Vt 
 
 3 ' 
 
 iP\ 
 
THIS DAY IS PUBLISHED, 
 Post 8vo, 544 pp., with Eight coloured Plates, price 18s. 
 
 THE 
 
 AQUARIAN NATURALIST; 
 
 A MANUAL FOR THE SEA-SIDE. 
 
 BY 
 
 Professor T. RYMER JONES, F.R.S. 
 
 " To furnish the ordinary reader then in the most readable and attractive 
 way with full information on the construction, natm'e and habits of all the 
 marine creatures generally met with about our shores, is the general scope of 
 the Professor's work. 
 
 " To all persons ****>!: we can unhesitatingly give the advice : take 
 Professor Jones's book with you, as in it you will find just what you want, 
 and no more — conveyed in language so light and pleasant, so chatty and 
 round-the-lire-of-an-eveningish (to coin a frightful long word), that when 
 you have got through the work, your only astonishment will be, that you 
 have acquired so much really scientific knowledge at so little cost, and with 
 labour so much like play." — Liferary Gazette, August 21, 1858. 
 
 JOHN VAN VOOEST, 1 PATERNOSTER ROW. 
 
8vo, 3s. 6c?., sewed, 
 
 THE GROUND BENEATH US 
 
 ITS GEOLOGICAL PHASES AND CHANGES; 
 
 BEING 
 
 THREE LECTURES ON THE GEOLOaY OF CLAPHAM AND 
 THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF LONDON GENERALLY. 
 
 BT 
 
 JOSEPH PRESTWICH, E.R.S., F.G.S., etc. 
 
 " A popular exposition of the geology of the London neighbourhood, or, 
 to state it more generally, of the Tertiary Series. Seldom or never have we 
 met with any geological statement, intended for an ungeological audience, 
 whicli is at once so lucid, consecutive, and complete. No one can rise from 
 a careful perusal of these lectures without a thorough comprehension of what 
 is meant by the succession of the Tertiary strata, a good general idea of the 
 nature of their probable formation, and of the contemporaneous aspect of the 
 world around, and, what is perhaps yet more valuable, a clear notion of the 
 amount and degi'ee of evidence on which these reconstructive theories rest. 
 Notliing tends more to the sound advance of popular, as well as scientific, 
 geology, than careful local monographs of tliis kind." — Guardian, August 4, 
 1858. 
 
 JOHN VAN VOORST, 1 PATERNOSTER ROW. 
 
TOBACCO 
 
 ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
»^&. 
 \^>' 
 
 {/•"-'■ 
 
 AND ITS 
 
 A DU 17 ERA?] 9?] 3; 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS DRAWN & ETCHED 
 
 ^^;^3t^ ..^ rllhsiy IF, fKl^€Q-i-L ,i^, 
 
 OF THC INLAND REVENUE DEPARTMENI 
 
 LONDOK 
 
 JOHK VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROV^T^ 
 
 18 5 8. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The following pages have been written for the pur- 
 pose of assisting Officers of the Government, and others 
 interested in the subject, in acquiring a knowledge of 
 the characters of unmanufactured and manufactiured 
 Tobacco, and of enabling them to detect its impurities. 
 
 Among the adulterations which have from time to time 
 been discovered in manufactured Tobacco, the follow- 
 ing substances may be named : — Leaves of Rhubarb, 
 Docky Burdock, Coltsfoot, Beech, Plantain, Oak, and Elm ; 
 Peat-earth, Bran, Sawdust, Malt-rootlets, Barley-vieal, 
 Oat-meal, Bean-meal, Pea-meal, Potato-starch, and Chi- 
 cor^-leaves steeped in tar-oil. 
 
 From the foregoing enumeration it will be evident 
 that the object in view cannot be attained by the study 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 of Tobacco alone, and that, as the adulterating ingre- 
 dients are for the most part derived from the Vegetable 
 World, the structm-al peculiarities of the roots, stems, 
 and leaves of other plants, and the forms of their con- 
 stituent elements, require to be carefully studied. 
 
 The subjects illustrated have been selected from my 
 note-book, principally with reference to the known 
 adulterations of Tobacco. The leaves of some plants to 
 which Tobacco is allied have been selected for the pur- 
 pose of enabling the Student to compare their forms and 
 structure, others on account of some resemblance which 
 they bear to each other, and, as such, affording useful 
 examples in the metliod of analysis which the book is 
 intended to teach. A few leaves of plants possessing 
 poisonous or medicinal qualities have also been intro- 
 duced, in the belief that Students in Medicine who are 
 making microscopical study a branch of their pro- 
 fessional education will find the volume of some use. 
 Collaterally, the Microscopist and the Physiologist may 
 feel interested in the forms and structure of the hairs 
 of leaves, whose uses in Nature's vast ceconomy science 
 has not yet explained. 
 
 To render the work more useful to those for whom it 
 is chiefly intended, a concise description of the Construe- 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 tioii of the Microscope, and its Management in the Exa- 
 mination of some Vegetable Tissues, has been added. 
 
 It has been my endeavoiu" to dispense with scientific 
 terms as much as possible ; but in doing so there is a 
 constant tendency to fall into a diffuse and indefinite 
 method of expression. It is hoped therefore that the 
 reader unacquainted with scientific language will not 
 be scared by a few terms that may at first appear harsh, 
 but rather that he wall court that familiarity with them 
 which a httle patient study will be sure to bring. 
 
 To Sir William Hooker, Director of the Royal Gardens 
 at Kew, and to Dr. Joseph Hooker, I am indebted for 
 the liberal supply of fresh specimens of leaves, &c., 
 from which my analyses and drawings have been made ; 
 to the latter gentleman especially my best thanks are 
 tendered for many useful hints on the subject of botani- 
 cal illustration. 
 
 To Mr. John Pye, whose name is so honourably 
 associated with the best productions in the English school 
 of landscape-engraving, my grateful acknowledgments are 
 here offered for his valuable direction in the etching of 
 the Plates, — friendly assistance wliicli has contributed as 
 largely to any merit they may possess, as it has lessened 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 my labour and anxiety in producing them. Beauty of 
 delineation has been less aimed at than accuracy : some- 
 thing will be gained to the student if the freshness which 
 alone pertains to life-studies has been preserved. 
 
 The authorities from whom information has been 
 derived have, in every instance, been carefully cited. 
 Where the name of Dr. Lindley appears, reference is 
 intended either to that author's ' Vegetable Kingd<5m,' 
 ' Medical and CEconomic Botany,' 'Elements of Botany,' 
 or ' School Botany,' — works which have been frequently 
 consulted. 
 
 HENUY P. PRESCOTT. 
 
 St. John's Wood, 
 July 1858. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Page 
 Introduction 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Leaves : — Form and Venation . . . 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Vegetable Cells and Vessels, and their Contents .... 12 
 
 The Vegetable Cell 12 
 
 The Cell-wall 12 
 
 Cell-contents 14 
 
 Forms of Cells and Vessels 15 
 
 Secondary Deposits 18 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Anatomy of Plants 20 
 
 Structure of the Root 20 
 
 Structure of the Stem 22 
 
 Heart-wood 25 
 
 Beech-wood 25 
 
 Mahogany-wood 25 
 
 Pine-wood 26 
 
 Logwood 2G 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Structure of Leaves 2/ 
 
 Tobacco 32 
 
 Tobacco (pure and adulterated) 35 
 
 Thorn-apple 36 
 
 Deadly Nightshade 39 
 
 Potato 41 
 
 Burdock 43 
 
 Butterbur 45 
 
 Coltsfoot 47 
 
 Chicory 49 
 
 Dandelion 52 
 
 Sunflower 54 
 
 Elecampane 56 
 
 Comfrey 58 
 
 Dock '. 60 
 
 Rhubarb 62 
 
 Foxglove 64 
 
 Mullein — High Taper 66 
 
 Green Hellebore. — Stinking Hellebore 68 
 
 Plantain 71 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Starches 73 
 
 Tous-les-mois 76 
 
 Potato 77 
 
 Rye 78 
 
 Wheat 79 
 
 Barley 80 
 
 Oat 80 
 
 Tobacco 81 
 
 Rice 81 
 
 Bean 82 
 
 Pea 82 
 
 Orris-root 82 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Microscope 84 
 
 Construction 84 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 I'age 
 
 Forms of lenses 84 
 
 Action of lenses 85 
 
 Focal length of lenses 86 
 
 Simple Microscope 87 
 
 Compound Microscope 88 
 
 Spherical aberration of lenses 88 
 
 Decomposition of light — the prismatic spectrum . . 89 
 
 Chromatic aberration of lenses 89 
 
 Correction for spherical and chromatic aberration . . 89 
 
 Achromatic object-glass 90 
 
 Eye-glass — field-glass 90 
 
 Eye-piece 90 
 
 Illumination of objects 90 
 
 Condenser 90 
 
 Side reflector 90 
 
 Mirrors 91 
 
 Management of the Microscope 92 
 
 Impurities 93 
 
 Air-bubbles 94 
 
 Position of the microscope 95 
 
 Examination of Vegetable Tissues 95 
 
 Dissecting Microscope 96 
 
 Dissection 96 
 
 Vertical sections of leaf-blade 98 
 
 Epidermis of midrib, veins, and leaf-blade .... 99 
 
 Ve rtical sections of wood 1 00 
 
 Examination of samples of snuff 100 
 
 Chemical reagents and their uses 101 
 
 Examination of wood-structures, &c 102 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 History, Use, Cultivation, and Manufacture of Tobacco . . 105 
 
 History and use of Tobacco in England 106 
 
 Cultivation of Tobacco 115 
 
 Manufacture of Tobacco for smoking, chewing, and 
 
 snuffing 119 
 
 Raw and Manufactured Tobacco imported into En- 
 gland, and exported 1 2.'3 
 
TOBACCO 
 
 AND 
 
 ITS ADULTETIATIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The various and beautiful organic structui'es contained in the 
 Vegetable Kingdom have, many of them, important relations to 
 the necessities and the luxuries of mankind. Foremost among 
 these may be considered the all-important one of food, which 
 vegetation furnishes, either directly to man himself, or indi- 
 rectly to him, as the nourishment of those animals which he 
 consumes. Cotton, a vegetable product j coal, also of vegetable 
 origin ; medicinal herbs, with their thousand applications to the 
 alleviation of human pain ; and tobacco, the narcotic indul- 
 gence, in a greater or less degree, of nearly the whole civilized 
 globe, are so many illustrations of the manifold uses of plants 
 and their products. 
 
 Not less wonderful than the beauty and symmetry of the 
 outward forms of plants, are the wide distribution and enormous 
 amount of organizing forces which they possess, enabling them 
 (unlike the members of the animal kingdom) to throw out new 
 
 B 
 
d TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 tissues from any part almost of their structure, and, by tlie 
 rapidity with which these increase, to yield to man and animals 
 an ample supply of useful material. Dr. Desaguliers, a French 
 philosopher, ascei'tained, by careful experiment, that a turnip 
 seed increased fifteen times its own weight in a minute, and the 
 root fifteen thousand times its original weight per day*. 
 Familiar instances of the enormous amount of vital force pos- 
 sessed by the seeds of plants are seen in the growth of them in 
 moistened flannel, a medium sufficient to elicit this latent energy, 
 and, for a time, to sustain it. The germination of grain in the 
 malting process is another instance in which water and air exert 
 a similar influence. The readiness with which plants throw out 
 their tissues from almost any part of their structure, to form 
 new plants, is taken advantage of by the gardener in his opera- 
 tions of "cutting" and "grafting :" in that of layering, as it is 
 technically termed, he repeats a natural process constantly occur- 
 ring during the growth of the Strawberry plant. 
 
 Nature does not perhaps exhibit a grander phenomenon for 
 contemplation than the silent appropriation and assimilation by 
 plants, of those gases which, either exhaled from the lungs of 
 animals, or as the products of fermentation and putrefaction of 
 decaying animal and vegetable matters, are continually floating 
 in the atmosphere and prove injurious to animal life. Among 
 these are carbonic acid and ammonia. In the assimilation of 
 the carbon, and liberation of the oxygen of the carbonic acid 
 by the leaves of plants, they may be considered so many labo- 
 ratories wherein this gas is resolved into its constituent ele- 
 ments — a result which the profoundest chemist strives in vain 
 to accomplish ; in yielding oxygen, they return to the air its life- 
 sustaining element. In their outward aspect, beauty of form, 
 of texture, and of colour combine to render them most at- 
 tractive objects. 
 
 * Lindley's Elements of Botany. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 3 
 
 There is not a plant that grows but has its leaves formed on 
 a fixed and definite plan ; and in each plan may be distinctly 
 traced a peculiarity of its own. The shape which leaves assume 
 is, in some instances, of so marked a character as to enable 
 us to predict with certainty the poisonous properties of the 
 plant which has produced them; whilst the arrangement of 
 their veins is a no less certain index of the internal structure of 
 the stem on which they have grown, and even of the seed from 
 which their parent plant has been derived. Thus the oak-leaf 
 and the acorn alike inform us of the arrangement of the minutest 
 fibres within the giant stem which has supported and matured 
 them. 
 
 When the structure of a leaf is examined, it is found to be 
 covered externally with a delicate transparent skin, or epidermis, 
 on which are thickly clustered extensions of its cellular elements 
 in the form of hairs, so minute that the quickest sight can only 
 detect their presence as a soft downy substance, but in which 
 the microscope reveals to us a forest of forms as various as the 
 leaves on which they grow, and withal as true as they to their 
 appointed symmetry. Lying scattered among these, again, are 
 the pores [stomates), through which air and gases find their way 
 to or from the interior of the leaf; and beneath these, cavities 
 which conduct them to the inner laboratory, built up of num- 
 berless cells, in which they are decomposed or absorbed. 
 
 On examining the substance of some leaves, minute crystals, 
 truly geometrical in their forms, are seen suspended in beautiful 
 clusters from the ceiling of a cell, or lying in compact or scat- 
 tered masses on the floor within it, in the form of delicate 
 needle-shaped bodies, which become beautifully tinted with 
 variegated colours under the action of polarized light. Or, 
 again, myriads of starch-granules, differing in their forms ac- 
 cording to the plant in which they are found, lie stored in the 
 cells of their leaf-stalks, stems, and roots. From the extreme 
 
 b2 
 
4< TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 delicacy of all these bodies, they elude any mechanical efforts to 
 destroy their structure, however finely either leaf, stem, or root 
 may be divided. 
 
 Taking, then, the definite characters which the external /or??i 
 and venation of leaves afford, and those structural peculiarities 
 of them, and of the stems and roots of plants, which the micro- 
 scope exhibits to us, it will be seen that there exists abundant 
 evidence of what is, and of what is not, "Tobacco,^' and that 
 if, by the substitution of the spurious for the genuine, our senses 
 are at times imposed upon, it is because we have neither exa- 
 mined nor studied those signs which here, as in her other 
 works. Nature offers continually to our view, serving as infallible 
 guides in the search after Truth, — and, it may be added, evi- 
 dences of that Power and Wisdom which framed the heavens 
 and the earth. 
 
LEAVES : FORM AND VENATION. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 LEAVES :— FORM AND VENATION. 
 Plates III. & IV. 
 
 Leaves form the respiratory and digestive apparatus of the 
 plant. Their position on the stem is such as enables them to 
 expose a large surface to the action of the sun, light, and air ; 
 and the numerous pores {stomates) with which their surfaces are 
 furnished allow them to exhale gaseous matters freely, as well 
 as to aerate the juices conveyed to them from the stem. 
 
 A leaf consists of two parts : a flat, expanded portion called 
 the blade, or lamina {I, Fig. 3) ; and the leaf-stalk, or petiole (p). 
 The blade of the leaf is its principal portion, and its margin, 
 or boundary, defines the shape of the leaf. 
 
 Exceptions to this rule occur in cases where the outline of the leaf is 
 very irregular, or deeply cut, such for instance as in the leaf of Thorn-apple 
 (Plate XV.). In defining the form of such a leaf, it is usual to consider 
 an imaginary line bounding its extreme points, called a circumscription. 
 In this sense the leaf is said to have an ovate form. 
 
 The lamina, or blade, has two faces : the upper one, when the 
 leaf is in its natural position, is turned, more or less, towards 
 the sky ; the lower towards the earth. The base of the leaf is 
 that part of it to which the stalk is attached, when present, or 
 by which the leaf itself is joined to the stem. The, point of the 
 leaf is opposite to the base. The blade of the leaf is ti'aversed by 
 numerous lines, forming, as it were, a framework on which it is 
 stretched ; these are most prominent on its under surface, and 
 are called, according to the degree of their prominence, ribs, 
 veins, and nervures. When one vein extends from the base to 
 
6 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 the point of the leaf, dividing the blade into two equal, or nearly 
 equal parts, it is called a midrib {m, Fig. 4) . 
 
 The venation of leaves is a term applied to the branching of the 
 rib or 7'ibs, veins, and nervures, through the blade ; and is either, 
 
 Parallel-veined — when the veins proceed from the base to 
 the point of the leaf in a, parallel direction (Fig. 1). 
 
 CuRviNERVED — whcn the principal veins nin in a curved 
 direction from the base to the point of the leaf. Ex. Plantain 
 (Plate XXXVI.). 
 
 Reticulated, or net-veined — when the veins and nervures 
 branch laterally from the rib or ribs, through the blade of the 
 leaf, the primary veins not reaching to the margin (Figs. 3, 4). 
 
 Feather-veined — when a prominent midrib, or vein, gives 
 off other (primary) veins laterally, which go directly to the 
 margin of the leaf (Figs. 9, 14). 
 
 Radiated — when the principal ribs or veins radiate from a 
 common point of the leaf-stalk, or base of the leaf (Figs. 7, 15). 
 
 Terms defining the forms of leaves are applied — 1. to their 
 general outlines ; 2. to their bases ; 3. to their points ; 4. to their 
 margi7is. 
 
 Entire leaves are those whose margins are continuous and 
 uninterrupted (Fig. 2). 
 
 Divided leaves have their margins cut into various forms, 
 either regularly or irregularly (Figs. 9, 29). When these divi- 
 sions extend deeply into the leaf, from the margin inwards, the 
 leaves are termed lobed (34, 35). 
 
 Compound leaves are those having two, or more, separate 
 leaflets {pinna), with a stalk common to all of them. Ex. Po- 
 tato (Plate XVII.). 
 
 1 . Simple leaves, whose venation is either parallel, reticu- 
 lated, feather-veined, or radiated. 
 
 The forms of such leaves in their general outline are usually 
 designated either by a real or supposed resemblance to some 
 
LEAVES : — FORM AND VENATION. 7 
 
 geometrical or other ligure. Thus there are on Plate III., 
 ¥iG. {!) linear ; (3) lanceolate; (3) oblong; {4) ovate, or egg- 
 shaped ; (5) obovate, with the narrow end to the stalk ; (6) oval, 
 or elliptical; (7) roundish; (8) reniform, or kidney-shaped; 
 (9) cordate, or heart-shaped; (10) obcordate, with the narrow 
 end to the stalk; (11) cordate-acuminate, or heart-shaped, with 
 a lengthened narrow point ; (12) sagittate, shaped like an arrow ; 
 (13) hastate, shaped hke a halbert; (14) spathulate, shaped 
 like a spatula; (\ 5) peltate, shield- or target-shaped; (16) sub- 
 ulate, or awl-shaped; (17) acerose, needle-shaped; (18) angu- 
 lar ; (19) triangular ; (20) cuneate, wedge-shaped ; (21) ovate- 
 lanceolate; (22) oblique, ov unequal-sided; (23) truncate, ter- 
 minating abruptly ; (24) auriculate, having a pair of small ears 
 or lobes ; (33) lyrate, shaped like a lyre. 
 
 The forms of the bases of leaves, when specially referred to, 
 are designated 2i% perfoliate, or perforated by the stem (Fig. 25) ; 
 (26) decurrent, when the blade of the leaf is continued down 
 the stem in a broad or narrow strip ; (27) connate, when the 
 bases of two leaves are united ; (28) amplexicaul, or embracing 
 the stem; (11) cordate; (21) ovate; (5) attenuated, or length- 
 ened; (22) oblique. 
 
 The points of leaves are also distinguished as acute (Fig. 2) ; 
 acuminate, still more acute ; emarginate, or notched inwards (6) ; 
 mucronate, when tipped with a sharp spine (20) ; obtuse, rounded 
 at the point (3) ; cuspidate, or tapering to a stiff point gradually 
 (11). 
 
 The margins of leaves are entire (Figs. 1, 2, 3), or divided 
 (7, 9). 
 
 When the divisions are small and rounded, the leaf has a 
 crenated margin (Figs. 7, 9) ; dentate, or toothed (11). When 
 the extremities of the dentations point towards the apex of the 
 leaf, the margin is serrated (4, 14) ; retroserrate, when they 
 point to the base. When such divisions are again divided, they 
 
8 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 are doubly-dentate, or doubly -serrate (29), or irregularly-ser- 
 rate, &c. 
 
 2. LoBED LEAVES with feather -vcined venation are called 
 pinnatifid (Fig. 30) ; pinnatisect (31) denotes a still greater 
 division of the margin, extending nearly to the midrib of the leaf; 
 bipinnatifid (32), when these divisions are again divided. 
 
 A runcinate leaf is a form of the pinnatifid, in which the 
 divisions of the margin are shaped like the teeth of a large saw. 
 Exs. Chicory (Plate XXIII.) ; Dandelion (Plate XXIV.). The 
 leaf of Thorn-apple (Plate XV.), in which the divisions of the 
 margin alternate in tooth-like projections and rounded curves, 
 is called sinuated. 
 
 3. LoBED LEAVES with radiated venation are known as 
 palmifid or palmisect (Fig. 34) ; the prefix palmi denoting the 
 form of venation as radiated, in the manner of the fingers of the 
 human hand. When the divisions extend still fui'ther, they are 
 distinguished as tri-lobed, quinque-lobed (35), &c. 
 
 4. Compound leaves with feather-veined venation are called 
 pinnate, and are more closely defined by the number of pairs of 
 leaflets [pinn^] of which they are composed. If of one pair 
 only, unijugate (Fig. 36) ; if of many, multijugate (37, 38). 
 When each entire leaflet is composed of several small ones (37, /), 
 the leaf is bipinnate (37). Tripinnate is a term applied to bi- 
 pinnate leaves in which the leaflets are again pinnate. When 
 the division of the leaf into leaflets extends still further, it is 
 called decompound (41). Equally -pinnate is a term applied to 
 compound leaves terminating in a pair of leaflets (37) ; unequally- 
 pinnate, if terminating in one (38). When the leaflets alternate 
 with each other (38), the leaf is said to be aliemi-pinnate ; or 
 interrvptedhj-pinnate, when some of the leaflets are much 
 smaller than the others. Ex. Potato (Plate XVII.) . Com- 
 pound leaves ai'e also designated as ternate (29). 
 
 5. Compound leaves with radiated venation are known as 
 
leaves: — FORM AND VENATION. 9 
 
 palmate, digitate, ternate (Fig. 10), quinate, or septenate (39) ; 
 these last terms defining the number of their leaflets as either 
 3, 5, or 7, joined to the stalk at one point. 
 
 Pedate leaves are such as have their lateral leaflets again 
 divided into segments. Ex. Hellebore (Plates XXXIV. & 
 XXXV.). 
 
 The attachment of leaves to the stem is either by a stalk, or 
 (when this is absent) by the midrib, when they are said to be 
 sessile. Ex. American Tobacco (Plates I. & XL). 
 
 The position of leaves on the stem, is either opposite, alternate, 
 or in whorls or verticils. 
 
 Opposite leaves (Plate IV. Fig. 42) are grouped in pairs at 
 the extreme points of any diameter of the stem. 
 
 Alternate leaves are placed separately at diff'erent heights on 
 the stem (Fig. 40). Ew. Tobacco. 
 
 Whorled, or verticillate, is a term applied to the position of 
 three or more leaves, placed at different points of the stem, in 
 the same plane (Fig. 43). 
 
 Variations in the forms of leaves on the same plant are con- 
 tinually occurring, the leaves situated at the base of a stem 
 having for the most part more strongly-developed characters 
 than those found on any other part of it. The reason of this will 
 be readily understood on reflecting that the lowermost leaves are 
 not only of older growth, but that heat, light and air being 
 essential to their existence, their vital activity is exerted in that 
 direction from whence these proceed, and from the efi"ects of 
 which the leaves disposed on the stem above serve to shade them. 
 Barley seeds, grown in earth, and placed in the darkened recess 
 of a chimney-corner, will, on germinating, bend their leaves for- 
 ward in the direction of the least ray of light. This and many 
 other experiments prove the value of the solar rays to plants ; and 
 repeated observation has confirmed their disposition to move 
 towards the sun. Botanists, therefore, when defining the forms 
 
10 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 of leaves of many plants, refer to them either as radical leaves, 
 stem leaves, or floral leaves. The Tobacco and Dock plants 
 (Plates I. & XXIX.) furnish examples of the variations here 
 alluded to. 
 
 The texture of leaves, more especially of their blades, is con- 
 siderably modified in their outward aspect, both by their vena- 
 tion and the presence or absence of hairs or glands. A broken 
 surface, by reflecting less light to the eye, assumes a rougher 
 texture and a darker colour ; on the other hand, leaves whose 
 outer coverings are of a waxy nature [e.g. Laurel), and conse- 
 quently with more or less polished surfaces, have a brilliant and 
 sparkling appearance. 
 
 The presence of hairs in any quantity on a leaf, will give, 
 according to their nature, the soft downy texture of the under 
 surface of the leaf of Coltsfoot, the roughness of the Potato 
 leaf, or the prickly character of the leaves of Sunflower and 
 Comfrey. The Tobacco leaf, both in its natural and cured 
 conditions, is peculiarly sticky to the touch, owing to the easy 
 fracture of its numerous glandular hairs, which discharge their 
 contents : the immense hydraulic pressure to which the cured 
 leaves are submitted in packing them for exportation, is, simi- 
 larly, the cause of that peculiar greasy appearance which they 
 assume on the application of moisture previous to their manu- 
 facture. 
 
 Terms which explain themselves, such as elastic, brittle, suc- 
 culent, leathery, are applied to those conditions of the leaf which 
 depend for their peculiar characters on the form and structure of 
 the venation and blade, the predominance in either part of cellular, 
 fibrous, or vascular tissues, and the character of the epidermis. 
 In their green state, the leaves of Elecampane (Plate XX VI,) 
 furnish examples of strength afforded by fibrous tissue in the 
 midrib and veins. The garden Cabbage leaf has a succulent 
 midrib and veins, and the blade partakes of both the leathery 
 
LEAVES: FORM AND VENATION. 11 
 
 and brittle characters. When young, the cellular tissue pre- 
 dominates in this leaf, and in others that form our vegetable 
 food ; but with age the fibrous tissue becomes more abundant, 
 making them " stringy," and consequently less palatable. 
 
 Time produces other changes in the tissues of the leaf, as the 
 plant grows to maturity. Its epidermis thickens, the cells form- 
 ing its substance gradually harden, and their contents change 
 their colour from green to some shade of yellow, red, or brown ; 
 at the same time starch, and matters partaking of a resinous 
 character, are formed, whilst the tissues through which the 
 crude sap found its passage to the leaves become stopped up by 
 organic matters deposited within them, circulation is prevented, 
 their functions cease, and the leaf falls. 
 
12 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 VEGETABLE CELLS AND VESSELS, AND THEIR CONTENTS. 
 
 Plate V. 
 
 Excepting among the lower forms of vegetation, and the minute 
 parts of the structures of some flowers, the unassisted eye can 
 readily distinguish the forms of the difierent organs of plants. 
 To obtain a knowledge of their anatomical structure requires the 
 use of a microscope, and special treatment of those parts which 
 form the subjects of inquiry. This instrument not only exhibits 
 to us their internal anatomy, but, in many cases, reveals those 
 phenomena of life which form the subject of the Physiologist's 
 researches. 
 
 The examination of any portion of a plant, either from the 
 root, stem, leaves, or flowers, shows that it is composed of an 
 aggregation of cells and vessels. 
 
 The Vegetable Cell is described by Vegeto-physiologists as a 
 minute and perfectly closed sac, or vesicle, formed by a very 
 transparent solid membrane, the cell-icall (Figs. 1 ?<;, 7 w). 
 
 Among things evident to the unassisted sense of sight, a closed and 
 inflated bladder, in which the skin represents the cell-wall, and the 
 enclosed space that of the cell-cavity, has, not inaptly, been chosen as an 
 illustration, on a large scale, of a vegetable cell, as revealed to us by the 
 microscope. 
 
 This sac, or vesicle, has certain organizable matters contained 
 within its cavity — the cell-contents (Fig. 1, a, h, c), on which its 
 life and development depend. 
 
 The Cell- wall.— The /?^r;rtcaAz7?7y of the cell-wall is a necessary 
 
VEGETABLE CELLS AND VESSELS. 13 
 
 condition of the cell in performing the functions of absorption and 
 transmission of fluids and gases : it would appear that it is only 
 when it becomes charged with secretions partaking more or less 
 of the solid form, that such functions cease to be performed by it. 
 
 Endosmose, an action which is induced whenever two liquids 
 of different densities, capable of mixing with each other, are 
 separated only by a membranous partition, is readily admitted 
 of by the cell-wall, which thus exerts an influence on the life of 
 the cell as an individual organism, collecting and distributing its 
 fluid contents, and determining the relation between them and 
 the contents of the cells by which it is surrounded. Endosmose 
 is also brought into play by the different densities of the fluid 
 matters contained in the cells of the roots of plants, and in the 
 soil through which they ramify. 
 
 Capillarity*, another physical force, is exerted by certain 
 organs largely developed in most vegetable tissues, the vessels 
 and ligneous cells, which, in virtue of their form, convey water 
 with nutrient matters in solution (the crude sap), upwards, 
 through the stem to the leaves. 
 
 Endosmose and capillarity are, again, excited, if not called into 
 action, during the healthy growth of a plant, by the continued 
 evaporation of moisture from the surfaces of its leaves and stem, 
 through the numerous pores {stomates) existing there. To these 
 forces may, perhaps, be added an agency purely chemical, 
 exerted by the mutual reaction of the mineral constituents which 
 are drawn from the soil, and the organic substances within the 
 cell, constituting its entire or partial contents. 
 
 The walls of cells and vessels, in very many cases, are subject, 
 
 * The force to which this term applies is of the nature of a molecular 
 action established between two bodies. It is exhibited in a naiTow glass 
 tube containing water : the height of the liquid at the sides near the glass 
 is greater than at the middle of the water-surface, this elevation being 
 due to the exertion of the force of attraction alluded to between these 
 substances. 
 
14 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 at an early period of their growth, to the formation of deposits, 
 either homogeneously, or partially only, on their inner surfaces, 
 which are thereby thickened and strengthened. Over the entire 
 surface this deposit occurs in the form of lamellse, or plates of 
 different thicknesses, due to the formation of consecutive layers : 
 when only partial, it gives rise to the peculiar appearance ob- 
 served on the walls of cells and vessels, either as pits, or de- 
 pressions of the surface, or as fibres in the form of rings, bars, 
 or sjnral coils. 
 
 The outer walls of the cells forming the epidermis of many 
 plants thicken to a considerable extent. By some physiologists 
 this is supposed to be due to an excretion from their surfaces. 
 Such a thickening is to be observed in the epidermal cells of 
 many tough leaves, such as those of the Aloe, and forms a homo- 
 geneous pellicle, known as the cuticle. It is also visible over- 
 lying the walls of the cells composing the lymphatic hairs on 
 the leaf of the Sunflower (Plate V. Fig. 21, c). 
 
 Cell-contents. — In young cells, such as those composing the 
 
 epidermal tissue of the leaf- stalk of Burdock (Fig. 1), careful 
 
 observation with the microscope enables the observer to detect a 
 
 very fine granular membrane adhering to the cell -wall, which, 
 
 on treatment with alcohol, becomes detached from it. This 
 
 membrane Mohl has designated the primordial utricle (1, a) ; 
 
 and the opaque viscid fluid with granules intermixed (b), which it 
 
 encloses, he calls protoplasm. In or near to the centre of the 
 
 young cell is the nucleus (c), which appears as a small, round, 
 
 transparent body; sometimes two such occur in the cavity of 
 
 the cell. 
 
 Named as cell-contents, the foregoing have a special interest for those 
 whose studies comprehend more particularly the phenomena connected 
 with vegetable life (vegetable physiology) ; they will not, therefore, 
 require to be again alluded to in these pages. 
 
 Organic substances are of very frequent occurrence in the 
 
VEGETABLE CELLS AND VESSELS. 15 
 
 cells of plants. Such are chlorophyll-gvsinuies (green colouring 
 matter), contained in the prismatical (Fig. 3, a), lobed {2, c), 
 ellipsoidal (2, b), and irregular (2, d) cells, forming the sub- 
 stance of the leaf of Tobacco. Enclosed, again, within these 
 chlorophyll-granules, starch-granules frequently occur; the 
 largest of these, discovered by Mohl, was but the l-300th, and 
 the smallest 1 -2000th of a line in its longest diameter. 
 
 Raphides are frequently met with in the cells, or among the 
 intercellular spaces (Fig. 7, i) of vegetable tissues. These bodies 
 occur as acicular (needle-shaped) crystals in the cells of the bulb 
 of Polyanthus tuberosa (3) , and in enormous quantity in the roots 
 of White Hellebore^ (sneezing-snuff) ; they are also found in 
 an agglomerated condition, as crystals of four- sided prisms with 
 rather obtuse points, in the leaf of Rhubarb (Plate XXXI. 
 Fig. 4). The medullary plates of Logwood contain large quan- 
 tities of crystals, in the form of octahedra with sharply-defined 
 edges and angles, and four-sided prisms acuminated at their ends 
 (Plate X. Fig. 4). Another form of these bodies is found in the 
 sub-epidermal cells (c. Fig. 4) of the leaf of Ficus elastica, where 
 they are collected on a stalk of cellular tissue projecting into 
 the cavity of the cell, and enclosed by a membrane ; they are 
 called cystolithes. The chemical composition of these crystals is 
 that of an organic or other acid in union with an earthy base ; 
 e.g. oxalic acid and lime, forming oxalate of lime; phosphoric, or 
 tartaric acid, with lime or magnesia. 
 
 Fixed oils, occurring in a fluid form, are often met with in the 
 cells of plants, and are distinguished under the microscope by 
 their refusal to mix with water, and by their highly refractive 
 power. 
 
 Forms of Cells and Vessels. (Plate V.) — A lifetime would 
 
 * It is likely that to tlie presence and peculiar form of these bodies 
 the action of the ground root on the intuitary membrane is in a great 
 measure due. 
 
16 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 scarcely suffice to observe and to describe the various forms of 
 cells met with in vegetable structures ; there is, however, a 
 certain regularity of form, between widely-extended limits, to 
 which the cells and vessels most commonly found may be 
 referred. ¥or the sake of perspicuity, and as answering suffi- 
 ciently the present purpose, they may be conveniently classed 
 under the two forms, sjiherical and oblong. 
 
 The original form of the vegetable cell may be said to be that 
 of a sphere (Fig. 7) ; but this shape is considerably modified, 
 both by its position relatively to other cells, and by the peculiar 
 circumstances of its development and the functions it performs, 
 either physically, organically, or both, as part of the tissues of 
 the living plant. 
 
 " In examining the fonn of the cell, we have to take notice that it 
 depends upon two circumstances. On one hand, the form of the cell is 
 determined, like that of every organic body, by its indwelling laws of 
 development; on the other hand, the individual cell, in the far greater 
 majority of cases, cannot follow those laws uninterruptedly, because it 
 forms part of a compound tissue, and is compelled, by its intimate con- 
 nexion with the surroimding elementary organs, to accommodate itself to 
 the space thus determined for it, and, in consequence of the pressure to 
 which it is exposed laterally from the surrounding elementaiy organs, to 
 assume forms which would be foreign to it under conditions of free, un- 
 restrained development*." 
 
 The influence exerted on the form of the cell by pressure, 
 serving to modify its original spherical tendency, is exhibited in 
 the loosely aggregated cells of a young plant, the tissue of which 
 is lax (Fig. 7), or in the more firmly and closely compacted cells 
 forming the jnth of the Elder tree (8), which here assume the 
 form of hexagons when viewed in transverse section, or with 
 somewhat square outlines in a vertical position (9) f- 
 
 • Von Mohl, " The Vegetable CeU," Henfrey's Translation, p. 2. 
 t Analogous to this is the shape of the cells of the Wasp's nest, when 
 aggi-egated together ; the cells, when found single, are imiformly circular. 
 
VEGETABLE CELLS AND VESSELS. 17 
 
 Next to the truly spherical form may be named those cells 
 (Fig. 2) of which the green parts of leaves are ordinarily com- 
 posed, and whose surfaces are, for the most part, but partially in 
 contact. The substance of the leaf of Tobacco (Plate XII. 
 Fig. 1) furnishes examples of cells occurring in the forms of 
 cylinders [2, a), ellipses [b), or irregularly -lobed cells [c, d). 
 
 A form of cell very common in the epidermal tissue of the 
 leaf-stalk, ribs, and veins of leaves, is seen at Fig. 1. These are 
 more or less elongated, and slightly distended in the direction 
 of their shorter or transverse axes, owing to their lateral deve- 
 lopment, and to the tension exerted upon them from within by 
 those tissues which they enclose and protect. Cells of a sinuous 
 or flexuous form, such, for instance, as form the epidermal 
 tissue of the leaf-blade, are of very common occurrence 
 (Plate XII. Fig. 2, z) . In the epidermis of the upper and 
 lower surfaces of the blade of the leaf of Stinking Hellebore 
 (Plate XXXV. Fig. 2,z), they assume a zigzag shape. 
 
 As examples of the forms assumed by cells wliicli develope freely, that 
 is to say, out of contact -^dth other cells, or iminflueneed by any mecha- 
 nical force that these would exert upon them, reference may be made to 
 the cellular appendages found on the outer surfaces of plants, the hairs 
 and glandular bodies, presently to be noticed. 
 
 Passing to the consideration of those forms of cells that are 
 oblong, and whose development is in the direction of their 
 longest axes, are those elongated cells (Fig. 10) forming, in 
 part, the cortical integument of the leaf-stalk and midrib of Bur- 
 dock. These cells have one, occasionally both their extremities 
 pointed. 
 
 Elongated cells tapering to a point at both ends (Fig. 12) 
 constitute a large proportion of wood. They occur for the most 
 part with their walls considerably thickened, giving them both 
 strength and durability. A peculiar form of such cells occurs 
 in Pine (Plate IX.) and other Coniferous wood (13), having 
 
 c 
 
18 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 their sides marked with peculiar depressions (c) on their surfaces, 
 which, on the sides of those cells in contact, coincide with each 
 other, and form cup-like cavities between them. 
 
 The Vessels which are found in the interior of plants are 
 formed out of vascular utricles, placed end to end, the partitions 
 between them being caused by the contact of their end walls, 
 which ultimately become absorbed. The imperfect absorption 
 of the wall of the vessel is at times very evident — e. g. the dotted 
 duct (Plate VIII. Fig. 3,<^). 
 
 Secondary Deposits. — Both Cells and Vessels have their walls 
 thickened on their inner surfaces by deposits, which in these 
 organs take very beautiful forms. In the former, as, for ex- 
 ample, in those from the stem of the Cactus, this deposit takes 
 the form of distinct rings (Fig. 14) ; in other cases nearly the 
 whole of the cell-wall is covered by it, its absence being noted 
 on those parts which are marked with elongated bars, or dots 
 (15). Similarly, the cells of the pith of Elder (8, 9), and the 
 elongated cells of the wood (12), have their sides marked with 
 minute dots. 
 
 Porous cells, in which the cell-wall has become entirely ab- 
 sorbed at those parts where the pores or holes exist, are fre- 
 quently met with. The leaf of Sphagnum (Plate X. Fig. 7) 
 is entirely composed of a single layer of such cells, in which 
 openings {p, Fig. 8) occur not only between two contiguous 
 cells, but also on those surfaces of the cell- wall which are ex- 
 posed to the external air. In their cavities, and lying upon the 
 inner faces of their walls, is a secondary membrane of fibrous 
 structure (/) formed into rings, and taking a spiral direction. 
 
 In the vessels known as dotted ducts or pitted vessels (Fig. 16) 
 their walls are marked with innumerable small dots or pits, 
 which, under the microscope, appear as so many luminous points 
 surrounded by a circular, or more commonly elliptical boundary, 
 which is darker. These pits or dots are caused by the absence. 
 
VEGETABLE CELLS AND VESSELS. 19 
 
 at these particular points^ of the deposit formed as a secondary 
 membrane on other parts of the wall of the vessel, on its inner 
 surface (Plate VIII. Fig. 3, d). 
 
 In the true spiral vessels (Figs. 18, 19, 20) the secondary de- 
 posit takes the form of a spirally-wound fibre lying on the inte- 
 rior of the wall of the vessel, with the intervals between the coils 
 either lying close (18), or at some distance from each other (19). 
 
 According to Mohl *, '* if the vessel is developed in an organ which has 
 ah'eady completed its longitudinal growth, the tiu'ns of the spiral fibre lie 
 close together (Fig. 18) ; but if the organ undergoes elongation after the 
 completion of the development of the vessel, the turns of the fibre are 
 drawn far apart (Fig. 20) by the stretching which the vessel suffers ; 
 consequently very loosely-woimd spiral vessels are usually foimd in the 
 posterior fii'st-formed portion of the vascular bimdle, nearest to the pith, 
 while those lying nearest the bark have closer convolutions." 
 
 The annular vessel exhibits this deposit as a fibre taking the 
 form of a ring. Occasionally both a spiral fibre and a ring are 
 found in the same vessel (Fig. 22). 
 
 In the reticulated vessel the markings on its walls are more 
 irregular in their form than in the preceding. In these the 
 fibre takes a somewhat vertical, as well as a more or less spiral 
 position (Plate VII. Fig. 5, r). 
 
 A modification of the i-eticulated vessel occurs in the scalari- 
 form duct, whose sides are marked transversely, but in a some- 
 what regular manner (Fig. 17). They occur abundantly in 
 some species of Tree Ferns. 
 
 In Beech-wood, vessels are to be met with having their ends 
 marked with spif^al or reticulated fibres, and the remainder of 
 their surfaces with dots only (Plate IX. Figs. 1, 2, d). 
 
 * "The Vegetable Cell." 
 
 c 2 
 
20 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 
 
 Plates VI.-XII. 
 
 The roots, stems, leaves, and flowers of plants are formed of 
 tissues composed of aggregations of cells and vessels, some of 
 whose forms have been described in the foregoing chapter. 
 
 Structure of the Root. (Plate VI.) — The root is the first- 
 formed organ of a young plant produced from a seed, and the 
 first perceptible indication of seed-growth or germination. 
 
 In the interior of every seed capable of producing a plant is 
 lodged the embryo or germen of a new plant, but often too 
 minute to be seen with the naked eye. In many seeds this is 
 either wholly or partially enclosed in a substance, diff"ering 
 greatly in the quality of its texture, to which the name of 
 albumen has been given. The embryo and albumen (when pre- 
 sent) are enclosed in an integument called the testa, or seed- 
 coat, on which a scar, the hilum, is at times visible. 
 
 The embryo consists of one or more cotyledons, or seed-leaves, 
 a radicle, and a plumule. In the seeds of plants of endogenous 
 growth there is but one cotyledon ; they are, from this circum- 
 stance, named monocotyledonous ; when two or more cotyledons 
 exist (as in the seeds of plants of exogenous growth), they are 
 termed dicotyledonous. 
 
 A good example of a dicotyledonous seed is found in the 
 Scarlet-bean (Fig. 2), with its testa {t), on which the hilum [h) 
 is very perceptible. Fig. 3 is a representation of one cotyledon 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 31 
 
 of the Bean, after germinating for forty-eight hours. At s is 
 the scar left on detaching the remaining cotyledon from the 
 germinated embryo ; p, the plumule, with young leaves at its 
 extremity; and at r is the radicle, projecting directly from the 
 interior of the seed as a conically-shaped body, forming an axial 
 root. 
 
 A grain of Barley, germinated for fifty-six hours (of which 
 Fig. 4 is a highly-magnified representation), is an illustration of 
 a seed with one cotyledon (c), albumen («), and testa [i] ; the 
 rootlets (r r), after bursting the seed-coat, have emerged at one 
 end of the grain. Figs. 5-8 represent the germinated embryo 
 removed from the grain, and viewed on its back and front faces, 
 in which c is the cotyledon ; p, the plumule, or oldest, first- 
 formed leaf; s, its sheathing portion slightly extended; and 
 r r, the adventitious roots or rootlets. Fig. 7 represents the 
 plumule, p (a sheathing leaf), detached from the cotyledon at 
 a ; and at p, Fig. 8, is another (the youngest) leaf enclosed 
 within the older one, /, which has been removed. 
 
 The root of a plant of exogenous growth is a direct prolonga- 
 tion of the stem downwards, or an axial root ; the root of an 
 endogenous plant, on the other hand, is never a direct lengthen- 
 ing of the stem, but rather a lateral development of it ; such 
 roots are called adventitious. 
 
 The axial root (r. Fig. 3), and the adventitious roots (?'r, 5), 
 when examined under a simple lens of low power, are seen to 
 consist of a mass of delicate cellular tissue, from the outer 
 surfaces of which proceed numerous extremely minute exten- 
 sions of it, in the form of fibrillce. Fig. 11 represents a longi- 
 tudinal section of a small portion of an adventitious root, 
 strongly magnified, — a a being the cellular tissue, in which the 
 nascent ducts and vessels {b) are making their appearance as a 
 central vascular bundle. At p is the pileorhiza, or root-cap, a 
 layer of cellular tissue attached to the apex of the root by per- 
 
22 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 sistent cellular tissue, the remaining portions of it being free. 
 When of older growth, the root presents much the same ana- 
 tomical structure as the stem from which it proceeds ; in 
 Exogens, the same division into medullary, wood, and cortical 
 systems. In the adventitious roots of Endogeus (Fig. 10, rr) the 
 separate fibro-vascular bundles of the stem (represented by lines) 
 proceed downwards into the roots. Unlike the stem and leaves, 
 the roots of plants are not furnished with stomates. 
 
 The root of a plant holds it firmly to the earth in which it 
 grows J and by the permeability to fluid and gaseous matters of 
 its tissues, and that of the delicate suckers thrown out from its 
 surface, it absorbs from the soil water, and the nutrient matters 
 which it contains, proper for the plant^s nourishment. The 
 passage of these matters in an upward current to the stem is 
 assisted by the capillarity* of the numerous vessels in the root, 
 and thence onwards bv those in the stem and leaves. 
 
 Structure of the Stem. (Plates VI.-X.) — The tissues of the 
 stem arc arranged into systems very distinct in their characters ; 
 and, according to the plan of their arrangement, botanists have 
 classified flower-bearing plants into groups or divisions, the 
 most important of which are Exogens and Endogensf. The 
 stems of plants belonging to both these divisions possess a 
 cellular, o, fibro-vascular, and a cortical system. 
 
 The arrangement of these three systems in the stem of an 
 Exogen is well seen in the herbaceous stem of Tobacco of one 
 year's growth, at Plate VII. Fig. 1, which represents a small 
 segment magnified 150 diameters, and viewed both horizontally 
 and vertically. At p is the central cellular system, a tissue 
 
 * See note to page 13. 
 
 t As only a general idea of tlie subject is intended in these pages, it is 
 sufficient to refer to these two great divisions, the former of which in- 
 cludes most of the vegetation of this country, either in trees or shrubs. 
 
ANATOMY or PLANTS. 23 
 
 composed of somewhat loosely aggregated cells^ forming the 
 pith ; a fibro-vascular system, made up of elongated cells of the 
 fibrous type, and of the vessels known as dotted, spiral, annular, 
 and reticulated. These, arranged in wedge-shaped masses or 
 bundles (one of which is seen at w), form the wood of the stem. 
 The cortical system {b) is composed of layers of cells placed side 
 by side. At m s is a ring of spiral vessels, forming the medul- 
 lary sheath surrounding the pith, p -, and at m r, the medullary 
 rays, formed of compressed cellular tissue, running between the 
 fibro-vascular bundles, connecting the central pith with the outer 
 bark or rind, b. At c is the cambium layer^ or i-egion of 
 growth ; and at ep the layers of cells forming the epidermis, to 
 which hairs, h, are attached. 
 
 A minute portion of the stem of Tobacco, cut transversely, 
 and magnified 200 diameters, is seen at Plate VIII. Fig. 1, 
 where // represent the ligneous cells, and dd the mouths of the 
 vessels, together forming the wood of the stem. At mr is a 
 portion of a medullary ray, some of the cells containing starch. 
 At b are the cells of the cortical system, with starch and other 
 matters contained in some of them. Fig. 2 represents a portion 
 of Fig. 1, magnified 350 diameters, and exhibits the dots on the 
 walls of the cells of the medullary plates, m r, the starch-granules 
 in their interior having been acted upon by iodine. Fig. 3 
 exhibits this structure viewed in a fragment cut vertically, and 
 across a medullary ray ; where d, a dotted duct, cut open, is 
 enclosed on either side by / /, wood-cells ; with the cellular tissue 
 of the periphery of the stem, b, containing starch -granules ; 
 m r is a portion of a medullary ray, seen in the direction of its 
 depth, the starch in its cells being coloured by iodine. 
 
 The structure of the entire stem of an Exogen is represented 
 in the diagram, Plate VII. Fig. 2, in transverse section. The 
 \vood, /r, is concentrically arranged, in wedge-shaped masses, 
 around a central pith, p, from which the medullary plates, m r, 
 
34- TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 radiate to the bark, c, which is thus connected with the inner- 
 most pith. A view of such a stem in a vertical position is given 
 in the diagram, Fig. 3, in which the innermost dark lines, m s, 
 represent the medullary sheath, from which the spiral vessels of 
 the leaf-stalk, s, emanate, their fibro-vascular tissue being sup- 
 plied from the inner face of the woody tissue, fv. 
 
 The mode of growth of stems formed on the above plan is by 
 the addition of wood to the outside of that previously existing, 
 a manner of increase indicated by the term exogenous ; the bark 
 increases, at the same time, on its inner surface, the source of 
 addition or growth lying in the cambium region. As one such 
 layer is formed during the growth of each season, a ring is 
 formed, which marks the boundary of an old and the beginning 
 of a new deposit. The number of these, therefore, which occur 
 in a stem, when cut across, denote its age. 
 
 The structure of a fibro-vascular bundle in the stem of an 
 Endogen {Phoenix dactylifera) is seen at Plate VI. Figs. 12,13, 
 in transverse and vertical sections ; in which p represents the 
 cellular system of the stem, enclosing numerous bundles com- 
 posed of, /, ligneous cells ; v p, elongated cells with thick walls ; 
 d, reticulated ducts ; and s v, spiral vessels. At Fig. 10 is a 
 diagram of an Endogenous stem viewed vertically ; each fibro- 
 vascular bundle being represented by a dark line curving out- 
 wards in its downward course, to form a fibrous network {false 
 bark), and issuing from the stem at its upper extremity, to form 
 the woody tissue of a leaf. The position of these bundles in 
 the stem is represented in transverse section by the diagram, 
 Plate VII. Fig. 6, in which they are seen lying irregularly 
 scattered through its substance. 
 
 The special characteristics of this form of stem-growth con- 
 sist in the absence of any distinct separation of the systems (as 
 in Exogcns) into ])ith, wood, and bark, and the absence of a 
 medullars/ sheath and inedullary rays. Its mode of growth is by 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 25 
 
 the formation of wood-bundles in its centre, which gradually 
 force those of older growth outwards, — a peculiarity of increase 
 w^hich the name Endogen is intended to indicate. 
 
 The stem of a plant serves as a mechanical support for the 
 leaves which grow from it ; it also conveys, in an upward current, 
 by the elongated cells and vessels of the wood, the crude sap, 
 obtained by the root from the soil. From the wood, the sap is 
 conducted into the upper surfaces of the leaves, where it is 
 elaborated, and then proceeds by their under surfaces to the 
 bark, down the stem, and laterally to its interior, by the 
 medullary plates. The innermost wood in time becomes charged 
 with the secretions so deposited in its tissues by this inward 
 horizontal current, until it is coloured and hardened by them, 
 and rendered incapable of receiving more : in this state it is 
 known as heart-wood. 
 
 Heart-wood. (Plates IX. & X.) 
 Beech-wood. — Fig. 1. A section taken in a vertical direction : 
 d, a dotted spiral vessel lying among the elongated wood-cells. At 
 mr are portions of the medullary plates. Fig. 2. A transverse 
 section of the wood, showing the mouths of the vessels lying 
 scattered among the w^ood-cells : m r, the medullary plates seen 
 in the direction of their length ; 2- is a band or zone showing the 
 termination of an old, and the beginning of a new year's growth. 
 Fig. 3. A section cut tangentially , or in a direction at right 
 angles to Fig. 2, exhibiting the vessels, d, and wood-cells, /; 
 m r, the medullary plates, formed of two or three rows of cells, 
 showing their thickness or depth. 
 
 Mahogany- WOOD. — Fig. 1. A vertical section of the wood, 
 showing the dotted duct [d] cut open in one part, lying among 
 the wood-cells, / /. The medullary plates, m r, and the cells 
 composing them, are much bolder in their character than those 
 of Beech-wood. Fig. 2. A transverse section of the wood : 
 
26 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 d, the mouths of the dotted vessels ; / /, the wood-cells cut across 
 the direction of their length ; m r, the medullary rays, which are 
 transparent, the cells composing them containing minute sphe- 
 rical bodies, coloured deep red. Fig. 3. A tangential section : 
 m r, the medullary rays, seen in their depth, in which the colour- 
 ing matter is also visible ; I, cells of the wood. 
 
 PiNE-wooD. — Fig. 1. A wr^ica/ section, showing the elongated 
 cells of the wood, — their sides turned towards the medullary rays, 
 mr, being marked with pits, having the appearance of discs. 
 Fig. 3. A transverse section of the same wood, in which the 
 medullary rays (m r) appear as numerous narrow dark bands, 
 the cells forming them being dotted ; 2 ia a band or zone show- 
 ing the part to which addition has been made in the growth 
 of one year. Fig. 3. A tangential section at right angles to 
 Fig. 2; the wood-cells (//) are not marked with pores on those 
 surfaces which this section exhibits. At mr are the medullary 
 rays, composed of a single row of cells. 
 
 Logwood. — Fig. 1. A vertical section of the wood : 11, elon- 
 gated cells of the wood ; c, elongated thick-walled cells, their 
 sides marked with extremely minute dots, and containing within 
 their cavities crystals which are slightly coloured ; d, a dotted 
 duct ; m r, medullary rays. Fig. 2. A transverse section of the 
 wood ; the letters refer to the same tissues as in Fig. 1 . The 
 elongated cells (/) and the thick-walled dotted cells (c) are seen 
 in this view to alternate with each other in distinct layers. 
 Fig. 3. A tangential section of the wood taken at right angles 
 to Fig. 2, — the medullary plates, m r, being seen in the direction 
 of their depth. 
 
 Fig. 4. Crystals from Logwood, found in the elongated thick- 
 walled dotted cells (c, Fig. 1). Their forms are octahedra with 
 sharply-defined edges and angles {a), and four-sided prisms 
 acuminated at their ends [b). 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 27 
 
 Fig. 5. Malt sprouts. — The dried rootlets (malt-dust) of 
 germinated and kiln-dried barley ; slightly magnified to show 
 the root-caps at their extremities. 
 
 Fig. 6. Starch, from Orris-root {Iris Florentina). 
 
 Fig. 7. A leaf of Sphagnum acutifolium, magnified 40 dia- 
 meters. The entire leaf is composed of a single layer of cells, of 
 the form seen at Fig. 8 ; their sides and ends touching. Irish 
 peat, which has been frequently used in the adulteration of 
 snufi", contains the leaves and other parts of this plant in great 
 abundance. 
 
 Fig. 8. A single cell from the leaf of Sphagnum acutifolium, 
 with the annular and spiral fibre (/) in its cavity ; pp, pores in 
 the cell-wall. Magnified 350 diameters. 
 
 Structure of Leaves. — A leaf is either attached to the stem 
 by its midrib, or by means of a stalk, which forms a channel of 
 communication between it and the stem on which it grows. 
 
 The structure of the stalk, midrib, veins, and nervures of the 
 leaf, consists of a mass or masses of fibro-vascular (woody) 
 tissue, arranged either centrally in one bundle, as in Tobacco 
 (Plate XI. Fig. 1), or in separate and distinct bundles, as in 
 Burdock (Plate XIX.), sm-rounded by cellular tissue, and en- 
 closed in an epidermis. The fibro-vascular (woody) tissue is a 
 process of the medullary sheath of the stem in Exogens 
 {ms. Fig. 3, Plate VII.), and the inner portion of its wood 
 {fv) ; consequently the reticulated (r) and dotted vessels (d) 
 (Fig. 5, Plate VII.) found in the stem-wood are also present in 
 the midrib and veins of the leaf. The cellular tissues are derived 
 from the bark of the stem. In Endogens the entire woody 
 bundles proceed into the leaves (Plate VI. Fig. 10, a). 
 
 A transverse section of a leaf- stalk, midrib (Plate XI. 
 Figs. 1 & 3), or vein of a leaf, exhibits the general form of its 
 outline, as well as the character of its internal structure. The 
 
28 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 form of the outline of such a section is extremely varied, being 
 circular, elliptical, lobed, &c. ; whilst that portion of it which 
 represents the upper surface of the part from which it is taken 
 is frequently grooved in an angular manner (Plate XXVIII. 
 Fig. 1), or, on the other hand, forms an elevated ridge 
 (Plate XI. Fig. 1) ; these depressions or elevations are greater 
 or less, as the section is taken from the base or the point of a 
 leaf-stalk, midrib, or vein. 
 
 In the stalks and midribs of many leaves, the tissue at 
 their peripheries forms a well-defined band, bounding them, 
 as in Butterbur (Plate XX.) ; in others, this tissue occurs in 
 detached masses (Burdock, Dock), which form lobes or ridges 
 on theii* outer surfaces ; and in others, again, it is confined to a 
 small part only of their surfaces, as in the upper portion of the 
 midrib of Rhubarb (Plate XXXI.). 
 
 This tissue, forming the thickened cortical integument, is easily 
 seen, when present, under a very low magnifying power, in exa- 
 mining a transverse section of a midi'ib in water, and consists 
 of layers, or rows, of elongated cells (Plate V. Figs. 10, 11), 
 with somewhat regularly-formed intercellular passages between 
 them, these last containing intercellular substance in their cavi- 
 ties. It is well seen in the midribs of the leaves of Butterbur, 
 Burdock, Dock, Coltsfoot, &c. ; in the Tobacco-leaf it is alto- 
 gether wanting. 
 
 The arrangement of the woody and cellular tissues, in a trans- 
 verse section of the midrib of Tobacco, is seen at Plate XI. 
 Figs. 1-4, in which the former is collected in a central mass 
 in a horse-shoe form, repeated again in the leaves of Thorn- 
 apple (Plate XV.) and Deadly Nightshade (Plate XVI.). In 
 Mullein (Plate XXXIII.) this bundle curves upwards and 
 inwards at its outer surfaces. In the midribs of other leaves, 
 their woody tissue, instead of being central, is split up into a 
 number of separate bundles, having various outlines (though 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 29 
 
 similar iu their internal composition)^ and more or less concen- 
 trically arranged. In Coltsfoot (Plate XXII.) these bundles 
 have an elliptical outline ; in Comfrey (PI. XXVIII.) the lower- 
 most bundle takes the form of a boat's stern. 
 
 Towards the apex of the midrib, the woody tissue, when 
 central, becomes gradually lessened in its dimensions, though 
 but slightly altered in form ; or, when arranged in separate 
 masses, these gradually diminish iu number, their disappearance 
 arising from their previous lateral development, to form the ribs, 
 veins, or nervures of the lower part of the leaf, which partake 
 more or less of the structui-e of the midrib from which they 
 originate. 
 
 Both the woody and cellular tissues extend to all parts of 
 the leaf; but in the blade, the latter, forming its substance 
 {spongiform tissue), takes different characters in the arrangement 
 of its component cells and intercellular spaces. In the upper 
 part of the leaf of Tobacco (Plate XII. Fig. 1), this tissue is 
 made up of a series of cylindrical cells {a), somewhat loosely 
 arranged side by side ; among them occur numerous intercellular 
 cavities, some of which (as at b) lie immediately under the 
 breathing-pores [stomates), s. To these succeeds another layer 
 of cells (c), very irregular in their form and position, and to 
 this again, other two layers {d, e). The whole of the cells in 
 this part contain chlorophyll- granules, which impart to the leaf 
 its green colour. 
 
 The external covering or epidermis of a young stem, and that 
 on the stalk, midrib, veins, and blade of the leaf, which, when 
 detached from the underlying tissues, appears to the naked eye 
 as an extremely delicate and transparent membrane, is composed 
 of cells of various forms, according to the part it covers. In 
 the stem, midrib, and veins of the Tobacco-leaf (Plate XII. 
 Fig. 2, m), the cells of the epidermis are of a tabular form ; in the 
 blade of the leaf (/) their outlines take a wavy or sinuous course. 
 
30 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 The structure of a leaf-vein is seen at Plate VII. Fig. 4, which 
 represents a minute portion of a vein of a Tobacco-leaf laid 
 open ; s V are the spiral vessels surrounded by I, the ligneous 
 cells, enclosed within the epidermis, ep. The position of a leaf- 
 vein in the cellular substance of the Tobacco-leaf is represented 
 at Plate XII. Fig. 1, where fv, a portion of the woody bundle 
 from the midrib, proceeds among the spongiform tissue of the 
 leaf -blade ; jo is a portion of the cellular tissue of the outer 
 portion of the midrib. 
 
 It is among the cells forming the epidermis of the under sides 
 of most leaves that the peculiar cellular bodies, stomates, occur 
 in the greatest abundance; they are also found on the stem, 
 midrib, and veins. These minute bodies (Plate XII. Figs. 1 
 & 2, s) are formed by the junction at their ends of two kidney- 
 shaped cells, which have an aperture left between them, through 
 which the passage of air or gases takes place to or from the 
 external air, which, by means of the large intercellular cavities 
 underlying these bodies, is thus connected with the innermost 
 tissue of the leaf. Their special office is the aeration of the 
 sap, or juices deposited in the leaf, previous to its downward 
 cm'rent to the stem and root, and for the emission of moisture 
 or other gaseous matters which they may be said to exhale. 
 According to Henfrey*, the leaf of the Cherry-laurel contains 
 on its lower face 625, and the Lilac 1000 to the square line, 
 or 25,000 and 40,000 to the square inch, — numbers that may 
 help us to form a notion of the rapidity with which the digestive 
 and respiratory processes may be carried on by leaves, as well 
 as the influences that moisture and change of temperature 
 exert through them upon the plant. 
 
 Many plants have the epidermis of their stems or leaves (some- 
 times both) furnished with cellular appendages in the form of 
 hairs or glands, which are occasionally visible to the naked eye, or 
 
 * " Elemeiitai'v Course of Botany," p. 521. 
 
ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 81 
 
 evident to the touch. In these minute bodies the microscope re- 
 veals to us characters so marked, both of form and general appear- 
 ance, as to enable us to tell with certainty to what leaf they belong. 
 
 Lymjihatic hairs are those in which no coloured matter is 
 deposited in any of their cells. These are usually simple and 
 regular in the form and arrangement of their cells. 
 
 Glandular hairs, on the other hand, have some of their cells 
 (usually the terminal one) coloured by some matter deposited 
 within their cavities. These are usually more complex and irre- 
 gular in the form and arrangement of their cells. 
 
 The structure of both descriptions consists of a series of cells 
 joined together. The cell or cells at the base of the hair, form- 
 ing, as it were, its point of attachment to the epidermis, is 
 either a simple projection or elongation of a single cell of the 
 latter, and in a direction at, or inclined to, a right angle to it 
 {ex. Tobacco), or of a series of cells arranged in a circular 
 manner, forming a compound base {ex. Sunflower). 
 
 Glands are also constructed by the union of cells of various 
 forms and arrangement ; they occur in Rhubarb and Dock, as a 
 collection of cells forming minute conical elevations on the epi- 
 dermis of the leaves, and also project inwards into their substance 
 (Plates XXX. & XXXI.). 
 
 Overlying the epidermis, and firmly attached to it, is occa- 
 sionally found a transparent homogeneous pellicle, called the 
 cuticle. It is well seen under a glass of sufficient power (430 
 diameters) in the hairs of the leaf of Sunflower (c. Fig. 21, 
 Plate V.). In other leaves {ex. Rhubarb, Dock) it may be seen 
 in the form of delicate, wavy, or irregular lines, running for the 
 most part parallel with the outline formed by the cell-walls. It 
 generally requires the use of tests and special treatment to render 
 it distinctly visible. 
 
33 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 1. Nicotiana Tabacum, Linn. 2. N. rustica, Linn. 
 
 3. N. persica, Lindley. 
 
 Natural Order, SOLANACE^, Nightshades, Lindley. 
 
 Plates I. IL XI. XII. 
 
 1. N. Tabacum (American Tobacco). An herbaceous plant, 
 a native of Tropical America. The stem grows to the height of 
 6 or 7 feet, bearing ovate, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, sessile 
 leaves, of a pale green colour, sticky to the touch, and covered 
 vpith glandular hairs. The plant has an extremely pungent, 
 unpleasant odour. Flowers pink, with the segments of the 
 corolla pointed. 
 
 2. N. rustica (Syrian Tobacco). An herbaceous plant, indi- 
 genous in America; grows wild in Europe, Asia and Africa. 
 Stem from 3 to 5 feet in height. Leaves stalked, ovate, ob- 
 tuse, entire. Flowers green, the corolla with rounded segments. 
 
 3. N. persica (Tobacco of Shiraz). Native of Persia. Stem- 
 leaves amplexicaul, oblong, acuminate. Flowers white, segments 
 of corolla emarginate and unequal. 
 
 Uses. — As a remedial agent, it relaxes muscular fibre. The 
 leaves of American and Syrian Tobacco are used in cases of 
 colic, hernia, constipation, ischuria, dysuria, tetanus, dropsy. 
 In the form of an infusion, as a topical remedy in gouty and 
 rheumatic inflammations, and as an infusion or ointment in 
 porrigo and other skin diseases (Pereira). Shiraz or Persian 
 Tobacco is not used in medicine (Lindley). 
 
TOBACCO. 33 
 
 The leaves of N. Tabacum constitute all the American cigars 
 and Indian cheroots. The Turkish, Syrian, and Latakia To- 
 baccos are the produce of A^ rustica. N. persica forms the finest 
 Persian Tobacco ; but not suited for cigars, from the difficulty 
 of making it burn (Lindley). 
 
 Plate XL Fig. A. A leaf of American Tobacco, drawn to 
 a scale of 1 inch to 2 inches. 
 
 Plate XI. Fig. B. A leaf of Syrian Tobacco ; scale of 1 inch 
 to 3 inches. 
 
 Plate XI. Fig. 1. A diagram representing a transverse 
 section, magnified, of the midrib from the leaf of American 
 Tobacco (A), in which the woody bundle (fv) is collected in 
 one mass, in a somewhat horse-shoe form ; c is the cellular 
 tissue, left blank ; ep, epidermis. Fig. 2. A similar diagram of 
 the midrib near its apex. 
 
 Fig. 3. A portion of the woody bundle from the midrib 
 (as seen in Fig. 1, fv), magnified 220 diameters. At s are 
 starch-granules, contained in a single cell of the cellular tissue, 
 surrounding the fibro-vascular bundle. 
 
 Fig. 4. A diagram representing a transverse section of the 
 midrib of the leaf (B) of Syrian Tobacco, in which the woody 
 bundle is less curved and more elongated than in Fig. 1 . 
 
 Plate XII. Fig. L A section of a leaf of Tobacco, cut in 
 a direction at right angles to the midrib of the leaf, and ver- 
 tically through its substance ; as in manufactured " cut" 
 tobacco : magnified 220 diameters. At a are the prismatically 
 formed cells of the upper portion of the leaf, and at c, d, e, 
 layers of lobed and ellipsoidal cells, forming the middle and 
 lower portions of its substance, containing minute granules 
 of green colouring matter {chloropkyll) . At ep are the cells 
 of the epidermis of the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf, 
 and at 6, intercellular spaces underlying the stomates, ss. 
 At fv is a woody bundle, forming a portion of a leaf- vein pro- 
 
 u 
 
34 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 ceeding through the cellular tissue of the midrib {p) ; h h are 
 large glandular hairs attached to the epidermis; g, a smaller 
 glandular hair. 
 
 Fig. 2. A minute portion from the epidermis on the under 
 surface of the leaf, from the midrib (m) and lamina [I), h h, large 
 glandular hairs (one broken) ; g, a smaller glandular hair ; s s, 
 stomates ; s", an artificial stomate, caused by the falling- oJ0F of a 
 glandular hair ; z, the cells with wavy outlines forming the 
 epidermis of the lamina of the leaf. 
 
 The larg 67' glandular hairs (h) are composed of a series of oblong 
 cells joined end to end ; their terminal glands are somewhat oval 
 in form, consisting of an aggregation of minute cells clustered 
 together, in the interior of which, a yellowish granular sub- 
 stance is visible. The bases of these hairs are simple. 
 
 The smaller glandular hairs [g) are club-shaped bodies; the 
 upper portions of them are rounded, and consist of numerous 
 cells, in the cavities of which yellow colouring matter is visible. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The form, venation, and entire 
 margins of the leaves, and the absence of a leaf-stalk in 
 American Tobacco. 
 
 Microscopic. — The form of the woody bundle in the midrib 
 (Plate XI. Figs. 1, 2, 4), and the compact arrangement of its 
 cells and vessels (Fig. 3). The large and small glandular hairs, 
 their bases and points. 
 
TOBACCO. 35 
 
 Plate XIII. 
 Tobacco [pure). 
 
 [The student should make himself well acquainted with the 
 subjects in Plates XV.-XXXVI. before studying this and the 
 following illustration.] 
 
 1. Cells of the epidermis of the midrib of leaf, with large 
 glandular hairs attached. 2. Cylindrical, ellipsoidal, and lobed 
 cells, containing chlorophyll. 3. Cellular tissue of the midrib. 
 4. Spiral and dotted vessels from the midrib. 5. Fibrous cells 
 from the midrib or veins. 6. Portion of the woody bundle of 
 the midrib, cut transversely. 7. Epidermis from the leaf-blade, 
 and part of a woody bundle from a leaf- vein, with large glandular 
 hairs, attached and separate. 8. Smaller glandular hairs, sepa- 
 rated. 9. Gland from the tip of a hair. 10. Starch-granules. 
 
 Magnified 200 diameters. 
 
 Tobacco [adulterated). 
 
 1. Cellular tissue. 2. Portion of a leaf of Elecampane. 
 
 3. Cells from the epidermis of the midrib of leaf of Dock. 
 
 4. Fragment of a leaf of Foxglove. 5. Fragment of a leaf of 
 Thorn-apple. 6. Tobacco hairs, with a portion of woody bundle 
 from the midrib of the leaf, cut transversely. 7. Cells containing 
 chlorophyll-gvaxiwles. 8. A portion of a woody bundle from 
 the midrib of Burdock (broken). 9. Spiral, annular, and reticu- 
 lated vessels. 10. Stellate hairs from the leaf of Mullein. 
 11. Lobed cells from the interior of a leaf. 12. Hairs from 
 Comfrey. 
 
 Magnified 130 diameters. 
 
 D 2 
 
86 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 THORN-APPLE. 
 
 Datura Stramonium, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, SOLANACE-ffi, Nightshades, Lindley. 
 
 Plates XIV. XV. 
 
 An annual herbaceous plant, occasionally found growing 
 wild in waste places, flowering in the months of June and July. 
 According to Dr. Pereira, the plant is a native of Greece ; 
 Dr. Thomson states it to have been originally a native of 
 America. The stem of the plant is much branched in a forking 
 manner; the leaves ovate, unequally sinuate-dentate, smooth, 
 and of a dull green colour. The whole plant emits a nauseous, 
 foetid odour. The narcotic and poisonous properties are said to 
 be due to a vegetable alkaloid, Daturine ; analogous to, if not 
 identical with, a narcotic principle found in other plants of the 
 same natural Order. 
 
 Christison* states, that in Germany and France the seeds are 
 frequently made use of for the perpetration of crime. In 
 England the powdered leaves and seeds have been known to be 
 introduced into beer for the purpose of stupefying (hocussing), 
 previous to plundering, a victim. 
 
 Uses. — The herb, leaves, and seeds, in neuralgia, rheumatism, 
 enterodynia, mania, and epilepsy. The leaves and herb, pre- 
 pared in the form of cigars, are sometimes smoked by persons 
 afflicted with spasmodic asthma. " The practice,'^ says Dr. Pe- 
 
 * On Poisons, p. 841. 
 
THORN-APPLE. 37 
 
 reira^ "requires very great caution, as it has proved highly inju- 
 rious, and in some instances fatal." 
 
 Plate XIV. The plant; scale 1^ inch to 1 foot. 
 
 Plate XV. The leaf; | natural size. 
 
 Plate XV. Fig. 1. A diagram representing a magnified 
 view of a transverse section of the midi'ib near to its base and 
 apex, in which the woody bundle is arranged in one mass cen- 
 trally, in a horse-shoe shape, c is its thickened cortical integu- 
 ment. 
 
 Fig. 2. A portion of the cortical integument of the midrib, 
 seen in transverse section, and magnified 220 diameters : c, ca- 
 vities of the cells; %, intercellular spaces intervening between 
 them ; h, a lymphatic hair, its entire surface tuberculated ; g, a 
 glandular hair. 
 
 Fig. 3. A portion of the woody bundle at Fig. 1, magnified 
 220 diameters : d, the mouths of the vessels in this part. 
 
 Fig. 4. A fragment of the epidermis of the under side of the 
 midrib, magnified 220 diameters : h h, lymphatic hairs ; g, a 
 glandular hair. The tuberculated surface of this tissue is repre- 
 sented by the fine dots. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs are composed of a series of oblong cells, 
 which gradually taper to a rounded point at the extremity of 
 each hair. They are occasionally branched, and have simple 
 bases. 
 
 The glandular hairs have round or elliptically-formed heads, 
 attached to oblong cells forming their stalks. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The sinuated margin of the stalked 
 leaf. 
 
 Microscopic. — A transverse section of the midiib (Fig. 1) is 
 readily distinguished from that of Tobacco by its thickened 
 cortical integument (2). The arrangement of the cells and 
 vessels of the woody bundle is much less regular and compact 
 than in Tobacco (3). The lymphatic hairs, though they 
 
38 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 resemble those found on the leaf of Potato (Plate XVII.), 
 are readily distinguished from them by the forms of the indi- 
 vidual cells, as well as by the bases of the hairs, which are 
 simple, and their points, which are blunt and not recurved. 
 The occasional branching of these hairs is also very peculiar. 
 I have been unable to discover a branched hair on the leaf of 
 the Potato. 
 
DEADLY NIGHTSHADE. 39 
 
 DEADLY NIGHTSHADE. 
 
 Atropa Belladonna, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, SOLANACE^, Nightshades^ Lindley. 
 
 Plate XVI. 
 
 A perennial herbaceous plant, a native of both Greece and 
 Italy. The stem grows to a height of 3 feet, bearing leaves 
 mostly in pairs, of unequal size, broadly ovate and entire. The 
 plant bears large lurid, purple, drooping flowers, in the months 
 of June to August. The fruit, consisting of berries of a shining 
 violet-black, resemble cherries : these are highly narcotic and 
 poisonous, but valuable in medicine. The plant is mostly found 
 growing in woods and waste places. Brandes, in 1819, disco- 
 vered a vegetable alkaloid, Atrojnne, existing in the whole of the 
 plant ; it is, however, obtained principally from the roots, and is 
 a most energetic poison. 
 
 Uses. — To allay pain and nervous irritation, tic-douloureux, 
 spasmodic stricture, hooping-cough, maladies of the eyes, epi- 
 lepsy, hysteria, mania, chorea. It has occasionally been found 
 useful for the relief of phthisis ; for this purpose the fresh leaves 
 are infused in a strong solution of opium, then dried, and 
 smoked like tobacco. Used also as a prophylactic in scarlatina 
 by some homoeopathic practitioners (Pereira). 
 
 Plate XVI. A leaf of medium size. 
 
 Fig. 1. A magnified view of a transverse section of the mid- 
 rib of the leaf, near the base and apex. The dark central mass 
 
40 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 exhibits the form and position of the woody tissue in these 
 parts. 
 
 Fig. 2. A portion of the woody bundle {fv) in Fig. 1, mag- 
 nified 220 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 3. A fragment of the epidermis of the midrib, magnified 
 220 diameters, hh and g g, glandular hairs; s, a stomate. 
 The fine horizontal lines represent a wavy or striated marking 
 on the outer surfaces of the cells of this tissue. 
 
 The elongated glandular hairs [h) are formed of two or three 
 oblong cells, shghtly tapering, and joined at their narrow ends, 
 with a terminal cell of an irregularly oval or elliptical form. 
 These terminal cells are occasionally divided at their bases. The 
 short glandular hairs have very large heads, composed of one 
 oval cell, or of several nearly circular cells collected into one 
 mass, and attached to an oblong cell, forming a stalk. Coloured 
 matter is frequently to be observed in their cavities. Both 
 forms of hairs have simple bases. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The form of the stalked leaf, more 
 especially its base. 
 
 Microscopic. — The arrangement of the woody bundle in the 
 midrib is less compact and regular than in that of either 
 Thorn-apple or Tobacco. From the former it is distinguished 
 by the absence of the thickening layer of tissue in the rind of 
 the midrib (Plate XV. Fig. 2), and by the form of the elon- 
 gated glandular hairs. These, again, are known from the glan- 
 dular hairs of Tobacco by the form and structure of their 
 terminal glands, which are for the most part unicellular, and 
 free from coloured matter. 
 
POTATO. 41 
 
 POTATO. 
 
 Solanum tuberosum, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, SOLANACE^ffi, Nightshades, Lindley. 
 
 Plate XVII. 
 
 An herbaceous plant, growing wild in the mountainous 
 regions of Peru and Chili, on the western coast of South Ame- 
 rica, and brought to England from Virginia by the colonists 
 sent out to that country by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584. The 
 plant, according to Dr. T. Thomson, was first cultivated in the 
 neighbourhood of London about the year 1605, but not univer- 
 sally throughout the kingdom until many years after that date. 
 The tubers of this plant in a cooked condition are among the 
 most valuable food used by man ; the leaves and fruit are 
 narcotic, the latter especially, containing an alkaloid, Solanine, 
 an acrid narcotic poison, two grains of which given to a rabbit 
 produced paralysis of the posterior extremities, and death in two 
 hours. Traces of this substance are also found in the healthy 
 tubers (Pereira). 
 
 Plate XVII. The leaf, natural size. Form interruptedly 
 pinnate ; colour dark green, and downy ; the leaflets entire and 
 oblique. 
 
 Uses. — The tubers in their cooked condition as food : also as 
 an antidote in cases of poisoning with iodine. The leaves and 
 fruit in extraction, as a narcotic and antispasmodic, to allay 
 cough, spasms, and rheumatic pains, &c. (Pereira). 
 
 The starch (Plate XXXVII.) procured from the tubers is 
 
42 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 largely used as an adulterating ingredient in West India 
 Arrowroot. 
 
 Fig. 1. A diagram representing a transverse section of the 
 midrib of a leaflet from the base and point, magnilied. 
 
 Fig. 2. A section of a portion of a leaflet, in a direction at 
 right angles to the midrib, and vertically through its substance. 
 A portion of the woody bundle of the midrib is seen at fv ; 
 h h, lymphatic hairs, their surfaces tuberculated ; g, a glandular 
 hair ; s s, stomates on the upper and under surfaces of the leaf. 
 Magnified 220 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 3. A portion of the epidermis removed from the under 
 side of a leaflet, at the point of junction of the midrib and a 
 vein {m) and lamina (/) ; hh, lymphatic hairs ; c/ g, glandular 
 hairs. Magnified 220 diameters. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs [h) are formed of elongated cylindrical 
 cells, joined end to end, the last or terminal cells having sharp, 
 transparent, recurved points. Their bases are, for the most part, 
 compound, consisting of two or several cells arranged in a cir- 
 cular manner. 
 
 The glandular hairs consist of a number of minute cells 
 arranged in rows side by side, forming a gland ; these are 
 usually coloured, and attached to a single cell forming the stalks 
 of the hairs. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The form of the entire leaf, the size 
 of the leaflets, and the obliquity of their bases. 
 
 Microscopic. — The lymphatic hairs, their form, recurved 
 points, and compound bases, distinguish them in a marked 
 manner from the lymphatic hairs of Thorn-apple. From the 
 glandular hairs of Tobacco they are as readily distinguished by 
 the absence of a terminal gland, as by their sharp, recurved 
 points, compound bases, and tuberculated surfaces, — characters 
 which also separate them from the glandular hairs of Deadly 
 Nightshade. 
 
BURDOCK. 43 
 
 BURDOCK. 
 
 Arctium Lappa major, Lindley. 
 
 Natural Order, ASTERACE-ffi,. Composites, Lindley. 
 
 Plates XVIII. XIX. XXI. 
 
 A biennial plant, growing wild in waste places, old gravel-pits, 
 and on road-sides ; flowering in the month of August. The 
 stem rises to a height of 3 or 4 feet. The radical leaves large, 
 cordate, stalked, their margins having slight dentations at long 
 intervals ; their upper faces dull green ; the lower whitish, owing 
 to a dense covering of fine silky hair. They have been used 
 fraudulently in the adulteration of Tobacco. 
 
 Uses. — Roots, leaves, and fruit, as an alterative and resolvent, 
 in gouty, rheumatic, calculous, and venereal complaints, — pro- 
 perties belonging also to the smaller Burdock. Roots used on 
 the Continent as purgatives and diuretics (Lindley). 
 
 Plate XVIII. The plant, drawn to a scale of li inch to 1 foot. 
 
 Plate XIX. A leaf, drawn to a scale of 1 inch to 5 inches. 
 
 Fig. 1. A diagram representing a magnified view of a trans- 
 verse section of the midrib near the base, with eleven distinct 
 woody bundles, one of which, cut transversely and magnified 
 220 diameters, is seen at Plate VI. Fig. 9. At / are lobes or 
 ridges on the sides and upper and lower surfaces of the midrib. 
 
 Fig. 2. A similar section near the point. 
 
 Fig. 3. A portion of the lobe (/, Fig. 1), in transverse section, 
 magnified 220 diameters. The cells (c), to which the lymphatic 
 hairs with long filaments {h) arc attached, have a quadrangular 
 
44 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 outline ; these are succeeded by rows of elongated cells with 
 an oval section, and intercellular spaces (i) occurring between 
 them. The spaces enclosed by the circles lying within these 
 are the cavities of the cells of the cellular tissue of the midrib, 
 left blank in Fig, 1. 
 
 Fig. 4. A fragment of the epidermis removed from the midrib 
 (m) and lamina (1), with stomates {s) and lymphatic hairs {h h") 
 attached. Magnified 220 diameters. 
 
 The larger lymphatic hairs (A) are composed of a series of 
 oblong, oval, or elliptical cells joined end to end, and united to 
 the epidermal cells by compound bases formed of several cells 
 concentrically arranged. The upper cells of these hairs, to the 
 last one of v/hich very long slender filaments are attached, 
 contain matter coloured brown by tincture of iodine. The 
 smaller lymphatic hairs (A"), which are extremely numerous, are 
 composed of simple filaments of great length attached to a cell 
 of an elongated or ellipsoidal form. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The base of the leaf of Burdock 
 (Plate XXI.) may be distinguished from that of Butterbur 
 by the very slight dentation of its margin at long intervals, and 
 by this character from the leaf of Rhubarb, whose margin is 
 entire. 
 
 Microscopic. — The form of the midrib as seen in transverse 
 section, the lobes occurring at intervals on its outer surfaces, and 
 the size and arrangement of its woody bundles, separate it from 
 Butterbur, Dock, and Rhubarb. The individual cells of the 
 lymphatic filamentous hairs are longer than those of which the 
 hairs of Butterbur are composed, and the terminal cells of 
 these last are free from colouring matter. 
 
BUTTERBUR. 45 
 
 BUTTERBTJR. 
 
 Petasites vulgaris, Desfontaines. 
 
 Natural Order, ASTERACKffi, Composites, Lindley. 
 
 Plates XVIII. XX. XXI. 
 
 A perennial plants growing wild in wet meadows, swamps, 
 and on road-sides ; bearing flowers in the month of April, pre- 
 vious to the leaves making their appearance. The leaves, some 
 of which are as much as 3 feet in their longest dimensions, are 
 roundish-cordate, unequally toothed, downy beneath, with the 
 lobes of their bases nearly or quite touching. Colour bright 
 green, whitish beneath, with long and very strong stalks. The 
 plant has a thick creeping root (underground stem), from which 
 the leaves arise. It grows in great luxuriance on the banks of 
 the Thames, at Putney in Surrey. 
 
 Uses. — None. 
 
 Plate XVIII. The plant, drawn to a scale of l^j inch to 
 1 foot. 
 
 Plate XX. A leaf, drawn to a scale of 1 inch to 4 inches. 
 
 Fig. 1. A diagram exhibiting a magnified view of a transverse 
 section of the midrib at its base, showing the arrangement of the 
 woody bundles in its interior, and layers of cells [ep], forming a 
 thickened cortical integument, continuous on its outer surface. 
 
 Fig. 2. A transverse section of the midrib at its point. 
 
 Fig. 3. A portion of the cortical integument (Fig. 1, qi), 
 magnified 220 diameters : h h, lymphatic filamentous hairs 
 attached ; c, cavities of the cells underlying those of the epi- 
 
46 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 dermis ; i, intercellular spaces ; the circular cells are those of the 
 cellular tissue, left blank in Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 4, A fragment of the epidermis of the midrib (w) and 
 lamina (/), with numerous lymphatic hairs {h), having simple or 
 compound bases, and extremely long very delicate filaments 
 attached to the extremities of their terminal cells ; s, a stomate. 
 Magnified 220 diameters. 
 
 The lymphatic filamentous hairs are made up of oblong or 
 nearly circular cells with very thin transparent walls. Their 
 attachment to the epidermal cells is, in the larger hairs, by three 
 or four cells forming a compound base ; frequently, however, it 
 is by a single cell only. The cells in each hair for the most part 
 gradually diminish in size upwards, the terminal one having a 
 long delicate filament attached to it. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The form of the leaf, the bold cha- 
 racter of its venation, and the unequal dentation of its margin 
 distinguish it readily from those of Burdock and Rhubarb 
 (Plate XXL). 
 
 Microscopic. — The form of the transverse section of the mid- 
 rib, the arrangement of the woody tissue within it, and the 
 thickened cortical integument, continuous on its entire outer 
 surface, form marked characters of distinction between it and 
 the leaves above named. Another distinction rests on the 
 gradual elongation of the cells, relatively to their decrease in 
 dimensions, from the bases to the points of the lymphatic hairs. 
 These hairs have, for the most part, broader bases than those of 
 Burdock, whilst their terminal cells are colourless. The form 
 of the stomates is also worthy of observation. 
 
COLTSFOOT. 47 
 
 COLTSFOOT. 
 
 Tussilago Farfara, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, ASTERACEJE, Composites, Liudley. 
 
 Plates XVIII. XXII. 
 
 A perennial plant, growing wild in gravel-pits, waste sandy 
 places, and in chalky clay soils; flowering in the months of March 
 and April, before bearing leaves. Leaves angular, roundish- 
 cordate, toothed; their under sides covered with a dense silky 
 down, giving them a whitish appearance. The plant has a thick 
 creeping root, from which the leaves spring directly. 
 
 Uses. — The leaves and flowers in decoction, — a popular remedy 
 in pulmonaiy complaints, chronic coughs especially (Pereira). 
 
 Plate XVIII. The plant, drawn to a scale of 1^ inch to 1 foot. 
 
 Plate XXII. A small leaf of the plant, natural size. 
 
 Fig. 1. A diagram representing a transverse section of the 
 midrib near its base. 
 
 Fig. 2. A similar section near the point of the midrib. 
 
 Fig. 3. A vertical section through the lamina of the leaf at a 
 I'ight angle to the midrib. Magnified 220 diameters. At ep are 
 the cells of the epidermis of the upper and lower faces of the 
 leaf, with [s) a stomate divided vertically, h h are lymphatic 
 hairs attached to the epidermis of the under surface of the leaf ; 
 at c are layers of cells, forming the substance of the leaf, and 
 containing granules of chlorophyll; o o, intercellular spaces 
 occurring among the cells of the upper side of the leaf; o", a 
 similar space underlying a stomate {s) on the lower side. 
 
48 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 Fia. 4. A fragment of the epidermis from the under side of the 
 midrib (m) and lamina (/), magnified 220 diameters : s, a stomate ; 
 h, one of the larger lymphatic hairs ; h" h", smaller lymphatic 
 hairs. 
 
 The larger lymphatic hairs {h) are constructed of three or 
 more elongated cells, gradually lengthening from the bases of 
 the hairs upwards ; the terminal cell having a delicate filament 
 of great length attached to it. The smaller lymphatic hairs 
 {h" h") consist usually of a circular or elliptical cell attached to 
 a smaller one, serving as a stalk. Like the larger hairs, their 
 terminal cells have long slender filaments attached to them, and 
 like them have simple bases. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The angular form of the leaf, the 
 dentation of its margin, and the abrupt lessening or thinning of 
 the midrib and veins near to the middle of the leaf. 
 
 Microscopic. — The transverse section of the midrib is distin- 
 guished from that of Dandelion, which it most resembles, by 
 the number and position of its woody bundles. The larger 
 lymphatic filamentous hairs are known from those of Burdock 
 and Butterbur by their general outlines, and by the oblong 
 form and number of the individual cells of which, they are 
 composed. 
 
CHICOKY. 49 
 
 CHICORY. 
 
 Cichorium Intybus, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, ASTERACE^, Composites, LilldleJ^ 
 
 Plate XXIII. 
 
 A perennial plant, growing wild in waste places, on gravelly 
 or chalky soils, all over Europe, bearing bright blue flowers in 
 the months of July and August; the stem attaining to the 
 height of 2 or 3 feet, bristly, and alternately branched. Radical 
 leaves runcinate ; the upper oblong, amplexicaul ; the floral 
 leaves lanceolate, entire, from a broad clasping base. The 
 dried leaves, steeped in tar-oil, have been used as fillers for the 
 adulteration of cigars. 
 
 Plate XXIII. Fig. A. is a form of the leaf frequently met 
 with, and is intermediate between the runcinate leaf (B) and the 
 entire leaves growing on the upper part of the stem. Scale, 
 one-half the natural size. 
 
 Uses. — Cultivated in various parts of England ; also in Bel- 
 gium, Holland, Germany, and France, principally for the root, 
 which, when roasted, is largely used for mixing with coffee, the 
 exciting effect of which it is said to diminish. "Boasted 
 chicory has been in use as a substitute for coffee more than 
 eighty years, and at the present time is extensively employed 
 for adulterating coffee. It is, however, devoid of that fine 
 aromatic flavour for which coffee is so much admired. By some 
 persons it is said to be both wholesome and nutritive ; by others 
 it is declared to be neither the one nor the other. The fact is, 
 
 E 
 
50 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 that no obvious ill effects are usually observed by the use of 
 chicorized coffee; but there can be no doubt that roasted 
 chicory must, when taken largely, have a tendency to excite 
 diarrhoea. It scarcely deserves to be called nutritive, since, 
 with the exception of sugar, it is almost entirely devoid of 
 nutritive principles." (Pereira.) 
 
 Fresh root tonic and aperient : its decoction employed in 
 chronic visceral and cutaneous diseases (Lindley). 
 
 Fig. 1. A diagram representing a transverse section, mag- 
 nified, of the midrib, near the base; its upper surface is 
 concave. 
 
 Fig. 2. A similar section from near the point of the midrib. 
 
 Fig. 3. A small portion of the epidermis removed from the 
 under surface of the midrib (m) and lamina (/), with stomates 
 (s) and glandular hairs {h). Magnified 220 diameters. 
 
 The glandular hairs are for the most part highly complex in 
 their structure, having compound bases formed of a series of 
 oval or circular cells joined end to end, concentrically arranged. 
 These are succeeded by a series of four or six oblong cells 
 attached to each other by their longest faces, superposed on which 
 is another series of either two or four cells similarly united, and 
 to these succeed single cells, terminating in a conical gland 
 charged with brown colouring matter. This is the commonest 
 form of structure ; but in some of these hairs may be observed 
 an alternation of sets of cells with a single one, on which another 
 tier is again superposed ; in others, their attachment to the epi- 
 dermal cells is by the lowermost single cell, attached to which 
 is a series of cylindrically formed cells joined end to end. There 
 may be distinctly traced a tuberculation on the surfaces of these 
 hairs, which becomes more marked in their terminal cells. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The form of the leaf, though bearing 
 a strong resemblance to that of Dandelion, has its point acu- 
 minated. 
 
CHICORY. 51 
 
 Microscopic. — The transverse section of the midrib is concave 
 on its upper surface, and thickly set with glandular hairs. In 
 Dandelion the upper surface of the midrib is convex, and 
 almost free from hairs. The form and structure of the glan- 
 dular bail's are marked characters. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 DANDELION {Bent de Lion). 
 
 Taraxacum Dens Leonis, Desfontaines. 
 
 Natural Order, ASTERACE^, Composites, Lindley. 
 
 Plate XXIV. 
 
 A perennial plant, native of Greece, growing wild almost 
 everywhere, some species affecting meadows and pastures, some 
 dry places, and others wet land and bogs. The plant flowers 
 from March to October; leaves all radical and runcinate, with 
 rounded or obtuse points. The active principle of the root is 
 supposed to reside in a substance procured from it, called 
 Taraxacin, or Dandelion-bitter ; it also yields sugar (Pereira) . 
 
 Uses. — The fresh root in decoction and extraction. In jaun- 
 dice, chronic inflammation or enlargement of the liver, dropsy 
 dependent on hepatic obstruction, and dyspepsia attended with 
 deficient biliary secretion; affections of the spleen, chronic 
 cutaneous diseases, uterine obstructions, &c. (Pereira). 
 
 Plate XXIV. Leaves of medium size. 
 
 Fig. 1. A magnified view of a transverse section of the midrib 
 at its base. 
 
 Fig. 2. A similar section near to the point of the leaf. In 
 both sections their upper and under surfaces are convex, and 
 near to them the woody bundles are distributed. 
 
 Fig. 3. A fragment of the epidermis removed from the midrib 
 (m) and lamina (/) ; h h, lymphatic hairs ; s, a stomate. Mag- 
 nified 220 diameters. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs are of very simple structure, — simple fila- 
 
DANDELION. 53 
 
 ments, composed of cells oblong in form and of equal or 
 nearly equal size, joined together : the basal cells of these hairs 
 contain colouring matter. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The leaf of Dandelion is known 
 from that of Chicory by its obtuse point, and by the convexity 
 of its midrib. 
 
 Mici'oscopic. — The form of the lymphatic hairs and the sim- 
 plicity of their structure distinguish them from all others. 
 
54 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS, 
 
 SUNFLOWER. 
 
 Helianthus annuus, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, ASTERACEiE, Composites, Lindley. 
 
 Plate XXV. 
 
 An annual plant, cultivated in gardens for the beauty of its 
 flowers. The stem grows to a height of 7 or 8 feet. Leaves 
 cordate, serrated, three-ribbed, their surfaces thickly set with 
 sharp, stiff hairs ; colour dull green, somewhat shining. 
 
 Uses. — The seeds for feeding birds ; oil is also expressed from 
 them. 
 
 Plate XXV. A portion of a leaf, one-half of its natural size. 
 
 Fig. 1. A transverse section from the midrib just above its 
 point of junction with the two lateral ribs of the leaf. 
 
 Fig. 2. The same near its apex : both magnified. 
 
 Fig. 3. Cells (c) and intercellular spaces (z), forming the 
 thickened cortical integument of the midrib and leaf-stalk, seen 
 in transverse section ; magnified 320 diameters, h, a lymphatic 
 hair; A", a glandular hair attached to the outermost layer of 
 cells. 
 
 Fig. 4. The epidermis detached from a minute portion of the 
 under side of the midrib {m) and lamina (/) ; magnified 220 
 diameters, h, lympahtic hairs ; h", glandular hairs attached to 
 the epidermis ; s, a stomate. 
 
 Fig. 5. The base of a lymphatic hair detached, showing a part 
 of both its exterior and interior surfaces. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs, and the entire surface of the epidermis 
 
SUNFLOWER. 55 
 
 ou the under surface of the leaf, are marked with numerous 
 and minute tuberculations. The compound bases of these hairs 
 consist of a series of oval or circular cells concentrically arranged, 
 forming a dome-shaped projection. To these are attached one 
 or two spherical or cylindrical cells, succeeded by two or more 
 oblong cells, the last being curved, and terminating in a sharp 
 point. Occasionally the bases of these hairs are simple. 
 
 The glandular hairs consist of a single row of minute, nearly 
 circular cells joined together; the cells at their points are 
 coloured brown. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — A three-ribbed leaf with a serrated 
 margin ; its surfaces rough, and prickly to the touch. 
 
 Microscopic. — The externa] form of the transverse section of 
 the midrib, and the internal arrangement of its woody bundles. 
 The lymphatic hairs of Sunflower cannot be mistaken for 
 those of CoMFREY, if attention be paid to their structure. The 
 lymphatic hairs of the latter are unicellular, with a single row or 
 tier of cells forming their compound bases ; in the former these 
 hairs are composed of many cells, and their bases for the most 
 part are highly complex in their structure. The glandular hairs 
 of Sunflower ave not found in Comfrey, nor are the hooked 
 lymphatic hairs of Comfrey present in Sunflower. 
 
56 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 ELECAMPANE. 
 
 Inula Helenium, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, ASTERACEJE, Composites, Liudley. 
 
 Plate XXVI. 
 
 A perennial plant, growing wild in various parts of Europe, 
 mostly in damp meadow s ; flowering in this country in the 
 months of July and August. The stem rises to a height of 
 3 or 4 feet. Leaves unequally-serrate, cordate-ovate, acute, 
 clasping ; radical leaves stalked, elliptic, oblong. Colour dark 
 green, downy beneath. 
 
 Elecampane-camphor, cXo^eXy 2i)i\\e(S. in its chemical composition 
 to creosote, and inulin, an amylaceous substance, organized, 
 according to Raspail, like common starch, are among the pro- 
 ducts furnished by the root of this plant (Pereira). 
 
 Uses. — The root in powder or decoction in pulmonary affec- 
 tions (as catarrh), dyspepsia, exanthemata. It is rarely employed 
 now by the medical practitioner (Pereira). 
 
 Plate XXVI. A stem-leaf, one-half natural size. 
 
 Fig. 1. A magnified view of a transverse section of the 
 midrib near its base. At ep is the external thickened cortical 
 integument. 
 
 Fig. 2. A similar section near its apex. In both the woody 
 bundles are represented dark, the cellular tissue being left blank. 
 
 Fig. 3. A portion of the thickened cortical integument of the 
 midrib in transverse section, wdth {h) a lymphatic hair and [g) a 
 glandular hair attached. Magnified 320 diameters. 
 
ELECAMPANE. 57 
 
 Fig. 4. A fragment of the epideruiis of the midrib (w) and 
 lamina (/) removed from the under surface of the leaf and 
 magnified 220 diameters, h h, lymphatic hairs (some broken) ; 
 g, glandular hairs ; g", another form of glandular hair. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs are constructed of oblong cells gradually 
 lengthening from the base to the point of the hair, each cell 
 being more or less constricted at or near the middle, as in the 
 joints of a bamboo-cane. The cell-walls of these hairs are thick, 
 and the terminal cell of each haii* is sharply pointed : their 
 bases are for the most part compound. 
 
 The glandular hairs {g) consist of globular capitate cells 
 charged with coloured matter, united to one or more minute 
 circular cells forming their stalks. The glandular hairs {g") are 
 composed of a cluster of minute, nearly circular cells. The 
 attachment of both forms of hair to the cells of the epidermis is 
 usually of a compound nature. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The form, venation, and serrated 
 margin of the leaf. 
 
 Microscopic. — The form of the transverse section of the 
 midrib, its thickened cortical integument, and the arrangement 
 of its woody tissue. The form of the lymphatic hairs, the con- 
 striction of the cells composing them, and their sharply-pointed 
 terminal cells. The two forms of glandular hairs. 
 
58 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 COMFREY. 
 
 Symphytum officinale, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, BORAGINACE^, Borageworts, Lindley. 
 
 Plates XXVII. XXVIII. 
 
 A perennial plant, very common in damp places, with yel- 
 lowish-white or purple flowers, which appear in the months of 
 May and June. Height of stem from 1 to 3 feet, winged in 
 upper part. The upper leaves decurrent ; stem-leaves stalked, 
 ovate-lanceolate, attenuated below ; colour bright green, and 
 covered with stiff prickly hairs. 
 
 Uses. — None. 
 
 Plate XXVII. The plant. Scale, 2 inches to one foot. 
 
 Plate XXVIII. The leaf, one-half natural size. 
 
 Fig. 1. A magnified view of a transverse section of the midrib 
 near to its base, showing the separate bundles of woody tissue, 
 the lowermost of which is shaped like a boat's stern. At ep is 
 the thickened cortical integument. 
 
 Fig. 2. A similar section near the apex of the midrib. 
 
 Fig. 3. A transverse section of the thickened cortical integu- 
 ment {qt, Fig. 1), magnified 220 diameters : c, cavities of the 
 cells ; i, intercellular spaces ; cm, the cuticle overlying the outer 
 surface of the external layer of cells, and the lymphatic hair, h, 
 which is cut through at its base, and the extremity broken off. 
 
 Fig. 4. A fragment of the epidermis removed from the under 
 surface of the midrib (m) and lamina (/) : h, lymphatic hairs 
 with compound bases; //', lymphatic hairs with hooked points 
 
COMFREY. 59 
 
 and simple bases ; g, small glandular hairs ; s, a stomate. Mag 
 nified 220 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 5. h, a glandular hair, detached from the epidermis; 
 d, the same hair seen from above. Magnified 430 diameters. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs [h) are each of them composed of a single 
 sharp-pointed cell having a very thick wall with tuberculated 
 surfaces ; their compound bases are formed of several circular or 
 oval cells, arranged as a conical or dome-shaped elevation. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs (A") are also unicellular, their extremities 
 sharply pointed and hooked, and their bases simple. 
 
 The glandular hair {g) is composed of a globular cell, usually 
 containing coloured matter, attached to one or two other oblong 
 cells, forming its stalk. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The form, venation, and rough, 
 prickly surfaces of the leaf. 
 
 Microscopic. — The form of the transverse sections of the 
 midrib of the leaf, the arrangement of their woody bundles, and 
 the presence of the thickened cortical integument. The uni- 
 cellular lymphatic hairs, their sharp points and tuberculated 
 surfaces. The hooked lymphatic hairs, and the tuberculation 
 of the entire surface of the epidermis. The unicellular structure 
 of the bodies of the lymphatic hairs, and the simple arrangement 
 of the cells forming their bases, distinguish them readily from 
 the lymphatic hairs of Sunflower. 
 
60 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 DOCK. 
 
 Rumex, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, POLYGONACE^, Buckwheats, Lindley. 
 
 Plates XXIX. XXX. 
 
 A perennial plant, growing wild on road-sides, in marshy 
 places, woods and ditches, dry waste places, fields and pastures. 
 Stem from 1 to 5 feet in height, bearing flowers from June 
 to August ; leaves oblong or ovate-lanceolate, stalked, cordate, 
 rounded or attenuated at the base, with acute or obtuse points. 
 They have been used in the fraudulent adulteration of tobacco. 
 
 Uses. — None. 
 
 Plate XXIX. The plant (R. crispus). Leaves wavy, curled, 
 acute. Drawn to a scale of 1| inch to 1 foot. 
 
 Plate XXX . A leaf of R. ohtusif alius with an adherent sti- 
 pule at the base of the leaf-stalk. Drawn to a scale of 1 inch 
 to 3 inches. 
 
 Fig. 1 . A magnified view of a transverse section of the midrib 
 of the leaf near its base. At / are lobes of thickened cortical 
 integument found at intervals on the outer sui-faces of the midrib. 
 
 Fig. 2. A transverse section from near the point of the midrib. 
 
 Fig. 3. A fragment of the epidermis removed from the under 
 surface of the midrib (w) and lamina (/). Magnified 220 dia- 
 meters, hh, lymphatic hairs ; g g, glands ; s, a stomate. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs are unicellular with rounded extremities, 
 and their outer surfaces, as well as that of the epidermis, 
 coarsely striated. 
 
DOCK. 61 
 
 The glands are circular bodies, composed of several cells con- 
 centrically arranged among those of the epidermis, from which 
 they project. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The form and venation of the stalked 
 leaf, with its adherent stipule. 
 
 Microscopic. — The transverse sections from the midrib, with 
 the lobes on their outer surfaces, and their numerous separate 
 bundles of woody tissue, as seen in Fig, 1. The lymphatic 
 unicellular hairs are more elongated and have narrower bases 
 than those of Rhubarb, and the striation on their surfaces is 
 much coarser and more defined; the glands are smaller than 
 those of Rhubarb, and less regular in their form. 
 
62 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 RHUBARB. 
 
 Rheum hybridum, Murray. 
 
 Natural Order, POLYGONACE^, Buckwheats, Lindley. 
 
 Plates XXI. XXVII. XXXI. 
 
 An annual, herbaceous plant, not indigenous in this country, 
 but originally imported from China by way of Russia. Pereira 
 states, that of the thirteen species grown in this country, the 
 roots of which he examined, those of Rheum palmatum only re- 
 sembled the true Asiatic Rhubarb imported for medicinal pur- 
 poses. Rheum Rhaponticum, another species, the same author 
 states, is our common or Rhapontic Rhubarb, cultivated in this 
 country for the leaf-stalks, which are used for tarts and pud- 
 dings. The same species is also grown largely at Banbury in 
 Oxfordshire for the sake of the roots, which, when dried, con- 
 stitute English, or Banbury Rhubarb. R. hybridum is cultivated 
 as culinary Rhubarb. The leaves have been frequently used in 
 the fraudulent adulteration of tobacco. 
 
 Uses. — The root, in diarrhoea and dyspepsia ; as an external 
 application in healing indolent ulcers. 
 
 Plate XXVII. The plant, drawn to a scale of 1 inch to 
 1 foot. 
 
 Plate XXXI. A leaf of R. hybridum, drawn to a scale of 
 1 inch to 6 inches : form roundish-cordate ; colour dark green. 
 
 Fig. 1. A magnified view of a transverse section of the midrib 
 of the leaf near to its base. Fig. 2. The same near its point. 
 
 At c. Fig. 1, is the thickened cortical integument on the 
 
RHUBARB. 63 
 
 upper surface of the midrib. The woody bundles lying scat- 
 tered in the cellular mass of the midrib (which is left blank) 
 are comparatively small and very numerous. 
 
 Fig. 3. A portion of the epidermis removed from the under 
 sm-face of the leaf, and magnified 220 diameters, h, lymphatic 
 hairs; g, glands; s, a stomate. 
 
 Fig. 4. A mass of conglomerate raphides from the sub-epi- 
 dermal tissue of the leaf, magnified 430 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 5. A gland detached, and viewed in a vertical position. 
 
 Fig. 6. The same gland viewed from below. 
 
 Fig. 7 represents a vertical section of Fig. 5, — c being the 
 general surface of the epidermis of the leaf, from which the 
 glands project slightly. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs are unicellular, with broad bases, obtuse 
 points, and the exterior surfaces of their cell-walls marked deli- 
 cately with very fine irregular lines (striated). 
 
 The glands are minute bodies formed of an aggregation of 
 cells, arranged circularly. They are not level with the surface 
 of the epidermis, but form dome-shaped projections outwards, 
 their lower portions lying imbedded in the substance of the leaf. 
 They usually contain a brownish colouring matter, most easily 
 detected in their cavities when the gland is viewed in situ. 
 
 Characteristic Distinctions. — The entire margin of the leaf 
 distinguishes it at once from the leaves of Burdock and Butter- 
 bur (Plate XXI.). 
 
 Microscopic. — The form of the transverse sections of the 
 midi'ib, the distribution of their woody bundles, and the absence 
 (excepting on their upper surfaces) of a thickened cortical inte- 
 gument, are characters in which they differ widely from the 
 leaves of Dock, Burdock, or Butterbur. The unicellular haii's, 
 the delicate striations on their outer surfaces and on that of the 
 epidermis. The glands are large and numerous ; the raphides 
 abundant. 
 
64 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 FOXGLOVE. 
 
 Digitalis purpurea, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, SCROPHULARIACEiE, Linariads, Liiidley. 
 
 Plate XXXII. 
 
 Au indigenous perennial plant, growing on hedge-banks and 
 in woods. The stem grows 3 or 4 feet high, bearing alternate 
 leaves, form ovate-lanceolate, crenate, downy beneath ; the lower 
 leaves attenuated into footstalks. The plant flowers from June 
 to August. The leaves have been used in the adulteration of 
 tobacco. 
 
 Uses. — As a medicinal agent, the effects of Foxglove approxi- 
 mate more closely to those of Tobacco than of any other cerebro- 
 spinant. These two agents agree in their power of enfeebling 
 the action of the heart and arteries. In large doses it destroys 
 life. The leaves, in infusion, tincture, and extract, are used in 
 fever, inflammation, dropsy, hsemorrhages, diseases of the heart 
 and great vessels, phthisis, insanity, epilepsy, and with occa- 
 sional benefit in scrofula and asthma (Pereira). 
 
 Plate XXXII. A leaf, one-third natural size. 
 
 Fig. 1. A diagram representing a transverse section of the 
 midrib near its base. The woody tissue is collected in one mass 
 of a curved form. Its position is nearly central; and it is sur- 
 rounded by the cellular tissue (left blank), the whole enclosed 
 by a thickened cortical integument, ep. 
 
 Fio. 2. is a similar section of the midrib near its point. 
 
 Fig. 3. The cells forming the integument of the midrib 
 
FOXGLOVE. 65 
 
 (Fig. 1, ep), seen in transverse section, magnified 220 diameters ; 
 h, a lymphatic hair attached. 
 
 Fig. 4. Cells of the cellular tissue of the midrib, seen in 
 transverse section, magnified 350 diameters, r, conglomerate 
 r aphides ; s, starch -granules. 
 
 Fig. 5. A fragment of the epidermis removed from the under 
 surface of the leaf, magnified 220 diameters. At m are the cells 
 forming the tissue of the epidermis of the midrib ; at /, those 
 of the lamina ; h, lymphatic hairs ; h" h", glandular hairs ; 
 g, smaller glandular hairs ; s, a stomate. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs are composed of a series of oblong cells 
 joined together, gradually lessening from the bases of the hairs 
 upwards, until they finally become pointed at their extremities. 
 Their bases are either simple or compound. 
 
 The glandular hairs (/«") consist of two or three oblong taper- 
 ing cells, terminated by one of a nearly spherical form. 
 
 The smaller glandular hairs {g), which are extremely minute 
 and numerous, have spherical cells in which coloured matter is 
 visible, forming their glands ; these are attached to one or two 
 oblong cells which form their stalks. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The form, venation, and divided 
 margin of the leaf, and the woolly texture of its under surface. 
 
 Microscopic. — The form of the outline of the transverse sec- 
 tion (Fig. 1), with its upper surface grooved, sufficiently distin- 
 guishes it from Tobacco and Mullein. The form of the 
 pointed lymphatic hairs, and the number of the cells composing 
 them. The glandular hairs {h") have their glands formed of 
 single cells. This form of hair is less frequently met with than 
 either the lymphatic hairs {h) or the characteristic glandular 
 hairs (g), which are very numerous. 
 
66 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 MULLEIN-HIGH TAPER. 
 
 Verbascum Thapsus, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, SCROPHULARIACE-ai, Linabiads, Lindley. 
 
 Plates XVIII. XXXIII. 
 
 An indigenous biennial plant, growing on road-sides and in 
 waste ground, with a stem from 4 to 5 feet in height, flowering 
 in July and August. The leaves ovate-oblong, erenate, densely 
 woolly on both sides, decurrent from one to the other. 
 
 Seeds and flowers poisonous ; foliage acrid and bitterish 
 (Lindley). 
 
 Uses. — Leaves in the form of a decoction in catarrhs and 
 diarrhoea. Fomentations and cataplasms, made of Great Mullein, 
 have been used as applications to hsemon'hoidal tumours and 
 indurated glands (Pereira). 
 
 Plate XVIII. The plant, drawn to a scale of 1^ inch to 
 1 foot. 
 
 Plate XXXIII. The leaf, one-half natural size. 
 
 Fig. 1. A magnified view of a transverse section from near 
 the base of the midrib. 
 
 Fig. 2. A similar section near its point. 
 
 In both diagrams the woody tissue is represented dark, the 
 cellular tissue being left blank. At ej) is the thickened cortical 
 integument on the outer and upper surfaces of the midrib. 
 
 Fig. 3. A small portion of the epidermis removed from the 
 under surface of the midrib [m) and lamina (/). Magnified 
 
MULLEIN. 67 
 
 220 diameters. At h h are the branched or stellate lymphatic 
 hairs, s, a broken stomate. 
 
 Fig. 4. The upper portion of a broken lymphatic hair, in 
 which the branching takes place at three different points of its 
 stalk. Magnified 350 diameters. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs are composed of one or more oblong cells 
 joined together, forming the stalks of the hairs. To the upper 
 one of these are attached others of a curved form, with fine 
 sharp points, which radiate from one or more points of its sur- 
 face. The cell- walls of these hairs are thick ; their bases are 
 simple. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The form, bold venation, and divided 
 margin of the leaf, and its velvety texture. 
 
 Microscopic. — The form of the transverse sections of the 
 midrib, the arrangement of their central masses of woody tissue 
 with curved extremities, and the presence of the thickened corti- 
 cal integument. From Foxglove this section is distinguished 
 by the very slight depression of its upper surface. The lym- 
 phatic stellate hairs, which are also stalked, form a very charac- 
 teristic distinction. 
 
 f2 
 
68 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 GREEN HELLEBORE.-STINKINQ 
 HELLEBORE. 
 
 Helleborus viridis, Linn. Helleborus fmtidus, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, RANUNCULACE.ffi, Crowfoots, Lindley. 
 
 Plates XXXIV. XXXV. 
 
 Green Hellebore is an annual plant, growing wild in 
 England and Ireland, in thickets on a calcareous soil ; the stem 
 attaining to the height of a foot, with greenish-yellow flowers 
 appearing in March and April. The root of this plant is some- 
 times substituted for that of the Black Hellebore, which is 
 imported into this country from Hamburg and Marseilles. 
 
 Stinking Hellebore, a plant growing wild in England and 
 Scotland, in woods and thickets in chalky districts. Stem 
 2 feet high, bearing flowers which are greenish, tipped with 
 purple, appearing in March and April. Both plants have pedate, 
 stalked leaves ; the leaflets lanceolate, and partially serrated. 
 
 Uses. — The leaves are emetic, purgative, and poisonous. 
 Those of H. fcetidus have been employed as a vermifuge against 
 the large round worm {Ascaris lumbricoides) (Pereira) . 
 
 Plate XXXIV. A leaf of Green Hellebore, two-thirds 
 natural size. 
 
 Fig. 1. A transverse section, magnified, of the midrib of a 
 leaflet near its base. 
 
 Fig. 2. A small portion of the lamina of a leaflet cut through 
 its substance vertically, and at right angles to the midrib. At c 
 
GREEN HELLEBORE. — STINKING HELLEBORE. 69 
 
 is the cuticle overlyiug the epidermal cells of the upper sur- 
 faccj e. At m are the cells forming the substance of the leaflet ; 
 e", the cells of the epidermis of the under surface ; s, a stomate 
 divided vertically ; %, an intercellular space beneath it ; h, a 
 lymphatic hair attached to the epidermal cells. Magnified 
 220 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 3. A fragment of the epidermal tissue from the under 
 surface of a leaflet ; from a vein (m) and lamina (/) ; h, a 
 lymphatic hair ; s, a stomate. At/w is part of a woody bundle 
 of the leaf-vein. Magnified 220 diameters. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs are unicellular and pointed; their cell- 
 walls very flexible and marked with minute tuberculations. On 
 the cells of the epidermis, more especially those of the laminar 
 portion, a peculiar striation is distinctly visible, an appearance 
 due probably to the wrinkling of its cuticle. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The pedate form of leaf and the 
 partially serrated margins of its leaflets. 
 
 Mia'oscopic. — The form of the lymphatic hairs, their simple 
 bases, tuberculated surfaces, and their flexibility are characters 
 by which the hairs may be readily distinguished from those of 
 CoMFREY, to which they bear the nearest, though a very slight, 
 resemblance. 
 
 Plate XXXV. A leaf of Stinking Hellebore two-thirds of 
 its natural size. 
 
 Fig. 1. A transverse section of a midrib of a leaflet, magnified. 
 
 Fig. 2. A minute portion of the epidermis of the upper 
 surface of a leaflet, showing the peculiar wavy outlines of the 
 cell-walls [z) of the cells of which this tissue is composed, and 
 the markings on their outer surfaces. At h is a lymphatic hair. 
 Magnified 220 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 3. A view of a fragment of the epidermis of the under 
 side of the leaf; from the lamina (/) and midrib (m) ; s, a 
 stomate ; h h, lymphatic hairs. Magnified 220 diameters. 
 
70 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs are unicellular, club-shaped bodies. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The leaves of Green Hellebore 
 are brighter in colour than those of Stinking Hellebore ; 
 they differ also slightly in the character of the serration at the 
 margins of the leaflets. 
 
 Microscopic. — The form of the unicellular hairs distinguishes 
 them at once from those of Green Hellebore and the other 
 examples. The peculiar form and structure of the stomates are 
 worthy of observation. 
 
PLANTAIN. 71 
 
 PLANTAIN. 
 
 Plantago, Linn. 
 
 Natural Order, PLANTAGINACE^, Ribworts^ Liiidley. 
 
 Plates XXIX. XXXVI. 
 
 A perennial plant, growing in fields and waste places, on banks 
 and in pastures ; flowering from June to August : the leaves 
 and flower-stalks spring from an underground stem. Leaves 
 broadly ovate, on longish, channeled stalks, venation curvinerved. 
 They have been used in the adulteration of tobacco. 
 
 Uses. — The plant is used in some districts for feeding sheep, 
 when grown with a crop of clover. The ripe fruit is collected 
 by poor people, by whom it is vended as food for caged birds. 
 
 Plate XXIX. The plant, with its fruit-stalk and fruit ; drawn 
 to a scale of 1 to 6 inches. 
 
 Plate XXXVI. A leaf j drawn one-half its natural size. 
 
 Fig. 1. A diagram representing a transverse section of the 
 midrib near the base. 
 
 Fig. 3. The same near its apex. 
 
 Fig. 3. A small portion of the epidermis removed from the 
 under surface of the midrib (m) and lamina (/) ; with h, lym- 
 phatic hairs ; g, glandular hairs ; and s, a stomate. Magnified 
 220 diameters. The epidermis is striated and slightly tuber- 
 culated. 
 
 The lymphatic hairs are composed of oblong cells, those at the 
 extremity being sharply pointed, and those towards the base 
 approaching nearly to the cu'cular form ; the cell forming the 
 
72 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 simple base of each hair is circular and dome-shaped. These 
 hairs have tuberculated surfaces. 
 
 The glandular hairs have their glands composed of a pair of 
 oval or kidney-shaped cells, slightly coloured, with a single 
 oblong cell for a stalk. 
 
 Distinctive Characters. — The form of the stalked leaf and its 
 curvinerved venation. 
 
 Microscopic. — The form of the transverse sections of the 
 midrib. The lymphatic hairs are readily distinguished from 
 those of the Potato by their bases, which ai-e much broader, and 
 by their terminal cells, which are not i-ecurved. The individual 
 cells of the hairs in this example gradually lengthen from their 
 bases upwards : in Potato, the cells composing the hairs stand 
 in a reverse order — they gradually shorten. The lymphatic 
 hairs of Plantain are known from those of Sunflower and 
 CoMFREY by their simple bases ; from the latter they are also 
 distinguished by the multicellular structure of the body of each 
 hair. 
 
STARCHES. 7S 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 STARCHES. 
 
 Plates XXXVII. XXXVIII. 
 
 " Starch," says Schleiden*, " is tlie most generally distributed 
 substance in the Vegetable Kingdom. I am not acquainted 
 with any plant which does not, at some season of the year, at 
 least at the period when vegetation is inactive, contain more or 
 less starch, frequently only in individual granules in the cells, 
 and frequently entirely filling them in grains of the most dif- 
 ferent size. The starch-granules adhere quite adventitiously, by 
 means of mucus, to the cell-walls. The umbilicus (hilum), by 
 which the starch -granules are said to be attached to the wall of 
 the cell, is an error on the part of Turpin. The largest granules 
 do not appear to exceed 0*05 of a line in the longest diameter. 
 The starch is most readily obtained by bursting the cellular 
 tissue, and by washing it from the plant ; occasionally, however, 
 it cannot be thus obtained, as, for instance, when it occurs com- 
 bined with much mucus, as in Hedychium. The starch in 
 Maranta arundinacea (Arrowroot) appears to be the purest. We 
 certainly do not say too much when we assert that starch con- 
 stitutes the most important, and the almost exclusive food of two- 
 thirds of all mankind. It is certainly contained in all plants, 
 but not always in such a manner as to be sufficient and suitable 
 for nutriment ; and sometimes, too, indivisible from other un- 
 palatable admixtures, as, for instance, in the Horse-chestnut. 
 Certain parts of plants contain it in the largest quantity, namely 
 
 * Principles of Scientific Botany, p. 18 ; translated from the German 
 bv Ed. Lankester, M.D. 1849. 
 
74 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 the albumen of seeds (the Cerealia), the cotyledons of the em- 
 bryo {Leguminosce) , the medulla or pith of the stem {Cycadea 
 and Palma^), bulbs {Liliacea-f), the tubers, root-stocks, and 
 roots of very diflferent families J. It occurs in smaller quanti- 
 ties in the bark and the albumen of trees in winter, whence the 
 inhabitants of the Polar regions are able to bake the bark of 
 trees as bread." 
 
 Starch, as it occurs in commerce in the form of Arrowroot, 
 Potato- starch, &c., is a white, somewhat gritty powder, having 
 a glistening appearance. When examined under a microscope 
 this powder is seen to consist of a mass of granules, more or less 
 adherent, but easily separable by gently rubbing them with the 
 tip of the finger on a clean glass slide under water. The forms of 
 the granules vary with the plant from which the starch has been 
 procm'cd, being either circular, elliptical, triangular, or irregular 
 figures. In some species of Euphorbia they are dumbbell- 
 shaped, or in the form of two spheres united by a long arm ; 
 whilst in other specimens they appear as two or more nuclei 
 enclosed in a common envelope. 
 
 The surfaces of some granules exhibit a peculiar laminated or 
 streaky appearance, formed by a series of very delicately marked 
 lines, radiating, as it were, from a common centre — a dark spot 
 (the hilum or nucleus). In other granules the hilum occurs as 
 a long cleft, fold, or slit on their surfaces, or as a series of very 
 delicate fissures radiating from a central spot or cavity. 
 
 Of the exact nature of the starch -granule, little beyond its 
 chemical composition is known with any degree of certainty. 
 Schleiden §, who selected the starch of the Potato for his expe- 
 
 * As sago, from Ci/cas revohda, Sagns Rumphii, farinifera, &c. 
 t Lilium camtchaticum, in Greenland, &c., is a source of food. 
 X Potatoes, from Solanum tuberosum ; Cassava, from Jatropha Mani- 
 hot J Taroo, from Arum esculentum (Colocasia macrorhiza ?), &c. 
 § Principles of Scientific Botany, p. 12. 
 
STARCHES. 75 
 
 riments, the granules of whicli present the laminated appearance 
 on their surfaces, conckides that these indicate the surfaces of 
 contact of many hollow, ovate scales, laid around each other, 
 and that these layers, of which the granule is formed, are more 
 aqueous and gelatinous as they lie nearer to the interior. By 
 some the starch-granule is thought to be a vesicle, on which the 
 lines {laminations) indicate the rugce or folds into which it is 
 thrown in the contracted state, and that this vesicle occasionally 
 contains a grumous material — amorphous starch. Such is the 
 view taken of its structure by Mr. George Busk. An opinion, 
 still more recent, is that of Dr. Allman, who believes that the 
 granule " is formed out of a series of independent lamellae, in 
 the form of hollow shells, included one within another.^' * 
 
 Iodine f, according to the degree of its concentration, when 
 dissolved in iodide of potassium, colours starch-granules a pale 
 or dark indigo-blue tint, approaching to blackness : dilute sul- 
 phuric acid causes them to swell considerably when added to 
 the water in which they are placed. With polarized light many 
 starch-granules exhibit a beautifully marked dark cross on their 
 surfaces, the point where these dark bands meet and cross each 
 other being at the hilum of the granule. These are characteristic 
 tests by which the presence of starch may with certainty be 
 confirmed. 
 
 " Although," says Dr. Carpenter J, " the dimensions of the 
 
 starch-grains produced by any one species of plant are by no 
 
 means constant, yet there is a certain average for each, from 
 
 which none of them depart very widely ; and by reference to 
 
 this average, the starch-grains of diflferent plants that yield this 
 
 product in abundance may be microscopically distinguished 
 
 from one another." The difficulty (if not impossibility) hes in 
 
 discovering this certain average : the student, therefore, cannot 
 
 * Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science, Nos. 3 and 7. 
 
 t Reagent, No. 4, p. 100. t The Microscope, p. 421. 
 
76 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 do better than study the forms of individual granules in each 
 specimen of starch which he examines, paying particular atten- 
 tion to their outlines as the grains move in the medium in vi^hich 
 they are viewed, and their behaviour with the reagents named in 
 another place f. 
 
 The following are descriptions of specimens of Starch from 
 different plants, viewed in water. They are illustrated, from 
 my own observation, on Plates XXXVII. and XXXVIII. 
 In order to enable the student to form an idea of relative mag- 
 nitude, the granules in each specimen are magnified 430 diame- 
 ters, and all drawn to one scale. The measurements given are 
 those made by Mr. George Jackson, as quoted by Pereira. 
 
 Tous-les-mois. — Procured, in the form of a white glistening 
 powder, from the tubers of Canna edulis, a native of the West 
 Indies, and imported from St. Kitts. The granules of this starch 
 are the largest known ; their form is ovate, oval, or oblong, 
 flattened on one surface, with a projection at one or both sides. 
 The hilum is circular, and placed at one end, usually at the 
 narrow extremity of the granule. The lines or laminations of 
 the surface are numerous, tolerably regular and close. 
 
 As measured in parts of an English inch : — 
 
 Particles. Length. Breadth. 
 
 1 0-0042 0-0035 
 
 2 0-0037 00026 
 
 3* 0-0031 0-0027 
 
 4* 0-0032 0-0020 
 
 5* 0-0025 0-0017 
 
 6 0-0013 0-0010 
 
 The most prevalent-sized particles are those marked thus, *. 
 
 The following characters, which distinguish this starch from 
 that of the Potato, are given by Pereira %. My own observa- 
 tions confirm them. 
 
 t Page 100. 
 
 X Materia Medica and Therapeutics, vol. ii. p. 1115, pt. 1. 1850. 
 
STARCHES. 'Tl 
 
 " Potato-starch is the only amylaceous substance which can 
 be confounded with Tous-les-mois. The two starches may be 
 distinguished by a careful attention to their relative sizes and 
 shapes, to the appearance of their rings {laminations), the posi- 
 tion of the hilum, and the action of polarized light on them. 
 
 " First, the particles of Potato-starch are, on the average, 
 smaller than those of Tous-les-mois, and are subject to greater 
 irregularity of size (both as regards different sorts of potatoes 
 and the different particles of the same potato) . 
 
 " Secondly, the larger particles of Potato-starch are more irre- 
 gular in shape than those of Tous-les-mois ; the latter are more 
 constantly rounded, or oblong, or ovate-oblong ; the former are 
 oval, often approximating in shape to an oyster-shell, a mussel- 
 shell, or a triangle with rounded corners, and being frequently 
 gibbous or tumid at different parts of their surface. 
 
 " Thirdly, the rings {laminations) seen on particles of Tous-les- 
 mois are fine, regular, uniform, concentric, and crowded ; those 
 of Potato-starch are coarser, irregular, often excentric, irre- 
 gularly drawn out, distorted, or more and unequally distant 
 from each other. In Potato-starch a great number of complete 
 rings is visible, and we can trace the lines around the hilum, 
 even in the case of many of the larger rings ; but in Tous-les- 
 mois this can be done with a very few of the smaller rings only. 
 
 " Fourthly, in both the hilum is situated nearer to the end of 
 the particle ; but in Potato-starch this character is less obvious, 
 the hilum being frequently less distant from the centre of the 
 particle than in the case of Tous-les-mois. 
 
 " Lastly, when viewed by polarized light, the cross is less fre- 
 quently regular in Potato-starch than in Tous-les-mois ; in the 
 former the arms are often distorted." 
 
 Potato Starch. — Procured from the potato by rasping it into 
 water, from which it is deposited as a sediment. It occurs in 
 commerce as a white glistening powder, more or less adherent 
 
78 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 in lumps, grating between the teeth. Composed of large and 
 small granules ; the larger ones being elliptical or ovate, having 
 the laminations strongly marked. The commonest form is that 
 of a triangle rounded at the angles, or of an oyster- or a mussel- 
 shell. The hilum is mostly circular, as the particle is viewed 
 from its upper surface (that on which the laminations are most 
 evident), or sometimes elongated, when viewed on the under 
 surface (that on which a fold or tuck is indicated). Laminations 
 somewhat irregular and strongly marked ; nearly the whole of 
 them traceable around the hilum, to which they are more or less 
 excentric. The laminations occur most strongly marked on those 
 particles which are somewhat flattened ; those which are more 
 rounded in their contour are less marked with them on one 
 surface, whilst the opposite surface has the folded appearance. 
 
 The smaller particles are more spherical, and their laminations 
 less distinct. 
 
 As measured by Mr. George Jackson, in parts of an English 
 inch : — 
 
 Particles. Length. Breadth. 
 
 1 0-0023 00016 
 
 2 0-0021 00014 
 
 3 00018 0-0013 
 
 4 0-0011 0-0009 
 
 5 0-0009 0-0007 
 
 6 0-0007 0-0006 
 
 7 0-0005 0-0005 
 
 8 0-0004 0-0004 
 
 9 0-0003 0-0003 
 
 10 0-0002 0-0002 
 
 Rye Starch. — Procured from the raw grain, of which it forms 
 a large proportion. 
 
 The form of the largest granules is usually that of a circular, 
 flattened disc, with an apparently depressed centre, having 
 
STARCHES. 
 
 79 
 
 cracks or fissures on its outer edge. The smaller granules are, or 
 approach to, the spheroidal form. On one of their faces most 
 of the large granules exhibit a folded appearance ; viewed edge- 
 ways theii' foi-ni is elliptical. The hilmn is central in position, 
 and its form circular or stellate ; that is, with lines radiating 
 from a central point, and reaching almost to the margin of the 
 particle. Circular laminations may occasionally be traced, form- 
 ing rings around the central hilum. Mr, George Jackson's 
 measurements of eight granules, in parts of an English inch, 
 are as follow : — 
 
 1 
 
 O'Ooie 
 
 5. . . 
 
 0-0005 
 
 2 
 
 00015 
 
 6 
 
 00003 
 
 3 
 
 00013 
 
 7 
 
 0-0002 
 
 4 
 
 0-0010 
 
 8 
 
 0-0001 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat Starch. — As procured fresh from the grain in the form 
 of a fine white powder (flour) ; the granules under the micro- 
 scope are less variable in their size than those of other spe- 
 cimens. The largest particles are mostly of a roundish, or but 
 slightly elongated form, with one face compressed or flat- 
 tened ; the smallest granules approach more nearly to the form 
 of spheres. The hilum is situated at or near the centre, being 
 usually of an elongated form, and more commonly running in 
 the direction of the shortest diameter of the particle : around it, 
 the laminations, in the form of very delicately marked, concentric 
 rings, may occasionally be traced. Less frequently, the hilum is 
 of a circular form. Mr. George Jackson's measurements give, 
 in parts of an English inch : — 
 
 1 
 
 Common Wheat. 
 -0009 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 
 Spelt 
 
 Wheat 
 
 -001^ 
 
 9 
 
 -0006 
 
 
 
 •0010 
 
 8 
 
 -0004 
 
 
 
 •0005 
 
 4 
 
 -0003 
 
 
 
 -0003 
 
 5 
 
 -0002 
 
 
 
 •0001 
 
 fi. 
 
 -0001 
 
 
 
 
80 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 Barley Starch. — As procured in a fresh state from the grain, 
 in the form of a white meal, and examined under the micro- 
 scope, the particles are so like those of Wheat-starch in their 
 form and other characters, as to be hardly distinguishable from 
 them. The granules are more varied in their dimensions than 
 those of Wheat ; the largest of them are irregularly circular, 
 elliptical, or obscurely triangular; the smallest, nearly sphe- 
 roidal. Like the particles of Wheat-starch, they are lenti- 
 cular, their lower surfaces having the folded appearance; on 
 their upper surfaces, the laminations are scarcely perceptible. 
 Slight fissures or cracks occur occasionally on their margins, an 
 appearance that I have not observed on the granules of Wheat- 
 starch, from which they also differ in having the hilum less 
 centrally placed, and less strongly marked, on the larger granules. 
 On nearly all the smaller particles of Barley-starch the hilum 
 may be observed, which is not the case in Wheat. Pereira 
 states that the largest grains are larger than those of Wlieat, an 
 assertion which my own observations do not confirm ; I have in- 
 variably found them somewhat smaller. 
 
 The following measurements of seven (including the largest 
 and smallest) grains were made by Mr. George Jackson : — 
 
 1 0-0011 of an Eno-lish iiirli. 
 
 2 0-0010 
 
 3 0-0009 „ „ 
 
 4 0-0008 „ „ 
 
 5 0-0005 „ „ 
 
 6 00002 „ „ 
 
 7 0-0001 
 
 Oat Starch. — The contents of the grain afford a white meal 
 with abundance of starch, consisting of small particles, for the 
 most part adhering together at one or more of their faces. The 
 largest granules, when free from contact with others, are more or 
 less rounded in form, and, like most other grains, are lenticular. 
 
STARCHES. 81 
 
 or flattened at one side. The hilum is evident on the larger 
 granules only^ and on these no laminations can be traced. 
 Polarized light has no effect upon them which is distinctly 
 visible. 
 
 Measui-ed by Mr, George Jackson, six (including large and 
 small) grains gave the following results : — 
 
 1 -0010 of au English inch. 
 
 2 -0006 „ „ 
 
 3 -0004 „ 
 
 4 -0003 „ 
 
 5 -0002 „ 
 
 6 -OOOl 
 
 Tobacco Starch. — Obtained from the midrib of the leaf, the 
 stem and root in their fresh state (see also Plates XI. & 
 XIII.). Granules extremely small, and lenticular or com- 
 pressed, the largest roundish-ovate in form, occasionally slightly 
 angular or flattened at some point of their outlines ; the smaller 
 granules are nearly spherical. The hilum may occasionally be 
 observed, more especially on the smaller granules, but no 
 laminations are visible. The granules of medium size are about 
 as large as those of the Oat, and the smallest, as those of Rice. 
 
 Rice Starch. — Obtained from the seed freed from its husk. 
 The granules of this starch, as seen under the microscope, are 
 extremely minute, angular, and more or less adhering together, 
 presenting straight outlines on all sides ; frequently pentagonal 
 or polygonal in form, with an extremely minute, often impercep- 
 tible, central hilum. " They are the smallest granules of all the 
 commercial starches" (Pereira). 
 
 6 
 
82 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 As measured in parts of an English inch by Mr. George 
 Jackson : — 
 
 Particles. 
 
 1 -00027 
 
 2 -00021 
 
 3 -00020 
 
 4. -00017 
 
 5 -00010 
 
 5) -00095 
 
 -00019=5-2Vj average diameter. 
 
 Bean Starch. — Procured from the cellular tissue (Plate VI. 
 Fig. 1) of the cotyledons of the Garden-bean {Phaseolus multi- 
 florus). Elongated, kidney-shaped, and irregularly-formed gra- 
 nules, exhibiting on one of their surfaces a long slit (the hilum) 
 or open fissure, surrounded by folds or plaits ; on the other, 
 flattened surfaces, delicate lines or markings, more or less 
 regular in their form. The smallest granules approach nearly 
 to an irregular- oval or spherical form. 
 
 Pea Starch. — Procured from the cotyledons of the Garden- 
 pea {Pisum sativum) . Oblong, kidney-shaped, irregularly-formed 
 granules, the largest of them having an elongated hilum, or, 
 more commonly, one of their surfaces strongly marked with 
 plaits or folds surrounding an elongated fissure or cavity. The 
 hilum appears to be placed sometimes at one end of the granule, 
 on its flattened surface, an appearance that seems to be due to 
 the gathering up at that point of the folds or plaits visible on 
 the opposite side of the granule. The smallest granules ap- 
 proach the spherical form. 
 
 Orris-root Starch. (Plate X. Fig. 6.) — Procured from the 
 
STARCHES. 83 
 
 dry and powdered root {Ms florentina). The form of the 
 granules is for the most part elliptical, with a rounded projec- 
 tion at the narrow extremity^ near to which is the hilum. Other 
 granules are heart-shaped, as if formed of two granules included 
 within one envelope. Delicate laminations are visible on some 
 of the larger granules. The smaller granules are nearly sphe- 
 rical or kidney-shaped. According to Schleiden, the granules 
 are " perfectly hollow, apparently cup-like.^^ 
 
 Mr. George Jackson^s measurements give, in parts of an 
 English inch — 
 
 Particles. Length. Breadth. 
 
 1 00011 0-0010 
 
 2 0-0012 0-0006 
 
 3* 0-0009 0-0006 
 
 4 0-0006 0-0004 
 
 5 0-0004 00004 
 
 6 0-0003 0-0002 
 
 7 0-0002 0-0002 
 
 * The most prevalent-sized particle. 
 
 g2 
 
84 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE MICROSCOPE. 
 
 Plate XXXIX. 
 
 It does not enter into the design of these pages' to give a 
 detailed description of the various forms and applications of the 
 instrument to scientific purposes, all that is intended being 
 merely an explanation of the principles on which it is con- 
 structed, and its adaptation to the examination of vegetable 
 tissues *. 
 
 Construction. — Microscopes, as they consist of a single lens, 
 or of a combination of lenses, are known as simple or compound. 
 A lens is a transparent body, to one or both of whose surfaces a 
 curved form is given, and according to the nature of these 
 curves the various forms of lenses take their names. Sections of 
 the principal forms of lenses in use are given in Plate XXXIX. 
 Figs. 2-7, a being the axis common to all of them. A lens 
 having its two sm'faces unequally curved is known as a crossed 
 lens (2) . A plano-concave lens has one surface flat and the other 
 rounded to a segment of a sphere, the centre of which would be 
 on the side opposite to its plane surface (3). A double-concave 
 lens has both its surfaces cm-ved inwards; it is consequently 
 thinner at the middle than at the circumference (4). A plano- 
 convex lens has one side flat and the other curved outwards, in 
 
 ♦ Those who are desirous of detailed iiiformation on the subject may 
 consult with advantage Dr. Carpenter's work, " The Microscope and its 
 Revelations," or Mr. Quekett's book on the same subject. 
 
THE MICROSCOPE. 85 
 
 some segment of a sphere, the centre of which Ues on the side of 
 its plane surface (5). A double-convex lens has both surfaces 
 curved outwards (6) ; it is therefore thickest at the middle. A 
 concavo-convex lens, with its convex surface of greater radius 
 than its concave surface, is called a meniscus (7). 
 
 Lenses of every description derive their value from the pro- 
 perty possessed by certain transparent media (such as glass, 
 water, &c.) of bending a ray of light in its passage through 
 them, when issuing from a rarer or a denser medium than the 
 substance of which they are composed. To this property the 
 term refraction is applied. 
 
 If a ray of light from the air, a (Fig. 1), enter the surface of 
 water, or glass, h h, in the direction a a", or at any other angle 
 with h h less than a right angle, it will be bent or refracted 
 towards a perpendicular, ef, to the refracting surface, h h. In- 
 stead of passing from a to a" in a straight course, it will pass to 
 b. A ray of light [ef) falling perpendicularly or at right angles 
 to the surface of the refracting medium, h h, will suffer no 
 refraction. It is also found that the sine of the angle of inci- 
 dence, a c, and that of the angle of refraction, b d, bear a con- 
 stant ratio to one another in different substances. If the medium 
 be water, the sine of the angle of refraction, b d, will be f of the 
 sine of the angle of incidence, ac; if of glass, the sine of the 
 angle of refraction to that of incidence as 2 to 3 ; if of diamond, 
 as 2 to 5. It will be observed, therefore, that the refractive 
 power of these three different materials increases from water to 
 the diamond. 
 
 Light passing from a dense medium to one that is rarer, will 
 be refracted in a direction from the perpendicular ; if from b 
 (Fig. 1), it will, on emerging from the denser medium, be re- 
 fracted m the direction of a. 
 
 From what has been said, there will be no difficulty in under- 
 standing the action of & plano-convex lens of glass (//, Fig. 13), 
 
86 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 rf being the axis of the lens^ and rrr r, parallel rays of light 
 falling on its curved surface. These rays willj on entering the 
 lens, be refracted towards a perpendicular to the surface on 
 which they fall ; consequently they will be refracted in the di- 
 rection If, and on emerging from the plane surface of the lens, 
 will be collected together at a point, f, called the focus of the 
 lens. Supposing rays of light to diverge from f, they will be 
 rendered parallel after passing through the lens, / /. 
 
 The double-convex lens of glass, IV (Fig. 16), possesses a still 
 greater refractive power, owing to the curvature of both its 
 surfaces. 
 
 Concave lenses, owing to the difiFerent direction given to their 
 curvatures, bend the rays of light in a directly opposite manner. 
 Parallel rays, r rr r (Fig. 14), falling on the plane sui'face of a 
 plano-concave lens, / /, will be refracted in the direction r b, rb ; 
 diverging rays will be made to diverge still more. Converging 
 rays, b l,bl, falling on the concave surface of such a lens, will, 
 on emerging from its plane surface, pass in a parallel direction 
 to Ir, Ir. 
 
 Such is the effect produced by these forms of lenses on rays 
 of light, when these are parallel, or issuing from a single 
 luminous point. The surface of every body capable of reflecting 
 light may be supposed to be made up of a number of such illu- 
 minating points. If, however, these points be situated above 
 the axis of the lens, the focus will be below it, on the other side ; 
 and if below the lens, the focus will be above it. 
 
 Let (Fig. 16) represent an object placed in the focus of a 
 double-convex lens, 11; rays of light proceeding from its extreme 
 points will be above and below the axis of the lens, a b, and 
 will, on emerging from the lens, be refracted in the direction 
 I o", forming an enlarged and inverted image of the object o" o" 
 on a surface placed there to receive it. 
 
 The focal length of a lens is the distance of that point from its 
 
THE MICROSCOPE. 87 
 
 centre at which all rays emergiug from its surface are collected 
 together. The focal lengths of lenses made of glass vary with 
 the curvatures of one or of both their surfaces. For a lilano- 
 convex lens parallel rays will be brought to a focus at the 
 distance of the diameter of a circle, an arc of which its curvature 
 describes ; for a double-convex lens whose curvatures are equal, 
 at the distance of the radius of either curvature. For con- 
 verging rays the focal distance will be less, and for diverging 
 rays, greater. 
 
 A Simple Microscope is nothing more than a plano-convex, 
 or a double-convex lens, or both combined, mounted in a form 
 (the stand) adapted to the particular purpose for which it is 
 required to be used. To understand its use and value, it should 
 be remembered that the eye judges of the size of an object by 
 the magnitude of the angle under which it is seen ; and that it 
 sees minute objects imperfectly is due to the limitation of its 
 visual angle, which does not admit of a sufficient number of 
 rays from the object to enter the eye so as to produce a perfect 
 image of it on the retina. 
 
 That the size of an object is due to the magnitude of the 
 angle under which it is viewed is illustrated in Fig. 19, where 
 an object b may be supposed to be placed at the most con- 
 venient distance for distinct vision, which is different for dif- 
 ferent eyes, but usually taken at 10 inches. It is evident that 
 by removing the object to a point at half the distance from the 
 eye, to a, the object a will subtend an angle twice as large as the 
 former ; but only a part of it will be distinctly seen, — that part 
 represented lying between the dark lines. If, however, a plano- 
 convex, or a double-convex lens be interposed between the eye 
 and the object a, these extreme rays will be refracted by it, and 
 will enter the eye with those refracted from the other points of 
 the object, and the lens will thus have the effect of enlarging 
 the visual angle. 
 
88 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 To illustrate the action of a Simple Microscope, let o (Fig. 16) 
 be an object imperfectly seen at the nearest limit of distinct 
 vision for the eye at a. By interposing the double-convex lens 
 II, the rays from the object entering the lens are refracted in the 
 direction o" o", and a magnified and inverted image of it, o" u", 
 is formed on the retina of the eye, at a. The eye, therefore, 
 virtually receives an impression of the object, o, of the apparent 
 magnitude of o" u". 
 
 A Compound Microscope consists of a combination of 
 lenses : an object-glass, which forms a magnified image of an 
 object placed a little beyond its focus ; and an erje-glass, vi^hich 
 again enlarges the image so formed. 
 
 To illustrate the action of a Compound Microscope, let o 
 (Fig. 20) be the object to be viewed, placed a little beyond the 
 focus of the object-glass, a double-convex lens, //, whose focal 
 length is very short. This will form an inverted and highly 
 magnified image of the object in the aii*, within the tube of the 
 microscope, at o". At e e is the eye-glass, a plano-convex lens, 
 so placed as to receive the rays from the image o", causing them 
 to converge to the eye, and appearing to come from an object of 
 the apparent size of a b. 
 
 To simplify the subject, the object-glass and eye-glass have 
 both been considered as single lenses, which, for all purposes of 
 practical utility, would be useless, for the following reasons : — 
 
 It is found that rays of light passing through a glass lens, a 
 plano-convex lens for instance (as at Fig. 15, cd), do not, on 
 emerging, all meet at the same point ; but that rays ac, ad, 
 passing through the peripheral portion of the lens, are brought 
 to a focus sooner, as at /, than those, b b, passing nearer to its 
 axis, as at g. An indistinct image of an object would therefore 
 be formed both at / and g, as part only of the rays from the 
 object would be collected at either point. The distance fg is 
 called the spherical aberration of the lens c d ; and s (the point 
 
THE MICROSCOPE. 89 
 
 where the central and peripheral rays cross each other), the 
 cu'cle of least spherical aberration, where the most distinct 
 image that such a lens could produce would be formed. The 
 way in which this inconvenience is remedied is by combining 
 two lenses whose curvatures, and consequently their spherical 
 aberrations, are in opposite directions. In this way the spherical 
 aberration of a concave lens is made to compensate that of a 
 convex one. 
 
 Another defect of simple lenses, which considerably dimi- 
 nishes their utility, is that of forming images of objects with a 
 coloured fringe or border to them, and is called their chromatic 
 aberration or dispersion. White light, instead of being homo- 
 geneous in its composition, as might be supposed, is made up 
 of seven different colours. If a beam of solar light, a (Fig. 11), 
 be admitted through a hole in the window-shutter of a darkened 
 room, and allowed to fall on a glass prism, b, it will be decom- 
 posed, or separated into its component colours, which will be 
 visible on a screen placed to receive them. These colours form 
 a lengthened band, the bottom of which is red, then orange, 
 yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. The band is called the 
 prismatic spiectrum, the red rays of which are the least, and the 
 violet rays the most refrangible. Now, every double-convex lens 
 may be considered to be formed of two prisms placed base to 
 base (Fig. 8), and, light passing through it, will have its violet 
 rays, v v, brought to a focus at a point nearer to the lens than 
 the red rays, r r ; consequently an image formed oi ab will have 
 a red fringe at its outer margin, and one formed at c </, a violet 
 border, — the other prismatic colours appearing between them. 
 The circle of least dispersion occurs at the point of intersection 
 of the violet and red rays. A double-concave lens (Fig. 9) may 
 be regarded as formed of two prisms, with their apices touching, 
 and will similarly affect the image it forms. 
 
 The way in which correction for chromatic aberration is 
 
90 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 effected, is by taking advantage of the difference that exists 
 between the refractive and dispersive powers of transparent 
 bodies. The diamond, for instance, has a high refracting power 
 and a low dispersive power ; whilst glass has, compared to it, a 
 low refracting power and a high dispersive power. Again, the 
 refractive and dispersive powers of flint- and crown-glass stand 
 in the same relation to each other, — properties which enable 
 these materials to be made use of, each to neutralize the defects 
 of the other. 
 
 The Achromatic Object-glass, which is adapted for producing 
 a distinct image of an object perfectly free from colour, is a 
 combination of three pairs of lenses, each pair consisting of 
 a plano-concave lens of /inZ-glass and a double-convex lens of 
 crown-glass (Fig. 10) ; each combination having its plane side 
 turned towards the convex surface of the one next to it, and so 
 adjusted as to correct the dispersion of the other two. 
 
 The eye-piece, which in the best Compound Microscopes is 
 substituted for the simple eye-glass, is constructed of two plano- 
 convex lenses, one placed before the image formed by the object- 
 s-lass, the other behind it. The former of these is called the 
 field-glass, the latter the eye-glass. The field-glass is so placed 
 as to cause the diverging rays from the object-glass to con- 
 verge, so that a greater number of them are brought within 
 the sphere of action of the eye-glass, and a brighter and more 
 distinct image is thus produced. 
 
 Illumination of Objects. — For opaque objects the commonest 
 form of illumination is by means of refracting light upon them 
 with a plano-convex lens (a condenser), which is suitably mounted 
 on a frame, and so adjusted that an object placed on the stage 
 of the microscope may receive the rays of light which it con- 
 centrates upon it. 
 
 Another method of illumination is by reflection ; and for this 
 purpose many forms of reflectors arc in use. The side-reflector 
 
THE MICROSCOPE*, 91 
 
 of Mr. Ross is a polished concave speculum, so mounted as to 
 be capable of receiving either parallel rays of light from the sky, 
 or the diverging rays from a lamp, and reflecting them on the 
 object on the stage of the microscope. 
 
 For viewing objects capable of transmitting light through 
 them, a mirror with a plane and a concave surface is fitted to 
 every microscope. Such mirrors depend for their action upon 
 the law, that when light is reflected from a perfectly polished 
 surface, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence, 
 in the same plane vnth it, and on the opposite side of the per- 
 pendicular to the reflecting surface. A ray of light, a (Fig. 12), 
 falling on a surface capable of reflecting it, will be reflected to b, 
 and would be perceived by an eye placed at that point. 
 
 A little consideration of this simple law will make it evident 
 that parallel rays of light falling on the plane side of a mirror 
 will be reflected parallel, — that parallel rays falling on its concave 
 surface will be made to converge to a point on the same side of 
 it as that from which they emanate (the focus of such a mirror), 
 — ^that diverging rays falling on such a surface will, on reflection, 
 converge, — and that converging rays will be reflected in a con- 
 dition still more converging. 
 
 Let m m (Fig. 17) be a section of a mirror with a. plane and a 
 concave surface : parallel rays, g, a, g, falling on the former, will 
 be reflected back in the same direction, and the ray g s falling 
 obliquely on it will be reflected to sg. From its concave surface, 
 parallel rays, a m, am, will be reflected to m f, mf, — converging 
 rays, b d, to c e, and diverging rays, fm, to m a. 
 
 It is evident that any transparent object, placed so as to 
 receive the reflected rays of light from either face of the mirror, 
 will be illuminated by them. This is efl'ected by placing the object 
 on a glass slide on the stage of the microscope, in which an aper- 
 ture is made so as to receive the light reflected from the mirror, 
 which is placed beneath it, the mirror being so adjusted as to 
 
92 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 direct the reflected rays through the object and object-glass into 
 the tube of the microscope. By giving the mirror a vertical 
 and horizontal motion, which is effected by means of appropriate 
 joints on which it moves, light may be obtained from any par- 
 ticular point in the sky, such as a white cloud; or from a lamp 
 placed in front of the instrument. The special use of the plane 
 surface of the reflecting mirror is to illuminate the object at its 
 margin, when the central rays are stopped out. The curved 
 surface is adapted for receiving parallel or diverging rays from 
 any luminous point (a white cloud or a lamp), and reflecting 
 them in a converging or parallel condition on the object, whilst 
 the peripheral rays are stopped out by means of a diaphragm 
 placed under the stage of the instrument. 
 
 Mana.gement. — Little by way of instruction in the use of the 
 Microscope can be conveyed in writing, the value of the instru- 
 ment in scientific research depending more upon the student's 
 acquisition of the art of seeing, and of reasoning upon what he 
 sees, than upon the observance of any rules that could be given, 
 however plain and intelligible. In proportion to his acquire- 
 ments in this respect, combined with an earnest but patient will, 
 and a mind eager in pursuit of information, there is scarcely 
 any limit to the valuable information that the Microscope may 
 be made to yield. 
 
 As to the selection of a Microscope, all that need be said here 
 is, that the form of the stand on which it is mounted, though of 
 itself an important consideration, should always be secondary to 
 the choice of the best object-glasses ; for it is by these that the 
 real work of the instrument is to be performed. The names of 
 our best English makers (Ross, Smith and Beck, Powell, &c.) 
 are a sufficient guarantee for the excellence of their respective 
 productions, which at the present day are in request in all parts 
 of the world where there arc microscopists to use them; and 
 it should be borne in mind that discoveries of the greatest scien- 
 
THE MICROSCOPE. 93 
 
 tific value have been made with " objectives " not in any way to 
 be compared with the works of these makers^ in all the essentials 
 of good instruments *. 
 
 In the Compound Microscope, the eye-piece, as it magnifies 
 the image of an object produced by the object-glass, will also 
 render any imperfection in that image still more evident, thus 
 increasing, instead of diminishing, the difficulty of viewing it 
 properly. It is therefore of the first importance that the object- 
 glass should be free from any defects, and more particularly 
 that it should be properly corrected for both spherical and chro- 
 matic aberration. As a general rule, good defining power is 
 always to be preferred to magnifying power ; for it is obviously 
 of more importance to see little, and to see that little distinctly 
 made out in all its parts, than to have an ill-defined image of an 
 object presented to the eye, from which nothing of its real 
 structure can be learned. It may be safely asserted, that the 
 test of a good working instrument, no less than of a good ob- 
 server, lies in the amount of information that object-glasses of 
 low power may be made to yield : the high powers are more 
 likely to mislead than to instruct those unpractised in micro- 
 scopy, from the fact of their magnifying those accidental impu- 
 rities attaching to the object under examination, with the ap- 
 pearances of which beginners are not familiar. 
 
 Among impurities continually presenting themselves to the 
 observer, are those contained in the water in which the specimen 
 is mounted ; or they may consist of such matters as threads 
 from the cloth (either cotton or silk) used in cleaning the glass 
 slide on which the object is placed ; or of hairs, dirt of any 
 
 * "It should be recollected that Ehrenberg, with a thirty-shilling 
 microscope, produced his great work on the Infusoria, a work with 
 which British microscopy has nothing to compare, although it has spent 
 thousands of pounds annually on its instruments." — Note by Dr. Lan- 
 kester in his translation of Schleideu's Principles of Scientific Botany. 
 
94 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 description^ or even of the epithelial cells from the mucous 
 membrane of the mouth, if a brush passed between the lips 
 has been used to add to or diminish the quantity of water on 
 the slide. From this enumeration it will be seen that cleanliness 
 is of the first importance. 
 
 Another fruitful source of error in observation is found in 
 the constant formation of air-bubbles in the liquid in which the 
 object is placed, between the glass slide and its cover. These 
 air-bubbles have the appearance of bright luminous spots of 
 various shapes and dimensions, surrounded with a dark ring. 
 Their peculiar appearance is due, internally and externally, to 
 the difierent modifications of the light, which is either trans- 
 mitted in their lighter portions, or refracted in the darker. 
 
 To illustrate this, let x (Fig. 18) be a ray of light, reflected 
 from the mirror of the microscope, passing through the centre 
 of the air-bubble, phg; let z be other rays passing near its 
 periphery, and c d ef a, glass slide on the stage of the instru- 
 ment, containing water. The rays z, impinging obliquely on 
 the tangential plane of g are in consequence of passing from a 
 denser medium (water) to a rarer medium (air), refracted from 
 the perpendicular gv to g h. At A these rays are again re- 
 fracted, but now, towards the perpendicular v h ; consequently, 
 in the direction h i. On reaching the point i they are again 
 refracted from the perpendicular, so that they never reach the 
 object-glass a b, nor, consequently, the eye. The central rays, 
 X, and those nearly central, y, pass through the perpendicular 
 axis of the air-bubble unaffected ; therefore the margin of the 
 air-bubble, as it transmits no rays, will appear dark, and its 
 centre, as it transmits them, will be illuminated. 
 
 To these unavoidable obstructions to the successful use of the 
 microscope, to which the best observer is liable, must be added 
 such false appearances as are due to want of dexterity in obtaining 
 specimens of tissues fit for examination, or in badly or carelessly 
 
THE MICROSCOPE. 93 
 
 mounting them. Any or all of these defects are seriously 
 augmented by the use of object-glasses of high power, owing to 
 the amount of detail which they exhibit ; serving to perplex 
 those who cannot make due allowance for them. 
 
 As there is considerable bodily fatigue attending a long 
 sitting at the microscope (and short sittings are of no use for 
 the purpose of study), the student will do well to consult his 
 ease and power of endurance as much as possible. For the 
 attainment of this object, his preference should always be given 
 to that form of stand which has a joint for varying its position, 
 so that an inclination may be given to it in the direction of the 
 eye-piece towards the eye, thus enabling the head and body of 
 the observer to be held in an erect position. Another con- 
 venience in this form of stand is, that when so inclined, the 
 stage of the instrument intercepts most, if not all, incident light 
 from an object which is required to be viewed by transmitted 
 light ; consequently the rays of light reflected from the mirror 
 will be less interfered with, and the illumination they afford 
 more intense. In viewing opaque objects, the position of the 
 instrument should be such as to allow the greatest number of 
 incident rays of light to fall on them -, and when these come from 
 the sky, the stage of the microscope should be horizontal, and 
 the stand perpendicular. 
 
 When object-glasses of higher power than the |-inch are 
 used, the specimen to be examined should invariably be covered 
 with a bit of thin glass, for the purpose — first, of procuring a 
 perfectly flat surface; secondly, to exclude air-bubbles (when 
 the object is viewed in a liquid) ; thirdly, to protect the object- 
 glass and its mounting against the injury that some of the 
 liquid tests ^ would be sure to cause, if allowed to touch them. 
 
 Examination of Vegetable Tissues, &c. (Plate XL.) — The 
 most satisfactory method that can be adopted in examining the 
 * See page 100. 
 
9G TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 tissues of leaves is, to commence by viewing their surfaces as 
 opaque objects, under a simple lens of low power; and for this 
 purpose portions of them should be mounted on a white ground 
 (a piece of cardboard for instance), and placed on the stage of 
 the instrument : or a similar effect of background illumination 
 may be obtained by the reflecting mirror, by adjusting it so as 
 to throw a field of light around the margin of the object placed 
 on a slip of glass on the stage. This treatment will afford 
 information as to the general character of its outer surfaces, 
 and the presence or absence of hairs; it will also discover 
 whether the leaf has been subject to the attacks of insects, or 
 the deposit of their eggs among its tissues, or any decompo- 
 sition that may have commenced in their structures. Parts so 
 affected must be avoided, either for studying their structure, or 
 for the purpose of analysis. 
 
 The simple dissecting Microscope* is an instrument admirably 
 adapted for such an examination, and possesses other advan- 
 tages that cannot be too much dwelt upon. A^^hen the arm 
 carrying the lens admits of movement in every direction — back- 
 wards, forwards, laterally and vertically, and the stage is large 
 and firm, it allows the whole surface of an object to be readily 
 examined, and admits of the use of one or both of the observer's 
 hands to tear or cut any particular part of the tissue most 
 favourable for further examination. Portions of such tissues, 
 almost invisible to the naked eye, such as a hair or a few cells, 
 may also by its aid be dissected out, and transferred to a slip 
 of glass for examination under the Compound Microscope. By 
 pursuing this method, much unnecessary loss of time and 
 
 * Several forms of this instrument are in use, many of them being 
 extremely portable, i have seen none that unite the desirable qualifica- 
 tions of steadiness and durability so completely as that made by Mr. Ross. 
 This instrument possesses other advantages in the size and strength of 
 the stage, which render it well adapted for the purpose of dissection. 
 
THE MICROSCOPE . 97 
 
 patience will be saved, which are too often wasted in guessing 
 at the position of an object with the unassisted sight. 
 
 For obtaining transverse sections of the midribs or veins of 
 leaves, a small piece (Fig. 4) should be selected, from a fresh 
 leaf; or if from one that has been dried, it must be steeped 
 in warm water. A good sound cork is then chosen, which 
 fits exactly into either end of a glass tube (1) about four inches 
 long. The cork being divided into two equal parts (2, 3), one 
 of these pieces (2) is taken, and a groove is cut in it sufficiently- 
 deep to receive the projecting midrib, which is placed in it. 
 The flat faces of the pieces of cork are now brought together, 
 and their narrow ends inserted and gently pressed into the 
 mouth of the glass tube for about half an inch. The upper end 
 of the cork and the knife (12) are then dipped into clean water, 
 and thin slices of the cork are made in a direction perfectly 
 horizontal and towards the operator. The whole arrangement, 
 and the position of the hands are seen at Fig. 11. With a little 
 practice, slices of any degree of thinness and transparency may 
 be thus obtained ; they should then be floated from the knife 
 into a saucer containing water, and the cork separated from 
 them by means of a cameFs-hair pencil (5) ; they are then trans- 
 ferred on slips of glass for examination, as uncovered objects, 
 under the dissecting microscope. 
 
 The examination of several such sections will yield full in- 
 formation — 1. of the form of the outline; 2. the arrangement of 
 the woody tissue, whether massed in one, or separated into 
 several bundles; 3. the character of its cellulai- tissue, and 
 whether the cells, or intercellular spaces composing it, contain 
 starch, raphides, or other deposited matter ; 1*. the presence or 
 absence of a thickened cortical integument; 5. the character of 
 the epidermis, and the attachment of hairs to its surface, and 
 whether these are lymphatic or glandular. 
 
 An inch, or half-inch simple lens, used with the mirror for a 
 
 H 
 
98 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 background illumination of such sections, will give ample in- 
 formation as to these characters. If it be required to examine 
 any of them more in detail, the entire section may be placed 
 under the Compound Microscope ; or any part of it may be 
 either carefully cut out, on the stage of the dissecting ]\Iicro- 
 scope, with the knife (Fig. 13), or torn away with a pair of 
 needle-points* (6, 7, 8), from the surrounding tissues, care 
 being taken not to injure the pai'ticular part required for 
 examination. Individual cells with their contents, single 
 hairs, and other such minute objects, may be prepared in 
 this way for examination under the Compound Microscope, 
 taking care not to injure the object in transferring it to a clean 
 glass slide. 
 
 Vertical sections through the substance of the blade of the 
 leaf are made in the same manner as the transverse sections 
 of the midrib; but in this case it is better to select a bold, 
 strong vein for placing in the groove of the cork (Fig. 2). The 
 advantage of this plan is, that the section of the vein to which 
 the portion of the lamina is attached (and which always has a 
 tendency to turn over) is preserved in an upright position for 
 viewing. Sections of this part require to be cut excessively 
 thin, owing to the obstruction to the passage of light through 
 the tissue, which the green chlorophyll-granules, contained in 
 
 * These simple aud most useful instruments any one can make for 
 himself. The handles are nothing more than those used for camel's-hair 
 brushes. Into the end of these the pointed end of a needle is inserted, 
 to the distance of half an inch, or more. It is then withdi'awn, and 
 the blunt end fixed in the apertm'e thus made ; the handle thus formed 
 is pared away round the needle, and bound with fine silk or waxed cotton. 
 The needle-points may be bent in any direction by heating them in the 
 flame of a candle, and, whilst they are stUl hot, plunging them into 
 water, or grease ; their points are then ground on a hone. - Glass rods 
 (Plate XL. Figs. 9, 10) should be procured, and their ends drawTi out 
 to the requisite degree of fineness whilst strongly heated in the flame of 
 _a gas-lamp. 
 
THE MICROSCOPE. 99 
 
 the cells of this part, offer. A little alcohol, added to the water 
 ill which these sections should be viewed (under a glass cover), 
 will detach air-bubbles that generally form in them. 
 
 The form, position, and number of layers, or rows of cells, 
 forming the substance of the leaf, the structure of veins, the 
 presence of cystolithes, raphides, starch, or other matters con- 
 tained in the cells, or intercellular spaces, the character of the 
 e])idermis, the structure of stomates, and the mode of attach- 
 ment of haiy's or glands to the epidermis, can be well studied in 
 such sections. 
 
 The epidermis of the midrib and veins is in most cases easily 
 detached by peeling it off with the forceps (Fig. 15) : after 
 making a slight incision with a sharp knife, that on the lamina 
 requires a more careful treatment, and consists in making a 
 very careful incision at the edge of a midrib, or vein, just above 
 the angle formed by the junction of the laminar portion with it. 
 By raising the outer film with the edge of the knife, and apply- 
 ing the forceps with a gentle tension of the part both forwards 
 and laterally, the epidermis may be successfully detached with- 
 out injury. Portions thus obtained are carefully laid out per- 
 fectly flat on a clean glass slide, with a camel's-hair brush 
 dipped in water ; water and a drop of caustic potash are then 
 added ; they are then covered with glass, and examined under the 
 microscope. From other leaves, such as Coltsfoot, the epidermis 
 is more easily detached by raising it in the manner described 
 above, and inserting under its edge a very sharp knife (14), 
 with which it is gently raised, carefully cut, and transferred to 
 a slip of glass with water, to which a little alcohol is added. In 
 other hard leaves. Stinking Hellebore for example, the epidermis 
 of the lower side may be separated by snapping the leaf across ; 
 this will expose the edge of it for the application of the forceps. 
 Should the lower stratum of the spongiform tissue of the leaf 
 adhere to the epidermis, these cells may be detached by boiling 
 
 h2 
 
100 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 the specimen for a few minutes in water to which one or two 
 drops of nitric acid have been added, when they can be removed 
 with a needle-point. 
 
 When the epidermis of any leaf will not separate by either of 
 the foregoing methods, recourse must be had to cutting into 
 its substance on either side, and dissecting away the substance 
 of the leaf down to the opposite side with a pair of cutting 
 needle-points (Figs. 6-8). This operation is sometimes assisted 
 by previously steeping the leaf in a weak solution of caustic 
 potash. 
 
 Leaves with strong prickly hairs on their surfaces, such as 
 Comfrey and Sunflower, require to be digested in very dilute 
 nitric acid for some hours, or boiled in a weak solution of caustic 
 potash. Those with a thick epidermis should be soaked in very 
 weak caustic potash, and afterwards digested in alcohol. It 
 should, however, be remembered, that caustic potash dissolves 
 starch, and that alcohol decomposes or dissolves chlorophyll. 
 
 Very thin vertical sections of wood (Plate IX. Fig. 1), or of 
 the midribs or veins of leaves, are obtained by cutting thin 
 slices of them in the direction of their longitudinal growth 
 (Fig. 14), either from the centre or the circumference. The 
 true spiral vessel in these tissues may be distinguished from 
 other forms of vessels by the unrolling of the spiral fibre when 
 the ends of the vessel are dragged out by the aid of needle- 
 points, which may be easily done on the stage of the dissecting 
 instrument. By tearing in a lateral direction, the liber and wood- 
 cells may be separated, and their forms more distinctly traced. 
 Samples of snuflf, or other finely-divided substances, should be 
 examined under the dissecting microiicope, for the purpose of 
 separating and dissecting the larger particles with a })air of 
 needle-points. These, according to their supposed structure, 
 should be submitted to the action of suitable reagents under the 
 Compound Microscope. 
 
THE MICROSCOPE. 101 
 
 The following chemical reagents are recommended by 
 Dr. Schacht* : — 
 
 I; " Alcohol, which is used for removing air from sections of 
 wood and other preparations, and as a means of dissolving 
 certain colouring matters, &c. This is also useful for producing 
 the contraction of the primordial utricle. 
 
 II. "Ethei", which is principally used for dissolving resins, 
 fatty and other essential oils, &c. This is also useful for re- 
 moving air. 
 
 III. " A solution of caustic potash, which is used for the 
 purpose of dissolving fat. It is also very useful from its effects 
 upon the contents of cells; it also acts as a solvent upon the 
 cuticle, the intercellular substance, upon wood, and upon cork. 
 
 IV. " A solution of iodine (one grain of iodine, three grains 
 of iodide of potassium, one ounce of distilled water), for colour- 
 ing the cell-membrane and the contents of the cell. 
 
 V. " Concentrated sulphuric acid. This is principally used 
 for examining pollen and spores. 
 
 VI. " Some diluted sulphuric acid (three parts of sulphuric 
 acid and one of water), for colouring the cells of plants which 
 have been previously moistened with the solution of iodine. The 
 object is moistened with the solution of iodine, which is then 
 removed with a fine camel's-hair brush, and by means of a glass 
 rod (Figs. 9, 10) a drop of sulphuric acid is added, and the object 
 is then immediately covered with a covering-glass. The effect 
 of the sulphuric acid and iodine, as well as that of the iodized 
 solution of chloride of zinc, is not always the same over the whole 
 surface of an object. At the points where the mixture is more 
 concentrated, the colouring is more intense ; frequently places 
 remain without any colour. The colour changes after some time ; 
 in twenty-four hours the blue is often changed into red. 
 
 * The Microscope, and its Application to Vegetable Anatomy and 
 Physiology. London, 1855. 
 
102 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTEK ATIONS. 
 
 VII. " A solution of chloride of zinc, iodine, and iodide of 
 potassium. A drop of this solution, applied to an object placed 
 in a little water, produces the same colour as iodine and sul- 
 phuric acid. This solution was first recommended by Professor 
 Schultz, of Rostock ; it is more convenient to use than iodine 
 and sulphuric acid, and produces almost the same results ; it is, 
 moreover, not so destructive as sulphuric acid. Sometimes, how- 
 ever, it fails to produce colour in cases in which iodine and sul- 
 phuric acid produce a blue tint in cellulose ; iodine and sulphuric 
 acid must therefore in many cases be used in addition to the 
 above solution. The exact prescription for the solution is as 
 follows : — Zinc is dissolved in hydrochloric acid ; the solution is 
 permitted to evaporate under contact with metallic zinc, until it 
 attains the thickness of a syrup, and the syrup is then satu- 
 rated with iodide of potassium. The iodine is then added, and 
 the solution, when it is necessary, is diluted with water. 
 
 VIII. " A solution of sugar or weak syrup, to be used as a 
 reagent upon nitrogenous matter. The preparation (animal or 
 vegetable, as the case may be) should be saturated with the 
 syrup, and then carefully removed with a camel's-hair brush. 
 A drop of diluted sulphuric acid should then be applied with a 
 glass rod. If nitrogen be present, the preparation, in the 
 course of eight or ten minutes, assumes a more or less clear tint 
 of a rose colour. If the colour is very faint, it sometimes dis- 
 appears whilst the object is under the microscope, in which case 
 it is a good plan to place the slide upon white paper, and the 
 colour will then become visible to the naked eye. A weaker 
 solution of sugar may be used for producing contraction of the 
 primordial utricle. 
 
 IX. " Nitric acid, or, what is better, chlorate of potash and 
 nitric acid : this is used for separating cells. The method of 
 maceration discovered by Professor Schultz, and which is much 
 to be recommended, is as follows : — The object (wood, for 
 
THE MICROSCOPE. 
 
 103 
 
 instance) is reduced in size to the thickness of a lucifer-match ; 
 it is then thrown into a long and tolerably wide boiling tube ; to 
 this is added in a little while an equal volume of chlorate of 
 potash, and as much nitric acid as is at least sufficient to cover 
 the wood and the potash; the tube is then warmed over a 
 spirit-lamp ; a brisk development of gas quickly appears ; the 
 boiling tube is withdrawn from the flame, the oxidizing mixture 
 is permitted to work for a minute and a half or three minutes, 
 and the whole is thrown into a saucer with water ; the small 
 pieces, which adhere slightly to one another, are then collected, 
 placed in the boiling tube, and boiled repeatedly with alcohol 
 until the latter appears colourless ; they are then boiled once 
 more, for the last time, with water. The boiling in alcohol is 
 always advisable, because it not only removes the turpentine, 
 but also carries oflf the fluid residuum of the acid, which is apt to 
 be injurious to the object-glasses of the microscope. By the 
 help of the simple microscope the cells are now separated from 
 one another with a needle, and selected. The boiling with 
 nitric acid and chlorate of potash should never be carried on in 
 the room where the microscope is kept, because its glasses might 
 be injured by the evaporation which is developed. Thin sections 
 of plants, for instance, of wood or leaves, are warmed for half a 
 minute, or a minute, in a watch-glass ; the boiling is unneces- 
 sary in this case ; the section is taken out with a little rod, and 
 thrown into a small watch-glass with water.'^ 
 
 Care is requisite in boiling the mixture of nitric acid and chlorate of 
 potash, on account of its explosive nature. 
 
 X. " Oil of lemons, or any other essential oil, for examining 
 pollen and spores." 
 
 XI. Strong hydrochloric acid. This is warmed, and a drop 
 applied by means of a glass rod (Fig. 10), for the purpose of 
 detaching the cuticle from some hairs, as of Sunflower (Plate V. 
 Fig. 21). 
 
104 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 Tissues treated with the nitric-acid and chlorate-of-potash 
 solutions are at times rendered so transparent as to be almost 
 invisible. When this is the case, a drop of the iodine solution 
 should be added to the water in which they are viewed. 
 
 Inuline, a substance analogous in its composition to starch, 
 having the same refractive power as water, requires to be viewed 
 in a different medium, such as oil. 
 
 Globules of oil, when surrounded by water (Plate V. Fig. 5), 
 assume a darker appearance in depressing the object-glass, and 
 become lighter on raising it. Water-globules surrounded with 
 oil become lighter when the object-glass is depressed (Plate V. 
 Fig. 6), and darker as it is raised. 
 
 The directions here given will, it is hoped, be found sufficient 
 for any one commencing the use of the Microscope. Experience 
 and reflection will bring with them many useful suggestions, 
 which, if aided by enei'gy and patience, will prove to the student 
 " that nothing is denied to well-directed labour." 
 
HISTORY^ CULTIVATION, AND MANUFACTURE. 105 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HISTORY, USE, CULTIVATION, AND MANUFACTURE OF 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 In Eastern countries the custom of smoking is of unknown 
 antiquity ; but whether tobacco or other herbs, is not well 
 ascertained. The natives of Mexico not only use tobacco as 
 an article of luxury, but also to allay hunger and thirst, and 
 as a remedy against all diseases. Among the Indian tribes of 
 North America, from whom the plant has travelled to Europe, 
 smoking is a ceremony of some importance. All their enter- 
 prises, declarations of war, or conclusions of peace, begin and 
 end with smoking tobacco. The stems of the pipes (calumets) 
 used on such occasions are adorned with the most beautiful 
 feathers from the wings of birds, beads, and other ornaments 
 interwoven with women's hair, thus giving them much the 
 appearance of a Mercury's wand*. 
 
 The introduction and use of the herb in Europe date from 
 a time posterior to the discovery of America by Columbus and 
 his followers. On their arrival at Cuba, in 1492, they first 
 beheld the custom of smoking cigars. According to Humboldt 
 the seed was sown in Portugal as early as 1559. The herb was 
 introduced into Spain in 1560, and into France in the same year 
 by the French ambassador at the court of Portugal, Jean Nicot, 
 who in the course of his mission forwarded some seeds, which he 
 had procured, to the queen-mother, Catherine de Medicis. On 
 his return from Portugal he presented the plant itself to her. 
 
 * History of Virginia, by a Native and Inhabitant. London 1722. 
 
06 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 The honour of having thus enriched his native country has 
 been disputed by the queen's almoner, Thevet, but with no 
 success, as the name of Nicot is still associated with the herb in 
 its botanical designation Nicotiana. The name Tobacco belongs 
 to the language of Hayti, or St. Domingo*, and has been most 
 probably derived from a word which designated the instrument 
 or pipe used in smoking it, a term which was transferred by the 
 Spaniards from the pipe to the herb itself. 
 
 From France the herb was sent to Italy by the Pope's Nuncio, 
 Saiute Croix. It was from this circumstance also known as 
 " the herb of Sainte Ci'oix." 
 
 The introduction of Tobacco into England took place in the 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth, who, on 25th March 1584, granted to 
 Sir Walter Raleigh a patent for the possession of any countries 
 he might discover in North America. Of this privilege Raleigh 
 immediately availed himself, and fitted out several vessels at his 
 own expense to take possession of a newly-discovered and fertile 
 country then named Windangocoa, but afterwards christened by 
 Queen Elizabeth by the more euphonious title of Virginia, in 
 allusion to her own virginity. To Sir Richard Grenville, Sir 
 Walter's kinsman, was given the command of the expedition 
 and the future colonists of the newly-discovered country. Gren- 
 ville left a number of them at a place called Roanoak, or Roa- 
 noah, in North Carolina, under the command of Ralph Lane. 
 This was in the spring of 1585. In the autumn of the follow- 
 ing year, these colonists, who appear to have sufi"ered both from 
 the attacks of the native Indians and from famine, availed them- 
 selves of the arrival of Sir Francis Drake (then on his return 
 from attacking the Spanish possessions of Carthagena and St. 
 Domingo) to make their escape back to England in his ships, 
 and on embarking brought with them the tobacco-plant. 
 
 In 1587 Raleigh sent another draft of 150 men, with John 
 
 * Humboldt, Essai politique sur le Royaimie de la Nouvelle Espagne. 
 
HISTORY, CULTIVATION, AND MANUFACTURE. 107 
 
 White* as governor, and twelve assistants, to Virginia; and it 
 was from this colony that he first imported Tobacco into 
 England, He also about this time obtained 13,000 acres of 
 forfeited lands in the counties of Cork and Waterford, on which 
 be introduced the cultivation both of the potato and tobacco 
 plants. 
 
 It was obviously Raleigh^s interest to improve the cultivation 
 of his newly-acquired possessions, and to raise a demand for 
 their produce. It is not therefore surprising that he took to 
 smoking, nor that he did his best to make the practice fashion- 
 able. We accordingly read that the " ladies, and great and noble 
 men," of Queen Elizabeth^s court, " would not scruple to blow 
 a pipe sometimes very sociably f." Whether the virgin queen 
 participated in the recreation is not made evident. 
 
 We catch a glimpse of Raleigh's cultivation of the art of 
 smoking in the anecdote which is told of him, that having 
 dispatched his newly-appointed servant for some beer, he in his 
 absence lighted his pipe and began smoking. When the 
 servant returned, he was thunderstruck at seeing dense volumes 
 of thick smoke proceeding from his master's mouth, and think- 
 ing that his body must be on fire, in order to extinguish it, 
 dashed the beer in his face. At Sir Walter's house at Isline-ton 
 he frequently entertained his guests, the only refreshments 
 offered to them being a mug of ale with nutmeg, and a pipe. 
 With such homely cheer did our courtly forefathers regale 
 themselves ! In less prosperous times, when a state prisoner in 
 the Tower, Raleigh doubtless found no small solace in his 
 favourite herb. 
 
 By Elizabeth's successor, James I., tobacco was not thought 
 
 so palatable, for he not only refused " its precious stinke," as 
 
 he called it, but endeavoured, in his famous " Counterblast," 
 
 to restrain the use of it by his subjects, on the plea that it made 
 
 * Hakluyt's Voyages. t Biog. Britannica, art. Raleufh. 
 
108 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 their bodies weak and unfit for labour. In 1604*, without the 
 consent of his Parliament, he issued a royal warrant, raising the 
 tax on the commodity from two pence to six shillings and ten 
 pence for every pound value, — a measure to which he was 
 prompted perhaps as much by his hatred of tobacco as by his 
 jealousy of the increasing prosperity of the Spanish West Indies, 
 from whence all the tobacco imported into this country was sent. 
 
 In Italy, Pope Urban the Eighth issued a bull, threatening 
 excommunication to all those using tobacco in churches ; the 
 king of Persia and the Czar of Muscovy forbade its use, under 
 pain of death, with the mild alternative of having the nose cut 
 off for taking snuff. 
 
 What was left undone by James in prose, was intended to be 
 accomplished some time after in poetry by Joshua Sylvester, 
 who wrote some verses entitled, — " Tobacco battered, and the 
 pipes shattered, (about their ears who do idly idolize so base and 
 barbarous a weed, or at least-wise overlove so loathsome a vanity) . 
 By a Volley of Holy Shot from Mount Helicon t-^^ 
 
 The following is not an unfavourable specimen of Sylvester's 
 
 style : — 
 
 " If Solomon, the Wisest earthly Prince 
 That ever was before, or hath bin Since, 
 Knowing all Plants, and them perusing all, 
 From Cedar to the Hyssop on the wall, 
 In none of all professeth that he found 
 A firme Content, or Consolation sound, — 
 Can we suppose that any Shallowling 
 Can find much Good in oft Tobacconing ? " 
 
 Of Tobacconists, as he calls the smokers, 
 
 " For as of all Insensibles, hath none 
 More Melancholie and Adustion 
 
 * Anderson's History of Commerce. London, 1785. 
 t London, 1641. 
 
HISTORY, CULTIVATION^ AND MANUFACTURE. 109 
 
 Then Chimnies haue ; what kiud of Chimney is 't 
 
 Lesse sensible than a Tubacconist ? 
 
 And in receiving Smoake, sith th'are so equall, 
 
 Can their Adustion then be much imequall ? 
 
 Thus then the habit of Tobacconing 
 
 Makes one more Chimney-like than anything." 
 
 The author concludes : — 
 
 "■ But awfull Justice -w-ill with keener edge 
 Clip short (I hope) this sawcie Priueledge, 
 And at one Blowe cut-off this ouer-Drinking 
 And ouer-Dropsie of Tobacco-stinking." 
 
 In spite of James's opposition to the use of tobacco, it con- 
 tinued to become more popular, and had considerably increased 
 after the foundation of James Town in 1607. In 1610 he 
 granted a charter to the Virginia Company, and the possession 
 of ail the islands on the coast of South Virginia ; it may there- 
 fore be supposed that there were very many in England in- 
 terested at this time in the welfare of that colony, the soil of 
 which was admirably adapted for the growth of tobacco. Ten 
 years after this date (in 1620) James's attention was attracted 
 to the " drug called Tobacco." He had at this time taken to 
 himself the pre-emption of all tobacco imported ; and considerable 
 quantities of it were being sent from Virginia, the colonists, as 
 he complained, having so overstocked the market that he could 
 not afford to give them more than three shillings a pound for it. 
 Out of pity to the country, the king likewise commanded that 
 the planters should not make more than one hundredweight per 
 man, and forbade its importation by any but those holding his 
 letters patent to do so*. To make this monopoly still more 
 valuable, the growth of tobacco in Ireland was forbidden, in 
 1624, and the importation of foreign tobacco altogether pro- 
 hibited. 
 
 In 1625 James died, and his successor Charles I. inune- 
 
 * History of Commerce. 
 
110 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 diatel)'^ commenced tobacco merchant and monopolist, and, under 
 the pretext that it u'ould be beneficial to the plantations and 
 the owners therof that their management should be all brought 
 under one hand, created a monopoly of it, and by this means 
 was enabled to enhance the price of it at his pleasure. To 
 make his monopoly more complete, he formed a commission of 
 the aldermen, &c. of London to carry out his proclamation, 
 and to seize all foreign tobacco not of the growth of Virginia 
 and Bermudas, for his benefit ; and in the same month he pub- 
 lished his permission for 50,000 lbs. of Spanish tobacco to be 
 imported; hut then it was to be all bought by himself, and 
 re-sold to his subjects *. 
 
 We have Camden's assertion, that about this time tobacco 
 was highly prized, both for smoking as a recreation, and as a 
 health restorative, for he says that " with inexpressible greedi- 
 ness they sucked in through an earthen pipe its excessively 
 stinking smoke, which they afterwards blew out through their 
 nostrils, insomuch that tobacco-shops are not less frequent in 
 towns than ale-houses and taverns t-^' 
 
 In 1627 the king enjoined the plucking up of all tobacco 
 found growing in England and Ireland, and restricted the im- 
 portation from Spain and foreign countries to the port of 
 London only, and under a special licence, to be granted by 
 him, to whom it was to be delivered at a reasonable price. It 
 was also enjoined in the proclamation, that no person was to 
 buy any tobacco but of the king's commissioners ; and when re- 
 sold, a note was to be kept of the transaction. These restrictions 
 Charles re-enforced in 1630; and after inveighing in his own and 
 his father's usual manner against the inordinate use of tobacco, 
 which he styles "an useless weed," he proclaimed that the 
 
 * History of Commerce. 
 
 t Camd. Aimales Ker. Auglica. ; cited by Clarke, " Dissertation on the 
 Use and Abuse of Tobacco." 
 
HISTORY, CULTIVATION, AND MANUFACTURE. Ill 
 
 quantity to be imported from Virginia, the Somcr Isles, and 
 Caribbee Islands was to be regulated by himself : and in the 
 year following he expressly prohibited " keepers of taverns, ale- 
 houses, inns, and victualling-houses, strong- water sellers, &c. 
 from retailing tobacco," which was confined to " reputable and 
 substantial traders." " How little," observes Anderson, " in 
 this, as in many other respects, did he understand his true 
 interests !"* 
 
 Maryland (so named in honour of the queen, Henrietta Maria) 
 was granted to Lord Baltimore in 1632, who in the year fol- 
 lowing took out with him 200 persons to that colony ; and the 
 cultivation of tobacco went on rapidly. 
 
 When the king found his revenue fast increasing by the mono- 
 poly and the custom on tobacco, he began to think less harshly, 
 it is presumed, of its use by his subjects ; but as their temper 
 was not yet broken, he bethought him of placing common 
 brewers, maltsters, the stampers of cards and dice, proprietors of 
 hackney carriages, and the makers of soap, under a like monopoly. 
 It was not until 1640, when Parliament met, and requested the 
 redress of grievances in return for the subsidies that the king re- 
 quired of them, that he was willing to relinquish the monopolies 
 " for compounding with ofi'enders touching tobacco, i. e. such as 
 sold it without the king's stamp f." These grants, patents, and 
 monopolies, which included the " licensing of brewers " and 
 "the gauging of red herrings," were then worth to the king 
 £200,000 J. 
 
 The Parliament sitting at Westminster in 1643, on 16th May 
 of that year, issued an ordinance imposing a tax on beer and ale 
 in all counties within the limits of their power, calling it by 
 a new word. Excise ; and at the same time a tax of 45. was im- 
 posed on the pound value on foreign, and 2s. on English plan- 
 
 * History of Commerce. t Ibid. 
 
 X Royal Treasury of England, quoted by Anderson. 
 
112 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 tatiou tobacco, which was also taxed at fourpence per pound 
 weight *. 
 
 About the middle of the seventeenth century considerable 
 quantities of tobacco were being grown in several counties in 
 England, which was at length poohibited by the Rump Parlia- 
 ment and Oliver Cromwell. The first legal prohibition dates 
 from 1660 (12 Car. II. c. 34), the preamble of which states, 
 that the planting of tobacco in England and Ireland was de- 
 priving the king of a considerable part of his revenue. The 
 Act imposed a penalty of £10 for every rood or pole of land 
 in England, Ireland, Jersey, or Guernsey, planted with tobacco, 
 excepting in the physic garden of either University, or other 
 private gardens for surgery, so that the quantity does not ex- 
 ceed half a pole in any one garden. Nevertheless the planting- 
 still continued; an Act was therefore passed (22 & 23 Car, II. 
 c. 26), in which peace-officers were directed to search for and 
 prevent tobacco growing within their jurisdiction, and to destroy 
 it when found, physic gardens being, as before, excepted. A 
 clause was inserted in the Act, in which the landing of tobacco 
 in England was required, before being conveyed elsewhere. 
 Ireland was thus precluded from the commerce of tobacco, ex- 
 cepting by means of a previous landing in England. 
 
 This Act, and others by which it was confirmed in the reign 
 of George III., had not the desired effect of entirely stopping the 
 growth of the plant in England, large quantities of it being 
 grown in the vales of York and Ryedale a few years prior to 
 1782. The cultivators at York had their tobacco publicly burnt, 
 and themselves severely fined and imprisoned : penalties, it is 
 said, were paid to the amount of .€30,000. This put a stop to 
 the illegal cultivation of tobacco in England. The growth of 
 tobacco in Ireland was not finally prohibited until the passing 
 of the Act 1 & 2 Will. IV. cap. 13, in the year 1831. 
 
 * History of Commerce. Cobbett's Parliameutary Hi^t. vol. iii. p. 114. 
 
HISTORY, CULTIVATION, AND MANUFACTURE. 113 
 
 In the first year of the reign of James II. (1685) an Act was 
 passed granting to him the duties arising on tobacco, on which, 
 over and above all other charges, a tax of three pence per pound 
 weight was levied. Anderson observes that this was the first 
 time that the tobacco and sugar of our own colonies were par- 
 ticularly taxed by name, until now the tax being in the form of 
 a poundage on all imported goods*. 
 
 It was about this time that the French king, Louis XIV. f, by 
 his revocation of the edict of Nantes (which gave religious 
 toleration to the Protestants of France), drove three hundred 
 thousand of his people out of the kingdom, many of whom fled 
 to England and Holland. To this circumstance England owes 
 the silk manufacture of Spitalfields, as Holland is indebted to it 
 for a more extensive cultivation of tobacco. The persecutions 
 carried on both by Charles and James against the Dissenters un- 
 doubtedly did something for the colonies of Virginia, Maryland, 
 and Carolina ; for we find that in the year 1702 there were no less 
 than 20,000 souls in the adjoining districts of East and West 
 New Jersey, who had been terrified thither by the harsh proceed- 
 ings threatened against them in the reigns of these monarchs J. 
 
 * History of Commerce. t Voltaire, Age of Louis XIV. 
 
 X An Accoimt of the First Settlement of the Provinces of Virginia and 
 INIaryland, New York, &c. Lond. 1735. 
 
 The prosperity of these colonies and the history of the United States 
 are inseparably connected with the consumption of tobacco in this and 
 other comitries. From 1772 to 1775 North America exported annually 
 about 100,000 pounds of tobacco, 12,600 poimds of which were consumed 
 in the Vnited Kingdom, the remainder in Europe. From 1787 to 1789 
 the annual quantity exported was 89 millions of pounds, of which 8 mil- 
 lions of pounds were consumed in the United Kingdom. In 1855 there 
 were 30,114,730 pounds weight of unmanufactured tobacco entered for 
 home consumption in the United Kingdom, 21,185,959 poimds of which 
 were received from the United States. The duty has fluctuated from 
 10(1 in 1786 to Is. 8d. in 1787, to Is. 7d. in 1796, gradually to 4s. in 1819, 
 and to 3s. l^d. in 1842, which is the present rate. — M'^Culloch's Com- 
 mercial Dictionary. Trade and Navigation Report, 1856. 
 
 I 
 
114 TOBACCO AND ITS ADITLTERATIONS. 
 
 Lord Macaulay^s description of the London coffee-rooms gives 
 a lively picture of the manners of the people in the reign of 
 James II. The historian says that " in general the coffee-rooms 
 reeked with tobacco like a guard-room ; and strangers some- 
 times expressed their surprise that so many people should leave 
 their own firesides to sit in the midst of eternal fog and stench/' * 
 
 There are several papers in the ' Spectator ' illustrative of the 
 customs of smoking and snuffing in the year 1711. In one of 
 these the snuff-box is ironically alluded to by Steele as a rival 
 to the fan, at that time a fashionable appendage to ladies' dress : 
 in another, he protests against the use of " good Brazil in the 
 middle of a sermon f." 
 
 " To such a height with these is fashion gro^^^l, 
 They feed their very nostrils with a spoon J." 
 
 The practice had not abated eighty years afterwards, for Clarke 
 complains of the handing round of the snuff-box in churches 
 and chapels during divine service, '^to the great scandal of 
 religious people.'' Chewing must have been nearly, if not quite 
 as popular, for he adds, " kneeling in prayer is prevented by 
 the large quantity of tobacco saliva which is ejected in all 
 directions §." 
 
 So late as the year 1725, the healing and medicinal properties 
 of tobacco were praised in verses which Dr. Clarke has trans- 
 ferred to his pages in his Dissertation on the use and abuse of the 
 herb. From this panegyric it would appear that the various com- 
 plaints in which it was at that time considered efficacious ranged 
 from sore eyes to diseases of the lungs. The modern practice of 
 medicine has reduced its uses within much narrower limits ; and 
 modern chemistry has discovered amongst its constituent ele- 
 
 * Hist, of Eng., new edit. vol. ii. p. 383. 
 
 t See, among others, Nos. 49, 138, 344. 
 
 X Poems on several Occasions. By Sam. Wesley. Lond. 1736. 
 
 § Dissertation on the Use and Abuse of Tobacco. 1797. 
 
HISTORY, CULTIVATION, AND MANUFACTURE. 115 
 
 merits the presence of a poisonous principle [Nicotin) as powerful 
 almost in its effects as prussic acid, and an empyreumatic oil, 
 one drop of which, placed on the tongue of a cat, produced con- 
 vulsions, and death in two minutes*. 
 
 A great part of the tobacco consumed in Eui*ope is grown in 
 Virginia, Maryland, and other parts of the United States, and 
 in France and Holland. As the plant requires a good, rich soil, 
 and arrives at its greatest perfection in climates of the temperate 
 zone, between 40 and 47 degrees of latitude, there is but little 
 variety in the methods pursued in its cultivation in those 
 countries in which it is grown f. 
 
 The plants are raised from seed in beds prepared with rich 
 manure, wood-ashes, and fine earth, and protected from the 
 north wind. The seeds are usually mixed with fine sand or 
 gravel, and sown by means of a sieve, which prevents their lying 
 too closely together. In nine or ten days from the time of 
 sowing (the month of March), the young plant makes its ap- 
 pearance above ground. From this time it is subject to the 
 attacks of grubs, insects, snails, and worms, which are got rid of 
 by various expedients, such as a mixture of salt and earth, or 
 soot, or lime, which is sprinkled over the beds. The attacks of 
 the fly are guarded against by planting white mustard -seed 
 around the beds, the plants from which attract the insect in 
 preference to those of tobacco. Frost, which is particularly 
 destructive to the young plants, is excluded by placing straw, 
 fern, or matting over them. 
 
 In about two months, when the young plants have sprouted 
 
 * Pereira, " Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics." 
 t Don, in his " Gardener's Dictionary," enumerates above forty species 
 of the plant, most of which are considered at the present day to be 
 varieties only. The three species that are most commonly grown are 
 named on paore 32. 
 
 i2 
 
116 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 their fourtli leaf, and the fifth begins to appear, they are fit for 
 transplanting. The tobacco-ground, or field, is laid out in 
 narrow beds richly manured, each bed being 2 feet wide at top 
 and 2 feet 6 inches at the bottom ; the space between them being 
 about 8 inches, which serves as a drain for the beds, and for a 
 path from which their surfaces may be hoed and weeded. For 
 the operation of transplanting, advantage is taken of a moist 
 day, and is performed as quickly as possible some three or four 
 hours after the sun has declined from its vertical position. Each 
 plant is carefully removed from the bed, and placed in a hole 
 made to receive it ; the earth is then gently pressed around its 
 roots, after which it is watered. In this way the beds are all 
 laid out with plants 2, 3, or 4 feet apart. 
 
 The greatest care and attention are now requisite for the 
 succeeding eight or ten weeks, during which time the plants 
 enlarge and come to perfection. Those that have not struck 
 properly are removed, and their places filled by fi-esh plants from 
 the bed. Others flourish well for a time and then droop, — a sure 
 sign of the presence of a worm or grub at their roots, which is 
 either dislodged by moving the earth and destroying the enemy, 
 or, if his attacks have been too vehement, by removing the 
 plant, and, if time allows, replacing it with another. Canker is 
 a disease to which the tobacco, like the hemp-plant, is liable. 
 This is caused by a parasitic plant, Orohanche ramosa, which 
 attaches itself to the root and chokes its growth. Rust is 
 another destructive enemy to the plant, in deteriorating its 
 leaves. This appearance is caused by small globules of water 
 deposited from the dew at sunrise, and which from their len- 
 ticular form produce the efiect of a double-convex lens, in 
 causing the sun's rays to converge to a focus, burning that part 
 of the leaf on which they strike. 
 
 Watering, weeding, and hoeing up the earth at the base of 
 
HISTORY, CULTIVATION, AND MANUFACTURE. 117 
 
 the stem, and the destruction of a caterpillar which feeds greedily 
 on the leaf of the plant, are operations of frequent occurrence for 
 six or eight weeks after transplanting. 
 
 There are three sorts of tobacco, known among cultivators as 
 strong, medium, and mild. The first quality among these is 
 represented by the leaves which are nearest to the root ; the 
 second, by those at the middle of the stem ; and the third, by 
 those at its summit. According to the required quality of the 
 crop, the planter regulates the number of leaves that shall be 
 allowed to grow on each plant. For this purpose he arrests its 
 upward growth by nipping off the top, and thus directs the 
 energies of the plant and its juices into the leaves; with this 
 object in view, they are also deprived of the buds which form in 
 the axils of their leaves*. Plants that have been successfully 
 cultivated are in this way made to yield either ten or twelve 
 leaves, varying in length from 25 to 30 inches, of strong flavour ; 
 or fifteen leaves, from 20 to 25 inches in length, of medium 
 flavour ; or twenty leaves, 12 to 20 inches long, of mild 
 tobacco f. 
 
 When the leaves of the plants change their colour and become 
 less brittle, and more or less mottled in appearance, they are fit 
 for gathering. In some countries the harvest operations are 
 repeated two or three times; for instance, by depriving the 
 plants first of all those leaves which are at the bases of their 
 stems ; then, in eight days afterwards, of those about the middle ; 
 and finally, those at the summit, after the lapse of another eight 
 or ten days. The more common practice is to cut the stems of 
 the plants close to the ground, and to lay them on the beds in 
 the sun to dry, until the evening ; they are then cari-ied to the 
 drying-house and laid in heaps to sweat, and covered with 
 mats to keep-in the heat, and left for several nights to soften 
 and bleach. The leaves being now supple, are either stripped 
 * This is called " succoimng " the tobacco. f Joubert, ''Tabac." 
 
118 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 froin their stems, and strung together on packthread or switches, 
 or the plants are suspended in rows on pegs fixed on laths 
 which run across the drying-house, allowing sufficient room for 
 the air to circulate among them. When quite dry, and when 
 the weather is damp, the plants are removed from the drying- 
 shed and placed on hurdles, in heaps, covered over, and left 
 for a week or two. During this time they are frequently 
 examined and turned, to prevent too strong a fermentation that 
 would destroy the juices of the leaves, which, if left to them- 
 selves, would take fire. The proper degree of heat is ascer- 
 tained by thrusting the hand into the heap, which, with a 
 skilful grower, is a far more delicate test than any thermometer. 
 When the fermentation is complete, the leaves are separated 
 from the steins and sorted, according to their different qualities. 
 These being redried, are tied together in bundles of ten or 
 twelve in each, and placed in regular layers (the position of the 
 leaves being reversed in each layer) in barrels or hogsheads. 
 As each layer is formed, it is covered with a round board fitting 
 the interior of the hogshead, and a pressure equal to 4000 lbs. 
 weight or more is brought to bear upon it. By this means the 
 leaves are compressed into a solid mass, and the air is excluded 
 from them, which is necessary for their good keeping during a 
 sea-voyage. 
 
 The finest tobacco is exported from America in ' carrots,^ as 
 they are called. These are made by depriving the leaves of their 
 midribs, placing them together in large handfuls, and binding 
 them round tightly with fibrous wood, or strong grass, at a time 
 when the air is moist. 
 
 The roll tobacco of the Rhine is made from green leaves 
 
 which have not been stored. By the processes of twisting and 
 
 rolling which they undergo, they acquire the necessary dryness. 
 
 The expense of cultivating a hectare (nearly 2 acres) of land 
 
 in France with tobacco is stated by M. Jonbert to be, in English 
 
HISTOKY, CULTIVATION, AND MANUFACTURE. 119 
 
 money, about 32/. Is. ^d., and the produce on an average 86/. 5 a-., 
 leaving 54/. Ss. 4d, net for profit. In successful seasons, 67/. 
 or even 70/. pi'ofit may be realized. 
 
 In the United States, all tobacco, previous to its sale, is sub- 
 mitted to public inspectors, who condemn it to be burnt if 
 badly prepared or otherwise damaged, the loss falling on the 
 owner. 
 
 The manufacture of tobacco-leaves into those forms in which 
 it is consumed, either in smoking, chewing, or snuffing, consists 
 either in cutting the leaf into shreds, folding it in the form of 
 eigai-^, twisting or spinning it into ropes, or grinding it into 
 powder. 
 
 Before any of these operations can be performed, the leaves 
 are placed in heaps and moistened with water*. 
 
 In " cut " tobaccos, other than that known as bird's-eye, the 
 leaves, after being moistened, are deprived of their midribs, — an 
 operation that is performed for the most part by women and 
 boys with considerable dexterity. The masses of sorted and 
 stripped leaves are then mixed in the required proportions, 
 occasionally moistened, and pressed together by machinery in 
 the form of a cake. From the presses they are transferred to 
 the cutting-machine, moved generally by steam. The cake of 
 leaves is laid upon an iron bed which is susceptible of a slow 
 progressive motion by means of a screw, which passes beneath 
 
 * In Great Britain, by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 93, no matter or tiling is allowed 
 to be added to the water used in the manufacture of tobacco otlier than 
 water, or water and salt, or alkaline salts only, or lime-water in snuft'known 
 as Welsh or Irish snufts ; imder a penalty of ^300. In France the prac- 
 tice is different. M. Joubert, in his work " Tabac," gives the proportion 
 of 10 lbs. of marine salt to 100 lbs. of water, 2 lbs. of this solution (sauce) 
 being sufficient for 100 lbs. of leaves, according to their unctuosity. At 
 the present day (this author observes), sal-ammoniac, or syrup, is used 
 instead of, or added to, the marine salt. He adds, that salt mixed with 
 water is necessary to prevent any alteration or putrid fermentation in 
 the leaves. 
 
120 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 it, and is connected with a cog-wheel in snch a manner that, 
 while the machine is moving, the bed is constantly urged 
 forward. Another part of the mechanism gives motion to a 
 knife which has a sharp blade, rather longer than the width of 
 the cake, and is pivoted on a hinge or fulcrum at one end, the 
 other rising and falling with the action of the machinery. The 
 depth of the cake is about 2 inches ; and the thickness of the 
 film taken off, and, consequently, the fineness or coarseness of 
 the tobacco, is regulated by alterations in a train of cog-wheels, 
 adjusted by means of a screw. In the manufactory at Paris 
 there are ten such machines, worked by steam, which cut up at 
 the rate of 14,000 lbs. of tobacco per day. These cuttings are 
 exposed on a copper, or metal plate, to a gentle heat, being at 
 the same time frequently turned over and pulled with the 
 hands, and, when sufficiently crisp, they are slightly fermented, 
 and either stored, or sent into consumption as ' cut ' tobacco. 
 For ' bird^s-eye tobacco ' the midribs of the leaves are retained, 
 and it is the fancied resemblance of their cross sections to the 
 eye of a bird that has given rise to the name. 
 
 Shaff tobacco is chiefly prepared from the Virginian and 
 Kentucky leaves. Returns, from the small pieces of broken leaf 
 produced in the various processes of manufacture. Canaster, or 
 Kanaster, received its name from canastra (a Spanish word sig- 
 nifying a basket) because it was imported in baskets. It is pre- 
 pared from Varinas, German, Dutch, or Havannah leaf. Mary- 
 land, Orinoco, Turkey, Persian, and Varinas, are other forms of 
 cut tobaccos. 
 
 * Twist ' or spun tobacco is made by forming the leaves into 
 long cords or ropes of various thickness, and is either performed 
 by hand, by a wheel, or by both. When spun by hand, the 
 leaves, deprived of their midribs, are twisted together in lengths 
 of about 3 feet, which are then skilfully joined so as to conceal 
 the points of union. When performed by the wheel, the opera- 
 
HISTORY, CULTIVATION, AND MANUFACTURE. 121 
 
 tion requires a man and two or three boys. A long narrow 
 bench is provided at one end with a spinning-wheel, which is 
 turned by one of the boys, whilst the other lays out the damp 
 leaves, smooth and open, along one side of the bench. These, 
 the man, as he comes to them, twists together, and, with a flat 
 piece of wood held in the right hand, gives to the cord thus 
 formed a peculiar motion, the effect of which is to bind the 
 whole firmly together. As the end of the bench is reached, the 
 rope is wound on the spinning-wheel, and the man begins again. 
 The rope, when of sufficient length, is transferred from the 
 s])inning-wheel, by the action of machinery, to a frame con- 
 nected with it, and subsequently wound or twisted into a hard, 
 close ball, by rolling it several times on itself. The twists are 
 placed very closely together, so as to exclude air. During this 
 operation the workman moistens the rope with sweet-oil, and 
 drives small wooden pegs into it at intervals on each coil. The 
 rolls thus formed are then submitted to enormous pressure in 
 presses worked by hand with screws and levers. Each roll, 
 either before or after being pressed, is cased in paper or coarse 
 linen, and kept until it has acquired sufficient maturity by age. 
 Tobacco so manufactured is also known as ' pig-tail,' and in this 
 form it is served out in the English navy. 
 
 Cigars and cheroots are formed of the leaves of tobacco de- 
 prived of their midribs, and rolled so as to allow the air to per- 
 colate through them. The operation is a very simple one. 
 After the leaves have been sorted and moistened, and in this 
 state left for some hours, they are * stripped,' or deprived of 
 their midribs, the best among them being selected for ' outsidcs,' 
 or covers ; those next in quality as ' bunch-wrappers.' The 
 first operation of the workman is to cut a bunch-wrapper from a 
 leaf, in the form of one of the gores or stripes of a balloon. 
 On this he places some fragments of leaf (usually the cuttings 
 left in other processes of manufacture). These are the 'fillers,' 
 
122 TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 round which the bunch-wrapper is rolled into the form of a 
 cigar. The next operation consists in placing the cigar against 
 a gauge of the required length, and cutting it, after which the 
 outside is rolled spirally round it_, and the pointed end pasted or 
 gummed. The cigars are set aside to dry, a process generally 
 aided by artificial heat. Cheroots have both ends cut, or trun- 
 cated, but they are made in the same way as cigars. 
 
 For snuff, the midribs only of the leaves, or a mixture of 
 these and the softer parts, are cut into small pieces, spread on 
 the floor, and sprinkled with water*. The 'batch' thus prepared 
 is placed in bins, and there suffered to ferment for a consider- 
 able time (varying from two months to as many years), during 
 which it is occasionally turned to prevent over-heating, and 
 again moistened. When this process is completed, it is sent to 
 the mill and ground, either between stones, or by hand in a 
 mill worked with a motion similar to that which is given to a 
 pestle in a mortar. 
 
 The ' high-dried ' Scotch and Irish snuffs are prepared in 
 great part from the midribs alone. These, after being cut and 
 fermented in the usual way, are placed in shallow metal pans or 
 trays before a brisk fire, and strongly heated. During this 
 operation they evolve a great quantity of ammonia. 
 
 The Strasburg, French, and Russian ' moist ' snuffs are pre- 
 pared principally from the soft parts of the leaves. Moistening 
 and scenting are subsequent operations, to which most of the 
 snuffs in common use owe much of their pungency and other 
 attractive qualities. 
 
 The following are the principal places from which tobacco 
 finds its way into the English market : — 
 
 Europe. — Germany, Holland, and Salonica, in European 
 Turkey. 
 
 Asia. — China, East Indies, Latakia, and other parts of 
 * See note on page 119. 
 
HISTORY, CULTIVATION, AND MANUFACTURE. 123 
 
 Asiatic Turkey ; Shiraz in Persia ; Manilla in Luzon, one of the 
 Philippine Islands. 
 
 North America. — Virginia, Kentucky, Maryland. 
 
 The Islands of Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico. 
 
 South America. — Varinas, Brazil, Columbia, zndi Cumana. 
 
 Cuba, Havannah, and the Columbian leaf tobaccos, Columbian, 
 Varinas, and Cumana, are the most esteemed for cigars. The 
 leaves are marked with light yellow spots. 
 
 The Virginian, Kentucky, and Maryland tobaccos are more 
 frequently used for cut and spun tobaccos. Turkey, Latakia, or 
 Syrian tobacco, and the Persian, or Shiraz tobacco, are among 
 the mildest and most delicately-flavoured for the pipe. 
 
 The Dutch tobaccos are mild, and deficient in flavour. The 
 darker kind is the strongest, and much esteemed for moist 
 snuffs, the weaker kinds being employed in the commonest 
 cigars and cheroots. 
 
 IManilla tobacco is much esteemed for cheroots. 
 
 Mixture of the leaves produced in difl"erent countries gives 
 great variety in the flavour of manufactured tobaccos, requiring 
 considerable skill and attention on the part of the manufacturer. 
 
 The subjoined extract from a wholesale Price Current list 
 will show the different kinds of raw and manufactured tobacco 
 sent to this country, the form of packages in which it is im- 
 ])orted, and the countries to which it is exported : — 
 
W C & CO.'S PRICE CURRENT. 
 
 (Wholesale.) 
 London, October 1st, 1857, 
 
 ViEGiNiA Leaf. s. 
 
 Fiue Spinners per lb. 
 
 Good middling: ditto 
 
 Ordinary and Faded 
 
 For line Shag and part Spinning 
 
 For common ditto 
 
 Fine black sweet-scent 
 
 Middling ditto 
 
 Yorks 
 
 Middling ditto 
 
 Stemmed Spinning, fine "1 
 
 Good middling [ -, ^ _ -■ cy 
 
 Middlino- '■ "- "^ "^ ^ 
 
 Prices. 
 
 
 (I 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 lU - 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 9i - 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 - 
 
 11 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 9-. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Common (short and faded) 
 
 I^JENTUCKY Leaf. 
 
 Fine 11 - 
 
 Middling 8 - 
 
 Ordinary - 
 
 Stemmed, fine 1 
 
 Good and leafy > 1 - 1 3 
 
 Ordinary ) 
 
 Maeyland. 
 
 Fine Yellow - 
 
 Yellow - 
 
 Colomy - 
 
 Light brown and leafy, scarce 9 - 9| 
 
 Bro^TTi and leafy G| - 7i 
 
 Ordinaiy and part heated - 
 
 Negro Head. 
 
 Old and heated (none) - 
 
 Good 9 - 11 
 
 Fine 1 1 - 1 2 
 
 Ban-et's fine Twist 1 6 - 1 7 
 
 Cavendish 1 - 1 1 
 
 Paraguay per lb. 10 - 10^ 
 
 Giron Leaf „ 2 - 2 3^ 
 
 ^'arinas or C'naster (in bales about 90 lbs.) .... „ 10-20 
 
 Brazil Leaf „ 6 - 7i 
 
 St. Domingo Leaf , - 
 
 Porto Eico Leaf „ 5 - 7 
 
 Tm-kev ditto „ 9 - 1 
 
 Havanuah „ 1 3 - 5 
 
 East India Leaf „ - 
 
 Havannah Cigars, in Bond „ 9 - 20 
 
 Manilla Cheroots „ G - 7 
 
 Cuba Tobacco „ 11 - 1 
 
 Columbian ditto in Rolls. . . . (none) „ - 
 
 Ditto in Leaf „ 10 - 2 6 
 
 ( ierman Leaf „ 6* - 2 
 
 Yara Leaf „ 1 3"' -- 3 
 
 Amersfoort for Cigars and Snufi" „ 8 - 10 
 
 Java „ 10 - 1 
 
^^ C . AND CO/S PRICE CURRENT. 125 
 
 Kentucky Stallcs „n. »k q 
 
 Mixed ditto 
 Smalls 
 
 s. 
 
 (I. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 3 
 
 - 
 
 - 3 1 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 3 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 - 
 
 - 2 10 
 
 2 
 
 8 - 
 
 - 3 
 
 .-, n r. IMPORTS. 
 
 /I Cases German ex Seine @ Boulogne. 
 
 99 IfZ cigi'rs . : : : : : •, ^^ ^"'^^ ® ^^^""•^^-"- 
 
 332 Serons Columbian ^^-"^ Kailway @ Southampton. 
 
 38 Ilhds. Tobacco . 
 
 254 Bales Tm-key \ 
 
 2 Cases „ _' 
 
 778 Serons Columbian (*^^ Eailway @ Liverpool. 
 
 100 Bales Greek .■.■.■.';; | 
 
 29 Bales German .1 
 
 1091 Sf!^ T i" ^^ Lntcbeon @ Hambro'. 
 
 ?3 Cn .' P '^' ^^-^ E^^"^ @ CHii'^tantinople. 
 
 13 Ca.es German ex Moselle @ Rotterdam. 
 
 §aSgSts-::::: ^-^--@ Constantinople. 
 
 47 Bales Java [ ®^ Jennie @ Batavia. 
 
 4 Cases German ... i 
 
 3 Cases Cigars . [ ^^ Rainbow @ Rotterdam, 
 
 33 bZ M3a ■ : : ::■•■■ ■ ' i "'^ ^"'^ «'«'- @ C'*"«"- 
 
 10 Hhds. German \ ^^ Fyenoord @ Rotterdam. 
 
 « fi^!' SJ'"'^''*' ■■.■.■.:. ex City of Tanjore @ Calcutta, 
 
 14fi SevoL rT''"l •■ '-^ ?,^''''^* Dordrecht @ Rotterdam. 
 
 146 Seions Columbian ex East Anglian @ Antwerp. 
 
 J ^Zl %T ' '-^ Confucius @ Shanghae. ^ 
 
 oJ Si P '^''^ "^ ^^^'^^ Osy @ Antwerp. 
 
 38 Bales Paraguay ex Aries @ BuVnos Ap-es. 
 
 6o Boxes Cavendish ex Argo ©New York. 
 
 " " ex Railway @ Cardiff. 
 
 DELR-ERIES FOR EXPORTATION. 
 
 Virginia, Kentucky, &c jjlid^ l«« 
 
 Marvland -^^^'' ^^^ 
 
 Variuas Roll ... q " ^ 
 
 Snuff y.y.v^\v.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. Er"" Z 
 
 St. Domino;o o 
 
 . oerons — 
 
 Amersfoort, German and Dutch P„,p„' 
 
 Ha^-annah and Cuba Leaf Bales O 
 
 E2SfE^^°^^'^'^^^^^ ::::::::::;::::c;ses :::::: 4? 
 
 N^I^ad^mi Cavendish V.".-.- Kegs £Tiei.es ! ! 209 
 
 BrazUL^af ^°^''''° ^^"''^ '''"'^ ^'""^^^ "••"•"'•" ^^''°^' "• '• ' " '• '• ^2' 9 
 
 seedYeaf..: :::::. ■::.■:, ■::::::::::: ::;;;; ^f^^ - 
 
 South American (Leaf) Variuas Roll ..." ." Bales 7 
 
 portoRieo,&c :::::::Baies :::;:: _ 
 
 ^"^■^^y Bales 113 
 
 China T{„i„„ 
 
 Snuff .v^ ....'.'.:.':.:.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. z 
 
 West India Leaf 
 
 Florida 
 
 Java 
 
12G 
 
 
 DELIVERIES. 
 
 
 
 EXPORTATION. 
 
 BONDING. 
 
 
 Ciaars and 
 
 Havannah, Cuba, 
 
 
 .s°-i 
 
 Cigars 
 
 Havannah, Cuba, 
 
 
 -s£ 
 
 Cueroots. 
 
 Columbian, &c. 
 
 Where shipped to. 
 
 £?§ & 
 
 !)heroots. 
 
 Columbian, &c. 
 
 Outports. 
 
 '"l^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ss 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Cape Palmas. 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 12 Dutch. 
 
 Exeter. 
 
 15 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 74 
 
 — 
 
 4 Neg. 
 
 ^Jewcastle. 
 
 80 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Lisbon. 
 
 1 
 
 11 CIG. 
 
 17 do. 
 
 Southampton. 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 r 5 S. A. 
 \ 28 Col. 
 
 i- Rotterdam. 
 
 6 
 16 
 
 2 CIG. 
 
 4 Neg. 
 
 Dublin. 
 Plymouth. 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Sierra Leone. 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 VVaterford. 
 
 4 
 
 iM 
 
 }- 
 
 4 do. 
 
 Rio Janeiro. 
 
 4 
 3m 
 
 
 
 31 S. A. \ 
 22 Tkv. J 
 
 Boston. 
 
 
 r 
 
 5 Dutch. 
 
 "1 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 28 S, A. 
 
 Skibbereen. 
 
 2 
 
 - \ 
 
 9 Hav. 
 
 y Antwerp. 
 
 1m 
 
 — 
 
 1 do. 
 
 Devonport. 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 608 Col. 
 12 Neg. 
 
 J 
 Guernsey. 
 
 — 
 
 1 CIG. 
 
 r 2 Neg. I 
 \ 30 Man. J 
 
 Shields. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 do. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 3 Neg. 
 
 Belfast. 
 
 — 
 
 9 CIG. 
 
 4 do. 
 
 5 do. 
 
 Port Phillip. 
 Swan River. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 r 1 do. -1 
 I 20 Tkv. i 
 
 Hull. 
 
 — 
 
 __ 
 
 I do. 
 
 Batavia. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 Neg. 
 
 Falmouth. 
 
 — 
 
 1 CIG. 
 
 G4 do. 
 
 Calcutta. 
 
 — 
 
 3 CIG. 
 
 2 do. 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 71 do. 
 
 Sydney. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 14 do. 
 
 Portsmouth. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 1 do. 
 
 PuentaArenas. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 do. 
 
 Stockton. 
 
 — 
 
 1 CIG. 
 
 32 do. 
 5 do. 
 
 Hobart Town. 
 
 Colombo. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 r 6do. \ 
 t 4 S. A. / 
 
 North Shields. 
 
 — 
 
 3 CIG. 
 1 CIG. 
 
 4 do. 1 
 1 do. 
 
 Cape of Good 
 
 Hope. 
 Malta. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 4 Neg. 
 ri9 S. A. \ 
 1 1 Hav. J 
 
 Cardiff. 
 Gainsborough. 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 3 do. 
 
 2 do. 
 
 Van. Island. 
 Bombay. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 r 5S.A. -1 
 [50 Tkv. J 
 
 Manchester. 
 
 — 
 
 2 CIG. 
 
 3 do. 
 
 Melbourne. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 do. 
 
 Portland Bay. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 do. 
 
 Algoa Bay. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 do. 
 
 7 do. 
 
 Launceston. 
 Auckland. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 6 do. 
 
 Calais. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 22 do. 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2 do. 
 
 Hong Kong. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 do. 
 
 Callao. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 do. 
 
 Geelong. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 do. 
 
 Valparaiso. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2 Dutch. 
 
 Gd. Canaries. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 2 CIG. 
 
 164 Col. 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 2 CIG. 
 
 — 
 
 Riga. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 5 CIG. 
 
 447 do. 
 
 Hambro'. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 3 CIG. 
 
 — 
 
 Jamaica. 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 5 CIG. 
 
 r 2 S. A. 
 
 St.Petersburg. 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 3 CIG. 
 
 I 28 Col. 
 1 113 Turkey. 
 [85 Man. 
 
 |» Amsterdam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 1 CIG. 
 
 — 
 
 Montreal. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 3 CIG. 
 
 — 
 
 Buenos Ayres. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 10 Neg. 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 7 do. 
 
 Sundry Stores. 
 
 110 
 
 
 
 
 188 
 
 41 CIG. 
 
 1279 Col. 
 
 
 17 CIG 
 
 12 Dutch. 
 
 
 iM 
 
 
 269 Neg. 
 113 Turkey. 
 85 Man. 
 9 Hav. 
 
 
 4m 
 
 
 39 Neg. 
 88 S. A. 
 92 Tkv. 
 30 Man. 
 
 
 
 
 7 Dutch. 
 
 
 
 1 Hav. 
 
 
 
 
 7 S. A. 
 
 
 
 ; 1 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Aberi-ation, chromatic, 89. 
 
 spherical, 88. 
 
 Absorption of fluids and gases bj- 
 ceUs, 13. 
 
 Acerose, 7. 
 
 Achromatic object-glass, 90. 
 
 Acuminate, 7. 
 
 Acute, 7. 
 
 Air-bubbles, microscopic appear- 
 ances of, 94. 
 
 Albimien, 20. 
 
 Alcohol, use of, 101. 
 
 Alternate, 9. 
 
 Altemi-pinnate, 8. 
 
 Amplexicaid, 7. 
 
 Angular, 7. 
 
 Attachment of leaves to the stem, 
 9. 
 
 Attenuated, 7. 
 
 Auricidate, 7. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bark, 24. 
 
 Barley starch, 80. 
 
 Bars on walls of cells and vessels, 
 
 14. 
 Bean starch, 82. 
 Beech-wood, structure of, 2o. 
 Bipinnate, 8. 
 Bipinnatifid, 8. 
 Brittle, 11. 
 BUBDOCK, 43. 
 BUTTEEBrR, 45. 
 
 c. 
 
 Cambium layer, 23. 
 Capillarity, 13. 
 Caustic potash, use of, 100. 
 Cell, description of, 12. 
 
 , form of, 15. 
 
 Cell-contents, 14. 
 
 CeU-wall, 12. 
 
 CeUs, cylindrical, 17. 
 
 , elliptical, 17. 
 
 , elongated. 17. 
 
 CeUs, flexuous, 17. 
 
 , irregularly lobed, 17. 
 
 , oblong, 17. 
 
 , porous, 18. 
 
 , sinuous, 17. 
 
 , tabidar, 29. 
 
 vdtli deposits on their walls, 
 
 18. 
 
 , wood-, 17. 
 
 Chemical reagents, use of, 101. 
 
 Cheroots, manufacture of, 121. 
 
 Chicory, 49. 
 
 Chloride of zinc, use of, 101. 
 
 Chloi-ophyU, 15. 
 
 Cigars, manufacture of, 121. 
 
 Circumscription, 5. 
 
 Coltsfoot, 47. 
 
 CoilFEEV, 58. 
 Compound leaves, 6, 8. 
 Condenser, 90. 
 Connate, 7. 
 Cordate, 7. 
 
 Cordate-acuminate, 7. 
 Correction of lenses, 88, 89. 
 Cotyledon, 20. 
 Crenated, 7. 
 Crystals in plants, 15. 
 
 , chemical composition of, 15. 
 
 Cuneate, 7. 
 
 Curvinerved, G. 
 
 Cuspidate, 7. 
 
 Cuticle, 14, 31. 
 
 Cut tobacco, manufacture of, 119. 
 
 Cystolithes, 15. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dandelion, 52. 
 Deadly Nightshade, 39. 
 Decompound, 8. 
 Dentate, 7. 
 
 Deposits on walls of cells and ves- 
 sels, 13. 
 Dicotyledonous, 20. 
 Digitate, 9. 
 
 Dispersion of lenses, 89. 
 Dissecting needles, 98. 
 
128 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Dissection of tissues, 96. 
 Divided leaves, 6. 
 Dock, 60. 
 Doubly-dentate, 8. 
 Doublv-seiTate, 8. 
 Ducts,* dotted or pitted, 18. 
 , scalarifomi, 19. 
 
 E. 
 
 Elder pith, 16. ^ 
 
 Elkcajipane, 56. 
 
 Ellipsoidal cells, 15. 
 
 Elliptical, 7. 
 
 Emarginate, 7. 
 
 Embryo, 20. 
 
 Endogenous stem, mode of growth 
 
 of, 24. 
 Endosmose, 13. 
 Entire, 6. 
 Epidennis, 29. 
 
 , tabular cells of, 29. 
 
 , method of obtaining, 99. 
 
 , microscopic examination of, 
 
 98. 
 Equally-pinnate, 8. 
 Ether,'use of, 101. 
 Exogenous stem, mode of gTowth, 
 
 24. 
 Eye-glass of microscope, 90. 
 Eye-piece of microscope, 90. 
 
 F. 
 
 False bark, 24. 
 
 Feather-veined, 6. 
 
 Fibrilhe, 21. 
 
 Field-glass of microscope, 90. 
 
 Fixed oils, 15. 
 
 Floral leaves, 10. 
 
 Foxglove, 64. 
 
 G. 
 
 Germen, 20. 
 
 Glands, form and structure of, 31. 
 
 Gheen Hellebore, 68. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hairs, bases of simple or com- 
 pound, 31. 
 
 , glandular form and structure 
 
 of, 31. 
 
 , IjTiiphatic structm'e of, 31. 
 
 Hastate, 7. 
 
 Heai-t-wood, 25. 
 
 Hilum, 20. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid, use of, 102. 
 
 I. 
 
 Illumination of objects for the mi- 
 croscope, 90. 
 
 Illumination of transparent objects, 
 
 91. 
 InteiTuptedly-pinnate, 8. 
 Inuline, 104. 
 Iodine, use of, 101. 
 Iiregular cells, 15. 
 Irregularlv-serrate, 8. 
 
 L. 
 Lamina, 5. 
 Lanceolate, 6. 
 Leaf, base of, 5. 
 
 , point of, 5. 
 
 Leaf-blade, 5. 
 
 , A-ertical sections of, 98. 
 
 Leaf-stalk, 5. 
 
 , structure of, 27. 
 
 Leaf-veins, structure of, 29. 
 Leathery, 10. 
 Leaves, foim of, 6. 
 
 , office of, 5. 
 
 , structiu'e of, 27. 
 
 , venation of, 6. 
 
 Lens, a, 84. 
 
 Lenses, action of, 85. 
 
 , focal length of, 86. 
 
 , foiTiis of, 84. 
 
 Linear, 7. 
 Lobed cells, 15. 
 
 leaves, 8. 
 
 Logwood, structm-e of, 26. 
 
 , crystals from, 26. 
 
 L\Tate, 7. 
 
 M. 
 Maceration, Schultz's method of, 
 
 101. 
 Mahoganv-wood, sti'uctm-e of, 25. 
 Malt-rootlets, 27. 
 3Iargin of leaf, 5. 
 ]\Iedullarv ravs or plates, 23. 
 
 sheath, "2.3. 
 
 Meniscus, 8d. 
 
 Microscope, construction of, 84. 
 
 , compound, 88. 
 
 , dissecting, 90. 
 
 , management of, 92. 
 
 , simple, 87. 
 
 Midrib, 6. 
 
 , structure of, 27. 
 
 , ti-ansverse sections of, 97. 
 
 Mirrors, action of, 91. 
 Monocotyledonous, 20. 
 ]\Iucronate, 7. 
 Mullein, 66. 
 Midtijugate, 8. 
 
 N. 
 Nervures of leaves, 5. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 129 
 
 Net-veined, G. 
 
 Nitric acid, use of, 101. 
 
 Nucleus, 14. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oat-starch, 80. 
 
 Obcordate, 7. 
 
 Oblique, 7. 
 
 Oblong-, 7. 
 
 Obovate, 7, 
 
 Obtuse, 7. 
 
 Oil-jrlobides, appearance of, 104. 
 
 Oil of lemons, use of, 103. 
 
 Opposite leaves, 9. 
 
 Organic substances in plants, 14. 
 
 Orris-root starch, 82. 
 
 Oval, 7. 
 
 Ovate, 7. 
 
 Ovate-lanceolate, 7. 
 
 P. 
 
 Palmate, 9. 
 
 Palmifid, 8. 
 
 Palniisect, 8. 
 
 Parallel-veined, 6. 
 
 Pea-starch, 82. 
 
 Pedate, 9. 
 
 Perfoliate, 7. 
 
 Pei-meability of the cell-wall, 12. 
 
 Petiole, 5. 
 
 Pileorhiza, 21. 
 
 Pine-wood, structure of, 26. 
 
 Pinnfe, 8. 
 
 Pinnate, 8. 
 
 Pinuatifid, 8. 
 
 Pinnatisect, 8. 
 
 Pith, 23. 
 
 Plantain, 71. 
 
 Plumide, 20. 
 
 Position of leaves on the stem, 9, 
 
 Potato, 41. 
 
 Potato-starch, 78. 
 
 Primordial utricle, 14. 
 
 Prismatical cells, 15. 
 
 Prismatic specti-um, 89. 
 
 Protoplasm, 14. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quinate, 9. 
 Quinque-lobed, 8. 
 
 E. 
 
 Radiated, 6. 
 Radical leaves, 10. 
 Radicle, the, 20. 
 Raphides, acicidar, 15. 
 
 , conglomerate, 15. 
 
 Reagents, chemical, 100. 
 
 Reflection of light, 91. 
 
 Refraction of light, 85. 
 
 Reniform, 7. 
 
 Reticulated, 6. 
 
 Reti'oserrate, 7. 
 
 Returns-tobacco, 120. 
 
 Rhubahb, 62. 
 
 Ribs of leaves, 5. 
 
 Rice-starch, 81. 
 
 Rings on walls of cells and vessels, 
 
 14. 
 Root, adventitious, 21. 
 
 , axial, 21. 
 
 , office of, 22. 
 
 Root-cap, 21. 
 
 , structure of, 27. 
 
 Rootlets, structure of, 21. 
 Roots, structure of, 21. 
 Roimdish, 7. 
 Rimcinate, 8. 
 Rye-starch, 79. 
 
 Sagittate, 7. 
 
 Scarlet-bean, 20. 
 
 Secondary deposits on the walls of 
 
 cells and vessels, 18. 
 Septenate, 9. 
 Serrated, 7. 
 Shag-tobacco, 120. 
 Side-reflector, 90. 
 Simple leaves, 6. 
 Sinuated, 8. 
 Sneezing-snuft', 15. 
 Snufl^, manufacture of, 122, 
 , moistening and scenting of, 
 
 122. 
 Spathulate, 7. 
 Sphagnum, 18. 
 acutifolimn, leaf and cells 
 
 of, 27. 
 Spherical aberration of glass lenses, 
 
 88. 
 Spiral coils on walls of cells and 
 
 vessels, 14. 
 Spun tobacco, 120. 
 Starches, 73. 
 
 Starch-grauide, hilum of, 74. 
 , laminations on surface 
 
 of, 75. 
 
 -, relative size of, 75. 
 tests for, 75. 
 
 Stem, endogenous, 10, 22. 
 
 , exogenous, 22, 
 
 leaves, 9. 
 
 , office of the, 25. 
 
130 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Stem, structure of, 22. 
 
 , systems of, 22. 
 
 Stinking Helleboue, 69. 
 Stomates, office of, 30. 
 
 , structure of, 30. 
 
 Subulate, 7. 
 Succulent, 10. 
 Sugar, use of, 102. 
 Sulphuric acid, use of, 101. 
 Sunflower, 54. 
 System, cellular, 23. 
 
 , cortical, 23. 
 
 , fibro-vasciUar, 23, 
 
 Temate, 8, 9. 
 
 Testa, 20. 
 
 Textm-e of leaves, 10. 
 
 Thickened cortical integument, 28. 
 
 Thobnapple, 36. 
 
 Tissue, fibro-vascular, 23. 
 
 Tissues, 20. 
 
 , ceUular, 28. 
 
 , spongiform, 29. 
 
 of wood, 25. 
 
 Tobacco, American, 32. 
 
 , cultivation of, 115. 
 
 , cut, 120. 
 
 , history of, 105. 
 
 , manufacture of, 119. 
 
 of Shiraz, 32. 
 
 , pure and adulterated, 35, 
 
 , S}Tian, 35. 
 
 Tobacco-starch, 81. 
 Tous-les-mois starch, 76. 
 Transmission of fluids and gases by 
 
 ceUs, 13. 
 Triangular, 7. 
 Trilobed, 8. 
 Tripinnate, 8. 
 Truncate, 7. 
 Twist tobacco, 120. 
 
 U. 
 Unequally-pinnate, 8. 
 Unijugate, 8. 
 
 Variations in the forms of leaves, 9. 
 Vascular utricles, 18. 
 Vegetable cells, 12. 
 
 tissues, dissection of, 97. 
 
 , examination of, 95. 
 
 Veins of leaves, 5. 
 
 , structure of, 29. 
 
 Venation, 6, 
 
 Vertical sections of leaf-blade, 97. 
 
 of wood, 99. 
 
 Verticil, 9. 
 Verticillate, 9. 
 Vesicle, 12. 
 
 Vessels, absorption of their walls, 
 18. 
 
 , annular, 19. 
 
 , fonn of, 16. 
 
 , pitted or dotted, 18, 
 
 , reticulated, 19. 
 
 , reticulated and dotted, 19 
 
 , reticulated and spiral, 19. 
 
 , scalarifoiTU, 19. 
 
 , spiral, 9. 
 
 , structvire of, 18, 
 
 Visual angle, 87. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wheat-starch, 79. 
 
 White Hellebore, 15. 
 
 WTiorl, 9. 
 
 WTiorled, 9. 
 
 Wood, endogenous, structiu-e of, 
 
 24. 
 
 , exogenous, structure of, 23. 
 
 , microscopic examination of, 
 
 102. 
 
 , tissue of, 23. 
 
 , maceration of, 102. 
 
 , vertical sections of, 100. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 PHINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, 
 RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 
 
Pl.l. 
 
 AMERICAE" TOBACCO. 
 Loudon, Published "by John Van. Voorst, Paternoster Row; 1868. 
 
PI. 2. 
 
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P1.4. 
 
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Pi. 5. 
 
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Pi. 25. 
 
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PI 26 
 
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 A HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL MANIPULATION. 
 
 By C. GREVILLE WILLIAMS, 
 
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 especially find tliis Handbook an invaluable companion, wliilst even those 
 who enjoy regular instruction may frequently consult it with advantage in 
 devising the arrangement of apparatus for particular processes." — Fhilo- 
 sophical Magazine, January 1858. 
 
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 tion having been long out of print, this elaborate guide has a particidar 
 value." — Leader, November 28, 1857. 
 
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 great boon ; those sufRciently advanced in chemistry to conduct original in- 
 vestigations will find in tliis work much valuable information as to the 
 methods which are employed in such investigations. Tliis information is 
 not only valuable, but novel ; for we know of no book besides the one under 
 consideration in wliich it is purposely and systematically placed before the 
 inquirer. We need scarcely say that Mr. C. Greville Williams's Handbook 
 merits our warmest commendation, and that it will prove a valuable addition 
 to the library of all persons engaged in chemical manipulations." — Lancet, 
 January 23, 1858. 
 
 " Every department of chemical manipulation is here minutely explained, 
 with descriptions of the test-apparatus and materials, as well as the most 
 approved processes of the art. Mr. Williams has also introduced matter 
 from the highest Continental authorities, and liis work includes directions as 
 to all that is likely to be required in the most advanced scientific investigation, 
 as well as the ordinary and popular courses of experiment and inquiry." — 
 Literary Gazette, November 21, 1857. 
 
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 knowledge witliin the last twenty years, and on the vast improvements and 
 changes which have been introduced into our manipulation, the necessity of a 
 work describing them becomes very evident to our minds. Such a work Mr. 
 Williams has now fiu-nished, and as he has brouglit considerable exjierience 
 to the task, and has performed that task with industry and ability, we per- 
 ceive with pleasure that he has produced a work which will be of great service 
 to the student, and we anticipate that it will soon become a class-book, and 
 will probably pass through many editions." — CJiemist, December, 1857. 
 
 JOHN VAN VOORST, 1 PATERNOSTER ROW^