(Blie i. m. Hill ffitbrarg Nartlj (Earnltna S'tatP IniiiprHitg 33413 rrr\ 'J o 1-130 This book was presented by .line Leach iiimer 'V(«7H ^^540308 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUB- JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION DESK. NOV W8- MAR 3 20fi3 100M/7-85 COMMERCIAL VIOLET CULTURE Double Violet Swanky White. Half natural size COMMERCIAL VIOLET CULTURE A TREATISE ON THE GROWING AND MARKETING OF VIOLETS FOR PROFIT BY B. T. GALLOWAY DEAN OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. FORMERLY CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, AND ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D. C. THIRD EDITION REVISED NEW YORK A. T. DELAMARE PTG. & PUB. CO. LTD. 1914 Copyright Entered According to Act of Congress IN THE years 1899 AND 1 903 BY A. T. DE LA Mare Printing and Publishing Co. Ltd. NEW York third Edition, revised copyrighted 1914 by a. t. de la mare printing and publishing company ltd. NEW YORK All Rights Reserved PREFACE Violet growing as a business has not received the attention given to some other crops. This is probably due to the fact that the violet as generally grown is less profitable than the rose, carnation, or even the chrysanthemum. More people have embarked in this business and failed than is the case with any other crop, and for this reason we beheve that it is one of the most promising fields for the young, energetic, and intelHgent man to enter. Whoever enters it, however, must recognize at the start that there are many difficulties, and that to be successful means much labor, patience and determination to overcome all obstacles. The knowledge necessary to succeed can come only through experience. Reading will help, but with- out the ability to apply what is learned by reading little progress can be made. We have gone over this ground pretty thoroughly, and in looking back can see that our experience in many cases was dearly bought. To save others from making mis- takes that fell to our lot we have in some instances made statements which might be considered as dogmatic. We have done this for the reason that we were many times led away by general state- ments, which, had they been specific, would have saved us much time and money. We have endeav- ored to give every necessary detail for handhng the soil, erection of houses and frames, the manage- ment of the plants, and the marketing of the flowers, and finally we have shown what it costs to grow a violet plant, what such a plant under fair conditions should yield, and what in our experience may be looked upon as a fair profit. From the facts given it will be seen that no big fortunes are to be made in violet growing; but if a man loves Nature and that quiet and peace which work with her should always bring, there is a chance here to open her doors. Thus a love for all that is good and beautiful may be cultivated and a respectable hving made at the same time. I wish to express my thanks to P. H. Dorsett, who shared with me all the trials and vexations which fall to the lot of beginners in this work. He is now a successful grower, and many of the illus- trations given are from his houses. B. T. Galloway. Washington, D. C, July I St, 1899. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION Since the first edition of this little work was written, four years ago, there have been some changes in the methods of growing violets for market. The writer has seen a number of formerly successful growers go out of the business, and others without any previous experience succeed astonish- ingly. This leads us to repeat what was stated in our first preface, namely, that because so many people fail with this crop we beheve it is one of the most promising for the intelligent and energetic man to take up. In this edition we have made certain changes which experience has taught us, and offer it with thanks for the kind reception given the first work. Figures 62, 64, 66 and 68 are from Bull. 27, Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and we are indebted to Dr. L. O. Howard, chief of the division, for the electrotypes. B. T. Galloway. Washington, D. C, May 1st, 1903. PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION During the eleven years since the second edition of '' Commercial Violet Culture " was issued, it has been steadily in demand, and the number of orders awaiting to be satisfied upon the appearance of the present edition attest the high value of this httle work, and bespeak for it continued usefulness. The demand for violet flow^ers fluctuates con- siderably, but their sale is always an important part of the w^holesale and retail florists' trade. One firm alone, at Boston, Massachusetts, sold 160,000 violet blooms on a St. Valentine's Day, and upon another occasion a diff"erent firm disposed of 150,000. These are but typical of other transactions in the violet market. Just what the actual yearly turn- over amounts to, it would be interesting to know, but, assuredly, the figures would be astonishing. The industry is still enlarging, for the violet is the favorite of the people. It has, indeed, been classed as the third most popular of the commercial flowers. May, 1914 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I Page Single Varieties 19 Russian Violet 19 Welsiana 19 Governor Herrick 20 Luxonne 20 California, or Madame E. Arene 20 Princess of Wales, or Princess de Galles 20 La France 21 Dorsett 21 Double Varieties 21 Neapolitan 21 Lady Hume Campbell 24 Marie Louise 24 Farquhar and Imperial 24 Swanley White 25 Madam Millet 25 Origin and Introduction of Varieties 25 Culture, Past and Present 31 Violet Farmers 32 Chapter II The Soil 37 Chapter III Construction and Heating of Houses and Frames 50 Construction of Houses 50 Heating 64 Construction of Frames 88 Chapter IV Water Supply 96 Chapter V n Page Propagating, Selecting, Planting, Cleaning, Watering, etc lOO Propagating lOO Selection of Stock for Vigor and Productiveness 117 Planting 124 Cleaning, Watering, Syringing, Mulching and Feeding. 132 Chapter VI Temperature Conditions and Ventilation 138 Chapter VII Handling and Marketing the Crop 148 Chapter VIII Diseases and Insect Enemies 170 Diseases and Their Treatment 170 Spot, or Spot Disease 172 Wilt, or Stem Rot 181 Nanism, or Stuntedness 185 Scald, or Edge Burn 189 Oedema, or Wart Disease 193 Crown Rot 197 Root Galls 198 Bud Nematodes 201 Insects and Other Pests 203 Red Spider 203 Green and Brown Aphides 212 Cut Worms 221 Sawfly 223 Gallfly Maggots 224 Phlyctaenia rubigalis 229 Chapter IX Cost of Production and Profits 230 Chapter X Violet Growing for Beginners 239 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Frontispiece — Swanley White Double Violet 6 1 . Dorsett Single Violet 22 2. Dorsett Single Violet, Bunched 23 3. Princess of Wales Single Violet 26 4. Marie Louise Double Violet 28 5. Gov. Herrick Single Violet 29 6. Characteristic Growth of California (Single) and Marie Louise (Double) Compared 30 7. Mixing Soil. Spreading Manure in Layers Between the Soil 43 8. Mixing SoiL Breaking and Pulverizing the Sod Preparatory to Putting It Down with Layers of Manure 44 9. Sash House with Sashes Off 51 10. House Twelve Feet Wide, Six Feet to Ridge; Side Ventilators of Glass 52 11. Type of Even-Span House, Twelve Feet Wide, Showing Method of Running Heating Pipes and Constructing Beds 53 12. Type of Even-Span House, Twelve Feet Wide, with Two Deep Walks, Showing Heating Pipes and Method of Constructing Beds, Roofs and Ends . . 55 13. Shed at North End of Houses, Showing Method of Construction 56 14. Interior of Shed Shown in Figure 13 57 15. Roofs of Twelve- Foot Houses, Showing Method of Construction and of Attaching Ventilators 58 Page 1 6. A Twelve- Foot House, Showing Method of Con- structing and Attaching Side Ventilators 6i 17. Fastening Pipes to Posts by Tin Clips 65 18. Fastening Pipes to Posts by Bent-Wire Nails 65 19. Interior of Twelve-Foot House, Showing Method of Constructing South End and Door 66 20. Interior of House, Showing Method of Connecting Flow Pipe with Four Returns 67 21. Ridge and Furrow House Construction. Method of Making Gutter and Attaching Sash Bar 68 22. Interior Construction. Method of Connecting Re- turns of Hot Water Pipes at North End of House. . 69 23. Construction of Single House. Method of Making Gutter, Attaching Sash Bar and Fitting Side Ventilators 70 24. Method of Splicing Ridge 72 25. House Twenty-four Feet Wide; Posts Set and Shed at North EAd Built First 73 26. Constructing House Twenty-four Feet Wide; Second Step, Making Beds and Walks 74 27. Constructing House Twenty-four Feet Wide; Third Step, Running Gutters and Notching Plate Around Posts 75 28. Temporary House, Made of Sashes Nailed Together at the Top, Supporting Posts Two by Three Inches 83 29. Simple Coldframe, Six Feet Wide and Continuous .... 85 30. Violets in Frame, Covered with Lath Screen 87 31. Violets in Heated Frames; Shaded by Rough Boards Five Feet Above Beds 89 32. Violets in Heated Frames. Summer Shading by Boards 91 Page 33. Cuttings with Hard, Wiry Roots, from Divided Crowns 1 01 34. Various Kinds of Cuttings from a Divided Crown. . . 102 35. Common Form of Cutting from Divided Crown 104 36. Lath Box, or Flat, for Rooted Cuttings 106 37. Sand-Rooted Cuttings, Ready to Plant in Flats Filled with Soil tig 38. Sand-Rooted Cuttings, Ideal Type, Ready to Put in Soil 112 39. Pedigree Plant 118 40. Bed of Pedigree Plants 120 41. Violet Culture Under Lath Sheds in California 128 42. Field Culture of Violets in Virginia 130 43. Violets Bunched for Philadelphia Market, Some of the Flowers Projecting from the Bunch 1 50 44. Violets Bunched for Washington Market, Using Princess of Wales Leaves 152 45. Picking Violets 1 58 46. Leaves of California Violet Wired Together for Bunching Flowers 160 47. Leatherette Shipping Box, Open 162 48. Shipping Box Showing Wire Screen for Holding Bunches 163 49. Shipping Box, Closed and Strapped 164 30. Box of Violets Packed for Market 166 5 1 . Violets Bunched for Market 168 52. Spot Disease. Early Effects on Foliage i73 53. Spot Disease on Hardy English Violets 175 54. Spot Disease Artificially Produced 177 55. Rooted Campbell Cuttings, Showing Effects of Thielavia on the Roots 182 Page 56. Plants Stunted by Strong Fertilizer 186 57. Edge Burn, Brought on by Cold Soil 189 58. Leaves and Flowers Injured by Botrytis 191 59. Oedema, or Wart Disease 194 60. Example of Crown Rot 196 61. Root Galls 199 62. Red Spider 205 63. Nozzle Used in Spraying Plants for the Destruction of Red Spider. . : 206 64. Brown Aphides 215 65. Method of Determining the Cubic Contents of Houses 219 66. Sawfly 226 67. Injuries to Violet Leaves by Gallfly Maggots 227 68. Gallfly 228 69. Larvae and Moths of Phlyctsenia rubigalis 229 COMMERCIAL VIOLET CULTURE CHAPTER I The sweet violet, Viola odorata, from which our cultivated forms have doubtless arisen, is widely distributed over Europe and Asia, but is not found native in America. The violet has been cultivated from remote times, first probably as a medicinal plant, but later to satisfy a love for the beautiful. Following are some of the more important forms now grown: SINGLE VARIETIES Russian Violet. Very hardy and free flower- ing; flowers medium violet* in color, fairly good size. Welsiana. Plant much branched; foliage rather soft, light green; flowers large, on long stalks; color true violet; a valuable variety, but not so amenable to culture as some others. * In referring to the colors of violets we have used Ridgway's Nomen- clature of Colors, published by Mrs. Ridgway, 3447 Oakwood Tee., Washington, D. C. The principal colors are the true violet, as will be found in Princess of Wales, and the various shades of mauve. Mauves are a mixture of white with violet. The mauves therefore may be dark or light, depending upon the amount of white present. Marie Louise is a true mauve; Lady Hume Campbell, a light mauve. 20 VARIETIES Governor Herrick. This is one of the fa- vorite varieties in the cut flower trade at the present time, owing to its vigor, great length of stem, large, bold flowers, and distinctive, bright rose-violet color. It is one of the best for Winter, but is totally devoid of fragrance. LuxoNNE. A valuable variety, with large flowers of a dark violet color; foliage stronger in texture and of a richer green than the or- dinary Russian violet; flowers from September to Spring. California, or Madame E. Arene. We use the name Cahfornia because it has become so well established that it is not practicable at this time to change it. This violet is unquestionably one of the most valuable of the single sorts. The plant grows like a weed and flowers pretty regularly throughout the entire Winter; fohage soft and lightish green in color; flowers large, light violet in color, with stems sometimes eight inches to a foot in length. Princess of Wales, or Princesse de Galles. All things considered, this is the best single violet that has come to our attention. The plant is very vigorous, and has the compact habit of growth of the double sorts; leaves dark, rich green, of firm texture, making them very valuable for bunching; flowers large, of a true rich violet color, and borne on long, strong stems. VARIETIES 21 La France. A fine, large, prolific violet; flowers throughout the season, not so abundantly as Princess of Wales, but the flowers are larger and have longer stems; a valuable variety for growing in frames or houses; foliage not so good for bunching as Princess of Wales, but better than Cahfornia. DoRSETT. A very prolific violet, flowering throughout the entire season, often giving two hun- dred and fifty to three hundred flowers per plant. The plant is exceedingly vigorous, and has the com- pact habit of the double sorts; leaves dark, rich green, firm in texture and fine for bunching; flow- ers middle size, of a rich violet color, but lacking in odor. This violet was secured several years ago from Virginia by P. H. Dorsett, formerly of Gar- rett Park, Maryland, under the name of Princess of Wales, which it only shghtly resembles. It is a most valuable sort for growing for flowers or foliage, and on account of its ease of propagation and vigor is quite profitable. (See Figs, i and 2.) There are single violets, white, yellow and pink in color, but it is not necessary to give any details in regard to them, for the reason that there is prac- tically no commercial demand for them. DOUBLE VARIETIES Neapolitan. One of the oldest of the double sorts, and doubtless the parent of a number of our most valuable varieties; growth compact; leaves 22 VARIETIES -Single violet Dor sell. Reduced one-half VARIETIES 23 ^.—Single violet Dor sett, bunched. Reduced one-halj 24 VARIETIES rather small; flowers pushing up straight through the crown, borne on strong, straight stems; color very light mauve (commonly called light lavender); it is hardy and comparatively free flowering; blooms from September to Spring. Lady Hume Campbell. More vigorous than the last, with larger leaves and flowers; the flowers push up through the crown and stand above the leaves on straight, strong stems; color of the flow- ers, when properly grown, a mauve, several shades lighter than Marie Louise; flowers freely and con- tinuously from September to May, and is com- paratively free from disease. Marie Louise. The most widely cultivated violet in this country, and the one for which there is the greatest demand. This violet is not so vigor- ous as the last, and is therefore more subject to the attacks of a number of diseases; the leaves are large, of a rich green color, but inclined to be soft; the flowers push out from the sides of the crown and are usually found resting on the ground; flower stalks not so straight as Campbell, making the flowers more difficult to bunch; color of flowers true mauve; base of petals white, splotched with red. The red marks are very characteristic of this variety, and never occur, so far as we are aware, in any except closely related strains. Farquhar and Imperial. Both of these forms, ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF VARIETIES 25 SO far as we have been able to determine, are merely vigorous strains of Marie Louise. Of other double varieties there may be men- tioned SwANLEY White (pure white) and Madam Millet (pink). The former is grown in limited numbers commercially, but there is no great de- mand for it, and for the latter, which is very little grown, no demand at all. ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF VARIETIES The demand for single violets in this country is steadily increasing, and much interest is therefore manifested in securing varieties suitable for forc- ing which will bunch well and give abundant odor. Owing to the increased demand for singles, and, furthermore, for the reason that the leaves of certain varieties are exceedingly useful in bunch- ing, it would be well for every grower to devote a part of his space to some vigorous kind like Prin- cess of Wales, La France, or the Dorsett violet. About eight hundred plants of any of these varieties will, with good cultivation, give enough leaves for bunching the flowers from eight thousand Campbell or Louise. In this way the fohage of the Campbell or Louise is left to support the flowers — a great ad- vantage, especially where it is difficult to get a vig- orous leaf growth on the double varieties named. The Princess of Wales, La France and Dorsett will, with even ordinary care, yield a sufficient number 3- — Single violet Princess of Wales. Half natural size ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF VARIETIES 27 of flowers to pay well for the space devoted to them, so that altogether it is an advantage to have them. There has been much discussion as to the origin of the Marie Louise and Campbell violets. The Marie Louise has been known under various names in France and Germany for sixty or seventy years. It was introduced into this country in 1871 by John Cook, of Baltimore. Mr. Cook obtained the stock through Schuer, of Heidelberg, Germany, who advertised it as the best violet belonging to the Parma class. After growing it for two years Mr. Cook sold large quantities of his stock to Peter Henderson and John Henderson, of New York, and to Henry A. Dreer, of Philadelphia. The flowers created a sensation, and the plants, in consequence, were in great demand. We find a record of the Lady Hume Campbell violet as far back as 1884 in the " Gardeners' Chronicle," of London, England. There it is said that the variety had been seen growing in the gar- dens of Harefield Court, Rickmansworth, and that it was exceedingly vigorous. It was regarded as a vigorous strain of NeapoHtan. It is stated further that the variety had been brought from abroad several years before by Lady Hume Campbell and planted in her gardens at Highgrove, Watford. Soon after it was noticed at Lady Campbell's place by Charles Turner, who bought the stock and pre- sumably put it on the market. It was imported in 4- — Double violet Marie Louise. Reduced one-halj 5- — Single violet Gov. Herrick. Half natural size 30 ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF VARIETIES 1892 by H. Heubner, of Groton, Massachusetts, who obtained his stock from Beachy, in Devon- shire, England. Mr. Heubner informed the writer that he imported the so-called *' De Parme " at 6. — Characteristic growth of Calijornia (single) and Marie Louise (double) compared the same time, and he considers it to be in every way identical with CampbelL Parme de Toulouse and Parme sans Filet, both grown for a number of years in France and catalogued by Millet and others, seem ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF VARIETIES 3I to be the same as Campbell. It is probable, there- fore, that the Campbell originated on the continent of Europe, that it was brought to England about 1879 or 1880, and was imported into the United States in 1892, or possibly earher. Be that as it may, the variety has made a place for itself, and is now, owing to its great vigor and productiveness, gradually taking the place of the Marie Louise in some parts of the United States. CULTURE, PAST AND PRESENT Of the early days of violet growing in this country, that is, the work as it was carried on up to twenty-six years ago, Httle need be said. In most cases the methods employed were crude when looked at from the present point of view, just as our meth- ods will, no doubt, be considered crude by those who follow us. The plants, for the most part, were grown in frames or in pots, under the mistaken idea that it was necessary to have them near the glass. Even now, despite the rapid advances made in greenhouse construction, it is rare to find a mod- ern violet estabhshment in the true sense of the word. Sash houses are still largely in vogue, and httle resemble the compact, business-hke structures used for carnations and roses. We are at a loss to account for this except on the ground that the plant is really one which at times will do fairly well under seemingly very poor treatment; 32 VIOLET FARMERS while again all the coaxing and luxurious surround- ings imaginable cannot make it thrive. It is a truth well established that more people go into violet growing and fail than is the case with the growing of any other crop under glass. Time and time again we have seen men start into the business with no experience and nothing but the poorest kind of equipment, and succeed for the first two or three years in a truly remarkable way. Then trouble comes in one form or another, and in two or three years more the grower has passed out of the field. It requires about five years to definitely determine what a man with ordinary facilities can do in this matter. Of course he will have his ups and downs, and the temptation will be strong at times to give up the task and take up some other crop. Such moments are his worst, for if he sticks to his one problem, and endeavors to profit by his experience, he will in the end succeed. Violet Farmers Coming back to the question of how violets are grown today, we find that those engaged in the work may be divided into two groups, (i) the ex- tensive group, comprising what may be called violet farmers, and (2) the intensive, comprising violet growers proper. Of course, one will find numerous gradations, but for practical purposes they may be classed under the foregoing heads. VIOLET FARMERS 33 Violet farming is often practiced in more or less re- mote country districts, where land and labor are cheap. Houses are seldom used for such work, but frames are resorted to, and the care of the plants is left to boys — sometimes colored, sometimes white^ overlooked by the owner of the place, or perhaps by a foreman or two. In a number of cases this method is practiced by women, and not without success. Of course, there are numerous places where work of this kind could be carried on with a fair prospect of success. There are many farms situated at seventy-five, one hundred, and even two hundred or three hundred miles from our large cities, which, with ordinary farm crops, barely yield a hving. In such cases a young or middle-aged person might take up this work and make it more profitable than the mere growing of farm crops. In all such cases, however, it must be borne in mind that to succeed there must be work day and night, perhaps, for a time; and while it may never be the heavy, kilhng labor which farm work is often made to be, it is ceaseless, tiresome toil just the same. The intensive grower, on the other hand, should endeavor to locate within easy driving distance or shipping distance of his principal market; that is, he should, if possible, be located so that he can pick his flowers and have them in his dealer's hands within an hour, or earlier if possible. It is the 5weet, delicious fragrance that is one of the chief 34 VIOLET FARMERS qualities of this flower, and the moment it is picked it begins to lose this all-important thing. There- fore, endeavor to locate so that you are in quick reach of your principal dealer, keeping constantly in mind the fact that your success depends largely on his success. Proximity to market should be set down as the first requisite to success, but not the only one by any means. Character of the soil, and facilities for obtaining manure, water, and other necessities, must be considered. These fac- tors will all be described in detail under their proper heads. Last, and most important of all, the man him- self must be considered, or, if possible, must con- sider himself. No man can learn to grow violets from reading books, nor can he expect to get this knowledge from watching others. He can get help and suggestions, of course, but the problems them- selves he must work out alone. There is no such thing as luck in growing this crop, although it often looks that way. A man succeeds because he has the necessary knowledge to take advantage of the little things and make the most of them. Another fails because he does not see, or fails to realize, the importance of the Httle hourly, and we might al- most say minutelyy occurring things which are necessary to make the plants grow and thrive. It is not sufficient to be able to put on water, mix soil, to stoke a fire, or to feed and propagate the VIOLET FARMERS 35 plants properly. The man may do all these ac- cording to the very best practices and yet his plants will never grow and bloom hke those of the man who has the intuitive knowledge to realize the Httle needs and to make the cumulative effects of this knowledge felt in just the right way and at the right time. All this is hard to put into words, and will not be understood at all by some readers; but it is seen everywhere, from the lady who grows only a few house plants, but always succeeds with them, to the grower with his acres of glass in which every plant seems to spring into vigorous growth so long as his watchful eye is upon them and his hand is present to guide and direct the various operations. The successful grower, then, is born, not made; for it is not a question of mechanics, but one of brains and natural aptitude; and therefore, if there is not an inherent love for plants^that feel- ing of sympathy between you and them — some other work w^ould better be undertaken. With love for the work, and appreciation of every need of the plants, success will in the end result, even though many difficulties in the way of surroundings must be overcome. To conclude, the whole gist of this argument is that surroundings, of course, count for a consider- able amount in such work, but more than all the rest, success depends on the man himself, or rather 36 VIOLET FARMERS on what he has in him. The man who truly suc- ceeds in this work will succeed in almost any busi- ness, for all success really traces back to one thing, namely, ability to see, to grasp, and to utilize little things to the best advantage. Look after these, and the big ones will look after themselves. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL 37 CHAPTER II THE SOIL The soil forms the basis for all work in plant growth, and it is proper, therefore, that it should be discussed first. Violets will grow on almost any soil, but to obtain the best results it is necessary to pay attention to certain important characters of the soil, particularly those relating to its physical prop- erties. The importance of the relation of the physical properties of the soil, that is, texture, tem- perature and moisture, to plant growth is not fully appreciated. By texture is meant the character of the particles which make up the soil, while struc- ture has to do with the arrangement of these par- ticles and their relation to each other. The particles or grains of which soils are composed vary greatly in size, and to distinguish them they have received certain conventional names, such as clay, fine silt, silt, fine sand, sand, etc. The clay par- ticles are extremely minute, silt grains are larger, and so on until we have coarse sand or gravel, with grains 1-25 to 1-12 of an inch in diameter. Upon the amounts of the various constituents, i. e., clay, fine silt, silt, fine sand, etc., depends the porosity of 38 SOIL the soil, the readiness with which the air penetrates it and water moves through it, its water-holding capacity, and finally its temperature.* By varying the texture of the soil its water content is varied, its capacity for heat is modified, and so on until every important factor, including food in the ordinary acceptance of the word, is in- volved. To these variations the plant adapts it- self, and the result may be extensive leaf develop- ment with few or no flowers, or vice versa, a weak- ened condition of the tissues (making the plant sub- ject to the attacks of enemies, especially fungi), and so on through a Hst of other possibiHties. To illustrate more fully, we may say that in our experi- ence the Lady Hume Campbell violet seems to thrive best on relatively light soil, that is, a soil which contains a comparatively small amount of clay. The Marie Louise, on the other hand, does best with more clay, or, in other words, a heavier soil. The violet soils of the Poughkeepsie region contain from eight to fifteen per cent, of clay, and it is here that the highest success is attained with this particular variety. In parts of Maryland and Virginia, where the Campbell violet is grown ex- tensively, the soils frequently contain six to eight per cent, of clay, so that it will be seen that there is considerable difference as regards the structure * Galloway, B. T., Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1895, p. 250. TEXTURE 39 of the two classes of soils. It follows, of _course, that where soils showing so much difference in structure are used, the plants in each case have different sets of factors to which they must adapt themselves, and in doing this they may be so modified as to affect materially the development of the flowers. Soils of both the heavy and moderately heavy types are found in many places, and if they do not occur naturally, the desired effects may be approxi- mated by combinations of light and heavy soils. We have never found it satisfactory to lighten heavy soil by mixing in sand alone. This takes away the life of the soil, and plants never succeed so well in it as when the desired conditions are produced by mixing a heavy and a light soil. For example, we may have in one part of a field a soil containing fifteen to twenty per cent, of clay, and in another one containing four or five per cent. By mixing these two soils in equal proportion a combination is effected which, other conditions being equal, will prove better for violets than either soil used alone. Of course, it must be remembered that the con- ditions for plants under glass are different from those out-of-doors. Outside, the plant has to take what it can get in the way of water, air, and other important conditions for growth, while inside these are, in a measure, made to order by the grower him- self. It follows, therefore, that even where the soil is 40 SOIL not what it should be, the grower has it within his power, to a large extent, to overcome the difficulties by a proper manipulation of the surroundings. This question of the structure of the soil and its relation to plant growth is a rather difficult one to explain in words. The practical grower learns by experience how to judge a soil largely by its appearance and its " feel " when taken in the hand. The facts given in regard to the effects of structure of soil on plant growth, therefore, help a novice by acquainting him with matters he ought to know, but they will not show him what he can do, for experi- ence alone can teach him this. Any soil that will grow a good crop of potatoes will, with proper manuring, grow good violets. This means that the soil should be moderately heavy loam, that it should not pack or puddle readily, and that it should con- tain plenty of fibrous material, which can be ob- tained by using good turf or sod. We prefer in all cases to use good sod or turf, cutting this not more than three or four inches thick. Where land is plentiful, that is, where the grower has several acres at his disposal, it will be best to keep part of it constantly in grass. Blue grass, white clover and redtop make a good mixture. For every bushel of blue grass seed use one quart of white clover and one third bushel of redtop. Coarse grasses, like orchard grass and timothy, should be avoided, as the stems and heavy roots are sources HANDLING 4 1 of annoyance in handling the soil. Where one has land that can be spared he should allow for every thousand plants not less than one-twentieth of an acre in grass upon which he can depend for soil. The soil, after being used, can be hauled out, and after being spread on the ground be reseeded, and in six or eight years will probably be as good as new. In the majority of cases it is necessary to purchase the soil, and this is usually done through contract- ors, and sometimes from farmers who have the sod to spare. It is customary to pay from seventy-five cents to one dollar per cubic yard for good sod cut three or four inches thick and dehvered on the place. A cubic yard contains twenty-seven cubic feet; that is, a pile one foot high, three feet wide and nine feet long. More often, the soil is bought merely by the "load," a load being usually about a cubic yard — sometimes a little more, sometimes less. Seventy- five cents to one dollar per load is the price usually paid for soil. Some prefer to stack the soil, that is, to cut it and pile it in a heap in the early Fall; but this is not always practicable; hence very often the work is left till Spring. On the whole, we can see no ad- vantage in the early Fall stacking, unless it can be done during a time when work is not pressing. Where practicable, our preference is to cut the sod in the Fall and allow it to stand in the field unpiled until it has been frozen hard three or four times. 42 SOIL In this way grubs, nematodes, and the larvae of many insects are killed, and at the same time benefit is derived from the effects of the frost on the mechanical and chemical condition of the soil. Before hard Winter weather sets in the soil should be either hauled close to the greenhouse and piled, or else made into a heap where it stands. In sections where the soil is not from limestone formation, fresh slaked hme should be added to it when it is being put into the heap, or directly after cutting. Lime should be added at the rate of about two-thirds of a bushel for each one thou- sand square feet cut. In stacking the soil we pre- fer to make a heap about four feet high, twenty to twenty-five feet wide, and of any length desired. At this time the manure, which should have been previously procured, and put into good condition, is to be added to the soiL As a rule, one part of manure to four parts of soil will make a combina- tion sufficiently rich for any purpose. This is assuming, of course, that the manure is well rotted and free from hght chaff and straw. Well-rotted cow manure is preferable, if it can be obtained; but if not, well-rotted and carefully handled horse manure will answer equally as well. Avoid all experimenting with chemical fertilizers. They are well enough in their place, and in the hands of one who has had experience no harm will result from the use of a little pure, ground, undissolved bone, MIXING 43 but it must be pure, and applied at the rate of not more than one-half bushel for each one thousand plants. The bone should be mixed with the soil 7- — Mixing soil. Spreading manure in layers between the soil when the heap is being made. When a cart and horse are at hand we prefer to use them in making the heap. Four loads of soil, each a cubic yard. 44 SOIL are hauled and spread, and then a load of manure is added and spread over the soil. This is con- tinued until the first layer of the heap is of the 8. — Mixing soil. Breaking and pulverizing the sod preparatory to putting it down with layers of manure desired width and length, when a second layer is formed in the same way. After finishing each layer the bone meal may be sown thinly over the sur- MIXING 45 face. Put it on about as thick as is done in sanding or sawdusting a floor. Working in this way, two active men can put into a heap forty to fifty yards of soil a day, or a sufficient quantity for four thou- sand to five thousand plants, figuring that the beds contain six inches of fresh made soil, and that the manure and turf are one hundred to two hundred feet apart. It is seen, therefore, that each cubic yard of the mixture is sufficient for one hundred plants, allowing a depth of six inches for the beds. When soil is purchased, or even when it is ob- tained from one's own place, it is never exactly alike any two years. For this reason it Is a good plan to experiment a httle before the general mix- ing is commenced. It takes very little time to make up several lots of soil in different propor- tions, using a water pail to make the measure- ments. For instance, we have soil from two lo- cahties, one of which is moderately heavy and the other light, and also well-rotted manure, which we make up in the following combinations: (i) Light soil, one part. Heavy soil, three parts. Manure, one part. (2) Light soil, two parts. Heavy soil, two parts. Manure, one part, (3) Light soil, two parts. Heavy soil, three parts. Manure, one part. (4) Heavy soil, four parts. Manure, one part. 46 SOIL By using a pail, only small quantities of soil and manure are needed, but there will be sufficient ma- terial in each case after a thorough mixing to tell what the combinations look and feel hke. It is al- ways best to allow the heaps to stand a week or two, for they often change their texture on standing, especially when lime is used. With a httle practice one can soon determine in his own mind what com- binations suit him best, and then he will at least have a rational basis to work upon. Right here we m.ay utter a word of warning against the growing practice of allowing the ex- perimenting mania to get the better of judgment. Some individuals are over-inquiring, and for this reason the temptation is to experiment continually, with the result that nothing succeeds, for the simple reason that one thing is not tried long enough to find out its real value. We find a grower trying first this, then that fertilizer or method, with the result that by and by he gives up in disgust, and says that his soil or his section is not suited to the crop he is attempting to grow. If he could only be brought to a realization of the fact that the trouble is not wholly in the soil or surroundings, but is partly in himself, he would soon be on the road to success. We have known men to spend years of work in experimenting one way or another, and at the end of that time they would be little wiser than when they commenced. All this time MIXING 47 the plants have been doctored with insecticides and fungicides, fed on many kinds of food, and in short made to run the whole gamut of crank and quack notions advertised from time to time. What is needed here is a mind cure for the individual and less doctoring for the plants. Experiment, of course, but do not be led away by it, and do not allow every new idea or suggestion to take you from the m.ain purpose or to bias your judgment. To return from our digression, the soil, when heaped, should be protected by rough boards or by some other means from rains. Much benefit will result if the soil is turned two or three times before it is taken into the houses. Many omit this, but we are convinced that it pays to turn it, as this im- proves its condition in many ways. The cost will not exceed fifty cents per thousand plants for each turning. Reference has been made to the quantity of soil used, but it is desirable to enter somewhat into detail upon this point. We aim to put in six inches of Jresh soil every year. Plants may do well on less or even on the soil that has been used once, but the grower who is in the business for all there is to be made out of it cannot afford to run any risks; hence he should calculate on not less than six inches of new soil each year. To determine then how much soil is necessary, merely multiply the length of each bed in feet and inches by the width, and multiply this by one-half. This will give the number of cubic 48 SOIL feet, and as there are twenty-seven cubic feet in a cubic yard, the number of cubic feet, divided by twenty-seven, will give the number of cubic yards. For example, it has been our practice to have our beds numbered (these numbers are held constant from year to year) as follows: Bed No, I. 75 feet x 6 feet=450 square feet x 3^ foot= 225 cubic feet, or practically 8 cubic yards. Bed No. 2. 125 feet x 5 feet=62 5 square feet x Yi foot = 312 cubic feet~27= 1 1.4 yards. All the beds being numbered in this way it is an easy matter to tell just how much soil will be needed. Of course in considering the bulk as a whole the manure must be counted in, that is, if a total of one hundred yards of prepared soil is needed the manure will form one-fifth of this, or twenty yards. It will be necessary therefore to purchase eighty yards of soil proper, and twenty yards of manure for the mixture. The cost of manure will, of course, depend on many circumstances, but in the vicinity of cities it can seldom be bought for less than seventy-five cents a cubic yard, or about two dollars and a half for a two-horse wagon load. The foregoing statements in regard to soil, mixing, etc., are based upon the supposition that the grower is near a city, where land is high, and that his work is on an intensive plan, and further, that the plants are grown where they stand and not planted in the field and then moved in. No man PROPER SOIL CONDITIONS 49 who is in the business to compete with the best growers can afford to run the risk of growing his plants in the field and moving them into houses. From the time the cutting is made until the old plant is thrown away the work is or should be entirely under glass. Where violet farming is practiced, i. e., where land is plentiful and the crop is grown in frames, it is customary in some sections merely to plow up a fresh piece of sod each year or every two or three years and move the frames. We do not recommend this practice and beheve that it pays to bring the soil into heaps and mix it as described even if it is to be used in frames. The more the soil is handled the better, providing of course the work is not done when there is too much moisture present. Never allow a shovel to touch the soil when the latter is wet, for irreparable injury can be done at such a time. Wait until the soil is mealy and never handle it when it is pasty and putty-like to the touch. It must be remembered that the soil is not a dead, inert mass, but is an exceedingly complicated material — an active working laboratory, teeming with life and performing functions which we as yet understand imperfectly. Fortunate is the man who knows enough to appreciate this fact and to let the soil alone when, by so doing, its wonderful mechanism is brought into play for the best use of the plants it sustains. 50 HOUSES CHAPTER III CONSTRUCTION AND HEATING OF HOUSES AND FRAMES CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSES Probably more makeshifts in the way of houses for growing violets have been used in this country than for any other crop. The evolution of this part of the work has been exceptionally slow, so that it is difficult to find at this time a thoroughly modern establishment in every way. Ordinary cold frames were first used; then in order to get at the plants in bad weather a pit was made so as to obtain head room and still utihze the sashes and keep the plants near the glass. Gradually growers began to get their plants above ground and to increase the amount of head room and air space by raising the sashes above the beds. Many houses are still made on this plan, while a comparatively few are built w^th stationary sash bars and permanent glass roof. There are no special advantages in making a house of sashes, except in certain cases, which will be mentioned later. Such houses can- not be made wind- or water-tight, and as a rule are 52 HOUSES SO full of wood as to be unnecessarily dark. When it was considered necessary to take the glass off in 10. — House twelve feet wide, six feet to ridge; side ventilators oj glass. This is one of a block oj five houses, each seventy-five feel long Summer, sashes, of course, were an important item, for they could easily be removed and stored until wanted in the Fall. If one intends to make a 54 HOUSES permanent house we by all means recommend the fixed roof, with ventilators and other necessary adjuncts arranged as we shall now proceed to describe. All things considered, our preference is for even-span houses running north and south. The violet does not thrive well under glaring sunlight. It needs light, but this should be softened and dif- fused in order to insure the best results in the growth and the size and color of the flowers. The three- quarter span house facing south is apt to be too bright, and if heavy shading is resorted to it is ef- fective in bright weather, but makes it too dark when cloudy. Economy in space and economy in building, furthermore, can be attained by adopting the even-span north and south style of house. In our work we have made it a point to keep a careful record not only of the flowers from each kind of house, but from each bed in a house. These records, kept from year to year, furnish interesting informa- tion and enable one who is looking to every detail to make changes that will result to his advantage. The three-quarter span house facing south, in our case never gave as many flowers per square foot of bed space, by twenty to twenty-five per cent., as the even-span houses running north and south. When capital and space are limited we know of no better style of house than a narrow, plain, even span, built on the ridge and furrow plan (see S6 HOUSES Fig. 2i), and running north and soutli. The length maj^ be from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet. 13. — Shed at north end of houses, showing method of construction. Shed has glass rooj Our preference is for houses one hundred feet long, twelve feet wide, seven feet to the ridge from the bottom of the walk, and two feet eight inches CONSTRUCTION ^J high on the sides above ground level (see Fig. lo). Where the amount of ground is hmited these houses may be built together — two, three, five, or seven, as the case may be — without intervening walls. Ai, the 14. — Ini.erior of shed shown in Figure 13. Propagating bench on the right, supply pipes {two-inch) 07i the left, siied eight feet wide north end of the houses and running the entire length across the ends there should be a lean-to shed eight feet wide and provided with a glass roof slop- ing to the north. Against the north wall may be 58 HOUSES placed a propagating bed three and one-half feet wide, leaving four and one-half feet clear space for a walk and entrance to each house. If more than 15. — Roofs oj twelve-foot houses, showing method of construction and of attaching ventilators; one row of glass between the ventilators six houses are in the block, the boiler should be placed near the center in a pit dug beneath the shed. If necessary, of course, the entire space CONSTRUCTION 59 beneath the shed may be devoted to coal, a work- shop, and perhaps a place for tools. If the number of houses is three or less, the boiler may be placed at one end of the shed in a pit, as already described. The end selected should depend upon the general slope of the land, the object being to get the boiler at the lowest point. Following is a detailed state- ment in regard to the points to consider in this type of house: Length, one hundred feet, with one foot fall to carry off water. Inside width, twelve feet. Height to ridge from bottom of walk, seven feet. Height of side from top of plate to bottom of gutter, twenty inches (see Figure 27). Walls below plates to be boarded up with rough lum- ber first, then covered with rustic siding (see Figure 27). Number of walks, one in each house, placed in the center. Width of walk, fourteen inches. Depth of walk, twelve inches. Number of beds, two. Width of each bed, five feet five inches. Depth of beds, twelve inches. Posts in outside walls, four by four inches sawed cedar, chestnut, or locust, set four feet apart center to cen- ter, and two and one-half feet in the ground. Posts in inside walls, four by four inches, set eight feet apart center to center, and two and one-half feet in the ground. Gutters, three piece, six inches in the clear, made of two- inch clear cypress (see Figure 21). Wall plates, two by eight inch clear cypress, to be notched around posts. 6o HOUSES Gable plates for end of each house, two by eight inch clear cypress. Gable rafters, one and three-quarters by two and one- quarter inch clear cypress. Sash bars, clear cypress, one and one-quarter by two and one-half inches, with drip groove, all bars to extend from gutter to ridge. Rafters, two by four inch, clear cypress, to be set every sixteen feet. Rafters to take place of sash bar. Ridge (with ridge cap), two by six inches. Top ventilators, two by four feet, or made to cover three rows of glass set fifteen inches, including sash bars. One row of glass to be left between the ventilators. Headers to be placed under ventilator. Ventilators on side, two by four feet, continuous, and to lap on post one-half. Glass ten by fifteen inches, double thick, second quality, lapped and bedded in putty. Glass set fifteen inch way. South ends of houses glass, with exception of door, which should be four feet wide so as to admit a wheelbarrow readily. North ends of houses opening into shed to be made of tongue and groove jDine, with doors the same size as those on south end. Walls of shed to be made of rustic siding nailed to two by four studs set eighteen inches apart. Inside of shed to be lined with tongue and groove yellow pine. Wall plate of shed, two by six yellow pine. Top plate of shed, same as wall plate. Doors in north wall of shed, four feet wide, opening opposite doors in north end of houses. Posts for sides of beds, two by four hemlock, set four feet apart, and wired to opposite posts or to stakes to prevent spreading. Set wires ten inches below top of bed. Sides of bed, one by twelve inch hemlock boards nailed to outside of the two by four posts. CONSTRUCTION 6l Heating pipes, black wrought iron screw joints, two one and one-half inch flows for each house and ten one and one-quarter inch returns (five on each side i6, — A twelve-fool house, sbowiiig meibod 0/ constructing and attaching side ventilators of house). Pipes run so that the highest point, in- cluding expansion tank, is directly over the boiler. Flow and returns in all houses to have the same ftill, i. e., about one inch for every ten feet of pipe. 62 HOUSES To feed five houses of the size here given (twelve by one hundred feet), it will be necessary to run out two two and one-half inch pipes from the boiler, allowing one pipe to feed the two houses on the west and one to feed the three on the east. The west is given the advantage on account of the greater exposure. Top ventilators operated by plain lifting rods with holes and pins to give a four to sixteen inch opening. The accompanying illustrations will make plain the points mentioned. The second type of house, which will require more ground and capital, is also even-span, running north and south, but with a space of eight feet between the houses. Following are the principal features of this style of house: Length of house, one hundred feet, with one foot fall to carry off water. Width of shed at north end, ten feet. Width of house inside, twenty-four feet. Height of walls from top of plate to bottom of gutter, twenty inches. Plate to be twelve inches above grade (see Figure 27). Walls below plate to be boarded up with rough lumber and then covered with rustic siding (see Figure 27). Height of house inside from top of center bed to bot- tom of ridge, nine feet. Number of walks, two. Width of walks, each fourteen inches. Number of beds, three. Width of center bed, ten feet ten inches. Width of side beds, each five feet five inches. Depth of beds, twelve inches. Posts in side walls, sawed cedar, chestnut, or locust, four by four inches, set four feet apart center to center and two and one-half feet in the ground. CONSTRUCTION 63 Gutters, three piece cypress, six inches in the clear (see Figure 21). Plates, two by eight inches, clear cypress, cut to fit around posts and to receive bottom of ventilator. Gable plates at ends of house, two by eight inches clear cypress. Gable rafters, one and three-quarters by two and one- quarter inches clear cypress. Purlins, one inch black pipe, run under each slope five feet nine inches from ridge. Supports for purlins, one inch pipe, long enough to extend through bed and into cement block in the ground. Support for ridge, one and one-quarter inch black pipe, placed eight feet apart and set the same as supports under purlins. Iron posts, to be attached to purlins by T's one and one-quarter inch through, so as to slip over pur- lin pipe, with one inch side to take support. Sash bars, clear cypress, one and one-quarter by two and one-half inches, with drip groove, all bars to extend from gutter to ridge. Rafters, none. Ridge, clear cypress, two by six inches, with ridge cap. Top ventilators on both sides, each ventilator two by four feet, or long enough to cover three sash bars and glass, leaving one row of glass between each two ventilators, headers under ventilators. Ventilators on sides, two by four feet, continuous, and made to lap on posts. Ventilator-raising apparatus for top and sides consisting of geared wheels, shaft, arms, and rods. Glass, ten by fifteen inches, double thick, second quality, lapped, and bedded in putty. Glass set fifteen inch way. Posts for supporting sides of beds, two by four inch hem- lock, set four feet apart and wired to opposite posts to prevent bed from spreading. Sides of beds, one inch hemlock or cypress, nailed to outside of posts. 64 HOUSES Heating pipes, black wrought iron and screw joint, to be run so that the highest point is directly over the boiler. Flow pipe, two and one-half inches, to be carried directly under the ridge and to fall to south end about one inch in every ten feet. Returns, twelve one and one-half inch pipes, to fall one inch in ten feet from south to north end, two pipes to be carried over center bed and five along each wall. This will give sufficient radiating surface to maintain with hot water an inside temperature of fifty degrees F. with an outside temperature at zero and no wind blowing. Plugged openings should be left for at least four additional returns so as to be on the safe side. This can be done with very little additional ex- pense and may be worth a good many dollars at some future time. As many houses as may be desired can be built after this plan, all connecting at the north end with the shed having a slope running to the north, the same as described for the first style of house. It is best to leave at least eight feet between each two houses to facilitate ventilation, the taking out of plants and soil, clearing off the snow from the roofs, and other necessary work. HEATING So much for the main points involved in the construction of the two principal styles of houses. In the matter of heating we have considered only hot water, as we believe it has advantages over steam in growing violets. A proper boiler is of the utmost importance — so important, in fact, that the most careful consideration should be given to its selection. Notwithstanding all that has been writ- ten on heating it is a fact that nearly every man who CONSTRUCTION AND HEATING 6s goes into greenhouse work is dissatisfied until he has spent a good deal oj money and time in experimenting on this feature. Experience obtained in this way is sometimes dearly bought and it pays better to take the advice of others who have gone over the 17. — Fastening pipes to posts by tin clips 18. — Fastening pipes to posts by bent-wire nails same ground and have reached conclusions that will apply to your case. Boiler makers, under the stimulus of competi- tion, have in many cases wandered away from the simple principles that must be considered in making an economical, efficient apparatus. In our experi- ence w^ith boilers we have never found any that would fill all requirements so nearly as one of sim- 66 HOUSES pie construction, giving the largest possible amount of direct heating surface, and offering the least re- sistance to the movement of the water, and a fire box 19. — Interior of twelve-Jout bouse, sboiving method of con- structing south end and door deep and big enough to carry a large amount of fuel at slow combustion. There is no economy in curtaihng the size of CONSTRUCTION AND HEATING 67 the fire box and adding sections, which at best can only receive the hot gases. In order to get the full service out of such a boiler it will be necessarv 20. — Interior oj house, shoiving method of coririecting flow pipe with four returns to carry^aiiot fire, and as a result a large percentage of thejheatfgoes up the chimney. Boilers, there- fore, should be selected with due regard to (i) the 68 HOUSES CONSTRUCTION AND HEATING 69 amount of direct heating surface, (2) perpendicular circulation of the water in the boiler, (3) the ca- pacity for fuel, and (4) conveniences in the matter of \ ^%f^\^^^PP ftppl „ **i ■'■■■■ 22. — Interior cojistruction. Method of connecting returns of hot water pipes at north end of house suitable grates, drafts, and doors. Most boilers are rated on the number of square feet of pipe they will heat. As a rule, at least twenty-five per cent. CONSTRUCTION AND HEATING Jl margin should be allowed on these figures in order to be on the safe side. For example, if a boiler is rated to heat one thousand square feet of pipe it should not have more than seven hundred or seven hundred and fifty feet put upon it. It may heat the thousand feet at a pinch, but the grower wants it to heat the pipe at all times with a slow fire that will stand without attention at least six or seven hours. The saddle, conical, and locomotive types of boilers are probably as efficient as any we now have, and by taking any one of these and fitting it up with the modern improvements in the way of deep fire box, grates, ash-pit, door and flue drafts, and dampers, it would, in all probability, do the work more economically and efficiently than a large num- ber of the intricate forms now on the market. There is the keenest competition am.ong boiler makers, and as a rule, they are to be commended for the great energy they show in endeavoring to adapt their apparatus to the demands of the trade. Prices are so close that every additional ounce of iron counts, and for this reason it would seem to be the part of wisdom to simplify construction as much as pos- sible. It is a matter of theoretical calculation to determine what each section will do when added to a boiler. In practice, however, it is frequently found that each section beyond reach of direct fire contact utterly fails to do what in theory it ought to accomplish. Good boilers made by responsible 72 HOUSES CONSTRUCTION AND HEATING 73 firms are within the reach of all nowadays and it hardly pays, therefore, to attempt to make them out of coils of pipe. By the time the pipe is pur- 25. — House twenty-Jour feet wide; posts set and shed at north end built first chased, put together, and bricked up, and the doors, grates, drafts, and other necessary conveniences ob- tained, the cost is nearly as great as when a first- 74 HOUSES class boiler, ready to set up and start off, is pur- chased. As to the cost of boilers, it may be said that 26.— Constructing house twenty-Jour feet wide; second step, making beds and walks for every five hundred square feet of pipe it will cost at least seventy-five dollars for boiler capacity to heat it, or roughly, fifteen dollars for every CONSTRUCTION AND HEATING 75 hundred square feet of heating surface. There- fore, to heat a house such as described, namely, twelve by one hundred feet and seven feet to ridge. 27. — Constructing house twenty-Jour feet wide; third step, run- ning gutters and notching plate around posts the boiler would cost seventy-five to one hundred dollars. For each additional house of the same length joined to the next, without partition walls. 76 HOUSES an additional fifty-five dollars should be added for boiler capacity. To heat a house one hundred feet long and twenty-four feet wide, such as described as the second type, would require a boiler costing one hundred and twenty-five dollars at the least. For each additional house separated from the other by an alley of eight feet, it would require seventy- five dollars additional for boiler capacity. When the amount of pipe to heat exceeds twenty-five hundred square feet it is best to have more than one boiler — in fact, it is a question whether it is not best in all cases to have boilers so arranged that there is a reserve on hand for emergencies, which may arise at any time. It is also a question as to whether it would not pay to have a night fireman in all cases where the number of plants exceeds ten thousand or thereabout. This brings us to a consideration of the total cost of houses similar in type in most of the details to those described. It is of the utmost importance, from a business point of view, to consider every factor carefully, making provision also for future extensions if need be. The following estimates were supphed by the courtesy of the John C. Moninger Co., Chicago, and are based upon the length and width of houses as stated. Those who contemplate building would, of course, make application to greenhouse builders for a definite estimate before starting operations. CONSTRUCTION 77 SEMI-IRON CONSTRUCTION Material for the construction of one greenhouse* 24 ft. X 100 ft., 2 glass gables, 1 single door, 16 in. Glass, lapped, 3 ft. 6 in. walls. LIST OF WOODWORK 2 runs lOO ft., gutter $52.50 I run 100 ft ridge and cap. ... 8.58 21 lineal ft glass sill for one end 1 .07 200 lineal ft sash sill 9.08 200 lineal ft sash hanging rail. . 5.82 1 single sash door and frame 6.50 75 lineal ft gable end bars 2.40 4 pes. 14 ft gable rafters 2.88 144 pes. 14 ft roof sash bars. ... 51.26 24 ventilators 23.60 24 seat strips, 48 weather strips 9.40 4 corner casings i .60 2 runs side sash 100 ft 28.20 42 sash dividing strips 3-^9 VENTILATOR LIFTER, FOR ROOF VENTS 2 complete machines 24.00 48 complete lifters 1 2.00 38 hangers 3-8o 200 ft. shafting 14.00 HINGES FOR ROOF VENTS 36 prs. hinges for roof vents 4.32 44 prs. hinges for side sashes 5.28 HARDWARE FOR DOORS iH prs. hinges j. ^ I set latches \ ^ NAILS All necessary galvanized nails, not including benches. . . 4.00 yS HOUSES GLASS 68 bxs. 1 6 in. X i8 in. D. S. A. hand made glass $224.40 PUTTY 300 lbs. strictly pure greenhouse putty 10.50 GLAZING POINTS 7 lbs. galv. glazing points 91 WOOD POSTS FOR GABLE ENDS AND POST BLOCKING FOR WALLS 4 pes. 4 in. X 4 in. x 5 ft. cypress posts, rough i.oo 40 pes. 4 in. X 4 in. x 7 ft. cypress posts, rough 14.00 PURLINS, FITTINGS AND PURLIN SUPPORTS SPACED 9 FT. 2 runs 100 ft., galv. pipe purlin 12.00 20 pes. galv. pipe cut 7 ft. 6 in. pinned 6.00 20 sets galv. steel tees pinned 2.40 4 purlin end bearers 40 144 pes. galv. pipe strap i .80 SHEATHING 400 ft. I in. X 8 in. D. & M. cypress 14.40 400 ft. I in. X 6 in. cypress drop siding 14.40 I roll parchment paper 1.75 PAINT MATERIALS 12 gals, paint for two-coat work. . | 3 gals, boiled linseed oil |- 27.00 1 gal. turpentine \ VENTILATOR LIFTER (For Side Sash) 2 complete machines 24.00 44 complete lifters 11 .00 40 hangers • 4.00 200 ft. shafting 14.00 CONSTRUCTION 79 PECKY CYPRESS BEDS 600 ft. I in. X 12 in. side pieces in 4 ft. multiples $1 5.00 1 56 pes. 2 in. X 4 in. x 2 ft. stakes 5 5-20 All woodwork, unless otherwise specified, made of clear, air- dried, Louisiana red cypress, guaranteed free from sap or defects and smoothly machined. All material cut to fit as far as possible at factory and furnished ready to set in place to- gether with complete plans. No material for boiler shed is included, as this cost can be best ascertained by the local carpenter. The erection complete, including the installation of the heating system, will cost about S230. Material for the construction of one greenhouse 12 ft. X 100 ft., 1 glass gable, 1 single door, 16 in. glass, lapped, 3 ft. 6 in. walls. CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL 2 runs 100 ft gutter $52.50 I run 100 ft ridge 5.77 9 lineal ft glass sill for sides and ends 40 200 lineal ft sash sill 9.08 200 lineal ft sash hanging rail. 5.82 1 single sash door and frame 6. 50 25 lineal ft gable end bars 78 144 pes. 7 ft roof sash bars. . . . 27.07 1 2 ventilators 11 ,80 12 seat strips 5.90 4 corner casings 1.60 2 runs side sash 28.20 42 sash dividing strips 3.19 4 pes. 7 ft gable rafters 1.48 VENFILATOR LIFTER FOR ROOF VENTS I complete machine 12.00 24 complete lifters 6.00 19 hangers . i .90 100 ft. shafting 7.00 80 HOUSES HINGES FOR ROOF VENTS i8 prs. hinges for roof vents $2.i6 44 prs. hinges for side sash 5.28 NAILS All necessary galv. nails, not including benches 4.00 GLASS 36 bxs. 16 in. X 18 in. D. S. A. hand made glass 1 18.80 PUTTY 1 50 lbs. strictly pure greenhouse putty 5.25 GLAZING POINTS 4 lbs. galv. glazing points 60 WOOD POSTS FOR GABLE ENDS AND WALLS 2 pes. 4 in. X 4 in. x 5 ft. cypress posts, rough 50 40 pes. 4 in. X 4 in. x 7 ft. cypress posts, rough 14.00 SHEATHING 375 ft. cypress, i in. x 8 in., D. & M 13.50 375 ft. cypress drop siding, i in. x 6 in 13-50 1 roll parchment paper i .75 PAINT MATERIAL 7 gals, paint for two-coat work. . . ) 2 gals, boiled linseed oil V 17.00 1 gal. turpentine ) VENTILATOR LIFTER (For Side Sash) 2 complete machines 24.00 44 complete lifters , 11 .00 40 hangers 4.00 200 ft. shafting 14.00 CONSTRUCTION PECKY CYPRESS BEDS 8i 2 beds, 4 ft. 6 in. x lOO ft., i ft. high. 200 ft. I in. X 12 in. sides rough, in 4 ft. multiples $5.00 52 pes. 2 in. X 4 in. x 2 ft. stakes i-75 All woodwork, unless otherwise specified, made of clear, air-dried, Louisiana red cypress, guaranteed free from sap or defects and smoothly machined. All material cut to fit as far as possible at the factory and furnished ready to set in place, together with complete plans. No material for shed included, as this cost can be best ascertained by local carpenter. The complete cost of erection for this house, including installation of heating sys- tem, will be about Si 50. We have already referred to houses made of sashes. For certain purposes, houses of this kind will be found very useful, and it is important, therefore, to have sashes on hand. Sash houses can be erected quickly and can be taken down when necessary and the sashes themselves stored. A sash house is particularly valuable for wintering cuttings and taking care of them when made in Spring. Furthermore, a house of this kind will be found very useful for growing reserve plants during the Summer. It is always important to have on hand a supply of good plants to transplant where others are lost from the main houses. A sash house, constructed with open sides and ends, can be used for growing plants, and the latter will in such cases do much better than when grown in frames or in the open air. In the Spring, more- 82 , HOUSES over, when the main houses become crowded with boxes of cuttings, the sash house will be found exceedingly valuable for storing the flats of young plants. In such cases comparatively httle heat is required owing to the lateness of the season. The young plants are at all times within reach, so that they can be kept clean and fumigated with gas if it is found necessary to do so. For houses of this character, sashes of a size 3 ft. by 6 ft. are advantageous. Such sashes made of white pine or cypress can be bought complete, that is, glazed and with two coats of paint, for two to three dollars each. The woodwork neces- sary for the construction of such a house would cost comparatively little. Ordinarily, in con- structing a house of this kind two beds are first made, with a walk fourteen inches wide between them. These beds are made of twelve-inch Hem- lock boards, which are nailed to two- by three-inch Hemlock posts set four feet apart. In order to keep the boards in place the Hemlock posts are driven six to eight inches in the ground and then wired to opposite posts or to sticks driven down for the purpose. The total width of such a house should be ten feet, including the path. The path being fourteen inches wide, there is left on each side a bed four feet five inches wide. To support the sashes, uprights, made of two by four Hemlock studs, are nailed to the outside boards of the frame. 84 FRAMES These uprights are placed about six feet apart and should project two feet above the frame. After being set in this way and nailed to the boards, the tops should be sawed at the same slant or pitch the roof is to have. A two by three stud is then nailed to the tops of the posts for a plate and upon this the ends of the sash are allowed to rest. The sashes are simply brought together at the top and nailed, no ridge being required. They are also nailed at the bottom and no further support is necessary. Where the house is intended for late Spring and Summer use it is of course not necessary to provide for ventilation, as plenty of air is always circulat- ing through the sides and ends, which are left open. For cuttings in the Spring, however, where some heat is necessary, the sides and ends must be closed up. This can be done by means of rough pine or Hemlock boards, over which may be nailed, on the outside, tarred paper. The ends may be closed in the same way, leaving a door at one end for en- trance. In such cases it is necessary to effect ven- tilation to loosen about every third sash and hinge it at the top. Pieces of leather can be used for the hinges and each sash may be raised and propped with a stick. A house of this kind, sixty feet long, should have on each side four movable sashes for ventilating. The ventilating sashes should not come opposite each other, otherwise they cannot be hinged at the top. 86 FRAMES In order to heat a house of this kind for Spring use, run two one and one-quarter inch pipes down each side, to be fed by a one and one-half inch flow running under the ridge or down the sashes so as to get the proper fall. Such a house may be used for growing the violets through the season and is one of the most inexpensive that could be erected. In such a case, however, it will be necessary to run at least four one and one-quarter inch pipes down each side, the same to be fed by two one and one- half inch flows. Such a house for Spring use sixty feet in length, would cost approximately as follows: 40 sashes, 3x6 feet, at $3.00 each $120.00 Lumber for sides, ends, and beds 23.00 Nails, hardware, etc 2.00 Heating pipes and heating apparatus 5 5-00 Total $200.00 As will be seen, this is a very cheap house, and will hold from forty to fifty thousand cuttings placed in flats. If planted in the ordinary way, i.e., eight by nine inches, it will hold about one thousand plants. For Summer use alone, that is, without heating apparatus, sides, or ends, the house can be erected for less than one hundred and twenty dollars. For growing plants in order to get flowers throughout the Winter the cost will be fully two hundred dollars, on account of the extra heating pipe needed. 88 FRAMES If a shorter house than the one here described is wanted it is a comparatively easy matter to build it. A house thirty feet long would cost little more than half as much, so it will be seen that there are a number of advantages in having sashes for use in this way. CONSTRUCTION OF FRAMES The simplest form of structure for growing violets is the frame, which may be either cold or heated. Frames should be located on ground that is well drained, and if possible should have some protection from north winds. It is customary to place them, when practicable, at the foot of a hill, but if this cannot be done it is desirable to have them on the windward side of trees or some similar place where the north wind will not sweep over them. For violets the frames are ordinarily made on top of the ground, that is, it is best not to dig the ground out, for the reason that water is apt to accumulate around the roots, and the plants, in consequence, will suffer. Rough pine boards are used for constructing the frames. The back of the frame is usually made of a board twelve inches wide, while for the front a board eight inches wide is required. Frames always face the south, that is, they run east and west. The frames may be made either continuous or in sections. When continu- 90 FRAMES ous, posts are driven into the ground and boards are nailed to tliem, so that the frame is just wide enough to take a sash six feet long. The length may be indefinite and will vary according to the surroundings and nature of the land. Ordinarily it is preferable to have several lengths of frames separated by six or eight feet rather than to have one long tier. After the boards have been erected they should be braced every six feet by a one-inch by three-inch strip sunk and nailed into the back and front boards level with the edge of each. Frames so constructed will cost about eighty to eighty-five or ninety cents per running foot. This is without mats or shutters for protecting the plants in very cold w^eather. Mats may be made of straw or burlaps, and shutters may be constructed of wood, or if not made into the size of the sashes themselves, ordinary twelve-foot boards can be used. For burlap mats or boards the additional cost of the frame will be twenty to twenty-five cents per running foot, which makes the total cost li.io to $1.15 per foot. Therefore a frame one hundred feet long, con- structed as described, with mats or boards for covering in cold weather, will cost approximately one hundred and ten to one hundred and fifteen dollars. Such a frame will hold about twelve hundred plants, so that the cost of space per plant in this case will be approximately ten and a half 92 FRAMES cents. As will be seen, this is the cheapest method for growing plants, and for this reason many adopt it in the beginning. There are so many disad- vantages in growing plants in frames, however, that they should not be used where it is possible to make a house. The disadvantages are referred to in detail in other places, so that it is not necessary to mention them here. The question of mats or of some means of pro- tection during excessively cold weather is of great importance, for unless such protection is given, the plants will be so severely frozen as to be made use- less. The backs and fronts of the frames must also be protected as soon as cold weather sets in. This is usually accompHshed by banking up soil or ma- nure to within an inch or an inch and a half of the top of the frame. The most common practice for protecting the plants is using ordinary boards twelve inches wide and sixteen feet long. These are sim- ply laid on the frames when cold weather comes on and serve in a measure to exclude the frost. It is much work, however, to put these boards on and take them off, for this must be done promptly when- ever the conditions require change. Mats are somewhat more convenient and are used to a con- siderable extent in various parts of the country. The cheapest, and in some respects the best, form of mat is made of ordinary burlap quilted so as to hold between the two pieces about two inches of CONSTRUCTION 93 Straw. The mats are ordinarily made of what is known as twelve ounce burlaps, forty-five inches wide, which costs about six to eight cents a yard. The straw between the tackings of the mat is about two inches thick, but where the tackings are made it is only about half an inch thick, as the string is pulled tight and tied in a square knot to prevent all danger of its getting loose. These mats, complete, cost about thirty-five cents each, and with ordinary wear and tear will last two seasons. Mats similar to these are now offered by many seed dealers at very reasonable prices, so that it hardly pays to make them at home. Straw mats are also used to a considerable extent, but they are more ex- pensive than the others, and, with the handling they must necessarily get, will not last very much longer. Mats are in all cases preferable to boards. They keep the plants warmer and are not so unhandy to move about. The boards soon warp and for this reason will not lie close to the glass. They are, furthermore, constantly in the way when laid be- tween the frames, and as a rule cannot be handled readily by one person. Where frames are made in sections it is the practice to have each section long enough to take five sashes. Usually a space of twelve or fifteen inches is left between each section. In Summer the sashes are taken off and the frames are stored where the weather will not affect them. 94 FRAMES There is no particular advantage in making frames in this way. Frames are occasionally heated by means of hot water or steam pipes, and in this way the frost is excluded. The ordinary practice of heating with hot water is to run one and a quarter-inch pipe completely around the frame. The boiler is placed at a point several feet lower than the frame, and the pipe from this is so run as to give a slight rise to the end of the frame farthest from the boiler and a shght fall from the far end back to the boiler. The flow pipe is usually placed against the board on the north side of the frame, while the return is run along the board on the south side. A boiler with sufficient pipe to heat a frame one hundred feet long and six feet wide will cost approxi- mately sixty-five dollars. While there are some advantages in heating frames in this way, it is a question whether it would not pay in the end to use the boiler in heating a house made of sashes, as al- ready described — that is, having the sashes and the boiler, better results could probably be obtained by constructing a house of sashes so that the plants would be accessible at all times, and there would be no delay or trouble in case of bad weather or heavy snow. A summarized comparison of the cost of the different structures described is interesting, and is, in round numbers, approximately as follows: CONSTRUCTION OF FRAMES 95 For the first type of house, loox 12 feet — Per running foot $8 00 Per square foot of bed space 70 Per plant grown (2000 phints in each house) . 32 For the second type of house, 1 10 x 24 feet — Per running foot 13 80 Per square foot of bed space 60 Per plant (4000 plants in each house) .... 27 For a sash house, 60 x 10 feet — Per running foot 3 75 Per square foot of bed space 45 Per plant 19 For a cold frame, with mats of straw — Per running foot i 10 Per square foot of bed space 10 Per plant 4 For heated frame — Per running foot i 65 Per square foot of bed space 15 Per plant 6 It will be seen that of the two types of houses the larger one is proportionally the cheaper. It also has other advantages, the most important being that crops such as roses and carnations may, with some minor changes, be grown in it. The low type of house, on the other hand, is not well ad- apted to the growth of any crop but the violet. In all cases there would be a saving where more than one house is built. In the case of the one hundred by twelve-foot house, without intervening walls — 3 can be erected complete for $1,840 5 can be erected complete for 2,415 There is not so much difference in the one hun- dred by twenty-four foot house — 3 can be erected complete for $3,105 5 (with a capacity for 20,000 plants) can be erected complete for 4,836 g6 WATER SUPPLY CHAPTER IV WATER SUPPLY An abundant supply of good water is essential to the successful cultivation of most plants, and the violet is no exception to this rule. Water is needed not only to keep the ground moist, but to syringe or spray in order to keep down red spider. For ordinary watering no force is required, but for spraying, arrangements must be made to get a pres- sure of not less than twenty pounds to the square inch in the system of pipes. Where city water is to be obtained and the rates are reasonable, the sim- plest plan is, of course, merely to get proper con- nections with the mains. Where this is not practi- cable, however, the water must be obtained either from wells or from some other source, and must be stored in a tank or some suitable reservoir to be drawn upon when wanted. For two or three thou- sand plants a tank of one thousand gallons capacity will be sufficient, and for every two thousand addi- tional plants a thousand gallons more of reservoir space will be required. Thus, for ten thousand plants a tank holding not less than five thousand GASOLINE ENGINES 97 gallons should be at hand. These statements apply mainly where windmills are used for pumping, but they will also hold good for almost any kind of a pumping apparatus, as allowance must always be made for breakdowns and other accidents. A windmill offers the cheapest power for rais- ing water, but its chief drawback is the uncertainty of its action. With a reservoir of any of the capaci- ties given, however, this objection is in a measure overcome, as it seldom happens that there are more than three or four days without wind and the sup- ply in the tank will usually tide over these periods. A ten-foot windmill, with pump and tower, and a five thousand gallon tank and tower for same com- plete, will cost about three hundred dollars. This outfit ought, under all ordinary conditions, to serve for from ten to fifteen thousand plants. As already mentioned, windmills have the ob- jection of being uncertain in action. They further- more do not give the facilities for spraying that can be obtained with other power. To obtain twen- ty pounds pressure, it will be necessary to have the tank raised more than forty feet above the beds, and this is not always practicable. Our preference is therefore for an economical power that is ready at short notice and at all times and can be used for developing pressure as it is needed. Such a ma- chine is to be found in many of the gasoline engines now on the market and which can be bought at very 98 WATER reasonable figures. A two-horse-power engine, com- plete with pump for either deep or shallow well, can be bought for two hundred to two hundred and fifty dollars. A tank of three thousand gallons capacity will increase the cost fifty dollars, so that the total expense of an outfit of this kind will be no more than a windmill. By using a ten-gallon closed steel expansion tank for an air chamber, water can be pumped directly into the pipe system at a pressure of twenty-five to thirty or forty pounds per square inch. The system can have a safety valve at some convenient point, with the overflow so arranged as to go into the main storage reservoir. With this plan the water can be drawn from the reservoir for ordinary watering, and for spraying the water can be forced by the engine and pump directly into the pipes. The cost of running such an engine is merely nominal. We have used one for several years and find that a little over one dollar and a quarter a month for gasoline and lubricating oil will give us five hundred gallons of water a day. A thousand gallons of water a day, which is enough for ten to fifteen thousand plants, would probably not cost much more than two and a half dollars a month. Such gasoline engines, if ignited with an electric spark, are perfectly safe, can be started or stopped in a moment, and with ordinary care will last for years. In piping houses there should be one pipe along TANKS 99 each path, with hose connections fifty feet apart. For five houses, each one hundred feet by twelve feet, the main water pipe should be one and one-half inches in diameter, with an inch lateral in each house. The hose connections should be three- quarters of an inch, as it does not pay to use one- inch hose. It rarely happens that watering goes on in more than one house at a time, sO that the one and one-half inch main will be found large enough. We do not believe there is any special ad- vantage in heating the water in Winter. In fact, so far as our experience goes, cold water is just as good as warm or *' chilled " water. This is the general conclusion where careful comparative experiments have been made. It is sometimes an advantage to be able to use liquid fertilizers, and for this purpose a small tank of five hundred to eight hundred gallons should be provided. It should have a separate pipe system, one-inch pipe being large enough all round. If this tank can be set in a barn loft or some slightly ele- vated place where its contents will not freeze it will be an advantage. The additional cost of a tank of this kind, with pipes and fittings, will be seventy- five to eighty-five dollars. Such a tank would have sufficient capacity for furnishing liquid food for eight to ten thousand plants. 100 PROPAGATING CHAPTER V PROPAGATING, SELECTING, PLANTING, CLEANING, WATERING, ETC. PROPAGATING The violet may be propagated in a number of ways, and as much of the success in growing the crop depends on proper methods we shall go into some detail as to the various practices followed. One of the most common methods is to divide the crown. This can be done whenever there is sufficient crown to divide, but the common way is to make the divisions in Spring after the flowering season is over. The plant is merely lifted with a spade or trowel, and after all the soil is shaken ofl" the roots the plant is pulled apart or cut apart, as one may think proper. In dividing such a crown young plants of various kinds will be found. Some will have long, " leggy " stems, with many leaf scars upon them; some will be short and stocky; some will have hard, woody roots, while others will show white, clean-growing roots covered with young feeding rootlets and root hairs. It is the general PROPAGATING lOI practice to throw away the scrawny plants and to put the others in soil or sand, or in a mixture of both, in order to induce further root development 33. — Cuttings with hard, wiry roots, from divided crowns and growth. Some make a practice of putting the young plants in a frame outside, setting them in rows about three inches apart and two inches dis- tant in the row. If sand is used about four inches is PROPAGATING IO3 spread on the ground, and after being firmed with a brick or board the young plants are set in with a dibble. Whitewashed sashes are kept over the frame and plenty of air is given night and day when the weather permits. As the plants are never put out in this way until the first or middle of April no heat is required. In case soil is used care is taken to add about three inches of good rotten manure to ordinary garden soil. The manure is thoroughly worked in and the ground is made as fine as it is possible to make it with rake and spade. It should never be packed. When smoothed off, set the plants the same as described for sand. In both cases the plants must be watched carefully and syringed every bright day in order to keep down red spider, taking care not to over-wet the soil. In six or eight weeks after setting in frames as described, the plants will be ready to transplant to the place where they are to make their Summer growth. There are many objections to propagating plants in this way, and the best growers have long since abandoned it. In dividing the crown, and thereby carrying over each year some of the old roots, various diseases affecting the former are carried over also, and if the practice is continued from year to year the tendency is gradually to develop a weak, non-resistant stock. The grower in such cases finds himself losing his abiHty to get good plants and usually satisfies his conscience by saying td4 CARE OF PLANTS J 35. — Common form oj cutting from divided crown. This will make a good plant if properly rooted in soil PROPAGATING IO5 that luck is against him. We have examined thousands of apparently strong, vigorous plants, after being lifted in the Spring preparatory to division, but have never yet found one where the roots, both young and old, did not show disease. Of these diseases we shall speak in the proper place; suffice it to say here that they are of such a nature that they gradually continue their insidious w^ork after the young plant is put out, and while the latter may appear strong when it is put in the ground, the trouble is present, and after a while, when an extra strain comes, the effects, in one form or another, will surely appear. Another serious objection to this method is that it must necessarily be done late, after blooming time is over or nearly over. This, in many sections, will delay the work of propagation to such an extent that if unusual weather conditions prevail through April or May much injury will result to the young plants. If a hot spell of weather comes on, as it often does in the early part of May, the young plants are sure to suffer, and weak, stunted stock is the result. We have neier found it safe to put in stock ojler April 15th. Another method of propagation, and one open to fewer objections than the last, consists in cutting the offshoots, or runners, from the main plant any time from the first of February to the middle of March. In this case the main plant is not disturbed, io6 CARE OF PLANTS but the young offshoots, which in good plants are found in abundance, are cut off, only those being selected which show young, white roots. These roots in most cases have never reached the soil, but are sent out into the semi-dark, moist air, made so by the plant as a whole. A good, strong crown will give from ten to twenty cuttings, such as we have described, between the first part of February Lath box, or flat, for rooted cuttings and the middle of March. As soon as the cuttings are removed they should be thrown into a box with a lid or cover, so as to keep them from wilting. When a sufficient quantity has been cut they are trimmed up and placed in soil as follows: Prepare the soil several weeks in advance, using four parts good rotten sod and one part finely rotted manure. Mix thoroughly and screen through an ordinary sand screen or anything having a similar- sized mesh. Keep the soil where it cannot get too PROPAGATING IO7 wet and never handle it when there Is too much moisture present. The soil being prepared, make a lot of boxes, using for the ends strips of undressed white pine one inch thick, three inches wide, and fourteen inches long. For the sides and bottom use ordinary laths cut exactly in half. In making the boxes put on the bottom first, nailing on the two outside laths at the start, then filling in between with others, allowing about a quarter of an inch space between each two pieces of lath. The bottom being made, put on the sides. Each side will take two pieces of lath without space between them. The boxes are now ready to fill with soil, but before doing this spread on the bottom of each box a thin coating of wet sphagnum moss to keep the soil from washing out. Put in enough soil to stand about half an inch higher than the edges of the box, then take a brick and gently press the soil down so that it is uniformly about half an inch below the edges of the box. Set the cuttings with a dibble, so that they will average one hundred to the box. In one box put thirteen rows of eight plants each, in another twelve rows of eight plants each, and so on. After setting out in this way, the plants are shaded and watered carefully for a few da} s, and then moved outside into a coldframe, or prefer- ably kept in a house where they can be looked after at all times. If put outside they should be kept covered with whitewashed sashes. Where sashes I08 CARE OF PLANTS are at hand we prefer to make a temporax*y house out of them. Such a house has already been described, and it will be found that the plants can be looked after much better in them than in a frame. Moreover, they will grow better because the air can be kept moist, diseases and insects can be kept down, and all conditions necessary for growth can be managed to better advantage. We mention the ordinary coldframe with sashes not because we favor it, but merely to show that they have been given fair trial and have been found wanting. This method of propagation apphes particularly to the Campbell violet. If all the conditions are carefully watched, fme plants can be grown in this way. We do not advise using boxes or flats with close bottoms, as drainage is not so good and the roots in consequence will not develop so well. Roots need air at all times, and where this is given through proper soil, proper drainage, and proper watering, it is astonishing the way the young plants start off and grow. The third method of propagation and the one generally followed by growers of Marie Louise, consists in taking cuttings from the crowns any time between the middle of January and the middle of March. These cuttings in many cases have already made some air roots, but these should all be trimmed off at the same time the cutting proper is trimmed up. After trimming, the cuttings are PROPAGATING lOQ put in sand to root. The sand is an important item. It should be moderately coarse and very clean, especially as regards decaying leaves or organic matter of any kind. If obtained from creeks or small streams it is apt to have too much organic matter in it. River sand and bank sand are the best. At Poughkeepsie most of the propagating sand is obtained from banks which crop out at various places, and it is almost wholly free from organic matter. The banks are really veins or strata of sand deposited ages ago. One cannot be too particular about the sand, and while we cannot describe exactly the kind to use, the few hints thrown out will enable the man of intelligence to exercise his judgment properly. We make it a point never to use the sand hut once, as it is cheaper to get new sand than to have the cuttings injected with disease. The sand may be put in boxes as already de- scribed for soil. It should be pressed a little more firmly than the soil and watered before putting in the cuttings. The cuttings we put in with a dibble the size of a lead pencil, two hundred cuttings to a box. After filling the boxes the cuttings should be looked after carefully for about two weeks or more. During very bright days they should be covered with single sheets of newspaper, and if the weather is warm and the sun bright the papers should have a dash of water thrown on them with the sprinkKng o to PROPAGATING I 1 1 can during the heat of the day. Place the cuttings in a sash house as already described, or if there is room in the houses proper keep them there. Never allow them, under any circumstances, to wilt, for if they do it means another reduction in the total out- put of salable flowers. Where facihties are at hand the cuttings can be rooted in a cutting bench, using about three inches of sand firmed and watered. Put the cuttings in rows about one and one-half inches apart in the row. The cutting bench must be carefully shaded and must be so arranged that currents of air cannot sweep over it. The shed house, with glass roof sloping to the north, already described, forms an excellent place for such a bench. It requires four to eight weeks for cuttings put in sand as described to root properly. They may stay in longer than this without injury, but as soon as they are well rooted they should be transferred to lath boxes containing soil, one hundred to a box. If there is space in the greenhouse the rooted cuttings may be set in one of the beds. Plant in rows two inches apart and the same in the row, using a dibble made by trimming to a point a piece of broom handle six or eight inches long. Never use old soil for these cuttings, that is, soil that has once ieen used for violets. It costs very little extra labor to get fresh soil for the purpose, and the labor will pay a hundred fold. The principal object of this transplanting is to 112 CARE OF PLANTS -^ 3 PROPAGATING I I3 get good, strong, clean roots. We have had excellent success in this matter by throwing the old soil out of a bed to a depth of eight inches and then putting in about two inches of coarse coal ashes, broken clinkers, and the like. On top of this put two inches of sifted coal ashes, and finally four inches of good soil, made, mixed, and sifted as already described. The roots run down into the ashes and come out clean, white and beautiful, and covered with root hairs. Growers attempt, once in a while, to plant di- rectly from the sand to the beds where the plants are to make their growth. We have tried this plan, but cannot recommend it, as the risk in hand- ling the plants is too great. If cloudy, damp weather follows after the planting no harm may result, but if it should be bright and warm the plants will suf- fer in spite of all that can be done. There are other objections to this plan, but they need not be men- tioned here, as the best growers do not follow the practice at all. We have now described the three principal methods followed in propagation. The last we recommend to those who have had considerable experience and who are growing Marie Louise. Our preference is for a combination of the second and third methods. In both cases the cuttings are taken from the plants as they stand in the bed. Those which have good, clean, white roots can be put in 114 CARE OF PLANTS the soil as already described, but those which are just as good in every way except as to the number of roots, may have all the latter cut off and made to make new ones in the sand. Following this practice, about half the cuttings go into the soil and half into sand. This practice is especially commend- able where Campbells are grown, but for Marie Louise, as already pointed out, the sand method throughout is beheved to be the best. The plants, when placed in soil as already de- scribed, are to stand there until they are finally set in the beds, which, south of New York, Pittsburgh, and Chicago, should not be later than the first of June. North of this they may run till the middle of June, or at the very latest the first of July. Leaving out the first practice entirely, it will be seen that in the second the young plants stand in soil-filled flats or boxes from sixty to one hundred and twenty days, and then are set directly where they are to grow for flowering. In the third practice the young plants are in sand about fifty days, when they are transferred to soil where they remain until planting time, which runs, according to locahty, from the first of June to the first of July. Anyone, by managing properly and having not over twenty thousand plants, ought to be able to do all his planting in fifteen to twenty days. In our section, Washington, we prefer to plant between the first of May and the first of June. PROPAGATING II5 We have omitted the practice of Fall propaga- tion, but it will be well to discuss it briefly, as some of the older growers believed in it on the ground that it was the only way the stock could be main- tained in a healthy condition. Their argument was that the violet is a plant that needs a period of rest, and that propagating in Spring just after the plant had been pushed through Winter flowering is con- trary to nature's methods of increasing the plants. It is true that the violet makes its principal effort in the way of sending out runners in the Fall, and theoretically this would be the proper time to propagate, as good wood can then be had in abundance. Practically, however, there are many objections to the plan. Adopting it necessitates carrying the young plants through the Winter, and, no matter how much care is exercised in watching them, they nearly always suff'er either from being kept too cold or too warm, too dry or too moist. In other words, despite every precaution they get stunted or checked so severely that many of them never rally from the shock; consequently they do not prove as vigorous as cuttings made in the Spring and properly handled. Another question to consider, and one that we have found of much importance, is that during their long stand in flats or beds they are apt to become infected with one or more of the several stem and root diseases, and while these may not be plainly Il6 CARE OF PLANTS evident in the Spring, they are present, nevertheless, and will develop and do serious injury later. There is this to be said, however, that choosing between the methods of division after blooming time and propagating in the Fall, we would prefer the latter, because we beheve that better results will follow. Finally, in using the Fall-rooted plants there is al- ways the danger of the plants getting too big. It is as bad to have a plant too big as it is to have it too smafi, and if set too early or started too early the growth will become so heavy in hot weather that it will be found impossible to keep down dis- eases and insects. If a grower has everything at his disposal in the way of houses and facilities for handling the young plants it would probably be well to propagate some of the stock in the Fall, but if he has to put up with the ordinary facilities he had better leave Fall cuttings alone. Fall propagating really means a special house for the proper care and handling of the young plants through a period of six or eight months — a handling so that they will not grow too much or too little (problems that are beyond the reach of most men). We have now described the mere act of propa- gating or increasing the number of plants and have next to consider the most important question con- nected with violet growing, namely, the selection of stock with a view of increasing vigor and pro- ductiveness. SELECTION OF STOCK I 17 SELECTION OF STOCK FOR VIGOR AND PRODUCTIVENESS To grasp this question fully we must first realize that the violet, hke other plants, is a plastic organism — that within a certain range it has power to change or to adapt itself to the conditions which surround it. This plasticity or adaptability of the plant is of the utmost importance, for if all its functions were fixed absolutely it could not suffer any change for long, however slight. We find, therefore, in practice, that plants grown in one section and moved to another behave differently — it may be in the matter of time of blooming, quantity of flowers, character of fohage, size or color of flowers, length of flower stem, or in many other directions. Recognizing this fact, and those that are naturally correlated with it, we have the important practical conclusion that the only way Jor a man to attain the maximum results Jrom the plants is to work steadily, intelligently, and rationally toward the end of developing a strain which will fit the conditions which practice and judgment enable him to provide. Of course, the man himself is limited in this matter, but he should endeavor first of all to find out what his hmitations are and then concentrate his efforts in the field where there is hope of practical results. As a matter of fact, the hmitations are more fancied than real, and ii8 CARE OF PLANTS .top SELECTION OF STOCK I IQ where the work is intelhgently undertaken and carried out it is astonishing what power is put within the grasp. It is seldom that violet growers average more than fifty flowers to the plant for the season. There is no good reason why this number should not be increased to one hundred or even one hundred and fifty flowers per plant without additional room, additional heat, additional fertihzers, or additional work of any kind except in the care necessary to keep up the stock by proper selection. How, then, should this selection be started, and how should it be continued in order to reap the full benefit from it ? To start at the beginning, it will be found that the first stock of plants, no matter where obtained, will show diff"erences: Some will be small, some large; some will give long-stemmed flowers, others flowers with short stems; some will show a tendency to throw flowers of a poor color; some will have a straggling habit of growth, others will be compact, with large leaves on long petioles. As the season for flower picking arrives these plants should be carefully gone over and the grower should fix in his own mind his ideal or type. It does not take long to learn what plants more closely approximate the type. Out of one thousand plants there may not the first year be more than a hundred that show the characteristics he is after. We cannot put down in black and white what these characteristics are, A.-v^^ XA^' 4A VvV METHOD OF SELECTION 121 except in the most general way. The plants should be vigorous and give every evidence that they are growing. They should have a compact, symmetrical appearance. The leaves should be glossy, green, large, and on long petioles, and should feel, when you run your hand over them, like living, growing things, and not as if they were made of leather or cloth. If a hundred or less of such plants are found, stake them before flowering commences, and to each stake tie an ordinary shipping tag. Push the stake well into the soil so that it will not interfere with working the beds, and tie the tag on securely so that it will not come off or get lost. Each plant is then given a number, which is never duphcated. We give one hundred plants as the limit for the first year's work, for this is about as many as one can well handle until more experience is gained. There would, therefore, be one hundred numbers — from one to one hundred. Every time a tagged plant is reached while picking, count the number of flowers picked. We presume that there will be some who, upon reading this, will say: '* I have not the time to do this and what is the good of it all, anyway? " These are the men who insist that luck governs the question, and while they will always be found they are constantly vexed with ups and downs and sooner or later quit. As a matter of fact, it takes very little time to do what has been outlined, and any one who will follow the practice 122 CARE OF PLANTS for three years will be willing to hire additional help, if necessary, to keep up the work, because he will see that it pays. When the season's work is over it will be found that the tagged plants show many interesting facts. They show the total number of flowers picked and the number picked each month, and they show, too, the relation of flower yield to weather conditions if one wishes to carry the matter into this field. Some plants have grown fifty flowers, others as many as one hundred and fifty. Some will give the greatest number of flowers in December and January, others in February and March. Here, then, are practical points that should at once be taken advantage of. Vigor, health, compactness of growth being equal, we would want our plants to yield as many flowers as possible, and at a time when they are worth the most money; so that of two plants both of which give a hundred flowers, we would give the preference to the one that yields the most flowers during December and January rather than to the one that gives the greater yield during February and March. Of the pedigree stock we would ehminate all plants where the yield the first year dropped below seven- ty-five flowers. The second year we would eliminate all plants that failed to give more than ninety flowers, and the third year all those that failed to give a hundred good blooms. Each plant can be counted on to give not less METHOD OF SELECTION 123 than ten first-class cuttings, so that if only fifty plants come up to the standard the first year they will give at least five hundred good rooted cuttings for the second season. Each of these plants should carry the number of their parent, with an additional mark to indicate the season; for example, the ten plants from number one the first year would all be recorded as plants a, next year the plants from these would be plajits 6, and so on. If the work is carried out well the first year, three hundred plants, repre- senting the best of the five hundred, can be staked the second season. These receive their specified numbers, are watched as before, and will give from one thousand to one thousand five hundred good plants for the next season's crop. Working in this way, and of course keeping clearly before one the importance of looking after every detail of culture, the average yield can be brought up to the one hundred mark, where it may be kept as long as the proper vigilance and intelligence are exercised in the work. We are satisfied that two-thirds oj the failures in growing violets come about Jrom not Jully recognizing the principles we have here set Jorth. Left to itself, or if not properly assisted, the ten- dency of the violet is to retrograde, partly no doubt because it has been grown so long under abnormal conditions and partly for other reasons, which it is not necessary to discuss in detail here. We find it very much the condition of a loaded car on a steep 124 CARE OF PLANTS grade. It is always ready to go down hill the mo- ment we take off the brake or remove the block from the rail. The farther it goes the more difficult it is to stop, and if we do not put forth some effort there will be a general smash-up sooner or later. On the other hand, by dint of much labor we can slowly push up grade, but we are always confronted with the fact that the moment we lose our watchfulness the down-hill motion commences, and away goes everything we have gained. The author's work is done when he points out the facts and principles involved, and it remains for the reader to do the rest. PLANTING We have pointed out in the previous chapter how to prepare the soil and have shown in the first part of this chapter how the plants are to be cared for until the time for planting. As already stated, we prefer to get our plants out permanently between the first of May and the first of June in latitudes south of New York, but north of this, planting may be delayed fifteen or twenty days. Having the soil stacked and ready near the houses, the first opera- tion is to throw out the old plants and remove six inches of the soil from the beds. The old plants are merely lifted with a spade, the earth is shaken off, and then they are thrown outside into a heap to be hauled away to the dump or burned. If hauled PLANTING 125 away we want to get them as far away from the houses as possible. In any event, they should never be allowed to lie around and rot and decay. The soil is best handled in wheelbarrows. It is hauled out and thrown in a heap close by, to be finally disposed of when more time is at hand. When the six inches of soil is taken out all boards are examined and if they are found rotted they are taken out and new ones put in. The beds are next forked over and air-slaked lime is thrown upon the ground in sufficient quantity to whiten it thoroughly. The new soil is then brought in with the wheelbarrows and dumped into the beds. Enough soil is brought in to fill the beds just even with the boards. In no case is the soil rolled, walked on, or packed in any way. When sufficient soil is in the bed the latter is leveled off with a rake, all clods, stones, large sticks, etc., being thrown out. Finally the beds are made smooth and level by means of a straight-edged board four inches wide and not longer than the width of the bed. The bed is now ready to be marked off. This can be done in a number of ways, the main object being to get the plants set as nearly in straight rows as possible, eight by nine inches apart. It often happens that the board marking the walk is not straight and if the plants are set straight by a line they appear crooked on account of the board, as that is what the eye usually follows. To keep the 126 CARE OF PLANTS rows straight with the board use a simple T square made of a piece of four-inch white pine. By using the board of the walk as a base for the square all the rows come in line with the walk, and at least appear more pleasing to the eye even if they are not mathe- matically straight. By means of a saw, permanent hues are marked off nine inches apart on the board forming the edge of the walk. Similar hnes are made eight inches apart on the square. The square can then be moved rapidly along over the ground and a hole made with a dibble where the plant is to be set. We usually try to have the plants set back at least five inches from the edge of the walk, so it takes a little figuring at first to tell how to divide the space across the bed. As soon as the bed is marked the plants are set, as better results are obtained in this way than where the ground is allowed to settle. In case it is not practicable to plant at once, and if the ground settles too much be- fore planting can be done, the beds should be freshly turned up with a fork and then raked down and smoothed as before described. The plants are cut out of the boxes or bed where they have been growing and all dead leaves and buds are trimmed off. They are then carried to the bed where they are to be planted, and laid oppo- site each mark made by the dibble. The advantage of having the stock plants in light flats comes in here, for the flats can be carried to the bed and the PLANTING 127 plants cut out there — we say cut out, for we usually use a putty knife for the purpose. This is first run down between the rows of plants in the box, after which a cut is made between each two plants. In this way each plant comes out with a square piece of soil and the roots are disturbed very little. One good man can set as fast as two or three can prepare the plants as described. Where the reach is less than five feet the plants can be set from the walk, but if the beds are so wide that one cannot reach, plant- ing is done from a board laid across the bed, but not so that it will compact the soil. Use a board twelve inches wide, and work backward in planting. Adopt- ing this plan, two rows can be planted without mov- ing the board. The planting itself is an important item, and many plants will be lost and others in- jured unless care is exercised. The grower himself had better attend to this matter. We have never found anything better than the fingers for planting. A sHght hole is made and the square of earth con- taining the young plant and its roots is pushed into the loose soil. A movement of the hand around the plant levels the soil and firms it, and the work is done. Having the beds filled and leveled and the plants furnished, one man can mark the soil and set three hundred plants an hour. If the day is warm and bright it will be necessary to water the plants as they are put out. One can plant for an hour, how- ever, and then water, allowing the water to run O a, SHADING YOUNG PLANTS I2g gently from the end of the hose, and following the rows so as not to plow up the ground. At this sea- son of the year it is, of course, necessary to have all ventilators and doors open in order to get plenty of air. The glass also should be well shaded with whitewash or with white lead mixed with turpen- tine, either one to be put on with a brush. We have used laths for shading, but abandoned them for the reason that they interfere with the light in such a way as to hinder growth. The shading should be only moderately heavy, and it should be kept as nearly as possible the same throughout the entire year; that is. Winter and Summer we have found it an advantage to shade, but this may not hold good farther north, where sunshine is less abundant. All of our directions, it will be seen, apply to plants grown under glass throughout the year. We do not recommend field planting of violets any- where, that is, if it is intended to grow them for flow- ering in houses the following Winter. It is very im- portant, however, to have some reserve plants, for there is always more or less loss in the beds. Here again the cheap frame house comes into good use, for it is well adapted for growing reserve plants. It is best to count on a loss of ten per cent., although this is heavier than it ought to be. For ten thousand plants, therefore, it would be necessary to have a reserve of at least one thousand plants to draw upon. CLEANING 131 When frames alone are used the plants can be set in two ways: First, the frames themselves can be put down where they are to stay, and the plants set in rows eight by nine inches, as already de- scribed; second, the frames can be made, as already described, in sixteen-foot lengths, and stored until wanted. The plants are then set directly in the open, nine inches apart in the row, the rows being just long enough so that the frame will fit over them. There are so many objections to these methods, and the obstacles to overcome are so great, that we do not recommend them except in violet farming. Shade here is of the greatest importance during the Summer, and where the plants are grown in open frames or without frames this can only be brought about by using lath screens or something similar. The screens, when made, should not be too dense, and should be raised at least four feet above the plants. In southern Cali- fornia violets are grown the whole season with no other protection than screens made of laths, raised about eight feet above the plants. The flowers are shipped to Los Angeles and other points, and are of fair quahty. After the planting is completed and everything about the place has been cleaned up and put into shape, the serious work of caring for the plants commences. 132 CARE OF PLANTS CLEANING, WATERING, SYRINGING, MULCHING AND FEEDING Eternal vigilance is necessary in the matter of cleaning. We try to get over the plants at least once a week, cutting off all yellow and dying leaves and gently stirring the surface of the soil with the fingers. All weeds, too, are pulled up or torn up in the stirring. In cleaning, we never use anything but a knife, as pulling the leaves off is a bad practice, for it is apt to tear the bark and open the way for attacks of fungi. Toward the middle of August the runners will begin to come, and they must be cut off as soon as possible. Many abortive flowers will appear, too, and they must not be allowed to stay on the plant. In cleaning, we have made it an invari- able practice to throw all dead leaves, runners, etc., into a box or basket, emptying these into a barrel or box outside at suitable intervals. We do not believe it wise to throw the material into the walks, for no matter how soon the latter may be swept, some of the decaying material is trampled upon, and in this way the first steps toward the beginning of disease may be taken. The only safe rule to follow is never to allow a leaf of any kind to lie around and decay in the houses or frames. We have time and time again seen growers cleaning their plants, especially where they are in frames, and throwing the dead leaves, runners and weeds out under their feet, to be trampled into the mud. Such growers have fair WATERING 133 success for a season or two, then wonder why it is that diseases and insect pests steadily increase until they finally get the upper hand. Cleanliness at all times, and a thorough destruction oj all diseased leaves, cuttings and plants are matters that should never he neglected. Watering, to the ordinary man, may really seem like a simple matter, but it is one of the most impor- tant factors in the growth of this or any other crop. No hard and fast rules can be laid down on this sub- ject. Water when the plants need it, which can only be determined by experience. We never water over head, but use the end of a three-quarter-inch hose, held in such a way that the water runs out freely but not forcibly. If the water comes out with too much force the soil is puddled and the plants may be washed up. When the plants are still young, and the ground is soft, a good plan is to fasten to the end of the hose an ordinary tin pancake turner, such as can be bought anywhere for ten cents. This can be fastened to the hose by a rubber band, and will spread the water so that it will fall in a thin sheet about four inches wide. The water soaks in when put on in this way, and seldom causes the formation of a crust—the thing to be avoided. Plants in hot weather require water almost every day. At no time should the plants be allowed to become dry, nor should water be given so often that the soil is kept constantly in a pasty condition. 134 CARE OF PLANTS In our judgment the best results will be ob- tained when the variation of the moisture in the soil is allowed the widest range the plants will stand. What this is cannot be given in words, as too many conditions are involved. It is a question that must be studied by each individual and by him worked out for his own case. The point we wish to make is that better growth can be obtained by allowing a certain range or variation in the moisture content of the soil than where an attempt is made to keep the moisture content at one point, or near one point. If, for example, we find that in a certain type of soil the best growth is obtained where the maximum moisture content approximates twenty per cent., it will be best not to attempt to hold the moisture steadily at this point, but rather to allow a variation of five to eight per cent., as this is more apt to give optimum conditions for growth than where an eff"ort is put forth to hold it at one point. It is not necessary here to go into a discussion of the physiological questions involved in this mat- ter. Suffice it to say that we may look at the plant in the light of a machine kept in operation in part by stimuli from without. Stimuli may come by changes in conditions, and if everything works in harmony, perfect growth is the result. As the season advances, the plants will require more and more water, and every precaution will have to be taken not to let them wilt or to get on the FEEDING 135 dry side so often as to check growth. The plants must be kept growing without a check of any kind, so that by the middle of September they practically cover the ground. From the time of planting constant care must be exercised in the matter of syringing. Plants ought to be syringed throughout the Summer and early Fall not less than three times a week. We will discuss this question more fully in the chapter on insects and diseases, as the syringing is mainly to keep down red spider. Always select bright days for the syringing, so as to have the plants dry off before night. As the season advances, and the plants grow larger, much care must be exercised in syringing, otherwise serious results may follow, as will be pointed out further on. By the first or mid- dle of October it will be necessary to withhold all water from the fohage, and if the spraying has been thorough this can be done without fear of injury from spider. About the middle of August we like to give the beds a thin mulching of finely rotted manure. Horse manure is best for this purpose, as it works up fine and dries out better on the bed. Put on just enough to cover the ground, and work it well around the plants. The manure mulching serves to keep the ground moist and free from weeds. It also keeps the flowers cleaner when they come, and checks the growth of slime and green molds that sometimes 136 CARE OF PLANTS appear on the soil. Mulching with sphagnum and with pine shavings has been tried, but both were abandoned in favor of the rotted horse manure. Feeding, after the plants are once estabhshed, is an important matter, but our advice to the begin- ners is to let it severely alone. There are three or four don'ts that come in aptly at this point: (i) Don't imagine that you must feed your plants in order to get the best results. This is true of some crops, but not of the violet. (2) Don't trifle with chemicals. They may be all right in the hands of an expert, but it is like putting strong medicine into the hands of a layman and turning him loose to doctor his friends. (3) If you must use chemical fertilizers, don't experiment on all your plants, but set aside a few dozen in one bed and a few dozen in another; make your trials carefully, and compare the results obtained with those where no chemicals have been used. We know from many experiments that the only safe way is to feed as little as possible, as the plants, if let alone, will take care of themselves, pro- vided the soil is prepared as we have described else- where. When you do feed, apply only manure water, made by soaking good, strong cow manure in water, using about one-half bushel of manure to the barrel of water. A watering with this kind of fer- terlizer every ten or fifteen days during the Winter will do no harm and may do good. Great care, how- ever, must be exercised in keeping the manure water TEMPERATURE 1 37 fresh and odorless. If it is allowed to sour and become offensive it should never be run on the beds, as the flowers will take up the odor. If we were growing roses, carnations or chrysanthemums, our discussion of the use of liquid fertilizers would be different, as these are crops that can stand feeding while the violet cannot — at least, this has been our experience, and the result of observations in many places and under widely varying conditions. In concluding this chapter there are several points to which we wish to call special attention: (i) Never delay propagating the plants until late in Spring, for such stock cannot be depended upon. (2) Always propagate two, or even three times more plants than your houses or frames will hold, in order to cover risks and to have plenty of stock for selec- tion. (3) From the time the cutting leaves the parent plant until it has fulfilled its mission as a full-grown crown, never allow it to become checked in any way. (4) Adopt a rigid system of selection. (5) Practice cleanliness in every part of the work. (6) Apply water with due regard for the plant's wants and not by any set of rules. 138 TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION CHAPTER VI TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS AND VENTILATION The violet must be kept cool, and any attempt to force it by heat will prove disastrous. For Campbell violets an effort should be made to keep the night temperature between forty-five and fifty degrees, with a day temperature, in bright weather, ten to fifteen degrees higher. Marie Louise should be kept cooler, say forty to forty-five at night, with day temperature fifty-five to sixty. When the weather is cloudy and cold do not attempt to keep the inside temperature in the sixties or even the fifties. Probably the safest rule to fol- low with the violet at all times is to manage the conditions so as to have, as near as possible, an average temperature of eight or ten degrees above freezing. For example, if the temperature outside is thirty degrees above zero in the day time, and the weather cloudy, keep the temperature of the houses not more than forty to forty-five degrees. If sunny weather prevails, the temperature will natu- rally go higher, but do not allow it to get above sixty degrees, if it can be avoided, by ventilation and allowing the heating pipes to become cold. In VENTILATION 139 the climate of Washington and vicinity it is very seldom necessary to have any fire in the heater dur- ing sunny weather, unless the temperature outside is excessively cold and high winds are blowing. As a rule, the heat of the sun will be amply sufficient to keep the houses in good condition, so that it is al- ways safest either to bank or cover the fires, or else allow them to die out entirely during the day. Of course, farther north these rules will not apply, but in a general way they will hold good everywhere. It must be understood that the violet is unhke the rose or carnation as regards heat, and as already pointed out, any attempt to force it will result in overgrowth of leaves and blasting of the flowers. Ventilation has already been briefly mentioned, but is is important to call attention to this matter more specifically, for it is of the highest importance to realize the necessity of giving plenty of air to the plant at all times. It is impossible to give direc- tions as to how and when to ventilate. The violet is a lover of fresh air and plenty of it, so that there is seldom a day when more or less air should not be given. It must not be supposed that this is a sim- ple matter, and one that can be left to some irre- sponsible person. No two days in the year are ex- actly alike, so far as the requirements for ventila- tion are concerned. It frequently happens that air will be needed the first thing in the morning, and it should be given, not all at once, but little by little, 140 TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION as the day advances and the plants require it. In the course of such a day changes may come about, necessitating letting the air off, so that there is a constant changing either one way or another throughout the entire day. Even at night it is nec- essary to observe these precautions in order to keep the plants in good condition. It has been our prac- tice to allow the houses to run just as cold as pos- sible in the early part of February and later. It will not injure the plants late in the season to allow a little frost to get in occasionally. This will hold back the flowers and will give more returns as the season advances. In March or April, if the weather is mild, the doors and ventilators should be open at all times in order to get plenty of fresh air. If this practice is not followed the growth will be so rapid that blossoming will soon cease and there will be no flowers for Easter. One of the chief reasons why it is diflicult for a grower to handle violets in connection with other crops is the failure to furnish proper temperature and ventilation for the violets. The tendency in such cases is always to give too much heat, and this, more than anything else, will soon manifest itself in the appearance of small, poorly colored flowers. The same care given in the houses must be ob- served where frames are used. Plants in a frame will burn up on a bright day unless air is properly given. Watch the conditions carefully and give air TEMPERATURE I4I when the plants need it. Often it will only be nec- essary to raise one frame in five, an inch or two in the back. Then, again, it may be necessary to raise all of them three or four inches to keep the plants from suffering. On mild days in winter it will improve the plants to take the frames entirely off, occasionally, allowing the air to dry out the soil and the sun to warm it. Snow must be removed as soon as possible, but it often happens that a good coating of snow will save the plants from freezing. If it promises to be very cold after a snow, it is best to leave the latter on for twenty- four or even for forty-eight hours. If left longer than this the plants may suffer for want of light. It may be of interest to give, in tabulated form, the temperature records of a violet house for five months of the Winter period. These records, which were made by Geo. Saltford, formerly a violet grower, of Poughkeepsie, New York, show the highest, lowest and average temperatures recorded during the day and also during the night in his houses. A study of the records will be of value to those who desire to keep their houses in the proper condition so far as temperature is concerned. Although made at Poughkeepsie, the records are applicable to most sections where violets are grown. 142 TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION Record of Night and Day Temperatures and Sunshine for five monihs Night temperature. Day temperature. Sunshine Degrees F. Degrees F. Date. Readings at 7 a.m. Rea dings at 7 p.m. (10 equals Dec, 1895. sunshine all day, 8 equals 8-10 of day, etc.) - Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. 13 46 35 40 68 54 61 8 14 47 42 44 64 39 51 10 15 47 42 44 65 44 54 7 16 48 44 46 64 43 53 10 17 48 41 44 64 44 54 10 18 52 43 42 62 46 54 5 19 53 46 49 68 46 57 10 20 5§ 46 52 72 52 62 7 21 58 53 55 65 53 59 4 22 60 45 54 66 44 55 9 23 54 48 51 65 50 57 6 24 60 46 53 70 47 58 9 25 54 50 52 59 50 54 7 26 55 49 52 62 52 57 4 27 57 44 50 67 46 56 10 28 47 42 44 60 42 51 10 29 52 44 48 56 43 49 7 30 50 40 45 51 43 47 00 31 60 42 51 55 44 49 10 Average, 63 46 or mean . . 53 44 48 55 TEMPERATURE 43 Night temperature. Day temperature. Sunshine Degrees F. Degrees F. Date. Readings at 7 a.m. Read ings at 7 p.m. (10 equals Jan., 1896. sunshine all day, 8 Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. equals 8-10 of day, etc.) I 45 40 42 58 42 50 10 2 46 40 43 61 44 52 9 3 47 44 45 71 46 58 9 4 46 38 42 60 40 50 10 5 41 34 37 ^^ 33 48 10 6 40 31 35 64 44 54 10 7 45 38 41 49 41 45 00 8 46 38 42 61 38 49 10 9 47 38 42 47 41 44 00 lO 44 40 42 61 41 51 8 II 47 40 43 67 47 57 00 12 47 42 44 50 47 48 10 13 47 41 44 58 39 48 10 14 47 39 43 58 39 48 10 15 47 35 41 68 36 52 10 16 46 36 41 61 41 51 10 17 45 38 41 59 47 53 8 18 45 39 42 66 39 52 10 19 48 44 46 55 42 48 00 20 43 40 41 61 40 50 5 21 47 40 43 1^ 41 48 00 22 47 40 43 63 41 52 5 23 44 41 42 58 41 49 7 24 46 41 43 49 40 44 00 25 47 46 46 49 46 47 00 26 48 45 46 55 45 50 2 27 45 41 43 66 39 52 10 28 45 38 41 56 39 47 10 29 44 36 40 65 36 50 10 30 45 40 42 66 45 55 10 31 45 38 41 66 39 52 9 Average, or mean. .. 46 39 42 59 41 50 144 TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION Night temperature. Day temperature. Sunshine Degrees F. Degrees F. Date. Read mgs at 7 a.m. Read ings at 7 p.m. (10 equals Feb., 1896. sunshine ! all day, 8 Max. Mm. Mean. Max. Mm. Mean. equals 8-10 of day, etc.) I 45 42 43 55 42 48 00 2 50 40 45 69 45 57 10 3 46 38 42 53 39 46 00 4 45 42 43 52 42 47 00 5 45 42 43 57 44 50 00 6 49 46 47 56 47 51 00 7 46 42 44 59 45 52 2 8 45 42 43 71 44 57 TO 9 46 41 43 44 42 43 00 lO 44 38 41 70 41 55 10 II 44 38 41 f 39 47 10 12 42 38 40 65 42 53 10 13 46 42 44 47 42 44 00 14 47 38 42 57 39 48 10 15 47 40 43 56 42 49 10 i6 49 38 43 62 38 50 10 17 42 35 38 63 37 50 10 i8 42 34 38 67 42 54 10 19 47 39 43 54 39 46 7 20 44 37 40 57 37 47 TO 21 44 37 40 62 37 49 10 22 45 39 42 62 42 52 10 23 45 37 41 60 45 52 5 24 46 41 43 $3 43 53 10 25 47 39 43 62 40 51 10 26 44 39 41 55 41 48 00 27 44 40 42 65 40 52 10 28 44 40 42 60 41 50 4 29 51 44 47 51 49 50 00 Average, or mean. .. 46 40 43 59 42 50 TEMPERATURE [45 Night temperature. Day temperature. Sunshine Degrees F. Degrees F. Date. Readings at 7 a.m. Readings at 7 p.m. (10 equals Mar.. 1896. sunshine all day, 8 Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. equals 8-10 of day, etc.) I 5. 47 49 62 44 53 00 2 51 44 47 67 42 54 5 3 43 39 41 62 39 50 7 4 44 38 41 63 36 49 10 5 45 38 41 67 43 55 10 6 44 37 40 V 38 54 10 7 51 44 47 64 44 54 5 8 50 4^ 45 ^9 39 49 9 9 45 38 41 64 39 51 5 10 44 39 41 55 40 47 5 II 43 39 41 47 41 44 00 12 44 39 41 51 40 45 4 13 42 36 39 62 38 50 10 14 37 34 35 67 41 54 10 15 48 38 43 61 36 48 5 16 45 39 42 56 41 48 00 17 44 41 42 61 43 52 10 18 43 ^ 38 60 42 51 10 19 45 38 41 61 41 51 00 20 54 42 48 57 40 48 10 21 42 38 40 60 39 49 10 22 41 37 39 67 41 54 9 23 45 35 40 57 38 48 2 24 44 35 39 64 37 50 10 25 44 38 41 67 40 53 10 26 51 40 45 67 48 57 10 27 47 36 41 58 40 49 10 28 49 39 44 64 42 53 10 29 47 40 43 53 44 48 00 30 47 44 45 67 44 55 5 31 49 44 46 80 47 63 10 Average, or mean . . . 46 39 42 62 41 51 146 TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION Night temperature. Day temperature. Sunshine Degrees F. Degrees F. Date. Readings at 7 a.m. Readings at 7 p.m. (10 equals April, 1896. sunshine all day, 8 Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. equals 8-10 of day, etc.) I 51 39 45 60 47 53 7 2 47 42 44 54 40 47 I 3 41 35 38 67 38 52 5 4 42 36 39 55 41 48 10 5 49 37 43 69 42 55 10 6 47 46 46 57 41 49 5 7 44 39 41 57 40 48 00 8 43 39 41 65 42 53 10 9 44 37 40 47 45 46 10 10 50 42 46 68 44 56 10 II 50 39 44 70 50 60 8 12 51 49 50 Z9 51 65 9 13 50 44 47 84 50 67 9 14 60 49 54 85 60 72 10 15 67 58 62 93 65 79 10 16 70 59 64 103 69 86 10 17 69 61 65 85 64 74 9 18 72 64 68 103 72 87 9 19 71 61 66 92 70 81 10 20 74 64 69 94 73 83 10 21 72 63 67 91 70 80 4 22 69 60 64 70 43 56 8 23 47 35 41 80 57 68 10 24 60 41 50 85 59 72 9 25 54 42 48 65 54 59 5 26 55 41 48 67 53 60 10 27 58 42 50 73 58 65 10 28 59 40 49 79 60 69 5 29 64 45 54 85 65 75 9 30 57 43 50 84 58 71 10 Average, or mean . . . 56 46 51 76 54 65 TEMPERATURE 147 Average Temperatures. Night. Day. December 48 55 Degrees F. January 42 50 " February 42 50 March 42 51 " April 51 65 148 HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP CHAPTER VII HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP It must be borne in mind that to grow good flowers is not the only requirement for success. Af- ter the flowers are grown they must be marketed, and to do this successfully is one of the most im- portant matters with which we have to deal. Suc- cess in this particular respect is, in large measure, dependent upon the character and temperament of the man. Some men may be excellent growers and yet so lacking in personahty and adaptability that they cannot deal with their customers in a satis- factory manner for any length of time. It is very often the case that such men blame everything but the right thing for their inability to get along and for the trouble they have, not only with the dealers that handle their stock, but with the men who work for them as well. There is little hope for such people until they can be brought to a realization of the fact that the difficulty is in themselves and not in the things around them. Learn, therefore, to adapt yourself to the conditions as you fmd them, and things wiH go much easier than when you attempt to mold all conditions to your way of thinking. MARKETING THE CROP I49 At the outset it is necessary to study the needs of your market and try to meet them as fully as possible. When you start you will doubtless be a stranger— at least you will be regarded as such from a business point of view, for business is not prone to recognize sentiment in any of its dealings. You will therefore have to establish your ability to grow good stocky to grow it regularly, and to be able to put it into the hands oj your dealer when he wants it. This cannot be done in one or two years, but at the end of three or four seasons, if the work has been carried on in the right way, your reputation will have a fair start. It is perfectly feasible for a grower who knows his conditions and handles his plants properly, to tell by the first of October how many flowers he can furnish for the following six months; that is, he ought to know within two or three per cent, how many flowers he will have for October, November, December, and each succeeding month through March. Knowing this, he is in a position to deal in a business-hke way with the man or men who handle his flowers, for it is as important for the dealer to know, to a reasonable certainty, what he can depend upon, as it is for the grower to know what he can furnish. Much of the complaint which arises about poor prices being received for flowers is not because the flowers are not good, but it is on account of the spasmodic way in which they are sent in, and the 43- — Violets bunched for Philadelphia market, some of the flowers projecting Jrom the bunch MARKETING I5I fact that they have to take their chances with a great mass of stock of this kind. Between the last purchaser or consumer and the grower there is a direct connection in this matter. Even though flowers are a luxury, customers soon learn where the supply is steady and the quahty high. They recognize this, and are wilhng to pay for it. The dealer, in time, knows the growers he can depend upon, and can afford to pay them a higher price for their stock than the men who can give no re- hable assurance as to what they can furnish from one week to another. It is this very fact that emphasizes the importance of growing the plants in houses, for if they are in frames a snow storm or cold snap may close up everything for a week or more, and in the meantime the demand in the city has not diminished in the least. Outside of whalt has been said, however, there are many details that influence the success of dis- posing of stock. Every market has its peculiarities, and these must be studied and attended to. We cannot point out these conditions, for they vary so much, and change so often, that the matter is one that will have to be taken in hand by the grower himself. The methods of bunching, arranging of the leaves, and other matters all vary in diff'erent sec- tions, and we can only describe some of the more important ones here. Before proceeding to do this, 44* — Violets bunched for Washington market, using Princess of Wales leaves MARKETING I53 however, it would be well to consider more in detail some of the methods of disposing of the flowers. The grower may sell his flowers direct to the retailer, or he may dispose of them through the commission merchant. Each plan has its advantages and disad- vantages, and these we shah now point out. No one questions the fact that there are plenty of honest, straightforward business men in both lines. There are frauds, of course, but we meet them everywhere, and as soon as one is found out he should be dropped. The retailer pays for the flowers outright, and un- less the grower is in a position to demand something better he will get just half the retail price for his stock; that is, if violets are selling at two dollars per bunch of fifty flowers, the grower will get one dollar; if they are selling for one dollar, he will get fifty cents. This seems Hke a big margin of profit for the retailer, but in reaHty the risks are so many that it is about all he can afford to pay to the grower who cannot count on what he can furnish in the way of quantity or quality. On the other hand, the grower who conducts his business in the proper way can make up his schedule of prices at the beginning of the season, and the retailer, knowing his man, and that he can depend upon him, can aff^ord to pay him more. In fact, the prices in such cases should, and will, run from twenty to twenty-five per cent, higher than in the first plan described. On the other hand, the grower who sells to the retailer has no opportu- 154 HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP nity as a grower to enlarge his reputation, for the purchaser seldom knows who grows the stock. The fact is that a large portion of the purchasers have the innocent delusion that the retailer himself grows all the stock he sells. The grower, therefore, has no way of extending his reputation, and if anything should happen to the retailer who handles his flowers he will have to start over again with a new man, which is a thing not always easy to do. Again, the retailer must necessarily be more exacting in his de- mands. He has orders to fill at all times of the day, and every day in the week, and the grower must always be willing and ready to fill such orders. In selling through commission merchants the stock is put in competition with others, and its mer- its will always tell in the hands of a fair merchant — the only kind it pays to deal with. It is true that a commission must be paid, but where this is done, and the flowers are put up and delivered properly and in good shape, the net returns will equal those from the retailer. In selling through the commission merchant the grower has practically unlimited op- portunity for extending his reputation. Every ship- ment should indicate plainly who the grower is, and the retailers, who are constantly on the lookout for good material, soon learn where they can get it, and will pay for it accordingly. Furthermore, the grower in such cases can manage his business so as to pick his flowers at regular times, and all of the work PICKING 155 about the place can therefore be put on a more sys- tematic basis. Where a grower is so situated that he can reach several good markets within one to eight hours, it would be best to combine the two plans, as may frequently be done. The nearest market, which he could reach daily perhaps in person, might be given up to dealing with the retailer, while the com- mission merchant could be used in the more distant markets. It is seldom desirable to sell to more than one retailer in a city, for if you have good stock, and your merchant is doing the proper amount of business, he can handle without difficulty all you can supply. He will furthermore do it better and more to your advantage than if you at- tempt to divide up your stock among several re- tailers. All these matters and many others will have to be studied by each individual, and if done intelhgently the best and most profitable method will soon be learned. Coming now more particularly to the details of handling the crop, it must be understood that in ad- dition to being put up in an attractive manner, the violet, to sell at the best price, must have other quahties. The stems must be long, and the flowers of a good color, large, and — most important of all — they must be sweet, A violet without sweetness is not wanted anywhere, and a failure to recognize this leads to more trouble than any other one thing con- nected with the work. Violets, properly grown, are 156 HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP always sweet, but all the delicious odor may be lost through improper handling. The flower loses its odor rapidly as soon as it is removed from the plant, and the quicker it reaches the retailer's hands the sweeter it will be. Long-distance shipments, there- fore, are never satisfactory, for by the time the flow- ers reach their destination they have lost nearly all their odor. Ten to thirteen hours from the time of picking until the market is reached is practically the limit as far as relates to holding the sweetness of the flower. It is unwise, therefore, to pick the after- noon of one day, and after holding the flowers over night, ship the following morning. It is best, when- ever possible, to have the flowers picked early in the morning and reach market the same morning, or not later than the middle of the same afternoon. If picked late in the afternoon they should be shipped that night so as to be in the market early the next morning. The best times for picking are early in the morn- ing and late in the afternoon, that is, between six and eight o'clock in the morning and four and six o'clock in the afternoon. Different plans are adopted in picking and bunching. As a rule, fifty flowers are put in a bunch, and the bunch is then backed up with from twenty to twenty-five leaves and tied with violet-colored cord. It is customary in most estab- lishments to do this work directly in the beds. One or two men pick and tie the flowers temporarily in PICKING 157 bunches of fifty. Another — more expert in shaping the bunches — unfastens the temporary tie, and, af- ter arranging the flowers in symmetrical and com- pact form, picks and adds the leaves, and the bunch is then tied permanently. After tying, the bunches are placed in pans of water six inches deep, with cross-bars of laths or other strips to hold the flowers and leaves out of the water. Placed in water in this way the flowers soon stiff'en up, and, if kept cool, they lost little of their odor. Another method, and one we prefer to follow, is to pick the flowers and tie them roughly in bunches of one hundred. They are then carried immediately to a cool bunching room and placed in water. When all is ready they can be bunched by experienced hands and rapidly sorted at the same time. Work- ing in this way two men can pick and bunch from a thousand to twelve hundred an hour. This does not mean merely throwing the flowers together and ty- ing them with a string, but it involves the exercise of taste and judgment in having a symmetrical, yet compact, bunch tastefully surrounded by leaves arranged so as to present a neat margin of green. The question of bunching is an important one — so important, in fact, that it often makes a big dif- ference in the price obtained for the flowers. A little time spent in any of our wholesale markets shows this fact strikingly. Good flowers will come in poorly bunched, and with a few little straggHng 158 HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP BUNCHING 159 yellow leaves sticking out from the center. Such flowers, although good in themselves, are apt to bring fifty per cent. less than those from another source tastefully and attractively put up and prop- erly packed. Once in a while, too, in careless bunching, a faded or dirty flower is put in. This invariably spoils the bunch, and is very apt to knock off" profits on the whole shipment. It would pay many growers who complain of poor prices to make weekly visits to their markets, and if they are at all alert they will soon learn that the trouble is not all with the much-abused commission man. So important is the matter of bunching that the grower himself ought to attend to it personally or at least see that every bunch receives his rigid inspection before it goes out of his hands. It is customary, in shipping, to pack either in return or gift boxes. Here, also, great care must be exercised to make the packages attractive, both on the outside and inside. The more common practice is to use return wooden boxes with hinged lids, each box holding from a thousand to one thousand five hundred flowers. The bunches, as they are taken from the water, have the stems wrapped in soft tis- sue paper. The stems are then dipped in water again and the bunches packed closely in the box, stems down. When propeily packed the flowers should not shake or mash. Finally the boxes are sealed and are labeled with the grower's name and address. 46. — Leaves of California violet wired together for bunching flowers PACKING THE FLOWERS lOI Before beginning the packing the boxes are lined with newspapers, with oiled paper next to the flowers. In Winter great care has to be exercised to keep the flowers from freezing. It is often necessary to line the boxes with six or seven thicknesses of newspaper in order to keep out frost. In some cases felt is used, but newspapers, being always set hand, are more convenient, and besides are just as ser- viceable, and in some respects more desirable. In some cases a plan of packing flowers in wood- en boxes provided with trays is followed. Such trays are made about two inches deep, and have wire net- ting on the bottom. The mesh of the netting must be of sufficient size to allow the stems to project through. These make excellent shipping boxes, and by arranging two trays in a box, from one thousand to twelve hundred flowers can be shipped in one package. The same precautions to prevent frost in- juries must, of course, be exercised in this case. At this point it is well to emphasize the fact that no matter by what railroad the flowers are shipped, extra precautions must be taken to keep out frost. Although the packages may start out in a -well- heated car, it is always difficult to foresee what will happen to them before they reach their destination. It is, therefore, necessary to keep a close watch on weather conditions, and make the packing in accor- dance with what the best judgment is in regard to the likelihood of a cold snap. I 62 HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP Another very satisfactory means of packing flowers was the one devised by P. H. Dorsett. Instead of the wooden boxes he used ordinary leatherette telescopes, which he had made to order. The description is as follows: The boxes are eighteen inches long, ten inches wide, and seven inches deep. The cover fits over the inside box, 47. — Leatherette shipping box, open and the whole is fastened by a strap at each end. A handle is put on the top so that the package is very easily looked after by the expressmen and others who have to handle it. A wire frame is made to fit inside the box, the meshes of the wire being about half an inch square. Ten holes are cut in the wire, each two inches square, to take the bunches of PACKING THE FLOWERS 163 violets. The frame is made seventeen inches long, nine inches wide, and four inches deep. The stems of the bunches are inserted into the holes and the five hundred flowers packed neatly into the box. These packages save considerable expense in express charges. They are, of course, returned, and with good usage will probably last for several seasons. ■ i I I 48. — Shipping box, showing wire screen for holding bunches The cost of these telescopes, complete, including wire, is about two dollars each. In cold weather, a second covering, which slips over the entire box, is used. In addition to this, quilts of cotton batting are employed, so that there is about an inch of frostproof material protecting the flowers. As in other cases, the stems of the vio- lets are wrapped in moist tissue paper and a layer of 164 HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP oiled paper, which is put into the box before the flowers are inserted, keeps in the moisture and odor. It has been found by experience that such packages are handled more gently by expressmen, and the flowers, in all cases, reach their destination in excel- lent shape. Once in a while some are lost through 49. — Sbippinglbox, closed[^andl^strapped frost, but this seldom occurs except through the carelessness of the railroad people. The gift boxes, which are not returned to the grower, are usually made of three-eighth-inch pine. They are deep enough for the bunches in an upright position, and hold from eight hundred to one thou- SELLING THE FLOWERS 165 sand flowers. After being packed and carefully nailed, they are wrapped with newspapers or other coverings to exclude the frost. These boxes have some advantages, but they also have many disad- vantages, chief of which may be mentioned the fact that the violets in them never make as good a show- ing as where they are in neat packages, such as already described. Almost all violets are now packed and shipped in corrugated paper boxes, each bunch of fifty or one hundred violet blooms of the higher grades being wrapped separately in a piece of wax paper. Three sizes of these boxes are in general use, namely, the large size holding from 2500 to 3000, the medi- um holding from 1500 to 2000, and the small hold- ing from 1000 to 1500 blooms. In very cold weather these boxes are hned firstly with several thicknesses of newspaper, secondly with tissue, and thirdly with wax paper, which comes, of course, next to the blooms. The box itself is wrapped in several thicknesses of heavy manila or other wrapping paper. Where the market can be easily reached, it is, of course, not necessary to exercise the precautions above mentioned in getting the flowers to their des- tination. In many cases it is practicable for the grower to take his stock to market in a wagon or to send or take it by train. This is especially the case when deahng with the retailer, and in such instances 50.— Box oj violets packtd Jur market The illustration shows a box of fifteen bunches of Marie Louise violets packed for market. Each bunch contains 100 blooms and is covered with wax paper which completely envelops the flowers and is twisted below around the stalks. The bunches are then set with the flowers uppermost, so that they appear to be resting on the base of their stalks. Of course, the packing is compact, and the bunches cannot therefore shift very much. The box in which the flowers are packed is lined with ordinary newspap>ers and these also are brought in over the top of the bunches and the lid then fastened down. SELLING THE FLOWERS 1 6? it is necessary only to see that the flowers are kept from frost and from being unnecessarily shaken or jarred. It is always best, however, to wrap the stems in moist paper, as it has been found by experience that by doing this the flowers are kept fresh and sweet much longer than they otherwise could be. We cannot emphasize too strongly the importance oj studying the markets. You must know what is wanted, and keep fully posted upon every detail in order to command the best prices. One feature of marketing violets may be cited here as a suggestion. It is given as a suggestion for the reason that so far as we know it has never been attempted in practice. There seems to be no reason why it would not be profitable to start what could be called a violet store in almost every city of fifty thou- sand or more inhabitants. In such cases it might not be necessary to use an entire storeroom for the purpose. Some of the large business houses might furnish the desired space, or else room could be pro- cured in other ways. It would, of course, be im- portant to be located in a good business section, the idea being to devote the entire work to the sale of violets, retail and wholesale. By exercising the proper taste in fitting up such a place, taking advan- tage of all new ideas in the matter of decorations, boxes, ribbons, etc., there seems to be no reason why such an establishment would not prove profitable. It should be the aim of the proprietor of such a l68 HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP SELLING THE FLOWERS 169 place, of course, to attend closely to the wants of customers and to try out novelties either in varieties or make up. Throughout the entire work every precaution must be taken to keep the flowers away from all for- eign odors. A new pine box, for instance, may cause trouble. Any objectionable odor, in fact, either in the box, the paper, or the room where the work is carried on, is apt to be taken up by the flowers and to destroy their sweetness. 170 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES CHAPTER VIII DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES No hard and fast lines can be drawn between diseases and insect attacks. Strictly speaking, a disease is any derangement of the functions of the plant, be it caused by fungous attacks, insect in- juries, environment, or a combination of all. For convenience, we may discuss the subject under two heads, (i) diseases and their treatment, (2) insect enemies and methods of combating them. DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT Probably no other subject connected with violet growing has been so much discussed as the diseases. This is nothing more than might be expected, for the final effects of all proper or improper methods of cultivation are manifested either in the form of health or disease. The plant, in other words, is largely what the grower makes it, and if he thor- oughly understood his work there would be little need for writing this chapter. This is equivalent to saying that the question is largely one of knowing how to make the conditions or environment so near- ly perfect as to preclude the possibility of disease. It DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT I7I must be understood, of course, that we are dealing with plants in a different way from what they are as we find them in the open air, where they are depend- ent on water, air, heat and light as furnished by nature. Under glass, man can not only do much to- ward getting just the plant he wants for the condi- tions he has, but can approach the problem from another direction and provide the conditions best for his plant. Let us make this point perfectly plain, for few growers appreciate it or realize the real power behind it. Theoretically it will be under- stood that if the needs of the plant and the environ- ment were exactly balanced, perfect growth would result. Going farther, it will be seen that if just the right conditions could be furnished at all times, and the plant, through its adaptability, were able to meet them exactly, growth would not only be per- fect, but life itself would be continuous. We cannot, of course, reach this ideal, but we can strive to ap- proximate it, and this is the gist of all that we have said in previous chapters on soil, watering, feeding, propagation, selection, etc.; so that when it really comes to discussing the diseases there is little ad- ditional to say, except to describe the way the plant behaves when diseased, and to point out the best line of action in order to once again restore the equilibrium existing between the plant on the one hand and its environment on the other. The really important diseases of the violet are 172 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES comparatively few in number, and in the order of the injuries they produce they may be given as follows: (i) spot, or spot disease; (2) wilt, or stem rot; (3) nanism, or stuntedness; (4) scald, or edge burn; (5) oedema, or wart disease; (6) crown rot; (7) root galls, and (8) bud nematodes. Spot, or Spot Disease. This is usually re- ferred to as "the violet disease," and is recognized by growers generally as the most serious enemy with which they have to deal. Much has been written about it, and many theories have been advanced as to its cause. There is no question that spot can be produced in many ways, and may result from the at- tacks of a number of different fungi. The true spot disease, however (the one which under certain con- ditions may sweep away an entire field or house of plants in a few weeks), has always associated with it a specific fungus. The fungus is found wherever there is true spot, and the spot occurs in this coun- try wherever the violet is grown. There can be no doubt as to the relation of this fungus to the disease, for time and time again the connection hds been proved by careful scientific experiments. The fun- gus itself is a species of Alternaria*, and can be grown, watched, and handled as readily as the violet plant upon which it fives. The writer has never seen *See Spot Disease of the Violet, Bulletin No. 23, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 11- SPOT, OR SPOT DISEASE 173 a house, a frame, or a field where this fungus was not present, and plants have been examined from Mas- sachusetts to Cahfornia. Often spotted leaves are found on which even the microscope fails to reveal 52. — Spot disease. Early effects on foliage the presence of the fungus externally. If these leaves are placed in moist air for twenty-four hours, however, an abundant crop of reproductive bodies will be found on the diseased areas. 174 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES The effects of spot are so well known as to re- quire but little description to recognize them. The first effects, however, are usually overlooked, and it is really after the plant has in a measure succeeded in protecting itself that the attention of the grower is called to the injuries. Ordinarily the first indi- cation of a serious attack in a house or in a field is a pecuhar odor wholly indescribable, but which, once experienced, will never be forgotten. It is sickening, and can be approximated by putting a lot of violet leaves in water, placing them in a warm room, and allowing them to wilt. An examination of the leaves when this odor is first noticed will reveal numerous greenish water- soaked spots, varying in size from a pin head to the blunt end of a lead pencil. There may be only one or two such spots on a leaf; then again the whole leaf and plant may be peppered. This is spot, and two or three badly affected plants in a house will make themselves known to the trained nostrils. Early in the morning, before the ventilators are raised, is the time to catch the odor, or else at night, after everything has quieted down. As the spots en- large, the central portion retains at first a pale greenish yellow color, soon becoming a pale buff, with a more or less distinct margin of umber. Surrounding this is a ring retaining some of the pale yellow green, but almost transparent. Imme- diately around this is a ring of a green slightly SPOT, OR SPOT DISEASE 175 ^w i 'k 1 t^k ''t'^P 13. — Spot disease on hardy English violets 176 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES paler than the surrounding portion of the leaf, but appearing darker when held between the observer and the light. Usually, when the spots have reached this stage, the semi-transparent ring either becomes transparent, in which case the marginal ring almost disappears, or else loses all its green, remaining a pale buff and retaining its marginal ring. Often several adjacent spots unite and form larger ones, but the centers of the uniting spots always remain distinct. Spots which have become entirely trans- parent except at the center may be included in the enlarging spots, remaining visible as transparent areas in the large buff spot. From the appearance of the small, sunken areas in the center of the spots many erroneous views as to the relation of insects to the disease have arisen. A few days of damp, cloudy weather will cause the development of reproductive bodies upon many of the spots. These appear to the naked eye as in- numerable blackish, tiny, hair-hke points. Each spot is capable of producing thousands of the spores, and each spore is able, under the proper conditions, to germinate and grow, and in so doing infect a healthy leaf or a healthy portion of the same leaf. The spores, as a matter of fact, are wafted about in the air, and are constantly settling down on the plants, where they only await favorable conditions to grow into the leaf and produce other spots. We SPOT, OR SPOT DISEASE have made experiments which show that in ten hours of one night, under ordinary conditions existing in a greenhouse, fifty to sixty of these 54. — Spot disease artificially produced spores will settle on a space three inches in diameter. Every spore is able to produce a spot, and the only reason that they do not do so is probably because the conditions are unfavorable for development. 178 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES It is evident from what has been said that the more spotted leaves there are in a house the more chances there are for infection. Here, therefore, is one of the most important points in keeping the disease in check. Every spot must be removed and burned as soon as it is seen, and in no case must the diseased leaves be thrown into the walk or behind the pipes to rot and spread the fungus. When a leaf is badly affected it is best to remove it entirely, but when there are only a few spots on a leaf, these can be pinched or cut out and the rest of the leaf saved. It is folly to postpone this work, for every day adds to the chances against getting the disease under control. We do not advocate the appHcation of any fungicide. We have tried many things, including Bordeaux mixture, lime, sulphur, ammoniacal solu- tion of copper carbonate, etc., but have never yet found any good evidence that they are beneficial. In addition to the strictest attention in keeping the plants clean, no effort should be spared to fur- nish the best conditions for growth. Attend rigidly to watering, ventilating and firing. Keep all water from the fohage, for wherever the leaves stay wet for seventeen to twenty hours successively, spot is pretty sure to develop. From the twentieth of August until the twentieth of November is the period in which spot is most to be feared and watched. If the plants can be successfully brought SPOT, OR SPOT DISEASE I 79 through this period they are practically safe, unless unusual conditions arise. From what has been said it will be seen how important it is to have the plants where they will at all times be under control. In frames and in fields, this is practically impossible, as there they are con- stantly exposed to rain and dew. Much benefit may be derived, however, by shading the plants in some way. Rain does not seem to give as much trouble as dew. This is probably owing to the fact that rain washes the spores from the leaves before they have an opportunity to germinate, while in the case of dew the moisture comes on so gradually that the very best conditions are furnished for the germina- tion and development of the fungus. A shading of laths, or a screen of any kind, will often be sufficient to protect the plants from dew, and thus in a measure ward off the spot. However, it is of the highest importance that the plants be under cover as soon after the middle of August as possible; for wherever they are left outside, the danger from infection is very much increased. Everything that has a tendency to weaken the foliage must be avoided. Too much fertilizer will often cause a tender growth of leaves, and when in such condition spot is very apt to appear if several days of warm, cloudy weather come on. One of the greatest sources of injury is tobacco in the form of smoke. Many growers use tobacco for combating l80 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES insects, but in our experience it is found very dan- gerous, and apt to cause serious trouble. The nico- tine in the tobacco has the power of weakening the tissues to such an extent that the spot fungus finds it an easy matter to infect the foliage. A light fumi- gation seldom produces any injury, but where several fumigations are made in close succession damage is almost sure to result. Spraying the leaves with tobacco water is apt to produce similar effects, and for this reason we have abandoned the use of tobacco entirely. Much evidence could be adduced to show the deleterious action of tobacco, but it is not necessary to go into details upon this matter, as one or two examples will suffice. In one instance green aphis was causing considerable trouble in our houses, and in order to destroy it we fumigated heavily with tobacco for two or three nights. Immediately fol- lowing the fumigation spot appeared to an alarming extent, and it required several months of hard work and extra precautions to get rid of it. We did not realize at the time the connection of the fumigation with the trouble, but afterward it was brought to our attention in a number of other ways, and has been proved many times since. Finally, it may be said that if careful attention has been given to cultural work throughout the en- tire season, little trouble need be apprehended from this disease. It is only where the grower has been WILT, OR STEM ROT I 01 careless in certain directions that trouble is likely to ensue. Many have the unfortunate habit of neglect- ing little details here and there, and then when the disease appears making a gigantic effort to get rid of it. If attention had been given to minor matters throughout the entire season the chances are that the disease would not have appeared, and that there would have been no serious loss in consequence. When the disease has reached a severe form, the flowers are practically worthless, and the only thing that can be done is to put forth every eff'ort to get the plants into a healthy condition as soon as pos- sible. Briefly, therefore: Keep the plants at all times in a healthy growiiig coiidition. Rigidly destroy all diseased parts oj the plant. Never apply water to the leaves in such a way that they cannot dry in from jour to five hours. Keep the leaves free from dew. Avoid fumigation with tobacco, but ij tobacco is used make the smoke as light as possible. Wilt, or Stem Rot. Next in importance to spot is wilt, or stem rot. In fact, in many sections the stem rot causes more trouble than the spot. The disease is, as a rule, confined to the stems, although it frequently attacks the roots, but it never produces the injury there that it does when the stems are afl'ected. We have rarely seen a plant whollj' free from this trouble, although in many instances it does not produce any appreciable injury. This 1 82 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES disease is also due to a fungus, which lives in the tissues, and about which comparatively little is 55. — Rooted Campbell cuttings, showing effects oj Tbielavia on the roots. Plant on left diseased, plant on right healthy known. So far, we know it chiefly through its eff'ects, and there can be no doubt as to the relation WILT, OR STEM ROT 183 of the particular species to the disease in question. The fungus is known as Thielavia basicola Zopf, and it attacks other plants besides the violet. It un- doubtedly is able to live at certain times on decaying organic matter; in fact, it is found in portions of leaves, straw, and other materials occurring in the sand and soil. From the fact that it occurs on bits of decaying leaves it is important to have the propagating sand absolutely free from organic matter. Infection in a great many cases takes place in the propagating bed and soil. The cutting may root readily, and to the casual observer may appear sound, but it is infected, nevertheless, and later on will show the trouble. Plants affected with this disease may make a good growth throughout the Summer and show no evidence of trouble until September, or perhaps Oc- tober, when they will wilt more or less during the warmer portions of the day, and revive during the night. This may go on for a week or more, but finally they wilt completely and die. An examina- tion of such plants shows that the main stem has been practically girdled by the fungus, and that both the water and the food supply have thereby been effectually cut off. The alternate wilting and reviving of the plants is due to the fact that the fungus does its work slowly, and thus it requires considerable time to completely encircle the stem. The fact of the matter is, a plant of this kind is 184 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES probably infected early in its life, and for months the fungus slowly grows, gradually destroying cell after cell, until finally the plant collapses. Unquestionably another fruitful source of in- fection comes about through the practice of pulling off partly decayed leaves from the young plants as they are growing. It is, of course, necessary to keep the plants clean, but in all cases a knife should be used for trimming both leaves and cuttings. If a leaf is pulled off it frequently leaves a scar on the stem, and this scar offers an excellent opening for the fungus, which is likely to be present in the soil or on decaying bits of organic matter surrounding the plant. If the leaf is cut off, leaving a short stem, the wound heals before the fungus has an opportunity to gain entrance. The method of propagation has an important bearing on the trouble, and for this reason we have been profuse in our statements regarding the im- portance of using only vigorous stock. The practice of dividing the plants carries some of the disease over each year, and it will be seen that if this is kept up it is only a question of time when the stock will become so weakened as to be practically worthless. The advantage of rooting cuttings in sand that is absolutely clean is also apparent, for in such cases the fungus, which might be in the young roots taken from the soil, is eliminated. Where the plants are simply divided, and even where they are removed as NANISM, OR STUNTEDNESS IO5 offshoots early in the Spring, the young roots often show the disease. The difficulty, however, is most serious where the fungus has attacked the stem, for in such cases the plant will eventually succumb. When a rootlet is once affected it may be destroyed and still the working of the plant' need not neces- sarily be seriously interfered with. Continuous use of the same soil is also a fruitful source of propa- gating the disease. The longer the soil is used, of course, the more decaying roots there will be pres- ent, and the more chances for infection through such material. Summarizing, therefore, the principal ways of holding this disease in check are careful attention to the propagation of stock, extreme care as to the kind of sand and soil employed, and the exercise of rigid precautions in the matter of examination of plants before they are finally set in the beds. Nanism, or Stuntedness. The dwarfing and stunting of a plant is not generally looked upon as a disease. Nevertheless, so far as we are concerned, it is a true disease, because it has a marked effect in reducing the income. It is not uncommon to find among a number of violet plants some which show quite different characters from the ordinary, so far as size is concerned. In such cases the whole plant is more or less dwarfed. The leaves are small, the leaf stalks are short, and the offshoots which go to i86 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES make up the crown are also short. When such a plant blooms the flower stalks are also short, and the flowers, in most cases, are small. Of course, this dwarfing or stuntedness varies much in degree. 56. — Plants stunted by strong fertilizer Some plants will not be more than one-fourth the normal size, while there will be all grades between this and where the dwarfing is so shght as to be NANISM, OR STUNTEDNESS 1 87 hardly recognizable. An examination of such plants reveals the fact that no external agencies in the nature of fungi or insects have caused the trouble. The roots appear to be free from organisms of all kinds, and the stems and leaves are also free, except in some cases where red spider may be present, but not in sufficient quantity to account for the dwarfed growth of the plants. This dwarfing or stunting may be brought about by a number of causes. Anything in fact which has a tendency to check growth may result in permanent dwarfing, but it is particularly at the time when the plant is young that injury is likely to occur. It sometimes happens that the cuttings when taken from the parent plant are not fully mature, and if rooted in sand or soil at this time they will never make as strong or vigorous plants as those made from fully ripened wood. Again, the wood may become so hard that its growth is to a certain extent fixed. Such a cutting would also be apt to produce a dwarfed plant, for the reason that the check which it has received can never be entirely overcome. On the other hand, the wood may be of the proper nature, and the cutting, in all other re- spects, good, and yet in handling after it is separated from the parent plant, certain checks may be brought about which will result in permanent in- jury and a dwarfed or stunted plant. Too much or too little water in the propagating bed may bring l88 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES about these results. Lack of water is often a fruitful source of injury in this connection. The plants do not necessarily have to be dried out to such an ex- tent that they wilt, but the gradual withholding of a sufficient amount of water has a tendency to cause all the growing cells to assume a fixed form, and from this they never recover, even after they are moved into more favorable conditions. After the plants are rooted, furthermore, injuries of the same kind may occur. It may happen that in planting, warm weather comes on, and as a result it is difficult to keep the plants supphed with a sufficient amount of moisture, and the roots, in consequence, will be injured. This results finally in a permanent check, from which the plant never fully recovers. Furthermore, if plants are exposed to too much bright sunhght they are apt to become stunted on account of the intensity of both heat and light. This shows the necessity of some kind of shade through the growing season, for the violet naturally does not grow in the open, but, as a rule, is found in shady, moist places, away from the dire effects of the sun. From what has been said in regard to the cause of the trouble, the means of preventing it will be- come apparent. Every effort should be put forth to keep the plant in a thoroughly healthy growing con- dition from the time it is started until it is thrown out in the Spring. No checks of any kind should be SCALD, OR EDGE BURN iSp allowed, for the more there are of these the more likely is the output of flowers to be reduced. This only emphasizes the statement already made, that diseases are largely the result of improper methods of culture and the overlooking of important facts in regard to handling the plants. 57. — Edge burn, brought on by cold soil Scald, or Edge Burn. This disease, as a rule, is not serious, although under certain conditions it may become quite troublesome and materially affect the yield of flowers. It manifests itself first by the edges of the leaves turning a yellowish green. A few days later this color may gradually fade out to al- most white, and eventually the entire edge of the leaf will become a papery whitish color. The trouble is usually confined to a rim running around the ipO DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES outer edge of the leaf. This rim varies in width from one-sixteenth to one-quarter of an inch. Under ex- ceptional circumstances nearly the entire leaf may be involved, and there is then left only a small green area in the center. Once the injury is done there is, of course, no remedy, and all efforts should be made to keep the plants in such a condition that the trouble cannot be brought on. One serious after effect of the difficulty is the liability of the plant to be attacked by a number of species of fungi. Although fungi are not the direct cause of the trouble, there are many species which will attack partly dead tissues and from them extend into the healthy parts of the leaf. It is not uncom- mon, therefore, to find plants affected with this scald, or edge burn, collapsing from the effects of fungi which have first attacked the diseased por- tions and through them have gained sufficient strength to destroy the unaffected parts of the leaves. A species o^Botryiis is very apt to work on such affected parts, especially if the weather is damp and the sun does not shine for several days in succession. The tissues, in such cases, get soft and slimy, and it is very difficult to keep the plants clean. The trouble may be brought on by a number of causes. It is often the result of using strong liquid manure, either organic, or in the form of chemical fertilizers. Such liquids, when applied to the soil 58. — Leaves and flowers injured by Botrytis 192 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES and roots, seem to temporarily check the latter to such an extent that they cannot take up water or food. In case the sun is warm at such times, and the light bright, the young and tender portions of the leaves, namely, the edges, will not have sufficient moisture to serve for growth. If these conditions continue, the moisture stored in the cells is used up, and then the latter collapse as a result. The disease may be brought on by allowing the soil to get too cold. It is quite common to see plants next to the outer walls of the house showing this difficulty. This is especially the case where there is no air space between the bed proper and the outer wall. The cold from the outside is sufficient to stop the proper work- ing of the roots, and in consequence the parts of the plant above ground suffer as described. In certain types of heavy soils, that is, soils containing too much water, the trouble is likely to occur. It must be understood that the roots of plants require air as well as water. If all or nearly all the air spaces in the soil are filled up with water the roots will suffocate and the plants, in consequence, suffer. The difficulties resulting from cold soil can easily be overcome, for the reason that it is rarely found ex- cept around the edges of the house. A board set in so as to intervene between the wall and the soil outside is often sufficient to prevent the trouble. It is better, however, to have two boards, with a space of four or five inches between. This allows an air space, OEDEMA, OR WART DISEASE 1 93 and the air in the house is sufficiently warm to keep the soil in the beds next to the board warm enough for root growth. By attending to the conditions mentioned, look- ing carefully after watering, and seeing that the soil is not too heavy, little trouble need be feared from this disease. Oedema, or Wart Disease. This trouble often proves quite serious, but is easily kept under control by the proper handhng of the plants. The affected plants show wart-hke growths over the leaves, and these are usually of a brownish color. These warty growths vary in size, some of them being quite small and others one-eighth of an inch long and one- sixteenth of an inch high. The corky growths are not confined wholly to the leaves. In fact, they fre- quently occur on the leaf stalks, and sometimes on the flower stalks also. It is found that where these warty formations are developed the whole leaf is in a pecuhar condition. It is brittle, and when taken in the hand cracks very easily. The leaves, in other words, instead of having a live, elastic feel, appear to the touch to be dry like a shaving, and when bent will break with a cracking noise. Wherever a break of this kind occurs the corky growth appears in time. The corky formations may also develop wherever an insect punctures the leaves. The punctures of aphides and the bites of spiders cause many of these 94 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES swellings. When the plants get into this condition it is practically unfit for flowering, and when badly dis- eased it is very difficult to ever get it into proper .shape again. The trouble is one that is brought on 59- -Oeder or warl disease gradually by improper relations between the moisture of the soil, moisture of the air, and the light. OEDEMA, OR WART DISEASE 1 95 Where plants are mulched and the soil kept constantly wet the trouble is likely to follow, es- pecially if heavy shading is adopted. Where the plant is grown for some time under these conditions all of its tissues get into a dropsical or oedemic state, and it needs only an injury of some kind to cause the formation of the w art-like growths. If the conditions are very favorable, injuries are not necessary for the w^art-Iike growths, as they will be produced b}^ the plant without intervention of any- thing of this kind. This is due to the fact that the plant is really making an abnormal effort at growth, and the w^arts are nothing more than excessive growth of the cells at particular points. This trouble seldom occurs in houses properly hghted and ventilated. In underground pits, and in out- door frames where heavy shading is used, it is apt to occur, especially if the practice of mulching is adopted. By paying proper attention to hght, ventila- tion and watering, httle or no difficulty is experi- enced from the trouble. In case it is seen that plants are becoming oedemic it will be necessary to modify at once the surroundings to such an extent as to admit more hght to the leaves and more air to the soil. It will not do, however, to bring about these changes too rapidly. Light should be gradu- ally given, and the amount of water added to the soil should be slowly diminished. If the change is 196 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES too abrupt, serious consequences may result, as the plant, having been grown under such abnormal conditions, is not able to withstand the unusual 60. — Example oj crown rot exposure to bright hght and dry soil which the sud- den change might bring about. CROWN ROT 197 Crown Rot. This trouble is very apt to occur after the opening of the blooming season, es- pecially if the crowns are heavy and too much water is used for syringing or for other purposes. It is often found in houses made of sash, where the drips keep the crowns of the plant constantly wet for days at a time. In such cases the inner or youngest leaves of the crown become softened, and through the ac- tion of several species of fungi are in a short time reduced to a soft, slimy mass. The trouble is sometimes quite serious, as all the young inner growth is destroyed and the flower buds, of course, perish with them. The difficulty, as already pointed out, is brought about largely by the improper use of water. Of course, in houses where there are many drips it is impossible to keep the crowns dry. As soon as the trouble is noticed, however, the diseased leaves should be cleaned out, as rapidly as possible, the remaining leaves pushed apart, and the crowns opened so as to admit hght and air. Where the crowns are very heavy some advantage may result by trimming out part of the leaves, but this, of course, will more or less inter- fere with the flowering of the plant. A mixture of equal parts of air-slaked lime and flowers of sulphur is frequently beneficial in cases of this kind. The two materials should be thor- oughly mixed and thrown into the crown with con- siderable force so as to reach the rotting parts. Lime iqS diseases and insect enemies alone is beneficial, but the sulphur has a tendency to destroy the fungi present and in a measure to check the growth of other organisms. In properly con- structed houses, where the drip is reduced to a mini- mum, httle difficulty is ever experienced from this disease. The trouble is, of course, much more apt to be serious where the plants are overgrown, and for this reason the directions given in regard to proper time of planting and the handling of the plants should be closely followed. Root Galls. Although this disease is caused by a minute parasitic worm, it is classified with diseases for the reason that it affects the entire plant, and could not be properly treated under the heading of insects. Plants badly infested with nema- todes are apt to show a dwarfed growth, the leaves being small and the leaf stalks and flower stalks short. This is what might be expected from the fact that these minute parasites attack the roots, and, through their action on them, cut off the food sup- ply. The infested plants, upon being removed from the soil, show on the rootlets innumerable small nodules, varying in size from a pin head to a large pea. Although nematodes are considered by some writers as a great menace to violet growing, we have never seen any serious injury produced by them. In fact, our experience leads us to believe that nema- todes, instead of being actually injurious, are more ROOT GALLS 199 apt to be beneficial. We cannot speak, of course, of the effects of nematodes where the soil has been allowed to become full of them through neglect and other causes. Where the soil has not been properly 61. — f^oot Galls handled, or where it is allowed to remain in use for several years, nematodes are very apt to infest it to such an extent as to become a serious pest. Ordi- narily, however, where the soil is changed every 200 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES year, and where new plants are put in each season, the nematodes are not sufficiently numerous to prove really serious. It often happens that some of the best flowering plants will show quantities of nematodes on the roots at the close of the season. So far as appearances go, such plants show no indica- tion whatever of diseases, and if it were not for the effect of the nematodes it is very probable that vegetative growth would have been so excessive as to have interfered seriously with the formation of flower buds. We look, therefore, on nematodes as in a measure being able to keep the proper balance be- tween root growth and leaf growth. They act partly as root pruners, so to speak, and by their action have a tendency to cause the plants to throw their energy toward flowering rather than toward leaf produc- tion. We would not have it inferred from this that we advocate encouraging the attacks of nematodes, but we do not believe it desirable to go to any great expense, such as steaming the soil, for the purpose of holding them in check. If the soil is properly handled, and allowed to freeze thoroughly once or twice in the early part of the season, a large num- ber of the nematodes are probably destroyed. How- ever, no matter what action of this kind is taken there will always be some present, but they need not cause any serious uneasiness. We have experimented with sterihzed soil and have been able to grow plants practically free from BUD NEMATODES 201 the worms. Such plants made a most remarkable growth and the leaf development was so great that it seriously interfered with the production of flowers. Furthermore, we found that the plants were making such rapid growth and were becoming so tender and soft at the approach of the spot season that great difficulty was experienced in warding off this disease. On the whole, this question may be summed up by saying that by proper attention to the care of the soil and of the plants little trouble need be appre- hended from nematodes, and it will not be necessary to adopt the expensive method of sterilizing the soil. Bud Nematodes. Within recent years a very serious disease has appeared in many parts of the country, affecting all kinds of violets, but particu- larly the double forms. The disease is one that has been present for a number of years, but owing to its obscure nature and cause has been generally overlooked, the trouble being attributed to other causes in all probabihty. The disease manifests itself by the gradual disappearance of the crown of the plant, and, of course, if no crowns are formed no flowers are produced. The plants " go blind," and although they make feeble growth, they are practically worthless. Frequently the disease is found in houses, aff"ecting only a plant here and there. Then, again, it may be more or less com- mon on all plants, afl'ecting some, of course, more 202 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES than others. It can be noticed on very young plants, even on cuttings before they are well rooted. The disease is produced by a minute eel worm or nematode, similar to the one which causes the root galls. The Hfe history of this small, parasitic worm is obscure. It is found abundantly in the young buds, and through its action on them causes the growing tip to abort, thus producing the so-called blind crowns. In the South, it is one of the worst enemies now confronting the violet grower, and every precaution should be taken to keep it in check. Experiments that have been made lead us to beheve that very Httle benefit is to be derived from the appHcation of any substance such as lime, sulphur, etc. The nematode is so thor- oughly protected by the tissues of the leaf that it cannot be reached by any such treatment. Neither can it be affected by fumigations or by spraying with Hquids. Some success has been secured by the application of a weak solution of formahn or formaldehyde, but a continuous use of this prepara- tion injures the crown so that the treatment may cause more trouble than the disease. The only suggestion that can be given at this time in the matter of treatment is to exercise most rigid care in making cuttings, and to see to it that no stock is taken from a diseased crown. It is best in all cases where the plants become diseased with nema- todes to pull them out at once and burn them. This RED SPIDER 203 may seem like a hardship at first, but it is the only safe plan to follow. By constantly weeding out the diseased plants and carefully selecting the stock, it is beheved practicable, in a measure, to keep the disease in check. The necessity and im- portance for doing this will become apparent when it is known that evidence points strongly to the fact that the nematodes may be scattered from plant to plant by the hands, either while picking the flowers or cleaning the plants. Attention has already been called, under the subject of propaga- tion, to the method of taking plants which have already rooted from the crowns, and setting out such plants directly in soiL INSECTS AND OTHER PESTS. Red Spider. This httle pest, which is really not a spider but a mite, is one of the worst enemies with which violet growers have to deaL It is present at all seasons of the year and is ready at all tirres to begin its destructive work if allowed to do so. It is difficult to estimate the damage these mites do to plants, for the reason that it is seldom that any plants are entirely free from them, and no fair com- parisons can therefore be made. Ordinarily, when there are only a few of the mites present, the plants show no external evidence of their attacks. As the numbers increase, however, the leaves gradually be- come yellowish and dwarfed, and eventually the 204 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES whole plant succumbs unless action is taken to rid it of the pest. Cuttings or young rooted plants are especially liable to be seriously injured by spider. This is par- ticularly true in Spring after the growing season starts. The mites multiply rapidly at this time, and unless the plants are carefully watched they will soon be so badly infested that it will be exceedingly difficult to restore them to a normal condition. In Jactf it is questionable if a plant once badly infested with spiders can ever be restored to the normal state. The mites by their action slowly reduce vitality, and not only one, but all functions of the plant are prob- ably more or less affected by them. In this way the whole nature of the plant is more or less changed, as it is really suffering from a slow starvation. It will be seen, therefore, that the ultimate effects will be a checking or stunting of some kind, and, as already pointed out, everything of this nature must be carefully avoided. On plants which have been grown the entire Winter in a house, or even in frames, the mite some- times develops to such an extent in late Spring as to entirely destroy all growth. Millions of spiders will be found on the foliage, and their webs, which are rarely seen under ordinary conditions, stretch from plant to plant, and spiders of all sizes will be found passing rapidly over them and congregating in swarms like bees. RED SPIDER 205 An examination of the leaves of violets infested with spiders show mites of various sizes, and the eggs from which they are hatched will also be found 62. — Red Spider {magnified several hundred diameters) present in varying numbers. Ordinarily, the eggs are spherical and almost colorless. Under a slight magnification they appear like little globules of dew, but upon touching them they are found to have rela- 206 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES tively firm walls. The eggs are not hatched for eight or ten days after being deposited, the length of time depending in a large measure on warmth and other surroundings. When newly hatched the 63. -Nozzle used in spraying plants Jor the destruction oj red spider spiders are very hght in color; in fact, it is difficult to distinguish them from the masses of web and the yellowish portions of the affected leaf. As the spiders RED SPIDER 207 grow older they molt several times, and finally at- tain full size, when their color is more or less yellow- ish red. The color, however, varies greatly, and it is seldom that any lots on two different plants are found to be exactly alike. The mites are exceedingly difficult to kill, and for this reason great care must be exercised in not allowing them to attain sufficient numbers to seri- ously check the growth of the plants before putting forth efforts to destroy them. It is the general be- lief among florists that spiders do not thrive in moist air, but this does not seem to be the case, for if proper conditions are present moist air alone is not sufficient to hold them in check. Tobacco, either in the form of smoke, or ap- plied in other ways, has little effect upon the mites themselves, and probably does not injure the eggs in the least. Fumigation, therefore, is useless in this connection. What is true of tobacco will also hold good with other poisonous gases, such as cyanide gas, which is now coming into general use for green- house work. When we first commenced using the cyanide gas we were hopeful that it would prove valuable in destroying spider. It is true that spiders subjected to the fumes of this gas are stupefied for a time, but they soon recover, and in a few hours are as active as ever. Soaps of all kinds are effective in destroying both old and young mites, and also kill a large pro- 208 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES portion of the eggs. On account of the difTicuI- ties in using soap, however, it cannot be general- ly recommended, but for certain purposes, which will be referred to later, it will be found very useful. Water applied to the fohage is the only effective remedy that can be depended upon for this pest. It must be apphed, however, with considerable force, the object being to wash both mites and eggs from the leaves. To do this successfully, and at the same time not injure the plants and not bring about con- ditions favorable for other diseases, such as spot, is a difficult problem. The chief point in this work is to keep the spiders so thoroughly in check that by the time the plants have attained nearly their full growth in the Fall, that is, by the middle of Septem- ber, spraying can be entirely stopped, and from that time on during the Winter httle or no water need be applied to the fohage. We have found that where spiders are washed from the leaves a certain per cent, of them get back. Many are killed by the direct crushing action of the water, and thousands not destroyed in this way are knocked off into the soil and probably starve to death before they can again reach food. From two to three per cent, of all mites on the leaves manage to get back, however, and this shows the importance and necessity of constant attention in the matter of spraying. If the young plants are perfectly free from RED SPIDER 209 spider when set out in the Spring it is comparatively easy to keep them so by spraying from two to three times a week for the rest of the growing season. How^ever, if cuttings are rather badly infested with spider, we recommend their treatment before plant- ing with a solution of soap. We have tried many soaps, but the best results have been obtained from Ivory soap, used at the rate of one five-cent cake to six or seven gallons of water. The soap should be shaved up with a small plane and dissolved with about one gallon of hot water, and then sufficient cold water added to make the quantity mentioned. By using a small hand spraying pump, which can readily be purchased in the market for four dollars and fifty cents to five dollars, the leaves can be thor- oughly wetted with the soap solution at a compara- tively slight expense in the matter of material. Five gallons, in fact, will be sufficient to treat three or four thousand cuttings, provided they are in flats and are easily within reach. Allow the soap to re- main on the plants two or three hours, then thor- oughly syringe with clear water. This treatment should be repeated two or three times, until the spiders and eggs have been destroyed. When used in this way the soap has no deleterious eff"ects on the plants and has a tendency to protect and clean the fohage much better than any preparation we have used. Tobacco water is sometimes used for this pur- pose, and a tobacco solution made from an extract 210 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES is also applied. We do not recommend these prepa- rations, however, because they have a tendency to weaken the fohage. It must be understood that it is not safe to use strong soaps, such as whale oil and soft soaps, be- cause they are very apt to injure the fohage and are not so active in kilhng the mites as the Ivory soap. Spiders treated with Ivory soap die in one or two minutes after the solution is appHed. When viewed under a microscope, full-grown spiders show anxiety to get rid of the soap as soon as it reaches them. This lasts only for a few seconds, however, and then the spider quickly folds its legs beneath itself and for a few seconds there may be some violent movements of the legs and other parts of the animaL Even if moved to fresh water a few minutes after soap is apphed, they seldom revive, which shows how effectually the soap operates. For cuttings, therefore, the soap solution, as recommended, will be found exceedingly valuable. We do not consider it advisable to continue the ap- plication of soap throughout the entire season, for the reason that we believe it has a tendency to inter- fere with growth. After the plants are put out, however, spraying with water should be regularly practiced, as before described, and for this pur- pose it will be found desirable to devise some means of getting on the minimum amount of water with the maximum amount of force. It will require a RED SPIDER 211 pressure of at least twenty to twenty-five pounds to prove effective against spider. To get the water on, however, without drenching the beds, is often a rather difficult matter, and for this reason we have devised a simple spraying tip, which is found to answer the purpose admirably. This spraying tip may be attached to the end of a three-quarter-inch hose, or, where the beds are wide, we prefer to use a short lance made of light brass pipe. This lance is one-quarter inch in diameter and usually about two feet long. The spraying tip is fastened to one end, while the other end is provided with a connec- tion to screw on to the three-quarter-inch hose. The tip itself consists merely of a piece of brass flattened out at the end and provided with a narrow sht, through which the water is forced. This slit is so adjusted that the water issues through it in much the shape of a gas flame, but, of course, very much larger. At a distance of twenty to twenty-five inches from the end of the sht the water breaks up into innumerable fine drops, which are thoroughly effec- tive in washing the spiders from the leaves and not injuring the latter in the least. With a httle practice the beds can be gone over quickly with this device, and the under side of the leaves may be so thor- oughly washed that the spiders will have little op- portunity for development. If this practice is fol- lowed throughout the growing season the plants will be able to go into Winter quarters practically free 212 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES from the pest, and will, therefore, require little additional work of this kind during the Winter. Whenever it is necessary to spray during the Winter, the work must be done on a bright day, so that the plants will dry off in a few hours. Never spray later than eleven o'clock, otherwise the crowns will re- main wet during the night. Green and Brown Aphides. Every violet grower is probably familiar with these insects. Up to six or eight years ago the green aphis was about the only one that ever proved troublesome. Whether there is more than one species of green aphis which attacks the violet is not known. They can be found nearly always, and it requires only slight neglect for them to soon become exceedingly troublesome. The green aphis, with which every grower is gener- ally familiar, attacks both leaves and flowers, but it is particularly the latter that are likely to show the most serious eff"ects of the pest. Ordinarily, when the leaves are infested the aphis is first found on leaves which have begun to fade. The yellow leaves harbor the insect, but it soon gains sufficient strength, if neglected, to spread to per- fectly healthy leaves and from them to the flowers. In watching plants for the green aphis, therefore, it is always best to keep a close eye on the yellowish leaves as they are picked off". If the green fly is found upon them immediate steps must be taken APHIDES 213 to check it before it has increased sufficiently to spread to other parts of the plant. When the fresh and growing leaves become infested, and when it spreads to the flowers and young buds, the matter becomes serious and heroic efforts will be required to get rid of the pest. It is when the insect turns its attention to the flower buds and flowers that the most serious trouble results. The aphis crawls into the very young buds and through its punctures and the sucking of the juice the flower is very much distorted and is made practically worthless. Two or three of these insects in a bud will so injure it that the flower will be valueless. When they occur in great numbers and the buds and flowers are badly infested the former have a speckled or spotted appearance quite unlike what they should be. Instead of the beautiful mauve color, the petals have whitish blotches scattered over them, and this detracts greatly from their ap- pearance and makes them practically worthless so far as selhng is concerned. Nineteen or twenty years ago the brown aphis began to attract attention among violet growers. This insect is reddish brown in color and resembles somewhat the one which attacks the chrysanthe- mum. We first observed the insect seventeen or eighteen years ago on some plants obtained from Massachusetts. Soon after this we saw it in other localities, and now it seems to be pretty generally 214 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES distributed throughout the violet growing regions of the East. The effects of the insect are serious. In fact, it is a more formidable foe than the green one. Instead of attacking the older and more resistant leaves, the brown aphis as a rule will be found on the most tender growth just as it unfolds from the crown. In consequence of this habit of the insect the plants are severely crippled. The young leaves are attacked as fast as they appear, and the plants in consequence are so thoroughly checked and stunted that Httle or no growth takes place. It will be found at all seasons of the year, but is particularly active through the growing season, that is, from about the middle of May until the middle of Octo- ber. It seems to be more troublesome in houses than in the open air or in frames, but this may be accoun- ted for perhaps by the fact that the insect is less liable to the attacks of natural enemies under glass and has a better opportunity, therefore, of propa- gating itself. Like the green aphis, it also attacks the flowers, but seems to prefer the fohage, and as a rule is confined to it. Both the green and the brown aphis are more or less injured by cold, but still they cannot be entirely killed by freezing, as we have reason to know from experience in growing plants in frames, where the temperature fell as low as six or eight degrees below zero. I n such cases many aphides were destroyed, but enough survived to start a new brood as soon as the weather became favorable. APHIDES 215 The almost universal remedy against aphides under glass at one time was tobacco. Fumigation has been the principal method followed, the ordinary tobacco being stems used for the purpose. Prob- ably in some sections fumigation with tobacco will 64. —Brown aphides, winged and wingless forms. (The actual size is shown in the cross lines betiveen the aritennce of the top figure) continue to be used, as it is undoubtedly the simplest and cheapest method of combating these pests. We have already pointed out, however, the serious objections to the continued use of tobacco. 2l6 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES This is especially the case in certain regions where the use of tobacco is more apt to bring on spot than in other sections. Where it is necessary to use tobacco, great care must be exercised, and the grower should never wait until the insects have accumulated in numbers; otherwise, the smoke will have to be made so strong that injury to the plant in one form or another is sure to follow. Light fumigations, given at regular intervals, will prob- ably hold both kinds of aphides in check, but aside from the objections already mentioned there are others of a serious nature which must also be con- sidered where tobacco is used. As everyone knows, the odor is exceptionably disagreeable and unde- sirable. This is particularly the case in violets, which readily take up many foreign odors and never fully recover from the effects. It is therefore found undesirable to pick violets in a house which has recently been fumigated with tobacco. In fact, at least a week should elapse after fumigation before any picking is done. These reasons, together with others which have been given, have prompted us to practically abandon the use of tobacco in every form for aphides and insects of this nature. A good deal has been written about the use of hydrocyanic acid gas for this work. After many experiments it was found that the gas could be used with perfect safety. Moreover, the flowers a few hours after the gas had been used were perfectly FUMIGATION WITH CYANIDE GAS 217 sweet and showed no effects whatever from the action of the gas. From time to time various changes were made as to the methods of apphcation, until finally the practice has developed into a compara- tively simple operation, which may be described as follows: In all cases where fumigation with this gas is to be followed it is necessary to first determine accurately the cubic contents of each house. The determination of the cubic contents of the house while in itself a comparatively simple problem, has, in the eyes of many growers, difficulties which they are not wiUing to undertake. The cubic contents can be determined by a comparatively simple mathe- matical calculation, but perhaps the easiest way is by a method described by the writer in the Florists' Exchange.* This method involves nothing more difficult than the mere counting of a number of squares, and from an examination of the accom- panying illustration the simphcity of the method will become apparent. Procure from a stationery store or art supply store some cross-section paper, such as is represented in the figure. In this particu- lar case squares of three sizes are shown, the largest being one-half inch, the next one-fourth inch, and the smallest one-sixteenth inch square. The one- fourth inch squares may represent feet. Now de- *Florists' Exchange, Vol. 2., No. 5. 2l8 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES termine the dimensions of the house, that is, the length, width, height to ridge, and height on sides, and make a sketch as shown, each square, or one- fourth inch, representing one square foot. This particular house, it will be seen, is eighteen feet (eighteen squares) wide, twelve feet to the ridge, six and one-half feet high at the back, and four and one-half feet high in front. The ridge stands five feet from the back wall, as shown in the sketch. After the lines are drawn, simply count the squares inclosed, and the number of squares will be the number of square feet. The parts of squares, that is, where a line divides a square, can be easily determined by counting the smallest squares or by the eye, and by adding these fractions of squares together the number of whole squares may be readily found. After the number of square feet is obtained it is only necessary to multiply this by the length of the house in feet and the result will be the cubic contents. For example, supposing the house in question is one hundred feet long, it contains one hundred and fifty and one-half squares, or square feet, and one hundred and fifty and one-half multi- plied by one hundred equals 15,050 cubic feet. The whole operation requires less time than it takes to describe it and will apply, of course, to a house of any shape or size. It may be added that if the cross-section paper cannot be obtained readily the sections or squares can be laid off with a rule and 1 iiHft! ,.' ^"^^f^^HH *: ft" ^ f H ,„ p....- i.::l ;:q :::::::' -£:; i~ ^+[m 1? 6,- , .J I- 1 8- 220 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES lead pencil, and practically the same results obtainedT In any event, it is only necessary to get an accurate outline drawing of the section of the house and by projecting this over squares as indicated the number of square feet in the section can be readily deter- mined. The gas is made by combining potassium cyan- ide (ninety-eight per cent, pure) and commercial sulphuric acid. It has been found by experiment that for violets 0.15 of a gram (one gram equals fifteen and a half avoirdupois) of ninety-eight per cent, cyanide of potassium will be required for each cubic foot of space in the house, and from these data it is easy to figure out the exact amount of cyanide of potassium wanted for a given amount of greenhouse room. When the cubic contents have been determined and 0.15 of a gram of the cyanide of potassium has been weighed out for each cubic foot, the next step is to crush all the large lumps and place the cyanide in small tin or metalhc boxes, so as to have it ready for use in the house. One box may be placed at every few paces apart, in an earthenware saucer. These saucers should be placed in the walk, about equal distances apart, then add the sulphuric acid; after which the box containing the cyanide should be dropped in, but the person who drops it must leave the house at once. The door is then closed and in about a minute (sometimes less) the violent action of the FUMIGATION WITH CYANIDE GAS 221 chemical changes can be heard. No attempt whatever must be made to enter the houses at this time, for by doing so death would unquestionably result in a Jew seconds. Previous to setting ofF the gas all the ventilators must be put down, and if the house is loose it is well to sprinkle the roof with water. Arrangements must be made, however, for opening some of the ventilators from the outside. From the time the gas begins to generate it should be allowed to remain twenty minutes in the house and then the doors and ventilators should be opened from the outside and air freely admitted. When opening the ventilators from the outside take care not to breathe the gas. The house should not be entered under any circumstances for over half an hour, for it will take at least that time for the fumes to be driven out. Unless the aphides are very abundant it will not be necessary to use the gas more than once a month during the growing season. However, the fumiga- tion should not be done at regular periods, but should be carried on whenever there is sufficient evidence that aphides are increasing in undesirable numbers. This treatment never fails to do the work when proper care is taken, and there is no injury whatever to fohage or flowers. Cut Worms. The leaves of violets are some- times attacked and injured by cut worms. This 222 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES is especially the case in late Spring after the new plants have been put out. The cut worms, as a rule, are more troublesome in houses where sashes are removed or where the sides are open. There appear to be several species of these insects, and as the worms are voracious eaters, they can in a short time do considerable damage to small plants. It is not uncommon to find young plants having only six or eight good leaves completely cut down by these pests. Sometimes the worms instead of cutting off the leaves will cut off the stems, and of course in such cases the plant is ruined. The worms appear to be the same kind as those which feed upon grasses. In fact, where grass is allowed to grow around the houses and in the beds, the insects are, as a ride, much more apt to be troublesome. The worms are often found an inch and a half in length, and it is seldom that they can be seen on the plants in the da}^ time, unless in cloudy weather or in dark places. About all that can be done in the way of holding this pest in check is to watch the plants carefully,' and at the first evidence of injury to search for the worms and destroy them. As a rule, if the worms are not found on the plant, they will be discovered just beneath the surface of the ground near the stem. By digging in the soil around the plants, the insect can be brought from its hiding place and destroyed. In closed houses, where fumigation is SAWFLY 223 practiced, the cut worms are of course destroyed, but in the field and in frames the collection and destruction of the pest, as already stated, is about all that can be recommended. The fact that these worms live upon grasses shows the importance of keeping the beds perfectly clean, and also the im- portance of keeping the ground perfectly free of grass for a considerable distance around the frames or the beds, if the latter are made in the field. So far as our observations go, the moth which deposits the eggs from which the cut worms are hatched seldom if ever selects the violet. The eggs are more likely to be deposited on grasses and other plants, and from these the worms reach the violet. It fre- quently happens that growers are neglectful about keeping old beds and the corners of houses free from weeds and grass. It is not uncommon to allow grass and weeds to grow up behind the beds in some cases, and it is just such places that harbor worms. Rigid attention should therefore be given to cleanhness, which is as important in this case as in any of the others mentioned. Sawfly. The leaves of violets during the growing season — that is, from June to September — are sometimes injured by a small caterpillar-Kke worm, which has been determined to be the larva of a species of sawfly. This insect sometimes does considerable damage by cutting the leaves, giving 224 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES the whole plant a ragged appearance. The larva of the sawfly seems to prefer cool, shady places, and, as a rule, is found near the sides of the house or in the shade of the gutters. Picking and destroying the insects is the only satisfactory means of getting rid of them, except where fumigation with the hy- drocyanic acid gas is practiced. In such cases this insect, together with many other kinds, will be effectually destroyed. It sometimes happens that the eggs from which the sawfly larva are hatched are deposited on the young plants while they are still in flats or before they have been transplanted to permanent beds. It will often be found advan- tageous in such cases to apply some material that will destroy the eggs and young larvae before the plants are set where they are to stand. For this purpose there is nothing better than the Ivory soap solution, the same as recommended for red spider. It can be applied with a hand spraying pump, or the solution can be made up and kept in an ordinary water pail, and the plants as taken up can have their stems and leaves dipped. This, however, is not as satisfactory as spraying, and is resorted to usually only where cuttings are Hfted directly from sand and there is no soil adhering. Gallfly Maggots. We have never had any difficulty with this pest, but in some sections of the country it has occasioned serious damage. The GALLFLY MAGGOTS 225 maggot is very small and is yellowish white in color. It is found as a rule in the youngest leaves as they push out from the crown of the plant. The affected leaves as they come out are badly curled and the maggots are found only where the leaf is curled. The maggots become so abundant that all the leaves become curled in this way, and as a result the whole plant is seriously stunted. The effects of the maggots are to seriously dwarf the growth of the plants and practically to stop the development of the flower buds. In many cases where the affected leaves are pulled off, the side crowns will start, but they soon become infested with the maggot. The maggot is the larva of a small gallfly, which looks like a miniature wasp. It is not uncommon to fmd maggots in the soil, and from the latter they seem to be able to reach the young leaves in some way. Whether they pass from the leaves to the soil and there attain the adult state we are not able to say, and so far as we know this point has not been determined. Our observations lead us to beheve that the pest is much more apt to occur in localities where proper attention has not been paid to mixing the soil and to drainage. On low, heavy, wet ground the pest is much more apt to be injurious than where good soil is at hand and where drainage is perfect. Certain kinds of manures seem to favor the development of the maggot. Whether it is capable of living in the manure, or 226 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES on plants alone, has not been determined, so far as we are aware. It seems to be a fact, however, that where manure is not clean, that is, where it is mixed with refuse in the shape of garbage and other material, the pest is apt to breed. 66. — Sawfly (enlarged) There is no satisfactory remedy for this maggot when once it has infested a house. We cannot speak as to the effect of hydrocyanic acid gas upon it. It is not practicable to pick the leaves, because in such cases the crowns are permanently injured z -Sk V tK: % / 228 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES and the flowering is therefore either entirely stopped or checked. Air-slacked Kme thrown into the crown will be found beneficial. It should be thrown into the plant with considerable force and plenty should be allowed to reach the soil. Following this practice 68. — Gallfly (greatly magnified) and giving the best cultural conditions possible, such as allowing abundance of air and stirring the soil, is about all that can be suggested in the line of treatment. PHLYCTAENIA RUBIGALIS 229 Phlyctaenia RUBIGALIS. VioIct pknts are sometimes attacked during Midsummer by the larva of a small moth which has been identified under the above name. The larvae attack the leaves, destroy- ing the softer parts and leaving only the skeleton or framework of the tissues. The illustration does not show this plainly, as the camera does not 69. — Larvce and motbs of PhlyctOBnia rubigalis distinguish the colors sufficiently. Plants grown in shady places are usually most liable to attack. Generally the worms are surrounded by a light web, and occasionally two leaves are fastened together in order to give them protection. The insect never produces serious injury, but it is well to watch for it and take such steps to destroy it as may be practicable. It may be destroyed by pick- ing the leaves containing the larvae, but it is best to fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas. 230 COST OF PRODUCTION CHAPTER IX COST OF PRODUCTION AND PROFITS In a matter of this kind it is difficult to give anything but approximate figures. Location, prox- imity to market, ability to get fuel, soil, and manure, the cost of labor, etc., are all factors that play an important part in making an estimate as to the actual cost of producing the crop. In making an estimate it will be necessary to take into considera- tion the value of the ground, the cost of houses, and, in fact, everything connected with the work, just as a commercial man would consider all phases of his business in any effort at determining profit and loss. It will be best to make the estimates on a definite number of plants, as it is easier to figure from this standpoint, as a matter of fact, that the cost of production will be relatively less for ten thousand plants than it is for five thousand. The same will hold true as we decrease the number of plants— that is, five thousand can be grown at relatively less cost than one thousand. There are a number of reasons for this, chief of which is the fact that the more plants there are the more COST AND PROFITS 23 1 possible it is for the grower to so arrange all of his operations as not to have a loss of material or time. For instance, it costs less relatively to heat houses holding ten thousand plants than it does to heat houses holding five thousand. The same will hold true for labor, for soil, for fertilizers, and, in fact, for all matters connected with the work. Under ordinary conditions, such as we find in the vicinity of many of our large cities, we may place the cost of ground and houses sufficient for ten thousand plants at, roughly, three thousand five hundred dollars. In some respects this is an over-estimate, but it is based on the fact that ground used for this purpose is worth not less than six to eight hundred dollars an acre and that the houses are of the same kind as those we have already described. We have, therefore, to es- timate as one of the items of the cost of produc- tion the interest on the money invested in houses, ground, and other fixtures connected with the work. We may put this as a total at four thousand dollars, so that the interest at six per cent, would be two hundred and forty dollars. There is also to be considered the question of wear and tear on the houses and other materials used in connection with growing the plants. This may be placed at not less than eight per cent, a year. In other words, renovating walks, replacing broken glass, painting, and other necessary repairs will cost not less than 232 COST OF PRODUCTION two hundred and eighty dollars a year, and may easily exceed three hundred. The cost of fuel will, of course, vary widely, but under ordinary conditions, that is, in regions where the temperature seldom goes lower than twelve degrees below zero for any length of time, the amount of fuel necessary to heat houses holding ten thousand plants will probably not exceed one hundred and fifty-five dollars. The cost of labor, not including that of the grower himself, which is not estimated here, should scarcely exceed six hundred dollars per year. In other words, the grower himself, with the assist- ance of one good man, can easily handle ten thou- sand plants. It may be necessary to make some al- lowance for the busy season, when possibly an extra man would have to be taken on for a month. With the grower understanding his business it is not neces- sary to have an expert as an assistant. An ordinary laborer, provided he is quick, active, ana wilhng to work, will answer every purpose. Such help can be obtained for forty to fifty-five dollars per month. Labor, therefore, we estimate at six hundred to six hundred and fifty dollars per year. For incidentals, including express charges and various minor matters, we estimate one hundred dollars. These figures will vary, of course, in different locahties, but are, we beheve, a fair average. COST AND PROFITS 233 Summarized, the total outlay for ten thousand plants per year is as follows: Interest on money invested in ground, houses, etc $240 Repairs 300 Fuel 155 Labor 600 Incidentals 100 Total $1,395 The total output of money per year, therefore, in growing ten thousand plants is estimated at one thousand three hundred and ninety-five dollars. This is an expenditure of fourteen cents per plant so that the actual cost of maintaining and growing each plant, basing the estimate on ten thousand plants, is near enough fourteen cents. We have given what in our judgment is a fair average at the present day, basing our calculations upon a general rise of 15 per cent, on the costs as quoted in the previous edition of this book; but, of course, these figures can be reduced by rigid attention to details and a thorough knowledge of all the points necessarily connected with the work. If the owner is wiUing to take a hand and to attend largely to the firing and look after the watering and ventilation, the cost will be materially decreased. If, on the other hand, he delegates this work to others he must necessarily pay for it, and in consequence the cost of production will be increased. 234 COST OF PRODUCTION Turning our attention now to the other phase of the question, namely, the profits, we are con- fronted at the outset with the same difficulties as mentioned in the first instance — that is, the profits will depend in large measure on the market, on the abihty of the man to properly handle his crop, and above all on the quahty of the product. It must be understood that at first the grower will have to be content with relatively low prices, for the reason that he has yet to make a reputation, and until this is accomplished he may not hope to command from the market the highest returns. There is always an opening for good stock, but, as we have pointed out elsewhere, it is not only neces- sary to have the stock good, but it is of the highest importance that it should be so handled and so put on the market as to create a demand for it. As soon as the demand is created it is not so difficult to increase prices. As to the yield of flowers per plant, this will depend altogether on the knowledge of the growler. Ordinarily fifty flowers per plant is considered a good average, but there is no reason why this average should not be increased to seventy-five or even one hundred. 1 he grower should not be content with less than seventy-five salable flowers per plant, arid his aim and effort should be to succeed in mak- ing every plant average this number. On the basis of fifty flowers per plant, however, the total yield COST AND PROFITS 235 from ten thousand plants would be five hundred thousand flowers. If the yield be increased to seventy-five flowers per plant the total number of flowers is, of course, seven hundred and fifty thou- sand. Now, this increase of the total number of flowers does not mean the increasing of the cost of production to any great extent. The cost is rela- tively little more than for producing fifty. The main additional item of cost to be considered is that connected with the handhng of the crop, which is a relatively small amount. Let us assume, how- ever, that the grower averages fifty flowers per plant, and that he is so situated that the best prices he is able to command will average about sixty cents or a httle more per hundred for the season. This will mean that he receives approximately the following prices: September flowers $0.50 per hundred October flowers 50 per hundred November flowers i.oo per hundred December flowers i.oo per hundred January flowers 0.75 per hundred February flowers 0,35 per hundred March flowers 0.30 per hundred April flowers 0-75 per hundred Average 0.64 per hundred These months, as already indicated, will give him an average of sixty-four cents, providing his plants yield as they ordinarily do — that is, a heavy flowering in October, November and April, with 236 PRICES FOR FLOWERS lighter crops during the other months. If he can by a proper handhng of his plants and by proper selection so change the flowering period as to get the heaviest yields during the months of December and January, he can, as will readily be seen, in- crease his average, because the flowers will be worth more at this time. In other words, it is far better to get fifty thousand flowers in December and twenty-five thousand in March than to get twenty- five thousand in December and fifty thousand in March. It is entirely within the range of possibility to grow the crop so as to increase the number of flowers during the regular Winter months. An average of sixty cents per hundred blooms is com- paratively low^ and should not be considered as the limit by any means. With a reputation established for growing good flowers, and for putting them on the market in a fresh state and always in excellent condition, the range of prices can be materially increased. There is no reason why the flowers should not average considerably more, and, fur- thermore, there is no reason why each plant should not be grown so as to yield an average of one hundred flowers per plant. As an example of what has been accomplished we give the yields for eight months of jourteen hundred Lady Hume Campbell plants in one of our houses and the prices in those vears, as follows: COST AND PROFITS 237 October, November, December, January, February, March, April, May, 897: 897 897: 898 Per 100 8,000 flowers $0.50 1 1,950 flowers 0.75 12,000 flowers 1. 00 1 1,830 flowers 1.25 17,250 flowers 0.75 23,900 flowers 0.75 23,850 flowers 0.50 3,800 flowers 0.50 Average $0.75 this house, containing yielded an average of and the average price Total 112,580 It will be seen that fourteen hundred plants, eighty flowers per plant, received was seventy-five cents per hundred, so that the value of the yield of each plant was sixty cents. On the basis of an average of sixty cents per hundred, the total value of the yield from ten thousand plants would be three thousand dollars, or thirty cents per plant. We have already seen that the cost of producing such a plant is fourteen cents, so that the net profit is sixteen cents per plant, or one thousand six hundred dollars for the estabhsh- ment. Therefore, if the average yield is increased, as it should be, to seventy-five or one hundred flowers per plant, the profits will be increased ap- proximately sixty-four and one hundred and twen- ty-eight per cent, respectively. On the whole, it may be said that the income from ten thousand plants grown in houses and handled properly should, year in and year out, aver- 238 NET PROFITS age up to two thousand dollars, while the total expenses should not exceed one thousand dollars. This seems a small amount for seven or eight months' labor, but we have kept the expense side of the account high purposely, so as to have some- thing in hand. Of course, competition is keener now, and the Winter sweet peas and antirrhinums occupy part of the place that the violets did for- merly. Some successful growers follow the violet crop with sweet peas or tomatoes (after about April 18), or cucumbers (for Midsummer). Violets can be grown in frames cheaper than they can in houses. With good care the total cost per plant will not exceed five cents, or ten cents per hundred for the flowers, reckoning that the average yield of the latter is fifty flowers per plant. Such flowers ought to net the grower fift\^ cents per hundred, leaving a profit over all expenses of forty cents per hundred or approximately four dollars per sash. Finally, it must be remembered that while these figures are fair averages, and are based on actual experiences, they cannot be approximated without strict attention to everv detail. VIOLET GROWING FOR BEGINNERS 239 CHAPTER X VIOLET GROWING FOR BEGINNERS There have been many inquiries from persons who are desirous of embarking in violet culture and who wish to begin in a small way at first, partly to gain experience and partly to satisfy a love for the kind of work which violet growing involves. The chief points upon which information is desired are (i) the minimum number of plants required to make a successful start, (2) the source from which stock plants can be obtained, (3) the cheapest and best form of structure to use as a beginning, (4) the capital required to make a proper start and (5) the profit which might result, all things being con- sidered, from a specific investment. We beheve that it is always the part of wisdom to start with enough plants to make it pay a dealer to handle the flowers from them. Of course a start can be made with one hundred plants, or even less, but the crop from this small number will be so irregular as to make it difficult to dispose of same, except at considerable sacrifice. With five hundred plants a fair start can be made, but it will be still better to secure not less than one thousand plants if 240 VIOLET GROWING FOR BEGINNERS room is available. It takes very little more time to grow one thousand plants than it does to grow five hundred, and the results are much more satis- factory. From one thousand plants, properly handled, a sufficient quantity of flowers can be picked regularly to warrant a dealer in handhng them and to warrant him furthermore in giving a little better price for the product than if the same were coming in at irregular intervals. Stock plants, or plants to start with, may be obtained from regular dealers who advertise in nearly all the florists' papers. These advertisements will usually be found in the papers at the proper season for stock; that is, usually in the Fall from October to December, and in the Spring from Feb- ruary to May. An examination of any of the reputable florists' journals at this time will enable a person who is desirous of going into the business to get stock at very reasonable prices. It may be, of course, that stock can be obtained from some lo- cal grower, and if this is practicable it will be better than sending a distance for it, where the risk of injury by shipment must be considered. All of the suggestions in regard to stock, cuttings, etc., which have been off"ered in previous chapters, will apply here. It will be better in all cases to endeavor to get well-rooted sand cuttings rather than divided plants. The earher the young plants can be ob- tained, other things being equal, the better. If they STOCK PLANTS 24 1 can be secured by the middle of February they may then be potted into two-inch pots and kept in a coldframe free from frost until the proper time for setting them out. These young plants are handled in just about the same manner as strawberry plants. The stock being secured, the next point to con- sider is the form of structuie to be used in growing the crop. Either coldframes or a cheap house will be suitable for the purpose, but for reasons which have been given in previous chapters, the house is preferable. However, if this cannot be erected the first year, frames may be used. It will not be neces- sary to secure the glass for the frames until Autumn, when the plants are ready to be covered. We have already described in detail the construction of frames, and have shown at what cost they can be erected complete, with mats for protection in Winter. If a person starts with five hundred plants it is safe to estimate that the cost of frames, includ- ing glass and mats, will be twenty to twenty-five dollars. If one thousand plants are to be grown, the cost, of course, will be just about double, or perhaps a little less, say thirty-five dollars. The disadvantages of frames have been mentioned, it having been pointed out that they are unrehable and that even with close attention the plants in them are often frozen, and during cold weather it is impossible to pick flowers for days at a time. 242 VIOLET GROWING FOR BEGINNERS Furthermore, no one except the most robust can endure the exposure necessarily connected with the growing of plants in frames. On the other hand, a cheap house, properly constructed, is comfortable at all times, and is really a delightful place in which to work during the sunshiny days of Winter, regardless of the weather. Such a house has already been described. A house suitable for holding one thousand plants, properly constructed, would cost one hundred and fifty to one hundred and seventy- five dollars. It might be well to describe somewhat more in detail a simple method of heating such a house, especially as this is an important feature in connec- tion with the work. A suitable boiler, of which there are many styles from which to select and which need not cost more than from thirty-five to forty dollars, may be placed on a level with the bottom of the walk, in one corner of the house, preferably at the north end. The arrangement of the heating pipes is simple. A one and one-half inch pipe is run out from the top of the boiler and carried along the roof to the far end of the house, allowing a drop of about one inch in every ten feet; that is, the end of the pipe at the far end of a sixty foot house would be six inches lower than where it starts from the upright pipe leading from the boiler. Here proper fittings are put on and four one and one-quarter inch pipes are connected with CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSE PROFITS 243 the first one run out. Two of these pipes are brought back to the boiler along the east wall and two along the west, allowing the same fall as for the one and one-half inch pipe. At the north end the four return pipes are all brought into the bottom of the boiler by proper connections, and the job is complete. In order to keep the boiler and pipe at all times filled with water and to allow for the expansion it is necessary to add an expan- sion tank to the heating system. This may be attached directly over the boiler and should be sfightly higher than the highest point on the flow pipe. As soon as the water warms, after the fire is started, it flows through the one and one-half inch pipe and back through the four smaller pipes at the sides, giving out its genial heat all the time. Practically the same system is followed as in any ordinary range boiler where the hot water comes out from the top of the water back, flows into the boiler and the cold w^ater flows into the bottom. The profits from such work are always difficult to estimate, as has been pointed out, there being many conditions which have to be considered. There is no reason, however, why with proper care the results the first year should not be sufficient to cover all expenses incurred in the building of a house sufficient for one thousand plants, the pur- chase of stock, fuel, etc., or in round numbers from two hundred and seventv-five to three hundred 244 VIOLET GROWING FOR BEGINNERS dollars. After managing a house of this kind for two or three years successfully the experience gained will warrant the building of others until, with proper care and judicious management, the yearly income from one's own labor may be made to reach a very satisfactory figure. INDEX Page Aphides, Green and Brown 212 Beginners, Violet Growing for 239-244 Boilers 67-76 Bone 42-44 Brown Aphides 212 Bud Nematodes 201 Bunching i 56- 1 59 Cleaning Plants 132 Construction: Of Frames 88-94 Of Greenhouses 57-64 Of Sash Houses 81-86 Cost of Production and Profits 230-238 Crown, Dividing the 100 Crown Rot 197 Culture, Past and Present 31 Cuttings from Crowns 108 Cuttings, Rooted 106 Cut Worms 22 1 Diseases and Their Treatment. (See also Insects.) Spot, or Spot Disease 172 Wilt, or Stem Rot 181 Nanism, or Stuntedness 185 Scald, or Edge Burn 189 Oedema, or Wart Disease 193 Crown Rot 197 Root Galls 198 Bud Nematodes 201 Engines, Gasoline 97 Farming, Violet 32 Feeding 1 36 Fertilizers 42, 136 Frames: Construction of 88-93 Heating 94 Material and Cost 95 Page Freezing Soil 41 Fumigation: With Hydrocyanic Acid Gas 216 With Tobacco 215 Gallfly Maggots 224 Green Aphides 212 Greenhouses: Construction of Various Tj'pes of Houses 57-64 Heatirig 64-76 Material and Cost 77-8 1 Handling Crop 155 Heating: Greenhouses 64-76 Sash Houses 86 Hydrocyanic Acid Gas, Fumigation with 216 Insects and Other Pests. (See also Diseases.) Bud Nematodes 201 Red Spider 203 Green and Brown Aphides 212 Cut Worms 221 Sawfly 223 Gallfly Maggots 224 Phlyctaenia rubigalis 229 Introduction of Varieties 25 Lime 42 Maggots, Gallfly 224 Manure 42, 135 Marketing Crop 149 Mats for Frames 90, 92, 93 Mulching 135 Nanism 185 Nematodes, Bud 201 Oedema 193 Off'shoots, Cutting, from Main Plant 105 Origin of Varieties 25 Packing i 59-167 Phlyctaenia rubigalis 229 Picking 1 56 Pipes, Water 98 Planting 124-130 Plowing Soil 49 Production, Cost of 230-238 Profits in Growing Violets 230-238 Propagating : Page Dividing the Crown lOO Cutting Offshoots 105 Cuttings from Crowns 108 Cuttings in Sand and Soil 114 Fall Propagation 115 Red Spider 203 Rooted Cuttings 106, 109 Root Galls 198 Runners, Cutting from Main Plant 103 Sand Rooted Cuttings 109 Sash Houses: Construction of 81-86 Heating 86 Alaterial and Cost 86 Sawfly 223 Scald 1 89 Selection of Stock for Vigor and Productiveness 1 17-124 Soil: Physical Properties of 37 Texture of 38, 39 Mixing 39, 45-47 Structure of 40 Handling 41 Stacking 41, 42 Freezing 41 Use of Lime in 42 Use of Chemical Fertilizer in 42 Use of Manure in 42 Use of Bone in 42-44 Heavy and Light Ingredients of 45 Experimenting with, Dangers of 46 Quantity Necessary 47 Plowing 49 Spot, or Spot Disease 172 Stacking Soil 41, 42 Staking 121 Stem Rot 181 Stock, Selection of, for Vigor and Productiveness 1 17-124 Stuntedness 185 Syringing 135 Tagging 121 Tanks, Fertilizer 99 Tanks, Water 96 Temperature 138-141 Page Temperature Records 142-147 Tobacco, Fumigation with 216 Varieties: Single: Odorata 19 Russian 19 Welsiana 19 Governor Herrick 20 Luxonne 20 California, or Madame E. Arene 20 Princess of Wales, or Princess de Galles 20 La France 21 Dorsett 21 Double: Neapolitan 21 Lady Hume Campbell 24 Marie Louise . 24 Farquhar and Imperial 24 Swanley White 25 Madam Millet 25 Ventilation 84, 1 39 Wart Disease 193 Watering I33, I34 Water Supply: Tank 96 Windmill 97 Gasoline Engine 97 Piping 98 Wilt 181 Windmills 97 HECKMAN BINDERY INC. W m. MAY 86