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By Edward Dobson, A.I.C.E. \\itti numeious riates. Second Edition. Small Crown 8vo, 48. 6d., clotli. "]\Ir. Dobson Is familiar with the difficulties wh'ch have to be overcome in this class of work, and much of his advice will be valuable to young engineers proceeding to our colonies." — Engimering. THE STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE PRACTICE OF :^lEASUi{ING AND VALUING ARTIFICKKS' WORKS. Cun- taining Directions for taking Limensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants for \'alua- tion of Labour, and for the calculation of Areas and Solidities. By Edward Dobson, Arcliitect. With Additions on Mensuration and Construction, and a Xew Chapter on Dilapidations, Repairs, and Contracts, by E. Wyndiiam Taun, M.A. Seventh Kdition, includ- ing a complete form of a Bill of Quantities. With 8 Plates and 63 Woodcuts. Crown bvo, 78. 6d., cloth. " The most complete treatise on the principles of measuring and valuing artificers' work that has yet been published." — Building News. THE ART OF BUILDING, Rudiments of. General Prin- ciples of Construction, the Character, Strength and Use of Materials, Specifications, Estimates, &c. By Edward Dobson, M.Inst.C.K. Fifteenth Edition, Revised by J. P. Allen. Small crowi;, 8vo, 2s., cloth. "A good book for practical knowledge, and about the best to be obtained."— i^HiVdm^ Neivs. MASONRY AND STONECUTTING, Rudimentary Treatise on; in which the Principles of Masonic Projection and their Applica- tion to the Construction of Curved Wing-walls, Domes, Oblique Bridges, and Roman and Gothic Vaulting, are concisely explained. Twelfth Edition. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams. Small crown 8vo, 2s. 6d., cloth. BRICKS AND TILES, Rudimentary Treatise on the Manu- facture of; containing an Outline of the Principles of Brickmaking. By E. Dobson, M.RLB.A. Itevised and corrected bv C Tomlinsox, F.R.S. With Add tions by R. MALn:r, M.LC.E. ' Tenth Ed.tion. Small crown, 8vo, 3s., cloth. " The best handbook on the subject. '\\"e can safely recommend it as a good investment." — Builder. Crosby Lockwood & Sox, 1, Stationers' Hall Court, London, E.C. FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE WORKS CONTAINIKG A SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL CASES OP FOUNDATION WORKS WITH THE USUAL MODES OF TREATMENT AND PKACTICAL BKMARKS ON' FOOTINGS, PLANKING, SAND, CONCRETE, BETON, PILE-DRIVING, CAISSONS, AND COFFERDAMS By e5''D0BS0N, M.Inst.C.E. AUTHOR OF "THE AKT OF BUILDING," " PIOXEER ESGINEEKIXG," "BRICK AND TILE MAKING," " MASONRY AND STONE-CCTTING," ETC. REVISED BY GEORGE DODD, C.E. ^intlj Crtfittoii LONDON CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 1903 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANlt . NEW YORK- PRIXTED BT WrM.IAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES. ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION, The populaiity of Mr. Dobson*s four volumes on the '•'Art of Building;" "Principles of Brick-making and. the Manufacture of Bricks and Tiles;" "On Masonry and Stone-cutting," and on "Foundations and Concrete Works," is the best test of their practical utility. There are few manuals, designed specially for the use of work- men, that have achieved greater success. In the preface to the former edition Mr. Dobson called the attention of those readers who may not have purchased the "Art of Building " to the fact of the present volume being written in continuation of the chapter in that work devoted to the subject of " Foundations," and intended to give further information on those parts of the subject which could then only be touched upon very briefly. He added, "I may also observe, that many subjects which are treated of very fully in other volumes of the Eudimentary Treatises are here for that reason left unnoticed, or are merely glanced at in a cursory manner ; as, for example, the blasting of rocks, the nature and properties of limes and cements, the construction of travelling and other cranes, and of hoisting machinery in general. "In making the remarks on concrete, and the usual practice of builders in its use, whicK^T^li.'|b^f^nd in Chapter IV., I feel that great respect is due to the elder members of the profession, with whom I am un- willing to diff'tr ; but in every observation of this kind IV ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. which may be opposed to the usual routine of practice, I have written from my own experience, and from careful observation of works executed under my own superin- tendence, or to which I have had free access, and have been careful to advance nothing hastily, or without due consideration. Unfortunately the practices of the present generation of workmen are greatly of an empirical character, and have been handed down from one generation to another with little or no thought as to how far they are judicious, or in what respects they may be improved upon. *'To assist in leading the workman to thinks and to examine the principles by which the practical details of his work should be regulated, has been my principal aim in writing the volumes now brought to completion ; and it will be a source of gratification to me hereafter, when engaged in devising new constructive arrangements to meet the engineering difficulties of colonial practice, to think that the last moments spent by me in England have been devoted, however unsuccessfully, to the advancement of the skill and knowledge of the workmen of the mother country." This new edition has been carefully revised, and some of the principles and methods of practice illustrated by additional examples, by Mr. Geobge Dodd, O.K. CONTENTS. PAGE. CHAPTER I. Synopsis of the Pkincipal Oases of Foundation Woeks . 1 CHAPTER n. Footings 28 CHAPTER in. Planking . . . 33 CHAPTER IV. Sand, Concrete, and Beton . . ... 35 CHAPTER V. PlLE-DRlTING 65 CHAPTER VI. Caissons , , . 90 CHAPTER VII. Cofferdams 100 LIST OF WORKS EEFEERED TO OR QUOTED Annales des Fonts et Chaussees. Bridges — Weale. BuiTiell, Eudimentary Treatise ou Limes, Cements, and Mortars. Ci^al Engineer and Architect's Journal. De Cessart, Description des Travaux Hydrauliques. Langier de Tassy, Work on Algiers. Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Ci\'il Engineers. Papers on Engineering — Weale. Papers on subjects connected with the Duties of the Corps of Eoyal Engineers. Poirel, Memoire sur les Travaux a la Mer, comprenant I'liistorique des ou\T:ages executes au Port d' Alger. Eailways of Belgium, Rennie, Sir John, Account of the Breakwater in Plymouth Sound. Rudimentary Treatise on the Art of Building. Smeaton, Narrative of the Building and a Description of the Con- struction of the Eddystone Lighthouse. Stevenson, Alan, Account of the Skenyvore Lighthouse. Stevenson, Eobert, Account of the Bell Eock Lighthouse. Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Treussart, Memoire sur les Mortiers. Ure, Dictionary of Arts, Manufactui-es, and Mines. RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON FOUNDATIONS CHAPTER I. SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL CASES OF FOUNDATIO^^ ,t WORKS, WITH THE USUAL MODES OF TREATMENT. It may be necessary to premise, that by the term " Found atioii " we bere mean all tbat portion of any structure wbicb serves only as a basis on wbicb to erect the superstructure, and not merely the work wbicb may be requisite for tbe purpose of forming an arti- ficial bearing stratum, in wbicb restricted sense tbe word is often used. Tbus we speak of " natm-al " and " artificial " foundations — meaning, in tbe one case, a solid natural stratum on wbicb we may safely build ; and, in tbe otber case, an artificial bearing stratum of timber, concrete, faggots, &c., placed upon ground wbicb of itself would be too soft to bear tbe pressure of a building, witbout some contrivance of tbis kind to distribute tbe weigbt over a large surface. Tbe reader will therefore be good enough to con- sider that, in the following pages, the term is used in its most extended sense. The object to be attained in the construction of ^.t.ft PiriTtr.^- 2 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE any foundation is, to form such a solid base for the superstructure that no movement shall take place after its erection. We must bear in mind that all structures built of coursed-masonry (whether brick or stone) will settle to a certain extent ; and that, with a few exceptions, all soils will become com- pressed, more or less, under the weight of a build- ing, however trifling its character. Our aim, there- fore, wiU be not so much to attempt to prevent settle- ment, as to ensure that it shall be uniform^ so that the superptructure may remain without crack or flaw, however irregularly disposed over the area of its site. The principles to be kept in view in the treatment of all cases where the natural soil is at all of a doubtful character, may be thus briefly stated : — 1st. To distribute the weight of the structure over a large area of bearing surface. 2nd. To prevent the lateral escape of the support- ing material. Foundations may be divided into two great classes : — Class I. — Foundations constructed in situations where the natural soil is sufficiently firm to bear the weight of the intended structure. Class II. — Foundations in situations where an artificial bearing stratum must be formed, in conse- quence of the softness or looseness of the soil. Each of these great classes may be subdivided as under, viz. : — Division A. — Foundations in situations where water ofiers no impediment to the execution of the works. Division B. — Foimdations under water. The methods used for constructing foundations under water may also be divided under three heads, viz. ; — ON FOUNDATIONS. O 1st. Skeleton foundations formed of piles. 2nd. Solid foundations executed tmde?" water. 3rd. Solid foundations laid in the dry by means of caissons or cofferdams, from whicli the water is tem- porarily excluded. The above classification may be thus briefly summed up : — Object Uniformity of settlement. p . . 1 fTo extend the bearing surface. I'rmcipies . . ^rj.^ ^^^^.^ ^^^ supporting material. Foundations divided into two classes : — Class I. — Natural Foundations. Division A. — Foundations in dry ground. Division B. — Foundations under water. Subdivided into 1. Skeleton Foundations. 2. Solid Foundations formed under water. 3. Solid foundations formed inside caissons or coffcrdums. Class II. — Artificial Foundations. Division A. — Ordinary Foundations. Division B. — Foundations under water. This classification, as will be seen, has reference simply to the circumstances of the several cases occurring in practice, irrespective of the constructive arrangement applied to their treatment. Thus we have considered whether the ground be hard or soft, wet or dry ; and, if wet, whether the work be executed under water, or whether the water be tem- porarily excluded. The adoption of this arrangement in the following synopsis enables us to consider the general principles of the treatment of foundations, which are constant and permanent, apart from the practical details of the subject, which are ever varjang with the progress of mechanical science and ^vith local circumstances ; RUDIMENTARY TREATISE the examination of the constructive arrangements in common use at the present day for the subsequent chapters of the work. We now proceed to enumerate the principal cases occurring in practice, and the modes of treatment usually adopted : — • CLASS T. FOUNDATIONS FOilMED IN SITUATIONS WHEi:,E THE NATURAL SOIL IS SUFFICIENTLY FIRM TO BEAR THE WEIGHT OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE. DIVISION .\.— FOUNDATIONS IN SITUATIONS WHERE WATER OFFERS NO IMPEDIMENT TO THE EXECUTION OF THE WORKS. Case 1. — Bearing stratum not liable to be affected by exposure to air or water ; such as solid rock, in- durated gravely fc. In founding upon a natural bottom of this kind, the oiil}" precaution necessary is to level the founda- tion-pits SO that the masonry may start from a horizontal bed. Should any vacuities or irregulari- ties occur in the firm ground, it will be found better to fill them up with concrete, which, once set, is nearly incompressible under anything short of a crushing force, rather than to bring up masonry for that purpose, seeing that as the compression of the mortar joints is certain to cause some irregular settle- ment. If it is unavoidably necessary that some parts of the foundation shall start from a lower level than others, care must be taken to keep the mortar- joints as close as possible, or to execute the lower portions of the work in cement, or some hard-setting mortar : otherwise it will be very difficult to keep the courses level in the superstructure, the work settling most at those points where the greatest number of mortar-joints occur. Strong gravel may be considei-ed as one of the best soils to build upon, as it is almost incoinpressi- ON FOUNDATIONS. ble,* is not affected by exposure to tiie atmosphere, and is easily levelled. Sand is also almost incompressible, and forms an excellent foundation so long as it can be kept from escaping ; but as it has no cohesion, and acts like a fluid when exposed to running water, it must be looked upon with suspicion, and treated with caution. A bottom of solid rock, although at first sight appearing to offer many advantages to the builder, is not in practice found to be a desideratum. The labour of forming a level bed is generally consider- able, f and, unless the strata be nearly level, it com- * The superiority of gravel over clay as a bearing stratum is well shown in the following remarks made by Mr. Bidder, at the Institution of Civil Engineers, June 23, 1846: — "In the case of the bridge over the Grand Junction Canal, on the line of the Northampton and Peterborough Railway, the rails were laid upon girders, resting upon bedplates, with piles under each end. . . . Part of these piles were driven into dry gravel, and a few into the Oxford clay. It was found that when the engines and carriages passed over the former, no visible effect was produced ; but with the latter there was a very evident sinking, and an especial pro- vision against such an effect became necessary. The result of Mr. Bidder's present experience induced him to believe that, in clay, or wet soils, it was not advisable to trust a greater weight than 12 tons upon each pile; but, in gravel, there was scarcely any limit to their vertical bearing strength." — Vide "Minutes of Proceedings," 1846. t The histories of the three most celebrated of modern light- houses, viz., the Eddystone,! the Bell Eock,2 and the Skerryvore^ (1) "Narrative of the Building, and a Description of the Con- struction of the Eddystone Lighthouse with Stone, by John Smeaton, C.E., F.R.S." London, 1791. (2) "Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, by Robert Stevenson, Engineer to the Northern Lighthouse Board," &c. Edinburgh, 1824. — Found also in his Rudimentary Work on liighthouses in the Weals Series, Nos. 47, 48, and 49. (3) "Account of the Skerryvore Lighthouse, with Notes on the Illumination of Lighthouses, by Alan Stevenson, Engineer to the Northern Lighthouse Board." 1848. After the success which has attended the efforts of the French engineers employed on the harbour works of Algiers, in forming beton foundations on the most rugged rocks, and exposed to heavy seas, it may be fairly questioned whether, in cases similar to that of the Skerryvore, a foundation of beton, dovetailed as it were into the natural cavities of the rock, would not prove as efficient against the force of the waves as one formed by cutting away the rock to form a sunk bed, as done at the Bell Rock and the Skerryvore. 6 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE monly happens, in tte area of a large building, that some portions will rest upon the rock, and others aflford instructive examples of the trouble and expense attendant on preparing a level bed in hard rock. In the construction of the Eddystone, the rock on which it stands was cut by Smeaton into steps, and each course of masonry was dovetailed into the upright face of these steps. At the Bell Rock and the Skerryvore, the base of the intended structure was brought to a uniform level and sunk below the adjacent surface of the rock. The labour attend- ant on this operation at the Skerryvore will be understood by a short extract from Mr. Alan Stevenson's account of the work : — " After a careful survey of the rock, and having fully weighed all the risks of injuring the foundation, I determined at once to enter upon a horizontal cut, so as to lay bare a level floor of extent sufficient to contain the foundation-pit for the tower. The very rugged and uneven form of the rock made this an almost neces- sary precaution, in order to prevent any misconception as to its real state, for it was traversed by numerous veins and bands inclined at various angles, on the position and extent of which the stability of the foundation in no small degree depended. That operation occupied 30 men for 102 days, and required the firing of no fewer than 246 shots, chiefly horizontal, while the quantity of material removed did not greatly exceed 2,000 tons When the floor had been roughly levelled, I again carefully surveyed the rocks with a view of fixing precisely the site of the foundation -pit, and of taking advantage of its form and structure to adopt the largest diameter for the tower of which the rock would admit After much deliberation and repeated examinations of all the veins and fissures, I was enabled to mark out a foundation-pit of 42 ft. in diameter, on one level throughout. . . . . The outline of the circular foundation -pit, 42 ft. in diameter, having been traced with a trainer on the rock, numerous jumper-holes were bored in various places, having their bottoms all terminating in one level plane, so as to serve as guides for the depth to which the basin was to be excavated. The depth did not exceed 15 inches below the average level already laid bare by the cutting of the rough horizontal floor which has just been described ; and before the close of the season of 1839, about one-third of the area of the circle had been cleared, and was ready for the final pick dressing, which prepared it for the reception of the first course Another considerable source of labour was tho dressing of the vertical edges of the basin, as that implied cutting a square check, 15 inches deep, and about 130 feet long, in the hardest gneiss rock, and the labour attending which can only be fully estimated by a practical stonecutter who has wrought in sucli a material. The plan employed was to bore all round tho peri- phery of the circle, V" inch vertical jumper-holes, 6 inches apart, to the required depth, and to cut out the stone between them. The surface thus left was afterwards carefully dressed, so as to admit vertical and horizontal moulds, representing truly the form ON FOUNDATIONS. 7 upon some adjacent stratum, as clay or gravel ; and the irregularity of settlement thus caused is most troublesome to deal with.* Beds of rock, with partings of clay between them, are not to be trusted to, especially if lying in an inclined position, as they are liable to slip, and thus to cause serious derangement of the superstructure. Much, however, must depend upon the situation of of the masonry which the check was intended to receive. The experience of the lahour attending that operation gave me great reason for congratulation on having adopted a foundation on one level throughout, instead of cutting the rock into several terraces, at each of which the same labour of cutting angular checks must necessarily have been encountered. The cutting of the foundation occupied 20 men for 217 days in all The rock, indeed, was in many places so hard as often to make it seem hopeless that tools could make any impression on it. The time employed in the excavation, and the number of tools expended on it, were very great, as a pick seldom stood more than three strokes in the harder quartzose veins ; but our perseverance was at length amply rewarded, by obtaining a foundation so level, and so fairly wrought throughout the whole area of a circle 42 feet in diameter, as to present to the view the appearance of a gigantic basin of variegated marble." * An excellent illustration of the danger of building on a partially compressible stratum is given by Mr. Hughes in his Papers on the Foundations of Bridges, from which we extract the following details (vide " Bridges," vol. i. part 4, Weale, London) : — " The piers of a large aqueduct, eleven in number, with two abutments, had all been founded on gravel, a few feet below the surface, and stood remarkably well, the masonry appearing without a flaw when they were carried up to their full height of about 50 feet. One of the piers at the south end, however, was founded one part on the gravel and the other on very hard Whinstone rock, the surface of which was merely levelled, and the building at once commenced. When carried up to about 30 feet, a formidable fissure was observed from top to bottom of this pier, and the only possible source to which the mischief could be traced was the step of founding the pier partly on the rock and partly on the gravel. Had the whole pier been on the rock, it would, of course, have stood without any settlement ; had the whole been on the gravel, it would, perhaps, have settled to a trifling extent, but would, no doubt, have stood as well as all the other piers, which were founded entirely on the gravel ; placed, however, partly on the rock, which was perfectly solid, and partly on the gravel, which slightly yielded beneath the great pressure upon it, the consequence followed as described above.' 8 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE the work. Thus iii building a bridge, on inclined strata of this nature, over a ravine, as shown in Fig. 1, the foundations on the one side would be per- Fig. 1. fectly secure, whilst those on the opposite side would be always liable to disturbance, from the pressure oi the inclined strata. Case 2. — Bearim stratum affected by exposure to air or to water. Soils of this character must be carefully protected from exposure, either by laying the foundations so deep as to be bej^ond the reach of summer heats and winter frosts, or by covering the bottom of the foundation-pit with a stratum of concrete. For want of these precautions, many buildings with shallow foundations on cla}^ soils become rent and seriously injured by the contraction and expansion of the ground on which they rest. Some soils, which are naturally so nard as to re- quire blasting for their removal,* rapidly disintegrate * Disintegration from Chemical Action. — Vide " Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers," March 26, 1844. — " Mr. Taylor believed that the mechanical action of water produced many of the effects which had been mentioned, but tho ON FOUNDATIONS. 9 on exposure to the atmospliere, undergoing a chemical action which completely destroj^s their cohesion. It therefore requires considerable caution when laying foundations upon ground which is at all exposed, as, for instance, in throwing an arch over a railway cutting, to guard against this source of danger. Many of the beds in the lias formation, which when first opened have the appearance of hard rock, will run into sludge after being exposed for a short time to the atmosphere. We remember chemical action upon claj's, and even upon solid rocks, must not be overlooked. He would instance, particularly, the well-known action of the air upon shale, which, although so tough and hard under ground as to require the agency of gunpowder for its excavation, became, after a few weeks' exposure to the air, thoroughly decomposed. " Decomposed granite, called by miners * pot grawen,' was extremely troublesome in mines ; it consisted principally of feld- spar and potash, and was the china clay so much used in potteries. This substance would appear to have been formed by the decomposing action of the air, or of chemically formed oxygen. '' Pyrites, which appear to have abounded in the strata of the New Cross cutting, not only had a natural tendency to decompo- sition when exposed to the action of the air, but also affected everything with which it was in contact. " It had become fashionable to account for all changes by attributing them to the agency of electricity, and since the interesting researches of Mr. Fox, of Falmouth, there was much reason for believing that electricity was capable of producing these wonderful changes. It was easy to understand that as soon as chemical action began, electricity might be generated ; its flow would be conducted through the fissures and veins of mineral substances ; decomposition of the existing material proceeded, and other forms were assumed ; this action could not be continued without a corresponding alteration of the bulk of the mass, and when it reposed on an inclined bed, of which the surface was covered with a semi-fluid film, such as the London clay was described to be reduced to by the solvent effects of water, the slightest expansion or contraction would suffice to set the whole superstratum in motion, and to produce the slips. " Primary rocks were subject to the same eff'ects, and in sinking through porphyritic rocks, fissures were frequently found filled with foreign matter, which swelled and forced in the sides of the shafts, when such an event was least expected ; such occurrences could not be guarded against, as the direction of these fissure; was usually parallel with that of the shaft." B 10 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE a striking instance of this kind, in -syLicli a railway contractor made use of a hard stratum of shale as ballasting, for which at first sight it appeared well adapted ; but in course of a short time it was nothing but a mass of mud, and was scraped ofi" to make way for ballast of a more durable character. As a general rule, when dealing with ground of this expansible and treacherous character, the less it can be exposed to the air, and the sooner covered up again, the better for the work. Precautions of this nature are indispensable in cases where work has to be built against an upright face of expansible material, as in the execution of tunnels, sewers, retaining walls, abutments of bridges, and similar constructions, which are liable to be forced out of the upright by the lateral pressure of the soil, and much practical instruction may be de- rived from the study of works of this nature.* Case 3. — Bearing stratum underlying soft ground of considerable depth. In cases of this kind, where the expense of bring- ing up a solid foundation from the hard ground is too great to allow this to be done, a nimiber of sujd- ports must be brought up through the soft ground, * Expansion of clay when exposed to the air. — Vide " Minutes of Proceedings," as above. Mr. Hawkshaw said, "In the tunnel on the Manchester and Bolton Railway the timbers were frequently broken by the expan- sion of the clay, although it appeared quite dry." ^Ir. Foster said, " In the Primrose Hill and the Kilsby tunnels, if the cutting was left for a few days without completing the brick arching, the timbers were broken. The expansion appeared to be nearly the same, whether it was caused by the air, as in the former case, or by the water, as in the latter instance." Mr. Thomson remarked, " That in the Box Tunnel it was usual to allow 6 inches for expansion between the face of the work and the timbers, and that space was scarcely sufficient." Mr. J. Simpson " had seen, at Richmond, a well of 4 feel diameter completely closed in one night by the swelling- up of thj bottom, although there was not any water in it." ON FOUNDATIONS. 11 on wliicli to form a platform to carry the superstruc- ture. This may be done in a variety of ways, of which the following are those principally em- 1st. By excavating holes to the depth of the soft ground, and refilling them with sand, gravel, con- crete, or some equally incompressible material. This system is scarcely known in this country, but has been much used on the Continent, the method usually followed being to drive down a timber-pile to the required depth, and then to withdraw it, and fill the whole with sand. Full details of the method of usino- sand in foundation works will be found m the " Annales des Ponts et Chaussees'' for the year 1835, and also in the fourth volume of the '' Papers on Subjects connected with the Duties of the Corps of Poyal Engineers," London, Weale, 1840. 2nd. By drivi?!^ piles of wood or iron through the soft ground until they rest on the solid stratum. 3rd. By screwing piles into the soft groimd until they reach the firm ground. 4th. By hollow cylinders of cast iron, lowered until they rest upon the bearing stratum, the soft material being removed from the interior of the cylinder to enable it to descend. Under this head may be included all hoUow piHng, whether driven by impact, lowered by gravity, or forced down by atmospheric pressure, as in Dr. Potfs process. (jase 4:.— Crust of good ground resting on a treacherous substratum. In the treatment of all cases of this kind it may be laid do^vn as a general rule, that it is best to let well alone, and to abstain from all disturbance of the ground by ramming, driving piles, or similar ex- pedients, simply taking precautionary measures to avoid anv wounding of the good ground, or escape of the substratum. It need scarcely be said, that it 12 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE is important to reduce the weight of the structure aa much as possible, and to distribute it over a large area of bearing surface. "When the substratum is simply compressible, it may sometimes be brought to its extreme settlement by weighting the foundations before commencing the superstructure, which may afterwards be carried up without fear of subsequent movement. If the substratum be soft soapy clay, care should be taken to avoid exposing it by cutting deep ditches or drains in the neighbourhood of the work, as this might cause extensive slips. If the substratum be of sand, there will probably be little or no settlement so long as it remains im- disturbed ; but if exposed to the action of water no dependence can be placed upon such ground, as it will be always liable to be imdermined. Thus a chimney might stand perfectly secure for many years upon a substratum of dry sand, and be under- mined and destroyed in a few daj^s by sinking a well near it, or even by laying in a drain at some considerable distance from its site. Thus, in the neighbourhood of salt works, the ground gradually sinks, from the pumping of the brine springs ; this may be seen at Northwich, in Cheshire, to a very striking extent. We may here remark, that the numerous instances of failure which have at different times occurred from the escape of sand and loose ground from below buildings, which would other- wise have been perfectly secure, shows the great attention and care required in executing drainage- works in the neighbourhood of existing buildings. Lastly, if the substratum be of a peaty nature, it will generally be seriously affected by drainage, and it will therefore be desirable to drain the site as perfectly as possible before commencing operations. Many buildings about Moorfields, London, have undergone serious settlements during the last few years, in consequence of the morass from which the ON FOUNDATIONS. 13 district takes its name having become thoroughly drained by the construction of new sewers. ^ At the London Institution in Finsbury Circus, the outer walls were built on the substratum of gravel imder- Ijing the peat, whilst the inner walls rested on the peat'' itself, which, being prevented from spreading by the outer walls, formed a good bottom so long as it remained wet ; but on the formation of the new sewerage they began to sink, and it was foimd necessary to underpin them with concrete, an opera- tion which was skilfully and successfully performed. This instance of failure affords an instructive lesson as to the insufficiency of sheet-piling round a building to prevent settlement, when the substratum is full of water ; although a most valuable precaution in many cases. CLASS I. DIVISION B. FOUNDATIONS UNDER WATER. We have just been describing the leading cases occurring in building upon a natural bottom; we now come to the reconsideration of these cases, with the superadded difficulty of their occurring under water. In some cases it may be sufficient to bring up a number of isolated supports, which is almost always practicable, except in the case of a rock bottom. In the majority of instances, however, nothing less than a solid foundation will meet the requirements of the structure. If the gromid be not exposed to scour, and does not underlie a soft stratum, we can safely lay our work simply 07i the ground, and this may be done under water by a variety of means. If, on the other hand, there is a liability to scour, or the firm ground is covered by soil which must be removed before commencing the vrork, it becomes necessary temporarily to exclude the water from the site of the foundation by means of caissons or cofferdams. In considering, therefore, 14 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE the several methods adopted for executing hydraulic foundations, it will be convenient to class tlieni under tliree heads, viz. : — 1. Pile foundations. 2. Foundations constructed under water. 3. Foundations from tlie site of which the water is temporarily excluded during the execution of the work. SubcHvision 1. — Pile Foundations. Method 1. — Timber Filing. — Timber piles are ob- jectionable when partly out of water, as they are liable to decay at the water-line. In tidal waters,* also, timber is soon attacked by the worm, and becomes raj^idly destroyed by its ravages. No cer- tain preventive is as yet known for this evil ; but saturation with oil of tar, by Mr. Bethell's process, is at present considered to be effectual, and has stood a trial of some years at Lowestoffe Harbour, without a single instance of failure. The use of timber piling is A'ery general, and numerous examples will occur to the mind of the reader. Method 2. — Cast-iron Piling. — Cast-iron piles may either be solid, their section being -f, or hollow, either square or round. When hollow, the ground is usually removed by boring from the interior of the pile, to facilitate its descent, and by this means cast-iron piles can be driven into gravel or chalk with great facility. Cylindrical piles, driven into chalk, were used by Mr. Tierney Clarke in the con- struction of the Town Pier at Gravesend.f Square piles, driven into sand, were adopted by Mr. Simpson at the new pier of Southend, where they support an upper tier of wooden piles. + Solid piles of cast-iron ♦ The action of the worm does not appear to be always confined to salt water. t " Transactionr of the Institution of Civil Engineers/' vol. iii. part 3. X " Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil En- gineers," 1860. ON FOUNDATIONS. 15 Lave been used in many places, amongst others m the foundation of a swing bridge over the river Wensum, at Norwich, on the line of the Norfolk Railway, by Mr. Bidder.* Cast-iron piling will not last fo/any considerable length of time in salt water, as it becomes gradually softened, so that it can be cut with a knife. This renders the employment of cast-iron iDiling in sea- works rather precarious. Method Z.—Sci^em Piling.— Thi^ method of fixing piles has of late come considerably into use, and has been applied to the construction of lighthouses in situations where all other methods would have failed. Screw-piles are exceedingly well adapted for obtain- ing a foot-hold in situations where an ordinary pile would fail, as, for instance, on a sandbank. A full account of Mr. Mitchell's invention, and of some of the most important works to which it has been applied, will be found in the " Minutes of Proceed- ings of the Institution of Civil Engineers" for 1848. Method 4:.— Hollow Cast-iron Oj Under s.— These may be considered as large hollow piles.^ They may be made to descend simply by gravity, the ground in the interior being excavated so as to allow them to descend by their own weight, or they may be forced down by atmospheric pres- sure, as in Dr. Pott's process. f Lastly, they may * " Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil En- gineers," 1846. t An excellent notice of Dr. Pott's "Patent Pneumatic Appa- ratus for Sinking foundations by means of Atmospheric Pressure in Deep Water, Movable Sands, Mud, Shingle, or Bog," is given in the Supplement to the Work on Bridges, in 4 parts, published by Mr. Weale, from which we give the following extract :— " This invention, which is the subject of a patent, is for improve- ments in the construction of foundations (under any of the circum- stances mentioned above) for piers, embankments, breakwaters,^ or other similar constructions. It is equally applicable for the sinking of wells in analogous positions. » , • e " It consists in the use of hollow tubes, usually of cast iron, ot any size, and almost of any shape, which are sunk into their placea by means of the atmospheric pressure. The lower extremity of the tube is open, and being placed upon the ground, of whatever nature 16 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE it may be, the air, water, or semi-fluid material in the inside i& extracted by pumps, or by any of the well-known means of pro- ducing a vacuum. It is usual to create this vacuum — or rather, more correctly speaking, to rarefy the air in the interior of the tubes — by placing them in communication with large vessels from which the air is previously withdrawn by means of a pipe and a Btop-cock. As soon as the communication is effected, the air in the interior of the tubes rushes into the empty vessels, leaving the atmospheric pressure upon the pile-head without any counter- acting resistance. If the strata to be traversed be of a yielding semifluid nature, they are also acted upon by the same cause, and flow up into the tube, or hollow pile, which at the same time descends with corresponding rapidity. The materials thus intro- duced are removed, or, if the strata be more resisting, they are thrown out, so as to attain the greatest possible rarefaction of the air, and the operation is repeated until the piles are fully driven. A succession of tubes may be placed upon the first by means of flanges, or other joints, so that they may be driven of any length required. " The shapes of the tubes usually employed are either cylindrical, angular, or conical ; they may be made to fit into one another so us to form a continuous close piling ; or they may be made with grooves to receive plates, such as have been employed upon the river- walls of the Thames. *' Upon the first introduction of this invention, it was applied more as a means of driving hollow piles of the usual dimensions of wooden ones. Subsequent experience has led to a considerable modification in its use. The fact that the atmospheric pressure is in the proportion of the surface exposed to its action has induced the patentees to increase the diameter of the piles gradually, until at length they have ceased to act in a manner such as we are accustomed to consider the latter to act." Dr. Pott's process seems well adapted for sinking piles or cais- sons through a soft stratum to a hard one, and is being adopted in several large w-orks at present imcompleted. It does not come within the province of this volume to pass any opinion upon the merits of an invention which as yet is quite in its infancy, but we would advert to a few points which appear important. If the stratum to be passed through be tolerably firm, it will, in ordinary cases, be better to bore, and to sink the cylinders by dead weight. If the substratum be of clay, or other compressible material, it will be necessary, after sinking the caissons to the intended depth, to weight them with a load at least equal to that which they are intended to support, as the greatest pressure that can be brought upon the top of the caissons by the exhaustion of the air docs not exceed one ton per superficial foot, which is far less than the weight often thrown upon pile foundations. It is also questionable how far the cutting edge of the bottom of the caisson may facilitate its settlement when loaded with the weight of the superstructure, and whether the system may not from this cause be found inferior to that of cylinders with bottom flanches snrucd into the ground under Mr. Mitchell's patent. It may be not uninteresting to our ON FOUNDATIONS 17 be screrved* into the ground in tlie same way as a readers to give a brief notice of a system successfully employed in France for sinking through a quicksand, which is precisely the opposite to that of Dr. Pott's. — Vide Dr. Ure'a " Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines," Supplement, art. " Ventilation." " These striking results, obtained on one individual at a time, with a small experimental apparatus, have been recently repro- duced, on a working scale, with many persons at once enclosed in a mining shaft, encased with strong tubbing formed of a series of large sheet-iron cylinders riveted together', and sunk to a gi-eat depth through the bed of the river Loire, near Languin. The seams of coal in this district of France lie under a stratum of quicksand, from 18 to 20 metres thick (20 to 22 yards), and they hud been found to be inaccessible by all the ordinary modes of mining previously practised. The obstacle had been regarded to be so perfectly insurmountable, that every portion of the great coal basin that extends under these alluvial deposits, though well known for centuries, had remained untouched. To endeavour by the usual workings to penetrate through these semifluid quick- sands, which communicate with the waters of the Loire, was in fact nothing less than to try to sink a shaft in that river, or to drain the river itself. But this difficulty has been successfully grappled with through the resources of science boldly applied by Mr. Triger, an able civil engineer. " By means of the above frame of iron tubbing, furnished with an air-tight ante-chamber at its top, he has contrived to keep his workmen immersed in air sufficiently condensed, by forcing pumps, to repel the water from the bottom of the iron cylinders, and thereby to enable them to excavate the gravel and stones to a great depth. The compartment at top has a man-hole door in its cover, and an- other in its floor. The men, after being introduced into it, shut the door over their heads, and then turn the stop-cock upon a pipe in connection with the condensed aii' in the under shaft. An equi- librium of pressure is soon established in the ante-chamber, by the influx of the dense air from below, whereby the man-hole door in the floor may be readily opened to allow the men to descend. Here they work in air maintained at a pressure of three atmospheres, by the incessant action of leathern-valved pumps driven by a steam- engine. Whilst the dense air thus drives the waters of the quick- sand communicating with the Loire out of the shaft, it infuses, at the same time, such energy into the miners that they can easily excavate double the work without fatigue, which they could do in the open air." * This method of using cylinders appears likely to be very successful. As yet, we believe, the only published notice of the system is a short note to the account of Mr. Mitchell's system of screw-piling, in the " Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers," 1848, just referred to, and from which we extract the following particulars : — *' Mr. Brunei has recently caused a very interesting and con- clusive experiment to be tried, near the proposed site of the bridge 18 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE screw-pile. AYlien the cylinders are of large di- mensions, they are usually filled up with concrete or brickwork, and may be considered as caissons rather than piles.* Subdivision 2. — Solid Foundations laid undei^ Water. Method 1. — Pierre pet^due, or Random work. — This method consists in throwing masses of stone into the water, and leaving them to arrange themselves. This is not a system of construction that can be adopted in rivers, where it is of consequence to avoid for carrying the South Wales Eailway across the river Wye, at Chepstow. "A cast-iron cylinder, 3 feet diameter externally, 1|- inch in thickness, cast in lengths 10 feet each, with internal socket and joggle joint, secured with pins and run with lead, was armed at the extreme hottom with a sharp wrought-iron hoop, and a little above it was a helical flanch projecting 12 inches all round from the body of the cylinder, around which it made an entire revolution with a pitch of 7 inches. By means of capstan bars, worked by manual labour, and by strong winches, this cylinder was screwed into the ground, near the bank of the river, but out of the influence of the tide, to a depth of 58 feet, in 48 hours and 14 minutes, through stiff clay and sand, down to the marl rock. In descending to that depth, the cylinder made 142 revolutions, and the average rate of sinking per revolution very nearly accorded with the pitch of the screw. The time quoted is only that which was actually consumed in forcing the cylinder down, as it was allowed to rest for long periods, whilst the interior core of clay was repeatedly cleared out, and on account of the breakages of the ropes and the capstan-bars, and other casualties incidental to all first experiments. In spite of the great surface exposed to lateral friction, the cylinder was always started again with comparative ease, and its progress down- wards was very uniform. * Captain Heathawn, R.A., has recently proposed a mode of laying concrete foundations in deep water, on a bottom covered with mud or shingle. An annular caisson is gradually built up of suc- cessive tiers or stories. The lowest tier is closed at the bottom, which is slightly conical ; it is floated out and moored in the proper spot. Concrete is poui-ed in ; the ring or annulus sinks a little by the additional weight, and aflbrds facilities for fixing another ring on the top of it. This is filled with concrete in turn ; and so on, until the caisson of built-up rings is sunk to the bottom. The iron and the concrete together sink through the soft mud and sand to the hard rock beneath. Minor adjustments are made, according as the bottom is level, shelving, or sloping. ON FOUNDATIONS. 19 contractiug the waterway, but is made use of in sea- works, for tlie construction of breakwaters, jetties, and like constructions. It is, however, not to be depended on in situations exposed to the run of the sea, as a base for any permanent erections, as wharf walls, lighthouses, &c., the more exposed parts ^ of the work being liable to dilapidation, and requirmg continual renewal. The two most celebrated m- Btances of this system of construction are the Cherbourg* and Plymouth f breakwaters, the re- spective histories of\vhich are full of interest and instruction. Method 2.— Random blocks of bet on. —The insecu- rity attending works erected on a foundation of pierre perdue led the French engineers engaged on the harbour works at Algiers to substitute for the ordinary-sized blocks of stone previously used, large masses of beton, of such size as to be immovable by the waves. The force of a blow given by a wave depending on the surface exposed to its violence, whilst the resistance offered by the mass increases as its weight, there will always be a limit to the movnig force of the waves. ^ ^ Except in some few special cases, it is practically impossible to employ stones sufficiently large to fulhl this condition ; but there are few situations where it is not possible to manufacture artificial blocks of beton, of from 10 to 20 tons weight, which may with great ease be floated to the spot where they are to'be immerged. The new mole at Algiers is a successful example of this mode of construction on a large scale. The reader may consult, with great advantage, in reference to this subject, M. Poirel's account of the new works at Algiers,:!: * " Description des Travaux Hydrauliques de Louis Alexandre de Cessart, Doyen des Inspecteurs Generanx des Fonts et Chaus- Bees." Paris, 1808. , ^ j v c- t " Account of the Breakwater in Plymouth Sound, by bir John Rennie." London, Weale, 1848. ^ ,,, • i. • X " Memoire sur les Travaux a la Mer, comprenant 1 histoiique 20 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE which is, in fact, a complete treatise on the subject of submarine foundations. Method 3. — Beton laid m caissons lined with tar- paulin. — This method of using beton has been recently brought into notice by its adoption in por- tions of the works at Algiers, and is exceedingly well adapted to forming foundations on a rugged rock bottom in shallow water, where it is desirable that the work should be brought up with a face vertical, or nearly so, to avoid contracting the water- way, or to allow vessels to come alongside a wharf. The caisson employed is a large box, without bottom or top, the sides of which are roughly cut to suit the irregularities of the rock on which it is placed. It is lined with tarpaulin, which is allowed to adapt itself freely to the bottom, and prevents all danger of the newly-laid beton being injured by the action of bottom springs, or by the run of water through the cavities left between the rock and the sides of the caisson. The b^ton is lowered to the bottom of the caisson in a box with a movable bottom, by which contrivance it is deposited in a solid mass, without any risk of the lime being washed out, which is always more or less the case when concrete or beton is dropped through water without any protection of this kind. When the mass thus formed by successive deposits reaches the surface of the w^ater, it is left for some days to become hard; and when this has taken place, the sides of the caisson are removed, and the cloth lining cut away, to be used again in the formation of the next length. This method of constructing foundations appears especially adapted to the case of an uneven rock bottom, in situations where the construction of a des ouvrages executes au Port d' Alger, et I'expose complet et detaille d'un systeme de fondation a la mer au moyen de blocs de beton. Par M. Poirel, Ingenieur-en-chef des Ponts et Chaussees." Paris, 1841. ON FOUNDATIONS. 21 water-tight cofferdam, and the levelling of the rock to receive regular masonry, would be attended with heavy difficulty and expense. Method 4. — Solid masonry laid on the natural bot- tom^ with the aid of the diving-hell. — This is an ex- tensively used method of forming submarine founda- tions, and is very successful where there is no danger of scour, and where the bottom can be readily brought to a level surface. By means of travelling-cranes, moving on tramways erected over the site of the work, each stone can be lowered to its place, and its position verified by the diving-bell, with as much precision as on dry land. If the situation of the work does not afford stones of sufficient weight to withstand the shock of the waves, masses of beton may be used instead. Subdivision 3. — Foundations from the Site of ixhick the water is temporarily excluded. Method 1. — Solid masonry sunk in caissons, or chests of timber J of which the bottoms rest on the surface of the growid. — This system of forming foundations is now but little used, on account of the difficulties with which it is attended. If the groimd be soft or loose, the foundation is liable to be under- mined ; if it be hard, there is great difficulty in forming a IcA^el bottom, and the cross strain thrown in consequence upon the imsupported parts of the timbers leads to fractures and dangerous movements in the superstructure, as in the well-known case of Westminster Bridge. Method 2. — Masonry built in caissons grounded upon a bed of beton. — This is a method of using caissons which is quite free from the objections just named. If there be any liability to scour, the ground must be dredged out to a sufficient depth before putting in the beton. This system of con- struction is used on the Continent, but as yet is little if ever practised in this countrj/ 22 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE Method 3. — Masonry built in caissons lesting on a pile foundation. — This is a very economical system of construction, and well adapted to situations where there is a liability to scour, or where the bearing stratum is at a considerable dejDth. The piles, having been driven down until a firm bottom is reached, are cut ofl" to a uniform level as near the ground as possible, and the caisson is lowered upon them, the timbers forming the bottom of the caisson being disposed so as to rest on the pile-heads. This method of forming foundations is not extensively practised, but it has been adopted with great success by Mr. Eendel in the Lary bridge at Plymouth*. The foundations of a handsome railway bridge over the Mouse at Liegef, in Belgium, were also con- structed in this manner. Method 4. — Foundations laid in the interior of a cofferdam. — A cofierdam may be defined as a water- tight wall constructed round the site of any work, for the purpose of laying dry the bottom, by pump- ing out the water from the inclosure thus formed. Cofierdams are now used in foundation-works to a great extent ; they are usually constructed of timber piles driA^en close together in rows round the site of the work, the space between the rows being filled with puddle. The number of rows of piles, and the thickness of the puddle- wall, must depend on the situation of the work ; but in ordinary practice dams are usually made much too slight for their in- tended purpose, through the mistaken economy of contractors, to whose discretion all temporary works are usually left in this country. In the last chapter of this volume the reader will find descriptions of some of the best examples of cofierdams that have been constructed in this count r}^, to which we refer him for the practical details of the subject. * " Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers," vol. i Weale. t "Railways of Belgium." Wealo. ON FOUNDATIONS. 23 Portable cofferdams are sometimes used with ad- vantage in particular situations. Cast-iron grooved sheet-piling has been also adopted with much success for cofferdamming in shallow water. CLASS II. FOUNDATIONS OF AN ARTIFICIAL BEARING STRATUM. DIVISION A. ORDINARY FOUNDATIONS. Case 1. — Ground soft but not fluid. We may treat ground of this kind in two very different ways : — 1st. We may consolidate the soft ground by' driving piles into it until it becomes so compressed that the piles are prevented from sinking by lateral friction. 2nd. We may interpose a platform of fascines, tim- ber, or concrete, between the surface of the ground and the superstructure, thus distributing the weight of the latter over a large extent of bearing surface. These methods are often combined ; a very usual method of proceeding is to surround the site of the work with sheet-piling, to prevent the escape of the soil, which is then consolidated by driving piles into it at short distances from each other. The piles are then sawn off level, the ground between them re- moved for 2 or 3 ft. deep, the excavation filled up with concrete, and the whole is then planked over to receive the masonry of the superstructure. Some- times the planking is laid, not on the heads of the piles, but on a network of horizontal timbers. (See Fig. 2, page 24). The practice of driving piles into soft ground to consolidate it is not one to be recom- mended ; its effect being usually to pound up the soil, and to bring it into a state which can best be described by comparing it to batter-pudding. In- stead of driving piles in these cases, a much better 24 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE plan is to bore holes with a large auger to a consi- derable depth, and to fill them with sand, which, from its property of acting almost as a fluid, is a ^-r^^ Fig. 2. most valuable material for distributing pressure over a large area of surface. In the case of a timber pile, the pressure is transmitted only in the direc- tion of its length, but a sand pile transmits the pressure laid on it, not only to the bottom, but to the sides of the excavation, and does not injure the ground by vibration. In many soils, where the ground is too soft to carry the weight of the walls of a building without artificial aid, a wide trench filled with dry sand will be found a more effective precaution against settlement than the use of timber planking, concrete, or any other expedient which simply distributes the pressure in a vertical direc- tion. Case 2. — Soil of a scmiflmd naUire, as Mud, Silt, of Peat Cases of this kind occur chiefly in navigation and Library Kr o-*._^ ^^ ,, ON FOUNDATIONS. 25 drainage works, and are exceedingly difficult to treat successfully. The principle to be kept in yiew is the formation of a firm platform, on which the work shall be allowed to float, as it were, on the fluid soil, into which it will sink to a considerable depth. This must be allowed for in the construc- tion of the work, and, if possible, the foundation should be weighted to the full weight of the super- structure before the latter is commenced, so as to avoid any considerable movements after the comple- tion of the work. In this country timber platforms are usually adopted in works of this nature ; in Holland, platforms of fascines are employed, as will be presently described. The great point to be at- tended to is the equal distribution of the weight of the structure over the foundation, which will ^ then settle in a vertical direction, and cause little injury ; whereas any irregular settlement would rend the work from top to bottom. CLASS II. DIVISION B. — FOUNDATIONS UNDER WATER We now come to the consideration of the most difficult class of foundations, viz., those of hydraulic works in soft alluvial soils. If the ground be tolerably firm, we may enclose it with a dam ; but in this method of proceeding there is always great danger of the bottom being lifted* by the pressure of the water, and it is gene- * Vide " Memoir of the Canal of Exeter," " Minutes of Pro- ceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers," 1846, from which we extract the following notice of the method adopted for over- coming the difficulties arising from the lifting of the ground. " The excavation for the entrance lock at Turf proceeded very favourably through a stiff alluvial clay without water to a depth of nearly 20 feet below the surface of the marshes, when, on the occasion of a pile being driven to ascertain the depth at which a harder foundation would be obtained, water forced its way up around the pile, and the following morning the sides of the exca- C 26 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE rally necessary to weight the ground with planking and stones to prevent accidents. Sometimes it may be advisable to execute the work in small portions, completing one division before the excavation for the next is commenced. When the ground is semifluid, the formation of a cofferdam becomes impossible. The most effectual method of proceeding is to sink the work in large caissons, the bottom having been first covered with a bed of fascine woi^k, weighted with stones or brickwork, and sunk on the site of the work. These fascine beds are much used by the Dutch in their hydraulic works, and are sometimes of large dimen- sions, and several feet in thickness ; they are formed of bundles of fascines crossing each other at right vation were found to have sunk perpendicularly at least 10 feet, and the bottom of the lockpit had risen to a greater height than the sides, exhibiting on its surface peat, moss, roots of trees, and a great variety of marine plants, rushes, fern, &c., but with very little water. It was, however, now evident that there would be much water to contend with in sinking to the required depth for the foundation. In order to accomplish this, a complete close kerbing of whole timber piles was driven, enclosing a space for the invert and the side walls of the lock ; these piles were well strutted by transverse whole timbers. The excavation was then made, and the lock was founded in short lengths between the transverse struts. It was presumed that the pressure of water from the tide without the lock would have a tendency to force up and raise the invert and the gate platform ; several flues, formed of elm plank trunking, were therefore laid in the rubble masonry, which formed the bed for the invert ; these flues were carried under and throughout the lock, and terminated in a vertical well beyond the upper gates of the lock ; thus the subwater was allowed to circulate, and to rise without obstruction to a corresponding height with the tide. This had the desired effect(i), for the platforms never exliibited an}' tendency to rise, and there was no settlement in the masonrj'. " Mr. Telford, who saw this work in progress, declared he had never seen so troublesome a foundation, and he highly approved of the method adopted for preventing the upward pressure of the subwater." (1) It is not easy to understand the precise object of these pre- cautions, as the upward pressure would remain unaffected by them. ON FOUNDATIONS. 27 angles, securely bound with tarred rope, and strengtliened with poles and wicker bands. These platforms are weighted with gravel and broken stone, and sunk by means of guide-ropes in the required situation, where they are secured by long stakes and piles driven through them. A very excellent ac- count of the " Art of Building with Fascine Work,'* is given in the " Minutes of Proceedings of the In- stitution of Civil Engineers " for 1847, from the pen of Mr. G. B. Jackson, to which we would refer the reader who is desirous of studying the subject in detail. The foregoing brief sketch may be regarded as an outline of the general principles of Foundation works, the filling up of which must be supplied by the student from personal observation, and from the records of executed works. It is by studying the accounts of difficulties successfully overcome by others that the young engineer is best enabled to prepare himself for the obstacles which are sure sooner or later to beset his own career ; whilst the failures of men eminent in their profession teach him humility, and impress on his mind the necessity for patient investigation and untiring perseverance if he wish to master a subject, the difficulties of which are ever on the increase with the growing re- quirements of commercial enterprise, in spite of all the facilities afforded by the science and mechanical skill of the nineteenth century.* * During the construction of the new extension works at the London Docks a very solid concrete bottom was made by render- ing available a 12-feet layer of gravel found on the spot. Blue lias lime, obtained from Lyme Eegis, was burnt in egg-shaped kilns, holding 100 tons each, and a vast quantity of concrete was made by mixing this lime with the gravel. The concrete was used for four purposes — to spread the weight over a large surface of foun- dation ; to form dock walls, in parts not exposed to the alternate action of water and air ; to form counterforts and buttresses, in situations where weight was wanted, but on which nothing was to be built. The total cost was da. Sd. per cubic yard.— G. D. (See the Builder foi 1861.) c2 28 RUDIMENTARY TREATTSl? CHAPTER II. ON FOOTINGS. In tlie cliapter just closed we called the retider'H attention simply to general principles, without- entering upon mechanical details more than was unavoidably necessary ; in the succeeding chapters we propose to examine the practical details con- nected with the execution of foundations, so far as the scope of a rudimentary treatise will allow. To give an account of all the different sj^stems of con- struction that have from time to time been proposed, or even of all those actually in use at the present day, would lead us far beyond our limits ; we have therefore selected for illustration a few leading heads, the study of which will form a good prepara- tion for the commencement of that self- education by which alone the student can make himself master of any branch of knowledge. The subjects referred to are as follow, viz. : — Footings ; Timber Platforms ; Sand, Concrete, and Beton; Pile Driving; Caissons; and, lastly, the construction of Cofferdams. To each of these heads we propose to devote a separate chapter. In commencing the erection of a building it is usual to spread the bottom courses of the masonry considerably beyond the face of the superincumbent work. These spread courses, or, as they are more technically called, footings, answer two important purposes : — 1st. By distributing the weight of the structure over a larger area of bearing surface, the liability to vertical settlement from the compression of the ground is greatly diminished. 2ndly. In the case of isolated structures standing ON FOUNDATIONS. 29 on a comparatively small base, they form a great protection against the danger of the work being thrown out of the upright by the action of the wind- Let us take, for instance, the case of a chimney stalk 100 feet high, standing on a base 10 feet square, and exposed to heavy gales. The compres- sion of the ground to leeward to the extent of 0-025 ft. would be sufficient to cause the top of the stalk to overhang 6 inches. If, however, we in- crease the base to 20 ft. square, we not only double the leverage with which the foundation resists the force of the wind, but the bearing surface is quad- rupled, so that the total resistance is 8 times greater than in the first instance. It need scarcely be said that for footings to have any useful efiect, they must be securely bonded into the body of the work, and of sufficient strength to resist the violent cross strains to which they are exposed. The common practice of builders, whether the materials be brick or stone, is unfortunately very faulty in these respects ; and to neglect in this matter may be attributed many disastrous failures and settlements in works otherwise well executed. Let us first consider the case of stone foimda- tions. 1st. It should be remembered that the lower any stone is placed in a building the greater weight it has to support, and, therefore, the greater the risk arising from any irregidarities in the working of the beds, which should be dressed perfectly true, and. with as much or even greater care than in the upper part of the work. 2nd. No back joints should be allowed beyond the face of the upper work, except where the footings are in double courses, and every stone should bond into the body of the work several inches at least. Unless this is attended to, the 30 RUDIMENTARY TREATIisE footings will not receive the weight of the super- structure, and will be useless. (See Fig. 3.) 3rd. In proportion to the weight of the super- structure, the projection of each footing course beyond the one above it must be reduced ; or the Fig. 3. Fig. 4. In building cross strain thrown on the projecting portion of the masonry will rend it from top to bottom, as shown in Fig. 4. large masses of work, such as the abutments of bridges and the like, the proportionate increase of bear- ing surface obtained by the pro- jection of the footings is very slight, and there is generally great risk of the latter being broken oif by the settlement of the body of the work. It is therefore usual, in these cases, to give very little projection to the footing courses, and to bring up the work with a battering face, or with a succession of very slight set-offs. (See Fig. 5.) Footings of undressed rubble built in common mortar cannot bo too much reprobated, as the com- pression of the mortar is sure to cause movements in the superstructure. A much safer way of using rubble is to break it up tolerably small, and lay it in 1 Fig. 5. ON FOUNDATIONS. 31 the trenches without mortar ; as it forms a "hard un- yielding bottom so long as it is prevented from spreading laterally by the pressure of the ground. Where the building material is small rubble, the best way of proceeding is to lay the foundations with cement mortar, so that the whole will form a solid mass ; in which case the size, shape, and dress- ing of the stone is of little consequence. In building with brick, the great point to be at- tended to in the footing courses is to keep the back joints as far as possible from the face of the work, and in ordinary cases, the best plan is to lay the footings in single courses ; the outside of the work being laid all headers, and no course projecting more than \ brick beyond the one above it, except in the case of 9 in. walls. If it be wished to introduce more longitudinal bond into the work, the courses must be double, the heading course above, and the stretching course below. (See Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9.; F i«:. 6. Fig. 7. I II Fig. 8. I I I \ L. [ t I r Fiir. 9 32 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE It is scarcel}^ necessary to add, that the bricks used for footings should be the hardest and soundest that can be obtained. It is desirable that the bottom course should in all cases be a double one. Too much care cannot be bestowed upon the footing courses of any building, as upon them de- pends much of the stability of the work. If the bottom courses be not solidly bedded ; if any rents or vacuities are left in the beds of the masonry ; or, if the materials themselves be unsound or badly put together — the effects of such carelessness are sure to show themselves sooner or later, and almost always at a period when remedial efforts are useless. Before leaving the subject of footings, it may be desirable to notice an injudicious method of using inverted arches under openings, which often leads to serious evils. Inverted arches should only be used where there is a proper abutment for them on both sides. If used at the quoins of a building, as shown in Fig. 10, the effect of any settlement will be Fig. 10. ON FOUNDATIONS. 33 to throw the quoin out of the upright, as indicated in an exaggerated manner by the dotted lines. An instance of this lately came under the author's notice, in which it was necessary, in order to save the building, to cut out portions of the arches. In cases where the ground is soft, and a large extent of base is requisite, the expense attendant on spreading out the solid work to the requisite extent renders it necessary to adopt some cheaper method of proceeding. Three methods may be mentioned : — 1st. To put in a wide footing course, so to speak, of timber, which, from the nature of the material, may be safely carried to a considerable distance beyond the masonry without any fear of injury from cross strain. 2nd. To put in a laj^er of concrete, which may be considered as a footing course of arti- ficial stone, having, however, but little transverse strength, and, consequently, requiring the depth of the stratum to be carefully proportioned to its pro- jection. 3rd. To build upon a layer of sand, or similar material, which, pressing against the sides as well as against the bottom of the foundation-pit, distributes the weight of the superstructure over a large resisting surface. We shall examine each of these methods in the two succeeding chapters. CHAPTEH III. ON PLANKING. In erecting buildings on soft ground, where a large bearing surface is required, planking may be resorted to with great advantage, provided the timber can be kept from decay. If the ground be wet and the timber good, there is little to fear ; but in a drv situation, or one exposed to alternations of wet and dry, no dependence can be placed on unprepared 34 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE timber. We do not here propose to enter upon any examination of the relative merits of the different processes employed in the preservation of timber. The systems most in use are those known respect- ively as Kyanizing, Paynizing, and Creosoting. Whatever method is employed, care should be taken to effect the process strictly according to the direc- tions of the patentees, otherwise no dependence can be placed upon the results. The advantage of timber is that it will resist a great cross strain with very trifling flexure, and, therefore, a wide footing may be obtained without any excessive spreading of the bottom courses of masonry. The best method of employing planking under w^alls is to cut the stuff into short lengths, w^hich should be placed across the foundation, and tied longitudinally by longitudinal planking laid to the width of the bottom course of masonry, and firmly spiked to the bottom planking. (See Fig. 11.) Fijr. 11. A common method of planking foundations is showoi in Fig. 12 : the space under the planking Fig. 12. being intended to be well rammed. There is, how- ever, so much risk of this being done in an impcr- ON FOUNDATIONS. 35 feet manner, that it is much better to have the gTOimd flushed up with concrete to the top of the sleepers, so that the planking may rest on a solid level surface. In planking foundations of considerable extent, such as those of the abutments of a bridge, it is better to lay the planking in two thicknesses, crossing joint and spiked together, and laid crossing the courses of the masonry diagonally. This makes sounder work than if the joints of the planking were parallel to those of the masonry. CHAPTER lY. SAND, CONCRETE, AND BETON. \yE here name, in the relative order of their value as artificial foundations, three methods of forming a hard bearing stratum for distributing the weight of a building over a large area of compressible ground, or for bringing up a solid foundation from a con- siderable depth where there are objections to the use of masonry or timber for effecting that object. Sand. — The use of sand, with its value as a means of distributing weight, has been known from a very early period, but it has been very little, if at all, adopted in this country. It may at first sight seem paradoxical that a loose substance, such as sand, having no cohesion amongst its particles, and proverbial for its instabiKty, should be of any use as a material for foimdations, especially when we consider that it is very similar to a fluid, and, if unsupported, can scarcely be made to stand at any slope whatever. It is, however, to these very qualities that it owes its value, which consists in distributing the weight laid upon it, not only in a vertical, but in a horizontal direction, the lateral 36 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE pressure exerted against the sides of the foimdation- pit greatly relieving the bottom. In very soft ground, it need scarcely be said, this system of con- struction cannot be adoj^ted, as the sand would work itself gradually down ; but in all situations where the ground, although soft, is of a tolerable con- sistency, so that the sand is confined, the use of this material is attended with many advantages as regards both the cost and the stability of the work. The most complete published account of the use of sand in foundations will be found in the '' Annales des Fonts et Chaussees," for the year 1835, before referred to, which goes into the subject in great detail. From this account, and from the fourth volimie of "Papers of the Eoyal Engineers," we learn, that not only is it in use in India and in Surinam, where it is often recommended as the only method of forming a foundation in bad soils, but that it has been adopted in works at Geneva, Bayonne, and Paris, and probably many other places. There are tw^o methods of using sand, viz., in layers and as piles. In forming a stratum of sand, tJie soft ground should be taken out several feet in depth, and the sand well rammed as it is thrown in, so as to ensure its being thoroughly forced into the sides of the foundation-pit ; after which there will be very little, if any, risk of irregular settlement. The surface of the sand may be protected in a variety of ways — by planking, paving, or otherwise, ac- cording to the nature of the materials at hand ; but care should of course be taken to lay the masonry of the superstructure at sufficient depth to prevent all risk of scour from surface water, or from any other accidental source of injury. Sand piling is a very economical and efficient method of forming a foundation under some circum- stances where timber piling is usually resorted to in tbis country. It would not, however, be effective in very loose wet soils, as the sand would work into the ON FOUNDATIONS. 37 surrounding ground. Sand piling is executed by driving wooden piles to a short depth, and then withdrawing them and filling up the holes with sand, which should be well punned, so as to force it well into every vacuity. In situations where the stability of piles arises from the pressure of the ground round them, these sand piles are found to be of more service than timber ones, and for the following reason : — A wooden pile can merely transmit pressure in a vertical direction, and consequently, exerts no lateral thrust upon the ground through which it passes, except whilst it is being forced down ; but a sand pile acts in a different manner, transmitting pressure not only against the bottom but against the sides of the hole it fills, and thus acting on a large area of bearing surface. The treatment of the ground above the piles is very simple. It should be covered over with planking, concrete, or masonry, to prevent its being forced up by the lateral pressure exerted by the piles ; and, on the stratimi thus formed, the super- structure may be built in the ordinary manner. A layer of small broken stone, gravel, burnt clay, ballast, or any similar hard material, will be found also of great service when distributed over the area of a foundation. Indeed it may fairly be questioned, whether a great proportion of the concrete founda- tions in this country made with chalk lime, or with very weak water limes, do not act by transmitting the pressure of the structures laid on them against the sides of the foundation-pits, rather than by their resistance to cross strain, although they may become in time thoroughly consolidated. Our own ex- perience leads us to feel that, unless the lime used in the composition of concretes is such as to ensure the formation of a mass which shall at once become firm and solid throughout, it will be better, under ordinary circumstances, to use the gravel in a loose state, merely punning it to force it thoroughly into the 38 RUDITVIENTARY TREATISE ddes of the trenches. If this view be correct, much expense is often incurred in making bad concrete, where a layer of broken stone, or gravel, would be cheaper and more effective ; and we would especially recommend those of our readers who may have op- portunities of examining concrete foundations which have been only a short time executed, to do so with especial reference to this point, which is of consider- able importance. Co??crete.— ^Concrete* is an artificial conglomerate, or pudding-stone, in which the pebbles which make up the greater part of its bulk are cemented together by lime mortar. As generally made, concrete is nothing more than a weak artificial stone, possessing little strength when exposed to transverse strain, even when the cementing material is thoroughly hard — which it may be fairly presumed, in most cases, does not take place for many months, if at all, although the outer crust may become firm in the course of a few hours.' It is, therefore, the most prudent course, in putting in a concrete foundation, to force the concrete into the trenches, ramming it continually, so that it shall exert considerable lateral pressure. It is a common practice with contractors to make the concrete course exactly of the specified vridth, irrespective of the extent to which the trenches have been excavated, and where any vacuities occur, to keep up the concrete temporarily with boarding, which is removed as the concreting advances, and the vacant space is filled with loose earth, and punned or not as the chance may happen. This is a most improper practice, and would often lead to serious failures, from the crushing of the weak and newly-formed concrete ; were it not that in most cases the strength given to the foundations of our important works is greatly in excess of that * It may be necessary to remind the reader that the term " con- crete " is here applied exclusively to that made of gravel concreted with chalk lime or v^eak stone lime. ON FOUNDATIONS. 39 required to resist this effect. It is, therefore, de- sirable, in drawing up specifications for concrete works, to require that the whole extent of excavation should be filled in with concrete, and that, if the trenches are got out too wide, they must be filled up with concrete at the contractor's expense. If the sides of the foundation-pits are carel\illy trimmc^d, and the concrete punned up solidly against them, the success of the work will be in a great measure independent of the cementing properties of the lime, and the gradual consolidation of the mass will be an additional source of security. Another practice, which we cannot too strongly condemn, but which has the sanction of many pro- fessional men of high standing, is that of throwing the concrete into the foundation-pits from a raised stage, with a view to consolidate it. Our own ex- perience confirms us in the opinion that the contrary effect is produced, and that this practice not only tends to separate the particles which have been pre- viously brought into close contact, but that the ad- mission of the air into the mass renders it less com- pact and tends to prevent the lime and sand from properly entering into combination with each other. We ourselves prefer to tip the concrete from the barrow as close to the surface as possible, and to keep it constantly punned as the work proceeds, so that no vacuities shall remain in any part. We also prefer that it should be brought up in successive layers, not exceeding 12 inches thick, the wheelers svorking gradually round the whole area, and being followed by the punners, so that no vertical junctions exceeding 12 inches in height can occur at any point ; the whole mass is more likely to be homogeneous than if the work is commenced at its full thickness and driven forward, which is certainly in most cases the easiest way of proceeding. Concrete is a valuable material when applied in a proper manner, viz., in underground works where it 40 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE is coufined on all sides, and is, consequently, subjected to little cross strain ; but it is not fit to be used above ground as a substitute for masonry, and will not bear exposure to water. Mr. Burnell, in bis "Rudimentary Treatise on Limes, Cements, and Mortars,'^ bas given sucb ad- mirable directions for tbe composition of concretes and betons, that it is unnecessary for us bere to enter into mucb detail on tbe subject ; a few remarks may, bowever, be acceptable to tbe reader wbo may not bave Mr. BurnelPs work at band to refer to. Concrete is made of gravel, sand, and ground lime, mixed togetber witb water ; tbe slaking of tbe lime taking place wbilst in contact witb the sand and gravel. It is difficult to give any definite propor- tions for tbe several ingredients ; but tbe principle to be followed in proportioning tbe several quantities of sand and stones should be to form as mucb as possible a solid mass, for which purpose it is desirable that the stones should be of various sizes, and angular rather than rounded. The common material is un- screened gravel, containing a considerable portion of sand and large and small pebbles ; but small and irregular fragments of broken stone, granite chip- pings, and the like, are of great service, as they interlace each other, and bond the mass together. The proportion of lime to sand should be such as is best suited to form a cement to connect the stones. This must depend in a great measure on the quality of the lime used ; the pure limes requiring a great proportion of sand, whilst the stone limes, and those containing alumina, silica and metallic oxides, re- quire a much smaller proportion. The lime chiefly used near London for making concrete is stone lime from Merstham, in Surrey, which has slightly hydraulic qualities. Tbe most r.sual projoortions adopted by London architects are about \ of ground stone lime to y of unscreened Thames ballast, or good clean gravel. ON FOUNDATIONS. 41 The lime and gravel should be thoroughly incor* porated by being repeatedly turned over with shovels, sufficient water being added to ensure the thorough slaking of the lime without drowning it. Concrete should not be thrown into water, because ordinary stone lime will not set under such circumstances ; and it should be carefully protected from any wash or run of water, which would have the effect of washing out the lime, and leaving the concrete in the state of loose gravel. Concrete made in the way just described swells slightly before setting, from the expansion due to the slaking of the lime, and does not return to its original bulk. This property makes it valuable for underpinning foundations and similar purposes.* Beton. — Beton may be considered as hydraulic concrete ; that is, concrete made with hydraulic lime ; and is chiefly used in submarine works, as a substi- tute for masonry, in situations where the bottom cannot be laid dry. It differs from ordinary concrete, inasmuch as the lime must be slaked before mixing with the other ingredients, and it is usual to make the lime and sand into mortar before adding the stones. Concrete also is used hot, while beton is allowed to stand before being used, in order to ensure * Concrete cottages are frequently built where the materials are ready at hand. Merstham lime and Eeigate sand have offered temptations for building such cottages at Bexley. A wooden framework is laid down to form a kind of mould ; the concrete is poured into this mould to form walls, &c. ; and the framework is raised stage after stage as the work proceeds, each day's work serving as a foundation for that of the following day. This work can be done at about half the price of brickwork. In other instances the concrete is used in the form of bricks — made of sand, gravel, chalk, clinkers, road scrapings, seabeach, &c., moulded, but not burned. Villas have been built of this kind of brick at Eeigate. In France, Coignot's beton agglomire is the material employed (instead of stone or bi'ick) to fill up the iron framework of the church of Vesinet, near St. Germains, recently constructed by M. Boileau. Ransome's artificial stone, tested against Coignol's hiton agglo- me're in 1863, bore up better against both a crushing!; md a rending force. — G. D, D 4/? RTlDIMEl^TARY TREATISE the perfect slaking of every particle of lime. Belidor directs that the mortar shall first be made, with poz- zuolana, sand, and quicldime. AYhen the moitar is thoroughly mixed, the stones are to be thrown in (not larger than a hen's egg)^ and also iron dross well pounded ; the whole is then to be thoroughly incorporated, and left for twenty- four hours. The proportions are to be as follows : — Pozzuolana 12 parts Sand 6 „ Good quicklime 9 j> Small stones 13 ,, Ground slag 3 „ 43 The b6ton is to be lowered into the water in a box, with a bottom so constructed that it can be opened, and its contents discharged, by pulling a cord, so as to deposit the b^ton on the bottom without having to fall througb a depth of water, which might wash away the lime. For the same reason it is necessary, before commencing to lay the b^ton, to surround the site with sheet-piling, to protect it from the action of the water, and to guard against the danger of the softer portions of the work being carried away by tempests before they become consolidated. The ordinary method of using beton on the Con- tinent is in alternate layers of beton and rubble stone. A layer of beton, about a foot in thickness, is first spread over the whole area of the foundation ; and on this is laid a stratum of rubble, which, sinking into the soft beton, becomes thoroughly incorporated with it. On this is laid another layer of beton, followed by another course of rubble ; this system being pursued until the work reaches the intended height. At the harbour works of Algiers, alluded to in the first chapter of this volume, beton has been used on a large scale, in a very different way to that just ON FOUNDATIONS. 43 described ; and the piiblislied account of the manner in which the works were conducted, and of the reasons which led to the adoj^tion of the systems of construction there employed, is so interesting, that we have thought it desirable to transfer to our pages, without abridgment, the first three chapters of M. Poirel's work before referred to, which form a toler- ably complete treatise on the use of beton for sub- marine foundations. Beton, as prepared on the Continent, is seldom if ever used in this country ; but concrete is sometimes made with blue lias lime, when it, in fact, becomes a species of beton, and must be treated in a similar way. The lime must be ground or beaten to powder, and before being mixed with the gravel it must be slaked, and allowed to stand for a considerable time, to en- sure the thorough slaking of every particle. The lime and sand should be brought into the state of mortar before adding the stones. If it is attempted to make concrete with lias lime, in the same way as with the ordinary stone lime, the lime, from its re- fractory nature, is but imperfectly slaked, many particles remaining in the state of quicklime. The practical effect of this mode of treating concrete is, that the more refractory particles continue to expand in the interior of the mass after the outside has set perfectly hard, and the whole becomes more or less disintegrated. If, also, any particles remain in the state of quick- lime, subsequent exposure to water will cause them to slake, and in so doing they burst, and split the work in immediate contact with them. It may be worth remarking here, that beton or rough rubble masonry executed with cement or mortar, was well understood and practised in former times, but concrete, as made at the present day, ap- pears to be a modern invention, and is in every way inferior to it. 44 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ACCOUNT OF THE WORKS RECENTLY EXECUTED IN BETON AT THE HARBOUR OF ALGIERS. (Translated from the French of M. Poirel, Ingenieur-en-chcf des Pouts et Chaussees.) Rebuilding of the Old Mole. The roadstead of Algiers, exposed like all those ot the north of Africa, is completely open to sea-board. The little basin which forms the harbour at the western extremity, and at the entrance of the road- stead, was formed in 1530 by Khair-ed-din, brother of Barbarossa. Having made himself master of a little islet lying in front of the town, and upon which the Spaniards had a fortress, he resolved, for the double purpose of securing his new possession, and of forming a harbour in front of Algiers, to connect this rock with the town by means of a jetty, which is called by his own name. Its length is 674 ft. 1 in. (175 metres), with a top width of 118 ft. 1 in. (36 metres), and it lies nearly east and west. Besides the Khair-ed-din jetty, a mole in prolongation of the islet shelters the basin from the easterly winds. This mole is 410 ft. 1 in. in length (125 metres), with a maximum width of 311 ft. 7 in. (95 metres), and its direction is north-east and south-west. The circuit of the basin thus formed terminates at the little mole of the Lazaretto. Its area is nearly ten acres (4 hectares), and it is capable of containing 60 vessels, 30 of which are of about 300 tons, and a very few of 800 tons burthen. Vessels of a larger tonnage lie outside. The greatest depth of the harbour is at present 16 ft. 4 in. (5 metres), but this may increase from the scour. Kkair-ed-din Jetty. — The Khair-ed-din Jetty, abut- ting at one end on the shore, and at the other end on the Isle de la Marine, presents a continuous line without exposing any head to the sea. Besides this, it is protected by several groins, formed by portions of the bank of rocks on which it stands. ON FOUNDATIONS. 45 However, in spite of the masses of rubble annually placed on it since tbe time of Barbarossa, to gay nothing of the quantity of stone thrown upon it in 1833 and 1834, since the occupation of Algiers by the French, the foot of the jetty was constantly laid bare at several points, and the breaches were always increasing. This jetty, on which are built the large ware- houses for military stores, necessarily first demanded the attention of the government, because it was of especial importance to secui^e the buildings of which it forms the foundation. This work was intrusted, in 1831, to M. Noel, engineer of the hydraulic works of the harbour of Toulon, from which service he was temporarily detached. He reinstated the whole body of the jetty for a width of 6 ft. 6 in. (2 metres), to the height of 16 ft. 4 in. (5 metres), above the water. The new masonry is executed in a perfect manner, and is extremely substantial. Unfortimately, the insufficiency of the funds put at the disposal of the skilful engineer who directed this work, and the shortness of the time assigned to his mission, did not permit him to renew the base of the jetty, the breaches in which continued to extend, and which it has been impossible to stop, except by protective works formed with blocks of b^ton. The Mole. — The mole is much more exposed than the jetty. It stands out into the sea, to which it presents a pier-head whose direction is nearly per- pendicular to that of the winds which blow into the roadstead with the greatest force. It was therefore on this so much threatened point that the Turks lavished all the resources at their disposal, both in men and money. They employed upon it the greater number of their slaves, and spent annually on it from 160 to 180 boudjons, that is more than £12,500 of British money. Laugier de Tassy, one of the most exact historians of the government of Algiers, where he resided in 1727, thus expresses himself on the subject : — 46 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ''As the great mole is directly exposed to the north, in order to prevent its being carried away by the heavy shocks of the sea, which breaks fiercely on a sandbank running the whole length of the mole on the outside of the harbour, it is necessary to employ the slaves of the Beylic throughout the year at a quarry of hard stones near Point Pescade, and to remove these stones and throw them into the sea along the whole length of the mole, in order to secure it. The sea carries away nearly all the stone that is thrown in, but care is constantly taken to replace it." First Works undertalien by the French. — The head of the mole, in which the sea had opened a large breach, was also repaired in 1831 ; but the new masonry resting on loose masses of rock, which were disturbed by every heavy sea, was entirely destroyed at the commencement of the bad weather of the winter of 1832. All repairs that could have been made on the face of the work would infallibly have undergone the same fate, because the base on which it was built was of a shifting nature. In addition to this, the head of the mole was placed in the worst possible direction, being perpendicular to the north- east (that is, to the point whence the wind blows into the roadstead with the utmost force), and forming a considerable re-entering angle with the line of the mole. The first operation to be performed was to raise in front of the head of the mole a massive embankment of large blocks, *n order to protect it from complete destruction, and to form a bank under cover of which the foundation might be subsequently restored : it being intended that the mass of stones should be arranged by the action of the sea to the slope required for their equilibrium. It was therefore necessary to consider the means of procuring a considerable quan- tity of stone, and for this nothing was prepared ; quarries, roads, means of conveyance, everything waa wanting, everything had to be created. ON FOUNDATIONS. 47 From, the commeiicemeiit of the season of 1833, an active search was made for quarries from which might be obtained blocks containing from 70 to 140 cubic feet each (2 to 4 cubic metres) : numerous ex- plorations were made at all points where there was a hope of obtaining them ; roads were opened from all the quarries to the city gate ; the streets widened ; the approaches to the mole enlarged, so as to allow of the passage of vehicles, which before could not get on the mole ; and notwithstanding the difficulties encountered in extracting large blocks from a geo- logical formation presenting no regular stratification or continuous stratum, — in spite of the universal want of resources inevitable in a barbarous country recently conquered and placedunder military rule, — by the month of December about 212,000 cubic feet of stone had been thrown into the sea. In the winter of 1833-34 these masses of stone became completely arranged, and took an average slope of 1 in 6. The embankment which had been carried wp above the level of the sea, had sunk 13 ft. 1 in. (4 metres) below it, and during its subsidence many of the blocks had been carried by the action of the waves inside the harbour. It was found that one of them, containing 35 cubic ft. of stone, had been thrown by the waves upon the top of the mole to the height of 13 ft., and to a horizontal distance of 98 feet, and that another, containing 141 cubic feet, had been carried completely across the mouth of the harbour to the Musoir de la Sante. This serious displacement of the blocks, which tended to throw them back into the harbour, was a radical defect, which made it necessary to renounce the ordinary system of random blocks. The only means of not falling again into the same error was, instead of using blocks of from 100 to 141 cubic feet (below which size they were displaced by the waves), to throw in masses of such dimensions that they should resist the action of the sea and remain im 48 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE movable ; which is possible, since the action being proportioned to the surface struck, whilst the resist- ance of the block increases as its mass, there must necessarily be a point where the latter predominates. This limit was at first fixed at 706 cubic feet, but it has since been found that the blocks remain stationary when only half that size. The raising masses of this size from the quarries was not to be thought of, on accoimt of the difficulty of quarrying them, and the equally great difficulty presented by their carriage. There remained, therefore, no other course to adopt but to make them artificially ; and this led to the adoption of beton as a material for the blocks. These blocks are of two kinds : some are formed in the water, on the site they are to occupy, the others are made on shore, to be afterwards thrown into the sea. First kind of blocks made in situ with beton^ i7n- mersed in lined caissons. — Blocks of the first kind are made by immersing beton in lined caissons grounded upon the intended site of the block. The sides of the caissons are formed of a framework of timbers, lined on the inside with double layers of planking, crossing joint, the bottom being cut to the profile of the ground. They are also lined on the inside with tarred cloth, which forms a kind of sack. This cloth is nailed to the woodwork, and extends the whole height of the caisson up to 1 ft. 8 in. ('50 metres) above the level of the water. The four sides of the caisson are connected by hinged angle-irons, 60 that they can be easily imshipped. They are taken up at the end of from ten to twelve days ; and all that is required to fit them for being used a second time is to lengthen or shorten them a little, to bring them to the shape of the ground. When fixed to- gether, a cloth is fitted to them, which must be of sufficient size to adapt itself to all the irregularities of the bottom that it covers. The caisson thus formed becomes a real sack, of which the sides are ON FOUNDATIONS 49 strengthened by the wooden framing on which the cloth is stretched and fixed. The mass of beton which fills it can then mould itself perfectly to the ground, and connect itself with it by the very ir- regularities of the latter : whereas with the flat- bottomed caissons generally employed in founding works in water without laying dry the bottom, it is necessary to remove the roughnesses of the ground by bringing it to a nearly level surface, an operation which is difficult, and which can never be attended with perfect success. These caissons are prepared in the yard and launched into the harbour, whence they are towed by pontoons and floated to their intended sites. They are then weighted by means of wooden boxes slung all round the outside of the caisson, and filled with balls or with pig-iron. The caisson thus fixed, a machine for lowering the beton is set up on a travelling scafibld, communicating with the shore by a temporary bridge. Considei^ations 7vhich led to the employment of lined caissons. — We were led to this method of making artificial blocks by a process which the Italians em- ploy when they wish to repair the breaches that take place in masonry under water. This process consists In filling with beton sacks similar to those used in fortification, placed one over another in the breach to be closed. Starting on this idea, we filled with beton and threw into the sea, during heavy weather, a sack much larger than the common ones, and at the end of some days, when the sea was calm, we found this block very hard, and possessing great resistance. All that was further wanted to succeed, by an analogous process, in forming blocks of large dimensions, was to make the sack so strong that it should not burst, and to fill it with b^ton on the very place where it was wished to immerse the block ; a problem which has been solved as we have just ex- plained, the caisson above described being nothing 60 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE else than a large cloth bag, of which the sides are strengthened by timber framing. TJie cloth lining of the caisson indispensable to protect the nemly immersed betonfrom the wash of the sea. — The cloth lining which forms the bottom of the caisson is the essential and capital part of this mode of construction, without which it would be very defective. With a simple caisson without a bottom, it would be impossible that the sides should be cut exactly to the profile of the ground on which it is to rest ; and besides, even were that practicable, there would never be the certainty of being able to immerse the caisson exactly in the place for which it had been prepared. There would, therefore, always remain openings between the caisson and the ground, and the sea, finding its way under the sides of the caisson, would penetrate into the mass of the beton ; instead of which, in the lined caissons, the action of the sea is never directed against the beton itself, but only against the cloth, without causing any injury to the material it envelops. What has been here advanced is easily understood, and a great number cf experiments authorize the establishment of the principle, that " whenever beton is immersed in water which may be agitated before its setting, or wherever it may be lowered into a foundation pit where there are bottom springs, it is imperatively necessary that it should be completely protected from washJ' This principle, laid down for caissons formed with framed sides, applies with still greater foice to piled dams ; as these latter are never water-tight, it is indispensable, under the conditions above specified, to line them with water-proofed cloth up to the water-line. The wash, which is to be guarded against, first, during the putting in of the beton, and afterwards, until it has set, renders it necessary to be very care- ful in using this material in submarine foundations. It is only after having made provision against ON FOUNDATIONS. 61 everytliing which may have a tendency to wash the ueAvh'-immersed beton, that this plan of laying sub- marine foundations^ which is otherwise so simple, so economical, so expeditious, and so susceptible of a variet}^ of applications, can be adopted with security. (The annexed woodcut. Fig. 13, which is copied from M. PoireFs work, will give the reader a good idea of the arrangements just described ; for the workins: details we must refer him to the orio-inal work.) Second kind of blocks, jjveparedon shore and thrown into tke sea after having become sufficiently kard. — The second kind of blocks, which are made on shore, are formed in moulds, of which the four sides are made of timber lined with boarding. The bottom on which they are set up rests upon a framing of large balks, forming part of an inclined plane, ending at the point where the block is to be sunk. These moulds, like the caissons, are without internal strutting. When the beton with which they are filled is .well set, the sides of the mould are removed, and the block thus deprived of its covering is launched into the sea. Composition of mortar and beton. — The mortar used in making the beton immersed in the caissons is made of one part of rich lime, slacked and made into a paste, mixed with two parts of Italian poz- zuolana. For the blocks made on shore the pozzaolana is mixed with sand, in equal quantities. The lime in use at Algiers is from a primitive grey limestone, somewhat granular and A^ery hard ; its weight is about 156 lbs. per cubic foot. Slaked in the usual way, and reduced to the consistence of a thick pulp, it absorbs once and a half its own weight of water. It increases in bulk in the pro- portion of 1 to 1*75. The puzzuolana employed is the same which is 52 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE Fig. 13. ON FOUND ATrONS. 53 used along all the Mediterranean coast for making hydraulic mortars. It is found in the caverns of St. Paul, near Eome, and is sifted on the spot, through sieves of thin iron plate, pierced with rectangular openings O'OTS in. wide, 0*78 in. long, and 0-39 in- distant from each other. One part of lime, with two parts of pozzuolana, make two parts of mortar. If the pozzuolana is used without sifting, it takes from eight to ten days before the mortar will bear the needle* of M. Yicat without sensible depression. If the pozzuolana is sifted, the process of harden- ing is nearly twice as rapid ; that is to say,^ at the end of five or six days the needle makes no impres- sion on it. The mortar, composed of one part of sand, one of lime, and one of sifted pozzuolana, such as is made for the blocks of beton moulded on shore, does not attain the same hardness under from eight to ten days. The b6ton is composed of one part of mortar with two of stones broken up into pieces, containing each about 1 J cubic feet, which forms two parts of beton. Its weight is about 137 lbs. per cubic foot. That which is made with pure pozzaolana only, without admixture of sand, rapidly acquires a cohesive strength, of which the following experiment will give a pretty exact idea. A block, after thirty-six honors' immersion, was strip- ped by a heavy sea of the caisson in which it had been made, and thus laid bare it withstood, without any support, and without the least fracture, the shock of very heavj^ waves. It must, however, be added, that if the wind had not abated, or had the swell increased, this block would certainly have been destroyed. A prism of beton 11'7 in. long, 3*9 in. thick, and 3*9 in. wide, made of mortar composed of one part of lime, one of pozzuolana, and one of sand, * It may be necessary to explain to some readers that this refers to the method pursued by M. Vicat for testing the hardness of the mortars and cements on which he experimented. 54 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE dried in the air, and tested by the machine described by General Treussart in his " Memoire siir les Mor- tiers," supported, at the end of twenty days, a weight of 310 lbs. before it broke. A similar prism immersed immediately after it was made, supported, after the same number of days, a weight of 203 lbs. Manner in 7vhich the blochs of beton were used in the reconstruction of the Mole oj Algiers. — The blocks of beton, whose nature and composition have been above described, were employed in the following manner in the construction of the Mole of Algiers : — 1st. Masses of beton, of from 2,000 to 6,000 cubic feet, were made on the spot, in lined caissons, the inside face of these masses, on the land side, being placed according to the new direction given to the line of the top of the mole. 2nd. On these first blocks were placed moulds, containing from 353 to 1,765 cubic feet, which were filled with beton ; and when once set, these blocks were launched into the sea, so as to form a second line in front of the first. 3rd. The space left between these two lines of blocks of beton was filled up with stone in blocks of from 106 to 247 cubic feet. (The natural stone was only used to accelerate the work, and to economize the pozzuolana ; but it would generally be more advantageous to use only blocks of beton.) 4th. Behind this double line of defence, and under its shelter, the ground was dredged to the depth oi 6 ft. 6 in. below the water-line, for a width of 9 ft. 9 in., and the whole of this space was filled up with a continuous mass of beton. It must be fully understood that this work was not undertaken at once along the whole length oi the mole ; but that it was efiected successively piece- meal, so as not to enter upon a greater length in each year than could be completely finished in the course of the season. This work, which has perfectly succeeded, esta- ON FOUNDATIONS. 55 blishes beyond all question, 1st. That blocks of beton liave sufficient strength, to resist the heaviest seas without injury, and that they form indestructible masses. 2ndly. ITiat these blocks are immovable when above a certain size, which at Algiers has been found to be 353 cubic feet, but which may perhaps vary a little under different local circumstances. The mole, on which the preservation of the harbour of Algiers depends, was, at the time of the occupation of the city by the French army in 1830, in a state of complete dilapidation and imminent ruin, notwithstanding extensive repairs by the Turks, continued annually during two centuries. By using blocks of beton instead of natural stone, it has been practicable in five years only, and at a cost of less than £84,000, to rebuild nearly 700 feet of the mole, and to give it a stability which is proof against the severest test. Construction of the new Mole. Plan for a netv mole of blocks of beton. — After the rebuilding of the mole, and at the end of the season of 1838, a commencement was made of a plan for the enlargement of the harbour of Algiers by means of a new mole, 1,650 ft. in length, in con- tinuation of the old one : it was to be constructed entirely of blocks of beton of 353 cubic feet, pre- pared on shore; and at the end of a month or two, ac- cording to the season, dropped into the sea, as is done with natural blocks in embankments of pierre perdtie. In the works previously described the blocks were made on the beach, whence, by an incKned plane, they were launched into the sea. This system, which answered well for forming a line of sea-wall in front of the mole to be rebuilt, could not be applied to the construction of the new mole in prolongation of the old one. As it would not have been possible to place on inclined planes more than three or four blocks 56 RUDTl^tENTARY TREATISE abreast at tlie tip, and as they must have been allowed a month or two for setting before immersion, the result would have been that not more than from forty to fifty could have been thrown in during the year. Plan for the carriage and immersion of the blocks by land. — It therefore became necessary to make a large number of blocks beforehand in the work-yard, whence, as they became sufficiently hard, they might be removed to the spot where they were to be sunk. This was effected by the following means, which are now (1841) in course of execution : — The blocks of beton are all of the same form, that of a rectangular prism, 1 1 ft. long, 6 ft. 6 in. wide, and 4 ft. 11 in. high, and contain 353 cubic feet, deduction being made for the bottom grooves. They are made by filling with beton a chest, which forms a mould. This mould has four framed sides, each made of five uprights, lined with fir planking, and tenoned at top and bottom into a cap and sill. The ends of the caps and sills have mitre-joints, and are fastened with angle-irons, which bring them up close when put together, and which are easily unshipped when the block is to be bared. The bottom of the mould is formed by a layer of sand, 2 in. thick, spread over the surface of the yard to prevent the beton from adhering to it. On the sand are placed three rectangular moulds, made of three boards, for the purpose of forming grooves about 5 in. square, for passing underneath the block the chains by which it is to be raised. From sixty to seventy men working eight hours can make four blocks. The blocks are placed rather more than a yard apart, to facilitate the handling of them during their removal. Three carpenters can take to pieces and reset a mould in an hour. The same frames, with slight repairs, will serve for making about fifty blocks. From four to six days after filling the mould, \U four sides are removed and set up again to form a ON FOUNDATIONS. 57 new mould. Thus exposed, tlie block becomes in a montb, or at the latest two, suflSciently hard to be thrown into the sea. This last operation is divided into two stages ; first, the lifting of the block, and afterwards its conveyance to the point where it is to be sunk. To raise the block two chains are used, which are passed through the grooves prepared for that pur- pose, and four screws placed at the ends of the grooves, two on each side of the block. The chains are attached to the heads of the screws, and the nuts are keyed into spoked wheels, by which the former are turned. Sixteen men, four at each wheel, will raise the block 20 in. from the ground in twenty minutes. The block being lifted from the ground, a low truck is run under it, with wheels barely 10 in. diameter, placed in the thickness of the wood ; two greased boards, placed on the truck, serve to facili- tate the descent of the block. It is drawn along an iron tramway by a capstan worked by eight men. When it reaches the end of the road, a slight tilt is given to it, which is sufficient to cause the block to slide from the waggon by its own weight, carrying the greased boards wdth it. Second system of carriage and immersion by water. — The blocks to be sunk are sometimes also trans- ported by sea. The block is lowered into the water on an inclined float until it has sunk to the depth of 3 ft. 3 in. When it is fixed in this position, a machine is brought over it composed of two pontoons, between which it is symmetrically placed ; the pon- toons are attached to it by means of chains passed under the block, and thus at once support it and transport it, just as camels are used by the Dutch to lighten vessels ?nd to take them out into deep water. The two systems of immersion by land and by water are employed simultaneously in the construe- 58 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE tion of the new mole. The 280 feet of new work completed up to the 1st of June, 1840, afford decisive evidence in favour of this method of constructing piers with blocks of beton of not less than 353 cubic feet, thrown irregularly upon each other. It proves that blocks of this size invariably remain in the position in which they were sunk. On the last half of the new mole eight cross sec- tions have been taken at equal distances. Although they differ from each other, they generally give, for the slopes to which the blocks settle, an average of 1 to 1 seaward, and of | to 1 towards the inside of the harbour. From the cubic contents given by calculations based on these sections, and compared with the notes kept of the quantity of blocks sunk between them, it is found that the voids are nearly a third of the solids, or, which amounts to the same thing, that they form one-fourth of the whole mass. These observations have not yet been sufficiently numerous to permit us to generalize the conclusions just deduced from them ; it will be necessary to verify them by the results that will be obtained in carrying on the work during ensuing years. But they may, even at present, be considered as supply- ing a sufficient approximation, and may serve as a basis for the estimates of plans that may have to be drawn up for the construction of piers with blocks of beton. They give the cube of the material actually required for an embankment of which the length, toj), width, and the depths at different points are ascertained, from which may be found the exjoense to which the work should amount. AYhen the foundation of the mole of Algiers, formed, as has been shown, of blocks of beton, has been completed along its whole length, the remainder of the body of the work (which will be brought up to nearly 20 ft. above water) will be finished with beton carried up inside cases of the form which it is intended to give to the face of the work. ON FOUNDATIONS. 59 Behind the revetment formed with blocks of beton, can be formed on the harboui' side wharfs of such width as may be desii-able, simply by a stone em- bankment brought up to within about 16 ft. below water, and on which may be raised a solid mass of beton immersed in lined caissons. Defects of the ordinanj System of Construction with Pierre Ferdue, and the advantages resulting from the substitution of blocks of Beton for natural blocks. Piers of Pierre Perdue. — The system generally employed in our times for the construction of sea piers, is that known by the name of pierre perdue. It was practised by the ancients, as may be seen at the port of Civita Yecchia, which was constructed in the reign of Trajan. By the moderns it has been applied in various ways ; the most remarkable instance is the Cherbourg Breakwater, which was begun in 1784. The materials used in the construction of these piers vary generally in bulk from 7 to 70 or 100 cubic feet ; below this size they are shaken and over- turned ; but, according to the partizans of this mode of construction, this movement is only temporary, and the action of the waves working on the mass gives the latter a definite slope, at which it becomes capable of resisting the heaviest seas. This slope is a double one, the upper slope varying from - to — , and the lower from _ to — . The depth at 6 10 \ \\ which the change of inclination takes place varies from 13 to 16 ft. under low-water mark, according to the varying force of the sea in different localities. It is generally admitted, that below this depth the sea is not agitated, and that the change of slope is caused by this fact. Nevertheless, it must be ac- knowledged that the motion only diminishes, ane? 60 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE never entirely ceases. A great number of well- known facts prove that the sea exerts great force at depths of 32, and even of 65 feet below the surface. In stormy weather the waters become turbid, to a certain distance from shore, in consequence of the action of the waves on the bottom of the sea, an action sufficiently strong to detach seaweed and madrepores, which are thrown upon the shore, where they are found in abundance after every gale. For this reason, also, the fishermen, after the return of calm weather, are obliged to wait a day or two before they cast their nets, because the mud upon which the fish remain has been disturbed, and it must settle again before they will return to it.* Inhei^ent defects of this mode of construction. — Even if we admit that the slope taken by the blocks re- mains the same, it does not follow that the blocks themselves undergo no displacement, but only that their motion, instead of being indefinite, is confined within certain limits ; just as the sand and pebbles of a natural beach are continually set in motion by the action of the waves, although the section of the beach remains unaltered ; and that the blocks never attain a state of complete rest is proved by the noise made by their rolling over each other w^henever the sea is rough. Besides, as it must be acknowledged that they are movable until their mass has taken the slope at which they will remain without displace- ment, they must necessarily be worn by friction as long as this displacement goes on, and the efiects of this grinding would soon be perceived, for a single winter is sufficient to round the sides of large angular fragments of very hard stone. We know that sand and pebbles are thus formed along the shore, at least * M. Aim6, Professor in the College of Algiers, and Member of the Scientific Commission, has made direct experiments on the »>otion of the waves, which prove that this motion is plainly felt at depths of 50 to 65 feet. The interesting results obtained by this young savant have been recorded in several papers addressed by lum to the Institute. ON FOUNDATIONS. 61 partially so, by tlie motion of blocks thrown by the sea against the cliffs. Independently of these destructive results, which are only slowly developed, there are others which become manifest even during- the execution of the work. It is generally admitted that the pier-heads should be formed with stones of larger size than those which form the body of the work, in order to prevent the harbour channels from being choked by the displacement of the materials, which, having no support, are carried round the head along the inside face of the work. Now the successive sections of a pier in course of construction, constantly present a head seaward at every stage of its progress. The materials of which it is composed must therefore be driven round each of the portions by which it is suc- cessively terminated, and thus carried inside that part of the sea which it is intended to inclose to secure still water ; and if the pier is built parallel to the shore, and at no great distance from it, this dis- placement of materials will inevitably produce a diminution of depth over the greater part of the area of the harbour. Difficulties which occur in its execution. — Having exposed the inherent defects of the system of pierre perchie, it remains to mention the difficulties attend- ant on its execution. In what we are about to say on this subject, we will take, as an example, what has been done at Algiers ; the results obtained from the use of natural blocks at this harbour may be equally applicable to other localities. 1st. In the neighbourhood of the piers to be built it is not always possible to find quarries of stone sufficiently hard to resist violent blows, and which will be durable imder water. 2nd. The vrorking of quarries fulfilling these conditions occasions enormous waste. It is a point generally agreed upon that no stones should be em- ployed under from 18 to 27 cubic feet ; and the 62 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE opinion of those engineers who, with M. Cachin, considered that the smallest materials were not only useful but necessary, to fill up the voids between the large stones and to form with them a compact mass impenetrable to the waves, is now nearly abandoned. Now, at Algiers, of the total yield of the quarries, only one-third consists of blocks of the above-named dimensions, the remaining two-thirds consisting only of rubble and small blocks. 3rd. The small blocks, up to the size of 70 ft. cube, are carried by means of trucks, or on low two- wheeled carts. The carriage (including handling, loading, and unloading) amounts to nearly 4^. per cubic foot. Blocks exceeding 70 cubic feet are carried on strong four-wheeled carts, to which are harnessed from 28 to 30 horses, when the block is one of about 250 cubic feet. 4th. The handling in the quarry, as well as the landing, is managed with a number of crabs. Wherever the ground will allow of it, the cart is backed to a loading-place sloping from the level on which the block rests ; the latter being moved along on rollers until it reaches the cart. This operation, although a long one, is the easiest of execution ; but it is not practicable for all blocks. An idea may be formed of the difficulties presented by these operations from the price paid for them at Algiers. The handling amounted to more than Id. per foot cube for blocks of from 70 to 105 cubic feet, and to 2ld. for blocks of 211 to 247 cubic feet. The loading and unloading cost somewhat less than \d. per foot for blocks of 70 to 105 cubic feet, and to 2d. per foot for those of 211 to 247 cubic feet. The handling and loading of large blocks might, no doubt, be simplified, if a considerable quantity had to be removed, by the aid of machinery that might be set up in the quarries ; but it would be impossible to facilitate these operations sufficiently to reduce the price to any important extent. ON FOUNDATIONS. 6.? 5tli. "When tlie blocks liave been loaded, their carriage from the quarry to the spot where they are to be sunk, if upon an ordinary road, amounts to a very high price. At Algiers it was found that it could not be done for less than about 4Jfl?. per foot, with a lead of IJ mile, when the blocks were from 100 to 300 cubic feet. The most favourable case would be that in which the quarry is formed immediately on the spot where the pier joins the shore, as at the harbour of Ba- toneau, at the entrance of Marseilles. But this circumstimce rarely occurs ; there will be almost always a certain distance to pass between the quarry and the pier ; and in proportion as this distance is greater or less, and the space to be crossed offers more or less obstacles to the establishment of a con tinuous tram-road, the difficulties of transport will be more or less considerable ; in very many localities the construction of a tram-road uniting the quarries with the pier would be quite impracticable. 6th. In what has been said above, we have had in view only piers connected with the shore ; but if isolated breakwaters are required it would be neces- sary, as at Cherbourg, to employ a mixed system of carriage by land and water ; and it is easy to satisfy ourselves that the methods employed at Cherbourg, which are the most ingenious and the best contrived imaginable for blocks such as those of which the breakwater is formed, and which never exceed from 70 to 106 cubic feet, would be extremely difficult of application when masses of much larger size are in question. Advantages of tlie system of construction with blocks of beton. — The defects and difficulties which we have just pointed out in the method of construction with pierre perdue disappear when, instead of natu- ral blocks of from 14 to 70 cubic feet, weighing from about 1 to 5 tons, masses of beton are substituted' of 353 cubic feet and weighing nearly 22 tons. The 64 UrJDIMENTARY TREATISE tvorks whicli have been executed on this latter system in the harbour of Algiers completely prove its superiority. It presents numerous advantages over the system of pierre perdue, of which the prin- cipal are : — 1st. Immediate stability, whilst ordinary rubble work is never secure. 2nd. Incomparably greater facility in the carriage of materials, generally so troublesome and expensive when blocks have to be quarried exceeding 100 cubic feet. 3rd. A consider- able reduction in the sectional area of the pier, and, consequent!}^, a remarkable saving of cost. 4th and lasth^ That the system is everywhere applicable, now that our advanced knowledge of the subject of hydraulic mortars enables us to make beton in every locality.* * It may be well to supplement tlie above information with a few details as to more lecent baton works by the Frencli engineers. In ] 865 M. Poirel examined the condition of various works of the kind at Algiers, Marseillos, the mouth of the Gironde, Port Ven- dres, Cette, Biarritz, Cherbourg, Leghorn, &c. The use of very large blocks had been found decidedly advantageous. Those weighing 23 tons, used at Algiers, were about 8 feet long, 6 feet 7 inches wide, and 5 feet deep ; but some have since been used much larger and heavier ; at Leghorn as much as 46 tons. A depth of as much as 114 feet had been reached by some of these blocks, whereas the deepest stone blocks at Cherbourg are at 66 feet. The slope at which the Uton blocks naturally settle down, after the scour of sand and mud beneath them has ceased, is about 45°. The usual French proportions of ingredients seem to be 2 of hard, broken limestone to 1 of cement, the cement being itself formed of 5 of sand to 1 of lime. Two men are employed half a day in beating down the materials for each block in the wooden mould. If not sunk in the water until three months after being made, the beton blocks are found to bear the wear and tear of the sea remarkably well ; some specimens after sixteen years were found very little worn, even at tlie sharpest edges and corners. The cost at Marseilles (with blocks of 23 tons each) is set down at 12s. 8rf. per cubic metre (about 4f?. per cubic foot), or 155. \^d. {5d. per cubic foot) with setting and incidental expenses. See account by Mr. J. Hawthorn, Institution of Civil Engineers, 1865. Beton blocks are being used for the jetties at Port Said, the Mediterranean entrance to the Suez ship canal. Arrangements are made on the spot for manufacturing thirty-five blocks of 10 cubic metres each per day. There are traction engines, travelling cranes, lime and sand depots, inclined tramways, working plat* ON FOUNDATIONS. CHAPTER v. 65 PIId>tf^ 5*5 1 p-35 .11^3"* ...043 13:6> _0-50 lp-0 .9:56 .17:? .. 0:61 19-6 _ 0-06 21-2 0-71 227 "*\ 075 24-1 "\ c" 0;y 25:3 \ 6-83 26-6 ~ ""\ i O'tfti 27-8 \ ...ti: 0;90 28-9 \ 1; 0-iJ3 30-0 \ ^ 0-97 310 .t....\ Oi 100 32-1 A. A fe^- 1-03 33-1 % A '^' 1-09' ' 1 35-0 1 \ ZK-.-'.^:}^'Z.^Z.^^:^ !,■■;; A ;, 114 ^ 36:7 « .\ "1* 117 \% 37 6 1 \ Z%ZZ^''^'Z'i~Z^^ZZ'.^]Z\ 3- 1-22 ^ 39-3 \ t?- ^ 1-2!) 1 1-30 .40 1 \ ...40:9 \ 417 \ 1-32 42-4 \ 1-34 43-2 A 1-37 43-9 \ ©- 1-39 446 \ 1-41 454 \ 1-43 461 \ , i;45.. .. 46-8 \ %.- 1-47 47-4 \ 1-50 48-1 A - 1:52 1-54 488 A 49- J A I'.Sfi .50:1 ..\ *^ 1-53. 507 \ Scale of , Seconds. \ 1 T n 1 1 1 . . 1 . r 1 1 20 .^Ji Of VelvcUk's PO RUDIMENTARY TREATISE force of the blow given by a ram whose weight — 1 , with falls varying from 1 to 40 ft., can be at once read ojff by inspection. (See previous page.) Thus the momentum of a ram weighing 1 ton and falling from a height of 10 ft., will be to that of the same ram falling from a height of 30 ft. as 25 "3 to 43*9, and, in common parlance, the blows thus given would be called respectively of the forces of 25 '3 tens and 43"9 tons; a blow given by a ram weighing 1 ton, and striking at a velocity of 1 ft. per second, being called of the force of one ton. We must, however, guard the young reader against supposing that impact and pressure can be compared together in any way, or, in other words, that a blow nominally of the force of a ton will balance a pressure of a ton weight, or produce the same effect in sinking a pile. Of the comparative effect of impact and pressure in driving piles we as yet know nothing, and the question is so complicated, from the great number of points that have to be taken into consi- deration in reducing the results of experiment into a definite form from which some rule for our guidance might be obtained, that we can only lay down in general terms the following empirical rule, that, in ordinary cases, if a pile will resist an impact of a ton, it will bear without jdelding a pressure of IJ ton. But to return to our immediate subject. It will be at once seen by the reader, as a natural consequence of the law by which the velocities of falKng bodies vary as the square roots of the heights fallen through, that the power expended in driving a pile will also be as the square root of the height to which the ram is raised.* ♦ Professor Ranldne has given the following formula for the re- lation between the blow required to drive a pile to a given depth and the gr-jfl^^^st. loaH that it will then bear without sinking farther, ON FOUNDATIONS. 81 Thus to produce an impact of 32 tons we require in round numbers : — Weight of Earn. FaU, Power expended in tons, lifted in tons. in feet. 1 foot high. i 64 32 1 29 21 1 16 16 2 4 8 3 2 6 The first and last of these cases may be considered aa —the main resistance of the pile being supposed to be the friction of its sides in the ground. Let 7r=the weight of the ram, h = the height of its fall, .,.-,. . .^ a ^ X = the depth through which the pile is driven by the fanal P = the greatest statical load it will bear without further depression, 8 = the sectional area of the pile, I = its length, and £ = its modulus of elasticity ; then the momentum or energy of the blow may be expressed as— Wh 4£ o in which the first number of the right-hand side of the equation expresses the portion of the whole energy employed in compres- sing the pile, and the second that employed m driving it into the gi-ound. Ilence — //itSWh , ^t^S^xA 2eSx ^2 The usual practical value given to F is from 2,000 to 3,000 pounds per square inch of the area of S the actual load being from 200 to 1,000 lbs., so that the factor of safety is from 3 to 10. Whewell's ''Mechanics of Engineering" may be also consulted on this subject. The method adopted by the latter, and by some French authors, greatly clears the prevalent obscurity ot ideas entertained as to the comparability of impact and ^vessnve-zmpact is, in fact, only pressure, which may be, and is generaUy, veiy creat, applied for a very short time. , x, . • j •„ ^?n the case of the pile, it this time s only that occupied n compressing the ram and the timber, and m the resilience of both to their state of equilibrium, with the ram resting on the pile. 82 ItUDIMENTARY TREATISE impracticable, and are only inserted by way of illus- tration ; 30 feet may be considered tlie greatest fall that can be used without splitting the timber, and a ram exceeding 2 tons in weight would be exceedingly troublesome to move from place to place. In cases where the force required to drive a pile is very small, it is easy to obtain a surplus of power with either the ringing engine or the crab engine, and it will probably be found much cheaper to employ hand labour than steam power. But this only holds good within certain limits. A,s a general rule, a fall of 15 or 16 ft. is quite the maximiun that can be used without risk of injury to the piles, and in prac tice it is not desirable with the crab engine to use a ram exceeding 12 cwt., as a greater weight involves the employment of additional hands, whose time is almost completely wasted during the shifting of the engine. We may therefore consider, generally speak- ing, that the maximum force we can exert advan- tageously with hand labour is that obtained by a 12 cwt. ram worked with a 16 ft. fall. This will give an impact of somewhat less than 20 tons, which is not enough for many cases daily occurring in railway works. For instance, the bearing piles of a timber bridge, which have to sustain the heavy blows given by the driving wheels of our 36-ton locomotives, can scarcely be said to be secure from settlement unless they will refuse an impact of 30 tons. We may, therefore, establish as a principle that wherever an impact exceeding 20 tons is required, it will be desirable to make use of steam or other mechanical power. In many situations where a head of water can be obtained water-pressure engines might be employed with great advantage. The common method of detaching the ram from the hoisting chain at every blow, although a neces- sary evil in the common hand engine, is quite inad- missible where steam power is to be economically adopted, on account of the time lost in re-attaching ON FOUNDATIONS. 83 the nippers ; and, therefore, if the common, and ver;v good and simple form of ram and guide- frame is still adhered to, some arrangement similar in principle to that of Clarke and Yarley's atmospheric engine appears to be the most advantageous. For heavy work, where great power is required and the extent of the undertaking warrants the outlaj^, Nasmyth's engine leaves nothing to be desired. The economy of power is not, however, the only advantage derived from using a heavy ram with a slight fall. The piles are di^iven with much less injury, and the splitting of the timber is almost entirely avoided, whilst in working with a fall of from 12 to 20 feet, it is common for every tenth pile to be more or less shaken ; and every one who has had the management of pile-driving is fully alive to the anxiety, delay, and expense, attendant on re- placing injured piles. In selecting timber for piles, care should be taken to choose that which is straight-grained and free from knots and ring shakes. Larch, fir, beech, and oak are the woods most esteemed. In situations exposed to the worm there is little difi'erence in the durabiKty of the best and the worst timber, if un- prepared, and, therefore, it is alwaj^s safest to use some preserving process. Piles which have to be driven through hard ground require to be rung, that is, to have an iron hoop fixed tightly on their heads, to prevent them from splitting, and also to be sliod with iron shoes ; the shoes may be of wrought or of cast-iron. For single piles the point of the shoe is placed in the centre of the pile (see Fig. 20) ; but for sheet-piling, the shoes are made not with a point, but with an edge, which is not level, but slightly inclined, so as in driving to give the pile a drift towards the pile last driven, by which means a close contact is insured (see Fig. 21). Great care is required, in shoeing a pile, to ensure that the shoe shall be driven perfectly home. The advantage 84 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE of a cast-iron shoe is, that the inside can be formed with a square butment on which the pile rests, Fiff. 20. Fig. 21. whilst a wrought-iron shoe has to be driven up until the toe of the pile is wedged tight, and, as the force with which the pile is driven into the ground greatly exceeds that with which the shoe is driven on the pile, it will often happen that the shoe will burst open, and allow the point of the pile to be crushed before it is down to its full depth. Sheeting piles should be carefully fitted to each other before driving, otherwise they cannot be ex- pected to come in close contact when driven. In some few cases it is worth while to groove and tongue the edges, but this is seldom done, and if the piles are perfectly parallel and truly driven, the swelling of the wood when exposed to moisture will generally secure a tight joint. As a general rule, broken timber, that is, timber cut out of larger balks, should be avoided. A 10-in. stick of Swedish timber will drive better and with less risk of splitting than a quarter of a 20- in. oalk of best Dantzic. If piles must be cut from large balks, the heart of the wood should, if possible, be left in the centre of the pile. In driving sheet piling, the piles are kept in their proper position by horizontal pieces of timber called ON FOUNDATIONS. 85 n^aleSy which, are fixed to guide piles previously driven. In driving cofierdams and similar works, the wales are seldom placed below the water-line ; but this may be done with great benefit by attaching the wales to hoops dropped over the heads of the guide piles, and pushed down as low as the ground will permit. In driving into or through a hard stratum, it is desirable that the auger should precede the driving, as it will save much time, and much injury to the piles ; and in all cases where a hard- bearing stratum has to be reached at a variable d-^pth, the boring-rod should be used to ascertain th.\C length of pile required, as nothing is more vexatious than finding a pile a few inches too short when di'iven, or, on the other hand, having to cut off 5 or 6 ft. of good timber, which must be needlessly wasted. Many writers have endeavoured to lay down rules for calculating the efiect of a given blow in sinking a pile, but investigations of this kind are of little practical value, because wx can never be in posses- sion of sufficient data to enable us to obtain even an approximate result. The effect of each blow on the pile will depend on the force of the blow, the velocity of the ram, the relative w^eights of the ram and the pile, the elasticity of the pile head, and the resistance offered by the ground through which the pile is passing ; and as we never can ascertain the two last named conditions with any certainty, any calcula* tions in which they are only assumed must of necessity be mere guesses. Piles driven for temporary purposes are, at the completion of their term of service, either drawn for the value of the timber and iron shoes, or cut off at the level of the ground if they are in situations where the drawing of the piles might cause any risk to the adjacent work. When sheet-piling has been driven round the foundations of any work, as iu forming a cofferd^jn round the pier of a bridge, there 88 RUDTMENTAl^Y TREATISE will always be, in the event of its being drawn, the risk of the ground settling dovni to fill up the vacancy thereby occasioned ; but in clay or marl soils this is not the greatest danger, for the water scours out and enlarges the race thus formed, and the bottom speedily becomes broken up, nearly to the depth to which the piles were driven. As a general rule, therefore, it may be laid down, that piles in such situations should never be drawn, but should be cut off at the level of the ground, and this may be done in various ways. 1st. By common means, the men working in a diving-bell, or with diving-helmets. 2nd. By machinery especially con- structed for the purpose. 3rd. In the case of coffer- dams, by cutting the piles nearly through from the inside with the adze, leaving the pressure of the water on the outside of the piles to complete the operation on the removal of the strutting. There are many cases, however, in which it be- comes necessary to draw piles, and the modes in which this may be done are almost infinite. The common plan, where the situation will admit of it, is to make use of a balk of timber as a lever, one end of which is shackled to the head of the pile, whilst to the other end is applied such power as can most readily be obtained. A very simple method of drawing piles is by means of a powerful screw, of which one end is hooked to a shackle passing round the head of the pile, whilst the other passes through a cross- head, resting firmly on temporary supports placed on each side of the pile. Cast- and Wrought-Iron Piling. The Introduction of cast-iron or wrought-iron as a material for piles is of comparatively recent date, and although it is not probable that it w^ill ever supersede the use of timber, there are many situa- tions in which it may be used with great advantage. ON FOUNDATIONS. 87 Cast-iron 2^iles are of two kinds — bearing piles and sheeting piles, the latter being used both for cofferdamming and for wharfing. AVe have already mentioned the principal forms of bearing piles (page 14), and need here only describe the manner in which iron piles are used for sheeting, in doing which our principal source of information is a '' Memoir on the use of Cast-iron in Piling,'^ pub- lished in the first yolume of the ''Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers." Cast-iron sheet piles were first used by Mr. Matthews in the foundations of the head of the north pier of Bridlington Harbour. These piles were of different forms, the most common being one in which the adjoining piles clipped each other, as shown in Fig. 22. The length of these piles was Fig. 22. about 8 or 9 ft., their width from 21 in. to 2 ft., and their thickness half an inch. Some time after this, in the beginning of 1822, Mr. Ewart took out a patent for constructing coffer- dams of broad cast-iron piles, held together by cramp piles, as shown in Fig. 23. The piles were to fi A_^VZ/. Fig. 23. be made about 15 in. wide, and from 10 to 15 it. in length. These cofferdam piles have been extensively used by Mr. Mylne, of the New Eiver Head, London, and by Mr. Hartley, of Liverpool, in various works at the Liverpool Docks. Mr. Hartley thus expresses 88 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE himself concerning tlieir use : — '' Considerable care is required in keeping tlie piles in a vertical position, as they are apt to shrink every blow, and drive slanting. They require to be driven between two heavy balks of timber to keep them in a straight line, as they expose very little section to the blow of the ram, and are so sharp that they are easily driven out of a right line. There is another ver}^ necessary precaution to be taken, which is the keeping of the fall in the same line as the pile ; otherwise the ram descending on the pile and not striking it fairly, the chances are, that in a pretty stiff stratum the head breaks off in shivers, and the pile must be drawn, which is sometimes no easy matter." He concludes by saying, " These piles are, on the whole, the most useful tools you can use for their purpose (cofferdaroming). I believe they have had as extensive, a trial at the Liverpool Docks as any- where else, and certainly with success. They have generally been driven with the ringing or hand engine, and rams of 3 or 4 cwt., a front and back pile being driven at the same time by one ram." In 1824 Mr. Walker made use of cast-iron sheet- piling in the foundations of the return end of the quay wall of Downes' Wharf, which required to be rebuilt. In this work the form of the pile was con- siderably modified from that used by Mr. Ewart, the cramp piles being omitted, and the piles being made merely to overlap each other at the joints. The next work on record is on a larger scale than those yet mentioned, the wharfing at the sea en- trance of the Norwich and Lowestoft Navigation, executed by Mr. Cubitt, and completed m 1832. In this instance the piles were not made to overlap, and it would have been difficult to keep them in line but for the following plan, adopted to secure that object : " This consisted in riveting close to the lower end of the pile about to be driven, a pair of strong wrought-iron cheeks, projecting beyond the ON FOUNDATIONS 8§ edge about 2 or 3 iu., which, clasping the pile already driven, served as a guide or groove to keep the pile flush, however thin the edge ; and the tendency to turn out or in at the heel was counter- acted after a few trials by giving a greater or less bevel to the front or back face.'^ The next application of iron piles to wharfing that comes under our notice is a wharf on the Lea cut at Limehouse, executed by Mr. Sibley, This wharf is formed of flat cast-iron plates, let down in grooves on the sides of hollow elliptical guide piles, whose greatest diameter is 12 in. The guide piles were 20 ft. long, and were made hollow, to enable an auger to be passed through them, to ease the driving ; they were afterwards filled up with con- crete. Similar wharfing, on a larger scale, has since been executed adjoining London Bridge, on both sides of the river. The piles on the City side are 43 ft. long, and are cast in two lengths, with spigot and faucit joints. In 1833-34 Messrs. Walker and Burgess con- structed a wharf wall, about 720 ft. long, in front of the East India Dock, at Blackwall, since named Brimswick Wharf. This wharf wall is formed by driving in cast-iron main piles, 7 ft. from centre to centre, the spaces between them being filled up with cast-iron sheet piles, with lap joints, reaching about 8 ft. above low-water mark, whilst the remainder of the height of the wall is made up with three tiers of cast-iron plates, whose width is equal to the distance between the main piles to which they are bolted. Each main pile is in two heights, the lower part being first driven, and the upper part subse- quently bolted on to it. The great practical difficulty in the application of cast-iron piling to permanent structures is the difficulty of getting the piles all down to the in- tended level. This difficulty does not exist in cofferdamming, as it is of no consequence in tliia 90 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE kind of work whether the heads of the piles range or not. In driving iron piles it is especially necessary to confine the fall within narrow limits, as a fall exceeding 4 or 5 ft. would be almost sure to fracture the metal. In all cases it is essential to interpose a piece of w^ood between the ram and the pile head, to deaden the blow, and to distribute its force equallj over the pile head. Wrought-iron sheet piling has, of late, got ex- tensively into use. It has been formed of flat boiler plates and vertical T-irons riveted to them and driven in sheets. It has also been formed, in a very advantageous and economical manner, of Mr. Mal- let's hollow wrought-iron piles, and his patent buckled plates slided down between in grooves. Mr. Hughes's patent wrought-iron hollow rolled piles, and similar plates between such forms, admit of much greater distances between the hollow or sustaining piles — only occupied by very thin plates — than is possible with cast-iron sheet piling. CHAPTER YI. CAISSONS. Having already explained the methods in which caissons are used, in the present chapter we propose to make a few remarks on each of these methods, and to give, by way of illustration, detailed accounts of two works executed by means of caissons in most unpromising situations — the first in soft bad ground of great depth, the second in loose sand to a depth of 60 ft., and liable to shift with every freshet. We have alreadj^ spoken of the danger attendant upon sinking caissons upon the natural bottom, on account of the difficulty of forming the latter to a level bed, in default of which the cross strain caused ON FOUNDATIONS. 91 by any irregularities of the surface would be pro- ductive of serious injury. But there are cases of soft ground, in which the only available mode of putting in a foundation is by sinking it piecemeal in caissons, weighting them until they have com- pressed the mud in which they are grounded to such an extent, that no reasonable fear can be entertained of their sinking further with the weight of the superstructure ; and, provided there is no tendency to scouring below the bottom of the caissons, such foundations are the very best that can be formed under such circimistances. The usual material for caissons is timber, the sides being attached to the bottom in such a manner, that on the masonry reaching the required height they can be detached and removed. The late Brigadier- General Sir Samuel Bentham, however, about the year 1810, devised and carried into execution a new kind of caisson, of which the sides should be of brickwork and permanent, the bottom only to be of timber. These permanent caissons, or, as he termed them, " buoyant masses,'^ were used by him with great success in the construction of above 200 feet of sea wall at Sheerness, in the years 1811-12. Sir Samuel's invention is thus described in the " Quar- terly Papers on Engineering,^' part xii: — " The invention was that of forming hollow buoy- ant masses of brickwork or stone, set in Roman cement ; which masses, being built on shore to a height above that of the line of flotation, were then to be floated, each mass over the spot it was destined to occupy in the wall, the mass then to be sunk ; its height being such as to rise above low water. " The mass, as executed at Sheerness, thus resting on the foundation, as the tide rose, a flat-bottomed barge was brought over the walls of the mass, and the barge loaded with a weight greater than each mass would afterwards have to bear ; on the falling of the tide this loaded barge sank upon tho mass, 92 KUDIMENTART TREATISE and thus pressed it into the subsoil, until a sufficient bearing was obtained. The mass was then built upon till it arrived at the desired height ; the interior was strengthened and filled in with chalk, shingle, or other material, grouted with some indurating matter, up to a certain height, during which opera- tions of course the water was pumped out of the masses when needfuh " The bottoms of these masses were formed on a platform of timber, on which was built an inverted arch or dome of brick. The base of each mass fi'om seaward to the interior towards the dockyard was 24 feet ; along the line of the wall 21 feet. The masses were so guided in their descent as to be in contact one with the other along that line. The accompanying plan and elevation of the second mass that was deposited exhibits the manner in whicli strength was given to the walls, by a circular wall built within, and connected ^vith the square walls." ELEVATION, LINE OF FLOATAT N ■••■A- ^"" ' ■■■ Z\Ft -:--:■— >• ^^ i -r i i I 1 ^ 1 -v| . . . 1 Jl-1 04- Tft .- " ■■ . I£b^ ttJ H -^sd - i Fig. 24 The injury caused to one of the j^iers of the late Westminster Bridge from the ground below the timber platform forming the bottom of the caisson used in its construction not having been made level ON FOUNDATIONS. 93 throiiglioiit, is well known, and need not be tere particularly recounted. We only allude to it here as a well-known example of tlie danger of this mode of constniction Caissons on beton foundations are used on the Continent ; such a mode of construction offers very great advantages in many situations, especially for founding upon an irregular rocky bottom, which it would be difficult to lay dry, and difficult to reduce to a level surface, even if this preliminary difficulty coidd be disposed of satisfactorily. The beton may be put in by various means, the most satisfactory being that of caissons lined with tarpaulin g, as practised by the French engineers at Algiers. Caissons on pile foundations appear well suited to situations where the bearing stratum underlies a depth of soft ground, or in cases where there is a risk of scour, which it is desirable to guard against without going to the expense of laying solid founda- tions at a great depth below the surface. In the 94 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE "Art of Building" we have briefly described an example of this mode of construction in tbe erection of a railway bridge at Liege in Belgium, in which each caisson was sunk in its place by means of guide piles, left standing above the general level of the heads of the piles which form the foundation of the work ; we will now give the reader an English ex- ample, in which a somewhat different system was pursued — these two examples together containing all the information requisite to enable the reader fully to understand the details of the subject. The follow- ing description is compiled from a paper in the 1st vol. of the " Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers," the passages between inverted commas being quoted verbatim : — " The Lary Bridge, near Pljmiouth, is built over the Lary, which is the estuary of the river Plym, and is connected by Catwater with Plymouth Sound. The general width of the estuary is half a mile ; but at the site of the bridge the shores abruptly approach each other, and form a strait between 500 and 600 ft. wide. The tide rushes through this strait with a velocity of 3 ft. 6 in. a second, and flows on an average 1 6 ft. perpendicular. The depth at low water is from 5 to 6 ft. ''By borings it appeared that the bed of the river was sand to a depth of 60 ft., the loft}^ lime rock on each shore dipping abruptly from high water, and forming a substratum nearly horizontal across the strait. The sand in the wide parts of the estuary above and below the bridge is fine ; at the site of the bridge the current leaves only the coarser kind, but this is not sufficient to resist the heavy land floods to which the Plym is liable, and it frequently happens that the bed of the river is scoured away several feet in depth in winter, and refilled in summer." The design first furnished by Mr. Rendel was on the suspension principle, but circumstances ulti- ON FOUNDATIONS. ^^' matelv led to the abandonment of this design, and to the adoption of one in which the riTer was pro- posed to be spanned by five cast-iron arches and Ls design was successfuUy carried into execution the work being commenced in August, 1824, and the bridge opened in July, 1827. , It is Snnecessary to give here any description oi the superstructure of the bridge, our object being only to direct the reader's attention to the methods employed for putting in the foundations of the piers and abutments in such treacherous groimd and we cannot do better than to give Mr. Rendel's own account of the oi.)erations undertaken for this pur- pose. (See Fig. 26.) . ^ - We commenced by driving sheeting piles to a dcDth of 15 ft. around the whole area ol the base ot the piers and abutments. These piles are of beech TDlank 4 in. thick, grooved to each other, and were driveA in double leading frames fixed to temporary o-uide piles ; great attention was paid to have them perfectly close. When pitched they were from 16 \o 18 ft. long, properly hooped, and shod with plate- iron shoes, weighing on an average 2 lbs. each These piles were driven with a cast-iron weight ot 450 lbs., worked by seven or eight men,^ m what is tenned a ringing engine. They were driven several feet below low water, by means of punches. '^ As these pilings were carried on, the sand was excavated from the space they inclosed to a depth o 5 or 6 ft. below the general level of the river, and from 9 to 10 ft. below the level of low water oi ordinary tides. -, -, ,i ;i . " As^hese excavations proceeded, the ground was piled with whole timbers (b) of large Norway and small-sized Memel, and as many of beech as coiiid be procured of the desired length ; these piles, oemg properly shod and hooped, were driven from tem- porary stages fixed above high-water level, by weights varying according to the size of the pile from 10 to d6 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON FOUNDATIONS. 97 15 cwt. ; they were disposed in five rows, in the width, of the foundations, from 4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 in. from centre to centre, and were driven till they did not sink more than one inch with eight blows of the 15-cwt. driver falling from a height of 25 ft., and then received twent}^ additional strokes with the same weight and fall. " These piles, none of which were less than 35 ft. long, were driven to the level of the stage, and then punched to their proper depth. The punches used for the purpose were made of sound and well- seasoned elm, hooped throughout their length, and having at their lower ends a strong cast-iron ring about 18 in. wide ; this ring had a thick partition plate cast in the middle of its width, which separated the head of the pile from the end of the punch ; the lower end of the ring was cast a little conical, and the pile heads were made to fit it accurately. By this means the pile heads were but little injured, and the loss of momentum occasioned by the intervention of a punch was reduced to a mere trifle. "The next operation was to cut off the bearing piles to theii' proper depth, and to pave and grout the spaces between them. The usual mode of coffer- dams was manifestly inapplicable to such a bed of sand; I therefore, in an early stage of the works, proposed to the contractors that the pile heads should be levelled, and the spaces between them paved by means of a diving-bell. To save expense this bel] was made of wood, and, with the necessary machi- nery, was finished and put to work within six weeks from the time it was determined on ; with its assist- ance the works were carried on with expedition and success ; when in operation it contained two men, who, being provided with the necessary instruments for cutting off the piles, paving the spaces between tliem, &c., continued at work for four hours, when they were relieved by two others. " As much depended on the regularity with which 98 RUDIArENTAKY TREATISE tlie pile heads were levelled, great care was bestowed on this part of the work. It was accomplished in the following manner : — The four angular piles of each foundation being cut as low as the water would permit, were accurately levelled from a plug on the shore to ascertain how much each had to be reduced to bring it to its proper level ; on each of these piles was marked the portion remaining to be cut by the bell men, which being done, all the remaining piles were levelled from them by means of a spirit level, accurately adjusted in a piece of wood, sufficiently long to be applied to three piles at a time. The paving (c) between the pile heads was performed in an equally simple and satisfactory manner." This diving-bell was made of two thicknesses of H in. well- seasoned elm boards ; the whole surface between the inner and outer case being covered with double flannel saturated in a composition of beeswax, and every precaution being taken to render the joints water-tight. The diving-bell was suspended from a carriage mounted on a travelling frame, working on a temporary stage formed about 15 ft. above high water ; and by means of the combined action of the upper and lower gauge-trees it was moved with great celerity to any part of the foundations. Detailed descriptions of the construction of the diving-bell, and the arrangement of the machinery for working- it, are given in Mr. Rendel's original paper, to which we would refer the reader for further details respect- ing this portion of the work. '' The foundations being prepared, and guides fixed to the plank piles, caissons were floated ofi* from the ihore with one, and, in some instances, two courses of masonry (i), and sunk. The greatest success attended these operations, from the care that was taken to get the foundations perfectly level ; of course the heads of the plank piles were not cut off until the caissons were sunk. "The bottoms of the caissons were made of beech ON FOUNDATIONS. PP plank and beams ; the bottom plank (d) was 4 in. thick, and laid in the transverse direction of the pier, across which the beams (e), 12 in. by 8 in., were placed so as to correspond with the rows of piles in the foundation. The spaces between the beams were filled with masonry (f) set in pozzuolana mortar, and grouted ; and a flooring of 3 in. plank (g), closely jointed and well caulked, so as to be per- fectly water-tight, covered the masonry and beams. The top and bottom planks were trenailed to the beams, and the whole strengthened by a strong frame of beech (h), a foot square, surrounding the bottom and fastened to it b}" strong screw bolts and trenails. " The upper surfaces of the beams of this frame were grooved to receive a strong tongue fitting a corresponding groove in the bottom beams of the sides and ends of the caissons, which were made in the usual way, and connected to the bottom by strong lewes irons fitted to cast-iron boxes firmly fixed in the bottom planking. The lewes irons wert fixed about 8 ft. apa.rt, and were easily removed when the masonry was brought up to the height of the caisson. The introduction of the tongue in the bottom beams of the caisson proved of the greatest utility, as it prevented leaks from the slight sinkage of the bottom between the lewes irons, which it is impossible to prevent when the caisson grounds. *' The caissons were furnished with sluices, and made 15 ft. high, which gave the masons an oppor- timity of working about five hours each tide on an average of neaps and springs." During the erection of the bridge it was found that a gradual scour of the bed of the river was taking place, and that some protective measures were necessary, in addition to the sheet piling, to prevent the undermining of the foundations. Mr. Rendel therefore determined on forming an artificial bed to the full extent to which the natural one was removed, with clay, from 18 in. to 2 ft. thick, covered with 100 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE rubble stone of all sizes from 200 lbs. eacb down- wards. This plan was put in execution, and suc- ceeded perfectly. To quote Mr. Rendel's words : — " By this union of materials an indestructible bed has been produced. The clay shields the natural bed from the current, whilst at the same time it forms a tenacious cement in which the stone buries itself, and which is hardened by the volume of water con- stantly pressing on it. In six months after this work was finished, I ascertained that sea- weeds were growing on its surface, and that it was sufficiently firm to resist an oyster dredge.'^ r CHAPTER YII. COFFERDAMS. A COFFERDAM may be described as a water-tight wall, constructed round the site of any work for the purpose of la3''ing dry the bottom hj pumping out the water from the area thus enclosed. In some situations this may be effected by earthen dams, by bags of clay piled on each other, or by rough caissons, without top or bottom, filled with iAay, and sunk in line around the space to be inclosed ; but in the majority of cases the method adopted is to drive two or more rows of close piling, and to fill up the space between them with clay puddle. Cofferdams are sometimes formed in shallow water with a single row of sheet piling ; but this is very precarious work, as unless the piles are fitted together with great accuracy before driving, and are driven with great truth, it is impossible to keep the joints close and to prevent leakage. A single row of sheet piling may, however, be often used with great ad- vantage as a protection and sujoport in front of an earthen dam, and this is a very economical and satisfactory method of proceeding where there is no ON FOUNDATIONS. 101 Cofferdams arc subject to heavy external pressure from the water round them, which woidd crush them in were they not very firmly strutted. In coffer- dams inclosing a small area, as, for instance, the site of the pier of a bridge, the strutting is placed from side to side, in the manner that will give the greatest facility for carrying on the work, the struts being gradually removed as the latter proceeds. In constructing dams in front of a wharf wall, or similar work, the strutting requires to be effected in a different manner, and the plan usually adoj^ted is to form a series of buttresses, or counterforts, at short intervals, from which the intermediate portions of the dam can be strutted, with raking horizontal struts. The strength given to these coimterforts must of course depend on the amount of pressuie to come on the dam. The counterforts of the cofferdam used in the construction of the river wall at the Houses of Parliament (see Figs. 27 and 28) were Fig. 27. Saction of the Coflferdam used in the construction of the river wall at the Houses of Parliament 102 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE Fig. 28. Plan of a part of the Cofiferdam used in the construction of the river wall at the Houses of Parliament. formed of skeleton framing ; those of the cofferdam at the entrance to the Grimsby New Docks were constructed of rows of piles di^iven close, and brought home to each other, and to the body of the dam, by strong screw bolts. (See Fig. 29.) In rivers subject to heavy freshes it is common, in constructing cofferdams, to keep the top of the dams below the flood level, as it is generally less expensive to pump out the water from the interior of the dam occasionally, than to construct and maintain a dam which should sustain the pressure ^ of the flood waters ; and it is always advisable to \ provide every dam with a sluice, by means of which \ the water can be admitted, if there is any fear of injury from a sudden fresh, or from any other cause. In tidal waters the operation of closing a dam is sometimes rather hazardous (unless it can be per- formed at low water), from the tide falling outside, without the dead water inside being able to escape 6uflB.ciently quickly through the sluices to maintain an equilibrium ; and, unless the piles and puddle wall are sufficiently strong to resist this outward pressure, the work will be violently strained, and ON FOUNDATIONS. 103 _ Fig. 29. View of part of the Cofiferdam, Grimsby Now Docks. often permanently injured. Where the site to bo inclosed is above the level of low Avater, half-tide dams are sometimes resorted to. A half-tide dam is one which is covered and filled at every tide, and emptied by sluices at low water, the available work- ing hours lasting from the time the bottom runs dry until the flood tide reaches the top of the dam. The principal difficulties in the construct! or ci cofferdams may be thus briefly stated : — • 104 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE 1st. To obtain a firm foothold for the piles, whicli, in either rock or mud, is a matter of great difficulty 2nd. To prevent leakage between the surface of the ground and the bottom of the puddle. 3rd. To prevent leakage through the puddle wall. 4th. To keep out the bottom springs. In the case of a rock bottom, the use of timber piles, driven in the ordinary way, would be impossible. In a very ingenious and successful dam, constructed by Mr. David Stephenson, for excavating rock from the bottom of the river Eibble, the usual guide piles arc dispensed with, and iron rods, *' jumped" into the rock, substituted for them, the sheeting of the dam being formed by horizontal planking, secured to the rods by rings, which allowed them to be pushed down into the water, mitil each plank rested on the one below it, the bottom plank being cut as nearly as possible to the profile of the surface of the rock. (See Fig. 30.) In soft ground there is as much difficulty in secur- ing the guide piles as in the case of a rock bottom. Oases of this kind may, however, be successfully treated by the use of screw piles, with a broad flange. Leakage between the puddle and the surface of the ground will generally take place, unless all the loose, soft, or porous surface soil be carefully removed by dredging before any of the puddle is put in. This dredging may be done before or after the piles are driven ; the best plan is to dredge for a portion of the depth required before commencing the driving, which is much eased thereby, and afterwards to dredge out a trench between the rows of piles, sufficiently deep to allow the puddle to lie well below the ground line. Leakage tlirough the puddle wall itself may arise from variou3 causes, but may generally be prevented by careful v\'ork, and selection of good materials. In the first place the piles should be all fitted to each other bt tore driving, and should be truly and ON FOUNDATIONS. 105 Fig. 30. View of pail of the Cofiferdam, River Ribble. carefully driven. Next, the framing and btruttiiig should be sufficiently strong to prevent any straining or movement under the varying pressure to which the dam may be exposed by alternations in the height of the water. And lastly, the material used for pudfUe should be such as will settle down into a solid 106 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE mass, and should be carefully punned in thin layers, so as to ensure that no vacuities are left in any part. For this reason it is desirable, when the piles have been di'iven between double walings, to remove the inside wales after the piles are home, as any projec- tions of this kind increase the diflB.culty of punning the puddle. In order to resist tne evil effects which might arise from the swelling of the puddle, the inner and outer rows of jDiles are usually connected with iron bolts passing through the piles, and secured by nuts with iron plates and large wooden washers, to prevent the former from being drawn into the piles by the extreme pressure. These tie bolts are often found to be very troublesome sources of leakage, as the water soaks in roimd the bolt holes, and it is difficult to keep the puddle from settling away from the bolts, and leaving a channel for the passage of water through the dam. In the Grimsb}^ dam this was guarded against in a very effective manner. The dam consisted of a double puddle wall, inclosed by three rows of piling, and the tie bolts only passed through half the total thickness of the dam, and were fixed, breaking joint with each other, so that no water could find its way through from this cause. Leakage from bottom springs, where the groimd is porous, can scarcely be prevented. The best course to adopt is, to put in a layer of beton over the whole area inclosed by the dam, and as soon as this has set, there will be no difficulty in keeping the dam dry. This is a much less anxious course than to attempt to keep down the water by dint of constant pumping ; and the beton, extending for some distance round the base of the work, forms a valuable protection against any scouring action. It is not uncommon for ground, which appears perfectly firm and sound, to overlie a water-bearing stratum receiving the drainage of elevated land. Where this occurs, the effect is, that on the area ON FOUNDATIONS. 107 being laid dry, and the firm superstratum thinned by excavation, the upward pressure of the sub- water will blow i.p the work, unless the springs are tapped, and the water allowed to rise and flow over the bottom of the dam. This evil may be giuiided against by excavating small portions at a time — putting in the masonry of one section before the excavation of the next is commenced, taking care, at the same time, to weight the ground, to balance the upward pressure as much as possible. The first step to be taken in forming a cofierdam (after the groimd has been prepared by dredging) is to drive guide piles, at short intervals, along the line of the dam and to bolt on to them horizontal timbers, called walings, to guide the sheeting piles in their descent. ^ The guide piles are always of whole timbers, the walings generally of half balks. ' The guide piles are usually placed about 10 ft. apart in the length of the dam. If the sheet piles are of whole balks, the wales may be bolted on each side of the guide piles, so that the latter become portions of the sheeting ; but if the sheeting piles are half balks," or planks only, the wales are both bolted on the inside of the guide piles, a sheet pile being driven first behind each guide pile, to keep the wales at the proper distance from each other. This is in some respects a better plan than the former, because it is not always possible, in pitching the guide piles, to keep them perfectly in line, and an opportunity is thus afibrded of blocking out the guides, so that the wales and sheeting piles shall be perfectly tj.'ue. These two systems of construction will be well un- derstood by comparing Fig. 31, and Fig. 32, which show the construction of the dam used at the entrance of the St. Katherine's Docks, with the section of the cofierdam used at the Houses of ParHament (Fig. 27, p. 101). It is always desirable to have two tiers of wales, one at the top of the dam, and the other aa low as 108 RUDIMENTARY TREATIMX Fig. 31, at Katherine'fi Dock, ON FOUNDATIONS. 109 practicable. The usual plan is to bolt on tlie lower tier of waling at the low- water line; but by men using diving helmets there would be no difficulty in fixing the wales under water, and this, in many cases, would assist greatly in getting the piles down tridv. Fig. 32. St. Katherine's Dock The guide piles are usually driven from barge© or pontoons ; but the sheet piles from a temporary stage formed over the site of the dam, and on which a gangway should be laid for shifting the engine re- gularly from pile to pile as each is djiven in succes- lie RUDIMENTARY TREATISE sion. As the piles are driven, the inside wales should be removed, and the piles bolted to the out- side wales with strong screw bolts. When the inside and outside rows of piling are completed, the interior of the dam may be dredged out to the required depth, the tie bolts put in to keep the sides together, and the puddle thrown in and punned up in thin layers until it reaches the top of the dam. Portable cofferdams have been used with great success by Mr. Thomas Stevenson, of Edinburgh, for harbour and marine works, in situa*i:ons where, from the nature of the bottom, or the exposed posi- tion of the work, the construction of an ordinary cofferdam would be impossible. These portable dams have two tiers of wales securely framed to uprights at the angles; the upper and lower tiers being bound together by long bolts. Each dam, therefore, consists of two sets of framed walings, one for the outside, the other for the inside of the dam. These frames are floated to the site of the work, and placed in the required position, the one frame inside the other ; and the sheet piles, which fill up the space between the inside and the outside frames, are then driven down with heavy malls. The sheet piling being driven, iron jumpers are driven down outside the frames, and edge planks for retaining the cla}^, with iron staples fixed to them, are slipped down upon the jumpers. After this, good clay, mixed with gravel, is punned hard be- tween the piles and the planking, and the dam is ready to be pumped dry. This brief description will enable the reader to understand the principle of the portable cofferdam, which has been described very fully by Mr. T. Stevenson, in a paper read before the Eoyal Scottish Society of Arts, January 10, 1848, and which has been published in the " Civil Enorinccr and Architect's Journal," for August, 1848. ON FOUNDATIONS. Ill The first portable dams constructed were of small dimensions, but Mr. T. Stevenson has made use, at the Forth Navigation "Works, Stirling, of a dam 35 ft. square, and, by taking precautions for strengthening the framing, it appears probable that even this limit may be safely exceeded. The selection of proper material for puddle is a point of considerable importance. The clay should be thoroughly worked up with gravel before being thrown into the dam ; this lessens the tendency to cracking, and makes a much more compact and binding mass than clay alone. Marl, when chopped up small and well punned, answers exceedingly well ; as also chalk, if the lumps are not too large. The great point of importance is to leave no large lumps, but to break up the material very small before using ir, and to pun it up carefully, so that no vacuities may be left in any part. We have already spoken of the danger of draw- ing the piles of cofferdams for the sake of obtaining the timber and iron, which would otherwise be wasted. We need here only repeat the caution, and would most earnestly endeavour to impress its im- portance on the minds of those engaged in works of this kind. We have now glanced at the principal points of importance in the construction of cofferdams ; there are, of course, a variety of minor details of practical importance, but of a nature to be learnt much better by personal inspection of works in actual progress than by any verbal description. In this, as well as in the preceding chapters of our work, our object has been, not to supersede the necessity for personal observation, but to teach the student how and what to observe, and by laying down first principles to which he may constantly recur, to enable him to understand the object of what he sees going forward in his visits to engineering works, and to judge for himself how far the means employed are suited to the end proposed. 112 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE 111 conclusion, we shall briefly describe a few oi the best coiFerdams that have been constructed in this countr}", and would recommend the student to examine attentively the respective systems of con- struction employed. It would be also productive of much practical benefit to model these dams to a large scale, as the construction of such models is a valuable practical lesson, and the experience gained by so doing will tell with great advantage when the student has the management of such works thrown into his hands for the first time, (The figures referred to below have all been in- serted previously.) The first dam we propose to describe is that con- structed by Mr. Thomas Telford in front of the entrance lock of the St. Katherine's Docks, of which the general construction is shown in Fig. 31 and Fig. 32. Fig. 31 is a perspective view of one bay of the dam, showing the guide piles with the walings bolted on, preparatory to the driving of the sheet piling ; Fig. 32 shows a section of the dam when complete, with the inner walings removed. We cannot better describe the dam than by an extract* from the specification of the work, which fully ex- plains its construction. "St. Katherine's Docks. " Specification for the cofierdam for the entrance lock, to be 207 ft. long, and of the form represented in the drawings. " The principal dam to be made of two rows of piles, at a distance of 6 ft. apart, of Memel or Dantzic timber 12 in. square ; also an outer row of piles of the same timber 12 in. square, at 8 J ft. from the main dam. An inner row to be driven, to strengthen the foot of the main dam, at 5 ft. from it, of fir timber 12 in. square ; the piles to be driven * Published in the " Civil Engineer and Architect's Jouraai,' November, 1839. ON FOUNDATIONS. 113 8 ft. below tlie lowest part of the lock. All the piles to be perfectly straight, and parallel on two sides, and shod with wrought-iron shoes not less than 15 lbs. each ; strong iron hoops also to the heads, the iron 4 in. broad by 1 in. The gauge piles to be driven opposite each other at the distance of 10 ft. apart, and their heads, when driven, to be 4 ft. above high- water mark of an 18-ft. tide ; when they are driven to the proper depth, two rows of temporary double walings, 12 in. by 6 in., to be bolted to them, the upper one to be 1 ft. above high- water mark, and the other as low as the tide will admit, allowing a space of not less than 12 in. wide between the wale pieces for the piles to fill up the bays between the gauge piles ; the bolts to be IJ in. square, iron, 3 ft. long in the clear, and to pass through the walings and the piles, and also two pieces of timber, 6 in. thick, to be placed under the head and nut of each bolt ; the remainder of the piles to fill up the bays are to be driven truly, and each bay keyed in with wedge piles to make the dam water-tight. When all the piles are driven, the temporary walings to be taken ofi"; the joints between the piles of the outer row, of the main dam to be caulked where necessary with tarred oakum ; three rows of permanent single walings are then to be put on, as shown on the drawings, of timber, 12 in. by 6 in., and in length not less than 20 ft., the two rows of piles to be tied together with screwed bolts, and nuts, with plates, to pass through the walings and piles, and also the two pieces of timber ; the bolts to be of the best scrap iron, 2 in. diameter, and proper lengths ; the distance iDetween the bolts at the bottom tier is not to exceed 5 ft., the middle tier 7 ft., and the top 10 ft. The dam is then to be filled with good clay to the level of 3 ft. above the bottom tier of the bolts, and from thence to 3 ft. above high water of a spring tide, with bricks laid in sand. 114 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE " The gauge piles for the outer rows to be driven 10 ft. apart, and the heads when driven to be 6 ft. above low- water mark of spring tide ; two rows of temporary walings, 12 in. by 6 in., to be bolted to the gauge piles, the same as to the main dam, leaving sufficient space between the wales for the piles to fill up the bays, the same as above ; the temporary walings are then to be removed, and one of 12 in. square to be put on, as shown by the drawing, and bolted, as above, so as to secure the piles to the main dam, the bolts not to exceed the distance of 5 ft. apart, and every second bolt to pass through the two rows of main-dam piles and walings. This dam is then to be filled in with clay, as above ; the (nner row of piles, at the distance of 5 ft. from the main dam, to have a double waling, 12 in. by 6 in., bolted within one foot of the top, and to be firmly braced from the inside, and the top part of the dam must be tied to the shore with chains, to prevent its going outwards at low water. * * * * A circular trunk, 3 ft. diameter, with sluices for letting the tide flow in and out, is to be placed through the dam. The mud, gravel, and other matter now upon the space where the cofierdam is to be constructed, is to be removed by the contractor, to the level of 12 ft. below low- water mark of a spring tide, and in a uniform inclinationto the lowest part of the bed of the river opposite the said cofier- dam.'^ The dam just described is a very strong one, and capable of resisting very great pressure without injury. Our next example, viz., the cofferdam for the river wall of the new Houses of Parliament, is one of a totally different construction, the piling and puddle wall depending entirely for support upon the counterforts and strutting (see Figs. 27 and 28). The following description of the work is extracted from the " Minutes of Proceedings of the Institu- tion of Civil Engineers, February 11, 1840." ON FOUNDATIONS. 115 '* The mud at the ^Ite of the works varied much in depth and in cons'stency, but beneath it is a bed of red gravel and sharp sand, averaging 14 ft. in thickness, laying over a stratum of stiff clay, into which the piles are driven to a depth of 2 ft. To facilitate the driving of the piles, a curved trench, 27 ft. wide by 8 ft. deep, was dredged in the line of the dam. The main piles (a) of Memel fir, 36 ft. long by 1 ft. square, were then driven, leaving their tops 4^ ft. above the Trinity high-water mark of ordinary spring tides. The waling pieces (c) were then attached, and the outer sheet piles (d) of whole timber, 36 ft. long b}^ 13 inches square, sawn square on all sides, so as to insure the joints being close when driven and bolted ^n the waling. The inner sheet piles (e) of half timber were then driven to the same depth as the others ; the space above them was made up with horizontal pieces (f), bedded down to them, and secured with bolts to the furring pieces (h) inserted above the waling at each gauge pile. The whole length of the dam was secured bv diagonal braces (g), extending back to the old river wall*, against which they were abutted. The outer and inner rows of piles were secured together by throe rows of wrought-iron bolts (i), the lower being 2-J in. diameter, and the two upper rows 2 in. diameter. The whole of the piles being driven, the space be- tween was cleared out down to the clay substratum, and then filled up with stiff clay mixed with a por- tion of gravel ; a portion of the excavated matter was then laid on both sides of the dam to protect the piling from injury. *' The first pile was driven on the 1st September, 1837, and the dam was closed on the 24th of De- cember, 1838. The extreme length of the cofferdam along the river face is 920 ft., and the ends return * In the plan and section here given, the struts are shown aa abuttinf^ on the brace piles (h), the extension of the bracing to the old wall beinff omitted. 116 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE at an angle until tliey meet witli and enter tlie old river wall at a distance of about 200 ft. from the face of the dam." The cofferdam constructed at the entrance of the Grimsby Docks, of which, by permission of the Institution of Civil Engineers, we are enabled to give a perspective diagram. Fig. 29, taken from the drawings presented to the Institution by Mr. Charles Neate to accompany his memoir on that work, was one of the most important dams that was ever con- structed. It stood in deep water, five- eighths of a mile from the high- water margin of the shore, and was entirely self- supported. Its length was 1,500 ft., and it supported at high water a head of water of 25 ft., whilst the excavation behind it was carried to 11 ft. below low water. The form of the dam was that of a circular curve, with a versed sine of 200 ft., or nearly one-fifth of the sjDan. The body of the dam was formed by a triple row of whole timber sheet piling, which received support from counterforts of close piled whole timber, driven at intervals of 25 ft. throughout its whole length. The through bolts were made to break joint and terminate at the middle row of piling, so that no water could j)ass along them through the dam. In the middle row of piles, wrought-iron longitudinal ties were substituted for timber walings, by which means an uninterrupted surface was left on the piles against which the puddle could be compactly punned. The execution of the work was fully equal to its design, and it has been emphatically declared to be the longest, the deepest, the strongest, and the tightest dam ever constructed. We have only space for one more illustration of our subject, viz., the cofferdam constructed by Mr. David Stevenson for excavating rock in the river Eibble. The peculiarity of this dam consists in its having been constructed on a rock bottom without guide or sheet piles, the sides of the dam being formed of ON FOUNDATIONS. 117 edge planks, secured by staples to iron rods, jumped into the rock and kept in their position by raking stays placed inside the dam. The following description is extracted from the " Transactions of the Institution of Civil Ene^ineers," Vol. III. (See Fig. 30.) " It will be seen that the cofferdam consists of a double row of iron rods 2 in. diameter placed 3 ft. apart, the spaces between the rods which form each row being 3 ft. also. On the inner side of each row of rods, linings of 3 in. Memel planking are placed ; and the space between these linings of planking, which form the two sides of the cofferdam, is care- fully filled with well-wrouo^ht clay puddle. The sides of the dam are kept together by bars of iron connected to two horizontal wale pieces of Memel timber, measuring 10 in. by 6 in., placed on the out- side of the iron rods. These iron bars pass hori- zontally through the heart of the puddle at proper intervals, and serve to counteract the tendencv which the puddle exerts to force the iron rods and planking outwards, and thus to derange the whole structure. A row of strong stays placed 18 ft. apart from centre to centre, as shown in the plate, is also applied to the inside of the dam. To avoid inter- rupting the navigation as well as for greater safety, the dams were stayed entirely from the inside. These stays, as shown in the drawing, have joints at the upper extremities, and being simply slipped over the tops of the iron rods and kept in their places by cotters, their lower ends which rest on the bottom can be moved either horizontally or vertically, and thus be easily adapted to the level of the rock. The shorter stays appKed in the first instance can be re- moved as the work proceeds, by simply driving out the cotters at the tops of the iron rods, and their places supplied by longer stays resting on the bottom of the excavation. A sluice at the level of low water, which can be opened so as to admit the water 118 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE and prevent the dangerous consequences of a sudden rising of the river while the interior of the dam is empty, two cast-iron pumps of 12 in. bore, with their gearing, and a steam engine of 10-horse power for pumping the dams dry, complete the whole apparatus. *' In constructing the dams according to this de- sign, the most tedious parts of the operation were those of fixing the iron rods into the bed of the river, and securing the lower tier of planking which rested on the irregular surface of the rock. The manner in which these operations were effected I shall endeavour briefly to explain. " In order to fix the iron rods, a jumper point was first worked on the end of each of them. They were then successiveij jumped into the bed of the river to depths varying from 12 in. to 18 in., according to the soundness or hardness of the rock, by labourers who worked from punts moored in the line of the dam, three or four men being employed at each rod. Gauges were used for enabling the workmen to enter the rods properly, so that they might retain a nearly perpendicular position when fixed, and also for the purpose of preserving the proper line of the dam and placing the rods at equal distances apart. No other fixture than that produced by simply jumping the rods into the rock was applied, but this was neces- sarily a tedious process, from the difficulty of work- ing in a rapid run of water, and from the repeated interruptions which occurred, occasioned by the rise of the tides and by land floods. When a sufficient length of rods had been fixed in the manner de- scribed, the lower tiers of planking, which were to be placed below the level of the water, were secured to the iron rods by clasps of iron, as shown in the drawings, and slipped down into their places one above another. The under edge of the lowest tier of planking, the fitting of which often occasioned much trouble, was cut previously to being put down, as ON FOUNDATIONS. 119 nearly as possible to suit the inequalities of tlie rock which were ascertained approximately by measuring from the surface of the water down the iron rods to the bed of the river. The plank being then lowered into its place, a small iron rod, with a hooked end which could go under the plank, was used for finding what parts of it did not touch the rock, and this having been ascertained, the plank was raised and again cut. This operation was repeated two or three times, until a near approach to the contour of the rock was obtained. The lower edge of the piank was then cut with the adze in a bevelled or wedge- shaped form, and the plank being finally lowered into its place in the bottom, was beaten down by blows from a heavy mallet upon an upright piece of wood resting upon the upper edge of the plank, and extending above the upper surface of the water, and the sharp bevelled edge yielding to the blows, sank into the smaller irregularities of the rock, and thus ultimately, as experience proved, formed, in connec- tion with the puddle behind it, a perfectly water- tight joint. The planks above low water had no fixture to the iron rods, and were kept in tfheir places simply by the pressure of the puddle in the inside of the dam." Cofierdams of wrought-iron are, however, the last improvement introduced, and have at once come ex- tensively into use. These have been formed of large cylinders sunk much as hollow piles, as in the case of the Blackfriars Bridge, of the London, Chatham, and Dover Railway, by Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E., or as rectangular or triangular boxes, or coffers of flat and of patent buckled plates, as employed by the same engineer for the new Blackfriars Eoad Bridge ad- jacent to the former ; or as a range of hollow, oval, or round sectioned cylinders driven close together as hollow piles, and made water-tight at their oscu- lating surfaces by a timber feather pile driven in recesses prepared to receive such between each imir, 120 TREATISE ON FOUNDATIONS. as in parts of the Thames Embankment, London, by Mr. J. Bazalgette, C.E. Mr. R. Mallet has successfully employed coffer- dams of timber piles and framing in a single sheet made staunch by a sheet of waterproofed (india-rub- ber) canvas stretched over the surface, and immersed in a puddle trench at the bottom, thus dispensing with the double range of piling and with almost the whole of the puddle. Library N. C, State CoUeare THE BSD. ruiXTED BT WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIJIITr.D, LONBON AND BECCLES. WEALE'S SERIES OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL WORKS. " It is not too much to say that no books have ever proved more popular with or more useful to young engineers and others than the excellent treatises comprised in Weale's Series."— Engineer. ^ ^dn (i\as5iM list. POGE CIVIL ENGINEERING AND SURVEYING 2 MINING AND METALLURGY .... 3 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING .... 4 NAVIGATION. SHIPBUILDING, ETC. . 5 ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING . . 6 INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. . 9 AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, ETC. . 10 MATHEMATICS, ARITHMETIC, ETO. . 12 BOOKS OF REFERENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS VOLUMES gpiol^i CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON, 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LONDON, E.G. 1904. 2 weale's scientific and technical series. CIVIL ENGINEERING & SURVEYING. Civil Engineering. Hy Hknrv Law, M.Inst.C.E. Including a Treatise on Hvdraulic ICngineering by G. R. Blknell, M.I.C.E. Seventh Edition, revised, with Large Additions by U. K. 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Adapted for English Students, from Heyse's Theoretical and Practical Grammar, by Dr. G. L. Strauss 1/6 German Triglot Dictionary. By N. E. S. a. Hamilton. Part I. German-French-English. Part II. English-German-French. Part III. French-German-English . 3/0 German Triglot Dictionary. (As above). Together with German Grammar, in One Volume . 5/0 Italian Grammar. Arranged in Twenty Lessons, with Exercises. By Alfred Elwes. 1 /6 Italian Triglot Dictionary, Wherein the Genders of all the Italian and French Nouns are carefully noted down. By Alfred Elwes. Vol.1. Italian-EngHsh-French. 2/6 Italian Triglot Dictionary. By Alfred Elv.es. Vol. II. English-French- Italian . . . 2/6 Italian Triglot Dictionary. By Alfred Elwes. Vol. III. Fiench-Itaiian-English . . . 2/6 Italian Triglot Dictionary. (As above;. In One Vol 7/6 Spanish Grammar. In a Simple and Practical Form. With Exercises. By Alfred Elwes 1/6 Spanish-English and English-Spanish Dictionary. Including a large number of Technical Terms used in Mining, Engineering, &C., with the proper Accents and the Gender of every Noun. By Alfred Elwes 4/0 *,* Or wf'ih the Grammak, 6'0- 16 weale's scientific and technical series. Portuguese Grammar, 111 a Simple and Practical Form. With Exercises. By .Alfred Elwf.s. 1 /Q Portuguese -English and English -Portuguese Dic- tionary. Including a large number of Technical Terms used in Mining, Engineering, &c., with the proper Accents and the Gender of every Noun, By Alfred Elwes. Fourth Edition, revised 5/0 *** Or ivith the GRAMMAR, 7/0- Animal Physics, Handbook of. By Dionvsius Lardner, D.C.L. With 520 Illustrations. In One Vol. (732 pages), cloth boards T/6 *^^* Sold also in Two Parts, as follows : — Animal Physics. P.y Dr. I.ardner. Part I., Chapters I. — VII. 4-/0 Animal Phy.^ics. By Dr. Lardner. Part II., Chapters VIII.— XVIII. 3/0 BRADHURV, AGNEW & CO., LD., PRINTERS, lONDON AND TONBRinc.E. l5S-3'.S Stationers' Hall Coort, London, E.C. CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S Scientific, Technical and Industrial Books. PAGE MECHANICAL ENGINEERING . 1 CIVIL ENGINEERING .... 10 MARINE ENGINEERING. &c. . 17 MINING & METALLURGY . . 19 COLLIERY WORKING. &c. . , 21 ELECTRICITY 23 ARCHITECTURE & BUILDING . 26 SANITATION & WATER SUPPLY 28 LAW & MISCELLANEOUS. . . 47 PAQE CARPENTRY A TIMBER . . 29 DECORATIVE ARTS 31 NATURAL SCIENCE 83 CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES . 34 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 36 COMMERCE, TABLES. &o. . . 41 AGRICULTURE & GARDENING- 43 AUCTIONEERING. VALUING. &o. 46 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, ETC. THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. £ T.ni"Tf ^^''^l'' formulae Rules, and Data : A Handy Book of Reference ^•f u ii^-^^^ '" Engineering Practice. By D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E., A M T r F°"\/tTr#^'^c ^Tf "^ and Enlarged. By H. H. P. Powles w^;,■r^;^^ ' '^^•^•^^•^- Small 8vo, 700 pp., bound in flexible Leather Cover, rounded corners Net^lQ l>ook. and'h?fs'',.X'Svril'S 'fn'^hT,'^' f^-cptlon of what Is Uk.ly lo b« useful lo , pocte- it to our readers.' -7-L En^nur. treatises, and. as such, we can heartUy recommend book ofVor°p"i^iVhicf shJ,uld'L'°,.^r'''^ """'^ '°^"^' ^^^^ ^ ^'"""^ ^on'P"'. o' Produce beap^r^Tat^e^^-^l'l^^e^aitnS^rofXTa^^^^ • • ' ^ L. A CROSBY LOCK WOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE. MR. HUTTON'S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS. THE WORKS' MANAQER'5 HANDBOOK. Comprising Modern Rules, Tables, and Data. For Engineers, Millwrights, and Boiler Makers ; Tool Makers, Machinists, and Metal Workers ; Iron and Brass Founders, &c. By W. S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Practical Engineer's Handbook." Sixth Edition, carefully Revised, and Enlarged. In One handsome Volume, medium 8vo, strongly bound 1 6/0 B9~ The Author having compiled Rules and Data for his own use in a great variety 0/ modern engineering work, and having found his notes extremely useful, decided to publish them — revised to date — believing that a practical work, suited to the DAILY REQUIREMENTS OF MODERN ENGINEERS, would be favourubly received. "The author treats everj' subject from the point of view of one who has collected workshop notes for application in workshop practice, rather than from the theoretical or literary aspect. The volume contains a great deal of that kind of information which is gained only by practical experience, and is seldom written in books. " — 7 he Engineer, June 5, 1885. "Ul thib edition we may repeat the appreciative remarks we made upon the first and third. Since the appearance of the latter very considerable modifications have been made, although the total number of pages remains almost the same. It is a very useful rnllectinn of rules, tables, and workshop and drawing office data." — The Engineer, May 10. 1895. (Second Notice.) ' The volume is an exceedingly useful one, brimful with engineer i notes, uieinoranda, and rules, and well worthy of being on everj' mechanical engineer's bookshelf." — Aleckanical IVorld. " The information is precisely that hkely to be required in practice. . . . The work forms a desirable addition to the library not only of the worics' manager, but of any one connected with general engineering." — Mining Journal. " Brinitul of useful information, stated in a concise form, Mr. Hutton's books have met a pressing want among engineers. The book must prove extremely useful to every practical man ' — a copy."— Practical Ensinar. THE PRACTICAL ENGINEER'S HANDBOOK. Comprising a Treatise on Modern Engines and Boilers, Marine, Locomotive, and Stationary. And containing a larg:e collection of Rules and Practical Data relating to Recent Practice in Designing and Constructing all kinds of Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering work. The whole constituting a com- prehensive Key to the Board of Trade and other Examinations for Certificates of Competency in Modern Mechanical Engineering. By Walter S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook for Engineers," &c. With upwards of 420 Illustrations. Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, nearly 560 pp., strongly bound. 1 8/0 B9" This Work is designed as a companion to the Author's "Works Manager's Handbook." It possesses many new and original features, and con- tains, like its predecessor, a quantity of matter not origtnaliy intended for publication but collected by the Author for his own use in the construction of a great variety of Modern Engineering Work. The information is given in a condensed and concise form, and is illustrated by upwards of 420 Engravings ; and comprises a quantity of tabulated matter of great value to all engaged m designing, constructing, or estimating for Engines, Boilers, a«^ other Engineering Work. "We have kept It at hand for several weeks, referring to It as occasion arose, and we have not on a single occasion consulted its pages without finding the information of which we were In quest." —A (henaum. " A thoroughly good practical handbook, which no engineer can go through without learning something that will be of service to him." — Marine Engxfuer. " An excellent book of reference for engineers, and a valuable text-book for students of engineering. —:>cotstnan . •Tins valuatjle manual embodies the results and experience of the leading authorities on mechanical engineering. — Sittiding Actvs. " The author has collected together a surprising quantity of rules and practical data, and has shown much judgment in the selections he has made. . . . There is no doubt that this book is one of the most usetul of its kind published, and will be a very popular compendium. —Engineer. "A mass ol intormation set down in simple language, and in such a lorm that it can be easily referred to at any time The matter is uniiormly good ana well chosen, and is greatly elucidated by the illustrations. The book will find its way on to most engmeers shelves, where it will rank as one of the most useful books of reierence. " — Practical Engxfieer. " Full of uselul information, and should be found on the office shelf of all practical engineers." —English Mecft-anii, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, S'C. MR. MUTTON'S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS-co»«ni«d. STEAM BOILER CONSTRUCTION. A Practical Handbook for Engineers, Boiler-Makers, and Steam User". Containing a large Collection of Rules and Data relating to Recent Practiw in the Design, Construction, and Working of all Kinds of Stationary, Loco- motive, and Marine Steam-Boilers. By Walter S, Hutton, CivH and Mechanical Engineer, Author of " The Works' Manager's Handbook," "The Practical Engineer's Handbook," &c. With upwards of 500 Illustrations Fourth Edition carefully Revised, and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, over 6S0 pages, cloth, strongly bound ISO W^ This Work is issued in continuation 0/ the Series of Handbooks wntten by (he A mhor viz. ;— ' The Works' Manager's Handbook "and" The Practical Engineers Handbook," which are so highly appreciated by engineers for the practtcal nature of their information ; and is consequently written in the same style as those works. The Author believes that the concentration, in a convenient form for easy reference, of such a large amount of thoroughly practical information on Steam- Boilers, wtll be of considerable service to those for whom it is intended, and he trusts the book may be deemed worthy of as favourable a reception as has been accorded to %ts predecessors. m,rion';?^?f°/»^-^ hff'' !("°' '^? ^^^^' ^°^^ °" ^°'^^''^ ''^^^ ^^^ «^'e' been published. The infer- iT , nH K^ M "f ^' '""^' '". ^^^PP'^ and accessible form. So far as generation is concerned this Is, undoubteoly, the standard book on steam practice."— £^eancai H^ew ^""^"ueu, tnis „^i„^r Fk''°"^ ^w^^u' ^y°^^ ^^ ^°"^''. '^^I'Sn and management, is clearly laid ijefore the reader. The volume shows that boiler construction has been reduced to the condition of one of the most exaci -^J'a^l "-B^^^eer. °^ '^^ "'™°'' ^"^"^ '° '^^ ^'^ '^ "''^' Engineer aJid Worl^ M^a|er' ' nnw hlJ.nti^M^^ i?"^ ^^t" ''^n™/°'' ^ U'9'^^'^ handbook on steam boilers ; there is not that room fn^Vrn n^?,f,.^ ^- "h ""'^ ^^^^^.'^ «. It IS a thoroughly practical book for those who are occupied in the construction, design, selection, or use of hoileTs."—Eng-ineer. v^-i-upicu " The book is of so important and comprehensive a character' that it must find its wav into the n^-nt^tH°^ w ^"^^ °"^ interested in boiler using or boUer manufacture if they wish to be thorouVhly Ma^ft °"^ ^ recommend the book for the intrinsic value of its contents. "-.S^liry PRACTICAL MECHANICS' WORKSHOP COMPANION. Comprising a great variety of the most useful Rules and Formula in Mechanical. Science, with numerous Tables of Practical Data and Calculated Results for Facilitating Mechanical Operations. By William Templeton, Author of Ihe Engineer's Practical Assistant," &c., &c. Eighteenth Edition, Revised, Modernised and considerably Enlarged by Walter S. Hutton, C.E., Author of -The Works Manager's Handbook," "The Practical Engineer's Hand- book, &c. Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with 8 Plates and upwards of 250 Illus- trative Diagrams, strongly bound for workshop or pocket wear and tear . 6/0 •' In its modernised form Hutton's ' Templeton ' should have a wide sale, for it contains much valuable imormation wmch the mechanic will o/ten find of use, and not a few tables and not "swh"ch he might look for m vam in other works. This modernised edition will be apprecSed bv llTwha have learned to value the onginal editions of 'Templeton. "-^^ir/i^A Mechanic , ^^11 "^"^ ""'u ^"-^^^ success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are %Zs ^^ "^^ ' "" ^ ^'^^' measure, owe their rise in life to this little hbokT-Bul^Jng »« .uJ' "^^'^ famiUar text-book-well known to aU mechanics and engineers-is of essential ■=ervice L^eei^?'an7hu^?^inrTh °^ ^^S^^^-^^- ."^i^-nghts, and the various trades connected ^th A^ Tsfcond Notkef' "^"^ niodemised edition is worth its weight in gold. "-^«,V<^,>^ c^n-c^", 1^*^17^";'^-°'^ ^"'^ largely-used book contains information, brought up to date, of the sort so useful to the toreman and draughtsman. So much fresh infoniation has been introduced as book to^Mr H^.Ji'^n^^hJ'n^^l'' ^"'"'Sted the task of revision of this popular, valuable, and useful book to Mr. Hutton. than whom a more competent man they could not have found, "-/row. ENGINEER'S AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. ■^•^.?^If*'x?'?"°^ Useful Tables, Rules, and Data. By William Templeton, Eighth Edition, with Additions. i8mo, cloth 2/6 *nnr*n'r!^»^'iPl^' a foremost place among books of this kind. A more suitable present to an- apprentice to any 01 the mechamcal trades could not possibly be made.'-BuilMns- News SfecHant ^^^^^^ ^^"^^ ^"'^ " '^""'"^ ^* '"" ""* 'drawer' of every m^h^c. "-Eng lis k- CROSBY LOCK WOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE. THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S REFERENCE BOOK. For Machine and Boiler Construction. In Two Parts. Part I. General Engineering Data. Part II. Boiler Construction. With 51 Plates and numerous Illustrations. By Nelson Foley, M.I.N. A. Second Edition, Revised throughout and much Enlarged. Folio, half-bound . JVet £3 38. PART I.— Measures.— Circumferences and areas, &c., Squares. Cubes, FOURTH powers.— Square AND Cube Roots.— Surface of Tubes.— Reciprocals.— Logarithms. — mensuration. — Specific Gravities and Weights.— work and power. — Heat. —Combustion. — EXPANSION and Contraction. — Expansion of Gases.— Steam.— Static Forces.— Gravitation and attraction.— Motion and Computation of Resulting forces.— accumulated work.— Centre and Radius OF GYRAI ION.— moment OF INERTIA.— CENTRE OF OSCILLATION.— ELECTRICrtY.— Strength of Materials.— Elasticity.— Test Sheets of Metals.— Friction.— Transmission of Power.— Flow of Liquids.— Flow of Gases.- air pumps, surface Condensers, &c.— Speed of steamships.— propellers.— Cutting Tools.— Flanges. —Copper sheets and Tubes.— screws, Nuts, Bolt Heads, &c.— Varjous Recipes and Miscellaneous Matter.— With DIAGRAMS for Valve-Gear, Belting ai4d Ropes, discharge and suction pipes, screw propellers, and Copper Pipes. PART II.— Treating of Power of Boilers.— Useful Ratios.— Notes on Construction. — Cylindrical Boiler Shells. — Circular Furnaces. — Flat Plates.— Stays. — Girders.— Screws. — Hydraulic Tests. — Riveting. — Boiler Setting, Chimneys, and Mountings.— Fuels, &c.— Examples of Boilers and Speeds OF Steamships.— Nominal and Normal Horse Power.— With DIAGRAMS for all boiler Calculations and Drawings of many Varieties of boilers. " Mr. Foley is well fitted to compile such a work. The diagrams are a great feature of the work. It may be stated that Mr. Foley has produced a volume which will undoubtedly fulfil the desire of the author and become indispensable to all mechcmical engineers." — Marine Engineer. " We have carefully examined this work, and pronounce it a most excellent reference book ot the use of marine engineers."— journal 0/ American Society 0/ Naval En^^neers, TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. With a Supplement on Gas Engines and Part II. on Heat Engines. By T. M. GooDEVE, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Mechanics at the Royal College of Science, London ; Author of " The Principles of Mechanics," " The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Fourteenth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 6 " Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine, which will bear comparison with imything written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can awatd it no higher prause." — E^tffineer. "Mr. Goodeve's text-book is a work of v.hich everj- young engineer should possess himself." —Mining Jouriial. ON GAS ENGINES. With Appendix describing a Recent Engine with Tube Igniter. By T. M. GooDEVE, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 " Like all Mr. Goodeve's writings, the present is no exception In point of general excellence. It Is a valuable little -voXMrne." —Mtchanical U'orld. GAS AND OIL ENGINE MANAGEMENT. A Practical Guide for Users and Attendants, being Notes on Selection, Construction, and Management. By M. Powis Bale, M.I iSI.E., A.M.I.C.E. Author of " Woodworking Machinery," &c. Crown 8vo, cloth . Net ^\% THE GAS-ENGINE HANDBOOK. A Manual of Useful Information for the Designer and the Engineer. Bj^ E. W. Roberts, M.E. With Forty Full-page Engravings. Small Fcap. Svo, leather. net 8/6 A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS. Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By R. Wilson, C.E. Fifth Edition. i2mo, cloth 6/0 " The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers."— f«i?i«««r. THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S COMPANION. Of Areas, Circumferences, Decimal Equivalents, in inches and feet, millimetres, squares, cubes, roots, &c. ; Strength of Bolts, Weight of Iron, &c. ; Weights, Measures, and other Data. Also Practical Rules for Engine Proportions. By R. Edwards, M.Inst.C.E. Fcap. 8vo, cloth. 3/8 "A very useful little volume. It contains many tables, classified data and memoranda generally useful to engineers."— £«f «'«««»•. "What It professes to be, ' a handy office companion,' giving In a succinct form a vcirlety ot inf»ruiation likely to be required by mechanical engineers In their everyday office ytox^"— Nature. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, S'C. A HANDBOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. With especial Reference to Small and Medium-sized Engines. For the Use of Engine Makers, Mechanical Draughtsmen, Engineering Students, and users of Steam Power. By Herman Haeder, C.E. Translated from the German with additions and alterations, by H H. P. Powles, A.M.I.C.E.. M.I.M.E. Third Edition, Revised. With nearly i,ioo Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth JVei 7/6 " A perfect encyclopaedia of the steam engine and its details, jind one which must take a per* maneiu place in English drawing-offices and workshops."—^ Foreman Patter~n-ntaker. " This is an excellent book, and should be in the hands of all who are interested In the con- struct ion and design of medium-sized stationary engines. . . . A careful study of its contents and the arrangement of the sections leads to the conclusion that there is probably no other book like It ill this country. The volume aims at showing the results of practical experience, and it certainly may claim a complete achievement of this idea." — Nature. "There can be no question as to its value. We cordially commend it to all concerned in the design and construction of the steam engine."— .)/a/-. MOTOR CARS OR POWER-CARRIAGES FOR COMMON R0AD5. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M.Inst.C.E. 212 pp., with 76 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6 " A work that an engineer thinking of turning his attention to motor-carriage work, would do well to read as a preliminary to starting operations." — Engineering. PLATING AND BOILER MAKING. A Practical Handbook for Workshop Operations. By Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. 380 pp. with 338 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 7/6 " This work is characterised by that evidence of close acquaintance with workshop methods which will render the book exceedingly acceptable to the practical hand. A\'e have no hesitation in commending the work as a serviceable and practical handbook on a subject which has not hitherto received much attention from those qualified to deal with it in a satisfactory manner."— Mechanical World. PATTERN MAKING. Embracing the Main Tj'pes of Engineering Construction, and including Gearing, Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and Columns, Screws, Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, the Moulding of Patterns in Loam and Greensand, Weight of Castings, &c. By J. G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. Third Edition, Enlarged. With 4S6 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. . Net 7/6 " a well-written technical guide, evidently written by a man who understands and has prac- tised what he has written about. . . . We cordially recommend it to engineering students, young journeymen, and others desirous of being initiated into the mysteries of pattern-making."— .5M»/ok: on the Construction of Dirieible Balloons, Aerostats, Aeroplanes, and Aeromotors By Frederick Walker, C.E , Associate Member of the Aeronautic Institute. With 104 Illustrations. Large Crown 8vo. cloth Net 7/6 STONE-WORKING MACHINERY. A Manual dealing with the Rapid and Economical Conversion of Stone. With Hints on the Arrangement and Management of Stone Works. By M. Powis Bale. M.I. M.E. Second Edition, enlarged. Crown 8vo. cloth . .90 "The book should be in the hands of every mason or student of stonework."— Ce//»>o' Guardian. " A capital handbook for all who manipulate stone for building or ornamental purposes."— Afachtnet'v Afariet. PUMPS AND PUMPING. A Handbook for Pump Users. Being Notes on Selection, Construction, and Management. By M. Powis Bale, M.I. M.E. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 " The matter is set forth as concisely as possible. In fact, condensation rather than diffuse- ness has been the author's aim throughout ; yet he does not seem to have omitted anything likely to be of use." — Ifoiirnal oj Gas Li^htins^. " Thoroughlj- practical and clearly written." — Glasgcrw Herald. MILLING MACHINES AND PROCESSES. A Practical Treatise on Shaping Metals by Rotary Cutters. Including Information on Making and Grinding the Cutters. By Paul N. Hasluck, Author of " Lathe-Work." With upwards of 300 Engravings. Large crown 8vo, cloth 12/6 " A new departure in engineering literature. . . . We can recommend this work to all in- terested in milling machines : it is what it professes to be— a practical treaXK^:'— Engineer. " A capital and reliable book which will no doubt be of considerable service both to those who are already acquainted with the process as well as to those who contemplate its adoption."— Industries. LATHE-WORK. A Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appliances, and Processes employed in the Art of Turning. By Paul N. Hasluck. Eighth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/0 " Written by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how to do It, and how to convey his knowledge to others. To all turners this book would be valuable." — Engineering-. " We can safely recommend the work to young engineers. To the amateur !t will simply be invaluable. To the student it will convey a great deal of useful inioTtnatioa."— Engineer. SCREW-THREADS, And Methods of_ Producing Them. With numerous Tables and complete Directions for using Screw-Cutting Lathes. By Paul N. Hasluck, Author of " Lathf-Work," &c. Sixth Rdition. Waistcoat-pocket size . .1/6 " Full of useful information, hints and practical criticism. Taps, dies, and screwing tools generally are illustrated and their action described." — Mechanical World. " It is a complete compendium of all the details of the screw-cutting lathe ; In fact, a ntultum in-par-vo on all the subjects it treats upon." — Carpenter and Builder. TABLES AND MEMORANDA FOR ENGINEERS, MECHANICS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, &c. Selected and Arranged by Francis Smith. Seventh Edition, Revised, including Electrical Tables, Formul.«, and Memoranda, Waistcoat-pocket size, limp leather • . • . 1 'S " It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book selection of notes and formulae to suit ALL engineers as it would be to make a universal medicine ; but Mr. Smith's waistcoat- pocket collection may be looked upon as a successful attempt." — Engineer. " The best example we have ever seen of 270 pages of useful matter packed Into the dimen- sions of a card-case. "—.flMiAitMp- News. " A veritable Docket treasury of knowledge."— /»•<»». POCKET GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. English-French, French-English ; with Tables suitable for the Architectural, Engineering, Manufacturing, and Nautical Professions. By John James Fletcher. Third Edition, 200 pp. Waistcoat-pocket size, limp leather 1/6 " It is a very great advantage for readers and correspondents in France and England to have so large a number of the words relating to engineering and manufactures collected in a liliputian volume. The little book will be useful both to students and travellers."— ..4 rcAifert. " The glossar>' of tenns is very complete, and many of the Tables are new and well arranged. We cordially commend the "0001^:' —Mechanical World. 8 CROSBY LOCK WOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE. THE ENGINEER'S YEAR BOOK FOR 1905. Comprising Formulae, Rules, Tables, Data and Memoranda in Civil, Mechanical, Electrical, Marine and Mine Engineering. By H. R. Kempe, A.M. Inst. C.E., M.I.E.E., Principal Technical Officer, Engineer-in-Chief's Office, General Post Office, London, Author of "A Handbook of Electrical Testing," "The Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Book," &c. With i,ooo Illustrations, specially Engraved for the work. Crown 8vo, 950 pp., leather. [Just Published. 8/0 "Kempe's Year Book really requires no commendation. Its sphere of usefulness is widely known, and it is used by entfineers tne world over.' —Tht Eteineer. "The volume is distinctly In advance of most similar publications In this country."— Engineering. " This valuable and well-designed book of reference meets the demands of all descriptions of enginters."— Saturday Review. " Teems with up-to-date Information in every branch of engineering cind construction."— Building News. " The needs of the engineering profession could hardly be supplied in a more admirable, complete and convenient form. To say that it more than sustains all comparisons is praise of the highest sort, and that may justly be said olxt."— Mining youmaL. "There is certainly room for the new comer, which supplies explanations and directions, as well as fonnulae and tables. It deserves to become one of the most successful of the technical annuals. ' ' — A rchitect. " Brings together with great skill all the technical information which an engineer has to use day by day. It is in every way admirably equipped, and is sure to prove successfuL" — Scotsman, "The up-to-dateness of Mr. Kempe's compilation is a quality that will not be lost on the busy people for whom the work is intended." — Glasgow Herald. THE PORTABLE ENGINE. A Practical Manual on its Construction and Management. For the use of Owners and Users of Steam Engines generally. By William Dyson Wansbrough. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 *' This is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should be read by every one who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere."— il/ar* Lane Express, IRON AND STEEL. A Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory, and Office. Containing ready, useful, and trustworthy Information for Ironmasters and their Stock-takers ; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills ; Iron and Metal Founders ; Iron Ship and Bridge Builders ; Mechanical, Mining, and Con- sulting Engineers ; Architects, Contractors, Builders, &c. By Charles Hoare, Author of "The Slide Rule," &c. Ninth Edition. 32mo, leather . 6 CONDENSED MECHANICS. A Selection of Formulae, Rules, Tables, and Data for the Use of Engineering Students, &c. By W. G. C. Hughes, A.M.I.C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth . 2/6 " The book Is well fitted for those who are preparing for examination and wish to refresh their knowledge by going through their formulae again."— A/anw* Engineer. THE SAFE USE OF STEAM. Containing Rules for Unprofessional Steam Usars. By an Engineer. Eighth Edition. Sewed 60. " If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explosions would l)ecorae sensations bv their rarity." — English Mechanic. THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STATIONARY ENGINES. A Practical Handbook for Men-in-charge. By C. Hdrst. Crown Svo. Ktt 1/0 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. The Autobiography of an Old Locomotive Engine. By Robert Weather- burn, M.I.M.E. With Illustrations and Portraits of George and Robert Stephenson. Crown Svo, cloth. Net 2 6 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT. A Popular Treatise on the Gradual Improvements made in Railway Engines between 1803 and 1903. By Clement E. Stretton, C.E. Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth Net 4/6 " Students of railway history and all who are Interested In the evolution of the modem locomotive will find much to attract and entertain In this volume."— /"A* Times, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, S-c. TOOLS FOR ENGINEERS AND WOODWORKERS. A Practical Treatise including Mod-rn Instruments of Measurement. By Joseph Horner, A. M.Inst. M.E., Author of "Pattern Making," "Hoisting Machinery," &c. Demy Svo, with 456 Illustrations. [Just Published. 9/0 nei MODERN MACHINE SHOP TOOLS, A Practical Treatise describing in every detail the Construction, Operation and Manipulation of both Hana and Machine Tools ; being a work of Practical Instruction in all Classes of Machine Shop Practice, including Chapters on Filing, Fitting and Scraping Surfaces ; on Drills, Reamers, Taps and Dies ; the Lathe and its Tools ; Planers, Shapers and their Tools ; Milling Machines and Cutters; Gear Cutters and Gear Cutting; Drilling Machines and Drill Work; Grinding Machines and their Work; Hardening and Tempering, Gearing, Belting, and Transmission Machinery; Useful Data and Tables. By William H. Van Dervoort, M.E. Fourth Edition. Illustrated by 673 Engravings of Latest Tools and Methods, all of which are fully described. Medium Svo, cloth. \.Just Published. Net 21/0 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE DRIVING. A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of Locomotive Engines. By Michael Reynolds, formerly Locomotive Inspector, L. B. & S. C. R. Eleventh Edition. Including a Key to the Locomotive Engine. Crown Svo, cloth 4/8 " Mr. Reynolds heis supplied a want, amd has supplied it well. We can confidently recom- mend the book net only to the practical driver, but to everj'one who tcikes an interest in the performance of locomotive engines." — Tlu Engineer. " Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature of the day. This admirable practical treatise, of the practical utility of which we have to speak in terms of warm commendation." —.i4th€naum. THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, Fireman, and Engine-Boy. Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotive Engines and their Inventors. By Michael Reynolds. Second Edition, with Revised Appendix. Crown Svo, cloth 4/6 " We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine." — /ron, CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES. A Practical Treatise on the several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom : their Construction and Performance. By M. Reynolds. Svo, cloth 9/0 " A popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be of great assistance in forming public opinion, and will be studied with benetit by those who take an interest in the hia.ke.'—Eng'itsA Mechanic. STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING. A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of Stationary Engines. By Michael Reynolds. Sixth Edition. V/ith Plates and Woodcuts. Crown Svo, cloth 4/6 "The author's advice on the various points treated is clear and practical."— Engtneertn^-. " Our author leaves no stone unturned. He is determined that his readers shcdl not only know something about the stationary engine, but all about it."— Engineer. ENGINEDRIVING LIFE. Stirring Adventures and Incidents in the Lives of Locomotive Engine- Drivers. By Michael Reynolds. Third Edition. Crown Svo, cloth . 1 /6 " From first to last perfectly fascinating, Wilkie Collins's most thrilling conceptions are thrown into the shade by true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every pa^e,"— North British Mail. THE ENQINEMAN'S POCKET COMPANION, And Practical Educator for Enginemen, Boiler Attendants, and Mechanics. By Michael Reynolds. With 45 Illustrations and numerous Diagram.s. Fotu-th Edition, Revised. Royal iSmo, strongly bound for pocket wear 3/8 " A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the information an engine-minder desirous of mastering the scientific principles of his daily calling would requite."— • The Miller ■ ■ • 10 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC. PIONEER IRRIGATION. A Manual of Information for Farmw: in the Colonies. By E. O. Mawson, M.lnst.C.E., Executive Enjiineer. Public Works Deoartment Bombay. With Additional Chapters on Light Railways by E. R. Calthrop, M.lnst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Illustrated by Numerous Plates and Diagrams. Demy 8vo, cloth. S^Just Published. Net 1C/6 Summary of Contents :— Value of Irrigation, and Sources of water Supply.— Dams and weirs.— Canals.— Underground water.- Methods of Irri- CATION.— Sewage Irrigation.— Imperial Automatic Sluice Gates.— The Culti- VATioN of Irrigated Crops, Vhgetables, and Fruit Trees.— Light Railways for Heavy Traffic— Useful memoranda and Data. TUNNELLING. A Practical Treatise. By Charles Prelini, C.E. With additions by Charles S. Hill, C.E. With 150 Diagrams and Illustrations. Royal 8vo. cloth A^eMe O PRACTICAL TUNNELLING. Explaining in detail Setting-out the Works, Shaft-sinking, and Heading-driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering and the Construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels. By F. W. Simms, M.lnst.C.E. Fourth Edition, Revised and Further Extended, including the most recent (1895) Examples of Sub-aqueous and other Tunnels, by D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. With 34 Folding Plates. Imperial 8vo, cloth £2 2s. " The present (1896) edition has been brought right up to date, and is a work tc which civil engineers should have ready access, and engineers who have con itruction work can hardly afford to be without, but which to the younger members of the profession is invaluable, as from its pages they can learn the state to which the science of tunnelling has attained."— .^ai7a/a> Nevis. THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CON- STRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS. A Practical Treatise for the Use of Engineers and Students of Engineering. By W. K. Burton, A.M. Inst. C.E., Consulting Engineer to the Tokyo Water-works. Second Edition, Revised and Extended, With numerous Plates and Illustrations. Super-royal Svo, buckram 25/0 I. Introductory. — II. Different Qualities of Water. — III. Quantity of Water to be Provided,— IV, on Ascertaining whether a Proposed Source of Supply is Sufficient. — v. On Estimating the Storage Capacity required to be Provided.— VI. Classification of Water-works.— vil. impounding Reser- voirs.- VIII. Earthwork Dams.— IX. Masonry Dams.— X. The purification of Water.— XI. Settling Reservoirs.— XII. Sand Filtration.— Xlll. purification OF Water by action of Iron, Softening of Water by Action of Lime, Natural Filtration.— XIV. Service or Clean Water Reservoirs— v/ater Towers— Stand Pipes.— XV. The connection of Settling Reservoirs, Filter Beds and Service Reservoirs.- XVI. Pumping Machinery.— XVII. Flow of Water in Conduits- Pipes AND Open Channels.— XVIII. Distribution Systems.— XIX. Special Pro- visions FOR the Extinction of Fire.— XX. Pipes for Water-works.— XXI. Pre- vention OF Waste of Water.— XXII. Various Appliances used in Connection with Water-works. APPENDIX I. By Prof. JOHN MILNE, F.R.S.— CONSIDERATIONS concerning the probable Effects of Earthquakes on Water-works, and the Special Pre- cautions to be taken in Earthquake Countries. APPENDIX 11. By JOHN DE RIJKE, C.E. —ON SAND DUNES AND DUNE SAND AS A Source of water Supply. " The chapter upon filtration of water Is very complete, and the details of construction well Illustrated. . . . The work should be specially valuable to civil engineers engaged in work in Japcin, but the interest is by no means confined to that locality." — Enstneer. " We congratulate the author upon the practical commonsense shown In the preparation Oi this work. , . . The plates and diagrams have evidently been prepared with great care, eind cannot fail to be of great assistance to the student." — Builder. RURAL WATER SUPPLY. A Practical Handbook on the Supply of Water and Construction of Water- works for small Country Districts. By Allan Greenwell. A.M.I.C.E., and W. T. Curry, A.M.I.C.E., F.G.S. With Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/0 " We conscientiously recommend It as a very useful book for those concerned In obtaining water for small districts, gi\'ing a great deal of practical information In a small compass." — Builder. " The volume contains valuable information upon all matters connected with water supply, • . . It is full of details on poiats which are continually before water-works engineers."— A'ar«r«, CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, S-c. THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. By William Humber, A. M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E,, Author of " Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," &c., &c. Illustrated with 50 Double Plates, I Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwards of 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pp. of Text. Imp. 4to, elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco IVet £6 6 8. List of Contents :— I. Historical Sketch of somh of the means that have BEEN adopted FOls THE SUPPLY OF WATER TO CITIES AND TOWNS.— II. WATER AND THE FOREIGN MATTER USUALLY ASSOCIATED WITH IT.— III. RAINFALL AND EVAPORA- TION.— IV. SPRINGS AND THE WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS OF VARIOUS DISTRICTS. —V. MEASUREMENT AND ESTIMATION OF THE FLOW OF WATER.— VI. ON THE SELECTION OF THE SOURCE OF SUPPLY.— VII. WELLS.— VIII. RESERVOIRS.— IX. THE PURIFICATION OF Water.- X. Pumps.— XI. Pumping Machinery.— Xll. Conduits.— Xlll. Distribu- tion OF Water.— XIV. meters, Service Pipes, and House Fittings.— XV. The Law AND Economy of water-works.— XVI. Constant and Intermittent Supply.— XVII. Description of Plates.— appendices, giving Tables of Rates of Supply, Velocities, &c., &c., together with Specifications of several Works illus- trated, AMONG which WILL EE FOUND : ABERDEEN, BIDEFORD, CANTERBURY, Dundee. Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham. Dublin, and others. " The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto produced In English, or in any other language. Mr. Humber's work is characterised almost throughout by an exhaustiveness much more distmctive of French and German than of English technical treatises." THE PROGRESS OF ENGINEERING (1863-6). By Wm. Humber, A.M. Inst. C.E. Complete in Four Vols. Containing 14S Double Plates, with Portraits and Copious Descriptive Letterpress. Impl. 410, half-morocco. Price, complete, £1 2 1 Ss. ', or each Volume sold .separately at £3 3s. per Volume. DcscriMive List of Contents on application. HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING. A Practical Manual on the Concentration and Transmission of Power by Hydraulic Machinery. By G. Croydon Marks, A.M. last. C.E. With nearly 200 Illustrations. 8vo, cloth. Net 9 SUM.MARV of Contents :— Principles of Hydraulics.— The Flow of Water.— Hydraulic pressures.— m.\terial.— Test Load.— Packings for Sliding Surfaces. —Pipe Joints.— Controlling Valves.— Platform Lifts.— workshop and Foundry Cranes.— Warehouse and Dock Cranes.— H'i'DRAULic accumulators.— Presses forB.\ling and other purposes.— Sheet Metal Working and Forging Machinery. —Hydraulic Riveters.— Hand and Power pumps.— Steam Pumps.— Turbines.— impulse Turbines.— Reaction Turbines.— Design of Turbines in Detail.— Water Wheels.— Hydraulic Engines.— Recent Achievements.— Pressure of Water.— Action of Pumps, &c. " We have nothing but praise for this thoroughly valuable work. The author has succeeded In rendering his subject interesting as well as instructive." — Practical Engineer. "Can be unhesitatingly recommended as a useful and up-to-date manual on hydraulic trans- mission and utilisation of power." — Mechanical World, HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO=EFFICIENTS, & FORMUL/E. For Finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers. With New Formulae, Tables, and General Information on Rain-fall. Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By John Neville, C.E., M.R.I. A. Third Edition, revised, with additions. Numerous Illustrations. Crown Svo, cloth . . . 14 " It i3, of all English books on the subject, the one nearest to completeness."— yircAi/irff. HYDRAULIC MANUAL. Consisting of Working Tables and Explanatory Text. Intended as a Guide in Hydraulic Calculations and Field Operations. By Lowis D'A. Jackson, Author of "Aid to Survey Practice," "Modern Metrology," &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Large crown Svo, cloth 16/0 "The author has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a trustworthy guide to this branch of the engineers profession." — En^neering. WATER ENGINEERING. A Practical Treatise on the Measiurement, Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisa- tion of Water for the Supply of Towns, for Mill Power, and for other Purposes. ByCHARLEsSLAGG, A.M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 7/6 •• As a small practical treatise on the water supply of towns, and on some applications of water- power, the work Is In many respects excellent."— iB«^>t«r»ni^. CROSBY LOCK WOOD S' SON'S CATALOGUE. THE RECLAMATION OF LAND FROM TIDAL WATERS. A Handbook for Engineers, Landed Proprietors, and others interested in Works of Reclamation. By A. Beazeley, M.Inst. C.E. 8vo, cloth. JVei 1C/6 " The book shows in a concise way what has to be done in reclaiming land from the sea, and the best way of doing it. The work contains a great deal of practical and useful information which cannot fail to be of ser\'ice to engineers entrusted with the enclosure of salt marshes, and to land- owners intending to reclaim land from the sea." — The Eng^7icer. " The author has carried out his task efficiently and well, and his book contains a large amount of information of great service to engineers and others interested in works of reclamation." — Nature. MASONRY DAMS FROM INCEPTION TO COMPLETION. Including numerous Formulae, Forms of Specification and Tender, Pocket Diagram of Forces, &c. For the use of Civil and Mining Engineers. By C. F. Courtney, M. Inst. C.E. 8vo, cloth 9/0 " Contains a good deal of valuable data. Many useful suggestions will be found in the remarks on site and position, location of dam, foundations and construction." — Building News. RIVER BARS. The Causes of their Formation, and their Treatment by " Induced Tidal Scour " ; with a Description of the Successful Reduction by this Method of the Bar at Dublin. By I. J. Mann, Assist. Eng. to the Dublin Port and Docks Board. Royal 8vo, cloth 7, 6 " We recommend all Interested in harbour works— and. Indeed, those concerned In the hnprovements of rivers generally— to read Mr. Manns interesting vior)s.." —Engineer. TRAMWAYS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive Analysis of the Various Modes of Traction, including Horse Powei, Steam, Cable Traction, Electric Traction, &c. ; a Description of the Varieties of Rolling Stock ; and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses. New Edition, Thoroughly Revised, and Including the Progress recently made in Tramway Construction, &c., &c. By D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. With 400 Illustrations. 8vo, 780 pp., buckram. 28/0 " The new volume is one which will rank, among tramway engineers and those interested in tramway working, with the Authors world-famed book on railway machinery." — Tke Engineer. SURVEYING AS PRACTISED BY CIVIL ENGINEERS AND SURVEYORS. Including the Setting-out of Works for Construction and Surveys Abroad, with many Examples taken from Actual Practice. A Handbook for use in the Field and the Office, intended also as a Text-book for Students. By John White- law, Jun., A.M. Inst. C.E., Author of " Points and Crossings." With about 260 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth Net 10/6 " This work is written with admirable lucidity, and will certainly be found of distinct value both to students and to those engaged in actual practice."— 7"/ttf Builder. PRACTICAL SURVEYING. A Text-Book for Students preparing for Examinations or for Survey-work in the Colonies. By George W. Usill, A.M. I. C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged, by Ale.\' Beazeley, M. Inst. C E. With 4 Lithographic Plates ana 360 Illustrations. Large crown 8vo, 7/6 cloth ; or, on Thin Paper, leather, gilt edges, rounded corners, 'or pocket use [Just Pid'HsIit'd. 12/6 " The best forms of instruments are described as to their construction, uses and modes of employment, and there are innumerable hints on work and equipment such as the author. In his experience as surveyor, draughtsman and teacher, has found necessary, and which the student In his inexperience will find most serviceable." — Engineer. "The first book which should be put in the hands of a pupil of Civil Engineeriig."— ArchiUci. AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE. For Reference in Surveying, Levelling, and Setting-out ; aiid in Route Sur- veys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, and Records. By L. D'A. Jackson, A.M.I. C.E. Second Edition. 8vo, cloth . 12/6 " Mr. Jackson has produced a valuable vade-mec-um for the surveyor. We can recommend this book as containing an admirable supplement to the teaching of the accomplished surveyor."— Athtnteum. " The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience wblcb, aided by a clear and lucid style of wrltinz, renders the book a very useful oae."—£uild*r. CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &c. 13 SURVEYING WITH THE TACHEOMETER. A practical Manual for the use of Civil and Military Engineers and Surveyors. Including tv/o series of Tables specially computed for the Reduction of Readings in Sexagesimal and in Centesimal Degrees. By Neil Kennedy, M.Inst. C.E. With Diagrams and Plates. Second Edition. Demy 8vo, cloth. Uust Published. Net 10/6 " The work is very clearly written, and should remove all difficulties in the way of any surveyor 'Icsirous of making use of this useful and rapid instrument."— A^arw*-*. ENGINEER'S & MINING SURVEYOR'S FIELD BOOK. Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and plotting the work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Setting-out Curves with and without the Theodolite, Earthwork Tables, &c. By W, Davis Haskoll, C.E. With numerous Woodcuts. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth 1 2/0 ■' The book Is very handy ; the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same.." —Athenaum, LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING. In Reference to the Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways ; Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies ; Docks and Harbours. With Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Large crown 8vo, cloth . . .9/0 " This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation In recom- mending it. feeUng assured that it will more than repay a careful study."— Mechanical IVorld. " A most useful book for the student. We can strongly recommend it as a carefully-written and vEiluable text-book. It enjoys a well-deserved repute among surveyors."— ^«»7<^r. PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING. Shov/ing its Application to Purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr. Telford's Rules for the same. By Frederick W. SiMr4S, M. Inst. C.E. Eighth Edition, with Law's Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Ciurves, and Trautwine's Field Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo 8/6 " The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and coMeges."—En£^neer. "The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the youriger members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful -wox):^"— Engineering. AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. For the Formation of Geographical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Mili- tary Reconnaissance, LEVELLING, &c., with Useful Problems, Formulae, and Tables. By Lieut. -General Frome, R.E. Fourth Edition, Revised and partly Re-written by Major-General Sir Charles Warren, G.C.M.G., R.E. With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, cloth . . . . 1 6/0 " No words of praise from us can strengthen the position so well and so steadily maintained by this woric Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and made such additions as were necessary to bring every portion of the contents up to the present d.a.\.&."— Broad Arrow. TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES. For Setting-out Curves from 5 to i2oo Radius. By A. Beazeley, M.Inst.C.E. 6th Eauion, Revised. With an Appendix on the use of the Tables for Measuring up Curves. Printed on 50 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat- pocket size 3/6 " Each table is printed on a small card, which, placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands free to manipulate the instrument — no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work." — Engineer. " Very handy : a man may know that all his day s work must fall on two of these cards, which he puts Into his own card-case, and leaves the rest hehmd."— A (h€noo)t.%." —BuUder , i6 CROSBY LOCK WOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE. ENGINEERING STANDARDS COM- MITTEE'S PUBLICATIONS. The Engineering Standards Committee is the outcome of a Committee appointed by the Institution of Civil Engineers at the instance of Sir John Wolfe Barry, K.C.B., to inquire into the advisability of Standardising Rolled Iron and Steel Sections. The Committee is supported by the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the Institution of Naval Architects, the Iron and Steel Institute, and the Institution of Electrical Engineers ; and the value and importance of its labours has been emphatically recognised by His Majesty's Government, who have made a liberal grant from the Pubhc Funds by way of contribution to the financial resources of the Committee, The subjects already dealt with, or under consideration by the Com.mittee, include not only Rolled Iron and Steel Sections, but Tests for Iron and Steel Material used in the Construction of Ships and their Machinery, Bridges and General Building Construction, Railway Rolling Stock Underframes, Component Parts of Locomotives, Railway and Tramway Rails, Electrical Plant, Insulating Materials, Screw Threads and Limit Gauges, Pipe Flanges, Cement, &c. Reports already Published : — 1. BRITISH STANDARD SECTIONS {9 lists). Angles, Equal and Unequal.— Bulb Angles, Tees and Plates.— Z AND T I'.ARS.— Channels.— Beams, iVei 1/0 2. BRITISH STANDARD TRAMWAY RAILS AND FISH PLATE5: STANDARD SECTIONS AND SPECIFICATION. Aei 21/0 3. REPORT ON THE INFLUENCE OF GAUGE LENGTH AND SECTION OF TEST BAR ON THE PERCENTAGE OF ELONGATION. By Professor W. C. Unwin, F.R.S. Nei 2/6 4. PROPERTIES OF STANDARD BEAMS. (Included in A"o. 6.) Net 1 /O 6. PROPERTIES OF BRITISH STANDARD SECTIONS. Diagrams, Definitions, Tables, and Formulae. Net BQ 7. BRITISH STANDARD TABLES FOR COPPER CON- DUCTORS AND THICKNESSES OF DI-ELECTRIC. Net 2 6 8. BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR TUBU = LAR TRAMWAY POLES. Net 5/0 9 BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION AND SEC= TIONS FOR BULL-HEADED RAILWAY RAILS. Net 1C/6 ic. BRITISH STANDARD TABLES OF PIPE FLANGES. ^'ct 2/6 11. BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION AND SEC= TIONS OF FLAT= BOTTOM ED RAILWAY RAILS. Net 10/6 12. BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR PORT= LAND CEMENT. Net 2/8 13. BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR STRUC= TURAL STEEL FOR SHIPBUILDING. Net 2/6 14. BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR STRUC- TURAL STEEL FOR MARINE BOILERS. . Net 2/6 MARINE ENGINEERING. NAVIGATION, ^c, 17 MARINE ENGINEERING, SHIPBUILDING, NAVIGATION, ETC. MARINE ENGINES AND BOILERS. Their Design and Construction. A Handbook for the Use of Students, Engineers, and Naval Constructors. Based on tlie Work " }- erechnung und Konstruktion der Schiffsmaschinen und Kessel," b}' Dr. G. Bauer, Engineer- in-Chier' of the Vulcan Shipbuilding Yard, Stettin. Translated from the Second German Edition \>y E. M. Donkin, and S. D*yan Donkin, A.M.I.C.E. Edited bj" Leslie S. Robertson, Secretary to the Engineering Standards Committee, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., M.I.N.A.,&c. With numerous Illustrations and Tables. Medium 8vo, cloth. \.Just Published. 26 ■ ^'^i- Summary of CuNitMS:— PAr<.T I.— MAIN ENGINES.— Determimation of v-YLin- DER Dimensions —The Utilisation of Steam in the Hnuine —Stroke of piston. -Number of REvoLUTIoN^.— Turning Moment.- Balancing of the moving Parts. —Arrangement of Main Engines.— Details t'f Main Engine'^.— The Cylinuf.r.— Valves.— Various Kinds of Valve Gear. -Pisto^- Rods.— PISTON^.— Connecting Rod A^D Cro^shead. —Valve Gear Rod?.— Bed Plates. — Engine C 'li mns,— RtVER INGAND TURNING OeaR. PART II.— PU M PS.— AlR, CiR' I'LATING FEED. AND ArxLIARYP MPS. PART III. — SHAFTING, K ESISTANCE OF SHIPS. PROPELLERS — Thru-t Shaft and Thru.-t Block.— Tunnel Shafts aind lum.mer Buocks.— Shaft Couplings.— Stfkn TUBE.— 1 HH S r-w Pkopvllek.— Cons ruction of the screw, part IV.-PIPES and CONNECTIONS.-GENhRAL REMARKS, FLANGtS, Valvfs, TR UMENTS. PART VII.— VARIOUS DETAILS.— Bolts, Nuts, screw thread-, &c.- Platforms, cratings, LaijDer.--.- Found .tion^. — seatings. — Lubricatiov. — Veniilation of Engine Rooms.— RULES for spare Gear, part viii.— additional tables. THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S POCKET-BOOK Of Formuise. Rules, and Tables, and Marine Engineer's and Surveyor's Handy Book of Reference. By Clement Mackrow, M.I.N. A. Eighth Edition, carefully Revised and Enlarged. Fcap., leather . . . Net 12/6 Summary of Contents:- sions and symbols, Decimal Fractions.— Trigo- NOMEIRY.— practical GEOMETRY.— MENSURATION.— CENTRES AND MOMENTS OF Figures. -Moments of Inertia and Radii Gyration.— algebraical Expressions FOR SIMPSONS Rules.— Mechanical Principles.— Centre of Gravity.— Laws of motion. -Displacement, Centre of Buoyancy.— Centre of Gravity of Ships Hull.— stability Curves and Metacentres.— Sea and Shallow-water Waves. —Rolling jf Ships.— Propulsion and Resistance of Vessels.— Speed Trials.— Sailing, Centre of Effort.— distances down Rivers, Coast Lines.— Steering and Rudders of Vessels.— Launching Calculations a-Nd Velocities.— Weight of Material and Gear. — Gun Particulars and Weight.— standard Gauges.— Riveted joints and Riveting.— Strength and Tests of Materials.— Binding AND Shearing stresses. —Strength of Shafting, Pillars, wheels, &c. — Hydraulic Data, &c. — Conic Sections, Catenarian Curves. — Mechanical Powers, work.— Board of Trade Regula.tions for boilers and engines.— Board of Trade Regulations for Ships.— Lloyd s Rules for Boilers.— Lloyd s weight of Chains.— Lloytj's scantlings for Ships.— Data of Engines and Vessels.— Ships' Fittings and Tests.— Seasoning Preserving Timber.— Measurement of Timber.— Alloys, Paints, Varnishes.— Data for Stowage.— Admiralty Trans- port Regulations. — Rules for Horse-power, Screw Propellers, &c.— Per- centages FOR butt straps.— Particulars of Yachts.— Masting and Rigging. — Distances OF Foreign ports. — Tonnai^f Tables.— vocabulary of French and English Terms.— English weights and Measures.— foreign w eight- and Mea- sures.— Decimal Equivalents.— Useful Numbers.— Circular Measures.— areas of and Circumferences of Circles.- areas of segments of Circles.— Tables of Squares and Cubes ane roots of numbers.— Tables of Logarithms of Num- bers.— Tables of Hyper riOLic Logarithms.— Tables of Natural Sines, Tangents, -Tables of logarithmic Sines, Tangents, &c. " In these days of advanced knowledge a work like this is of the greatest value. It contains a vast Eimount of information. We unhesitatingly say that it is the most valuable compilation for its specific purpose that has ever been printed. No naval architect, engineer surveyor, seametn, wood or iron shipbuilder, can aiford to be without this work." — Nautica. Magazine. "Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or design of vessels. . . . Will be found to contain the most useful tables and formulae required by shipbuilders, collected 'rom the nest authorities, and put together in a popular and simple form. It is of exceptional merit." — Etigineer . ".\ pocket-book of this description must be a necessity in the ship ouilding trade. It con- tains a mass of useful information clearly expressed and presented in a handy iorta.'— Marine En^itt€tr. 1 8 CROSBY LOCK WOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE. WANNAN'5 MARINE ENQINEER'5 GUIDE To Board of Trade Examinations for Certificates of Competency. Containing all Latest Questions to Date, with Simple, Clear, and Correct Solutions ; 302 Elementary Questions with Illustrated Answers, and Verbal Questions and Answers ; complete Set of Drawings with Statements completed. By A. C. Wannan.C.E., Consulting Engineer, and E. W. I. Wannan, M.I.M.E., Certificated First Class Marine Engineer. With numerous Engravings. Third Edition, Enlarged. 500 pages. Large crown 8vo, cloth . . -^ei "iOlQ " The book is clearly and plainly written and avoids unnecessarj- explanations and formulas and we consider it a valuable book for students of marine engineering. —A'awrtVra/ Magazine. WANNAN'S MARfNE ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. Containing Latest Board of Trade Rules and Data for Marine Engineers. By A. C. Wannan. Third Edition, Revised, Enlarged, and Brought up to Date. Square i8mo. with thumb Index, leather 6-0 "There is a grreat deal of useful information in this little pocket-book. It is of the rule-of- thumb order, and 13, on that account, well adapted to the uses of the sea-going engineer."— Engineer, THE SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY OF GERMANY. Compiled and Edited by G. LEHiMANN-FELSKOWSKi. With Coloured Prints, Art Supplements, and numerous Illustrations throughout the text. Super- royal 410, cloth JVc^lOiG SEA TERMS, PHRASES, AND WORDS (Technical Dictionary of) used in the English and French Languages (English- French, French-English). For the Use of Seamen, Engineers, Pilots. Shipbuilders, Shipowners, and Ship-brokers. Compiled by W. Pirrie, late of the African Steamship Company. Fcap. 8vo, cloth limp . . 5/0 " This volume will be highly appreciated by seamen, engineers, pilots, shipbuilders and ship- owners. It will be found wonderfully accurate and complete." — Scotsman. MARINE ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. Consisting of useful Tables and Formulae. By Frank Proctor, A.I.N..\. Third Edition. Royal samo, leather 4/0 " We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt viant."— Naval Science. " A most useful companion to all marine engineers." — United Service Gazette, ELEMENTARY MARINE ENGINEERING. A Manual for Young Marine Engineers and Apprentices. By J. S. Brewer. Crown Svo, cloth 16 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. Consisting of The Sailor's Sea-Book, by J. Greenwood and W. H. Rosser ; with Mathematical and Nautical Tables for Working the Problems, by H. Law, C.E., and Professor J. R. Young. lamo, half-bound . 7/0 THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKING. By Samuel B. Sadler, Practical Sailmaker, late in the employment of Messrs. Ratsey and Lapthorne, of Cowes and Gosport. Plates. 4to, cloth. 12/6 " This extremely practical work gives a complete education in all the branches of the manu- facture, cutting out, roping, seaming, and goring. It is copiously illustrated, and will form a first- rate text-book and guide." — Portsmouth. Titnes. CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS. Comprising Sizes and Curves of Links, Studs, &c.. Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of Cables and Chains, Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables and Chains, Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing, List of Manufacturers of Cables. &c., &c. By Thomas W. Traill, F.E.R.N., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer-Surveyor-in-Chief, Board of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable and Anchor Proving Establishments, and General Superintendent, Lloyd's Committee on Proving Establishments. With numerous Tables, Illustrations, and Lithographic Drawings. Folio, cloth . J32 2s< " It c mtalns a vast amount of valuable laformatlon. Nothing seems to be wanting to make it a complete and standard work of reference on the subject,"— A^aw/ica/ Atag-azine, MINING, METALLURGY, S- COLLIERY WORKING, ig MINING, METALLURGY, AND COLLIERY WORKING. THE OIL FIELDS OF RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN PETROLhUM INDUSTRY. A Practical Handbook on the Exploration, Exploitation, and Management of Russian Oil Properties, including Notes on the Origin of Petroleum in Russia, a Description of the Theory and Practice of Liquid Fuel, and a Translation of the Rules and Regulations concerning Russian Oil Properties. By A. Beeby Thompson, A.M.I.M.E., late Chief Engineer and Manager of the European Petroleum Company's Russian Oil Properties. About 500 pp. With numerous Illustrations and Photographic Plates, and a Map of the Balakhany-Saboontchy-Romany Oil Field. Super-royal 8vo, cloth. {Just Published. iV^^ £3 3s. MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINES. A Practical Treatise for Mining Engineers, Metallurgists, and Managers of Mines. By E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. 600 pp. With Folding Plates and other Illustrations. Medium 8vo, doth .... iV^Jf 25/0 " Deals exhaustively with the many and complex details which go to make up the sum total of machinery and other requirements for the successful working of metalliferous mines, and as a book of ready reference is of the highest value to mine managers and directors." — Mining Jour-iial. THE DEEP LEVEL MINES OF THE RAND, And their Future Development, considered from the Commercial Point of View. By G. A. Denny (of Johannesburg). M.N.E. I.M.E., Consulting Engineer to the General Mining and Finance Corporation, Ltd., of London, Berlin, Paris, and Johannesburg. Fully Illustrated with Diagrams and Folding Plates. Royal 8vo, buckram AV^ 25/0 *' Mr. Denny by confining himself to the consideration of the future of the deep-level mines of the Rand breaks new ground, and by dealing with the subject rather from a commercial stand- point than from a scientific one, appeals to a wide circle of readers. The book cannot fail to prove of very great value to investors in South Airican mines." — Mining yournal. PROSPECTING FOR GOLD. A Handbook of Practical Information and Hints for Prospectors based on Personal Experience. By Daniel J. Rankin, F. R.S.G.S , M.R.A S., formerly Manager of the Central African Company, and Leader of African Gold Pros- pecting Expeditions. With Illustrations specially Drawn and Engraved for the Work. Fcap. 8vo, leather Net 7/6 "This well-compiled book contains a collection of the richest gems of useful knowledge for the prospector s benefit. A special table is given to accelerate the spotting at a glance of minerals associated with gold." — Mining yotirnal. THE METALLURGY OF GOLD. A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. Eissler, M, Inst. M.M. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. With over 300 Illustrations and numerous Folding Plates. Medium 3vo, cloth .... Net 21/0 " This Dook thorougnly deserves its title ot a ' Practiced Treatise.' The whole process 01 gold mining, from the breaking of the quartz to the assay of the bullion, is described in clear and orderly narrative and with much, but not too much, fulness of detail. ' — :^alurday Remcw. THE CYANIDE PROCESS OF GOLD EXTRACTION. And its Practical Application on the Witwatersrand Gold Fields and elsewhere. By M. Eissler, M. Inst. M.M. With Diagrams and Working Drawings. Thiid Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth .... A'ci 7/6 "This book is lust what was needed to acquaint mining men with the actual working of a process which is not only the icost popular, but is, as a general rule, the most successful for the extraction 01 gold from tailings.'— .^twin^- Joumai, DIAMOND DRILLING FOR GOLD & OTHER MINERALS. A Practical Handbook on the Use of Modern Diamond Core Drills in Pro- specting and Exploiting Mineral-Bearing Properties, including Particulars of the Costs of Apparatus and Working. By G. A. Denny, M.N.E. Inst. M.E., M Inst. M.M. Medium 8vo, 168 pp., with Illustrative Diagrams . 12/6 " Tnere is certainly scope for a work on diamond drilling, and Mr. Denny deserves grateful recognition for supplying a decided want."— Mining "Journal, CROSBY LOCK WOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE. GOLD ASSAYING. A Practical Handbook, giving the Modiis Operandi for the Accurate Assay of Auriferous Ores and Bullion, and the Chemical Tests required in the Processes of Extraction \>y Amalcamation, Cyanidation, and Chlorination. With an Appendix of Tables and btatistirs. By H. Joshua Phillips, F. I.C, F.C.S., Assoc. Inst C.E., Author of " Engineering Chemistry," etc. With Numerous Illustrations. Large Crown 8vo, cloth. {Just Published^ Ketf^Q FIELD TESTING FOR GOLD AND SILVER. A Practical Manual for Prospectors and Miners. By W. H. Merritt, M N.E. Inst. M.E., A.R.S.M., &c. With Photographic Plates and other Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, leather Net 6/0 "As an instructor of prospectors' classes Mr. Merritt has the advantage of knowing exactly th«- infnmiation likely to be most valuable to the miner in the field. The contents cover all the details of sampling and testing gold and silver ores. A useful addition to a prospector s kit." — Mining' journal. THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK. A Guide for the Prospector and Traveller in search of Metal-Bearing or other Valuable Minerals. By J. W. Anderson, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S. Tenth Edition. Small crown 8vo, 3/6 cloth ; or, leather .... 4/6 " Will supply a much-ielt want, especially among Colonists, In whose way are so often thrown many mineralogical specimens the value of which it is difficult to determine. "—En£'ineer. " How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they are found, are the leading points to which attention is directed." — Minine youmal, THE METALLURGY OF SILVER. A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation of Silver Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Silver Bullion. By M. EissLER, M. Inst. M.M Third Edition. Crowrn Svo, cloth . 10/6 " A practical treatise, and a technical work which we are convinced will supply a long-felt want amongst practical men, and at the same time be of vcdue to students and others indirectly connected with the industries." — Mining youmal. THE HYDRO=METALLURGV OF COPPER. Being an Account of Processes Adopted in the Hydro-Metallurgical Treat- ment of Cupriferous Ores, Including the Manufacture of Copper Vitriol, with Chapters on the >our< es of Suppij of Copper and the Roasting of Copper Ores. By M. EissLER, M. Inst. M.M. Bvo, cloth .... Net 1 2/6 " In this volume the various processes for the extraction of copper by wet methods are fully detailed. Costs are givf-n wh> n a' ailable, and a great deal cf useful informati n abi ut the copiier industry of the world is presented in an interesting and attractive manner." — MiniuQ- jfotirv.ai.. THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD. A Practical Treatise on the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of Lead Bullion. Including Reports on various Smelting Establishments and Descriptions of Modern Smelting Furnaces and Plants in Europe and America. By M. EissLER, M. Inst. M.M. Crown 8vo, cloth .... 12/6 " The numerous metallurgical processes, which are fully and extensively treated of, embrace all the stages experienced in the passage of the lead from the various natural states to its issue from the refinery as an article of commerce." — Practical Engineer. METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S. Sixth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged by his Son, E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. 6oo pp., with 173 Illustrations. Large crown 8vo, cloth l\et 1 2/6 " Neither the practical miner nor the general reader, Interested in mines, can have a better book for his companion and his guide." — Mining youmal, EARTHY AND OTHER MINERALS AND MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Author of " Metalliferous Minerals," &c. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged by his Son, E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. With about 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 12/6 " We do not remember to have met with any English work on mining matters that contains the saune amount of information packed in equally convenient iona.."— Academy. BRITISH MINING. A Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical Development, and Futiue Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United Kingaom. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S., late Keeper of Mining Records. Upwards of 950 pp.. wi h 230 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal 8vo, cloth £2 2s. MINING, METALLURGY, S* COLLIERY WORKING. 2i POCKET-BOOK FOR MINERS AND METALLURGISTS. Comprising Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Notes for Use in Field and OfiSce Work. By F. Danveks Power, F.G.S., M.E. Second Edition, Corrected. Fcap. 8vo, leather 9/0 "This excellent book Is an admirable example of its kind, and ought to find a large sale amongst English-speaking prospectors and mining engineers."— Eft£ineerinsf. THE MINER'S HANDBOOK. A Handy Book of Reference on the subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining Operations, Ore Dressing, &c. For the Use of Students and others interested in Mining Matters. Compiled by John Milne, F.R.S., Professor of Mining in the Imperial University of Japan. Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo, leather 7/6 " Professor Milne's handbook is sure to be received with favour by all connected v/ith mining, and will be extremely popular among students."— A thenaum. IRON ORES of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. Their Mode of Occurrence, Age and Origin, and the Methods of Searching for and Working Them. With a Notice of some of the Iron Ores of Spain. By J. D. Kendall, F.G.S., Mining Engineer. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 16/0 MINE DRAINAGE. A Complete Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery. By Stephen Michell. Second Edition, Re-written and Enlarged. With 250 Illustrations. Royal Svo, cloth . Net 25/0 HORIZONTAL PUMPING ENGINES.— ROTARY AND NON-ROTARY HORIZONTAL engines.— Si.MPLE and Compound Steam Pumps.— VERTICAL PUMPING ENGINES.— Rotary and Non-Rotary Vertical Engines.— Simple and Compound Steam PUMPS. — Triple-Expansion Steam Pumps. — Pulsating Steam Pumps. — Pump Valves.— Sinking Pumps, &c., &c. " This volume contains an immense amount of Important and interesting new matter. The book should undoubtedly prove of great use to Eill who wish for information on the sub- ject." — The Engineer. ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO MINING. By Arnold Lupton, M.Inst.C.E., M I.M.E., M.I.E.E., late Professor of Coal Mining at the Yorkshire College, Vii toria University, Minins Engineer and Colliery Manager; G. D. Aspinall Parr, ISI.I E.E., A.M.I.M.E., Associate of the Central Technical College, City and G ilds o<" London. Head of the Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire College, Victoria University ; and Herbert Perkin, M.I. M.E. . Certificated Colliery Manager, Assistant Lecturer in the Mining Department of the Yorkshire College, Victoria University. With about 170 Illustrations. Medium Svo, cloth. Net 9/0 (For Summary of contents, see page 23.) THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK. A Comprehensive Treatise on the Laying-out and Working of Collieries, Designed as a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the Use of Coal- Mining Students preparing for First-class Certificates. By Caleb Pamelv, Mining Engineer and Surveyor ; Member of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers ; and Member of the South Wales Institute of Mining Engineers. With over 1,000 Diagrams, Plans, and other Illustra- tions. Fifth Edition, Carefully Revised and Greatly Enlarged. 1,2.-0 pp. Medium Svo, cloth. {Just fublished. Net £1 5 s. Geology.— Search for Coal.— Mineral Leases and other Holdings.— Shaft Sinking.— Fitting Up the Shaft and Surface arrangements.— Steam Boilers and their Fittings.— Timbering and Walling.- Narrow work and Methods of working. — Underground Conveyance. - Drainage.— the Gases met with in Mines ; Ventilation. — On the Friction of air in Mines. — The Priestman Oil Engine ; Petroleum and Natural Gas. - Surveying and Planning.— Safety Lamps and Firedamp Detectors.— Sundry and Incidental Operations and appliances.— Colliery Explosions.— Miscellaneous questions and answers.— ^«>;>mrfjjf; Summary of Report of H.M. Commissioners on accidents in Mines. " Mr. Pamely s work is eminently suited to the purpose for which it is intended, being clear, Interesting, exhaustive, rich in detail, and up to date, giving descriptions of the latest machines in every department. A mining engineer could scarcely go wrcng who followed this work." — Colliery Guardxari. ■'Mr. Pamely has not only §iven us a comprehensive reference book of a very high order suitable to the requirements of mming engineers and colliery managers, but has also provided mining students with a clciss-book that is as interesting jis it is instructive."— Ct^/Zi^ry Manager. " This is the most complete • ail-round work on coal-mtning published in the English language. ... No library of coal-mining books Is complete without it,"— Co!li€ry Engineer (Scranton, Pa., U.S.A.). CROSBY LOCK WOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. PRACTICAL COALMINING. An Elementary Class-Brok for the Use of Students attendin.2; Classes in Pre- paration for the Board of Education and County Council Examinations, or Qualifying for First or Second Class Col!ier\' Managers' Certificates. By T. H. CocKiN, Member of the Institution of Mining Engineers, Certificated Colliery Manager, Lecturer on Coal-Mining at Sheffield University College. With Map of the British Coal-fields and over 2co Illustrations specially Drawn and Engraved for the Work. Crown 8vo, 440 pp. [/if si Published. Net 4 6 COLLIERY WORKING AND MANAQEMENT. Comprising the Duties of a Colliery Manager, the Oversight and Arrange* ment of Labour and Wages, and the diflferent Systems of Working Coal Seams. By H. F. Bulman and R. A. S. Redmayne. 350 pp., with 28 Plates and other Illustrations, including Underground Photographs. Medium 8vo, cloth. "J 5/0 " This Is, indeed, an admirable Handbook (or Colliery Managers, in fact it is an indispensable adjunct to a Colliery Manager's education, as well as being a most useful and interesting work on the subject for all v/ho in any way have to do wth coal mining. The underground photographs are an attractive feature of the work, being very lifelike and necessarily true representations of the scenes they depict." — Colliery Guardian. " Mr. Bulman and Mr. Redmayne, are to be congratulated on having supplied an authorita- tive work dealing with a side of the subject of coal mining which has hitherto received but scant treatment. The illustrations are excellent."— Aar«r«. COAL AND COAL MINING. By the late Sir Warington W. Smvth, M.A„ F.R.S. Eighth Edition. Revised and Extended by T. Forster Brown, Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. Crown Svo, cloth. . 3/6 " As an outline is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of the principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers."— Mining journal. N0TE5 AND FORMULAE FOR MINING STUDENTS. By John Herman Merivale, M.A., Late Professor of Mining in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. By H. F. Bulman, A.M.Inst.C.E. Small crown Svo, cloth. 2/6 "The author has done his work In a creditable manner, and has produced a book that will be of service to students and those who are practically engaged in mining operations." — Engineer, INFLAMMABLE GAS AND VAPOUR IN THE AIR (The Detection and Measurement of). By Frank Clowes, D.Sc, Lond., F.I.C. With a Chapter on The Detection and Measurement of Petro- leum Vapour, by Boverton Redwood, F.R.S. E. Crown Svo, cloth. Net 5/0 " Professor Clowes has given us a volume on a subject of much industrial importance . . . Those Interested in these matters may be recommended to study this book, which is easy of compre- hension and contains many good things."— TA^ Engineer. COAL & IRON INDUSTRIES of the UNITED KINGDOM. Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Principal Seams ot Coal, with Returns of their Produce and its Distribution, and Analyses of Special Varieties. Also, an Account of the Occurrence of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams ; Analyses of each Variety ; and a History of the Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture. By Richard Meade. Svo, cloth . £1 8s. ' ' A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from his library." — Iron and Coal Trades Review. ASBESTOS AND ASBESTIC. Their Properties, Occurrence, and Use. By Robert H. Jones, F.S.A., Mineralogist, Hon. Mem. Asbestos Club, Black Lake, Canada. With Ten Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Demy Svo, cloth. . 16 " An interesting and invaluable ytot^a."— Colliery Guardian. GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES. By George F. Harris, F.G.S. With Illustrations. Crown Svo, cloth 2/6 TRAVERSE TABLES. For use in Mine Surveying. By William Lintern, CE. With two plates. Small crown Svo, cloth . . . . Ne^ 3/0 ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. S-c. 23 ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, ETC. THE ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. A First Year s Course for Students. By Tyson Sevvell, A.I.E.E., Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Electrical Engineering at the Polytechnic, Regent Street, London Second Edition, Revised, with Additional Chapters on Alternating Current Working, and Appendix of Questions and Answers. 45opages, with 274 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth .... Net 7IQ Ohm's Law.— units Employed in Electricai, Engineering. -Series and PARALLEL Circuits; current Density and Potential Drop in the Circuit.— The Heating effect of the Electric current.— The Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current.- The .magnetisation of iron.— Electro-chemistry ; primary BATTKRIES—ACCU.MULATORS.— indicating INSTRUMENTS; AMMETERS, VoLT.METERS, Oh.mmeters.— Electricity supply Meters.— Measuring instruments, and the MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. — MEASUREMENT OF POTENTIAL DIF- FERENCE, Capacity, Current Strength, and permeability.— arc Lamps.— Incan- descent LAMPS: Manufacture and installation; photometry. — The Con- tinuous Current Dyna.mo.— Direct current motors.— alternatin . Currents. — TRANSFOR.MERS, ALTERNATORS, SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS.— POLYPHASE WORKING.— APPENDIX OF QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. "An excellent treatise for students of the elementary facts connected with electrical engineering."— 7"Af£'/Vrt->-zV-:a?:. " One of the best books for those commencing the study of electncal engineenng. Every- thing is explained in simple language which even a beginner cannot fail to understand."— £«oi«f^r. " One welcomes this book, which is sound in its treatment, and admirably calculated to give students the knowledge and information they most require."— A'atuj-e. THE ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY. A Manual for the Design of Electrical Circuits. By Arthur Vaughan Abbott. C.E., Member --Vmerican Institute of Electrical Engineers, Member American Institute of Mining Engineers, Member American Society of Civil Engineers, Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers, &c. With Ten Folding Diagrams and Sixteen Full-page Engravings. Fourth Edition, entirely Re- Written and Enlarged. Royal 8vo. cloth. \Just Published. Net 30/0 CONDUCTORS FOR ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION. Their Materials and Manufacture, The Calculation of Circuits, Pole-Line Construction, Underground Working, and other Uses. By F. A.C. Persine, A.M., D.Sc ; formerly Profe5sor of Electrical Engineering, Leland Stanford, Jr., University ; M.Amer.I.E.E. 8vo, cloth .... Net ^Ql- CONDUCTOR M.-VTERIALS- ALLOYED CONDUCTORS— MANUFACTURE OF WIRE— AVtre-Finishing— Wire insulation— Cables— Calculation of Circuits— Kelvin's la.w of econo.my in conductors— multiple arc distribution— alternating Current Calculatio.n— Overhead Lines— Pole Lii^e— Line Insulators— Under- ground Conductors. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY; Its Origins, Development, Inventions, and Apparatus. By Charles Henry Skwall. With 85 Diagrams and Illustrations. Demy Bvo, cloth. Net 10/6 ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO MINING. By Arnold Lofton. M.Inst C.E., M.I M.E , M.I.E E., late Professor of Coal Mining at the Yorkshire C^^llege, Victoria University. Mining Engineer and Colliery Manager; G. D Aspinall Parr M.I. t.E., A M.I. M.E., Associate of the Cen ral Technical College. City and Guilds of London, Head of the Electrical Engineer ms^ Department, Yorkshire Colleiie, Victoria University, and Herbert Pekkin, M I.M E., Certificated Colliery Manager, Assistant Lectur-r m the Mining Department of the Yorkshire College, Victoria University. With about 170 lUustrai ions. Medium 8vo. t. loth. NetQl" INTRODUC'I ORY. — dynamic EuECTRICI i Y. — DRIVING OF THE DYNAMO. — THE Steam turbine.— Distribution of electrical energy.- Starting and Stopping ELECTRICAL Generator.- and Motors.— Elect ric Cables.— Central Electrical PLANTS.— Electricity applied to Pumping and Hauling.— Electricity applied to Coal-Cutting.— Typical Electric plants recently erected. — Electric lightlng by arc and glow l/imps- miscellaneous applications of electricity —Electricity as Compared with other modes of Transmitting power.— Dangers of Electricity, 24 CROSBY LOCK WOOD <5- SON'S CATALOGUE. DYNAMO, MOTOR AND SWITCHBOARD CIRCUITS FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS. A Practical Book dealing with toe subject of Direct, Alternating anH Poly- phase Currents. By William R. Bowker, C.E.. M.E., E.E., Consuming Tramway Engineer. 8vo, cloth. [Jusi Published. Net 6/0 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY: its CONSTRUC- TION, DESIGN, and OPERATION. By Samuel Sheldon, A M., Ph.D., Professor of Physics and Electrical Engineering at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklj'n, assisted by Hobart Mason, BS. In two volumes, sold separately, as follotvs :— Vol. L— DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES. Fifth Edition, Revi.sed. Large crown 8vo. 280 pag<=-s, with 200 Illustrations . . Net 1 2/0 Vol. II.— ALTERN\TING CURRENT MACHINES. Large crown 3vo 260 pages, with 184 lilu'^trations Net 1 2/0 Desisrned as Text-books tor us« in Technical Educational Institutions, and bv Engineers whose work includes the handline of Direct and Alternating Current Machines respectively, ami fox Students proficient in matliematics. ARMATURE WINDINGS OF DIRECT CURRENT DYNAMOS. Extension and Application of a General Winding Rule. By E Arnold, Engineer. As^ista-^t Professor in Electrorechnics and Machine Design at the Rit-a Polyt'^chnic Schiol Trans!; ted fronn the Original German bj' Francis B. De Gress. M.h., Chief of Tes'ing Department, Crocker- Wheeler Com- pany. Wi.h 146 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth . . . Net "X^l - ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC CALCULATIONS, For the Use of Elt^ctri^al Engineers and Artisans. Teacners. Students, and all other.s interested in the Theory and Applicatio.i of Electricity and Maanc-tism. Bv A. A. Atkinson, Professor of Electricity in Ohio Universitj'. Crown 8vo, cloth Net 9/0 "To teachers and those who already possess a fair knowledge of their subject we can recom- mend this book as being useful to consult when requiring data or forniulae which it is neither con- venient nor necessary to retain by memory."— 7"^^ Electrician. SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHS. Their History, Construction, and Working. Founded in part on WUnschen- dorff's " Traitd de Teldgraphie Sous-Marine," and Compiled from Authorita- tive and Exclusive Sources. ByCHARLE.s Bright, F.R.S.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E. 780 pp., fully Illustrated, including Maps and Folding Plates. Royal 8vo, cloth . Net £3 Ss. " There are few, if any, persons more fitted to write a treatise on submarine telegraphy than Mr. Charles Bright. He has done his work admirably, and has written in a way which will appecil as much to the layman as to the engineer. This admirable volume must, for many years to come, hold the position of the English classic on submarine telegraphy."— £«e-t««>^. " This book is full of information. It makes a book of reftrence which should be in every engineer's library." — Nat tire. THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. Consisting of Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Data. Bv H. R. Kempe. M.I.E.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., Technical Officer Postal Telegraphs, Author or "A Handbook of Electrical Testing," &c. Second Edition thoroughly Revised, with Additions. With numerous Illustrations. 32mo, leather 5/0 " It is the best book of its kind." — Electrical Enf^xncer. " The Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Eook is a good one." — Electrician. " Strongly recommended to those engaged iu the electrical industries."— Electrical Review. POWER TRANSMITTED BY ELECTRICITY. And applied by the Electric Motor, including Electric Railway Construction. By P. ATKTN.SON. A.M., Ph.D. Third Edition, Fully Revised, and New Matter added. With 94 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, clotn . . Net 9/0 DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. By Philip Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D., Author of "Elements of Static Electricity," &c. Crown Svo, 417 pp., with 120 Illustrations, cloth • 10;6 ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, S-c. 2- THE MANAGEMENT OF DYNAM05. A Handy book of Theory and Practice for the Use of Mechanics, Engineers, Students, and others in Charge of Dynamos. By G. W. Lummis-Paterson. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6 " The subject is treatea in a manner which any intelligent man who is fit to be entrusted wiih charge of an engine should be able to understand. It is a useful book to all who make, tend, or e'mploy electric machinery."— A rchitec:. HANDBOOK FOR THE USE OF ELECTRICIANS. In the Opsration and Care of Electrical Machinery and Apparatus of the U. S. Sea-Coast Defences. By Geo. L. Anderson, A.M., Captain U. S. Artillerj-. Prepared under the direction of the Lieutenant- General Commanding the U. S. Army. Roi-al 8vo, cloth . . . Nei 21 /O THE STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. A Popular Encyclopaedia of Words and Terms Used in the Practice of Electrical Engineering. Containing upwards of 3,000 definitions. By T. O'CoNOR Sloane, A.m., Ph.D. Third Edition, with Appendix. Crown 8vo, 690 pp., 3go Illustrations, cloth ^et 7/6 " The work has many attractive features In it, and Is, beyond doubt, a well put together and useful publication. The amount of ground covered may be gathered from the fact that in the index about 5,000 references will be found." —E/ectrical Review, ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING. A Handbook for Working Electrical Engineers, embodying Practical Notes on Installation Management. By J. W, Urquhart. With numerous Illustra- tions. Fourth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth. \. Just Published. 5 " This volume deals with the mechanics of electric lighting, and is addressed to men who are already engaged in the work, or are training for it. The work traverses a great deal of ground, and may be read as a sequel to the author's useful work on ' Electric U\%\A.''— Electrician. ELECTRIC LIGHT. Its Production and Use, Embodying Plain Directions or the Treatment of Dynamo-Electtic Machines, Batteries, Accumulators, and Electric Lamps. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Seventh Edition. Crown Bvo, cloth . 7/6 " The whole ground of electric lighting Is more or less covered cind explained in a very clear and concise manner. " — Electrical Revie-w. DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION. A Practical Handbook for the Use of Engineer-Constructors and Electricians- in -Charge. Embracing Framework BuUding, Field Magnet and Armature Winding and Grouping, Compounding, &c. By J. W. Urquhart. Second Edition, Enlarged, with 114 Illustrations. Crown Bvo, cloth . . 7/6 " Mr. Urquliart's book Is the first one which deals with these matters in such a way that the engineering studsnt can understand them. The book is very readable, and the author leads his readers up to difficult subiects by reasonably simple tests."— En£'ineerine' Review. ELECTRIC SHIP-LIGHTING. A Handbook on the Practical Fitting and Running of Ships' Electrical Plant. For the Use of Shipowners and Builders, Marine Electricians, and Seagoing Engineers-in-Charge. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Third Edition, Revised and Extended. With 88 Illu.strations, Crown 8vo, cloth . . . 7/6 " Mr. Urqunart is to be nighly complimented for placing such a valuable work at the service of marine electricians. " — The %tea.mship. ELECTRIC LIGHTING (ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF). By Alan A. Campbell Swinton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E. Fifth Edition. With 16 Illustrations. Crown Bvo, cloth 1/6 ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR COUNTRY HOUSES. A Practical Handbook on the Erection and Running of Small Installations, with Particulars of the Cost of Plant and Working. By J. H. Knight. Third Edition, Revised. Crown Bvo, wrapper I/O HOW TO MAKE A DYNAMO. -A. Practical Treatise for Amateurs. Containing Illustration* and Detailed Instructions for Constructing a Small Dynamo to Produce the Electric Light. By Alfred Crofts. Sixth Edition, Revised. Crovra 8vo, cloth . 2;0 THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. By H. M. NoAD, F.R.S. 650 pp., with 470 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. 9/0 26 CROSBY LOCKWOOD ^ SON'S CATALOGUE. ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC. SPECIFICATIONS IN DETAIL. By Frank W. Macey, Architect, Author «f " Conditions of Contract." Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, containing 644 pp., and 2.000 Illustra- tions. Roj-al Svo, cloth. [just Publtshed. AVi'21/0 Summary of contents:— General Notes (including points in specification Writing, The order of a Specification, and Notes on items often Omitted FROM A Specification).— Form of Outside Cover to a Specificat ion.— Specifica- tion c F Works and List of GE^ERAL Conditions.— Preliminary items (including Shoring and House Bkeaker).— Drainage (including Rain-water Wells and Reports).— Excavator (including Concrete Floors, roofs, Stairs, and Walls). —Pavior.— Bricklayer (r cluding Flintwork, River and other Walling. Spring- water Wells, Storage Ta>ks, Fountains, Filters, Terra Cotta and Faience).— Mason.— Carpenter, Joiner and Ironmonger (includimg Fevcing and Piliw;).— Smith and Fuunper (including Heating, F're Hydrants, stap.i e anp Cow-house FITTINGS'.— Slater (ixcLUDi.NG Slate Masoni.-Tilfr. —Stone Tilfr.- Shingler.— Thatcher. — Plumber (including Hot-water w orki. — Zincworker. — Copper- smith. — Plasterer. — GASHTTEh. — bellhanger. — Glazier.— Painter.— Paper- hanger. -General Repairs and Alterations.— Ventilation. — Road-making — Hleciric Lighting.— Index. PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. A Handbook for Students Preparing for Examinations, and a Book of Reference for Persons Engaged in Building. By John Parnell Allen, Surveyor, Lecturer on Building Construction at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, 570 pp., with over 1,000 Illustrations, cloth . . Net 7/6 " The most complete exposition of building construction we have seen. It contains all that is necessary to prepare students for the various examinations in building construction."— Building News. " The author depends nearly as much on his diagrams as on his type. The pages suggest the hand of a man of experience in building operations— and the volume must t>e a blessing to many teachers as well as to students." — The Architect. PRACTICAL MASONRY. A Guide to the Art of Stone Cutting. Comprising the Construction, Setting Out, and Working of Stairs, Circular Work, Arches, Niches, Domes, Penden- tives. Vaults, Tracery Windows, &c. ; to which are added Supplements relating to Masonry Estimating and Quantity Surveying, and to Building Stones and Marbles, and a Glossary of Terms. For the Use of Students, Masons, and Ciaft.'^men. By William R. Purchase, Building Inspector to the Borough of Hove. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. Royal 8vo, 226 pp., with 52 Lithographic Plates, comprising over 4(X) Diagrams, cloth. [Just Fublished. Net 7/6 " The book Is a practical treatise on the subject, the author himself ha\-ing commenced as an operative mason, and afterwards acted as foreman mason on mar.y large and important buildings prior to the attainment of his present position. Most of the examples given .nre from actu.il woric carried out. It should be found of general utility to architectural students and others, as well as to those to whom it is specially addressed." — Jcumal o/the Royal Institute 0/ British Architects. MODERN PLUMBING, STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING. A New Practical Work for the Plumber, the Heating Engineer, the Architect, and the Builder. By J. J. Lawler, Author of " American Sanitary Plumbing," &c. With 284 Illustrations and Folding Plates. 4to, cloth . Net 21/" HEATINQ BY HOT WATFR, VENTILATION AND HOT WATER 5UPPLV. By Walter Jones, M.l.M.E, 360 pagM, with 140 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth. {Just Published. Net GIO CONCRETE: ITS NATURE AND USES. A Book for Architects, Builders, Contractors, and Clerks of Works. By George L. Sutcliffe, A.R.I.B.A. Second Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. ^96 pp., with Illustrations. Crown 3vo. cloth. [//nt Published. Net 9/0 " The author treats a difficult subject in a lucid manner. The manual tills a long-felt gap. It Is careful and exhaustive ; equally useful as a student's guide and an architect s book of reference."— y«e Analysis of Sewage and Sewage EiHuents. Wiih numerous Illustrations and Diagrams. Demy Svo, c oth. \Just published. iS'et 10/8 Summary of Contents: — Sewage : its Nature and Composition. — thk Chemistry OF .Sewage.— Varieties OF Sewage a>ju theChaf am its Effects.— The Land Treat-memt of Sewage.— precipi- tatiom, Precipitavts. and Tamks.— The Liquefactiov of Sewage.— principles INVOLVED IV THE OXIDATIOV OF SEWAGE.— ARTIFICIAL PROCESS'S OF PURIFIC.\TIO V.— automatic Distributors and special Filters.- Particulars of Sewhrage and Sewage Disp isal Schw.mes requirkd bv Local Cover mm >i.NT Board.— Useful 'i:).\T\.—Apy>enciix: THb APPARATUS REQUIRED FOR SpWAGE ANALYSIS.- STANDARD Solutions used in the Method of Sc^wagh analysis.- 7"a*/« ; Estim.atio.n of Ammonia.— Nitrogen as Nitr.a.tes.— i^-'cueator Test, o.xvgen absorbed.— To CONVERT Grains per Gallon lo Parts per iao,ooo. THE HEALTH OFFICER'S POCKET-BOOK. A Guide to Sanitary Practice and Law. For Medical Officers of Health, Sanitary Inspectors, Members of Sanitary Authorities. &c. Bv Edward F. WiLLOUGHBY, M.D. (Lond.), &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Fcap. Svo. leather JVet 10/6 "A mine of condensed information of a pertinent and useful kind. The various subjects of which -t tr-ats b^.n/ succinctly but fully and scieatifi:aliy dealt viith."—The Lancet. " We recommend aU those engag-d in practical sanitarj- work to furnish themselves with a copy for reference." — Satiitary jfotirnal. WATER AND ITS PURIFICATION. A Handbook for the Use of Local Authorities, Sanitary Officers, and others interested in Water Supply. By S. Rideal, D.Sc. Lond., F.LC. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions, including numerous Illustrations and Tables. Large Crown Svo, cioth ......... Net 9/0 RURAL WATER SUPPLY. A Practical Handbook on the Supply of Water and Construction of Water- works for Small Country Districts. By Allan Greenwkll, A.M.I.C.E., andW. T. Curry, A.M.I.C.E. Revised Edition. Crown Svo, cloth 5/0 THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. By William Humber, A.M. Inst. C.E., and M.Inst. M.E. Imp. ^to. half- bound morocco. (See page II.) Net £6 6s. THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CON- STRUCTION OF WATER-W0RK5. By Professor W. K. Burton, A.M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, Revised and Extended. Royal Svo, cloth. (See page lo.) . . . . £1 5s. WATER ENGINEERING. A Practical Treatise on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisa- tion of Water for the Suppiy of Towns. By C. Slagg, A.M. Inst. C.E. 7/6 SANITARY WORK IN SMALL TOWNS AND VILLAGES. Bv Charles Slagg, A. M. Inst. C.E. Crown Svo, cloth . . . 3/0 PLUMBING. A Text-book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. By W. P. BucHAN. Ninth Edition, Enlarged, with 500 Illustrations. Crown Svo, 3/6 VENTILATION. A Text-book to the Practice of the Art of Ventilating Buildings. By W. P. BuCHAN, R.P. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 CARPENTRY, TIMBER, drc. 29 CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC. THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY. A Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resistance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the kinds of Wood used in Building ; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By Thomas Tredgold, C.E. With an Appendix of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron and Stone, Illus- trated. Seventh Edition, thoroughly Revised and considerably Enlarged by E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Author of "The Science of Building," &c. With 61 Plates, Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In One large Vol., 4to, cloth £1 Ss. " Ought to be in everj' architect's and every builder's library,"— 5 wiVrf^r. "A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever slcilful carpentry is concerned. The author s principles are rather confirmed than impaired by time. The additional plates are of great intrinsic value." — Building News. WOODWORKING MACHINERY. Its Rise, Progress, and Construction. With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and the Economical Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples of Recent Designs by leading English, French, and American Engineers. By M. Powis Bale, A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Second Edition, Revised, with large Additions, large crown 8vo, 440 pp., cloth .... 9,0 " Mr Bale is evidently an expert on the subject, and he has collected so much Information that his book is all-sufficient for builders and othersengagedin the conversion of timber," — Architect. "The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery we have seen. The author is a thorough master of his subject."— ,5Mi7rfi«^ News, SAW MILLS. Their Arrangement and Management, and the Economical Conversion of Timber. By M. Powis Bale, A.M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth 10'6 " The administration of a large sawing establishment is discussed, and the subject exammed from a financial standpoint. Hence the size, shape, order, and disposition of saw mills and the like are gone into in detail, and the course of the timber is traced from its reception to its delivery in its converted state. We could not desire a more complete or practical treatise." — Builder, THE CARPENTER'S GUIDE. Or, Book of Lines for Carpenters ; comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late Peter Nicholson's standard work. A New Edition, Revised by Arthur Ashpitel, F.S.A. Together with Practical Rules on Drawing, by George Pyne. With 74 Plates, 4to, cloth £1 1 s. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING. Showing New and Simple Methods for Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing the Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing-up, and Squaring the Wreath. By George CoLLiNGS. Revised and Enlarged, to which is added A Treatise on Stair-building. Third Edition. With Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, cloth, 2/6 " V.'ill be found of practical utilitj' in the execution of this difficult branch oi}omery."— Builder. " Almost every difficult phase of this somewhat intricate branch of joinery is elucidated by tlie aid of plates and explanatory leuer\}tess."— furniture Gazette. CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. A Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. Bv George Collings. With Diagrams. Fourth Edition, i2mo, cloth . 2/6 " An excellent example of what a book of this kmd should be. Cheap In price, clear in definition, and practical in the examples selected. "—Buiider. THE CABINET-MAKER'S GUIDE TO THE ENTIRE CONSTRUCTION OF CABINET WORK. By Richard Bitmead. Illustrated with Plans, Sections and Working Drawings. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 30 CROSBY LOCK WOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE. HANDRAILINQ COMPLETE IN EIGHT LESSONS. On the Square-Cut System. By J. S. Goldthorp, Teacher of Geometry and Building Construction at the Halifax Mechanics' Institute. With £i8:ht Plates and over 150 Practical Exercises. 4to, cloth .... 3/6 " Likely to be of considerable value to Joiners and others who take a pride In good work. The arrangetnent of the book is excellent. We heartily commend It to teachers and students."— Timier Trades yournaL. TIMBER MERCHANT'S and BUILDER'S COMPANION. Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measure- ment of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, and other Us' ful Tables for the use of Timber Merchants and Builders. By William Dowsing. Fourth Edition, Revised and Corrected. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/0 "We are ^lad to see a fourth edition of these admirable tables, which for correctness and simplicity of arrangement leave nothing to be desired."— r»>n*«;f Trades yourrial. THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT. Being a Guide for the Use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c., comprising useful Tables for all purposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of Timber, &c. By W. Richardson. Second Edition, Fcap. 8vo, cloth . 3/6 "This handy manual contains much valuable information for the use of timber merchants, builders, foresters, and all others connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of timber,"— Journal 0/ Forestry. PACKING-CASE TABLES. Showing the number of Superficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards. By W, Richardson, Timber Broker. Third Edition. Oblong 410, cloth 3/6 " Invaluable labour-saving tables." — Ironntong-er. " Will save much labour and calculation." — Grocer. GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEASUREMENT. Tables calculated from i to 200 inches in length by i to 108 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Svu-veyors, Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders, &c. By James Hawkings. Fifth Edition. Fcap., cloth. 3/6 "These tables will be found of great assistance to all who require to make calculations of superficial measurement." — English Mechanic. PRACTICAL FORESTRY. And its Bearing on the Improvement of Estates. By Charles E. Curtis, F.S.I., Professor of Forestry, Field Engineering, and General Estate Management, at the College of Agriculture, Downton. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 Prefatory Remarks. — Objects of Planting. — Choice of a Forester. — Choice of Soil .\nd Site.— Laying Out of Land for Plantations.— Preparation of the Ground for Planting. —Drainage.— Planting.— Distances and Distri- bution OF Trees in Plantations.— Trees and Ground Ga.me.— attention after Planting.— Thinning of plantations — pruning of Forest trees.— Realization. —Methods of Sale.— Measurement of Timber.— Measurement and Valuation of Larch plantation.— Fire Lines.— Cost of Planting. " Mr. Curtis has in the course of a series of short pithy chapters afforded much informa- tion of a useful and practical character on the planting and subsequent treatment of trees."— Illustrated Carpenter and Builder. THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY. Designed to aflford Information concerning the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament or Profit, with suggestions upon the Creation and Care of Woodlands. By F. B, Hough. Large crown Svo, cloth . . .10/0 TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, AND BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E. Grandv. Comprising :— An Analysis of Deal Standards, Home and Foreign, with Comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements for fixing Net Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c., &c ; together with copious Information for the Retailer and Builder. Thira Edition, Revised. i2mo, cloth 2/0 " Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, Siz."— English Mechanic, DECORATIVE ARTS, &<. 31 DECORATIVE ARTS, ETC. SCHOOL OF PAINTINQ FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS AND MARBLES. As Taught and Practised by A. R. Van der Burg and P. Van der Burg,' Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, i8§ by 12^ in., Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates ; also 12 plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Foturtb Edition cloth Net £1 5s. List of Plates. I. Various Tools required hOR wuou Painting.— 2, 3. walnut : preliminary Stages of graining and Finished Specimen. — 4. tools Used for .Marble Painting and Method of Manipulation.— 5, 6. St. Remi Marble; Earlier Operations and Finished Specimen. — 7. methods of sketching Different Grains, Knots, &c.— 8. 9. ash: preliminary Stages and Finished speci- men. — 10. Methods of Sketching Marble Grains. — h, 12. Brechb Marble ; preliminary Stages of working and Finished specimen.— 13. Maple ; Methods OF producing the Different Grains.— 14, 15. Birds-Eye Maple; Preliminary Stages and Finished specimen.— 16. Methods of Sketching the Differe.n't Species of white Marble.— 17, 18. White Marble ; Preliminary Stages of Process and Finished Specimen —19. Mahog.vny; specimens of Various Grains AND methods of MANIPULATION. —20, 21. MAHOGANY ; EARLIER STAGES AND Finished Specimen.— 22, 23, 24. Sienna Marble; Varieties of Grain, preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen.— 25, 26, 27. Juniper wood; Methods of Pro- ducing Grain, &c. ; Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen.— 28, 29, 30. Vert de mer marble; varieties of grain and methods of working, unfinished AND Finished Specimens.— 31, 32, 33. Oak ; Varieties of Grain, Tools E.mployed AND methods of MA.NIPULATION, PRELIMINARY STAGES AND FINISHED SPECIMEN.— 34. 35. 36. WAULSORT MARBLE; VARIETIES OF GRAIN, UNFINISHED AND FINISHED Specimens. " Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods and marbles will find advantage In consulting this book. . . . Some of the Working Men's Clubs should give their young men the opportunity to study it." — Builder. •' A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the processes, the manipulation and management of the colours, cind the beautifully executed plates will not be the least valuable to the student who aims at making his work a faithful transcript 01 nature. "—Buiiding^ News. " Students and novices are fortunate who are able to become the possessors of so noble a work."— TA* Architea. ELEMENTARY DECORATION. A Guide to the Simpler Forms of Everyday Art. Together with PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION. By James W. Facey. With numerous Illus- trations. In One Vol., strongly haJf-bound 5/0 HOUSE PAINTINQ, QRAININQ, MARBLING, AND SIGN WRITING. A Practical Manual of. By Ellis A. Davidson. Eighth Edition. With Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. Crown 6vo, cloth . . .6/0 " A mass of information of use to the amateur and of value to the practical man." — Eti^iisK Mechanic. THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT. A Modern Guide for Decorative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders, &c. Containing upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules, and Instructions ; with a variety of Information for General Work connected with every Class of Interior and Exterior Decorations, &c. Eighth Edition. Cr. Svo. . 1 Q " Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c. The book contains the gist of larger treanses on colour and tecnincal processes. It would be diliicult to meet with a work so full of varied iniormation on the pamcer s a-n." —Building Newi. MARBLE DECORATION And the Terminology of British and Foreign Marbles. A Handbook for Students. By George H. Blagrove, Autnor of " Shoring and its Appiici- tion," &c. With 28 Illustrations. Crown Svo, cloth , . .36 . ..." ^^^ ™°^^ useiul and much wanted handbook siiould oe in the bands of every architect and builder. "—Butiding J I jt Id. ' "A carefully and usefully written treatise ; the work Is essentially ^xaxMcai."— Scotsman. 32 CROSBY LOCKWOOD *• SON'S CATALOGUE, DELAMOTTES WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND ALPHABETS. ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT & MEDI/EVAL. From the Eighth Century, with Numerals; including Gothic. Church-Text, large and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, Monograms, Crosses, &c., for the use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen. Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters. Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c., &c. Collected and Engraved by F. Delamotte, ana printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Roj'al 8vo, oblong. ornamental boards 2/6 " For those who insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop leg'ends over shop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be \xsei\x\."—Athetutum. MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN AND ORNAMENTAL. Including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque ; with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, Surveyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. Collected and Engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, ornamental boards . 2/6 " There is comprised in it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and numerals can be formed, and the talent which has been expended in the conception of the various plain and ornamental letters is •wonA&Tiyxl."— Standard. MEDI/EVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS. By F. G. Delamotte. Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated Title, printed in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by J. Willis Brooks Fifth Edition. Small 4to, ornamental boards Net 6/0 "A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified In gilding and all the colours of the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled."— ^wn. A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. For the Use of Beginners ; with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for its Exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold and Colours. By F. Delamotte. New and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, ornamental boards .6/0 "The examples of ancient MSS. reoommended to the student, which, with much good sense, the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge as well as taste. " — AthenautK. THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN. Containing Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesiastical Devices, Mediaeval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems. Collected by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, ornamental wrapper ........ Net 20 " The book will be of great assistance to ladies and young children who are endowed with the art of plying the needle in this most ornamental and useful \>xex.X.yyiQx)i..'—EastAnziian Times. WOOD-CARVING FOR AMATEURS. With Hints on Design. By A Lady. With 10 Plates. New and Cheaper Edition. Crown Svo, in emblematic wrapper ...... 2/0 " The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt from ' A Lady's ' publication." — Atheyiceum. PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED. By Thomas John Gullick, Painter, and John Times, F.S.A. Including Fresco, Oil. Mosaic, Waier-Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera, Encaustic, Miniature, Painting on Ivory, Vellum, Pottery, Enamel, Glass, &c. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/9 *t* Adot>ted as a Prize Book at South Kensington. " Much may be l*arne-l, even by those who fancy they do not require to be taught, from the careful perusal of this unprBtonding but comprehensive treatise." — Artyournal. NATURAL SCIENCE, S-c. 33 NATURAL SCIENCE, ETC. THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE. Chapters on the Origin and Construction of the Heavens. By J. E. Gore. f;;f-xtliktts"'rr!;;fi^o:ct?h^^'^^- ^"— d^y^StenLWaphs' STAR GROUPS. M l^'fT^'^ ^"'1^ 1° the Constellations. By J. Ellard Gore, F.R.A S , UeVenf-t-' W^h°' M ^he V; /tie Universe." "The Scenery of the Heavens, &c. With 30 Maps, Small 4to, cloth ..... 5/0 AN ASTRONOMICAL GLOSSARY. Or, Dictionary of Terms used in Astronomy. With Tables of Data and Lists r.K.A.s., Author of The Visible Universe," &c. Small crown 8vo, cloth. THE MICROSCOPE. ^'^ A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. FgT'%Z ^^'a' ""Y"^^" Shells. By S. P. Woodward, A.L.S., upw^ds of 300 kc^c„,^ C'to of FoWfh'il.ioo^iV llo^ Z' THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION. ^g! W??.rASSxnv;'l^"=' «-■»»"' --^ Wo„d»ful concord^ LARDNER'S HANDBOOKS OF SCIENCE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and re-written by B. Loewy, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, cloth . 6/0 HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. Revised and Enlarged by B. Loewy, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, cloth . fi/O HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and re-written by B. Loewy, F.R.A.S. Post Svo, cloth . R'O HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. New Edition. Edited by T. Olver Harding, B. A. Small Svo, cloth 6/0 ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND ACOUSTICS. Edited by Geo. C. Foster, B.A. Small Svo, cloth . . . .6/0 HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. Revised and Edited by Edwin DuNKiN, F.R.A.S. Svo, cloth . . 9/6 MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. oThal?-ro^oJco^'''°"^"^''r"'"^'- 1;^ Six Double Volumes, £1 Is. Cloth, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS . .3/6 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS . . 3 6 THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Revised by E. B. Bright, F.R.A.S. Fcap. 8vc, cloth * . .2/6 34 CROSBY LOCK WOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE. CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY, ETC. THE OIL FIELDS OF RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. A Practical Handbook on the Exploration, Exploitation, and Management of Russian Oil Properties, including Notes on the Origin of Petroleum in Russia, a Description of the Theory and Practice of Liquid Fuel, and a Translation of the Rules and Regulations concerning Russian Oil Properties. By A. BeebyThompsoi*, A.M.LM.E., late Chief Engineer and Manager of the European Petroleum Company's Russian Oil Properties. About 500 pp., with numerous Illustrations and Photographic Plates, and a Map of the Balakhany- Saboontchy-Roman-*' Oil Field. Super-royal 8vo, cloth. [/wi/ Published. Net £3 3s. THE ANALYSIS OF OILS AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES. By A. C. Wright, M A.Oxon., B.Sc.Lond , formerly Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry at the Yorkshire College, Leeds, and Lecturer in Chemistry at the Hull Technical School. Demy 8vo, cloth Net Q'Q THE GAS ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. Comprising Tables, Notes and Memoranda relating to the Manufacture, Distribution and Use of Coal Gas and the Construction of Gas Works. By H. O'Connor, A.M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, Revised. 470 pp., crown 8vo, fully Illustrated, leather 10/6 "The book contains a vast amount of information. The author goes consecutively through the engineering details and practical methods involved in each of the different processes or parts of a gas-works. He has certainly succeedeti in making a compilation of hard matters of fact absolutely interestine to read." — Gas IVorld. "The volume contains a great quantity of specialised information, compiled, we believe, from trustworthy sources, which should make it of considerable value to those for whom it is specifically produced. ' — Eng-ineer. LIGHTING BY ACETYLENE Generators, Burners, and Electric Furnaces. By William E. Gibbs, M.E. With 66 Illustrations. Crown Svo, cloth 7/6 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. A Practical Treatise for the Use of Analytical Chemists, Engineers, Iron Masters, Iron Founders, Students and others. Comprising Methods of Analysis and Valuation of the Principal Materials used in Engineering Work, with numerous Analyses, Examples and Suggestions. By H. Joshua Phillips F.I.C.. F.C.S. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown Svo, 420 pp., with Plates and other Illustrations, cloth. .... Net "XO'S " In this work the author has rendered no small service to a numerous body of practical men. . . . The analytical methods may be pronounced most satisfactory, being as accurate as the despatch required of engineering chemists permits." — Chemical Neivs. "The analytical methods given are, as a whole, such as are likely to g^ve rapid and trust- worthy results in experienced hands. . . . There is much excellent descriptive matter in the work, the chapter on ' Oils and Lubrication ' being specially noticeable in this respect." — EngriHeer. NITRO-EXPLOSIVES. A Practical Treatise concerning the Properties, Manufacture, and Analysis of Nitrated Substances, including the Fulminates, Smokeless Powders, and Celluloid. By P. Gerald Sanford, F. I. C, Consulting Chemist to the Cotton Powder Company, Limited, &c. With Illustrations. Crown Svo, cloth. Q/Q "One of the very few text -books in which can be found just what is wanted. Mr. Sanford goes steadily through the whole list of explosives commonly used, he names any g^ven explosive, and tells us of what it is composed and how it is manufactured. The book is excellent." — Engineer. A HANDBOOK ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Use of Dynamite, Gun-Cotton, Nitro-Glycerine and other Explosive Compounds, including Collodion-Cotton. With Chapters on Explosives m Practical Application. By M. Eissler, M.E. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown Svo, cloth . . 1 2/6 " A veritable mine o''in'brmati in on the subject of ex jlosivsj employed for" military, mining and blastiag purposes."— -4 rwtj' and Navy Gazttte. CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY, (^c. 35 A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE. Including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. By John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer. With 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings, Second Edition, with Additions. Super-royal 8vo ^^°'^ £1 IO9.' " We find not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of the trade, but a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing on the successful conduct of alkali works, but which are generally overlooked by even experienced technological iuthors."—Cfumu:al Reinew. DANGEROUS GOODS. Their Sources and Properties, Modes of Storage and Transport. With Notes and Comments on Accidents arising therefrom. A Guide for the Use of Government and Railway Officials, Steamship Owners, &c. By H. Joshua Phillips, F.I.C, F.C.S. Crown 8vo, 374 pp., cloth .... g/Q " Merits a wide circulation, and an intelligent, appreciative study."— CA«Mita/ News. THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, Etc. Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Working Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut. -Colonel W. A. Ross, R.A., F.G.S. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . 6/0 ■11 '•' ^*'® student who goes conscientiously through the course of experimentation here laid down wjll gam a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogfy than if he had ' got up ' any of the l)est text-books of the day, and passed any number of examinations in their contents "—Chemical News. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE-WARES. Their Properties, Applications, Valuations, Impurities and Sophistications. For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. Slater. Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown Bvo, cloth . 7/6 " There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. To students preparing for exammations in dyeing and printing it will prove exceedingly \i.%%i\x\:' —Chemical News. A HANDY BOOK FOR BREWERS. Being a Practical Guide to the Art of Brewing and Malting. Embracing the Conclusions of Modern Research which bear upon the Practice of Brewing. By Herbert Edwards Wright, M.A. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 530 pp., cloth 12/6 "May be consulted with advantage by the student who Is preparing himself for examinational tests, while the scientific brewer wiU find in it a r^suyyU of all the most important discoveries of modem times. The work is written throughout in a clear and concise manner, and the author takes great care to discrmnnate between vague theories and weU-established facts "—Brewers' n, •»'•' ^^ ***J* ^^^' pleasure In recommending this handy book, and have no hesitation In saying tfiat It IS one of the best— if not the best— which has yet been written on the subject of beer-brewing to thK country; it should have a place on the shelves of every brewers Whrzxy."— Brewers' FUELS: SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. Their Analysis and Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and Engineers. By ^- J- Phillips, F.C.S., formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist to the G.E. Rlwy. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/0 ( «.! 1." ^^^^ to have Its place In the laboratory of every metallurgical establishment and wherever tuel is used on a large scA^"— Chemical Nncs. THE ARTISTS* MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. Showing their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non-Permanency, and Adulterations, &c., with Tests of Purity. By H. C. Standage. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth o/g ,11 wh/.'I^'i'^''"''^ i^iTiAeedmultum.in.par-vo. and we can, with good conscience, recommend it to all who come in contact wnth pigments, whether as makers, dealers, or \xseTS."—Chemi<:al Revira. A POCKET-BOOK OF MENSURATION AND GAUGING Containing Tables, Rules, and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, Brewer^ Spirit Merchants &c. By J. B. Mant, Inland Revenue. Second Edition Revised. i8mo, leather 4^^ " Should be in the hands of every practical hrev^x."— Brewers' ycurnal. 36 CROSBY LOCK WOOD A- SON'S CATALOGUE. INDUSTRIAL ARTS, TRADES, AND MANUFACTURES. TEA MACHINERY AND TEA FACTORIES. A Descriptive Treatise on the Mechanical Appliances required in the Cultivation of the Tea Plant and the Preparation of Tea for the Market. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A. M. Inst. C.E. Medium 8vo, 468 pp. With 218 Illustrations Net 26/0 Summary of Com ents. Mechanical Cultivation or Tillage of the Soil.— Plucking or Gathering THE Leaf. — Tea Factories.— The Dressing, Manufacture, or Preparation of Tea by Mechanical Means. — Artificial Withering of the Leaf.— Machines for Rolling or curling the Leaf.— Fermenting Process. — Machines for the automatic Drying or Firing of the Leaf.— Machines for non.automatic drying or firing of the leaf.— drying or firing machines. — Breaking or CuniNG, and Sorting Machines.— Packing the Tea.— Means OF TRANSPORT ON Tea PLANTATIONS.— MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY AND APPARATUS. —Final Treatment of the Tea.— Tables and Memoranda. " The subject of tea 'machinery is now one of the first interest to a large class of people, to whom we strongly commend the volume."— C/iawf«^, INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 37 PRACTICAL TANNING. A Handbook of Modern Procesess, Receipts, and Suggestions for the Treatment of Hides, Skins, and Pelts of every Description. By L. A. Flemming American Tanner. 472 pages. 8vo, cloth. [Just Publislud. Net 25/6 THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE. Being a Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dre.ssing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Explained, and many Recent Processes Introduced ; as also Methods for the Estimation of Tannin, and a Description of the Arts of Glue Boiling, Gut Dressing, &c. By Alexander Watt. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo cloth. 9/0 " A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories. The book is an eminently i^uable production, which redounds to the credit of both author and publishers."— CA<»»x. 41 COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, ETC. LESS0N5 IN COMMERCE. By Professor R. Gambaro, of the Royal High Commercial School at Genoa. Edited and Revised by James Gault, Professor of Commerce and Commercial Law in King's College, London. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 3/6 " The publishers of this work have rendered considerable service to the cause of commercial education by the opportune production of this volume. . . . The work is peculiarly acceptable to English readers and an admirable addition to existing class books. In a phrase, we think the work attains its object in furnishing a brief account of those laws and customs of British trade with which the commercial man interested therein should be {a.miliar. "^^/tafnier of Commerce Journal. " An invaluable guide in the hands of those who are preparing for a commercial career, amd. In fact, the information it contains on matters of business should be impressed on every one."— Cmntin^^ House. THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT. Being Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages — English, French, German, Italian, and Spanish. By Conrad E. Baker. Third Edition, Carefully Revised Throughout. Crown 8vo, cloth . . . 4/6 " Whoever wishes to correspond in all the languages mentioned by Mr. Baker cannot do better than study tliis work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently arranged. They consist not of entire specimen letters, but — what are far more useful — short passages, sentences, or phrases expressing the same general idea in various forms." — Athenceum, " A careful examination has convinced us that it is unusually complete, well arranged and reliable. The book is a thoroughly good oxig."— Schoolmaster. FACTORY ACCOUNTS: their PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE. A Handbook for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the Nomenclature of Machine Details ; the Income Tax Acts ; the Rating of Factories ; Fire and Boiler Insurance ; the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c., including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings. By Emile Garcke and J. M. Fells. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo, cloth 7/6 " A very interesting description of the requirements of Factory Accounts. . . . The principle of assimilating the Factory Accounts to the genersJ commercial books is one which we thoroughly jigree with." — Accountants' journal. " Characterised by extreme thoroughness. There are few owners of factories who would not derive great benefit from the perusal of this most admirable work." — Local Government Chronicle. MODERN METROLOGY. A Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems of the present Century. With an Appendix containing a proposed English System. By Lowis D. A. Jackson, A. M. Inst. C. E., Author of " Aid to Survey Practice," &c. Large crown 8vo, cloth 1 2/6 " We recommend the work to all interested In the practlczd reform of our weights and measures. "—Nature. A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES. In which the British Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present in Use on the Continent. By C. H. Dowling, C.E. 8vo, cloth 10/6 " Mr. Dowling's Tables are well put together as a ready reckoner for the conversion of one system into the other."— A the naum, IRON AND METAL TRADES* COMPANION* For Expeditiously Ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight, from is. per cwt. to 112s. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one shilling per pound. By Thomas Downie. Strongly bound in leather, 396 PP . . . 9/0 " A most useful set of tables, nothing like them before exlsted/'-Burldinir News. " Although specially adapted to the iron and metal trades, the tables will be fovmd useful in every other business in which merchandi and Fattening of Sheep. I Roots. Book v. on the Breeding. Rearing, 1 Book XI. On Manures and their and Fattening of swine. i Application to Grass Land and. book VI. On the Diseases of Live ! Crops. Stock. i book XII. monthly Calendars of ' Farmwork. " Dr. Fream is to be congratulated on the successful attempt he has made to give us a work which will at once become the standiurd classic of the farm practice of the country. We believe that it will be found that it has no compeer among the many works at present in existence. . . . The illustrations are admirable, while the frontispiece, which represents the well-known bull. New Year's Gift, bred by the Queen, is a work of art. " — The Ti^nes. "The book must be recognised as occupying the proud position of the most exhaustive work of reference in the English language on the subject with which it deals." — Athenautn. "The most comprehensive guide to modem farm practice that exists in the English language to-day. . . . The book is one that ought to be on every farm and_in the library of every land owner. " — Mark Lane Express. " In point of exhaustiveness and accuracy the work will certainly hold a pre-eminent and unique position among books dealing with scientific agricultural practice. It is. in fact, an agricul- tural library of itself."— A^or/A British Agriculturist. FARM LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN. By Robert Wallace, F.L.S., F.R.S.E., &c.. Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy in the University of Edinburgh. Third Edition, thoroughly Revised and considerably Enlarged. With over 120 Phototypes of Prize Stock. Demy 8vo, 384 pp., with 79 Plates and Maps, cloth. . . 1 2/& "A really complete work on the history, breeds, and management of the farm stock of Great Britain, and one which is likely to find its way to the shelves of every country gentleman s library." — The Times. "The ' Farm Live Stock of Great Britain ' is a production to be proud of, and its Issue not the least of the services which its author has rendered to agricultural science."— Scottish Farvttr. NOTE-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS & FIGURES FOR FARMERS AND FARM STUDENTS. By Primrose McConnell, B.Sc, Fellow of the Highland and Agricultural Society, Author of " Elements of Farming." Sixth Edition, Re-written, Revised, and greatly Enlarged. Fcap. Bvo, 480 pp., leather, gilt edges . . 6/Q Contents.— surveying and Levelling.— Weights and .measures.— Machinery and Buildings. — Labour. — Operations. — Draining. — Embanking. — Geological Memoranda. — Soils. — Manures. — Cropping. — Crops.— Rotations. — weeds. — Feeding.— Dairying.— Live Stock.— Horses. — Cattle. — Sheep.— Pigs.— Poultry,— Forestry.— Horticulture.— Miscellaneous. " No farmer, and certainly no agricultural student, ought to be without this multum-in-parvo manual of all subjects connected with the larva."— North British Agriculturist. "This little pocket-book contains a large amount of useful information upon all kinds of agricultural subjects. Something of the kind has long been wanted."— ^a;-/fe Lane Expi ess. "The amount of Infonnation it contadns is most surprising ; the arrangement of the matter is so methodical— although so compres-sed— as to be Intelligible to everyone who takes a glance through Its pages. They teem with infonnation." — Farjn and Home. THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY. A Scientific Aid to Practical Farming, By Primrose McConnell. Author of "Note-Bookof Agricultural Facts and Figiures," &c. Royal 8vo, cloth. Net 21/0 "On every page the work bears the impress of a masterly knowledge of the subject dealt with, and we have nothing but unstinted praise to offer."— /"j>/»-/* British j4friculturist. " It IS the soundest little work we have yet seen on the subject."— rA« Times. MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. A Practical Handbook on their Properties and the Processes of their Produc- tion. Including a Chapter on Cream and the Methods of its Separation from Milk. By John Oliver, late Principal of the Western Dairy Institute, Berkeley. With Coloured Plates and 200 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. 7/6 " An exhaustive and masterly production. It may be cordially recommended to all students and practitioners of dairy science.' — North British Agriculturist. " We recommend this very comprehensive and carefully-written book to dairy-farmers and sttjdents of dairying. It is a distinct acquisition to the librar>' of the agriculturist."— .■^^tT^^M/rMr-a/ Gazette. SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING. Or, The Lessons of My Farm. Being an Introduction to Modern Farm Practice for Small Farmers. By R. Scott Burn, Author of " Outlines of Modern Farming," &c. Crown 8vo, cloth 6/0 "This is the completest book of its class we have seen, and one which every amateur fanner will read with pleasure, and accept as a guide." — Field. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn. Soils, Manures, and Crops— Farming and Farming Economy — Cattle, Sheep, and Horses — Management of Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry — Utilisation of Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth Edition. In One Vol., 1,250 pp., half-bound, profusely Illustrated 1 2/0 FARM ENGINEERING, The COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK of. Comprising Draining and Embanking ; Irrigation and Water Supply ; Farm Roads, Fences and Gates ; Farm Buildings ; Barn Implements and Machines; Field Implements and Machines ; Agricultural Surveying, &c. By Professor John Scott. In One Vol., 1,150 pp., half-bound, with over 600 Illustrations. 12/0 " Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and ability. The author has done his work well ; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements. The volume will be of great value to agricultural students."— Afar/fc Lane Express. THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. A Text-Book of Agriculture. Adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art Department. For Elementary and Advanced Students. By Hugh Clements (Board of Trade). Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. iSmo, cloth 2/6 " It is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased us more, or which contains such a vast and useful fund of knowledge."— ifrf?«:aAV)«