(EI|e i. H. ItU IGtbrarg 5Jortl| (Carolina &tatf llmoeraitg SF95 W613O 1895 r ^ ►> ►/ ii NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES S00587313 R LI N. c. a Chemic Ext THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUB- JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION DESK. SEP 2 1991 lOOM/5-79 FARM FOODS: OR, THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS. FROM THE SIXTH EDITION OF ' LANDWIRTSCHAFTLICHE FUTTERUNGSLEHRE: BY Professor EMIL v. WOLFF, DIRECTOR OP THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, HOHENHEIM, WiJRTTEMBERG. TRANSLATED BY HERBERT H. COUSINS, M.A.Oxon., LECTURER IN CHEMISTRY AT THE SOUTH-EASTERN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, WYE, KENT. LONDON : GURNEY & JACKSON, 1 PATERNOSTER ROW. (Mr. van VOOEST'S SUCCESSORS.) MDCCCXCV. D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, FIAMMAM. PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET BTKEET. AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. As long ago as the year 1868, when the first edition of my "^ Practical System of Manuring^ appeared, I had pledged myself to bring out a companion volume, in which the nutrition of the body and the economy of Farm Food-stuffs should be treated on similar lines. But at the same time I expressed my intention of reserving the work until the principles underlying its teaching had been placed upon a clear and systematic basis. The science of Agricultural Dietetics was then beginning to assume definite proportions, and from the great energy with which it was being prosecuted it seemed more than probable that in a very short time it would attain a position which would enable it to offer practice a firmer and sounder support for the acceptance of the latest scientific principles. In my opinion that time has now come. Thanks mainly to the rich harvest of results which has rewarded the zealous labours of the Munich School of Physiology, the general laws of animal nutrition, as well as those of flesh- and fat-formation in the animal body, are now clear and patent; the necessary investigations which were so admirably executed by Voit and Pettenkofer have attained a present conclusion. The formation of salts in food a2 0^ ^^ 1825; IV AUTHOR S PREFACE. has been explained by new and direct experiments, and the experimental stations have contributed largely to our knowledge of the digestibility of food-stuffs^ as well as of the food-requirements of farm animals. With this knowledge it is now possible in practical farming to base calculations upon ^' digestible pro- portions '^ and " real food/' and generally to place food and feeding on a scientific basis. Much detail still requires working out, but so good a beginning has been made already that it invites a confident expectation of quick advance in the right direction. The glorious results already to hand in this field of research have clearly proved the value of Agricultural Experimental Stations in strengthening the combined efforts of Physiologists and Agricultural Chemists. It seems to me that we have at length attained such a position with regard to the results of recent research in Animal Physiology that it is now possible to collect the produce of the last fifteen years into a compact form, which will render them not only of value to the practical man but also of general utility. The task of sifting and arranging the appalling pile of material and of presenting it in a suitable form is no light undertaking, and I approach it with due diffidence. In writing this book I have constantly kept before me the necessity of a simple and striking pre- sentation of the principles of nutrition, and to fulfil this object I have rigorously excluded all side-issues of a purely scientific and technical character, and have only set forth those fundamental principles of animal nutrition which the farmer must always bear in mind in the rational feeding of his stock. Details as to the housing and general management of stocky the pre- paration of food- stuffs^ &c. are to be learnt by practical experience or in books of a more practical character, and are not dwelt upon here. I have attempted to found a rational system of feeding for the varied re- quirements of farm animals upon the latest scientific results as to the laws of animal digestion and nutrition, and have restricted myself to a few common food-stuffs, the composition, nature, and effect of which, as well as of their decomposition products in the body, are simple and easily understood. To secure a clearer understanding I have consistently explained the prac- tical methods by which the given results were obtained. To all farmers and practical men who are trying to feed their farm animals on a rational and economical system I dedicate this book, and it also suggests itself as a suitable text-book for the instruction of the coming generation of practical farmers who are studying at Agricultural Colleges. Most earnestly do I hope that its contents, scope, and form may enable it not only to arouse general interest in the subject, but that the practical application of its teaching may result in great advances in this important branch of the Economy of the Farm. July 1874. TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. In preparing an authorized English translation of the Sixth Edition of Professor von Wolff^s ' Futterungs- lehre/ an attempt has been made to supply English agriculturists and students of agriculture with a book of which only those who have read the original can appreciate the urgent need. It is significant of the paltry and inefficient way in which England has approached the problem of applying science, system_, experiment, and education to agricul- ture, that such an epoch-making book as this should have been allowed to remain inaccessible to the farming community for 20 years, and to pass through 6 editions in its native German, without finding a translator, or even evoking a feeble imitation, in this country. Without excuse and with every confidence in the merits and usefulness of the original, I place an English version of this famous little book at the dis- posal of all thoughtful and intelligent agriculturists. What blemishes of style and wording it may possess are due only to the inexperience of a novice who makes his first essay in book-making. The reader will hardly fail to be struck with the rather obtrusive fact that the book is simply the record viii translator's preface. of 42 years' work by the experimental stations of the German government on the feeding of farm animals and the feeding-values of farm foods. As an illustra- tion of the apathy of our own government towards the application of science to agriculture, witness the fol- lowing returns as to agricultural experiment stations for the year 1892 :— Germany 67 United States 54 France 53 Austria 35 Sweden 24 Italy 17 Russia 14 Belgium_, Switzerland, Denmark, 1 Norway, Holland J ^^ Java, Portugal, Roumania, Spain, Brazil, Japan, and Sumatra possess one apiece. In England such insti- tutions are solely represented by the private enterprises of Sir John Lawes and the Royal Agricultural Society. Two or three of the counties are now employing their Technical Education grants in the direction of Agri- cultural Colleges, and the results are already becoming apparent. A rapid development in this direction is urgently needed. With the present low price of food-stuffs, a shrewd farmer can produce milk, mutton, beef, and pork at a cheaper rate than has ever been possible before in modern farming. Many practical men scoff at '^balanced rations '' and scorn the ''^albuminoid ratio.'' TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. IX Even the authors of recent text-books for the student evaluate foods by their chemical composition, and deduce albuminoid ratios not from the digestible constituents but from the crude constituents of the food-stuffs. Wolff makes it possible for every practical man to understand the meaning oi real food, of digestibility, of digestible constituents, and their mutual proportion as expressed in the so-called ''albuminoid ratioy The economic standards for feeding cows, bullocks, sheep, &c., which Wolff lays down have been deduced from exhaustive and accurate experiments. Any farmer of moderate intelligence could easily calculate such a dis- tribution of the food-stuffs at his disposal for the various animals on his farm that each animal shall receive a diet that will give the greatest return with the least waste and at the lowest cost. This does not mean that the cowman should dispense a rigid ration weighed to half a wurzel, but simply that the diet of each animal should be subject to a general supervision as indicated by the rules laid down in the text with the assistance of the tables in the Appendix. This book does not assert the dogmatic guesses or opinionated maxims of a self-constituted authority on farm foods, but is simply a digest of the general prin- ciples of animal growth and nutrition, the essential constituents of a rational diet, the actual composition of farm foods and their digestibility for farm animals. The latter has been deduced from elaborate experiments which have been steadily continued for more than a quarter of a century. The experiments carried out at Rothamsted through the munilicence of Sir J. B. Lawes, and under the scientific guidance of Sir Joseph Gilbert^ have led to several highly important practical conclusions, and the Rothamsted experiments are not only models of ac- curate and exhaustive investigation in themselves, but have encouraged experimenters in Germany and else- where to prosecute a similar line of research. Perhaps the most valuable feature of the book is that o£ the tables given in the Appendix. These are uni- versally recognized, and form the basis of most of the data as to foods and feeding given in the agricultural press and general agricultural literature. I am extremely indebted to my colleague Professor Percival, who has read all the proofs, and has not only been of the greatest assistance as a literary critic, but has also been of much service in matters relating to botany and biology. HERBERT H. COUSINS, M.A. South-Eastem Agricultural College, Wye, Kent. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page Author's Pbeface to the First Edition iii Translator's Preeace yii Introduction xvii PART I. The General Laws of Animal Nutrition, CHAPTEK I. The Composition of the Animal Body. §1. Constituents of the Body. — Water 1 Fluids 2 Solid Constituents 2 § 2. Non-Nitrogenous Constituents of the Body 4-6 Fat 4 Other Organic Substances 6 § 3. Nitrogenous Constituents 5_10 Albuminoids 7 Gelatinoids 9 Horny Matter 9 § 4. Mineral Matter 11-17 Common Salt 16 XU TABLE or CONTENTS. CHAPTER II. Organic Nutrients and their Digestion. Page § 1. Organic Constituents 19-20 Albumen 19 Fat 19 Sugar 20 § 2. The Digestion of Organic Substances 20-25 Eespiration and Digestion 20 Decomposition of Nutritive Substances in the Body 22 CHAPTER III. Experimental Methods. § 1. Determination of Nitrogen and Mineral Matters 27-28 § 2. Determination of Fat and Water 28-35 Digestion Results 30 Examples of Calculation 32 CHAPTER IV. Flesh Production. § 1. ^ Circulatory ' and * Organized ' Albumen 36 § 2. The Laws of Flesh Formation 38 § 3. Consumption of Albuminoids 39 § 4. The Storage of Albumen in the Body 45 CHAPTER V. The Formation of Fat. § 1. Sources of Fat 53 Formation of Fat from Albuminoids 55 Production of Milk-fat by Cows 58 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XUl 2. Experiments on Fattening 60 Oxen 61 Pigs 63 Geese Q6 Dogs 67 3. The Consumption of Fat 68-73 CHAPTEK VI. The PnoDucTioN of Force. Work and the Consumption of Albumen 74 Excretion of Nitrogen as Gas 77 The Hohenheim Experiment on a Horse 79 The Sources of Muscular Power 82 PART II. The Food of Farm Animals, CHAPTER I. The Constituents of Food. Classification 92 Definitions 94 1 . Nitrogenous Constituents 95 {a) Vegetable Albumen 96 (6) Other Nitrogenous Constituents 99 2. Crude Fibre 102 3. Crude Fat 103 4. Nitrogen-free Extract 103 5. Pure Ash 104 xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER II. The Digestibility of Food. Page Method of Determination 106 Sources of Error 107 Digestibility of Fat 109 1. Digestibility of Crude Fibre 110 2. Digestibility of Nitrogen-free Extract 113 3. Composition of N.-free Extract digested 115 4. Undigested N.-free Extract 115 6. The Water Extract 116 6. Crude Fat 116 7. Crude Albuminoids 117 Method of Artificial Digestion 118 8. Inorganic Substances 122 CHAPTER III. § 1. Conditions affecting the Digestibility of Coarse Fodder . . 124 1. Effect of Quantity 124 2. Green vevstis Dry Fodder 125 3. Ordinary Hay 126 4. Effect of Storage 126 6. Period of Growth 127 6. Effect of Season, Soil, and Manuring 129 7. Influence of Methods of Preparing 129 8. Influence of Work 131 9. Different kinds of Ruminants 133 10. Horses 133 11. Influence of Breed 135 12. Age and Growth of Animal 136 13. Individuality 137 § 2. Digestibility of Concentrated Foods and their Influence on the Digestibility of Coarse Fodder 138 1. Increase of Albuminoids 139 2. Nitrogenous Special Foods 139 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV Paofe 3. Effect of feeding Corn 140 4. Carbohydrates 141 5. Koots and Tubers 143 6. Fat and Oil 146 7. Salt 147 8. Lime and Phosphoric Acid 147 CHAPTER IV. The Food-stuffs. § 1. Coarse and Green Fodders 149 Hay, Aftermath, and Pasture-Grass 149 § 2. Red Clover 158 Brown Hay and Silage 163 § 3. Lucerne 175 § 4. Vetch-Hay 177 § 5. Lupine-Hay 178 § 6. Other kinds of Green Fodder and Hay 180 § 7. Straw of the Cereals 187 § 8. Straw of Leguminous Plants 188 § 9. Chaff and Husks of the Cereals and Leguminous Plants. 190 CHAPTER V. Concentrated Food-stuffs. § 1. Cereal Grain 191 § 2. Leguminous Seeds 197 § 3. Oil Seeds and Cakes 200 § 4. Animal Products 203 § 5. Tubers and Roots 207 XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART III. The Feeding of Farm Animals. Page Chapter 1. Feeding Standards 218 II. Feeding for Maintenance 227 III. Production of Wool 232 IV. Production of Work 240 V. Production of Milk 248 VI. Feeding of Young Animals 267 VII. Fattening 277 APPENDIX. Table I. The Average Composition and Digestibility of Farm Foods 290 „ II. The Digestibility of Food-stuffs 313 ,, III. The Nitrogen of Foods expressed as Albuminoids and Amides 329 „ IV. Feeding Standards for Farm Animals 338 „ V. Percentage Composition of different parts of Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs 352 „ VI. Composition of Carcase of Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs 357 FARM FOODS. Part I. THE GENERAL LAWS OF ANIMAL NUTRITION. CHAPTER I. THE COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY. § 1. Constituents of the Body. Water. — The entire animal body is largely composed of water_, and the amount in proportion to the live- weight of the animal decreases with its age. Imme- diately after birth the percentage of water is about 80-85 per cent, of that of the live animal^ but during the period of rapid growth this generally decreases to about 60 per cent., while in the mature animal, and especially if fat, the water contained in its body (including the water in the stomach and intestines) is only about 40-50 per cent, of the whole. All parts of the animal are affected by this alteration B N. C. State College 2 THE ANIMAL BODY. « in the amount of contained water, the blood least and the bones to the greatest extent. Thus the bones of a new-born animal contain about 70 per cent., while those of a full-grown and well-nurtured beast of the same kind often contain less than 20 per cent, of water. It is clear that these variations must be taken into consideration when the effect of a given diet on the increase in live-weight has to be estimated. Fluids. — In the animal organism the more or less solid portions — i. e. the cellular tissues — are by weight far in excess of the liquids and animal fluids. The fluids circulating in the blood and lymph-vessels constitute less than 7 to 9 per cent, of the live-weight, and in the case of old or very fat beasts only 4 to 6 per cent. The gastric juices and other secretions and fluid excretions, although produced in large quantity during a space of 34 hours, can hardly be considered a part of the animal body, since they are being constantly produced directly or indirectly from the blood, and after being partially re-absorbed by the blood, pass out of the body in the form of decomposition products. A new supply of food is thus required for their renewal, while the blood, despite constant give and take, remains very uniform in its composition. Solid Constituents. — Fresh bones constitute, ac- cording to the breed, age, and condition of the animal, 6 to 12 per cent, of its live- weight, muscle and sinews 30 to 48 per cent., and fat, as far as it can be separated from the kidneys, bowels and flesh, 5 to 40 per cent. It is to be noted, however, that fresh bones contain 20 to 50 per cent, of water, while muscle contains 60 to over 75 per cent. CONSTITUENTS, 3 If the average of the results obtained by experiments with various farm animals be taken^ it appears that per cent. Bones comprise of the live- weight 8*9 Flesh and Sinews 40*1 Fat (by mechanical separation) 23'9 Residue 27-1 Total lOO'O The residue of 27*1 per cent, represents the blood, skin, hair, and the offal, as well as the contents of the stomach and intestines. The percentage weights of the different portions of Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs are given in Table V. in the Appendix. I will only- observe that the bulk and weight of the contents of the stomach and intestines vary greatly according to whether the animal has been fed on a concentrated or a bulky fodder, and especially, with ruminants, upon their fat or store condition. For example, in some investigations carried on at Hohen- heim with sheep of the same breed and age, the following results were obtained : — p, -J -, Contents of Stomach and Intestines ®^* as percentage of live-weight. Chiefly straw 22*3 Hay with a little beans 15*7 High diet 9*4 Fat pigs gave even a smaller percentage, only 4 to 6 per cent. The total weights of the various parts of the carcase, after deducting the contents of the stomach, intestines, and bladder, is called the "dressed weight^^ of the animal. b2 4 THE ANIMAL BODY. The Dry Substance of the animal body consists of organic and inorganic matter^ and the former are either nitrogenous or non-nitrogenous substances. § 2. The Non-Nitrogenous Constituents of the Animal Body. Fat is by far the most abundant of the non-nitro- genous material. To a minute extent (0*1 to 0'3 per cent.) it is present in the bloody but although it is found in larger quantity in the nerves and bones^ it is chiefly enclosed in special cells or tissues under the skin^ in the kidneys^ omentum_, and mesentery, and in the flesh between the bundles o£ muscular fibres. A thin membrane forms the cell-walls of the fat- tissue. This is a nitrogenous substance and constitutes 0'8 to 4 per cent, of the whole tissue — dependent on the richness of the cells in fat. The amount of water in fresh fat is directly proportional to the amount of membrane (5 or 6 to 1)^ so that the quantity of water may vary from 4 to over 24 per cent.^ decreasing as the cells become richer in fat. Most of the fat-cells of a live animal are filled with fat. At the temperature of the body this is liquid and transparent ; but its consistency varies in different organs^ and on becoming cold solidifies more or less easily to a butter-like or solid mass according to whether the oily or liquid fats predominate. Not only does the appearance, but also the smell and taste of fat obtained from different kinds of animals, or different parts of the same animal, vary exceedingly on account of admixtures of small quantities of colouring-matters NON-NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS. 5 and various volatile substances : this, however, has hardly any influence on the elementary composition of fat, which is very constant. For instance, Schulze and Reinecke at the Weende Experimental Station, found 28 samples of mutton, beef, and pork fat taken from different parts of the body, and from different individuals, to have the follow- ing composition : — Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen, per cent. per cent. per cent. Maximum 76-85 12-16 11*94 Minimum 76-27 11*76 11*00 Average of ain ^^.^ ^^.^^ ^^.^ the analyses J Almost identical results were obtained as to the com- position of the fat of horses, dogs, cats, and human beings. It is evident from these figures that we are justified in regarding all forms of fat in the body as practically of identical composition despite the many modifications it undergoes in passing from one part of the body to another; and, strange to say, even vegetable fats con- tained in the food of animals have absolutely the same elementary composition and general properties as animal fat. The quantity of fat which may be stored up in the body is often enormous. In the carcase of a fat beast or pig the amount of fat is often 25 to 40 per cent, of the live-weight, or 2 or 3 times that of the nitrogenous materials. On the other hand, in lean animals the quantity of fat is decidedly less than that of the fleshy tissues. 6 THE ANIMAL BODY. The other Non-Nitrogenous Organic Substances, other than fat, which exist in the animal body, though insignificant in quantity, play a very important part in the functions of the various organs and active fluids. Lactic Acid is found in the gastric juice, flesh, and (in minute quantities) in the blood and most animal fluids. Sugar also occurs in the blood (about 0*1 per cent.), and in larger quantity in the vein leading from the hver to the heart, while the liver itself contains a consider- able quantity of a sugary or sugar-producing substance called Glycogen. The muscles also contain small quantities of a peculiar substance like sugar in com- position and properties, which is known as Inosite. Lastly, a variety of non-nitrogenous organic sub- stances occur in the bile and the so-called " Alcoholic Extract"" of the tissues and animal fluids; but their weight is so small, when compared with the vast pro- portion of fat and flesh in the body, that they are hardly appreciable. § 3. Nitrogenous Constituents. Three groups of nitrogenous substances — viz., the Albuminoids J Gelatinoids, and Horny Matter — are found in the animal body. Of these the albuminoids are by far the most important, since all manifestations of animal life are based on them, or on organs which are made of them, and since they also provide the material from which both the other nitrogenous constituents are formed, while the latter, once formed, cannot be NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS. 7 changed back into albuminoids and are unable to nourish the body. Albtjminoids. — The albuminoids are found in many modifications in the various organs and fluids of which they form the chief constituents ; and all these forms,, under the influence of the vital process, experience a constant alteration. Three classes of albuminoids must be recognized : Albumen (represented by white of eg^), Fibrin (lean meat), and Casein (cheese). Albumen predominates in all animal fluids, especially in the chyle, in the colourless serum of the blood, as well as in the fluid contents of the blood-corpuscles, where it is tinted red by the colouring-matter of the blood. It also occurs in the juice of the muscles and in the nerves. Albumen is distinguished by the pro- perty of coagulating when heated to 70° or 80° C. When coagulated it is insoluble in pure water. Fibrin is found in the blood mixed with albumen, but is easily recognized by its rapid coagulation at the ordinary temperature. As soon as blood escapes from a living animal, the fibrin forms a clot which entangles the red corpuscles of the blood and separates from the colourless blood- serum. The fibrin of blood diff'ers from the fibrin found as the chief constituent of flesh in that the latter is of a highly organized and cellular character. Flesh-Fibrin (Myosin) behaves somewhat differ- ently in its chemical reactions from blood-fibrin, but both, like all insoluble albuminoids, are easily con- verted by the action of the digestive juices into soluble albuminoids or " peptones. ^^ :8 THE ANIMAL BODY. Casein is only found in quantity in milk, and as it is a product o£ the milk-glands only, it cannot be looked upon as a general constituent of the body. It does not coagulate on heating; the tenacious skin which forms on the surface of milk when it is evapo- rated is a substance which has been produced by the action of the air. When a small quantity of rennet is added to milk, or when warmed with a small quantity of dilute acids or various other substances, as well as in the natural souring of milk, the casein coagulates and separates completely from the rest of the milk. Composition of the Albuminoids. — All the albu- minoids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur ; and the proportion of the constituents is so constant that it is impossible to distinguish the various albuminoids by their com- position, samples of the same albuminoid from different sources often differing as much as absolutely distinct and different kinds. The following numbers give the extremes of varia- tion : — per cent. Carbon 52-54 Hydrogen 7 Nitrogen 15-17 Oxygen 21-24 Sulphur 1-1-5 It is usually assumed that the average amount of nitrogen in albuminoids is 16 per cent., and the total albuminoids in a substance are generally estimated by multiplying the percentage of nitrogen found by the figure 6-25 (6-25 x 16 = 100). NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS. \) The phosphorus which always accompanies the albu- minoids is generally in the form of phosphoric acid, and does not appear to enter into the organic composi- tion or to be an essential constituent of albumen. Gelatinoids. — These constitute nearly as large a part of the body as the albuminoids. They form the nitrogenous substance of bone and cartilage, and build up the bulk of the tendons, ligaments, connective- tissuesj and the skin. By long boiling with water the gelatinoids are dissolved and turned into glue. Their composition is very similar to that of the albuminoids, except that they generally contain rather less carbon (50 to 51 per cent.), and in the case of cartilage less nitrogen (15 per cent.), while the gelatin of bones, tendons and skin is richer in nitrogen (18 per cent.). Sulphur is either entirely absent or is found in smaller quantity than in the albuminoids. Horny Matter. — This is formed chiefly on the outer surface of the body, either in a thin layer as the scarf-skin (epidermis), or in well-characterized tissues, such as hair, wool, horn, nails, hoofs, claws, feathers, &c. The average composition of these tissues is very constant : — per cent. Carbon 50-51 Hydrogen about 7 Nitrogen 16-17 Oxygen 20-22 Sulphur 3-5 Except that they contain more sulphur, their com- position is almost the same as that of albumen and gelatin. 10 THE ANIMAL BODY. Average Composition. — It is thus evident that all the nitrogenous organic constituents of the body have on the average almost the identical composition of the pure albumen from which they have all been directly or indirectly produced in the processes of growth and nutrition. Lawes and Gilbert, who experimented with whole oxen, sheep, and pigs, both in the fat and store condition, also observed this agreement when they estimated the total water, fixed mineral matter, fat, organic matter not fat, and the nitrogen it contained. The amount of '^^ organic matter not fat" deter- mined directly agreed almost exactly with that obtained by multiplying the quantity of nitrogen found by the usual factor 6*25 (see infra) . Thus, all the ^' organic matter not fat " was found to contain on the average almost exactly 16 per cent, of nitrogen. By taking the average of all the experiments, the " organic matter not fat^^ comprised 14*67 per cent, of the dressed weight, and the amount of the albuminoids calculated from the nitrogen was 14*83 per cent. This clearly shows that all the nitrogenous organic constituents of the body not included in the three classes we have just considered, such as the liquids in the bile, muscles, &c., are in such relatively small quantity, that they exercise practically no influence on the composition of the organic substance of the body, and especially none on the percentage of nitrogen. MINERAL MATTER. 11 § 4. Mineral Matter. The ash or mineral matter of the body in round numbers is : — In Cattle 4-5 per cent, of the live-weight. Sheep ... 2'8-3-5 ,, „ Pigs 1-8-3-0 The lower numbers correspond to a fat, the higher to a lean condition of the animal. About ^ of this total is composed of phosphoric acid and lime_, while the remaining fifth comprises potash_, soda, magnesia, iron, chlorine, sulphuric acid, carbonic acid, and a slight trace of silica. Sulphur, which forms a portion of the organic composition of the albuminoids, has been mentioned before and is not included in this category. In the bones, as is well known, the quantity of mineral matter (bone-ash) is very great, and amounts in a full-grown animal to about f of the dry, fat-free substance of the bones. Immediately after birth, the dried bones contain only about 50 per cent., but in advanced age often as much as 75 per cent, of ash. The outer and more solid layers are always richer in ash than the inner and porous parts, especially in the hollow bones. Seven-eighths of the total bone-ash consists of phosphate of lime; the rest is carbonate of lime containing a little magnesia, calcium fluoride, and sodium salts. The fat-free, drv matter of bones contains : — per cent. Phosphoric acid 27 Lime 38 Carbonic acid 3-4 Magnesia O'5-l 12 THE ANIMAL BODY. Fresh bones are frequently rich in fat^ more espe- cially when the animal is old and fat. In certain diseases occasioning an advanced brittleness of the bones, the quantity of fat frequently rises to more than 40 per cent., and while the percentage of phosphate is reduced, that of carbonate of lime is increased. Lime exists in bones to a larger extent than phos- phoric acid, and while this ratio holds good for the whole body, in the softer tissues the phosphoric acid exceeds the lime, though the actual amount is exceed- ingly small. For instance, fresh flesh free from fat contains 25 per cent, of dry matter, of which 0*6 to 0'8 per cent, is phosphoric acid. In the nerve-tissues about the same amount is found, while in blood, lymph, and digestive juices the amount is much smaller, only 0"1 to 0*2 per cent. In flesh, blood, and lymph the percentage of lime is hardly appreciable — only 0*01 to 0'02 per cent., — while in the digestive juices it rises to O'l to 0*2 per cent. Magnesia seems to be an almost unnecessary sub- stance for the growth and maintenance of mammals, at any rate its importance is far less than that of lime, the total quantity being hardly one-thirtieth to one- fortieth of that of the lime in the body. At the same time it is not safe to conclude from the insignificant amount of a constituent of the body that it is abso- lutely unnecessary for bodily growth and nutrition. Iron, for instance (calculated as iron oxide), forms only 0'013-0'042 per cent, of the live-weight of a Farm animal, but is nevertheless a necessary constituent of the blood and contained in the so-called haemoglobin MINERAL MATTER. 13 of the red corpuscles. Iron, in fact, is absolutely essential for a healthy condition of the body. From the researches of Hosslin with puppies of 20 to 40 lbs. weight, it appears that a daily supply of as little as 0*06 to 0*09 grain of iron was sufficient to make the further growth of the body (muscles, liver, &c.) possible, while no increase, or at any rate none in proportion to the growth of the animal, resulted in the proportion of haemoglobin in the blood. The general results produced were large blisters, a rapid weakening of the animal, and a quickening of the pulse. It was also found that by gradually reducing the quantity of haemoglobin, the quantity of blood was at first only slightly reduced*, but when the amount of haemoglobin had sunk from the original 14 per cent, to 7 per cent., which is the extreme minimum for the preservation of life, the quantity of blood began to decrease rapidly. Although the actual amount of Potash, Soda, and Chlorine (generally existing as Salt) is not large, still these substances are necessary constituents of all the secretions and tissues in which the whole process of nutrition is carried out with especial vigour, and which continually undergo destruction and renewal. They thus pass largely into the excreta, and a constant and definite addition is required to maintain the digestive process in its normal condition in all directions. It is highly remarkable that potash predominates over soda in all ^dtal processes of cell-building, such as in the muscles and nerves, and in the blood-corpuscles as distinguished from the blood-serum, and it is clear that potash plays a prominent part in the mechanism of cell-formation in the tissues in question. On the 14 THE ANIMAL BODY. contrary^ in cartilage and bones one finds soda as the predominant alkali_, although its actual quantity is very small. Soda in the form of salt is a characteristic constituent of blood-serum, lymph, the digestive juices, and the gummy substances in the body. This peculiar distribution of the two alkalies in the animal organism is very constant in quantity, though only amounting to 3 parts in 1000 of live- weight. But as the alkalies are continually excreted in the urine, a marked disturbance of the digestive process would result if a fresh daily supply were not provided in the food. This has been demonstrated by experiments carried out at the Agricultural College at Poppelsdorf as well as at Bonn, and by J . Forster at Munich. These researches proved that animals fed with food lacking in salt rapidly became unwell or completely collapsed, and that lack of potash, as well as lack of salt, lime, or phosphoric acid, is a serious deficiency. This was not only observed with young animals still in a condition of rapid growth, but also with fully matured animals. Salts. — The salts existing in the body are of two kinds. The first, or '^ Constitutional Salts,''^ form more or less definite compounds with the organic material, and while they comprise the greater proportion of the mineral constituents, are found in very constant quantity. The other kind includes salts which dissolve in the animal fluids in small quantity without definite combination as the result of rich feeding ; within certain limits these salts can cause a greater concentration of the digestive fluids, but they can never be collected to any considerable extent. They are rapidly discharged in the urine and are accompanied by the other salts MINERAL MATTER. 15 -which are set at liberty by the breaking-up or oxidation of combustible materials in the food. These latter are not completely and immediately discharged from the blood in its passage through the kidneys, but partially pass over into the circulation, where they are dissolved and are able to unite with albuminoids, if such substances, as a result of an insufficient supply of salts, pass from the digestive tract into the circulation. The researches of Forster already mentioned have proved that the excretion of salt was smaller when a full diet lacking in salt was supplied, than when the animal was left without food. Thus it seems that the body exercises an economy of constitutional salts and can manage with a minimum; but at the same time the supply of salt cannot sink below a certain limit, as although its excretion can be greatly reduced it never actually ceases to take place. "When the supply proves abso- lutely inadequate, the body continually parts with salt and rapidly collapses. In practice, in the feeding of mature animals which are to be kept in a medium condition or to be fattened, a lack of the requisite mineral matters is scarcely ever to be feared, as they are usually present in large excess. In certain respects, however, common salt is an exception, as will be explained more fully below. Young animals rapidly growing of course require a larger supply of lime and phosphoric acid than full- grown animals, and the daily requirements of a young animal can be easily estimated from the amount found in a full-grown individual. A lamb requires 30 grains per day, a porker 40 grains, and a calf about half an ounce of lime per day, 16 THE ANIMAL BODY. and about tlie same quantity of phosphoric acid. Since young animals are generally fed on a liberal diet of easily digested food, such as corn, potatoes, and roots, all of which contain much more phosphoric acid than lime, an addition of lime in the form of chalk is often advisable. The total amount of lime and phosphoric acid must also be considered in the diet of a milch cow, and this is further discussed in Part III. Common Salt. — Under the general conditions of farming a lack of potash is never likely to affect farm animals, since the supply provided by all farm foods is far in excess of the demand. But it is quite other- wise with soda in the form of common salt. Salt not only plays an active part in the production of cells and digestive fluids, but materially assists digestion by increasing the diffusibility of such substances as albumen and promoting their " resorption '' into the circulation from the digestive tract, as well as by stimulating to a certain extent the digestive fluids^ promoting active assimilation, and generally increasing the vital energy. For this purpose a certain excess of salt seems to be necessary, which after circulating rapidly through the body is excreted in the urine in quantity proportional to the amount taken. Salt is more necessary with vegetable than with animal food. Carnivora obtain from living animals almost equal quantities of salt and potash in their food : milk also supplies these materials in suitable quantity ; in cow^s milk, for instance, the proportion of the two alkalies is about 1 to 4. In a wild state or when kept on a good permanent MINERAL MATTER. 17 pasture,, cattle are able to supply themselves with food yielding an adequate supply of Soda; the so-called '* salt meadows ^' are famed for producing an especially strong and nourishing fodder, while most of our domestic animals are fed with a food such as corn, chaff, seeds, and the general coarse fodders, which are frequently rich in potash but lacking in soda. Since salt is a necessary constituent of the body, and actual experiments have proved that excess of potash causes an increased loss of salt in the urine, many foods are apt to promote an increasing lack of salt and a conse- quently unhealthy condition, and eventually a total collapse of the animal body. For farm animals, as well as for human beings who live on such food as bread and potatoes, salt is not a mere condiment but an essential article of food. It is true that by an auto- matic economy the body can subsist on a relatively small quantity of salt when the supply is small ; but a certain excess is always desirable in the food of animals, as it makes it more palatable. 18 ORGANIC NUTRIENTS. CHAPTER II. ORGANIC NUTRIENTS AND THEIR DIGESTION. The process of animal nutrition, not only in the varied structure and chemical properties of the animal organism, but also in the physiological functions of individual organs, is on the whole a very simple process, and for our purpose its progress and results can be very briefly stated. We are justified in regarding the entire body as a systematic structure of Albuminoids, Fat, Water, and Fixed Mineral matter. A certain amount of these materials is constantly being destroyed by the processes of life and the mutual activity of the tissues and juices ; and the force required for the internal and external work of the body, as well as the heat required to make good the continual loss by radiation, are provided by the decomposition of matter. To prevent the complete destruction of the organism, and still more to keep it in a normal condition, a certain amount of Food is necessary to make good the loss of material resulting from the life processes, and a still greater supply is necessary if an actual growth or increased production is to be made possible. Water and Mineral Salts have been already discussed, and we will confine our attention to the organic com- bustible constituents only which are supplied in food and altered in the body. ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. 19 § 1. Organic Constituents* The organic substances which pass from the digestive tract into the circulation as long as any nourishment remains, or are "resorbed," are practically Albuminoids, Fat, and Sugar. This is strictly true for Herbivora, while flesh-feeding animals, a dog for instance, can maintain a fair condition of nutrition and can make good all bodily waste by a food consisting only of albu- minoids (lean meat), water, and the requisite mineral matter. But even the nutrition of flesh-eating animals is much simplified, and a larger and quicker growth promoted, when the meat is supplemented with fat or a mixture of fat and carbohydrates (starch, sugar, &c.), which latter play a very prominent part in the feeding of herbivorous animals as well as of those which take a mixed diet. Albumen is partly absorbed in its various soluble modifications by the blood and lymph vessels, while the rest remains in the gastric juice in the form of the so-called " Peptone/^ The latter substance appears from the latest researches to be capable, after resorp- tion, of being again partly converted into albumen, and is then capable of building-up the animal tissues. Even after this change albumen is not resorbed from the stomach alone, but also from the whole length of the intestines by the action of capillary vessels. Fat passes as such, or in the form of a fine emulsion, by the combined action of the bile and pancreatic juice into the vessels of the body ; it is not necessary, as some have thought, that the fat should first undergo complete saponification in the digestive tract. The c2 20 ORGANIC NUTRIENTS. animal membrane must be permeable by pure fat, or else the concentration of fat in the closed cells of the fat-tissue in the process of fattening, as well as its dis- appearance from the cells under opposite conditions, would be incomprehensible. Sugar passes easily and directly from the digestive organs into the blood, and is partly supplied ready made in the food of Herbivora and animals partaking of a mixed diet, and partly produced from other con- stituents of food. Starch, as well as the so-called ^^ Nitrogen-free Extract,^^ and perhaps also a portion of the coarse or ^' woody fibre,^'' is turned by the process of digestion into sugar or a similar substance and can only be ^' resorbed ^^ after this change has taken place. § 2. The Digestion of Organic Substances. Respiration and Digestion. — The constant stream of nutrient material which passes from the digestive system and circulates through all parts of the body meets a continual stream of oxygen in the blood. All the conditions for the phenomena of life are presented by the interaction of the respired oxygen with the food- products and the cell-structure of the body. This inter- action supplies power and heat and regulates the building-up and destruction, the laying-up and loss of flesh and fat in the animal body. The oxygen of the air passes from the lungs into the circulation of the blood, where it is absorbed by the blood-corpuscles, which serve as oxygen carriers and bring it into direct contact with all the organs of the body, and there, as well as in the blood, a destructive or '^ oxidising ^^ action is set up. DIGESTION. 21 To quote from a memoir by C. Voit and Petten- kofer: — "Blood-corpuscles can be compared to little vans which on the main road (the stream of albumen) daily carry oxygen in one direction, and on the return journey deliver carbonic acid, and this in the body of a full-grown man amounts to a load of 5 lbs. a day. Noiselessly they thus export and import concentrated gases. At night, when the business of carbonic acid export is quiet, the import of oxygen is brisker, and thereby the whole body obtains a store for the labours of the next day.''^ The Quantity of Oxygen which passes into the blood is by no means determined by the depth and frequency of the breathings, but by the amount needed in the body ; that is, in the first place, by the rapidity of the decomposition of substances in the blood and tissues, and, in the second place, by the number and quality of the blood-corpuscles. The blood-corpuscles are in- creased in number by a liberal supply of albumen, and thus render possible a greater absorption of oxygen. Under conditions of powerful nutrition, and with organs of larger size, the absorption of oxygen is increased and a greater " storage " of oxygen can take place in the body. Numerous researches conducted by Voit at Munich on healthy men, and by Kenneberg at the Weende Experimental Station on oxen, have proved that during rest a certain amount of oxygen is stored up in the body, and rapidly given off again with production of carbonic acid during active work. According to fixed laws, material is decomposed at first independently of oxygen in the cells by the passage 22 ORGANIC NUTRIENTS. of the animal fluids^ in the circulation of the blood (blood-cells or corpuscles), as also in the tissues, and, in fact, wherever cell-growth exists. The decompo- sition-products having been first produced, seize the oxygen and regulate its absorption in the process of respiration. The splitting-up of substances in the body- to form simpler compounds must be considered the primary process, and the taking-up of oxygen as the secondarij, although it was formerly believed that the opposite was the case. If, by an increased supply of food, or by violent muscular exertion, this decomposi- tion of material is increased and facilitated, then, as a consequence, more oxygen will be absorbed in order to burn these products and remove them from the body. Decomposition of Nutritive Substances in the Body. Sugar. — As soon as food passes into the circulation and comes in contact with every organ, the sugar is rapidly decomposed, and is burnt or otherwise changed in the process of respiration. An enormous amount of sugar or sugary substance passes from the digestive tract into the blood of herbivorous animals. For in- stance, a full-grown ox in the course of 12 hours re- sorbs 12 to 18 lbs., although the normal blood of the animal contains the minutest traces of sugar (not more than 0*1 to 0*2 per cent.), and no deposition or collec- tion of sugar occurs in the body except as glycogen in the liver. This is only explained by the fact that during the whole process of digestion sugar is gradually resorbed, and as the blood completely circulates round the body in less than a minute, the sugar undergoes rapid oxidation. DIGESTION. 25 Albuminoids. — The albuminoids in food, as far as they undergo decomposition at all, are resolved by the activity of the cells, directly or through intermediate stages, into Urea and Fat"^. In the Herbivora there are also formed varying quantities of Hippuric acid, ac- cording to the fodder and the species of the animal ; but this always represents a far smaller part of the decomposed albuminoids than the urea, and often disappears almost completely from the list of the sub- stances formed and excreted as the result of tissue- change. The Urea is rapidly taken up by the blood, separated from it again in the kidneys, and excreted in the urine ; it ought never to be stored up in a healthy animal. In the normal blood and in the tissues only small quan- tities of it are found, although the total quantity which, is formed daily in the body of a fattening bullock may amount to a pound or even more. Urea is a crystalline substance, easily soluble in water, and it is a remarkable fact that all animal membranes are more easily per- meated by crystalline bodies (crystalloids) than by amorphous, sticky substances (colloids) like gum, glue, albumen, &c. Many of the digestive operations are intelligible if considered from this point of view. For instance, the rapid removal of urea, the easy passage of sugar into the circulation of the blood, the rapid re- sorption and excretion of the salts provided in excess by food, &c. &c. The nitrogen in 100 parts of water-free albumen can be separated from it in the form of 33*5 parts of urea. The remainder of the albumen, 66 '5 parts, after * See Chapter on the Production of Fat in the Body. 24 ORGANIC NUTRIENTS. taking up and uniting with 12'3 parts of water, contains the elements for the formation of 51*4 parts of fat and 27*4 parts of carbonic acid. The Fat produced from Albuminoids is, according to circumstances, deposited in the body of the animal, employed in producing milk, or undergoes a complete combustion in the respiratory process. The fat pro- ducible from the albuminoids must always be added to that which is contained ready formed in the food and resorbed from the digestive apparatus, in calculating the results of a particular method of feeding. According to the results of recent researches, the fat formed in the body from albuminoids appears to unite more readily with oxygen — to burn easier — than the ready-formed fat taken in the food, and this again is more easily oxidised than that which is already de- posited in the fat-tissues. Fat, either ready formed in the food or produced in the body of the animal, does not appear to undergo direct combustion with oxygen to carbonic acid and water, but is first changed iato sugar, which is then combusted in the process of respiration. From 100 parts of pure fat, through the help of oxygen and water, 189 parts of dry grape-sugar (the general form of sugar in the animal body) are produced. This change is clearly exhibited by the disturbed cell- functions caused by the disease known as ^' diuresis ; " but one is forced to allow that in the healthy organism quite as much sugar is produced from albuminoids and fat as by the severest diabetes, but as this sugar is rapidly burnt, hardly any traces of it are excreted in the urine. «»f£»7T ubhary ^. C. StaU C»Uege DIGESTION. 25 We have assumed in the foregoing paragraphs that the changes in the animal body are on the whole of a very simple character: that sugar is the final and only form which can undergo combustion in the respi- ratory process to carbonic acid and water ; that fat is only combusted after having been converted into sugar ; that albumen is resolved into urea and fat, and the latter again into sugar. This of course only refers to the final result of the changes, and many intermediate products of change and decomposition which form a part of the tissues or juices, and more or less determine their activity, have been altogether left out of con- sideration. 26 EXPRIMENTAL METHODS. CHAPTER III. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. The practical result of a particular method of feeding is represented, if we set aside for tlie moment the pro- duction of wool and milk, by a gain of flesh or fat in the body of the animal or by the amount of work produced by the latter. We have, then, to consider in greater detail the various conditions which are favour- able or unfavourable to the production of fat or flesh, and by which a greater or less amount of useful work can be performed by the animal. But, first, it will be advisable to cast a brief glance upon the methods used in practical investigations on the subject — on the actual ways and means by which our knowledge of the laws of flesh-production has recently been enlarged and made clearer. In 1857 Bischoff and C. Voit, of Munich, first showed clearly that the total Nitrogen of the Food, or its practical equivalent under normal and favourable conditions, was represented in the ^^ sensible " excretions of the animal (urine, dung, milk, hair, wool), and that the Nitrogen in the Urine was an accurate measure of the extent of the decomposition of albumen in the animal organism. From that time a reliable method for the determination of ^^ Laws of Flesh Production,"'^ or the laws of the absorption and decomposition of DETERMINATION OF NITROGEN. 27 albumen, was available. After this had been proved by feeding dogs on pure flesh, it was soon confirmed for the most various food- stuffs by experiments with oxen, cows, sheep, goats, horses, and men at the experi- mental stations of Weende, Halle, Mockern, Proskau, and Hohenheim. § 1. Determination of Nitrogen and Mineral Matters. The amount of Nitrogen in the form of gaseous nitro- gen or ammonia which leaves the body of a healthy animal of good digestion and not over-worked, is so insignificant that it can be completely ignored in calculating the results of ^' Digestion ^' experiments. As albumen is the principal nitrogenous constituent of ordinary food, and as we have also found that the average nitrogenous materials in the body have the same composition as albumen or lean meat free from fat, it is clearly possible to compare the carefully determined nitrogen of the food with that of all visible excretions, and thus learn if any and how much flesh (albumen) has been produced in the body or was given up and lost under the influence of the food in question. In the same way the chemical analysis of the food and the excrement (including milk, &c.) determines the amount of mineral matter (lime, phosphoric acid, &c.) absorbed or rejected by the body. It is self-evident that the greatest care must be exer- cised to secure absolutely the whole of the excretions produced, and that especial apparatus and precautions are necessary (stall-fittings, dung-receptacles, funnels, &c.), and that a particular experiment must be carried on for a considerable length of time to get a correct 28 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. average result for a day of 24 hours. While the in- fluence of a food on the gain or loss of albuminoid on which flesh-production depends can be determined in this way, the extent of the decomposition of albumen €an often be found by simply determining the urea. § 2. Determination of Fat and Water. To determine the relationship of Fat and Water in the body in addition to the Albuminoids and Salts requires not only a complete examination of the liquid and solid excretions, but also of the gaseous and vaporous ema- nations from the body. The products of animal respiration and perspiration can only be accurately determined by the help of special apparatus, such, for instance, as that first con- structed in Munich for this purpose, and which is still generally known under the name of " Pettenkofer's respiration apparatus. ^^ The principle on which this apparatus is based is that of the ordinary stove : — " As long as the chimney draws, no smoke escapes from the doors and draughts of the stove, but, on the contrary, the air presses from all sides into the stove to pass out through the chimney. If, in the pipe leading the smoke from the stove to the chim- ney, an exact measurement of the air were possible, and if also the composition of the air entering the stove and that passing out could be exactly determined in an aliquot part of it, we should have all the factors neces- sary for determining what had been added to the air by its passage through the fire in the stove. ^■' In the respiration apparatus the place of the stove DETERMINATION OF FAT AND WATER. 29 is taken by a small room constructed of boiler plate, wbicb is used to contain tbe animal under experiment. This room has windows at the side cemented air-tiglit, and a door which is provided with slides, through which the outside air has free entrance. The chimney is re- placed by large air-pumps kept in uniform motion at any required velocity by powerful clockwork which is kept wound up by a small steam-engine. The air which is pumped out of the '' saloon ''' is accurately measured by a large gas-meter, and in order to obtain an aliquot part of it, and at the same time to analyse the air as it enters the room, small mercury- pumps are provided which regularly withdraw a certain proportion of the air (about 40^00*^) before and after leaving the room. The moisture in the air is absorbed by oil of vitriol and weighed, the carbonic acid by slowly bubbhng the air through baryta water of known strength, and lastly it is passed over caustic baryta and the absorbed car- bonic acid determined. The difference in water and carbonic acid between the air as it enters and as it leaves the '^ saloon,^^ calculated to correspond to the whole volume of air passing through the room, repre- sents that produced by the animal. By employing special precautions the amount of hydrogen, hydrocar- bons, and possible traces of ammonia given off by the animal can also be estimated. It will be seen that this apparatus is so arranged that the man or animal experimented upon is under perfectly normal conditions, i. e., under the same at- mospheric pressure and in a similar atmosphere to that 30 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. of a stall or a room. This is a great advantage, because this is the only way in which the experiment can be carried on long enough to obtain normal and reliable results. It is true great precautions have to be ob- servedj and difficulties overcome, especially when ex- perimenting on large farm-animals_, but we cannot discuss them here. The " Feeding Effect " or '' Digestion Result '' can be ascertained after direct determination of the requisite elements by calculating the difference between the supply and loss. By multiplying the Nitrogen Id the daily food and in the total excretions by the factor 6*25 (see page 8)_, we obtain the actual quantity of Albumen pro^dded and rejected by the animal, and thus the gain or loss of flesh occurring in 24 hours can be determined. In a similar way the total or separate mineral substances concerned can be estimated. To obtain accurate results as to the influence of food on the total fat of the animal, not only the carbon in the dung and urine, but also the respired carbonic acid and the hydrocarbons given off from the body have to be determined. The difference between the carbon in the total food and excretion must next be corrected by the carbon represented by the loss or gain of albuminoid (con- taining 53 per cent, of carbon), and the remainder by multiplication with the factor 1*3 (more accurately 1*307), which represents the fat corresponding to 1 part of carbon, and gives the total fat gained or lost by the body. The alterations in the water contained in the body DETERMINATION OF FAT AND WATER. 31 are easily estimated with fair accuracy by comparing the total of the other constituents (albuminoids^ mine- rals, and fat) with the increase or decrease of the live- weight of the animal. The atmospheric oxygen employed in the process of digestion need not be directly determined, but can be deduced with fair accuracy from the water-vapour given off from the body, and which can be measured in the respiration apparatus. To make this clearer, an illustration of a digestion experiment, conducted at Weende by Henneberg, on full-grown sheep of Gottinger breed is appended (p. 32). The food was entirely hay and water, and the results are calculated out for an average animal of 105 lbs. live-weight for a space of 24 hours ; the average tem- perature of the stall during the experiments was 10° C. It is, of course, self-evident that any loss by the body is placed on the '^ consumption " side of the account, and any gain on the " production '' side. The excess of water produced over that supplied (274*9 grams) represents 30*55 grams of Hydrogen in the organic matter which have been turned to water. If we deduct from the total bodily increase the wool (9*5) and the minerals lost by the body (0*8), we get a total of 70-3 — 10-3 = 60 grams (2 oz.) as the actual daily gain in the bodily weight as Flesh, Fat, and Water. In this experiment a bodily increase, though only a small one, resulted, and the food supplied was some- what richer than was necessary to maintain the animal in an unaltered condition. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. Digestion Calculation,' T2 DO n Mineral matter (grams). Nitrogen (grams). 1. Consumption. 2936-5 Food and Drink :— 1216 hay 997-3 5-7 1-8 0-8 218-6 0-3 1712-7 67-9 5-7 1-6 0-8 460-1 "o-i 85-8 003 190-3 18-1 584 0-27 1522-5 587-6 6 salt 0-8 loss from body 587'6 ox^'gen from air ... Total... 3524-9 1931-6 760 460-2 276-2 18-1 2694-4 2. Production. 1814-5 Excrement :— 1257 dung 424-9 79-7 7-4 7-8 17-1 832-1 477-8 2-1 "35-9 858'6 44-0 31-1 0-9 202-5 23-2 3-5 4-1 13-1 212-7 1-1 117-5 55-5 0-7 0-6 2-1 4-0 "0-'4 95-4 8-45 7-65 0-75 1-25 884-6 439-9 3-7 1-9 1-9 31-9 567-3 763-2 557 "5 urine 70*3 Bodily increase : — 9*5 wool (including sweat and fat) . . . 7-8flesli 17-1 fat 35-9 water 1&40-1 Products of Respi- ration: — 780-0 carbonic acid ... 1-5 marsh-gas 858-6 moisture Total... 3524-9 2206-5 76-0 460-2 276-2 18-1 2694-4 * 1 gram may be taken to equal 15 grains, or 28 grams =1 oz. DETERMINATION OF FAT AND WATER. 33 The mineral matters taken and rejected daily were found to be as follows : — Excretions. Dung Urine Wool Total Excretions . . . Total Consumption Difference : — Gain , Loss , Potash. 4 g i3 .2' r .0 CO CD a 1 1 1-14 1% i'35 g- 3-67 g- 4-03 0?86 g- 22^2 42-80 18-01 3-09 0-40 1-14 0-07 1-31 8-41 0-43 32-86 0-76 0-03 0-01 0-01 0-04 0-05 0-01 0-91 19-91 4-52 9-78 4-82 4-11 2-21 8-46 22-76 76-57 75-61 21-27 5-68 8-44 4-47 4-08 2-46 9-74 19-47 1-36 1-16 ... 0-25 1-28 134 6-35 0-03 ... 3-29 0-96 1 It should be noted that the excessive quantity of silica and sand in the excretion is not derived from the body^ but through accidental impurity in the food. It is thus seen that a small quantity of alkalies and chlorine was retained in the body^ a certain quantity of lime and magnesia was lost_, while with respect to phosphoric acid no difference occurred in the body. A similar research on young calves was carried out at the Experimental Station at Vienna by Soxhlet. The calves weighed from 90 to 145 lbs. each, and were entirely fed on fresh milk. Here the investigation was based on an absolutely digestible material which produces rapid growth with young animals, and the results are in interesting contrast to those which we have just con- sideredj in which full-grown sheep were kept in fair condition without much bodily growth on a diet of 34 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. hay. It was found that the average growth of a calf weighing a hundredweight (50 kilos) averaged 2 lbs. a day, and the following results in grams were ob- tained for an average animal two to three weeks old, weighing 50 kilos, for a period of 24 hours (p. 35). For the production of the Carbonic Acid given off by the lungs and skin_, 422 grams milk-sugar, 78'5 g. fat in the food^ 32' 7 g. fat produced by the decomposition of 63*5 g. albumen were employed, and the rest was obtained from the decomposed albumen after separation of fat and urea. The total carbon thus provided (168-8 + 60 + 25 + 4-8=258-6) equals the amount found in the carbonic acid breathed out by the animal. The daily increase in the live- weight amounted to 925 g. per day (2 lbs.), and con- sisted of 168 g. albuminoids, 158 g. fat, 33 g. mineral matter, 566 g. of water. Very nearly 1 pound of in- crease in the live-weight of the animal was produced by 1 pound of dry matter in the milk provided. These examples of Digestion Experiments illustrate the great care and labour involved in determining the feeding-effect of even a single food on a particular kind of animal, and it is easily understood that in many directions the progress of the science of feeding farm animals can only go on slowly. When only the give and take of albuminoids is to be determined, the process is much simpler and less laborious, and consequently, while our knowledge of the laws of '^ flesh production ^Ms in a fairly advanced condition, we are still greatly in the dark as to the conditions which determine the highest and most economical production of fat and work. DETERMINATION OF FAT AND WATER. 35 o o o 2- Q p 3- o 2. S* QTQ •^r CO tCi OS Dry matter. CO CO oi. o CO to to Nitrogen. § fcO O CO bO CO CJi Albumen. Carbon. bO O CO o o CO dr bO CO Fat. O bO o to Milk-Sugar. Ash. o 1— O 00 o ob O CO bO Phosphoric Acid. C5 >f=' c5t Potash. d2 36 FLESH PRODUCTION. CHAPTER IV. FLESH PRODUCTION. § 1. Circulatory and Organized Albumen. The general laws of animal nutrition owe mach of their clearness and value to the results of the extensive researches conducted at Munich by Karl Voit, which led to the division of the Albuminoids in the body into two classes, the stable organized albumen and the easily decomposable circulatory albumen ■^. Under the latter Voit does not include the total albumen circulating in the blood and lymph, but only the dissolved portion which penetrates into the tissues and saturates the organs with fluid nutriment. The amount of circulatory albumen under conditions of feeble nourishment is but small, and in a condition of hunger amounts to less than 1 per cent, of the total albumen ; its amount, however, increases considerably with a rich supply of albuminoid in the food, and can rise as high as 5 per cent, with flesh-feeding animals. However large or small the quantity of albumen circu- lating in the juices and through the organs may be, the greater portion of it (generally 70 to 80 per cent.) is inevitably decomposed in the course of 24 hours, and a corresponding quantity of nitrogen in the form of Urea or Hippuric acid is discharged in the urine, while less than 0'8 per cent, of the *' organized albumen '' suffers * " Circulations-Eiweiss." CIRCULATORY ALBUMEN. 37 decomposition. This latter quantity has been deter- mined by experiments on starving dogs. Under con- ditions of starvation or of complete lack of food, the store of circulatory albumen is rapidly exhausted, and after a few days the destruction of albuminoids, as represented by the nitrogen in the urine, is solely due to the quantity of organized albumen which is daily taken into the system and undergoes decomposition. By adequate or liberal feeding the amount of decomposed organized albumen is still less. The old idea that all the organs of the body undergo rapid decomposition, and that in the course of a few weeks the whole organism undergoes complete change and reconstruction is quite false. This state of things only exists in the case of a few cell- systems, as in the blood- corpuscles and the milk-glands, which during the period of their greatest activity are being constantly decomposed and reformed. The majority of organs, when once pro- duced, are very stable in themselves, although the quantity and quality of the contents of the cells vary considerably with the food of the animal. The circu- latory albumen, on the contrary, undergoes a continual change. " A powerful stream of fluid charged with albumen leaves the blood, bathes the organs, and flows back again to the blood. In this way, and by the action of the cells on the plasma, the decomposition of the fluid ^not- organized^ albumen is effected, probably in a similar way to that in which we separate chemical compounds in our relatively crude researches by osmosis or by the action of capillary tubes.^' {Voit.) Further evidence of the fact that organized albumen 38 FLESH PRODUCTION. is stable, while circulatory albumen readily undergoes decomposition, has been given by further direct investi- gations at Munich and afterwards at Leipzig. It was observed with dogs that living blood, which as a whole can be considered an organ, when transfused into the circulation of another animal, withstands de- composition much longer than if the same quantity of not-organized albumen was introduced into the same animal in the same way, or if blood was served as food. In the latter case, by the process of digestion, the ^' organized '^ albumen of the blood was changed into ^^ circulatory ''■' albumen, and entered the circulation in that form. § 2. The Laws of Flesh Formation. The Laws of Flesh Formation were first studied with reference to the Carnivoraj i. e. with dogs; but they are essentially the same for all the higher animals. The various species of animals differ in the food which they chiefly eat as well as in their powers of digesting certain foods; but the real nutrients which are re- sorbed from the digestive system, even under most varied systems of feeding_, are always the same, viz., albuminoids, fat, sugar, water, and mineral salts. Since all mammals are very similar with regard to the structure, chemical composition, and functions of their organs, the decomposition process must follow the same course, i. e. the substances once resorbed and taken up into the circulation decompose or are deposited in the body according to the same laws. The laws deduced from experiments with Carnivora have been completely confirmed in their general scope CONSUMPTION OF ALBUMINOIDS. 39 and bearing by recent experiments on Herbivora^tbougli tiie total amount of material decomposed or stored np in the body varies Tvitb tbe proportion of tbe different nutrients which the animal is capable of resorbing under normal conditions. The capacity of Camivora and Herbivora for resorbing the various nutrients is not, however, so different as is generally supposed. It has been found, for instance, that a dog is able to digest and resorb as much as i ounce of starch per lb. of live-weight per day, while a well-fed milch-cow, or even a fattening ox, resorbs from its food not more than ^ to ^q oz. of carbo- hydrate per lb. of live-weight per day. Although this similarity for the resorption of albumen has been observed, it appears that fat is resorbed in far greater quantity by Carnivora than by Herbivora. § 3. Consumption of Albuminoids. It is not always possible to distinguish accurately between the consumption and production of albuminoids in the body ; frequently the two increase or decrease simultaneously, and often one varies oppositely to the other. I will now detail the conditions which affect the rate of consumption of albuminoids, while the question of flesh-production or the deposition of albu- men I will leave for the present out of consideration. 1. Supply of Albumen increases Consumption. In the first place the quantity supplied determines- the consumption of albumen in the body. In a con- dition of starvation all animals are carnivorous, since they feed on their own flesh and fat, and the con- 40 FLESH PRODUCTION. sumption of albuminoid is relatively small. For a large dog this amounts to 17 grains of dry albumen per lb. of live-weigbt per day, for an ox only 5 to 7 grains. Under conditions of moderate nutrition and a fairly mixed diet a large dog lost 70 grains of albuminoid per lb. of live-weigbt, a cow 25, a man 28 grains^, a full- grown ox at rest only 10_, and a sheep 17 grains. As a result of a liberal diet this quantity can be doubled or trebled^ and when sheep or oxen are being fatted amounts to as much as five times that consumed under ordinary conditions of feeding. By feeding dogs exclusively on meat the amount of albuminoid was fifteen times as much as that consumed under starvation conditions. Experiments on fat sheep conducted by Kern and Wattenberg at Gottingen showed that a continuous increase in the supply of albuminoid resulted in a small quantity only being stored up in the body, while the greater portion of the albumen (87 to 97 per cent.) was decomposed, the nitrogen passing into the urine and the rest under favourable conditions contributed to the production of fat. 2. '^ Nitrogen Equilibrium/' The albumen consumed during fasting is not a measure of the amount required by an animal to main- tain itself in a constant condition, as was formerly supposed. The quantity is more often twice or two and a half times as great, and the consumption of albumen rises above this minimum in proportion to the amount taken in the food. CONSUMPTION OF ALBUMINOIDS. 41 As a matter of fact a condition of " Nitrogen Equi- librium " is set up sooner or later corresponding with the amount of albumen which the animal receives in its food ; that is, the amount of nitrogen in the food is eventually represented in quantity by that daily ex- creted in the dung and urine (as well as milk_, &c.) . The excess of albumen resorbed is first turned into ^^ circulatory '^ albumen, and then undergoes almost complete decomposition. This equilibrium of nitrogen is more quickly set up, the greater the amount of nitrogen in the food and the leaner the animal, and is generally attained more quickly by Carnivora than by Herbivora. As soon as the equilibrium of nitrogen has been set up, and the body is also in equilibrium through loss or gain of flesh or albumen, the same quantity and kind of food is required every day to maintain this constant condition. Each particular condition of body requires within certain narrow limits a peculiar and corre- sponding food-supply, and we cannot well speak of a superfluous consumption of food by animals as we do of plants, i. e, of a wholly useless and unnecessary excess of some one nutrient. A waste of Food, however, often occurs in practice, when more food is given than is required for the object in view, such as the production of milk or wool, and the feeding of draught animals and young cattle. Even when fattening animals, as we shall see later, the same or a better result may often be produced by a food poorer in albuminoids than one which contains a very large quantity. 42 FLESH PRODUCTION. 3. Influence of the Condition of the Animal, From the preceding paragraphs it will be seen that the total mass of the organs^ the proportion of ^' organ- ized^^ to ^* circulatory^' albumen, as well as the ratio of the total bodily albuminoid to the fat tissues, or, in brief, the Condition of the animal has a powerful influence on the extent of the consumption of albumen, although a much smaller one than the supply of albumen. When the amount of flesh is large the amount of organized albumen decomposed is large in proportion. It is possible to make this clear by sudden changes in diet — for instance, if a highly nitrogenous diet be suddenly replaced by one poor in nitrogen, then for the first few days the nitrogen discharged is much greater than that received in the food ; but when the store of circulatory albumen has been exhausted the excreted and supplied nitrogen again come into equilibrium, until the bodily condition is exactly equivalent to the amount of nitrogen contained in the food provided. When, however, a return is suddenly made to the highly nitrogenous diet, a restoration of the organized albumen to its original amount does not take place, but a con- dition of nitrogen equilibrium is quickly set up through the more rapid production of circulatory and unstable albumen and the slow and small production of organized albumen. Only under favourable conditions, which we will consider in a future chapter, can the increase of organized albumen and the consequent increase of the animal be effected. 4. Effect of Salt on the Consumption of Albumen. A moderate supply of salt in the daily food increases CONSUMPTION OF ALBUMINOIDS. 43 the flow of the active juices in the body, and conse- quently the consumption of albumen. Voit, in his experiments, found that with dogs fed on flesh only, salt increased the consumption of albumen 4*5 per cent., and similar results were obtained with vegetable diet and also with cattle. The advantages of salt as an article of food especially for Herbivora has already been spoken of. Adding salt to the food is therefore of especial value when a stimulation of all the vital functions is desired, as in horses, working oxen in good condition, young animals and males for breeding pur- poses &c. ; while in fattening only as much should be given as is required to make the food palatable, and necessary for the normal nourishment of the auimal. Salt is a diuretic and often considerably increases the excretion of urine. This is especially noticeable if the animal is prevented from drinking much purposely or accidentally. For the excretion of the excess of salt more water is necessary, and this is withdrawn first from that excreted by evaporation from the lungs and skin, and, if this is not sufficient, from the body itself. When large doses of salt and little water are given the live-weight can sink rapidly, while if the animal is eventually allowed to drink a large quantity of water, much of it may be laid up in the tissues and the live- weight of the animal may be again increased. 5. Influence of Water on Albumen Coiisumption. It is not advisable to give animals too much salt, as they are then inclined to drink too much water, with a resulting increase in the consumption of albumen and an increased destruction of valuable food material. 44 FLESH PRODUCTION. especially when the excess of water is not retained in the tissues but is rapidly excreted by evaporation or in the urine. Experiments with starving dogs at Munich showed an increase of albumen consumption in this way of 25 per cent., and this has been confirmed with domestic animals by Marcker and with men by Mares. Henne- berg_, of Weende_, found that an increase of l in the supply of water caused an average increase of albumen consumption amounting to 7'2 per cent. Even this amount is by no means insignificant, as it amounts to a third or perhaps even a half of the albumen which might otherwise have been deposited in the body. In any case, to get the most satisfactory results possible, especially in the feeding of young animals and in fatten- ing, we must avoid everything which involves or conduces to an excessive consumption of water, e. (/., watery food, excessive heat of the stall, too much salt, unnecessary movement, &c. This is especially important in the case of sheep, since they naturally driuk less water in pro- portion to the dry matter of their food than cattle. Animals in milk may be allowed excess of water with less disadvantage, and an increased milk production can be thus produced, but it is not advisable to increase the proportion of water beyond a certain limit. 6. The Effect of Stimulants on the consumption of albumen seems to be inappre- ciable. At any rate Voit found no effect produced when he supplied dogs in a condition of hunger, or fed on various diets, with coffee. The action on the nervous system seems to be caused by so minute a change of STORAGE OF ALBUMEN. 45 albuminoid matter that its significance is nil when compared with the total consumption of albumen in the body. It is quite another and as yet unanswered question whether the increased nervous activity may not cause an increased consumption o£ fat in the body^ such as is produced by muscular effort and severe labour. It has been actually observed that a mechanical stimulation of the walls of the intestines^ as well the nerve stimulus caused by cold air, produces an increased discharge of carbonic acid and a larger consumption of respiration materials. 7. Influence of Fat. An increase in the supply of fat slightly increases the consumption of albumen, as more albumen is put in circulation. But this effect can only clearly be observed when the animal is starving or receiving an inadequate supply of albumen in its daily food. With a large supply of circulatory albumen provided by a liberal diet, fat acts in quite the opposite way and exercises a very material economy of albumen. ^ § 4. The Storage of Albumen in the Body. The rapid increase of the absorption of albumen is one of the chief objects of stock-keeping and fattening, since the amount of organized albumen (flesh) in the animal''s body which, when once formed, is stable and does not readily undergo decomposition, together with the fat and water represents the increase of the live- weight of the animal. From the facts already given much can be learnt as to means of increasing the storage of albumen, since those conditions which are favourable 46 FLESH PRODUCTION. for the change of albumen must in general be equally favourable for its storage. But it is a matter for serious consideration that there are means of economizing the albumen in the daily food, and of reducing its con- sumption for feeding-purposes to the lowest minimum, whereby the laying-on of flesh is favoured, and the albu- men required for the production of the various valuable animal products expended to the best advantage. 1 . Supply favours production of Flesh, It is self-evident that a large supply of a uniform food must produce more increase in the body than a small one ; but this effect is not only generally true but also often proportional to the quantity, as Henneberg and Stohmann found at Weende by various experiments on oxen. In one instance, when the total supply of digestible food was increased from 18J lbs. to 20^ lbs. per day (the proportion of nitrogenous to non- nitrogenous food remaining the same), 32 per cent, of the resorbed albumen was formed into flesh instead of only 18 per cent, with the smaller food-supply. In other experiments in which the animals were fed with clover-hay in quantity rising from 4 to 5 lbs. each per day, the percentage of flesh formed rose from 9 to 14, and in another instance from 11 to 15 per cent, of the total albumen digested. These facts show how very important it is to take care that fattening beasts receive as large a quantity as possible of the food in question ; a little more or less can produce a great difference in the rate of increase, as is often illustrated by the marked slowness or rapidity of the increase of the live- weight of fattening pigs. STORAGE OF ALBUMEN. 47 2. Influence of an Increase of Albumen. When the albumen is increased while the non-nitro- genons food remains constant, the circulatory albumen is increased and its destruction increased in proportion, but a certain amount of the excess of albumen is laid up in the flesh ; after a certain amount of this albumen has been stored in the body, a condition of ^^ nitrogen- balance'^ is setup — not immediately, but in a shorter or longer time dependent on circumstances. Great care should be exercised in increasing the amount of albu- minoids in food, as the loss of albumen is often increased and only a very small quantity stored up in the body as flesh_, so that the ration produces little or no effect and results in a dead loss. The condition and previous diet of the animal must therefore be taken into consideration. 3. Influence of the Fat of the Body. The fat stored up in the body reduces the consumption of albumen, and therefore favours the laying-on of flesh. The absolute quantity of fat is not so important in this respect as its proportion to the flesh in the body. It has been found that with an equal quantity of flesh, the consumption of albumen in the body is less the fatter the animal. For this reason the laying-on of flesh is most easily done by Herbivora, since they are especially adapted for producing fat, and even under ordinary conditions of feeding have much more fat in their bodies than Carnivora. On this same account it is often possible to increase the proportion of albumen in the food of Herbivora with the most satisfactory results. At the same time even with cattle one can- 48 FLESH PRODUCTION. not afford to disregard the appropriate food-supply for the condition of the animal ; especially is this the case at the commencement of feeding, since the most suitable food is very different for lean animals out of condition than for others in good condition. The capacity of Herbivora for fattening depends on the nature and method of their normal nourishment, as well as on the quality and quantity of the blood produced, and also perhaps on the size and structure of their organs of respiration. The fatter the animal becomes, the smaller as a rule the consumption of material in the body, the less the absorption of material by the blood and lymph from the digestive organs, and the less the quantity of food required to satisfy the animal. These facts are especially noticeable in the case of fattening swine, which often suffer from fatty degen- eration of the organs ; very fat young cattle also even- tually cease to grow and increase in a normal manner. Researches conducted at Hohenheim on fat sheep and oxen have shown that it is possible to maintain a well fattened animal in an unaltered condition by a very ordinary diet, if no further increase is desired or the increase of the body-weight has already attained its maximum. 4. Fat in the Food supplied. The proportion in which the different nutrients albu- men, fat, and sugar (starch &c. generally included in the term "Carbohydrates"') are digested and resorbed has a highly important influence on the economy of albumen in tbe body. I will first consider the influence of tbe fat supplied in the food. STORAGE OF ALBUMEN. 49 If a large dog weigting 65 lbs. be daily fed with a pound of fresh meat free from fat containing 4 ozs. of pure albumen, the supply is insufficient for the needs of the animal, and it rapidly loses flesh and at length nearly dies of starvation. About 3 lbs. of lean meat are necessary to keep such an animal in a normal con- dition. But if to the one pound of meat 7 ozs. of fat be addedj the animal ceases to starve but remains in a healthy and sound condition, and it is even possible for flesh to be formed and the bodily weight to increase. This gain takes place for the most part in the tissues, the organized albumen increases in quantity, thereby increasing the live-weight of the animal. By the ad- dition of 7 ozs. of fat, 2 lbs. of flesh were economized, or a mixture of 1 lb. of flesh and 7 ozs. of fat achieved the same nutritive effect as 3 lbs. of flesh. It would be quite a mistake to suppose that if the dog which had been fed entirely on 3 lbs of flesh a day were to be supplied with 7 ozs. of fat in addition, that the daily eonsumption of flesh in the animal would be at once reduced to a pound, and that the extra 2 pounds provided in the food would be stored up as flesh. The consumption of albumen in the first place (see page 39) is increased by the amount of albumen supplied ; the greater the amount of meat eaten, the greater the consumption of albumen, quite independently of the addition of fat. The fat does not protect the albumen from decom- position to any appreciable extent, and when the fat in the food sinks below a certain minimum, even this feeble protection entirely ceases, and the consumption of albumen is increased in order to make good the 50 FLESH PRODUCTION. deficit of fat. The reduction of the albumen con- sumption (production of flesh) through the additional provision of fat is not very great. Voit found as a result of many experiments with Carnivora which received moderate and large rations of flesh, that it amounted to from 1 to 15 per cent., or on the average 7 per cent, of the total consumption. But this action often goes on for a long time with a constant food supply, so that before equilibrium between supply and consumption has been set up, the total effect of the feeding can be very considerable. The economizing influence of fat on the albumen consumption of Herbivora is not so evident as with Carnivora, because its action is hidden by a large mass of carbohydrates. The fat in the food of cows ought not to exceed a certain amount. Small quantities exercise generally a beneficial action_, while excess produces hurtful effects, and as a result of the disturbance of digestion the animal rapidly loses appetite. At the same time the different kinds and conditions of fat behave very differently in this respect, and it is worth while to pay attention to the fat in the food of young cattle, fattening beasts, and horses, especially when the ration is rather a nitrogenous one. 5. Effect of the Carbohydrates, Carbohydrates have a far greater importance in the feeding of Herbivora, and they effect a greater economy of albumen in the body than fat. This was found in experiments with Carnivora fed with starch and meat to be 9 per cent., while a diet with an equivalent quantity of fat only resulted STORAGE OF ALBUMEN. 51 in an economy of 7 per cent, of the consumption of albumen. Starch differs from fat in that it does not cause an increased consumption of albumen when fed with an insufficient amount of flesh to an animal in a starving condition. Starch exercises under all con- ditions a preservative action on albumen, although it can only reduce and is unable wholly to prevent its consumption. The physiological value of starch is therefore quite apart from its so-called "Respiration value.^^ This latter value, which represents the amount of oxygen required to completely burn starch and fat, is in the proportion of 1 : 2*44, while the economizing action of equal quantities of starch and fat on the consumption of albumen is practically the same. Recent researches by Rubner at Munich have shown that so far as the more important vital functions of the different nutrients are concerned, they can practically replace one another according to their heat-producing value, or are '^ iso- dynamic''^ (see Production of Force). Herbivora take an enormous quantity of Carbo- hydrates in their normal food, and on this account they require little albumen to maintain them in con- dition, so that on a high diet a portion of the digested albumen readily remains in the body and is stored up in the organs as organized albumen. A certain minimum of albumen, however, must be present in the food of cattle, and cannot be replaced by any other food- constituent. The most important and difficult problem which the science of Feeding is slowly solving is that of determining this minimum for all the purposes for r2 52 PLESH PRODUCTION. whicli farm animals are kept^ and especially that of fixing the necessary quantity and best proportions of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous materials in the daily food of any animal. In a subsequent chapter the latest contributions to our knowledge of these matters, which are due to the Experimental Stations, shall find a place. FORMATION OF FAT. 53 CHAPTER V. THE FORMATION OF FAT. § 1. Sources of Fat, The Fat o£ the Food, when digested and resorbed, may, under suitable conditions, remain undestroyed and be stored up in the body ; this is now as certain as the fact of the formation of fat from other con- stituents of the food. I will only refer on this point to some experiments which we owe to the activity of the Physiological Institute at Munich. Carnivorous animals which, as a result of restricted feeding on flesh, have become rich in flesh and propor- tionately poor in fat, after a period of complete hunger eventually lose the whole of the fat ; the time when all tlje fat has gone is easily recognized by the fact that the excretion of urea, which during hunger is very constant, at last increases quite suddenly, because, after the disappearance of the fat, more albumen is consumed in the body to replace it. In an experiment by F. Hofmann, such a fat-free dog weighing 40 lbs. was starved for thirty days, and then fed for five days with as large a quantity of pure fat as possible, whereby 13 ounces of pure fat were digested. This is such a large quantity that it is impossible to suppose it to have been completely oxidized in the body, for then 54 FORMATION OF FAT. 37 ounces of carbonic acid should have been excreted, while direct determinations of the amount excreted by dogs double the size gave far smaller quantities. In the body of the animal,, which was killed at the end of the experiment, 47 ounces of fat were found on the various organs, instead of the 5 ounces which, according to other investigations, was the greatest quantity that could have been present in the body after thirty days' fasting, so that in this case about 8 J ounces per day of the fat of the food remained undestroyed and were deposited in the body. In other researches with dogs which were fed with a more normal diet of fat and flesh, it was proved, with the help of the '' respiration apparatus,'^ that as a general thins: a considerable amount of the fat in the food was stored up in the body; Voit and Pettenkofer found this to be in three instances IJ ounces, IJ ounces, and 4 ounces of fat a day. The fat, however, must be similar to the animal fats or easily altered into such, since absolutely foreign fats are neither resorbed from the alimentaiy canal at all or are rapidly oxidized in the animal fluids. This does not, of course, prevent the fat in the food of Herbivora from contributing directly to the formation of fat in the body, since most vegetable fats are very similar in composition and properties to the animal fats. Formation of Fat in the Body. No special proof as to the formation of fat in the body from other substances need be adduced, as daily experience in fattening and the production of milk make it sufficiently evident. SOURCES OF FAT. 55 But a very important question needs consideration, and this is : ^' What food-materials are prominently or exclusively concerned in the production of Fat ? '' Clearly the answer is limited to the albuminoids, the nitrogenous organic substances, and the carbohydrates ; for besides these nutrients and fat itself, there are no other substances present in sufficient quantity in the food of either Herbivora or Carnivora to be capable of producing fat. Formation of Fat from Albuminoids. It is now generally accepted as a fact that fat can be produced from albuminoids. The fact that the albu- minoids by fermentation, as well as by treatment with alkalies and acids and oxidizing agents, produce fat, amongst many other products of decomposition, favours this view. Former observations that the albuminoids of milk and cheese are converted into fat on standing have not been confirmed, at any rate for cheese, by a recent careful investigation by O. Kellner at Hohenheim. On the contrary, however, it is often found that in the milk of the same cow the quantity of albuminoid decreases as the fat increases and vice versa, which points to a relationship between the two substances. The production of the so-called Adipocere on dead bodies, and the fatty degeneration of the muscles and other organs in living animals through certain diseases and often from excessive fattening, is a common occur- rence with pigs : both point to the same fact. The fatty degeneration of all the organs of the body as a result of phosphorus poisoning is very marked. 56 FORMATION OF FAT. and from the researclies of J. Baur, of Muuicli, there is hardly any doubt that the fat is produced from the albuminoid tissues, since urea is produced at the same time and excreted. A large dog, which had been starved 12 days until practically all its fat had disappeared, was slowly poisoned with phosphorus. Death resulted during the night of the nineteenth day of hunger. Before poisoning, the nitrogen excreted in the urine had averaged constantly ^ ounce per day; after the phosphorus poisoning the amount of nitrogen in the urine increased rapidly, and eventually reached | ounce, or more than three times as much as before. A similar dog, experimented upon under like conditions, gave off in the respiration apparatus only half the normal amount of carbonic acid and only absorbed half the normal quantity of oxygen. Two changes are therefore produced by phosphorus poisoning — (1) decomposition of albuminoids into fat and urea; (2) a smaller absorption of oxygen and, con- sequently, reduced oxidation of the fat. Both processes combine to produce fat in the body, as was proved by observations of the dog poisoned with phosphorus; for in the dry matter of the muscles 42-4 per cent., and in the liver 30 per cent., of fat was found, a quantity three times greater than the normal and ten times as great as the quantity would have been if the dog had not been poisoned and kept without food for twenty days. The liver of a man who died from phosphorus poisoning was found to contain 76'8 per cent, of fat ; SOURCES OF FAT. 57 but a rapid collection of fat in tlie liver may have been made from other parts of the body. If a doubt still remained as to the formation of fat from albuminoids^ it must vanish on consideration of the results obtained with healthy animals fed on a normal and natural food. For example^ the eggs of ordinary flies have been allowed to develop on pure blood, and from seven to eleven times as much fat found in the larvae as was originally contained in eggs and blood together, although the insects had not con- sumed all the blood : this excess of fat must have come from the albuminoids in the blood. Still more im- portant are the numerous experiments made by feeding dogs on large quantities of pure (fat-free) meat. Thus Voit and Pettenkofer found an excess of 1^ ounces of carbon in the food over the total excretions; the nitrogen in the excretion exactly corresponded to that in the food, a condition of "nitrogen-balance'"' had been set up, and a certain amount of the carbon in the albuminoid present in the food must have remained behind and been stored up as fat, since no other organic substance is known which can be stored up in the body in so large a quantity. From the knowledge which we now possess as to the processes of decomposition in the animal body, we can assume that an amount of fat corresponding to the total consumption of albumen (about 51 per cent.), as far as this escapes fermentation in the intestines, is produced in the body, and, together with the digestible fat received in the food, is mostly burnt up in the process of respiration ; but under certain conditions it 58 FORMATION OF FAT. can be completely absorbed as fat-tissue, or be used for the production of milk. The calculation of the fat-increase produced by any given supply of food must always include the ready- made fat in the food as well as the fat produced by the decomposition of albumen. Only when these two sources of fat are insufficient for the increase of fat observed, can other food constituents be considered in this respect. On this account, a very pertinent question arises as to how the Herbivora, especially the animals of the farm, are so easily fattened although their food contains but little albumen and still less fat. To answer this question, we will examine the results of practical researches in which the feeding effect of a diet was either simply and directly determined by the increase of the live-weight of the animal and the composition of the carcase, or by the method of deter- mining the quantity and composition of the visible excretions. Production of Milk-fat by Cows. This was the subject of researches by Yoit at Munich, G. Kiihn at Mockern, and others carried out at Hohen- heim; in the first series a rich diet, and in the two latter a poorer and less nitrogenous diet, was provided. The proportion of fat resorbed from the food, and of fat which might have been produced from the albu- minoid in the food_, the total available fat, and, finally, the amount of fat actually found in the milk are given in the following table. The figures are expressed as grams per head per day : — SOURCES OF FAT. 59 [28 grams = 1 oz] Digestible Fat in food. Fat obtained from albumen. Total Fat in food. Fat found in milk. Munich ex- | periment J Mockern ex- 1 periment J Hohenheira 1 experiment / 276 183-5 168 308-5 74-5 164-3 584-5 258 332-8 337 284-8 296-9 In the Municli and Hohenheim experiments the fat supplied was more than sufficient to account for that contained in the milk. In Mockern, however^ an excess of milk-fat over that in the food was found ; but even if this excess had been considerably greater, no definite conclusions with regard to its source could be drawn. Equilibrium between the supply and excretion of nitrogen was certainly established with the animals under experiment at Mockern as well as at Hohenheim ; but whether the animals were in equilibrium as to carbon, or whether the fat of the body took part in the milk- production (as is often the case with milch-cows, evefn when well fed), could only have been decided with certainty by the help of a respiration apparatus. At any rate, it is very remarkable that in the above experiments, in which good milch-cows were fed on a poor diet, it was unnecessary to take into consideration any appreciable quantity of any other constituents of the food except the crude fat and the fat from albumen to explain the production of milk-fat. 60 FORMATION OF FAT. § 2. Experiments on Fattening, . Something more definite as to the source of animal fat may perhaps be learned from the results of fattening experiments on domestic animals_, if we conclude from the well-known English experiments of Lawes and Gilbert that the percentage composition of the live- weight in fattening is as follows : — Ash. Albumen. Fat. Total dry matter. Water. Pigs Sheep Oxen 0-53 2-34 1-47 7-76 7-13 7-69 63-1 70-4 66-2 71-4 79-9 75-4 28-6 20-1 24-6 Average ... 1-45 7-53 66-6 75-6 24-4 Many fattening experiments^ for the most part on. full-grown sheep, have been carried out at the different Experimental Stations. Generally, the chemical com- position of the food and the actual increase in the live- weight were determined, and to get trustworthy results the investigations were continued in each case for a period of 2^ to 3 months. At the end of the experi- ments the animals were slaughtered and the products weighed. The following average results were thus obtained, although the digestible food-constituents were only directly determined in a few cases and were generally calculated : — EXPERIMENTS ON FATTENING. 61 No. of experi- ments. Digested per per head iay. Eatio of Food-con- stituents. Increase per cent, of live-weight per head per day. Albumen. Non- nitrogenous Foods. Total. Dressed carcase. Suet from kidneys, &c. 7 grams.* 110 grams. 824 1 : 7-49 grams. 55-5 per cent. 48 per cent. 7-2 13 134 779 1 : 5-81 79 51-9 9-9 20 164 794 1:4-7 94-5 53-5 10-9 19 192 769 1 : 4-01 103 54-9 11-2 These figures are very eloquent as to the favourable influence of albuminoids in food on fat -production. Although the other constituents of the food were prac- tically constant and could not materially affect the increase in the live-weight, it is clearly seen that an increase of the albuminoids results in a normal and proportional increase in the weight of the animal. This gain is clearly due to the albuminoids,, which were provided in excess, since the animals only received in the various experiments from ^ to 2 ounces of actual fat per head per day in their food. Fat Oxen. — Similar results have been obtained with fat oxen. General experience, confirmed by direct ex- periments, has shown that within certain limits food rich in nitrogen exerts the most favourable influence on oxen, and that the albumen and fat digested from the food provides the requisite material for laying-on fat. Hitherto in researches on the feeding of ruminants * 28 grams =1 oz. 62 FORMATION OF FAT. it has never "been necessary to regard the carbohydrates supplied in such enormous quantity in ordinary fodder as a direct source of fat-production. In recent researches by Kern and Wattenberg at Gottingen on sheep of diflPerent ages, it was found that the increase of fat was in ten cases 24 to 64 per cent, lower than that theoretically possible from the albumi- noids and fat supplied in the food. In only a single case, that of a full-grown sheep, were other results obtained. This animal laid on fat at such a rate that the production could only be ac- counted for by recognizing the carbohydrates as an auxiliary source of the fat produced. The sheep were fed on Lucerne hay, mangolds, maize, and oil-cake, and the fattening lasted for seventy days. By the chemical analysis of one animal at the beginning, and of one at the end of the experiment, it was found that during the process of fattening 21 4 lbs. of fat had been collected in the body, while practically no flesh or nitrogenous matter had been laid on. If the composition of the food be corrected by its digestible ratio, then 15 lbs. is found to be the maximum quantity of fat producible from the albuminoids and fat in the food, and 61^ lbs. or 30 per cent, of the total quantity (4 ounces per day) must have been produced from other food-constituents, that is from the Carbohydrates, From the fact that even after the fullest deductions have been made, the fat-production is not otherwise accounted for, we are forced to the conclusion that fat miist have been produced from carbohydrates. Similar observations have been made at Gottingen by Pfeiffer EXPERIMENTS ON FATTENING. 63 and Lehmann, who fed sheep with considerable quan- tities of sugar. Pigs. — In the case of pigs it has long been recog- nized that fat can be produced from Carbohydrates. A long time ago experiments on pigs were carried out at Proskau, with direct analysis of the animals under ex- periment, which failed to yield definite results because after a quite insufficient feeding — mostly on potatoes — the growth of the pigs was poor, and in no way a normal one. But in many other instances, first at Rothamstead and then in Germany, it was observed that pigs frequently increased 100 lbs. in weight with a food containing only 10 to 15 lbs. of ready-formed fat and 50 to 70 lbs. of albuminoid. In one investi- gation, from 82 lbs. of albumen and 14 of fat in the food, 200 lbs. of bodily increase resulted, and the live-weight raised from 7S to 271 lbs. per head. Almost identical results were obtained at Hohenheim by feeding young pigs for 108 days on barley and maize meal and with the occasional addition of pure starch. The digestibility of the food was also deter- nqjned, and the results in lbs. are given in the follow- ing table : — Increase in live-weight. Digested food required to produce 100 lbs. Uve-weight. Total. Per day. Albumen. Fat. Carbo- hydrate. Total lbs. 1 2 41-3 53-5 0-382 0-495 39-2 38-1 9-3 8-9 300-8 263-3 349 310 \ 64 FORMATION OF FAT. The final weight of the pigs was respectively 174 and 212 lbs. These figures make it quite impossible to explain the increase of fat in the body in any other way than by concluding that the carbohydrates had assisted in its production. In these experiments the digestible fat and albumen in the food could only produce 29 per cent, of the resulting fat-production, while as much as 60 per cent, or more of the increase of live-weight in fat pigs, even when they are still young, was found in these experiments to consist of fat. The production of fat from carbohydrates by pigs has now been absolutely and definitely, proved by Soxhlet at Munich, Tschirvrinsky at Moscow, and at Vienna by Meissl and Strohmer; at the first two places by actual chemical analysis of the animals before and after the experiment, and at Vienna on the living animal with the respiration apparatus. At the Munich Experiment Station three pigs 16J months old, and weighing 212 to 219 lbs. apiece, were selected. One was first killed and then the other two were fed on steamed rice to the extent of 35*9 lbs. (water-free), as well as 90 grains of salt and a little meat-extract, the albuminoid ratio being 1 : 11. The increase in live-weight was very uniform, 85^ lbs. in 78 days, or 8 ounces per head per day. The chemical examination showed that during this time 35J lbs. of fat had been formed in the body, and as only 10 ounces was contained in the food, 34 lbs. 14 ozs. had been freshly made. 19 lbs. of albumen were digested from the food, of which 8^ lbs. were stored up in the body, so that 10 J were left to assist in the production of fat, from which, under most favourable conditions, 6 lbs. EXPERIMENTS ON FATTENING. 65 (51*4 per cent, of the albumen) might have resulted in body-fat — that is^ about ^ of the total fat formed in the body, or nearly | of the fat produced, must have been made from carbohydrates. Exactly the same results were obtained at Moscow by experimenting on farrows of Windsor pigs in 1880- 1881, and of the Yorkshire breed in the next year. In the first experiments they were fed entirely on barley- meal, and in 126 days the live-weight increased from 16 lbs. to 53 lbs. 16^ lbs. of albumen and 1^ lbs. of fat were digested from the food, and 3^ lbs. of flesh and 19 lbs. of fat stored up in the body ; so that 19 minus 1^, or 17^ lbs. of fat had been freshly produced. The digestible albumen in the food, 16i lbs., after deducting the 3J lbs. flesh produced, leaves 13 lbs., which are 13 X 51*4 theoretically capable of yielding — ^7^1 — ^^ ^^^j or 6'68 lbs. Deducting from this the amount of fat hitherto unaccounted for, viz. 17'5 minus 6*68, we get a residue of 10"82 lbs., or 57 per cent, of the total increase of fat in the body, which must have resulted from the carbohydrates. ^ In the second series of experiments the pigs at first had cow's milk, then barley, and later an addition of starch and sugar. In 100 days the live-weight had increased from 24 lbs. 5 ozs. to 54 lbs. 9 ozs. llj lbs. of fat had been produced in the bodies of the young pigs, of which only 2^ lbs., or 23 per cent, of the total increase of fresh fat in the body, had been made from the albuminoids in the food, and therefore 77 per cent, of this fat was due to the carbohydrates in the food. 66 FORMATION OF FAT. Of extreme interest are the results obtained at the Vienna Veterinary College by experiments which were conducted in the respiration apparatus on a pig 14 months old and weighing 300 lbs. The diet con- sisted of well-boiled rice, and by comparing the total waste products (dung, urine, and respiration products)' with the food-supply, a daily increase of IJ ounces of albumen and 14 ounces of fat resulted in the body of the animal. For the production of the latter an extreme •quantity of 2-^ ounces digested and decomposed albumen, equivalent to IJ^ ounces of fat as well as ^ oz. of food- fat, can be allowed. Deducting this {l^ + i) from the 14 ozs. of fat stored up in the body, we obtain a balance of 12^ ozs. of fat, representing 89 per cent, of the (total fat increase, which must have been derived from the carbohydrates in the food. Experiments on Geese. — The production of fat from carbohydrates in the case of geese has been established by careful chemical analysis, before and after fattening. The first experiments were made by Weiske and B. Schulze at Proskau, who employed a food consisting o£ rye-bran and potato-starch, in which the albuminoid ratio is as low as 1 : 5, and from which they proved that the carbohydrates considerably assisted in the produc- tion of fat. When all the fat in the food, and that possibly producible from the digestible albumen and asparagine in the food, had been allowed for, there still remained an excess of 2^ ounces, and in another case of 3 ounces, or 13 and 17*6 per cent, respectively of the total fat produced in the body of the goose, which could only have resulted from carbohydrates. In a still more decisive manner Chaniewski, of the EXPERIMENTS ON FATTENING. 67 Experiment Station at Peterhof near Riga_, obtained results proving that full-grown geese can fatten on carbohydrates. After 18 days of a diet of barley aud rice, there resulted an ^^ excess " of fat_, beyond that accounted for by the fat and albuminoids in the food, of 64 ounces in one case and 17| ounces in another (or 71*7 per cent, and 78-6 per cent, of the total fat- production)^ which could only have been produced from the carbohydrates. In another research, in which geese were starved 5 days until they were fat-free, and then fattened on barley and rice, it was found that in the course of 14 days, 14 ounces of the fat produced in the body, or 86*7 per cent., must have resulted from carbo- hydrates. Incidentally it may be mentioned that A. v. Planta and Erleumeyer, of Munich, found that Bees produced wax, which is a similar substance to fat, from sugar; and that O. Kellner, who carried out researches on Silkworms in Japan, fouud they were able to produce fat from non-nitrogenous substances, and even from the digestible constituents of mulberry-leaves. Experiments on Dogs. — The dog being a carnivorous animal does not appear capable, so far as experiments have gone, of producing fat from carbohydrates. In the course of 22 respiration experiments at Munich, a dog weighing about 66 lbs. was fed on 6 to 22 ounces of dry starcb per day, sometimes entirely, and in some cases with the addition of greater or less quanti- ties of meat. The results showed that the fat obtaiued from the albumen was always more than enough to account for the increase of fat in the body, and that f2 68 FORMATION OF FAT. this did not depend at all on the amount of the carbo- hydrate, but was unmistakably related to the propor- tion of flesh decomposed. By increasing the starch from 13J to 22 ounces per day no increase in fat re- sulted, while by increasing the albumen with a constant supply of starch, the production and laying-on of fat were increased, in one case from 1 to 2 and 5 ounces. At the same time M. Rubner, of Munich, has shown that even Carnivora can form fat from carbodydrates if the organs be supplied with an enormous excess of car- bohydrate. By feeding a dog weighing 14 lbs. with 4 ounces of cane-sugar and 3 ounces of starch per day, a production of 3| oz. of fat per day was produced from the carbohydrates. J. Munk also arrived at similar results.^ This production of fat, however, is of secondary importance as far as Carnivora are concerned, since they never, or hardly ever, receive a food so rich in carbohydrates as this. § 3. The Consumption of Fat. Much still remains to be elucidated with regard to the theory of Fat- formation, by which the various species and breeds of domestic animals may be assisted to an especially rapid and large production of fat ; but already the results of exact investigations make it pos- sible to lay down certain general principles which demand careful consideration in the rational feeding of our domestic animals, with especial reference to the most remunerative production of fat. I will specify these principles by mentioning the con- [* This hardly agrees with the opening statement. — Tb.] r^ CONSUMPTION OF FAT. 69 ditions which favour the Consumption of Fat, or which bring about an Economy of Fat and consequently an increased store of fat in the animal body. 1. By one-sided increase of the supply of fat the total fat-consumption is somewhat increased, but with a sufficiency of fat a greater or lesser quantity is at the same time stored up in the body. A full supply of albumen in the daily food increases the storage of fat. 2. Fat produced from albumen more easily undergoes combustion than ready-made fat ; the fat in the food with a small supply of albumen slightly tends to in- crease the change of albumen, larger quantities to reduce but never to completely protect it from change (see page 45). Fat does not protect albumen from decomposition, while an adequate quantity of albumen can completely prevent the destruction of fat. 3. In the case of a fat animal the total consumption of fat is greater than in a thin animal ; a lean animal is more easily fattened than one in which fat has already been considerably stored up. 4. The water-supply, if excessive, not only increases ' the waste of albumen, but creates a greater destruction of food-stuff in the body and increases the amount of carbonic acid given off. When one wishes to bring about the greatest and quickest production of flesh and fat, a fattening beast should not receive food which is too watery or be allowed to drink to excess. 5. The stall-temperature should not be too high, or else the resulting excessive drinking and evaporation from the body will probably cause the animals to suffer from disturbed rest and appetite ; nor should it be too low, as an increased oxidation will be necessary to 70 FORMATION OF FAT. maintain the bodily heat. A mean stall-temperature of from 45° to 68° Fahrenheit is most suitable for the purposes of economical feeding. 6. The size of the animal influences the demands on the food-supply. Small animals require as a rule re- latively more food than larger ones, since they present a larger surface for radiation in proportion to their weight, and therefore give ofi" relatively more heat to their surroundings. With animals of the same kind the heat production or loss corresponds to the surface area of their bodies. For a definite area of surface both large and small animals require the same number of '^ heat units "'^. On the other hand, the intensity of combustion in the bodies o£ animals of the same size, but of different kinds, is often very different. Rubner found at Munich for equal body-weight and practically equal body-surface, and at an air-temperature of 15° C, that for one square centimetre of surface a dog required 1136 units of heat per day, a rabbit only 717, and a hen 892. Similar results have been obtained with farm animals; thus the heat requirements of oxen, sheep, and goats do not depend only on the size and external surface of the animals. As the average of direct experiments, a full-grown ox consumes for 1000 lbs. of live-weight about 0*6 lb. of albumen and 7'4 lbs. of non-nitrogenous foods, a full- grown sheep 1*2 lbs. albumen and 10*5 lbs. non-nitro- * A " heat unit " is that quantity of heat required to raise 1 gram of water from 0° to 1° C. CONSUMPTION OF FAT. 71 genous material (calculated as starcli) to maiDtain its bodily temperature. 7. Muscular effort and every mechanical exertion considerably increase the fat consumption, as we shall see worked out in the next Chapter, and on this account the movements of fattening beasts and milch-cows should be carefully avoided. 8. Loss of Blood increases the consumption of albu- men, but at the same time decreases the absorption of oxygen, the giving-off of carbonic acid, and the con- sumption of fat, so that the fat contained in the food or produced in the body is more easily stored up. Practical experience supports the conclusion that a poverty of blood in the body is especially conducive to the production of fat, and in many districts it is the custom to occasionally bleed fattening beasts. At the same time the amount of oxygen taken up by the blood is determined by the digestion, and not vice versa, and the particular maximum of oxygen capable of being absorbed at any moment is determined by the quantity of the blood, and especially by the number of corpuscles or the amount of haemoglobin it contains, and this is directly reduced by a diet poor in nitrogen. In this way the generally superior capacity for fattening exhibited by the Herbivora, and again that of different kinds and breeds, can be traced among other factors (such as powers of circulation, lung capacity, &c.) to a smaller amount of haemoglobin in the blood. 9. The influence of Carbohydrates on the consumption and storing-up of fat is a very important consideration for the purposes of the Stock-keeper. They act similarly to the fats in food, since they reduce the con- 72 FORMATION OF FAT. sumption of the body-fat ; supplied in larger quantity, by economizing the fat in the food and that produced from the albumen, they bring about a complete storage of the fat. According to Voit the carbohydrates exercise a greater effect than that corresponding to their respiration-value; so that 175 parts of starch instead of 244 (the respiration-value) are equivalent in this respect to 100 parts of fat. Even if this is not the case, the carbohydrates (sugar for instance) are more easily burnt in the process of respiration than fat, and thus protect the fat from more rapid destruction. It is possible to determine the smallest quantity of albumen and carbohydrates which will enable the body to maintain its store of albumen and fat — that is, in a normal condition or in equiUbrium of nitrogen and carbon. If the quantity of albumen supplied is kept at a minimum and excess of carbohydrates be provided, fat is stored up, but only in small quantity. I£ the quantity of carbohydrate is kept at a minimum and the albumen increased, more albumen is consumed and only a small quantity of albumen and fat is stored up in the body. If plenty of albumen as well as carbohydrate is supplied, the storing-up of albumen increases, and especially that of fat, because ample material is then supplied for the production of fat and a favourable proportion of nutrients is provided in the daily food. The general laws of flesh and fat production clearly show us that for the most satisfactory and complete attainment of the ends of stock-keepiog, not only is a sufficient supply of food essential, but also a definite ratio of albumen to carbohydrate, or of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous food constituents, must be observed. CONSUMPTION OF FAT. 76 We must reserve the detailed consideration of this question for a future occasion. I will only here observe that productive feeding is most favourably carried out under a moderate ^' Albuminoid Ratio.^' If the albumen be too small, the energy of digestion is re- duced, and a deficit of material for the rapid and extensive production of fat and flesh results. Excess of albumen in the food distinctly increases the stream of circulatory albumen, and thereby the decomposition of valuable nutriment. A proportional deficit of carbohydrate conduces to a lesser protection of albumen from de- composition, and a reduction in the amount of fat stored up from that produced from the albumen. Too much carbohydrate results in its unnecessary decompo- sition without rendering any practical service. It may even cause injury to the system, since the latter is unable to continually deal with so much material, and frequently a considerable quantity is discharged in the dung quite undigested. Only with a medium Albuminoid Ratio is it possible to expect under otherwise suitable conditions that the largest amount of flesh and fat may be produced from the food. We can only discuss the influence of variations in the Albuminoid Ratio on the feeding of farm animals after we have learnt the composition and digestibility of the commoner farm foods, and more especially their content of real food-stuffs or *' nutrients." 74 PRODUCTION OF FORCE. CHAPTER VI. THE PRODUCTION OF FORCE. It was formerly believed, in accordance with Liebig's teaching, that mechanical ivork and continued activity of the muscles resulted in a considerable wear and tear of the organs, and produced a double or even treble consumption of albumen. Since then researches by Voit and Pettenkofer at Munich have shown that this is not the case, but that with a constant supply of food, or even without food, the consumption of albumen in the body is no greater under conditions of muscular exercise than those of perfect rest, provided the animal be in fair condition, the exercise not too violent and its duration not too protracted. Although more albumen may be consumed in the specially active organs by the flow of a larger quantity of blood, this is balanced by the proportionately inactive condition of the other organs, so that the total con- sumption of albumen by the whole body remains practically unaltered. On the contrary, the consump- tion of fat, and especially that of carbohydrates, is decidedly increased by arduous work, since more carbonic acid is produced in the respiration process, and increased heat is generated with a corresponding increase of evaporation and loss of heat to the sur- rounding air. PRODUCTION OF FORCE. 75 The first experiments in this direction were made with a large dog weighing about 32 kilos (70 lbs.) . The work which it performed on working days (by running in a treadmill) was very considerable, being estimated at 12 foot-pounds ^ per second for the whole twenty- four hours ; while the work performed by a man eight hours in twenty-four is estimated at only 16 foot-lbs. per second, or little more than for the dog. A slight increase of the consumption of albumen was found for the day^s work, wliich represented 11 '5 per cent, of the albumen consumed in a condition of com- plete rest, when the animal received no food, and 4*8 per cent, when it received a large amount of meat. This increase is partially explained by the fact that the working animal required more water, whereby more urine was excreted and the consumption of albumen somewhat increased (see p. 43). In other experiments on a strong and healthy man, this source of error was removed by regulating the supply of water. The experimental man on working ^ days turned a heavy wheel fitted with a brake for 9 hours, which made him feel as tired at the end as if he had done a hard day's work or a long march. With the aid of the respiration apparatus the follow- ing numbers, which refer to 24 hours and give the food consumption under conditions of work and rest, were obtained : — * A foot-pound is the force req^uired to raise 1 pound 1 foot hierh. 76 PRODUCTION OF FORCE. Results in grams per 24 hours. Albumen consumed. Total consumed. Carbonic acid excreted. Oxygen taken up. Water excreted. Fasting. Eest 79 75 137 137 209 380 219 320 716 1187 928 1209 762 1072 832 1006 844 746 1056 1155 821 1777 931 1727 Work Average diet Rest Work These figures clearly prove that the consumption of albumen is no greater during work than rest, but, on the contrary, the consumption of fat and the con- sequent excretion of carbonic acid and taking-up of oxygen is greatly increased, as also the amount of water evaporated from the lungs and skin. In hunger the difference between the carbonic acid produced in rest and in work is more considerable (471 grams) than on an average diet (281 grams) ; the oxygen shows a similar result, 310 g. against 1 74 g., while the differences in the water evaporated are relatively less, viz., 956 g. : 796 g. Hirschfeld confirmed Voit and Pettenkofer in the conclusion that with a large supply of food either rich or poor in nitrogen, the consumption of albu- minoids was not increased by muscular activity; while EXCRETION OF NITROGEN. 17 Argutinsky found a very severe form of muscular exercise, such as climbing hills for several hours at a stretch, produced a decided increase of albumen con- sumption which could not be prevented by an increased supply of sugar. Excretion of Nitrogen as Gas. It has sometimes been asserted that in severe work a portion of the nitrogen arising from the destruction of albumen is excreted in the form of gas from the skin and lungs, and that consequently the consumption of albumen cannot be calculated from the nitrogen in the urine. According to this, the close agreement found in the above and many other experiments between the nitrogen in the urine on the days of rest and work is entirely accidental— a thing not only very improbable in itself, but which is disproved by the following con- siderations and experimental results. If, as a result of work, the total consumption of albumen is considerably increased, there must be a correspondingly increased excretion of sulphuric and phosphoric acid in the urine ; for with every portion of albuminoid tissue destroyed, the sulphur and phos- phorus which it contains must be oxidized to sulphuric and phosphoric acids, and finally leave the body in the urine, since these substances cannot assume the gaseous form at the temperature of the body. In the above experiments the quantity of these acids was determined in the experiments made on an average diet, and the followmg results were obtained :— 78 PRODUCTION OF FORCE. Sulphuric acid. Phosphoric acid. Eest grams. 2-61 2-57 grams. 419 4-11 Work From which it appears that their quantity under con- ditions of work and rest was absolutely constant and equal. In the face of these results and others obtained by the most careful and accurate determination of the total visible and gaseous excretions from the body, one is obliged to treat other contradictory observations as of little consequence or value. All experiments have confirmed the increased con- sumption of fat and excretion of carbonic acid during work^ and this was well illustrated by Henneberg's experiments on full-grown sheep at Weende. He found that without any unusual muscular work more carbonic acid was produced by day than at night, the difference being due to the increased activity of the muscles con- cerned in swallowing and chewing. When the animals were fed in the daytime, as usual, 54 per cent, of the total carbonic acid was given off in the 12 hours of the day ; but when the animals were fed at night with the same quantity of hay, only 46 per cent, of the carbonic acid was produced during the day, and 54 per cent, during the night. With reference to the large increase of fat consump- tion, as a result of muscular work, it is indifferent whether the source of the fat is that provided in the EXCRETION OF NITROGEN. 79 food, that stored up in the tissues of the body, the fat produced by the decomposition of albumen, or the equivalent quantity of carbohydrate supplied in the food. At any rate the greatest care must be exercised to prevent the animals from any excessive movement or muscular exercise i£ they are to be fattened as quickly and profitably as possible. In the experiments on a man already alluded to, the consumption of albumen was unaltered by work either in a condition of hunger or on a normal diet. Of course it is clear that this could only hold good if the bodily condition were good and for a short time only, and would cease when the rapid consumption of organic matter produced by the hard work was effected at the expense of the fat of the body. If the daily food is insufficient, after a certain time the flesh-tissues of the body will be attacked, at first slowly and then more rapidly, and an increased excretion of nitrogen in the urine will result. The Hohenheim Experiment on a Horse. Instead of restricting the experiment to 24 hours, as at Munich, at Hohenheim the time was considerably extended. The day's work was measured by a special apparatus, and calculated as kilogramme- metres. In one series of experiments the horse received daily during the whole course of the experiments 11 lbs. hay, 13 lbs. oats, and 3 lbs. wheat and chaff. The amount of digestible matter in the food remained practically constant the whole time, and amounted to 12-89 lbs. per day with a ratio of 1 : 6*57. Each 80 PRODUCTION OF FORCE. period of experiment lasted 8 to 14 days, and the followinor results were obtained : — 1 Period I. II. III. IV. 1 V. Day's work (kg.-m.). 475,000 Nitrogen in urine | gg per day (grams) J Live-weiglit(lbs.)... 1174 950,000 109-3 1166 1425,000 950,000 116-8 110-2 1150 I 1116 475,000 98-2 1140 In a second series of experiments the periods were longer still, extending 3, 4, and 8 weeks. A highly nitrogenous food was provided consisting of 16J lbs. hay and 9 lbs. beans per day, and the amount digestible was kept constantly at llf lbs. with a ratio of 1 : 2*96. The results obtained were as follows : — Period I. II. III. i * Day's work (kg.-m.; ... Nitrogen in urine per 1 day (grams) 1 Live-weight (lbs.) 810,000 198-6 1093 2,430,000 228 1019 810,000 199-9 1008 In the second series the difference of the albumen consumption as represented by the nitrogen in the urine was greater than in the first series; and while the day^s work was decidedly greater, the amount of * 1 kilo^-amme-metre (kg.-m.) =7 English foot-pounds. HOHENHEIM EXPERIMENT. 81 digestible matter in the daily food was somewliat smaller^ though the albuminoid ratio was much higher. The original condition of the horse was better in the first than in the second series of experiments ; and as the period of actual work was greater in the second series^ the animal must have further deteriorated in condition. In the course of the second series a clear illustration of the increased combustion of organic matter during work increasing the consumption of albumen in the body is given : the hardest work began on March 12th, and the following amounts of Nitrogen were found in the urine at various times : — Time. Grams Nitrogen in urine per day. Live-weight. March 18-24 .. 211-3 220-7 2291 234-3 lbs. 1060 1034 1032 1018 25-29 March 30 to April 14 April 5-10 The live weight of the horse on March 11th was 1093 lbs. There is no doubt that if the experiment had been carried on longer the horse would have further lost condition owing to increased consumption of the albumen of the body. It is clearly evident that very hard work increases the consumption of albumen to a greater or less extent dependent on the original condition of the animal. From the first experiments it is seen that a horse even in a fair condition exhibits an increase in the 6 S2 PRODUCTION OF FORCE. ^consumption of albumen, although the amount is insig- nificant when compared with the largely increased oxidation of body-fat and the non-nitrogenous con- stituents of the food. The Sources of Muscular Power. The great increase in the combustion of fat during -work has led to the assumption that this constitutes the chief source of muscular energy, that the work done is the result of the heat produced, and that in the animal body a conversion of heat into force takes place, just as the steam-engine produces work through the heat of the burning fuel by the intervention of steam, or as the hot-air engine executes work by means of the heated air. The non-nitrogenous food-stuffs are directly concerned in this heat-production, and it has been calculated that 20 per cent, of the heat produced by their combustion is converted into work, which is a far larger proportion than that yet attained by the most efiScient steam-engines, which only convert about 10 per cent, of the heat they receive into work. It is open to question, however, whether the heat produced in the body can be directly converted into mechanical work as in the case of the air-engine, or can even be considered its direct source, since the necessary con- ditions of alternate heating and cooling of the whole or a part do not hold good in the animal body, and make a comparison between the two impossible. It is ;also a well-known fact that nothing is more hurtful to the health of the animal system than alterations in its normal temperature, and any material alteration of SOURCES OF MUSCULAR POWER. 83 the body temperature results in rapid death. If a simple conversion of heat into work really takes place in the body^ then the increased oxidation of organic matter which takes place during work must result in a con- tinual and renewed source of muscular power and render external work possible without any cessation whatever. The increased production of heat during work and the increased respiration are but secondary effects — the result of work — and can by no means be regarded as its primary or direct cause. The increased heat produced in work is dissipated in evaporation from the body and by greater heat radiation, and is eventually reduced again to the normal. But apart from the question as to the way in which force is produced in the body, a measure or equi- valent for the work performed or to be performed in the day is found in the increased combustion of the body-fat or in the increased quantity of food or generally in the increased material required. The Hohenheim experiments on the horse already described clearly show that with a constant diet for a lengthened period_, the nitrogen in the urine, i. e. the combustion of albumen, increases at first slowly and then very rapidly if the daily work remains constant or is increased for a sufficiently long period. Other experiments with the same horse have shown that the increased consumption of albumen ceases at once when the daily ration is adequately increased with fat and carbohydrate. It is possible to determine how much of these latter must be added to maintain a balance of nitrogen in the body despite the increased muscular effort, and also to compensate for the increased demands g2 84 PRODUCTION OF FORCE. of respiration, i. e. to set up a balance of carbon a» well as of nitrogen, and thus maintain the animal in an entirely constant condition. The food required to produce work varies with the form of muscular activity or the work done. Katzen- stein, for instance, found that work done by men turning a wheel with the arms produced a greater expenditure of material in the body than the same work done with the legs. The volume of oxygen used per kilogram-metre of work done with hand-labour amounted to 1'96 cubic centimetres, but when the work was done with the legs only to 1'19 to 1*51 cubic centi- metres. Further, the degree of practice in a particular kind of work influences the expenditure of material in the body, as Max Gruber found in experiments on himself; the carbonic acid produced every 20 minutes amounted to the following : — Carbonic Acid . . Work Eest. 12-83 g. Walking. 22-42 g. Climbing : out of j in practice. ! practice. 38-83 g. 7376kg.ni. 31-00 g. 7639 kg.m. The carbonic acid excreted is not a measure of the work done by a man, because its production decreases with practice. Zuntz and Ijehmann obtained similar results in their experiments on the horse. '^ It can be deduced from the total experimental results that no constant relationship SOURCES OF MUSCULAR POWER. 85 ■can "be set up between the production of work and consumption of food; the entire organization of an animal, its individual and variable peculiarities and condition, &c. create great differences in the economical -employment of its power in doing the same piece of work; with the same individual the quality and intensity of the work produces great differences, and further researches are required to reduce the variations in question by regular use to an individual and perhaps a typical average value/' The essential sources of muscular power are seen in the decomposition processes in the body, i. e. in the destruction which portions of the body or the food resorbed from the digestive tract undergo by the passage of the plasma through the tissues. To this end, as we have already seen in the case of fat-production, both nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances con- tribute. As these materials are resolved by the influence of oxygen into simple groups of atoms, the energy of <)hemical force which previously linked the atoms together in more complicated groupings is set at liberty, and can be employed as kinetic energy for the external work of the body. In a condition of rest this energy serves for the internal work of the organs, or is con- verted into electric currents, &c. The animal body often stores up a certain amount of energy; as soon as this store has been rapidly exhausted by work, a period of rest is necessary to enable fresh material to flow through the tissue-cells and generate fresh energy for the production of more active work. The force-production and all phenomena resulting 86 PRODUCTION or FORCE. from the combustion of organic matter in the animal body must obey the law of the conservation of energy,^ as was first proved by Dr. J. R. Mayer of Heilbronn. Less work is produced as a result of the combustion of food-material in the body than that represented by its '^ mechanical equivalent '' (1000 heat-units = 424 kg.m. of work). And_, as has been abeady mentioned^ we are not justified in regarding the animal body as comparable to an air-engine and capable of directly turning the heat which has been produced and set free into living force. A striking discovery is that made by Max Rubner that the relative quantities of fat, albumen, and sugar required to make good the loss of material in a starving animal, as far as their " dynamic equivalent '^ is con- cerned, are practically equal to their ^' calorimetric '^ or '' heat-values '' as found by Stohmann, and afterwards more accurately by Rubner. The latter found that 100 parts of fat (92400 heat- units) are equal to : — Directly deter- mined from Calculated from Difference- the animal. the heat-yalue. per cent* Albumen ... 225 213 = 4424 heat-units +5*6 Starch 232 229=4116 „ „ +1*7 Cane-sugar . 234 235 = 4001 „ „ —0-4 Grape-sugar. 256 255 = 3692 „ „ +0*4 The agreement is practically absolute in the case of the carbohydrates, not so good in the case of albumen, but still not such as to render the application of the rule doubtful — viz., that food-stuffs of equal thermal SOURCES OF MUSCULAH POWER. 87 value are equivalent or isodynamic for the purposes of the vital functions. According to Stohmann and Langbein the values directly determined by the combustion of a gram each of albumen,, fat, and starch are as follows : — albumen = 5715 (according to Berthelot and Andre 5691), fat = 9431, and starch =4116 heat-units. The values for fat and starch are in the proportion of 100 : 299, so that the usual factor (calculated from the oxygen required for combustion) employed for calculating the equi- valent of fat as starch (2*44) is too high. Recent determinations of the heat-value of albumen make it equal to starch, viz. 4116 heat-units, while the figure hitherto employed for albumen after the pro- duction of urea has been 4820 heat-units. Rubner has experimentally proved, however, that the physiological heat-value of albumen is rather lower than this, since other decomposition products besides urea are produced in the urine, and a certain amount of its heat-value is lost in the excretions in the dung. The ultimate result is only 4386 heat-units, or 76' 8 per cent, of the "gross combustion-value'''' of 5715 heat-units. Further, for 1 gram of dry extracted flesh this value is 4233, and for 1 gram of vegetable albumen, such as the gluten in rye or wheaten bread, only 3960 heat- units. But since other vegetable albuminoids possess a higher heat- value, and as the digested albuminoids in experiments with farm animals is determined by the difference between food and dung, and as nothing can be deducted on account of the dung constituents, for the present the heat-value of albumen in the food of both Herbivora and Caruivora can be taken as identical 88 PRODUCTION OF FORCE. with that of starch — i. e. 4116, or in round numbers 4100 heat-units, — the same value which Rubner cal- culated as that of albumen in human diet containing 3 parts [60 per cent.] of animal albumen to 2 parts [40 per cent.] of vegetable albumen, 60x4233 + 40x3960 ^^.^ ,^q, a^oa i. + •* =2540 + 1584=4124 heat-units. 100 Zuntz and Lehmann found the digestible material required by a working-horse in excess of that in a condition of rest, expressed in grains per 1000 lbs. of live- weight, to be as follows : — (a) Walking on a level road per yard . . . 0*9420 (b) Trotting „ „ „ „ ... 1-3725 (^ oooot-o O COt^iOiO rt o o >b o t- 1:0 O^ C5 Cti !>• 'o 'a (D > o %, ^ o o ^ tp c3 «4-l ■u n3 lO CO 5 GO CO 3 r^ ir- tf, &4 o OD C3 n3 o jj ^ a s 5 (MO ^ CO t- c3 Q C3 o C-1 CO J2 ^ a 3 coo r^ CD ^ >bcb I— c << f&i coco g^ il (X)0 CD lO I— i j-H 'S 3 a^ a. c c CD -►J o Tf CO © & c /— v^-N OS © fl fl <1 3 1 coco 11 9^^ ^ .jj 00 CO ir: t-- O ^CO T— 1 *o ^ c "a . ^ J ^ i B 3 — icD ipop .g cb'f^i ^l 1^ X! UOCO (Mrti ~M < r£i b£ 2 S T* 'i*' t-"-* r::^ ^ •^ ir: oCOi a 3 0} 05C3C O GC >> I— 1 o tH ^ P 'Ti QJ J "3 '"' h o d S S Sr •- &i ©^ OS • 3 J COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS. 171 The greatest loss therefore takes place during the first 2 to 6 months after the fodder is put into the siiOj after which the decomposition of organic matter proceeds very slowly. Latterly the preparation of so-called Sweet Silage by George Fry^s method has been much recommended and widely practised. The green fodder is left to wither until the dry matter reaches 25-30 per cent. ; it is then pressed into silos under a pressure of 100 lbs. per square foot_, or put into presses above ground fitted with powerful screws. The heap rapidly gets hot^ and to secure success the temperature should be allowed to quickly rise to 140°-160° ¥., and then^ having been as quickly reduced to 120° by increasing the pressure, the silage should be maintained at this temperature for a considerable time and then be gradually allowed to cool. This process results in the production of lactic acid, but no volatile fatty acids of ofi*ensive odour are formed, and the loss of organic matter by decomposition is less in the making of sweet than in that of sour silage. These two kinds of silage are otherwise very similar, and either can be obtained at will by regulating the temperature, as sweet silage is produced at a tempera- ture of about 120°, and sour silage below that limit. If the temperature exceeds 160°, or is kept as high for too long a time, the silage becomes burnt and brown, and the albuminoids are rendered practically indi- gestible. This is very apt to occur if the fodder is allowed to wither to an extent represented by a per- centage of dry matter as high as 30-40 per cent. This was confirmed by experiments with sheep at 172 THE FOOD-STUFFS. Hohenheirn in 1891, in which it was found that the digestibility of the crude albuminoids in sweet silage from meadow-grass was only 27 per cent., while that of the original grass was 56 per cent. ; and by deducting the amides, &c., it is seen that the digestible albuminoids had been absolutely destroyed. Similar observations have been made by many practical men. For instance, Albert found as the result of several experiments that the digestibility o£ the crude albu- minoids was not effected, or only to a very slight extent, when the silage had been made at a low temperature, as is often the case if the green fodder contains so much moisture that the dry substance only amounts to 12-18 per cent. But under these circumstances a change of albumen into amides and the formation of acids have taken place to a much greater extent than before and many volatile ammoniacal compounds are formed, which according to Albert can amount to 31 per cent, of the whole of the crude albuminoids. At Bonn, Stutzer analyzed a sample of very well- prepared sweet silage together with a sample of ordinary clover-hay, harvested from the same field at the same time. He found the following percentage of dry matter, calculated for 70 per cent, of moisture (p. 173). Even in the preparation of sweet silage a more or less marked loss of organic matter takes place, according to the way in which the operation is carried out. Inde- pendently of this, the nutritive value of the organic matter itself is diminished when a green fodder of good quality is turned into sour or sweet silage, owing to the unavoidable decomposition of the more digestible COARSE AND GREEN FODDERS. 173 m n 1 love weet CO > ». XT K « s 1— 1 3 ns >-t:>0 qs or -^ 2- £ ^ t2l > hP>- 1— ' B CO GO 05 «i 6 05 ^ O B ^ o i-S o 03 c Ci ht^ g^ o -I g: Q i-S ^ 03 g^ to ^ -uction. 239 Table of Results. Lots. Diet. Loss in live-weight. Wool produced per head. Do. as percentage of shorn-weight. I- I 11./ in.-i IV. J V. Hay and Bean-meal. Straw and Mangolds Hay and Straw. nil. 2 lbs. per head. 12 lbs. per head. 10 lbs. n lbs. 8 lbs. 31-9 26-5 27-3 This shows that even with a sparing diet of hay there is still a considerable production of wool, but that the maximum is at once attained by a diet rich enough to keep the sheep in good condition. The results of feeding mangolds and straw clearly show that this is not an economical diet ; not only was the wool less in quantity, but the animals lost considerably in weight. 240 PRODUCTION OF WORK. CHAPTER IV. THE PRODUCTION OF WORK. § 1. TVork and Rest. We have already learnt tliat thoroughly developed muscles in good practice are the first essentials for hard and continuous physical exercise, and that a high proportion of organized and circulatory albumen is requisite for the production of the necessary energy. In order to maintain an animal in strong working condition, more food with a higher albuminoid ratio is necessary than that required for keeping an animal at rest in a stall in fair bodily condition. TVork itself does not involve the decomposition of more albumen than rest {cf. p. 76), but a continuous and severe form of work can only be satisfactorily per- formed if abundance of albumen be supplied in the food and the general activity of digestion kept at a high pitch. Although the digestion of albumen is directly deter- mined by the supply and the bodily condition of the animal, the oxidation of fat is considerably increased by muscular exercise. Fat or carbohydrates in the food can prevent loss of fat from the animaFs body. Fat is so concentrated a food for the purposes of DRAUGHT OXEN. 241 respiration^ that under certain conditions it should be added to the food o£ working animals. It is very- obvious that an increased supply of both albuminoids and non-nitrogenous nutrients should be provided in the food of animals doing hard work and in quantity proportional to the work done, as the animals would otherwise lose in condition. §2. Draught Oxen require little more food for moderate work than for complete rest in the stall (see p. 7Q). For hard work the albuminoids should be increased from 0*7 to 1*6 lb., and the carbohydrates from 8*4 to 12 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live-weight per day. The albuminoid ratio of this '^ working ration ^' is [1 : 7*5], while that of the main- tenance diet is only [1 : 12] . The working diet might be given in the form of good hay with a small addition of a concentrated food-stuff, or this combination might be replaced by clover-hay and straw, or, again, by straw with a little roots and some special nitrogen-food. The bulk of the organic matter in the daily ration specified above is about 52 lbs. The amount of fat required by oxen doing moderate ^ork at a quiet pace is not very great, as they can make much use of carbo- hydrates owing to the size of their digestive organs. The average diet of such oxen only contains 5 ozs. of fat per day per 1000 lbs. live-weight. Oxen doing really hard work ought to have more fat than this, and the addition of oil-cake to increase the fat to 9 ozs. per dav is to be recommended. j342 PRODUCTION OF WORK. § 3. Horses, The general food o£ a farm horse is simply hay and oats, with a greater or less quantity of chaff. The most desirable quantity and proportion of these three articles of food are very variable. In fact the food requirements of horses are more subject to variation than those of any other farm animal. The temperament of a horse prohibits a high diet when it is doing no work and is resting in the stable, but directly it does hard work a high diet of oats is necessary to keep it in condition. For the average work of farm horses, the following diet is adequate : — (Per day per 1000 lbs. live- weight.) 1 lb. 9 ozs. digestible albuminoids. 11 lbs. 3 ozs. digestible carbohydrates. [1 : 7] albuminoid ratio. 21 lbs. total dry matter in food. 8 ozs. digestible fat (included in the carbohydrates). The fat is mainly derived from oats, which contain more fat than any other cereal ; and this fact must be borne in mind when oats are replaced by any other food-stuff in the diet of a horse. When horses are doing very hard work, the diet might well be increased as follows : — Digestible albuminoids 2*5 lbs. ,5 carbohydrates 13*8 lbs. Total digestible food 16*3 lbs. Albuminoid ratio [1 : 5*5]. HORSES. g43 An even higher diet than this is often given to dray and heavy cart-horses, as it is not an un- common practice to feed such horses on oats and bean- meal. For hunters, hacks, and carriage horses doing plenty of work, a diet of oats alone with an albuminoid ratio of [1 : 6] or [1 : 7] is found advantageous. Feeding horses entirely on hay is not so satisfactory as with cows, because horses eat less of it (not more than 56 lbs. a day), and cannot digest hay so well as the ruminants {cf. p. 134). The diet of working oxen and horses is very similar on the whole, the only difference being that oxen can do with more hay and straw. Many experiments on the food-requirements of horses, extending over a number of years, have been carried out at Hohenheim, and recently interesting results have been obtained at Paris and at the Agricultural College at Berlin. Great variations were obtained in the amount of food-con- stituents digested by horses, dependent on the pro- portion of hay and straw to the oats or other concen- trated food-stuff used. Uniform results could only be obtained by leaving the crude fibre entirely out of consideration, and simply regarding the other food- constituents as actually concerned in digestion (cf p. 111). ^•^* The following results have been obtained hj various experimenters : — r2 244 PRODUCTION OF WORK. Food required to maintain a horse at rest. (lbs. per 1000 lbs. live-weight.) Total digestible matter. Crude fibre. Digestible matter minus crude fibre. 1. 2. 9 lbs. 6 ozs. 8 lbs. 6 ozs. 1 lb. 13 ozs. 13 ozs. 7 lbs. 9 ozs. 7 lbs. 9 ozs. 3. 9 lbs. 6 ozs. 1 lb. 15 ozs. 7 lbs. 7 ozs. 4. 8 lbs. 1 oz. 8^ ozs. 71bs.8J-ozs. • 7 lbs. 12 ozs. 5| ozs. 7 lbs. ^ ozs. 1 & 2. Hohenheim experiments. 3. Average of 38 experiments at Hohenheim. 4. Average of 6 experiments b}- Grandeau and Leclerc at Paris. (Diet : 1 part hay and 3 parts of a mixture of oats, maize, beans, and oil-cake.) 5. Eesults obtained by Lehmann at Berlin. The following deductions can be drawn from these and other experiments as to the rational feeding of horses : — 1. The crude fibre digested by the horse from any source appears absolutely useless for the nourish- ment and maintenance of the animal. 2. If the crude fibre be deducted from the food, the remaining nutrients in both coarse and concen- trated fodder possess the same value in every form of food. HORSES. 245 3. To maintain a horse in stable^ about 7^ lbs. of food composed of digestible albuminoids and carbo- hydrates (including fat multiplied by the factor 2*4) are necessary. 4. For every additional pound of this nourishment a horse will be enabled to produce 1,736,000 foot- pounds of work (see p. 89) . The following results were obtained from direct experiments : — Digestible organic matter. K Hay Clover-hay Lucerne -hay Oats Barley Maize Beans Peas Lupines Linseed cake Total. T-^, [Without I ^^''- I Fibre. ■) (Per cent, of dry matter, Equivalent of Work. I Per lb. of dry matter.* ; (Foot-lbs.) I 40-6 11-4 411 120 46-2 110 60-2 20 70-7 4-1 800 1-5 72-4 4-5 66-7 0-5 63-4 8-7 63-4 — 29-2 29-1 35-2 .58-2 66-6 78-5 67-9 66-2 54-7 63-4 481,800 480,150 580,800 960,300 1,098,900 1,295,250 1,120,350 1,092,300 302,550 1,221,000 With regard to the leguminous fodders, it must be remembered that the cellulose they contain is of a more digestible kind than that in hay, and on this account their feeding-value is rather greater than that apparent * In the original table the " work " is expressed as " Idlogram- metres per kilo of dry matter ; " 3 "foot-pounds per lb." are approxi- mately equal to " 1 kgm. per kilo/' and the figures in this column have been obtained by multiplying by 3. 246 PRODUCTION OF WORK. from the foregoing table. Foods rich in fat are desirable when the horses are doing very hard work- Nitrogenous foods like beans and lupines do not render possible a greater production of work than foods of medium albuminoid ratio, provided of course that a sufficiency of albuminoids be provided in the latter. This minimum amounts to 2^ or 3 ozs. of nitrogen per day per 1000 lbs. live-weight, but is still more for unusually strong and muscular horses, or for those doing heavy work, or for fast-trotting hacks and hunters. Maize has recently been introduced as a substitute for oats ; 4 lbs. of maize being equivalent to 5 lbs. of oats. C. Lehmann makes the following statement : — '^ Maize contains a high proportion of digestible carbo- hydrates and tends to make the animals fat and very liable to sweat ; while it improves their appearance, it somewhat detracts from their physical energy.^^ The horses of the Berlin Tramways Co. are fed to a considerable extent on maize, and for all animals in regular work such food does not tend to produce a fat and lazy condition. Horses which are occasionally idle and occasionally undergoing great exertion require a high nitrogenous diet. We recommend the following, to practical men : — To replace 11 lbs. of oats : Give the horse 5 lbs. oats, 3 lbs. maize, r IJ lbs. beans, or 11 lb. oil-cake. HORSES. 247 Dried Brewers' Grains and dried ^^ Slump '^ may be given in the following quantities : — Hard work 7^ lbs. oats, per day. 9 lbs. " grains,'^ 16i lbs. hay. I oz. salt. !54 lbs. oats, per day. ^ oz. salt. The effect of dried grains has been found to be A^ery uncertain, and on that account the use of '^ grains ^^ has been given up by the German War Department. In any case, care should be taken not to give too much at a time, and to make an addition of such palatable foods as oats, maize, or wheat-bran. Brewers' grains are very apt to undergo fermentation and to be impreg- nated with the foul and unpleasant products of bacteria. This is due to the fact that they cannot be dried at a high temperature as their digestibility would be seriously affected, and there is thus no adequate check on the growth of micro-organisms. The flavour o£ food is most important for horses, a& they are extremely sensitive and easily upset by anything unusual or unpleasant. ^48 PRODUCTION OF MILK. CHAPTER V. THE PRODUCTION OF MILK. It is highly important that we should have a clear understanding of the way in which milk is formed in the body before we consider the effect o£ feeding on the quantity and quality of the milk produced. § 1. Formation of Milk in the Body. Milk is not a simple secretion and is not separated from the blood in the same sort of way as the urine fdters through the kidneys^ but is first formed in the milk-glands, and is principally the result of the breaking up of the gland-cells, and is in reality, to quote Voit, a ^^ liquefied oryan.'^ This fact is indicated by the com- position of the ash of milk, which contains a considerable amount of lime and phosphoric acid — a characteristic of all animal tissues as distinguished from the plasma and the various liquids separated from the blood. These latter contain a considerable quantity of common salt. The ash of milk contains 3 to 5 times as much potash as soda, while that of blood is 3 to 5 times richer in soda than potash. If milk were a transudation product of the blood, it could not possibly serve as a perfect and complete food as it would obviously lack some of the materials necessary for the growth of cells. Since FORMATION OF MILK IN THE BODY. 249 milk is the direct product o£ liquefied cells, it provides Ihe young with the food required for growth in the most suitable form and proportion. The formation of milk is also indicated by the com- position of the so-called Colostrum, which is the name given to the first milk produced after the birth of the calf. Colostrum contains small rounded gland-cells, but after a few days the growth and liquefaction of the cells proceed at such a rate in the milk-glands, that whole cells cease to appear in the milk and are resolved into the usual " milk-globules/^ Milk is an organ that has been liquefied by fatty degeneration. The original cells from which the milk has been produced are composed of albumen which is changed into the constituents of the milk as soon as the cells commence activity. Casein is not found in the blood, but results from the decomposition of cells, and this explains the fact that colostrum contains no casein but only ordinary albumen, and the amount of casein slowly increases with the growing activity of the milk-glands. Even the ^^ sugar of milk " it appears, is not supplied as such to the milk-glands, but is formed in the glands them- selves by the decomposition of albumen or fat. It is possible that the grape-sugar produced from albumen and contained in the blood and liver may also undergo a change into milk-sugar. The milk-glands possess a very independent existence. They absorb material from the blood-capillaries and lymphatics, and by the disruption of the epithelial cells which line the interior of the milk-glands, milk is produced. 250 PRODUCTION OF MILK. These self-contained functions find further confirm- ation in the fact that in the udder no nerves connected with the central nervous system have been found which could possibly aff'ect the secretion of milk. Because the capacity of the udder and the dry matter of the glands appear too small in proportion to the milk produced, some have assumed that the act of milking^ stimulated the flow of milk. It is difficult to harmonize this view with the fact that the composition of milk is practically constant and with the wonderful elasticity of the organs. C. Lehmann has shown that the supposed increased rate of production of milk during milking cannot be appreciable, if it take place at all. Just before milking, a deep blue dye was injected into the blood of a goat. No immediate effect was produced on the colour of the milk during milking, but only after an hour or two, while the urine and skin of the animal were almost immediately dyed a deep blue. § 2. Quantity and Quality of Milk, It is very evident that both the quantity and quality of the milk must be primarily determined by the size and general growth of the milk-glands. It is a matter of common knowledge, that two cows fed in exactly the same way often yield very different quantities of milk, and that some breeds produce more butter than others. After the first calf, a cow produces less milk than after the third or fourth. The age of the animal and the duration of the period of lactation often have a greater influence on the amount of milk produced than the method of feeding, while the growth of the milk-glands reaches its maximum at or soon EFFECT OF FEEDING. 251 after the birth of the calf, and the glands gradually decrease in activity from this time. Badly developed glands can never produce large quantities of milk, even with a most nutritious food.- It is very evident that for the successful production of milk, cows of suitable breed and of individual me^rits are the^r^^ essejitial. Mere size of udder is no safe guide, as profitable production depends rather on the rapid breaking-up and rebuilding of the cells and the quality of the milk,, than on the mere size of the glands. § 3. Effect of Feeding. It is evident from the foregoing description of the way in which milk is produced, that diet is only a secondary consideration in milk-production ; but at tie same time the manner and extent of the feeding have ar very marked effect on the quantity of milk produced. Before everything else, a liberal supply of albumen favours the production of milk, because it induces a continued and rapid building of gland-cells, which latter are principally built up with and charged from albumen. The albumen in the food, however, must pass into the plasma, for the most part as circulatory albumen, and thus rapidly reinforces the milk-glands. The albuminoid ratio must not be too low, or else the liberal secretion of milk will be reduced on account of the storing up of flesh and fat in the body. On the other hand, too high an albuminoid ratio is to be avoided, as it involves the risk of a considerable pro- portion of the albumen in the food undergoing decom- 252 PRODUCTION OF MILK. position, aucl thus becoming useless for the production of milk. Too high a ratio is still more undesirable, because the albumen digested from the food will not pass on to the milk-glands as sucli, but will first be largely decomposed into fat, and this latter will come in contact with the gland-cells. We can, however, provide milch-cows with a diet of higher albuminoid ratio than fat beasts, since with the former the excess of albumen is rapidly excreted in the milk, and has not so direct a tendency to increase the decomposition and waste of the albumen in the tissues of the body. A sufficient quantity of " circulatory albumen '' is especially necessary for obtaining and maintaining a high yield of milk, and everything calculated to increase the stream of albumen in the body must be considered, within certain limits, as equally conducive to an in- creased flow of milk (see p. 39 et seq.). A large supply of water often increases the yield of milk without reducing its quality. All practical observations and experiments have shown that not only should the diet of a milch-cow be adequate in quantity but that it should also be exceptionally rich in nitrogen. Such a diet maintains a high production of milk for a much longer period than a food relatively poor in nitrogen. This is a very important point, even if the daily difl^erence between the yield of milk on the rich and poor diets be not a very large one. The poor average yield of milk resulting from a diet of ordinary hay can only be attributed to a lack of albuminoids in the food. A good daily yield of milk can only bs maintained EFFECT OF FEEDING. 25S on hay of exceptional quality, on good pasturage, or by supplementing hay with a richer food-stuff. The reduction in the yield of milk is generally very marked and rapid, as soon as the albuminoids in the food are reduced, although the carbohydrates and fats may still be supplied in abundance. The following experimental results have been ob- tained :- — Wliere observed. Yield of Milk. With Food rich in Albumen. (Per Cow per day.) With Food lacking Albumen. (Per Cow per day.) 21 lbs. 5 OZ8. 29 lbs. 8 ozs. If) lbs. 13 ozs. ]« lbs. 6 ozs. The cows lost in weight on the insufficient diet, and still more lost in general appearance and condition. It is true that a food which is not rich in nitrogen, but is nevertheless appreciated by the cows, often produces a large yield of milk. The intensity of milk- production is such with good milch-cows, that a high rate of milk-production is often maintained for a long time despite a poor and inadequate diet. This is effected at the expense of the flesh and fat of the body, and the cow becomes more or less thin. It is highly important not to allow cows to lose condition, as not only are the quality and quantity of the milk affected, but it is often a very difficult and 254 PRODUCTION OF MILK. tedious matter to get such a cow into good condition again and restore a high standard of milk even by most liberal feeding. The albumen in the food provides directly or in- directly the casein of the milk as well as the material from which the milk-fat (butter^) is produced. Experiments at Mockern and others at Hohenheim have shown that when cows had been fed on such a poor diet that the yield of milk had been considerably reduced^ and the animals eventually brought to a condition of ^^ nitrogen equilibrium '^ between the food supplied and the matter excreted, — that even under these extreme conditions the albumen and fat resorbed from the food fully accounted for the fat (butter) found in the milk (see p. 59) . With a very rich and nitrogenous diet, even the milk-sugar found in the milk can be traced to the fat produced from the albuminoids. In the case of Carnivora, the sugar in the milk must have been formed from albumen ; while with Herbivora it is highly probable that the carbohydrates in their food contribute to the production of milk-sugar. From a careful study and consideration of the large number of recent investigations on the production ^f milk, I conclude that the following represents The Feeding Standard of a Milch-Cow. (Pounds per 1000 lbs. live- weight per day.) r Digestible albuminoids 2 lbs. 8 ozs. J, carbohydrates 13 lbs. 8 ozs. ,j fats 7 ozs. I Total bulk of dry fodder 24 lbs. L Albuminoid ratio [1 : 5*4]. EFFECT OF FEEDING. 255 The above standard fairly represents the food pro- Tided by a good pasturage. It is true that a diet rather poorer than this, containing 2 lbs. of albuminoids instead of 2^ lbs. per day, may produce a satisfactory yield of milk, but at the same time the latter is not the maximum possible, nor can it be expected to last any length of time, especially if the cow loses in condition. In my opinion a standard of 2h lbs. of digestible albu- minoids should be aimed at under all circumstances. We will assume that a cow yields 20 lbs. of milk per 1000 lbs. live-weight over a period of several months. The casein and albumen in 20 lbs. of milk amount to 10 ozs., the fat to 11 ozs. ; and as two parts of albumen are required for the production of one part of fat (100 : 51-4), the albumen required by 20 lbs. of milk would be (10 + 22) ozs.= 2 lbs. Even if we assume that all the fat resorbed from the food of the cow is employed in the production of milk, a standard of less than 2^ lbs. of digestible albumen would leave little or no reserve of albumen for main- taining the energy of digestion, for the production of the gastric juices, the calf, &c. The effect of an increased supply of food up to or even beyond the standard we have laid down will be greatest with the best milch- cows, and will be greater with a small cow than with a larger animal yielding the same amount of milk. It is highly advisable to classify the different cows in a stall according to their individual milking capacity, and to feed each group on a diet best calculated to promote a maximum yield, lasting over a considerable period, without involving any waste of food. 256 PRODUCTION OF MILK. § 4. Quantity of Milk. Both the digestible albuminoids and fat of the food contribute towards milk-production, and both ought to be taken into consideration, as they undoubtedly have a very great influence not only on the Quantity but on the Quality of the milk. All the experiments made on the feeding of cows have shown that we are quite safe in concluding, at any rate for cows, that [a) Additional fat in the food increases the yield of milk ; (b) Under these conditions, the proportion of the constituents of milk is absolutely unaltered. We can easily understand that additional fat in the food would save some of the albumen from undergoing decomposition, and thus render it available for the production of milk. Fat thus increases the total quantity of milk constituents without aff'ecting their proportion to one another. The fat in the food can only assist in the direct increase of milk-fat to an extent limited by its power of passing through the membranes of the body by Endosmosis. In some experiments at Hohenheim, cows were first fed on such a poor diet that a rapid decrease in the production of milk resulted. Fat (rape- and linseed- oil) was then provided at the rate of 1 lb. per cow per day, and it was found that neither the quantity of the milk nor its percentage of fat were increased thereby. If anything, the milk contained less fat and more water than before. QUANTITY OF MILK. 257 G. Kiihn and Fleischer found in some experiments at Mockern that the addition of 1 pound of rape-oil to a rich diet increased the yield of milk 1 pound a day, while the percentage composition of the milk remained unaltered. In some other experiments it was found that the addition of a pound of rape-oil to a diet of hay increased the yield of milk 8 ounces, while the percentage of fat in the milk-solids was distinctly reduced. Stohmann experimented with goats, and found that the addition of oil to a rich nitrogenous diet of hay and oil- cake decidedly increased the amount of fat in the milk, but that the addition of oil to a poor diet of plain hay reduced the percentage of butter-fat. At the same time it is quite open to question whether these results observed with goats would hold good for cows. The former are in many respects very different from the latter. In Stohmann's experiments, for instance, 6| to 6f lbs. of albuminoids per 1000 lbs. live-weight were required by the goats for a maximum production of milk. This is more than twice that required by a cow. It is highly probable, therefore, that the limits to the direct contribution of the fat in the food to that in the milk may be much wider for goats than for cows. Weiske has carried out similar experiments on ewes. A certain ewe which had been fed on the following diet: — (Per day) 1 lb. Hay, 1 lb. Barley-meal, 2 lbs. Turnips, 258 PRODUCTION OF MILK. ■was then fed on : — Green food \_ad lib.'\. 1 lb. Barley-meal. J lb. Linsee dcake. The yield of milk was not improved by the change of diet_, though the percentage of fat in the milk was increased 5 or 6 per cent. When fed on green fodder alone, the yield of milk was considerably reduced, while its composition proved identical with that pro- duced on the original diet. (a) A diet of 3 lbs. of hay per day rapidly reduced the yield of milk from 25 ozs. to 21 ozs. per day, while the percentage of milk-solids and butter-fat increased. {b) The addition of 5 ozs. of oil to the green fodder did not improve the yield of milk, though the fat and total solids were considerably increased. Experiment. Yield of Milk. Total Solids. Fat. Before. After. (a) 25 0Z3. 21 ozs. 21 ozs. 21 ozs. 18-60 per cent. 19-64 „ „ 7*15 per cent. 8-68 „ „ (b) Fleischmann has investigated the yield of milk from Dutch cows in various periods of lactation. Period of Yield of Yield of Lactation. Milk. BuUer. 1-5 7277 lbs. 277 lbs. 5-11 6208 lbs. 211 lbs QUALITY OF MILK. 259 He also found that the smaller the weight of a cow the greater the yield of milk in proportion : — Yield of Milk per Weight of Cow. 1000 lbs. live-weight. 1162 lbs. 5748 lbs. 1028 lbs. 6244 lbs. 978 lbs. 6670 lbs. §5. Quality of Milk. "We must always bear in mind when discussing the production of milk, that its quality is even more dependent than the quantity on the breed and indi- viduality of the cow and is further influenced by the special properties of the milk-glands. No amount of feediug could possibly change the milk of an inferior German cow into the rich milk of an Alderuey. Such a radical improvement as this could only be effected by careful breeding and a gradual development in the desired direction. The prevalent idea with some practical men that this improvement may be attained by food alone, is based entirely on a misconception of the way in which milk is produced. A sudden change of food often causes a considerable alteration in both the quantity and the composition of the milk ; but it is always found that if the new food be continued long enough the milk returns to its original condition again. This has been well illus- trated by experiments at Hohenheim, Mockern, and elsewhere, in which daily analyses of milk have been made for months in succession, rendering possible the calculation of the average of very numerous results. Isolated analyses or short periods of investigation s2 260 PRODUCTION OF MILK. arc quite valueless and only lead to errors and false conclusions. Fjord and Friis have carried out a systematic investigation in Denmark for 5 years^ 1888-1892, on the milk produced by 1152 cows divided into 112 groups and belonging to 9 different dairies. They found that the composition of the milk was just the same whether the cows received barley-meal or an equal quantity of oil-cake as an addition to their ordinary diet. Oil-cake, however, decidedly increased the yield of milk, and also improved the condition of the cows to a small extent. The quality of milk has another and very important connection with the manner of feeding. The appearance, consistency, colour, keeping qualities, aroma, and flavour of butter, as well as the ease or difficulty of its separation from the milk, depend very much on the food of the cow. With a food poor in nitrogen and not much relished by the animals, the butter obtained is generally hard like tallow and of poor flavour. Such butter contains an excess of solid fat (stearin), while the soft and oily fats (palmitin and olein) are in less quantity. It is well known that butter is not so good in the winter as in the spring and autumn. The influence of food in this respect is practically very great, though the actual amount of fat in the milk may not be affected by rich feeding. At the same time the amount of water in the milk may fluctuate; and although the composition of the milk-solids remains the same, yet their total quantity may undergo considerable variation. QUALITY OF MILK. 261 The milk produced by feeding a cow continuously on a poor diet is always more ivatery than that re- sulting from a rich diet. In summer cows fed on plenty of nitrogenous green fodder yield a richer and more concentrated milk than on an ordinary diet in winter, though the difference is not really so great as is commonly supposed. A difference of only 4- or 1 per cent, in the amount of the milk-solids, however, means a considerable variation in the yield of butter obtained from the milk. In certain cases, perhaps dependent on the individual characteristics of the cows, a direct increase of the per- centage of fat in the solid matter of the milk has been found to be produced by an improved diet. G. Kiihn has obtained such results at Mockern with palm-nut cake and malt-sprouts. Bean-meal was found to have no effect on the amount of fats in milk, while rape cake sensibly reduced the percentage of the latter. Recent researches by Schrodt at Kiel showed that very favourable results could be obtained by feeding with earth-nut and cotton cakes^ provided the cakes were fresh and perfectly sound (see p. 271). In practice the particular effect of any food is shown by its influence on the quality of milk and butter. The following table shows the effect of various typical food-stuffs : — Food, Excess of Potatoes. Excess of Turnips or Mangolds. Meal from Barley, Spelt, or Wheat. Peas and Vetches. Oats, Wheat bran. Quality of Butter produced. Hard, poor flavoui*. Bitter taste. Moderate consistency. Harder consistency. Softer consistency. 262 PRODUCTION OF MILK. Oats are peculiarly favourable for the production of milk^ and all starchy £oods_, such as grain, bran, rice- meal, &c., improve the flavour of the milk and butter produced, while oil-cakes are very apt to taint both milk and butter, and should be used with great care and not in too large a quantity. This precaution is most necessary with rape cake and poppy-seed cake. A. Mayer classifies food-stuff's according to their effect on the consistency of butter as follows : — (The order given is that of the hardness of the butter produced. No. 1 food-stuff" yielding the hardest butter in each case.) Coarse Fodders. 1. Straw. 2. Hay. 3. Summer hay and Maize fodder. 4. Mature grass. 5. Young gras?. Concentrated Foods. 1. Poppy cake. 2. Linseed and Sesame cakes. 3. Earth-nut cake. 4. Rye. 5. Cotton-seed cake. The order would be inverted if the foods were classified according to their influence on the amount of fluid fatty-acids in the butter produced. §6. The Dry Substance of Milk. Many natural circumstances and conditions, quite apart from the manner of feeding, affect the proportion of dry matter in milk. The milk of a cow yielding a large quantity is generally more dilute than that of another cow yielding a smaller amount of milk. The yield gradually diminishes from the birth of the calf, while the per- centage of dry matter contained in the milk gradually EFFECT OF FREQUENT MILKING. 263 increases. This increase is generally found to be due to Casein, while the fats somewhat decrease in quantity. That the above is not always the case, however, was proved at Proskau by an investigation upon the milk from eleven cows at times varying from 3 days to 9 months after calving. It was found that there was no appreciable difference to be observed either in the per- centage of dry matter or in that of fat between these limits of time. rieischmann, as a result of his researches, found that if cows be fed on a very high diet, the percentage of milk-solids and butter-fat steadily increased throughout a lactation-period] and he maintains that if suitable cows be fed on a diet far in excess of that usually recognized and employed, they will pay still better than if fed on an ordinary diet. § 7. Effect of frequent Milking. The milk obtained from a cow at different times of the same day is seldom of identical composition. Long intervals between milking conduce to a more watery milk than if the cow be milked more often. If milking be performed three times a day, the milk at noon and in the evening is better than that obtained in the morning. It was found at Proskau that the milk obtained by three milkings per day was superior both in quantity and quality to that produced by two milkings. Kaull proved that this increased yield was not due to the mechanical process of milking, but was caused by the frequent emptying of the milk-glands. Too frequent milking is quite as bad as leaving the milk-glands too long without relieving them of their contents. 264 PRODUCTION OF MILK. The milk obtained at one milking also varies con- siderably during the process. The first portions are always poorer and more watery than the last portion. All these natural variations and sources of error must be most carefully guarded against in determining the specific influence of a certain mode of feeding on the milk produced. §8. Mineral requirements of Cows. Weiske has shown that lack of phosphoric acid and lime in food reduces the yield of milk. Henneberg and Stohmann found that an ox required per day per 1000 lbs. live-weight : — Phosphoric acid... 0*8 oz. Lime 1*6 ozs. Potash 3*2 ozs. If we assume that the milk produced by a good cow throughout a lactation-period averages 20 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live-weighty this would contain : — Phosphoric acid... 0*64 oz. Lime 0*48 oz. Potash 0-58 oz. By adding these quantities to the requirements of an ox as found by Stohmann, we obtain the following as the Minimum Mineral requirements of a Cow : — Phosphoric acid... 1*44 ozs. Lime 2*08 ozs. Potash 3*78 ozs. GIVING SALT TO COWS. 265 Lack of potash is not a probable contingency, as it always occurs largely in vegetable foods. The addition of lime and phosphoric acid to the diet of milch-cows is always worth consideration, but is not often necessary. In 30 lbs. of average hay (the usual quantity fed per day per 1000 lbs. live- weight) are contained : — 2 ozs. Phosphoric acid. 4 ozs. Lime. 6j ozs. Potash. Lime in the form of chalk is necessary when the cows are entirely fed on such foods as straw, chaff, roots, " slump '^ or sugar-beet residue. Phosphoric acid will only be lacking in exceptional cases. § 9. Giving Salt to Cows. Salt is an essential addition to the food of milch- cows. First, because many foods are lacking in soda and rich in potash (see p. 17) ; and secondly, because salt stimulates the flow of the plasma, maintains the circulatory albumen in more active movement, and induces the cow to drink larger quantities of water, all of which tend to increase the production of milk. Even if the addition of salt to the rich diet of a milch-cow should have no apparent effect on the quantity and quality of the milk, still it will generally be found that at any rate the cow herself looks the better for it, and that a high yield of milk is well maintained. It is also a matter of common knowledge that salt improves the flavour of the food, increases the appetite 266 PRODUCTION OF MILK. of the cow and induces it to eat food that it would not otherwise relish. Half an ounce of salt per day should be given to each cow ; but care must be taken not to give more than this, or else the effects will be quite the opposite of those desired. FEEDING or YOUNG ANIMALS. 267 CHAPTER VI. THE FEEDING OF YOUNG ANIMALS. Calves.— Although numerous practical observations on the feeding of calves have been made, very many o£ them lack that scientific accuracy and general precision which are requisite for the foundation of general principles and laws. The following results of experiments on calves by Crusius, though made a long time ago, are still in- teresting (p. 268) . The milk employed was fairly nitrogenous, but poor in fat, as it only contained 2-6 per cent, of butter-fat. If calves No. I and 3 had been fed on average milk, the albuminoid ratio would have been still lower. We see that the increase in weight of the calves varied with the food in each case. The difference is not due to any specific effect of the fat in the food, but is the direct outcome of the difference in the amount of organic matter and variation in the albuminoid ratio in each case. The albuminoid ratio of the food of calf No. 2 was too high, and a certain proportion of the albuminoids in the food must have been oxidized in the body of the animal. If the quantity of food had been increased, the albuminoid ratio remaining the same, it is doubtful whether any further increase of live-weight would have 268 FEEDING OF YOUNG ANIMALS. Organic matter in food for 1 lb. increase. lbs. ?c eg o Tfl Tf t^ (fl CO Al Increase in weight per week. lbs. CO o 22 ^ ^ [1 : 4-47] [I : 2-05] [1 : 5-40] 1 r"^' i &H ^ CI Ttl 00 CO -^ t- (M lO XO 00 «3 O 1 J Tfi IC CO CO "^ ■*! Organic matter. lbs. 14-8 12-4 18-9 Live- weight. lbs. 1 S 2 Calf. No. ^ ci CO >» , ■JS >^ s CS T3 s u cr m 5 ^^ 1 P- - a ^ :=: ^ •:: c •:: o S = ^ 03 li § ?^ i i i bX) 3 cq O :r! r^ r^ C4 1-1 ;^ TJ 2 > -TS § " " s .S3 r^ CM CO 7 ode ?. ^^^ "s CALVES. 269 resulted. The addition of fat in the third case pro- duced very favourable results . Experiment No. 1, in which the calf was fed entirely on new milk^ gave a very satisfactory rate of increase_, although the amount of fat and albuminoids in the food was rather small. This illustrates the fact that carbohydrates (milk-sugar in this case) can partially replace fat in the food of young animals. This last deduction from the experiments of Crusius is of considerable practical importance^ since it shows that young calves can be successfully reared on a mixture of about equal quantities of milk and whey, or even on separated milk with the addition of sugar or starch in some digestible form. It has also been found that calves can be successfnlly fattened on skimmed milk (20 to 24 lbs. per day). An increase at the rate of over 2 lbs. a day for several "weeks can be obtained with a diet of skimmed milk, supplemented towards the end of the time with some other nourishing and digestible food. I attribute the rapid increase in live-weight observed in experiments 1 and 3 to the comparatively low albuminoid ratio, and to the fact that the bodily increase consisted mostly of flesh. Fat cannot produce any very rapid increase in the weight of an animal, since for the most part it simply replaces water which is otherwise discharged from the body. Ordinary flesh is three-fourths water, and one pound of albumen produces 4 lbs. of flesh. It should always be remembered, when estimating the growth of young animals, that the proportion of water in the body is much greater in a young than in an older one. 270 FEEDING OF YOUNG ANIMALS. Fat. — If the fat of milk be completely replaced by carbohydrates, a disturbance of the nutritive effect results in the case of young animals. Fat is well known to be a concentrated combustible material and of greater value for respiration than any other food-stuff. Milk-fat is highly digestible and adds to the general flavour of the milk, and is thus a very valuable con- stituent of the food of very young animals. Calves should always be fed for the first fortnight on plain cow^s milk. Average milk has an albuminoid ratio of [1 : 4'5], but owing to the very variable proportion of fat in milk (2 to 5 per cent.) the albuminoid ratio often varies from [1 : 3*3] to [1 : 5*5]. This explains why equal quantities of milk so often produce such different feeding effects. A calf fed with 22 lbs. of new milk (containing 3 lbs. of dry matter) grows at the rate of 2\ lbs. per day from the fourth to the sixth week of its existence. This result has been accurately deduced by Soxhlet from experiments with calves in a respiration apparatus (see p. 34) . As we have already seen in our previous con- sideration of these accurate researches, a calf 2 or 3 weeks old practically increases 1 lb. in weight for every pound of solid food provided in the milk. Colostrum, — Immediately after birth it is highly important to let the calf have milk from its own mother, as the first produce of the milk-glands after the birth of the calf — the so-called Colostrum — has a very different composition from the normal milk afterwards produced. Colostrum contains more fat and sugar, and less casein and albumen, than ordinary milk, and the former CALVES. 271 therefore possesses a lower albuminoid ratio and at the same time is more digestible than the latter. These differences disappear after 8 days or so, and more rapidly with cows yielding a large than with others yielding a small amount of milk. A calf should receive one-sixth to one-eighth of its own weight of milk per day for 6 or 8 weeks. Weaning. — When the diet of the calf is changed from the pure milk it has been receiving, great care is necessary in adjusting the new diet, or else the calf will lose in weight instead of maintaining its normal rate of increase. This can only be done when the change of diet is gradual and the same standard of digestibility, nutritive value, and flavour is fully maintained. Crushed linseed mash and linseed cake are held in great favour, and other palatable oil-cakes, such as palm-nut, earth-nut, and coconut cakes, as well as such food-stuffs as oats, barley, malt-sprouts, pea-meal, &c., have been found excellent additions to the diet of young calves. It is also advisable to give calves a little of the very best hay, so that they may become accustomed to eating it ; clover should be avoided. If calves are weaned by being turned out on good pasturage, no difficulty arises ; but if they are weaned in the stall, the food must be maintained as nearly as possible at the same albuminoid ratio as milk for some time, and can then be gradually lowered. It is possible to gradually replace the fat in the milk by digestible carbohydrates at a very early period with good results, if the calves are brought up on milk only. If the rules already laid down be observed, a calf will have been weaned when 9 or 10 weeks old, and 272 FEEDING OF YOUNG ANIMALS. will weigh, if of a medium-sized breed, from 150 to 220 lbs. After the calf is weaned, it should receive a liberal diet with an albuminoid ratio of [1 : 5] or [1 : 6], corresponding to that of a good pasturage. Excellent results are sure to follow later on as a return for the good start the calf will thus be enabled to make. After the fourth or sixth month the diet should be gradually changed to one which is more bulky, less nitrogenous, and less concentrated than before. Roots are very suitable at this stage. To raise good milch- cows the calves ought not to be fed too long on a rich diet, as it has a tendency to make them fat and to eventually reduce their milking capacity. This fact should be kept in mind when using the tables of feeding standards for calves given in the Appendix (Table IV.). Lambs. — Great care must be exercised in feeding lambs. When quite young they grow even more rapidly than calves, and very readily lose ground if the diet provided is not suitable or sufficient for their needs. Great importance attaches to the selection of coarse fodder at and soon after the time of weaning. When the fodder is too coarse and hard or has been spoilt by bad harvesting, the lambs will not eat sufficient of it and gradually lose weight. Even good average hay needs an addition of a nitrogenous food, such as oats or other cereal. Experiments have been carried out at Hohenheim on young Wiirttemberg sheep from the fifth to the four- teenth month of their age. The diet varied considerably, SHEEP. 273 and the actually digested constituents of the following diets were directly determined : — {a) Corn alone. {b) Excellent hay. (c) Aftermath. The figures given in Table IV. in the Appendix have been deduced from these researches_, and are suitable for maintaining sheep of a moderately fine-woolled breed, and weighing from 100 to 110 lbs., in a good and constant condition. Weiske has obtained very similar results by experi- ments with a herd of Merino Southdowns. The following table gives Weiske^s results : — Weiske^s Sheep Experiments, Organic matter in Food. Digestible Food. Age of Sheep. Live- weight. Albumen. Carbo- hydrates. Fat. Albuminoid Eatio. Months. lbs. ozs. ozs. ozs. ozs. 5-6 51 24 n m i [1:5-3] 7-9 66 28 3 15 ^ [1:5-5] 10-12 77 29 3 15 1 [1 : 5-8] 13-15 85 30 3 16 1 [1:6-2] 16-24 103 34 2^ . 17* f [1:7-6] The Mineral Matter stored up in the bodies of the sheep was as follows : — 274 feeding of young animals. Mineral Matter. Age of Sheep. Months. Live- weight. lbs. Stored up per head per day. Potash, grams. Soda, grams. Lime, grams. Magnesia, grams. Phosphoric Acid. grams. 5-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 51 66 77 85 2-04 2-89 305 2-65 0-84 1-05 0-81 0-72 1-56 2-00 1-81 2-07 012 0-32 0-38 0-35 1-09 1-65 2-50 314 It will be noticed that the amount of phosphoric acid stored up in the body of a sheep per day increases from the fifth to the fifteenth month, while that of the other mineral constituents remains practically constant throughout that period. Young Pigs. — No satisfactory researches have yet been made on the food-requirements of young pigs. It is customary to feed them generously from the very first so that they may rapidly become fat. The diet best suited to this end is discussed in the next chapter. Mineral Requirements of young Animals. In feeding young animals the greatest care is necessary with regard to the Phosphoric acid and Lime in the food supplied. The other mineral constituents, such as potash, magnesia, and iron, are always supplied in plenty and need no especial provision. At the end of 12 months a calf weighing 770 lbs. (55 stone) has stored up in its body : — MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF YOUNG. 275 I 14 lbs. 13 ozs. of Phosphoric acid, I 16 lbs. 8 ozs. of Lime; or r 277 grains of Phosphoric acid per day, 1 307 grains of Lime per day. The average food of such a calf for the first week would be represented by 2 gallons of milk containing r 303 grains of Phosphoric acid, 1 250 grains of Lime. A new-born calf is thus apparently able to store up the whole of the lime and phosphoric acid in milk, while the amount stored up during the later months of the first year must amount to 30 or 50 per cent, of that provided in the food (see p. 35) . The experiments of Weiske and Wildt on calves 5 to 6 months old showed a storage of r 324 grains Phosphoric acid per day, t 253 grains Lime per day. The addition of Phosphate of Lime only results in assimilation when the calf is unable to get the necessary amount — viz. : r 325 grains Phosphoric acid per day, 1 260 grains Lime per day — from its food. Although the mineral constituents of milk are to all intents and purposes perfectly digestible and capable of complete storage in the body, it is quite different with the mineral constituents of the other food-stuffs. In the artificial feeding of young animals, an appreciable excess of lime and phosphoric acid should always be provided, especially in the first months, when a rapid and sound development of the bony framework is most desirable and necessary. Young cattle are generally fed on hay and corn, and are not at all likely to lack t2 276 FEEDING OF YOUNG ANIMALS. mineral matter, as 1000 lbs. of oats, for instance, contain : — J 6 lbs. 13 ozs. Phosphoric acid ; 1 1 lb. Lime; "while 1000 lbs. of hay contain : — J 4 lbs. 6 ozs. Phosphoric acid ; 1 9 lbs. 13 ozs. Lime. The two food-stuflPs thus mutually adjust their individual deficiencies,- — lack of lime in the case of oats and of phosphoric acid in the case of hay. If more roots, corn, straw, or chaff be supplied and the amount of hay be reduced, a lack of lime may easily occur. For example : — 1000 lbs. potatoes contain: J 1 lb. 10 ozs. Phosphoric acid; I 5 ozs. Lime. 1000 lbs. cereal straw contain : f 2 lbs. 6 ozs. Phosphoric acid ; 1 3 lbs. 13 ozs. Lime. The addition of a little chalk to the food in the form of powder or of '^ lick-stones '' is evidently desirable under such conditions of feeding as the above. Phos- phoric acid can be provided artificially in the form of phosphate of lime. Experiment has shown that this latter substance is capable of assimilation by calves and lambs, and it has been found of great benefit to foals. The food of young animals reared artificially should always contain 2 to 3 times as much lime and phosphoric acid as that actually required by the animals. If these important substances be lacking at all, the richest food will prove of little or no effect, and the young animals will lose ground and gradually decUne in condition. FATTENING. 277 CHAPTER VII. FATTENING. The fattening of animals resolves itself principally into the storing up of fat. Lawes and Gilbert found from their experiments that in the process of fattening 10 times more fat than flesh is stored up in the body (p. 60). Recent researches by Kern and Wattenberg at Gottingen (see p. 62) also showed that in the fattening of full-grown sheep the increase was entirely due to fat and not at all to flesh. In these researches, however, the animals were in excellent condition to start with. If this is not the case, the animals always make a good deal of flesh in the first stages of fattening. Young animals in rapid growth can make flesh at a quick rate, while the strictly " fattened ''' animal does not increase appreciably in this direction. The general laws of Flesh- and Fat-formation have been already discussed in Part I. of this book, and I will only now refer to a few of the more important points involved. Lean oxen, poor in flesh and fat, must first attain a good bodily condition before they can be fattened. It is impossible to make the body rich in flesh and fat if it does not already possess the necessary minimum of organized and circulatory albumen to render possible 278 FATTENING. the digestion of large quantities of fat and albumen and to secure their resorption and storage in the body. To put lean oxen in good condition, the following diet would prove effectual : — Clover-hay with a moderate addition of barley-meal and oil-cakes {or slump, brewers' grains, malt-sprouts^ bean-meal, ^c.) containing : — (Per 1000 lbs. live-weight) 2 J lbs. digestible albuminoids ; 12J lbs. digestible carbohydrates ; [1 : 5] albuminoid ratio. After a fortnight or 3 weeks the beasts will be in fit condition for fattening, and the diet must be modified by the further addition of 3 lbs. 12 ozs. of digestible non-nitrogenous food, whereby the albuminoid ratio would be reduced to [1 : 6*5]. The stream of circu- latory albumen and its rapid destruction will then be reduced, and some of the albumen will be stored up in the organs. At the same time the fat resorbed from the food and that produced from the albumen will escape combustion to a greater extent and will be stored up in the body. The laying-on of fat takes place more readily in the body of an animal already rich in flesh than in that of one which is relatively lean. Pfeiffer and Kalb found that sheep fed first on a very rich nitrogenous diet, and then on an average fattening ration containing a fairly high proportion of digestible carbohydrates, increased in weight at a most extra- ordinary rate. After one-third of the fattening period is passed and the animals have laid on a good deal of FATTENING STANDARD FOR OXEN. 279 fat, it is advisable to gradually increase the amount of digestible albuminoids in the food from 2^ to 3 lbs., and thereby raise the albuminoid ratio of the whole diet to [1 : 5*5]. A rich supply of albumen for the production of fat will thus be provided, which is the more important as the laying-on of fat gradually in- creases in difficulty as the store in the body gets larger. There is no risk of increasing the stream of circu- latory albumen, as already an abundance of fat will have been stored up in the body. The standard just laid down should be now maintained for a considerable time. Fattening Standard for Oxen. (Per 1000 lbs. live-weight) 3 lbs. digestible albuminoids per day; 16^ lbs. digestible carbohydrates and fats per day ; [1 : 5 "5] albuminoid ratio. In practice it is usual to employ a rather less nitro- genous food just at the end of the fattening period, such, for instance, as the substitution of barley-meal for the oil- cake or other rich nitrogen -food previously supplied. Good results can thus be obtained if, as is often the case, the diet gains in palatability and the amount of digestible matter be increased. The diet of lower albuminoid ratio may permit of the laying-on of flesh without prejudicing the fat already stored up. It also appears that the final product of the fattening is thus sent to market in a more tender, juicy, and better flavoured condition, and is more suitable for the purposes of the butcher than if a higher albuminoid ratio be 280 FATTENING. maintained to the very end. The final diet, however, must not be reduced to a lower albuminoid ratio than [1 : 6]. Effect of Fat in the Food, The addition of fat to the diet of fattening animals, such, for instance, as 8 ozs. to 1 lb. of rape-oil per head per day for oxen, and 1 to l^ ozs. for pigs, has often been found by direct experiment to produce excellent results, especially if the albuminoid ratio of the diet be a high one. Such treatment favours the laying-on of both fat and flesh, and the addition of oil is especially appropriate in the second or main period of fattening, as the food would then be more concentrated than ever. At the same time, the addition of rape-oil or other fat has not yet found general acceptance in practice. This is obviously due to the fact that pure fat or oil commands a very high price, and if the oil be given in even slight excess or be administered for too long a time, the animals are very apt to suffer in appetite and digestive power. The proportion of fat in the diet of fattening beasts is well worthy of consideration, and may often be increased to advantage, especially with a high albuminoid ratio. This addition can be made most cheaply in the form of oil-cakes or in certain cases by small quantities of oil-seeds. In fattening, it is very important to provide a diet which is not only easily digestible but which is also relished and liked by the animals, or else they will not eat it freely and in large quantity. EFFECT OF FAT IN FOOD. 281 The preparation o£ the food and the addition of a certain amount of salt both tend to secure this end ; for though the actual digestibility of the food may not be increased^ still excellent results follow from the im- proved flavour of the food, and the larger amount which the animals are thereby tempted to eat {cf, p. 147) . Such food-stuffs as potatoes and sngar-beet residues are benefited by a fairly large addition of salt, but great care must be taken not to add an excess or un- satisfactory results will follow. Too much salt, as we have seen, causes the animals to drink to excess and retards their bodily growth (p. 43). Excess of tvater in the food of fat beasts should be guarded against. The proportion of water to dry matter in the food of fat oxen should not exceed 4 or 5 to 1, and in the case of fat sheep a proportion of 2 or 3 to 1 should be maintained. Fat Sheep. — All the experiments on the fattening of sheep point to the especial value of a high nitro- genous diet. Such a diet was found not only to pro- duce a more rapid increase in live-weight than one of low albuminoid ratio, but after slaughtering the carcases were found to contain a greater proportion of fat (p. 61) . . This fact finds confirmation in the ordinary ex- perience of farmers. A diet of 2 lbs. of bean-meal a day in addition to hay is well known to rapidly fatten sheep. The same general rules laid down for the feeding of fat oxen hold good in the case of sheep ; but as they are usually in fair condition to begin with, the prelim- inary feeding can be dispensed with in the case of sheep. To start with, a diet with an albuminoid ratio 282 FATTENING. of [1 : 5*5] should be given, and then this may rapidly be increased to [1 : 4*5] and maintained at that standard for a considerable time. It cannot be denied, however, that a diet with a lower ratio than this [1 : 5 to 6] often succeeds well with fattening sheep. The principal considerations in fattening are, that the diet should be highly digestible and should be also relished by the animals. Watery food is even more hurtful for sheep than oxen, and excess of slump or roots should be avoided. On the other hand, the addition of potatoes permits of a favourable ratio of 1 : 2 or 1 : 3 between the dry matter and moisture in the food. The best results with sheep are obtained with good hay and an addition of corn or meal. In proportion to their live-weight, sheep require food containing more dry matter, and that of a higher albuminoid ratio, than that suitable for oxen. As a general rule the best results will be attained both with fat sheep and oxen if the fattening diet contains 18 lbs. of digestible food per day per 1000 lbs. original live- weight. In the case of sheep, an average increase in live-weight amounting to 10 or 12 per cent, of the weight of the digested food ought to result, and rather more in the case of oxen. The various breeds of sheep exhibit great differences with regard to the amount of food they will eat and its resulting nutritive effect. Sturdier breeds, such as English sheep in general and Southdowns in particular, are more easily fattened than the smaller breeds found on the Continent, such as the Merinos and Negrettis, EFFECT OF FAT IN FOOD. 283 Sheep fatten most rapidly between the ages of 18 months and 3 years. It is true that^ like all young animals in rapid growth^ sheep will make a more rapid increase in live-weight during the first year with a rich diet than that attained by more mature animals of the same breed under similar conditions. The result is not so satisfactory, however^ from the butcher^s point of view, for not only is the dressed carcase more watery in itself^ but it is also less in proportion to the live- weight and the amount of fat is smaller than with older sheep. In an experiment at Hohenheim^ lambs were fattened in 8 or 9 months to the same extent as older sheep in 3 months, and the cost of the former was far in excess of the latter. Two-year old sheep achieve the best fattening results both as to quality and quantity. Full- grown sheep (over 4 years old) rapidly develop fat in the region of the intestines and on the kidneys, but the meat is notof sofine aflavour as that of younger animals. The results obtained by Kellner at Hohenheim by weighing the animals alive and the carcases when dressed, show that fat sheep can be maintained in prime condition without loss for a long time on an ordinary maintenance diet. He found that 12 fat sheep 1^ years old and 12 others 2 to 4 years old had been maintained in constant bodily condition for 2 months on a diet of 2| to 3 lbs. of ordinary hay per head per day. Similar results were obtained with oxen. This is quite comprehensible when we recollect that/a^ is the chief product of fattening, and that this, when once produced, requires no further nourishment to maintain 284 FATTENING. it and even acts as an economizer of albumen. If the animals be debarred from unnecessary movement and be kept in strict seclusion in a stall, a very moderate diet is all that is required to keep them in a constant condition. Effect of Shearing, Sheep generally fatten more quickly after than before being shoym. Stohmann found by experiments that before shearing a high nitrogenous diet gave better results than one of lower albuminoid ratio, but after shearing both diets yielded the same increase of live- weight, and a difference was only found on comparing the dressed carcases in each case. The more rapid increase in live- weight after shearing is simply due to the improved appetite of the animal and the fact that it eats more food. In one of Henneberg's experiments a greater increase of live-weight was obtained with the same amount of food after than before shearing. The sheep in this experiment drank less water after being shorn, and thus was enabled to make better use of the food supplied, and to produce a greater increase of live-weight (see pp. 43 and 69). Kern and Watten- berg have shown, however, that the consumption of albumen is only reduced for the first few days after shearing, which is perhaps due to the fact that more nitrogen is employed in the production of wool. Weiske found under similar conditions that sheep after being shorn drank less water than before, but he did not observe any appreciable increase of live-weight in consequence. The consumption of albumen had ADVICE AS TO FEEDING STANDARDS. 285 increased 5 per cent., and the rate of flesh -formation was thereby reduced, but this does not prohibit the possi- bility of an increased storage of fat in the bodies of the shorn sheep. The digestibility of the food was abso- lutely the same both before and after shearing, and the increased appetite of the shorn animals remains the only explanation of the facts observed. Advice as to the Interpretation of Feeding Standards. I would here urge farmers not to assume that the standards I have laid down for fattening oxen and sheep are suited to all conditions without modification. Some animals have a constitutional capacity for fatten- ing, just as some cows are peculiarly adapted for giving milk, and in such cases food considerably in excess of our standard should be given at the discretion of the stock-keeper. Marcker, as a result of a large number of practical experiments, has proved that a very highly nitrogenous diet caused a rapid increase of live-weight with fat sheep, although the improvement in the quality of the meat was doubtful. The return made in the manurial value of the dung in the form of nitrogen and phosphates is an important item in the consideration of the financial outcome of this method of feeding. An increase in the carbo- hydrates and fats often gives excellent results ; but in the case of sheep the quantity must not exceed 20 lbs. per 1000 lbs. original live- weight, whether the albu- minoids be high or low in amount, as both the quality and quantity of the product would suffer. Up to this 286 FATTENING. limit the increase of both groups of food- constituents is highly desirable. The chief lesson to be learnt from all these experi- ments, as Marcker insists, is this : — Only animals of the BEST quality will pay for fattening ; feeding inferior beasts on a high diet is simply waste of time and money. The Fattening of Pigs, The feeding-standard I lay down for fattening pigs is one in which the albuminoid ratio is gradually reduced with the progress of the fattening. I prescribe a lower albuminoid ratio towards the end of the fattening period^ because bacon of a firmer and better quality is thus obtained and the pigs are less likely to become diseased than with a rich nitrogenous food. If lean swine of fair size be fattened, they will eat an enormous amount of food at first (exceeding 40 lbs. of dry matter per 1000 lbs. live-weight), and rapidly increase in weight, but the fatter they become the less they eat and eventually their appetite is hardly as great in proportion as that of fat beasts. This is still more noticeable if young pigs be fed on a fattening diet from the time they are weaned until they are a twelvemonth old, and have attained a weight of about 3 cwt. per head. With suitable food and pigs of a breed adapted for fattening, an average increase of 1 lb. for every 4 lbs. of dry matter in the food can be attained. At first an increase of 1 lb. results from 3 lbs. of food, but later on 4 or 5 lbs. of food are required to produce the same eflPect. Older pigs require more food in proportion to the increase produced than young ones. These facts have been FATTENING OF PIGS. 287 confirmed by repeated experiments at Hohenheim and at other German as well as Danish experimental stations. With regard to the tables in the Appendix (Table IV.) giving the feeding standard for fat pigs as de- duced from the results of direct experiments^ I should state that the high albuminoid ratio prescribed for the first few months after weaning the young pigs is open to objection because it may lead to the animals over-eating, and is more apt to engender diseases and lameness than a food less rich in nitrogen. It would be a wise precaution, therefore, to reduce the amount of the albumiDoids in the food until an albuminoid ratio of [1 : 4-5] or [1 : 5] be obtained, and after the sixth month to gradually lower the ratio until it has reached [1 : 6-5]. With full-grown pigs, or at the end of the fattening period, the albuminoid ratio can be kept as low as [1 : 8] or even [1 : 10], provided the food be digestible and palatable. Good fattening results have been obtained on these lines at Hohenheim, where a diet of starch and barley-meal was employed, and also at Gottingen, where Henneberg found raw sugar pro- duced excellent fattening results. The addition of about ^ oz. of powdered chalk per head per day undoubtedly contributes towards the health of fattening pigs. This addition of chalk should never be omitted with young pigs, as the food usually provided is rich in phosphates but invariably lacking in lime. A small amount of salt (J oz. per head per day) should always be added to the food of pigs. It is very evident that the feeder has at his disposal a large number of possible combinations of food-stuffs 288 FATTENING. which conform to the feeding standard, and one of the most important questions for him to decide is, " What foods at my disposal will achieve the best result at the smallest expense ? '' Experience has shown that barley-meal, maize-meal, and pea-meal, mixed with steamed potatoes, are excellent foods for fat swine, while oatmeal and bran have proved of little value in this respect. The addition of whey or sour milk is a great improvement to a food which the animals do not relish by itself. The waste-products of the dairy are of the greatest value for feeding pigs. Henry, of the Wisconsin experimental station U.S.A., found that pigs fattened on a diet of corn (maize, pea- meal, &c.) required 552 lbs. of food for 100 lbs. in- crease in live-weight, but that results as good were obtainable if half or even two-thirds of the corn diet were replaced by whey (containing 6*1 per cent, dry matter. Albuminoid ratio [1 : 6*6]). Henry estimated that 760 lbs. of whey were equal to 100 lbs. of corn. Fjord states that he found 12 lbs. of whey were equal to 1 lb. of barley- or rye-meal. Flesh-meal is a highly digestible nitrogenous food, and is an excellent addition to a general diet in which albuminoids are lacking (see p. 203). Raw sugar acts like whey, which contains the sugar of milk (lactose) i and is a capital food for fat pigs. German farmers would gladly use it for fattening pigs at a good profit were it freed from the tax placed upon it by a short-sighted government. A large number of experiments on feeding pigs with sugar have been made in Hanover. FATTENING OF PIGS. 289 The addition of 3 lbs. of sugar to the food of fattening pigs resulted in the production of 1 lb. of pork, and the pigs were found capable of eating 1 to 1^ lbs. per head per day without waste or any disturbance of digestion. The rate of fattening was thus increased and the amount of food required to produce it decidedly reduced. Pigs eat sugar with relish; it increases their appetites, and they do not get tired of it. Calves and sheep do not take kindly to sugar. The bran of wheat and rye does not suit fattening pigs (p. 193). Friis and Petersen found bran far inferior to barley- meal for pigs ; not only was the pork of poor quality but there was 4 per cent, more loss in killing and dressing the carcases. APPENDIX. TABLE I. The Composition and Feeding-value of Food-stuffs. The figures given in this Table are AVERAGES, and must not be regarded as absolutely accurate for all cases or under all conditions. Their value lies in enabling a farmer to easily reckon up the feeding-value of his stock in hand, or to get a fairly accurate idea of the best and most economical combination of the food-stuffs at his disposal for any particular branch of stock-keeping. It is highly necessary that such figures should be based as far as possible on the latest scientific results, and that all those errors and inconsistencies, which are so glaringly evident in former tables, in which the compilers have selected standard values suited to their own fancy or limited experience, should be rigidly excluded. Averages are most valuable as an index and guide to the intelligent and rational use of feeding- stuffs. The following remarks are intended to throw further light on this table : — 1. I have set forth in the case of Hay, Clover, Straw, APPENDIX. 291 and some other farm foods the composition of different qualities in each case. The values given are calculated from the average of direct experiments in each case, and with a little experience a practical man can easily decide in which class to place any particular sample with which he is concerned. To guide the farmer as to how to judge the probable quality of a sample of hay or straw or other food-stuff, I have fully discussed in Part II. the various conditions which determine or modify the feeding- value of the various farm foods in general use. I append a brief resume of the conditions affecting the quality of a food-stuff. (a) Period of Vegetation, — A young plant contains more albuminoids and less crude fibre than one in a later stage of growth. The alteration in the composition of grass is not so marked in its first vegetative growth as at the period of flowering and just after. Clovers develop excess of fibre more rapidly than grasses. (b) The leaves often contain two or three times as much albuminoids as the stalks of a fodder-plant, while the latter contain more crude fibre. The more the growth of leaves is favoured and the less the loss of leaves in any method of preserving or storing, the more valuable the fodder. (c) The Soil has a very great influence on the crop grown upon it. A rich soil encourages luxuriant growth and the production of shoots, stalks, and leaves. A light sandy soil usually yields corn, roots, and fodder-crops less rich in nitrogen than those grown on a heavy clay, although the product of the lighter soil is often possessed of better flavour and aroma. A u2 292 FARM FOODS. wet sour peat always detracts from the high quality of a crop. (d) Manuring, Weather, and Climate. — Chemical analysis has proved over and over again the marked influence of these agencies on the composition of a crop. By a liberal dressing of manures rich in nitrogen and phosphates a poor soil has been proved capable of yielding large crops. The season determines the quality and quantity of a crop producible under given conditions of soil and manuring. A favourable season which is both warm and moist can produce as good a crop on a poor soil as powerful manures under less favourable conditions of weather. (e) The weather during Hay-making is well-known to have a most important influence on the quality of the Hay. If hay be soaked with rain, it not only loses in flavour but also in actual feeding-value. Aftermath is more easily spoilt than Hay, and Clover most of all. Clover-hay is often rich in nitrogen, but is found to contain an excess of crude fibre and to be greatly lacking in nitrogen-free extract, because the latter has been washed out by rain during hay-making. Fodder is always the worse for being soaked, and is often actually hurtful if it has become mouldy in consequence. (f) Many other causes contribute to variation in the quality of foods — for instance, the situation of the field with regard to sunshine, the closeness with which the plants grow together, the general methods of cultivation, harvesting, preservation, storage, &c. It is impossible to allow a definite and fixed value for all these variables in food calculations, and each must use APPENDIX. 293 his own judgment in deciding as to the comparative quality of any food-stuff. More analyses of food-stuff are still much needed with special reference to the growth and general conditions under which the crops have been grown and harvested. Marcker has conducted this new branch of food-analysis with great zeal, and it is now possible to obtain data referred to the quality of many food-stuffs^ The monumental work of Dietrich and Konig, in which they have made a complete and systematic compilation of all the food-analyses on record, is an. invaluable guide and an ideal work of reference. 2. This table contains the amount of actually digestible food supplied in the various food-staffs^ under the headings '^ Digestible albuminoids/' '^ Diges- tible fats/' and " Digestible carbohydrates." It was not possible to base these values on direct ^' digestion experiments '' in all cases ; but so many of the typical food-stuffs have been investigated in this way, that little risk of serious error is involved in calculating digestion values from a comparison with others based on direct experiments. The figures I have obtained by calculation may of course be modified in future to a certain extent when the results of direct experiments have been obtained. In the year 1874, when the first edition of this book appeared in German, it was necessary to start with such figures, as the employment of " di- gestible '' values is the only way in which the general laws of animal nutrition and the rational feeding of farm animals can possibly be placed on a sound and firm basis. In framing my tables, I have brought just the same considerations to bear on the results obtained 294 FARM FOODS. by experiments on the digestibility of food-stuffs as an intelligent farmer would apply if he wished to determine correctly the feeding-value of any food of known composition. Any food-stuff of practically the same composition as that given in the table may be safely concluded to possess the digestible value attached to it there. If, however, a sample exhibits a decided variation from the typical samples given in Table I., its digestibility will vary in proportion, and by consulting Table II. its probable extent can easily be found. 3. I have put in separate columns the digestible carbohydrates (nitrogen-free extract) and the digestible fibre (crude fibre). This is necessary on account of the recently established fact that much of the fibre which is apparently digested undergoes decomposition and passes off as gas from the intestines. Foods rich in fibre require greater efforts of digestion and rumi- nation on the part of cattle than the easily digested roots and concentrated food- stuffs. I have decided that the crude fibre apparently digested (from the difference between food and dung) should be considered as only half that value for cattle, and oino feeding-value at all' for horses. 4. The most striking results of scientific investigations on the feeding- value of farm foods is that the digestible constituents of foods — the so-called nutrients — measure the real feeding- value of a food. Digestible albuminoids, fats, and carbohydrates are the only materials that represent the real value of any food-stuff, and it is highly desirable that some system of money valuation should be adopted so that a farmer APPENDIX. 295 may see at a glance what food-stuff at the current market price would be actually the cheapest for his purpose. The customary scale for valuation has been that of: — Crude albuminoids = 5 Crude fats = 5 Crude carbohydrates = 1 Carbohydrates = | of a penny per pound. The author proposes the following scale as more in accordance with current market prices : — Digestible albuminoids = 3 ^ Digestible fats ~ ^ t Digestible carbohydrates = 1 ( Carbohydrates = 4 of a penny per pound. / The values so obtained require a reduction of about a third in the case of such coarse fodders as chaff and straw. This is due to the fact that the returns made for digestible albuminoids in these food-stuffs include a certain proportion of amides or substances other than true albuminoids_, while the ether-extract always con- tains waxy substances, and the nitrogen-free extract contains more fibre (cellulose) than is the case with concentrated food-stuffs. The calculated values obtained in this way are fre- quently at variance with the market price, which fluc- tuates in obedience to supply and demand. Food-stuffs employed for human food are generally abnormally high (wheat, rice, and generally peas and potatoes), as is also the case with foods employed in manufactures, such as barley, sugar-beet, oily seeds, &c. Such foods as oats and linseed cake, which possess a reputation as excellent foods for special purposes, are generally at 296 FARM FOODS. a premium_, while foods that are apt to disagree with cattle or are not relished by the animals (lupines, poppy cakes, &c.) are usually sold at prices below their apparent value. For the control of the sale and purchase of food- stuffs in Germany, the seller has to provide a guarantee ; and in case the analysis should prove that the sample was not up to the standard guaranteed, the buyer is entitled to compensation based on a system of food units. The unit values recognized officially for Crude albuminoids = 5 Crude fats ... =5 Carbohydrates = 1 To give an example of the working of this system, let us consider the unit feeding- values for rape cake. A sample of rape cake guaranteed to contain 31 per cent. Albuminoids, 10 „ Fats, 28 „ Carbohydrates, is sold at £6 per ton. Here we are dealing with 31x5 = 155 10x5= 50 28 X 1 = 28 Food units = 233 Two hundred and thirty-three units are therefore sold for £6j so that a single unit is worth 6d. [6*17 pence]. From this the compensation due for a certain deficiency on analysis can easily be deter- mined. When it is necessary for a farmer to buy a special APPENDIX. 297 food-stuff as addition to his own supply on his farm, a comparison of '^ food- values ^' with the current market price will enable him to decide on the cheapest sub- stance suited to his particular purpose. All foods possess a certain manurial value quite apart from their direct feeding -value. The value of the manurial constituents in concentrated food-stuffs is, roughly, Qd. per lb. for nitrogen, 4c?. for phosphoric acid, and 2d. for potash. Owing to the inevitable loss incurred in the manipulation of farmyard dung, these values require considerable modification. A reduction of 50 per cent, on these values in the case of nitrogen, and of 30 per cent, for potash and phosphoric acid, is necessary, so that the practical manurial value of these substances in food-stuffs is as follows : — Nitrogen ... 3c?. per lb. : roughly, ^d. Phosphoric acid 2'8c?. „ „ 2d. Potash ... l*14fi?. „ „ Id. It should be remembered that feeding and manurial values depend on quite different conditions, and the value of a food is primarily measured by its feeding- value, while that of its manurial efficiency is a secondary consideration. It is a very difficult problem to adjust a valuation between these two considerations, and many food- values are calculated entirely without reference to the subsequent manurial value of the dung produced. 298 FARM FOODS. TABLE I. Giving the average Percentage Composition and Percentage of Digestible Constituents of Food-stuffs ^ FOOD-STUFFS. I. Hay. (a) Meadow-hay and Grasses. Meadow-hay, poor „ better ,, average ,, very good ,, extremely good Alpine hay Aftermath Moorland hay Salt meadow-hay Sour hay Woodland hav Rye " Oats in ear Hungarian Brome-grass jRye-grass, English „ French „ Italian Pasture-grass (^average) Timothy grass Schrader's Brome-grass Total. 14-3 14-3 14-3 150 160 14-3 14-3 110 11-7 130 150 14-3 11-5 13-4 14-3 14-3 14-3 14-3 14-3 14-3 5-0 5-4 6-2 7-0 7-7 6-2 6-6 6-4 7-4 6-3 5-0 51 6-1 5-7 6-5 9-9 7-8 5-8 4-5 9-4 7-5 9-2 9-7 11-7 13-5 13-5 11-7 9-2 8-1 7-6 8-7 10-4 7-5 10-8 10-2 11-2 11-2 9-5 9-7 9-7 33-5 29-2 26-3 21-9 19-3 22-7 22-0 26-7 28-4 32-8 260 23-1 30-1 29-4 30-2 29-4 22-9 28-7 22-7 22-8 38-2 397 41-4 41-6 40-4 39-4 42-3 44-2 41-7 35-7 43-2 44-5 42-4 38-5 36-1 32-6 40-6 391 45-8 41-6 o 1-5 2-0 2-5 2-8 30 3-9 31 2-4 2-7 4-6 2-1 2-8 Digestible. 3-4 4-6 5-4 7-4 9-2 9-2 7-4 5-1 4-3 3-4 5-0 6-6 be %^ O -k^ 2'4 3-8 2-2 2-7 2-7 3-2 2-6 30 2-2 61 51 5-6 7-1 5-3 5-8 5-4 15-6 15-3 150 13-8 12-7 13-9 13-2 15-7 16-4 19-3 21-1 25-7 27-9 30-1 27-0 291 28-3 24-6 20-9 i 14-8 27-6 1 15-3 28 -9, 15-4 24-2|l4-7 23-4 117-6 19-9 15-4 17-5 15-6 26-6 14-9 23-6 17-3 29-8 13-6 25-7! 13-3 ^ 0-5 0-6 10 1-3 1-5 2-3 1-4 1-3 1-4 1-5 11 1-3 0-9 0-9 0-8 0-8 1-4 11 1-4 0-9 Eefer to Explanation of Table on page 290. APPENDIX. TABLE I. {continued). 299 FOOD-STUFFS. Total. Digestible. 1 14-3 15-8 16-7 16-7 12-5 16-7 160 16-5 15-0 16-0 16-5 16-5 160 16-0 16-7 160 16-0 16-5 16-7 160 16-7 16-7 16-7 130 16-7 16-7 17-3 160 160 160 15-6 16-5 8-0 6-7 6-2 6-0 6-8 51 6-2 6-8 51 5-3 60 70 7-5 70 61 60 8-1 60 6-4 7-3 7 8-3 9-3 5-4 4-6 31 4-8 5-9 5-8 5-2 5-8 4-3 i a © o 16-7 154 13-3 146 13-5 122 14-4 16-0 111 12-3 13-5 15-3 14-9 11-9 15-2 15-0 16-2 14-5 13-8 21-8 14-3 14-2 19-8 21-9 171 23-2 18-5 21-6 14-2 21-2 231 17-3 £ ea Q 30-3 24-9 271 26-2 22-5 30-4 330 26-6 28-9 26-0 24-0 22-2 24-8 331 30-1 27-0 25-6 25-6 25-5 23-3 25-2 25-5 23-4 20-2 28-5 25-2 26-0 27-7 35-5 19-6 16-4 25-3 fi 27-9 340 34-2 33-2 41-7 32-6 27-9 31-6 37-7 38-2 371 35-8 34-6 30-5 28-9 32-7 30-3 33-9 35-1 28-8 34-2 32-8 28-5 36-6 30-9 28-6 28-2 25-4 26-3 35-2 37-4 34-6 'S Q 2-8 3-2 2-5 3-3 30 3-0 2-5 2-5 2-1 2-2 2-9 3-2 22 1-5 30 3-3 31 3-5 2-5 2-8 2-6 2-5 2-3 2-9 2-2 22 5-2 3-4 2'2 2-8 1-2 2-0 CO (U 11 it < 8-5 10-9 9-3 9-2 7-4 6-2 101 12-3 5-7 70 8-5 10-7 9-4 61 11-7 8-6 111 8-1 7-9 16-7 9-4 9-4 151 15-3 11-3 17-2 13-9 16-2 9-1 15-4 16-2 12-1 (0 S II 18-1 252 25-3 23-2 27-1 21-2 19-5 221 24-6 25-3 26-0 26-8 24-2 18-3 20-2 22-5 18-2 23-7 22-8 18-6 20-5 19-7 18-5 24-2 17-8 17-6 18-3 15-2 160 26-8 28-0 25-2 1 o 13-6 10-7 9-8 131 11-2 13-7 13-9 11-4 11-6 11-7 11-3 iro 11-6 13-2 12-9 12-3 11-5 12-2 12-8 12-8 12-6 12-8 12-6 110 19-5 18-4 130 13-3 20-5 10-8 10-5 13-2 a P^ 1-6 2-1 1-6 2-0 1-5 1-4 10 1-2 1-0 1-2 1-7 2-1 1-3 0-7 1-2 1-8 2-5 2-0 1-4 1-7 1-6 1-5 1-4 1-7 0-7 0-7 31 1-8 0-4 1-9 0-5 1-3 (b) Clover and Leguminous Crops. T^nVViai'fi, C!lnvfiT vnimo' . . .... Hop Trefoil Bird's-foot Trefoil Crimson Clover ( Tr. incarnaUim) Ijucerne avera^'e tiverase excellent „ ,, not rained upon Sand Lucerne {Medicago media) \ ust in bloom Alsike T^lnifp dlnvpr avprapfp Kidney Vetch just in bloom T-*P!iQ iii'stin bloom Vpfpli nveraP'ft WoodYetch Meadow Vetch {Lathyr. sylvestris) Vicici d u7}ietoTU7n bloom Tufted Vetch {Vicia cracca) jusi Tufted Vetch in bloom 300 FARM FOODS. TABLE I. {continued). FOOD-STUFFS. Oat Vetches Vicia monantha in bloom Kidney Vetch iu bloom Wild Vet^ch ( Vicia sepium) (c) Other Fodder-plants. Spurry in bloom Yellow Broom, tops Mustard in full bloom Gorse Prickly Comfrey, before bloom . . . Water Thyme (E/odea canadensis) (d) Foliage, Herbs, Leaves. Stinging-Nettle leaves Hop bine Spent Hops Potato haulm Leaves at the end of Jiily Poplar leaves in October Artichoke tops II. G-REEN Foods. (a) Grasses. Oats Eje Grass, j ust before blooming „ rich meadow „ meadow „ water-meadow Maize, American ,, earlier Hungarian Bi'ome-grass in flower. Total. 16-7 16-0 16-0 16-0 16-7 8-3 16-0 15-0 150 17-0 11-4 10-6 150 10-0 16-0 16-0 12-5 81-0 760 750 78-2 800 80-8 82-8 80-6 750 7-2 8-8 5-6 6-0 9-5 7-9 71 3-5 150 10-4 14-0 10-8 4-0 11-6 7-0 7-5 11-8 1-4 1-4 2-1 2-2 20 1-7 1-5 1-2 1-8 12-6 28-0 20-3 17-5 9-4 30-8 19-2 27-5 120 15-9 11-2 9-0 20-7 15-3 18-3 12-5 15-8 9-4 10-5 10-8 14-4 2-3 2-9 30 4-5 3-5 3-5 1-4 1-7 31 220 331 29-4 41-8 11-5 13-9 10-6 24-5 18-7 26-0 14-2 17-4 14-9 6-5 6-5 60 4-0 40 4-9 5-0 5-6 8-5 O *3 u X 33-2 35-0 35-9 28-9 36-6 29-5 33-4 28-7 351 35-5 38-0 381 40-5 40-6 49-3 38-6 42-9 8-3 12-4 131 101 9-7 8-4 8-9 10-4 10-9 2-3 2-4 2-3 2-4 3-2 5-3 2-9 2-0 2-7 1-9 7-7 3-5 60 2-4 30 8-7 3-5 0-5 0-8 0-8 10 0-8 0-7 0-4 0-5 0-7 Digestible, 5 c 7-2 14-2 5-2 14-6 7-6 10-3 6-9 3-6 12-0 9-0 12-8 8-0 5-0 3-8 6-2 60 1-3 1-8 20 3-4 2-5 2-4 0-7 1-0 1-8 19-6 28-0 21-9 15-4 8-8 14-8 20-3 141 23-7 16-3 21-7 17-2 29-7 24-5 131 15.0 151 16-7 21 300 6-0 27-1 7-6 20-3 2-8 24-4 9-6 32-5 5-3 26-2 5-6 32-4 8-8 5-0 3-9 8-1 4-3 9-1 3-9 8-1 2-8 7-3 2-6 6-3 3-2 5-5 2-7 6-7 31 6-8 5-0 APPENDIX. TABLE I. {continued). 301 FOOD -STUFFS. Eye-grass, English „ Italian Sorghum (Indian Millet). Stubble catch crop Pasture-grasses (average) Timothy grass (b) Clover and Leguminosce. Total. 700 3-4 77-3 70-0 00 700 Bokhara CloYer, young Sainfoin just in bloom Hop Trefoil Crimson Clover Lucerne, quite young „ just in bloom Red Clover before blooming ..., „ ., full bloom Sand Lucerne {Medic, media).... Alsike just imbloom ,, full bloom Serradella in bloom Bokhara Clover in bloom Red Clover in stubble White Clover in bloom . . Kidney Vetch Beans just in bloom Peas in bloom Vetch in bloom Lupines, average „ very good Sand Peas {Pisum arvense) Meadow Vetch {Lath, sylvestris) Sand Vetch in bloom ( Vicia villosa) Tufted Vetch ( Vicia cracca) .. Polish Vetch ( Vicia monantha) in bloom 87-5 81-4 80-0 81-5 Sl-0 74-0 83-0 80-4 78-0 85-0 82-0 sro 79-7 83-4 80-5 83-0 86-1 81-5 82-0 85-0 85-0 83-2 810 83-3 750 83-8 20 2-8 11 6-4 2-1 2-2 21 1-2 1-5 1-6 1-7 2-0 1-5 1-3 1-9 1-5 1-8 rs 2-3 1-5 20 1-3 1-5 1-5 1-8 0-7 0-7 1-2 11 1-2 2-9 1-7 3-6 3-6 2-5 3-7 3-4 3-4 2-9 4-2 3-5 2-7 4-5 4-5 3-3 30 40 3-3 3-3 3-7 41 4-3 3-5 2-8 30 3-2 3-5 31 4-2 3-5 4-2 4-3 4-6 3-9 10-6 12-8 71|121 6-7 11-7 7-4 11-0 10-1 13-4 80 16-3 3-6 5-2 60 6-2 50 9-5 4-5 5-8 8-0 4-5 60 5-8 5-7 2-9 60 5-3 3-4 5-6 5-5 51 4-5 5-9 60 5-5 4-9 3-4 3-5 7-3 8-2 7-3 7-2 9-2 7-0 8-9 7-3 51 6-3 6-9 7-3 7-0 7-2 5-2 5-5 7-6 6-6 5-7 5-2 5-6 6-5 5-0 11-9 1-0 1-0 0-7 1-5 1-0 11 0-4 0-7 0-8 0-7 0-6 0-8 0-7 0-6 0-8 0-6 0-6 0-8 0-8 0-9 0-8 0-4 0-5 0-6 0-6 0-4 0-4 0-6 1-2 0-7 0-7 0-5 Digestible. S 5 3 a 1-8 2-3 1-6 2-5 1-9 2-1 1-6 30 2-2 1-5 3-5 3-2 2-3 1-7 31 2-1 1-8 2-5 2-6 3-2 22 1-6 22 22 2-5 20 31 2-4 3-2 3-3 3-2 2-9 6-9 8-0 7-9 7-5 8-1 11-2 2-0 5-7 5-7 4-8 51 5-4 4-9 5-8 4-3 3-6 4-5 3-7 5-0 5-2 5-0 4-7 3-9 4-6 4-0 3-2 3-2 3-7 4-2 30 7-7 40 5-3 4-6 4-0 4-5 61 4-8 1-6 22 30 2-7 22 3-7 2-5 2-9 3-2 2-2 2-4 2-6 2-8 1-5 2-9 2-7 1-6 2-8 2-7 3-5 3-3 30 30 2-5 4-4 2-0 302 FARM FOODS. TABLE I. {continued). FOOD-STUFFS. (c) Other Fodder-plants. Total. 80-0 „ end of blooming Tliistle (young) Heather! VV^inter Eape in bloom Brushwood in winter ,, in spring Beech brush wood fodder ^ Mustard, full bloom Grorse Prickly C< )mfrey before bloom . . Water Thyme {ELodea cana- densis) (d) Foliage, Herbs, Leaves. Birch foliage, August Beech foliage, Aug.-Sept. ... Cabbage Leaves, July Hop bines and leaves Potato haulm, October „ „ July to August Kohl Rabi leaves Swede leaves Carrot leaves Poplar leaves, beginning of October Mangold leaves 90-5 Cabbage stalks |87-6 Prickly Comfrey leaves !91-7 88-0 5.5-0 57-0 84-7 55-0 66-0 8-0 85-0 850 4 82-2 55-0 20 1-4 2-4 20 3-7 1-3 1-5 1-6 1-4 1-4 2-8 2-2 2-4 1-6 3-1 1-6 3-8 4-1 3-0 1-6 1-8 2-3 3-6 40 1-8 11 1-9 2-3 2-4 1-8 2-9 3-7 2-8 4-6 2-6 2-4 2-1 5-3 30 2-2 7-9 6-9 2-5 5-6 4-7 2-3 3-6 2-8 21 3-2 5-8 1-9 2-3 2-6 5-3 4-2 6-2 1-4 19-7 3-5 26-7 28-2 23-9 5-b 24 17 20 2-4 7-6 9-2 60 30 1-4 1-6 30 9-3 1-3 20 0-9 9-7 6-4 15-3 61 151 5-7 40-3 36-2 Digestible. ■>7-2 7-5 18-1 5-0 5-1 24-7 21-7 81 26-5 14-7 9-7 6-2 8-2 5-2 7-1 21-3 4-0 6-8 2-4 0-7 0-6 0-7 0-9 3-0 0-8 1-9 1-4 11 0-5 1-1 0-4 0-3 3-9 1-5 0-7 1-5 1-3 10 0-7 0-8 0-5 10 4-6 0-5 0-2 0-5 la <1. SI 1-5 1-5 10 2-2 1-9 20 21 1-2 11 1-4 2-2 1-8 1-4 6-5 4-0 8-5 50 91 3-9 20-2 181 13-6 4-9 10 9 43 3-5 4-8 16-3 4-2 14-3 1-8 3-8 3-0 1-0 21 2-0 1-5 2-2 3-2 1-2 1-7 15 65 1-7 17-5 30 9-4 3-8 60 2-3 3-8 1-4 6-7 0-9 41 10 5-3 1-7 140 31 3-2 0-8 50 1-3 1-7 0-5 ^ Brushwood pressed, moistened, and mixed with 1 per cent, of malt and left to ferment 24 hours. APPENDIX. TABLE I. {continued). 303 FOOD-STUFFS. Pine and Fir needles Artichoke tops White Cabbage Sugar-Beet leaves (e) Sour Fodder, Silage, "Brown Hay." Brown hay : Sainfoin Grass Lucerne Maize Red Clover Sour fodder : Sainfoin Rye Oats Grass Maize Potato haulm Clover Lupines Lucerne Red Clovei* Alsike Mangold leaves Serradella Artichoke tops Silage : Buckwheat „ Grass „ Maize „ Lupines ,, Lucerne ,, Red Clgver „ Meadow Vetch Oat Vetch TOTAI 53-5 67-7 89-0 88-0 110 15-8 20-0 30-0 14-5 S3-3 S6-9 76-3 SO-6 83-0 7-0 80-0 84-0 82-9 79-2 75-4 80-0 78-3 77-7 72-3 68-0 81-8 80-3 725 70-0 650 81-3 6-3 7-3 8-8 6-6 8-6 1-3 0-9 1-8 20 1-4 5-3 2-4 11 2-1 2-1 21 4-1 1-9 3-4 2-2 2-7 1-7 1-4 3-5 2-3 3-2 2-4 2-5 3-4 1-5 2-6 17-3 10-2 12-9 5-7 13-8 3-4 1-6 1-9 20 1-3 2-9 3-4 31 3-8 4-2 3-3 30 3-9 2-3 2-8 3-8 20 2-9 40 5-6 10-3 3-4 14-8 5-4 20 9.-9. 31-0 23-5 21-4 21-8 23-7 5-9 4-4 8-5 6-5 54 4-7 60 4-9 5-0 5-9 6-7 2-7 5-8 6-0 7-7 9-9 5-5 9-5 10-7 8-5 8-9 5-5 22-5 17-4 5-9 4-4 30-2 40-2 33-8 34-3 36-8 51 5-7 10-7 8-1 8-0 7-5 7-2 4-4 4-7 6-4 10-6 9-0 9-2 101 14-i 12-9 7-8 4-9 61 11-6 10-1 6-6 4-2 3-0 31 1-6 2-6 1-0 O-o 0'8 08 0-9 2-6 10 21 1-5 2-2 1-8 1-2 0-9 0-5 0-9 2-7 1-2 10 3-2 20 2-5 0-8 Digestible • QD 0'T3 ^H ® 11 §1 ri T5 ^h © = c 2 t< -O cS < ^ o ^ 1-3 11-3 5-9 1-5 20 131 2'2 0-6 11 4-6 1-4 0-2 1-7 3-4 1-2 0-2 11-4 19-3 130 2-8 6-6 28-1 13-9 1-8 9-0 18-6 9-6 1-6 2-7 21-9 12-9 1-0 8-9 25-0 11-4 1-6 1-7 30 2-4 0-7 0-9 3-4 2-6 0-3 1-1 5-9 51 0-4 1-4 4-7 3-8 05 0-8 5-4 3-4 0-7 1-2 4-4 1-8 1-2 2-2 5-1 3-3 0-6 2-2 2-7 3-4 11 2-8 3-3 20 09 2-8 4-3 2-9 1-5 2-0 61 3-3 1-2 20 4-8 1-5 0-7 2-6 6-5 2-9 0-5 1-2 6-1 30 0-5 1-7 91 3-9 0-5 19 7-5 5-9 1-6 1-2 4-8 3-2 0-8 1-8 2-9 5-2 0-6 30 4-2 4-3 1-9 3-9 7-8 3-8 1-3 7-6 6-7 4-5 1-6 20 4-0 3-0 0-5 304 FARM FOODS. TABLE I. {continued). FOOD-STUFFS. III. Straw. (a) Cereals. Oats Millet Maize Rice Summer Barley „ ,, with Clover.,.. ,, Straw, average ,, ., very good .... Winter Spelt ,, Barley „ Rye „ Wheat „ Straw, average ,, „ very good (b) LeguminoscB. Beans Peas Vetch Garden Beans Leguminous Straw, average.... ,, ,, very good. Lentils Lupines Meadow Vetch Sand Pea Sand Vetch Soja Beans (c) Other Plants. Buckwheat Total. Digestible. s s . r.i » 3 h i II a o '^ rt 1 u C3 ^ ^ 8-3 24-9 18-4 5-7 260 29-0 19-7 6-6 7-7 14-9 180 21-2 36-9 120 15-7 18-7 5-7 2-2 5-9 6-7 13-1 ■nnrififtd . . ,, decorticated 8-9 r.j 43-6 ^ The oil residues called "meal" are from extraction processes, those called " cake from the other processes. APPENDIX. TABLE I, (continued). 311 1 FOOD-STUFFS. Total. Digestible. 1 1 1 3 o £ II i U o 3 , < i II £ o 6-6 6-8 7-2 6-7 7-2 10-3 9-5 5-2 11-0 6-2 20-4 8-3 9-6 21 7-2 9-7 13-7 8-8 3-3 10-6 9-0 3-6 7-6 2-4 7-9 12-6 9-7 125 17-5 11-5 21 6-8 8-1 11-2 Beech -nut cake 16-1 12-5 9-8 100 11-9 100 7'7 13-3 10-3 11-8 9-9 11-8 11-8 9-7 10-7 10-8 9-7 10-7 11-5 13-8 10-2 10-5 104 8-5 10-7 8-5 8-7 17-3 5-7 111 6-0 13-4 10-8 13-7 5-2 7'7 6-9 4-6 7-8 8-1 8-5 6-5 5-9 6-6 5-8 6-9 7-3 7-3 7-5 6-2 4-3 11-2 8-0 6-8 40 40 7-7 7-9 7-7 10-3 7-8 6-1 11-9 10-9 10-8 5-2 6-7 5-0 18-2 37-1 31-0 47-5 29-8 18-8 5l'-9 •26-3 19-7 20-0 36-1 33-1 28-7 33-2 31-8 13-5 41-3 35-4 331 6-0 161 17-0 30-7 331 32-7 18-2 21-5 19-8 171 37-2 46-4 40-3 32-8 34-6 23-9 5-5 22-7 5-2 24-7 15-5 4-0 28-2 14-4 13-4 141 11-6 9-4 8-8 192 8-6 8-9 11-3 19-6 33-4 18-3 20-2 11-3 134 7-8 29-6 15-6 14-9 27-1 7-5 7-7 5-5 13-5 6-4 28-3 29-8 20-7 24-9 17-3 36-4 16-3 19-9 38-7 42-0 11-5 27-4 32-1 38-7 21-7 50-1 20-6 21-6 23-4 26-8 41-9 44-0 30-1 34-1 3M 15-4 32-5 241 13-2 20-5 26-7 28-1 27-1 27-8 8-3 7-5 8-9 7-8 8-0 11-2 10-6 5-8 11-0 6-2 22-7 9-2 10-7 2-3 9-0 10-8 15-2 9-8 4-1 13-2 9-5 3-8 9-8 30 10-0 180 13-9 17-8 25-0 12-8 2-4 7-5 9-1 12-5 13-5 31-2 24-8 i3-2 20-9 12-4 47-6 19-5 170 23-5 15-5 24-4 10-4 25-5 14-7 100 5-2 20 3-5 0-8 6-2 2-5 1-5 5-6 8-9 8-3 6-3 4-7 41 3-9 38 5-3 1-8 4-5 5-3 13-4 150 16-6 09 1-3 0-8 13-3 7-0 6-7 12-2 2-3 2-4 7-7 4-1 1-6 „ „ without shells Earth-nut cake „ „ without shells Hemp cake Cacao cake Candle-nut cake Capoc cake Coconut cake 15-0 31-4 15-2 34-0 ,, meal Pumpkin-seed cake 32-5 26-5 24-7 10-1 21-9 '?.5-7 Cake from Gold of Pleasure seeds Linseed cake ,, meal 27-8 31-0 22-3 130 10-8 |44-1 37-2 20 2 30-4 17-3 26-5 18-7 3-6 18-8 15-3 39-4 16-6 41-4 24-9 22-9 26-5 2.1-9 Madia cake Maize " chit " cake Almond cake Poppy cake Cake from Ramtilla seeds Olive cake Palm-nut cake ,, meal Rape cake ,, dust Summer Rape cake {Br. rapa) . . . Anise residue 26-2 100 11-8 10-9 9-4 33-5 41-8 36-3 27-9 31-1 23-4 7-7 19-5 14-5 6-6 13-2 16-8 21-7 21-0 26-6 Fennel „ Carraway residue Thyme residue Sesame cake „ meal Soja-Bean cake Sunflower cake Walnut cake 312 FARM FOODS. TABLE I. {continued). FOOD-STUFFS. Total. Digestible. 1 ,. a M IS o 1 O sin II o 00 Same, made sour ^ „ cooked Wbeat-bran, fed dry „ scalded with chop ped hay „ scalded as a sloppA mash Spelt chaff Eesidue from manufacture o\ wheat-starch Rice meal ,, other sorts Malt sprouts Brewers' grains Eape meal (extracted) ,, cake Linseed meal (extracted) „ cake Palm-nut cake „ meal (extracted) 87 94 82 72 67—78 76 67 64 74 69 69 76 91 78 67 81 80-84 65 63-67 68 66 56 — 75 71 81 78—83 75 91 89—93 ■^3 o c § '3 1 O C8 © 5P S "73 3 1 Q Q o ^ 83 62 88 91 60 85 93 68 78 54 95 63 83 100 84 78 33 70 77 71—89 20-39 50—80 70-82 88 20 79 80 79 13 83 71 70 87 74 74 34 74 80 71 9 74 78 67 13 83 78 78 25 89 82 88 100 46 92 61 51 86 92 45 34 83 84 78 85 50 86 73—82 65-95 35-65 82-88 72 42 84 67 71—73 33-45 81—84 64-70 84 85 81 8 79 76 76-86 0—16 69—88 74—78 82 91 73 86 44 90 80 84—87 26—62 89—91 70—91 77 54 94 79 95 82 95 94 89—100 72-92 89—100 92—96 ^ Made sour by addition of ferment. 320 FARM FOODS. TABLE II. {continued). FOOD-STUFFS. Earth-nut cake.. Sesame cake Sunflower cake ... Cotton-seed cake (purified). Coconut , Flesh meal.... Dried blood ^. Fish guano . New milk .... (decorticated) (e) Boots and Tubers. Potatoes Sugar Beet Mangold . Turnips ^ . Swedes .... II. Comparative Experiments WITH Horses and Sheep.^ Meadow-grass — Sheep ,, ,, Horse I a *3 O 85 77 76 50 56 55-57 80 78 95 63 98 97—98 88 83—90 89 84-93 88 87—88 78 97 62 57—76 50 43—62 51 43—62 91 90 90 73 75 74-76 85 76 95 62 90 94 91-97 16 31 31 23 12 10—15 62 65 64—67 ... 62 56-68 76 66—86 57 62 100 60 61 53-73 51-80 60 41 54-69 33-57 59 41 51—69 33-57 90 88 91 89 88-91 88 100 1^ bo u 63 77 46 54 53-55 95 81 98 100 100 76 100 98 99—100 93-98 93 89—96 95 95—96 95 ... 94—96 89 94 99 52 66 43-65 56-76 22 59 10-42 49-67 20 59 7-42 49-68 1 ^ Hard and solid. 2 The turnips were full of holes inside and somewhat tough and hard. ' These comparative experiments on Sheep and Horses were carried out at Hohenheini . APPENDIX. TABLE II. (continued). 321 FOOD-STUPFS. S H 0) 2 eg a CD B -3 1 J 1, g 1 (4- «4-l *2 >' 62-71 68-89 1—38 60—78 72—76 Barley — Horse 1 1 87 80 100 42 87 91 Maize — Sheep 1 2 89 79 62 85 „ Horse 2 2 89 77 70 61 94 87-91 75-78 41—100' 59—63 94-94 Beans — Sheep 1 6 90 87 79 84 91 „ Horse 1 5 87 86 65 i-"^ VI. 93 322 FARM FOODS. TABLE II. {continued). FOOD-STUFFS. Peas — Sheep ,, Horse Lupines — Sheep ,, Horse Linseed cake — Horse Linseed — Horse .... Potatoes — Horse Carrot — Horse III. Experiments with Pigs Barley-meal Maize-meal Pea- meal Eice, boiled Rye-bran Coconut cake^ Flesh- ra eal Dried blood^ Cockchafers Sour milk Potatoes 5 a '3 & O 90 72 69 64 93 87 83 82—85 92 90—95 91 88—95 99 67 80 95 72 57 95 93 89 83 88 94 88 75 78 75-80 86 84—88 88 85-90 89 66 74 97 72 69 3 96 73 66 8 97 51 12 0—27 40 19—57 71 55—89 55 75 9 78 27 53 52 68 65-77 76 76-77 49 36—67 67 58 83 87 83 95 93 89 78 51 94 98 99 94 90 89—91 95 93-96 96 95—99 100 75 89 92 98 ^ Poorly digested by the pigs, despite apparent richness. ^ Same sample as in previous table. ^ Excluding chitine. APPENDIX. 323 TABLE II. {continued). B. Average Composition and Digestibity of Foods as found by direct Experiments, (Calculated as percentage of dry matter.) FOOD-STUFFS. I. Experiments with Eusiinants. (a) Green Fodder and Hay. Pasture-grass from meadows Meadow aftermath Meadow-hay „ ,, rich in nitrogen „ ,, average ,, „ inferior „ ,, fed dry ,, ■ ,, steamed Clover ley Hay from Timothy grass Green Clover and Clover-hay ,, „ before blooming ... Clover-hay, very good „ ,, average Green Clover before blooming . . . „ ,, just in bloom ,, ,, in bloom „ ,, end of bloom Lucerne-hay, very good „ ,, before blooming ... Lucerne in bloom „ fed green „ as hay ,, as 'Brown hay' ,, fed green , , dried artificially „ dried without loss ,, dried and rained upon ... Sainfoin fed green 19-7 19-5 13-8 ;26-3 11-3 '30-2 14-1 |25-8 10-0 130-9 9-3 !34-6 1 271 7-9 15-9 18-3 15-5 13-9 18-4 18-7 15-3 34-5 35-8 16-7 34-4 29-6 26-6 28-2 33-7 26-6 27-9 26-3 15-6 129-9 17-9 132-0 18-9 |29-7 16-8 35-0 20-6 130-3 18-4 1.34-0 ^2-4 17-4 17-2 17-0 14-9 23-8 37-0 28-2 29-9 4-8 43-9 3-9 ;46-7 3-0 47-5 3-9 ;47-4 2-9 48-6 2-4 i4{V3 48-6 47-5 42-1 50-6 2-1 2-1 5-1 2-6 3-3 143-8 3-8 142-8 3-4 46-5 2-3 43-5 4-2 ,43-5 4-7 41-7 3-7 47-9 4-2 [43-8 2-8 :39-6 2-8 |40-7 2-8 j38-2 3-7 37-6 2-3 1880 2-7 29-6 3-0 42-8 2-2 42-1 31-8 43-8 33-9 44-2 26-0 I 4-0 139-: 121 9-3 7-9 8-9 7-7 7-2 6-6 6-5 9-0 4-5 7-2 8-4 6-3 6-7 7-3 7-0 6-8 6-5 7-4 7-9 6-8 7-8 7-3 8-3 8-6 8-3 7-4 6-9 6-4 Digestible. 14-7 8-6 7-0 49-0 48-0 47-8 9-0 |48-0 5-7 48-2 4-7 45-7 3-7 48-2 48-8 2-7 21-2 3-3 9-9 12-1 9-6 7-6 13-6 14-2 10-6 9-1 13-2 14-6 11-7 16-1 13-5 16-2 14-2 13-4 12-2 9-9 17-3 y2^ 45-1 5M 44-7 45-2 45-8 43-4 51-9 45-9 47-5 42-6 39-9 41-3 38-9 35-3 371 32-5 45-1 42-1 3-2 1-8 1-6 20 1-4 1-0 0-8 0-9 3-3 1-2 2-1 2-4 2-1 1-2 2-7 3-1 2-3 1-9 1-1 1-1 1-1 1-6 0-7 1-5 1-6 0-7 44-4 42-7 42-1 I 2-7 324 FARM POODS. TABLE II. {continued). FOOD-STUFFS. Sainfoin as hay ,, as brown hay „ as silage Vetch -hay (before bloom ) Soja-Bean hay Lupine-hay (in bloom) Serradella (in bloom) ,, (end of bloom) Green Maize Gi-reen Sorghum Prickly Comfrey Potato haulm, beginning October ... Poplar leaves ,, „ Mangold leaves, silage Spent Hops Beech brushwood in winter Acacia brushwood Poplar brushwood with leaves, July (b) Straw, #c. Wheat-straw Bye-straw Barley-straw Oat-straw Bean-straw Soja-Bean straw Pea-straw, very good Lupine-straw Soja-Bean pods (c) Grain. Oats . , Barley Maize . Beans . Peas . 231 21-0 21-2 23-8 16-9 27-8 22-6 19-1 13-8 7-5 19-9 10-6 12-9 11-8 18-6 4-7 11-2 7-8 5-2 4-4 4-8 6-2 10-7 7-9 14-0 7-9 5-9 12-5 11-6 13-3 30-9 29-9 26-9 31-8 34-2 28-1 42-3 30-2 29-7 35-7 27-7 331 13-2 27-3 20-7 10-8 220 45-6 36-0 47-7 46-2 42-0 42-0 41-4 31-8 31-9 48-6 33-7 12-7 5-9 1-8 8-2 6-6 3-9 4-9 6-2 2-8 2-5 2-4 5-2 3-9 5-6 6-6 2-7 4-5 10-3 4-8 71 1-8 1-9 3-4 1-1 1-4 2-5 2-3 ri 30 2-4 1-2 1-5 6-3 2-2 4-8 1-8 1-6 Digestible. 39-7 35-2 31-4 34-3 31-3 34-8 30-9 32-5 47-9 59-4 42-4 43-9 47-2 36-3 |47-7 44-8 46-7 451 431 44-7 41-7 40-3 45-4 44-4 39-8 49-5 64-1 77-2 78-4 54-9 58-3 6-4 71 7-1 111 7-0 4-9 11-6 8-8 50 3-3 21-8 13-7 8-9 36-3 4-6 31 4-2 3-9 6-2 5-3 5-9 7-6 6-5 120 7-3 3-4 9-4 4-4 31 1-7 4-2 4-6 16-2 13-3 10-6 18-2 10-8 20-7 16-8 120 100 4-8 11-6 4-4 7-2 7-6 5-8 0-8 6-3 30 0-9 0-9 1-0 2-2 5-3 4-0 8-5 2-6 2-6 9-7 8-9 10-4 272 26-6 39-3 38-0 26-6 37-7 43-4 43-6 34-2 28-7 521 59-9 39-3 36-2 37-8 25-5 26-5 10-5 29-8 341 41-9 43-3 47-5 41-8 41-6 42-3 45-1 50-5 51-3 49-3 5-2 67-2 72-7 56-2 ,58-7 19"9 of this was sand, so that the pure ash is only 164 per cent. APPENDIX. TABLE II. {continued:). 325 FOOD-STUFFS. Soj Lupines steamed ,, and sweetened . (different kind) „ sweetened Linseed Acorns , Carob Seans , (d) By- and Waste Products. Wheat-bran dry fermented boiled dry scalded and ied with hay, „ as a sloppy mash . . , Spelt chaff Residue from manuf. of Wheat-starcb Rice-meal ^ „ other sorts Malt sprouts Rape-meal (extracted) Rape cake Linseed-meal (extracted) Linseed cake Palm-nut meal (extracted) „ „ (partly extracted) Earth-nut cake Sesame cake Sunflower cake Cotton-seed cake, decorticated .., ,, „ „ not decorticated „ „ „ purified Coconut cake 39-3 43-2 43-2 47-9 42-6 49-2 31-3 6-5 4-6 15-4 16-1 15-3 16-1 20-4 16-8 121 32-1 40-6 36-2 37-0 34-5 21-5 15-9 152-7 49-1 r39-4 47-4 26-2 32-2 24-3 5-4 16-4 17-6 20-9 16-6 20-9 4-8 10-4 6-7 9-8 8-6 10-1 9-4 6-7 10-3 13-3 14-4 13-5 11-9 8-0 9-5 27-6 260 61 71 14-8 41 27-6 18 2 15-7 19-4 6-3 60 6-7 5-4 6-5 37-2 4-6 2-3 31-6 29-7 28-5 22-9 31-6 21-3 21-2 76-7 84-4 4-4 4-6 4-8 6-1 4-9 19-1 100 2-5 0-9 13 5 4-4 12-0 3-7 18-1 10-9 11-5 16-2 17-9 7-0 90 19-0 620 63-9 43-5 56-0 40-7 35-7 309 42-3 34-2 42 8 35-2 25-9 21-3 21-8 22-5 31-4 33-1 34-1 4-3 3-9 4-7 1-6 3-8 21 5-5 1-8 2-0 63-5 64-0 63-4 6-4 6-4 4-1 10-3 8-6 10-3 8-5 7-0 8-3 9-8 4-4 4-8 4-3 11-0 7-7 8-1 7-7 7-5 6-9 Digestible. 34-3 39-4 39-6 45-2 37-5 44-3 30-7 5-4 31 28-8 54-3 42-2 44-4 38-7 32-7 19-9 76-6 85'8 12-0 14-2 12-7 11-2 11-3 10-9 10-2 12-5 18-0 13-0 5-5 26-2 341 29-3 30-2 29-6 20-3 12-4 479 44-3 35-3 40-2 19-2 [l84 17-71 5-8! 5-4 6-3 4-7 5-7 31-6 4-0 1-2 52-2 52-6 46-3 47-4 54-3 50-3 50-6 53-3 65-3 50-4 51-5 49-4 30-3 24-0 30-9 31-7 62-9 37-3 26-4 15-6 21-4 21-4 20-8 20-0 37-3 30 3-7 3-8 40 3-6 3-6 40 5-4 2-3 16-9 8-3 1-2 0-3 10-6 4-0 10- 3-5 16 9 9-3 10-3 14-2 15-7 64 80 190 A sample unusually rich in albuminoids and fat. 326 FARM FOODS. TABLE II. {contimied). FOODSTUFFS. Flesh-meal Dried blood Fish guano New milk (e) Boots and Tubers. Potatoes S ugar Beet Mangolds ^ Turnips ^ II. Experiments with Horses AND Sheep. Meadow-grass— Sheep „ „ Horse Pasture-grass — Sheep „ „ Horse Meadow-hay rich in nitrogen — Sheep „ „ „ ,. Horse „ „ average — Sheep .. „ „ „ Horse .. Clover-hay — Sheep ,, „ Horse Lucerne-hay — Sheep „ „ Horse Wheat-straw — Sheep ,, „ Horse Oats — Sheep „ Horse Barley — Horse Maize — Sheep ,, Horse Beans — Sheep ,, Horse Peas — Sheep Horse ^ 1 1 r6 Digestible. tn c o g ® '^ TJ © , C- S .^ £ =3 m g g le ^ i -^ f.^ 3 o dj r2 r2 M R s X3 T. ^ K U O O ^ f^ 79-4 O 13-2 1 83-5 13-4 2-9 i 91-9 0-7 29 4-5 o70 2-9 0-7 1 56-0 2-1 41-9 50-4 — 1-6 254 — 24-6 43-6 6-4 24-0 42-8 24-6 3 9-2 2-4 03 84-0 4-1 6-0 78-0 0-3 2 5-9 5-6 O-o 83-5 4-4 3-7 81-5 0-5 o 11-6 7-2 0-9 69-4 9-4 8-8 661 0-9 1 12-7 13-1 1-8 57-0 11-5 7-3 6-9 50-6 48-2 1-8 1-5 10 11-3 32-5 2-9 44-4 8-9 6-9 12-9 38-3 49-3 0-6 21 1 17-6 230 3-2 40-9 15-3 121 8-1 400 49-7 0-4 1-7 3 12-1 32-9 31 43-9 8-1 7-8 5-4 39-0 46-7 0-7 1-2 5 9-6 34-1 2-6 450 8-7 5-5 7-9 37-2 420 06 1-2 2 13-9 380 22 38-2 7-7 7-3 14-6 36-9 41-9 0-6 0-7 19-8 320 2-4 38-6 7-1 14-8 103 40-9 43-8 0-6 3-8 48-5 1-4 40-7 5-6 10-7 11-4 200 53-7 0-7 5-5 13-2 11-4 6-5 647 4-2 11-4 521 5 14-7 4-8 1-4 74-9 4-2 11-8 10-4 70-2 72-7 06 4-1 13-3 1-8 4-8 78-4 1-7 10-3 29-0 75-4 54-9 3-0 1-4 33-3 8-0 1-6 53-3 3-7 28-7 26-6 55-3 58-7 1-2 29-0 6-6 1-6 58-3 3-6 24-8 52-4 01 Deficit in total of percentages due to nitrates. APPENDIX. TABLE II. {continued). 327 FOOD-STUFFS. -^ ^ 3 1 ri Digestible. 5^ 2-9 3-7 3-7 3-7 7-9 1-4 1-6 2-5 1-4— 23- 2-4- 2-3- 6-3— 0-8— 1-3— 2-5— 1-2— 31 5-5— 7-1 1-6— 2-4 6-0- 6-7 31— 5-1 13-2—13-7 10-9—13-1 2-6— 4-9 0-3- 0-5 0-4— 0-5 0-8— 1-0 23-8—26-7 go is 43-3— 54-8 4-2-11-0 43-3-48-7 37-7-49-7 40-2— 45 07-0— 10-1 41-4—49-7 37-3-48-4^4-9— 7-8 35-5-44-1 37-6—44-1 35-5— 41 -4 6-3— 7-3 46-1 -49-2 4-6- 4-7 ■9-40-7 5-7— 6-8 41 •0—46-2 5-0— 5-6 44-2-45-2 5-7— 6-2 36-6- 4896-0— 86 62-6-67037— 6^3 52-2— 58-o!3 0— 5^5 22-9— 38-1 61-8- 65-86-6- 7-1 2-7 ~ 22— 4-0 28 22 2-2 «3 9 4-2— 8-9 4-9— 10-1 6-8 6-3— 8-6 7-1— 8-6 27-8-341 29-6— 38-7 42-6—429 81-1—85-7 82-1— 85-0 67-1-71-8 40-9- 46-8 7-4— 7-6 5—11-1 41— 4-6 3-6— 4-6 4-4— 4-5 8-6—10-2 6-2- 6-7 2-2— 4-040-9— 47-47-2— 15-3 43-3—44-8 43-3—47-4 37-3— 38-2 2-7- 31 73-3-77-1 5-0— 5-3 76-8—80-5 0-7- 21 58-4—60-8 0-3— 0-680 5-84-3 1-7— 4-8 0— 8-2 7-2-11-0 7-5— 7-8 2-8— 4-3 1-7— 3-2 3-2- 4-3 3-8— 4-7 APPENDIX. 329 TABLE III. Remarks. Ammonia never occurs as a constituent of food, and nitrates are only occasionally met with in roots which have been heavily manured with dung or a powerful nitrogenous manure. The Amides of organic acids and also certain amido- acids represent the nitrogenous substances in plants other than the albuminoids, and are generally included in the term Amides. The following points with reference to amides and their occurrence in farm foods are Avorthy of notice : — 1. Roots. — Only one-third of the nitrogen in man- golds is in the form of albuminoids, while 40 per cent, of that in potatoes exists as amides. The reduction of amides into albuminoids during the fermentation of Potato Slump is an interesting fact. 2. Germinating Seeds contain large quantities of amides produced by the oxidation of the albuminoids. Young plants generally contain amides, but as they grow older the amount gradually decreases. 3. Leafy Fodder-plants, such as Clover and Lucerne, show a gradual decrease in amides as they advance towards maturity, but not so marked as in the case of grass. 4. Young Grass and Clover contain a good deal of amides; but as the albuminoids, as well as the amides, decidedly decrease as the plants advance towards maturity, it is evident that young pasturage is much more nutritious than mature hay. Liberal manuring with any nitrogenous manure increases the amount of amides. 330 FARM FOODS. 5. Sour Ensilage involves loss of albuminoids, and frequently both the relative and actual amount of amides is decidedly increased in the process of fer- mentation. 6. The Straiv of the Cereals contains but little amides if well ripened and harvested in good condition. If, however, straw be harvested in very wet weather, a considerable proportion of the nitrogen assumes the form of unprofitable amides. 7. Cereal Grain contains practically no amides under ordinary conditions. If a partial germination has taken place a large quantity of albuminoids is decom- posed into amides. In the case of malt this amounts to over 20 per cent, of the total albuminoids. 8. The Leguminosce y or Pod-plants, contain various organic nitrogenous substances which are neither amides nor true albuminoids. From ten to twelve per cent, of the nitrogen in Peas and Beans is in the form of non- albuminoids, while Lupines contain rather less. 9. Bran and Oil-cakes often contain appreciable quantities of non-albuminoids. Rape cake and Earth- nut cake are exceptionally rich in these substances, while Linseed and Poppy cake contain less, and Palm- nut cake frequently none at all. It is impossible to decide a priori whether these products are derived directly from the seeds, or whether they are the result of a subsequent decomposition of the cake resulting from bad storage, &c. It should always be remembered that damp and any form of fermentatio^ will inevitably result in the de- composition of more or less of the valuable albuminoids. APPENDIX. 331 CO ^3 ^ 00 »P TtH CO l| CO^t-OOCICOCOOGOlOO'^OOOO'^CM'^CO'^O 8 i-H 23Jt;i^^S^^2^^^isS^S^cig^J.2i8 ^ t- 2 ;^ s s II ^ '5 ?5 ip P Tt^ OS p I (^^Sco(^Jcol>■(^^0(^^»oooopTf|pp^qoQO(^^^'^t^ OoJjODt-t-Ol-OOQOOSt'jvljOOOiOt-i^t-tiQDcljO Cq O T^ t- 00- ^ X O o o t- 00 ^ § g ^ s^ Co9t-OTj^,Jl:-CJCOOOi-iOCOr-tOD'7'(M9r-;Oi^ d K-icocoooo-^CMr-ioo |C ■>a.^ 3 3 a ii i § 4 2 ^ & Ji 1 i i 1 1 i C3 >;-tJC3 ■^03 ;3^-qS i iis i i ^ & s 332 FARM FOODS. o CJ 00 C>1 (?l r-i « IJl r-H rH C<1 CO CO CO CO CO 0i0iOt'00r-i05ipTt CO Tfi C-1 00 lO -^ >:£> i-^ CO i:^ Tfl (M ^ ooooooooo OOOOrH^OOOOOO O -* CO ^ ,-1 O 00 I 00 Cll^ C0OO»OOOC0'-! '^ ZO -^ \ Ci I ir' C) ZD iD <^ t- O O «5 t- CO OS •-• cco'^os'^oiot-'i^ipTttb-oiMOcoco ih>?bcbodo6s(nci6ocbtb coco Icjo l>o-_ - _ -. -. rHC0lO(M(MC0 -^ 6 go tr eg ■^t> tb t-t- t-iOQOi (M »0«D t-GO CO l>. 05 CO COTt^-^COOSfM I t:)H iOCOCOOCO 6 6666A4(n6cq r-it- |t- |ocooogo^coco?i:oiootH 66 6t^oo6 io,O^OOSOO— 'OOO-HOiOOOO — lOSCOOlOOV'^l^'*^'*"*"'^ O-^H t-(M'*?'^^COO'MiOt-.-HTHt~OOCX:)OOS iO-^^COOO -cico»bc^f5cocoo:):bcbcb'*'^ro iC CO o ® 0^ o ^ o * : : w) 52 3 C o ® o .9^ a ; J ^ be > 45 o I J ^ ^ C3 S 5- C O o bD © ^^ O *3 - O) »j © cii "" H > £3 d © r-^ S CD h5 9J 3 ^ © 334 FARM FOODS. CIX OCOt-TtiX'-it-'MCiOfMX'MCOC-IOC-lOX c3 g >^ o © t3 i o gS^828^$?i:2S2=:??g8i?:i:2;S:!:^: g? II i-i^CO-*— iLOt-C^OCOO-M-M— 'XCOO^-Mt^OOOO ^^oo-h6o66.-i66666o.-i^.-io6 o n3 o X Ot X -M -^ ^ Cl TJH rvi iC. CO CI t- O t- ^ O X CM O Ci t^ O rOCO-1CCr2(Mr-.,-.T-HCOCOOOrH-^r-ICOrH'^C0Tj< ce X-cr. — •>CT-lt--OC2CiCi-^C<^05COCO^>.-lTfTtH<:DTtll:- Ci■*'^lC^t>^-?C<:0'^lXXr-^C50lOlO(MCO>*l^-■*lTtlCO H rtiTtHCOCOTt..-iO'-iiOCOThiCO^t'OOTjHOt>.^ GO 8 -H CD GO CO 1 ^JIs^e:§8^S§^^s^§ TtlCOiOiO-^OiOiOCO 88 ol 5^ C^OS 05 w 00 CD TJH 01 CO '^l r^ o CO 1:0 |Oit-Ctir-i^CCit^^ lOClOt-O-Ht-OiC'O'fO ^0 S^ 0^^ ^T 1 p 000 606666066-^0666 ^^^0^0000 ocoogooo 1 6 6 6 6 l>. t-- oi to CO Ci CO ^ • ^ oi 01 ?0 7' OT CD Ci CD 00 00 1 t- .cp 60^^66^^ ,i.6^,1h66 " ;h^^^^^6o-:h i-i GO T^ CO T^ AtIh 6 6 rH Ah ^ CO t- 10 Ci 01 CO ^^^^Sg^553gi78^S liiiiiiii ^61 fe*^ ill Tji 1 ^- cs CO r-H cq Tfi CO q| ,!( ,li ,1| ,1h ^8 -^S O^-^tIh 6 -H ^ ■"• 1 • "" X ^ : if tn |§ o, tH ^ tj -£ 3 S § 1 t. nitra arious 1 rrf J - 1 1 1 1 c :» H c 1 -1 „ manured, 1 cw Mangolds n " Vfromvj des, strongly manure X •se Carrots (Osdorf) „ (Hohenhe ichoke, large tubers „ small „ 1 1 § •» £ 1 J3 © ^ i- ti J3 II ^ ;2; 3 1 O S Ah vh CO OiO.-ir-i'*irH20QOQOt»«D- § fl 88 ^ g ^ ^ 1 CO O (M rH CO CD Oi 01 c s -S 3 t^ ^J as S 66^c^66^666666^6oo6;^Or:^o6666 t' ^ o 6 6 n3 . 'S CF5 cq '^ ^ ::i t^ 00 !>• -tH o ^' 1 a 1 CvlCOil^ClO-T.Ol'TiCO'^CO^ ^00, (M*-! cocoir-ocgt—o P ^ §^ 8 § 2 3 o feS^SS^S'tggRF^ggoS'^g^-^ggSa^^ >3 Cicp Ic-icDoc |ciC0Cllp^'O |cp |(>i Iqoocqcpcpoqo g ^i^'^-^&li^<^ ^^^ 1^1^-^^ rJD'^Cti i^^'ioi^ ZD^ CO 6i<0 ^ ^ ^ ZD ^ 1 1 m a 1 P^ ^ S Er ^ P -♦J ^ t 11 § O 1 3 c 3 ■1 tscca ^ a. 1 a -1 p is 1 2 > 1— 2 ■» APPENDIX. 337 1^ (M CO 05 CO O *^ X '^ Tfi '^ ^ c5 ^ CO CO >P Op ^-'?^t-<^^05 I CO 7^ CO rl r-(^ ^ ^ i^ cocp-tHqCs t- ^ ci ^ «pi>-cqcx)ot^Tti^i>i>.co«pcocp05pO'7H05 0ir--ipo5ipcp«pop lb ids Icq | lob losoocbcs J-^t^-^ lij- Ico IcxxJiocb ''-^C^t-^l:-^05Q|l3COo^O(X)0500^0iC6CDj^052!,OigL,050ia505 Cqi:^?O00?O 00 OiOiOO CD CO Oi --< O — < :-> O t--O^-*-CiC0C0-r-OOOQOQp?^O(MO, lOiCO^r^l'^i-i^^'^CO'^COCOWy— 0^0<^r^<^-T^^ - . O |cO |C^ I^Y"^ I— Cl'-HiO |COO?5 lOY^ li-iCO^MHN ^^'98^88 CO l«bcOcb-*(MOT^cbcO Tfir-icqcOOO (M OOOt- C> ^ &i &\ ^ -^ Tt^iMcb lO CO i r->ijvhi»ht:- r-l IC 00 1-- t' p r^ l?5 CM Ph ^ W coo 33B FARM FOODS. TABLE IV. Feeding Standards for Farm Animals. Remarks, This table gives the daily requirements of the various farm animals in terms of " real food" or the actually digestible constituents of food. The term " carbohydrates '' includes both the digestible fibre and nitrogen-free extract ; this is practically identical in value with the "nitrogen-free extract" determined by analysis in the case of coarse fodders, but is somewhat less in the case of concentrated food- stuffs. The "fat" is calculated from the " crude fat " by applying the digestive coefficient of fat, but can only be regarded as pure fat in the case of grain or grain products. The '' albuminoids " must be taken to include both the true albuminoids and the amides. Although our knowledge of the exact proportion of the amides in all food-stuff s is insufficient for a general classification, still the facts already established with regard to crude fibre, as well as the amides, should be borne in mind in arranging a feeding standard. For calculating the " albuminoid ratio " from the digestible constituents the fats are multiplied by the factor [2'44l, and the product added to the carbo- hydrates. The total organic matter is useful for re- gulating the bulk of a diet, and for arriving at its percentage digestibility. The values given are strictly averages, and are well adapted for the guidance of a practical man as to the APPENDIX. 339 general lines he should adopt in feeding his stock with- out necessitating a slavish adherence to the exact quantities prescribed. Variations above and below the standard will be required for animals of dififerent breed, individuality, or milking- capacity. The following points need consideration in calculating a feeding-ration : — («) Coarse fodders have been evaluated by direct digestion experiments. {b) Values for the digestible constituents of con- centrated food-stuffs are deducible from ex- perimental results. (c) Potatoes, roots, and potato slump can be safely considered to be completely digestible. (d) If the amount of roots and potatoes in a mixed ration does not exceed 12 per cent, of the total food (referred to the dry matter only), the usual values still hold good ; but if the proportion of roots or tubers exceed this limit, an appreciable " depression '' of the digesti- bility of the coarse and concentrated fodders included in the ration results. (See '^^De- pression Table,'^ p. 144.) The latest results of experiments on animal nutrition have proved that the digestible value of a food cannot be simply determined by the difference found between the food eaten and the dung excreted. Even if we ignore the many waste products of animal- digestion and other substances excreted in the dung (which are not directly derived from the food digested), on the ground that the food-supply is bound to make z2 340 FARM FOODS. good their loss to the body, other difRculties in fixing the food-requirements of an animal arise. The amides, for instance, involve considerable difficulty, as we do not yet know for certain whether their formation in the body is more akin to that of the albuminoids or of the carbohydrates, and whether they can be regarded as a direct source of fat or not — a further difficulty is that of the fermentation of cellulose in the alimentary canal of cattle and horses. It has been found that as much as 40 per cent, of the crude fibre apparently digested is in reality decomposed with the production of Marsh-gas by fermentation in the intestines, and it is very open to question whether the fatty acids pro- duced in this fermentative process (acetic and butyric acids, &c.) possess anything like the same feeding- value as the starch or cellulose they theoretically represent. (Seep. 111.) Crude fibre has been found absolutely useless for horses. (See p. 244.) Experimental evidence of the fermentative decom- position of albuminoids in the intestines has been given, but the proposal to make an allowance of 10 per cent, on this score cannot be accepted until further and more reliable results have been obtained. Despite these difficulties and sources of uncertainty, it would be very foolish to abolish all food calculations and standards, and for the farmer to ignore such guidance as is already obtainable on the subject. Notwithstanding their imperfections, digestible values remain the only sure guide as to the choice and selection of food-stuflPs, and the only possible basis for a rational system of feeding farm animals. AP^fENDlX. ^^ The ODly thing to bear in mind is that the greater the proportion of amides or o£ crude fibre in a food- stuff the more uncertain is its feeding-value, and the greater the probability that the food-stuff will require some addition of one or other constituent to bring it up to its normal and theoretical value, or to enable it to achieve its " economic maximum '' as a farm food. For the practical valuation of food-stuffs, and all special food-calculations, two methods of calculation are possible, and provided they be carried out properly identical results will be obtained so far as the feeding- effect is concerned. Method A. After taking into consideration the conditions of soil, manuring, season, and harvesting under which the particular crop was grown, as well as the period of vegetation at which it was gathered, a general estimate of its quality is obtained, and values m accord- ance with that quality are selected from a table giving - maximum,- ^ minimum," and - average " values tor the different food-stuffs. Allowance has then to be made for the probable percentage of amides, &c. The figures obtained by an intelligent use of the tables are then employed for further calculations. Method B. By consulting the table giving the average com- position of food-stuffs, the average composition and percentage of digestible constituents of any food-stuff can be obtained. In Table I. several grades of quality are given in many cases, and the average values for 342 FARM rOJDS. a food o£ comparable quality with that under con- sideration can be selected. It is now possible to try ffeeding-stuffs with a legal guarantee, and by comparing the analytical values with those given in the tables, a very close estimate of the feeding-value of purchased food can be obtained. Allowance must of course be made for amides and crude fibre. The practical man can choose either method, but I am personally in favour of Method B, and give an illustration of its practical application. Example I. A farmer owns 25 milch-cows averaging 900 lbs. apiece, or weighing 22,250 lbs. altogether. He wishes to feed them for 7 winter months, or 212 days, on an economical diet that will maintain a maximum pro- duction of milk. His stores at the end of harvest are as follows : — 40,000 lbs. hay. 20,000 lbs. clover. 30,000 lbs. oat-straw. 150,000 lbs. mangolds. The hay was of rather poor quality because it was cut a little over-ripe and was harvested rather badly. As great care was taken to make the best of it, however, and it was stacked before it was really sodden, it will be fairly represented by the quality marked '^inferior'' in the Table. From a neighbouring brewery a constant supply of brewers^ grains and malt-sprouts can be obtained, so APPENDIX. 343 that with this addition to the food already on the farm the following ration per 1000 lbs. live-weight of the cows can be provided every day. Organic matter. Digestible Constituents. Albuminoids and Amides. Carbo- hydrates. Fat. Amides. Crude fibre. 8 lbs. hay lbs. 6-5 31 3-3 3-4 lbs. 0-27 0-28 006 0-33 lbs. 2-79 1-48 1-60 300 lbs. 004 0-05 003 003 lbs. 003 005 0-21 lbs. 1-25 0-47 0-94 0-27 4 lbs. clover 4 lbs. oat-straw... 30 lbs. mangolds . Total 30 lbs. grains ... 2^ lbs. sprouts ... 16-3 6-8 20 0-94 117 0-48 8-87 2-97 1-24 015 0-39 003 0-29 004 013 2-93 0-48 0-30 Total 251 2-59 1308 0-57 0-46 3-71 Feeding Standard 240 2-5 12-5 0-4 — 1 As the cows are of a good milking-breed it is highly important that their diet should be fully as high as that laid down in the standard, especially with regard to albuminoids. With cows of poor milking-capacity this is not so important a consideration. The proportion of roots referred to '^dry'^ or ^^ organic matter'^ amounts to 16 per cent, of the total, so that a small " depression ^^ will result. This amounts (see p. 144) to 5 per cent, of the albuminoids in the rest of the diet (2*26 lbs.), so that a reduction of O'll lb. 344 FARM PODS. must be made from the albuminoids on the score of '' depression/' The carbohydrates are already in excess of that re- quired by the standard, and we need not trouble about them further, as the amides will probably compensate for any " depression '^ brought about by the roots. The proportion of amides needs no practical con- sideration provided it be not abnormal, but if a ration contains several food-stuffs with a high percentage of amides it requires especial consideration. Ordinary hay and clover contain but a moderate proportion of amides, while the tender herbage of a pasturage frequently contains a much larger proportion. For practical purposes in the present state of our knowledge, we will restrict our especial consideration of amides to roots and such concentrated food-stuffs as malt-sprouts, which contain very large quantities of these nitrogenous compounds. In the above ration there are two foods highly charged with amides, viz. the mangolds and the malt- sprouts. The former usually contains about two-thirds of its total nitrogen in the form of amides, the latter about a quarter. We must deduct the following amounts from the total albuminoids in the table, viz. : — Amides in mangolds . . , = 021 lb. Amides in sprouts . . . = 0*13 lb. *' Depression '' due to roots =0*11 lb. Total =0-45 lb. This amounts to about one-fifth of the total amount of albuminoids (2*59 lbs.). A deficit of one-third of a APPENDIX. 345 pound of albuminoids is thus apparent if we compare the ration with the standard we have laid down. Provided the cows be gocd milkers, it would most probably be found in practice that the addition of 10 oz. of flesh-meal, or 1 lb. of earth-nut or sesame cake, or 0*4 lb. of digestible albuminoids in some form or other, would considerably improve the yield of milk. Example 11. Let us next consider the case of a farm on sandy soil producing poor crops of hay and corn, but growing excellent potatoes. A distillery is started for working-up the potatoes, and 100 lbs. of potato-slump is thus provided for every 8 lbs hay Total organic matter. Digestible Constituents. Albuminoids and Amides. Carbo- hydrates. Fat. h.^iA^^ Crude ^^^^^«- fibre. lbs. 6-5 6-6 4-5 4-9 lbs. 0-27 Oil 009 1-40 lbs. 2-71 3-20 210 3-30 lbs. 004 0-06 003 0-20 lbs. 003 0-44 lbs. 1-25 1-88 102 0-60 8 lbs. oat-straw . . . 6 lbs chaff 100 lbs. " slump " Total \\ lbs. rape cake . 2 lbs. sesame cake. 22-5 1-2 16 1-87 0-37 0-67 11-31 0-36 0-38 0-33 0-11 0-23 0-47 004 001 0-52 4-75 001 005 4-81 Total 253 2-91 1205 0-67 Feeding Standard 240 2-5 12-5 0-4 — — 346 FARM FOODS. 1000 lbs. live-weight of the cows on the farm. The farm crops provide 8 lbs. of poor hay, the same weight of very fair oat-straw, and 6 lbs. of chaff per 1000 lbs. live-weight of the cows per day. The table on p. 345 gives the composition of these various food-stuffs. Despite the large proportion of slump in this diet, I do not consider that it would bring about any appre- ciable '' depression. ^^ If we deduct the 0*44 lb. of amides in the slump we still have 2*47 lbs. of albumi- noids left, or practically that required by the standard (2"5). It would only be desirable to exceed the ration laid down in the case of cows of remarkable milking- capacity. It may also occur that the oil-cake provided proves richer in nitrogen than the values quoted, which are those of average samples. It is very easy to make allowance for the quality of such cake as represented by the analysis. Average samples of sesame cake contain 37' 2 per cent, of albuminoids ; and if a sample contains 42 per cent., the digestible albuminoids would be increased in the same proportion. This method can be employed with any food-stuff by comparing the analysis with the figures given in the tables, and altering the digestible constituents in proportion. The slight deficit of carbohydrates in the above ration is more than made good by the digestible albu- minoids and fat. It is quite another question, how- ever, whether the excessive amount of crude fibre would not make the albuminoids too small in proportion. With the help of Table II. we calculate out the total APPENDIX. 347 crude fibre as 4*81 lbs , and deduct this from the total carbohydrates : 12-05 -4-81 = 7-24 lbs. In the first example we have 13-08-3-71 = 9-37 lbs. If we assume that the crude fibre possesses half the nutritive value of the carbohydrates we get the following : — Ex. I. . . 9-37 + l-86 = ll-23lbs. Ex. II. . . 7-24 + 2-41= 9-65 lbs. It is thus evident that the carbohydrates in Ex- ample I. are 1'58 lb. in excess of those in Example II. Our present knowledge does not permit us to decide whether this is a matter of serious moment with cows as has been demonstrated in the case of horses. If it be found that the diet is not succeeding well with the cows, it would be highly advisable to supply an addition of digestible carbohydrates in the form of roots, potatoes, starchy meals, &c. Example III, Let us now take the case of a farm without any meadow-land at all, but growing good crops of red clover, roots, and beans. There is a plentiful crop of clover, but unfortunately one half of it was harvested in wet weather and is only of average quality, while the rest was completely soaked and sodden, but was eventually dried, and provided useful winter fodder. This latter will correspond with that described as '^ inferior '^ in the Table. Roots, beans, and straw of very fair quality have also been harvested. 348 FARM POODS. The following distribution of these food-stuffs^ sup- plemented with a little oil-cake_, would suflSce to keep a herd of good dairy cows in first-rate milking con- dition. (lbs. per 1000 lbs. live- weight.) Total organic matter. Digestible Constituents. Albuminoids and Amides. Carbo- -p^. hydrates. ^^*- Amides. Crude fibre. j 8 lbs. clover (average). I 8 lbs. „ (poor) . . lbs. 6-3 6-4 3-3 lbs. 0-56 0-46 006 0-28 0-88 lbs. lbs. 2-96 0-10 2-90 1 008 1-62 i 002 2-50 1 003 2-00 : 006 lbs. Oil 007 0-18 010 lbs. 0-94 0-93 0-91 023 0-20 25 lbs. mangolds 2-8 3-3 Total ! 221 1 2 lbs. palm-nut cake... 17 2-24 0-31 11-98 0-29 109 018 0-46 001 3-21 0-30 Total ration 23-8 2-55 1307 0-47 0-47 3-51 Standard 24*0 1 2-5 12-5 0-4 i — — As the poor clover had been thoroughly soaked with rain, the values given for carbohydrates are probably about one- third too high. As the roots are not supplied in large quantity they will not exercise any appreciable '^ depression/^ but a deduction of 0*18 lb. for the amides they contain is necessary. This could easily be made good by substituting a cake richer in nitrogen for the palm-nut cake in the Table. Considering the wonderful results produced by palm-nut cake with APPENDIX. 349 milch-cows, I do not recommend such a change, and consider that the small deficit of nitrogen would be more than accounted for by the specific value of the palm-nut cake and the beans for promoting a large yield of good milk. The crude fibre amounts to 3 '51 lbs. and is even less than that given in Example I. No objection can therefore be made to this item, and I consider this ration eminently suited for the requirements of milch- cows. 350 FARM FOODS. TABLE IV. — Feeding Standards. Digestible. 3 . ii © m . S 1 I 'eS E 1 H O ^ 1 ^^-\ -^ "o -s s H . 'N ir; -H Tj* I o ^ O CO lO »0 ■* :o C-l Tl 05 I- -t' i> I I I 1 o 6 -^ -N ] 6 -^ oti -^ coo* o 1 6 l^J ^-i^A OCq lO i:0(M CO C^JOOtMrniOCOO -6cb «b oocc 6^ o Ai rH o 6 Ai r^ do ooq (^ 0«D (M COOcCri-HOt-QO •^M = r-i Mco t- "^00 CO Oi-i^oO'MrHi:© •^BJ-JFH pcD O COO t- '^'MCOCO'MCOOSOS ^^ Is •8J0;g 005 00 t-»o CO coiocpcooicpr^r-i -ocb OS -^-^ tJ< o Ai rHO o c^ c-i Tt^ •uBai^ OOS to O 00 ZD -^ \0 ^ CO <>i '^ CO G CO CO I o Cbr^ O ^ o 0000005 00 :o(MO'+'^:<^i'*'* ft'^oAn I I rJH Ot^AhOOt^ (>Tfl O CO I o 6-^ I 6 o o •^M •^^J-JFH ■P9J-1PM OOiOCO tOOOOCOiCiMt^TtiiC 'c^cbcbr^ i I^iooOt^ooc^'^'^ CO'^ o .^ O (M -^ !>- t- -as »C t^ CO kO 'M O iC Oi - o Tt< t- T^ I I cq b 6 o r-H o 6 CO r^ 6i Ot-Tt^Oi 00 «0 tJh i>. lO lO oq O O CO Thi ' •55.00 -tlOOr^l |ci666r^6b'^!fo s- C 0/ ( APPENDIX. 353 ?D O'^ o 00 -^ Ci lO C£ cot- 1 C ( CO 1 cc ^ vb iCM CO -ci ' GO rfi CO OC CO ^ CO ooio o TtH OlOOt- If rHCO 1 Ttl t- 1 os^t- ^COO^rH ^ CO 00 ZD ' i>- t- CO TT (M ^ CO 'H O (M lO '^ rH Ci 1 SOcDiO lOO t^^O^OO iC lO -- t^ rH «Or-t «c C5 d (Tl O --p ?p O i^ t^ CO 00 cc tHO 1 CO oo:COOC 10 CO CI CO Ci o COCJCOrHTj^ g: zo -X CO (M TtH^ CO Td- c^ CO O O lO CO o (M rH 0: 00 Tt c^ CO '^ CO 'O 'O CO t> CI rH CO ?r 0<:£ ' ^ (M rfrH CO T^ c; CO^t-T(H O .-0 IC CI IH Tj- 00 c: ■^ CO t^ C^li:- CO Ci CI !CJ C^ 00;^ CO ^ o Ttl ?£ ) Tf 05 t-l>.CO O rH t^ lO lO CC iT 00 O t- 'J -M ot- -^ CO^ Tt l-t> ■ ^ rH <:£ >-l CO r^ «c c. (M -^ i ">5 ■Is 1 •v. kin. Head, n trails lesh and F ontents of Consti (Dressed w di in Flesh at on Kidn at on Ome 1 S-I 9 PoiSP^O 1 ^?qfqfi<;iH 354 FARM FOODS. 1 K^t-Tt^-* 1 O (MOOOOO o •^vg ^I^^O;^ g O ^ r-H 01 »C O o '"' p^ (Meo«oo5 1 o »r: as b-050 o •8ao:>s poof) ^^S^S 8 gl^^^S^ 8 I— 1 (M OT a:? O 1 o cq oco oo o •:iBj iCaa^ ^^2^^ 8 §^;:^^^2 8 r-l - ^pt-t-o o ^ (M Ci CO O O '^M » CO rH lO 8 oo^i^i^c. o 1 b & loiooocq o CO CO (M t^ O 1 O H •^«J-JI^H ® i-H .-( CO 8 S22=^g^ 8 1 QQ '"' f— 1 - Pr;^-HQO o ocpo o COtH Tj^OO o •uBaq; 8 l-H CO lO CO O CO 8 1—1 H fe CO O 1-H CO o F-( CO IC) rH O 1 O ^6 >^:^-g 8 I— ! CO iC. Tfi o t- 8 TtH lO X CO 1 o 00 t-05C0O o "^B^ ^^;2:o§ 8 CO CO CO CO (M 8 1—1 ^^it^^ 8 05^*+! (MO O 6 •^^J-JI^H ^S^gS 8 1—1 •-* coooiMl:- O r-HOOOOCOO O ^ 'P^J-TPM ^^2^?^ 8 ^^2-^:^2 8 1 g 1— 1 ►« •S 1 jj '^ s 3 o 1 ^ 3 o f 8 ei a t 8 ^ S3 a OQ i : o H 1 troge nera ater nten ^l^&: feg^^Q APPENDIX. 355 CO Ol C5 05 I O (jq rln rHCb I O (>1 OOiOi ooooo O I o 00 O T^ t^Ah 666 I Ah cq coco Oi Oi CO 05 Atoticoo COi-c O kbt-wcb rH O OOO CO Ol ^ •* COOi lO 1^ 1— I p 1— ( 1— I O (M -^ Ah 6666 6 l-H T-H O O O O C5i lO ^ O Ki (M 05 (M CO ©--H r-l O (M A-t1h6666 6 --HrHOOOO 1— I lO OOiXI OCOO^O t^(M05(M ^ IS •'^ 4 B m O bog 2 1-2 ■S -S — K? o c^ ocq o o o Ah Ah6666 6 CD Tt^ lO 41 Ol i-H CO O 1^- O r-l I— ( O !M Ah Ah6666 6 (M ■^ ^ 00 ^ (M rtH Oi 1— I O ^-H i-H O CO A<(jq 66 66 6 ^ .2 o -a :5 :J •r © « s.S'fl be * =« o Cu^ -^ VH -O C ^ '3 ^ =3 2a2 356 FARM FOODS. Note to Tables V. and VI. Table V. is based principally on the results of Lawes and Gilbert [' Philosopbical Transactions of the Royal Society/ 1859, pp. 493-680) ; at the same time some German ^^ slaughter " results have been included, and the proportion o£ individual mineral constituents has not been determined directly, but calculated from the various analyses of the chief parts of the animal body. It must also be noted that the figures given in the table refer to young animals, or those which have only just reached maturity. If animals of a more advanced age are fattened the proportion of fat, especially that on the kidneys, is generally greater, while the weight of the four quarters is less in proportion. Recently Lawes and Gilbert have published the results of the analyses of the ash of whole animals and of certain parts as well (Phil. Trans. 1883, pp. 865-890). Table VI. consists of the proportional quantities of mineral substances expressed as percentage of the total live-weight as deduced from this latter memoir; while the average of the directly determined amounts of nitrogenous matter, fat, water, and ash, as well as the live-weight of the animals calculated from all the results published in 1859, has been appended. APPENDIX. 357 -J lO CO C5 00 lO o ii ■ o CO 05 Ci b -^1 6i CO :c CO rH Tji 8 S»0 PppT-iT-HpOOOO T^r^66666666 ^'MCOCOOGiCOCOrM GOiOOOC-lCOTtiiOr-H !>4 0i— I--HOOOOO T^66666666 GOOiOOOOOODCiiOO OTfiiOOOlCOC^J-^O-— I TTHfflOrHT-HOOOOO '-Hr^66666666 O'*C000t^T^"r-H,-|rt(^ ■^CO'-^THCiCOOOTtH-^Cq 6'-io— loooooo '^'-•66666666 OiOciGOTticqioco Ci lO lO o o ■ COi-KtCCOOt-Olt-C^jT-l --iCqiOi>.(MC0iOC01:^C^ J: ^ .-h(Mt-icd:d-^co^iOi:o iOOJCCt^C^(MC01>-i^O lOt^Or-i'— lOOOOO AiAh666 6 6666 GSi— iiOOOOCOt^OCO COi-HOOOTfir^COCOOr-l OO'-iOC-l'-HOOOOO T^cq 66666666 0* i o « o O 2 g 4^; m INDEX. Acorns, 199. Adipocere, 55. Aftermath, 128, 154. Albert, 172. Albumen, 7, 19, 39, 72, 166. „ circulatory, 36. ,, heat-value, 87. „ increase of, 47. „ organized, 36. „ storage of, 45. „ vegetable, 96. Albuminoids, 7, 23, 36, 95, 219, 223. „ composition of, 8. „ consumption of, 39. ,, crude, 117. ,, increase of, 139. Albuminoid Eatios, 73, 139, 222, 224, 225, 226. Alcoholic Extract, 6. Alkaloids, 99. Alpine Hay, 153. American Flesh-meal, 148, 203, 204. Amides, 100, 152, 220, 221. Ammonia, 98. Amygdaline, 99. Animal Products, 203. Argutinsky, 77. Artichokes, 210. Artichoke stems, 184. Artificial digestion, 118. Ash, see Mineral Matter. Asparagine, 100, 101, 209. Aspartic Acid, 98. Avenin, 194. Baesler, 161. Baur, J., 56. Barley, 192, 195, 225, 245. Barley-straw, 188. Beans, 197, 245. „ Soja, 199. Bean-straw, 188. Beech-nut cake, 203. Bees produce wax from sugar, 67. Beet-molasses " slump," 214. Berlin, 111, 243, 244. Berthelot and Andre, 87. Betaine, 100. Bile, 19. Bischoffand C. Voit, 26. Blood, dried, 206. ,, loss of, 71. ,, oxygen in, 21, 71, 93. Body, average composition of, 10. „ constituents, 1. „ solid constituents, 2. ,, water in, 1. Bones, 2, 12. Bonn, 14, 166, 172. Bran, 193, 225. Breed, Influence of, 135, 259. Breslmi; 98, 166, 167, 168, 169, 174, 200. Brewers' Grains, 195, 225, 247. Broekema, L., and A. Mayer, 174. Brown Hay, 157, 163. Brushwood, 185. Buckwheat, 182, 195. Butter, 174, 193, 194, 200, 201,214, 254, 258, 260, 261, 262. Cabbages, 184. Calorimetric values, see Heat- values Calves, 15, 267. Candle-nut cake, 201. Carbohydrates, 50,62,63, 71, 115, 141, 219. Carbonic Acid, 34, 78, 84. 3G0 FARM FOODS. Carrots, 211, Carrot-tops, 184. Casein, 8, 249, 254, 263. „ Vegetable, 96. Cellulose, 102, 110, 195. Cereal Grain, 191, 225 Cereals, Straw of, 187. Chaff' and Husks, 190. Chanievjski, 66. Chinese oil-beans, see Soja Beans. Chlorine, 13, 123. Chlorophyll, 100, 103. Circulator}' Albumen, 36. Clover, 225. ., Crimson, 180. „ Hay, 158, 225, 245. „ Bed. 158. Swedish, 166, 180. „ White, 180. „ Yellow, 180. Coarse Fodder, see Fodder. Coctehalers, 206. Cocksfoot, 187. Coconut cake, 201. Colostrum, 249, 270. Compensation. 113, Concentrated Foods, 138, 191. Condition of Animals, 42. Conglutin, 96. Conservation of Energy, see Energy. Constituents, Body, 1. „ Food, see Food. ,, Nitrogenous, 6, 95, 99, 219. ,, Organic, 19. Constitutional Salts, 14. Consumption of Albuminoids, 39. Fat, 68, 78. Corn, 140. Corn-cockles, 193. Cotton cake, 200, 201. Cows, see Milch-Cows. ,, Dutch, 214, 258. production of Milk-fat, see Milk-fat. Crude Albuminoids, 117. „ Fat, 95, 103, 116. „ Fibre, 95, 102, 110, 222, 244. Crusius, 267, 269. Dahme, 130. Dairy products, 206. Decomposition in the body, 85. Depression of digestibility, 141, 142, 143. Depression of values, 144. Deterioration of Fodder, due to storage, 126. Determination of Fat and Water, 28. „ of Nitrogen digested, 27. Diff'usion chips. 215, 216. Digestion, 20, 106, 107. artificial, 118. ,, calculation, 32. „ coefficient, 140. result, 30. Diuresis, 24. Dogs, 67. Draught Oxen, 241. Dresden, 126, 135, 141, 147, 204. Dried Blood, 206. Dry Fodder, see Fodder. Dutch Cows, 214, 258. Earth-nut cake, 201. Economic Ratio, 224. Economy of Fat, 69. Electoral Sheep, 235. Ellenherger and Hofmeister, 107. Energy, Conservation of, 85. Errors in determining Digestion, 107. Ether Extract, see Crude Fat. Ewes, 257. Excrement receptacles, 106. Experimental Stations, see Breslau, Halle, Hohenheim, Kothen, Mu- nich, Mockern, Peterhof, Proskau, Weende, Wisconsin. Extract, Alcoholic, 6. Nitrogen-free, 20, 95, 103, 113, 115. Fat, 4, 19, 45, 69, 219, 220. „ Body, 47, 54. ,, consumption of, 68. „ digestibility of, 109. ,, economy of, 69. INDEX, 361 Fat, heat-value, 87. „ in Food, 48, 146, 219. 280. ,, produced from Albuminoids, 24, 55, 220. „ sources of, 53. „ Starch equivalent of, 87, 219. Fattening, experiments on, 60, 277. Oxen, 61, 279. Pigs, 286. Sheep, 278, 281. Feeding effect, 30. standards, 218, 242, 254. „ ,, interpretation of, 285. Fibrin, 7. Fish-Guano, Norwegian, 205. Fjord, 288. Fjord and Friis, 260. Flavour, effect of, 222, 247. Fleischmann, 258, 263. Flesh-fibrin, 7. Flesli-formation, laws of, 38. Flesh-meal, American, 148, 203, 204. Fluids, Mineral, 2 Fodder, Coarse, 149. „ digestibility of, 124. „ Dry, 125, 1.58, 175, 180. „ Green, 125, 149, 158, 175, 180. li'ood, 92, 219. „ analysis, 95. „ constituents, 92, 95, 219. Foods, concentrated, 138, 191. Food-stuffs, 94, 149. Foot-pound, 75. Force, production of, 74. Forster, J., 14, 15. Fry, G., 171. Funke, 130. Gabriel, 98, 101, 197, 199. Geese, 66, 67. Gelatinoids, 9. Gliadin, 96, 97. Glucosides, nitrogenous, 99. Glutamine, 98, 100, 209. Gluten, 96, 196. „ fibrin, 96. „ casein, 96. Glycogen, 6. Goats, 133, 257. Goffart, 167. Gbttingen, 40, 62, 98, 112, 119, 120, 186, 277, 287. Gottingen Sheep, 31, 233. Grandeau, L., and Leclerc, 132, 244. Grass, Pasture, 151, 224. Grasses, Meadow, 187. Green Fodder, see Fodder. „ Maize, 181. „ „ as silage, 167, 168, 169, 182. Growth of animals, effect of, 136. „ of plants, period of, 127, 151. Gruher, Max, 84. Haemoglobin, 71. Halle, 27, 140, 166, 168, 169, 174, 176, 196, 197, 200. Hanover, 288. Hay, 126, 149, 180, 224, 245. „ Alpine, 153. „ Brown, 157, 163. „ Clover, 158, 225, 245. „ Dutch, 154. . „ Lucerne, 175, 245. „ Lupine, 178. „ Eed Clover, 158. „ Vetch, 177. Heat produced in work, 83. Heat-units, 70. „ values, 86, 87. Heiden, 163. Heilhronn, 86. Hellriegel and Lucanus, 130. Hemp cake, 203. Henneherg, 21, 31, 44, 73, 229, 232, 236, 284, 287. Henneherg and Stohman, 46, 110, 187, 227, 264. Henry, 288. Hippuric Acid, 23, 36. Hirschfeld, 76. Hirschler, 118. Hoffmann, F., 53. Hofmeister, 126, 135, 200. 362 FARM FOODS. Hohenheim, 27, 48, 55, 58, 63, 79, 83. 88, 98, 1U8, 111, 114, 120, 122, 126, 128, 129, 131, 133, 135, 136, 140, 141, 143, 146, 147, 151, 152, 162, 172, 182, 188, 189, 192, 199, 200, 201, 204, 205, 210, 234, 235, 238, 243, 244, 253, 254, 256, 259, 272, 283, 287. Hornberger, 130. Horny matter, 9. Horses, 43, 79, 83, 88, 111, 131, 133, 195, 203, 242. Horse-chestnuts, 199. Horse-tail, 154. Indigo, 100. Individuality of animals, 137. Inorganic substances, 122. Inosite, 6. Iron, 12. Japan, silkworms, 67. Jaundice in sheep, 179. Katzenstein, 84. Katdl, 263. Kellner, 0., 55. 67, 109, 120, 150, 182, 197, 211, 283. Kennepokl, 101. Ker7i and Wattenberg, 40, 62, 98, 277, 284. Kidney Vetch, 181. Kiel, 101, 193, 205, 261. Kinetic Energy, see Energy. Kirchner, 174. Kothen, 178, 189. Kramer and E. Schulze, 153. Kreussler, 209. Kiihn, a., 58, 130, 162, 193, 200, 261. Kilhn and Fleischer, 257. Kuschen, 98, 108, 182, 185, 204. Lactic Acid, 6, 165. Laihyrus sylvestris, see Wood Vetch- ling. Lambs, 15, 272, 283. Lav:es and Gilbert, 10, 60, 174, 277. Leaves, Mangold and Sugar-Beet, 182. Leaves of trees, 184. Legumin, 96, 97. Leguminous Plants, straw of, 188. Lehmann, 89, 112,' 186,' 244^ 250. „ and Fogel, 112. Leipzig, 38. Leucine, 98, 100. Liebscher, 216. Lignin, 102, 104, 115. Lime, 11, 12, 123, 147, 264, 274. „ Phosphate of, 11. Linseed, 200. cake, 200, 245. Loss of blood, 71. Lucerne, 175. hay, 245. silage, 167, 168. Lupines, 99, 178, 197, 245. ,, as silage, 167, 168. Lupine-straw, 189. Lupinine, 99. Lupinotoxin, 179. Mach and Portele, 157. Magnesia, 12, 123. Magnus Levy, 112. Maize, 192, 195, 225, 245, 246. „ Green, 181. „ as silage, 167, 168, 169, 182. „ slump, 214. Malt-sprouts, 196, 225. Mangolds, 211. leaves of, 182. Manuring, effect of, 129, 208. Marcher, 44, 155, 176, 217, 286. Mares, 44. Mayer, A., 154, 262. Mayer, Br. J. E., 86. Meadow-grasses 187. Medicago media, see Sand Lucerne. Meissl and Strohmer, 64, 120. Merino Sheep, 135, 273, 282. Methods of preparing Fodder, 129. Milch-cows, 101, 174, 184, 193, 196, 200, 201, 209, 210, 214, 250, 251, 254, 256, 264, 265. Milk, 16, 44, 58, 101, 174, 193, 194, 200, 201, 205, 214, 226. INDEX. 363 Milk-fat, 58, 254, 257, 259, 262, 270. Milk, production of, 248, 250, 251, 254, 256, 259, 262, 263. „ skim and sour, 206. „ sugar, 249, 254. Mineral fluids, 2. „ matter, 11, 95, 104, 123, 274. „ requirements of Cows, 264. „ „ of young animals, 274. Mockern, 27, 58, 127, 128, 130, 140, 156, 160, 162, 175, 200, 253, 254, 257, 261. Morgen and Behrend, 213. Moscow, 64, 65. Mueedin, 96. Mucilage, 104. Mucin, 121. Miiller, 217. Munich, 14, 21, 26, 36, 38, 44, 51. 56, 58, 64, 67, 68, 70, 74, 93, 112. Munich Physiological Institute, 53, 93 Munk, J., 68, 101. Munster, 166, 167, 168. Muscular power, 82. „ work, 74. Mustard oil, 200. Myosin, 7. Net weight, 3. Nitrogen digested, determination of, 27. „ equilibrium, 40, 41. „ excretion as gas, 77. free extract, 20. 95, 103, 113. „ „ ,, composition of, 115. Nitrogenous constituents, 6, 95, 219. ,, ,, not albu- minoids, 99, 100. „ glucosides, 99. ,, organic substances, 9.5. ,, special foods, 139. Non-nitrogenous nutrients, 219, 222. ,, organic substances, 6. Norwegian Fish-Guano, 205. Nuclein, 166. Nutrients, 94, 218, 219, 220, 221 222. Nutritive Ratio, 104, 139. Oats, 140, 192, 194, 225, 245. Oat-straw, 187. Oil, 146, 200. „ cakes, 146, 200, 226. „ seeds, 200. Organic constituents, 19. „ matter in food, 220. Organized Albumen, 36. Oxalic Acid in mangold leaves, 182. Oxen, 43, 46, 61, 227, 279. „ Draught, 241. Oxygen, absorbed by the blood, 21, 71, 93. Palm-nut cake, 201. Paris, 132, 243, 244. Pasture-grass, 151. Peas, 197, 245. Pea-straw, 189. Pectin, 103, 210. Peptones, 7, 19, 99. Period of growth, plants, 127, 151. Peterhof, 67. Petienkofer" s respiration apparatus, 28. Pfeiffer, 119. and Kalh, 278. ,, „ Lehniann, 63. Phosphate of lime, 11. Phosphoric Acid, 11, 122, 147, 264, 274. Phosphorus poisoning, 55. Pigs, 48, 63, 64, 65, 145, 193. „ fattening of, 286. „ Windsor, 65. „ Yorkshire, 65. „ young, 15, 274. V. Planta and Erlenmeyer, 67. Politis and Maulkner, 101. Poppelsdorf, 14, 130, 186. Poppy-seed cake, 203. Potash, 13, 123. 264. Potatoes, 207. Potato-haulm, 184. „ slump, 212. 364 FARM FOODS. Preussler, 191. Productive Katios, 144, 222, 223, 224. Proskau, 27, 63, 66, 101, 128, 130, 136, 137, 147, 151, 156, 163, 166, 176, 178, 188, 189, 205, 236, 263. Pure ash, 95, lOi. Quantity of fodder supplied, 124. Eain, effect on hay, 160, 176. Ba^nami, 185. Eambouillet sheep, 136, 236. Bamm, 186. Rape cake, 200. „ seed, 200. Red Clover, 158. R eider, H.,\2\. Respiration, 20. ,, apparatus, Petien- kofer's, 28. „ value of starch, 51. Rice meal, 194. „ middh'ngs, 194. Ritthausen, 96, 15(5, 160. Roberts and Wing, 238. Roots, 143, 207, 210. Rothamstead, 63. Rub7ur, 51, 68, 70, 86, 87. Ruminants, 133. Russian Vetch, 181. Rye, 192, 225. „ grass, 187. „ slump, 214. Sachse, R., 96. Sainfoin, 181. Salt, 16,42,43, 147,265,281. Salts, 14. ,, constitutional, 14. Salzmu7ide, 147. Sand Lucerne, 181. Schrodt, 261. ,, and Hansen, 101. Schulze, B., 169, 198. E., 100. and M. Mdrcker, 108, 139, 142. „ and Reinecke, 5. Season, effect of, 129. Seeds, Albuminoids in, 96. „ Leguminous, 197. Serradella, 181. Sesame cake, 201. Shearing, 237, 284. Sheep, 31, 40, 44, 62, 134, 135, 136, 179, 232, 281, 284. „ Electoral, 235. „ Gottingen, 31, 233. „ Merino, 135, 273, 282. „ Negretti, 282. „ Rambouillet, 136, 236. „ Southdown, 135, 136, 235, 282. „ Wiirttemburg hj^brid, 129, 135,235, 272. Silage, 130, 163, 166, 183, 216,217. ,, Sweet, 171. Silica, 123. Silkworms, produce fat, 67. Silos, heating in, 157. Skim and sour milk, 206. Slump, 212, 214, 215, 226, 247. Soda, 13. Soil, influence of, 129, 155, 208. Soja Beans, 199. ,, Bean-straw, 189. Solanine, 99. 210. Sorghum, 182. Southdown Sheep, see Sheep. Soxhlet, 33, 64, 207. Special nitrogen foods, 139. Spelt-bran, 193. Spurrey, 181. Stall-temperature. 69. Starch, 51, 115, 219. „ equivalent of fat, 87, 219. „ heat-value, 87. Stimulants, 44. St. Michel, 157. Stockhardt, 155. Stohmann, 86, 199, 2.57, 284. ,, and Langhein, 86. Storage, effect of, 126. „ of Albumen, 45. Straw of Cereals, 187. ,, leguminous plants, 188. Stut2er,\U, 166, 172, 180, 187,216. „ method of artificial diges- tion, 118. INDEX. 365 Sugar, 6, 20, 22, 24, 142, 289. „ beets, 210. Sugai'-beet leaves, 182. „ residues, 215. Sulphuric Acid, 123. Sunflower-seed cake, 201. Swedes, 211, 212. Swede-tops, 184. Swedish Clover, 180. „ „ as silage, 166. Tappeiner, 110, 118. Taurine, 108. Tkara7id, 156. Time occupied in digestion, 106. Timothy grass, 187. Tschinuiiisky , 64. Tubers, 143, 207. Turnips, 211. Tyrosine, 98, 100. Ulbricht, 202. TJrea, 23. Values, depression, 144. Vegetable albumen, 96. „ casein, 96. glue, 96, 97. Vernine, 100. Vetches, 177, 197. kidney, 181. „ Eussian, 181. Vetchling, Wood, 181. Veterinary College, Vienna, 66. Vicia villosa, see Eussian Vetch. Vienna, 33, 64, 199. Voit, C, 21, 36, 37, 44, 50, 58, 72, 101, 226. „ and Fettenkofer, 21, 54, 57, 74. Waldau, 178. Water, 43, 69, 281. „ extract, 116, „ in body, 1. 156, 178, Weaning, 271. Weende, 5. 21, 27, 31, 44, 46, 78, 108, 110, 139, 142, 151, 187, 188, 227, 229, 232, 234. 236. Weiske, 1U2, 130, 136, 148, 163, 165, 174, 176, 236, 264, 273, 284. „ and Flechsig, 111. „ Kellner, 205. „ Kiihie, S., 126. „ Schulze, B., 66, 101, 168. „ Wildt, 122, 275. Wheat, 192, 225. „ bran, 193. „ chaff, 190. Whey, 206. White Clover, 180. Wildt, E., 98, 185, 188. Windsor Pigs, 65. Wisco?isin, U.S.A., 288. Wood-vetchling, 181. Woody fibre, see Crude fibre. Wool, 232, 235, 238. Work, 240. „ influence of, 131, ,, muscular, 74. Wiirttemburg hybrid Sheep, see Xanthine, 100. Yellow Clover, 180. ^ Yew-tree needles, 185. Yorkshire pigs, 65. Young animals, 15, 43, 44, 137, 274. cattle, 48, 148, 209. Zuntz and Hagemami, 101. „ Lehmann, 84, 88. ,, Magnus-Levy, 112. Printed by Taylor and Francis, Eed Lion Court, Fleet Street. nOTEKH muKY TECHNICAL EDUCATION: AGRICULTURE. Crown 8vo,pp. xvi and 288, with 22 Illustrations, 6s. Qd. THE LABORATORY GUIDE FOR AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS, BY PROFESSOR A. H. CHURCH, M.A., F.R.S. SIXTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. This volume is the only English work in which a complete course of laboratory practice is provided for the use of students of agriculture. It is divided into three parts, Chemical Manipulation, Qualitative Analysis, and Quantitative Analysis. In the Third Part, the best methods of analysing Manures, Soils, Waters, Cattle- foods and Dairy-Products are fully described. GURNEY & JACKSON, I PATERNOSTER ROW. (successors to MR. VAN VOORST.) Super-royal 8vo, cloth, 540 pp., with 16 steel plates, carefully coloured hy hand, and numerous woodcuts, £1 Is. FARM INSECTS: Beixg the Natural History aij-d Economy op the INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE FIELD CROPS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, AND ALSO THOSE WHICH INFEST BARNS AND GRANARIES, WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR THEIR DESTRUCTION. By JOHN CURTIS, F.L.S., &c. SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS. TURNIP AND MANGEL- WURZLE CROPS. Beetles, Saw-fly and its Black Caterpillar, Plant Lice, Maggots, Caterpillars of Moths and Butterflies, Weevils, Dipterous Flies and Rove Beetles, Surface Grubs, Wireworms, Skip-jacks, &c. CORN CROPS. Wireworms (so-called), Ground-Beetles, May Bugs, Caterpillars of Moth and Saw-fly, LarvaB of minute Flies, Hessian Fly, Wheat-midge, Barle3-midge, Thrips, Wheat-louse, Wheat-bug, Vibrio (Ear Cockle), Weevils, &c. PEAS AND BEANS. Maggots, Bees, Plant-lice, Beetles, Moths, Mole-cricket, &c. CARROTS AND PARSNIPS. Rust, Flies, Millipedes and Centi- pedes, Caterpillars of Moths and Butterflies, Gall-flies, Miners, &c. POTATOES. Aphides, Thrips, Ground-fleas, Plant-bugs, Frog-flies, Moths, Mites, Crane-flies, Wireworms, Centipedes, Potato-flies, Slugs, Worms, &c. CLOVER AND PASTURE LANDS. Clover Weevils, Cater- pillars, Millipedes, Snails and Slugs, Earwigs, Beetles, Crickets and Grasshoppers, Ants, Earthworms, &c. GURNEY & JACKSON, 1 PATEROSTER ROW. (Successors to Mr. VAN VOORST.) M 5?