all|p i. U. litU ffitbrarg North (Carolina g»tat? ImoerBitij SB125 B155 STATE UNIVEPSTTV OH HILl LIBRARY S00212574 L THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUB- JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION DESK. (^^cr 1 • ^ 197 i iVMr, ; rj^**jte%*^:^l2^* APR 1 ? 19 yC'J ^^ -^ JUH- 4 .1986fe ■ A NovT;2?"i98ir dgpm -* rtPR 1 §12000 ■MAR 9 1977 PRUNING -BOOK f^y^o THE PRUMNG-BOOK A Monograph of the Pruning and Training of Plants AS Applied to American Conditions ^ : - Bl Lf'rf BAILEY FIFTH EDITION THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 1903 All rights reserved COPYRIOHT, 1898, By L. H. bailey Set up .ind electrotyped April, 1898 Reprinted May, 1899, March, 1901, January, 1902 July, 1903 ^ount I^Ieasant IPrej30 J. Horace McFarland Company Hakrisburg 'Pennsylvania OUTLINE Part I THE FUNDAMENTALS CHAPTER I PAGES The Philosophy op Pruning 1-20 Does pruning devitalize plants CHAPTER n The Fruit-Bud 21-75 The bud and the branch 22 The leaf -bud and the fruit -bud 27 The fruit-spur as illustrated by the apple . . 30 The fruit -spur as illustrated by the pear ... 40 The fruit-spur as illustrated by the plum and cherry 4G The peach and the apricot 50 Gooseberries, currants and juneberries .... 50 Co -terminal fruit-bearing 59 Grapes and brambles 03 How to tell the fruit-buds 00 Summary synopsis of the positions of fruit- buds 74 VI OUTLINE CHAPTER III PAGES The Healing of Wounds 76-132 The nature of the wound 82 Suggestions to the pruner 95 When to cut the branches 102 Dressings for wounds 109 How to make the cut 114 The mending of trees 116 CHAPTER IV The Principles of Pruning 133-190 1. Heavy top-pruning produces wood .... 136 2. Heavy root-pruning lessens wood .... 138 3. Heavy top-pruning rejuvenates the plant . 139 4. Pruned plant resumes its normal habit . . 150 5. Habit varies from youth to age 153 6. One part lives at expense of another . . . 154 7. Watersprouts are results of disturbed equi- librium 155 8. Plants grow from uppermost buds .... 157 9. Heading-in develops lateral buds .... 157 10. Effect of obstructions 161 11. Checking growth induces fruitfulness . . . 162 12. Fruit-bearing is determined by habit . . . 163 13. Girdling and the like are special practices. 167 14. Pruning thins the fruit 174 15. Heading-in induces fruitfulness 180 16. Season of pruning influences fruitfulness. 181*^ 17. Pruning depends upon locality and climate. 185 18. What influences the healing of wounds? . 189 19. Dressings 190 20. General law 190 OUTLINE Vll Pakt II THE INCIDENTALS CHAPTER V PAGES Some Specific Advice 193-340 The form of the top 193 How to trim young plants 205 Root-pruning 227 Root -pruning when transplanting 232 Subsequent treatment of the plants 250 Management of top -worked trees 263 Management of dwarf trees 269 Ringing and girdling 281 Pruning tools ^97 Remarks on specific plants 309 Apple 309 Apricot 310 Cherry 313 Orange 314 Peach 315 Pear 319 Plum 320 r^ • 322 Quince ^-'^ Blackberries and raspberries 323 Currants and gooseberries 327 Shade trees 333 Hedges 333 Ornamental plants 335 CHAPTER VI Some Specific Modes of Training 341-389 European practice 342 Trees and bushes in pots 374 Other special modes of training 384 Vlll OUTLINE CHAPTER VII PAGES American Grape Training— General Sketch . . 390-430 Pruning the grape 402 Pruning young vines 411 When to prune 413 Summer pruning 414 Making the trellis 410 Tying 420 CHAPTER VIII American Grape Training — The Various Modes . 431-493 The upright systems 430 Horizontal arm spur system 437 The high renewal 441 Fan training 455 The drooping systems 458 The true or four- cane Kniffin 400 Modifications of the four-cane Kniffin . . . 400 The two-cane Kniffin, or umbrella system . 409 The low, or one -wire Kniffin 472 The six-cane Kniffin 473 Eight-cane Kniffin 474 Caywood, overhead, or arbor Kniffin . . . 474 The cross-wire system 477 Renewal Kniffin 478 The Munson system 480 Modified Munson 485 Miscellaneous systems 486 Horizontal training 480 Post training 488 Arbors 490 Remodeling old vines 491 OUTLINE IX CHAPTER IX PAGES ViNiFERA Grape Training 494-530 California practice 494 Proper method of making cuts 498 Sliort and long- pruning 500 Pruning of young vines 503 Systems of pruning 505 Summer pruning 521 Classification of the varieties 525 Glass-house practice . . 528 APPENDIX 531-539 IXDEX 541-545 Paet I THE FUNDAMENTALS 1895 1894 c^ 189:j 1. The histoiy of a lilac shoot. THE PRUNING-BOOK Chaptek I THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING A lilac branch is shown in the engraving on the opposite page (Fig. 1). Its most important characteristic, — as of any branch, — is the fact that its various parts are unlike. We must discover the reasons for these unlikenesses or differences. The branch is five years old. The dates mark the termination of the growth of each year. The terminal growths all grew in 1897. Since the branches of any year spring from buds which were formed the previous year, we can determine the normal method of branching of the lilac by examining the buds upon the current year's growths. The branches a and & are each seen to have five pairs of buds. The buds are on op- posite sides of the branch. The twig growth or branching of the lilac, therefore, should be a successive series of forks; but such is notably not the case. In other words, the normal method of branching has not taken place; and the reason is, HOtERTY LIBRARY M.CSUU College 2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING that not all the branches could develop in the severe struggle for existence. The effect of this struggle for existence is to be seen even in the buds upon the current year's growths, as on a and 1). The largest and strongest buds are on the tips, and, as a rule, the buds are smaller and weaker the nearer one approaches the base of the shoot. This unequal development of the buds is undoubtedly associated chiefly with the amount of sunlight to which the different parts of the shoot were exposed. It is further to be observed that the twin ter- minal buds are not often alike. The difference is marked at &. It is evident that, if each of these buds develops a branch, the two branches will be very unlike. Let us now trace the history of this interesting lilac branch. The first growth ended at the point marked 1893. In 1894, a shoot grew from each of the terminal buds, and three other shoots developed. It is noticeable, in the first place, that the strongest shoots are those arising from the terminal buds, while the lowest buds developed no shoots and still remain dormant (s). In the second place, it is to be observed that no two of the five branches are alike. Three branches are strong, but two, m^ n, have succumbed in the struggle for existence, and are now dead. That is, pruning has begun. Tracing the strong branch at the right (running HISTORY OF A BRANCH 6 off to o) , it is seen that it grew to 1894 the first year. The second j^ear it grew to 1895; and in that year, also, one branch, r, was developed. It is noticeable, too, that two branches started from the end of the 1894 growth, but one of them failed, and only a short stub now records the fact. The third year the branch grew to 1896, and a very small branch, q, now dead, w^as produced on the growth of 1895. The fourth year (1897) the branch grew to o, and a single shoot, p, grew on the growth of 1896. Altogether, this branch has made forty efforts to produce branches (that is, forty buds on the growths pre- vious to 1897, but not all traceable in the illus- tration), only five of which, r, at 1894, q, p, and have been successful; and of these five branches, two are dead, and only one, o, seems likely to persist. That is, in the struggle for existence, only one effort in forty has been successful. The large branch on the left, terminating at i, may now be examined. The first year it grew to 1894. The second year it grew in the direction /, but that branch died and the year's growth was lost. The stub or remains of this branch is seen at I. The third year the branch grew to 1896. The fourth year (1897) the terminal branch grew to i, a side branch to j, and another side branch, now nearly dead, grew to A'. The entire branch (1893 to has made over twenty efforts at branches, four of which efforts were successful, 4 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING but two of which, A-, ?, are now dead. That is, two efforts, i, j, out of more than twenty, give promise of being useful. It is noticeable that whereas these two branches — terminating at o and at i — are of the same age, they have developed in very different size and form. Without waiting for the details, we may say that the entire branch in Fig. 1 has made about one hundred and forty attempts at branches. Of these attempts, or buds, twenty -four have pro- duced branches, and of these branches, nine are already dead. The lessons to be derived from this study of the lilac branch may be applied to all plants. They are: (1) there are more efforts at branches than there are branches; (2) there is, therefore, severe struggle for existence; (3) the results are that differences arise and that some branches die. In other words, plants must and do prune themselves. BOBS PR^J^UNG DEVITALIZE PLANTS?* A year ago I read a paper before this Society upon some of the relations between grafting and the vitality of the plant [reprinted in The Nursery- Book, third edition, pp. 82-94], audit seemed to me that the sum of the argument showed that grafting, while often improperly and injudiciously done, is not of itself a devitalizing or injurious *Addi-ess before the Peninsula Horticultural Society, Januarj% 1893, and published in the Proceedings of the Society for that year, pp. 43-49. NATURE OF PRUNING 5 practice. I now ask yoii to follow a similar argu- ment with reference to pruning. This subject is, perhaps, even more important than the other, for every owner of a fruit tree expects to prune, or at least he considers the advisability of the opera- tion. There is the' greatest diiference of opinion as to the merits of particular styles and methods of pruning, and perhaps equal difference as to the effect of the operation on the life and health of the tree. Perhaps every fruit-grower has observed evil effects to result from pruning, and many of these observers have reasoned therefrom that pruning is itself injurious, or at least haz- ardous. I cannot, of course, uphold nor explain away the examples of injury which follow prun- ing. They are patent even to the casual observer; but we must not exalt individual instances, how- ever numerous, into proofs of the perniciousness of pruning. There should have been at this day sufficient study and experience to enable us to pass upon the merits of the practice, as a whole. It is urgent, also, that the subject be discussed, for however much of correct teaching may be pro- mulgated, there is a constantly recurring wave of error and prejudice. For myself, I am convinced that pruning, even when somewhat heroic, is not a devitalizing practice; and in support of this conviction T shall present arguments from three sources,— philosophy, plant physiology, and com- mon experience. I must say at the beginning, 6 THE PHILOSOPHY OP PRUNING however, that I do not propose to - discuss me- chanical injuries to the trees, as a result of wounds, for we all know that such injuries are a result of careless or injudicious pruning. My proposition is this: Does it injure a plant to remove a part of it? Is the entire growth of a plant necessary to its health and longevity ? 1. The argument from philosophy. There is an intense struggle for existence among all or- ganisms. The w^orld is now full, and there can probably be no permanent increase in the sum total of animals and plants. If one species in- creases, another must decrease. Changes in the numbers of individuals are, therefore, largely matters of readjustment between different types. Each kind is held down to a certain equilibrium in relation to other kinds. It is easy to see that any species of animal or plant could completely occupy the surface of the globe, if it could mul- tiply to the full extent of its powers. Not only do some species compete with others, but the individuals of the same species compete with each other for standing room. The greater the num- ber of thistles in a given field, the less is the opportunity for another thistle plant to gain a foothold. Now, a tree is essentially a collection or colony of individual plants. Every branch, even every joint of the branch, is endeavoring to do what every other branch does — to bear leaves, flowers and seeds. Every branch competes with Competition in the top 7 every other branch; and there are more germs of branches — that is, more buds — than there can be branches upon any tree. So it comes that no two branches of a tree are exactly alike, but are what their position or condition makes them to be. Some are strong and some are weak. That is, there is no definite or proper size or shape for any branch, as there is for the different mem- bers of an animal or flower. The limbs and organs of an animal are not competitors but co- partners, each performing some function or office which another does not, and they all obtain a defi- nite maturity of size and shape. But a branch never attains its full size until it ceases to grow and thereby begins to die. Branches are not or- gans, but competing individuals. If all these statements are true, then three conclusions fol- low: there is struggle for existence amongst the branches of a tree, and some of the contestants perish; the destruction of these branches must conduce to the betterment of the remaining ones; all the branches of a tree are not necessary to it, but some of them may be a detriment to it. In other words, pruning is a necessity. Two years ago a wild black cherry tree came up near my door. The first year, it sent up a single straight shoot nineteen inches high, which produced twenty -seven buds and one branchlet eight inches long. This branchlet bore twelve buds. At the end of the first season, therefore, 8 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING the little tree had produced, a total of thh^ty-niue buds, one branchlet, and twenty- seven inches of growth. The second j'ear, 1892, nineteen of these thirty- nine buds produced branches and twenty did not start. These nineteen branches made a total growth of 231 inches, and produced 370 buds. The terminal branch or shoot grew thirty- six inches long. Here, then, is a little tree two years old and four and one -half feet high which has made an effort to bear 409 branches. It is plain that more than ninety per cent of these efforts must be futile. Many of the buds will not start, but the tree now has a total of twenty- seven branches and subdivisions as a result of its first j^ear's growth; if it makes a proportional number this year from the growth of 1892, it will bear 216 branches at the close of 1893 and will have made a total effort of about 3,500 branch - germs or buds. This little tree will undergo a severe pruning in the coming years, although a knife does not touch it.* But the natural thinning of the top will con- tinue in geometrical ratio as long as the tree grows; and after a time this pruning will become more severe, for larger branches will be sacrificed. Probably less than a fifth of the buds upon any tree ever make branches, and less than a fifth of the branches persist. The greater part of these *The subsequent history of this cherry tree, and record of its tragic death, may be found in "The Survival of the Unlike," pp. 88, 89. INSTRUCTIVE CHERRY TREES 9 branches die before they come to bearing age, no doubt, but some of them perish after they have attained to a considerable size. A forest tree grows a tall, straight bole because the side branches are lopped .off; and the more vigorous this prun- ing, the taller and stronger the tree becomes. Another black cherrj^ tree, two years old, found in the woods, is shown in Fig. 2. The first year it grew from the ground to «, and it bore buds at regular intervals, — about two dozen of them. The second year, the terminal bud sent out a shoot to h, and thirteen lateral buds gave rise to branches. Of these thirteen lateral branches, obviously only three stand an}- chance of living in the dense shade of the forest. In fact, four or five of the lowest twigs were dead when the picture was made; showing that the struggle for existence does not always result from competition among fellows, but may arise from the crowding of other plants. These three strong branches in Fig. 2 are less than four feet from the ground, but other old cherry trees standing near it had no branches within fifteen and twenty feet of the ground. They no doubt branched low down, as this one, but the branches eventually died in the struggle; and we therefore have reason to conclude that of all the branches on this little tree, only the ter- minal one, &, can long survive. One has only to look on the forest floor to see how freely trees The curious history of wild cherry tree. Upright habit of the sweet cherry. RECORDS IN TREE TOPS 11 have shed their twigs. The trunk of a tree, then, is the remainder in a long problem of subtraction. A 3'oung tree of the sweet garden cherrj^ is 4. Diffuse habit of the sour cherry. shown in Fig. 3, and one of the Morello or pie cherr}' in Fig. 4. In the former, the terminal grow^ths are strong, and the leader, or central trunk, has persisted. The latter has long since 12 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING lost its leader, and the side growths are strong. Let the reader now figure out how many buds have perished (or at least failed to make perma- nent branches) in each of these trees, if they are supposed to be seven years old. Anj^ garden cherry tree will give him the probable number of buds to each annual growth. Even without the figures, it is evident that there are very many more failures than successes in any tree top. So every tree is a record of defeats and dis- asters in order that the stronger parts may live. It is safe to conclude that if nature is such a searching and undogmatic pruner, man may prune, too. Those persons who declaim that pruning is unnatural, should be taken into a neglected orchard and be made to see what has transpired in the tree tops. I may be met here with the criticism that arti- ficial pruning is excessive ; but I answer that it is not different in kind from natural pruning, and that it is fully warranted by the different ob- jects in view. The ultimate object of nature is the production of seeds, and the more viable seeds produced, the better. Many small fruits, therefore, are desired. Man covets the fleshy portion of the fruit, or some other character which is of minor importance to the plant. He must, therefore, thin the plant rigorously, — re- duce the struggle for existence — in order that size and quality may come before number. He THE VITALITY OF THE PLANT 13 simpl}' deflects the energy into another channel. 2. The argument from phmt physiology is equally important. It is a common assertion that cutting off a limb is an injury because it removes a given amount .of tissue in the pro- duction of which the plant expended effort ; that is, that pruning exhausts the plant. This statement assumes that a plant has a certain fixed vitality, from which a given amount is withdrawn Avhenever a portion of the plant is cut away. I might illustrate this by supposing that a plant has an initial vitality represented by the figure 10 ; then, if one- tenth of the top is removed, there is left a vitality of 9. But this assumption is wholly gratuitous. The vi- tality of a plant is very largel}^ determined by the conditions under which it grows — the charac- ter of the soil and treatment ; and, I may add, that as plants have no nerves, they cannot die of shock, as we sometimes hear it said. Every fruit-grower knows that two trees of the same initial vigor may differ widely from each other in thrift and healthfulness at the expiration of five years, if given different soil and care. If the plant is very largely what its food supply and other environments make it to be, if it is constantly renewed and augmented, then the removal of a portion of it cannot destroy its vitality unless the removal is so great as to interfere with the nutrition of the remaining 14 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING parts. It may be replied that the tissue, the wood, which is removed in large limbs, might have been saved to the tree by directing it into other parts of the top by means of earlier prun- ing. This may be true ; but I must contend that this saving would have resulted only in an econoni}' of time by building up the other parts earlier in the lifetime of the tree, and not in an economy of vitality, for vitality is constantly renewed. It may be a question if we really save a pro- portionate amount of time by early pruning ; that is, whether we can direct the same amount of growth into the remaining portions of the plant by pruning verj^ early in its lifetime as we can by pruning when the superfluous branches have attained some size and have, per- haps, begun to bear. There is an exact balance between the feeding capacity of the plant — that is, its root-system and food supply — and the super- ficial growth of the plant. The more active and efficient the root, the larger the top. If we remove a large portion of this top, there is an endeavor to supply the deficiency by an exceed- ingly rapid growth. So pruned plants are nearly always more vigorous than unpruned ones, be- cause of the concentration of a somewhat con- stant food supply into a smaller number of branches. Therefore, pruning must have much the same effect as manuring. The stimulating PRUNING INCREASES VIGOR 15 effect of this new growth, or new disposition of energy, must be felt upon the root- system also ; and I can conceive that it is a point for discussion as to whether this stimulus and re- sponse to new conditions may not be greater when the pruning is somewhat heroic than when it is so evenly distributed over the lifetime of the tree as to be imperceptible. Growth is cer- tainly more emphatic following a heroic pruning, but it may not be greater in sum than that which follows several prunings of equal aggre- gate severity. My own observation and experi- ence lead me to believe that annual pruning of all fruit trees is desirable, but I am equally con- vinced that it does not pay, either in cost of pruning or in good to the tree, to cut out all the superfluous twigs at each pruning. These superfluous twigs can often be left until they are two or three or even four years old with advantage. Although stimulating effects may result from the considerable unbalance of the plant when many branches are removed, these superfluous and unpruned twigs often afford a very useful shelter or sun -screen to the inner parts of the top, and they lessen the danger of over- pruning, by which the nutrition of the tree may be injured. I have said that pruning increases vigor. Two trees of Siberian Crab were set near my house in the spring of 1890. These trees are as near 16 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING alike as any two apple trees whicli I have ever seen, and they stand only twenty -five feet apart. I measured the growth of 1891 on one of these trees and found it to have been 745 inches. The tree was then thoroughly i)runed (February 17), and this pruning removed 460 inches of wood, of which 432 inches was new wood. The total weight of this wood was seven and three-eighths ounces. The other tree was not pruned. During 1892, the unpruned tree produced 118 new twigs, with a total length of 1,758 inches, while the pruned tree produced 120 new twigs and made a total growth of 1,926 inches. The pruned tree, therefore, made 14 feet more growth than the other, which is a large proportion for a tree only three j^ears set ; and the growth was stouter upon this tree, also. In other words, a tree from which about forty feet of branches had been cut bore at the end of a single season fourteen feet more wood than a similar tree which had not been pruned. Aside from the greater growth which this prun- ing induced, the experiment shows — in common with all similar ones — that it is impossible, as I have already said, to injure trees by what is called a shock. It is often said that the time of the year when pruning is performed influences the amount of growth. It is said that pruning in winter makes wood and pruning in summer makes fruit. It is certain! v true that winter NUTRITION 17 pruning makes more wood in the current year than summer pruning, because the season's growth is nearly or quite completed when the summer pruning is performed ; but beyond this state- ment it is not the purpose to venture at this point (see Section 16, Chapter IV. )• I have said that pruning, of itself, cannot be injurious so long as it does not interfere with the nutrition of the plant. It is important, therefore, that I explain how this interference occurs. A plant derives a certain portion of its food from the soil in the shape of soluble inor- ganic materials. These materials ascend to the leaves through the j^oung w^ood, and become associated with organized compounds like starch and sugar. These organized compounds are used in the repair and growth of all parts of the plant, and they are, therefore, distributed to the leaves, twigs, trunk and roots. The growth of the roots is, therefore, largelj' determined b}^ the amount and vigor of the top or leaf-bearing portion. The removal of the greater part of the top may interfere, therefore, with the vigor of the plant by preventing the supply of a sufficient amount of elaborated food. This difficulty is sometimes experienced in the girdling or ringing of grape-vines, which prevents the distribution of the elaborated plant -foods to the roots. It should be said, however, that the grape is pruned the most severely of all fruits, and it is, 18 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING therefore, easy to overstep the danger Hue ; aud yet it is strange that while certain writers dis- parage the prnning of trees they do not object to the common prnning of the vine. In fruit trees the instances of injurious interference with nutrition by pruning are rare, and they need not be further considered here. This is proved by the good results w^hich so often follow the heroic treatment of top -grafted trees. But, you want to say, if pruning is not devital- izing, if the removal of strong branches induces more vigorous growth in the remaining ones, and if there is little danger of disturbing the nutrition of the tree, it must follow that there can be no objection to the removal of large branches. I cannot agree to this inference, al- though I am willing to say that the removal of such branches may not be objectionable so far as direct injury or shock to the vitality of the tree is concerned. But there are important reasons why large branches should not be removed. Such pruning exposes dangerous wounds, it is apt to open the tree so much that some of the remaining parts scald and borers obtain a foothold, it may despoil the symmetry or convenience of the tree, and such branches may represent a certain amount of energy which should have been earlier directed elsewhere; and aside from all this, the cutting awaj^ of very large branches often indicates a lack of enterprise and forethought on the part of the TESTIMONY OF EXPERIENCE 19 grower, and suggests the feeling that he may be remiss in all his operations. But while I dis- courage the removal of branches three and four inches in diameter, I must repeat that it is not because I consider such practice a devitalizing one. And I should much prefer the removal of such large branches to total neglect. I have my- self removed many such branches ten and fifteen years ago from apple trees which are to-day in most perfect health and vigor. 3. If philosophy and physiology show that pruning is not a devitalizing process, common experience affords still stronger proof. One of the commonest absurdities in our horticultural literature is the admonition to prune only with a knife, thereby avoiding the cutting of large limbs, while there is not an orchardist in the country who practices this advice if he prunes thoroughly. If scientific teaching and permanently successful practice are opposed, then the teaching is wrong. I am afraid that some of our accepted teaching on the subject of pruning will not stand the test of time. I have frequently observed that well pruned trees live as long as those unpruned, and I am inclined to believe that they may live longer ; and they produce more during their lifetime. But suppose that pruning is a devitalizing process — what then! Even then we could not afford to discontinue it. The gains in size and 20 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING quality of fruit, in ease of cultivation and spray- ing of the plants, are advantages which progressive horticulture can never forego. Advise a grape- grower to discontinue pruning ! It appears to be safe to conclude, from the foregoing considerations, that pruning is a legiti- mate practice, finding warrant in wild plants, in physiology and in the experience of centuries. It is not of itself, as ordinarily performed, a devitalizing practice, while its advantages are several and important. There is abundant op- portunity for improvement in methods, and every plant needs a particular treatment, and perhaps some species or varieties demand little, if any, thinning ; but as a whole, pruning is indispensable to successful horticulture. Chapter II THE FRUIT -BUD Since one of the objects of pruning is to secure more and better fruit, it is very important that the reader know what the fruit -buds are and upon what part of the plant they are produced. The best way of gaining this knowledge is to examine the plants in company with a competent instruc- tor ; but since the author can produce neither of these requisites, the reader must be content, for the time, to look at pictures and to read about them. The book will explain a few type examples, and will suggest methods of inquiry. It is hoped, however, that as soon as the page becomes dull, the reader will betake himself to the tree, and there obtain his knowledge first hand; but if he should complain that the book and the tree do not always tell the same story, the author will declare that the observer did not see what he looked at. Without further parley, let us look at the plants.* *Parts of these observatious are adapted from the author's " Lessons with Plants." (21) 22 The fruit -bud THE BUD AND THE BBANC3 A twig cut from an apple tree in early spring* is shown in Fig. 5. The most hasty observation shows that it has various parts or members. It seems to be divided at the point / into two parts. It is evident that the portion from / to li grew last year, and that the portion below / grew two years ago. The buds upon the two parts are very unlike, and these differences challenge investi- gation. In order to understand this seemingly lifeless twig, it will be necessary to see it as it looked late last summer (and this condition is shown in Fig. 6). The portion from /to h, — which has just comxjleted its growth, — is seen to have only one leaf in a place. In every axil (or angle which the leaf makes when it joins the shoot) is a bud. The leaf starts first, and as the season advances the bud forms in its axil. When the leaves have fallen, at the approach of winter, the buds re- main, as seen in Fig. 5. Every bud on the last year's growth of a winter twig, therefore, marks the position occupied by a leaf when the shoot was growing. The portion below /, in Fig. 6, shows a wholly different arrangement. The leaves are two or more together faaaaj, and there are buds without leaves fhhhhj. A year ago this portion looked like the present shoot from / to h, — that is, the 3. An apple twig. G. Same twig before leaves fell. 24 THE FRUIT -BUD leaves were single, with a bncl in the axil of each. It is now seen that some of these bnd-like parts are longer than others, and that the longest ones 7. Present year's shoot of apple. are those which have leaves. It must be because of the leaves that they have increased in length. The body c has lost its leaves through some acci- dent, and its growth has ceased. In other words, the parts Sit aaaa are like the shoot / h , except that they are shorter, and they are of the same age. One grows from the end or terminal bud fE/rrr imAnf Buds and branches 25 of the main branch, and the others from the side or lateral buds. Parts or bodies which bear leaves are, therefore, branches. The buds at b h h h have no leaves, and they remain the same size that they were a year ago. They are dormant. The only way for a mature bud to grow is by making leaves for itself, for a leaf will never stand below it again. The twig, therefore, has buds of two ages, — those at h h h h Last year's shoot of apple. are two seasons old, and those on the tips of all the branches fa a a a, hj, and in the axil of every leaf, are one season old. It is only the ter- minal buds which are not axillary. Buds are buds only so long as they remain dormant. When the bud begins to grow and to put forth leaves, it gives rise to a branch, which, in its turn, bears buds. It will now be interesting to determine why certain buds gave rise to branches and why others remained dormant. The strongest shoot or branch of the year is the terminal one ffhj. The next ■■■rr> 26 THE FRUIT -BUD in strength is the uppermost lateral one, and the weakest shoot is at the base of the twig. The dormant buds are on the under side (for the twig grew in a horizontal position). All this suggests that those buds grew which had the best chance, — the most sunlight and room. There were too many buds for the space, and in the struggle for existence those which had the best opportunities made the largest growths. This struggle for existence began a year ago, however, when the buds upon the shoot below / were forming in the axils of the leaves, for the buds near the tip of the shoot grew larger and stronger than those near its base. The growth of one year, there- fore, is very largely determined by the conditions under which the buds were formed the previous year. All these remarks are still further illustrated by Figs. 7 and 8. Fig. 7 is the current year's growth of apple. The leaves are placed singly, and there is a single bud in the axil of each. (The two awl -like bodies at the base of each leaf are stipules, or appendages of the leaves.) Fig. 8 is a shoot a year older than the other. Four buds were formed in the axils of as many leaves in the previous year; one of these buds is dor- mant, but the other thyee have produced short, leafy branches. Any tree or?shrub will show the same differences between the two last annual growths. Studies of fruit - BEARiNa 27 THE LEAF -BUD AND THE FBUIT-BUD Another apple branch is shown in Fig. 9. It seems to have no slender last j'ear's growth, as Figs, 5 and 6 have at f h. It, therefore, needs special attention. It is first seen that the "ring'' marking the termination of a year's growth is at a. There are dormant bnds at b h. The twig above a must be more than one year old, however, because it bears short lateral branches at e e. If these branchlets are themselves a year old (as they appear to be), then the portion / g must be a similar branch, and the twig itself fa fj must be two years old. The ring marking the .termina- tion of the growth of year before last is, therefore, at /. In other words, a twig is generally a year older than its oldest branches. The buds c c (Fig. 9) are larger than the dor- mant buds fh hj. That is, they have grown; and if they have grown, they are really branches, and leaves were borne upon their little axes in the season just past. The branchlets d d d are larger (possibly because the accompanying leaves were more exposed to light) , and e e and g are still larger. For some reason the growth of this twig was checked last year, and all the branches re- mained short. We find, in other words, that there is no necessary length to which a branch shall grow, but that its length is dependent upon local or seasonal conditions. /, 10. Opening of flower-bud of apple. 9. Formation of fruit-buds. 11. Opening leaf -buds of crab-apple, STUDIES OF FRUIT -BEARING 29 There are other and more important differences in this shoot. The buds terminating the branches {e e (j) are larger and less pointed than the others are. If they were to be watched as growth be- gins in the spring, it would be seen that they give rise to both flowers and leaves (Fig. 10), while the other buds give leaves only (Fig. 11). In other words, there are two general kinds or types of buds, fruit -buds (that is, flower- buds) and leaf -buds ; and checking the growth induces fruitfulness. If the buds on the ends of the branchlets e e g produce flowers, the twig cannot increase in length; for an apple is invariably borne on the end of a branch (which is often so short as to be called a spur) , and therefore no terminal bud can form there. If growth takes place on the twig next 3' ear, therefore, it must arise from one of the lower or leaf -buds. The buds terminating the branchlets d d d will stand the best chance of continuing the growth of the twig, for they are the largest and strongest, and are most exposed to sunlight. These failing, the opportunity will fall to one or both of c c; and these failing, the long- waiting dormant buds may find their chance to grow. The reader should see these dormant buds for himself. In other words, there are more buds upon any twig than are needed, but there is, thereby, a provision against emer- gencies. 30 THE FRUIT -BUD THE FBUIT-SPUB AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE APPLE We have now found (Figs. 9, 10, 11) that there are two kinds of buds, the leaf -buds, and the fruit -buds (or flower -buds) . Some of these fruit- 12. The fruit-spur and leaf -spur. buds on the apple tree terminate short branches {e € g, Fig. 9), but now and then one is borne on the end of the axial shoot of the season. Fig. 12 is an apple twig as it looks in late summer and in winter. Several dormant buds are seen on the lower part. At a and h are short branches. The branch h has made a small and pointed bud, which is evidently to bear only leaves next year, while ALTERNATION IN FRUIT -BEARING 31 the stronger branch (aj has made a thick and rounded bud, which is to bear flowers. This fruit -bud is shown natural size at a a. The short lateral branches are called spurs, in distinction from the longer axial growths. We have already found (page 29) that checking growth induces Formation of the lateral bud on the fruit-smir. fruitfulness, but on the other hand, starving or greatly weakening the growth generally gives only a weak leaf -bud. When fruits or flowers are borne on the end of a spur, the direction of the subsequent growth is necessarily changed. Fig. 13 is a bearing spur of apple. While the apple is growing from the terminal bud, a lateral bud (a) is forming to con- tinue the spur the next year. The same thing is illustrated in Fig. 14. This side bud (a, Fig. 13) 32 THE FRUIT -SPUR is, therefore, a leaf -bud, for it must be the means of continuing the growth of the spur, and it is not likely to get nourishment enough, — seeing that the apple is the chief concern, — to enable it to develop into a blossom -bud. There is, there- fore, an alternation of fruit -bearing buds and 14. Fruit-spur bearing a mature apple, remains of the flowers which failed to set, and the bud which is to continue the growth of the spur. non- fruit -bearing buds in the spur of an apple tree ; and this is true of most fruit trees. A twig of Siberian crab apple, taken in spring, is shown in Fig. 15. Year before last, each of the spurs developed a fruit -bud at its summit, and last year each of these spurs bore flowers. The proof of this is seen in the scars left by the flower stems at a a. None of these flowers de- veloped into ripe fruits, otherwise some of the FRUIT -SPURS OF APPLE 33 scars would have been much larg-er than they are. It was probably for that very reason,— the failure of the fruit, — that the spurs ^ were able to throw out leafy shoots nearly or quite an inch long, to continue the growth. Yet, even then, no fruit -bud developed on the ends of these spurs, for the small pointed ends clearly indicate leaf- buds. It is seen, therefore, that there may be an alternation in the fruit -spur, even when the spur does not bear fruit. To still further elucidate the formation of fruit- buds ou the apple, and to recapitulate some of the foregoing observations, let us trace the history of given branches in detail.* One of these twigs (Fig. 16) was taken from a strong young 15. Spurs of a ^^'^c, which borc its first good crab-apple. crop of apples last year. This *This account of these three apple twigs is adapted from the author's leaflet entitled "Four Apple Twigs," issued as a nature-study suggestion by the College of Agriculture of the Cornell University, 1896-7. This leaflet (and also "Lessons with Plants") contains the detailed his- tory of an older and more complicated branch. 34 THE FRUIT -SPUR simple twig is plainly of two years' growth, for the "ring" between the old and new wood is seen at B. The main stem from the base to B grew in 1895 (the picture was made in January, 1897), and the part from B to the tip grew in 1896. The buds on these two parts look very unlike. Let us see what these differences mean. We must now picture to ourselves how this shoot from B to 10 looked last summer while it was growing. The shoot bore leaves, one below each bud; or, to be more exact, one bud developed just above each leaf. These buds did not put out leaves. The}^ grew to their present size and then stopped (see fli, Fig. 6). What are these buds of the tip shoot propos- ing to do in 1897! We can answer this question by going back one year and seeing what the buds on the lower (or older) part of the shoot did in 1896, as we did in Figs. 5 and 6. Upon that part (below B) the buds seem to have increased in size. Therefore, they must have grown last year. There were no leaves borne below these buds in 1896, but a cluster of leaves came out of each bud in the spring. As these leaves expanded and grew, the little bud grew on; that is, each bud grew into a tiny branch, and when fall came each of these branches had a bud on its end to continue the growth in the year to come. What we took to be simple buds at 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, are therefore little branches (compare Fig. 9). A two-year-old shoot from a young apple tree. Half size. 17. A three-year-old shoot and fruit-spurs. Half size. 36 THE FRUIT -SPUR But the stmugest part of this twig has not yet been seen, — the branches are of different sizes, and three of them (7, 8, 9) have so far out- stripped the others that they seem to be of a dif- ferent kind. It should be noticed, too, that the very lowermost bud (at 1) never grew at all, but remained perfectly dormant during the entire year 1896. It will be seen, then, that the dor- mant bud and the smallest branches are on the lower part of the shoot, and the three strong branches are at the very tip of the last j-ear's growth. If, now, we picture the twig as it looked in the fall of 1895, we wdll see that it consisted of a single shoot, terminating at B. It had a large terminal bud (like those at 7, 8, 9, 10), and this bud pushed on into a branch in 1896, and three other buds near the tip did the same thing. Some of these branches grew to be larger than others because of more sunlight and more room on this outward or upward end. In 1897, — if this shoot had been spared, — each of these four largest twigs (7, 8, 9, 10) would have done the same thing as the parent twig did in 1896 : each would have pushed on from its end, and one or two or three other strong branches would probably have started from the strong side buds near the tips, the very lowest buds would, no doubt, have remained perfectly in- FRUIT -SPURS OF APPLE 87 active or dormant for lack of opportunity, and the intermediate buds would have made short branches like 2, 3, 4, 5, G. In other words, the tree always tries to grow onward from its tips, and these tip shoots eventually become strong branches, unless some of them die in the struggle for existence. What, now, becomes of the little branches lower down 1 From another apple tree the twig shown in Fig. 17 was taken. We see at once that it is very unlike the other. It seems to be two years old, one 3'ear's growth extending from the base up to 7, and the last year's growth extending from 7 to 8 ; but we shall see upon looking closer that this is not so. The short branchlets at 3, 4, 5, 7 are very different from those in Fig. 16. They seem to be broken off. The fact is that the broken ends show where apples were borne in 1896. The branchlets that bore them, therefore, must have grown in 1895, and the main branch, from 1 to 7, grew in 1894. It is plain, from the looks of the buds, that the shoot from 7 to 8 grew during the year 1896. Starting from the base, then, we have the main twig growing in 1894; the small side branches growing in 1895; these little branches bearing apples in 1896, and the terminal shoot also grow- ing in 1896. Why was there no terminal shoot growing in 1895? Simply because its tip de- veloped a fruit -bud (at 7), and therefore could not 38 THE FRUIT -SPUR send out a hraiich ; for there are two kinds of buds, — the small, pointed leaf -bud and the thick, blunt fruit -bud. If the branchlets, 3, 4, 5, 7, are two 3^ears old, the dormant buds — 1, 2 — must be the same age. That is, for two long years these little buds have been waiting for some bug to eat off the buds and leaves above, or some accident to break the shoot beyond, so that they might have a chance to grow; but they have waited in vain. We have now found, therefore, that the little side shoots upon apple twigs may become fruit- branches or fruit- spurs, while the more ambitious branches above them are making a display of stem and leaves. But will these fruit -spurs bear fruit again in 1897? No. The bearing of an apple is hard work, and these spurs did not have enough vi- tality left to make fruit-buds for the next year; but they must perpetuate themselves, so that they have sent out small side buds, which will bear a cluster of leaves and grow into another little spur in 1897, and in that j'ear these new spurs will make fruit -buds for bearing in 1898. The side Imd is plainly seen on spur 5, also on spur 4, while spur 7 has sown a seed, so to speak, in the bud at G. It is, therefore, plain why the tree bears every other year (see page 32, Figs. 13, 14). There was one tree in the orchard from which the farmer had not picked his apples. Perhaps FRUIT -BEARING OF APPLE 39 the apples were not worth picking. At any rate, the dried apples, shriveled and brown, hang on the twigs in midwinter, and even the birds do not seem to care for them. One of these twigs is drawn in Fig. 18. Let us see how many apples this twig has borne. We can tell by the square- cut scars. An apple was once borne at 1, another 18. A fruit-spur which has borne six apples. Half size. at 2, another at 4, another at 5, another at 6, and another at 7, — and at 7 there will be a scar when the apple falls. Six apples this modest shoot has borne! We may speculate how many of them got ripe, or how many were taken by the worms, or urchins. A curious thing happened when the fruit was growing at 2. Two side buds started out, instead of one, and both of them grew the next year. But one of the little branchlets fell sick and died, or a bug nipped off its end, or it starved to death; and the grave is still marked by the little stick 40 THE FRUIT -SPUR standing at 3. The other branchlet thrived, and eventuall}' bore apples at 4, 5, 6 and 7. We have fonnd that these fruit -spnrs bear only every other year; then, if this branch has borne six apples, it must be twelve years old. The truth is that it is about twenty j^ears old, for some years it failed to bear; but the age cannot be traced in the picture, although it could be made out from the branch itself. THE FRUIT-SPUB AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE PEAB An old fruit -spur of a pear tree is shown in Fig. 19. One year it grew from the base to r/, and there formed a fruit -bud. Let us suppose that this year was 1880. In 1881, a pear matured from this bud, as may be seen by the large scar at a. In this year, also, a lateral bud developed. In 1882, this bud gave rise to a shoot. The "rings" whence it started are plainly seen at a a. It is noticeable, also, that the spur ceased to grow in the direction a. In this year, 1882, the shoot grew to the rings 1) &, and there developed a fruit- bud. In 1883, this fruit-bud opened and pro- duced flowers, one of which bore fruit, as shown by the large scar (hj. The short growth from 1) h to h is that which took place in the elongation from the bud in this spring of 1883. While this fruit was developing, a leaf -spur pushed out from just below the fruit fhj, and grew to the next FRUIT -SPURS OF PEAR 41 series of rings fc cj . A weaker bud also de- veloped, which iu 1884 pushed toward c. The six years' growths cau be traced on this side shoot, and it once made a flower -bud, and a fruit set at c; but the small size of the scar shows that the fruit never attained maturity. It probably fell in verj^ early summer. It is apparent that there is an alternation in the fruit -bearing of the pear, as in that of the apple; from this we may infer that there is something like an alter- nation of effort, or division of labor, in the successive growths of many plants. The further history of this interesting pear spur (Fig. 19) may be summarized as fol- lows: 1881, the barren shoot grew to € ' exist are cut off, and the tree is headed -])ack to a single whip, so that side branches are thrown out freely near the base of the | plant. Fig. 140 illustrates such treat- L . ment. At the expiration of the first year, the tree should look something like that in Fig. 141, at which time \ some of the branches may be removed, leaving only as man}' as it is desired shall form the main or scaffold limbs. Some fruit-growers prefer to allow the leader to continue in trees of this kind ; but it is usually desirable to take out the leader and to allow the tree to form all its top upon four to six main ^,_^g^*^^_ branches, which arise at intervals ""~^^ ^"'^ ~ along the short trunk. Two-year-old mingtoa trees may also be trimmed to a whip, whip. 214 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE and if they are headed -in, or the young growths near the top are taken off as they start, one may expect to secure branches near the base. 141. The second j'ear's growth. 142. Two years old, trimmed to a whip. Fig. 142 shows a two-j-ear-old tree which has been trimmed to a single cane ; a branch is starting near the ground. By heading-in this tree when it is set, or soon after growth begins, the bottom branches may be still further encouraged. SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 215 Although peach trees are planted when they are one year old, they have generally been trimmed up in the nursery, so that the lower branches are destroyed. The tendency for such trees is to throw out branches near the top, and it is often impos- sible to make them branch within two feet of the ground, where many people desire that the top shall arise. Fig. 143 is a tree which has thrown out two sets of branches, one near the top of the long trunk, and the other near the base. After this tree has grown one season, it may be cut off at the point indicated by the bar ; and the tree should then make a low and vase -formed top, like that shown in Fig. 124. Balmer gives the follow- _^ ing advice* for the pruning 143. Opportunity for a of young trees in Wash- '^°^'^- ington (and the same advice will apply to California, or to any place in which low heads are desired) : ♦Pruning Orchard Trees, Bull. 25, Wash. Exp. Sta. See also page 187, 216 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE "LoAv heading is the watchword for planters in eastern Washington. Commence with a j-earling tree, switches preferred [as in Fig. 140] , for in these we find the entire bud system intact, and we can head our trees at any desired height. All trees that naturally have a tall, upright habit of growth, such as apple, pear and sweet cherry, ought to be headed not higher than twenty to twentj^-four inches from the ground. And all stone fruits, such as peaches, plums, prunes, apri- cots, etc., ought to be headed a little lower, say twelve to eighteen inches from the ground. Yearling trees, as usually found in the nurseries of the state, will range from two to four, or even seven or eight feet high. At planting time, whether it be spring or fall, these ought to be headed -down to the proper height. I am aware that it seems like a great sacrifice to take a strong j'Oung tree and cut away three-fourths of its top, but it must be done, and done at once; for if you allow one year to pass without attention to this topping, your chances to secure a well-formed, low-headed tree are lost. For while you may at any time cut a tree back to the desired height, yet, to cut back into wood that is two or three years old never gives the same results as does attention to this matter at the proper time. "It will be seen that the treatment of the tree the first season is of a very simple nature. Your STARTING THE HEAD LOW 217 young orchard contains a lot of stubs sticking out of the ground to a height not exceeding two feet. During the first season's growth these stubs will develop numerous branches, almost every bud will start, and what was lately a stub will become a little forest of shoots. [See Fig. 141]. * * * Allow every limb and every leaf to develop to its fullest extent. Remember that the leaves are to a tree what our lungs and blood are to us, — its very life. And every leaf you deprive the tree of in summer is robbing it of its tissue-forming organs. Without leaf action there can be no root action ; and the fullest development in root and branch can only be secured by religiously preserving the foliage. "We will proceed to prune our tree for the second time. The switch that you planted and headed back last year has developed a number of shoots, may be five or six, but more often fif- teen or twenty. From these select from three to five of the strongest, best ripened limbs (cutting out all the rest), at the same time exercising care to have them evenly fill the space around and above the tree. Observe carefully that no two limbs emerge from the trunk opposite each other, forming what is known as a crotch. A crotch in an old tree is always an evil, causing a weak spot, where the tree will be likely to break down or split during a heavy fruit crop. The remedy is in your own hands; when you 218 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE prune your two-year- old tree, cut out ever}' limb tliat forms a crotch with its neighbor. "The tree in Fig. 144 will convey the idea of w^hat a two-year-old tree ought to be like after having received its second pruning. Notice the arrangement of the limbs. All crotches have been avoided; from the ground to the lowest branches is twelve inches, and the entire height of the tree thirty inches. Contrast this little stocky tree with the weaklings of the same age one commonly meets in orchards to-day, with thin, misshapen trunk three or four feet high, surmounted by two or three long spindling branches, the whole innocent of knife and shears. No wonder our trees break down ; they have not strength to carry a heavy crop of fruit! "After having selected the desired number of limbs intended to form the frame of the tree, shorten these back to wdthin a foot of the trunk, alw^ays cutting to a plump promi- nent bud. The tree may be spread, or it may be contracted, by cutting to a bud which i^oints outward, for the former, and to a bud that inclines inward for the latter. You need not hope to alter the character of the tree by this cutting to a bud, 144. Pruned the second time. STARTING THE HEAD LOW 219 yet a little may be done to improve its shape. As a rule the weaker the growth the harder it ought to be cut back ; this will encourage an in- creased wood growth the following summer. Trees treated in this way make a growth that is often very perplexing to the amateur ; the result of this shortening -in of all the limbs will be an increased number of shoots to treat the follow- ing season. * * '^' "The third pruning is conducted on the same lines as the second, with this difference: Select the limbs you wish to continue the upward growth of the tree ; these will usually be not more than two on each of those left last year, observing the same care not to leave crotches, and shortening -in the growth made in that sea- son; but instead of taking off all of the inside shoots clean to the branch, they are left an inch or two long, and in the course of a season or two all these stubs that you leave will be con- verted into fruit-spurs. I would practice pruning if for no other reason than to develop every bud on all the limbs, and would treat these buds in such a manner that all w^ould eventually become fruit-spurs. * * -i^ Ti;ie third season's pruning, then, differs from the first and second in leaving a part of all the growth, instead of taking it off clean, as in the case of very young trees. I object to leaving spurs before the third season, for the reason that by so doing we encourage a fruit- 220 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE iiig couditioii iu our trees at too early an age, aud this is the very end we are trying to defeat. "The necessary prnning during the following two or three years does not materially differ from that described for the third year. Let the aim be a symmetrical low, somewhat round-headed tree — the top ought not to be too full of wood — and not too thin! Do not expect that every tree can be pruned so as to assume an ideal form, for in this you will be disappointed. No two trees have exactly the same habit of growth. Some are tall and close, others spreading and willow3^ All may be vastly improved by an in- telligent use of the knife during the early years of the tree's growth. At the age of four or five 5'ears we find cherry, plum, and even apple and pear, rapidly developing fruit buds. And as this condition becomes evident, the use of the knife had better be gradually discontinued. All the pruning necessary on bearing trees is to en- courage a proper development of the leading shoots, and if these are making a growth of over twenty -four inches annually, they ought to be shortened -in to encourage a stocky habit of tree. All weak shoots appearing lower down on the tree should be cut back to within an inch or two of the limbs, thereby forming a full and correct system of fruit -spurs on every part of the tree." In contrast to this instruction for the low heading of trees, I insert directions given by T. SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 221 G. Yeomans & Sons, of New York, most success- ful fruit-growers, but who start the limbs of apple trees not less than six feet from the ground: "The trees should be carefully examined, and all broken or bruised roots carefully pruned; and with apple, standard pear and peach trees not over seven feet high, every side branch should be cut away, leaving the tree a straight stem. The reasons for this are: (1) this pruning will reduce the top to correspond with the diminished capacity of the roots, so that they will furnish a full supply of sap, and cause it to stand and grow vigorously; (2) it will stand more upright, and not be so liable to be swaj^ed about by the winds, and allows one to dispense with a stake, which many recommend for holding the tree in an up- right position, but which commonly injures, if it does not destroy, the tree; (3) the buds on the last year's growth of the upright stem will form all needed branches, of better form and more vigorous growth than the old ones would if left on, and will be at the necessary height from the ground, as cannot be the case where they are spurred." We have already discussed the importance of pruning near a bud (Figs. 82 and 83), because the part which projects beyond the bud dies and remains a dangerous part. We have also found that trees which are planted in the fall should not be cut back severely, because the roots, not hav- 999 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE ing a hold upon the soil, cannot suppl}^ the mois- ture which is lost from the wound. The stubs are, therefore, cut back to a fresh bud in the spring, just before grow^th begins, leaving a stub above the bud not more than a quarter of an inch in length. Figs. 145 and 146 illustrate the 145. Shaping the top. 146. Shaping the top. proper pruning of trees with reference to the buds. It is considered b3^ some pruners to be important to cut to a bud w^hich stands upon the outside of the twig, thereby causing the top to spread. It is usuall}^ the top bud which grows, providing the stub is not dried back and the bud is strong and healthy. If this top bud is on the inside of the limb, it does not tend to spread so far from the perpendicular as one which is oji the SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 223 outside. Fig-s. 146 and 147 are made from the same plant, the latter illustration being taken in May. It will be seen that the top buds are the ones which have grown, and that the tendency of the upper growth at 3 is more nearly perpendicular than that at 1. As growth pro- gresses, however, the shoot 1 will turn upwards and will very nearly approach the perpendicular. It is not often Avorth the while to pay much attention to the location of the upper bud, with re- spect to the axis of the shoot, but it is certainly ^_^^^^ important to trim back^ ^^ to a strong, healthy bud. The illustrations 145 and 146 show the proper method of leaving the main scaffold branches. They arise alternately from the main stem, and there- fore do not form crotches, and there is little danger that such injuries will occur as that shown in Fig. 105. If it is desired that the leader shall continue so as to form a two-storied tree, like that in Fig, 127, the shoot from the ii7 uppermost bud may be allowed to How the growth starts. 224 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE grow for this purpose. That is, even though the leader is cut off, the plant throws out a new one, as we have alreadj- seen (Section 4. Chapter IV.). It is often impossible to start the top in the form in which we desire, and our ideals may 148. The scaffold limbs. change from year to year, so that we may be called upon to modify the form which we at first projected. It will also be necessary to thin the top considerably, else too many scaffold limbs will arise. Fig. 148 shows a Bartlett pear tree at the end of its second year in the orchard. At the left, the unpruned tree is shown; and at the right, all the limbs have been removed except three, which it is desired shall form the frame- work of the tree. When set, this tree was cut SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE VlQ back to three limbs, as may be determined by the method of branching of the specimen upon the left; and from the end of each of these stubs two or three branches arose during the next season. Now that the tree has established itself, and it is no longer necessar}- to head -in the young growths, this forking branching will not occur, and the 1J:9. Raising the top. tree will now need comparatively little attention in pruning, except, of course, that all the super- fluous growth shall be removed each year. Fig. 149 shows the treatment of a Bartlett pear which the owner had started too low. He has now taken off the lower circles of limbs and has elevated the top by about a foot, leaving two or three stubs for the foundation of his growth for the year to come. There is more difficulty in starting the tops of o 226 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE peach tree-s than of most other fruits, from the fact, as has been said, that the trees are usually pruned too high in the nursery. The trees are also likely to die back from the top, especially if they have been set in the fall; and since they have few buds on their bodies, they may throw out adventitious shoots near the point of union of the bud with the stock. Fig. 150 shows a typical case of this kind, in which the trunk A has died back nearly to the ground. The two lowermost branches arise from the stock and are, therefore, to be sacrificed; but the first strong shoot which comes from the bud is allowed to grow, and all the rest is cut away, as shown in Fig. 151. The grower now has the plant under his con- trol, and can start the top where he may choose . Peach trees also have a tendency to throw out strong growths from one side and to be blind or dormant on the other side. Such one-sided growth from the top of a peach trunk is shown in Fig. 152. In this figure, the long tvunk ha^s beeu cut back to the 150. A common fault with peach trees. 151. How to manage it. / AWKWARD PEACH TREES 227 branches, and these branches should now be headed -in to five or six buds. Strong shoots, with an upward \ tendency, will now start from the base of these branches, and at the end of the second year, a tree something like that in Fig. 153 may be se- cured. If it is de- sired to start the limbs of a peach tree very low, to make a 152. Another trouble low head, the tree with young peach should be cut to a *'*^^^° stub a foot or two long when it is planted 153. How to correct it. EOOT-PBUNING In order to understand the vexed question of root -pruning, it is necessary that the subject be analyzed. We prune the roots J. Of established plants — 1. To keep the growth within bounds, particularly when it is desired that the plant shall be dwarf ; 2. To concentrate or contract the foraging of the roots; 8. To make plants fruitful. 228 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE II. Of plants which are being transplanted. We have already found (Section 2, Chap. IV.) that root -pruning checks growth: it cuts off a part of the food supply. Checking growth in- duces fruitfulness (Section 11, Chap. IV.). The same principles of physiology govern the practice of root -pruning as that of top -pruning. The wounds heal by the formation of a callus, germs of decay enter exposed wounds, new or adventi- tious roots start as the result of heavy pruning, the severed leader (or tap-root) tends to renew itself (see Fig. 115), and the general remarks respecting seasons for pruning apply to roots with nearly the same force as to tops. Since roots have no buds, the new branches do not arise in as definite order as they do on tops, but this is a mat- ter of no consequence, for the shape of the root sj^stem is of no practical importance. The direc- tion of the roots is important, however, — whether they run horizontally and near the surface, or perpendicularly. The direction of the roots, how- ever, is not determined primarily by methods of pruning, but by the nature of the plant, by the soil, and the position of moisture and food. The root -pruning of established plants is prac- ticable only on a small scale. It is practiced in amateur plantations, or in those cases in which it is desired to keep plants within definite bounds or shapes. It is essentially a garden idea. It is practiced in European enclosures, in the growing ROOT - PRUNING 229 of trees to pyramids, cordons, on espaliers, and the like (see Chapter VI.). By cutting the roots, they are kept within a prescribed area, and do not interfere with other plants. The tops of the plants are thereby checked of exuberant growth, and are more manageable on walls and trellises. In Europe, these small bearing trees are often taken up and replanted, in order to keep them within bounds. In the w^ell tilled gardens, and in cool and moist climates, it is often thought to be de- sirable to keep the roots near the surface ; but in American orchard conditions it is desirable that the roots strike deep. In the large -area or field conditions under which American fruits are grown, root -pruning is rarely necessary or even useful. Under such conditions, the plant takes its natural habit and reaches its normal stature, and fruit -bearing comes naturally with the maturity of the plant ; or, if fruit -bearing does not come, the fundamental treatment lies in correcting faults of tillage, soil, varieties, or other cardinal matters. In our country, root -pruning may be associated with ringing or girdling, and such other special opera- tions which may be used experimentally now and then, when other means have failed. It is of special rather than of general importance. The European books and periodicals contain many detailed instructions for root -pruning, and to these the reader should go if he desires ex- 230 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE plicit information on practices. A single typical quotation is here inserted to show the general nature of the advice. ^"^ Root-pruning of pyramidal pear trees on quince stocks.* — Before entering on the subject of root-pruning of pear trees on quince stocks, I must premise that handsome and fertile pyramids, more particularly of some free -bearing varieties, may be reared without this annual or biennial operation. If the annual shoots of the tree are not more than eight or ten inches long, no root -pruning need be done. I have a large plantation of pear trees on the quince stock, which have been made very handsome and fertile pyramids, yet they have not been root-pruned, neither do I intend to root-prune them. But I wish to impress upon my readers that my principal object is to make trees fit for small gardens, and to instruct those who are not blessed with a large garden how to keep the trees perfectly under control : and this can best be done by annual, or at least biennial attention to their roots ; for if a tree be suffered to grow three or more years, and then be root-pruned, it will receive a check if the spring be dry, and the crop of fruit for one season will be jeop- ardized. Therefore, those who are disinclined to the annual operation, and yet wish to confine the growth of their trees within limited bounds by root -pruning, say once in two years, should only operate upon half of their trees one season ; they will thus have the remaining half in an unchecked bearing state ; and those who have ample room and space may pinch their pyramids in summer, and suffer them to grow to a height of fifteen or twenty feet without pruning their roots. I have seen avenues of such trees in Belgium, really quite imposing. In rich soils, where the trees grow so freely as to make shoots eighteen *Thomas Rivers, "The xMiniature Fruit Garden." ROOT -PRUNING 231 inches in length in one season, they may be root- pruned annually with great advantage. "The following summary will perhaps convey my ideas respecting the management of pyramids and bushes when cultivated as garden trees. In small gardens with rich soils, either root-prune or remove all the trees annually early in November. In larger gardens, perform the same operation biennially at the same season. For very large gardens with a dry, good subsoil, in which all kinds of fruit trees grow without any tendency to canker, and when large trees are desired, neither remove nor root-prune, but pinch the shoots in summer, thin them in winter when tliey become crowded, and thus make your trees symmet- rical and fruitful. "Pyramidal pear trees on the quince stock, where the fruit garden is small, the soil rich, and when the real gardening artist feels pleasure in keeping them in a healthy and fruitful state by perfect control over the roots, should be annually operated upon as follows : A trench should be dug around the tree, about eighteen inches from its stem, eveiy autumn, just after the fruit is gathered if the soil be sufficiently moist, — if not, it will be better to wait till the usual autumnal rains have fallen ; the roots should then be carefully examined, and those inclined to be of perpendicular growth cut with the spade, which must be introduced quite under the tree to meet on all sides, so that no root can possibly escape amputation. All the horizontal roots should be shortened with a knife to within a circle of eighteen inches from the stem, and all brought as near to the surface as possi- ble, filling in the trench with compost for the roots to rest on. The trench may then be filled with the compost (well-rotted dung and the mold from an old hotbed, equal parts, will answer exceedingly well); the surface should then be covered with some half -rotted dung and the roots left till the following autumn brings its annual 232 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE care. It may be found that, after a few years of root- pruning, the circumferential mass of fibers will have be- come too much crowded with small roots ; in such cases, thin out some of the roots, shortening them at nine inches or one foot from the stem. This will cause them to give out fibers, so that the entire circle of three feet or more around the tree will be full of fibrous roots near the surface, waiting with open mouths for the nourishment annually given to them by surface dressings and liquid manure. "Thus far for the gardener who does not mind extra trouble, — who, in short, feels real pleasure in every opera- tion that tends to make his trees perfect in fruitfulness and symmetry. But it is not every amateur gardener that can do this, nor is it always required in the south of England, except for small gardens and in rich, moist soils, in which pear trees are inclined to grow too vigorously. But with our too often cool, moist summers in the northern counties, annual root-pruning is quite necessary to make the trees produce well-ripened wood. In other cases, as I have be- fore observed, shortening the shoots in summer, taking care to produce a handsome pyramidal form, and if they are inclined to grow vigorously, biennial root-pruning, will be quite sufficient." Root -PRUNING when transplanting.— Root- pruning results from the removal of plants. That is, it is practically impossible to dig up plants of any size — as shrubs or trees — without cutting some of the roots. The severed roots, when as large as a lead pencil, should be cut back to live, un- injured wood, and the wound should be clean-cut. This is to ensure rapid healing. How short the roots shall be cut is a problem to be settled for each case, in the same way as the similar problem DO ROOTS STRIKE FROM THE CALLUS? 233 respecting the proper length to leave the branches. In general, it may be said that the main roots of 154. Roots do not start irom thu callus. trees two to four years old may be left six to eight inches long. There is much discussion as to where the new roots arise in transplanted trees. It should first be said that the roots do not necessarily arise from the callus,* although this is the almost uni- *See also, L. C. Corbett, 9th Ann. Rep. W. Va. Exp. Sta,, 19G. 234 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE versal notion. In fact, they very rarely, if ever, arise as an outgrowth of the callus tissue. From an apple tree two years old, one side of the root was shaved. The tree was planted, and after growing two years, was taken up and photo- graphed (Fig. 154). The callus had formed on both sides of the wound, but no roots had started from it. The new roots usually arise from firm, strong roots the size of a lead pencil or larger; but they may also arise from the hair -like roots which are on the tree when it is transplanted, although the common opinion is to the contrary. The place from which the new roots arise is largely deter- mined by the habit of the individual plant. In some cases, all the roots will spring from the main shaft or trunk, and in others they seem to arise almost indiscriminately from the trunk, large roots and very fine roots. The figures, carefully drawn, from actual examples of apple trees, illus- trate the point. The root shown in Fig. 155 was trimmed of all its fine roots when transplanted. It is seen that the new roots start from various parts of the root system. The root in Fig. 156 had some small, but not very fine, roots left. The new roots are starting from near the ends of these roots, large and small alike. (See also Fig. 161.) In none of these cases do the roots start from the calluses. The common notion that roots will start directly downward if the old roots are cut diago- DO ROOTS FORM FROM THE CALLUS ! 235 nally on the under side, so that the callus looks downwards, is a fallac3^ The direction of the roots, as already said (page 228), is determined 155. Where the new roots start. 15G. Where the new roots start. by the nature of the plant, the texture of the soil, and by the water and food supply. The position of the callus does not influence it. As a matter of practice, it is generally inad- 236 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE visable to exercise much care to save the very fine roots when transplanting shrubs and trees, for such roots are apt to be killed by short exposure to the weather, and to be injured in shipping and transplanting ; but the common notion that they are of no use in a transplanted tree, and that new roots do not arise from them, is false. / Within the past few years a so-called system of close root -pruning has been advocated in this country. It is the result of the experiments and writings of H. M. Stringfellow, of Texas, and has come to be known as the Stringfellow or stub -root system. It cuts off practically all the roots, leaving onl}^ stubs an inch or tvro long ; and it cuts back the tops to a mere stump twelve to eighteen inches high. This method of treat- ing trees at transplanting time has been the subject of writings which are distinguished more for their controversial spirit and their evident attempt to uphold an hypothesis than for any clear analj'sis of the subject. The best exposi- tion of the subject is contained in Stringfellow 's "New Horticulture", published in 1896.* There seem to be three leading conceptions *Some of the current writings may be found in Texas Farm and Ranch, 1895, reprinted in Galveston Tribune, Dec. 20, 1895 ; Fruit Growers' Journal, Feb. 15, 1894, Feb. 1 and May 1, 1896 ; California Fruit Grower, May 30, 1896. Excellent contributions in support of the method, by T. L. Bruuk, may be found in American Farmer, July 15, 1892, and Fruit-Growers' Journal, Jan. 15, 1896. Report of experiments is made in Bi^ll. .S9, Texas Exp. Sta., by R. H. Price. THE STRINGFELLOW THEORY 237 upon which the superiority of this stub -root sys- tem is assumed to rest : Seedling non- trans- planted trees are longer -lived, hardier and healthier than the trees of orchards ; this su- periority is largely due to the presence of a tap- root system ; the nearer the transplanted tree is reduced to the form of a young seedling or cut- ting, the greater is its tendency to develop a tap-root system. All these categories are mere assumptions. The old seedling trees at which we wonder are a few out of many. For every one that has reached a hale old age, hundreds have probably perished; and since the dead are not in evidence, we enlarge the exception into the rule. As a matter of fact, the orchards of to-day, at least in the East, are more uniformly healthy and productive than the seedling or- chards of other da3'S. In our time, every break in the orchard is missed and commented upon ; in those times, the breaks were of small consequence.* In the second place, a tap-root is not an in- *A fuller discussion of this qiiestiou may he read in Essay XX., "Survival of the Unlike". Mr. Stringfellow cites such seedlings as the original tree of Sudduth pear and Mammoth Black Twig apple. It would be interesting to know what has become of all the other seed- ling pears and apples which presumably started at about the same time. Such trees are isolated facts, not averages; they do not necessarily show laws or tendencies. It is easy to find such patriarchs among grafted and transplanted trees. For example, the so-called original Tompkins County King apple is a grafted and transplanted tree, and it still bears well, although about seventy years pld, find outliving most of its progeny, 238 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE vamble attribute of seedlings, any more than a distinct leader is always an attribute of their tops. Some plants have tap-roots and some do not. They vary in this regard, as they do in stature, form, kind of fruit, or habit of growth. When seedlings first start, they usually have a tap-root, but this tap-root tends to vanish as the root system enlarges and becomes diffuse, in the same way that the leader in the top may be lost. There is no evidence that a tree necessarily thrives better if it has a tap-root (see page 151). In the third place, a tap-root does not form merely because the roots are cut long or short, or in one way or another. If it is the habit of a plant to develop a tap-root, it will generally do so, even after its original tap is cut (Fig. 115), unless prevented by some peculiarity of soil. It will generally throw down two or even several tap-roots instead of one. It must follow, how- ever, that in short -pruned roots, these new leaders will be very close together and approxi- mately^ under the main shaft of the tree, and therefore appear to constitute a truer tap-root system than when they arise at some distance to the side of the main shaft ; and it is probable that the centermost ones will tend to be the stronger. The gist of the whole matter, so far as the theory is concerned, is that individual instances and the results of certain experimeuts have beeu STUB -ROOT PRUNING 239 enlarged into an hypothesis which has been ap- plied to all plants. The stub-root system is really not a system at all. It is not founded on a body of principles. It is a matter of practice, which will sometimes be useful and 157. Stringfellow's niodel. 158. The wrong ideal sometimes not. Its success depends on local and incidental conditions. It would be as true to say that because many people find the pyramidal training of dwarf pears to be useful, therefore it is necessarily best everywhere and for all species and varieties. The accompanying pictures, from Stringfellow s "New Horticulture," show the method of this stub -root pruning. Fig. 157 is the correct form, — "cut back just below the collar, and just under the first good side roots." We should "not leave any length of the main or tap-root, with side 240 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE roots cut back,"* as in Fig*. 158. It is impossible to cut Fig. 158 to the form of Fig. 157, because the root did not grow in the same way. n This is true of most trees, especially if I l)udded stock ; they cannot be cut ac- cording to directions. Peach trees lend P themselves most readily to this form ; also cutting -grown pear trees (such as are grown in the South) . The theory is that the new roots arise from the under surfaces of roots which are cut as in Fig. 157, and then grow directly downwards. Fig. 159 is Brunk's model of a peach tree properly trimmed, show- ing both root and top, the whole being only fifteen inches long. Fig. 160 shows the results Avhich Mr. Stringfellow secures from stub -roots and long roots. In 1896, experiments on the stub -root pruning were begun at Cornell, and these are now reported. This account of the tests is in- serted more for the purpose of affording concrete in- stances with which to discuss the statements advanced in support of stub -root prun- ir)9. Brunk's model. *"Hold the tree top down, and cut all roots back to about au tuch, sloping the cuts so that wheu the tree is set the cut surface is dowu STUB -ROOT PRUNING 241 ing than to make a record of an experiment. Not all the trees were trimmed in the String- fellow fashion, for other problems than mere stnb-root pruning were in mind. Besides the four hundred trees here reported, the roots of two hundred apple trees were cut in different 100. Results of stub-root and long-root pruning (after Stringfellow). No. 1, trimmed to stubs ; No. 2, ordinary long roots. ways, in order that the formation of the new root system might be studied. The trees were commercial northern -grown, and were set in a moist and well -tilled sandy loam. They were set on the 4th of May, which w^as as early as wards. Experience has shown that the roots are generally emitted per- pendicularly to the plane or surface of the cut. This final pruning should be done shortly before planting, so as to present a fresh surface for the calhis to form on. If trees are to be kept some time, or shipped by a nurseryman, about two inches of root should be left, the planter to cut back as directed when the tree is set. About a foot of top should bo left. More or less makes no difference. If the tree is well staked, three feet may be left without diminishing the growth ixmch-"— String-fellow in '^The New Horticulture,'' 85. 242 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE the ground could be fitted. Every care was taken to have all the conditions ideal and uniform. One hundred trees were set each of peach, plum, pear and apple. Each kind was divided into four or five lots, one lot being cut very short, and the others successively longer, until the last lot, in which the roots were not trimmed. The weather for the first month after planting was hot and dry, but the laud was frequently tilled to conserve the moisture. The trees were photo- graphed before being planted, and some of them were removed at intervals and again pho- New roots start tographed. In this way, from both the trunk and the the prOCCSS of rOOt form- fine roots. ^|--qj^ ^^^ carcfully Studied. It was found, as I have already indicated (pages 228, 235), that neither the place of origin of the new roots nor the direction of them was determined by the mode of pruning. Fig. 161 is an apple root trimmed to a simple stub, with some of the fine side roots, a, left on. The new roots arose both from the main trunk and from STRINGFELLOW ROOT -PRUNING 243 the small rootlets, and noue of them arose from the callus ; and there was no tendency for them to arise from the lower end of the stub (compare Figs. 154, 155, 156). Two similar apple trees were trimmed in differ- ent ways, and a month after planting they were taken up and engravings ^ made. The close-pruned specimen (Fig. 162) was barely alive, but the other (Fig. 163) was making a good growth. The roots shown in Figs. 161 and 162 are not of the form pre- scribed by Mr. String- fellow, nor is it possi- ble to prune most strong New -York -grown trees in that fashion. How- ever, many of the trees had strong lateral roots, and with these care was taken to copy the ortho- dox form; and some /'/- of these are illustrated. u -y/.^- 162. Reduced Po'' example, Pig. 164 ^^3 eX^esults to a cutting. showS the rOOts of four with roots left, 244 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE average peach trees after they had grown two seasons. The one at the left was trimmed to the form advised in Fig. 157, and yet it was the most shallow -rooted of all the trees : and 1G4. Typical results iu peach trees. many other trees told the same story. Yet this mode of pruning has for its object "to con- centrate all the vital energy of the newly set tree on a limited root- surface, and compel it to strike several strong, perpendicular tap-roots, and while doing this, not to allow its attention to be diverted to forming side or lateral roots at the same time."* Some of the facts of this experiment at Cornell may be presented in the following form (the planting dates being in May, 1896, and the final notes taken December, 1897) : *Stringfellow, "New Horticulture," 100, ROOT -PRUNING PEACHES 245 Peach (Horton Rivers) {Twenty trees in each lot) A. Roots normal, six inches long. Sixteen lived. All roots had a strong downward tendency. See right-hand root in Fig. 164. Average weight of trees, December, 1897, seventeen pounds. B. Roots cut to four and one-half inches long. Eighteen lived. The strongest, thriftiest, most shapely trees in any of the lots. Roots all striking downwards. C. Roots cut to three inches long. Fifteen lived. Ten had downward -growing roots, and tive had very flat or horizontal root sj^stems. D. Roots cut to two inches long. Nine lived. Five had down- ward-growing roots and four had horizontal roots. E. Roots cut to one inch long. Twelve lived. Six had roots with downward tendency, and six had all roots almost perfectly horizontal. The three left-hand specimens in Fig. 164 are from this lot E. The tree on the extreme left weighed one pound fourteen ounces, and rep- resents an average specimen. The second from the left weighed five pounds eight ounces, and is the best tree in the lot. The third from the left is the only one in the lot that had a distinct tap-root. It weighed four pounds five ounces. From first to last, the moderately pruned trees were clearly the best, and the stub -root trees were poor and weak, even after two years' growth. Pear (Bartlett) {Twenty-five trees in each lot) A. Normal. Roots six to eight inches long. Twenty-one lived: sixteen first-class trees. 246 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE dd Tap-root not trimmed; side roots two to three inches long. Twenty-two lived; sixteen first-class trees. The best lot. 1) and hh, Fig. 165, are average roots; 1) weighed three pounds eight ounces, and tb three pounds twelve ounces. Tap-root not trimmed; side roots one inch long. Fifteen lived; seven first-class trees. A poor lot. Tap-root cut to six inches; side roots -one inch long. Fifteen lived; 1 first-class tree. f7, Fig. 165, was the d bb b 165. Tj'pical results in pear trees. only tree in the lot worth saving, dd shows a tree still living after having been in the ground two years, but it had made no roots whatever. It was trimmed to a bare stump when set. Six trees behaved in this way, and only two of them made a callus on the wound. The tops did not grow, but they supported a few leaves. The stub -root probably absorbed a little moisture, and there was some food stored in the wood, so that the plant was able to live. SHORT -ROOT PRUNINC4 247 Plum (Lombard, budded on Myrobalan roots) {Tiocnty-five trees in each lot) A. Normal. Tap-root, eight inches; side roots, three to six inches. Twenty-three lived. Right-hand specimen in Fig. 166 is an average root. Weight of tree and root, five pounds ten ounces. B. Tap, six inches; side, two to four inches. Twenty-three lived. C. Tap, four inches; side, two inches. Twenty-four lived. D. Tap, four inches; sides, one inch. Twenty-two lived. Left-hand specimen. Fig. 166, is an average root. Weight six pounds ten ounces. All the lots were remarkably; uniform in size and thriftiness. From the tops it would have IGG. Stub-root and long-root on plum. been difficult to distinguish them. The short- pruned roots gave the shallowest root systems, however. It is easy to account for the large size of the short -pruned trees, for the Myrobalan plum grows readily from cuttings. 248 &OME SPECIFIC ADVICE Apple (Hubbardston, budded stock) {Twenty-five trees in each lot) A. Normal. Roots six to eight inches. Twenty lived; sev- enteen first-class; a, Fig. 167, average specimen, one pound fourteen ounces. B. Roots two to three inches long, and tap not cut. Eigh- teen lived; thirteen first-class. 6, Fig. 167, average d c 6 a A-verage results on apple trees specimen (a good root system!), one pound fourteen ounces. C. Roots one inch long, and tap not cut. Twenty lived; twelve first-class, c, Fig. 167, best specimen in the lot, two pounds eleven ounces. D. Roots one inch long, and tap cut back, thirteen lived; four good trees, but not first-class, and four more witli fairly good roots but poor tops, d. Fig. 167, average and typical specimen. THE STRINGFELLOW METHOD . 249 In all these trees, except the Myrobalau plum roots, the short -root pruning was a decided dis- advantage. Yet there is no contradicting the fact that others have obtained good results from it, and it has been put to a successful commercial test. All this shows, as has been said (page 238), that stub -root pruning is to be considered a mat- ter of local practice, not a matter of general principle. The practice may be good and it may not : the explanation or assumed theory is wrong. It will probably be found to be best adapted to the South, where plants grow from cuttings more readily than in the North ; and the nature of the land as respects texture, and the nearness of the water-table, will probably influence the result. The kind of tree may also be important. The stubbing -back of the top is a disadvantage to those who desire to grow long -bodied trees. It is always well to challenge established prac- tices and accepted theories, for thereby we make progress. In this respect, Mr. Stringfellow and his followers have no doubt done a distinct ser- vice.* Perhaps we have placed too great value on a large root -system when transplanting trees, and *Aside from its merits as a matter of pruning, Mr. Stringfellow sees tlie following advantages of stub-roots: (1) Saving the nurseryman in digging his stock; (2) Saving in packing the stock; (3) Saving in trans- portation; (4) Saving in planting; (5) Rediicing danger of carrying in- sects and diseases; (6) Enables the planter to set extra large trees, which the nurseryman now has to throw away, and thus obtain fruit much sooner. 250 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE our opinions may need to be revised; but it does not follow that the opposite extreme is the better. The writer prefers trees with roots on ; but he has no quarrel with those who prefer them with roots off. SUBSEQUENT TREATMENT OF THE PLANTS Having now obtained a general conception of the tj'pe of tree which we wish to grow, and having started off the main or scaffold branches, the subsequent treatment consists in cutting out all interfering and superfluous limbs and keep- ing the top within the shape which we have in mind. It is impossible to give specific advice as to what branches should be cut, for every branch is a problem in itself, and must be solved for itself. In fruit trees, the head should be kept fairly open, so that all parts are exposed to sun and air, and the tree is made accessible to pickers, and easy to spray. All limbs which tend to make an over -vigorous growth should be cut out or checked, in order that the tree may keep its balance, and limbs which run directly crosswise the top, and those which rub each other, should be removed. Some of the problems connected with the form of the top may be suggested in a series of pic- tures taken from an individual tree of Rhode Island Greening. This tree was set in the spring of 1889. Having grown two years without pruu- BEHAVIOR OF A GREENING TREE 251 ing, in the fall of 1890 it looked like Fig-. 168. In the winter of 1890-1 it was pruned, as shown in Fig. 169. The tree stands in rich soil and has made a heavy growth. As the top begins 168. Greening tree of two seasons' growth (1890). 169. The same pruned. to expand, the apparent length of the trunk decreases, and in the fall of 1892 the tree looked as shown in Fig. 170 ; that is, tops which maj^ appear to be very high when trees are young may appear to be low when the trees have 170. The same tree, two years later (fall of 1892) 171. The ti-ee again pruned. BEHAVIOR OF A GREENING TREE 253 attained some age. All these pictures (168-174) are drawn with great care to a scale, and the length of trunk bears a true proportion to the width of the top in every case. In the winter of 1892-3 the tree, as shown in Fig. 170, was pruned to the extent shown in Fig. 171, and the 172. The same tree starting into growth (1893), following summer (that is, 1893) the tree had the form shown in Fig. 172. Late in the season of 1894 the tree was drawn again, as shown in Fig. 173. The following winter it was again pruned, and in the spring of 1895 it had the appearance of Fig. 174. It will be seen that the long and stilt -like character of the tree has wholly 173. The tree in the fall of 1894. % i74. In the spring of 1895, having been pruned in the winter. PRUNING YOUNG APPLE TREES 255 disappeared, and the very perceptible crook in the trunk has tended to straighten. The tree now begins to have character, and its four scaf- fold limbs are well established. The tree is not ideal in forna, however, since it has too much 175. Tetofsky apple tree. 176. The Tetofsky pruned. of a crotch ; and at the present time a living brace has been interwoven between the two crotches, as shown in Fig. 109. A Tetofsky apple tree, two years planted, is shown in Fig. 175. It is a variety which makes very few strong interior growths, and therefore needs comparatively little thinning. It is already 179. Windsor cherry, four years set. 180. The tree pruned. PRUNING YOUNG APPLE TREES 257 making conspicuous fruit -spurs alongside the upright branches. The pruning of the tree is shown in Fig. 176. There are three main or scaffold limbs. Some of the other branches, which are left, it may be necessary to remove as time goes on ; but it is always difficult to determine in the beginning just which ones are 181. Well-formed pie cherry. wanted, and it is well not to trim the tree too heavily, so as to reduce its leaf-bearing capacity, and to set it into too strong growth of water- sprouts. A Longfield apple tree is shown in Fig. 177. The variety has a weeping habit, and the effort must be to encourage the upper limbs and to remove the lower or drooping ones. How this 258 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE is done is shown in Fig. 178. The tree was started too low in the first place, and it has a bad crotch ; and later on, the large fork on the right was entirely removed. It then had 182. Apricot in need of prunin,^. PRUNING OF YOUNG TREES 259 183. One way of treating Fig. 182. a good form, but the tree is now weeping as much as ever; that is, it is impossible to over- come the natural habit of the tree, and however high the Longfield may be trained, it will eventu- ally reach nearly or quite to the ground. A sweet cherry (the Windsor) is shown in Figs. 260 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 179 aud 180. This also has a bad crotch, and eventuall}^ one of the branches was cnt away, as shown in a, Fig. 180, leaving a tree of good form, with the branches started about four feet high. The general thinning of the top, as shown in Fig. 180, is perhaps about right. A sour cherry (Early Richmond) is shown, after prun- ing, in Fig. 181. This tree has an almost ideal type of branching, and the pruning is about as near perfect as we can ordinarily make it. An apricot tree is shown in Figs. 182 and 183. This tree grows against the south side of a building, although it is not trained on the wall. It is desired, therefore, to have a very flat and spreading top. The branches were started low, but they arise too nearly from a common point, thereby making a bad crotch, yet the apricot is less likely to split than trees which bear heavier loads of fruit. The tree was neglected for three or four j^ears, and when pruning became necessary, it was thinned out to the extent shown in Fig. 183. The head can thereafter be kept free and open with only a slight amount of annual cutting. A neglected peach tree, four years planted, is shown in Fig. 184. It is very thick, and some of the lower branches are weak and almost dead because they have been overshaded by the dense top. This tree was pruned to the form shown in Fig. 185, and is now a handsome and prolif c 184, Neglected peach tree, four years set. 185. The tree pruned. 186. Two-year-set peach tree, before pruning (Hale). 187. The peach tree pruned and headed-back. 262 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE tree. Figs. 186 and 187 are adapted from photo- graphs published by J. H. Hale, to show the 188. Headed-back upon transplanting methods of treating a peach tree. In Fig. 187, the tree has been thinned and headed -back. In the transplanting of large or established trees, it is very necessarv that the tops be headed- TOP -WORKED TREES 263 back, and the more serious the cutting: of the roots, the more extensive should be the cutting- in of the top. Fig. 188 shows a six -year -old cherry tree which has been cut back after trans- planting. In all such cases, it is important that old and dry stubs are not left on the trees. The stubs should be cut back from time to time as new branches start, always giving preference to the strong growth, and cutting out the feeble wood. MANAGEMENT OF TOP-WOBKED TREES When trees are top -budded or top -grafted, it is usually the purpose to change their entire top to the new variety. The methods of performing the work, and the general position of the buds or grafts, are somewhat fully discussed in the last edition of "The Nursery -Book." In old trees it is generally desirable to graft all the leading limbs, thereby endeavoring to maintain the origi- nal shape as nearly as possible. In young trees, only two or three of the limbs can be grafted or budded, and sometimes the whole top is cut off and the main stock or trunk is grafted. The grafting of the main trunk has some disadvan- tages, because a bad fork is apt to occur at the graft, and it is usually better, therefore, to set the cions or buds in the branches. Fig. 189 shows the treatment of a small apple tree which is top- budded. Three buds are inserted, one in the 264 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE main trunk or leader, and one in each of the two side branches. The buds are inserted in summer, 189, Top-budded apple tree. and early the next spring the limbs are cut a quarter of an inch above each bud, as in A. Fig. 190 shows another tree in which many buds have been set, all of which are growing. It shows that the stubs project beyond the buds. As soon as the TOP -WORKED TREES 265 190. Top-budded apple tree. buds have begun to grow vigorouslj^ these stubs should be cut back close to the base of the new branch, to facilitate their healing over. 266 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE A strong pear tree was grafted in three limbs. The grafting was done in April. In September of the same year, the tree looked as shown in Fig. 191, being very much entangled with strong '•%^: Top-grafted pear. watersprouts, because of the severe pruning. Be- fore growth began the following spring, all of this adventitious grow^th was removed, the tree then looking like Fig. 192. Some of the branches of the stock were left, since the grafts were not yet large enough to form the w^hole top. If too much of the stock is cut off the cions tend to TOP -WORKED TREES 267 grow too long, and are likely to be broken by snow and wind. In trees which have been set only two to four years, the top can be changed in two years ; The pear tree pruned. but apple trees which are fifteen or twenty years old can ordinarily not be changed so rapidly. Four or five j'ears may be required in some cases. Fig. 193 is a Lombard plum tree which was grafted to a Japanese variety. The tree was four years old when grafted, and the second year there- 193. A x'>lum tree changed to a new variety. 194. In need of attention. TOP -WORKED TREES 269 after all the old top was removed, as shown in the illnstration. It will now be necessary to cut off some of the cions and to thin out the top, much as if the tree were recently planted. It is always essential that the operator look out for adventitious growths or suckers from the stock, after the tree has been changed to the de- sired variety. The equilibrium of the tree has been so much upset by the he^vy pruning that these watersprouts and auxiliary growths may arise for several years. Fig. 194 is a Kilmarnock willow. This is a weeping variety, which is grafted upon a strong, upright -growing stock. In this case, the stock has thrown out long- suckers, and the drooping head is beginning to famish and die. These suckers should be removed as soon as they begin to form, else good results cannot be obtained with the cion. This trouble of suckering from the stock is very apt to occur in ornamental plants, as in top -worked weeping and variegated varieties. Such varieties are gen- erally weak growers, and cannot take up the exuberant strength of the root. MANAGEMENT OF DWARF TREES Dwarf plants are those which do not attain to the normal or habitual stature of the species or variety to which they belong. There are two general categories of dwarf plants, — dwarf va- rieties, and dwarf individuals. The former class 270 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE retains its dwarfness of itself, without artificial aid. It is the nature of such plants to be dwarf. The manner of their origin is usually obscure, and it appeals to the plant -breeder.* The sec- ond class is forced to be dwarf by some treat- ment which is applied to each individual plant. Plants are dwarfed by three means, — By grafting or budding on a slower -growing root ; By confining the tops by means of pruning or training ; By confining the roots by means of pruning or by growing in pots, boxes, or other re- stricted place. The first category is not a subject for discussion in a pruning -book, but it may be said that it is not enough that the plant be worked on slow- growing root: it must also be systematically headed -in if its stature is to be kept within bounds. This is true of dwarf pears, dwarf apples, dwarf cherries, and all the rest. Root -pruning, as a means of limiting growth, has already been discussed (page 227) . In prac- tice, it is nearly unknown in this country. In small areas it can be emploj'ed, but it is inappli- cable to our commercial plantations. *A discussion of dwarfs from the breeder's standpoint may be found in "Plant-Breeding;" from the propagator's standpoint, in "The Nursery-Book;" and from the fruit-grower's standpoint, in "Principles of iruit-Growing," PRUNING DWARF TREES 271 Top -pruning of a dwarf has two objects, — to limit the growth, and to train the plant to some desired form. Pruning to limit growth is merely heading -back. This should be done every winter. How much the growth shall be headed -back de- pends on its length and the age of the tree. Dwarf pears and apples which make an average growth of eighteen to thirty inches on their uppermost twigs are usually headed -back a half to five -sixths of that growth. This cutting- back will induce a lateral or interior growth (Sec- tion 9, Chap. IV.), and this must be thinned out. It is generally best to prune very late in winter or early in spring, and to cut to within three- eighths inch of a bud (see Fig^. 82, 83). Pruning to secure some desired shape of the top must, of course, be governed by the ideal of the operator. There are two general forms to which dwarf fruit trees are pruned, — the pyra- mid and the inverted cone. The pyramid is popular in Europe, and the Old World writings contain minute descriptions of the details of pruning for this ideal. Fig. 195 shows dwarf pear pyramids in the grounds of the Royal Hor- ticultural Society, at Chiswick, England. The essential feature of this tj^pe of training is a central shaft from which successive tiers of branches are taken. The flat -topped or inverted -cone -shaped style of training is the eommonest ideal in commercial 272 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE American orchards, although there are few plan- tations in which it has been systematically worked out. Probably the best example of it in America is the orchard of T. G. Yeomans & Sons, Wal- worth, New York, an orchard which is still vig- USr »mrj: l^^fc^ 195. '93 Pyramidal training of dwarf pears. England. orous and productive, although it has been com- merciall}' successful for nearly half a century (planted in 1852). Good trees from this planta- tion are shown in Fig. 196. The essential feature of this type of training — which the writer believes to be the best for American conditions — is a framework of several approximately coordinate branches arising near the ground. DWARF PEARS 273 Since the Yeomauses have been so snccessful with dwarf pears, it will be profitable to stndy their description of the method of pruning, and I^^Jy v.'^-^-^^^r^^"'"^ - 19(3. Flat-topped training of dwarf pears. New York. These trees were forty-five years old when the picture was taken. especially so, also, since this account seems to be the clearest exposition of dwarf i^ear pruning for commercial orchards v/liich is accessible to the American student:''^ "Experience lias convinced me that, with good trees of well chosen varieties, on any good land, which is never too wet, and with the culture a good farmer gives his other crops, and the important — nay, more, the indispensable — requisite to success, — thorough pruning, — no one need fail *This sketch is a copyrighted article published iu the nursery circulars of T. G. Yeomans & Sons, at the time when the firm was in the nur- sery business. Reprinted by permission. R 274 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE of attaining a degree of success highly satisfactory and profitable. " A dwarf pear tree should never be planted at one year old. A good one-year-old tree consists of a single upright shoot or stem, from three and one-half to five feet high, and should be cut off at about two feet from the ground; and in order to give a smooth, handsome stem or trunk, let the buds be rubbed off to the height of one foot from the ground, leaving on the upper portion six to nine buds, more or less. With the tree standing in its original posi- tion in full vigor, and cut back as above stated, each one of these buds will throw out a good, strong branch, which gives a full, round, distaff form to the tree. This is the time and manner, and the only time, when that desirable shape can be given on which the future form and symmetry and beauty depends. To avoid what is termed a crotched or forked-top tree, in which the two uppermost branches are about of equal vigor and height, let the second branch from the top be pinched off when about nine inches or a foot long, which will check and weaken it, while the upper- most one becomes a strong, central leader. Whereas, if the tree be transplanted at one year old, and cut back as above stated, the vital forces of the tree will be weakened half or three -fourths by transplanting, and as the result, only two or three (more or less) of the buds on the trunk will grow so as to form branches, and they, perhaps, only at the top or all on one side, while the remaining buds remain dormant, never afterwards to be developed, as the other branches form new channels, which will more readily carry the sap to the other and upper portions of the trees. "For transplanting, therefore, let a tree be two or more years old from the bud, well cut back at one year old, and with six to nine main branches, which form the framework or foundation, which is to give form and character to the future tree, with proper care and management. "The .annexed cut (Fig. 197) will illustrate a two-year-old DWARF PEARS 275 ^'^ tree, as above described, its lower branches about one foot from the ground, its upper branches being the strongest and most upright, and those below less vigorous and more hori- zontal. I speak of this more particularly for the reason that all the cuts which I have noticed in works on pomology, and in agricultural papers represent a two -year- old tree, with branches much the long- est and strongest at the bot- tom and diminishing in vigor towards the top, except, per- haps, the cente' top branch ; while all experi 3nce illustrates the principle that the sap flows most freely and readily to the upper branches, giving them vigor, strength and upright- ness, to the diminution of the same characteristics in those below. The dotted lines ii should be cut back at the time of planting. "In cutting a tree, with the branches formed as above described, let the leader be cut down within four or six inches of the place where the one-year-old tree was cut off, and just above a good bud on the side of the tree over the previous year's cut, thus keeping the leader in a perpen- dicular position over the original trunk or bottom of the tree. "If the side branches aro too horizontal, upper buds are left for their extension; if too upright, lower buds are left. Side direction may be given, if desirable, to fill wide spaces, in the same way. Cut the other branches at such a distance from the trunk that the ends of them will form a, pyra- mid, the base of which sliould not bo over twelve to sixteen inches in diameter, and in smiillish trees much less; thus 197. ]98. Treatment of Treatment two-j^ear-old for a three- dwarf pear year-old tree. tree. die ate where the branches 276 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE the lowest branches will be left the longest, the object of which is to check the natural flow of sap to the upper branches, and induce it to flow more forcibly to the lower ones, increasing in vigor and force of the latter as much as possible, which must be done at that time or never. "The Fig. 198 represents a three-year-old tree, after it has been pruned at two years old and made the third years' growth, and showing where it should be cut back at that time. All subsequent pruning will become easy to any one who has attended to these directions thus far — observing the same principles — thinning out or cutting back any sec- ondary or other branches, as shall seem necessary to admit light and air, or give vigor or symmetry of form to the tree ; but as the greater force of sap will flow to the central and upright branches, they will need to be cut -back most, retaining as near as may be the j)yramidal form. Pruning may be done at any time from November to April." These trees, sliowu in Figs. 197 and 198, start out with a pyramidal treatment, but as they ma- ture, they approach the form shown in Fig. 196 ; and the Yeomans trees are now not over twelve feet high, although nearly fifty years old. Other illustrations may elucidate some of the ways of treating dwarf pears. Fig. 199 is a tree at the end of its first season's growth in the orchard. The forks near the ends of the branches show where it was cut at planting time. Fig. 200 shows the way in which it was again pruned. A dwarf pear three years set is shown in Fig. 201. The top was started wrong, — with only two branches and these in the form of a crotch. Dwarf PearS 277 When pruned (Fig*. 202) two sprouts were left. The tree will now have four scaffold branches ; but it will never be a model tree. A low -branching Duchess dwarf pear is shown in Fig. 203. This variety is a narrow and tall 199. Dwarf pear at end of first year in the orchard. 200. The tree pruned. grower when young. It has a well-marked leader and several scaffold limbs. It is pruned in Fig. 204. This will make a good tree. The pruning of dwarf apples is essentially like that advised for pears. If the tree is on 278 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE Paradise stock, very close attention must be given to pruning, else the top will become too large for the root. If it is on the larger -growing 201. A bad -formed tree 202. The tree pruned. Doucin stock, a somewhat freer growth may be allowed. The following remarks on pruning dwarf apples are by Lodeman:* "Dwarf apple trees should be very thoroughly pruned from the time they are set. The object of this pruning is three-fold: the wood which is capable of bearing fruit will *Dwarf Apples, Bull. IIG, Cornell Exp. Station. DWARF APPLES 279 be more freely produced, the fruit-spurs will be distributed evenly over all the lower parts of the tree as well as the top, and the tree will be kept in a dwarf habit. These results may not be obtained if too little wood is removed. Each year's growth, if vigorous, should be cut back at 203. A Duchess dwarf pear, four years set. 204. The tree pruned. least one-half or two-thirds, and generally more maybe removed with perfect safety. Occasionally, dwarf trees will be found in which the natural vigor of the cion seems to have stimulated an undue growth of roots, so that the tree, instead of remaining small, increases rapidly in size, and soon it bears little resemblance to the plants fre- 280 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE queutly illustrated in books to show how a dwarf apple tree ought to appear. The annual growths may be from one to two feet in length, and at this rate good-sized trees are formed in a short time. "The tree shown in Fig. 205 represents a good type. The original from wliieh the drawing was made was five 205. A good dwarf apple tree. feet in height, the lowest leaves being but eighteen inches from the ground. The top has been allowed to assume its natural spreading form, but a firm control has continu- ally been exercised over any too ambitious efforts of the branches. The tree has practically the same form and size which it will retain during its entire existence. The main branches will' increase in circumference, the outer DWARF APPLES 281 limbs will gradually lengthen, and the fruit -spui's will become more crooked, yet the tree will always be low and spreading. The one criticism which might be made is that the lowest fruiting branches are still too high. The foliage of the ideal dwarf apple tree almost touches the ground; it has all its main branches well studded with smaller ones, or with fruit- spurs, so that when in full leaf, it shall appear 'feathered' from bottom to top.* * "Much wood is allowed to remain near the ground and in the center of the tree, for it is always easier to remove superfluous branches than it is to insert them when they are wanted. The form of the pruned tree is that of a rather broad vase, this being the shape which the tree naturally assumes. During the coming season, it should be well provided with foliage, so that none of the main branches shall be exposed to the full glare of the summer sun. The fruit produced will also receive proper shade. The specimen as a whole may be considered as a good type of dwarf apple tree which has not been forced to assume a form which is unnatural to it." BINGING AND GIRDLING Girdling is a generic term used to designate the making of a wound completely around a stem. A girdle maj^ extend only through the bark, or deep into the wood. Ringing is a specific horti- cultural term used to designate a girdle which extends only through the bark. The wound may be a simple incision with the point of a knife, or it may be made by the complete removal of a section of bark. In horticultural practice, gir- dling into the wood is rarely desirable, and we shall, therefore, use the word ringing. 282 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE We have already seen the philosophy of ring- ing (pp. 161, 163, 167) . It promotes fruitfulness of the part above the rings, because the elaborated food is held there, not being able to pass the girdle in its downward course. The fattening of the top, so to speak, is at the expense of the part below the ring. If the bark is not allowed to cover the ring, the root must eventually starve, unless there is foliage below the ring to support it. As a matter of practice, however, the ring is made in spring and is allowed to heal, and the direct effect is, therefore, confined mostly to the year in which the ringing is performed. Ringing is useful in two ways, — it may set un- productive trees into bearing, and it may modify the fruit which is borne above the ring. The former effect usually does not come until the year following the ringing — sometimes not till the sec- ond year. The latter effect is immediate. The philosophy of the one is that the extra food tends to develop fruit -buds ; the philosophy of the other is that the extra food hastens the maturity and increases the size of the fruit already growing. Ringing to induce fruit -bearing is to be re- garded as a special practice. It is generally a last resort, — not because ringing injures the tree (for it usually does not), but because there are more fundamental and general means of promoting fruitfulness (read pages 163-166). If a tree here and there persists in being barren, ring it as an RINGING 283 experiment. If the whole plantation is fruitless, and has yet received all the care which legiti- mately makes for fruitfulness, then ring all the trees ; then if they do not bear, graft them or cut them down. Ringing is sometimes done on young trees in test plantations to bring them early into bearing, but young trees are often seriously in- jured thereby. Ringing is usually done about the time growth begins to start. It is w^ell to experiment on one or two branches first. Run the point of a knife- blade around the- stem, sinking it to the wood. This will usually be sufficient; but removing an inch of bark at this season of the year usually does no harm if the tree is vigorous (see page 116). I have known rings six inches wide, on apple trees, to heal perfectly in a single season, with no dressings applied; but such wounds are unneces- sary and dangerous. Ringing to increase the size and hasten the maturity of fruits is such a well-known practice that reputable societies have long refused to award premiums to fruits which have been modified in this w^ay.* The quality usually suffers. It is customary to make the ring just after the fruit has set, so that individual specimens may be selected. A strip of bark a quarter of an inch wide is often taken out. The part above the ring should bear *See, for example, page 203, 4th Ed. "Horticulturist's Rule-Book." 284 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE till abundance of foliage, else there will be insuf- ficient food to support the fruit. Gaucher remarks* that "the width of the bark to be removed from the whole circumference of the shoot or branch varies between three and five milli- meters [a millimeter is .039 inch, hence one -tenth to two -tenths inch]. Wider than this, the cut should not be made, as otherwise it is to be feared the wound would remain open all summer and bring about the death of the part above the cut." "If performed extensively upon a tree," writes Lindley,t ringing "is very apt, if not to kill it, at least to render it incurably unhealthy; for if the rings are not sufficiently wide to cut off all communication between the upper and lower lips of the wound they produce little effect, and if they are, they are difficult to heal." In 1893 the writer made a symposium + on ring- ing grapes, most of which is here reprinted: " Grapes can be made to ripen earlier and to grow larger if the vine is girdled in early summer. Many fruit-plants have been girdled or ringed for centuries, but the utility of the practice is still in dispute. A mere narrow girdle or incision around the trunk may cause an apple or pear tret to come into bearing, and as the wound heals over in a few weeks, probably no harm can result. But the section of bark removed from the grape vine is so large that the wound never heals, and the whole cane is cut away at the annual winter pruning. The renewal wood of the vine is not *Die Veredehingeu, 364. t Theory of Hoi'ticultiire, Amer. ed. 255. jAmerican Gardening, xiv. 74-80. RINGING OF GKAPES 285 ringed, however, and this maintains the growtli of the plant. But it is a question if this renewal wood is sufficient to keep the plant strong and healthy. Grape-ringing is practiced by many growers in the Hudson River Valley, and mostly with good success so far as the precocity and en- largement of grapes is concerned. It is yet a question if it is profitable throughout a series of years and with all varie- ties of grapes. "Girdling or ringing various fruit-trees was certainly practiced by the Romans, and the Agricultural Society of France awarded a premium to Buehatt about a century and a half ago for a method of ringing the grape-vine. The practice, both with grapes and other, fruits, has had an in- termittent history, and it appears never to have become an accepted practice for any number of years. This fact is presumption against the operation. But its application to the American vine is comparatively recent. The first valu- able experiments made with the ringing of the grape vine in America were begun in 1877, at the Massachusetts Agri- cultural College, and the practice has been employed there more or less continuously since that time. _ A valuable re- port was made upon the composition of ringed grapes in the report of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture for 1879. "The status of grape-ringing in this country may be expressed as follows: Ringing usually hastens maturity and increases size of fruit; it is supposed to lessen the quality of the fruit ; its effect upon the vine is not clearly determined. " The quality of the fruit of girdled vines has been made the subject of much chemical inquiry at the Massachusetts Experiment Station, and as this point is an exceedingly important one, and is under much discussion at present, we have reproduced Dr. Goessmann's analyses very freely. The following table is from Dr, Goessmann's report for 1889; 286 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE Effects of Ringing Grapes, 1880. Name and Condition. Hartford Prolific, not ringed. Hartford Prolific, ringed Wilder, not ringed Wilder, ringed Delaware, not ringed Delaware, ringed Agawam, not ringed Agawam, ringed lona, not ringed lona, ringed Concord, not ringed Concord, ringed Concord, not ringed Concord, ringed Concord, not ringed Concord, ringed Date. 1877 Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. 4 Sept. 4 Sept. G Sept. 6 Sept. 6 Sept. 6 Sept. 26 Sept.26 Oct. 5 Oct. 5 1.045 1.065 1.055 1.075 1.065 1.075 1.060 1.075 1.0625 1.085 1.045 1.070 1.065 1.080 1.075 1.085 eS O p Per ct. 12.85 17.18 15.41 17.24 15.75 19.14 16.60 18.45 16.60 21.48 13.46 17.53 17.63 24.47 20.92 Per ct. 8.77 12.50 10.42 14.70 11.76 15.15 11.37 16.31 13.51 15.63 7.46 13.88 13.70 19.61 17.50 17.86 •Si Per ct. 68.25 72.76 67.62 85.26 74.66 79.16 68.48 87.42 68.31 72.76 55.42 79.18 78.27 80.13 85.37 100 Parts of Grapes contained— Date. Concord, not ringed Concord, ringed Concord, not ringed Concord, ringed Sept.23, Sept. 23, Oct. 8, Oct. 8, 2 f3 4 ^ tn ^^ u ^ < § o 84.69 6.24 .42 83.00 8.13 .53 84.51 6.09 .37 82.69 8.50 "In 1888, Dr. Jabez Fisher, of Fitchburg, Mass., 'the father of grape -growing in northern Massachusetts,' began experiments in connection with the Massachusetts College Not ringed. 84.69 per ct. . . per ct. 6.24 per ct. 75 C.C. 85.51 per ct. .53 per ct. 6.09 per ct. 48 C.C. RINGINO GRAPES 287 which have extended to the present time, and have given invaluable results. The following analyses of grapes, which grew from vines girdled by him July 5, were reported by Dr. Goessmann in Bulletin 7 of the Massachusetts Hatch Experiment Station in 1890 : September 30. Ringed. Moisture at 100° C 83.00 per ct. Ash 42 per ct. Sugar 8.13 per ct. Soda solution required to neutralize acid 84.4 C.C. October 1. Moisture at 100° C 82.69 per ct. Ash 37 per ct. Sugar 8.50 per ct. Soda sohition reqviired to neutralize acid 50 C.C. "In every case the amount of sugar was greater in the ringed grapes. " The experiments at the Massachusetts College were, on the whole, satisfactory, and seemed to show that ringing is advisable, and that it does not injure the vine ; but Dr. Fisher's experiments upon a larger scale, which are detailed below, show opposite results." Dr. Jabez Fisher on Binging "Knowing that a number of cultivators had girdled their grape vines for two or three years with satisfactory results, and noting the commendation which began to come from the Massachusetts Agricultural College, I determined to ascertain how much value there might be in the method. I could find no account of any careful experiments directed to this end, and having three acres of bearing Concord vines, well sit- uated for comparative experimentation, I decided to try girdling a few of them. The girdling was done in July, 288 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 1888, when the berries were about one-fourth of an inch in diameter. The girdled fruit showed color August 24, and the ungirdled September 2, a difference of nine days. A temperature of 29° on the morning of October 1 killed all the foliage and froze the ungirdled berries, leaving the others untouched, but though the girdled ones were nearly- ripe, the season was such that the appreciable amount of sugar they contained was insufficient to give them value for any purpose, and the entire crop was left unharvested. "In 1889, I girdled, July 2 to 5, one each of two bearing arms on sixty vines. This was done by taking out a ring of bark from one -half to three -fourths of an inch wide around the arm near the trunk. The result of this operation was to increase by 30 or 40 per cent the size of the berries at maturity, and they showed color August 12, while those on the opposite half of the same vines began to color August 18, six days later. Sep- tember 20, grapes on girdled vines were fit for market, while the others became fully ripe October 1, a difference of ten days. "In order to get a good understanding of these results and their value, I made a comparison as the matter then stood. I was an earnest inquirer, with little faith, but en- tirely open to conviction. I had gained ten days in time, which, in an unfavorable season, might mean the difference between success and failure. In addition to this gain, the berries would weigh from one -fourth to one -third more from their increased size, and this, again, would add to their attractiveness and thus help their sale. On the other hand, the normal amount of rain, 3.35 inches during Sep- tember, resulted in splitting open from 20 to 40 per cent of the berries, the larger proportion on the heaviest and best clusters. This entailed not only the loss of these split berries but also the time required in cleaning the clusters for market, leaving them deformed and unsightly. The THE RINGING OF GRAPES 289 berries were also soft, and did not bear carriage well, and as a result nothing was gained in price from their earli- ness. There was no opportunity to institute a comparison of quality September 20, as at that time those not girdled were sour and unpalatable. The girdled ones seemed to the anxious waiter to be nearly perfect, but in five or six days the not -quite -ripe ungirdled ones were preferred, and October 1, when the latter had arrived at perfection, the former were left uneaten. These girdled grapes were com- paratively flat, insipid and unsatisfying. They were quite as sweet to the taste as the othei-s but lacked their refresh- ing sparkle, partly from seeming to be less acid and partly from suggestive, incipient decay. This was the case whether they had been housed September 20 or left on the vines until October 1. "These results were unsatisfactory. I repeated the experi- ment, using for the purpose the same vines and adding to their number. In this I was largely influenced by the con- sideration that if we should have a dryer September, the objectionable features mentioned would be reduced to a minimum. "In 1890 I girdled, in all, vines covering nearly an acre. They were all Concords, trained on the renewal system, each vine having two bearing arms six feet long. These arms are fruited but once, and replaced every year by new canes grown for the purpose, upon which no fruit is al- lowed while growing. Half the vines, those in alternate rows, had only one arm girdled. The others were girdled on both arms, which comprised all of the bearing wood except two, three or four central canes that sprung from the trunk below the arms. The operation was performed July 18 and 19. The girdled grapes showed color August 17, the ungirdled August 25. Those girdled were first sent to market September 22, and the others October 3. Sep- tember 22 specimens of each were sent to Dr. C. A. Goess- mann, of the Agricultural College at Amherst. MassaciiU- 290 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE setts, for analysis, and I give here the percentage amounts of grape-sugar and tartaric acid respectively : Ringed. Not ringed. Sugar 9.29 7.36 Acid (tartaric) 1.17 1.15 "At this time the girdled grapes were fairly well ripened, very nearly as good as they became a week later, and bet- ter than those gathered October 8. They were sweet, with about the right porportion of acid, while those not girdled were quite sour and entirely uneatable. October 8, samples were gathered of each and again analyzed, with the results here given: Ringed. Not ringed. Sugar 9.12 6.65 Acid (tartaric) 74 .51 " At this date the girdled grapes had lost their refreshing sparkle, while the others were quite satisfactory, being sweet and having suflScient acid; yet the analysis tells us that while the former had lost nearly two per cent of sugar, together with more than 36 per cent of acid, the latter had lost nearly ten per cent of the sugar that they contained September 22 when uneatable, but had also lost more than 55 per cent of their acid. It would appear from these analyses that it is not so much the absolute amount of sugar present which renders fruit palatable by its sweet- ness, as the corresponding absence of an excess of accom- panying acid; and that the sense of taste is quite unre- liable in judging of the amount of sugar present. "The proportionate enlargement of the berries was about the same as in 1889, and notwithstanding that more than five inches of rain fell between September C and 18, yet, because of the looseness of the berries on the clusters and the fine weather which followed, the girdled crop ripened with only a trifling loss by splitting of berries, so that it was all marketed by the time that the other grapes were RINGING GRAPES 291 ready to follow. The average price which the girdled grapes sold for during this time was but very little higher than that the main crop commanded. Concord here is not early enough to compete with grapes raised farther south, and it brings quite as good prices later. "An important circumstance forced itself upon my atten- tion about this time. Upon these vines, half of which had been girdled, it was found that the fruit upon the un- girdled arm colored and ripened very slowly. It was so far behind that 'of vines not treated, and so general, that the conviction could not be avoided that the girdling of one -half of the vine had correspondingly retarded the ripening on the other half. So prevalent was this tardiness that the crop of the average vine as a whole was less val- uable than where girdling was not practiced. A little later it was found that upon those vines that had both arms girdled, where a few clusters remained upon the central shoots not treated, these clusters did not ripen so as to be of any value. They remained red and very sour to the end. This was the point where light began to show through. I had by the operation of girdling been simply transferring the nutritive pabulum that would naturally have gone equally to all parts of the vine to a portion only. The vine possesses in its sap sufficient material, if natur- ally elaborated, to ripen its entire crop, but if one part of it is caused to receive an excess, there must be a corre- sponding deficiency elsewhere. Another idea was suggested: whether it were possible for girdled vines to mature and ripen their roots so as to be in condition to furnish a crop the following year. It might be that as the bearing vine was all cut away at the fall pruning, there would be no use for the corresponding roots [if there are such ! ] , as they would die under any circumstances. The new or renewal cane was not girdled, and its particular roots might not be affected by the girdling of the other parts of the vine. "Having determined that the gain in value of the crop 292 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE by girdling in my case was not enhanced, as a whole, in any material degree, and being in possession of all the conditions for ascertaining the after-effects upon the vine and its roots, I decided to continue the operation no fur- ther, but to watch the results in the season of 1891. As the spring opened there was no noticeable difference in the size or appearance of the canes, whatever their previous treatment. It was observed that the buds on the vines that had been girdled broke quite unevenly, that the clusters of fruit -buds were smaller and the early growth of the new canes less vigorous than with others. This state of affairs was intensified as growth progressed, becoming more and more apparent as the season advanced. While all were entirely healthy, the vines which had been girdled in 1890 showed a decided lack of fruit and smaller and weaker canes for fruiting in 1892. A favorable autumn made up a part of this difference, and at the close of the season all the vines looked well and the grapes were thoroughly ripened. " In harvesting the crop I kept the fruit grown upon three different plots separate. No. 1 had never been girdled, No. 2 had had one -half of each vine girdled, and No. 3 both halves. From each plot 1^0 vines were selected, each lot covering about 11,500 feet. All were contiguous and fairly comparable with each other. After the leaves had fallen, I measured with calipers the diameter of each new cane of these 360 vines, 720 canes in all, at half their length, three feet, from the trunk. "In the first column of the following table, 100 is assumed as the product of average ungirdled vines. In the second find third columns, the percentages of the half -girdled and full-girdled vines, respectively, are given. The difference between the whole amount of fruit and that denominated first-class consisted of small and fragmentary clusters, which could be disposed of only at inferior prices. The quality of all the fruit was satisfactory. RINGING GRAPES 293 Not ringed. Half ringed. Full ringed. •I'otal fniit 100 83 62 First-class 100 77 59 Diameter of new eaiies 100 97 87 " I cannot avoid the conclusion that wherever a grape vine will fairly ripen fruit by natural processes, girdling is an operation that cannot be commended, certainly not for its commercial results. Its disadvantages are greater than its advantages. The fruit possesses no attractions for the connoisseur, and one year or more must be given the vine to recover from its effects. It is possible that in some sit- uations or circumstances where the seasons are not long enough to ripen the fruit naturally, a crop might be saved by girdling if the grower were willing to devote the suc- ceeding season to generous feeding, without production of fruit, in order to fit the vine for a crop in alternate years. I doubt somewhat if even this is feasible, as my vines girdled in 1890 have not yet full recovered." Ringing in the Hudson River Valley "For many years, I know not how long, it has been known that by obstructing the return flow of sap in the part of a grape vine bearing fruit, the size of the fruit would be in- creased, and it would color abnormally early. This could be attained by removing a ring of bark, or binding the branch tightly with a wire. It is only within the last decade that this knowledge has been turned to practical account in America. Some tw^elve or fifteen years ago, grape-growers in the Hudson River Valley would occasionally exhibit at the fairs enormous specimens of grapes. That the vines produc- ing them had been girdled w^as frequently charged, sometimes •denied ; and if admitted, it was with shamefacedness, and ihe specimens were generally ruled out of the competition. A little later a few vines were girdled, and their pj'oduct 294 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE put on the market. The practice grew annually, until now a large proportion of the vineyardists of the region girdle more or less vines. A prejudice against the practice ex- isted in the minds of many who had never experimented in this line, and it was charged that the fruit of vines thus treated was only fit to sell, that the method was de- structive to the permanent value of the vines, and was fraudulent and ruinous. "That some varieties of grapes, when girdled, produce much larger fruit more than a week earlier, without ma- terially impairing its quality, is a fairly well-established fact. About two or three years ago one of the state experiment stations is said to have reported [see previous pages] that girdling increased the amount of sugar in the fruit, improved its quality, increased its size, and hastened its ripening. This statement encouraged the practice. " That girdling destroys the flavor of some varieties has been well shown ; that others when girdled never seem to ripen, or in other words remain sour, is also true. ^A girdled Catawba rivals a cucumber -pickle for acidity, and a Delaware so treated never gets sweet.' Empire State loses all character when girdled, while Martha and Wyom- ing Red suffer no loss in quality. Concord and Champion are girdled freely without bad effects. Worden and Lady sometimes crack badly when girdled ; both are very thin- skinned varieties. As a general rule, the more delicate - flavored grapes, especially if they contain foreign blood, deteriorate most by girdling. " The operation is a severe tax on the vine, particularly in a dry season. Therefore, over-bearing must not be al- lowed. When a vine too heavily loaded is girdled, it will stop growing at about the time for the fruit to begin to color, and the fruit will not ripen. It is the opinion of a careful observer, who has practiced girdling the last five seasons, that 25 per cent less fruit should be left on a girdled arm than on the same arm if left ungirdled. Some vineyardists RINGING GRAPES 295 girdle the same vine only every other year; others girdle two of the four arms grown in the Kniffin system of train- ing. All agree that heavy fertilizing is necessary to keep up the vigor of girdled vines. All weak -looking vines are left ungirdled. " The time for girdling is shortly after the fruit is formed, and when the young grape is about the size of a pea. It is done by removing a ring of bark nearly an inch broad from the arm or branch of last year's wood. One or two shoots of the present season's growth should be left back of 206, Grape ringing-knife. the girdle for renewal, or for the next season's bearing wood. A knife is made specially for this purpose ; its form is shown in the illustration (Fig. 206). It consists of two hooked blades, attached to a wooden handle, parallel to each other and about seven -eighths of an inch apart. The inner part of each blade is filed to a cutting edge. A chisel -shaped knife is fastened on the back of the handle. In operation the blades are hooked over the vine and the handle passed around it, at the same time holding the blades firmly on the vine; this will cut two lines seven-eighths of an inch apart through the bark. The knife is then lifted from the vine, turned over, and with the chisel -shaped part the ring of bark is severed and lifted from its place. The whole opera- tion is performed in a few seconds. "The grapes should be removed from the shoots left grow- ing back of the girdle, as it is desirable that these shoots should make a vigorous growth of wood for bearing fruit the next season. The vine beyond the girdle makes a great growth of wood and fruit, and the edge of the girdled spot calluses and partly overgrows the naked wood. Shortly 296 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE after the fruit has been harvested the girdled part is sev- ered from the vine for the benefit of next year's bearing wood. " Whether girdling grape vines is a profitable operation or not can be determined only by a succession of carefully conducted experiments. Its real effect on the quality of 207. The incisions. The bark removed, cane in the fall. The the fruit of those varieties which are best adapted to it is, as yet, not fully determined. Whether two vines, with precisely the same treatment, except that one is girdled annually, will for a series of years show a difference of profit in favor of the girdled one, is only a matter of con- jecture. The effect of girdling on grape -juice for wine- making is also yet to be tested. All these are subjects for investigation at our experiment stations. "The accompanying picture (Fig. 207) shows the effect of girdling in augmenting the size of the cane above the girdle, and also the general shape of the wound."— JF. D. B., Middle HopCj Orange County, N. Y. From John Burroughs, Hudson River Valley. "My opinion of the practice of girdling grape vines is, that on the whole, it is poor business. Grape-growers, I RINGING GRAPES 297 fear, are killing the goose that lays the golden egg. If all take to girdling, where is the advantage? It is like the crowd all getting up on chairs at the show ; what better off are they? Girdling hastens the coloring up of most varieties of grapes, but hastens the ripening very little, while it dis- tinctly injures the quality of certain kinds. Girdled Dela- wares are uneatable. People who buy them probably lose their appetite for Delawares for some time. They are as sour as vinegar. Red grapes seem to be injured by girdling more than black ones. Girdled Niagaras are large and pleasing to look upon, but their quality is not equal to the ripe ungirdled fruit. Moore Diamond is ruined by girdling. Wordens are not increased in size by girdling, but they color four or five days earlier. They are, however, much more liable to crack, as are all other girdled kinds. Fruit on a girdled Moore Early is larger and earlier, and the qual- ity is not much injured, but it may crack badly. A vine heavily loaded will not ripen its fruit any earlier by being girdled. Girdle other kinds if you will, but when you come to the Delaware, hands off!" PRUNING TOOLS It is often said that all prnniug should be done with a pocket knife, meaning thereby that the pruning should receive such constant attention that the removal of large branches is unnecessary. It is even said that the only safe pruning tool is the thumb and finger, which should be used to pinch out the objectionable growths as soon as they start. Theoretically, these statements may be true, but practically they are of little value, because it is impossible for any person who has 298 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE more than a few plants to give snch close atten- tion to each one, and it is often impossible to 208. Pruning-kuife. tell which branches shonld be removed until they have assumed their permanent character- istics. 209. Pruniug-shears. The most essential pruning tools are three, a heavy knife (Fig. 208), hand shears (Figs. 209, 210), and a narrow saw (as e, Fig. 211). 210. Pruuing-shears. Aside from these types, there are various patterns of chisels and hooks. Various characteristic pruning tools are shown 211. Various pruning tools. 300 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICli in Fig. 211. Those marked a, d, e are common and very usefnl kinds of saws. Those with teeth on both edges have the advantage of keep- ing longer in repair and of allowing relatively fine and coarse w^ork ; bnt in crotches the saw^ is likely to injnre the limb wdiich it is desired to save. A slight cnrve to the blade (as in a) allow^s the operator to make a very forcible draw" cut with the concave side. The back-saw% c, is very useful for small limbs and for grafting, for the stiff back allow^s the use of a thin plate and consequently of small teeth ; and the tool leaves a very smooth wound. Its disadvantage is that it is too broad to be w^orked in crotches and other crow^ded places. Saw h is known as an orange -tree pruner. The tool / is one of the handiest and most efficient of all pruning saws, notwithstanding its clumsy appearance. The blade turns at both ends, allowing it to be used at any angle with reference to the frame and adapting it to the most constricted places. Tool ^ is a combination of saw and chisel. It is mounted on a pole, and the chisel is operated with a mallet applied to the end of the handle. Tool li is also mounted on a long handle, and is a combination of a saw and a shear tool. Long- handled tools are of minor value, particularly in orchards, for the operator should be very close to his w^ork. They are useful in taking out limbs here and there and for use on orna- PRUNING TOOLS 301 mental trees which are difficult to climb. The Waters' tree-primer,— which is very useful for heading -in outlying limbs,— works upon the prin- ciple of the knife in li, Fig. 211. A tool of the same principle, but looking upward instead of down- ward, is shown in Fig. 212. Other shear tools are shown in Figs. 209, 210, 213, 214, 215, 216. An exchange describes the tool shown in Fig. 216 as follows: "Anyone can make pruning shears like those here illustrated for his own use. The movable shear, to which the pitman rod is at- tached, does most of the cutting. Both shears are made of thin, hardened steel. From the bolt- hole in the movable shear, a rod (the pitman) longer or shorter, to correspond with the length of the pole used, runs to the lever shown at the bottom of the cut. In pruning trees and vines, the handle of the lever is raised, which forces up the bar and opens the jaws of the shears.''' ^' 212. a good * * The jaws of the shears ^^^^ ^o^' heading-in must be ground at an angle some- ^^f ^'^^^^"^^ i"^^^,^ ^ 6 .3 c ^j^^^ removing small What more acute than that com- branches. 302 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE monly employed for tailors' shears. The highest part of each bevel must come agaiast the bevel upon which it acts." A pruning chisel is shown at g, Fig. 211. Many persons prefer a chisel to all other tools, because it allows the operator to stand on the ground ; but, as said above, such implements have only special uses. A two-inch or three -inch carpenter's chisel may be mounted on a stiff pole; 213. Hedge-shears. or a chisel may be made from a large file by a local blacksmith, and, in this case, a hook may be formed on the side with which to draw the brush from the tree. Small branches may be severed by means of a simple thrust of the tool, and large ones are cut by striking the end of the handle with a mallet. Tools of this type are on the market. Another tool with a chisel -like edge is shown in Fig. 217. This is an European tool, and is used in pruning forests. Des Cars describes it as follows:* "The best tool for the purpose is *"A Treatise on fi'vming Forest and Ornarqental Trees," Amerj Ea., 22. ^ PRUNING TOOLS 303 one which has been used for many years in Holland, and which has lately been improved by Courval (Fig/ 217). It weighs 2 lbs. 12 oz., to 3 lbs. 6 oz., or more, according to the strength of the workman [and is sixteen inches long] . The blade is reinforced in the middle to increase its strength and concentrate the weight. In the north of France this tool is generally hung to an iron hook attached to a leather strap buckled round the workman's waist, who is thus left perfectly free in his movements." Another European device is the dendroseope (Fig. 218). This is used when it is de- sired to reduce the top of a large tree to a given form. A figure of the desired form is cut in a piece of card- board, and a thread or wire is stretched across the open- ing from top to bottom. The operator holds the card be- fore his eye, bringing the wire against the center of the trunk, and w^alks towards the tree until the bottom of the opening strikes the ground line. He can then make a mental note of 2U. Two-hand pruuiug' shears. 304 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE the places to cut the branches iu order to pro- duce the desired outline. For removing the canes from bush -fruits (as raspberries, gooseberries), roses and other shrubs, 215. Powerful pruniuj^ shears. (The Myti- cuttah, an English implement. ) various hooks and spuds are useful. Three styles of these are shown in Figs. 219, 220, 221. There are also many devices for cutting the runners from strawberry plants, one thrust of the implement leaving the hill in proper size and shape. One of these is represented iu Fig. 222, 21G Home-made shears 218. Dendroscope. !19 Bush hook. 220. Bramble hook. 221, Bush .spud. 306 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE and is described as follows:'"' "E. W. Reid de- scribed an implement for trimming strawberry plants in hills, which is much nsed in eastern Ohio. It consists of a piece of heavy sheet -iron abont twenty -eight to thirty inches long and six inches wide, the ends riveted to form a cylinder abont nine inches in diameter and six inches long, ^sq^jp^ Attached to one end of the cylinder, and on op- posite sides, are two pieces of strap -iron which extend about six inches beyond the end of the cylinder and join on the line of the axis to a handle of wrought -iron with a wooden cross-piece at the top, to be grasped in using the implement. The distance from the lower edge of the cylinder to the top of the handle should be about three feet four inches, so that the workman will not have to stoop in using it. Instead of a cross-bar the handle shown at the right may be used. With r= 222. Strawberry pruner. *W. S. Devol, i-eporting meetin xii.. 175, of O. Hort, Soe, in American Garden, PRUNING TOOLS 307 223. Pruning mask. this it is easier to direct the blows, and the use of the implement is less tiresome, because the posi- tion of the hands can be changed. The projecting handle should be about the same distance above the cutting cylinder as the cross- bars, and the perpendicular pro- jection should reach twelve or fif- teen inches higher. The edge of |^^ the implement should be kept very sharp, to prevent pulling and disturbing the plants when using it. Bj' walking between two rows and setting the imple- ment down over two hills on one side, and then two on the other, the runners can be trimmed off very rapidly, and the plants be kept in neat, round hills. The implement ap- pears to be a valuable thing for facilitating the work of the strawberry grower." A recent writer describes the following mask (Fig. 223) to protect the face while pruning:* "I am pruning, and for the past few j'ears have found great comfort in a mask over the face to keep off the sun and wind. It often makes the difference between being able to stay at work or not during some days at this time of year. I wear spectacles, and to prevent the breath freez- ing on them, use a stifiish wire hooked behind *C. T., iu The Rural New-Yorker, March 20, 1897. 308 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE each ear and bent around close to the* face, just clearing the eyes, and over the nose like a spec- tacle frame ; on this is run a thick piece of cotton, covering' the nose and face to the beard, and short enough not to catch the breath. A rather loose tape from the corners under the chin keeps the wind from getting under, and turning it up over the eyes." Balmer describes* the following device in which to burn the prunings : "A matter in connection with pruning, and one which should always have the closest attention, is that of gathering up the prunings. These are oftentimes the harbor of aphis eggs, and the eggs of other injurious in- sects, and if left lying on the ground too long these eggs may hatch and do a great amount of damage. Our practice is to rake up the prunings into bunches and load them into a wagon, to be hauled away and burned. In parts of California where they have very large orchards, a kind of portable furnace is used ; this is a large sheet- iron receptacle mounted on four wheels, with an iron frame. In the center of the iron trough is a grate. On this a fire is lighted, and the prunings, having been previously raked with a horse -rake into rows, are loaded on to this fire. A horse is hitched to this portable furnace, and the whole orchard gone over, the fire being kept up all the *Bull. 25, Wash. Exp. St:i. PRUNING APPLE TREES 309 while. This is said to work well in vineyards, but may be too cumbersome for our Washington orchards. At all events, see to it that the prun- ings are burned and the ashes returned to the orchard." BEMABKS ON SPECIFIC PLANTS Apple The apple tree is a vigorous plant, and should be pruned every j-ear. In very cold climates, — as in northern New England, Wisconsin, Minne- sota, — it is generally considered to be advisable to delay the pruning until the cold weather is past (pages 143, 185), but in other regions pruning in late winter is the rule. Yet the apple tree, like other fruits, may be pruned in early spring or summer. The average height at which the limbs of apple trees are started is about four feet from the ground ; but the height must be governed by climate, variety, and the personal ideals of the grower. From three to five limbs should form the scaffold of the top. When the general form of the top has been well established, — by three or four years of thoughtful attention, — the sub- sequent pruning consists mostly in removing all superfluous limbs in the center of the top, — that is, those which run crosswise the top, which rub other limbs, or which tend to make certain parts of the top too thick. Avoid pruning all the side 310 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE branches off the main limbs, else these limbs will become too long and pole -like. There are no particular precautions to be observed in the prun- ing of an apple tree. For spurs and buds, see Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 41, 62, 63. For trees, see Figs. 123, 126, 127, 133, 134, 145, 146, 147, 154, 155, 156, 161, 162, 163, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 189, 190, 205 (dwarf). Ajnicot The apricot is treated in essentially the same way as the plum (which see) ; but since some of its fruit is borne on the last j'ear's shoots, heading -in ma}^ thin the fruit. For spurs and buds, see Figs. 38, 39, 40, 42, 57, 58. For trees, see Figs, 182, 183. The following directions for the pruning of apricots in California are by J. B. Neff,* and they may be applied — with minor modifications — to other stone fruits and to other regions: "Trees of four to five feet in height are preferable for planting, and when planted shoiild be trimmed to a single stem and cut off at eighteen inches from the ground. These will throw out shoots vigorously and frequent!}^ two or three shoots from one bud. These shoots should be thinned out, leaving not more than four or five, no two of which should come from one bud, nor be directly oppo- site. The first shoot should start twelve inches from the *Before Farmers' Institute, Anaheim, Cal., Apr. 9, 1897. PRUNING THE APRICOT Sll ground, the others in such a manner as to divide the space and make the branches balance, leaving the top shoot to form the central part of the tree. It will be necessary to go over the trees several times the first year to remove shoots that may start where not wanted, but no general heading-back should be done, as it tends to dwarf the tree; though if some of the limbs are making an over- growth they should be pinehed-back to keep the head balanced. "The pruning for the second year should be done in January, as the tree will not be dormant until then, if it has been kept in a thrifty condition. The first year's growth should be cut back to within five to ten inches of the body of the tree, and all forks should be cut out, even if it necessitates forming a new head, as it is much better to lose some growth on a young tree than to take the risk of splitting down when the tree begins to bear fruit. "When the shoots start for the second year's growth,, take off all that come on the under side of the limbs and thin to one, two or three, as may be needed to balance- the tree, bearing in mind that an apricot tree always inclines toward the coast breezes in this locality. The second year will require much more attention than the first year, in order to keep off suckers and all lateral growth that may start on the under side of the new limbs, the object being to make the limbs grow as near upright as possible. The remark on heading-back holds good for the second year also. "The trees will become dormant earlier the second year than they did the first, but should not be trimmed earlier than December and a month later is preferable, as the ends of the limbs are not exposed to the drying winds so long before the sap begins to flow and consequently will heal over better. The second year's growth should now be cut back to within fifteen to twenty inches of the old wood, except the central stem, which may be left twenty- 312 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE four to thirty inches long, depending on the number of laterals it may have thrown out. "When the new shoots start they should again he thinned down to two or three on each limb and all taken off that tend to turn down or out at right angles. The trees will need to be gone over about three times before July, to remove suckers and lateral growth that may start on the lower side of the limbs, as the tendency in the third year is to make an immense growth of downward laterals, and these must be taken off so as to develop wood that is to be left for fruit. If the orchard is on good land and has been properly irrigated and cultivated, the trees should now be large enough to begin to yield fruit. "The object in trimming during the first two years and the first half of the third year has been to grow a vig- orous, upright tree with strong limbs, capable of carrying a heavy load of large fruit, and to get the fruit as close to the body of the tree as possible. "There wall be a few specimens of fruit the third year, and as soon as these are gathered the trees should be summer pruned for the first time, care being taken that the land shall have been allowed to become moderately dry, so that the trees may be partially dormant. If the downward growth of the laterals has been kept cut off, all that remains to be done is to cut off about one- half of all this season's growth all over the tree, using the same judgment as before with reference to prevail- ing winds and symmetry of tree. If this is properly done and water at once turned on the orchard, a new growth will be made and the fruit buds for next year fully developed. " The only pruning necessary in the following winter will be to take out any cross limbs and sprouts that may have been overlooked in the summer. "After the trees begin to produce regular crops they PRUNING APRICOT AND CHERRY 313 will not grow so vigorously, and the numerous prunings of the first three years will not be necessary, as almost all can be done by summer pruning until the trees get so old that they need the old wood taken out. This can be more readily done without damage to the trees where from twenty-four to thirty limbs are grown, than in the old method of leaving only eight or ten large limbs. When it becomes necessary to take out old wood — as the best fruit grows on new wood — a few limbs can be taken out each year until a full top of new wood is again made." Cherry Remarks on plum and apricot will apply to cherry. For spurs and buds, see Figs. 31, 32, 33. For trees, see Figs. 3, 4, 179, 180, 181, 188. Of the pruning of the sweet cherry, Powell writes as follows:* " The cherry orchard will require little pruning after the first two or three years, and before that time the tree can be made to assume any desired form. I believe, however, that in general the pruning should be such as to give the tree a low, spreading head, with a trunk about four feet high, and with the top built out on three to five main arms. We have pursued this method on the Windsor and other varieties, and the trees, instead of growing in the usual spire-shape, assume an apple-tree form. After the first two or three years no pruning is needed, except to remove dead branches, and to keep superfluous branches from intercrossing. The advantages gained from this form of tree are of great im- portance. First, the body of the cherry tree is less likely to be injured from the hot sun, which causes it, especially on the side of the prevailing wind, to crack and split, exude *G. H. Powell, Bull. 98, Cornell Exp. Sta. 314 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE sap, and finally to die. The low, spreading head shades the trunk and large branches, and obviates this difficulty to a great extent. In western New York this trouble is not so serious as it is on the black lands farther west. A second advantage, of equal or greater importance, lies in the fact that, if allowed to grow upright, the limbs reach the height of thirty to forty feet in twenty -five years, making it very difficult to gather the fruit and to spray the trees. The bearing branches are always found toM^ards the extremities of the limbs, and the time which men lose in going up and down long ladders is of no small account to the fruit- grower." Orange "The best form of tree is a low -headed, com- pact growth. It is secured by trimming the young tree, at transplanting, to a straight shoot of four to six feet in height, and tying it to a stake to give it support and straightness. All shoots from above the bud are permitted to grow to shade the trunk and to stiffen it, though a too strong lateral may be pinched. The trunk must be protected from the sun by wrapping with paper or something of the kind, until the leaves do that service. The lower branches will bear the first fruit, and as the tree attains age, they will stop growing and can be removed. Thus the head of the tree is raised gradually, and space is given for the drooping of the higher branches. In the top of the tree, too, the rule for pruning should be to remove the weaker branches which seem to have outlived their usefulness, and thus give more PRUNING ORANGE AND PEACH 315 room for the vigorous oues. High heading is practiced by some growers. It is opeu to the general objection to high heading (see discussions on pages 193-203, and page 21G). The natural form of the orange tree is undoubtedly superior so long as the tree is not persecuted by pests, and is in a situation where natural conditions favor it. When it is beset by evils its treatment may have to be changed to aid in conquering them." * For discussion of the treatments to be given frozen orange trees, see pages 146-149. Peach The peach usually bears on the shoots of the previous year ; therefore, heading -in thins the fruit. Heading -in also induces a growth of new shoots, and thereby increases the fruit -bearing wood. Heading -in is also advantageous in re- moving winter -injured twigs. Notwithstanding these advantages, heading -in of the peach is a question of local application and of training the top to some given form. It is more generally practiced on heavy lands — on which the trees grow exuberantly — than on sandy lands. The writer believes that heading -in is less essential to peach - growing in North America than the literature of *Wieksou. "California Fruits," 449. 316 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE the subject would lead us to believe. lu the commercial peach regions, trees are rarely headed- in, at least not after they begin to bear. If heading -in is not practiced, the chief attention to be given the tree — after the general frame- work of the top is formed — is to trim out the weak and dead interior wood by means of hand- shears. This fine wood dies or becomes weak after bearing, and should be removed. For buds and twigs, see Figs. 34, 35, 36, 37. For trees, see Figs. 124, 128, 129, 143, 150, 151, 152, 163, 164, 184, 185, 186, 187. The general form of the top for a peach tree has already been discussed (Fig. 124, pages 261, 262). The following remarks by J. H. Hale will still further elucidate the subject: "Young peach trees allowed to grow at will all the first season after setting should have their three or four leading branches make a growth of from two and a half to four feet each. Fall and early winter pruning has not been satisfactory with us, and therefore all pruning is delayed until late winter or early spring. In the earlier days it was my custom, in trimming trees one year planted, to cut branches back to within twelve or fifteen inches of the main stem ; but as this tends to form rather a too close head for the foundation year, I now prefer to leave the first season's growth two and a half to three feet long, and to reserve the severe shortening- in for the second, third and fourth years, particularly the second and third years. Besides the main branches to be cut away the first year, it will be necessary to cut off some lateral branches entirelv and to shorten others somewhat. With liberal PRUNING THE PEACH 317 culture and manuring, each of the three or four main branches will, in the second year, throw out from their tips two or three leaders, each of which should make a growth of three to four feet. Early in the spring follow- ing pruning should begin, with the object of building a broad, low, open -headed tree. This is best accomplished by first thinning out all crowding inside branches and leaders, and shortening- in all others from one -half to three-fourths of the new year's growth, the closest cutting being in tlie central top. The third year's work should be on the same general plan ; and it will often be found; unless the second year's work was exceedingly well done, that some of the third year's work ought to have been done then. The object of the first three years' pruning is to establish a well -formed tree best suited to forcing the greatest amount of fruit to the highest perfection at the least possible cost. "After the right sort of tree has been established and trees have reached a bearing age, pruning for a year or two may be continued, partially on the line of a correct tree form, but more particularly as relating to fruit production. And so right here we abandon late winter and early spring pruning, and do most of the work after the fruit-buds begin to swell, so that we can judge on inspection which are alive and which are dead. In years when very few buds have survived the frosts of winter, pruning should be done with the object of retaining a great majority of the living buds, regai'dless of tree form, which can be somewhat righted the next year. Of course, in years when a good number of buds are found alive, pruning can be continued for form, but as the tree grows older, less and less pruning will be required. The methods here described have in their early years given handsome, even-headed, well-rounded trees, which have been exceedingly profitable, although in later years they have become less shapely. As it is results- fruit results and dollar results — that count in commercial peach culture, we judge the method to be a decided success^ 318 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE at least for sections where winter-killing of fruit-buds is the greatest drawback to success, and we shall follow it closely till some better plan presents itself. There should be no off- year with peaches, except when fruit or blossom buds are entirely killed by frosts. Right culture, proper feeding and pruning should each year stimulate enough new growth to furnish far more buds than are required for abundant crops." Another view of peach-tree pruning may be presented : * " The methods of pruning peach trees are the occasion of much discussion among pomologists. The differences of opinion turn chiefly about three practices, — short trunks with rapidly ascending branches, high trunks with more horizontal branches, and shortening- in or heading-back the annual growth. Each of these three methods of handling or training peach trees has ardent advocates and pronounced opponents. It is probable that each system has distinct merits for particular cases. I believe that the nature and fertility of the soil are the dominating factors in these op- posing methods. A system of pruning which fits the slow growth and hard wood of sandy soils may not be adapted to the rapid growth and heavier tops of trees on strong soils. Fig. 124 shows what I believe to be, in general, the best method of pruning peach trees upon sandy or what may be called peach soils. It is the natural method. The tree is allowed to spread its top at will with no heading-in. The foliage is comparatively light, and does not place great weight upon the branches, and the trees, upon such lands, do not grow quickly to such great size as upon heavy lands. This method of allowing a tree to make its natural top is the common one in the Chesapeake peninsula and in the *L. H. Bailey, Bull. 74, Cornell Exp. Sta. PRUNING PEACH AND PEAR 319 Michigan peach belt. It will be observed, also, that the picture to which I have referred shows a tree with short trunk and forking branches. It is a prevalent opinion in many places that such trees are more likely to split down with loads of fruit than those which have more horizontal branches, but I think this to be an error. Of course, some care should be exercised to see that the branches do not start off from the trunk at exactly the same height, thus making a true fork or Y. With this precaution, the crotchy trees are no more likely to split than the others, while they allow of a much better form of top, unless the tree is to be headed-in. ^ * * *' Yet there is much to be said, fairly, for the high-topped trees. They are more easy to till, and it is quite as easy to pick their fruit ; and there is less tendency to make long and sprawling branches as a result of careless pruning. On rich lands, it is perhaps the better method. And here is the chief reason for heading-back in this climate, — the necessity of checking the growth and keeping the tree within bounds when it is growing in a strong soil. Whether one shall head -in his trees or not, therefore, must depend en- tirely on circumstances." Pear Pear trees are generally started lower thau apple trees. This is because the top tends to grow more upright, and therefore to be out of the way, and because the trunk is very liable to be injured by sun- scald. Three to four feet is the usual height of pear trunks in the East. The top should be thinned out every spring (preferably before the leaves start) ; but heavy pruning should always be avoided, because it 320 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE causes a quick growth, and thereby exposes the tree to danger from fire -blight. Removing the fruit -spurs, — which are very prominent in the pear, persisting for several or many j-ears, — is a direct and economical mcjans of thinning the fruit. It is well to keep all spurs and sprouts off the trunk and the lower parts of the main limbs, for if blight attacks these shoots the dis- ease is apt to run down into the trunk and cause irreparable damage. For spurs and buds, see Figs. 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 55, 56, 59, 60, 61, 117, 118. For pictures of trees, see Figs. 116, 130, 131, 141, 142, 148, 149, 165, 191, 192; for dwarfs. 111, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204. For treatment of body- blight, consult Fig. 101. Plum In the East, most plum -growers prefer to start the top about three or thi'ee and a -half feet from the ground. If the top is to be sheared- in, it may be started somewhat higher. Figs. 120 and 121 should be contrasted with Fig. 122, as show- iiig typical examples of headed -in and free -grow- ing trees. The fruit is borne mostly on spurs, and simple heading -in is not' a means of thin- ning. The Japanese and native varieties, how- ever, often bear on the last year's shoots (Fig. 224). Trees bear as well if not headed -in as PRUNING THE PLUM 321 thej^ do when they are headed -in. The practice of heading -in is therefore not fnndamental, bnt is to be determined by the grower's ideals, the 12 3 4 Fig. 224. Buds on the new growth of plums. 1, domestica (Coe Golden Drop), leaf -buds only. The others have lateral fruit- buds : 2, Japanese (Burbank); 3, Japanese (Kerr); 4, Native (Wild Goose). rapidity of growth, distance apart of the trees, and the like. For bnds and spurs, see Figs. 28, 29, 30, and compare Fig. 224. For trees, see Figs. 120, 121, 122, 132, 166, 193. See Apricot (page 310). u 322 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE Quince Quince trees should be headed very low. Fig. 225 shows what may be considered to be model commercial trees. Some people grow them to bush form, but a distinct short trunk is generally 225. New York quince trees. to be prefen*ed. The interior growth is thinned out each winter or spring, and if the growth is very heavy — say eighteen to thirty inches on bearing trees — it may be headed-back. Heading- in thins the fruit, since the flowers are co- ter- minal ; but cutting off all the tips generally re- moves too much of the fruit. For twigs and buds, see Figs. 47, 48. PRUNING BRAMBLES 323 BlacJiberries and Easpherries Blackberries, raspberries and dewberries bear on canes which grew the preceding year, and, having borne once, these canes become worthless (read page 64). Pruning of these fruits consists (1) in removing superfluous shoots from the base of the plant, so that too many canes shall not form (five or six to a plant usually being suffi- cient) ; (2) in heading -back the shoots when they reach the desired height, causing them to throw out laterals and to become stocky ; (3) heading -back these laterals (usually done the next spring, before growth starts) ; (4) cutting out the canes after they have borne (usually done the following winter or spring, bnt should be done, in general, soon after the fruit is off) . Of blackberries, the growing eaues should be headed-in, — two to four inches of the tips cut off, — when they are from two and a-half to three feet high. It will be neces- sary to go over the plantation three or four times for this purpose, as the different canes reach the desired height at different times. Laterals will now push out vigorously, but these are allowed to grow their full length. Early the following spring, these laterals are shortened. There is no rule respecting the proper length to leave these laterals. Sometimes they are injured by the winter, and must be cut-in short. And there is great difference in varieties in the way in which they bear their fruit; some kinds, like Wilson Early, bear the fruit close to the cane, while others, like Snyder and Early Harvest, should be cut longer. Some varieties are variable in their habit of 324 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE bearing fruit, and on such kinds some growers prefer to delay the pruning of laterals until the blossoms appear. From twelve to twenty inches is the length at which the laterals are generally left. It must be remembered that these laterals are to bear most of the fruit; hence it is important that they make a good growth, become well matured, and that the grower familiarize himself with the habits of different varieties. It is generally important 226. Trellis for berries 227. Rack for blackberries. that the heading- in of the main cane be done early, so that the laterals may make an early and hard growth, and that they may start rather low down on the cane, and thereby prevent the cane from tipping over with its load of fruit. Blackberry bushes which are managed as here outlined will stand alone, without stakes or trel- lises. The bushes are sometimes kept from lopping by stretching a single wire along either side of the row, securing it to stakes which stand two or three feet high (Fig, 226). Individual bushes may be supported by a rack, as suggested in Fig. 227. In some places, particularly along the Hudson, blackberries are trained on wires, after PRUNING BLACKBERRIES 325 the manner of grapes. A blackberry trellis is shown in Fig. 228. The two-wire trellis is generally preferred. The young canes are headed-in just above the upper wire, and they are gathered in bunches in the hand and tied to the upper wire, where they will least interfere with the ripening fruit. These canes may remain on the wires ^<^,% ft'^ipiiiiiils 228. Blackberries on a trellis. all winter, or they may be laid down for protection. Early the following spring, they are tied securely to both wires. This makes, therefore, one summer tjing for the young canes, and one spring tying for the bearing canes. Black- berries may also be tied to single stakes, although the practice is scarcely advisable, because the fruit is apt to become too much massed in the foliage. An exchange writes as follows on supports for berry bushes: "Wire is very commonly used as a support for raspberry and blackberry bushes, this being stretched 326 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE tightly along stout stakes, the end stakes being of neces- sity very stout and very firmly braced. But this does not suffice to keep the wire stiffly in place. Where wires are stretched along each side of a row already, they can be made much more efficient by tying them together with cross wires every ten feet or so. This pulls them together and keeps the bushes upright and in place. Where there is no support at pres- ent, and support is to be given the bushes, the plan shown in the diagram (Fig. 229) can be followed to advantage. Fig. 229. A handy wire ^ . . , . , . . • , Light wooden strips of inch- support. ^ ^ square stuff are held up by stakes of the same material and rigidly attached to each other by cross wires. These cross wires are the most important part of the whole, for they are constantly pulling the bushes up into close quarters, — the one thing for which supports are desired." Black raspberries, or black-caps, are usually headed-in when from one and one-half to two feet high. It is im- portant that this heading -back be done as soon as the canes reach the desired height, for the laterals then start low, and the bush becomes stout and self-supporting. The following spring the laterals are cut back to twelve to eighteen inches, as blackberries are. Black raspberries are sometimes sup- ported by wires (Fig. 226), but best results are usually ob- tained when the plants are made to stand alone. Red raspberries are seldom headed-in during the growing season, but otherwise they are treated like black-caps. Fig. 230 shows a cane (of Cuthbert) well pruned, but the canes in Fig. 231 are pruned too high and are top-heavy. Well- pruned black -caps and blackberries have essentially the form of Fig. 230. The canes of dewberries are tied to stakes, disposed on CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES 32^ trellises (as on Fig. 2129), or tied to wire screen (Fig. 232). The best method, probably, is to tie to stakes, allowing three to six canes to each stake (Fig. 233). Currants and Gooseherries The canes of currauts and gooseberries bear several times, but the first two or three crops are 230. Well pruned. Poorly pruned. the best. It is therefore desirable, after the plants have come into bearing, to cut out one or more of the oldest canes each year, and to en- courage as many new ones. The bush is, there- fore, constantly renewed. If the old canes are allowed to remain, the fruit becomes small, the 328 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE bushes get too tall, and the currant borer is en- couraged. In Fig. 234, the old branching cane ^, ,„,, ^ a should be removed. At \/ ' f \ //\p '^ its left, two via'orous canes ^^r^ ^ \.i.'^ — one two seasons old and ^ the other one season old — are ready to take its place. When bushes make very strong and tall growths, the canes may be headed- back. For spurs and buds, see Figs. 43, 44 The following advice is by Beach:* "la large plantations it has been found most satisfactory to permit currants to grow in bush form rather than in the tree form, as the old canes may then be removed when they become unproductive, as they do after a few years, and their places may be taken by new canes that have been permitted // ^^i\\ \\' ^*^ grow for this purpose. Then ^L (K^mJ^ ^1^ -^ l\i|{ /llf too, if the trunk of a currant in tree form is broken off or injured in any way, a new plant must be set in its place, but when several canes are permitted to grow, as is the case when the plants are grown in bush form, the acci- 232. Dewbeiries on wire screen. *Bull. 95, N. Y. State Exp. Sta. PRUNING CURRANTS 329 dental breiikiiig of a trunk does not cause the death of the whole plant, but its place is readily filled by permitting other canes to grow from the root. The tree form is well adapted to well-cultivated gardens, as the plants may be ^r->.. '; i> 233. Dewberries on stakes. A model treatment. pruned into more symmetrical, attractive shape as trees than as bushes. To grow currants in tree form it is simply necessary to remove all buds from the part of the cutting or layer that is put in the ground. This prevents the growth of shoots from below the surface of the soil, and conse- 330 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE quently no suckers are formed. The tree currants may be kept in symmetrical sliape by annually cutting-back the shoots of new wood, leaving but two or three buds to the shoot. This may be done at any convenient time while the leaves are off. "No definite rule can be given for pruning currants grown in bush form, for the kind and amount of pruning necessary is in each case determined by the condition and individual ^^-.-. -% % — u '^^ u 234. Illustrating the pruning of a currant bush. habits of growth of the bush to be pruned. In general, it may be said that during the first two or three years the bushes require but little pruning except to head-back the new shoots so that fruit- spurs will develop all along the cane. Otherwise the fruit-bearing branches and fruit-spurs will be found mostly near the top of a long cane. When this is permitted, especially with some varieties, such as Fay, for example, the weight of the fruit is quite apt to bend the canes nearly or quite to the ground. Besides this heading- in to keep the bushes in shape, the pruning consists of re- PRUNING GOOSEBERRIES 331 moving the broken branches, or those that droop too closely to the ground, and removing the old wood after it has passed the age of greatest productiveness." For gooseberries, Beach writes as follows:* "English writers usually recommend that gooseberries be trained in tree form; that is, with a single main stem for each plant, and that method is largely followed in the old country. On account of their neat, symmetrical appearance, such plants are well adapted to well -culti- vated gardens. * * * A bush grown in this form does not produce suckers, and if it is broken off accidentally it cannot be renewed by letting new sprouts grow, but must be removed and a new plant set in its place. After they have borne five or six good crops it is generally best to replace them with new bushes, for they gradually become less productive than plants which are grown in the bush form, because the latter may be renewed from suckers whenever it is thought desirable to do so. To grow bushes in tree form, it is simply necessary to remove all buds or eyes from the portion of the cutting or layer which is covered with earth in planting. No underground shoots, or suckers, will then be formed, and the plant will have but one main stem or trunk. By annually cut- ting back new shoots to about three eyes, and removing all weak or crowded branches, the tree form may easily be kept in symmetrical shape. "For general purposes it is best to set plants that will send up suckers. The older canes, which have passed their period of highest productiveness, may then be removed annually, and their places taken by young, vigorous ones which have been allowed to grow for this purpose. By this method of renewal, the skillful grower may keep *Bull. 114, N. Y. State Exp. Sta. 332 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE his plantation in a high state of productiveness for an indefinite period. Including the young canes which are to be used for renewal, as above suggested, there will usually be five or six canes to a bush, or even a greater number than this with varieties of the American class, which have more slender canes. "Gooseberries generally require little pruning during the first two or three years after they are planted except to clip a few inches off from the strong new shoots and a less amount from the less vigorous ones. This may be done at any time after the leaves fall. The object is to favor the development of the fruit -spurs all along the cane. If it is not done the strong buds at or near the end of the cane will start into such vigorous growth in spring that the lower buds will not start or will make but little growth, so that eventually most of the fruiting branches and spurs will be developed near the upper end of a long cane which, when loaded with fruit, is apt to bend nearly or quite to the ground. "Besides heading-in the bushes in the way just described, the pruning consists in removing weak or broken branches and those which have made an excessively vigorous growth. Old canes that have passed the age of greatest productiveness, and branches that are close to the ground, should also be taken away. No definite rule can be given for pruning gooseberries, because the kind and amount required varies with the individual habits and condi- tion of growth of the bush. A little attention each year is necessary to keep the bushes in best shape for cultivating, spraying, fruit picking, and for the free circu- lation of air through and especially underneath the branches. It is a mistake to think that the center of the bush must be kept open to let the sunlight in, as is sometimes advocated. In this climate the fruit may be ruined by such unnatural exposure to direct sunlight, and it is better to have it shaded by the foliage. SHADE TREES AND HEDGES 333 "Summer pruning is sometimes practiced with good results. It consists in pinching off the ends of the vig- orous shoots at the period of active growth in early sum- mer. The object is to favor the development of fruit- spurs." Further remarks on the pruning of small -fruit plants may be found in Card's "Bush -Fruits." Shade Trees When shade trees are once well established, they usually need no attention in pruning except to remove broken or dying parts, to cut off limbs which hang too low, and to correct any tendency towards unshapely growth. When planted, the shade tree, if well branched, should be pruned in essentially the same way as apples and pears. Figs. 144, 145, 146 may be taken as models. Young trees which are well supplied with buds on the main axis may be cut to a whip, but the common practice of chopping large trees into the form of bean-poles is to be discouraged. Hedges The beauty and value of hedges lie in the thickness of the hedge, and in its uniformity from end to end. The plants should be set very close together, and the hedge should be system- atically and thoroughly pruned every year from the first. It is best, in fact, to prune the hedge 334 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE two or three times during the season, in order to prevent too great and straggly growth of any one plant or any one branch of a plant. The practice of cutting down the hedge severely in winter, and then not touching it again until the following winter, results in a heavy growth which makes the hedge look ragged and unkempt dur- ing the summer, and which also makes it diffi- cult to bluing the hedge under subjection. The hedge should be pruned in the winter time, and also should be sheared two or three times during the summer. The season of the year is imma- terial, so long as strong growths are kept down and the hedge is kept in uniform shape and con- dition. The operator must first decide upon the shape of hedge which he desires, whether conical- topped, round-topped or flat-topped, and then work to that model. The form should be blocked out very early in the life of the hedge, — in fact, just as soon as the plants begin to grow thick enough to form a wall. This same form can be kept year by year ; but the hedge will necessarily rise a little in height every year, at least until the plants have grown several years, and the vigor has begun to be checked by the continuous prun- ing and the crowding of the roots. In order to make hedges impenetrable to pigs and other animals, the plants are often plashed when young. This consists in bending the main shoots over to an oblique or diagonal position, FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS 335 and securing them there by wiring them down, one plant bending over the following one. Plants which are to be plashed are generally set at an angle when transplanted to their permanent posi- tions. Deciduous -leaved and thorny plants, as osage orange, are generally used for the making of pig -tight hedges. Ornamental Plants ^ Three objects are involved in the pruning of ornamental trees and shrubs, — to produce some desired form, to cause the plants to develop strong and uniform foliage, to produce flower -buds. The desired form is secured by shearing, the luxurious and continuous foliage by cutting back rampant growths and thereby encouraging a uniform de- velopment of the different parts of the plant, and the flower -buds by giving attention to the flower- bearing habit of the particular plant in question. The pruner should know whether the flowers are borne on the ends of terminal or lateral shoots of the season, or on the ends or sides of last year's shoots. Most early -flowering shrubs bear terminal flow- ers. Every effort should be made, therefore, to secure many shoots. The flower -buds in the early -flowering shrubs are formed the year be- fore. Heading -in in winter, then, destroys the bloom. Heading- in just as soon as the flowers fall encourages the growth of new shoots, which 336 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE will bloom the following year. Of such plants are lilac, mock orange, many spireas, and the like. These shoots will form, of course, wholly without the aid of pruning, but when the bush begins to get crowded or weak, vigorous heading -back and thinning -out may be advisable. The impor- tant point is, that if the person desires to prune to keep his plant within a given form or stature, he should know when the cutting will not sacrifice the bloom. Summer -blooming trees and shrubs bear flowers on shoots of the same season. That is, the flower- buds are not formed the fall before. In these plants, we want a profusion of strong spring or early summer growths, and fall, winter or very early spring pruning is, therefore, desirable. Of this class are most of the roses. Rose bushes are pruned mostly in fall or winter. The hybrid per- petuals are often cut to the ground and strong flowering shoots arise in the spring. The hardier and more perennial kinds — as the moss and cab- bage and rugosa types — are cut back w^hen dor- mant, much as one would head -in and thin out a small fruit-tree. Walker gives the following hints on pruning outdoor roses:* "Pruning is an important matter in rose-growing. Climb- ing and pillar roses need only the weak branches and the *Erne3t Walker, iu " Garden-Making," 297. FLOWERING SHRUBS 337 tips shortened -in ; other hardy kinds will usually need cat- ting-back about one-fourth or one-third, according to the vigor of the branches, either in the spring or fall. A slight cutting-back, also, after their June-flowering in the case of remontants, will encourage more flowers. Severe pruninf^, however, will only induce the growth of vigorous, leafy shoots without flowers. The everblooming roses will need to have all dead wood removed at the time of uncovering them in spring. Some pruning during the summer is also useful in encouraging growth and flowers. The stronger branches which have flowered maybe cut back one -half or more. The rule in trimming roses is, cut back weak-grow- ing kinds severely ; strong growers moderately." The following extracts give another view of the essential principles in the pruning of flowering shrubs : * "There are two or three elementary rules which are to be observed when the production of flowers is primarily desired. Shrubs which blossom early in the spring form their flower-buds the year before, and ingeniously protect them during the winter with a warm covering, so that they are ready to open with the early days of spring sunshine. Any one who will cut off the twig of a peach tree in the winter or of an early -flowering spirea and put it in water will understand this, for the flowers will expand in a few days after it has been brought into a warm room. Ob- viously, if the branches of such shrubs are cut-back hard in autumn, all the flower-buds are cut away and there is no bloom in the spring. If, however, the branches are cut -back immediately after the flowering season is over, this will encourage the growth of new shoots from buds near the base of the branch, and these will grow rapidly to take tlio *Editorial in "Garden aud Forest," December 2, ISnii. Y 338 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE place of the part that has been lost, and cover themselves with flower-buds for another year. "Another class of shrubs, like the hydrangeas, althaeas and certain tamarisks, which flower in late summer or autumn from buds which have developed on the wood grown dur- ing the current summer, should be pruned in late autumn after flowering, or, at least, before the wood starts in the spring, so as to encourage abundant summer growth and flower-buds for the next autumn. "But these are the simplest elementary rules, and relate solely to the production of flowers. Shrubs are useful for many other purposes than merely to display their blossoms. They are beautiful all the year round. Even in the winter the variously colored barks of many of them add a singular charm to the landscape. We, therefore, prune them not only to promote the production of flowers, but of wood and foliage and fruit as well, to insure grace or symmetry of outline, and to make them vigorous and healthy. "The simple cutting-in of flowering wood in spring or fall is thus a small part of tlie art of pruning, and where there is a large variety of shrubs there is no time of year when something in this direction cannot be done, and it is especially useful when it is continued throughout the entire growing season. " If surplus wood is to be removed, a clean cut in midsum- mer will heal over much more readily than it will in cold weather, and there is no better time for removing superfluous branches or for shortening- in over- vigorous shoots which interfere with the symmetry of a specimen. Some trees and shrubs, whose branches bleed when cut in spring, will heal over quickly if pruned while in full leaf. " If the strong branches are pinched back in summer the wood will ripen into such a sound condition for withstand- ing cold that trees naturally tender have been known to endure our winters fairlv well when their branches have been PRUNING SHRUBS 339 properly stopped. This summer pinching is especially use- ful in wet seasons, when otherwise the wood keeps growing late in autumn and is caught by freezing weather in a soft and sappy condition. It also discourages upward growth where this is undesirable, and tends to develop fruit-buds, so that shrubs and trees will bear fruit at an earlier age when they are properly pinehed-baek. For the same reason shrubs will ripen their fruit more perfectly when the stronger shoots above it have been stopped. * * * "A young plant carefully pruned when it is set out in good ground, with room enough to grow in, will sometimes need, as it grows, to have interior branches cut away for the admission of light and air, and the over- strong shoots pinched-back in midsummer and dead wood carefully re- moved. Little more will be required, as a rule, except to shorten -in judiciously the flowering wood after bloom, and under this treatment shrubs will develop into their best form, and flower abundantly year after year." Th(3 important point to remember, then, in the pruning of flowering shrubs is that there are two great categories of shrubs as respects the time and mode of flower-bearing, — those flowering in early spring more or less directly from winter buds, and those flowering in summer or autumn from buds formed that season. The methods of pruning to produce a given form of bush are the same in either case ; but if it is desired to head- in and 3'et not to sacrifice the bloom, the early- flowering shrubs should be cut -back just after blooming rather than in winter, and the summer- flowering kinds in winter (or when the plants are dormant) . Some of tlie common shrubs 340 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE may be ranged in these two categories, as ex- amples : Spring-flowering {Head-back immediately after hloorniiig) Kalmia. Weigela. ' Rhododendron. Forsytliia. Azalea. Flowering Currants. Snowball. Kerria. Lilac. Barberry. Mock -orange. Viburnums. Most woody spireas. Flowering Crabs. Exocborda. Magnolias. SUMMER- ■FLOWERING {Mead-back ivhcn dormant) Many roses. Althsea and hibiscus. Spiraea sorbifolia. Tamarisk. Clematis. Elder. Hydrangea. An extension of this list may be found in the Appendix, page 531. I Chapter VI SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING There are many modes of training wliicli are so special and of such local and personal appli- cation, that they should be considered in a class by themselves. They are essentially Old World methods, born of garden -culture and of cli- mates less hot and sunny than ours. (See re- marks under Section 13, Chapter IV.). They are not adapted to commercial fruit-growing or plant- growing in this country, nor to any country in which land is cheap and hand labor dear. Yet, so common are these special methods of training fruit-trees in Europe that the Old World litera- ture of pruning is largely descriptive of methods and modes of growing plants on walls and trel- lises and in geometrical figures. It is not neces- sary to make any extended discussion of these matters in this book, although a few summar^^ hints maj- be given for the benefit of those who want the fun of training a few plants or who desire to copy European methods. For details the reader should consult foreign books, espcr cially those in French. We may anal^'ze the subject as follows: (341) 342 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING I. Training of plants growing in the open soil. 1. Without permanent support. Pj'ramids, Globe-form, Vase-form, etc. 2. On permanent support. a. On Espaliers — cordon, horizontal, oblique, fan -shape, horizontal arm, etc. h. On walls — cordon, horizontal, oblique, fan -shape, horizontal arm, etc. . II. Training of plants in receptacles (as pots or tubs ) . Trained in various fashions, but chiefly as self-supporting bushes of many shapes. E U ROPE A N PBA CTICE Before proceeding with our subject of special forms of training, it will be necessary to con- sider some of the words used in the above synop- sis. In Europe (and properly) the word stand- REMARKS ON TRAINING 343 ard means growing to a single trunk and not trained to a wall, trellis, or other permanent sup- port. In this country, it is used in contradis- tinction to the word dwarf. An espalier is a trellis, or a plant which is grown on a trellis. The word does not refer to the mode of training. A cordon is properly a plant grown to a single shoot, or to two shoots trained in diametrically opposite directions. It is sometimes used, how- ever, to designate plants trained to two or more straight shoots which are nearly or quite parallel. Although the mode of training is largely a question of personal preference, it must never- theless conform to the principles of pruning, if it is to be successful. One of the best accounts which I know of the general principles under- lying the training of plants, is by Du Breuil.* Before proceeding to these principles, we may enumerate Du Breuil's reasons for training: 1. It enables us to impart to trees a form suitable to the place they are intended to occupy. 2. Each of the principal branches of the tree is furnished with fruit branches throughout its full extent. 3. It renders the fructification more equal ; for in removing every year the superabundant buds and branches, we contribute to the formation of new fruit-buds for the next j'Car. *Alphonse DuBreuil, "The Scientific and Profitable Culture of Fruit- trees", English edition. An excellent book for the student. 844 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 4. It conduces to the production of large fruit and of finer quality. Du Breuil's "general principles of training," with corollaries, which apply with particular force to training on walls and espaliers, now follow : Tlie permanency of form of trained trees is dependent upon the equal diffusion of sap heing maintained throughout the whole extent of their branches. Prune the sti'ong branches short ; but allow the weaker ones to grow long. Depress the strong parts of the tree, and elevate the weak branches. Suppress the useless buds upon the strong parts as early as possible, and practice this suppression as late as pos- sible upon the weak parts. Suppress very early the herbaceous extremities of the strong part, but practice the suppression as late as pos- sible upon the weak part, taking off only the most vig- orous shoots, and those that must in any ease be removed on account of the position they occupy. Nail up the strong part very early and very close to the wall or trellis, but delay doing so to the weak part. Suppress a number of the leaves upon the strong side. Allow as large a quantity of the fruit as possible to re- main upon the strong side, and suppress all upon the weak side. Soften all the green parts on the weak side with a solu- tion of sulfate of iron. ("This solution, in the propor- tion of twenty-four grains to a pint of water, applied after sunset, is absorbed by the leaves, and powerfully stimulates their action in drawing the sap from the roots.") PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING S45 Bring forward the weak side from the wall, and keep the strong side close to it. Place a covering upon the strong part, so as to deprive it of the light. The sap develops the branches much more vigorously upon a branch cut short, than upon one left long. Hie sap has always a tendency to flow toioards the extremity of the branches, and to make the terminal bud develop with more vigor than the lateral ones. The more the sap is retarded in its circulation, the less ivood and the more fruit-buds will it develop. Apply to the branches which grow from the successive extensions of the wood, and also to those which spring from them, the operations calculated to diminish their vigor. Apply to the larger branches a certain number of Gi- rardin's side grafts. (These are cions of fruit-spurs or fruit-buds set into the twigs as common buds are set. "These grafts, when fruiting, will absorb a considerable part of the superabundant sap.") Arch all the branches, so that a part of their extent be directed towards the sun. In the month of February, make an annular incision with the hand-saw, near the base of the stem, rather less than one -fourth of an inch in width, and sufficiently deep to penetrate the exterior layer of the wood. ("The in- cision has the effect of retarding the ascension of the sap; the branches acquire less vigor, and the tree forms fruit.") At the spring of the year, uncover the foot of the tree in such a manner as to expose the principal roots through - out nearly their entire extent, and allow them to remain in this state during the summer. 346 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING Uncover the foot of the tree at spring, and cut away parts of the roots, and then replace the earth. Transplant the trees at the end of autumn, but with great care so as to preserve all the roots. (This is equiva- lent to root -pruning.) Every method which conduces to diminish the vigor of the wood and to mal-e the sap floiv to the fruit, tends to augment the size of the fruit. Graft upon stocks of a less vigorous species than the eions. Apply to the trees a suitable winter pruning; that is, do not leave upon them more branches, or parts of branches, than is requisite for the symmetrical development of the tree and the formation of fruit -bearing branches. Make fruit -spurs to grow close upon the branches by pruning them as short as possible. Cut the branches very close when the flower-buds are formed. Mutilate the summer shoots by repeatedly x>inching off those shoots that are not required for the development of the size of the tree. When the fruits have attained a fifth degree of tlieir development, suppress a further number of them. Make an annular incision upon the fruit-bearing branches at the time they expand their blossoms ; the incision must not be wider than three -sixteenths of an inch. ("Experience continually demonstrates that, fol- lowing such incision, the fruit becomes much larger and ripens better." See p. 281.) Graft some of the fruit branches of vigorous trees with the Girardin side graft. (See last page.) Place under the fruits, during their growth, a support, to prevent their stretching or twisting their foot-stalks or pedicels. ("If left without support, it will often happen PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING 347 that the fruit grows unequally, and a twisting movement of the stalk follows, which injures the sap vessels. Be- sides, the weight of the fruit alone, hanging on its stem, stretches the sap vessels, and diminished their diameter. When the fruits are supported, the sap penetrates more freely, and their size is augmented accordingly.") Keep the fruits in their normal position during the en- tire period of their development; that is, with the fruit- stem lowermost. (" The sap acts with greater force when it flows upwards; a vertical position of the stalk, there- fore, causes the sap to ascend more easily and in greater quantity, and the fruit will become larger.") Place the fruits under the shade of the leaves during the entire period of their growth. ("If a young fruit be exposed to the power of the sun, it will be smaller than one shaded by the leaves, because its skin will be har- dened, and not give way to the tendency of the sap to ex- pand it.") Apply to the young fruits a solution of sulfate of iron. ("We have already seen (page 334) that a solution of sul- fate of iron applied to the leaves, stimulates their powers of absorbing sap. The thought occurred to apply the solution to the fruits, and the effect in increasing their size was extraordinary. The solution should be in the proportion of twenty-four grains to a pint of water. Apply it only when the fruit is cool. Repeat the opera- tion three times : when the fruits have obtained a fourth part of their development ; when they are a little larger ; and again when they are three parts grown.") Graft by approach a small shoot upon the peduncle or fruit- spur, to which the fruit is attached when it has at- tained a third part of its development. ("It has been found that consequent on this operation the fruit becomes larger, doubtless because the graft draws to the peduncle a larger quantity of sap." See p. 132 of "The Nursery- Book," Third Ed.) 348 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING The leaves serve the important imrpose of elahorating the sap of the roots and preparing it for the proper nourish- ment of the tree, and the formation of buds upon the houghs. A tree, therefore, that is deprived of its leaves is in danger of perishing. The yearly extensions of wood shoidd he shortened more or less, as the branches approach a vertical line, or the contrary. Plants are trained on walls for purposes of decoration or for fruit -bearing. Fruit trees so trained are protected from winter cold, and the fruits receive greater w^armtli and sunlight than they do when grown free. In sunny countries, with hot w^eather at the period of fruit -ripening, fruits develop their full color and flavor without the aid of walls. In fact, in America the south face of a wall may be too hot for the best re- sults with some fruits. On a south wall, too, the blossoms open very early in spring and are in danger of being caught by frosts. This is especially true of apricots and peaches, and for them a westerly or even northerly exposure may be preferable. h\ Europe, gardens are very often surrounded with brick walls several feet high ; and in many cases, such walls are built across an area for the particular purpose of fruit -growing. The walls of buildings, whether of brick, stone or wood, may be used. An apricot, peach, pear or other fruit tree trained against a barn, shop, shed or FRUIT WALLS 349 outhouse is not ouly a decoration but is an ob- ject of much interest and, if the location, variety and training are rig-ht, it should yield fruit of extra quality. It should be said that these trained trees cannot compete with orchard trees in quantity of fruit, but they should surpass them in the quality of the product. Following is specific advice, from the English standpoint, on the arrangement and construction of walls and fences,* by Clieal: "Walls. — The arrangement and position of walls will, of course, depend upon the size and the nature of the sur- roundings, etc., but they should always be arranged, if pos- sible, in a square, with the principal wall facing south, or as nearly so as practicable. Where it is possible, place the walls in such a position that the outside as well as the inside borders may be used for fruit, thus making use of the whole of the wall space; and bear in mind that upon the north side many useful fruits may be grown. The position, size and requirements are so varied that it is impossible in the compass of this work to give more than a general idea as to arrangements. "The height of the walls should be from eight feet to fifteen feet, according to circumstances. In most cases the south wall may be lower, to admit more sunshine into the garden ; and in the case of large gardens, one or more cross walls may also be introduced. As to their construction, they should be built without any piers. Architects have generally a great fancy for piers, and in many instances, insist upon having them; but walls can be built without piers, and they are always a great difficulty and nuisance to *J. Cheal, "Practical Fruit-Culture," Loudon, 1892, 1V2. 350 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING the gardener. They frequently interfere with the arrange- ment of the trees when planting, and in training they are a great trouble, and often cause much damage to the trees. Another matter of importance in construction is to provide a good permanent coping of tiles or stone, projecting at least six inches from the face of the wall. These should in all cases be provided independently of any further coping for the protection of the trees at the time of flowering. "Removable glass copings are very useful for peaches, nectarines and apricots. These are only required for a few weeks in the spring, at the time of blossoming and setting the fruit, and should be removed when no longer required. Fixed gla^s copings are very objectionable, as they keep off all rain, encourage red spider and other vermin, and neces- sitate constant syringing. There are several manufactur- ing firms who make light iron framework to carry the sashes, these being so constructed as to allow of their easy re- moval . " In all cases it is a great saving of labor to wire the walls or fences. These should be placed in lines not exceeding nine inches apart. Galvanized hold-fasts, tighteners, and all needful appliances are easily obtainable for the purpose. The wires should be fixed at about two inches from the wall. "Tying to the wire is much more quickly done than nailing to the wall, and does not afford the same shelter to insect pests, whilst it preserves the wall from injury due to con- stant nailing, and allows the wood to ripen more thoroughly and evenly. The branches are also enabled to form fruit- spurs and buds all round, and it frequently happens that the inside or back blossoms escape injury from frost which damages the outer ones, and a crop is thereby saved. In the case of all fruits, however, and especially that of peaches and nectarines, it is needful to be very careful in tying the trees in order to prevent the branch coming im- mediately into contact with the galvanized wire. Many instances hnve occurred of disease and decay resulting from THE MAKING OF WALLS 351 this. There is, however, no danger if the precaution is always taken in tying to cross the tie between the branch and the wire, so that the branch is held tirmly in position without coming into actual contact with the wire. And the danger may be still further lessened by painting the wires and hold -fasts after fixing. "Espalier fences. — These can generally be placed to ad- vantage in a kitchen garden, as they occupy but little space, and produce an abundance of fine fruit. They maybe used as a bordering near to the paths, or at the back of tiie flower border, which is usually arranged on either side of the central walk, but there are also other positions outside the kitchen garden where they can be placed to advantage. If the fruit is well grown, such fences present an artistic appearance, and are admissible even in the ornamental garden, or may be used as a division between the ornamen- tal and kitchen garden. The fences themselves are usually formed of galvanized iron posts, with wires stretched be- tween. They require at each end a strong post made of angle iron, with anchor feet and stays, to bear the strain of tightening the wire. The intermediate posts need only be flat iron with anchor feet. For the ordinary horizontal form of training, five to six feet in height will be sufficient, but if made high enough — say from seven to nine feet — these fences are very good for training cordons upon. Goose- berries may also be trained upon low espalier fences of three to four feet in height, and when trained as double cordons, or as palmettes with three to five branches, they produce the finest possible fruit ; and this mode is strongly recommended for growing the choice dessert varieties. "Wire arches.— These may sometimes be suitably intro- duced into the kitchen garden, spanning some of the paths. They occupy but little ground space, and afford excellent means for the training of cordons. They give a pleasant shade to the x^ath, the trees are well supported, and the fruit spread out to the full effect of the sun, and in some respects 352 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING they are better for training the cordon trees upon than ordi- nary espaliers. The turn at the top gives the gentle cheek to the upright flow of sap so desirable and advantageous for securing fine fruit at the base of the tree. A garden in this neighborhood has one of these arches 350 feet in length, spanning the central road through the large kitchen garden, and being fifteen feet wide and of the same height, it forms a magnificent avenue. "Wooden fences. — It sometimes happens that wooden fences are placed in such a position as to be available for fruit. A wooden fence is in no case so good as a wall, as in the best of them there is always some draught, so that there is not the same uniform temperature maintained as in the case of walls, which, from their greater substance, retain a certain amount of warmth during the night. Nevertheless, wooden fences are very useful for fruit. They should always be wired before planting the trees, as it is difficult to nail to the wooden fences, whilst wire also possesses other advantages. I have seen wooden fences employed to great advantage in Guernsey for fruit-growing. In one case in particular I noticed a number of light wooden fences, about six feet high and nine feet apart, running north and south, and parallel to each other. These were covered on both sides with cordon -trained pears, and at the time of my visit they were laden with heavy crops of re- markably fine fruit, and the cultivator was by these means enabled to grow a very large quantity in a small space. "Many wooden fences surrounding the gardens of sub- urban villas might be turned to very useful account for growing fruit, and would afford healthful and interesting employment to the over -wrought brain -worker in cultivating it, as well as enable him to supply his own table with the freshest of fruit. There are also numberless wooden fences, as well as walls, in many of our farms and homesteads, which could be turned to profitable account by covering tJiem with fruit, trained as above described. ENGLISH ADVICE 353 "Bush-fruits.— Plantations of these are usually made outside the walled- in garden, either below orchard trees or in the open ground. The latter is much preferable, as they can receive better treatment and safer protection from birds. The last mentioned consideration is an important one. Where choice dessert fruit is required it must of necessity remain on the trees until fully ripe, and some of it has to remain as long as possible after ripening, to pro- long the season of use. With these the birds are extremely troublesome. The best way of protecting them, and also the cheapest in the long run, is to cover the plantation with galvanized wire netting.'^ Erect sufficient posts, and stretch from these galvanized wire at a height of six feet from the ground. Then across the wires fix the netting. Wire it together, and fasten it to the ground all round. If erected as above, it allows any one to work inside — to prune, clean and gather, etc. — whilst effectually preventing birds from approaching the fruit. "The position of the bush-fruit outside the walled-in garden would, of course, depend upon circumstances, but it can generally be arranged very close at hand, and in con- junction with it, the sea-kale and rhubarb beds, etc., which are somewhat untidy in the spring, owing to the copious application of manure, etc., required. The soil for the bush -fruits should be prepared by trenching and manuring as described for the inside kitchen garden." In the Old World, trees are trimmed in the inir- ser}' to adapt them to particular modes of train- ing. In fact, the training is often begun there. Fig. 235 is a young peach tree trained for a palm shape. The main shaft is supported by a stake, and two long stakes are attached to it, like a *A bird-netting is made in this country. See "Principles of Fruit- Growing," 296.— L. H. B, W 354 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING gable, other stakes are tied across this frame, and to them the arms of the tree are secured. Persons in this country who desire to train trees 235. Trained peach tree, ready for setting in permanent quarters. to special shapes, should buy yearling trees of the nurseries. These are provided with buds on the main trunk or shaft, and when they are STARTING THE TRAINING 355 headed -back, the required number of shoots may be secured in the proper positions. It may even be important not to select the largest yearlings, for on them the lower buds maj' be very weak. This is particularly true with peach trees, for in these the lower side buds break the first year, and the nurseryman trims them off into order to get a straight and long -bodied tree. How high to leave the trunk and how many branches to take out, depend entirely upon the mode of training which the operator has in mind. I have inserted various extracts which will serve as specimen examples to suggest the general methods of procedure. Before undertaking any method of special train- ing, the operator should apprehend the idea that there is no necessary or essential mode for any fruit. The mode of training is diametrically op- posed to the natural habit of the plant, and it is, therefore, a mental and arbitrary ideal. This fact will be apparent if the reader considers that most of the illustrations in the Old World literature of the subject are diagrams, not pictures. The operator works to geometrical figures. He sets a pattern ; and the more nearly the plant approaches this pattern the more satisfactory is the training. Some of the common forms in which fruit trees are trained are suggested in the following translation from Bois : * *D. Bois, "Le Petit Jardin," Paris, 264. 356 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING "The pyramid. — An old and a good form, suitable es- pecially for pear trees. Its advantages are, that it can be cultivated in borders, where it relatively takes up little room; that it freely allows circulation of air and light; that it casts very little shade ; and that it bears abundantly. The pyramid or cone consists of a principal or vertical stem, covered with lateral branches from a point thirty centime- ters [a centimeter is about two -fifths of an inch] above the ground to the top of the tree. The branches, which grow somewhat obliquely, are separated from each other by a distance of about thirty centimeters, diminishing gradually in length from the bottom to the top, thus forming a cone, the largest diameter of which is about one -third of the total height. "The column or spindle. — This form is adapted to pears and apple trees. It has the advantage of taking up less room than the pyramid, and of bearing more quickl3^ On the other hand, it is not so long-lived, and is suitable for less vigorous varieties only. The column differs from the pyramid only in the fact that its lateral branches are shorter. "The vase. — Around a central stem, and at a distance of about fifteen centimeters above the ground, arise branches which grow first horizontally and then vertically, in such a way as to give to the entire tree the form of a vase. The branches must be separated from each other by a distance of about thirty centimeters, and they are main- tained in this position by tying them to hoops fastened to stakes inserted in the ground. This form is justly much esteemed. It freely allows a circulation of light and air through all its parts. "The bush or tuft.— The bush is suitable for currants, raspberries, etc. From the crotch of the plant, or at a short distance above the ground, arise branches which grow in every direction. It is simply necessary to train theni SQ that they do not interfero with each other, BOIS OX TRAINING 357 "The horizontal cordon (Fig. 236) is suitable espe- cially for apple trees grafted on Paradise stock, and to the less vigorous varieties of pear trees grafted on quince stock. This form 'is especially to be recommended for the borders of walks. It consists of a stem which first grows verti- cally, then bent at a certain height, and is maintained in this horizontal position by attaching it to wire. The trees are planted at a distance of two or three meters [a meter ^J^^^^ K^^^ 236. Apple trained to a simple cordon. is nearly forty inches] from each other, and their stems, when meeting, form a long, unbroken garland or wreath, which makes a very pretty effect. "Espalier training is to be especially recommended. It is suitable for all kinds of fruit trees, and allows the cultivation, in our latitude, of varieties the fruits of which would not ripen at all, or would ripen incompletely in a more exposed situation. "When trained against walls, they receive an amount of heat sufficient to produce fruit of a superior quality. These include peaches, grapes, certain kinds of apricots, apples, pears, etc. The utilization of these walls is much neglected, and there would often be much profit in covering with espaliers the fronts of houses and all kinds of walls, especially wlien placed in a good 358 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OP TRAINING situation, training the trees according to the form of the wall. The simplest form of espalier is the vertical cordon, which allows the trees to be planted very near together, which soon brings in a moderate return, and in a few years covers the wall. Like the column, this form is suitable only for the less vigorous varieties. It must be trained against a moderately high wall, for its growth is consid- erably stimulated by the suppression of its lateral branches, so that the principal stem has a tendency of growing rap- idly. Whenever it is necessary to cut them back very much, it produces an excessive development of wood, to the detriment of its productiveness. A form like a U, which is self-explanatory, is frequently employed. It is certainly one of the best. "The candelabrum (Figs. 237, 240) is formed by a number of lateral branches, from three to six, distributed regularly along the principal stem. The simple palmetto or palm leaf (Fig. 235) has a larger number of lateral branches. The Palmetto Verrier differs from the preceding only in the fact that after a certain distance its branches grow vertically. Palmettes are formed with 6, 7, 8, 10, 12 branches, and even with more." How to train a pyramid standard pear tree is explained as follows by Rivers : * "If a young gardener intends to plant, and wishes to train up his trees so that they will become quite perfect in shape, he should select plants one year old from the bud or graft, with single upright stems; these will, of course, have good buds down to the junction of the graft with the stock. The first spring a tree of this description should be headed - down, so as to leave the stem about eighteen inches long. If the soil be rich, from five to six and seven shoots will be *Tliomas Rivers, "The Miniature Fruit-Garden. RIVERS ON PYRAMIDS 359 produced; one of these must be made the leader, and if not inclined to be quite perpendicular, it must be fastened to a stake. As soon, in summer, as the leading shoot is ten inches long, its end must be pinched off; and if it pushes forth two or more shoots, pinch off all but one to three leaves, leaving the topmost for a leader. The side shoots will, in most eases, assume a regular shape; if not, they may be this first season tied to slight stakes to make them grow in the proper direction. This is best done by bring- ing down and fastening the end of each shoot to a slight stake, so that an open pyramid may be formed — for if it is too close and cypress-like, enough air is not admitted to the fruit. They may remain unpruued till the end of August, when each shoot must be shortened to withiu eight buds of the stem. "The second season the tree will make vigorous growth; the side shoots which were topped last August will each put forth three, four, or more shoots. In June, as soon as these have made five or six leaves, they must be pinched off to three leaves, and if these spurs put forth shoots, which they often do, every shoot must be pinched down to one or two leaves, aU hut the leading shoot of each side branch; this must be left on to exhaust the tree of its superabundant sap, till the end of August, unless the tree is being trained as a compact pyramid. The perpendicular leader must be topped once or twice ; in short, as soon as it has grown ten inches, pinch off its top, and if it break into two or three shoots, pinch them all but the leader, as directed for the first season: in a few years most sym- metrical trees may be formed. "When they have attained the height of six or eight feet, and are still in a vigorous state, it will be necessary to commence root-pruning, to bring them into a fruitful state. "If some of the buds on the stem of a young tree prove dormant, so that part of it is bare and without a slioot 3G0 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING where there should be one, a notch, half an inch wide, and nearly the same in depth, should be cut in the stem just above the dormant bud. If this be done in February, a young shoot will break out in the summer.^ * * "As the summer pinching of pyramidal pears is the most interesting feature in their culture, and perhaps the most agreeable of all horticultural occupations, I must endeavor to give plain instructions to carry it out. "The first season after the planting, about the middle or end of June, the side buds and branches will put forth young shoots; each will give from one to three or four. Select that which is most horizontal in its growth (it should be on the lower part of the branch, as the tree will then be more inclined to spread) for a leader to that branch, and pinch off all the others to three leaves. If these pinched shoots again push, suffer them to make three leaves, and then pinch them to two leaves; but if the horizontal branch has a good leader, it will take off all the superfluous sap, and prevent the pinched spurs from break- ing; the buds will only swell, and the following season they will be fruit-spurs. The upper shoots of the tree, say to about two feet from its top, should bo pinched a week before the lower shoots: this gives strength to those on the lower part of the tree. "In spring the perpendicular leader of the preceding year's growth will put forth numerous shoots, which must be pinched in June in the following manner: those nearest the base, leave six inches in length, gradually decreasing upwards, leaving those next the young leading shoot only two inches long. The leader of these ready-formed pyra- mids need not be shortened in summer, as directed for younger trees; it may be suffered to grow till the hori- *Bare places in the stems of pyramids, and in the branches of espa- liers or wall trees, may Lo budded towards the end of August with blossom-buds tahon from shoots two years old. Tliis is a very inter- esting mode of furnishing a tree with fruit-bearing Imds. Page 345. HARDY ON PALMETTES 361 zontal leaders are shortened in August, and then left six or eight inches in length; but if the trees are to be kept to six or seven feet in height under root -pruning, this leading shoot may be shortened to two inches, or even cut close down to its base. For tall pyramids of ten, twelve, or fifteen feet, it may be left from eight to ten inches in length till the required height be attained; it may then be cut to within two inches of its base every season." The methods to be pursued iu the training of trees on espaliers may be expkiined by a concrete example. I choose an extract from Hardy* re- specting the training of a palmette on an espa- lier. A simple palmette is a plant with a single erect stem and a number of side branches, as in Fig. 235 ; a vertical -branched palmette or can- delabrum is shown in Fig. 237. "We endeavor to obtain three branches, — one to continue the growth of the trunk, the two others to furnish two lowest lateral branches. To secure this result, we will choose a bud [head- in the shoot] about thirty centimeters [a centimeter is nearly two -fifths of an inch] from the ground. The middle bud will push a shoot upwards and the two others, obliquely, but not too near the horizontal, so that they can make a vigorous growth. There is nothing else to do during the growing season, if the equilibrium between them maintains itself. "The vertical-branched palmette does best in soils of medium quality, as well as for high walls. In the first case, the verticality of the main branches assures to the last a *J. A. Hardy, "Traite de la Taille des Arbres Fruitiers," Paris, 1865, 129, i;{7. Owe of the best books on tlie suliject. 362 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING more sustained vegetation than when they are horizontal. In the second case, they more promptly cover the wall, for with this form we can plant the trees very close to each other, a meter [about forty inches] or a meter and a quarter apart, according to the distance which we leave between 237. Candelabrum espalier pear tree. more the sap is reserved for a less number -of branches. "The manner of establishing this form scarcely differs from that of the simple palmetto. The first year we trim as described in the first paragraph, only that instead of obtaining two oblique lateral shoots, as there described, it is necessary to cut the stem back to only about forty centi- meters, and we train the two branches (A) up vertically. * " * The second year we pinch the shoot to obtain the second pair of branches about twenty centimeters above the BELLAIR ON CORDONS 3G3 first, and we direct these into the center of the space be- tween the first two branches, training these framework branches twenty centimeters from each other. Then we trim the first branches (A) to a length double that of the trunk. The space of twenty centimeters is not absolute; we can make it twenty-five centimeters. Then, instead of planting the trees one meter apart, we can place them a meter and a quarter, in such manner that the extremes of the framework of neighboring trees shall be as far apart as are the main branches of the tree itself. This second dis- tance is preferable, as the branches receive more light and air, a condition which is essential for good fruit-bearing. "The following years the treatment follows the method indicated, with all the main branches [two pairs and the trunk], but, however, taking care that we leave the outside branches (A) a little longer than the others, so that they can maintain their predominance. The tree thus treated ai'rives at the height of the wall in the sixth year, if its vigor is maintained and it meets with no accident." The treatment of a simple horizontal cordon (Fig. 236) is thus described by Bellair ^-^ "When grown in this way, the pear tree consists of a stem bent at a distance of forty centimeters above the ground, then trained horizontally and covered with fruit - bearing branches. The cordons are trained as much as possible toward the strongest light. If the plantation is established on a slope, it is necessary to train the cordons toward the summit of the slope. Only pears grafted on quince stock, and apple trees grafted on Paradise or Doucin stock, can be grown in this way. Pear trees and apple trees grafted on their own stock are too vigorous, as they require (for otherwise they would remain sterile) more *G. Ad. Bellair, "Les Arbres Fruitiers," Paris, 1801, 1G4. 364 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING room thau the horizontal cordon allows. One-year-old apple cions grafted on Paradise stock must be planted at a distance of three meters from each other. One-year-old apple cions grafted on Doucin stock, and pears on quince stock, must be planted at a distance of four meters from each other. The first year they are cut at a distance of about sixty centimeters above the ground, and near a bud, which is located on the side toward which the stem is to be inclined. In the autumn or in the following spring, these cions are gradually bent. But if the part beyond the bend must be strictly horizontal, it is necessary that the ex- tremity of the cordon be slightly raised, in order to facili- tate the flow of the sap, and consequently the elongation of the cordon. From this time, the yearly growth of the cor- don must be cut in such a way as to preserve two -thirds or three -fourths of its length. It is soon covered with branches, some of which are entirely fertile (that is, bear- ing fruit-producing buds), while the others, or sterile ones, must be cut away. This kind of treatment prevents them from obtaining too large a growth and thus still more de- stroying its fertility." Excepting the grape, the training of the peach has probably been the subject of more literature'^ than that of any other plant ; yet so different are the American conditions and ideals from the European that this technical literature has almost no application in this country. The United States is a land of peaches, notwithstand- ing the fact that this, fruit is adapted to only special localities. It is not necessary that we *Consult, as an example, Brehaut's "Modern Peach Pruner": also Hartwig "Die Kultiir iles Pfirsichbanmes am Spaliere," Weimar, 1886. THOMSON ON PEACH TRAINING 365 train them to walls, or that we give them any other special or peculiar treatment in the way of training. Those who are interested in Old World practices, how^ever, or who desire to train peaches on walls or in houses, will appreciate the follow- ing extract from Thomson : * "Many ways of training and pruning the peach and nectarine have been practiced and recommended. French horticulturists especially have been very successful in train- ing them in several ways characterized by regularity and neatness. The single -cordon as well as the multiciple- cordon systems are favorite modes of training in France. Modifications, partaking more or less of the French sys- tems, have been practiced and recommended, especially by Seymour, in England. But the ordinary fan system of training is by far the most generally practiced and liked. It is, especially under glass, the. mode of training which the most successful forcers of the peach have adopted, and it is that which I recommend. Many grand old examples of peach trees under glass are to be found in this country, which have all along been trained on the fan principle, and that are yet in fine bearing condition, being well furnished from top to bottom with young bearing wood. Taking a young tree, which I have recommended for planting as the foundation of a fan-trained tree, different cultivators who are most in favor of this system of training would deal differently with the ten young growths [five branches on each side, and no leader, all arising from near the top of a short trunk] with which it is furnished. Some would cut them all back again to within five or six buds of their base ; others would not shorten them at all, but would let them ♦David Thomson, "Handy Book of Fruit Culture Under Glass," 152, with figures. 366 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING start into growth with as many young shoots as could be tied to the trellis without crowding them. What I have practiced and would recommend is a mean between these two. The two center shoots I would shorten back to half their length, the other eight shoots to be merely topped back to solid, well-ripened wood. The cutting somewhat closely back of the two center ones makes it certain that two or three good, strong growths will start from near their base to properly fill up the center of the tree with leaders. Each of the other eight shoots should have all their buds removed by degrees, except one near the base, and one or two at equal distances between it and the leading bud, ac- cording to the length of the shoots; two buds to be left on the under side— if the shoots are long enough to have room for three on the upper side, — the buds on the one side to alternate in position with those on the other. These lateral growths, with the leader, are enough to lay a foun- dation to serve for the future full-grown tree. The lateral growths should be allowed to grow without being stopped. Should the leaders show signs of growing very vigorously at the expense of the side growths, stop them whenever they show such a tendency. This will cause them to make lateral growths freely, and equally balance the growth of all the young shoots. This encouragement of lateral growths, especially on the young wood in the center of the tree, gives sufficient to furnish the tree without having recourse to the undesirable practice of first allowing a few very strong leaders to monopolize the sap, and then to cut them down at the winter pruning. In this way much time is gained in covering a wall or trellis with bearing wood. "A young tree thus managed on what may be termed a mean between the extension and the cutting-hard-back systems produces a comparatively large, well -furnished tree the autumn after it is planted, and one which requires very little or no winter pruning before starting it into another year's growth, If the summer disbudding and THOMSON ON THE PEACH 367 pinching of the first season's growth have been properly- attended to, the tree will be so thoroughly furnished with young wood that all the pruning that should be done is simply to remove any shoots that would crowd the tree. The distance between the shoots should not be less than three or four inches. In February, 1878, I planted a num- ber of young peaches and nectarines in an orchard-house. In the autumn not a single shoot was shortened-back, and at the close of their second year's growth the trees thor- oughly furnished, in many instances, spaces of eighteen feet by thirteen feet, and a great many of them sixteen feet by twelve feet, besides bearing a good crop the season after being planted. There ai-e some magnificent trees at Brayton Hall, which Mr. Hammond, the able gardener there, managed on the extension sj'^stem, and consequently filled their allotted spaces and bore grand crops in half the time in which this could have been done by the old cutting- back system. " After the trees have grown and covered the space al- lotted to each, the system of pruning must be directed so as to continually keep the whole tree regularly supplied with young fruit -bearing wood. With a view to this, of course, the yearly removal of old wood in winter, and the laying in of a corresponding amount of young wood in summer, must be carefully attended to. * * * * " Some make a practice of cutting back the young bear- ing wood to two -thirds its length. I do not advocate this indiscriminately. Where the shoots are long and not well- ripened, and the buds consequently weak, they should be shortened-back to where the wood is firm, and always to a strong wood -bud. Peach trees in a healthy condition have their buds in clusters of three— a wood-bud in the center, and a fruit-bud on each side of it ; and to such a cluster of buds they should always be cut when cut at all. "Well-established trees that have borne heavy crops regularly, and especially those that have been forced early, 368 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING generally make shorter and stronger growths, well studded with strong clusters of buds. In this case it is inadvisable to shorten them back at all. A watchful eye must always be kept on the lower portion of the tree, so that it is not allowed to get bare of young fruit-bearing growths. It need scarcely be said that, from the fact that it is the young wood that bears, the tendency is for it to be in greatest abundance at the top. "The best guarantee against trees becoming bare of young bearing -wood at their lowest parts, is to annually cut back a few healthy young growths to two or three eyes, and allow as many of these to bud and grow as may be re- quired to keep up the supply of young wood. This is an indispensable necessity, from the fact that portions of old wood have annually to be removed at the top of the tree. In practice, all other things being equal, there is little diffi- culty experienced in thus furnishing the lower portions of the tree with bearing-wood. All cutting should be effected with a sharp, thin knife; and whenever it becomes neces- sary to remove an old limb, the wound should be painted solidly over with white paint." In order to show the nicety to which training may be carried, the following extract from Du Brenil will be interesting : * "Training of the pear in vase or goblet form.— Trees in the pyramidal form are, in some situations, liable to injury from high winds. When that is the ease, the vase or goblet form may be substituted. But it is not otherwise to be preferred, for it requires as much room as the pyramid form, and does not present so great a fruit- bearing surface. " Trees in vase form should leave a diameter of about si^ *"The Scieutiac and Profitable Culture of Fruit Trees." ADVICE 369 feet six inches (and an equal height), so that the solar rays may act upon the whole interior surface of the vase. An interval of twelve inches should be left between each of the branches. Supposing the tree to be twenty feet in circumference, there should be about twenty branches at the base, from which to form the tree. "The branches may either be trained vertically, or made to cross each other alternately right to left, following an angle of thirty degrees, as shown in Fig. 238. We con- sider the latter form preferable. The sap acts more equally throughout the entire extent of the branches, which also fruit more regularly, and the tree can better support itself when completely formed. "The method of proceeding to develop the wood is as follows : Choose plants that have been grafted a year, and apply the first pruning; when they have been planted out another year, cut them down to sixteen inches from the ground. During the summer select five shoots, and main- tain an equal degree of vigor by pinching. At the second pruning, cut off each of the branches to sixteen inches from their base, above two buds growing laterally, so as to make each of the branches fork ; lower the branches a little and dispose them regularly round the circumference of the stem by means of a hoop. During the summer equalize the vigor between the ten shoots that have now been obtained. At the third pruning, cut back each of the ten shoots to twelve inches from their base, to make them fork a second time. Incline the branches again, and equalize the spaces between them by means of two hoops, the uppermost being the larger. Treat the twenty shoots that have grown during the summer in the same manner as the previous ones. At the fourth pruning, suppress only the third of the length of the new branches, and again incline them downwards to an angle of about twenty degrees, then raise the ends of the branches in a vertical position at about three feet from the stem, and keep them in that position by means of addi- X 370 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING tional hoops. During the summer allow only one terminal bud to develop. When the time arrives for the fifth opera- tion, cross the branches at the place of their second fork- ing, directing them alternately right and left, inclined to an 238. Outline of pear trained in vase form. angle of thirty degrees. Fig. 239 shows the plan of a pear tree trained in this form, and how the branches should be crossed. The new extensions, obtained during the previous summer, must be left entire, and so on from year to year, until the tree has attained its proper size. The inclined position of the branches will cause them to put forth nu- merous shoots, each of which must be trained in a spiral direction, to be arrested only when the tree attains a height of about six or seven feet, when it will be fully formed, and resemble Fig. 238, VASE -FORM TREES 371 "As the tree increases in height, each of the branches must be grafted together by approach [inarching] at each of the points where they cross. This will give great strength 239. Plan of the tree. and solidity to the tree, and enable it to dispense with any other support when the wood is completely established. "The fruit branches, which are not shown on the figures, are formed and kept in bearing in the same manner as in pyramid trees." Before leaving this part of our discussion, we may look at the pictures. With the exception of Figs. 238, 239, 242, these are made from photo- graphs taken at various times by the writer. Fig. 235 is a palm -leaf (or palmette) peach tree, ready for planting against a wall. This tree was on exhibition at the Gartenbau Austellung, at Ham- burg, in 1897. Fig 236 is a cordon dwarf apple 372 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING from Saxouy. The wire is about twenty inches above the ground, and the single arm or trunk of the tree extends about eight feet. Fig. 237 is a sketch of part of an espalier pear in the grounds of the Gartenbau Hochschule, near Berlin. 240. Three-arm espalier. Fig. 240, from Germany, is part of a three- arm candelabra espalier apple tree. Fig. 241 is an old espalier Greening apple tree growing in west- ern New York. The trellis has long since been removed and the tree now supports itself, although extending over a space about thirty feet long. This is not a good specimen of training, but it shows hoAV readily a dwarf apple can be made PICTURES OF TRAINED TREES 373 to assume a horizontal direction. Fig. 242 is a diagram of a wall -trained apricot. Fig. 243 is 7w,r'i*"''y 241. Old apple espalier in New York. a dwarf pear trained in fan -shape on a wall in England. Fig. 244 is a pear tree covering the 242. Wall-trained apricot of palmette form. south front of a cottage in southern Bavaria. The photograph was taken in August, and the 374 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OP TRAINING season's growths are seen projecting beyond the roof- line. TREES AND BUSHES IN POTS Many fruit trees are successfully grown in pots or boxes, being used either for forcing purposes or for fruit -bearing at their normal season. Such 243. Pan-trained dwarf pear. trees, unless used for forcing, are chiefly valuable as ornamentals and curiosities, although the fruits should be o£ the very finest quality. Fig. 245 is an apple tree several years old, in full bearing. It is in a sixteen -inch pot. Trees of this size should ripen from ten to twenty-five apples. Pot- grown apples and pears should be dwarfs. TREES IN POTS S75 Peaches aud apricots on their own roots do well in pots. Cherries are usnally worked on Mahaleb 2-14. Good specimen of wall-trained pear tree. for this purpose, and plums are often grown on Myrobalan roots. Trees should bear in the third or fourth year. 376 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING The following sketch from Warnekeu* conveys a general idea of the method of trimming and training pot -fruits in the pyramid form (which is the most popular shape) : " The form of trees is given but little attention by manj^ pot -fruit tree growers, they looking only to large yields of fruit. Others, again, desire to give pot-fruit trees every conceivable artificial form, even espalier forms having been recommended. Although it must be constantly our aim to produce a large fruit yield, it is not necessary, thereby, to neglect the form of the trees ; and a pleasing form with a large yield can be readily combined. "Form of the trees. — Our pot trees must at times be set closely together, and it is, therefore, not desirable to produce such large forms as demand much space; as, e. g., crown trees or trees of cup shape. If, however, it is de- sirable to train these forms in pots, their pruning may be studied in a pruning book. We shall not describe this pruning, as we do not care to puzzle the beginner with so many artificial forms, but we shall suggest such simple and easily made forms as appeal to a rational culture, and which are the result of many years of experience. For such varieties of fruits as in their nature are suitable to the pyramidal form, this remains the best. We, therefore, give our trees, with advantage, only the following form. "Apples and pears we train to a narrow shape, — in the full grown condition a pyramid about fifty to sixty centi- meters wide [a centimeter is about two-fifths of an inch]. Peaches, plums, cherries, apricots and figs we train to a pyramidal bush, which, however, should not be over sixty centimeters wide at the bottom. With peaches and plums, the more practical narrow pyramids recommended for *H. B. Wanieken, "Die Kiiltur des Obstbauines im Topfe", Frank- furt a. a. Oder, 1889, 33. TREES IN POTS 377 apples and pears, also columnar pyramids, may be used. Grapes cultivated in pots are trained to so-called spiral cordons, which have a corkscrew-like, twisted stem car- ried on three stakes. "Preliminary training, in its first year, of a tree DESTINED FOR POT-CULTURE.— Peachcs and other fruits can 245. Pot-grown apple in full bearing. 240. Pot tree in July of its sec- ond year. 247. Showing how the tree is to be pruned. be prepared for pot culture in their first year. If we have personally budded our trees, we pinch off the tip of the young shoot which appears in early summer, according to its strong or weak development, when it has grown to a 378 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OP TRAINING} length of thirty to fifty centimeters. As a result, the buds at the side will develop in the first year into small shoots. As soon as these have formed four or five buds, they are pinched back to two or three buds. If the highest of these lengthening buds develops a strong shoot, and if the side shoots are backward and irregularly placed, the main shoot can be pinched again. The trees thus treated during the first year have a stronger and more compact form, and all the lower buds are better developed. We gain time, therefore, by making the best of the first year, particularly with peaches, and secure more rapidly bearing trees. "The one-year-old tree, generally smooth and un- branched, will be at our disposal. If, however, too early side shoots have been developed, they must be removed at their base on the stem, in order not to secure a confused tree. We now cut all such unbranched one-year-old trees of all fruits to the length noted for peaches, that is, fifty centimeters, and to a strong bud. With stone fruits we now choose three to four buds pointing in different direc- tions, beginning above fifteen centimeters from the ground, and crescent -like cuts are made with a sharp knife into the bark above each of these. If all the buds on these stems develop, we retain but six or seven of those on top and pinch off the lower ones, as our pyramids shall not branch immediately above the soil, but shall first make a stem fif- teen to twenty centimeters high, in order that the fruits shall not be too near the soil and get dirty and be of lesser value. The uppermost shoot is fastened perpendicularly to the projecting stub (Fig. 246) The remaining side shoots we try to have equally strong, and we secure this by pinch- ing back the stronger. All shoots have their points pinched off as soon as they are thirty centimeters long. From July to August we remove the stub which projects beyond the uppermost branch (Fig. 240). On apples, pears, peaches, apricots, plums, and cherries we have nothing to do other TREES IN POTS 379 than what has beeu mentioned, and to keep them in health and free from pests. If the plant lice are not promptly removed, they greatly injure the young trees while they are yet developing their structure, as they suck out completely the young shoots so that they dry out. If we have one- year-old stems of pears and plums which, during the first year, have clothed themselves all over and in a regular manner with shoots, beginning fifteen centimeters above the ground, we cut these back to three buds. The stem itself is taken back one -third its length, and is then and ever thereafter cut to a spur or stub. "The second year. — At the winter pruning of the sec- ond year, the side shoots of seed fruits are reduced to four to six buds and those of the stone fruits to three to four buds. With the seed fruits, we try to call forth weak shoots from all buds by means of cross-cuts above them. In the case of stone fruits, this must never be done, as by this means the outflow of sap and the so-called bleed- ing would be induced. The stem, when strong and over thirty centimeters long, is cut back to one-half its length, or to about six to eight buds. Weak and short shoots up to twenty centimeters remain uncut. The summer pruning or pinching back is practiced on all trees. As soon as the strongest shoots have developed six buds, they are pinched back to four buds, and this treatment is gradually given to the others as they develop. If the shoots should again grow out, the new growth is pinched back to two buds, and this treatment is continued all summer, so that every new shoot is reduced to two buds. This repeated pinching has for its object the thickening of the buds at the base of the shoot and to change them to fruit-buds. The bearing wood in the seed fruits can bear fruit for years, and it is therefore only necessary to induce the gradual change of the woody shoots into bearing wood. "The tree in July of its second year is shown in Fig. 246. Z is the stub to be removed in July at the point S. At a 380 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING are points at which side shoots are pinched back. Fig. 247 shows the winter pruning on the two-year-old tree. S, points at which all side shoots are to be cut. 1, 2, 3, buds which are to receive cross-cuts. St, the bud destined to lengthen the stem; it must be above the point of last year's cut, as at O; St, up to i, the new stub; i, point at which the shoot is cut. "In the stone fruits, the wood which has borne dies off, and it is necessary to have new bearing wood each year. We must, therefore, prune in such a manner that con- tinually new bearing wood for the next year is formed. Therefore, on every fruiting branch of a peach there should be two leaf -buds at its base as a reserve. On the branches of the peach are found buds of varying appearance,— thick roundish, and thin pointed. The former are flower-buds and the latter leaf-buds. It happens at times that a flower- bud stands alone, generally on thin bearing branches, and again that a leaf-bud stands alone, as on strong shoots and young stems. We may also find a flower-bud and a leaf- bud or two flower-buds united, and finally a pointed leaf- bud between two round flower -buds. Our peach trees are therefore cut for the first time in the early spring, when even the beginner can distinguish flower and leaf -buds. On many strong branches nothing but leaf -buds are found, on single, thin fruit branches again only flower-buds. The latter, we may as well mention here, are the worst, as they must die from lack of leaf -buds. The best fruit branches are studded with triple and double buds, and have at their base some simple leaf-buds. The majority of fruit branches have only simple and double buds and at the point a leaf -bud. Excellent fruit-bearers are the very short cluster spurs but a few centimeters long. These have at their tip a whole bouquet of flower-buds and a leaf -bud in the center, and these are not pruned. Our task is, then, to keep the shortest possible branches, and allow those to bear fruit which have leaf-buds above their flowers, in order to PEACHES IN POTS 381 lead away the superfluous sap not necessary for the fruit. At the same time, these branches must have at their base several leaf-buds to which we may cut back and cause the production of bearing wood for the next year. Long and thin branches, with but single or double flower -buds and a leaf-bud at the point, can bear fruit, but leave behind only bare places in the fall when they die. It is, finally, to be observed, in cutting-back, that this should not be done to a single flower-bud, as otherwise the shoot dies off to the next leaf -bud. Those shoots on which the dead flowers fall off can be cut back immediately after flowering to the two leaf -buds at the base. An observance of these directions will make it an easy matter to prune peaches in the spring. The pyramidal form which is to be given must, however, always be kept in mind in determining the position of the branches to be saved. "The third and following years. — In the winter pruning of the third and following years, the shoots of the year before, on all fruits, are cut-back to three to four buds, and here it is that the pyramidal form must be looked after. All trees clothe themselves with weak bearing wood at the base of last year's stem, and the pruning of the stem growth must be done accordingly. If it were cut too long, many of the buds would not grow, and bare places would result. Too heavy pruning would cause the formation of strong, woody shoots at the lower part of the tree. With our seed fruit and stone fruit pyramids in pots, the branches must not stand too thick or shade each other. At all times light and air must reach the stem in order to benefit the fruits. The removal of single large stems in later years will make this possible. It may also be mentioned here that the dry wood forming in the tree in later life should be removed. In the third, as in all following years, the summer pinehing-back is executed the same as in the first year, and in the stone fruits, particularly in peaches, provide for the fruiting wood in the coming year. Thus 382 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING we build out our pyramid in the pot, and by means of the regular use of the stub to tie to, the lengthening shoot is given a pleasing, erect form. The wood shoot will moderate with increasing fruitfulness, so that in later years it will not be necessary to cut it much, and pinching in the summer will be sufficient." The growing of cherry trees in pots, by Mr. Rivers, one of the best English growers, is thus described : * "The method of growing cherries in Rivers' orchard - houses is given below in detail, with plans of a house. Most of the trees are grafted on cherry stock, except the Duke cherries and Early Rivers and Governor Wood, which are grafted on Mahaleb stock. They are never lifted or replanted before potting. "Early in autumn one and two-year-old trees are taken up, their roots shortened so that they can be put into the pots without breaking, and planted in eight or twelve-inch pots. This potting must be done carefully, and the trees must be set so deep that the big roots near the surface will be covered with an inch of soil. Cover the bottom of the pots with a good, thick layer of drainage. The soil used in potting is a light, sandy loam, enriched with one -third of well -decayed fertilizer. It is important to firm the soil well around and among the roots. Fill it in by degrees, in small quantities, and beat it down firmly all through the pot, taking care not to injure the roots. After potting, the trees are set in a sheltered place outdoors, the pots being covered with leaves. If the soil is moist enough when the trees are potted, they will not need watering. "When spring comes the tree must be thinned out and the pots plunged one -third of their depth in the earth. *A. K. Anderson in " Apaerican Garden," xiii., 594- CHERRIES IN POTS 383 The trees remain here all the summer, are watered caretully every morning when the weather is bright and dry, and syringed with pure water if the greenfly is troublesome. In July, when the trees are well rooted, a top-dressing of stable-manure and kiln-dust in equal parts is given the trees. A few days before the top-dressing is used it is spread out in thin layers somewhere outdoors, and soaked several times with liquid manure. It is applied to the soil in the pots, in layers two inches thick near the rims, but thinner near the stems of the trees. This top-dressing greatly improves and strengthens the trees for the coming year. "After growing in pots one summer, trees are fit to be sold the following autumn or spring. From Rivers' nur- sery three or four hundred potted cherry trees are sold yearly, the number increasing constantly. Old cherry trees that have been cultivated in pots for years are kept during winter in one of the orchard -houses. When spring comes and their buds begin to start, the pots are plunged up to the rim in the ground in the cherry -house. " The pyramidal form is best and most used for potted cherry trees. Pruning is not often necessary the first year after potting, for the strength of the tree goes to form short fruit -branches; but after the trees are well rooted, strong shoots are sent out in summer. Summer pruning consists mainly in pinching back these strong shoots to six or seven leaves each. If after this first stopping they grow out again, they are again pinched-back. On the leading branches, side -shoots that are not needed to fill empty spaces or make new leaders, are stopped at the third leaf. The sour cherries, which form young buds better on the side-shoots, might be pruned less. Much winter pruning is not needed for trees that have been well stopped in sum- mer. Winter pruning must be done as soon as leaf and bloom-buds can be distinguished. It is done upon the same principle as outdoor pruning, but as the room in orchard- 384 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING houses is limited, all growth must soon be pruned into fruit- branches. "After the cherries are all gathered, the trees are plunged outside in a sunny, sheltered place, and left there until repotting time in October or November. Trees that have been potted but one year seldom need larger pots at this time, so two or three inches of the top soil in their pots is taken out and replaced with fresh. Larger pots are given, in after years, when these young trees become root-bound and require them. Cherry trees ought to be repotted every other year." Various forms of training pot -grown goose- berries, as grown by James Veitch & Sons, Chelsea, England, are shown in Figs. 248, 249, 250.* OTHER SPECIAL MODES OF TBAINING Plants are often trained so as to allow them to be bent to the ground in the fall, and covered for winter j^rotection.t J. T. Macomber describes! the training of peach trees for this purpose, and I insert a part of the account as an example of this kind of training. The tree "should be planted where it is wanted to grow, and all branches must be cut off, leaving the central shoot, upon which allow onl}' one bud to grow. The tree should be visited everj' week or two, and all branches that *These cuts nre used by courtesy of "The Gardeners' Cbrojjjcle," where they appeared in the issue of July 31, 1897, tSee " Principles of Fruit-Growing", Chap. I. J"Ameri(;anrGarden," xi. Z'>\, 248. Pyramidal gooseberry plant. 386 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING have started on the new shoot should be broken off, taking care not to injure the leaf below it. 249. Cup-shaped gooseberry. 250. Training of gooseberry. These little branches should not be allowed to get more than an inch or two long. The object is to get a long, slender cane without branches. Fig. 251 shows a tree in training ; a a are the little LAYING -DOWN TREES 387 branches near the top that should be broken off. All those below them have been removed. About fl ,^ four or five weeks before frost may A {5^^ be expected, stop breaking off the branches, so as to allow the wood to ripen enough to stand the win- ter. On the approach of freezing weather, place a round block of 252. The tree at bearing age. wood on the ground at the root of the tree, and slowly bend the cane down over it and fasten there with a hooked stick driven into the ground. Then cover the cane with a couple of boards nailed together to form a trough. "When frost is out of the ground in spring, remove the covering and straighten up the tree. 388 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING After it has begun to grow, cut or rub off all the branches and allow but one bud to grow, and treat 253. Inarched elms. the tree just as j'ou did the previous season. At the end of the third season you will probably have ^ cane long enough for your purpose. Now the INARCHING 389 tree should not be lifted in the spring, but is "kept in a horizontal position and allowed to grow at the end and form a head, which should be trained fan-shaped and parallel with the hori- zontal trunk (Fig. 252). "There should be a soft pad of straw or cloth between the tree trunk and the block. On the ??pproach of freezing weather, loosen the tree from the supporting stake, and after having placed some evergreen boughs on boards on the ground to keep the twigs off the earth, bend the head of the tree down side wise to the ground, weight it, if necessary, and then cover the whole head with boards." The trunk will be flexible enough to allow the head to be laid down everj^ winter. Protect the trunk from sun- scald. Trees and branches may be made to grow to- gether in various fantastic ways if they are securely bound to each other. The union takes place more rapidly if the bark is removed from the conjoined surface and the exposed parts of the wounds covered with wax. This is a species of inarching. However, simply binding together young branches will cause them to unite, if the parts are in ver}^ intimate contact and if they cannot move upon each other when shaken by wind. Fig. 253 shows an arch made by binding four elms together. Chapter VII AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING — GENERAL SKETCH Pruniug and training the grape are perplexed questions, even to those who have spent a life- time in grape- growing. The perplexity arises from several diverse sources, as the early effort to trans- plant European methods, the fact that many systems present almost equally good results for particular purposes and varieties, and the failure to comprehend the fundamental principles of the operations. It is sufdcient condemnation of European meth- ods, when applied in eastern America, to say that the American grapes are distinct species from the European grapes, and that, consequently, they are different in habit. This fact does not appear to have been apprehended clearly by the early Ameri- can grape -growers, even after the native varieties had begun to gain prominence. American viti- culture, aside from that upon the Pacific slope, which is concerned with the European grape, is an industry of very recent development. It was little more than a century ago that the first Ameri- can variety gained favor, and so late as 1823 that (390) EVOLUTION OF GRAPE TRAINING 391 the first definite attempt was made in Adlum's "Memoir on the Cnltivation of the Vine in Amer- ica," to record the merits of native grapes for purposes of cultivation."^ Even Adlum's book was largel}' given to a discussion of European varieties and practices. In 1846 "Thomas' Fruit Culturist" mentioned only six "American hardy varieties," and all of these, excepting the Catawba, are practically not in cultivation at the present time. The Concord appeared in 1853. American grape training is, therefore, a very recent develop- ment, and we are only now outgrowing the influence of the practices early im- ported from Europe. The first decided epoch in the evolution of our grape training was the ai)pear- ance of Fuller's "Grape Culturist," in 18G1 ; ±'or ^^ while the system which he depicted, and which yet often bears his name, was but a modification European methods, and had been outlined by earlier American writers, it was at that time placed clearly and cogently before 254. The first American Q-p pictures of grape pruning and training. *Persons who are interested in the historical development of American grape-growing, may consult the author's " Sketch of the Evolution of our Native Fniits." 255. Tlie first American pictures of grape pruning and training. 1806. EVOLUTION OF GRAPE TRAINING 393 the public, and became au accepted practice. The fundamental principles of pruning are alike for both European and American grapes, but the de- tails of pruning and training must be greatly modified for different species. We must under- stand at the outset that American species of grapes demand an American system of treatment. The earliest American pictures of grape training of which I know are those in S. W. Johnson's "Rural Economy," published at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1806. These pictures are here re- produced full size (Figs. 254, 255). The successive figures illustrate the events in the pruning. Fig. 1 shows the growth of the first year and Fig. 2 the first pruning. Fig. 3, the second year's growth, is pruned to the condition shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 6 shows the training, the bearing canes being sup- ported on the main stake and the growing or re- newal canes on intermediate stakes. Figs. 7-12 show the system of renewal. To one familiar with grape training, these various pictures sug- gest European patterns. John Adlum, of the District of Columbia, ap- pears to have been the first person to systemati- cally undertake the cultivation and amelioration of the native grapes. His method of training, as described in 1823, is as follows: One shoot is allowed to grow the first year, and this is cut back to two buds the first fall. The second year two shoots are allowed to grow, and they are tied 394 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING to "two stakes fixed down to the side of each plant, about five or six feet high;" in the fall each cane is cut back to three or four buds. In the third spring, these two short canes are spread apart "so as to make an angle of about forty -five degrees with the stem," and are tied to stakes ; 25G, Dufour's trellis training. 182G. this season about two shoots are allowed to grow from each branch, making four in all, and in the fall the outside ones are cut back to three or four buds, and the inner ones to two. These outside shoots are to bear the fruit the fourth year, and the inside ones give rise to renewal canes. These two outer canes or branches are secured to two stakes set about sixteen inches [upon either side of the vine, and the shoots are tied up to the stake as they grow. The renewal shoots from the inside stubs are tied to a third stake set near EARLY TYPES OF TRAINING 395 the root of the vine. The outside branches are to be cut away entirely at the end of the fourth year. This is an ingenious renewal post system, and it is easy to see how the Horizontal Arm and High Renewal systems may have sprung from it. 257. Dufoui-'s sketch of training on mulberry trees, suggested by European practice. 182G. The next important account appears to be that of John James Dufour, who wrote the ^'American Vine -Dresser's Guide" in 1826. Dufour published the second pictures of grape-training, two of which are here reproduced (Figs. 256, 257). A part of Dufour 's sketch will interest us: 396 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING '' Now for bowers and espaliers or hedgerows : Any way a vine is trained on tlie lattice work as to furnish regularly the wall for an espalier, and top of a bower, answers the purpose. But as the sap of plants, and of grape vines par- ticularly, always tends to run upwards, it will happen that a vine which is to give branches at different heights, the uppermost of all will shoot overgrown branches of the lowest part, which will be always weak ; therefore, if a high wall or a large bower in a garden is to be covered with an espalier of vines, the wall or bower must be divided in sections, that one vine may furnish wood enough to fill one story in that section; say from fifteen to thirty feet long, according to the force of the ground. The height of one story being about three feet; a wall of eighteen feet high and fifty feet long would offer two sections, and five stories, also it would require ten vines to furnish it; one per story in each section ; then five vines, or as nmny as there are stories must be planted before each section, not close to the wall or bower, but four or five feet from it ; and when the vines are strong enough to be laid as directed for vines planted by mulberry trees, they are to be laid down in the same way, nine or twelve inches deep, and raised against the wall or bower, and pruned to three eyes : Vines planted immediately where they are to grow would perhaps do as well; but I have done myself and seen it done the other way. It is supposed that a vine which is to nourish more branches and more fruit than one in a vineyard, will be stronger if it runs some space into the ground, it will surely shoot more roots from the stock; but I think any plant will get roots in proportion to the branches it has to nourish: also, I do not think that it is absolutely necessary to plant them first at a distance from a wall or a bower, but it is surely better to do it against a tree, on account of the roots of the tree, which keeps the ground very dry within their reach; it is best, however, to do it always when it can be done most convenientlv. After the vines dufour's training 397 have acquired the proper strength, they are to be trained along the laths, so that one vine should furnish one story- only, or that all its branches should shoot on a horizontal line, and nowhere else. (See Fig. 256.) The vine in the left edge of the section being brought up twelve or fifteen inches perpendicular to the lowest lath, there it must be bent square to the right, and tied to the lath as far as the other edge of the section. If that do not give too great a load to the vine, every foot along the lath, a bud must be left to grow, and the vine is full loaded with twelve or fifteen growing buds, so that a lath twenty-five feet long will require two or three years to fill it, without overloading the plant. The next vine being brought up perpendicular, three feet higher to the second lath, and there bent and tied along the lath about as the first one ; there may be also twelve or fifteen buds to grow, one being left at each foot; all the buds in that part of the vines which are per- pendicular, must be rubbed off except one or two just under the elbow where the lath in that section has to be filled up with a next year's shoot, when the vine of one story has reached the boundary of the section, there it must be stopped. The next vine, or the third, must go up first to the third lath, and so on until the middle of the section, where, after having brought the vine up to its lath, it must be then bent to the left, having there more room. To have a perfect espalier or bower, it requires much nursing until the wall or bower is completely filled, then you will have a horn every foot along each lath except the top one, which must be left naked, that you may tie to it the sprouts of the story under it. This horn must be made anew every year, by the pruning, as directed for the festoons between the mulberry trees, and what grows from them must be suckered and tied to the lath above, and may be pinched a couple of feet higher up. What grows on the top or roof of a bower, may be left to grow at liberty after it has been pruned. An espalier of vines thus trained cover a wall or a 398 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING bower most beautifully, and bears abundance of grapes, which come to fine perfection and make a noble appearance ; every exposure I expect would answer in this country ; the southwest is the exposure that I saw grapes come first to maturity. There is in Swisserland such an espalier in full perfection, thirty feet high, on the side of a large barn, planted there by myself thirty five years since." The sketch in Fig. 256 " shows a piece of an espalier or hedgerow. Letter L the laths ; b the horns to be renewed yearly; h the horizontal branches. At the lower lath as it appears immediately after the training of it. Along the next lath above, shows the horns made the subsequent prun- ings." Fig. 257 "represents two mulberry trees and vines trained from tree to tree — letter h the main horizontal branches — L the lath — m the trees — b the horns to be renewed every year, and what will grow from them will often hang as shown by the branch with leaves and fruit on." The great diversity of opinion which exists among the best grape - growers concerning the ad- vantages of different systems of training is proof that many systems have merit, and that no one system is better than others for all purposes. The grower must recognize the fact that the most im- portant factor in determining the merits of any system of training is the habit of the vine — as its vigor, rate of growth, normal size, relative size and abundance of leaves, and season and character of fruit. Nearly every variety differs from others in some particular habit, and it therefore requires different treatment in some important detail. Varieties may thrive equally well apon the same NEED OF INSTRUCTION 399 general system of training, but require minor modifications ; so it comes that no hard and fast lines can be laid down, either for any system or any variety. One system differs from another in some one main principle or idea, but the modifi- cations of all may meet and blend. If two men practice the Kniffin system, therefore, this fact does not indicate that they prune and train their vines exactly alike. It is impossible to formulate rules for grape - training ; it is, therefore, im- portant that we understand thoroughly the phi- losophy of pruning and training, both in general and in the different systems which are now most popular. These Chapters (VII. and VIII.) on grape train- ing are a revision of my "American Grape Train- ing," published by the Rural Publishing Company in 1893. The motive of the book was thus set forth in the preface: "This little book has grown out of an attempt to teach the principles and methods of grape training to college students. I have found such teaching to be exceedingly difii- cult and unsatisfactory. It is impossible to firmly impress the lessons by mere lectures. The student must apprehend the principles slowly and by his own effort. He must have time to thoroughly assimilate them before he attempts to apply them. I therefore cast about for books which I could put before my class, but I at once found that there are very few succinct accounts of the sub- 400 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING ject of grape pruning and training, and that none of our books portray the methods which are most largely practised in the large grape regions of the east. My only recourse, therefore, was to put my own notes into shape for print, and this I have now done. And inasmuch as all grape-growers are students, I hope that the simple account will find a use beyond the class-room. '^ This lack of adequate accounts of grape train- ing at first astonished me, but is not strange after all. It must be remembered that the cultivation of the native grape is of very recent origin. There are many men who can remember its begin- ning in a commercial waj'. It seldom occurs to the younger generation, w^hich is familiar with the great vineyards in many states, that the Concord is yet scarcely forty years old, and that all grape- growing in eastern America is yet in an experi- mental stage. Progress has been so rapid in recent years that the new methods outstrip the books. The old horizontal arm spur system, which is still the chief method in the books, has evolved itself into a high renewal training, which is widely used, but which has not found its way into the manuals. The Kniffin type has outgrown its long period of incubation, and is now taking an assured place in vineyard management. So two great types, opposed in method, are now con- tending for supremacy, and thej^ will probably form the basis of all future developments. This THE CONFUSED IDEALS 401 evolution of American grape training is one of the most unique and signal developments of our modern horticulture, and its very recent departure from the earl}^ doubts and trials is a fresh illus- tration of the youth and virility of all horticul- tural pursuits in North America. "This development of our grape -training should form the subject of a historical inquiry. I have not attempted such in this little hand-book. I have omitted all reference to the many early methods, which were in most cases transportations or modifications of European practices, for their value is now chiefly historical, and their insertion here would only confuse the reader. I have at- tempted nothing more than a plain account of the methods now in use ; in fact, I am aware that I have not accomplished even this much, for there are various methods which I have not mentioned. But these omitted forms are mostly of local use or adaptation, and they are usually only modifi- cations of the main tj'pes here explained. It is impossible to describe all the variations in grape training in a book of pocket size ; neither is it necessary. Nearly every grower who has given grape raising careful attention has introduced into his own vineyard some modifications which he thinks are of special value to him. There are various curious and instructive old books to which the reader can go if he desires to know the history and evolution of grape training in America, He z 402 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING will find that we have now passed through the long and costly experiment with European sys- tems ; and we have also outgrown the gross or long -wood stales, and now prune close, with the expectation of obtaining superior and definite re- sults."* PBUJS^ING THE OB APE Pruning and training are terms which are often confounded when speaking of the grape, but they represent distinct operations. Pruning refers to such removal of branches as shall in- sure better and larger fruit on the remaining portions. Training refers to the disposition of the different parts of the vine. It is true that different methods of training demand different styles of pruning, but the modification in prun- ing is only such as shall adapt it to the external *In the original edition, all the manuscript was read by three persons —by George C. Snow, Penn Yau, N. Y. ; William D. Barns, Middle Hope, N. Y., and L. C. Corbett, my assistant in the Cornell Experiment Station at that time, but now professor of horticnltiire in West Virginia. Mr. Snow is a grower in the lake region of Western New York, and employs the High Renewal system; Mr. Barns is a grower in the Hudson River Valley, and practices the Kniflfin system; while Mr. Corbett has been a student of all the systems, and has practiced two or three of them in commercial plantations. In this revision, I have been greatly aided by John W. Spencer, Westfield, N. Y., one of the representative grape- growers of the famous ChautauQua district. To these persons is to be attributed very much of any value which the book may possess. The reader will find a good account of grape training by the late E. G. Lodeman, in Year-Book of the Department of Agriculture for 1896. For southern conditions he should consult Starnes' "Grape Culture," Bull. 28, Ga. Exp. Sta, HOW THE FRUIT IS BORNE 403 shape and size of the vine, and does not in any way affect the principle npon which it rests. Pruning is a necessity, and, in essence, there is but one method ; training is largely a conven- ience, and there are as many modes as there are fancies among grape -growers. All intelligent pruning of the grape rests upon the fact that the fruit is home in a few dusters near the base of the growing shoots of the season, and which spring from wood of last year''s groivth. 404 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING It should be said here that a growing, leafy branch of the grape vine is called a shoot; a ripened shoot is called a cane ; a branch or trunk two or more years old is called an arm. A shoot, as it appears in the northern states in June, is shown in Fig. 258. The whole shoot has grown within a month, from a bud. As it grew, flower clusters appeared, and these are to bear the grapes. Flowering is now past, but the shoot will continue to grow, perhaps, to the length of ten or twenty feet. At picking time, therefore, the grapes all hang near the lower end or base of the shoots or new canes, as in Fig. 259 and Fig. 52, page 65. In Fig. 259, the old cane was cut at A. Then a shoot started from a bud at B and grew beyond BB, and another shoot sprung from the uppermost bud. Each bud on the old cane, therefore, produces a new cane which may bear fruit as well as leaves. At the close of the season, this long ri- pened shoot or cane has produced a bud every foot or less, from which new fruit -bearing shoots are to spring next year. But if all these buds were allowed to remain, the vine would be over- taxed with fruit the coming year, and the crop would be a failure. The cane is, therefore, cut off until it bears only as many buds as experi- ence has taught us the vine should carry. The cane may be cut back to five or ten buds, and perhaps some of these buds will be removed, or HOW THE FRUIT IS BORNE 405 "rubbed off," next spring if the young growtli seems to be too thick, or if the plant is weak. Each shoot will bear, on an average, two or three clusters. Some shoots will bear no clus- 259. The bearing wood. ters. From one to six of the old canes, eachi bearing from five to ten buds, are left each spring. The number of clusters which a vine^ can carry well depends upon the variety, the age and size of the vine, the style of the training, and the soil and cultivation. Experience is the 406 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING only guide. A strong vine of Concord, which is a prolific variety, trained in any of the ordinary systems and set nine or ten feet apart each way, will usually carry from thirty to sixty clusters. The clusters will weigh from a fourth to a half pound each. Twelve or fifteen pounds of mar- ketable grapes is a fair or average crop for such a Concord vine, and twenty -five pounds is a verj^ heavy crop. The pruning of the grape vine, therefore, is essentially a thinning process. In the winter pruning all the canes of the last season's growth are cut away except two to six, which are left to make the fruit and wood of the next year ; and each of these remaining canes is headed - l)ack to three to ten buds. The number and length of the canes which are left after the prun- ing depend upon the style of training which is practiced. A vine which may completely' cover a trellis in the fall will be cut back so severely that a novice will fear that the plant is ruined. But the operator bears in mind the fact that the grape, unlike the apple, pear and peach, does not bear distinct fruit -buds in the fall, but buds which produce both fruit and wood the following season. Let us now suppose, therefore, that we have pruned our vine in the fall of 1891 to two canes, each bearing ten buds (Fig. 260). We will call these canes A and B respectively. In 1892, there- fore, twenty shoots grew from them, and each of HOW MANY BUDS TO LEAVE 407 these shoots or new caues branches, or produces laterals. We will call these new canes of 1892 Al, A2, A3, Bl, B2, and so on. Each of the new canes bears at the base about two clusters of grapes, giving a total yield of about forty clus- ters. These clusters stand opposite the leaves, as Bio b9 b8 b7 b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1 c d a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9 aIo 260. Diagram to illustrate pruning. seen in Fig. 258. In the axil of each leaf a bud is formed which will produce a cane, and perhaps fruit, in 1893. If each of these new canes, Al, A2, etc., produces ten buds — which is a moderate number — the vine would go into the winter of 1892-3 with two hundred buds for the next year's growth and crop ; but these buds should be re- duced to about twenty, as they were in the fall of 1891. That is, every year we go back again to the same number of buds, and the top of the vine 408 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING gets no larger from jear to year. We must, therefore, cut back again to two canes. We cut back each of these original canes, A and B, to one new cane. That is, we leave only Al and Bl, cutting oif A2, A3, etc., and B2, B3, etc. This brings the vine back to very nearly its con- dition in the fall of 1891 ; but the new canes, Al and Bl, which are now to become the main canes by being bent down horizontally, were borne at some distance — say three or four inches — from the base of the original canes, A and B, so that the permanent part of the vine is constantly lengthen- ing itself. This annually lengthening portion is called a sjnir. Spurs are rarely or never made in this exact position, however, although this dia- grammatic sketch illustrates clearly the method of their formation. The common method of spur- ring is that connected with the horizontal arm system of training, in wdiich the arms A and B are allowed to become permanent, and the up- right canes, Al, A2, Bl, B2, B3, etc., are cut back to within two or three buds of these arms each year. The cane Al, for instance, is cut back in the fall of 1892 to two or three buds, and in 1893 two or three canes will grow from this stub. In the fall of 1893 only one cane is left after the pruning, and this one is cut back to tw^o or three buds; and so on. Thus the spur grows higher every year, although every effort is made to keep it short, both by re- THE SPUR 409 duclug the nuiiiber of buds to one or two and by endeavoring to bring out a cane lower down on the spur every few years. Fig. 261 shows a short spur of two 3'ears' standing. The horizontal por- tion shows the permanent arm. The first upright part is the remains of the first -year cane, and the upper part is the second -year cane after it is cut back in the fall. In this instance, the cane is cut back to one fruiting -bud, h, the small buds, a a, being rubbed out. There are serious objections to spurs in any position. They be- come hard and comparatively life- less after a time ; it is often diffi- cult to replace them by healthy, fresh wood; and the bearing portion of the vine is constant!}' reced- 201 . Spur. ing from the main trunk. The bearing wood should spring from near the central parts of the vine, or be kept "near the head," as the grape - growers say. In order to do this, it is customary to allow two canes to grow out each year back of the canes Al and Bl (Fig. 260), or from the head of the vine; these canes may be designated C and D. These canes, C and D, are grown during 1892 — when they may bear fruit like other canes — for the sole purpose of forming the basis of the bear- 410 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING ing top in 1893, while all the old top, A and B, with the secondary canes, Al, A2, Bl, B2, B3, etc., is cut entirel}^ away. Here, then, are two distinct methods of forming the bearing top for the succeeding year: either from sjmrs, which are the remains of the previous top ; or from renewals, which are taken each year 262. Renewal pruning from the old wood near the head of the vine, or even from the ground. Renewals from the ground are now little used, however, for they seldom give a sufficient crop unless thej- are headed -in the first fall and are allowed to bear the second year. It should be borne in mind that the spur and renewal methods refer entirely to pruning, not to training, for either one can be used in any system of train- ing. Spur pruning, however, is growing in dis- favor among commercial grape -growers, and renewal is more or less used in all systems of training. RENEWAL 411 Renewal prUuiug is illustrated in Fig. 262. This engraving shows the head of a vine seven years old, and on which two canes are allowed to remain after each annual pruning. The part extending from h to f and d is the base of the bearing cane of 1892. In the winter of 1892-3, this cane is cut off at d, and the new cane, e, is left to make the bearing wood of 1893. Another cane sprung from /, but it was too weak to leave for fruiting. It was, therefore, cut away. The old stub, h, f, d, will be cut away a year hence, in the winter of 1893-4. In the meantime, a re- newal cane will have grown from the stub c, which is left for that purpose, and the old cane, h d, will be cut off just beyond it, between c and /. In this way, the bearing wood is kept close to the head of the vine. The wound a shows where an old stub was cut away this winter, 1892-3, while h shows where one was cut off the previous winter. A scar upon the back of the head, which does not show in the illustration, marks the spot where a stub was cut away two years ago, in the winter of 1890-1. This method of pruning can be kept up almost indefinitely, and if care is exercised in keeping the stubs short, the head will not enlarge out of proportion to the growth of the stock or trunk. Pruning young vines.— The time required after planting to get the vine onto the wires or trellis varies with the strength of the vine when 412 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING set, the variety, the soil aud cultivation, and the system of training ; but, as a rule, the traininj^- begins the second or third year, previous to which time the vine is pruned, not trained. Two-year- old vines are most popular for planting, although in the strong varieties, as Concord and Niagara, well -grown yearling vines are probably as good, if not better. The strong -growing kinds are commonly set from eight to ten feet apart in the row, and the rows eight or nine feet apart. Dela- wares and other small vines may be set closer, although eight feet is preferable. When set, the vine is cut back to two or three buds. During the first year, the young canes are usually allowed to lie upon the ground at will, as seen in Fig. 263. In the fall or winter, all the canes but one are cut off, and this one is cut back to two or three buds. The vine is, therefore, no larger at the expiration of a year's growth than it was when planted ; but in the meantime the plant has become thoroughly established in the soil, and the second year's growth should be strong enough to form the basis for the permanent trunk or arm. If, however, the second year's growth is weak, it may be cut back as before, and the third season's growth used for the trunk. On the other hand, the growth of the first year is sometimes carried onto the wires to form the permanent trunk and arms, but it is only with extra strong vines in good soil that this practice is admissible. From WHEN TO PRUNE GRAPES 413 this point, the treatment of the vine is discussed under Training (Chapter VIII.). When to prune. — Grape vines may be pruned at any time during the winter. It is the practice 20 J A ue\^l> planted Mneyaid among most grape-growers in the North to prune as time permits from November to bite in Feb- ruary, or even early in March. The sap flows very freely from cuts made in spring and early summer, causing the phenomenon known as "bleeding," or in Europe as "weeping," and in order to prevent this loss, pruning is stopped six 414 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING weeks or more before the time at which the buds usually swell. It is yet a moot point if this bleeding injures the vine, but it is a safe practice to prune early. The vine is cut off an inch or two bej-ond the last bud which it is desired to leave; in order to avoid injury to the bud from the drying-out of the end of the cane. The pruning is done with small hand pruning- shears. The canes are often allowed to remain tied to the wires until the pruning is accom- plished, although it is the practice Avith most growers who use the Kniffin system to cut the strings before pruning. The removal of the severed canes is known as "stripping." In large vineyards, the pruner sometimes leaves the strip- ping to boys or other cheap labor. The stripping may be done at any time after the pruning is per- formed, until spring. It must be done before the growth starts on the remaining parts of the vine, however, to avoid injury to the young buds when tearing the vines off the trellis. Summer pruning. — There is much discussion as to the advisability of summer pruning. It is essential to the understanding of the question that the grower bear in mind that this summer prun- ing is of two kinds — the removal or "breaking- out" of the superfluous shoots, and heading -in or "stopping" the main canes to keep them within limits. The superfluous shoots are such as spring from small, weak buds, or those which break from SUMMER PRUNING 415 the old arms or trunk of the vine. Shoots which start from the very base of the old cane are usu- ally weak, and should be removed. Buds in this position are shown at a a, in Fig. 261. The sec- ondary or axillary branches, which often start from the base of the season's shoots, should be removed or broken out. These superfluous shoots are pulled off from time to time as they appear, or the buds may be rubbed off before the shoots begin to grow. The heading -in of the main canes, while desir- able for the purpose of keeping the vine within bounds, is apt to cause a growth of laterals which choke up the vine, and which do not mature, and in those styles . of training in which very little wood is allowed to grow, the practice may pre- vent the development of a sufficient amount of leaf surface to properly sustain the vine. Vines are often weakened b}^ summer pruning. These dangers can be overcome by careful attention, however, especially by heading-in very lightly, and by doing it as late in the season as possible, when new lateral growth does not start readily. The necessity of much heading-in has been largely obviated in late years by the adoption of high and drooping systems of training, and by setting the vines far apart. The strong varieties, like Con- cord, Brighton and Niagara, should be set ten feet apart in the row, especially if grown upon the Kniffin system. Catawba, being a very up- 416 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING right grower, and especially well adapted to upright training, may be set eight feet apart, and Delawares are often set as close as six or eight feet. It is doubtful, however, if any variety should be set less than eight feet apart for trellis culture. In Virginia and southward, where the growth is large because of the long seasons, vines are often set more than ten feet apart. In the South, the row^s should run north and south, that the fruit may be shaded from midday sun. The only summer heading -in now generally recom- mended is the clipping of the tips when they fall over and begin to touch the ground. This clip- ping is often done with a sickle or sharp corn- cutter. MAKING THE TB ELLIS The fall or winter following the planting of the vineyard, the trellis is begun if the upright sys- tems are used (see Chapter VIII.) ; but this opera- tion is usually delayed a year longer in the Kniffin systems, and stakes are commonly used, or at least recommended, during the second season. In the South the trellis is made the first year. The style of trellis will depend upon the style of train- ing, but the main features are the same for all. Strong posts of some durable timber, as cedar, locust or oak, are placed at such distance apart that two vines can be set between each two. If the vines are set nine feet apart, the posts may be VINEYARD POSTS 417 eighteen or twenty feet apart, and a vine will then stand fonr or five feet from each post. If the posts in the row are eighteen feet apart and the rows eight feet apart, about three hundred and thirty posts will be required to the acre. Except in very hard and stony lands, the posts are driven 2G4. A poor way of bracing the post. with a heavy maul, although many people prefer to set the end posts in holes, thinking that they endure the strain better. In all loose soils, how- ever, posts can be made as firm bj- driving as by setting with a spade. All posts should be as firm as possible, in order to hold up the heav}^ loads of vines and fruit. In setting posts on hillsides, it is a common practice to lean them slightly uphill, for there is always a tendency for the posts to tilt down the slope. For the Kniffin systems, es- pecially for the strong -growing grapes, the posts must stand six or six and one -half feet high when 418 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING set, but a foot less will usually be sufficient for the upright and horizontal systems. The posts should stand higher at first than is necessary for the support of the wires, for they will need to be driven down occasionally as they become loose. The end posts of each row should be well braced, 2G5. Bracing the eud post. as shown in Figs. 289, 290. A style of brace which is sometimes recommended, is to anchor the post to a stone, as in Fig. 264, but this is imprac- ticable. Fig. 265 illustrates the bracing of fence posts, of which the Prairie Farmer says: "The usual way of bracing, shown in the upper figure, is faulty, the brace being too high up on the post and standing too vertical. It should rest nearly against the center of strain on the post and more nearly in a horizontal position, as shown in the lower figure. A wire connecting the top of the WIRE FOR THE TRELLIS 419 second post with the bottom of the end post pre- vents the brace from pushing it over." It is only a question of time when iron posts will come into general use. Second-hand steam- pipe could no doubt be used. Iron posts are not only more durable, but they do not harbor insects and fungi. The wire ordinarily used is No. 12, except for the top wire in the Kniffin training, which is usu- ally No. 10, as the greater part of the weight is then upon the top wire. No. 9 is sometimes used, but it is often heavier than necessary. No. 14 is occasionally used for the middle and upper rows in the upright systems, but it is not strong enough. The following figures show the sizes and weights of these and similar iron and steel wires: No. Diameter in inches. Weight of 100 feet. Feet in 2,000 pounds. 9 .148 5.80 pounds. 34,483 10 .135 4.83 41,408 11 .120 3.82 " 52,356 12 .105 2.92 " 68,493 13 .092 2.24 " 89,286 14 .080 1.69 " 118,343 15 .072 1.37 " 145,98? 16 .063 1.05 " 190,476 The plain annealed iron wire costs about three cents per pound, and the galvanized — which is less used for vineyards — three and one -half cents. Of No. 12 wire, about one hundred and sixty pounds is required per acre for a single run on rows eight feet apart, and about five hundred 420 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING pounds for three runs. The cost of No. 12 wire per acre, for three runs, therefore, is about fifteen doHars. The wire is secured to the intermediate posts by staples driven in firmly, so that the wire will not pull through readily of its own weight, but still loosely enough to allow of the tightening of the wires. In other words, the head of the staple should not quite touch the wire. Grape staples are of three lengths, about an inch, inch and a- quarter, and an inch and a-half respectively. The shortest length is little used. The medium length is used for hard -wood posts and the longest for soft posts, like chestnut and cedar. These staples cost five cents per pound, usually, and a pound of the medium length contains from ninety to one hundred of the No. 10 wire size. An acre, for three wires, will therefore require, for this size, about nine or ten pounds of staples. In windj^ regions, the wires should be placed on the wind- ward side of the posts, and on hillsides it should be on the up-hill side. There are several devices on the market for stretching the wires on a trellis, such as the "come-alongs" used by linemen and fence build- ers. The one commonly used in the Chautauqua district of New York is shown in Fig. 266. The hook is secured to the post, and the wire is held in the clamp or jaws at the opposite end. The operator j^ulls the rope, and when the wire is 266. Wire stretcher 2G7. Parallel wire stretcher. ■G8. Parallel wire stretchers in operation, the slack being pulled np by the strap. 269. Westfield grip. 422 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING taut, slips the rope in the catch at a. The loose end of the wh-e is then secnrecl to the post, and the machine is removed. Other forms of "come- alongs" are shown in Figs. 267, 268, 269.* There are various means of securing the wires to the end posts, but the commonest method is to wind them about the post once and secure them with a staple, or twist the end of the wire back upon itself, forming a loop. The wires should be drawn taut to prevent sagging with the w^eight of fruit and leaves. In order to allow for the con- traction of the wires in winter, some growers loosen the wires after harvest, and others provide some device which will relieve the strain. The Yeomans patent grape-vine trellis is a simple and effective lever -contrivance attached to each wire, and which is operated to loosen the wires in fall and to tighten them in spring. The end post is sometimes provided upon the back with a square -headed pin which works tightly in an inch and a -half auger hole, and about which the end of the wire is wound. A square -headed iron wrench operates the pin, while the tension of the wire around the side of the post keeps the pin from slipping. This device is not durable, how- ever. An ingenious man can easily contrive some device for relieving the tension, if he should think it necessary. As a matter of practice, however, ^Manufactured by Eureka Tempered Copper Works, North East, Penna. CARE OF THE TRELLIS 423 the wires soon stretch and sag enough with the burden of fruit and vines to take up the winter contraction, and most growers do not release the wires in fall. It will be found necessary, in fact, to tighten the wires and to straighten up the posts from year to year, as they become loose. It is always a profitable labor to tamp the ground firmly about all the posts every spring. The wires should always be kept tight during the growing season, to prevent the whipping of the vines by the wind. This is espe- cially important in white grapes, which are discolored by the rubbing of leaves and twigs. Unless the vines are very strong, it will be necessary to put up only one wire the first winter. A German knack for taking up the slack is shown in Figs. 270 and 271. The device is made from heavy wire, and the trellis wire is caught up and wound about it, as seen in Fig. 271. A notch filed in either end of the device prevents it from slipping. Trellises are often made of slats, as shown in Fig. 256, but these are always less durable than Device for taking up tli( slack. 424 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING the wire trellises and more expensive to keep in repair ; and iii tlie older portions of the country, where timber is dear, they are also more expen- sive at the ovitset. They catch the wind, and, not being held together by continuous strands, are likely to blow down in sections. Fuller partic- The slack gathered up. ulars concerning the styles of trellis are given in the discussions of the different systems of training. Spencer gives the following supplementary ad- vice for the trellis and general lay-out of the vineyard : "The vineyardists of the Chautauqua grape belt have de- veloped a mode of pruning and training of grapes which has many features peculiar to that district. The trellis is made of two wires, of No. 9 or No. 10 gauge, and chestnut posts. The posts are from six feet to eight feet in length, and cost one cent per lineal foot at the railroad station. In later years, since experience has shown how important air and sunshine are in ripening the fruit, eight-foot posts are most commonly used. Grape posts should be somewhat LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD 425 heavier than those commonly used for wire feuce — from a third to a half larger — and the heaviest should be sorted out for the end posts, for these bear the strain of the wire. An experienced farmer need not be told that they should be sharpened with a true lead -pencil taper, excepting the crooked ones, which should be so beveled as to counteract the crook in driving. "The usual distance apart for the posts in the row of grapes is one post to every three vines, or, in other words, twenty- seven feet, and for ease in stretching the wire, they should be in as straight a line as possible. The posts are driven, but a hole should first be made by an unusually large crowbar with a bulb near the lower end. After the posts are stuck into the holes, they are most conveniently driven by the operator standing in a wagon which is hauled through the row by a horse. A fair weight of maul is twelve pounds, and it requires a good man to swing one of that size all day. Iron mauls are commonly used because they are the cheapest, but one with mi iron shell filled with w^ood "brooms" or frays the top of the post less than the iron maul. Eighteen inches is a fair depth to drive the posts on most soils. If the proprietor delegates the driving to another man, he had better direct that twenty and twenty -two inches be the proper depth, for to the man swinging the maul the post seems deeper than it really is. "A vineyard should have a break or an alley at right angles to the rows as often as every fifty grape vines, for the purpose of dumping grape brush and shortening the trip when hauling fruit. If the vineyard is in fair thrift, longer rows will give so much brush as to be inconvenient in hauling out. " The end posts should not only be the largest of the lot, but should also be well braced. The most common mode is the "hypotenuse brace," consisting of a stiff rail or a four- by-four scantling twelve feet long, with one end notched into the post about midway between the two wires, and the 426 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING other end resting on the ground against a two -foot peg of about the same size as the end post. "The wires (two wires in the Chautauqua trellis) should be strung on the windward side ,of the post ; that is, on the side from which the prevailing winds come. This is very- important when the wind is blowing at thirty to forty miles an hour, and the vines have sails of many square feet of foliage, and perhaps three and four tons of fruit per acre. The staples should be of the same gauge of wire as that used in barbed wire fences, but about one -half inch longer, unless the grape posts should be of hard wood like locust, then fence staples will be long enough. The bottom trellis wire is usually placed from twenty- eight to thirty-two inches from the ground. Owing to the arm system of pruning in the Chautauqua grape belt, the height of the lower trellis wire is permanent. The upper trellis wire is, in many instances, raised as the vineyard comes to ma- turity. The first year of fruiting, it may not be more than twenty -four inches above the lower wire, and year by year be raised to thirty and thirty -two inches. It is not ad- visable to go more than thirty -six inches apart without putting in a middle or third wire. Each spring many of the posts will sag, and the upper wire will be slack, and many of the braces will be out of place. All of these faults should be corrected just before tying up the canes." TYING Probably the best material for tying the canes and shoots to the trellis is raffia. This is a bast- like material which comes in skeins, and which can be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for about twenty cents a pound. A pound will suffice to tie a quarter of an acre of upright training through- out the season. Raffia is obtained from the strip- TYING THE VINES 427 pings of an oriental palm fBaphia BuffiaJ. Wool- twine is also still largely used for tying, but it is not so cheap and handy as raffia, and it usually has to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the winter pruning, while the raffia breaks with a quick pull of the vine. Some complain that the raffia is not strong enough to hold the vine during the season, but it can easily be doubled. Osier willow^s are much used for tying up the old canes in the spring, and also for summer tying, espe- cially in the nursery regions where the slender trimmings of the cultivated osier willows are easily procured. Wild willows are often used if they can be obtained easily. These willows are tied up in a small bundle, which is held upon the back above the hips by a cord passed about the body. The butts project under the right hand, if the person is right-handed, and the strands are pulled out as needed. The butt is first used, the tie be- ing made with a twist and tuck, the strand is then cut off w4th a knife, and the twig is employed in like manner until it is used up. When wool- twine is used, the ball is often held in front of the work- man by a cord which is tied about it and then passed about the waist. The ball is unwound from the inside, and it will hold its shape until the end becomes so short that it will easily drag upon the ground. Some workmen carry the ball in a bag, after the manner of carrying seed-corn. Raffia is not so easily carried in the field as the wool -twine 428 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING or the willow, aud this fact interferes with its popularity. Green rje straw, cut directly from the field, is much used for tj^iug the shoots in summer. Small wire, about two -thirds the size of broom -wire, is used occasionally for tying up the canes in spring, but it must be used with care or it will injure the vine. Corn -husks are also employed for this purpose when they can be se- cured. Bass -bark is sometimes used for tying, but in most of the grape regions it is difficult to secure, and it has no advantage over raffia. It is very important that the old canes be tied up early in spring, for the buds are easily broken after they begin to swell. These canes are tied rather firmly to the wires to hold them steady ; but the growing shoots, which are tied during the summer, are fastened more loosely, to allow of the necessary increase in diameter. Further advice on tying is given by Spencer: "Tying is done by women, boys and girls and cheap men. The tying materials are wire, wool -twine, raffia, willow and carpet-rags. By turning to Fig. 278, it will be seen how the canes are arrayed on the two trellises after the Chautauqua method. The horizontal arms, at the lower wire, are more or less permanent, and they are loosely confined to the wire, always by string or willow. The vertical canes, which are fastened to the top trellis, are now universally tied with annealed wire of No. 18 gauge, and cut in lengths of four inches. The economy in using the wire is the despatch in tying, and the fact that the work can be done on cool days when light gloves are necessary. The 272. Tying with wire. The first movement. 273. The second movement. 274. The third movement. 275. The tie complete. 430 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING use of wire has been strenuously opposed by people who have never used it. The objection has been that the fine wire would chafe the cane so that the cane would break and fall from the trellis. Such instances occur rarely, and when they do, it is so late in the season that the tendrils of the vine are ample to hold it to the trellis. The cane should be tied to the windward side of the wire for the same reason that the wire was stapled on the windward side of the post. In using the wire tie, the operator stands on the opposite side of the trellis from the cane, and follows the movements as illustrated in Figs. 272-275. This opera • tion puts on the wire with the fewest number of move- ments, binds the cane snug to the trellis, and makes a loop that falls from the trellis on the following season, when the cane is torn away. The tying wire should be thoroughly annealed, so that it can be easily bent and give no springy reaction after being worked. This wire is also useful in tying thorny shrubs to a trellis when a mittened hand is necessary to hold the branches in place while the other hand makes the tie." Chapter VIII AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CON- CLUDED—THE VARIOUS MODES The grape is trained for the purpose of keeping the vine in convenient shape and to allow each cluster to receive its full share of space and light. A well trained vine is easily cultivated and sprayed, and the grapes are readily harvested, and it is only upon such vines that the best and fairest fruit is uniformly produced. Some kind of train- ing is essential, for a vine will not often bear good fruit when it lies upon the ground. Grape train- ing is described by one vineyardist as a process of hanging the vine up for air and sunshine, and he thinks that different ways of accomplishing that object may be equally good. He likens it to the hanging -out of a washing. He says that his mother and his wife each has her particular way of putting a washing on the line, and each is punctilious that her favorite method shall be ob- served. He says that he speaks from experience, for he has been bossed by both. In essence, there are three general types or styles of training, which may be denominated the upright, drooping, and horizontal, these terms (431) 432 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED designating the direction of the bearing shoots.* The upright systems carry two , or more canes or arms along a low horizontal wire, or sometimes obliquely across a trellis from below upwards, and the shoots are tied up, as they grow, to t'he wires above. The horizontal systems carry up a per- pendicular cane or arm, or sometimes two or more, from which the shoots are carried out hori- zontally, and are tied to perpendicular wires or posts. The drooping systems, represented in the Kniffin and post -training, carry the canes or arms up on a high horizontal wire or trellis, and allow the shoots to hang without tying. To one or another of these types all the systems of American grape training can be referred. There is no system of training which is best for all purposes and all varieties. The strong -grow- ing varieties more readily adapt themselves to the high, drooping systems than the weaker varieties, although the Delaware is often trained on a com- paratively low Kniflfin with good effect. The high or drooping systems are of comparatively recent origin, and their particular advantages are the sav- ing of labor in summer tying, cheapness of the trellis, and the facility with which the ground can be cultivated without endangering the branches of the vine. The upright training distributes the bearing wood more evenly upon the vine, and is * Classification first made in the original edition of " Americaji Grape Training." THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS 433 thought, therefore, to insure more uniform fruit ; it keeps the top near the root, which is sometimes thought to be an advantage, and it is better suited to the stature of the small -growing varieties. There is, perhaps, a greater temptation to neglect the vines in the drooping systems than in the others, because the shoots need no tj'ing, and do not, therefore, demand frequent attention, whereas in the upright systems the shoots soon become broken or displaced if not watched. For very large areas, or circumstances in which the best of care cannot be given the vineyard, the Kniffin or drooping systems are perhaps always to be recom- mended. Yet the Kniffin profits as much from diligence and skill as the other systems ; but it will give better results than the others under partial neglect. The strong varieties, especially those making long and drooping canes, are well adapted to the Kniffin styles ; but the smaller sorts, and those stronger kinds which, like Ca- tawba, make an upright and stocky growth, are usually trained on the upright systems. But the merits of both systems are so various and even so little understood, that it is impossible to recom- mend either one unqualifiedly. The advantages in either case are often little more than matters of personal opinion. It should be said, however, that the Kniffin or drooping systems are gaining in favor rapidly, and are evidently destined to overthrow much of the older upright training. 434 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED This fact does not indicate, however, that the upright system is to be entirely superseded, but rather that it must be confined to those varieties and conditions for which it is best adapted. The two systems will undoubtedly supplement each other. The horizontal systems are occasionally used for choice varieties, but they are little known. To Mr. Spencer, who has observed many modes of training, the subject appeals as follows : "The fundamental idea of grape pruning is to find the proper balance between the energy which the vine has and the labor that it is expected to perform. What we treat as training is nothing more or less than spreading the vines to light and air, and there are many ways of doing it. Many of them are good, and some better for some varieties of grapes and for certain locations. As a rule, the difference in results of different methods of train- ing is not worth the contention that it has pro- voked. The great point is to determine what the plant is capable of doing, and then to cut and train the top to correspond. Select any system of training which you fancy or with which your help is the most familiar, and then leave your wood in the form most convenient for that system." Spencer gives the following notes on general methods of grape pruning in the Chautauqua vineyards : PRUNING IN CHAUTAUQUA 435 "A large part of the pruning is done in the winter months — some beginning in the fall soon after the crop is har- vested. Two grades of labor can be employed in this opera- tion — the skilled and the unskilled. The man of skill, or the expert, goes ahead and blocks out. He stands in front of a vine of far more tangled brush than that seen in Fig. 282, and, at a glance, tells by a judgment ripened by much ob- servation, just how many buds are required to ballast and not over-ballast the vine for another year. As the expert stands before the vine making the estimate, he might be likened to a man weighing a ham with steelyards, pushing the weight backward and forward, notch by notch, finding the point of balance. The expert, with his pruning shears, makes a dive here and a lunge there, a clip at the bottom and a snip at the top, and with a few more seemingly wild passes, all wood is severed from the bearing vine, but the number of buds desired to give fruit another year are left. The unskilled help, wiio receives possibly a dollar a day less than the expert, follows the expert, cutting the tendrils and other parts of the vine that are attached to anything but the trellis. The next process is ^stripping' the brush, and it is one involving brute force, ragged clothes and leather mittens. If the laborer does not put on a ragged suit, he will be apt to have one before he is done with his job. There is a little knack even in doing this work to the best advantage. The dismembered vines still hang to the upper trellis and often cling with considerable tenacity, and a particular jerk or yank, more easily demonstrated than described, is most effectual to land the brush on the ground between the rows. "The next operation is to haul the brush out to the end of the row. Many tools have been devised for this purpose, some of them involving considerable expense. It is now the universal practice to use a simple pole — one a little larger than would be used to bind a load of logs, nnd not so large as required in binding a load of hay. It may be a 436 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED sapling about four inches at the butt and two and one -half inches at the top, and ten to twelve feet long. The small end is to be held in the right hand, and the butt end to be pushed along the ground. A horse is hitched to this pole by a rope drawn through an inch hole about four feet from the butt or ground end. When starting at the end of the row, it seems that the straight pole would not gather any brush at all. It is a question of catching the first wad, and all the rest of the brush will cling to it. At the end of the row, the brush is hauled to a convenient pile, where it is to be burned, and is dumped by letting the end of the pole held in the hand revolve over towards the horse. If the pole hits the horse, the operator will see that there is not enough stretch of rope between the pole and whiffletree, and more must be provided." The cost of pruuiiig au acre of grapes is re- ported as follows:* Blocking out $1.00 Cutting curls 1.50 Stripping, removing brush, tapping posts, stretching wire . . . . 1.50 Labor of tj^ing 1.50 Cost of ties .25 $5 75 THE UPRIGHT SYSTEMS The upright S3'steins are the oldest and best known of the styles of American grape training. They consist, essentially, in carrying out two hori- zontal canes, or sometimes arms, upon a low wire, *John W. Spencer, Proc. W. New York Hort. Soc, IS'JG, p. 44. HORIZONTAL ARM 437 and training tlie shoots from them vertically. These shoots are tied to the upper wires as they grow. This type was first clearly and forcibly described in detail by A. S. Fuller, in his "Grape Culturist," in 1864, and it became known as the Fuller system, although it was practiced many years previous to this time. Horizontal arm spur system.— There are two types, or styles, of this upright system. The older type and the one described in the books, is known as the Horizontal Arm Spur training. In this method, the two horizontal branches are perma- nent, or, in other words, they are true arms. The canes are cut back each fall to upright spurs on these arms, as explained on page 409 (Fig. 261). Two shoots are often allowed to grow from each of these spurs, as shown in Fig. 276. These spurs become overgrown and weak after a few years, and they are renewed from new shoots which spring from near their base or from the arm itself. Sometimes the whole arm is renewed from the head of the vine, or even from the ground. The number of these upright canes and their distance apart upon these permanent arms depend upon the variety, the strength of the vine and soil, and the fancy of the grower. From twelve to twenty inches apart upon the arm is the com- mon distance. If a vine is strong enough to carry five canes and the vines are eight feet apart, then the canes are distributed at intervals of about 438 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED twenty inclies. Some very strong vines of vig- orous varieties will carry eight canes upon the two 276. Horizontal arm spur training. arms together, and in this case the canes stand about a foot apart. In the fall or winter, the cane is cut away and the strongest new cane which springs from its base is left for the bearing wood of the following year. This new cane is itself headed -in to the height of the trellis ; that is, if the uppermost and lowermost wires are thirty -four inches apart — as they are in the Broc- ton vineyards of Western New York, where a modification of this system is largely used — this new cane is shortened -in to about thirty -six inches long. On this length of cane there will be about seven good buds in the common varieties. A modification of this horizontal arm svstem is HORIZONTAL ARM 439 shown in Fig. 278. It is used in the vineyards of Chautauqua county, New York. The arms in this case are very short, and canes are taken out only at two or three places. The picture shows a vine in which two or three canes are taken from Horizontal arm. (Diagram.) the end of each arm, making five canes for the bearing top of the vine. These canes are cut back to spurs in the fall, as explained in the above paragraph. Sometimes one or two other canes are taken out of these arms nearer the main trunk. One is taken out in Fig. 278. The advantages urged for tliis style of training are the stronger growth which is insured by so few canes, and the 440 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED small amount of old or permanent wood wliicli is left to each vine. The true horizontal arm training is less popular than it was twenty j-ears ago. It has serious faults, especially in the persistence of the old 278. Chautauqua or Brocton training. spurs, and probably will eventually give place to other systems. Aside from the spur -pruning, the system is much like the following, which is a modification to allow of renewal, and to which the reader is referred for further details. This modification, which may be called the High Re- newal,* and which is one of the most serviceable *Tenn first used in the original edition of "American Grape Train- ing," 1893. HIGH RENEWAL TRAINING 441 of any of the styles of trainiug, although it has never been fully described, we shall now consider. The high renewal.— This is an upright train- ing which is now very extensively employed in the lake regions of New York and elsewhere. It starts the head or branches of the vine from eighteen to thirty inches from the ground. The ideal height for most varieties is probably about 279. The second season of upright training. two feet to the first wire, although thirty inches is better than eighteen. If the vines are lower than two feet, thej' are liable to be injured by the plow or cultivator, the earth is dashed against the clusters by heavy rains, and if the shoots become loose they strike the ground and the grapes are soon soiled. A single trunk or arm is carried up to the required height, or if good branches hap- pen to form lower down, two main canes are car- ried from this point up to the required distance to meet the lower wire, so that the trunk becomes Y- shaped, as seen in Figs, 279, 281, 285. In fact. 442 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED viueyardists usually prefer to have this head or crotch a few inches below the lowest wire, to facilitate the spreading and placing of the canes. The trellis for the upright systems nearly always comprises three wires, although only two are some- times used for the smaller -growing varieties, and very rarely four are used for the strongest kinds, although this number is unnecessary. The lowest wire is stretched at eighteen, twenty -four or thirty inches from the ground, and the two upper ones are placed at distances of eighteen or twenty inches apart. The second season after plant- ing should see the vine tied to the first wire. Fig. 279 is a photograph taken in July, 1892, of a Concord vine which was set in the spring of 1891. In .the fall of 1891, the vine was cut back to three or four buds, and in the spring of 1892, two of these buds were allowed to make canes. These two canes are now tied to the wire, which was stretched in the spring of 1892. In this case, the branches start near the ^280. Making the T-head. HIGH RENEWAL 44^ surface of the ground. Sometimes only a single strong slioot grows, and in order to secure the two branches it is broken over where it passes the wire, and is usually tied to a stake to afford support. Fig. 280 shows this operation. A bud will develop at the bend or break, from which The third season of high renewal. Concord. a cane can be trained in the opposite direction from the original portion, and the T-head is secured. The close of the second season after planting, therefore, will usually find the vine with two good canes extending in opposite directions, and tied to the wire. The pruning at that time will con- sist in cutting off the ends of these canes back to firm and strong wood, which will leave them bear- ing from five to eight buds. The third season, shoots will grow upright from these buds and will be tied to the second wire, which has now been supplied. Late in the third season the vine should have much the appearance of that shown 444 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED in Fig. 281. The third wire is usually added to the trellis at the close of the second season, at the same time that the second wire is put on ; but occasional!}^ this is delayed until the close of the third season. Some of the upright shoots may bear a few grapes this third season, but unless the vines are very strong, the flower clusters should be removed; and a three -year -old vine should never be allowed to bear heavily. It must be remembered, however, that both these hori- zontal canes, with all their mass of herbage, are to be cut away in the fall or winter of the third year. Some provision must have been made, therefoi-e, for the top for the fourth year. It will be recalled that in discussing the renewal pruning (page 411, Fig. 2G2) , it was found that two or more shoots are allowed to grow each year to form the basis of the top the following 3-ear. In Fig. 281 three or four such shoots can be seen springing from the Y-shaped portion in the center of the vine. These shoots or canes are to be bent down to the lowest wire next spring, and the bearing shoots will arise from them. This pro- cess will be seen at a glance from Figs. 282, 283 and 284. The first shows a full-grown old vine, trained on three wires. Fig. 283 shows the same vine when pruned. Two long canes, with six or eight buds each, are left to form the top of the following year. The two stubs from which the renewal canes are to grow for the second year's E. k ' / \ L. 446 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED top, are seen in the center. In the fall of the next year, therefore, these two outside canes will be cut away to the base of these renewal stubs ; and the renewal canes, in the meantime, will have High renewal, pruned. made a year's growth. These renewal stubs in this picture are really spurs, as will be seen ; that is, they contain two ages of wood. It is the pur- pose, however, to remove these stubs or spurs every two or three years at most, and to bring new canes directly from the old wood or head. 448 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED If possible, the renewal cane is brought from a new place on the old wood every year, in order to avoid a spur. Such was the case in the vine shown in Fig. 262, page 410. Fig. 284 shows the vine tied down to the lowest wire. Two ties have been made upon each cane. Fig. 285 shows a vine in which four canes have been left to form the top for the following year. The stubs for the renewals can be seen in the Y. It is custom ar}' to leave more than two canes, occasion- ally, in strong -growing varieties like Concord. Sometimes four, and occasionally six are left. If four canes are left, two may be tied together in each direction on the bottom wire. If six are used, the two extra ones should be tied along the second wire, parallel with the lowest ones. These extra canes are sometimes tied obliquely across the trellis, but this practice should be discouraged, for the usual tendency of the vine is to make its greatest growth at the top, and the lower buds may fail to bear. The ideal length of the two canes varies with different varieties and the distance apart at which the vines are set. Very strong kinds, like Con- cord and Niagara, can carry ten or twelve buds on each cane, especially if the vines are set more than eight feet apart. Fig. 286 shows half of a Con- cord vine in which about ten buds were left on each cane. These strong sorts can often carry forty or fifty buds to the vine to advantage, but HIGH RENEWAL 449 when this number is left the canes should be four, as explained in the last paragraph. In Delaware and other weak -growing varieties, twenty or twenty -five buds to the vine should be the maxi- mum and only two canes should be left. In short- jointed varieties, the canes are usually cut to the desired length — four to six feet — even if too great a number of buds is left, but the shoots which spring from these extra buds are broken out soon after they start. A Delaware vine which has made an unusually short or weak growth will require fewer buds to be left for next year's top than a neighboring vine of the same variety which has made a strong growth. The Catawba, which is a short but very stiff grower, is usually cut back to six or eight buds, as seen in Figs. 282, 283, 284. Fig. 287 is a good Catawba vine four years set. The grower soon learns to adjust the pruning to the character of the vine, without effort. He has in his mind a certain ideal crop of grapes, per- haps about so many bunches, and he leaves enough buds to . produce this amount, allowing, perhaps, ten per cent of the buds for accidents and barren shoots. He knows, too, that the canes should always be cut back to firm, well -ripened wood. It should be said that mere size of cane does not indicate its value as a fruit -bearing branch. Hard, smooth wood of medium size usually gives better results than the very large and softer canes cc 450 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED which are sometimes produced on soils rich in uiti'ogenous manures. This large and overgrown wood is known as a "bull cane." A cane does not attain its full growth the first year, but will increase in diameter during the second season. The tying, therefore, should.be sufficiently loose 285. High renewal with four canes. or elastic to allow of growth, although it should be firm enough to hold the cane constantly in place. The cane should not be hung from the wire, but tied close to it, provision being made for the swelling of the wood to twice its diameter. The shoots are tied to the second wire soon after they pass it, or have attained firmness enough to allow of tying, and the same shoots are tied again to the top wire. All the shoots do not grow with equal rapidity, and the vineyard must be gone over more than twice if the shoots are kept prop- HIGH RENEWAL 451 erly tied. Perhaps four times over the vineyard will be all that is necessary for careful summer tying. Many vineyardists tie only once or twice, but this neglect should be discouraged. This tying is mostly done with green rye straw or raffia. A piece of straw about ten inches long is used for each tie, it usually being wrapped but once about the shoot. The knot is made with a twist ^m^m^m SJf m 286. High I'enewal complete. Concord. and tuck. If raffia is used, a common string- knot is made. When the shoots reach the top of the trellis, they are usually allowed to take care of themselves. The Catawba shoots stand nearly erect above the top wire, and ordinarily need no attention. The long -growing varieties will be likely to drag the shoots on the ground before the close of the season. If these tips interfere with the cultivation, they may be clipped off with a sickle or corn -cutter, although this practice should be delayed as long as possible to prevent the growth of laterals (see page 415). It is prob- 452 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED ably better to avoid cutting entii'ely. Some growers wind or tie the longest shoots on the top wire, as seen in Fig. 289. It is probably best, as a rule, to allow the shoots to hang over naturally, and to clip them only when they seriously inter- fere with the work of the hoe and cultivator. The 287. High renewal in foui'th year, with Catawba. treatment for slat trellises is essentially the same as on wire trellises, except that longer strings must be used in tying. It is apparent that nearly or quite all the fruit in the High Renewal is borne between the first and second wires, at the bottom of the trellis. If the lower wire is twenty -four or thirty inches high, this fruit will hang at the most convenient height for picking. The fruit trays are set upon HIGH RENEWAL 453 the ground, and both hands are free. The fruit is also protected from the hot suns and from frost ; and if the shoots are properly tied, the clusters are not shaken roughly by the wind. It is, of course, desirable that all the clusters should be fully exposed to light and air, and all superfluous shoots should, therefore, be pulled off, as already explained (page 415) . In rare cases it may also be necessary, for this purpose, to prune the canes which droop over from the top of the trellis. After a few years, the old top or head of the vine becomes more or less weak, and it should be renewed from the root. The thrifty vineyardist anticipates this circumstance, and now and then allows a strong shoot which may spring from the ground to remain. This shoot is treated very much like a young vine, and the head is formed during the second year (page 408). If it should make a strong growth during the first year, and develop stout laterals, it may be cut back only to the lowest wii'C the first fall ; but in other cases, it should be cut back to two or three buds, from one of which a strong and permanent shoot is taken the second year. When this new top comes into bearing, the old trunk is cut off at the surface of the ground, or below, if possible. A top will retain its vigor for six or eight years under ordinary treatment, and sometimes much longer. These tops are renewed from time to time as occasion permits or demands, and any vinej^ard 454 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED which has beeu bearing a number of years will nearly always have a few vines in process of re- newal. The reader should not receive the impres- sion, however, that the life or vitality of a vine is necessarily limited. Vines often continue to bear for twenty years or more without renewal ; but the head after a time comes to be large and rough V.V .i%- 288. A Concord vine thirty years old. and crooked, and often weakened by scars, and better results are likely to be obtained if a new, clean vine takes its place. Fig. 288 shows the great stump of a Concord vine thirty years old, and which is still in thrift}^ bearing condition. The High Renewal is extensivelj^ used in the lake region of Western New York for all varie- ties. It is particularly well adapted to Delaware, Catawba, and other weak or short varieties. FAN SYSTEM OF TRAINING 455 When systematically pursued, it gives fruit of the highest excellence. This High Renewal train- ing, like all the low upright systems, allows the 289, Fan-trained Concord. vines to be laid down easily in winter, which is an important consideration in many parts of Canada and in the colder Northern states. It is often called, but erroneousl}^, the horizontal arm sys- tem. Fan -TRAINING. — A system much used a few years ago, and still sometimes seen, is one which renews back nearly to the ground each year, and carries the fruiting canes up in a fan -shaped manner. This system has the advantages of dis- pensing with much of the old wood, or trunk, and 456 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED facilitating laying down the vine in winter in cold climates. On the other hand, it has the dis- advantages of bearing the frnit too low — unless the lower clusters are removed — and making a vine of inconvenient shape for tying. It is little used at present. Fig. 289 shows a fan -trained 290. The vine pruned vine before pruning. Fig. 290 is the same vine pruned, although it is by no means an ideal plant. This vine has- not been properly- renewed, but bears long, crooked spurs, from which the canes arise. One of these spurs is seen to extend beyond the lower wire. The spurs should be kept verj^ short, and thev should he entirelv removed everv two FAN -TRAINING 457 or three j^ars, as explained iu the above discus- sion of the High Renewal training. The shoots are allowed to take their natural course, being tied to any wire near which they chance to grow, finally lopping over the top wire. Sometimes the canes are bent down and tied horizontally to the wires, and this is probabl}' 91. Marvin's fau-trainiug. the better i:»ractice. Two canes may be tied in each direction on the lower wire, or the two in- ner canes may be tied down to the second wire. In either case, the vine is essentially like the High Renewal, except that the trunk is shorter. Another form of fan -training, which is a modi- fication of the Kelly's Island System, is shown in Fig. 291, and is thus described T'^^ "The engrav- ing represents a sample vine ten j'ears old pruned. *D. S. Marvin, Pop. (iard. 140. 458 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED It will be observed that the right-hand eaue is two -thirds of it old wood, to be all cut away at the next pruning. The old canes that bore a heavy crop of fruit have been pruned away, all but the stumps of the right-hand cane. Three or more buds at the end of the cane, as the vine may be strong or weak, are to be left to bear fruit, the others to be rubbed off, except enough to form new canes near the ground, to renew next year's bearing canes. ^ ^ ^< The original Kelly's Island System was one long cane or arm, with spurs for next year's canes at the surface of the soil, but it was found objectionable because it is always difficult to get the fruit -spurs to grow uniform upon long canes, the first and the last canes growing too strong at the exj)ense of the center canes." A mongrel mode of training is reported in Fig. 292. The diagram is described* as "a well- managed six-jear-old vine ; heavier parts show old wood ; light parts, this j^ear's wood." It is seen to be a combination of High Renewal (re- newal cane at a), horizontal arm and fan- training. THE D BOO PI NO SYSTEMS In 1845 William T. Cornell planted a vine- yard in the Hudson River Valley. A neighbor, *By "a -well-known horticulturist" in Pop. Gard. iii. 278. HISTORY OF KNIFFIN TRAINING 459 William Kniffiii, was a stone mason with a few acres of land to Avliicli lie devoted his attention during the leisure seasons of his trade. Cornell induced Kniffin to plant a few grapes. He planted the Isabella, and succeeding beyond his expectations, the plantation was increased into a respectable vineyard, and Kniffin came to be re- garded as a local authority upon grape culture. 292. A mixed mode. Those were the pioneer days in commercial grape growing in North America, and there were no undisputed maxims of cultivation and training. If any system of close training and pruning was employed, it was probably the old horizontal arm spur system, or something like it. One day a large limb broke from an apple-tree and fell on a grape-vine, tearing off some of the canes and crushing the vine into a singular shape. The vine was thought to be ruined, but it was left 460 AMERICAN GRAP^ TRAINING, CONCLUDED until the fruit could be gathered. But as the fruit matured, its large size and handsome ap- pearance attracted attention. It was the best fruit in the vineyard! Mr. Kniffin was an obser- vant man, and he inquired into the cause of the excellent fruit. He noticed that the vine had been pruned, and that the best canes stood out horizontall}'. From this suggestion he developed the four -cane system of training which now bears his name. A year or two later, in 1854, the system had attracted the attention of those of his neighbors who cultivated grapes, and there- after it spread throughout the Hudson Valley, where it is to-day, with various modifications, the chief method of grape training. Its merits have become known be^'ond its original valley, and it is now spreading more rapidly than any other sj'stem. The ground upon which the old Isabellas grew is now occupied by Concords, which are as vigorous and productive as those grown upon newer soils. William Kniffin died at his home in Clintondale, Ulster county, New York, June 13, 1876, at fifty -seven years of age. The true or four -cane Kniffin system.— The true Kniffin system, very nearly as practiced by its originator, is shown in Fig. 293. A single stem or trunk is carried directly to the top wire, and two canes are taken out from side spurs at each Avire. Mr. Kniffin believed in short canes, and cut them back to about six buds on both v.Sit-^.f ' '"" '"i*~~ 462 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED wires. But most growers now prefer to leave the upper canes longer than the lower ones, as seen in illustration. The bearing shoots are al- lowed to hang at will, so that no summer tying is necessary ; this is the distinguishing mark of the various Kuiffin systems. The main trunk is tied to each wire, and the canes are tied to the wires in spring. This system possesses the great advantage, there- fore, of requiring little labor during the busy days of the growing season ; and the vines are easily cultivated, and if the rows are nine or ten feet apart, currants or other bush- fruits can be grown be- tween. The system is especially adapted to the strong varieties of grapes, particularly to those which are most droop- ing. For further comparisons of the merits of 294. No. 293 when pruned. KNIPFIN PRUNING 463 different systems of traiuing, the reader should consult pages 432 to 434. The pruning of the Kniffin vine consists in cutting off all the wood except a single cane from each spur. Fig. 294 illustrates the process. This is the same vine which is shown with the fulL amount of wood on in Fig. 293. The drooping shoots shown in that illustration bore the grapes of 1892 ; and now, in the winter of 1892-3, they are all to be cut away, with the horizontal old canes from which they grew, except onl}^ the four canes which hang nearest the main trunk. Fig. 294 shows the vine after it had been pruned „ It is not obligatory that the canes which are left after the pruning should be those nearest the trunk, for it may happen that these may be weak; but, other things being equal, these canes are preferable because their selection keeps the old spurs short. The careful grower will take pains to remove the weak shoots which start from this point, in order that a strong cane may be obtained. It is desirable that these side spurs be removed entirely every three or four years, a new cane being brought out again from the main body or trunk. There is little expectation, how- ever, that there shall be such a complete renewal pruning as that practiced in the High RencAval, which we discussed in the preceding pages. It will be seen that the drooping canes in Fig. 294 are shoz^ter than they were originally, as 464 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED shown in Fig. 293. They have been cut back. The length at which these canes shall be left is a moot point. Much depends on the variety, the distance between the wires, the strength of the soil, and other factors. Nearly all growers 'now agree that the upper canes should be longer than the lower ones, although equal canes are still used in some places. In strong varieties, like Worden, each of the upper canes may bear ten buds and each of the lower ones live. This gives thirty buds to the vine. Some growers pre- fer to leave twelve buds above, and only four below. These four pruned canes are generally allowed to hang during winter, but are tied onto the wires before the buds swell in spring. They are stretched out horizontally and secured to the wire by one or two ties on each cane The shoots which spring from these horizontal canes stand upright or oblique at first, but they soon fall over with the weight of foliage and fruit. If they touch the ground, the ends may be clipped with a sickle, corn -cutter or scythe, although this is not always done, and is not necessary un- less the canes interfere with cultivation. There is no summer pinching or pruning, although the superfluous shoots should be broken out, as in other systems. It is imperative, for best results, that the shoots do not grow out horizontally on the wires. Thev should be torn off the wires once KNIFFIN TRAINING 465 or twice during the summer, so that they will hang free. Only two wires are used in the true Kniffin trellis. The end posts are usually set in holes, rather than driven, to render them solid, and they should always be well braced. The intermediate posts are driven, and they usually stand between every alternate vine, or twenty feet apart if the vines are ten feet apart — which is a common dis- tance for the most vigorous varieties. For the strong -growing varieties, the top wire is placed from five and one -half to six feet above the ground. Five feet nine inches is a popular height. The posts will heave sufficiently to bring the height to six feet, although it is best to "tap" the posts every spring with a maul in order to drive them back and make them firm. The lower wire is usually placed at three and one -half feet. Delawares, if trained Kniffin, should not stand above five feet four inches, or at most five feet six inches. Strong vines on good soil are often put onto the trellis the second year, although it is a commoner practice, perhaps, to stake them the second season, as already explained (page 412), and put them on the wires the third season. The year following the tying on the trellis, the vine should bear a partial crop. The vine is usually carried directly to the top wire the first season of training, although it is the practice of some grow- ers, especially outside the Hudson Valley, to stop DD 466 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED the trunk at the lower wire the first year of permanent training, and to carry it to the top wire the following year. Yields from good Kniffin vines will average fully as high and perhaps higher than from other species of training. W. D. Barns, of Orange county, New York, has had an annual average of twenty -six pounds of Concords to the vine for nine years, 1,550 vines being considered in the calculation. While the Delaware is not so well suited to the Kniflfin system as stronger varieties, it can nevertheless be trained in this manner with success, as the following average yields obtained by Mr. Barns from 200 vines set in 1881 will show : 1886 8/^ pounds to the vine. 1887 11% " " " 1888 8 " " " 1889 dX " " " 1890 7 " " " 1891 16 " " " 1892 13 " " " Modifications of the four -cane Kniffin.— Various modifications of this original four -cane Kniffin are in use. The Kniffin idea is often carelessly applied to a rack trellis. In such cases, several canes were allowed to grow where only two should have been left. Fig. 295 is a com- mon but poor style of Kniffin used in some of the large new vineyards of western New York. It differs from the type in the training of the MODIFIED KNIFFINS 467 young wood. These shoots, instead of being al- lowed to hang at will, are carried out horizon- tally and either tied to the wire or twisted around it. The advantage urged for this modification is the little injury done by wind, but, as a mat- ter of practice, it affords less protection than the true drooping Kniffin, for in the latter the shoots /<^^ 295. A common but poor type of Kuiffin. from the upper cane soon cling to the lower wire, and the shoots from both tiers of canes protect each other below the lower wire. There are three serious disadvantages to this holding up of the shoots, — it makes unnecessary labor, the canes are likely to make wood or "bull canes" (see page 450) at the expense of fruit, and the fruit is bunched together on the vines. The true and successful Kniffin does not allow 468 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED the growing shoots to run out on the wn-es in this way (see page 464). Another common modification of the four -cane Knifiin is that shown in Fig. 296, in which a crotch or Y is made in the trunk. This crotch is used in the belief that the necessary sap sup- ^.^^-^P^^ ^pr^y,% 296. The Y-trunk Kuiffin. ply is thereby more readily deflected into the lower arms than by the system of side spurring on a straight or continuous trunk. This is prob- ably a fallac3% and rnaj^ have arisen from the at- tempt to grow as heavy canes on the lower Avires as on the upper one. Nevertheless, this modifi- cation is in common use in western Ncav York and elsewhere. This Y-trunk Kniffin, as understood in western New York, is explained in its various stages in MODIFIED KNIFFIN9 469 Fig"s. 297 to 303,''^ the cross -marks^ iudicating where cuts are to be made. If it is desired to leave an equal number of buds on both wires, the Double Kniffin will prol)- a])ly be found most satisfactory. Two distinct trunks are brought from the root, each supply- ing a single wire only (Fig. 304). The trunks are often tied together to hold them in place. This system, under the name of Improved Kniffin, is just coming into notice in restricted portions of the Hudson Valley. The two -cane Kniffin, or ibibrella sys- tem. — Inasmuch as the greater part of the fruit in the Four -Cane Kniffin is borne on the upper wire, the question arises if it would not be better to dispense with the lower canes and cut the upper ones longer. This is now done to a considerable extent, especially in the Hudson Valley. Fig. 305 explains the operation. This shows a pruned vine. The trunk is tied to the lower wire to steady it, and two canes, each bearing from nine to fifteen buds, are left on the upper wire. These canes are tied to the upper wire, and thej^ are then bent down, hoop -like, to the lower wire, where the ends are tied. In some instances, the lower wire is dispensed with, but this is not ad- visable. This wire holds the vine in place against the winds, and prevents the too violent whipping of the hanging shoots. During the growing sea- *H. p. Van Duseii, in Pop. Gard. iii. GO. 472 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED son, renewal canes are taken from the spurs in exactlj^ the same manner as in the ordinary Knif- fin. This species of training* reduces the amount of leaf -surface to a minimum, and every precau- tion must be taken to insure a health}- leaf- growth. This system of training will probably not allow of the successful girdling of the vine for the purpose of hastening the maturity and augmenting the size of the fruit (page 284). Yet heavy crops can be obtained from it, if liberal fertilizing and good cultivation are em- plo3^ed, and the fruit is nearlj^ always first-class. A certain Concord vine trained in this manner produced in 1892 eighty clusters of first quality grapes, weighing forty pounds. Another type of Umbrella training has five main canes instead of two. Except in very strong vines, this top is too heavy, and it is probably never so good as the other (Fig. 305), if the highest results are desired; but for the grower who does not practice high cultivation it is probably a safer system than the other. The low, or one -wire Kniffin.— A modifica- tion of this Umbrella system is sometimes used, in which the trellis is only three or four feet high and comprises but a single wire. A cane of ten or a dozen buds is tied out in each direction, and the shoots are allowed to hang in essentially the same manner as in the True or High Kniffin system. The advantages urged for this system MODIFIED KNIFFINS 473 are the protection of the grapes from wind, the large size of the fruit due to the small amount of bearing wood, the ease of laying down the vines, the readiness with which the top can be 30G. Eight-caue Kuiffin. (Diagram. renewed from the root as occasion demands, and the cheapness of the trellis. The SIX -cane Kniffin. — There are many old vineyards in eastern New York which are trained on a six -cane or three -wire system. The gen- eral pruning and management of these vines do not differ from that of the common Kniffin. Very strong varieties, which can carry an abundance of wood, may be profitable on this style of train- ing, but it cannot be recommended. A Concord vineyard over thirty years old, comprising 295 vines, trained in this fashion, is still thrifty and 474 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED productive. Twice it has produced crops of six tons. Eight -CANE Kniffin. — Eight and even ten canes are sometimes left on a single trunk, and are trained out horizon tallj^ or somewhat obliquely, as shown in the accompanying dia- gram (Fig. 306). Unless these canes are cut back to four or five buds each, the vine carries too much wood and fruit. This system allows of close planting, but the trellis is too expensive. The trunk is soon overgrown with spurs, and it is likely to become prematurely weak. This style is very rarely used. Caywood, overhead, or arbor Kniffin.— a curious modification of the Knif&n is employed somewhat on the Hudson, particularly by Sands Haviland, at Marlboro'. The vines are carried up on a kind of overhead arbor, as shown in Figs. 307, 308. The trellis is six feet above the ground, and is composed of three horizontal wires lying in the same plane. The central wire runs from post to post, and one upon either side is attached to the end of a three-foot cross- bar, as represented in Fig. 307. The rows are nine feet apart, and the vines and posts twelve feet apart in the row. Contiguous rows are braced by a connecting-pole, as in Fig. 308. The trunk of the vine ends in a T-shaped head. From this T-head, five canes are carried out from spurs. It was formerly the practice to CAYWOOD TRAINING 475 carry out six canes, one in each direction upon each wire, but this was found to supplj- too much wood. Now two canes are carried in one direc- 307. Overhead Kniffin. tion and three in the other; and the positions of these sets are alternated each year, if possible. The canes which are left after the winter prun- ing are tied along the wires in spring, as in the 476 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED Kniffiii, and the shoots hang' over the wn-es. The chief advantage of this training is that it allows of the growing of bush-frnits between the rows, as seen in Fig. 308. It is also said that the clnsters hang so free that the bloom is not in- jured by the twigs or leaves, and the frnit is protected from sun and frost. Everj' post must 308 0^erheaa Kniffin be large and firmly set, however, adding much to the cost of the trellis. Several styles similar to this are in use, one of the best being the Crittenden system, of Michigan. In this system the trellis is low, not exceeding four or five feet, and the vines cover a flat -topped platform two or three feet wide. By midsummer the drooping shoots have reached the ground, making a continuous draper}' of foliage, as seen in Fig. 309. CROSS - WIRE TRAINING 477 The cross -WIRE system.— Anotlier high Knif- fin training, and which is also confined to the vicinity of Marlboro', New York, is the Cross- Wire, represented in Fig. 310. Small posts are set eight feet apart each way? and a single wire runs from the top of post to post — six and one- half feet from the ground — in each direction, forming a check -row system of overhead wires. The grape-vine is set at the foot of the stake, 309. Crittenden training in the original vineyard. St. Josepli, Mich. to which the trunk is tied for support. Four canes are taken from spurs on the head of the trunk, one for each of the radiating wires. These canes are cut to three and one -half or four feet in length, and the bearing shoots droop as they grow. Fig. 310 shows this train- ing as it appears some time after the leaves start in spring. Later in the season the whole vineyard becomes a great arbor, and a person standing at a distance sees an almost impene- trable mass of herbage. This system appears to 478 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED "have little merit, aud will always remain local in application. It possesses the advantage of economy in construction of the trellis, for very slender posts are used, even at the ends of the rows. The end posts are either braced by a pole, or anchored by a wire taken from the top 310. Cross-wire training. and secured to a stake or stone eight or ten feet beyond, outside the vineyard. Renewal Kniffin. — It is an easy matter to adapt the Kniffin principle of free hanging shoots to a true renewal method of pruning. There are a few modifications in use in which the wood is annually renewed to near the ground. The trellises comprise either two or three wires, and are made in the same manner as for the RENEWAL KNIFPIN 479 upright systems, as the High Renewal. At tne annual pruning only one cane is left. This com- prises twelve or fifteen buds, and is tied up diagonally across the trellis, the point or end of the cane usually being bent downward somewhat, in order to check the strong growth from the uppermost parts. The shoots hang from this cane, and they may be pinched back Avhen they reach the ground. In the meantime, a strong shoot is taken out from the opposite side of the head— which usually stands a foot or less from the ground — to make the bearing wood of the next year; and this new cane will be tied in an op- posite direction on the trellis from the present bearing cane, and the next renewal shoot will be taken from the other side of the head, or the side from which the present bearing wood sprung ; so that the bearing top of the vine is alternated in either direction upon the trellis. This system, and similar ones, allows of laying down the vines easil}' in winter, and in- sures excellent fruit because the amount of bear- 311. Munson training End view. 480 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED ''Hg wood is small; but the crop produced is not large enough to satisf}^ the demands of most grape growers. The Munson system. — An unique system of training, upon the Kniffin principle, has been de- vised by T. V. Munson, of Denison, Texas, a well-known authority upon grapes.* Two posts are set in the same hole, their tops diverging. A wire is stretched along the top of these posts, and a third one is hung between them on cross- wires. The trunk of the vine, or its head, is secured to this middle lower wire and the shoots lop over the side wires. The growth, therefore, makes a V-shaped or trough -like mass of herb- age. Fig. 311 is an end view of this trellis, showing the short wire connecting the posts, and which also holds the middle trellis -wire at the point of the V. Fig. 312 is a side view of the trellis. The bearing canes, two or four in num- ber, which are left after the annual pruning, are tied along this middle wire. The main trunk forks just under the middle wire, as seen at the left in Fig. 312. A head is formed at this place not unlike that which characterizes the High Renewal, for this system also employs renewal pruning. The trellis stands six feet high. The shoots stand upright at first, but soon fall down and are supported by the side wires. The fol- *Mr. Munson descrilied and illustrated this mode of training iu "American Grarden," xiii. ^33 (1892). 482 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED lowing account of this system of training is written for this occasion by Mr. Munson:* "After the vines have flowered, the bearing laterals have their tips pinched off, and that is all the summer pruning the vine gets, except to rub off all eyes that start on the body below the crotch. Two to four shoots, according to strength of vine, are started from the forks or crotch, and allowed to bear no fruit, but are trained along over the lower central wire for renewal canes. When pruning time arrives, the entire bearing cane of the present year, with all its laterals, is cut away at a point near where the young renewal shoots have started, and these shoots are shortened back, according to strength of vine ; some, such as Herbemont, being able at four years to fill four shoots six or eight feet long with fine fruit, while Delaware could not well carry over three or four feet each way of one shoot only. The different varieties are set at various dis- tances apart, according as they are strong or weak growers. " Thus the trellis and system of pruning are reduced to the simplest form. A few cuts to each vine cover all the pruning, and a few ties complete the task. A novice can soon learn to do the work well. The trunk or main stem is secured to the middle lower wire, along which all bearing canes are tied after pruning, and from which the young laterals which produce the crop are to spring. These lat- erals strike the two outer wires, soon clinging to them with their tendrils, and are safe from destruction, while the fruit is thrown in the best possible position for spray- ing and gathering, and is still shaded with the canopy of leaves. I have now used this trellis five years upon ten acres of mixed vines, and I am more pleased with it every year. "The following advantages are secured by this system: "1. The natural habit of the vine is maintained, which *American Grape Training, 80. MUNSON TRAINING 483 is a canopy to s'nade the roots and body of vine and the fruit, without smothering. "2. New wood, formed by sap which has never passed through bearing wood, is secured for the next crop — a very important matter. "3. Simplicity and convenience of trellis, allowing free passage in any direction through the vineyard ; circulation of air without danger of breaking tender shoots ; ease of pruning, spraying, cultivating, harvesting. "4. Perfect control in pruning of amount of crop to suit capacity of vine. "5. Long canes for bearing, which agrees exactly with the nature of nearly all our American species far better than short spurs. "6. Ease of laying down in winter. The vine being pruned and not tied, standing away from posts, can be bent down to one side between the rows, and earth thrown upon it, and can be quickly raised and tied in position. "7. Cheapness of construction and ease of removing trellis material and using it again. "8. Durability of both trellis and vineyard." The Munson system of training has found many friends. Waugh writes of it as follows from experience at the Oklahoma Experiment Station : * "It may be well to explain, for those not intimate with this form of trellis, the construction used and advocated by Mr. T. V. Munson. According to this method, the posts are made six feet high. At the top runs a cross-piece two feet long, at each end of which is fastened one of the wires of the trellis. Mr. Munson originally used two posts set in a V- shape, with the tops two feet apart. The result *Garden and Forest, May 8, 1895, 185. 484 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED is the same either way. Eight inches lower than the two side wires there is a third wire fastened to the posts. This brings the three wires into a very broad V shape. There are no other wires on the trellis. "The system of pruning, which forms a necessary part of the scheme, provides that one or two stems be brought up to the lower or middle wire, and that from these stems canes shall be run each way along this wire. From these canes the bearing shoots come at right angles, and natur- ally fall out over the top wires. Renewals are most easily made by spurring at the point on the lower wire where the canes are given off from the main stem, though it is often a verj^ easy matter to renew quite from the ground. "This system has been in use at the Oklahoma Experi- ment Station from the first, though that is not very long, and has given abundant satisfaction in most particulars. At the first glance, those who are familiar with our severe winds, but not with the working of this trellis, are much inclined to fear great damage from the whipping of the shoots, but, as a matter of fact, this serious difficulty is nearly overcome by the Munson trellis. It is one of the most vexing problems in the ordinary horizontal -arm train- ing, but the increased height of the trellis does not in- crease the trouble. On the other hand, the peculiar position occupied by the growing wood gives it almost complete im- munity. The green shoot is supported in two places near its base, while most of its length hangs free. Though it may swing in the wind, there is nothing against which it may strike, and so the damage is avoided. "Mr. Munson sets forth his ideas of the advantages of this system in Professor Bailey's ^American Grape Train- ing,' page 81. However, in our experience here, his sum- mary is unsatisfactory. Some of the advantages which he claims do not seem to be peculiar to this system of train- ing. Others are of slight importance. Those which are important ought to be more emphasized. In our experience MUNSON SYSTEM 485 the chief advantages of the system are ( 1 ) tliat it greatly reduces the damage from the wind; (2) that it reduces damage by heat reflection from the soil; (3) that it saves summer tying. The first of these advantages has already been explained. Regarding the second, it should be said that in this country, wherever bunches of fruit hang near the ground they are usually more or less dried out by the excessive reflection of heat from the soil during hot sum- mer days. The loss amounts to a great deal. A conser- vative estimate placed this loss at from ten to sixty per cent through this country last season, and in some ex- ceptional cases the crop was quite destroyed. With the fruit hanging five or six feet from the ground, and over- shadowed by a canopy of foliage at least two feet wide, this evil is evidently much mitigated. The young shoots do not need to be tied at all, but are left to swing freely from the support which is given at their bases. In most other systems summer tying is a considerable and expen- sive item. Some summer pruning usually has to be done, but this is much facilitated and probably reduced in abso- lute quantity by the Munson training. "Cei'tain weak-growing varieties, like the well-known Delaware, do not find this trellis adapted to their needs. Many other circumstances may decide against its use ; but it is being widely adopted through this country, and there are many favorable reports from it in other states." Modified Munson. — ''This system, which might better be termed the ' Alternate -Renewar Mun- son, presents two advantages which the True Munson does not possess, and to my mind is preferable. It permits the bearing wood to be alternated from one side of the vine to the other, and is cheaper b}- one wire. 486 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED "No middle wire is used, and a slat is tacked across the V in place of the slack wire. A fork is formed below the wire in Y- shape. From this fork a cane is trained to the rig-lit on one wire, and to the left on the other w^ire. A shoot on 'each cane, taken from a point near the wire, is trained in the opposite direction from, but on the same wire with, the cane, with which to renew the next season, when the bearing wood will be pruned to a spur, which in its turn will form a renewal shoot, and so on, alternatelj', the bearing canes extending always in opposite directions and on different wires, and alternating each year. The position of the vine the next season will simply be shifted or reversed. "Sometimes instead of six feet, the trellis is made only four feet high. This height appears to have done just as well as the other at the Georgia Station. Here, the V supports have been made of one -by -three slats. When the sharpened ends are dipped in coal tar, or even white lead, driven in the ground so that they will cross each other just above the surface and tacked with two tenpenny nails, a firm, durable and sightly sup- port is the result."* MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS Horizontal training.— There are very few types of horizontal -shoot training now in use. *Hugh N. Starues, BuJl. L'S, Ga. Exp. Sta. 270. HORIZONTAL MODES 487 One of the best ma}- be described. Two wires run from post to post, as in the ordinary trellis, one about two and one -half feet above the ground and the other five and one -half feet high. The posts are set at the ordinar}^ distance of sixteen or eighteen feet apart. The vines are set six or eight feet apart, if Delawares or other weak growers. A strong stake is driven in the ground just behind each vine, standing as high as the top of the trellis. The permanent trunk or head of the vine stands about a foot high. The vine is renewed back to the top of this trunk every year. One cane is left at each pruning, which, when tied up to the stake, is as high as the trellis. From this perpendicular cane, the bearing shoots are carried out horizontally. About six of these shoots are allowed to grow upon either side of the cane. As the shoots grow, they are tied to perpendicular slats which are fastened on the w^ires. These slats do not touch the ground. Two slats are provided upon either side, making four to a vine. They stand a foot or fifteen inches apart. The clusters hang free from the horizontal shoots. If the shoots grow too long, they are pinched in when they have passed the second slat. While these shoots are covering the trellis, another shoot is taken out from the head or trunk of the vine, and without being allowed to fruit, is tied up along the central stake. This shoot is to form the top 488 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED next year, for all the present vine is to be en- tirely cnt away at the winter's pruning. So the vine starts ever}^ spring with but a single cane. Excellent results are obtained from the slender- growing varieties by this method of training, but it is too expensive in trellis and in the labor of tying to make it generally practicable. Delawai-e, however, thrives remarkably well when trained in this fashion. Post training. — There are various methods of training to posts, all of which possess tw^o ad- vantages — the saving of the expense of trellis and allowing of cultivation both ways. But they also have grave disadvantages, especially in the thick- ness of the head of foliage, which harbors rot and mildew and prevents successful spraying, and hinders the fruit from coloring and ripening w^ell. These faults are so serious that post training is now little used for the American grapes. The saving in cost of trellis is not great, for more posts are reciuired to the acre than in the trellis systems, and they do not en- dure long when standing alone wdth the whole weight of the vines thrown upon them. There are various methods of pruning for the stake training, but nearly all of them agree in pruning to side spurs on a permanent upright arm which stands the full height of the vine. There may be one or two sets of these spurs. We might suppose the Knifftn vine, shown in POST TRAINING 489 Fig. 294, to be tied to a post instead of stretched on a trellis ; in that event, the four canes would hang at will, or they might be wrapped about the post, the shoots hanging out unsupported in all directions. The post systems are essentiallj' Kniffin in principle, for the shoots hang free. In low styles of post training, the permanent head of the vine may be only three or four feet high. This head will have a ring of spurs on it, and at the annual pruning three to five canes are left with from six to ten buds each. The main trunk is usually tied permanently to the post. The canes left after pruning are va- riously disposed. Sometimes they are bent up- wards and tied to the post above the head of the vine, but they are oftenest either wound loosely about the post, or are allowed to hang loose. Two trunks are frequentlj^ used to each post, both coming from the ground from a common root. These are wound about the post in oppo- site directions, one outside the other, and if the outside one is secured at the top by a small nail driven through it, or by a cord, no other tying will be necessary. Sometimes two or three posts are set at distances of one foot or more apart, and the vines are wrapped about them, but this only augments the size and depth of the mass of foliage. Now and then one sees a careful post training, in which but little wood is left and vigorous breaking out of shoots practiced, 490 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED which gives excellent results ; but ou the whole, post training cannot be recommended. The Euro- pean post and stake systems, or modifications of them, are yet occasionally recommended for Ameri- can vines, but under general conditions, especially in commercial grape growing, they rarely succeed long. One of the latest recommendations of any of these types is that of the single pole system of the Upper Rhine Valley by A. F. Hofer, of Iowa, in a little treatise published in 1878. Arbors. — Arbors and bowers are usually formed with little reference to pruning and train- ing. The first object is to secure shade and se- clusion, and these are conditions which may seriously interfere with the production of fine grapes. As a rule, too much wood must be al- lowed to grow, and the soil about arbors is rarely ever cultivated. Still, fair results in fruit can be obtained if the operator makes a diligent use of the pruning shears. It is usually best to carry one main or permanent trunk up to the top or center of the arbor. Along this trunk at intervals of two feet or less, spurs may be left to which the wood is renewed each year. If the vines stand six feet apart about the arbor — which is a satisfactory distance — one cane three feet long may be left on each spur when the pruning is done. The shoots which spring from these canes will soon cover up the intermediate spaces. At the close of the season, this entire cane, with ' REMODELING OLD VINES 491 its laterals, is cut away at the spur, and auother three -foot caue — which grew during the season — is left in its place. This priiuing is essentially that of the Kniffin vine in Fig. 294. Imagine this vine, with as many joints or tiers as neces- sary, laid upon the arbor. The canes are tied out horizontally to the slats instead of being tied on wires. This same system — running up a long trunk and cutting -in to side spurs — will apply equally well to tall walls and fences which it is desired to cover. Undoubtedly a better plan, so far as yield and quality of fruit is concerned, is to renew back nearly to the root, bringing up a strong new cane, or perhaps two or three every year, and cutting the old ones off ; but as the vines are desired for shade, one does not care to wait until midsummer for the vines to reach and cover the top of the arbor. Remodeling old vines.— Old and neglected tops can rarely be remodeled to advantage. If the vine is still vigorous, it will probably pay to grow an entirely new top by taking out a cane from the root. If the old top is cut back severely for a year or two, this new cane will make a vig- orous growth, and it can be treated essentially like a new or young vine. If it is very strong and ripens up well, it can be left long enough the first fall to make the permanent trunk ; but if it is rather weak and soft, it should be cut back in the fall or winter to two or three buds, from one of 492 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED which the pprmaiient trunk is to be grown tlie second season. Thereafter, the instructions which are given in the preceding pages for the various sj^stems will apply to the new vine. The old trunk should be cut aw^ay as soon as the new one is permanent]}' tied to the wires, — that is, at the close of either the first or second season of the new trunk. Care must be exercised to rub off all sprouts which spring from the old root or stump. If this stump can be cut back into the ground and covered with earth, better results may be expected. Old vines treated in this manner often make good plants, but if the vines are weak and the soil is poor, the trouble \vill scarcely pay for itself. These old vines can be remodeled easily by means of grafting. Cut off the trunk five or six inches below the surface of the ground, leaving an inch or two of straight wood above the roots. Into this stub insert two cions exactly as for cleft- grafting the apple. Cions of two or three buds, of firm wood the size of a lead pencil, should be inserted. The top bud should stand above the ground. The cleft will need no tying or wax, although it is w^ell to place a bit of w^axed cloth or other material over the wound to keep the soil out of it. Fill the earth tightly about it. Great care must be taken in any pruning wdiich is done this first year, or the cions may be loosened. If the young shoots are tied to a stake there will be less danger from wind and careless workmen. In the GRAFTING VINES 493 vine shown in the illustration (Fig. 313), no prun- ing or rubbing out was done, but the vine would have been in better shape for training if only one or two shoots had been allowed to grow. 313. A good yearling graft. If it is desired, however, to keep the old top, it will be best to cut back the annual growth heavily at the winter pruning. The amount of wood which shall be left must be determined by the vigor of the plant and the variety, but three or four canes of six to ten buds each may be left at suitable places. During the next season a stroug shoot from the base of each cane may be allowed to grow, which shall form the wood of the follow- ing-season, while all the present cane is cut away at the end of the year, so that the bearing -wood is renewed each j'ear, as in the regular systems of training. Much skill and experience are often required to properly rejuvenate an old vine; and in very many cases the vine is not worth the trouble. Chaptek IX VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING The Old World grape, Viiis vinifera, is a dis- tinct species or type from the American grapes, and the methods of training and pruning which apply to the one may not apply to the other. We have already seen (Chapter VII.) that early American grape training was a transplantation of European methods. The Vinifera is the grape which is grown in the Pacific region for wine and raisins, and it is the grape of glass-houses. CALIFORNIA PRACTICE* (F. T. BlOLETTi) The literature relating to the pruning and training of the vine is already very voluminous, but there seems to be no one work which treats *This account is foiinded on "Vine Pruning," by F. T. Bioletti, Bull. 119, Cal. Exp. Sta., Dec, 1897, the bulletin being used for this purpose by permission. Unless otherwise stated, the chapter is a verbatim tran- scription of Bioletti's essay. Not all of the bulletin, however, is here reproduced. Some of the illustrations have been redrawn, and others have been reduced in size. The bulletin was reprinted in the "Cali- fornia Fruit-Growei," Jan. 15 to Feb. 5, 1898. Persons who are interested in the pruning Hud training of the wine or raisin grape in America should also consult Wickson's "California Fruits" and Eisen's "Raisin Industry." (494) CALIFORNIAN FRACTICE 495 the subject iu a thorough aud convenient way for California vine -growers. Publications in English refer generally to methods suited to the Eastern states or to hot -house cultivation, while foreign publications, besides being more or less inaccessible, treat the subject so widely that the grower is at a loss what to choose from such a mass of material. It is the purpose of this bulletin, therefore, ta present a brief summary of what in foreign methods seems useful and applicable to California conditions, together with the results of experiments on the University of California vine plots, and of observations made in numerous vineyards in various regions of the state. Almost every vine -growing district has its peculiar systems of training, ranging from the non- training usual in parts of Italy, where the vine spreads almost at will over trees planted for the purpose, to the acme of mutilation practiced in man}' localities where the vine is reduced to a mere stump barely rising above the surface of the ground. These various systems will not be discussed here, but only those which experience has shown to be most adapted to California con- ditions. No account, however detailed, of any system can replace the intelligence of the cultivator. For this reason the general principles of plant physiology which underlie all proper pruning 496 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING and training are discussed in connection with the several systems described. This should aid the grower in choosing that system most suited to the conditions of his vineyard, and to modify it to suit special conditions and seasons. All the operations of pruning, tying, staking, etc., to which a cultivated vine owes its form, are con- veniently considered together. A description of a typical vine giving the names of the principal parts will make clear the accounts of methods to be given later. Fig. 314 repre- sents a vine of no particular order of pruning, showing the various parts. The main body of the vine (t) is called the trunk or stem ; the principal division (h) branches ; the smaller di- visions (a) arms, and the ultimate ramifications (c) shoots when green, and canes when mature. A shoot growing out of the vine above ground on any part older than one year (wsJ is called a watersprout. Shoots coming from any part of the vine below ground (s) are called suckers. When a cane is cut -back to 1, 2, 3, or 4 ej^es, it is called a spur (rj. When a shoot or cane of one season sends out a secondary shoot the same season, the latter (I) is called a lateral. The Fig. 315 represents an arm of a vine as it appears in winter after the leaves have fallen. The canes (w^) are the matured shoots of the previous spring, w^, w^, w^ represents two, three and four -year -old wood resx)ectively. Near the TERMINOLOGY OF THE VINE 497 base of each caue is a basal bud or eye (b°). In counting the number of eyes on a spur, the basal eye is not included. A cane cut at K^, for in- stance, leaves a spur of one eye, at k^ a spur of two eyes, and so on. When more than four eyes are left, the piece is generally called a fruiting cane (Fig. 314,/). The canes (c,c^) coming from 314. Diagram to illustrate terminology, two -year -old wood (w^) possess fruit buds ; that is, they are capable of producing fruit -bearing shoots. Watersprouts ftvsj and suckers fsj do not ordinarily produce fruit -bearing shoots. Be- low the basal bud each cane has one or more dor- mant buds (b, Fig. 316), which do not grow unless the number of eyes left by pruning or frost is insufficient to relieve the excess of sap pressure. These buds produce sterile shoots. Each eye on a cane has at its base two dormant buds. One of these sometimes grows out the year it is FF 498 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING formed, making* a lateral (/, Figs. 314, 315). These laterals may send out secondaiy laterals {si, Fig. 314). It is on the laterals and second- ary laterals that the so-called second and third crops are borne. Proper method of making cuts.— It is by no means a matter of indifference just where the cut c 315. Illustratiug the parts of the vine. is made in removing a cane or arm. This will be made clearer by referring to Fig. 316. The upper part of the spur is represented as split in two longitudinally, in order to show the internal structure of the cane. It will be noted that at each bud there is a slight swelling of the cane. This is called a node, and the space between an internode. The internodes are filled with soft pith, but at each node there is a growth of hard WHERE TO CUT 499 wood extending tlirongli the cane. Now, if the cane be cut off at c^, in the middle of an inter- node, the pith will shrink away and leave a little hollow in which the rain collects. This is an ex- cellent breeding place for fungi and bacteria, which cause rotting of the pith and frequently kill the bud. If, on the contrary, the cane be cut at C-, through a node, a protecting cover of hard wood is left which is an effectual barrier against decay organisms. If a spur projects too far from the vine, and it is de- sirable to make it as short as pos- sible in order not to interfere with cultivation, it should be cut at c, and the cut made as nearly vertical as possible. This allows the water to run off, and leaves less pith to foster the growth of the fungi. At the base of the cane there is a slight enlargement (e) . In removing a cane completely, the cut should be made just above this enlargement. This is the most favorable place for healing, as it makes the smallest g^g ^^^^ ^^ possible wound, and does not leave make the cuts. a projecting stump of dead wood to prevent the healing tissues from closing over the wound. In removing a piece of older wood, as at K° and t^. Fig. 315, it is advisable not to cut too close for fear of injuring the spur by the dry- 500 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING ing out of the wood. The projecting pieces of dead wood left in this way should be carefully removed the next year, in order to allow the wound to heal over. The large cuts which are thus occasionally necessary are most easily per- formed by means of a well-made and well- sharpened pair of two -hand pruning shears. These shears are often to be preferred to the ordi- nary one -hand shears, because they render the cutting through the nodes easier, and do away almost entirely with the necessity of a saw. Of course, a careless workman may split and injure vines seriously by using long -handled shears clumsily, but the bending of arms to facilitate cutting with the one -hand shears, often results in the same evil. The one -hand shears, however, are more convenient when many long fruiting canes are left, as the necessary trimming off of tendrils and laterals is more easily performed with them. Short and long pruning.— The winter -prun- ing of the vine consists in cutting off a certain amount of the mature wood of the immediately preceding season's growth (canes), and occa- sionally of the older wood. The main problem of winter -pruning, then, resolves itself into de- termining how much and what wood shall be left. In all kinds of pruning most of the canes are re- moved entirely. In short -pruning the remainder are cut back SHORT AND LONG PRUNING 501 to spurs of one, two or three eyes. The number of spurs is regulated by the vigor and age of the vine. This mode of pruning can be used only for varieties in which the eyes near the base of the cane are fruitful. For all other cases long or half -long pruning is necessary. In half -long pruning, certain canes are left with from four to six eyes, according to the length of the internodes. These canes or fruit -spurs will bear more fruit than short spurs for three reasons : 1, because there will be more fruit- bearing shoots ; 2, because the upper eyes are more fruitful than the lower ; and 3, because a larger number of eyes being supplied with sap from the same arm, each shoot will be less vig- orous and therefore more fruitful. Owing, how- ever, to the tendencj' of the vine to expend the principal part of its vigor on the shoots farthest removed from the base of the canes, the lower eyes on the long spurs will generally produce very feeble shoots. In order, then, to obtain spurs of sufficient vigor for the next year's crop, it would be necessary to choose them near the ends of the long spurs of the previous year, if no others were left. This would result in a rapid and inconvenient elongation of the arms. In order to avoid this it is necessary to leave a spur of one or two eyes below each long-fruiting spur, that is to say, near the trunk. These short wood spurs having only one or two eyes, 502 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING will produce vigorous canes for the following year, and the spurs which have borne fruit may be removed altogether, thus preventing an undue elongation of the arms. In half -long pruning, however, it is very hard to retain the proper equilibrium between vigor and fruitfulness. If a little too much wood is left the shoots from the wood spurs will not develop sufficiently, and the next year we have to choose between leaving small under -sized spurs near the trunk and spurs of proper size too far removed from the trunk. In long- pruning this difficulty, as will be seen, is to a great extent avoided. In long -pruning, the fruit spurs of half -long pruning are replaced by long fruit canes. These are left two or three feet long, or longer. The danger here that the vine w^ll expend all its en- ergies on the terminal buds of these long canes and leave the eyes of the wood spurs undeveloped is still greater than in half -long pruning. This difficulty is overcome by bending or twisting the fruit canes in some manner. This bending causes a certain amount of injury to the tissues of the canes, which tends to check the flow of sap towards their ends. The sap pressure thus increases in the lower buds and forces them out into strong shoots to be used for spurs for the next pruning. The bending has the further effect of diminishing the vigor of the shoots on the fruit canes, and thus increasing their fruitfulness. THE YOUNG VINE 503 This principle of increase of fruitfulness by nieclicinical injurj^ is very usefnl if properly un- derstood and applied. It is a well-known fact that vines attacked by phylloxera or root -rot will for one year bear an exceptionally large crop on account of the diminution of vigor caused by the injury to their roots. A vine also which has been mutilated by the removal of several large arms will often produce heavily the following year. In all these cases, however, the transient gain is more than counter -balanced by the permanent injury and loss. The proper ap- plications of the principle is to injure tissues only of those parts of the plant which it is in- tended to remove the next year (fruit canes), and thus increase fruitfulness without doing any per- manent injury to the plant. Pruning of young vines.— When a rooted vine is first planted, it should be cut back to two eyes. If the growth is not verj^ good the first season, all the canes but one should be re- moved at the first pruning, and that one left with two or three eyes, according to its strength. The next yesiv, or the same year in the case of strong growing vines in rich soil, the strongest cane should be left about twelve inches long and tied up to the stake. The next year two spurs may be left, of two or three eyes each. These spurs will determine the position of the head or place from which the arms of the vine spring. It is 504 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING important, therefore, that they should be chosen at the right height from the ground. From ten to twenty inches is about the right height ; the lowest for dry hillsides, where there is no danger of frosts ; the highest for rich bottom lands, where the vine will naturally grow large. Vines grown without stakes will have to be headed low^er than this in order to make them support themselves. In the following few years the number of spurs should be increased grad- ually, care being taken to shape the vine properly and to maintain an equal balance of the arms. In general, young vines are more vigorous than old, and tend more to send out shoots from basal and dormant buds. They should, there- fore, be given more and longer spurs in propor- tion than older vines. They also tend to bud out very early in the spring, and are thus liable to be frost-bitten. For this reason they are generally pruned late (March) in frosty loca- tions. This protects them in two ways. In the first place, in unpruned vines the buds near the ends of the canes start first and relieve the sap pressure, and though these are caught by the frost, the buds near the base, not having started, are saved. In the second place, the pruning being done when the sap is flowing, there is a loss of sap from the cut ends of the spurs, which further relieves the sap pressure and retards the starting MODES OF PRUNING 505 of the lower eyes. This method of preventing the injury of spring frosts by very late pruning has been tried with bearing vines, but is very in- jurious. Older vines, being less vigorous are unable to withstand the heavy drain caused by the profuse bleeding which ensues ; and though no apparent damage may be done the first year, if the treatment is continued they may be com- pletely ruined in three or four j'ears. Systems of Fruning The systems of pruning adapted to vinej^ards in California may be divided into six types, ac- cording to the form given to the main body of the vine and the length of the spurs and fruit- ing canes. A. Vine pruned to a head, with short arms. I. With spurs of two or three ej^es only (short -pruning) . II. With wood spurs of one or two ej'cs and fruit spurs of four to six eyes (half- long pruning). III. With wood spurs of one or two eyes and long fruit canes (long-pruning). B. Vine with a long horizontal branch or con- tinuation of the trunk. IV. With spurs of two or three eyes only (short -pruning). 506 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAININO V. With wood spurs of one or two eyes and fruit spurs of four to six eyes (half- long- pruning). VI. With wood spurs of one or two eyes and long fruit canes ( long- pruning ) . These types are applicable to different varieties of vines, according — (1) To the natural stature of the vine — that is to say, whether it is a large or small grower and tends to make a large, extended trunk or a limited one. (2) To the position of the fruit -buds. In some varieties all the buds of the canes are capable of producing fruitful shoots, while in others the one, two or three buds nearest the base produce only sterile shoots. (3) To the size of the individual bunches. It is necessarj^ in order to obtain a full crop from a variety with small bunches, to leave a larger number of eyes than is necessary in the case of varieties with large bunches. What type or modification of a type shall be adopted in a particular instance, depends both on the variety of vine and on the nature of the vine- j^ard. A vine growing on a drj' hillside must not be pruned the same as another vine of the same variety growing on rich bottom land. In general, vines on rich soil, where they tend to grow large and develop abundant vegetation, should be given plenty of room and allowed to spread themselves, and should be given plenty of fruiting -buds in order to control their too strong inclination to " go SHORT -PRUNING 507 to wood." Vines on poor soil, on the contrarj'; should be planted closer together and pruned shorter, or with fewer fruiting -buds, in order to maintain their vigor. Type I. — This is the ordinary short -pruning practiced in ninety per cent of the viueyards of California, and is the simplest and least expensive manner of pruning the vine. It is, however, suited only to vines of small growth, which pro- 317. Epochs in the common short-pruning system. duce fruitful shoots from the lowest buds, and of which the bunches are large enough to admit of a full crop from the small number of buds which are left by this method. The chief objection to this method for heavily -bearing vines is that the bunches are massed together in a way that favors rotting of the grapes and exposes the different bunches unequally to light and heat. 508 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING The Fig*. 317 represents the shnplest form of this style of pruning. The vine should be given as nearly as possible the form of a goblet, slightly flattened in the direction of the rows. It is important that the vine be kept regular and with equally balanced arms. This is the chief difficulty of the method, and calls for the ex- ercise of some judgment. From the first, the required form of the vine should be kept in view. On varieties with a trailing habit of growth, vertical spurs must be chosen, and with some upright growers it will be found necessary to choose spurs nearer the horizontal. The arms must be kept short for convenience of cultivation and to give them the requisite strength to support their crop without bending or breaking. For this reason the lowest of the two or three canes coming from last year's spur should be left. For instance, on Fig. 315 the cane should be cut at K^ or K^, according as two or three eyes are needed, and the rest of the arm removed at k°. As even with the greatest care some arms will become too long or project in wrong directions, it is necessary to renew them bj' means of canes from the old w^ood or watersprouts. For instance, if the other arm represented on Fig. 315 were too long, it should be removed and replaced by an- other developed from the cane (ws). As the cane comes from three -year -old wood it cannot be depended on to produce grapes. For this reason SHORT -PRUNING 509 it is best the first year to prune the arm at t, leaving a spur for fruit, and cut the watersprout at T°, leaving a wood spur of one eye. The next year the cane coming from the first eye of ws can be left for a fruit -spur, and the arm removed at T^ The cutting -back of an elongated arm should not be deferred too long, as the removal of old arms leaves large wounds, which weaken the vine and render it liable to attacks of fungi. In order to maintain the equilibrium of the arms, it is often necessary to prune back the more vigorous arms severely in order to throw the strength of the vine into the weaker arms. If the vine appears too vigorous, that is, if it ap- pears to be "going to wood" at the expense of the crop, two spurs may be left on some or all of the arms. In this case the upper spur should be cut above the third eye (k^. Fig. 315), and the lower above the first or second (k^ or K-) . This will cause the bulk of the fruit to be borne on the upper spur, and the most vigorous shoots to be developed on the lower, which provides the wood for the following year. This is an approach to the next (half-long) method of pruning. [Professor Wickson sends me Fig. 318 as "a clear, satisfactory and characteristic view of the illimitable valley raisin extensions" of California. — L. H. B.] Type II. — Vines which require more wood than can well be given by ordinary short pruning, or SHORT -PRUNING 511 of which the lower eyes are not sufficiently pro- ductive, may in some cases be pruned in the manner illustrated by Fig. 319. For some va- rieties it is necessary to leave spurs of only three eyes, as at s; for others, short canes of four or five eyes must be left, as at cc. These shorter spurs can be left without support, but the longer ones require some arrangement to prevent their 319. Another type of short-i^runing. 320. Still longer pruning. bending over with the weight of fruit and de- stroying the shape of the vine. In some cases simply tying the ends of the canes together will support them fairly w^ell, but it is better to attach them to a stake, and bend them at the base a little when possible, in order to retard the flow of sap to the ends. It is very necessary to leave strong spurs of one eye (not counting the 512 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING basal eye) in order to provide wood for the fol- lowing 3'ear. At the pruning following the one represented in the cut, the fruiting part of the arms will be removed at kJc, and a new fruiting spur or cane made of the cane which comes from the eye on the wood spurs w. The basal bud on IV will in all probability have produced a cane which can be cut back to one eye to furnish a new wood -spur. If this is not the case it shows that too much wood was left the first year, and therefore no fruit -cane should be left on this arm, but only a single spur of two or three eyes. This will be a return to short pruning, and must be resorted to whenever the small size of the canes or the failure to produce replac- ing wood near the head of the vine shows that the vigor is diminishing. If, on the contrary, the arm shows an abun- dance of vigorous canes, proving that the vine has not overborne, a fruit -cane may be left from one of the shoots coming from the lower buds of the fruit -cane c, and a new wood -spur of ,„„* " „ . two eyes left on the shoot coming 321. Tying *^ *= the canes, from the wood-spur of the previous year (w) . In this case, the removal of the arm at k is deferred one year, and the extrrf vigor of the vine is made use of to produce an extra crop. Type III. — This style is an extension of the TYING THE CANES 513 principles used in Type II, as will be understood by referring to Fig. 320. The fruiting canes are left still longer, and in some cases almost the full length of the cane. As each cane will thus produce a large amount of fruit, fewer arms are necessary than in the preceding method. It is especially necessary to leave good, strong spurs of one or two eyes to produce wood for the fol- lowing year. There are various methods of dis- posing of the long fruiting canes, the worst of which is to tie them straight up to the stake, as was recommended for the half -long canes. In the latter case, owing to their shortness, a certain amount of bending of the canes is pos- sible with this method of tying. With long canes, on the contrary, it usually allows of no bending, and as a result there ensues a vigorous growth of shoots at the ends of the fruiting canes, and little or no growth in the parts where it is necessary' to look for wood the following year. Often, indeed, each long cane will pro- duce only three shoots, and these from the three terminal eyes, all the other eyes of the cane remaining dormant. The object of long pruning is thus doubly defeated, 1st, because no more shoots are produced than by short pruning ; and 2nd, because the shoots which should produce fruit are rendered especially vigorous by their terminal and vertical position, and therefore less fruitful. Each year all this vigorous growth of GQ 514 VINIFKRA GRAPE TRAINING wood at the ends of the canes must be cut away in order to keep the vine within practical bounds, and the fruit -canes renewed from the less vigorous cane below. These canes are less vigorous because the main strength of the vine has been expended on the upper canes, which are most favorably placed for vegetative vigor. Vines treated in this way may be gradually exhausted, though producing only a moderate 322. Another method of tying the canes. or small crop of fruit, by being forced to pro- duce an abundant crop of wood. One of the simplest ways of tying the fruiting canes is illustrated by Fig. 321. The canes are bent into a circle, the ends tied to the stake near the head of the vine, and the middle of the circle attached higher up. The tying should be done so that the cane receives a severe bend near the base — that is, about the region of the second and third eyes. This can usually be accomplished TYING THE CANES 515 by tying the end of the cane first, and then press- ing down on the middle of the bow until the de- sired bend is attained. If two fruiting canes are left, they should be made to cross each other at right angles in order to distribute the fruit as equally as possible. As a rule, more than two canes should not be tied up in this way, as it makes too dense a shade, and masses the fruit too much. The Fig. 322 shows another method of tying the long canes. A horizontal wire is stretched along the row at about fifteen to twenty inches above the ground. To this the fruiting canes should be attached, using the same precaution of bending the canes near the bases. The upper part of the canes is not bent in this case as in the last, but the necessary diminution of vigor and increase of fruitfulness is brought about by the horizontal position. Two canes may be attached to the wire on each side. The stake is best used to support the shoots destined for the wood for the following year. This makes it possible, where topping is practiced, to cut off the ends of the shoots from the fruiting canes, and to leave the rest their full length. Another, or even two other wires, may be used above the first for more canes, but this is seldom profitable, and consider- ably increases the cost, both of installation and of pruning. This style of pruning is especially favorable to 516 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING varieties of small growth, which bear small bunches, and principall}- on the upper eyes, and to varieties of larger growth in hilly or poor soils. One of its main objections is that ■ it renders some varieties more liable to sunburn. It will be noticed that the long -pruned vines are represented in the figures as having much fewer arms than the short -pruned. This is necessary and important. In order to maintain a well-balanced vine, and keep it under control, there should be only about as many arms as long canes, or at most one or two more. [The views in Figs. 323, 324 show the long- pruning or "pruning to a high stake." They are supplied by Professor Wickson. — l. h. b.] Types IV., V. and VI.— The three styles of pruning so far described have been fairly thor- oughly tested in California, and each has been found applicable to certain varieties and conditions. There are some varieties, however, which do not give good results with any of these systems. This is the case with many valuable table grapes, espe- cially when grown in rich valley soil, where they should do best. For these cases some modification of the French cordon system is to be recom- mended. Little trial of this method has been made as yet, but what has been done is very promising. The tendency of many grapes to coulure is over- come, and rich soils are made to produce crops in proportion to their richness. The method consists . .^ . . v,^,^ ■> - .i^^BSS/lilK^igB Ei--......ila w^s^^^'i ' ^i-^-f ^ iuy^»^f^ PH^ -"--Si/-^ ' '■! KrPWP^^^^^'^^'"^^^'^?ll^^!8KlliMBBBSM^MBMwS WIKM^:^-W ^F'. i'' '<^- '.^^J^IS^HH 323. Long-pruning, before the vines are trimmed. 324. Long-pruniug, after the vines are trimmed. 518 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING essentially in allowing the vine to grow in a more or less horizontal direction for several feet, thns giving a larger bodj^ and fruiting surface. The treatment of the young vines the first year is the same as for head -pruning, as already de- scribed. As soon as the young vine produces a good, strong shoot it is tied up to the wive and t-o the stake which is placed between the vines in the rows. Each vine should finally reach its neighbor, but it requires two or three years for this if the vines are six or seven feet apart in the rows. It is possible, by cutting the vine back nearly to the ground for the first year or two, to obtain a cane which will stretch the whole distance between the vines at the first tying up; but this is not neces- sary^ nor advisable. Neither is it advisable to make a very sharp angle (almost a right angle), as is usually done in regular cordon pruning, on account of the difficulty of preventing the vine from sending out an inconvenient number of shoots at the bend. The vine might be grown with two branches, one stretching in either direction, but this has been found inconvenient on account of the difficulty of preserving an equal balance of the branches. The direction in which the vine is trained should be that of the prevailing high winds, as this will minimize the chances of shoots being blown off. When the cordon or body of the vine is well -formed, it may be pruned wdth all the modifications of short, half -long and long -pruning CORDON VINES 519 alread}' described in head -pruning, and the same precautions are necessary to preserve the balance and S3'ninietry of the vine and to maintain it at the highest degree of fruitfulness without unduly exhaustino: it. 325. Traiuing short-pruued cordons. .326. Training of long-pruned cordons. The Figs. 325 and 326 will sufficiently illustrate the way of shaping and tying short and long- pruned vines. For some table grapes, extension of the method shown in Fig. 325 in the direction of half -long pruning is useful. On a heavy soil the short spurs do not provide sufficient outlet for 520 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING the vigor of the vine, while long -pruning would unduly increase the number of bunches on a sin- gle cane, and so reduce their size, which would deteriorate from their value as table grapes. The Fig. 327 represents a style of pruning used with success in some of the richest low -lying soils of France. The body of the vine raised up to a height of two and a -half or three feet above the soil, a useful means of lessening the danger from spring frosts. The fruit -canes are bent vertically 327. Drooping training of long-pruned cordons. downward, thus restricting the flow of sap suffi- ciently to force out the lower buds of the fruit- canes into strong shoots, which can be used for fruit canes of the following year. This does away, to some extent, with the necessity of leaving wood -spurs, and much simplifies the pruning. Arms, of course, are formed in time, and very gradually elongate, so that it is necessary to remove one occasionally and replace it by a SUMMER TREATMENT 521 water -sprout, as already explained under short- pruning. Summer Pruning Some form of summer or green pruning is practised in most California vinej-ards, if in the term we include all the operations to which the green shoots are subjected. There seems, how- ever, to be little system used, and very little understanding of its true nature and object. In general, it may be said that green pruning of the vine is least needed, and is often harmful in warm, dry locations and seasons, and of most use under cool and damp conditions. The principal kinds of green pruning are: 1, Pinching; 2, Suckering and Sprouting; 3, Top- ping; 4, Removal of Leaves. Pinching consists in removing the extreme growing tip of a young shoot. It is neeessarj^ to remove only about half an inch to accomplish the purpose of preventing further elongation of the shoot, as all growth in length takes place at the extreme tip. The immediate result of pinch- ing is to concentrate the sap in the leaves and blossoms of the shoots, and finally to force out the dormant buds in the axils of the leaves. It has been found useful in some cases to combat coulure or dropping with heavy -growing varie- ties, such as the Claire tte Blanche. It is also of use in preventing unsupported shoots from be- 522 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING coming too long while still tender, and being broken off by the wind. It can, of course, be used only on fruiting shoots, and not on shoots intended for wood for the following year. SuCKERiNG is the removal of shoots that have their origin below or near the surface of the ground. The shoots should be removed as thoroughly as possible, the enlargement at the base being cut off in order to destroy the dor- mant basal buds. An abundant growth of suckers indicates either careless suckering of former years (which has allowed a mass of buds below the ground, a kind of subterranean arm, to develop), or too limited an outlet for the sap. The latter may be due to frost or other injuries to the upper part of the vine, but is commonly caused by too close pruning. Sprouting is the removal of sterile shoots or "watersprouts" from the upper part of the vine. Under nearly all circumstances this is an un- necessary and often a harmful operation, especially in warm, drj^ locations. An exception may per- haps be made under some conditions of varieties like the Muscat of Alexandria, which has a strong tendencj' to produce " w^atersprouts" which, grow- ing through the bunches, injure them for table and drying purposes. Watersprouts are produced from dormant buds in the old wood, and as these buds require a higher sap pressure to cause them to start than do the SUMMER TREATMENT 523 fruitful buds, the occurrence of many water - sprouts indicates that too limited a number of fruitful buds has been left upon the vine to utilize all the sap pumped up by the roots. To remove these watersprouts, therefore, while they are young is simply to shut off an outlet for the superabundant sap, and thus to injure the vine by interfering with the water equilibrium, or to cause it to force out new watersprouts in other places. Any vigorous vine will produce a certain number of watersprouts, but they should not be looked upon as utterly useless and harmful, be- cause they produce no grapes. On the contrary, if not too numerous, they are of positive advan- tage to the vine, being so much increase to the feeding surface of green leaves. Watersprouts should be removed completely during the winter pruning, and the production of too many the next year prevented by a more liberal allowance of bearing wood. Topping, or cutting off the ends of shoots, is done by a means of a sickle or long knife. At least two or three leaves should be left beyond the last bunch of grapes. The time at which the topping is done is very important. When the object is simply to prevent the breaking of the heavy, succulent canes of some varieties by the wind, or to facilitate cultivation, it must, of course, be done early, and is well replaced hy early pinching. These objects are, however, bet- 524 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING ter attained by appropriate methods of planting and training. Early topping is inadvisable be- cause it induces a vigorous growth of laterals, which make too dense a shade, and it may even force the main eyes to sprout, and thus injure the wood for the next year. The legitimate function of topping is to direct the flow of food material in the vine first into the fruit, and second into the buds for the growth of the following year. If the topping is done while the vine is in active growth, this object is not attained ; one growing tip is simply replaced by several. In this way, in rich, moist soils vines are often, by repeated top- pings, kept in a continual state of production of new shoots, and as these new shoots consume more food than they produce, the crop suffers. Not only does the crop of the current year suffer, but still more the crop of the following year, for the vine devotes its energy to producing new shoots in the autumn instead of storing up reserve food -material for the next spring growth. If, on the other hand, the topping is done after all leaf growth is over for the season, the only effect is to deprive the vine of so much food -absorbing surface. The topping, then, should be so timed that, while a further lengthening of the main shoot is prevented, no excessive sprouting of new lat- erals is produced. The exact time differs for locality, season and variety, and must be left THE DIFFERENT VARIETIES 525 to the experience aud judgment of the individual grower. Removal of leaves.— In order to allow the sun to penetrate to and aid the ripening of late grapes, it is often advisable late in the season to lessen the leafy shade of the vine. This should be done by removing the leaves from the center of the vines, and not by cutting away the canes. In this wa}' only those leaves are removed which are injurious, and as much leaf surface as possible is left to perform the autumn duty of laying up food -material for the spring. The removal of leaves should not be excessive, and if consider- able, should be gradual, otherwise there is danger of sunburn. It is best, fii'st, to remove the leaves from heloiv the fruit. This allows free circulation of the air and penetration of the sun's rays, which warm the soil and are reflected upon the fruit. This is generall}' sufficient, and in any case only the leaves in the center of the vine, and especially those which are beginning to turn yellow, should be removed. Classification of the Varieties In the list of varieties w^hich follows, an at- tempt has been made to indicate the mode of pruning which is likely, in the light of our pres- ent knowledge, to give the best results for each variety. It should be understood, however, that 526 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING it is to some extent tentative and provisional. Many of the varieties have proved snccessful in certain soils and locations when pruned in the way indicated, but others have never, so far as we know, been tested in the way proposed. As these latter, however, have proved more or less unsuccessful under the common methods of treat- ment, the method proposed is the one which seems most suitable to their habit and general characters. It seems probable that the tendency to coulure of some varieties, such as the Muscat, Malbeck, Merlot, Clairette, etc., can be com- batted to a great extent by appropriate methods of pruning and training. Unevenness of ripen- ing and liability to sunburn of Tokay, Zinfandel, etc., can doubtless be controlled by the same means. Very few varieties succeed under strictly short- pruning, that is, cutting back to one and two eyes, so that for most of the varieties in the first category, the modification of short -pruning which gives fruit -spurs of three or four eyes and wood -spurs of one eye is recommended. Type I. — Charbono, Cinsaut, Mataro, Carig- nane, Grenache, Petit and Alicante Bouschet, Aramon, Mourastel, Verdal, Ugni-blanc, Folle- blanche. Burger, Zinfandel, Griiner Velteliner, Peverella, Zierfahndler (?), Rother Steinschiller (on poor soils), Slankamenka, Green Hungarian (on poor soils), Blue Portuguese (on poor soils), DIFFERENT VARIETIES 527 Tinta Amarella, Moscatello fiiio, Pedro Ximenes, Palomino, Beba (?), Peruno, Mantuo, Mourisco Branco, Malmsey, Mourisco Preto, Feher Szagos, Muscat of Alexandria, Barbarossa. Type II.— St. Macaire, Beclan (longer or shorter, according to richness of soil), Teinturier male, Mondeuse, Marsanne, Chasselas, Muscatel, Grosse Blaue, Sauvignon Blanc, Sauvignon Vert, Nebbiolo, Fresa, Aleatico. Type III. — Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc (on poor soils and hillsides), Verdot, Tan- nat, Gamai Teinturier, Gros Mansenc, Pinots, Meunier, Gamais, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Chardonaj^ Rulander, Aifenthaler, Johannisberger, Franken Riesling (on hillsides), Kleinberger, Traminer, Walschriesling, Rothgipfler, Lagrain (? perhaps short), Marzemino, Blue Portuguese (on rich soils), Barbera, Moretto, Refosco, Tinta de Ma- deira, Tinta Cao, Verdelho, Boal, Sultanina, Sultana.* Type IV. — Green Hungarian, Rother Stein- schiller (on rich soils), Neiretta, Mission, West's Prolific, Robin Noir. Type V. — St. Macaire and Mondeuse (on rich bottom soils), Tinta Valdepenas, Marsanne, Clairette Blanche, Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc (on rich soils), Muscadelle du Bordelais, Ver- *In the original, Sultanina and Sultana are in the list of short- pruned varieties, but I am informed by the California Experiment Station that they should be placed with the long-pruned varieties, 528 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING uaccia Bianca, Furmint Bakator, Tadone, Gros Colman, Black Mo- rocco (?), Cornichon (!), Emperor, Toka}' (?), Almeria, Pizzutello, Cal- iy^^-mr ifornia Black Malvoisie. llllf Type VI.— Malbec, Petite Sirali and Serine, Cabernet Sanvignon and Cabernet Franc (on rich bottom soils), Merlot, Gros Mansenc (? on rich bottom soils), Chauche Noir, Bastardo, Trousseau, Ploussard, Etraie de I'Adhui, Chauche Gris, Franken Riesling (on rich soils). GLASS-HOUSE PRACTICE 'M There are many systems of train- ing vines in graperies. In fact, nearly every gardener has a mode or a method of his own, which he insists is better than all others ; and this is proof that many systems are equally good. In general, the vine is trained to one arm, which extends from the ground to the top of the house. From the sides of this arm, spurs are taken out ; and these spurs are cut back each 328. Old arm ^^^^ ^^ ^^® ^^' ^^'^ buds. Fig. 328 with short spurs, shows a part of an arm after prun- GLASS-HOUSE PRACTICE 529 ing, with the very short spurs. Some growers prefer to have longer spurs, as in Fig. 329. It 329. Long-spur pruning. is generally desired to have an alternation of fruit- bearing on these spurs. This is done by pinch- ing the flower clusters from some of the shoots, or by cutting to a strong or fruit -bearing bud on one spur, and to a weak or barren bud at 530 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING the very base of the other. The weak bud gives only a shoot ; but the uext year it is cut to a strong bud and the neighboring spur is cut to a weak one. The vine in Fig. 329 has spurs in pairs. The one on the left has already been cut six times. The pruning of this vine is explained in Fig. 330. The former prunings are marked by the letters. A more de- tailed view of an old spur is given in Fig. 331. It is generally best to prune the vines as soon as the fruit is off, there- by allowing the vines to be protected during the winter, and destroying the lodging places of insects and fungi. 330. The spurs pruned. 331. An old spur. L__ APPENDIX PIWNING ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS (See page 340) A most important contribution to the discussion of the pruning of ornamental woody plants has recently appeared in France, from the prolific pen of Charles Baitet. A translation of the discus- sion was prepared for the Western New York Horticultural Society by Charles W. Seelye, of Rochester; and his article, which was published in the proceedings of the Society for 1899, is re- vised by its author and here reprinted in full, by permission. Information inserted by Mr. Seelye is in brackets. At the Congress of Horticulture instituted by the Na- tional Society of Horticulture of France, and held in Paris on the 20th and 21st of May of last year, one of the ques- tions previously announced for consideration was the fol- lowing : Ornamental trees and shruhs of the open air cultivated for their flowers; operations of pruning in harmony ivith the knowledge of their mode of flowering. This question was responded to by the presentation of two papers, or memoirs, one by the well-known horticul- turist, M. Charles Baitet, the other by M. Chargueraud. That of the former was crowned by the society's medal. Both of them are papers of more than ordinary value. The purpose of this communication is to place in possession of the members of the Western New York Horticultural So- ciety the essential parts of these memoirs, constituting, (531) 532 APPENDIX as they do, correct working formulae for the practice of pruning the flowering shrubs. Our own gardening literature contains more or less on this important subject, but the best instructions heretofore given have still left something to be desired. The tables or lists of plants supplied in the me- moir now under consideration fill the want that all practical gardeners or pruners have felt in connection with the care of shrubs. The i)lants named in the tables are given their correct botanical names, carefully substituting them for the French terms employed by M. Baltet in his memoir. An explanatory word has been added where it seemed desirable, and the order of arrangement in the lists has been changed to follow alphabetic sequence, as became necessary in using the botanical instead of the French names. Otherwise there is no change, omission or addition. These tables, ample as they may be, are not yet com- plete, and it is announced that both writers mentioned will continue their studies of this subject, and probably supple- ment the work which they have already done. It may be suggested that some of our own members are favorably sit- uated in having under their care or supervision large and varied collections of flowering shrubs and trees, and their observations of the same will enable them, in future com- munications to this Society, to propose additions to these tables of plants, thus adding to their completeness and usefulness. The general principles that determine the proper pruning of flowering shrubs and trees have long been recognized, and more or less distinctly formulated and promulgated by horticulturists. One of the most complete statements of these principles was made in an editorial of the Garden and Forest, in December, 1896, and which has been reproduced by Mr, Bailey in his excellent monograph, "The Pruning- Book," recently issued by The Macmillan Company, and which is one of the Garden-Craft Series. But the list of plants supplied in this work, good as far as it goes, is very APPENDIX 533 brief, and quite inadequate for practical purposes. It is a pleasure, therefore, to make good this deficiency in the pres- ent communication prepared from a presentation of the sub- ject in La Semaine Horticole, in its issue of July 23, 1898: Pyinciples of Pruning Shruhs as Formulated by M. Charles Ballet. 1. Prune when dormant, plants of those species which flower during the growing season on the young, herbaceous shoots. This is Whiter Pruning, or Dry Pruning. 2. Prune in full growth, as soon as the flowering period ends, the plants of those species which, when the sap starts, expand their flowers on the branches of the preceding year or older ones. This is Summer Pruning, or Green Pruning. In both cases the desired end is, that the floral elements shall become well constituted at the blooming epoch. Sum- mer pinching or shortening strengthens, or causes to branchy the long shoots which should flower in winter or the follow- ing spring, and thus increases the show of flowers. Pruning is long when more wood is left on the plants short when more is cut away, combined if the two operations are applied at the time on the same shrub, a system prefer- able to alternating. Without rules to follow, long-pruning, or the absence of pruning, should be preferable to exaggerated mutilations. Everywhere and always the trimming of trees and shrubs is recommended by thinning the branches that grow too dense, their rejuvenation by the suppression of old, sterile, worn- out stems and replacing them with vigorous shoots, and, finally, the exercise of neatness, clearing away scaly or mossy bark, the suppression of dead wood, broken pieces, suckers, and the withered remains of flowers. The instructions for pruning, as given by M. Chargue- raud, are somewhat more precise, and confirm and also sup- plement those of M. Baltet. 534 APPENDIX Directions of M. Chargtiercmd. For those shrubs of which the flower buds are apparent on the terminal and secondary shoots, the syringa, for- sythia, Jasminum nudiflorum, viburnum, etc., the pruning, soon as the flowering ceases, consists in taking away the withered flowers, the worthless or decaying branches, then shortening the branches which are too long down to the eyes, so as to give vigor to the new shoots which are to continue the growth or replace the old branches, and carry flower buds in autumn. For those species whose flower buds come upon little lateral shoots, or spurs, on old wood, such as the cherry, plum, apple, etc., it is proper to take away the decaying branches and to prune the vigorous branches in a way that will cause to form at their base, on the old wood, new little flowering spurs, and also to maintain sufficient vegetation in the old spurs. Vigorous - growing, sappy branches or suckers, which sometimes spring directly from the base of the stems or on the old wood, are not preserved, only as they may be necessary to replace decayed branches, in order to main- tain the desired form or dimensions, or finally to increase the size of the subjects according to their vigor. •In regard to the trees and shrubs bearing their flowers on the new herbaceous shoots, they are pruned at the end of winter or commencement of springtime, before vegeta- tion shall have started. Knowing that the flowers of these shrubs come upon the shoots issuing from eyes of branches formed the preceding year, the operations of pruning ought to be practiced in a manner to cause a sufficiently vigor- ous development of the shoots which will bear flowers. After taking away the parts which are dead, decaying or useless, the branches retained are pruned longer or shorter, according to their vigor or according to the end desired to be obtained. If abundant blooming is desired, APPENDIX 535 long-pruning is practiced, or from three to six eyes and more ; if, on the contrary, a less abundant bloom is de- sired, but with flowers or flower-spikes of greater dimen- sions, the number of branches is reduced and short- pruning is adopted — that is, pruning to one or two well dev^eloped buds ; for example, hybrid roses, the hydrangea, hibiscus, etc. baltet's tables DIVISION I Small Trees and Flowering Shrubs Class A SUMMER OR AUTUMN Prune in winter or spring, Abelia. Actiiiidia. Amorpha. Baccharis. Bignonia. Buddleia. Callicarpa. Calycanthus. Camellia. Cassia. Ceanothus. Clematis. Sections Flammula, viticella, Jackmanni, lanuginosa. Clethra. Colutea arborescens. Cornus. Desmodium. Diervilla Canadensis. Gpnista.. Halesia. FLOWERING SHRUBS when plants are dormant Halimodendron. Hibiscus Syriacus. Hydrangea (American species). Hydrangea paniculata. Hypericum. Indigofera. Itea. Jasminum (exceptions). Kerria. Lagerstroemia. Leycesteria. Ligustrum. Lonicera. [Including— The Fly Honeysuckle Sec- tion, with exception of L. Standishii and L. fragrant- issima. Also, the True or Twining Honeysuckles, including the Belgian and Japanese s.>ecies and varieties.] Lycium. 536 APPENDIX Myrtus. Nerium. Pavia — Californian. Pbiladelphus. Photinia. Potentilla. Rhus. Robinia hispida and New Mexi- can. Rosa, Remontant. Rubus. Sambucus pubens. Solanum. Spirea (exceptions) . See Special List. Symphoricarpus. Tamarix — from India, China, Germany and Kaschgar. Viburnum Tinus. Vitex. Class B SPRING - FLOWERING SHRUBS Prune after blooming, or when iu leaf Amelanchier. Amygdalus. Arbutus. Calycanthus. Cerasus. Cercis. Choisya. Cistus. Clematis (patens and florida). Coronilla. Crataegus oxyacantha. Cytisus. Deutzia. Diervilla rosea (Weigela) and varieties. Exoehorda. Forsythia. Hydrangea (Asiatic). Jasminum nudiflorum. Lonicera fragrantissima and L. Standishii. Malus. Neviusa. Olearia. Paeonia Moutan (Tree Peony). Persica vulgaris. Phlomis. Prunus. [Including— Double-flowering Almond, Dwarf Double - flowering Almond. P. tomentosa. P. triloba and the double- flowered P. virgata. Also, the double-flowered va- riety of P. divaricata or My- robalana, and the double- flowering Sloe, P. spinosa fl. pi., and Prunus Persica or Persica Vulgaris, the Peach and its varieties, and Prunus Padus and its varieties.] Rosa, non-remontant. Rhodotypus. Ribes. Rosmarinus. APPENDIX 537 Sambucus nigra. Spirea (exceptions) . See Special List. Syringa (Lilac). Tamarix Gallica. Tamarix Africana. Viburnum, French and Asiatic [includes V. lantana. V. Opulus and variety, and V. plicatum]. Wistaria. Class C SHRUBS NOT REQUIRING PRUNING, BUT SIMPLY REMOVAL OF OLD WOOD Section 1 Spring-blooming Akebia. Andromeda. Azalea. Berberis [B. vulgaris and va- rieties, and B. Canadensis]. Calophaca. Caragana. Cerasus Laurocerasus and Lusi- tanica Chionanthus. Cotoneaster. Crataegus Pyracantha. Cytisus Laburnum or Labur- num vulgare. Daphne. Fraxinus Ornus. Halesia. Kalmia. Koelreuteria. Lonicera Tatarica. Magnolia. Mahonia. Raphiolepis. Rhododendron. Skimmia. Staphylea. Viburnum (American species). Xanthoceras. Section 2 Summer- b looming Aralia. Artemisia. Cladrastis or Virgilia. Pavia (except Californian) Robinia Pseudo-Acacia and R. viscosa. Yucca. 538 APPENDIX DTVISIOX II Large-flowering Trees Not Requiring Pruning tEscuIus or Horse Chestnut. Pyriis Aria. Cataljia. Robinia (with exceptions). Liriodendron tulipifera. Sophora. Paulownia. Sorbns (the species and rarie- Pavia. ties of Mountain Ash). Pj'rus Aria (White Beam Tree). PRUNING THE SPIREAS M. Baltet, in his paper crowned by the Paris Congress, divided this important genus into two groups, based upon the epoch of blooming. Section 1 spireas blooming in the spring These ought not to be cut in winter. Reduce the branches when the season of bloom is past, cutting short- est the most vigorous subjects, unless summer pinching is practiced. The following kinds belong to this division : Chainsedrifolia or German-leaved. Hypericifolia or Hypericum-leaved. Cut to medium length. Opulifolia or Guelder Rose-leaved. Top the long shoots. Ulmifolia or Elm-leaved. Cut away half the shoot. Prunifolia or Plum-leaved. Pinch in summer the side shoots Argentea. Van Houttei. Cut away one-half the branches which have bloomed. Amcena. Lanceolata or Reevesii, and its varieties. After blooming these plants should be cut long. Thunbergia. Prune scarcely any. APPENDIX 539 Section 2 SPIREAS BLOOMING IN SUMMER OR AUTUMN Prune in winter This division includes the follovvino- species and varieties : Ariaefolia. Salicifolia. Sorbifolia. Billardi. Doiiglasi, Fontenaysli, Callosa or Fortunei and its vai'ieties. All the Fortune Spireas should be cut about half length. Nobleana. Corymbosa. Bunialda, and its variet}^ Anthony Waterer, should have the ends of the shoots removed in winter. Lindleyi, cut short, even down to the ground. The Spireas of which the branches are compact ought to have a thinning in winter, or a thinning and pruning combined. Of those of the dwarf type, it will be sufficient to cu\, back the shoots that have flowered. INDEX PAGE Adlum, quoted 391, 393 Almond, fruit-bearing 74 Althjiea 338, 340 Anderson, A. K., quoted 382 Apple, fruit-buds 22, 30, 69 — leaf-bud 27, 69 ■— flowers 55 — pruning and references 309 — root-pruning 248 Apples, dwarf 278 — experiments on 103 Apricot, fruit-bearing 50, 74 — pruning and references 310 Arbor Kniffin 474 Arbors, of grapes 490 Arches 351 Arm, defined 404 Ash logs 86 Azalea 340 Bacteria in wounds 02 Balmer, quoted 187, 215, 308 Barberry 340 Bark-boixnd 78 Bark, expansion of 76 Barns, William D 402 grape training 466 quoted 296 Bast, for tying 428 Beach, quoted 328, 331 Bearing year 176 Bellair, G. A., quoted 363 Bending 167 Bioletti, F. T., quoted 494 Blackberry, fruit-bearing 64, 75 — pruning 323 Bleeding. ...,,,,, 103, 413 PAGE Bois, D., quoted 355 Bolting trees 125 Bordeaux Mixture for wounds. .109, 119, 121 Borers, injui-y by 122 Brambles, fruit-beai'ing 63 Brehaut, quoted 364 Bridge-grafting 120 Brunk, T. L., quoted 236, 240 Buchatt, on ringing 285 Bud, cutting near 221 Budd, Professor, quoted 145 Budded trees 263 Burning prunings 308 Burroughs, on ringing 296 Bushes, pruning 195, 335 Butternut, fruit-bearing 72 California 200, 215, 308, 310 — vine pruning 494 Callus 83 — on roots 233 Cambium 82 Candelabrum 358 Cane, defined 404 Card, on pruning 185 — quoted 113 Cay wood system 474 Chautauqua training 434, 439 Cheal, J., quoted 349 Checking growth 162 Chemical analyses 178 Clierry, black 9 — fruit-spur 46, 74 — pruning and references 313 — split 122 — struggle for existence in 7, IX (541) 542 INDEX PAGE Cherry, wild 7 Chestnut, fruit-bearing 72, 75 Chisels for pruning 115, 302 Clematis 340 Climate and pruning. . .185, 187, 199 Coal-tar for wounds Ill Coates, qtioted 115 Come-alongs 420 Conifers, prvming 140 Copings for fruits 350 Co-terminal fruit-bearing 59, 74 Corbett, quoted 233, 402 Cordon 342, 343, 357 Cornell, W. T 458 Cornell, root-pruning at 240 Crab, flowering 340 — pruning 15 Crittenden system ..- 476 Cross-wire system 477 Crotches 125 Ciirrant, fruit-bearing 56, 66, 74 — pruning 327, 340 Cutting-back 95, 157, 174, 180, 195, 205 Dendroscope 303 Des Cars, quoted 100, 111, 302 Devitalizing by pruning 4 Devol, W. S., quoted 306 Dewberry, fruit-bearing 64, 75 — pruning 323 Dextrine 179 Downing, A. J., quoted 151 Dressings 84, 89, 109, 190 Drooping grape training 458 Du Breuil, quoted 343, 368 Duf our, quoted 395 Duggar, B. M., quoted 90 Dwarfing 227 Dwarfs, management of 269 Eisen, book by 494 Elder 340 Elm, growth of bark 76 Elms, inarched TiSH Espalier 342, 343, 357 PAGE Evergreens, pruning 140, 150 Exochorda 340 Fan training 455 Farlow, W. G., quoted 129 Fences, for fruits 351 Filbert, fruit-bearing 72, 74 Fisher, on ringing 286 Florida freezes 147 Form of top 193 Forsythia 340 Freezing, splitting by 122 Frozen trees, repairing 141 — wood 107 Fruit-bud 21, 27, 68 Fruit-spur 30 et'seq_ Fuller, grape training 391 Fungi of wounds 92 Garden and Forest, quoted 337 Gardeners' Chronicle, quoted... 384 Gaucher, quoted 284 Girardin's grafts 345 Girdles, repairing 120 Girdling 17, 116. 119, 162, 163, 167, 281 Glass-house grape training 528 Gnawed trees 122 Goblet training 308 Goessmann, on ringing 285 Goff, E. S., quoted 144 Gooseberries, training 384 Gooseberry, fruit-bearing 56, 74 — pruning 327 Grafted trees 263 Grafting vines 492 — wounds 120 Grape, fruit-bearing 63, 75 — ringing 284 — training 390 — young plant 210, 411 Grapes, frozen 149 Graperies 528 Green, Professor, quoted 145 Habit of fruit-boaring 163 Hale, J. H., quoted 262, 316 INDEX 543 PAGE Hardy, J. A., quoted 361 Hiirris, J. S., quoted 145 Hartwig, quoted 304 Havilaud, Sands 474 Hazel, fruit- bearing 72, 74 Heading-in 96, 157, 174, ISO, 195, 205 Healing of wounds 76, 189 Hedges 333 Hemlock knots 79 Henderson, quoted 107 Hewett, B. W., quoted 140 Hickory, fruit-bearing 01, 72, 75 — log 87 High renewal 44 1 Hirscliinger, C, quoted 146 Hofer, A. F 490 Horizontal arm 437 — training 486 Hudson, R., girdling 293 Husks, for tying 428 Hydrangea 338, 340 Inarching 120, 388 Indian Riv. Advocate, quoted . . 147 Iowa 145 Iron, sulfate of 344, 347 Johnson, S. W., quoted 393 Juneberry, fruit-bearing 50 Kalmia 340 Kellogg, G. J., quoted 146 Kerria 340 Kieff er pear, treatment of 159 Knife 298 — ringing 295 Kniffin, William 459 Kniffin training 432, 460 Knisely, quoted 178 Knot-holes 81 Knots 79 Koopmann, K., quoted 109 Label wires 110 Leader 150 Lichen on trees Ill Lilac, pruning , 336, 340 PAGE Lilac shoot 1 Lindley, quoted 284 Lodeman, on grape training 402 — quoted 278 Loquat, fruit-bearing 75 Lord, O. M., quoted 145 Maeomber, J. T., quoted 384 Magnolia 340 Maple, fruit-bearing 59 — log 88 — tapping 85 Marvin, D. S., quoted 457 Mask, pnining 307 Medlar, fruit-bearing 75 Meehan's Monthly, quoted 140 Mending trees 116 Minnesota 145 Mock orange 336, 340 Moss on trees Ill Mulberry, fruit-bearing 75 Munson training 480 Myticuttah shears 304 Nectrias 94 Neff, J. B., quoted 310 Notching 167, 169 Oak knots 79 Obstiiictions to sap 161, 107 Olive, fruit-bearing 75 Opoix, quoted 170 Orange, fruit-bearing 75 — pruning 314 Oranges, frozen 147 Ornamental plants 335 Overbearing 165 Overhead grape training 474 Paint for wounds 109, 113, 190 Peach, fruit-bearing 50, 74 — pruning and references 315 — root-pruning 245 — twig of 95 Peaches, laying down 384 Pear, fruit-spur 40, 74 — pruning and references 319 — root-pruning 230, 245. 544 INDEX PAGE Pear twigs, swellings on 178 Pear-blight 122 Pears, dwarfs 271 Pentosans 179 Persimmon, fruit-bearing 75 Philips, A. J., quoted 146 Physiology of pruning 13 Pine, girdled 117 Plains, pruning on the .144, 185, 199 Plashing 334 Plugging cavities 124 Plum, fruit-spur 46, 74 — headed-in 195 — pruning and references 320 — root-pruning 247 Polyporus sulphureus 94 Pome-fruits 189 Poplars, fruit-bearing 71 Positions of fruit-buds 74 Post training 488 Pots, trees in 374 Powell, quoted 313 Prairie Farmer, quoted 418 Price, R. H., quoted 236 Principles of pruning 133 Prunus serotina, wound on 94 Punk-fungus 94 Pyramids 342, 356 Quince, fruit-bearing 60, 75 — pruning and references 322 Raffia 426 Raspberry, fruit-bearing 64, 75 — pruning 323 Reasons for pruning 135 Reducing sugar 179 Reid, E. W., quoted ; . . . .306- Rejuvenating trees 139 Renewal, defined 410 Rhododendron 340 Ringing 17, 281 Rivers, on pot trees 382 — on pyramids 358 — on root-pruning 230 Robbers 155 PAGE Root-pruning 138, 227 Rose, flower-bearing 67 Roses, pruning 137, 336, 340 Rural New-Yorker, quoted.. 121, 307 Sargent, C. S., quoted 100 Saws 300 Scaffold limbs 204 Schizophyllum commune 94 Scraping trees 121 Season for pruning 181 Shade trees, pruning 333 Shaping the top 222 Shears 298, 301 Shellac for wounds 109 Shoot, defined 404 Shredding 167 Shrubs, pruning 195, 335 Snow, Geo. C 402 Snowball 340 Sorauer, quoted 154, 182 Spencer, John W. . .402, 424, 428, 434 Spirea, pruning 336, 340 Splitting of trunks 122 Spur 30 et seq. — defined 410 Standard 342 Starch in twigs 179 Starnes, H. N., quoted 402, 486 Stone-fruits 189 Straw, for tying 428 Strawberry, trimming 304 Street trees, injuries to 129 Stringfellow system 236 Stripping vines 414 Stub-root pruning 236 Subsequent treatment 250 Suckers 155 Sugar, redi^cing 179 Sulfate of iron 344, 347 Summer pruning 140, 181 Sun-scald 122, 185 Tallow for wounds 109 Tamarisk 338, 340 Tap-hole 85 INDEX 54i PAGE Tap-root 151 Tar for wounds 109 Tliinning the fruit 174 Tliomas, quoted 391 Tlionisoii, quoted 365 Tools 297 Top, form of 193 Top- worked trees 203 Training, specific modes 341 Transplanting, root-pruning at. .232 Trellis, for grapes 410 Trunk, expansion of 70 Twisting 107 Tying grapes 426 Umbrella training 409 Upi-ight grape training 430 Van Dusen, H. P., quoted 409 Vase 350 Veitch, quoted 384 Viburnum 340 Vines, grafting 492 Vineyard, layout of 424 Vinifera grape training 494 Vitis vinifera 494 Walker, E., quoted 137, 330 Walls for fruits 348 Walnut, fruit-bearing 72, 75 — Japanese 103 ^arneken, quoted 376 PAGE Washington 187, 216 Waters' pruner 301 Watersprouts 155 Waugh, quoted 483 Wax for wounds lOD — recipe for 119 Weeping of vines 413 Weigela 340 When to prune 102, 181, 189 Whitford, Leroy, quoted 121 Why we prune 135 Wickson, quoted 200, 315, 494, 509, 510 Williams, H. S. , quoted 147 Willow, Kilmarnock 209 Willows, for tying 427 — f iniit-bearing 71 Winter-injured trees 141 Winter-killed buds 73 Wire, for tying 428 — for vineyards 419 Wire-stretchers 420 Wisconsin 144, 146 Wool twine, for tying 427 Wound, how to make 99, 114 — nature of 82 Yeomans, on pruning 221, 272 Young trees, trimming 205 ..<■» ColWP The Best and Newest Rural Books BOOKS ON LEADING TOPICS CONNECTED WITH AGRI- CULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE ARE HERE MENTIONED. EACH BOOK IS THE WORK OF A SPECIALIST, UNDER THE EDITORIAL SUPERVISION OF PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY, OF THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY, OR BY PROFESSOR BAILEY HIMSELF, AND IS READABLE, CLEAR-CUT AND PRACTICAL. THE RURAL SCIENCE SERIES Includes books which state the underlying principles of agriculture in plain language. They are suitable for consultation alike by the amateur or professional tiller of the soil, the scientist or the student, and are freely illustrated and finely made. The following volumes are now ready: THE SOIL. By F. H. King, of the University of Wisconsin. 303 pp. 45 illustrations. 75 cents. THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND. By I. P. Roberts, of Cornell Univer- sity. 421 pp. 45 illustrutions. $1.25. THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. By E. G. Lodeman, late of Cornell Uni- versity. 399 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.00. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. By H. H. Wing, of Cornell University. 311 pp. 43 illustrations. $1.00. THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING. By L. H. Bailey. 516 pp. 120 illustrations. $1.25. BUSH-FRUITS. By F. W. Card, of Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. 537 pp. 113 illustrations. $1.50. FERTILIZERS. By E. B. Voorhees, of New Jersey Experiment Station. 332 pp. $1.00. THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. By L. H. Bailev. 300 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.25. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. By F. H. King, University of Wisconsin. 502 pp. 103 illustrations. $1.50. THE FARMSTEAD. By I. P. Robekts. 350 pp. 138 illustrations. $1.25. RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. By George T. Fairchild, Ex-Presi- dent of the Agricultural College of Kansas. 381 pp. 14 charts. $1.25. THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING. By L. H. Bailey. 468 pp. 144 illustrations. $1.25. THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. By W. H. Jordan, of New York State Experiment Station. 450 pp. $1.25 net. FARM POULTRY. By George C. Watson, of Pennsylvania State College. 341 pp. $1.25 net. THE FARMER'S BUSINESS HANDBOOK. By I. P. Roberts, of Cornell University. 300 pp. $1.00 net. New volumes will be added from time to time to the Rural Science Series. The following are in preparation : PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University. THE PRINCIPLES OF STOCK BREEDING. By W. H. Brewer, of Yale University. PLANT PATHOLOGY. By B. T. Galloway and associates, of U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. C.\RE OF ANIMALS. By N. S. Mayo, of Connecticut Agricultural (College. THE POME FRUITS (Apples, Pears, Quinces). By L, H. Baii^ey. THE GARDEN-CRAFT SERIES Comprises practical handbooks for the horticultur- ist, explaining and illustrating in detail the various important methods which experience has demon- strated to be the most satisfactory. They may be called manuals of practice, and though all are pre- pared by Professor Bailey, of Cornell University, they include the opinions and methods of success- ful specialists in many lines, thus combining the results of the observations and experiences of nu- merous students in this and other lands. They are written in the clear, strong, concise English and in the entertaining style which characterize the author. The volumes are compact, uniform in style, cle-arly printed, and illustrated as the subject demands. They are of convenient shape for the pocket, and are substantially bound in flexible green cloth. THE HORTICULTURIST'S RULE BOOK. By L. H. Bailey. 312 pp. 75 cents. THE NURSERY-BOOK. By L, H. Bailey, 305 pp. 152 illustrations. $1. PLANT-BREEDING. By L. H. Bailey. 293 pp. 20 illustrations. $1.00. THE FORCING-BOOK. By L. H. Bailey. 2GG pp. 88 illustrations. $1.00. GARDEN-MAKING. By L. H. Bailey. 417 pp. 2,-)G illustrations. $1.00. THE PRUNING-BOOK. By L. H. Bailey. 515 pp. 331 illustrations. $1.50. THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK. By C. E. Hunn and L. H. Bailey. 250 pp. Many marginal cuts. $1.00. T WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY HE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE: A Collection of Evolution Essays Suggested by the Study of Domestic Plants. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture in the Cornell University. FOURTH EDITION — 516 PACES — 22 ILLUSTRATIONS — S2.00 To those interested in the underlying philosophy of plant life, this volume, written in a most enter- taining style, and fully illustrated, will prove wel- come. It treats of the modification of plants under cultivation upon the evolution theory, and its atti- tude on this interesting subject is characterized by the author's well-known originality and inde- pendence of thought. Incidentally, there is stated much that will be valuable and suggestive to the working horticulturist, as well as to the man or woman impelled by a love of nature to horticul- tural pursuits. It may well be called, indeed, a philosophy of horticulture, in which' all interested may find inspiration and instruction. The Survival of the Unlike comprises thirty essaj's touching upon The General Fact and Philosophy of Evolution (The Plant Individual, Experimental Evolution, Coxey's Army and the Russian Thistle, Recent Progress, etc.); Expounding the Fact and Causes of Variation (The Supposed Correlations of Quality in Fruits, Natural History of Synonyms, Reflective Impressions, Relation of Seed- bearing to Cultivation, Variation after Birth, Relation between American and Eastern Asian Fruits, Horticultural Geography, Prob- lems of Climate and Plants, American Fruits, Acclimatization, Sex in Fruits, Novelties, Promising Varieties, etc.); snA Tracing the Evolution of Particular Types of Plants (the Cultivated Strawberry, Battle of the Plums, Grapes, Progress of the Carnation. Petunia. The Garden Tomato, etc.). WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY HE EVOLUTION OF OUR NA- TIVE FRUITS. By L. H. BAILEY, Pro> fessor of Horticulture in the Cornell University. 472 PACES- 126 ILLUSTRATIONS — $2.00 In this entertaining volume, the origin and de- velopment of the fruits peculiar to North America are inquired into, and the personality of those horti- cultural pioneers whose almost forgotten labors have given us our most valuable fruits is touched upon. There has been careful research into the history of the various fruits, including inspection of the records of the great European botanists who have given attention to American economic botany. The conclusions reached, the information presented, and the suggestions as to future developments, can- not but be valuable to any thoughtful fruit-grower, while the terse style of the author is at its best in his treatment of the subject. The Evolution of our Native Fruits discusses The Rise of the American Grape (North America a Natural Vineland, Attempts to Cultivate the European Grape, The Experiments of the Dufours, The Branch of Promise, John Adlum and the Catawba, Rise of Commercial Viticulture, Why Did the Early "Vine Experiments Fail ? Synopsis of the American Grapes) ; The Strange History of the Mul- berries (The Early Silk Industry, The "Multicaulis Craze,") ; Evolu- tion of American Plums and Cherries (Native Plums in General, The Chickasaw, Hortulana, Marianna and Beach Plum Groups, Pacific Coast Plum, Various Other Types of Plums, Natn^e Cherries, Dwarf Cherry Group) ; Native Apples (Indigenous Species, Amelio- ration has begun); Origin of American Raspberry-growing (Early American History, Present Types, Outlying Types) ; Evolution of Blackberry and Dewberry Culture (The High-bush Blackberry and Its Kin, The Dewberries, Botanical Names); Various Types of Berry-like Fruits (The Gooseberry, Native Currants, Juneberry, Buffalo Berry, Elderberry, High-bush Cranberry, Cranberry, Straw- berry); Various Types of Tree Fruits (Persimmon, Custard-Apple Tribe, Thorn-Apples, Nut-Fruits) ; General Remarks on the Improve- ment of our Native Fruits (What Has Been Done, What Probably Should Be Done). WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY ESSONS WITH PLANTS: Surges- tions for Seeing and Interpreting Some of the Common Forms of Vegetation. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture in the Cornell University, with delineations from nature by W. S. HOLDSWORTH, of the Agricultural College of Michigan. SECOND EDITION— 491 PACES— 446 ILLUSTRATIONS— 1 2 MO- CLOTH— 91.10 NET There are two ways of looking at nature. The old way, which you have found so unsatisfactory, was to classify everything — to consider leaves, roots, and whole plants as formal herbarium specimens, forgetting that each had its own story of growth and development, struggle and success, to tell. Nothing stifles a natural love for plants more effect- ually than that old way. The new way is to watch the life of every grow- ing thing, to look upon each plant as a living ereatu4'e, whose life is a story as fascinating as the story of any favorite hero. "Lessons with Plants" is a book of stories, or rather, a book of plays, for we can see each chapter acted out if we take the trouble to looh at the actors. " I have spent some time in most delightful examination of it, and the longer I look, the better I like it. I find it not only full of interest, but eminently suggestive. I know of no book which begins to do so much to open the eyes of th^ student —whether pupil or teacher — to the wealth of nneaning contained in simple plant forms. Above all else, it seems to be full of suggestions that help one to learn the language of plants, so they may talk to him."— Darwin L. Bardwell, Superintendent of Schools, Bivg- hamton. "It is an admirable book, and cannot fail both to awaken interest in the subject, and to serve as a helpful and reliable guide to yoimg students of plant life. It will, I think, fill an important place in secondary schools, and comes at an opportune time, when helps of this kind are needed and eagerly sought."— Professor V. M. Spaldinu, University of Michigan. FIRST LESSONS WITH PLANTS An Abridgement of the above. 117 pages — 116 illustra- tions — 40 cents net. B WORKS BY PROFESSOR SAILEY OTANY: An Elementary Text for Schools= By L. H. BAILEY. 355 PACES— 500 ILLUSTRATIONS-$ 1 .1 O NET " This book is made for the pupil : ' Lessons With Plants ' was made to supplement the work of the teacher." This is the opening sentence of the preface, showing that the book is a companion to "Lessons With Plants," which has now become a standard teacher's book. The present book is the handsomest elementary botanical text-book yet made. The illustrations illustrate. They are artistic. The old formal and unnatural Botany is being rapidly outgrown. The book disparages mere Laboratory work of the old kind: the pupil is taught to see things as they grow and behave. The pupil who goes through this book will understand the meaning of the plants which he sees day by day. It is a revolt from the dry-as-dust teaching of botany. It cares little for science for science' sake, but its point of view is nature-study in its best sense. The book is divided into four parts, any or all of which may be used in tke school: the plant itself; the plant in its environment; histology, or the minute structure of plants; the kinds of plants (with a key, and de- scriptions of 300 common species). The introduction contains advico to teachers. The book is brand new from start to finish. "An exceedingly attractive text-book." — Educational Review. "It is a school book of the modern methods." — The Dial. "It Avonld bo hard to find a better manual for schools or for indi- vidual use."— TAe Outlook. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY No. 66 Fifth Avenue NEW YCRK T WORKS BY FROFESSOR BAILEY HE CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURE: By l. h. bailey, of Cornell University, assisted by WILHELM MILLER, and many expert cultivators and botanists. 4 VOLS.— OVER 2800 ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS - CLOTH — OCTAVO 320.00 NET PER SET. HALF MOROCCO, $32.O0 NET PER SET This great work comprises directions for the cul- tivation of horticultural crops and original desci-ip- tions of all the species of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants known to be in the market in the United States and Canada. "It has the unique distinction of presenting for the first time, in a care- fully arranged and perfectly accessible form, the best knowledge of the best specialists in America upon gardening, fruit-growing, vegetable culture, forestry, and the like, as well as exact botanical information. . . . The contributors are eminent cultivators or specialists, and the arrangement is very systematic, clear and convenient for read}^ reference." "We have here a work which every ambitious gardener will wish to place on his shelf l)eside his Nicholson and liis London, and for snch users of it a too advanced nomenclature would have been confusing to the last degree. With the safe names here given, there is little lia])ility to se^•io^^s perplexity. There is a growing impatience with much of the controversy concerning revision of names of organisms, whether of plants or animals. Those in- vestigators who are busied with the ecological aspects of organisms, and also those who are chiefly concerned with the applicatior of plants to the arts of agrieultiire, horticulture, and so on, care for the names of organisms under examination only so far as these aid in recognition and identification. To introduce unnecessary confusion is a serioiis blunder. Professor Bailey has avoided the risk of confusion. In short, in range, treatment and edit- ing, the Cyclopedia appears to be emphatically useful ; . . . a work worthy of ranking by the side of the Century Dictionary." — The Nation. This work is sold only by subscription, and terms and further information may be had of the publishers. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY No. 66 Fifth Avenue 2 6 3 9 ^^^ YORK %1^- -.»'' ,>^. N. MANCHESTER, INDIANA l-fL' ti