. ^ All
that can be faved, is therefore to be fo boiled, and
poured cold and clear on the meat in the barrels as
above. When animals faft long, the blood and
juices retire from the extremities to the large blood
veffels in the centre of the body, in proportion as re-
pleniiliment is withheld and the animal is weakened.
Hence it is that the animal bleeds fo much freer, and
more plentifully, after long fading. Here as in pre-
ferving fifli in barrels, the operations are diftinftly,
to Jdlt, and to cure. (^See the Dutch mode of barrel-
ing herrings, page 418) and the boiled juices, from
the faked meat, muft ferve to beef what the pickle of
fifli cured is to the herrings. On boiling the blood
and juices with the pickle, the firmer parts fettle in a
mafs on (landing, and the liquor pours off clear.
Let not the barrels of meat be expofed to the fun,
as is often the cafe, by rolling them out of doors and
leaving them there longer than need be. Damp is ,
bad for fait meat as well as for frefli ; therefore flore
the barrels in a dry place, the coolest to be found.
It is recommended to cut up beef with a long, iharp
knife, having a fteel plate back faw ; with this to faw
the bones, inftead of mangling with an ax : that the
pieces
clofe into barrels, and headed up. This account I had from
Capt. Binny ; and alfo from my brother, for vhoni Capt,
Binny failed.
442 NOTES AND
pieces be but 4 to 6Ibs. that to a barrel there be nfed,
befides fea fait, fugar 2 or 3 lbs. the coarfe brown
{QTt',falt petre 4 ounces. It is obferved that Irijh
prQvifwns are in demand throughout Europe : In the
fize of the pieces they differ from the reft of Europe,
which gives a preference ; and it is efpecially in cut-
ting their pork into pieces of 4lbs. to fuit fmall
meffes ; about 50 pieces to a barrel of aoolbs. h
therefore is in greater demand, and bears a better
price.
As coming from the intelligent Admiral K?ic\vles,
and as it is meant of meat for the ufe of the Britifli
navy, which required the befl provifions, the follow-
ing mud be worth fome attention. He fays, ikin
and cut the ox into pieces fit for ufe, as quick as
poiuble, foon as killed, and fait the meat whilll itis
hot. For v.'hich purpofe fait petre and bay fait are
pounded together and made hot in an oven, of each
equal parts ; fprinkle the meat with this at the rate
of two ounces to the pound. Lay the pieces on flielv-
ing boards to drain 24 hours : turn them and repeat
the fame, to lay 24 hours more. Wipe each piece
dry with coarfe dry cloths. Common fait made hot in
an oven is then taken out and mixed with one third
of brown fugar. Rub the pieces well with this mix-
ture and pack them into barrels, allowing -^ib of the
mixture to each pound of meat. It will keep good
feveral years. The fame procefs is applied to pork,
only
INTIMATIONS,
443
only giving it more fait and lefs of fugar. The pre-
fervation of the meals depends equally upon their be-
ing hot 'ujhcn first failed. One pound of beef re-
quires two ounces of fait petre and two ounces of
bay fait, becaufe it is to be fprinkled twice ; an
ounce of each to a pound of beef both times. Yet
beware, and firfl make experiment.
rJLLOJTS.
Mr. Forbes has a good chapter on fallows : and
the Bath Letters fpeak of a comparative experiment
between fallow left rough from the plow, through
winter, and fome that was harrowed after the plow.
This lafl proved much the beft in a barley crop
fowed the following fpring. In an entire lield of
wheat, a part of the feed was plowed and then rak-
ed in ; another part bandhoed after being plowed in,
as ufual when fown amongfl: maize plants; and a
part lef[ rough after being plowed in. This lafl was
fo fuperior that (and from other particulars and in-
flances of fmooth drelTed ground compared with a
part in its rough flate as left by plowing in the
grain) I afterwards generally left ray wheat un-
touched on being plowed in, without raking, har-
rowing, hoeing or rolling the ground. On the
other hand it proved on an experiment I mavie, that
a part fallowed and then harrowed fmooth and fo
left through a winter, was preferable for receiving
feed
444 NOTES AND
feed and giving a fuhfequent crop, to what was left
rough. Such, fo far as thefe experiments were
made, is the difference between fallow and fown
ground htmgfmoothed or left rough : the foil a clay-
ioara.
LETTSOM's TEAST.
Do£ior Lettfom in his Hints for promoting Bene-
ficence, fays — " Thicken 2 quarts of water with 4
ounces fine flour ; boil it half an hour. Sweeten it
with 3 ounces Mufcovado fugar. When almost cold,
pour it on 4 fpoonsful of yeaft into an earthen or
ftone jar, deep enough to allow the yeafl: to rife :
fliake it well together, and place it a day near a
fire : then pour oif the thin liquor at top : fhake
the remainder, and clofe it up for ufe. It is to be
drained through a fieve. Keep ic in a cool cellar,
or hang it fome depth in a well. — Some of it is to
be kept, always, for renewing or maldng the next
quantity wanted.'*
I had a German brewer, in my family, who ufcd
to keep family yeaft in a cafe bottle ; and he pour-
ed half a gill of brandy, very gently, to float on
the top of the yeaft, in a cafe bottle containing
about two quarts, for excluding the air. When-
ever he found his yeall was inclined to be flat, he
mixed in it half a gill to a gill of brandy, according
to
INTIMATIONS.
445
to the quantity of ycafl: left in the bottle ; and let-
ling it fland a while, fhook it up again and thctr.
ufed it. The bed brewers stro?2g beer yeast, I pre-
furae fliould be begun with : and then a good bodi-
ed rich yeafl may be kept up, by renewals.
POTATO-TEAST, by Kir by.
The principles in this, are allied to the prepara-
tions for producing Anderfon's potato fpirit. Kirby
recommends the mealy fort to be boiled till thorough-
ly foft ; mafhed till very fmooth ; with hot water
put to the mafh, till of the confiftency of beer ycaft,
and not thicker. To every pound of potatoes add
two ounces of coarfe fugar or melaiTes. When but
jufl warm, for every pound of potatoes, ftir in two
fpoonsful of yeafl, and keep it gently warm till
done fermenting. He fays, a pound of potatoes
yields near a quart of yeaft, to keep three months :
and he direfts that the dough lie eight hours before
it be put to the oven. This Ihews that the ferment,
however fure, is Cow. I would have the potatoes
to be thoroughly ripe, and w^W fprouted ; for the
reaipns mentioned under the head of potato fpirit.
PERSIAN-l-^EAST,
A tea-cup full of fplit or bruifed peas has poured
on it a pint of boiling water, and is then fet on the
hearth
44^ NOTES AND
hearth or other \ranii place, all night. Next mom-
^^iig the water will have on it a froth, and will be
good yeafl:. This quantity makes as ranch bread
as two lix-penny (llerl.) loaves ; very good, and
very light. It is the yeaft ufed on the coaft of
Perfia.
CASTOR OIL.
Though this mild family purgative is produced in
quantities in fome of the illands ia the Weft Indies,
yet it is fometimes hardly to be got in the fhops, in
the United States, or is very ftale. It is produced
from the feeds of the Palma Cbristi plant, common
ia our gardens. There are two forts in this coun-
try ; but that which has been long known, is the
moft common, has a lighi or bluijb coloured stalk, is
the fort ufed in the Weft Indies, as I am afiured by
a refpeclable family from thence, who add, that the
Palma Chritli having a reddijh stalk, is never ufed,
it being fufpected of having haHh if not poifonous
qualities. Further they fay, that of the two modes
of procuring the oil, that by exprejfion is preferred.
— Yet Labat and others prefer boiling the feeds.
The reddilh fort was but lately introduced as a curi-
ofity in a gnrden near Philadelphia.
Strip the nuts of their hulks. Boil them in wa-
ter : and as the oil rifes ikim it off. When it yields
no
INTIMATIONS. 447
no more to the water, prefs the grounds wmpped,
loofcly, in a coarfe cloth. This oil is fweet, with-
out bad tafle or fmell, and as clear as olive oil.
P. Labat, Bruife the fee^s, and boil them. The
oil itimraed off is much purer, and is capable of be-
ing kept longer than what is obtained by exprejfit)n ;
becaufe the water detains the muciiage, which is in
a large quantity in the exprelTed oil, and which dil-
pofes it to fpoil fooner. Edfnb. Difpenf. An. 1794.
Dr. Sim?7io?is fays of Palma-christi and its oil, in
Dr. V/rig/jt*s book of Medical Plants in Jamaica,
that when the bunches begin to turn black, thev
are gathered, dried in the fun, and the feeds picked
out and put up for ufe : that the bed preparation
of it is thus : a large iron pot is half filled with wa-
ter ; the nuts being beat in parcels, in deep w^ooden
mortars, are then thrown into the pot, and gently
boiled two hours under conflant stirring. The oil
then fwims mixed with a white froth, and is ikim-
med off till no more rifes. The ikimmings are
heated in a fmall iron pot, and ftrained through a
cloth. When cold it is bottled up. T/jus 7nadc it
is clear, and well flavored. An EngHlh gallon of
the feeds may yield two pounds of oil, which is a
Jarge proportion. In lamps it burns clear, and has
no offenfive fmell. It anfwers all the purpofes of
the painter, and for ointments and plaiflers. It
purges witliout llimulus, and i> given to infants to
purge
44^ NOTES AND
•
purge off meconium. All oils are noxious to in-
fects ; and the caftor oil kills and expels them. — It
is given as a purge, after ufing the cabbage-bark
fome days. It is remarkably fuccefsfal in conflipa-
tion and belly-ach ; fits well on the ftomach ; allays
the fpafm, and produces plentiful evacuation, efpe-
cially if at the fame time fomentations or warm bath
are ufed.
rURNIP-FLT.
It is faid to be a fuccefsful method of avoiding
damage to young turnip plants by flies, to mix
every two pounds of feed with a quarter pound of
fulphur in fine powder, to ftand ten or twelve
hours ; and then fow the feed. Quere : would
wheat, when the feed has been fo treated with ful-
phur, avoid the Heflian-fly ?
CHEESE.
Mr. Tivamley was many years a great dealer ia
cheefe, annually vifited the dairies of Glofterfliire,
Wiltiliire, &c. and bought the cheefes of entire
choice dairies. He made obfervations on the prac-
tices of the cheefemakers ; and fays that the princi-
pal faults in the cheefes of thofe countries, made in
inferior dairies, were there being hove, fpongy or
full of eves, vvhey-fprings, iliakes, fplits, loofe or
made
INTIMATIONS. 449
iTiaiie of unfetllcd curd, rank or flrong, flying out
or bulged at the edges, dry-crackt or huilcy coated,
bliftered coats, blue pared or decayed, fweet ot
funky, ill-fmclling from tainted maw-ikins. Be
careful that the rennet is perfectly found. " There
is no making good goods of bad materials."
A very great fault is the hastily breaking and
gathering the curd, and Jetting it ; each of which
requires minute attention Tmdifull ti?ne. Of curd, fee
pa. 422.
Driving cows far, or darfying milk far, retards
the coming of the curd ; fo much fo that inflread of
an hour or two, it will require three, four, or five
hours ; and even then the curd is in fo imperfeft a
flate as to occafion the cheefe heaving, puffing up or*
fplitting : and it will not anfwer to add more rennet
for quickening the coming of curd that is too flow.
The proper warmth of milk when receiving rennet
is only milk v/arm ; or perhaps rather about 85 or
90 degrees of Farenheit. If it is too cool, add fome
wanned milk, but let it not boil in warming. If it
becomes too cold after the rennet is put to it, add
hot luater when the curd is nearly come ; which will
give a due firmnefs to the curd. But it is of import-
ance that, before the rennet is put to the milk, there
be thrown into it at the rate of two handsful o'i fait
F f to
4SC NOTES AND
to the milk of ten or twelve cows ; which will tend
to make the rennet work quick, prevent fweet or
funky cheefe, make the cheefe all alike fair, and pre-
vent flip curd, by occafioning the curd to be firm and
fmk readily and equally. Mr. Marjhall adds, for
making the curd come all at the fame time, cover the
milk with a cloth whilfl the rennet is in it.
The great fault, continues Mr. T^j;a?nlcy, is in dif-
turbing the milk too foon, before the curd is perfe£i:.
It is firfl a weak foft curd called y?//> curd ; in which
ftate it is unfit for making good cheefe : when it
ftands fufficiently long after this ftate, it becomes a
firm perfect curd fit for cheefe. In w^hatever ftate it
is when it is firft broke or ftirred, in that ftate it will
continue ; and can never be made better by adding
rennet or other means.
Neglect not to put/alt to the milk when the ren-
net is about to be applied ; and inftead of an hour
kt the curd be undifturbed during one and an half
or two hours, or more if requifite for obtaining a
full, firm, and perfect curd ; — dindjink the curd with
a fifter rather than break it. For finking it, a long
\vooden.or lath knife is to cut the curd from top to
bottom, crofling it many times ; then with a Ceve
prefs it down: when having fettled it well down,
let it rest a quarter hour. The whey being laded
out, the curd lies folid ; then cut injiices, and work
it
INTIMATIONS. 45J
it into the vat with as httle breaking it as pofTible.
Breaking it fmall in the tub and into the vat reduces
the cheefe in quality and alio in quantity ; for the
fat Is thereby more apt to be fqueezed out.
There are he fays, perfons making good checfes,
who might make better and more, if they did not
fqiieeze cut fo much of the fat in breaking. The
whey that finl comes is the thinneft. If that thin
whey was firil fcparated before breaking ike curd^ it
vs'ould leave the cream in the checfe, with the lofs of
but very little fqueezed out in putting it in the vat :
but when broke fmall amongft the whey the rich
parts are fqueezed and v.afhed out among the thin
wh:?y. Where there are bits of flip curd floating on
the whey, they are taken off and carried away with
the whey, as they would damage the cheefe. The
befl chcefemakers let the curd fland t\vo hours in-
flead of one and an half; by which the curd be-
comes fo firm and perfeft that it needs no more than
to be cut and fliced, put in the vat clofe packed, and
then to the prcfs. A good v.'hcy is greenifli. It is
reckoned on, that the milk requifite for making one
pound of butter, will yield two pounds of cheefe.
RICH CHEESE.
New milk makes the fine checfes .for market,
without any addition of cream : but a rich cheefe
F f z for
45^ NOTES AND
for Jiigh days, has " a meal extraordinary of cream
*' added to the new milk. Care mufl: be obfervcd
" that the curd fliould not be funk in lefs than two
" hours : two and an half or three hours may be
" better."
SLIP-CURD CHEESE.
" To fix quarts of new milk warm from the cow,
the ilrokings befl, put two fpoonsful of rennet, to
ftand three quarters of an hour, or until the milk
forms a fufHcient Jlip-curd. With a fpoon lay it in
the vat, without breaking it, and place a trencher or
fiat board on it. Prefs it with a four pound weight ;
or if it inclines to be hard, a lighter weight, turning
it with a dry cloth once an hour ; and when fti5"
fhift it daily into frefli grafs or rufhes. It may be
cut in ten or fourteen days. Its bcft condition is to
have it run or diffolve into a creamy confulence."
Nothing but weak half fonned curd called flip-curd
will produce it. It is the cream cheefe of Philadel-
phia.
RENNET-BJG or MAW^SKIN.
" Rennet is the produce of the ftomach of a calf
that has fed on milk only ; and the calf killed be-
fore the digeltion is perfeftcd. Though this rennet
readily
INTIMATIONS.
45:
readily coagulates milk, yet if put to milk already
coagulated, it then diiTolves it.
*' Soon as the maw, taken from the calf, is cold,
fwill it a little in water : then rub it well with fine
powdered fait; next fill and cover it with fait.
Some cut the flomachs open and fpread them in fait,
in layers one over another, and Tet them lie in the
brine they produce ; fometimes turning them, four,
{i^i, or nine months : then they dry them ftretched
out on flicks. When dry, ufe them. They are bell
to be a year old when ufed. Keep them diflant from
fire, for avoiding rancidity.'* l-vjamky. A dry
cool place is bed. See pa. 42 \ . Never ufe any that
Is in the leafl: tainted.
RENNET-LIQUOR.
" Take two fkins to a gallon of pure fpving water :
the water having been boiled and made into a brine
that will ftrongly bear an egg. When the brine is
made blood warm, cut the /kins into pieces, and
flecp them in the brine twenty-four hours. It may
thqn be ufed ; about a tea-cup full to the milk often
cows : but obferve that a juft quantity be applied :
for if too 7nuch the chcefe becomes ftrong and liable to
heave; \i too little the cheefe will be mild, bat the
curd will be a long while before it can be properly
broke or funk, and may become damaged before it
is
454 KOTES AND
is firm enough to be committed fa the prefs. The liquor
is kept cool in jars or bottles. The Bath Letters fay,
in the brine boil fweet briar leaves, rofe leaves and
fiowers, clnnaiaon, mace, cloves aod other aromatics,
briildy till a fourth is reduced : pour it milk warm on
the mav.- iiiia and flice a lemon into it. Thea fiand-
iDg a day or two, it is ftrained and bottled ciofe.'*
I'-jsaniley. See pa. 422.
ITie headlands of arable fields, along the fides of
fences, accumulate foil from the fields oq every bout
of the plows. This accretion of foil confines water
on the fields fo 23 to chill them, and damage grow-
ing crops. For reducing this mifcbief and increafing
manure^ plow up a portion of the headland and then
fen cattle on it, till it becomes very rich with dung
and urine. Then having another portion recently
plowed, pen the catt^le on this in like manner j and
the fomser portion is again plowed for covering the
dung and mixing it with the earth ; which is then
either immediately carried away, and as a manure
laid on other ground, or heaped up high and covered
from the fun, to remain fo till wanted for manuring
grouGd. During the fummer, and till cold weather
fDrbids, Other portions of the headlands are to be
plov;cdand penned with cattle in the fame manner in
iiucceiliGn. This is preferable to cGn^'-penmng on lots
for
INTIMATIONS. 455
for tobacco, as is pra^lifed ; and it is making a cam'
post without carting the earth to a dunghil or yard.
GRASS,
The^ne qua non of live-stock ! the eflential of
DUNG ! the nurfery of corn, and of all farming
PRODUCTS :
HE AT ICE,
*' When we entered the Seminary at Syracufe,
fays Count Stolberg^ the heat was not extreme ; but
when in lefs than an hour we returned, it met us
hot as if it came out of an oven, we being then in the
open air, unprotefted by fliade. It continued thus
hot about three hours. We were advifed [oJJmt up
our windows, leaving only light to read by, and
fprinkle our rooms ivilh water. The air in the houfe
thus became fupportable. Farenheit's thermometer
afcended from 8 1 ^- to 1 01 i degrees. We durfl not
leave the houfe all the afternoon ; but cooled OMx{d-^^%
with ice ; and ftrengthened ourfelves with v/ine.
The pra<5tice of taking ice, in Italy and Sicily, is con-
fidered as an indifpenfible refrelliment ; and as a
powerful remedy in many difeafes. The phyficians
of thefe countries do not give many medicines ; but
frequently direft a fevere regimen : and prevent the
ill efTcds of various difeafes by fufFering the fick, for
feveral
4S^ NOTZS AND
feveral days, to take nothing but water cxJed ivitb
icef Iweet oranges, and ire J fruits. — Iced miikj fruits y
cbccolaic, and other iced viands, are found in mofl of
their towns. They Y^rzhr fnow, as it is more eafily
preferred than ice. iLh^fnow is ckfely packed toge-
ther, and covered with flraw.**
POJTERT.
The earthen ware made in America, is g!a%c'd uitb
lead : and the glazing compoiition is laid on very fav-
ingly, thin and flight : fo'that it is not only worn
away by vegetables and every thing acidulous, but
is apt to fcale o5' and be fwaliowed wirh meat,
greens, and drinks. It is pure I^ady and conle-
qu^ntly a ftrong poifon. The ccecJ: of lead on the
heakh of glaziers and houfe painters, is daily feen.
A ioumeyman or working painter may live, conti-
nually dying, fix or eight years as a large allowance.
The mafrer who fees that the work is dene, and
works but little. Jives longer. M^ are groaning and
pining, under colicks, gripes, cramps, rheuraaiifms,
aches and pains, who continue to Inuffup and inhale
the vapours of lead for fome time ; . or who gradu-
ally fwallow fmall portions of it with their milk,
greens, cider and drinks, di^ufed from the glazing
made of Uad, The people of New-England, drink
vaxicQ. cider, and vi{z much vinegar, in country fami-
lies;
INTIMATIONS. 457
lies ; and there have been inflances of whole families
afflicted as above.
Lead requiring but little fuel to melt it, is the
cheapell or eafieil material for producing common
glazing. It is therefore impofed on the inattentive
people of the country, who buy the ware without
knowing its bad qualities, or without caring for them:
and this lead is imported from foreign countries ;
whilfl our own country abounds in materials for pro-
ducing the mod perfect, durable, and wholefome
glazing. Thefe materials are ivood-afloes 2.wdi fund.
On converfing with a potter in Philadelphia, his ob-
jection to the ufe of thefe materials was their requir-
ing more labour and fuel ; but if I would prepare
them for glazing any pieces I might want, he would
lay them on, and find a place in his kiln, for giving
a good glazing. If legiflators were duly fenfible of
all this, their energy might find means for caufmg
the change from lead to /and, for glazing earthen
ware ; and of courfe, for protecting the health of the
people.
A young man of the name of Cook, a brickmaker,
in the time of the revolution war, informed me he
would erect an earthen ware manufactory, if he knew
how to glaze the ware. Having a fmall air furnace,
for my amufement, he made fmall clay cakes, and
the glazing materials were prepared and laid on the
dry
45^ NOTES AND
dry cakes : and being fluxed in the furnace, the
glazing was very fatisfaftory to him. He then got
^ome fine potters clay out of my bank, and made a
number of little cakes of it, mixt with various pro-
portions oi ground /and. Thefe were burnt in the
furnace j and one efpecially was a fpeciraen of a very
excellent stoneware : which is vaftly preferable, in
its qualities, to earthen ware ; and is greatly wanted
in America. The heavy freight paid on fo bulky
and cbeap an article of imported merchandize, ren-
ders stoneware fcarce : and gives an inviting open-
ing to induflrious manufacturers of flonevv'are, in
America.
SEASONING WOOD.
Wood fcafoned by the air is left in the fame ftatc
as if feafoned by water ; which is with the lofs of
its fap or juices, being waflied or evaporated away.
It is fooner effected by water than by air. The
wood, then, only confifts of its fibrous and folid
parts ; which are confiderably concentrated by be-
ing dried : yet the mafs is not without numerous
interftices, from whence the fap had been expelled
by the air or the water. In dry weather thefe con-
tain little elfe than dry air : but in moid weather
they become charged with humidity from the at-
raofphere to fuch a degree at times as to fwell and
even burfl boards fo feafoned.
Shrinking
w
INTIMf^TIONS. 459
Shrinking and fwelling of boards happen accord-
ing as moiilurc is abfent or prelent. If feafoned
wood can be defended from the impreflions of wa-
ter, it never will fwell. I effected this when paint-
ing a landfcape on feafoned poplar, which warped
or became flraight according as were the changes
in the ftate of the atmofphere. I covered the back
the fides and the ends well, with painters drying
oil, at a time when the board was flraight, and it
never afterwards warped.*
Wood feafoned by Jire with quicknefs ivbilst full
offap, does not imbibe water, as air and water fea-
foned wood ; becaufe, as it feems, the fap is infpif-
fated by xhzfudden heat fo as to fill or moflly fill up
the interfaces ; and being fo fixed and hardened, it
excludes water. The fap thus eured, is prevented
from fermenting and rotting tiie infide of the wood,
and from flying off in vapour.
A pair of cart wheels, foon as made were tarred
over thick and fet up reding on the fide of a houfe
a year or two. When put to ufe the fellows broke
and fhewed a found csternal furface, and the reft a
dark,
* " Equal parts of rofm, turpentine, and bees wax were
mtlted together, 'well fkimmed, and with a brufli laid boiling
hot on a board 6 feet long, 1 8 inches wide ; which v.as kept
in water 19 months, without having imbibed any water, or
having its coat or cement damaged.'* z. Rep.
460 NOTES AND
dark, rotten, coarfe powder. Here the unfeafoned
wood being coated over fo as to obftruft the fap
from evaporating, the {2.^ fermented^ it is prefumed,
and rotted the inlide of the folid parts of the tim-
ber : the Ihell or outfide of the timber having been
feafoned, or lofl: its fap, before the tar was applied.
In foreflis, I have ftept on the bodies of proflrate
trees, which appeared found to the eye : but have
broke through the feafoned cruft to a mafs of rot-
ten powder.
%
Sleeping in a room of a one flory brick houfe
then lately built by a Doctor Wharfield, of Elk-
ridge, Maryland ; in the morning I admired the
wainfcoting and ceiling of the room, which were
made of poplar boards ; in which che joints could
not be eafily difcovered. The work was not paint-
ed. — I fuppofed the boards had been many years
feafoning in a tobacco houfe. The doftor pointed
to two lengthy pits, on the fide of a hill ; and faid
the trees were felled and cut off into logs, which
were immediately hauled to the pits, over one of
which a log at a time was fawed into boards or
planks, and immediately, whilft full of fap, a fire
was made and kept burning under the ftock till the
boards were cured ; and that fome of the wainfcot
was put up within two weeks of its having been in
the growing tree. The pits were alternately em-
ployed in fawing the logs, and firing the flocks.
Recommending
INTIMATIONS. 461
Recommending to a {hip carpenter, the trimming
timber roughly in the woods, and there feafoning
the pieces by fire, he objefted it would render the
timber hard to cut and dub. Perhaps coo fome
might think it would render the limber too durable.
It may be proper to contrail for its being fo feafon-
ed : efpecially for national Ihips.
MelaJJcs* and Mufcovado Sugar Cleanfed.
Weight, 24 melafles ; ^4 water ; 6 charcoal
thoroughly charred. Bruife the charcoal grofsly.
Mix the three articles in a caldron ; letting the mix-
ture boil, gently on a clear v/oodfire, half an hour.
Then pour it through a draining bag j and place it
again on the fire, for evaporating the fuperfluous
water, till the melaiTes is brought to its original
confidence. The lofs is fcarcely any. 2. Rep.
^SALTING AXD CURING MEAT, in ENG-
LAND.
According to 14 An. pa. 267. meat for family
ufe, in England receives i!b of fait and los. nitre
to every i4tb of meat. The fait and nitre to be
hc2itjine. Rub them well into the meat. Lay the
pieces
* A fyrup of the conSftence and fweetnefs of homy ; anci
produced by the labor of ajfes in grinding fugar ca^nes : thence
melaifes from mel and afnut, or afles.
4^2 KOTES AND
pieces on each other, during a month, and turn
them once a week. Then drain, and lliake bran
[perhaps better if impalpable clay or ochre] over
them, for abforbing the moillure. Hang the pieces
in a kitchen. If the quantity is large, then in a
room having a ftove and flue round it. It is a month
in drying — then keep it in an airy, dry room. — For
voyages and hot countries, foon as dried pack it in
faw-dust, ftove dried.* Moisture is more to be ap-
prehended than heat. In common the longer meat
is kept in brine the falter it is ; but in this method
it never varies. — Salting for Jhip u/e the fait is ilb.
to 81b. of meat ; befides 4 i"ch thick of fait in
packing. See p. 406. and of Pork cured in ochre
page 437-
MAIZE.
Farmer Shephard, of New Jerfey, informed tTie
Burlington Society of Agriculture, that in autumn ^
1786 he collected, for feed to his next year's crop,
a quantity of corn produced on stalks luhicb produc-
ed two ears. The crop from that feed, was increaf-
ed much beyond what he had been accuflomed to,
even to 10 bulhels an acre: and by following the
fame rule in faving feed, his crops increafed 10 60
bufliels
* Perhaps ftill better packed in an arcrlngent and very diy
pure clay or fullei's earth.
INTIMATIONS.
463
buCbels an acrej with three or four ears upon a
flalk.
The hufbandmen of America would do well to
try the method of cultivating maize as praftifed in
Italy, France and Spain : where it is fown very
thick in broadcalt, for producing fodder^ and for
stall feeding or fci ling ; and when for a crop cf corn
is planted in fquares of two feet : and even then
blades are dally pulled and given to the cattle;
which Mr. Young fays accounts for the ver}' hieh
order of all the cattle in the fouth of France, in
Spain, and in Italy, in lituations clear of meadows.
Planted at two htt there are 10400 hills an acre,
or 20800 plants when two remain in a hill. la
Maryland are about 1500 hills having two to three
plants each. In the countn,- cf New York, in
Auguft I admired a field of maize, feemingly grow-
ing 2 4- feet apart, perhaps 3 feet, with two cr
three plants in a hill. It was the only field I faw
of that appearance ; fo near growing, fo ftout ra-
ther than tall, green and vigorous, cafling a confi-
derable Ihadc on a clean mellow ground. The cars
and taiTels were but jufl peeping out. By informa-
tion their ground commonly yields more maize by
the acre than the ground in Maryland. The former
always manure for maize, the latter do not. It flill
is furprifing to me that maize growing fo clofe,
fliould
464 NOTES AND
fhould yield fo greatl}'', but it is well to make fair
experiment.
WJSH, FOR BOARDS or STONE WORK,
In Nova Scotia they "wafli rough boards, the
rougher the better, with a mixture of ftone lime
flacked with boiling water, whiting, alum, common
fait. The alum is an excellent article for binding ;
fait alfo would be unexceptionable, but that it at-
trafts moifture and gives, as it is called. The above
promifcs to be a good whiie-iua/h,
A Black-'U'q/h, which 1 have experienced efFe£lu-
ally resists ivater, is made of tar three or four parts,
and fifli oil one part,. intimately mixed in a pot over
a flow fire ; which is laid on hot with a brufh.
Such brufhes, bound with iron rings, are to be got
at {hops for fliipping. For giving it body, add im-
palpable clay or ochre.
A grey-wafi may be produced, by adding more
or lefs of the black-wafli with the white-walh : but
I w^ould omit the fait, as doubtful ; and rhe alum,
as unneccflary, where fo binding a varnilh as the
black-waOi is admitted.
I have feen a fimple, cheap varniili Oi turpentine,
ufed in fhips : but know not hov/ it is made. Per-
hapSy
INTIMATIONS. 46^
haps, as that of tar with jijh oil* This vamifh
mixt with the white-wafli, it feeras would produce
a wafli excellent in quality, and of a cream colour.
— This may be laid on plaftered walls, floors, and
platform-roofs, for excluding moifture.
There is great neatnefs in well plaflered and
white-waihed rooms ; eafily renewed ia country
places ; but town fafhions generally prevail over
this rural method of fiuifhing and renewing rooms
in country habitations. Where objecf^ions are made
to the glare of white, this glare may be blunted by
adding to the wafli a very little of forae o^her co-
lour. In painting on lime-plaller, perhaps fpirit of
turpentine or linfeed tea are better than oil. —
PAUPERS,
As a forerunner to promoting employment, be bold
in amending the exifling regulations refpe£ting the
poor. Principally provide checks on the magistrates
and o-verfeers ; who through levity, wealvnefs, or
other caufe, fuffer their country to be fliamefully
abufed, in at lead fome of the United States ; and
involve in their las government a marked encou-
ragement of fome of the greatefl evils that can en-
feeble nations or affe£l mankind — Idlenefs and de^
G g bauchery^
* It is faid to be produced from a mixture of turpentine
and rofin.
466 NOTES AND
hauchery^ with their companion ivretchednefs : for,
John will be iit cq/e — will be idle — will be a Jhfy
becaufe John can u-bine himfelf into the fociety of
public paupers, and there be provided for, as a
drone, at the expenfe of the induflrious and fober
citizens. The laws provide for the poor, — not for
the whining impoftor : and it is defirable that they
be provided for ; but they fliould alfo be kept to
forae employment. Paupers capable of but whittling
a ftick, may be induced to pafs their time in pro-
ducing toys for other people, as the Germans in
Europe are ufcd to fupply our babies, little and big.
A fleadinefs in work, of any fort, according to
the abilities of the refpeflive paupers, would leffen
the public burthen ; both by the income gained
from it, — and from impoflors ilirinking from a com-
pullive work under conjinementy when they can, uu-
confincd, find work at large.
The bcfl: fupport the poor can receive is from
their own endeavours. Every allowance made them
■which ren<fers their working in any way unnecelTary
is a premium to idlenefs. Employment, not alms,
fliould be found for them., who can at all work 5
and it is well obferved that one fliilling earned by
the pauper, renders him more materiai fervice than
ten given him.
Want
INTIMATIONS* 46J?
Want of a right criterion for admitting appli-
cants, to be provided for at the public expenfe, is
the principal caufe of a great number of them being
in reafon, in humanity, policy and in juflice, impro-
perly received. That a man is poor is not alone fuf-
licient caufe for the fervants of the public providing
for him at the coft of the induflrious and fober part
of the community : befides his being in a ftate of
indigence, he mu\\. be incapable of working fome-
how^ fufficiently to fupport himfelf in nccejfaries ;
and alfo he mufl be without any connexion capable
and compellable by law to provide for him. Indulg-
ing a whining drone, capable of procuring common
neceflaries by labour, or in any way of employment,
is encouraging the vices above enumerated ; and in
eiFecl: multiplies paupers ^ vices and wretchednefs*
SOLID FEET REDUCED 10 BUSHELS.
The foot contains 1728 inches. The bufhel in
ttfe 2183 inches. For the farmer's eflimates and
grofs purpofes, it will be near enough though not
quite exafl, to reckon for flruck meafure, the feet
X.8
How many bufliels of wheat will a room of
1000 folid feet hold ?
_!
800.0 800 bufliels :
G g 2 which
468 NOTES AKD
■which is but about one per cent fliort. But to multi-
ply by .791, is very exact.
.791
1000
791 bufliels exactly.
A cart body containing 40 feet
.791 .8
40 — 32*0 bufheis,
ftruck meafure.
31.64c or 31^^
M AD D E R.
Madder and water-rotted green hemp would be
agreeable, as well as profitable crops, for retired cits
to amufe themfelves with cultivating them on their
fmall retreats, if they fhould wiih for more than grafs
to employ their attentions. Mr. Arbuthnot in
England, cultivates the amazing quantity of 80 acres
in madder, on his farm of lefs than 300 acres. I was
much pleafed with the growth and produce of a bed
of Mr. Arbuthnot's choicefl: kind of madder in my
garden at Wye ; and wiihed to fpread the culture of
it araongfl: country families, who appeared the moil
concerned in httle domeftic manufacturing. But
alas 1 only one family defired to have of it ; and
planted forae roots, in their garden : and at this time,
1801, it is preferved in a garden m Talbot, Mary-
land.
ASSES.
INTIMATIONS. 469
J S S E S,
" There are two forts in Arabia : the fmaller or
lazy afs, as little cfteemed there as in Europe ; and a
large and high fpirited breed, which are greatly va-
lued, and fold at a full price. I thought them fitter
than horfes are." 2 Neibuhr's Trav. in Arab. 304.
This finer breed is alfo fpoken of by Sonnini, eft. 35.
Where it is faid that the greater part of Egyptian
affes have a bright gray coat ; and fome have black
and others reddifli ftripes. " Eminent he fays, in her
breeds both oi horfes 2>.ndi ajfes, it was natural for
Egypt to boafl fine mules. There were fome of thefe
mules at Cairo, far fuperior, in price, to the finefl
horfes. They were preferred for the priests and
officers of the revenue. Their pace was an amble
with very long fteps, to which they were brought
by faflening each fore foot to the hinder, for forae
time. The handfomell aifes at Cairo come from up-
per Egypt and Nubia : the higher up the Nile, as in
Said, the beauty is the greater.**
The common breed in Egypt and Syria, fays ift
Frank. Hiil. Egypt, is much larger than what are
ever feen in Britain ; and another yet larger breed
is preferved for the faddle. Almoft all the common
people in Egypt, and all chriilians and flrangcrs
whatever, ride on afies. — The bell: fort bear a high
price. — They are tali, handfomely formed, go fwift-
Iv,
470 NOTES AND
1y, in an eafy ambling pace or gallop, and are re-
markably fure footed.
G A 7 E S.
The bed farm gates on my farms, were thus con-
ftrufted. The pods were fawed fquare off at the
tops ; and were but 4 feet 6 or 8 inches high from
the ground. The top of each poft inclined 4 inches
inward toward each other. Their diftance on the
ground was 9 feet, of courfe the diflance at top was
but 8 feet 4 inches : and this inchnation feemed to
influence oxen and horfes, in carts, to take more to
the middle of the paflage. Gluts of wood, large
and flout, were trunnelled to the pofts and let into
the ground ; which ferved as fenders and braces.
Thefe fenders alfo tended to dire^i: beads to the mid-
dle of the way.
Gate pods ought never to be higher, if fo high as
the cart wheels ; that plain frames holding hay or
draw may pafs over the pods.
When pods are thus inclining to each other at the
tops, the gates will be narrower, by 8 inches, at top
than the bottom ; and of courfe lighter than if of
the fquare of 9 feet, as at the bottom ; and as they
are opened they rife gradually from nothing to 4
inches ; and then being let go, gently fall to their
{latioQ at the pod.
My
INTIMATIONS. 47I
My gates had been widened from i o to ii feet,
by an honed Hibernian much ray friend, that the
carts might be fure to pafs through without flriking
the pofls: but alas! the drivers became more carelefs,
and the cattle were left to their own bias. Thefe
pofls 1 1 feet apart were more cut than thofe of lo
feet as the lo feet were more than the 9 feet.
Thefe lafl were indeed fcarceiy touched — the fenders,
&c. preventing it. See the Plate.
PLOWS.
A habitual fondnefs for zc^bf els has greatly lumber-
ed and depreciated the plows of England. Ingeni-
oufly built Norfolk wheel plows have been imported
into America; but were very foon laid aCidc. In
oppofition to this huge complex machine, the Englilh
Rotheran patent plow is every thing : a fmiple, chip,
fwing-plow with a clean but full bow mould board.
The fliare and mould board are fuperior for cutting
and turning old lay or grafsland : but in horfehoing
it is inferior to the common bar plows of Maryland
and Pennfylvania, as it requires more ufe of the plow-
man's hands. The common fault in the American
plows is moftly in the mould board. Almofl any
mould board, would be preferable to the bo/Io'w fine
fhapcd board which the fancy of fome delight in ; as
injudicious watermen prefer the fliarp entrance and
hollow forepart of the bottoms of failing \cMs.
The plow and the boat have to force their way
through
472 NOTES AND
through refiding mediums. P'or gaining this, (harp-
nefs of entrance is all in all with heedlefs fancy.
But \vhat avails this firft clear entrance, if oppo-
fition in a more abrupt and direct manner, a little
further aft is the confequence ? View the holloiv
mould board of a fharp fair looking plow, after it has
been worked a while, or whilfl working, what a glut
of fri(51ion or oppofition it has experienced, juft in
the hollow, and how it labours through accum.ulated
maffes of earth unthrown off forward. On the
other hand fee the mould board having a fair eafy
entrance and full bow in a gradual fwell as it rifes,
how it turns off the earth and rids itfelf or avoids ac-
cumulated refinance, juft as a v/ell formed boat does
the water ; and this wich the leafl poffible friction or
wearing^ of the mould board ! Iliuflration : defign-
ing to fpend a winter in Philadelphia, it was propof-
ed that Mr. Siiigletcn, of Talbot, fliould procure to be
madj a double plow to carry two furrows at a time,
and that I fliould have one made at Philadelphia,
where, in Arch Itreet, was an ingenious plowmaker.
On comparing Mr. Singleton's with mine, the weight
of mine ready for v/crk was 9610, wood and all : his
43 to 45^^. His had the admired fine light hollow
mould board ; mine the comparatively heavy looking
full bowed mould board. My plowmen, were horfe-
hoing maize, when I ordered the two beft to try the
double plows with two horfes to each. Seeing them
at work for fome time, they were ordered to change
plows
INTIMATIONS. 473
plows. After working thefe awhile, they v.ere aiked
ieparateiy, their work being lixty yards apart, which
they liked beft. It was curious how they for fomc
time looked at one and then at the other plow, be-
fore they anfwered. Their conclullon, refpeclively,
was that the large plow was beft : but that it was
heavy in fwinging round. It did not appear to them
or to me that the horfes exerted more power, or
were more worried, in carrying the large than the
fmall plow. The plowmen were obliged conftantly
to prefs on the (lilts of the fmall plow, but not of the
large one : and whilft we were talking the horfes
went oS with the large plow, which followed them
fteadily and without deviation as if the plowman had
hold of the ftilts and leading line, for 70 or 80 yards.
Both were bar fwing-plows, for we fee no ufe in
wheels to plows : but the Philadelphia plow had a
longer tread. The Talbot plow was fliorter than
common which with the boUounefs of the mould
board deprived it of fteadinefs and a due balance.
Neither Mr. Singleton or myfelf gave any dire£lion
in making the mould boards. — Having worked mine
one feafon, with approbation and forae admiration^
a new overfcer would improve my large plow, by
cutting away ihej'zuc/l of the mould board and leave
it hollow, that it might pafs eaUer through the
ground. It was done ; and the plow performed
ver)- indifferently : it was worked thus a few days
and laid afide.
A
474 V NOTES AND
A promiCng mould board, formed on mathematical
principles, is lately invented by Mr. Jefferfon ; of
which an account is given in the fourth volume of
American Philofophical Tranfaftions.
TURNIPS.
Mr. Amos fays, " on poor foils lo inches are
" the befl dillance : on rich foils 1 2 inches, and
*' one inch the befl depth. When they fland at a
" greater diflance, they grow too large for keeping
" long. The fmaller the turnips the longer they
* *' refill the feverity of winter." Too early fown or
planted turnips or cabbages do not fland the winter
well : they are over ripe, fpongy, and fufceptible
of frofl ; having lefs of the 'vis infa of their nature:
their vigor is fpent, which would withfland frofl.
But the more hardy Swedifh turnip, called ruta-
baga, is fown in April or May for giving the full
grown bulb in autumn.
CARROTS.
In Mr. Young's Agriculture of Suffolk, it is faid
the moft approved method is to leave a barley flub-
ble, which has followed roots, through the winter ;
and about 25 March to plow by a double fur roiv as
deep as may be ; and to harrow in about 51b. of feed
an acre. About Whitfuntide hoe the firfl time ;
and thrice in all, at 4 dollars an acre. The pro-
duce on good land, 400 to 500 bulhels : fometimes
800
i
I
INTIMATIONS. 475
800. On poor foils as low as 2co buflicls. The
carrots are commonly left in the ground during win-
ter ; and taken up as wanted : but in fome winters
they are frofted and rot. The feed is 80 bulliels a
week to 6 horfes, with chaff, but no corn ; and
when fo fed very Httle hay is eaten.* Yet it is beft
to take the carrots up in autumn and pack them in
a barn. There they acquire the ivlthercd state ; in
which they yield most nourifijment ; and late feeding
is better than early in the feafon when they abound
in water. — Carrots put horfes in better conditioa
than corn iviih hay ; and they leave oats for carrots.
Feed with them from Chriftmas till a full bite of
grafs in May. One bufhel with chaff", is enough
for a horfc a day, without corn, and faves half the
hay. The preparation they give for a fubfequent
crop, fully pays for them.
Mr. Amos propofes drilling carrot feeds. Two
pounds of feed, deeped in rain water 24 hours,
then laid on a floor till they f])rout, with three
pecks of dry faw dull, and three pecks of fine dry
mould, all well mixed together, are drilled, one
inch deep and 14 inches between the rows. Thus
fteeped and fproiitcd when fown, the plants begin
to appear In 8 or 10 days. After drilling, harrow
once, with light harrows ; and then roll, if the
ground
* Seven pecks of roots a day foeiii more than enough. It
* is prefently afterwards CiiJ, one bufacl with cliafF i? enough.
47^ K0T£3 AND
ground is not molll. As foon as the carrots are
about 2 or 3 inches above ground, fays Mr. Amos,
they fliould be harr(m;ed, the horfes walking in the
furrov.'s, for avoiding to tread the land and plants.
In two or three weeks after harrowing the feccnd
boing is given to clear away weeds, and the plants
are thinned. In 3 weeks again horfehoe the inter-
vals, and handhoe the rows, as well as finifh the
thinning. Every other row may be taken up : the
reft covered with a double mould board plow, and
long dung, for {landing the winter.
MODES OF SOWING WHEAT.
1 . Broadcast : the moft fimple and moft common.
2. Drilling, i?i co?itinued rows ; like garden peas.
3. Drilli?ig clusters ; in rows.
4. Dibbling : dropping feed in holes.
Broadcast can fcarcely be hoed at all : nor is it
done in crops. Harrowing might anfwer.
Drilled, like garden peas, it is horfehoed between
the rows ; and yields more than broadcaft. Drill-
ed in clusters, it is horfehoed, and may alfo be hand-
hoed. It thus yields Hill more than the drilled in a
continued line. ^m
Dibbled, with a number of feeds in each hole, is ^JP
probably the moH productive: dropping not lefs
than •
INTIMATIONS. 477
than eight or ten grains of wheat to each clufler.
Dibbling is tedious and expenlive, where labour is
fcarce, though it is moftly the work of women and
children : but the effeft is very great, where fome
number of grains of wheat is dropt in each hole.
Mr. A?nos made a number of comparative experi-
ments, as well of feeds fowed broadcast as drilled:
the refult whereof fliews, that drilled and horfehoed
grain is fuperior to broadcast harrowed and hand-
hoed, by 13 per cent; befides cheapnefs in the
work, and the ground left in better condition.
Drilled turnips, horfehoed) fuperior to handhoed
17 per cent; and the work cheaper, with the
ground left in better condition. Drilled potatoes,
horfehoed, fuperior to handhoed 1 6 per cent ; the
work cheaper and the ground left better.
In the above experiments, broadcaft wheat was
handhoed, which it fcarcely ever is in entire fields
of it. If, in the experiment, it had not been hand-
hoed, the fuperiority of the drilled wheat might
have been greater.
^^mat
^Hbeti
From experiments made by me at Wye, I efli-
mate wheat growing in clusters to be 15 per cent
etter than drilled wheat in continued rows, both
ping hoed, &c. alike ; which would be -^ or 33
cent better than broadcafl wheat not hoed:
and
47S KOTES AND
and the grov/ing crops of clustered wheat, are the
mod: beautiful, the work cafy, and the produ^ls the
moil abundant and perfect !
*
ROTATIONS,
iMr. Amos' s are :
I.
11.
III.
Oats
Turnip:, rot.
Potatoes 12 L dung
Cole feed, li»iei
dung 10 1.
Barley
with i44bu{h.
Barlev
Clover
Barley
Clover
Wheat
Beans
"Wheat
Wheat
The lime ought to enrich greatly : for colcfeed is
faid to be very impoverilhing, and beans are the
only mild crop in No. I. — So the dung mull be
rich, and the ground previoufly in good heart, in
No. II. as 10 loads are rather a fmall allowance to
an acre. The like of No. Ill : but then No. II and
III have two mild crops, rather ameliorating, to
two exhaufters.
DRINKING WATER.
In low flat countries, even in fome diilricts o^^^fc
higher country, the water of fprings and wells i^H
bad tailed and bad in quality. Water in fprings^^B
which does not run rapidly, but is fluggiih to being
nearly
INTIMATIONS. 479
nearly ftagnant, abounds in putrid remains of vege-
tables and infefts. What are deemed fprings of
good, clear, fweet water, in thefe countries, are
ftill but comparatively fo. They want the brilliancy
and the fpirit of rock water, fuch as the highlands
afford.
If filtering the water ufed for drink was praftifed,
it would render what is fo inferior at leaft bright
and palatable ; and probably perfeftly wholefome ;
efpecially if charcoal fliould be applied to it as be-
low. Of this and filtering, it may be obferved
that,
Parlfying water may be performed in either of
the following modes. According to Dpftor Lind,
a fmall cafk open at both ends, is placed within a
larger calk wanting a head. Clean fand and gravel
is put into both, fo that the level of the fand with-
in the inner calk (room being left to pour in water)
be higher than the bed of fand in the intermediate
fpace betwixt the two calks. A cock is fixed in
the outer calk, above the fand, at a level fomewhat
lov^er than the furface of the materials in the inner
calk. The water poured in at top of the inner
, calk, finks through the mafs of fand ; and pafiing
alfo through that in the outer cafk, afcends and is
difcharged at the cock, when wanted. As the fur-
face of the fand in the inner caHc becomes loaded
with
480 NOTES AND
with impurities, remove it, and add freili clean
fand.
According to Mr. Lowitz, three half ounces af
charcoal powder, and twenty-four drops of oil of
vitriol fuffice to purify three and an half pints of
corrupted water, without giving it acidity. If the
Titriol is omitted, it requires thrice the quantity of
charcoal or nine half ounces. The vitriol is firfl
mixed with the water : then the coal. Spring wa-
ter having an unpleafant hepatic flavour, is improv-
ed by filtering it through a bag half full of charcoal
■pffivdcr. Dry this charcoal, and powder it over
again ; it then will anfwer a fccond time : and if
made red hot in a chfe vefTcI, the coal will immedi-
ately recover its power of purifying, after having
before loil it by ufe. Mr. Hufeland fays, reduce
burnt charcoal to a fine powder : mix a fpoonful of
it in a pint of flagnant, bad, or putrid water : flir
it well and let it ftand a few minutes : then run it
ilowly through filtering paper. The fame powder
will anfwer again. To travellers it is recommended
that they dry the powder and keep it corked clofe
up in a vial \ and for families in bottles.
The third method of procuring pure and cool wa-
ter is this : Make a cafe for containing a number of
tubes placed vertically along fide of each other,
"with proper communications from one to another.
The
X
INTIMATIONS. 481
The cafe will be compact, and may fland on a chim-
ney-hearth or in a paiTage. The water is filtered
through clean fand contained in the tubes. Eight
tubes, one foot high, would filter through fevea
feet of fand in extent. The tubes may be four
inches fquare. In the middle of the eight tubes,
in the box, is a fpace for ice. This box would not
exceed 18 inches fquare area, and 14 inches deep:
and a box lefs than two feet area, would alfo allow
room for bottles of liquor to be kept cool with the
water and ice. The tubes may be of wood, or
(fweeter) tin ; and if 1 8 inches deep, would con-
tain a third more of fand and water : that is, above
nine feet in extent. The firft tube receives a head
of water above the range of the other tubes, which
is to be occafionally renewed with water.
Rain water is faved in cifterns under ground in
many places of Europe, efpecially in Holland, Spain,
Italy and Sicily ; and according to travellers, there
is no fweeter or purer water. It is efteemed accord-
ing to its age, which gives it its remarkable purity.
I think it is Mr. Stolberg who fays rain water three
years old was recommended to him, and he found
it very excellent. In Malta every inhaibitant is ob-
liged to have a ciftern for water in his houfe ; and
there are icatcrhouscs cut in the rocks, vihich con-
tain water fufficient for three years ; and it is kept
very good, and ufed at all times. Month. Mag.
H h or
482 NOTES AND
or Britllli Rcgifler, April, 1799. See before page
417, of Houfe Cifterns. Water faved in ciilems
fliould be fo deep under ground as to be below the
warmth that will produce fermentation ; therefore
prefer the double cube, and prevent accefs of the
external air to the water.
FIRST IMPRESSIONS.
Science is but little regarded by hufbandmen. Yet
an education which tends to promote the focial vir-
tues and manners^ is invaluable in all flations of life.
But tbe inrtues ivith happy 7nanncrs, can only be
aiTured to the riling generation through the very
earliefl: attentions to children by the pious good 77/0-
thcr and nurfe ; beginning with the firfl: lifp : for
children rcafon and underhand, though not flrong-
ly, yet long before they can articulate.
Neverthelefs, how neglecled and how little under-
flood is education, as well in the town as the country.
Parents aft as if all that is necelTaiy is to fend chil-
dren to fchool : but how mifplaced is book learning
without firft irapreffing them at home with good in-
tentions, good principles ; and leading them to a de-
fire of improving as well their manners as their
minds*
Attentions
* Certain Indians were afked why they took their boys io
foonfrom fchool amongft the white people ? They anfwerrd, —
" Becaufe Indians vho get fchool karningf prove to be the
INTIMATIONS. 483
Attentions are mifapplied in the education of chil-
dren which early burthen their memories with religi-
gious productions of inventive men. Religion, mo-
rals and manners are contained in the Gofpel of
Jefus Chrift ; which confifts of a few plain principles
that are invaluable ! but thefe are nearly loft in a
cloud of forced and unnatural expofition and fantafy.
To imprefs the minds of children with the general
belief of their fubordination to a Supreme Being who
hperfed goodnefs, without attempting thus early to
explain more of the Deity, is it not for children,
enough of religious concerns ?
" Araongftthe ancient Romans, />.7rt/z/x anxioufly
" attended to the education of their children; begin-
"ningit/row their birth. They committed them
" to the care of fome well known prudent matron of
" character (or the mother performed it) whofe bu-
" finefs it was to form ihtir Jirst habits of afting and
'"' fpeaking ; to "jsa'ch their growing palHons, and d'/-
*•• reel them to the proper objeifts ; to fuperintend
" their fports, and fuffer nothing indecent or impro-
H h 2 " per
rrcatcfl rog-ues in our nation." The boys had never been
prepared or impreffed with g»od principlis in their tender in-
tlincy. So of certain clafles of \vhite people. — They obtain
fchool education, and turn out brimful of the dogmas of men,
without having been ever led to attend to and admire the mo-
rality of the Gofi>el, or any thing like xor-l -ind virtuous
coT>d\i3, or amiable manr.sr5.
4^4 NOTES AND
" per to come from them : that the mind preferved
" in its inncceiice, cor depraved by a tafte of delufive
" pleafure, might he free to purfue things laudable,
" and apply its whole ftrength to the profefhon in
" which it is difpofed to excel. No time of im-
" provement was lofl ; arid literary inst ruction kept
" pace '■jL'ith the moral. They were accuftomed to
" hear at home the purest language and fentiment,
" from their nurfcs, their fathers, and their mothers,
" accompanied with attentions, gentle manners and
" addrefs towards all their fellow creatures."
It was the principal ftudy of the Egyptians in the
education of their childi-en to implant in them the
virtues of industry, economy, gratitude, and truth :
upon thefe they confidered the general happinefs of
their country to depend : to this fource was traced
all that was excellent in their la\vs, their go-vernment
or their morals, and that tended to propagate and
improve ihefciefices. Frank. Eg. 354.
RJW LIME-STOJSE AND GTPSUM
MANURES,
Mr. Chancellor Livingston of New- York, has
made a number of valuable experiments, which are
publiflied by the agricultural fociety there, and from
which the following are felefted. In Auguft 1790,
on a rood of ilia clay ground lying very fiat, he fpread
one
INTIMATIONS. 485
one bufliel of pulverifed limestone. In the next fum-
mer, the efFecfls of it were difcernibie to an inch, both
in the verdure and luxuriancy of the grafs. The
difference between it and the parts adjoining were
in its favour, as he judged on counting the cocks, as
feven to four : from whence he infers that, on clay
ground, eight bufhels of pulverifed h'meftone are at
leafl: equal to Hx of gypfura. This is very import-
ant tellimony. Many phices are fcarce of fuel for
burning limeflone : and if ever fo plenty, hufband-
men can find means for pulverifmg eight bufliels of
the ftone, at a cheaper and more advantageous rate
than they can break up and reduce 100 bufliels of
flonc, cut the wood, cart in the (tone and wood,
charge the kiln, and attend feveral days and nights
to feed it; befides the difference of carrying it out
and flrewing it on the fields.* At the fame time
the Chancellor tried the effe*5ts of pulverifed limestone
at the rate often bufliels to the acre on ^fandy loam ;
and this acquired the fame verdue as the part that had
been dreffed with gypfum. — On the 20 May 1791,
the Chancellor viewed a piece ofy/j.v, fown very in-
judicioufly by a poor tenant, on a dry fandy declivity.
It looked extremely fickly, and the tenant thought
of plowing it up : but the Chancellor prefcribed for
it, three bufliels of gypfum to be applied the next
m.orning whilfl: the dew fliould be yet on the ground.
It
* 1 And. Hufb, 276, fpeaks of a mill for beating Um,Ji'.r.c
into a powder for manure ; according to M. Duhamel.
486 NOTES AND
It was accordingly applied, and the benevolent
Chancellor expreffes his fatisfaction in having fecn
the tenant gather more Jiax from this half acre, in
an uncommon dry fiimmer, than any acre in the
neighbourhood afforded. In many cafes of experi-
ence, the principle I hold of gypfum fliewing its ex-
traordinary power in promoting vegetation moftly in
dry feafons, is corroborated : for it is principally in
dry feafons and iituations that gypfum ftiews its im-
portance in pufliing vegetation forward ; undoubtedly
by its fuperior virtue in inviting or attracting partis
cles of moifture, to itfelf and plants near it.
Mr. Chancellor Livingfton from his eighteen ex-
periments on gypfum, raw limeftone ; and oyfter-
fbells, pulverifed ; draws the following inferences :
1. ThTit. gypfiwi in fmall quantities has no vifible
effect, on nvhcat or rye.
1. That it is uniformly beneficial to Indian corn ;
linlefs it be in very rich or very wet foils.*
3. That it is beneficial to fax on dry poor fandy
land.
4. That
* Rich or 'u.-et foils, vrznX. not the aid of gypfum ; the pro-
perty -n-hereof is to attract motfiure, vrhere foil is poor or dry.
3ee p. 348, 349.
INTIMATIONS. 487
4. That it is peculiarly adapted to the growth of
clover in all dry foils, or even in wet foils in a dry
feafon.
5. That limestone pulverifed, has llmilar etTcfls with
gypfum : but whether it is better adapted to wet foils,
he could not as yet determine.
6. Another fa£l, he fays, feems to be very well
eftabliflied, though he could fay nothing of it from
his own experience, that the efFecls of gypfum as a
manure are hardly perceivable in the vicinity of the
fea.
RUS T OF WHEAT.
" Mr. Ifaac Young, of Georgia, mixed rye
amongfl: his feed wheat, and thus efcaped the blafl: of
his wheat. It was repeatedly tried, till he was con-
vinced of its efficacy : and then he fowed five acres
with wheat, furrounded 'ujith a list of 2^ feet breadth
of rye : and this alfo fucceeded ; and being repeated,
is found a certain fecurity to the wheat.*' Rom,
Florida 118.
I have alfo heard an Englifli farmer fay that rye
fown mixt with wheat will prevent the wheat from
being blighted, in England.
A Stuffing
488 NOTES AND '
A Stiifingfor Leather, in Shoes and Boots.
The New-England fifhcrmen find great benefit
from ferving their boots with the following compofi-
tion ; which excludes water, and preferves boots and
fhoes. The fame advantages are applicable to the
fhoes of hufbandmen. My fhoes have been ferved
with it conftantly for feven years ; and in no inftance
has it let in any water or dampnefs through the
leather : nor does it harden or ftiifen the thinned calf
leather. One pint of boiled Unfeedoil ; half a pound
of mutton fiiet ; fix ounces clean bees-iiax ; four
ounces rofin : melt and mix well over a flow fire.
Shoes or boots when quite new and clean, are a lit-
tle warmed ; and then are ferved with the ftufEng
alfo warmed, but fo as not to fcald, as much as the
outfide of the leather, upper and foal, can receive ;
and efpecially the feams and joining of the foal and
upper leather are to be well fluffed j taking care the
tack-holes are plugged up ; and that all is perfectly
dry. The leather will want no renewal of the ftuff-
ing : at leail my flioes never have. 1 ufe a painter's
brufh for laying on the ftuff. This fluffing fills the
pores of the leather and excludes water, as the fap
of green wood when infpiffatcd by fire fills the pores
of wood and excludes water.
BRAMBLE
INTIMATIONS. 489
BRAMBLE FENCES,
The Intelligent Do^lor Anderfon, of Scotland, gives
an intcrefling account of the bramble ; and recom-
mends it as far preferable to the fweet briar in a
fence.
Its character is, that it refembles the rafpberry in
the manner of its growth ; and they differ from all
other plants. But the bramble has a peculiarity, dif-
fering from the rafpberry in this : it alone poflefTes
the faculty to ftrike out roots at the point of each
flioot of a year's growth ; and no other part of the
flem can be brought to flrike root, even if laid in the
ground. So that to prevent brambles from rambling
and fouling the ground, nothing more is neceflary
than to walk round the bramble fence, and whip off
the ends which dangle towards the ground. He re-
commends every August for this work. It will want
no other clipping, fliortening, or dreillng.
Like the rafpberry, the bramble yearly fends out
many (lioots from the bottom (the ground), which
puih out to the whole length they ever attain, during
the firfl year. Thefe flioots, in this feafon, confift:
of fingle stems which never branch, unlefs where by
accident they have been cut over, when they be-
come forked. In the next feafon thefe stems fet out
many fruit-bearing branches, along their whole
length,
490 NOTES AND
length, which flower and perfeft their feeds, while
a new fet of ste?ns are pufhing from the bottom to
become feed-bearers next feafon. After perfecting
their feeds the luhole stem that bore them, with all
its branches dies. This is the unvarying progref-
fion obferved in the growth of the bramble plant : io
that a hedge of it, will at all times contain three dis-
tinct kinds of /hoots, intermixed with and croiFmg each
other in all directions : i. xht dead Jhoots ; i. the
fruit fhoots ; 3. the roots pujhing forward in their
lengthy growth. They are all covered with ftrong
fpines, and form an impenetrable matting, when
confined within proper bounds. Mr. Le Blanc, in
the 2d Annal, fays it is worthy of the attention of all
who wifli to raife live hedges in a poor fandy foil,
in the (horteft time, and at the lead expence, to cul-
tivate the bra?nble. In a field of blowing fand, in
which flieep were kept, on one fide of a road the
bank was planted with brambles mixed with white
thorn, and a dead hedge placed on the top. The
bramble not only defends the young quick from
flieep, but alfo by twifling through the dead hedge,
flrengthens it from being broken down. On the
other fide of the road, the bank was at the fame time
planted with white thorn, only. The dead hedge
to it, has been feveral times renewed, and there is
no probability that this white thorn, will ever be-
come a fence. What a valuable corroboration this
is
INTIMATIONS. 49'
is of Doa. Anderfon's propofed bramble fence, on
light poor land ! See his 3d volume of Effays.
A good fence of bank and bramble may be reared
in moil fituations, fays Mr. Anderlbn, at id. to 3^.
fteriing a yard (3 to 5 cents ;) for a facing is re-
quired only on one fide.
Siuect briar he obferves is not equal to the bram-
ble : for unlefs it be often cut over by the roots, it
gets naked below, rugged and unfightly, if without
fupport from other plants ; and if other plants be near
ihem, they grow poorly. In expofed fituations too
the wind gets hold of the tops and by aaing on them
as a lever, is apt to pull down the bank.
The bratnbk is liable to none ofthefe objecTions;
and it feems to be, he adds, the ver)' plant fitted by
nature for forming that clofe, netted prickly coping,
alike wanted to prevent animals from tearing down
the bank, and to preferve it from the levelling power
of the wind, and other external injuries. The bram-
ble efpecially excels other plants on upland thin
ground.
Bramble fences, which are equally appliq^ble in foft
good foils and thofe that are harder in rocky and
hilly countries, may be thus conflrufted :
A
492 NOTES AND
A bank is railed on the inner fide of a ditch,
"where it can be dug and faced with ftones, of a good
binding quality ; or if the floncs are fmall or roundifli,
or fewer than wanted, they may be laid in alternate
rows with yi;^/. Where no floaes are to be had, the
facing may be entirely of fod. The backing to be
made of earth, dug either from the ditch, if on a le-
vel, or fcraped from without, if upon a Hope ; or ta-
ken from behind where it is eafiell had : fo as to raife
the laall with its ditch four to five feet high. Upon
the top of this bank and about one foot backwards
from its edge, plant a row of brajnble plants, at about
(ix inches apart all around. ' If taken from the com-
mons be fare they are all young plants nearly grown
and well rooted : for it is of the utmofl confequence
that the hedge {hould come forward equally in all its
parts ; fo as not to leave a fingle gap in any place.
To infure this, plants reared from feeds are befl: and
the cheapefl. The plants are to be examined the
first feapin cfter planting ; and fupplied with what are
wanting : without which attention, the hedge can
never afterwards be made equal Rud uniform through-
out. I am induced, fays Mr. Anderfon, to take no-
tice of the circumftance thus poiiiicdly from obferving
a culpable carelefTnefs refpefting it, which is the chief
canfe of the raggednefs in hedges that every where
prevails. If a dead fence of thorns and brufliwood
be placed on the top of the fence at the time when
the brambles are planted, tbefe live plants may be
intermixed
INTIMATIONS. 493
intermixed with the dead fence, to advantage rather
than detriment. Care is to be taken of flieep, that
they have not accefs to injure the bank.
If the hedge has been planted with care, it will
come forward with great luxuriance, in fhoots which
rifing upwards and fpreading out on both fides form
a clofe matted coping cffpring plants all over, which
will effeftually prevent intrufion of men or animals.
The people of Kent, county, Maryland, who made
naked bank fences, mentioned in page 196, wanted
only to know the above ufes of bramble plants for
them to have completed their dcfign. They made
banks, and fodded them very perfeftly. Brambles
upon thefe banks would have properly fliaded the
banks and prefcrved the grafs, and with dead wood
for the firfl feafon or two among the brambles would
have kept oiF beads from cutting down the fods, and
always afterwards.
IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND FOR
RURAL LIFE.
" Of fcientifical purfuits, the mod: liberal, the mod
honorable, the happied, and what probably will be
the mod fuccefsful employment for a man in eafy cir-
cumdances, (particularly in country life,') is the study
of nature, including natural hidory and natural phi-
lofophy J and therefore to this important objetft a
principal
494 NOTES AND
principal attention Ihould be given in educating
youth who have the means of applying to thefe in-
ftructive and comfortable purfuits, ^?s•hen it may be
without interfering with the means neceilar}' to his
fupport. Every man finds vacant moments from his
ordinary bufinefs, which cannot be better filled than
by fuch attentions as le2.dto the improvement of his
underflanding and elevate his mind to admire, more
and more, the aftonifliing works of the Creator j and
thus is real religion befriended.
" All the arti^ from whence is derived all that
tends to the fecurity and comfort of mankind, de-
pend upon the knowledge of the powers of nature
wherewith we become converfant ; and the only
pofUble way of afluring and increafing the conveni-
encies and comforts of life, of guarding againfl in-
conveniencies and vexations, to which all are fubjecl,
and of enlarging the powers of man, is through a fur-
ther acquaintance with the powers of nature."' — From
Doctor Priestly y a very little altered. Some inftruc-
tion in geometry and mechanics would alfo be advan-
tageous in country life.
Farmers who do not lay the hand to the plow,
often want they know not what : time hangs heavy
on them : They feel diffatisfied, reftlefs : a void fur-
rounds them. Employment of any fort would gwc
them relief. But they mount the horfe, and leave
xhsiT family and the inviting calls of an improvable
farm.
INTIMATIONS. 495
form, to feek amufement in riding to and fro ; fome-
tiraes unwarily popping into taverns. But, though
time is thus palTed away, they gain no folid or per-
manent fatisfaftion, much lefs any improvement of
the mind : and to be fure the farm is not improved j
nor its work well done. Were thcfe mailers of
farms fortunately led by their parents to the study of
nature, they would never vi^ant foothing and nouriili-
ing food to the mind ; and from their being employ-
ed in inquiries concerning the wonderful works of
the Supreme-Good, God alone ii'i/e, a found and rati-
onal piety would be increafed and confirmed in them.
The book of nature far furpalTes books of clumfy
art ; whilfl the wordy works of mifled and miilead-
ing inftruftors convey no profitable knowledge, and
are infignificant to common fenfe, the underftanding
given us by God, and to good minds wilhing to be
impreifed with the knowledge of plain truths, and
improved in whatever is amiable and promotive of
good. The comforts held out by the gofpel of
Christ, confirm the hope derived from contemplations
on nature : and there is a perfeft agreement between
the pure intelligible principles of the go/pel, and the
laws of nature ; but which folly would fet at vari-
ance. " The fublime inflinft of our minds, our fouls,
" may be mifled ; but can never be annihilated by
" the doctrines of a falfe philofophy or the unintclJi-
" gible jargon of trained teachers; a .confcioufncfs
" whereof impels us to admire and love ivifdom and
generojiiy
49^ K0TE5 AND
*• gctierofity of conducl^ as we do grandeur and lym-
" metry in nature."
" Can the fublime ideas of a divine Creator,
" whofe providence watches over the world and the
" immortality of the foul, that confolatory hope of
*' perfecuted virtue, be nothing more than amiable
" and fplcndid chimeras ? But in how much obfcu-
*' rity are thcfe difficult problems involved ! What
" accumulated objections arife, when we with to exa-
" mine them with mathematical rigour ! No ; it is
" not given to the human mind to behold thefe
" truths in the full day cf perfect evidence : But
" why Ihould the man of fenCbility repine at not be^
" ing able to demondrate what he feels to be true /"
" In the filence of the clofet and the drynefs of
" difcuillon, lean agree with extravagant or abfurd
'' teachers, as to the infolubility of certain queftions :
" but, when in the country and contemplating na-
" lure^ the foul full of emotion, foars aloft to the
" -j'ivifywg priiidple that animates it, to the Almighty
'• itiiiilecl that pervades it, and to the goodnefs that
" renders the fame delightful and juft to my fenfes
*• derived from the Creator ; enjoying the truths de-
" monilratcd to me, and giving way to feelings fo
" imprefftve andfatisfaclory, I am content to remain
" ignorant of what cannot be known, and give my-
*' felf no didurbance about the opinions of others.
But
INTIMATIONS. 49^
" But I conform to ihc public ivor/hip, becaufe my
" fituaiion makes it my duty (o to do." Mdm, RoL
ORCHARDS.
It feeras, in England as in America, orchards
have been coniiderably ncgledled ; and the know-
ledge of proper modes of managing them was not
generally well known in the moment when a well-
timed and generous interference of a Mr, Bucknall,
eftefled fuch a current in favour of them, as that
they are again becoming a great confideration in
England. Befides Mr. Bucknall's perfonal attention:
to his own, his neighbours, and friends orchards,
and very actively diffufing a knowledge of the new
principles in converfations, he addreifed the London
fociety for the encouragement of arts, laid before
them his principles of orcharding, as he calls it,
obtained firfl their filver medal, and on a further
communication their gold medal with their thanks.
The certificates accompanying his communications
are very ftrong in their favour ; and his practice is
warmly adopted, and in a courfe of being generally
purfued by the EngliHi farmers. An experienced
and intelligent farmer, from New England, alfa
alTures me that for the corrednefs of Mr. Bucknall's
principle on clofe-pruning he can vouch, from his
own praftice twenty-five years ago. A pamphlet
en Mr. Bucknall's principles and practice is publifh-
I i cd
49^ NOTES AND
ed in London, entitled The Orchardist ; from which
the following notes are taken.
The management of orchards is capable of being
reduced to a fyflem, under a few general heads
concentrated in the principle of making every tree
in orchards, healthy, round, l^^rge, and beautiful.
Due pruning would greatly prevent the fpeckled
and stunted fruits occafioned by the trees being over-
loaded with wood ; which obllrufts the rays of the
fun, and caufes a vapour, the cold whereof stunts
the fruit in its firfl growth.
, The bark of trees confifts of the outer, rough ;
the middle y foft and fpongy ; the inner, a whitilh
rind which joins the bark to the wood, and is fup-
pofed to contain the liquid fap.
When the flem grows too fafl for the bark, it
caufes blotches and lacerations ; which is avoided
h^ f coring the hark with a fliarp knife, fo as not tn
cut through the whitilh rind or inner bai'k.
;
CLOSE-PRUNING, AND MEDICATING
FRUIT-TREES.
Pruning with judgment brings trees to bear
fooner ; and continue in vigour nearly double their
common
INTIMATIONS. 499
common age. Mr. Bucknall gives no attention to
fruit branches and 'wood branches in the prefent in-
flance.* No branch is ever to ht portened ; unlcfs
for the figure of the t/ee, and then clofe at the fe-
paration.
The more the range of the branches flioot circu-
larly, a little inclining upward, the more equally the
fap will be didributed, and the better will the tree
bear.
Let not the ranges of branches be too near each
other ; as all the fruit and leaves ftiould have thnr
full (hare of iht fun. Where it fuits, let the mid-
dle of the tree be free from wood ; fo that no
branch croiTes another, but all the extreme ends
point outwards*
A neighbour faying, your trees are handfonis but
too thin of wood, is a high compliment ; for fuch
trees will gain the befl: price for the fruit at market.
a fure teft of perfection.
A young orchard was planted in a rich foil and it
throve greatly. Such vigorous growth occafioned
I i 2 an
♦ The expreffion " In the prefent inftance'' muft me?.n, in
general, refpefting his prefent fubjed of pruning : gives no
attention to fruit branches and wood branches, in pruning
fruit trees fuiTered to ran greatly into wood : but thins Uiem
to be j/Vv, and to ^wzjhape and regular l-ranchet.
50O
NOTES AND
an early decay of the trees, from the wind fplitting
thera down ; and the wood being foft many caufes
concurred to injure them. The injudicious manner
in which the lacerations were taken oiF added to the
evil J for generally a gum follows from a wound,
and this becomes filled with vermin, which obdruft
the healing by their eating and fretting the bark.
Mr. Bucknall is here fpeaking of an orchard of both
apple and cherry trees ; the latter yield gum.
He found the branches fo intermixed and entan-
gled together as to cut each other and caufc wounds
and blotches ; which on the return of the fap in the
fpriug, affefts the leaves by inclining them to curK
In this ftate of the orchard, in the November
following, Mr. Bucknall undertook to improve it ;
and found that the branches could not be cut true
enough with a bill, to take them off, without leav-
ing a ftump or improper wound, as it is effential
that every branch fliould be cut perfe£lly clofe and
fmooth. He therefore ufed faws, and afterwards
fvioothed with a knife. Immediately on this the
wounds, with medicated tar on a brufli, were fmear-
ed over.
As the hark can never grow over a stump, he al-
ways cuts a little within the wood. The rule is to
cut (luick, clofe, 2^Xid fmooth.
Mr.
INTIMATIONS. 50I
Mr. Bucknall and his affiftants kept together, and
firfl: walked round the tree. He then pointed out
every branch that came near the ground or had re-
ceived material injury^ or where the leaves were
much curled (which are accompanied with fpecky
fruit;) and every branch having the least tendency
to crofs the tree or run inwards, all whereof were
taken off. Then he attended to the beauty of the
head, leaving all the branches as nearly equidiftant
as poffible. Next they examined if there were any
remaining blotches ; and opened and fcored them
with the knife ; and where the bark was ragged
from laceration, pared it gently down till they came
to the live wood. Each of thefe were then touch-
ed over with the medicated tar. The mofs fhould
then be rubbed off and the ixtzs fcored.
In cutting they went to the quick, but avoided
making the wound larger than neceffary.
In doubting whether a particular branch fhould
be taken off, they confidered if it will be in the
way three years hence. If it will, the fooner it is
off the better.
When trees are much trimmed they throw out
many Ihoots in the fpring. It is neceffary that thefe
be rubbed off, not cut j for cutting increafes them.
The
^bl NOTES AND
The MFDicATED TAR IS compofcd oF one "half
ounce of corrof,'ve fiibUmate^ reduced to a fine pow-
der by beating it with z\vooden haniTier : then put
it into a three-pint earthen pipkin, with a glafs full
of gin or other fpirit ftirred Veil together, and the
fubliniate thus diflblved. The pipkin is then filled
by-degrees with common tnr, and conflantly flirred,
till the mixture is blended, intimately as poillble.
This quantity is fufficient for 200 trees.
Corrofive fublimate is a violent polfon ; and to
prevent mifchief, it is to be icftantly mixed in the
tar, y;5.'7 as bought. Mr. Bucknall finds the fubli-
mate diiTolves better when united wi:h the fame
c
•quantity of fpirit of harffhom or of fal ammoniac*
Farmers fearing to meddle with corrofive fubli-
mate may get their apothecary to mix the ingredi-
ents; the tar being fent to him. Or let them try
the following as an experiment. Mix fi{h oil one
;^ .rt with tar two or three parts, by ftirring them
well over a gentle fire, that the mixture may be
peiTc^. Apply it when cold. Would you add
things bitter or acrid ; as alces, or red pepper ?
For ginng more body or conuflence to this mix-
ture, ^dd fine powder o fullers earth or clay ; or
according to Lord Newark, powdered chalk.
Do
* Ccrober, -svo'jld give more time for the vrcunds to heal,
|;efore -s^inter fets in.
INTIMATIONS. 503
Do not attempt to force a tree to grow higher
than it is difpofed to grow : but keep the branches
out of the reach of cattle : then let them follow
.their natural growth.
In general prune trees y^ow as the fruit is off, that
the wounds may tend towards healing before the
froft comes on.
The fubflantial form of the tree is the fame before
and after pruning. It is of the fame fize, and the
extreme flioots are all kept at the fame diflance.
But too often the heads of trees are mutilated and
the tree is left in a more decaying Itate.
The year before the trees are to be planted out,
choofe and prune them in the nurfery ; taking off
perfeftly clofe, all rambling and unfightly branches,
leaving the beads to three or four good leading
flioots. From pruning thus in the 7iurfery the year
preceding the planting out the trees, it will not be
requifite to prune for fome time ; and the wounds
being healed, will accelerate their growth. Plant
none galled, fretted or cankered. Take them up
to be planted, with roots long as is convenient.
Prepare ftakes before the day of planting, and Hake
them immediately.
Shelter, by trees, is requifite on the cold blow-
ing fides of the orchard, north-weft to north- cafi:.
Plant
5e4. NOTES AND
Plant not the trees too deep ; many ills arife from
It.
Mr. Bucknall's tools are ; two pruning knives ;
a faw ; two chifels ; a mallet; ; a fpoke fhave, and
a painter's bruih. With the chifels and fpoke fhave
work upwards, or the bark will {hiver. The faw
muiL be coarfe fet ; all the other tools Iharp and
fmooth,
He prefers the blade-bone of a doe, for rubbing
pff rotten bark, mofs, &c.
When the trees are planted, a quefl:ion arifes
what ufe is to be made of the ground ? To plow it
is dangerous ; as the injuries received by young
trees from implements in hulbandry are great ; and
if any kind of corn is grown, the land is impover-
iflied, and then the trees are ftunted and run to
mofs. Hc^s do well for fome years, and then let
the ground be grazed : and the ground is never to
be plowed deep directly ever the roots of a young
planted fruit tree.
Manure is neceiTary to an orchard ; and hog*s
dung is the befl:. Watering orchards in dry weather
is important — which may be beft accompliflied if a
flream can be led through it.
Prevent
INTIMATIONS. 5©5
Prevent young trees bearing much fruit : pluck
it off foon as feen, except half a dozen to fliow the
quality. Graze and manure. Hogs are bed to run
in orchards.
Although no leading branches are to h^Jhortenedy
yet whilll in the nurfery, the heads mufl be cut down
to give (Irength and fymmetry to the ftera ; and al-
fo moil of the grafts mud be fhortened, or the
wind will blow them out ; and whilft in the infant
state, {hortening the plant helps to fwell out the
buds. Shorten:ng is only forbid when the plant he-
comes a tree.
Mofs is the refult of poverty and negkd, and re-
fle£ls difcredit on the owner. In a wet day, a
ftrong man with a birch-broom can do great good
on mofs. He is to rub all the branches, fpring and
autumn, with a hand-bruih and foap-fuds. They
may then be oiled or not, as you like.
The befl orchard foil is a deep loam. No one for
profit would plant on a ll:rong clay or a cold fharp
gravel. But where it is necefTary to plant on thefe
foils, never dig into the undcr-flrata ; which would
be planting in well-holes : rather plant the trees
above ground, raifing over them a little mound of
good mould, and fow on it white clover.
In
5C6 NOTES AND
In pruning, never omit the inedkation; as the
^mercury is found ftrongly operative in removing the
effei3:s of canker, giving a fmoothnefs of the bark,
and a freenefs of growth.
The fyflem of clofc-pruning and ?nedication here
•follows, that it may be feen at once : Take off
■every stump, the decayed or blighted branches, with
all that crofs the tree, or where the leai^s curl,
chfe, fmooth, and even. Pare the gum down clofe
to the bark, and even a Httle within, but not to
deftroy the rough coat : open the fiffures from
whence the gum oozes, to the bottom : cut away
the blotches and pare down the canker : then anoint
all the wounds with the medication, fmearing a lit-
tle over the canker not large enough to be cut:
'walh and fcore the tree, rubbing off the mofs j but
• do wo/y2>i7r/#« a fingle branch.
A tree under fuch care muft, with its remaining
free fhoots, run large ; which requiring a great flow
of fap will keep the roots in conftant employ, and
from that very fource neceffarily eflablilli permanent
■health.
- Canker, he fays, arifes much from animalculcE j
and if the only objeft is to remove the canker, he
finds hogs-lard preferable to tar j but where wet is
to
INTIMATIONS, ^6y
to be guarded againfl, tar is fuperlatively better.
Therefore tar and oil, as above.
Mr. Morjhead praflifed clofe-prunlng and' m^dica-
' Hon, according to Mr. Bucknall, on a greal variety
of fruit trees of all ages j which fuccecded beyoiid
his expeftations.
Mr. Tivamky*^ principles on pruning orchards
accord with Mr. Bucknail's, as far as he touches on
it.
PEACH TREES,
A farmer in New-Jerfey has publiihed in the
news-papers, an account of peach trees ; in which
he fays, on the fecond of June 1795 his peach trees
were in a very fickly ftate : that he applied the re-
medy below mentioned ; in confequencc whereof
by the middle of fidy they had recovered their full
verdure and health; and that in 1799 they ftill
continued in full health.
His remedy was in laying bare the stems of the
trees and the roots near to the stems, by taking the
earth away. There then appeared in the trees a
number of holes the lize of gimblet boles. On
probing them hairy wbf-ms were brought out, of a
whitifli colour, except that the head was brown
with
5c8 NOTES AND
with a {harp nofe ; and it was an inch long and had
a boring motion. Burdock leaves were dipped in
whale oil (currier's filh oil) and wrapped about the
part of the trees affected ; and then the earth taken
off was thrown on them. Six quarts of oil ferved
twenty trees. Three of his trees had bees under
thera, in hives. Fearing to diflurb the bees with
the fmell of the oil, the flems and roots only were
laid bare as above ; and thefe trees alfo recovered.
He thinks the effluvium of the oil foon killed the
•worms in the firft inflance ; and that from their be-
ing very porous, the air entering the pores killed
them in the lall: inftance : and he adds as his opinion
that if the trees are laid bare as above in tlie fpring
and coi'tred before winter fets in, it may anfwer the
deCred effect, with taking off the fungus or gum
on the body of the tree under which the worms
breed. A number of them were taken from within
a lump of gum, and they all " diffolved" in the air.
The old worm on having a drop of oil put on its
head, drew up in a ball and inflantly died.
He fays, a large peach orchard, in Jerfey, was
on a loofe fand, called the fand hills ; which he
thinks was " an old orchard in 1738," when he
knew it, and he thinks it was in being in 1776
when he rode over thofe hills, fo that it continued
more
INTIMATIONS.
509
more than 40 years. He thereon infers that fandy
foil is beft for peach trees.
I have known peach trees give fruit many years
in the fandy lands of Severn River, in the country
about Annapolis ; and alfo on clay loams in the
peninfula of Chefapeak ; where they were in old
fields, or free from fpade or plow breaking the
ground near them. An apricot tree flood a number
of years in a garden where the ground was yearly
dug about it j the fruit always dropt off before it
could ripen. That part of the garden being turn-
ed out, the ground fettled and remained clofe and
hard all about the tree : from which time it matur-
ed its fruit.
The winter 1783-4 was extremely feverc. Its
froft killed many noble oaks and other trees, but
not one of many peach trees in my orchard and gar-
den. The garden peach trees annually fuffered by
the worm above defcribed, but not thofe in the
orchard where the ground remained unstirred. In
the fpring 1784 many feedling peach trees being
hove up by the frofl, feemed to ftand on their main
roots partly above ground, without being injured.
Thefe proofs of the hardinefs of peach trees induc-
ed me to dig the earth from the garden peach trees
late in November and return it in April. In feveral
years
5IO NOTES AND
f
years of this being practifed, I recollect no inftance
of the worm in thofe trees.
DIET FOR PRISONERS:
— liTued to the prifoners in the gaol of Philadel-
phia in 1798 J for 230 men and women.
BREAKFAST AND SUPPER :
Indian-meal 294 gals. jib. a gal, 147ft. at C. M.
2 c. i^m. a tb. . . . . 314 6
Melaffes 44 gals, at 60 c. . . . . 270 o
Salt I qts. . . • . . 6 6
Water 96 gals, in Mujh 384 qts. of which ■
c. m. 591 2
Forbreakfaft, at i 3 (more esa<ft 1.285) CM.
each perfon, 295 5
For fupper, do. 295 5
DINNER.
Beef 5ctfe. at 6.6
.
3300
Shins 4
.
53 3
Potatoes \\ bufh.
.
75
Meal, for thickening,
12 qti.
• 43 3
Onions, herbs, peppe:
r, fait
2Z
Water 56 gals.— ^ca/ 224 qts.
»- >S T K
I 112 8
Dimmer
INTIMATIONS.
5"
C. VI.
Dinner, 224 q\s. foup, coft 521 6 or each 2 2 (more
€xa<a]y 2 t-tA)-
Breakfaft, each perfon . . 13
Supper, do. . . .13
Tliree meals. 48a dar.
Tlieir diet is varied.
The fums ot" the account kept are in £. S. D. here reduced
to Cents and Mills ; 10 Mills a Cent ; 100 Cents a Dollar.
THRASHING MILLS.
In 1782 Colonel Anderfon then of Philadelphia,
now refiding on the Sufquehsnna, near Lancafler,
invented a mill moved by horfes, for thralliing wheat
and other fraail grain out from its ftraw : and took
the hint from feeing a cotton machine at work in Phi-
ladelphia. In 1 79 1 he built one of full lize j which
(on a trial of it') I faw work to advantage, though
as Colonel Anderfon well obferved, it was capable
of confiderable improvement. But having fince in-
vented a thralhing mil!, on different principles, a mo-
del of which I faw work admirably welj, he proba-
bly has not further attended to the firft ; and I wait
to hear of his ordinary bufmefs admitting him to
build one of full fize, on his new invention oi rubbing,
iuftead of striking out the grain. If this kind of
mill Ihall be equal to the former when both are
worked
512
KOTES AND
waAed whh horfes, it will have the further advan-
tage of admittiDg to be reduced in fize and then
wcAcd by one (V two men at a winch or two furta-
blc to fmall farms : fo that hofbandmen on farms of
all iizes might ofc them in place of flail and treading.
RtMa^y in idea, is inferior to striking ; yet the above
modd petfbrmed forpnfingly well, in rubbing out
vheat.
About the time that Colonel Anderfon invented
his mill, a thiafhing mill, <m the very fame princi-
l^es, was invented in Scotland.*
Colofiel DunJas, in the 1 5 Annal gives an ac-
coimt of a thrafhing mill built for him by Mr. Ras-
frick in Scotland. It had then been worked for the
greateft part of two crops ; and the Colonel fays the
mill is in a bam ; an ofiugon (hed built on the out-
fide was only necefiary to be added for covering the
^diod and horfe-path -, and that.
The
* b England and Soodand it Is fband vcrf adv^antageous
•D naf dicir wbeatemrfy, that is meaitt to be beat otit by the
fluU ; J» aufy as that tbejtramjballcmrt tatigbt and not break
ihatt and britde under the operatioo of dae mill : by which
means die wheat is nmch more perfectly iaTed, according to
die "■fi » w>atMM» of an i^fidii^cnt English farmer now in
America.
INTIMATIONS. 5I3
The mill cofl: flerling 45;^^.
equal to Dollars 200
A cover of boards, with "|
wire platform under I
the beaters ;C3* 3* r* ^7
The fhed, to cover the j
wheel and horfes 12. o. J ■
267
The wire platform begins under the canvafs, or
Doping board, and extends as far as any grain falls,
and has openings to allow the grain to pafs. A wo-
man and boy with a rake can clear the machine of
ftraw, whilft the grain falls through the wire in a
ftate for being fanned.
It thraflies 1 So bujhe/j cfzvbeat'm tenhours^ very
clean. Barley is thraflied with'flails, after it comes
from the mill for breaking off the awns or beards.
One horfe will work the machine : rather hard
work. He ufes two horfes. If a diligent perfon
drives the horfes, all pcrfons about the mill mufl be
bufy.
The hands neceilkry are the driver, a boy ; the
feeder, a careful attentive perfon ; a perfon to rake,
and tijco to bundle the flraw. He confiders it work
for three men and t'-^o boys.
' K k Mr.
314 KOTES AND
Mr. Moztbray, of Durham, fays his thrafhing mill,
built by Mr. Rajtrick, has given him great fatisfac-
tion. He ufes two horfes, ' a boy, a man, and two
women. It had thrafhed out 1 2800 bu£hels of wheat;
6400 bufliels of oats, and 6400 buihels of barley :
in all 25600 bufliels of grain ; and had cod him no-
thing in repairs ; and there is no difficulty in work-
Mr. Wiikie fays his thrafliing mill is fo Cmple that
repairs can be feldom wanting. It is a mofl valuable
machine.
Mr. B:\s*s mill is in a barn, and a projefting build-
ing contains the great wheel : which is 12 feet dia-
meter, has 120 cogs working into 12 : the cogs at
the end of the {haft are 87, which work into 14.
The under, of the two cylinders, for drawing the
com through, is of wood, the upper of cafi: iron : a
wheel of 15 cogs works into 33 for turning them.
The beating or flail wheel (or barrel), is 5 feet long,
and 3>- feet diameter to outlide beaters : has 4 of
thefe beaters, or battens fixed to it, and flrikes up-
'Lvard: ; icoo ftrokes in a minute. Others flrikc
dtmrniuards, which do not clear away the ftraw
equally well. The flraw is carried over the beating
wheel, and falls on a latticed floor, for the fliort fluff
to fall through. Four horfes work the mill. A hoy
drives :
INTIMATIONS. 515
drives : a niati throws up the flieaves : a boy fupplies :
one man to fprcad them on the inclined plane ; and
two men to fork away the ftraw. 'The whole 4 wt«,
2 boys, 4 horfes* It thraihcd 360 bujhels of oats in
10 hours. For clearing away the flraw, as it comes
from the mill, a wheel turns in a direftion contrary
to the beating wheel, and clears it completely. 1 5
An. 481. 20 An. 248. 504. — Mr. Meikle\ built a
mill for Mr. Adams, worked \^\\hfour horfes, which
thrailies out 640 bujhels oats in 10 hours. Length
of the barrel 44 feet, diameter 3^ feet, treble motion.
Wheels, cafl: iron. There are many mills for thrafli-
ing, of different conftruftion in England and Scot-
land : all on the principle of battefis upon a barrel^
for beating out the grain.
K k 2 LABOUR'
* Horfes are more expenfive than oxen for all fuch -v^'ork j
and they are lefs fteady than ox:n. Whilft oxen are perform-
ing the work, they increafe in value full ten dollars a yean
This with their dung pays for tlieir keeping : fo that tlieir la-
bour is clear gain.
f Mr. And. Meikl: erefted his firfl threfhing mill in 1788 ;
fince when he has progrefllvely improved them. The labour
isfimplified, and the performnnce augmented. By adding rakes or
fhakers, and two pair of fanners, all driven by the fame ma-
chinery, threfliing, fhaking, and winnov.-ing, are now perform-
ed all at once, and the grain is made clean for market.
5i6
NOTES AND
LABOURING POOR, in ENGLAND,
Mr. Marfhall flates the expences of a labcuring
or poor family in England thus
For Wheat and rye
Fuel
Candles and foap
Furniture
Tools
Rent
Man's coat, S:c.
Hofe and hat
Shirts
Shoes
Wife and children's clothes
Meat, &^c. .
Shil.
Cenu.
120 or 2666
i^
10
5
26
22
o
10
86
448
288
177
222
III
577
488
66
222
177
191 1
3044
99-5-
So that, in England, a labourer having a wife and
two children, and expending ico dollars, has 4
dollars over and above the means of fupporting
them through the year in a comfortable habitation,
with the other neceffary comforts of life. They
fcarcely fpend a (hilling on phyfick. Keeping out
of tippling houfes, which is eafily and cheerfully
obferved by a good hufband and father, the four
dollars is a treafure of evidence to a round of per-
ennial content and happinefs ; in fuccefhon through
father and fon from generation to generation.
LABOUR'
INTIMATIONS.
5^7
LABOURING POOR in IRELAND.— Expences,
Cabbin and garden
Labour in the garden
Two cows
Hay for them
Turf (fuel) .
Clothing 1 5s. a head, for 5
Tools ....
Hearth tax
ShU.
30
50
30
14
7S
5
1
or
Cents.
666
666
nil
666
311
1666
III
44
236s. or 52.44
Their Receipts.
The year . . 3^5 ^^JS-
92
dedua,
Sundays .
52
Bad weather
30
Holy-days
10
Two calves
s.
30
Pig
• •
20
Poultry
« •
5
d.
273 at 6, 1 36: 6 or 3035
;o3 days fpinning by ^ ^^ ^^^ ^'^ . ^•
wife and daughter S ^
—130:3 2900
266:9 = 5935
Expenles
5l8 NOTES AND
' 8. d. cenu.
Expenfes . . . 236 : o zz 5244
Remain for whifky, &c. &c. 30 : 9 686
266 : 9 = 59.30
Thefe cotters Mr. Young fays, are very much
addifted to pilfering. — He adds, their general cha-
racter is idlenefs^ with want of attention. — Such
habits muft arife from their having more arable land
than is manageable by a cottager or mere labouring
man, or than is confident with his office and calling ;
and they become neither good or happy labourers,
nor contented, orderly, induflrious land-holders ;
and then they are apt to degenerate into low beings
of no character or worth in themfelves or to others
■ — and from total idlenefs^ the common parent of
vice, become fhifty plunderers of the fruits of the
labour and cares of others. In fa£l, Mr. Young
aflures us that in Ireland the cottager has allowed
him one and an half acres of garden with the grafs
of one or two cows, and moreover the daily pay of
fix pence the year through. It is there thought
difficult to raife a race of little farmers from the cot-
tagers, by adding land gradually to them at a fair
rent ; and indeed it feems it would be unfriendly to
the poor, to attempt to elevate them from happy
contented cottagers to become but inferior, imper-
feci:, and difcontented mean farmers.
Whilft
INTIMATIONS. 5I9
Whilfl the Irijh cottager has more acres than one,
the EngUjh cottager fcarcely has a fourth part of one
acre.* Of the fame ground being too much for a
cottager and too little for a farmer^ fee before in
this work, of Labourers, Cottages, and Cottagers.
An acre and an half, with the grafs ground of one
or two cows, equal to 2 to 4 acres, are in all on a
medium 4^ acres, or 1 8 to i of the Enghfh cotta-
ger's portion.
HOG-CISTERNS
Made of brick and terrace are objected to, as
being too coflly, though among the firil convenien-
cies of a farm houfe ; — to wooden ones, the objec-
tion is becaufe incommodious ; — and leaden, becaufe
poifonous and dangerous. But the cifterns prefer-
red are built of bricks layed in clay, and furrounded
with a coat of clay. Sink the pit where it is conve-
nient to the dairy-kitchen and hog-yard, jointly. —
Above ground raife a nine inch wall one foot high ;
raifmg a ridge roof over it ; and placing a door in
one of the gable ends. — MarJhalL
PRESERVATION of SEINS, TWINE, and
SMALL ROPE.
Mix 5 parts tar, and one oifjh-oil, melting them
together, for thoroughly incorporating them ; and
while
* From whence follows, content in the Englifh cottager —
difcontent, and WTetchednefs in the JriJJj cottager.
520 NOTES AND
while quite hot (but not to burn) the nets being in
a tub, pour the hot mixture upon them in quantity
fufficient to wet them entirely. The mixture is
then drawn off by a hole at the bottom of the tub,
immediately, in order that too much of it may not
ftick, and make the nets clammy, which would hap-
pen if cooled upon them : and to prevent the net
flopping the hole at the bottom, a balket like cover
fhould be applied over the hole, not in it. Thus,
fpreading nets to dry is rendered unnecejfary, is a
great faving of labour ; and the practice has become
very general in the fifhery on the coafl of Ireland.
CEMENT FLOORS.
They have lately become commonly applied to
cottages. The materials are lime and fand, mixed
in nearly the fame proportion and prepared in the
fame manner as the common morter of bricklayers ;
but is made flronger and fofter than for laying
bricks. The bed made fair and level, the materials
are carried on in pails, in a ftate between paste and
baiter and laid 4 or 5 inches thick ; alfo an inch
higher than the intended floor, to allow for fettling
in drying. The whole being well worked over with
a fpade, the furface is fmoothed with a trowel ; and
as it dries is repeatedly beaten with a flat beater —
better fwitches to prevent cracking, the workman
/landing on planks. In two or three weeks it may
te
INTIMATIONS.
5?i
be walked on. On the laft: beating, if crofs iines
be deeply graven on the furface, the floor has the
appearance, as well as ufefulnefs of a freeilone
floor.
TURNIP-SLICER.
For feeding turnips away with fafety againfl: their
choking cattle, and rendering them eafily eaten by
young flock, many contrivances have been applied
to cut, chop, or flice them ; of which Cuthbert
Clarke's feems the mofl; Ample and eflicacious : —
Two men fitting with Clarke's machine between
them, and facing each other, cut into flices three
quarters of an inch thick, three tons of turnips per
hour, by pufliing a frame to and fro having a dou-
ble edged fpoke fliave knife which cuts going and
returning. The machine has an oaken frame, a
hopper or trunk containing the turnips to be cut ;
the turnips refling -on a board in the Aiding frame,
whilft this is moved backward and forward with the
knife which cuts the turnips, and the flices fall
through into a bafket. The Aiding frame has a
flrap at the crofs piece of each end for checking the
frame at each end alternately. The knife can be
fet to cut the flices half an inch thick.
The machine is 4;. feet high; 24- feet long; 2
feet wide, outfide meafure, the boards are of de;il
4 of
522
NOTES AND
4 of an inch thick. Its four pods are oak, 4 inches
fquare. The feet, Aiding frame, crofs bars, &:c.
are alfo of oak. The hopper is angular within,
fuited to the angle the knife, when placed in the
frame, makes with the fides thereof, about 45 de-
grees. The frame Hides to and fro upon two rol-'
lers, which abates the friftion. The feet of the
four polls are mortifed into two pieces of plank or
timber, which extend 8 or lo inches beyond the
polls to fecure it from tottering or falling.
The Hiding frame carr}'-ing the knife, has a board
bottom larger than the lower aperture of the hop-
per, which has no other bottom than the board fix-
ed in the Hiding frame. This board may be about
1 6 inches wide between the fide pieces of the Hiding
frame, and 2\ feet long between two crofs pieces,
one at each end of the board bottom, and let into
the frame. This board, or floor of the Hiding
frame, is divided into two, each divifion having an
oblique or diagonal parallel fide to the other, and
they leave a fpace between them for the fliced tur-
nips to fall through into the baH:et placed under the
frame. Over this paflage or fpace the broad knife
is placed, each end of it turned up at right angles
and let through a fmall mortife of the frame, where
it is fet to cut the turnips 4. to -I- of an inch. The
poHtion of the knife and the aperture in the board
are exactly alike ranged in their obliquity, of 45
degrees :
INTIMATIONS. 523
degrees : and fo are the two little mortifes in the
frame. There is a contrivance for clearing the
fpace of turnip flices by thrufting them out as the *
frame is moved. Mr. Young has given a drawing
of it in his fecond Northern Tour, by which it is
befl explained.
PLANTATIONS of TREES.
Timber becomes fcarce ; to an alarming degree
in the old fettled country of the United States. It
is therefore recommended to the confideration of
gentlemen improvhig farmers, few as they are, that
they begin to grow plantations of wood the moil
generally ufeful ; of which no tree affords any com-
parable to the wood of the larch (pinus larix,
Lin.), according to the hiftorical teftimony of it
now largely difplayed in the writings, and confirm-
ed by the recent and prefent praftices of many in
North and South Britain.
This wood, fo little known to the modern world
in general, was every thing to the ancients; fo
much fo that its unlimited ufe has caufed a fcarcity,
and almofl a total reduction of it every where but
in mountainous inland diflrifts ; from whence it can-
not be conveyed for ufe. The Greeks, the Ro-
mans, and the old world in general, preferred it
for all ufeful and great purpofes : and now the
Ruffians^
524 NOTES AND
Rnjfians, a new people, bringing it with great la-
bour from Siberia to Archangel, build their {hips of
war with Larch-wood,
Some of the modern notices of the larch are here
mentioned, with the defire that Doftor Anderfon^s
third volume of EJ/ays on Agriculture be confulted on
the fubjecl, wherein he treats of the very extenfive
ufefulnefs and value of the timber, with the proper
attentions for propagating the larch in Britain, efpe-
cially the praftices of North Britain — their methods,
fuccefs and profits experienced at this time.
Mr. Young in his Eastern Tour, gives fome par-
ticulars of the cultivation and fuccefs in England ;
but Dodlor Anderfon*s EJfays are full of the qualities
of the wood of the larch, and methods of railing
it, with the great profit arifing from plantations of
it — even when very young.
It is the quickefl growing tree. In England a
Mr. Fellows had a plantation of Scotch Jirs, of 38
years growth : on the fame land he had larch trees
of only 3 1 years growth, as large as the Jirs,
An old gravel pit was planted with, fpruce Jir and
larch, in alternate rows. The larch trees are 6 to
12 feet high, when the fpruce are but 2 feet on a
medium^,
A large
INTIMATIONS.
5^^5
A large plantation of many acres, a poor gravel-
ly land, containing Scotch and fprnce Jirs and larches^
at 1 6 years growth in fquares of lo feet, are worth
— the Scotch firs . . 2s. 6d. each,
the fpruce firs . . Z '' ^
the larch . . . . 4:6.
At 10 feet there are 435 trees an acre. The
Scotch at 2S. 6d. come to ;^.54 7 6 flerling, or per
acre per annum £.-^ 7 o. — The fpruce at 3s. 6d.
to £'^6 2 6 or per acre per annum to £.^ 150.
— The larch at 4s. 6d. to ^^.97 17 6 or per annum
£.6 1 o fterling ; exclufive of thinnings. In what
other way can ;^.6 flerling be made of an acre,
without rifque, and almofl without expenfe? — A
cafe is then put,
Suppofe 5 acres of larch planted every year ; at
the end of 16 or 17 years, five acres will be yearly
cut down, value £-500 fterling : from w4iich day,
a regular produce of £'S^^ ^ J^^^ ^^ gained out of
100 acres of land. If let to a tenant, thefe ico
acres produce ;C*4° ^ 7^^" > ^^^^ '^ planted they
yield £'S^o a year — what an amazing difference!
Again, fuppofe a fingle acre planted yearly : after
18 or 20 years to cut, yearly, j^.ioo fterling a year
from only 20 acres, which if let, would be but jT.S
a year. How beneficial a condu(5^.
But
^26 NOTES AND
But larch would fell for more than the firs, by
the foot ; being in every refpe^l more valuable — and
of the many excellent qualities of larch, fee much
in Doctor Anderfori's third volume of EJfays on Agri-
culture ; efpecially attend to his detail of the method
of propagating it, as praftifed in Scotland, where
millions of trees are now raifed from feeds in nurfe-
ries and difperfed about the country at a low price.
Moreover thg. larch is very ornamental, grows
freely in all foils and lituations — in building it is
preferred for strength and durability; it grows
straight and is excellent for piles, lading many hun-
dred years put to that ufe ; as in Venice. — In Jhi?igles
it is durable and very excellent as it is in log-houfes
built by the Ruffians, as recommended by Admiral
Gregg on a vifit to his friends in Scotland. Sawed
into fcantling it is at firfl white, and on 2 or 3 years
expofure turns of a dark colour, is clofe grained
with the grain filled up clofe and is firm and fmooth.
Staves of it are preferred for making calks. It
faws into broad and long planks and boards. The
timber is very durable in the ground — takes a fine
polifli — nor flirinks nor warps. The trees are ge-
nerally planted in Britain and Switzerland. It is
readily trained in a crooked growth for fliip timber.
In Scotland there are larches ^^ years old, which
are 120 feet high, 34^ feet diameter, and contain
no
INTIMATIONS. 527
110 folid feet of wood in the trunks. Even young
larch is very durable, though of the quickeft
growth. — The medium growth of a plantation of
larches, in 8 years, was above 20 feet in height,
and they were 6 to 9 inches when planted. The
fame plants when 12 years old have increafed in
height 34 to ;^6 feet,
Tht feeds and the plants are to be had from Scot-
land in any quantities. — It is befl to get feeds and
plants from thence, as they cultivate the pinus larix,
Lin. the true Italian larix of the ancients, the qua-
lities whereof arc fo well known, whereas the Ame-
rican larch, fecmingly diiferent, has fcarcely at all
been experienced.
Whilft the plants and feeds are expe£ted from
Scotland, choofe an acre to 5 acres, that may be
yearly increafed to other one or 5 acres, to be ap-
plied as above. — Clean and cultivate thefe acres per-
fectly, in a fallow manured ; or rather in cleaning
and jhaded fallG'-JO' crops, for deftroying all means of
'iveeds growing and fouling the ground — then fov/
and propagate the larch for univerfal purpofcs, fuel
alone excepted.
In a word, Mr. Anderfon aifures us that the
larch is now univerfally preferred for plantations —
that its good qualities are indeed fo numerous and
fo
528 NOTES AND
fo excellent, that they need only be known to oc-
cafion its being propagated beyond any other tree
whatever, in our climate. " I dare hardly even to
mention thefe qualities, left I be accufed of exag-
geration, though the proofs (continues Mr. Ander-
ibn) that afcertain them are irrefillibly ftrong."
Wherever introduced it grows fo freely^ — is io
healthy and beautiful in leaf ; fo ornamental when co-
vered with bloffoms, fo elegant in form, that it in-
flantly becomes a favourite with thofe who plant it.
Then its value is immenfe, for ufeful purpofes — com-
pared with oak, it is twice as fpeedy as oak in
growth, and where a fence was partly of oak, part-
ly of larch, the oak rails had yielded to time, when
the larch continued found many years after.
K R A.
In a communication frora'^Elias Boudinot, Efq,
I receive the following particulars of the okra plant.
Mr. Boudinot had been informed by a gentleman
of the Weft Indies, that the planters of tafte, there,
life a drink made in imitation of the cofteeberry
drink, calling it alfo coffee or okra coffee, made of
okra feeds, and prefer it to the coffeeberry drink ;
■which excited his attention to okra, and he culti-
vated it to a confiderable extent in the way of ex-
periment. It furpaffcd his expectation made as the
coffeeberry
INTIMATIONS. 529
coiTeeberry is made into a drink called okra coffee ;
and it was very generally preferred by Grangers to
the cofFeeberry coiFee.
Accordinof to Mr. Boudinot okra feeds are to be
drilled in rows 36 inches apart, and 18 inches in
the rows ; thinning the plants when four inches high
to one or two plants. Prefer a rich mellow loam,
plowed deep early in the fpring, and again early in
May — then harrow, plant, hoe and cultivate a5
maize is treated.
The green pods are foon fit for culinary purpofes,
chiefly in foups ; for which when they begin to
harden, they become unfit.
About the middle of October cut down the
plants, and when dry, thrafli the feeds out, taking
care that the pods be not expofed to rain after be-
ing cut down and before thrallied. The feeds
weigh 561b. a bufliel ; which at 30 bufliels an acre
that Mr. Boudinot thinks may be produced, would
amount to near 17001b. but fay ]5oolb. of okra
coffee, at 12 cents per lb. it would give 18000
cents or 180 dollars per acre. The plant alfo is
ufed in foups as well as the green pods> and is very
wholefome and palatable.
Doctor Wright, fpcaking of the Weft: India okra,
fhibifcus efculenius) fays, the pods are gathered
L 1 green,
53© NOTES AND
green, cut into pieces, dried, and boiled in broths
and foups. It is the chief ingredient in the pepper-
pot of the Well Indies, much celebrated as a rich
olJa.
Sl^RUP FROM WATER-MELONS,
It is faid, a great portion of the fyrup ufed as a
fweetener in Ruilia is produced from the pulpy fweet
part of "water-melons. I am now favoured with a
fmall quantity of the fyrup of water-melon ; half a
pint of which was obtained in Philadelphia, by gra-
dually boiling the flrained pulp and juice of a melon
that weighed 141b.
Melons growing at 5-I- by 5^ feet apart, are
1433 plants on an acre: thefe bearing two melons
of 141b. each, yield 4oooclb. of melons, 1433
pints of fyrup; which at 10 cents would come to
143 dollars, for an acre's produce.
It is alfo faid that the peafants in the fouthern
parts of RulTia, ufe little other fugar than that
which is obtained from water-melons. The fample
given to me is a very neat well flavored fyrup, of
the confidence of melafles, but of a lighter colour,
nearer to tiiat of honey.
Here
INTIMATIONS. 53I
Here are flattering circmnftances to induce expe-
riments that may prove how eafily the country
family may become independent of foreign countries
for fweets of the clafs of fugars, and at a very cheap
rate. The fyrup it is fuppofed may be granulated
into fugar, or with much eafe made into a /agar
candy.
The hufbandman's chief crop for giving hira
income in money is wheat ; for which he labours,
in fevcral plowings, and gains nothing from his
ground during a year of fallow ; unlefs he may be
one of the few who adopt the profitable courfe of
a fallow crop or a crop produced whilft the ground
is under a fallow. After all the lofs of time, and
expenfe of labour with hazards, the acre of wheats
that proud article, may put eight or ten dollars in
the pocket ; of which a part goes to the fhop for
fugar and melafles. But now, fuppofe the acre of
melon fyrup fhould yield but half of the above cal-
culation ; it then would give the farmer or (which
may be better) his wife above 70 dollars — Are not
thcfe irrefillible motives, impelling to make the
trial!
The like, in part, may be applied to the article
ccffee from the ckra plant. Even take only a fourth
part of the calculation, near 360 pints of fyrup at
10 cents, give near 36 dollars produce, almoft
without
532 NOTES AND, SzC.
without coft, and four times as much as the wheat
income ! — Withal, ivheat greatly impoveriflies the
hufbandmau's ground : when meloiu cover and fhel-
ter it, (o as to prevent weeds growing and running
to feed, but they leave the ground mellow and in a
good ftate of fallow.
*' The Spirit of Commerce renders men avaricious
" and Jeljijh : atzd a People demoralized ought to be
" brought back to agriculture : for^ Commerce feeds
'^ the Pajfions ; Agriculture calms them.**
FINIS.
{ 533 )
Receipt for the Parmefan or Lodian Cbeefe.
The fize of thefe cheefes varies from 60 to i3olbs,
and depends confiderably on the number of cows ia
each dairy.
" During the heat of fummer cheefe is made every
day, but in the cooler months milic will keep longer,
and cheefe is made every other day. The fumm.er
cheefe which is the befl is made of the evening milk
after having been ikiramed in the morning and at
noon, mixed with the morning milk after having
been Jkimmed at noon. Both kinds of milk are
poured together into a copper caldron, capable of
holding about 130 gallons, of the fhape of an in-
verted bell, and fufpended on the arm of a lever,
fo as to be moved off and on the fire at pleafure.
In the caldron the milk is gradually heated to the
temperature of 120 degrees: it is now removed
from the fire and kept quiet for 5 or 6 minutes.
When all internal motion has ceafed, the rennet is
adaed— this fubftancc is compofed of the Horaach
of a calf, fermented together with wheaten meal
and fiilt — and the m.ethod of ufing it is, to tie a
piece of the fize of an hazle nut in a rag, and rteep
it in the milk, fqucezing it from time to time. In
a ftiort time a fufncient quantity of the rennet
pafles through the bag into the milk, which is now
LI 2 to
534 RZCEIFT FOR THE PATs^MESAN
to be well ilirred, and afterwards left at refl td co-
agulate.
In about an hour the coagulation is complete, and
then the milk is again put over the fire, and raifcd
to a temperature of about 145 degrees. During all
the time it is heating, the mafs is briikly agitated
till it feparates in fraall lumps. Part of the whev is
then taken out and a few pinches of fafFron are
added to the remainder in order to colour it. When
the curd is thus broken fufficiently fraall. nearly the
whole of die whey is taken cut, and two pails of
cold water are poured in; the temperature is then
lowered, fo as to enable the dairy man to coUecl the
curd by palling a cloth beneath it, and gathering it
up at the corners. The curd is now pafTed into a
frame of wood like a bulhel without a bottom,
placed on a (oYid table, and covered by a round
piece of wood with a great (lone on the top. In the
courfe of the night it cools, affumes a firm confid-
ence and parts with its whey. The next day one
fide is rubbed v%ith fait, and the fucceeding day the
cheefe is" turned, and the other fide rubbed in the
fame manner. This alternate faking of each fide is
praclifed for about 40 days. After this period the
outer crufl of the cheefe is pared off, the frefli fur-
face is varniflied with linfeed-oil : the convex fide is
coloured red, and the cheefe is fie for fale." An-
7iales de Chem'ie.
Certain
OR LODIAN CHEESE.
535
*' Certain it is that in Peiinfylvania we do not make
good cheefes of the Chefhire or Glouceftcr qualities :
it is probable however that we could make good
Parinefan.
That we lliould fail in the inferior, and yet fucceed
in the fuperior may feera ftrange, but the probability
arifes from the circuraflance that Pennfylvania better
agrees in climate with the country of the fuperior, the
northern diviiion of Italy, than wieh the country of
the inferior, England.
Of this truth, there cannot be a better teilimony
than what is laid in a volume of Young's Annals, by
Zanga, lefldent in London, from the court of Turin,
that the wheat harved of the INIilancfe, where the Par-
mefan cheefes are made, comes on about the twenty-
lixth of June, but a week before that of Pennfylvania;
whereas the harvefl: of England begins in no part earlier
than Auguft, and continues northerly through all the
autumnal months. And from greater refemblance in
climate may we not infer the greater refemblance in
the animal and vegetable productions ?
It is moreover a philofophical opinion that the natu-
ral produces of a warmer, are generally more highly con-
cofted and matured, than tliofe of a colder climate.
And in fa^t, by a curious analyfis lately made at Paris,
of twenty-two pounds of the v/hcat of dilterent coun-
tries, that feparable portion of the grain, which is the
alimentary principle, abounded more in that of the
Pennfylvania
536 RECEIPT FOR THE PARMESAN, ScC.
Pennfylv^ania growth than in the reft, one of them ex-
cepted ; that one fharing with it, the principle in an
equal degree : And the London bakers have difccver-
cd that the American flour goes conCderably further
in the making of bread than the Englifh.
As favourable to this general opinion, it has been
affirmed in Devon {hire that the beef of the French
cattle, which have been fometimes brought over into
that country for the breed, is more efleemed there
than their own. And that great traveller, whom Mr,
Gibbon wifhed had vifited every quarter of the earth,
thought, w^hen here a few years lince, that American
beef had more nutriture flill than that of his own
country, France.
From thefe confiderations and afluraed fa£h I ven-
ture to Tend you for infertion in the intended new
edition of your very ufeful book, a receipt for making
the Parmefan cheefe, recommended beyond all others,
from the celebrated work in which it is found, the
AnnaJci de Chcmie conducted by Cbaptal, and wherein
the directions are minutely plain and may be very
eafily followed.
it is hardly worth noticing that without fome ac-
companying obfervations, as affording the probable
grounds of fuccefs, no experiments whatever may be
cxpefted to be made from the receipt.'*
Explanation
"^
Library
N. C. Stiite College
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE
Explanation of the Cuts.
PLATE I.
A Farm-yard, homeftead and buildings ; explained
in the work, page 74 to 76.
PLATE IL
Fi<y. L A family laboratory, alfo mentioned in page 78.
n The tripartite brewing kettle. A boiler, p
Fire-place : from whence fmoke to the meat above.
q Beams fufpending meat, in fmoking it. 5 A re-
gifter, open when the fmoke is to pafs through the .
chimney ; Ihut when to be thrown into the room,
amongft the meat at 6; an aperture through which
fmoke paiTes among the meat, when 5 is Ihut clofe ;
and {hut, the extent of the thicknefs of the mafony
there, when the fmoke is to pafs through the
chimney at the top. In this houfe, meat may be
cut up, falted and fmoked : lard and tallow tried:
candles and foap, made : wafhing, ironing, fpin-
ning, carding, dying, brewing, purifying fait,
fcalding milk utenfils with water palling through
the wall from the boiler. Sec. be performed. Green
hiccory gives the fweeteft and bed fmoke : fuperior
to dry hiccory or locufl:, afli, oak ; and to corn
flalks ; all having been tried by me in drying raalr.
r I -
EXPLANATION
' Fig. II. Ground-floor of a Pennfylvania barn, as de-
figned by a Chefler county farmer, a Horfe lia-
ble, having one fmall and two larger doors. It is
14 by 35 feet. b Store cattle, in ftalls : lize 60
by 13 feet, with two doors. c Beef-cattle.
This lide of the houfe^ if at a bank cut down, has
only one end-door. The fize of the fhelter 44 by
1 7 feet. d Chaff room ; having a cheft for
horfe-feed ; another with cattle meal. e A long
paffage to feed from, 60 by 5 feet, has a box to
chop potatoes in. /Short paffage 35 by ^\
feet, with a trough for mixing food ; and a fmall
door at the furthermofl end. g Dung and litter
yard. h A gate. / Door into potato vault ;
under the bridge which paffes up to the thrafliing
and grain floor. This fide of the houfe when againfl:
a cut down bank, has one only door for the beeves
to pafs, at one end of the houfe ; and the width
of their apartment is therefore wider than for the
flore cattle.
Fig. III. Ground floor of a propofed barn, flze of
fig. II. The fl:alls 6 feet wide ; each holding two
grown cattle. It has five fide doors, 4 feet wide,
on each front ; which gives one door to 4 cattle or
1 fl:alls. The paffage is here wider than needs be,
being 9 feet. The flails are 13 feet deep. In a
roomy paflage roots are cut, meal flored, &c. be-
fides having the racks, and feeding from thence.
a
OF THE CUTS. 3
a b Area of the bridge, if there is no bank ;
and it is bed to give it great breadth, for admitting
of a large vault, and aiTuring fafety to the teams.
ITiis vault is 15 by 3^ feet the width of the barn.
c Door into the vault. Roots are let down,
into it, through a funnel at the top of the bridge.
It houfes near 20 cattle more than the Chefter coun-
ty houfe.
Fig. IV. Elevation over fig. 3.
Two Ice-Hcuses se&ed.
No. I. is a fe(flion of the ice-houfes built at Wye, as
mentioned in page 304, which kept ice perfedly :
but being only a cube of 9 feet of ice the mafs was but
730 folid feet ; and yet the houfe built to flielter it
from fun and rain was neceflarily 1 3 feet fquare. — In-
ftead of fuch a houfe and pit, it is recommended to
build,
No. II. Under ground one half; above ground the
other half; 5 1 and 5!- are 11 feet, the pen of logs
or timber ; and 1 1 feet fquare ; giving a cube mafs
of ice n feet, or 1331 feet; abundantly fufEcient
for free ufe in any family ; — and yet this house is
but 1 1 feet fquare. «
a. a. The level of the ground, c. Open in all feafons,
for giving vent to fleam ; the eaves alfo are open ;
• for.
Steam
4 EXPLANATION
Steam Ascends— Never Descends.
The mafs of loofe dry draw covering the ice, pre-
vents all acceffion of heat on the furface of the ice,
but admits of a conftant afcent of heat with fleam or
vapour from the Pit.
/. /. Are vents nearly the length of the roof; and
other vents are the eaves, and end-door. Between
the logs and the bank, all around from the bottom
to a foot or two above ground, have found dry
ftraw filled in ; for defending the ice from a conti-
nuance of raoillure, at the fame time that the heat
afcends and carries oif the vapour. Ice can no how
be kept from thawing — Full one fourth of ice ftored,
thaws before the feafon for cooling liquors arrives.
June, July, Auguft, and the fore part of Septem-
ber are months for applying it to liquors. At the
bottom of the pit are logs covering the area. On
ihefe lay faggots or brufli : under them is a fink 6
inches deep.
When family provifions are flored, let it be nearly in
contact with the m.afs of ice. Fifh are not to be
fcaled, nor opened. In a .very hoi time in July,
a fiih entire, weighing near,-6o!b, was I|id on the
bed of ice, faving that a fraall portion fl^^catter-
ing flraw prevented it from quite touchin55''t'he ice ;
and every day it was turned : on the eighth day it
was drefTed, and was perfcflly fredi and looked as
v ^
J^injji,
';j
J I
^J%AM.
^c
Ul—i
4^
T'n/ . \'JZf.
■\j v^
M»^%^c.
OF THE CUTS.
if jufl caught. Ice gives but a little of an atmof-
phere.
m. m. Are covers on the flraw, agaiufl: rain.
PLATE III.
Fig. I. II. Brewing veiTel, 40 inches long : 20 broad:
24 deep. a Divilion 1 3 inches deep : b 9 inches :
c 2 inches. The dotted lines are where the perfo-
rated moveable bottoms are placed. In a is the
'waier or wort ; h contains the malt : and into c the
warm water is pumped up from a and paiTe^
through ; and often returned on the malt wafiies out
its fubflance. The liquor is then boiled in a.
a A imall pump, mine is of metal. Mr. M'Cauley,
Front-ftreet Philadelphia, made my brewing veiTel
of copper ; the fliape of fig. 1. Saying that copper
flieets cannot be bent angularly. At the bottom is
a cock, in one fide of the vefTcI.
Fig. III. A root Aeamer. a Brick flove, having a
pot or kettle fixed in it. Over the pot is a hogshead^
but or cajk ; or an half of either, open at top, with
the bottom full of inch holes, for letting the fleam
up amongfl: the roots. Potatoes, &:c. are to be
walhed clean in balkets, or otiierwifc, before
fleaminq: them.
'o
4
M m Fig. IV.
6 EXPLANATION
Fig. IV. Clover ripple. Wheels 1 6 inches diameter:
box 1 5 inches deep : handles 3 feet long, 22 inches
ap^rt : ripple 1 3 inches long.
Fig. V. Bottom of the clover-feed box, mentioned page
SS, \i'ith. its diagonal holes and divillons.
Fig. M. A ihim blade or hoc, for flony land, a a 22
inches long bb 14 inches wide, with mortifes
for fide pieces, and a large one for a Cieet or flan-
chion. A ftrip of iron or board is occafionally fix-
ed on each fide, for edging up a little earth to
the plants. The middle raortife is to be long, for
receiving a broad and ftrong flbeet or flanchion that
v.iil carry the blade without aid from the fide pieces,
v.htn cccafion.
Fi'^. VII. A fhira blade : fuch as I ufed in ground clear
of (lone and gravel ; gently convex to give it
ftrength, befides that it was fubftantial at its back.
Its fide pieces were of iron, welded to the blade.
Fig. VIII. BeJj of wheat quite fiat, as they appear
on fowing and covering wheat, whiul maize is on
the fame ground, ripening. Alfo rid^cs of wheat
fown, as in common, after cutting cS" the top? of
the maize plants.
Fic;
^lale.
IP',
,2 ^/^
ith^-^
10 ^ ^/
'7p
T
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE
OF THE CUTS. Jr
Fig. 8. Treading floor; with horfes running, promif-
cuoufly.
9. Improved floor ; with bam in the middle.
10. Mr. Singleton's floor, and houfe in the middle.
11. Cattle fl:alls. N° B. according to Mr. Bake-
well. N° S. according to Mr. S. a Yorkfliire
gentleman.
PLATE IV.
Plan and Elevation of a country habitation^
according to page 279, of the work.
PLATE V.
Fig. I. Plan of a cottage, with its yards, garden, and
outbuildings.
A. Front-yard; 80 feet front (though fliortened in
the drawing). It contains, i the cottage ; 2 the
cowhoufe ; 3 manure and woodflied ; 4 the ne-
ceflliry ; 5 fow and pigfty.
B. Back-yard 80 feet long (fhortened as above) ; 20
or 30 feet wide.
C. Garden 80 feet, Cfo fliortened) by 136 feet. The
whole ground in yards and garden, is about ~ih
of an acre.
If
i EXPLANATION OF THE CUTS.
If two cottages were to be built, they fliould
be both in one, and have a ftack of chimneys in
the middle, for both cottages.
Fig. II. Upon a larger fcale fhews plans of the lower
floor, of the bed-rooms upflairs — and a front
view of the houfe.
INDEX.
INDEX.
A.
A
PACE*
.FTERMATH, of timothy, preferable to a
fecond mowing . . . . 14
Agriculture, its tendency in promoting domeftic
peace and happinefs, motto . '> 53^
a propofed ftate fociety of . 356
American crops . . , . 29 to 48
Appoitionment of the expenfes and value of crops 190
Apricot trees made to bear fruit , . . 509
Arms and ammunition, the means of obtaining
them at home .... 259
Afles, feveral kinds . , . , 469
Attentions Ingrolfed by tobacco, injure hufban-
dry in general .... 155
Aquamaque bean, a manure • . . 46
Ages of cattle and ftock . . . 131
B.
Bacon, its weight, green and cured . . 405
cured a la Pocock . . . 404, 406
fmokcd in a houle . . . 78
Barley, common feed for horfes in Afia and Egypt 1 34.
Barns in Pcnnfylvania, their form . . ibid,
propofed on aiiother defign . . 85
Baths and bathing highly beneficial . 296 to 299
Beans, feeded with a fimple drill . . 99
in a fallow crop . . . 35 to 4»
dwarf and runners . . . ibid.
American, their qualities . • 44
N n
INDEX
FASE.
Beaos, diflance of rows in a fallow crop . r»
Beds of wheat, how made . . • oc, 21?
better than ridges . . , 214
lying north and fouth or eail and weft . 219
Beef, pickled . . . , 404.
according to Pocock , . . ibid.
dried for fiamily \ife . . . . 406
to barrel, for the market . , •437
do. in hot weather . . . 440
falted hot, by Admiral Knowles . . 442
Beer, in a folid (late, to be diffidved^occaflqnally . 425
homebrewed recommended . . 74
tripartite brewing, an cafy method . 326
^es, in lateral boxes .... 84
^fnni oil, from Sefamum . . . , ijSo
Bilcuit, to make .... 407,
l^des of naaize, boldly ftripped off . . ^107
Bpiling houfe . . . . . 8i.
Bramble, a valuable and lingular plant . 489
fence . . . . ibid.
Bread, to make and bake . . . 409
called handy-cake, or potafb . . 411
<f( potatoes .... 332
Breeds, of cattle, Iheep, and hogs . . . 161
of horfes . . . . 23, 175,
Brine, of full ftrength . . . 414
Buckvt'heat, plowed in . . . 6, 46, 59
its qualities . . . 5^* 55,
paftured or twice cut . . 146
fteltering crop to clover, 5cc. 35, 54, 42
its ftraw good food . . 185
Bugs, or chinches to deftroy, . . 414.
Bnfhel in ufc,. the iize . . . . 19
Butter, to make, pot, and preferve . 271 to 275
the quantity from cows in England . 140
from a Chinefe cow . r • 165
1 N t) E SC
c.
Cabbages, whether to tranfplant or not . 40, 400
planted in the ftep of maize . 40, 432
Calves, to rear . . . . 413
Candles to make, with improved tallow . . 419
Carts, with one horfe or ox . . 429, 430
Carrots, culture and application . . 474
Ca,ftor oil, how made . . . . 446
Cattle, pa (lured and foiled; kept and fattened 141
fattened in France with great fpeed . 401
food, to keep and to fatten them, different 61
food boiled, doubly eflicacioUs . . 62
food, the annual expenditure . . .63
what are deemed full eaters . . 64
houfed, the attendance requifite . . 66
watered, and then ftroll and rub . 74
houfe and ftalls . . . .83
kept, or fattened in winter . . 141
ground, the quantity requifite per annum 142, 144
houfe, for fweating to fatten quick . 157
age in which they fatten beft . . 161
fize of them . . . .161
general obfervatioos on them . 161 to 172
Cellar windows, when to be open or (hut . 302
Cellars unwholefome . . . .280
Cement-floors, to make . . . 521
Chaff from cut-ftraw, how ufed . . 64
Change of fpecies . . . .23
of feeds .... ibid.
Charcoal, a non-condu<5tor of heat . . 309
Cheefe, to make it . . . 448,451,452
Chickens, how to fatten ... 78
Chimnies improved .... 299
Chinch bug, to deftroy . . . . 414
INDEX.
rAGK.
Circumference kEown, to find the diameter , loo
Ci&ems, for family uie . . . 416
Claj, a nisnure . . . . 56
Clover and laving its Heed ... 85
feed, fow on buckwheat in July . 7, 54
on rye, &c. .... 10
c£iax renewed . . . . 11
with orchard grafs . . .13
onfoitable with timothy . . ibid,
of fowing on the lame ground repeatedly . 22
injursd by worms in England . . 23
in Americaj better than in England . 27
in entire fields, cheapens bottom lands . 3 (
difference between lots and fields . 67
fo^vn from a box . . . . 86
quantity fown per acre . . ibid,
method of faring feed . . 86, 87
when fown, beft not to cover . . 92
Macro's method of fowing . •93
Coal, its dull made into maifes for fuel . . 194
Commerce, its tendency on the morals of a peo-
ple — motto . . . 532
its evil tendency . . .402
new fources, of a bad tendency to the
farmer .... 309
Compofts of manure, made on head lands . 82
Cookery, cautions to be obferved in it . . 342
Cottagers and cottages, thoughts on them . 387
Country life, more amiable than commercial
habits — moito .... 402
Courfes of crops defined (fee Crops) . . 2
Cows, far driven injures the curd and milk . 448
of China, their quahties . . 1 65
Cow-boufes, fize and conveniencies . • 81
Cream cheefe, how made . • • 45 ^
Crops in orderly rotation, advantageous . 2, 9
INDEX.
Crops, EnglifK old courfes . « , ly
do. new courfes . . .21
exhaufting or ameliorating . , 22
long and often repeated impovcrifh land . 24
the courfes in England . . . 27
in America . . . . 29, 30
many in fucceffion, perfeded by each a
fingle plowing ! . , . 37» 3^
round and complete, by Young . 46
unabating under the new principles . 47
recurring in a rotation where one field is in
meadow or hemp, whilft the others in-
terchange . . . . 56, 70
their produds eftimated . . . 60
the quantities expended in food to ftock . 61
of a particular farm eftimated . . 68
Croffing the ftrain in breeding ftock . . 23
Curd, how made .... 423, 450
warmth of the milk . . . 449
^•
Dairy, great part of its profits are from fows and
pigs kept by it . . . 135
marble table for working butter on it . 275
Defign, of a grafs farm near a city . . 4
Diameter known, to find the circumference . 100
Diet, in rural economy . . . 330
for prifoners . , . . . 510
Diftillation, improved . . . 429
Ditches, eafily made .... 200
Drank, a German term for a mixed drink 6 1 , 64, 122
how made ... 64
Dried beef, to cure . . • 405* 4°^
Drill, to make, eafJy, for beans, &c. . 99
Ducks, how to fatten . • • • 77
I M D 1 X.
FAGI.
Dung of flieep and hogs eftimated . . 65
of geefe, when houfed and littered . ibid,
for compofts, made on head lands . . 82
kept dry, or partialiy wet . . 136
dropt in pafturing is chiefly loft . 143
enriched by the qualities of the food
from oil-cake, is doubly rich . , 1 60
given by liveflock • • . 64
Education for counti^ life . * 482, 493
Eggs, how to ktep . . , . 424
Employment, the beft of charities . . 465
Exhaufters of foil are com and feeds . . 28
Experiments, method of regiftering them . 213, 221
proving the hardinefs of maize . 106
advantageous -when made in the
extreme . . 106, 10^
» on limeftone and gypfum manures 408
comparative, between broadcaft and
drilled, on various crops, by Amos 477
F.
%t^ Fallow crops, a ftring of them, in fucceflion, ott
one plowing each . . . 37
deep plowed, in flufliing, inripfoves foil . 239
Fz^ows in maize and potatoes . , 189
propofed under garden peas . . 38
manured by Englifh farniws . * . 18
fhadcd, or naked . . . 18, 19
the intention of them and eflfed on ground 2 1
treated of by Forbes . . 445
crops are horfehoed under fhade . 29
in America . . . 32
in beans, dwarf or runners . 4a
I M t} B X.
Fallow crops, with lliade and green drefllng . 45
Farming, its principal links . • • 4^
Farms in Hanover, with the ' ftock foiled. . 69.
in grafs, near towns . ♦ '4
divided in the Englifh old crops . . 17
Farm-yard, manure and management . 118 to 133
the quantity of its nianure per beaft 65
with its offices . . 74 ^o 85
as managed in America and in England 1 20
Fattening and keeping ftock, the difference . 159
the materials for hogs . 1.89 to 194
cattle in England. . . ^A^
do. in France . . . 4^'
Feet, reduced to bufhels . . . 467
Fences, fcarcity of materials, and methods pro-
pofed of making fences . . 194
need few divifions where foiling is practifcd 4
the expenfe borne by neighbours . 2&
made of Brambles . . . 489
Fire-places, improved . . . 299
Firft impreffions on young minds . . 48 a
Filh, cured in the fun . . . •4^5
Flax, its culture . . . . 398
Flaxfeed-jelly, its qualities, and how made . x6o
Floors of cement . . • . 5^®
of Venetian cement . . . 282
Fly, the moth kind, how tofecure wheat froni it 241
Food for ftock, Ihould be partly moift . 140
in foihng, the quantity requifite . 152
for ftock, fhould be proportioned between
winter and fummer wants . . 4^
boiled, improves it two to one . .62
the forts applied to liveftock . . 63
annual lexpenditure by a horfe . . ibid,
do. by a hog . • • »hid.
to horfes in Afia and Egypt, barley only 1 34
INDEX.
G.
Gates, the beft fort for farms . . 470
Geele, fattened In Languedoc . . . 77
propofed to houfe and litter . . 66
Grain-farm, an efpecial defign . . 4^
rotations of crops . . . 17
do. do. with cosrinued meadow
and Heip.p . . ^6
culture or liveftock, a choice , 369 to 387
the quantity exported . . 372 to 374
yearly expended on ftock . . 63
at market, compared with liveftock . . 69
farm compared with grafs and ftock farm % ibid.
Granary, with diviiions . . . 83
Grapes, a badfubject of cuItIva.tion for the flaple
of a cour.-ry . . . 240
Gra£s rotations of crops ... 3
requiGte a year for ftock . . . 63
crops in tables of the courfes . . 15
in foiling, ^ded by buckwheat and m a i ze
fown thick for the pur|X)fe . . 145
and ftock farm, fuperior to grain . • 69
Green drefllng, by plo^ring in green herbage . 6, 45
in a fyftem of recurring crops . 8
GypTam manure, as experienced by a number
of farmers . . 344 to 355
its llrength, how to try it . 356
H.
liabitations, to build fecurely . . . 279
Hams, their weight green or cured . • 403, 404
cured to the beft advantage . 404, 406
Haws, to promote their growing . . 198
Hay^ propofed from rye ... 6
kept ever to fupply grafs in drought . 14^
I N D E X.
FACE.
Hay, from timothy and orchard grafs, for topping
clover ftack*, and to mix layer oa layer . 49
c[ rye ... . .6
a load . . . i::7
quantity per annum, for ftock . . 63
Heat, how avoided in Sicily . . . 45^
difference indoors and out . . . 303
rofifted by draw and charcoal . 306, 309
Hemp, culture and preparation for market 108 to 118
in a rotation of various crops . 50, 56, 70
may grow long on the fame ground . icS
compared with tobacco . . 116
preparation of it for linen . . 117
fpin it in a d;imp place . . 1 1 1
pull rather foon than late . . ibid.
leave in water long, rather than take it out
too foon .... ibid.
Herrings cured and barreled . . . 4 1 S
Keflian-fly, oppofed by rolling, &c. . . 5S
fome account of it . . 242;
Hills, how to plow them . . . 2 l
Hirelings more profitable tlian Haves . . 391
Hog-ciilerns, how confirufred . . . 519
Hogs, annual expenfe of food . . 6^
obfervations on thera . 161, 185 to 189
the food that bed fattens them . ibid-
Homeflead, its contents ... 74
Hops, of Famliam, to grow and cure . 327
Horie, his aimual expenfe of fcH)d . . 63
the mod expenilve feeders . 154, 155
breed from ycur ov%-n till you find a better,
without regard to crcuin^ the drain . 25
Horfchoing defin;d . . . 21, 31
Oo
INDEX,
Houfe, fee talii^'icn, Sec.
Hung beef, Trell prepared . . . 405
Hufbaadmen, different in fyftematlc applications
of labour, &c. . . . i
afhamcd to acknowledge their igno-
rance, &c. ... 48
in the inland country, and on the
coafl, of different difpofitions,
moita . . . .402
I.
Ice, how kept .... 415
creams ..... ibid.
its ufe in Sicily and Italy . . 455
applied in making butter . . '79
houfcs, the principles on which to conftrudt them 304
Idle farmers . . . . 154
IrapoTeriihment of ground, by what means . 156
Improvements, too little fought by hulbandmen . 2
in husbandry, are often introduced by
ftrangers to the praclice of it 48
flyly ftolen from the difcoverer —
alhamed to acknowledge it . ibid.
Income, from grain and liveftock . . 69
of a farir., fiated on a crop . . 68
Infects injurious . . . . 241
Irrigated lands, rcTidered cheap by the field culture
of clover . . . . . 31
K.
Keeping cattle and fattening them, the difference 141, 15^
Kitchens, cautions in building . . 76
oa the lops or upper ftories of houfes . 295
INDEX.
L^Tbour, mllappUed by hufbandmen . . i
hired, is cheaper than from flaves . '39'
Laboratory and fmoke hcgife . . .78
Labourers, particulars of them . . 387
expenfcs in England . . . 516
do. in Ireland . . 517
Lambs, dropping in March, aflbit them . 6^
Lands, how impoverifhed in Maryland . 67
hovr reftored in Pennlylvania . . ibid.
improvable by plowing in clover and old
ftubble, &c. . . . ibid.
Larch, recommendations of the tree . . 428
the firft of all trees and of all wood . 523
Leather, how made to reHft water , . 488
Level, ufed in irrigating groimd . . ^2:^.
Lime-manure, the quantity and effeifts . •239
Limeftone, a manure when powdered . . 484
Linfeed-jelly its virtues and how made . . 160
Litter, fcarcely wanted by beafts houfed . . 56
very neceflary in yards . . . 126
of maize ftalks, very good . . 12S
Liveftock, the firft fubject of farms . 369 to 3S7
the crops applied in food to them . 6 1
ftall fed or foiled ... 69
and grain, the difference at market ibid.
of tliefe liveftock Is the beft 369, 387
quantity exported . . 372 to 374
difference in the effeifl between a bare
fufficiency and an abund.ince . 66
profits from liveftock . . .65
fee Jloci
Load of hay or ftraw . , . 127
Lombardy poplar, its qualities and ufcs . 427, 42S
INDEX.
M.
PAGE.
Madder, a valuable crop . . . 468
Maize, its culture Avith v.'heat, a new method . 100
its feed improved .... 462
how cultivated in Italy and France . 463
fown thick. in brcadcafl, for flail feeding or
foiling .... ibid,
greatjy improves fattening cattle as ufed in
France .... ibid.
its cultivation on Long Ifland . . ibid,
as a fallow crop . . . 189
Maize, very fattening . . . 1 89
bell of the corns . . . 33
early harvefted, a new method . . 41
its hardinefs in culture, and advantages to it
from expofmg the roots . . 107
admits of the tops and blades being early
cut or plucked off . . . ibid.
requires much fun . . . 237
Malt, of procuring or making it . .324
Manufavftories, to let in gradually . . . 309
^lanure, from farm-yards . . . 118
from gypfum, in much experience . 344
in Magothy bay bean . . 46
flieltered from fan . . . ^^
method of applying it . . ibid.
increafed and improved by houfmg flock ibid.
in clays. Sec. tried on various foils . ^6
from top drefTmg . . 5^> 59
little and frequent . . 58
quantity from cattle in a yard . 6§
how faved by Bakewell . . 66
to be unceaflngly applied . • 68
INDEX.
fAGE.
Manure, from compofls at headlands . . 454
from gypfum certified by many farmers 344 to 355
from powdered limeftone and gypfum,
by Chancellor Livingfton . • 484
how it operates . . . 238
try various fubflances on various foils . 58
from turf-dykes . . . 240
Manurings, fyftematically recurring . . 9
Marble table for butter . . . 275
Marl, fcarcc — of trying what prefents . . 64
Meadows, become cheap from field culture of clover 3 1
for feven years, during annual crops in
rotation . . . $c, 56
Meal, the annual expenditure by (lock . • ^3
Meat, kept frefli a year . . . 437
a method of faking and curing in England . 461
method according to Pocock . . 404
MelafTes to purify • . . • 460
MefTes, for labouring people . . 339 ^P 34^
Milk, quantity and quality of Suffolk, Bakewell
and China cows . . . 163
quantity alone not evidence of good cows . 168
Milkhoufe . . . . • 7 8
Mills for thrafhing wheat . . . 511
Morals of a people injured by a fudden influx of
property, motto . . 402, 532
Moth-fly in wheat . . . . 241
N.
Ncceflaries, the beft prodaft of land . • 224
Notes and intimations . . * 4^*
INDEX.
o.
PAGE.
Oats, unknown in Afia and Egypt . . 134.
Oil of fefamiim or benni, its qaalities . 160
of caftor, how to make . . . 446
cake, a great fattener of flock . . 1 60
Okra, its ciiltiire and xifes . . . 528
Orchards, precarious in giving fruit . . 74
to manure and prune . . 436
cultivated on improved principles . 497
Orchard-grafs, its qualities . . . 12
the bell companion to clover . 13
the feed precarious in faving it :
gather it whilft yet greenifh . 49
Oxen, their expsnfe and profit . . . 5
profitable when worked in hamefs . 131,132
P.
Painting on plaftered walls with linfeed tea or
fpirit of turpentine, inHiead of oil . . 465
Palma-chrifti, two forts — how caftor oil is made
of the bluifli plant .... 446
Parmefan or Lodian cheefe . . 533^° 53^
Paftures, in England, are made . . 142
in America, are fpontaneous . 143
Pafluring cattle, advantages and difadvantages 142 to 147
inferior to foiling . . 121, 144.
Pauf)€rs, of governing them . . 465
Peach trees, to preferve . . . 507
Peas, the garden forts, for fallow crops . 38, 44
the American, their qualities . . 44
Pickle for meat and fifh . . 404, 414
Pigeon-houfe, fize and form • • • 79
I N D E «.
r.\cc.
Pigs, their food, offal of dairies . . 78, i88
Plantations of trees . . . .523
Plants, whether beft to tranlplant or not . 4C0
Plafter of Paris, fee gypfum
Plows, the importance of the form of mould boards 47 1
with two Ihares . . . ^jz
double mould-boards, important . 104, 105
Plowing, fee horfehoing
fields yearly extirpates weeds . 2 1
in wheat, and harrowing in . ,216
Pocock's family pickle . . . . 404
Pointing, roofs and leaks in houfes . . 396
Pokemely, a Ruffian pickle . . . j.20
Pompion diet . . , . , 341
Pork, kept frefh a year . . . 4^7
pickle by Pocock . . , 404
Poft and rails, deficient in fences . . gj
Potafti bread . . . . .411
Potatoes, yield a fpirit . . . 321
planted in the ftep of maize . . 40
faving them in the field . . 4^6
the crop, how fupcrior to wheat . 160
quantity expended by ftock . . 63
beft planted in June . . . ji
Pottages, a fattening food . . . 1S9
Pottery and glazing, their defe<fts . , 456
Poultry houfe and food . , , • 77
Power of horfes in drawing . . . 429
Produtfls from grain, and from liveftock compared 68, 69
Proviiions, at market, firom liveftock . 37^ to 374
from grain . . ibid.
Pruning orchards, dire<flions for it . , 498
Pudding of potatoes . , . . 33c
Pump, conveying water to milk, &c. . . 8j
INDEX.
R.
PAGE.
Rain water, the pureft to drink . . 481
Ray-grafs, worth trying . , . 14
Reaping, on beds ^i and 7 feet, equal . 221
Rennet fliins, how cured . . 421, 453
liquor to make . . 422, 453
Reft of ground, promotes weeds and hardnefs to
foil ..... 22
Reft, in the way of meadow, during changes of
other crops .... 56
Rice, the forts, and the culture of it . . 275
Ridees, in wheat, better than broad flat lands, svhere
the ground is level, but inferior to beds . 218
better lying north and fouth than eaft and weft 219
Roiling clover in the fpring hardens the ground, if
moift at the time . . . 220
Roofs of houfes, how pointed . . 369
platform, &c. . . . . 285
Rota-baga, time of fowing it . . 41, 474
a Swedifn account of it . . 24
(lands the winters of Pennfylvania . ibid.
Rotations of crops defined ... 2
recurring in orderly courfe . . 7
in grain crops . . . 17
in grafs . . . . 12
adverfe to weeds and a hardnefs of ground 2 x
of crops by Mr. Ames . . 478
Roots, fibrous bind the ground . . 23
tap open ground . . . ibid.
the produ&s and weights of them . 5 2
Root-vault, where placed ... 83
Rubbing pofts, for cattle . . . 145
Ruft, on wheat, checked by rye fowa . . 4S6
Ruta-baga, fee Rota-baga
INDEX.
PACE.
Ry^-hay, propofed, in grafs rotations . . 6
tlie time to cut it . . . 15
Rye, unknown in Afia and Egypt . . 134
S.
Salt, for family purpofes . . . 259
to ftock in artificial licks . ^6, 82, 160, 171
its importance when freely given to ftock 82, 171
Salt provifion, to irelben . . . 432
Salting and curing meat . , 437, 461
Sandy foil, its difpofition refpesfling rain and dung 229
Seeds, whether neceflary to change thsm , 23
difficult to fprout, how promoted . 198
Seins, how preferved . . . .519
Servants, in lieu of flaves . . . 387
better than flaves to the farrner . 391
their wages and expenfes in England . 395
Sefamum-oil, its qualities . . . 160
Shade, from rye, buckwheat, &c. . . 6
{eejbe/ter
plants that delight in it . . 236
Shading fallow crops . . . . 19
Sheep, obfervations on them • . . 161,172
their annual expenditure of food . 63
of foihng tliem . . . 65, 432
the quantity and quality of food neceflary
to keep or fatten them . . 431, 432
their houfe and yard . . ^3
kept up to advantage . . 150, 412
Dilhley breed . . . . ^73
Cully's management of them . 174
management in Maryland . . 177
do. in Pennfylvania . . 184
INDEX.
FAOl.
Shctp, ihcir general food . . . 42 1
their ages to be obferved . . 183
Slielter, is only againft immoderate exhalation . 232
iiscefTary to grafs feeds . . 12, 54
ice fhade
Sheltering crops . : . 6, 18, 45, 50
Shim, defcribed and how worked . . ±7
Shimming, a fort of horfehoing . , .29
Shoes to defend from water . . . 488
Silk, a bad article of the hufbandman's attention . 244
Slaves, their inferiority to farmers , 391 to 393
Sleds, preferred in Yorkihire . . . 400
Smoke-houfe and laboratory . ■ . , yg
Society of agriculture, national . , 356
Soil, hardened and untilled . . .125
improved by liveftock ... 42
impoverilhed by, grain crops . . . ibid.
Soiling liveftock . - . 4, 141, 124, 125
fneep . / . . 6^, 431
compared with pafturing . 121, 141, 144
advantages and difad vantages . 144 to 148
objections by the indolent . . 147
attendance requifite , . 148
quantity of food a day, green and dry . 1^3
the ground daily cut, and how often repeated 154
advantages imputed to it in Hanover . 378
Soups, in rural life . . . 334 to 337
Sowing-feeds, the time early or late for keeping . 539
Sows and pigs, profitably kept by ofFal of a dairy 135
Species, of changing them ... 23
Spirit, from potatoes, how produced . .321
Stalls, for cattle, a Yorkihire method, and Mr. Bake-
well's method . . .139
Stallfeeding, fee fiilifi^ and liveftock
Steaming, an apparatus for potatoes . . 82
Steers, \inprofitable ftock . . . 131
Stercories, how to place thera . . 82
Sties, lor fows and pigs . . . Si
Stock, al vays kept up . . . 4,151
adapted to a villa . . • • 5
annual eipenditure in keeping them . 63
do. do. in fattening them . ibid-
do. do. in foiling them . ibiJ.
{honld be numerous as there is food in quantity 130
the age for difpofing of them . . 131
or grain which to be preferred for culture 369 to 30 7
fee lire ftock
all liveftock thrive befl when houfed . 150
Stock and graf^ farm compared with a grain firm . 69
Stone ware, its compoficion . . .458
Straw, its beft life is in catling and feeding it as
achaflF ... 56, 64, 126
the quantity per acre or crop of wheat . 1 29
annual allowance to ftock . . 63
a manure or not . . . 240
Sugar from maples .... 4
from melons .... C30
cleanfed . . . .. 461
Swamps, improved wi;h willows . 42*»
Sweating, to fatten cattle foon . 158
SwiU, a food for hogs . . . .1:2
Syrup, from melons .... 530
Syfteras in crops and .bufinefs, fuperior yet negle^ed i, 2
round and complete, by Mr. Young . 46
of recurring crops compared to the fpiral
line . . . . S, 56
INDEX.
T.
FACe.
Tallo\v, how improved . . . ^ 419
Tarragon plant and tr^rragon vinegar . 408, 409
Tares, fovs-n in Maryland ... 45
Tethering horfes . . . . 154
Thorns, to make grow from haws . . 198
Thrafhing mills . . . . 411
Timber fcarce .... 194, 523
Timothy grafs, vrhen to-fow it . . . 10
when beft to cut it for hay . . 13
beft to mow but cnce . . 14
flicker die fowing, with buckwheat 54, 59, 70
Tobacco, a crop engroffing attention . 156
Tongues, to pickle a la Pocock . . 405
Top-dreffing . . . . • 58
Trade, new fources that threaten lofles, &c. . 309
Treading foil clofe by beafts . . .125
floor, in the farm yard . . f^^
out wheat, the method . . 202 to 212
Trees, that are tlie leaft: injurious to gi-afs . 4
to cultivate in plantations . . 523
Trench-plowing, try how far it manures your foil . ^^
Turnips, thin in hoeing them . . .60
annual expenditure on (lock . .63
they clean ground, fupport ftock, and pre-
pare for feeding fpring crops . 433
method of culture, by Kent . . ibid,
importance of hoeing them . 434, 435
a fubltitute, more hardy, rota-baga . 24
method of faving them . . 435
' I/. diftance of the plants, late fowing to keep . 539
Tumip-fiy, how to avoid . * . . 448
Tumip-fiicer, defciibed . • • 521
INDEX.
V.
Vault, for keeping roots . • •
Veals, to fell by live -weight
Vegetation, obiervations on it
Vetches, fown in Maryland
Villa, a defign of ciuplu) lueut iuid Itock fui uiic
Vinegar, how made
Vitriolic acid, a manure
Untilling ground, how
22
PAcr.
83
402
223
45
4
407
23
, 125
W.
Wafh, a food for cows . . . •
for boards or (lone walls
Water purified to drink
Watering troughs, care of plugging, 6cc.
ponds how to make
Weeds, increafed by crops of fmall com
Wheat, fown on clover
culture with maize, a new way
treading it out
thick or thin fowlng
top drefled and rolled
fowing on maize
the crop of lefs value than potatoes
various ways of feeding and cultivating it
on flat beds, better than on ridges
Macro's important experience in fowing it
on clover
injured by flies and infeds
fown on one earth, better than often plowed,
where clover is plowed in
122
464
478
80
• 417
28
93. 93
100
203
26
58
• 32
60
476
89, 90
93
241, 243
98
' N D E X.
"" *AGE.
Wheat, experiment? en v>heat fown In beds and ridges ;
harrowed in and plowed in ; rolling wheat ;
reaping . ^ . . 259, 268
cut early, it'tliraflies out beft by the mill 512
fown with rye mixed or bordered prevents ruft 487
its enemies, the moth and the Heffian-fly . 243
beft foviTi-in clufters . . 95 to 97
average produftion per acre . . qo
bow fecured agalnft the moth-fly ^ . 241
ViTieel-barrows having two wheels . . 81
T^Tiite-wafhing preferred for country houfes . 465
Willows, propofed in fwamps « , . 425
Wine, not generally an article of crop . . 244
Wood, how to feafon it . . .458
impenetrable by water . . 459
Y.
Yeaft, called Lettfom's . . . 444
of potatoes .... 445
of Perfia .... ibid.
Gypfum, experienced by farmers to be a manure 484
fails on land rich, wet, or that is near
the fea , . . 486, 487
ERRATUM.
Page ^6, for bare earthen foots — read, on bare paved Jloors.