SI1|P i. H Bill iCtbrarg Jforttf (UaroUna &tatp CCoUpgp NAS840 S5 Pv>rc^\n.Vvto, N.C, STATE UNIvtRSnV O.H, HIU LIBRARY iiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiniii S00436383 R THIS BOOK MUST NOT BE TAKEN FROM THE LIBRARY BUILDING. 125M/07-94— 941679 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2009 with funding from NCSU Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/sloansconstructiOOsloa r SLOAN'S CONSTRUCTIVE ARCHITECTURE; GUIDE TO THE PRACTICAL BUILDER AND MECHANIC. IN WHICH IS CONTAINED A SERIES OF DESIGNS FOE DOMES, ROOFS AND SPIRES, A NUMBER OF PLATES SHOWING THE INTERIOR CONSTRUCTION AND FINISH OF BAYS, WINDOW SHUTTERS, SLIDING DOORS, ETC., DESIGNED EXPRESSLY FOR THE JOINER'S USE; CHOICE EXAMPLES OF THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE, SELECTED FROM THE MOST CELEBRATED SPECIMENS OF ANTIQUITY, WITH THE FIGURED DIMENSIONS OF THEIR HEIGHT, PROJECTION AND PROFILE, AND THEIR DIVISION INTO PARTS. TO WHICH IS ADDED A NUMBER OF USEFUL GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS, EXAMPLES OF GROINS, CENTERING FOR ARCHES, DIAGRAMS OF STAIR LINES, WITH ARCHITRAVES, DOOR MOULDINGS, ETC. THE WHOLE BEING |Ihistrnt£i) IriT Siilg-si^ Car^fullg ^rcparcb plates, ACCOMPANIED BY EXPLANATORY TEXT AND GENERAL ESSAYS, TO WHICH IS APPENDED A COPIOUS GLOSSARY. BY SAMUEL SLOAN, ARCHITECT, AUTHOR OF THE "MODEL ARCHITECT," "CITY AND STIBTTRBAN ARCHITECTURE," ETC. PHILADELPHIA : J. B. LIPPINCOTT k CO. 1859. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by SAMUEL SLOAN, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. PREFACE. TnE idea of publishing a practical work on Constructive Architecture suggested itself to the author while engaged in the preparation of the material for a large volume of architectural designs. The suggestion was natural. It might well be supposed that, while works on every other branch of science were teeming from the press, a volume specially designed to meet the wants of the practical builder or mechanic would prove no less seasonable than useful. Few works of this character have hitherto been published in this country — and still fewer are pos- sessed of any considerable degree of merit. We have been generally accustomed to consider foreign publi- cations as our standards; and these, though possessing many things valuable in themselves, are yet not well adapted — as they were not designed — to elucidate methods of practice which are, to a considerable extent, local and peculiar. In fact, owing to the spirit of improvement and invention which has of late characterized this branch of mechanics among us, many even of the terms in general acceptance a few short years ago have become obsolete, while numerous little methods and appliances are in every-day use, of which no mention can be found in the most recent of European authorities. It will be seen that, in the classification of our subjects, we have aimed at preserving some degree of systematic arrangement. Commencing with domes, we have presented in natural succession numerous examples of forms generally esteemed the most useful in Constructive Carpentry. These are original and eminently practical. There has been no straining after effect. Everything presented has been selected and illustrated solely on account of its practicability and intrinsic usefulness. Our numerous roof examples are of simple yet reliable construction and tested capability. The examples in Joinery, which succeed, contain and are suggestive of many new ideas. And to the illustration of those beautiful and unique creations of the ancients — the Five Orders — on which all that pertains to the builder's art is founded, we have devoted much more space than is usually given in works of similar character and pretension. Fully impressed with the importance of this subject to all connected with or engaged in the art of building, we have chosen our examples from the most celebrated and beautiful specimens of antiquity, and presented them, we trust, in a style of art commensurate with the interest they possess, and the intrinsic beauty of their several proportions. Nor has the consideration of the more important parts of geometrical construction, as applied to building, been neglected. While we have omitted many of the comparatively useless problems with which works of this description usually abound, we have yet been careful to present such examples as were in themselves important and really serviceable. We may instance, among these, the plates of groins and centering, and the carefully prepared diagrams of stair-lines, which will be found extremely valuable. Our work concludes with some choice examples of architraves, moulded panelings for doors, etc., specially 'y 2*7940 4 P 11 E F A C E. designed and adapted for the Joiner's use. Of the whole of our examirtes, it may be remarked, that they are not only practical in themselves, but highly suggestive of ideas — as to new forms and combina- tions — to the artisan who peruses them with careful study. In the arrangement of the text, we have, in every instance, for the convenience of the reader, placed the plate opposite the appropriate description, thus obviating an annoyance often experienced in illus- trated publications, when the example is separated from its relevant matter. To such general information as we deemed would prove interesting, in connection with the several subjects of which we treated, and be likely still further to illustrate them, we have uniformly devoted a certain portion of our space. Thus interspersed with the descriptions — and yet in such a manner as to render it distinct in its own particular arrangement — will be found much valuable matter, culled from the works of the most eminent masters, in addition to the information bearing directly upon the subject-matter, which the experience gathered in the course of a long and extensive professional practice has supplied. Our work would be incomplete without a Glossary — that which is appended will be found useful and compendious. We have long been aware of the urgent necessity which existed for a work of this character ; and our aim in the present volume has been to place within the reach of every mechanic the more advanced principles of his art. These principles are illustrated by practical examples. At the same time, a careful study of the details of classic design, as exhibited in the Orders, will teach him by com- parison to form a correct idea of the general proportions necessary to be observed in any proposed work, while an attentive perusal of the different geometrical and isometrical drawings will enable him to comprehend the best method of applying material in the more difficult parts of mechanical construction. The illustrations may be safely left to speak their own merits : one word in regard to them and we have done. They have been prepared at considerable expense, and in a manner calculated to afford satisfaction, and are referred to with some little degree of pride and pleasure, as evidencing the rapid progress which our country is making in this important and beautiful department of the fine arts. CONTENTS. Preface List of Illustkations Historical Notice Descriptive of Plates DOMES. 9 12 General Essay on Eoofs Descriptive of Plates Essay on Spires Descriptive of Plates KOOF AND SPIRE CONSTRUCTION. 21 22 39 52 General Essay . Descriptive of Plates CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 55 56 THE FIVE ORDERS, (First Series.) Introductory Grecian Doric, Descriptive " Ionic, Remarks " " Descriptive Roman Doric, Remarks " " Descriptive The Orders in General Modern Doric, Descriptive Roman Ionic, Remarks " " Descriptive . Corinthian, Remarks . •' " Descriptive 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 THE ORDERS IN PARTS, (Second Series.) Tuscan Order, Principal Parts ...... ■• " Pedestal and Base, Descriptive . . . • • "' " General Remarks ....•■ " " Entablature and Capital, Descriptive .... 83 84 85 86 (6) CONTENTS. Doric Order, Principal Parts " " Pedestal and Base, Descriptive . " " General Remarks " Entablature and Capital, Descriptive Ionic Order, Principal Parts .... " " Pedestal and Base, Descriptive " " General Remarks " Entablature, Descriptive Corinthian Order, Principal Parts " " Pedestal and Base, Descriptive " " General Remarks . . ■ . " " Entablature, Descriptive Composite Order, Principal Parts " " Pedestal and Base, Descriptive " " General Remarks . " " Entablature, Descriptive General Essay on the Orders ...... Details of Caps, Bases, Architraves, etc., to the Orders, Descriptive Classic Doors and 'Windows, Descriptive .... Mouldings, etc., General Essay ..... " Descriptive ....... Definitions ........ Glossary ........ Geometrical Problems ...... PAOB . 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 9.T 96 97 98 . 99 100 . 101 102 103 104 112 115 116 119 . 121 122 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. Tracery, Descriptive Arches, " Groins, " 126 128 130 JOINERY. Geometrical Stair-lines, Descriptive Moulded Architraves, " " Panelings, " Geometrical Definitions 136 142 146 148 ILLUSTRATIONS. DOME. I. — Perspective n. — Plan and Section . . in. — Transverse Section IV.— Plan showing Principal Construction PAGE 12 14 16 18 KOOFS. V. — Example of Tie-beam Roof (large span) VI. — Example of Open Timber Eoof (Gothic) . VII.— Example of Hip Boof . VIII. — Isometrical Perspective IX. — Example of Framing for a Hip Roof . X. — Isometrical Perspective XI. — Example of Collar-beam Roof . XII. — Isometrical Perspective XIII— XV.— Examples of Collar-beam Roofs . XVI. — Examples of Tie-beam Roofs (two designs) XVIL— Examples of Open Timber Roof (Gothic) XVIII.— Examples of King-post and Tie-beam Roof XIX. — Examples of Queen-posts and Tie-beam Roof XX. — Examples of Truss-beams XXI. — Examples of Spire 22 24 26 28 30 32 34- 36 38 - 44- 46 48- 50 52- 54 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. XXII.— Designs for Framing, Bridgmg, and Trussing Joists XXIII.— Designs for Bay Window .... XXIV.— Designs for Twin Window ..... XXV.— Designs for Sliding Window Shutters XXVI.— Designs for Sliding Doors ..... XXVII. — Designs for Folding Doors .... XXVIII.— Designs for Single Doors ..... XXIX.— Designs for Interior Doors .... 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 (7) ILLLUSTRATIONS. FIVE ORDERS, (First Series.) PLATE XXX. — Grecian Doric . XXXI. — Grecian Ionic XXXII. — Roman Doric . XXXIII. — Modem Doric XXXIV. — Roman Ionic . XXXV. — Roman Corinthian THE ORDERS IN PARTS, (Second Series.) XXXVI.-VIL— Tuscan Order .... XXXVIU.-IX.— Doric Order .... XL.-XLI. — Ionic Order . . . . XLII.-III.— Corinthian Order .... XLIV.-V. — Composite Order XLVI. — Caps and Bases to the several Pedestals XLVn. — Bases of the several Columns XLVin. — Architraves of the Orders XLIX. — Imposts of Arches L.-LI. — Classic Doors and Windows LII.-III. — Grecian and Roman Mouldings 72 74 7G 78 80 82 84 88 92 96 100 104 106 108 110 112 116 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. LTV. — Problems ....... LV.— The Ellipse LVI. — The Parabola and Hyperbola .... 122 124 126 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. LVII. — Arches LVIII.-IX.-LX.— Groins 128 130 JOINERY. LXI.-II.-III. — Geometrical Stair-lines LXIV. — Moulded Architrave LXV. — Designs for Door and Window Architraves LXVI. — Designs for Moulded Panelings . 136 142 144 146 CONSTRUCTIVE ARCHITECTURE. BRIEF HISTORICAL NOTICE OF CELEBRATED DOMES, ANCIENT AND MODERN. A Dome is an arched or vaulted roof, springing from a polygonal, circular, or ellij^tic plan; presenting a convex surface on the outside or a concavity within, so as that every horizontal section may be of similar figure and have a common vertical axis. According to the plan from which they spring, domes are either circular, elliptical, or polygonal; of these the circular may be spherical, sjiheroidal, ellipsoidal, hyperboloidal, paraboloidal, etc. The word dome is applied to the external part of the spherical or polygonal roof, and cupola to the internal. But the terms are frequently used synony- mously, although perhaps incorrectly. Such as rise higher than the radius of the base are denominated surmounted domes; those that are of a less height than the radius are called diminished or surhased; and such as have circular bases are termed cupolas. The remains of ancient domes are generally spherical in their form. Ruins of numerous ones still exist in the neighborhood of Rome and Naples. They were frequently used .among the Romans, after the accession of Augustus, in whose reign the use of the arch, and consequently of domes, became common. The arch indeed is of Grecian origin, though in all the ancient edifices of that country we do not meet B (9) 10 CONSTRUCTIVE ARCHITECTURE. with a single instance of a built dome; that which covers the monument of Lysicrates, being only a single stone, can be looked upon but as a lintel; and the invention of this species of vault seems justly attributed to the Komans or Etrurians. Principal among the ruins of domes in and about Rome, are those of the temples of Bacchus, Vesta, Romulus, Hercules, Cybele, Neptune, and Venus. The oldest and most magnificent is that of the Pantheon, built in the reign of Augustus. It is still entire, and consists of a hemispherical concavity, enriched with coffers, and terminat- ing in an aperture called the eye. The exterior rises from several degrees, in a sloping direction, nearly tangent to the several internal quoins, and presenting to the spectator the truncated segment of a sphere considerably less than a hemisphere. The dome of the temple of Bacchus is also internally hemispherical, though without coffers. Externally it is now covered with a common roof, which may have been the original form; a similar roof is also to be seen over the dome of the temple of Jupiter, in the Palace of Diocletian, at Spolatro. The dome of Santa Sophia, at Constantinople, built in the reign of Justinian, is the most remarkable constructed after those of the Romans, and ranks next to the Pantheon in point of antiquity. Anthemius of Tralles, and Isidorus of Miletus, were the architects. Anthemius had promised to raise a dome over this edifice, whose magnitude should eclipse the magnificence of the Roman Pantheon. With this view he erected four pillars, at the distance of one hundred and fifteen feet from each other, and filled up the angular spaces between the archi-vaults till he had gradu- ally shaped them into a complete circle, at the level of the extradoses of the arches. On the ring thus formed the dome was raised, being the first ever built on pendentives. Notwithstanding the precautions taken by the architect to resist the pressure of the arches, by walls and abutting half domes, the superstructure gave way toward the east, and fell at the end of a few months, taking with it the half dome on that side. After the death of Anthemius, Isidorus strengthened the eastern pillars by filling up cer- tain voids left by his predecessor; but they still proved too weak for the support of so great a load, and when the dome was turned upon them again gave way before the work was completed. To counteract this thrust on the east, Isidorus now built strong pillared buttresses against the eastern wall of a square cloister that ran round the building, from which he threw flying buttresses over the void, and raised the dome a third time, but with very little success; for though every precaution was taken to lessen its weight, by using light materials and reducing its thickness, the arches were CELEBRATED DOMES. H I SO much fractured that he was under the necessity of filling up the large arcades on the north and south sides with arches of less dimensions, in three stories. These circumstances are mentioned to show that the architects of the age to which this building is referred, were not so well acquainted with the principles of dome-vaulting .as those of more modern date; for the latter would probably have hooped or chained such a dome immediately over the arches and pendentives, so as to confine its pressure to a perpendicular thrust, or nearly so, as was done by Michael Angelo in the erection of the far more ponderous dome of St. Peter's, at Rome; and still more recently by Sir Christopher Wren, in the cupola of St. Paul's, at London. The present dome, however, of Santa Sophia, was reconstructed by the nephew of Isidorus. It rests on the square formed at the intersection of the arras of the Greek cross, and is sup- ported by corbellings placed in the angles of the square. The lower part of the dome has a row of windows adorned with columns on the exterior, and the top is surmounted by a lantern, on which is a cross. The dome of St. Mark's, at Venice, erected about the year 973, and that of the cathedral, at Pisa, built early in the eleventh century, are both similar in plan to the preceding. The dome of San Vitale, at Ravenna, is of very curious construction. The plan of the lower part is that of an octagon, supported by eight piers at the angle of the dome. Above, the wall sustains a semi-spherical dome; the plan being a circle within an octagon. In 1298, the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Foire was begun at Pisa, by the cele- brated Arnolfo Lusii; he died two years after. No architect could be found to exe- cute the dome upon the vast plan its projector had designed; it consequently remained unfinished for one hundred and twenty years, when, in a professional convocation, Philip Brunelleschi was permitted to attempt its completion. Notwithstanding the opposition and the sarcasms of his contemporaries, who held his scheme to be imprac- ticable, he carried on the building, and completed the cupola in a manner worthy pf his great reputation. This dome, which is octangular and of great elevation, is formed of two vaults, with a vacancy between them, and is supported merely by the springing wall, without the aid of buttresses, though its dimensions exceed those of all the ancient Roman domes, with the single exception of St. Peter's. The cathedral church of St. Peter's, at Rome — the largest temple ever built — was begun by Bramante in 1513, and carried on successively by Raphael, San Gallo, and PLATE I. Is a perspective view, sliowing the interior of dome, in connection with a design for a large apartment or hall, intended to convey in some sort an illustration of the purposes to which a dome of this description may be more particularly applied. First, we shall briefly notice a few of the structures in which the use of this peculiar form of covering is most desirable and appro- priate, and then proceed to give such simple and concise explanations of the succeeding plates as will serve to illustrate the design and give to the intelligent mechanic a clear idea of the intended mode of construction. We have elsewhere referred to domes as more exclusively applied to Pagan temples, at their first origin, and afterwards by the great masters of the middle and succeeding ages in the erection of Christian churches. But the design here introduced is intended more particularly for such structures as the increasing wants of modern civilization render necessary. It may be described as hemispherical, and would form an attractive feature in designs intended for secular uses. In buildings connected with the administration of the aflfairs of government, whether judicial or legislative; in those intended for post-office purposes, or the receipt of customs; in civic halls, in which in crowded communities at least one noble apartment should be reserved for the use of the people and occasions of public ceremonial; and in the great marts of commerce, amid the hum of business, it would form a fitting apex to the Exchange, "where merchants most do congregate." We might also instance colleges and academies for literary, scientific, or artistic purposes, and a variety of similar institutions, in which its introduction would be useful, ornamental, and appro- priate. (12) CELEBRATED DOMES. 13 Michael Angelo, the latter of whom designed the dome as it now appears. It is impossible, in limits like the present, to give more than a very brief and restricted notice of the characteristic features of this magnificent effort of genius. The dome, which is double, is circular on the plan. The internal dome is constructed on double consoles, instead of corbellings. The double consoles are crowned with a small cor- nice, forming an impost for eight arches, from the upper part of which springs the dome; on the top is a lantern light, which is not apparent externally. Up to this time domes had been constructed on walls and corbellings; but in St. Peter's a new plan was adopted. The dome stands upon four piers. From the arches spring the corbellings, which are finished by an entablature. Upon this entablature is a plinth. The plinth is externally an octagon, and internally a circle. The external diameter of the octagon is 192 feet 9 inches, and the internal circle 134 feet 8J inches. On the plinth is a circular stylobate, above which is placed the drum of the dome. The construction is formed of rubble and fragments of brick. The interior is formed with bricks stuccoed. Externally the work is faced with thin slabs of travestine stone. The drum is pierced with sixteen windows. The walls are strengthened on the outside, between the windows, with sixteen buttresses. When the base of the drum had been built to the height of the entablature of the dome, Michael Angelo died; but some time before his death he had caused a model to be made, to which he added drawings and instructions. After his death, Pirro Ligorio and Vignola were appointed the architects. Giacomo della Porta, the pupil of Vignola, followed his master as architect; but although the designs of Michael Angelo were strictly fol- lowed, the dome itself was constructed under the pontificate of Sixtus V. Sixtus gave Giacomo, as a colleague, Domeuico Fontana, by whom the dome was constructed. On the construction of Michael Angelo, a circular attic was first formed. This attic is strengthened externally by sixteen projections, placed over the buttresses of the dome; on the attic rises the double dome, the internal diameter of which at the base is 138 feet 5 inches. The curve externally is an arc of a circle, whose radius is about 84 feet. At the height of 27 feet 8 inches from the attic the dome is solid. At the base the thickness is 9 feet 7 inches. The circular space which divides the two domes is 3 feet 2i inches wide; and the height from the attic to the opening of the lantern is 83 feet 10 inches. The external dome is pierced with three rows of small windows, and is joined to the internal by sixteen walls or spurs, diminishing in thickness as they ascend to the lantern. The base of the lantern is PLATE 11. Is double. Fig. 1 represents the transverse section, showing a portion of the roof over pedi- ments, and the internal finish of the dome and tambour. Fig. 2 is the finished plan of the above, showing also the plan of soffct of segmental arch. It will be seen that it is proposed to use wood in the entire framing and construction. The cheapness of timber, and the facility with which it can be procured in this country, as well its lightness and its adaptation, owing to the comparative dryness of the atmosphere, render it a most facile and useful material in constructions of this character, so that where economy is desirable light and graceful forms may be put up over even comparatively small structures. The internal finish is intended to be of plaster, laid oS" in sunk panels with enriched mould- ings, with a bold and handsome cornice running around the rim, just above the apex of segmental arch. The middle row of panels should have alternate perforations, filled in with glass, which might be stained, if preferred. The tambour is intended to be finished with an ornamental balustrade running around an aper- ture of considerable diameter, technically called the eye, just above the point of its separation from the dome. The ceiling is coved with sunk panels, having similar enrichments to those below, and finished with an appropriate cornice. The circumference is filled with eight circular windows, which are designed to assist in lighting the hall through the aperture before mentioned. (U) li'K^AXAH A KKHkr .} t L l . W '^ K t . r . ' KAkriKW Wm ■.fr^mmpitm^'^'nyiz:wmm-'ir'i\.JHJi\jm n.mr'KiPtm m:Jn nii ivaJninJiviKJAmm^iiivTnn'kJUJuniKJAJiJiL- J ,1r V \ T VV V VrJ ii VcV VrVrVryirV V Tr V m ' JLVrVrM V Vr M r Vr V r V T'T T T IT -yirTnCTnT-g-l^li^ V, tfr Vf ll tj y'y ' ^ ^^yMt//*/J^:^l^/'£/'f4/a&ilm'k^ ' /^fy^/^/jxM CELEBRATED DOMES. 15 arched, and pierced with small windows. Above the two domes is a circular plat- form, surrounded with an iron gallery. In the centre rises the lantern on a stylo- bate, broken into sixteen parts, forming projecting pedestals, on which are buttresses decorated externally with coupled Ionic columns, and having the space between filled with arched openings which give light to the lantern. The external diameter of the lantern is 39 feet; the height from the platform to the top of the cross 89 feet 7i inches; and the whole height, from the external plinth of the dome to the cross, 263 feet. The total height internally, to the top of the dome of the lantern, is 387 feet. St. Paul's Cathedral, London, the work of the great Wren, was begun in 1675, and finished in 1710. The dome is placed over the intersection of the four naves. The ground plan is a regular octagon, four of the sides being formed by the four great arches of the naves, the other four by false arches of the same size. By this means eight supports are obtained instead of four, and the corbellings do not project too much as in similar constructions. They gather in a circle and are surmounted by a complete entablature, decorated with consoles. The cornice is 98 feet 91 inches from the pavement. The height of the drum is 62 feet 6^ inches to the springing of the internal dome. The interior of the drum is decorated with a continuous stylobate, on which is an. order of Corinthian pilasters. The thirty-two spaces be- tween these are filled with twenty-four windows and eight niches. The drum is decorated externally with an order of thirty-two Corinthian columns, united to the wall by eight sohd constructions in masonry. Above the internal order of the drum rises the interior dome, the diameter of which at the springing is 102 feet 21 inches by 51 feet in height. The external dome is constructed of wood, covered with lead and decorated with projecting ribs, forming panels curved at the ends. This dome terminates with a finishing which joins the base of the lantern, which is supported on a conical tower terminated by a spherical dome. About the same time that Wren built the dome of St. Paul's, Hardouin Man- sard, a French architect, constructed the dome of the Invalides, at Paris. The plan of this dome is a square, on which is inscribed a Greek cross; in the angles of the square there are four chapels. The dome, which is double, rises in the centre of the cross from a springing which is common to both. The base supporting it is an octagonal figure. The internal dome, constructed with masonry, is spherical. The outer dome is spheroidal, constructed of stone at the base and brick above. It is PLATE III Is a transverse section showing the timbers. It will be unnecessary to give a description of this plate, as the next will more fully elucidate the plan of construction. Of the two diagrams, the larger represents the plan of the tambour at its base; the lesser that of the ribs and apex. (10) piuaaa 5 aTti^ Slo ail At cK* 3.os«TLtkaTs XrOi Tliil* CELEBRATED DOMES. 17 framed of wood and covered with lead, like St. Paul's. The total height to the top of the ci'oss which surmounts the lantern is 330 feet. The modern Pantheon, at Paris, formerly the Church of St. Genevicive, was built by Soufflot; a distinguished architect, in the reign of Louis XV. The dome, which is lofty, is sustained by four pillars, arched over the cross parts. It is similar in some respects to St. Paul's. Of wooden domes, that of the Halle du Bled, also at Paris, is an excellent ex- ample, being more than 200 feet in diameter and only one foot in thickness. The Chevalier de Montferrand has lately employed a new material in the con- struction of the dome of the Church of St. Isaac, at St. Petersburg. A brief account of the construction may be interesting. A series of twenty-four cast-iron ribs, rest- ing on a plate of similar material 7 feet wide, runs quite round the circumference of the top of the cornice of the colonnade, which girds the drum. All these ribs are attached at their heads to a horizontal plate or curb, 6 feet 3 inches wide, which fol- lows the periphery of the dome. At this height the rib is divided into two parts, one of which, 12 feet 6 inches deep, follows the sweep of the inner dome for a height of 20 feet, and is bolted at its summit to a perforated cylinder of cast-iron 21 feet in diameter and 7 feet high, which forms the centre aperture at the summit of the inner dome. The other part follows the line of an intermediate cone, with a catenary outline, similar to the one in St. Paul's. It is also 21 feet long, 2 feet 6 inches deep, with perforations to render it lighter. The conical ribs have then another length of 21 feet, and are again connected by another plate, from which spring the circular ribs, about 16 feet long, forming a dome to the intermediate cone, with their heads also bolted to a cylinder 8 feet 6 inches in diameter and 18 inches high. The upper portions of these ribs diverge at the top, so as to form a base for the octagonal cupolino, which consists of a series of cast>-iron story posts, ribs, and bracket- ings, including the dome, with its ball and cross at the apex, which last are of brass gilt. The spaces between the ribs are filled in with pots, rendered on their surfaces with plaster and painted with sacred subjects. The outer dome is covered externally with bronze gilt. The whole entablature and flat, and the balustrade over the peristyle of the drum of the cupola likewise consist of cast and wrought-iron framing, faced with plates of copper, which form the profiles and mouldings. The twenty-four pedestals of this balustrade carry winged angels of bronze, above 9 feet high, each of a single casting. The roofing is wholly of iron, covered with copper. The skele- c PLATE IV. Is the plan. It will be seen that the base is a square, having two of its sides formed of the walls and pilasters; the other two being framed of trussed girders, placed immediately over the crown of the arches, of which they also form the support. Within the square, struts are placed diagonally at the four corners, so as to form the angles of a perfect octagon. These angle-struts are also trussed, and securely bolted to the tie-beams or girders at one end, having their opposite extremities resting upon the walls. Over these is placed a horizontal course of look-out joists, the ends of which converge toward the centre, and arc cut off at equidistant lengths therefrom, thereby forming the circle upon which the rim or base of the dome is supported. From this rim spring all the ribs of the superstructure. These ribs have a strut or foot-brace securely toed into each, as also into the corresponding joist beneath. By these means the look-out joists are relieved of the greater portion of the weight, as it is necessarily distributed so as to cause the largest pro- portion to lean upon the walls and trussed beams. The pendentives are worked up from the spring of the lower arches to the base or rim, from which point starts the regular formation of the dome. The lower rim of a dome of this diameter and construction can be most readily formed of hree thicknesses of two-inch plank, cut in sections of the circle and bolted together with overlap- ping joints. The upper rim may be similarly constructed, and also the ribs. For these latter, however, two thicknesses will suffice. These should be put together in pairs, each pair forming a stile. The cross-ties are to be placed so as to leave openings for the panels. Two inches will be a sufficient thickness for these in a dome of this dimension. Cleats can be nailed on for the sink- ing of the panelling. Fig. 1, on Plate IV., shows the elevation of the girders A A. Fig. 2. The ground plan; one portion showing the connection of the angle pieces with their bearings, and the manner in which they are trussed. The other half shows all the timbers of the dome in their relative positions. We may add, in conclusion, that in a dome of this description the use of fresco painting and gilding, with other modes of decorative embellishment, can be introduced with admirable effect, both upon the walls and ceiling. If to these were added the laying of the floor with encaustic tiles, the coup d'ooil would be still further heightened, and a beautiful effect produced. In some of the European domes which the author has seen, as that of the Invalides, at Paris, the rays of light streaming from above, and equally distributed throughout the interior, blend the variegated colors in one harmonious whole, heightening their brilliancy, and flooding over the floor and walls such rich and golden hues as almost insensibly to remind one of the legendary visions of fairy-land. pa., ^y IHIHIHIHli^i^- -(^-^ r^HHIHi^HlHHiMHMrTT lillUIUll-;!!-!; , A,^ L^i Ul ^i ^ t_li Uhi t-^ II— I M IM 11-^ Trrn. i ill] m g^'^ M- // /.■ II II VI // II II / /' II □ □ □ -p rr 1 I IE O D P t^ A\ W F!TTTT (>■■'-• J lliliil! 77" T7" ■,i San\?- SloaiLAccii.^ Kosen6ial& Xitk Phii« CELEBRATED DOMES. 19 ton of the entablature of the peristyle is of cast and wrought iron, resting on and affixed to the columns by wrought-iron pins let into the shafts to a considerable depth. The frame work is also let into the cylindrical wall of the dome, and securely affixed to templates. The cornice rests on cast-iron corbels, and the caissons and rosettes also rest on cast-iron girders. The total weight of metals of all descriptions em- ployed in this great work, amounts to the enormous quantity of nearly 19G7 tons. The careful skill with which the architect has fulfilled his part, and the fine taste and discrimination which he has displayed in the decorative embellishment of the Church of St. Isaac's, render it one of the most beautiful and striking edifices of the century. Square turrets, surmounted with domes, bearing resemblance to a bell in their outhne, were frequently used in the reign of Elizabeth, and her successor, the First James. Domes are sometimes made convex below and concave above, the former taking up a much greater proportion of the side than the latter; these may be variously denominated Moresque, Turkish, or Hindoo. All the ancient Roman domes are, on the convex side, a much less portion of a sphere than a hemisphere; but these, from the completion of the Church of Santa Sophia to the finishing of St. Paul's cupola, are of the surmounted kind, approach- ing gradually nearer and nearer to the proportion of those beautiful spires which were so universally adopted and admired in the middle ages. In the dome of St. Paul's, the sides of the section are struck from centres in the base line, which, if continued, would meet in an angle in the axis of the dome. Since the revival of Grecian architecture, the contour of the old Roman dome has also been revived, espe- cially in cases where other parts of the building are decorated with any of the orders. Exterior domes should never be applied to buildings in the pointed style of archi- tecture. The following are the admeasurements of some of the most celebrated domes of Europe : — 20 CONSTRUCTIVE ARCHITECTURE. TABLE OF ADMEASUREMENTS OF SOME OF THE MOST CELEBRATED DOMES OF EUROPE. DOMES OF ANTIQUITY. Feet in Height from diameter externally, the ground line. Dome of the Pantheon 142 143 " Jlincrva ^leilica, at llorac 78 9T Baths of Caracalla 112 116 " Baths of Diocletian 74 83 Temple of Diana 98 78 " Proserpine and "Venus 87 77 DOMES COMPARATIVELY MODERN. Santa Sophia, at Constantinople 115 201 Mosque of Achraet 92 120 San Vitale, at Rarenna 55 91 FROM THE TIME OF BRUNELLESCHI. Santa Maria del Fiore, at Florence 139 310 The Chapel of the Medici 91 199 St. Peter's, at Rome 139 330 Chapel of the Superga, at Turin 64 128 " Invalides, at Paris 80 173 Val de Grace, Paris 55 133 Pantheon, or St. Genevi6ve, Paris 67 190 St. Paul's Cathedral, London 112 215 ON THE PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRIJCTION OF ROOFS, WITH A GENERAL DEFINITION OF THE TERMS EMPLOYED. The necessity of some place of shelter from the inclemency of the weather must have been experienced bj'' mankind in the very earliest stages of barbarism; the origin, therefore, of covered habitations, is lost in the remote obscurity of time. The first shelter of the savage must have been very rude indeed. When ready formed abodes, such as caverns, or the hollows of trees, failed him, it is probable that his untutored ingenuity devised no better refuge than could be derived from the boughs of trees, covered with moss and twigs, or the rough skins of animals. Did our limits permit, it might be curious to trace from this rude origin the gradual development of a perfect roof, till from this Sylvan abode to the wigwam of the Red Indian or the more finished tenement of the South Sea Islander, we arrived at the elaborate constructions of later and more enlightened races. The simplest and earliest description of roof was doubtless formed by two rafters pitching against each other; but the objection, that the rafters had a tendency to spread, and thrust out the walls on which they rested, must soon have become appa- rent. This led to the introduction of the tie-beam, which, in conjunction with the rafters, gives us that simple form of roof of which mention is made in the earliest records, and which is still in general use among us. The ancient Eastern nations had their roofs quite flat. The Greeks appear to have been the first who made them with a declination each way, from the middle to (21) PLATE V. • Fig. 1 is a design for a roof whose span may extend from 100 to 110 feet. By the method here shown, the tie-heam is suspended by iron rods instead of queen-posts. Cast-iron heads are also introduced at the apex, and where the rafters and camber-beams unite; and iron shoes are used at the points where the straining-sills and braces butt. In this example the tie-beam has shoes which extend from the heel to the principal truss-bolt on either side, and are bolted to the beam through pieces of hard wood two inches thick by six inches wide, which are equally notched into both at regular distances. The centre of the tic-beam is trussed by pieces springing from the foot of the truss-bolts, with a straining-sill secured to the upper side. The camber-beam is trussed with spui'-braces and straining-pieces, and is suspended from the principals by iron rods. A story can easily be fitted up in a roof of this description, if required, by placing joists upon the tie-beam between the truss-bolts, and flooring them over. In a span of 100 feet a height of 10 feet can easily be procured for this purpose, between the tie and camber-beams. By reference to the plate it will be seen that the purlins are intended to be notched into the principals, and the common-rafters into the purlins. The heels are secured by stirrups, in addition to the necessary bolts. The camber in the tie-beam should be 5 inches in a span of 100 feet ; that in the camber- beam should be 2 inches; all the connections with the iron heads and shoes will be rule-jointed. Fig. 2 is the cast-iron head drawn to a large scale, so as clearly to show the joints. Fig. 3 is a section showing the tie-beam with the shoe beneath; the cast-iron shoe; the straining-sill; the brace; and the butt joint of the truss in centre of beam. Fig. 4 shows the heel of the rafter and the mode of bolting it to the tie-beam; the position of the iron stirrup; and the form of construction for gutter. Fig. 5 is a section of the camber-beam, showing the connection of the spur-brace and straining-sill. Fig. 6 is the apex, showing the iron head and its connection with the truss-rafters. Fig. 7 is a portion of the camber-beam, showing the iron head, and the con- nection with the rafters by means of the suspension-rod and braces. Fig. 8 represents a part of the centre of the tie-beam, with tlie head of the truss. TABLE GIYING DIMENSIONS OF TIMBERS. Tie-beam 10X16 inches. Upper principal-rafters . . . 10X14 " Lower " "....10X12 Camber-beam 10 XH " Tmss-rafter above do. do. . . 10 v 14 " Spur-brace to do. do 10- 12 " Straining-piece to do. do. . . 10x10 " Straining-sill 8 X 10 " (22) Braces to straining-sill .... 6x10 inches. Upper braces G X 6 Shoe beneath tie-beam . . . . 8X10 rnrlins 5X 10 Common-rafters 3x5 Look-out joists 3 X 10 Ceiling joists 3X8 i»u.o \y Sar.i4- Sloan. Axcr. J-Lns^-.ati.aaE tiih Thil» PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS. • 23 the edges. This was but gentle, the height from the ridge to the level of the wall not exceeding one-ninth or one-eighth of the span, as may be seen by the remains of many of their ancient temples. In most of the old public and private edifices of Britain, the equilateral triangle seems to have been considered the standard, till the decline of what is termed Gothic architecture. The ridge was then somewhat low- ered; the rafters being made three-fourths of the breadth of the building. This was called true 2)if<-h; but subsequently the designation seems to have been applied to the sqttare. The heights of roofs were further depressed from the square to one- third, and from that to the fourth; but with us they are frequently executed much lower, the pitch being regulated by a variety of causes. When executed with judgment, a roof is one of the principal ties of a building, as it binds the exterior walls to the interior, and to the partitions, which act like strong counterforts against them. Eoofs are of various forms, according to the nature of the plan, and the law of the horizontal and vertical sections. The most simple form is that which has only one row of timbers, arranged in an inclined plane, which throws the roof entirely to one side. This is called a sJied roof, or Jean to. The best form for a rectangular building consists of two rectangular planes of equal breadth, equally inclined, and terminating in a line parallel to the horizon. This is sometimes called a pent roof. Roofs flat on the top are said to be trimcated. These are frequently employed with a view to diminish the height, so as not to predominate over that of the walls. When all the four sides of the roof are formed by inclined planes, it is said to be hipjied, and is therefore called a UpiMd roof; the inclined ridge sprmging from the angle of the walls being called the Mix Roofs of this description are frequently truncated. Roofs upon circular bases, with all their horizontal sections circular, the centres of the circles being in a straight line drawn from the centre of the base perpen- dicular to the horizon, are called revolved roofs, or roofs of revolution. When the plan of the roof is a regular polygon, or a circle, or an ellipsis, the horizontal sections being all similar to the base, and the vertical section a portion of any curve convex to the outside, the roof is called a dome. For the convenience of the reader it will be necessary to explain such terms as are used in roof construction, by way of definitions. PLATE VI. Is an example . of an open timber roof, in that later form of the Gothic or pointed style termed perpendicular; a style which has of late years come into rather extensive use in this country. The example here presented is of such construction as more particularly adapts it for roofs of large buildings, and may be used with perfect safety in cases where the span extends from 60 to 80 feet. Fig. 1 shows the construction across the entire span, one half of which exhibits the naked framing. The corresponding half is displayed in a finished state, with its mouldings, etc., all of which are planted on the framing. The tracery and spandrels are also formed and filled in, separately from the timbers. The roof being drawn correctly to a scale, and in such a manner as to make all the constructive features and detail perfectly intelligible to an ordinary mechanic, but little further need be added by way of description. A roof of such considerable span, having no tic-beam, must necessarily have two collar-beams, as well as hammer-beams, which are a mai'ked peculiarity of the style. Of the tie-beams, the upper is slightly tenoned into the principal-rafters; the lower, to make it perfectly secure, requires straps on either side and across the back of the rafter, and will require to be still further tightened by the introduction of jibs and keys. The upper collar-beam and king-post may be halved together, and have their ends and braces tenoned into the principal-rafters and pinned. If thought necessary, a small joint- bolt may be used in each of the latter. The form and framing of the hammer-beams, the collar braces, and the footing of the rafters, are clearly shown and explained by the drawing. Roofs of this description are usually constructed of pine timber, having the various mouldings, span- drels, etc., finished of the same material, and grained in imitation of oak, or stained and varnished. In this design, the common-rafters are not exposed. They are intended to be lined on the lower side with narrow worked boards with beaded joints. For these yellow pine is preferable. By this mode of finish a free circulation of air is obtained within the space formed by the sheathing for the roof and the lining of the ceiling. Figs. 2 and 3 are portions of the roof drawn to a large scale, so as more clearly to show the form of the detail and finish, and the mode of con- struction. v TABLE SHOWING THE DIMENSIONS OF THE TIMBERS. A Principal-rafters . . 10 X 14 inches. B Lower collar-hcam . .. 10x14 " C Hammer-beam . . . . 10X1(5 " D Hammer-brace . . . . 10X10 " G Collar-brace . . . . 10X10 II Side-post .... .. 10X12 " (24) E Peiulent-post F Uliper uollar-bcam I King-post . . K K Braces . . . L Ridge-piece . M Coiumou-rafters . 10 X 9 inches 10 X fi ( 10 X 8 t 10 X G i 4X10 t 3X 8 I LKi/rj S am^ SI o aj\ JVx ch* :B.ofien.Oial' sXitli yXil*. PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS. 25 WaU-jyJates. Pieces of timber laid on the walls, in order to distribute the pres- sure of the roof equally, and to bind the walls together. Triisses. Strong frames of carpentry, generally of a triangular form, supporting the covering. They are disposed at equal distances, and are used when the expansion of the walls is too great to admit of common-rafters alone, which would be in danger of being bent or broken by the weight of the covering, for want of some intermediate support. Tie. Any piece of timber connected at its extremities to two others, acted upon by opposite pressures, which have a tendency from each other. Straining-piece. A piece of timber connected at its extremities to two others, acted upon by opposite pressures, which have a tendency toward each other. Hence, a tie acts contrary to a straining -piece. A flexible substance may be used for the former, but the latter must always be inflexible, being in a state of compression. P)-incipal-rafters. Two pieces of timber in the sides of a truss, supporting a grated frame of timber work over them, on which the covering rests. Purlins. Horizontal pieces of timber, fixed upon the principal-rafters. Tie-beam. A horizontal piece of timber, connected to two oj)posite principal- rafters. It answers to prevent the walls from being pushed outward by the weight of the covering; and to support the ceiling of the rooms below. When placed above the bottom of the rafters it is called a collar-beam. Commoii-rafters. Pieces of timber of small section, placed equidistantly upon the purlins, and parallel to the principal-rafters. They sujjport the covering. Pole-plates. Pieces of timber resting on the ends of the tie-beams, and supporting the lower ends of the common-rafters. King-post. An upright piece of timber in the middle of a truss, framed at the upper end into the principal -rafters, and at the lower end into the tie-beam; this prevents the tie-beam from sinking in the middle. Queen^posts. Two upright pieces of timber framed below into the tie-beam, and above into the principal -rafters, placed equidistantly from the middle of the truss, or its extremities. Struts. Oblique straining -pieces, framed below into the king or queen-posts, and above into the principal -rafters, which are supported by them; or sometimes they have their upper ends framed into beams, which are too long to support themselves without bending. They are often called braces. D PLATE VII. Fig. 1 exhibits a hip-roof, designed to cover a large span. The angle and intermediate, or cripple-rafters, as they are usually termed, are sustained by a truss which takes its bearing cen- tral to the heel and the principal-rafter. In this design, the queen-posts are intended to be of hard wood. They are secured to the tic-beam with iron stirrups, which are made fast with keys and jibs. The camber-beam is sustained by an iron bolt, which passes through a cast-iron head inserted between the upper rafters at the ape.x. The tie-beam is suspended to the truss-beam, which supports the hip and its appendages, by iron bolts proceeding from cast heads between the camber-beam and trussed-rafter. In addition to this, the camber-beam is braced by three pieces on each side of the centre, which butt against a straining-piece. When well constructed, and thoroughly braced and bolted in the manner described, this roof is perfectly adequate to sustain itself with safety over a span extending from 70 to 85 feet. Fig. 2 is the elevation of the sup- porting beam or truss. Fig. 3 shows the ends of the upper rafters at their junction with the iron head. Fig. 4 is a section showing the connection of the tie-beam with the queen-post, the iron stiiTup, and the foot of brace. It will be seen that provision is made for flattening the upper section of this roof, lest the carrying out of the regular pitch line should give to it an objectionable height. The purlins are notched into the principals as on Plate V. The camber in the tie-beam should be at least three inches. It should also be cleated with 1X3 inch cleats, over which the joists should be notched; and to prevent cracks in the plastering, the whole should be cross lathed with 1X2 inch laths, placed 16 inches apart from the centres. By this means the plastering will be preserved from the cracks so frequently occasioned by the shrinkage of the timbers. By reference to the succeeding plate will be seen an isometrical view, which more intelligibly displays the disposition of the several timbers, showing a portion of the roof ready framed for the reception of the common-rafters. (26) [p[Lo\yaa j ajo.'r 'z, loan. AfCtV^ PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS. 27 Puncheons. Short transverse pieces of timber, fixed between two others for sup- porting them equally, so that when any force operates on the one, the other resists it equally. These are sometimes called studs. Straining-heam. A piece of timber placed between two queen-posts at the upper ends, in order to withstand the thrust of the principal-rafters. Straining-sill. A piece of timber placed at the bottom of two queen-posts, upon the tie-beam, in order to withstand the force of the braces, which are acted upon by the weight of the covering. Camber-heams. Horizontal pieces of timber, made, on the upper edge, sloping from the middle toward each end, in an obtuse angle, for discharging the water. They are placed above the straining-beam, in a truncated roof, for fixing the boarding on which the lead is laid. Auxiliary-rafters. Pieces of timber framed in the same vertical plane with the principal -rafters, under and parallel to them, for giving additional support, when I'equired. They are sometimes called principal-braces, and sometimes cushion-rafters. Joggles. The joints at the meeting of struts with king-posts, queen-posts, or prin- cipal-rafters, etc.; the best form is that which is at right-angles to the struts. Cogging. The particular manner of fixing the tie-beams to the wall-plates. One method is by dove-tailing, the other is by notching the under side of the tie-beam, and cutting the wall-plate in a reverse form to fit it. This last method is the most pre- ferable. Ridge-tree. A piece of timber fixed in the vertex of a roof, where the common- rafters meet on each side of it. The upper edge is higher than the rafters. Straps. Thin pieces of iron running across the junction of two or more parts of a truss, or frame of carpentry, branching out from the intersection in the direc- tion of the several pieces, for the purpose of securing them to each other. They ought always to be double, viz., one strap on each side, and their ends strongly bolted to each of the pieces. To these may be added the Cornice; in early roofs the inner wall-plate, which was sometimes moulded; afterwards this feature was greatly enlarged and enriched, and became of main importance in the roofs. Eammer-beam. Principally apphed in Gothic architecture. A horizontal piece of timber lying on the wall-plates, at right-angles with the wall into which the principal - rafter and strut are tenoned; in some roofs, two ranges of hammer-beams PLATE VIII. Fig. 1 is an isomctrical view of the roof presented on the preceding plate. In this design the wall-plate upon which the timbers bear is 4 inches thick l)y 14 inches wide, and into it the angle braces arc notched and bolted. Into these are framed the angle pieces which support the angle-rafters. On this diagram are shown the relative positions and connections of the several timbers. Fig. 2 shows, on a large scale, the heel of the principal-rafter or truss-beam under the hip, and describes the method of its ' construction. Fig. 3 is a section showing the upper end of the nifter at the point of its connection with the iron hcnd; a portion of the brace; the purlin; and a part of the common-rafter, with the sheathing. Fig. 4 shows the head of the queen-post at its junction with the principal-rafter and cambcr-bcam; the heel of the truss-raftor ; a section of the purlin; and a portion of the common-rafter and sheathing. Fig. 5 explains the mode of bolting the heads of the braces to the camber-beam. DIMENSIONS OF THE TIMBERS. Tie-beam of Principal .... 9X16 inches. Principal-rafters 9X1G " Queen-posts, (oak) 9Xl(i " Camber-beam 9X10 " Upper-rafter 8X12 " Braces 7X7 Purlins 4X10 Common-rafters 3X5 inches. Look-out joists ^xlO Angle-rafters 6X12 Intermediate-rafters 6X12 Siiort studs 6X12 Ceiling-joists 3X8 (28) iPQ-^juao 3!.oS€tnthal's "Litii. Hula PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS. 29 occur, in wliich case the upper range differs from the lower, inasmuch, that instead of the principals being tenoned into them, the reverse is the case. Of late years many roofs have been constructed of iron, a material which began at first to be introduced for particular members, such as tie and suspension rods, but afterwards became employed for the entire truss, and sometimes for the covering like- wise. Iron roofs are for the most part of similar construction to those already described of timber, those members which are subjected to tension, such as ties and suspending rods, being of wrought-iron rods; and those which suffer compression, such as principals and struts, of cast-iron. Such roofs have been very extensively employed in railway works, and such like. Having advanced so far in our notice of roofs generally, the open Gothic roofs of the middle ages, differing as they do in essential matters of construction from those now in use, claim a portion of our attention. These may be classed in four divisions, namely: Roofs with tie-beams, trussed rafter, or single-framed roofs; Eoofs framed with hammer-beams and braces; and Roofs constructed with collars and braces, or with the latter only. Of the first, or earliest kind, it may be observed that they were never entirely discarded by the mediaeval architects; they are to be met mth in Norman, early English, decorated and perpendicular structures. In the first named, they were pro- bably the only description of roofs in use. The tie-beam was sometimes used in medigeval roofs, independently of the other timbers, being simply laid across the walls, and pinned down to the wall-plates. Many expedients were subsequently had recourse to by the builders, in order to retain and make it an ornamental feature in the design. In some instances the tie-beams are beautifully moulded; in others they are left quite plain, even when the roof itself is enriched with panelling and moulded ribs, and elaborately carved bosses. In roofs of low pitch, which appear to have been in use at a very early period, the beam was made to bear the whole weight of the roof. A perfectly horizontal tie-beam is of rare occurrence; where a tie-beam is used we generally find it cambered, as are also the collar-beams; even the hammer-beams will generally be found to incline upward from the walls. The disagreeable effect of a straight tie-beam was often further counteracted by having curved braces framed from its under side, connecting it with the wall-pieces, thus forming an arched support for it. In roofs of higher pitch, the builders still endeavored, with varied success as to effect, to retain the arched shape in conjunc- PLATE IX. Fi". 1 exhibits a method of framing commonly employed in hip-roofs. In this example a tie-beam and queen-posts are used; it may readily be adapted to a span of from 50 to 70 feet. To accommodate a roof of this description to a given pitch, the upper portion may be broken at the queen-posts and flattened to any degree necessary, so as to lessen the height -which would otherwise be attained should the regular line of pitch be continued. By this means a difficulty ■which often occurs in situations where a high pitch is objectionable, may be easily obviated. When the span is of the greatest extent advisable in roofs of this description, the camber-beam should be trussed. Each of the queen-posts form three sides of an octagon, to which are united the angle, and right-angle rafters. These are supported, where they connect with the queen- posts, by wrought-iron shoes, firmly bolted both horizontally and vertically with joint bolts; in addition to which the introduction of a thorough bolt serves firmly to secure the upper end of the plate to the queen-post. All these connections are fully explained by Figs. 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6, on Plate X. In this design, all the joints of the timbers butting against the queen-posts are curved or rule-jointed, so that the settlings usually occasioned by the shrinkage of the timbers may retain their equal bearings, whereas by the method generally pursued in making joints of this character, the downward tendency is calculated to destroy, in all cases, the firmness of the joints, no matter how perfect they may have been in their original positions. The wall-plates for a roof of this description should in no case be less than four inches in thickness; solidly embedded upon the walls, which adds much to their stability. These should also be firmly dove- tailed together at the angles; in addition to this an angle brace should cross each of the corners at a distance of from four to six feet from the angle each way, with its ends dove-tailed into the plate. The joints of the wall-plate should in all cases be made under the tie-beams, and these should be notched into the plate. Figs. 2 and 3 show the angle and right-angle rafters, with their position on the plan of hip. For the further elucidation of this design, we refer the reader to the succeeding plate, which contains an isometrical view, and the principal connections in detail. (80 PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS. 31 tion with the tie-heams. This, however, is not at all to be compared with the efifect of an unbroken arch. In many tie-beam roofs the form of tlie arch was entirely omitted, a Icing-post, rising from the centre of the tie-beam, with curved braces springing therefi'om to the principals and ridge, being substituted. Of this form there are various adaptations. Triissed-rafter roof. This form of roof was in all likelihood chosen for the pur- pose of giving headway; and having once been employed, its superiority to the tie- beam, both in regard to construction and general appearance, led to its being preferred and substituted for the latter. In roofs of a wide span, each pair of rafters had a collar, and was also further stiffened by braces, crossing at times above the collar, and at others tenoned into its under side. In good examples of this form of cover- ing, each separate pair of rafters is trussed, so that, viewed from below, it presents somewhat the appearance of an arched ceiling; the soffit of the arch (if it may be so termed) of this kind of roof is pentagonal, the two lower inclined sides being formed by the lower part of the rafters themselves, the two next by braces passing obliquely from one rafter to its oj^posite, and the upper or horizontal side by the collar which intersects the braces. In roofs of this character, the rafters generally extended to the outside of the walls and formed the eaves; consequently, the walls being of great thickness, and never carried up higher than the wall-plates, a con- siderable space intervened on the inside between the top of the wall and the under- side of the rafter. Instead of allowing the rafter to pitch upon a plate laying near the outside of the wall, which would have afforded but a very insecure hold, the builders of old made use of the entire thickness of the wall, by filling up this space with struts on a line with the wall, which were framed into the under side of the rafters; and by connecting these with the foot of each rafter by a horizontal piece of timber, into which each was framed, so as to assume the form of a triangle whose base was equal to the thickness of the wall, they contrived to obtain an excellent hold. This, perhaps, gave the first idea of the beautiful hammer-beam roofs that still adorn so many sacred and other edifices. Hammer-heam roofs come next in succession. Among the many varieties of this description of roof, we may notice, first, those formed of hammer-beams, collars, and struts, connected together with curved braces. Secondly, those in which the collar- beam is omitted and the curved braces are carried up almost to the ridge, and framed at the apex of the arch into wedge-framed struts, into which the principals are also PLATE X. Fig. 1 presents an isometrical view of the roof contained on Plate IX., by wliich the dispo- sition and relative positions of the timbers, with their connections, etc., can be more easily under- stood. This view embraces one of the intermediate principal -rafters, the timbers of which are of lighter dimension than those of that which supports the hip or angle-rafters. The interme- diate tie-beams are attached to the queen-posts by stirrups, with jibs and keys, instead of the joint bolts employed to sustain those at either end. Fig. 2 explains the connection of the angle and principal-rafters with the head of the queen-post. Each of these are bolted through the queen-post at right-angles with the pitch of the roof. Fig. 3 shows the connection of these rafters with the braces at the foot of the queen-post. Fig. 4 displays a section of the tie-beam and queen-post, as secured together by an iron plate and joint bolts. Fig. 5 is the plan, show- ing the under sides of the tie-beams and their connections below the queen-post. Fig. G is a transverse section of Fig. 4. The purlins are 'notched into the principal -rafters, and the common -rafters into the purlins. The thickness of the various bolts will of course be regulated by the extent of the span of the roof. The following table gives the dimensions necessaiy for the several timbers in a roof of seventy feet span: — Tie-beam, (supporting angle-rafters) 9X16 inches. Principal-rafter to do. . . . 9X16 Camber-beam (( 9X16 Quceu-posts ti 14X14 Braces It 8X 8 Common-rafters 3X Y Truss-rafters to camber-beara 6X 8 Tie-beam, (of intermediate-rafter) 8X 16 inches. Principal-rafter, " " . 8 X 16 Camber- beam, " " . 8X16 " Queen-posts, " " . 8X16 Braces, " " . 7X 7 " Purlins 4X10 (32) l'^.^'^. Sam^ SIcELD. Jorcti^ PRINCIPLES AND CONSTHrCTION OF ROOFS. 33 tenoned. Thirdly, hammer-beam roofs having collar-beams and no struts; and lastly, those which have neither collar-beams nor struts. The following is an example of this description, in which the arched brace is formed of three pieces of timj^r, about three inches in thickness, one on either side, tenoned into the hammer-laeam and principal and reaching up as far as the purlin, the centre piece forming the apex of the arch, being tenoned into each principal, and itself acting as a brace, and to a certain extent as a collar-beam. These are the most usual varieties of this beautiful form of roof, although there are many other minor diflferences to be met with. In roofs with complete collar-beams, the arched braces were usually made in four pieces, two uniting the hammer-beams with the lower half of the principals, and the other two connecting the upper halves with the collar-beam. There are many examples of roofs having two ranges of hammer-beams. The object of these second ranges, with their braces and struts, was further to stiffen the principals, and bring what strain there might be on them to the lower range, and thence directly on to the wall; the effect produced by these two series of hammer-beams is generally less pleasing than that of a single hammer-beam roof. When they occur the roof is usually of less pitch than when one set is used. CoUar-hraced roofs constitute the last division. These also include roofs braced together without collar-beams; the braces, which are usually curved, simply connect- ing the wall pieces and principals together. This style of roof is a natural simpli- fication of the hammer-beam roof The curved braces, besides bringing the different timbers together, serve two other more important purposes. First, they convey the thrust of the roof lower down on the walls, where they can offer a greater resistance to any lateral pressure; and in the next place, they serve as a great steadiment to the walls, the latter being by far the most important of their uses. We will conclude this description by stating, that there are several beautiful specimens of mediseval roofs, as applied to other than ecclesiastical purposes, to be found among the old palatial edifices and interesting public halls of England. Some of these are in excellent preservation, and form magnificent and striking evidences of the taste and skill of the architects of the olden time. Having given these descriptions of various kinds of roofs, it may not be out of place to append some rules for finding the proper scantlings of the different mem- bers, and the manner in which each member is affected. E PLATE XL Fig. 1 represents a collar-beam roof. This method of construction is usually adopted to facilitate the construction of a curved ceiling. A roof of this character may be introduced for a span of from 50 to 60 feet. The principal-rafters are bolted into the tie in the manner usually employed for securing them to tie-beams; and at the apex they butt with a rule joint against a cast-iron head, which has an iron saddle bolted over the upper side, to receive the iron stirrups to the tension-rods. These are secured to the rods by means of jibs and keys, as fully explained by Fig. 7. The lower ends of the tension-rods pass through iron shoes, to each of which they are secui'ed by a nut; these shoes are placed immediately beneath the connection of the collar- beam with the tie-rafters. At this point an upright brace is placed, heading immediately under the junction of the opposite tie and the principal-rafters. The ties by this mode are halved together at their point of crossing in the centre, tenoned into the under side of the principal- rafters, and secured thereto by joint bolts. The collar-beam is of double thickness, notched one inch in depth each way, with a tongue or back to each of the halvings. Fig. 2 represents the shoe, and the halvings of the tie and collar-beam. Fig. 3 shows the extension of the heel, which is locked into the wall-plate, and is of sufficient length to admit of four heel bolts. Fig. 4 shows the manner in which the collar-beam is connected with the principal-rafter. Fig. 5 represents the apex, and gives the detail of the stirrups, and the mode of then* connection with the tension-rods. Fig. 6 shows the connection of the tie with the principal-rafter, where it is secured by the joint bolt. Fig. 7 we have previously referred to. (34) iPQ.c.aa rietnx^ SLoarLArctLc Ko>?enT,hai sXiliiJPhiU PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS. 35 King-post. The king-post is intended to support the ceiling, and, by means of the braces, part of the weight of the roof. The weight suspended by the king-post will be proportional to the span of the roof; therefore, to find the scantling: — Rule. Multiply the length of the post in feet, by the span in feet. Then multiply this product by the decimal 0"12 for pine or by O'lo for oak, which will give the area of section of the king-post in inches; and this area, divided by the breadth, will give the thickness; or by the thickness, will give the breadth. Qiieerirposts. Queen-posts and suspending-pieces are strained in a similar manner to king-posts, but the load upon them is only proportional to that part of the length of the tie-beam suspended by each suspending-piece or queen-post. In queen-posts, the part suspended by each is generally half the span. Rule. Multiply the length, in feet, of the queen-post or suspending-piece, by that part of the length of the tie-beam it supports, also in feet. This product, mul- tiplied by the decimal 0-27 for pine or by 0-32 for oak, will give the area of the section of the first in inches; and this area, divided by the thickness, will give the breadth. Tie-beams. A tie-beam is affected by two strains: the one in the direction of the length, from the thrust of the principal-rafters ; the other is a cross strain, from the weight of the ceiling. In estimating the strength, the thrust of the rafters need not be considered. The pressure of the weight supported by the tie-beams will be proportional to the length of the longest part of it that is unsupported. To find the scantling of a tie-beam that has only to support a ceiling, the length of the longest unsuj^ported part being given: — Rule. Divide the length of the longest unsupported part by the cube root of the breadth, and the quotient, multiplied by 1-47, will be the depth required for pine in inches; or multiplied by 1'52, will give the depth for oak, in inches. Principal-rafters. In estimating the strength of principal-rafters, we may suppose them supported by struts, either at or very near all the points where the purlins rest. The pressure on a principal-rafter is in the direction of its length, and is in proportion to the magnitude of the roof; but the effect of this pressure does not bear the same proportion to the weight when there is a king-post, as Avhen there are queen- posts; therefore the same constant number will not answer for both cases. Case 1. To find the scantling of the principal-rafter, when there is a king-post in the middle: — Rule. Multiply the square of the length of the rafter in feet, by the span in PLATE XII. On Fig. 1 we exliibit in isometrical perspective a portion of the roof shown in Plate XI. It is represented as prepared for the reception of the jack -rafters. In the present instance, the principal-rafters are intended to be notched to a depth of 1 inch on the sides, to receive the pur- lins, which will be notched to 6 inches of their depth downward on the rafters, leaving a thickness of 4 inches on the upper side. The distance at which the purlins should be placed from each other, between centres, depends entirely upon the size of the timbers intended for common-rafters; for 3X4 inch scantling it should not exceed 7 feet. The ribs necessary to form the curved ceiling may be made of plank, cut to the required line of curvature. These should be secured by 3X4 inch cross-scantlings, placed not more than 2 feet apart. These again should be cross- cleated with 1X3 inch strips, following the line of curve, at a distance of about 16 inches between centres; to these the plastering laths can be nailed, and thus those unseemly cracks in the plas- tering, which so frequently occur, owing to the shrinkage of the timbci-s, may be avoided. DIMENSIONS OF THE TIMBERS. Principul-rafters 8X14 inches. Tie-rafters 8X14 " Collar-beams 6X12 " (30) Purlins 4 X 10 inches. Common-rafters 3X4 " Ridge-pole 3X8 (PQ^^OB 6 amS- Slo'aii._A^ ch:t B.OS an-QiaTeXitb YJlil^ -^ PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS. 37 feet, and divide the product by the cube of the thickness in inches. For pine, mul- tiply the quotient by 0"96, which will give the depth in inches. Case 2. To find the scantling of the rafter, when there are two queen-posts, use the same rule as in Case 1, multiplying the quotient by 0-155, instead of 0-96. Straining-beams. A straining-beam is a horizontal piece between the heads of the queen-posts. That this beam may be the strongest possible, its depth should be to its thickness as 10 is to 7. Rule. Multiply the square root of the span in feet, by the length of the beam in feet, and extract the square root of the product. Multiply the root by 0-9 for pine, which will give the depth in inches. To find the thickness, multiply the depth by the decimal 0-7. Struts and Braces. That part of a roof that is supported by a strut is easily ascertained from the design; but the efiect of a load must depend on the position of a brace; when it is square from the back of the rafter, the strain upon it will be least; and when it has the same inclination on the roof, the same strain will be thrown on the lower part of the principal-rafter as is borne by the strut. Rule. Multiply the square root of the length supported in feet, by the length of the brace or strut in feet, and the square root of the product multiplied by 0-8 for pine will give the depth in inches; and the depth multiplied by 0-6, will give the breadth in inches. Purlins. The stress upon purlins is proportionable to the distance they are apart, and the weight being uniformly diffused, the stiffness is reciprocally as the cube of the length. Rule. Multiply the cube of the length of the purlin in feet, by the distance the purlins are set apart in feet, and the fourth root of the product for pine will give the depth in inches; or multiplied by 1-04, will give the depth for oak; and the depth, multiplied by the decimal 0-6, will give the breadth. Gommonrrafters. Common-rafters are uniformly loaded, and the breadth need not be more than from 2h inches to 3 inches. The usual depth for slate may be found by the following rule: — Rule. Divide the length of the bearing in feet by the cube root of the breadth in inches, and the quotient, multiplied by 0-72 for pine or 0-74 for oak, will give the depth in inches. PLATE XIII Fig. 1 is an example of a roof with collar-beam rafters and tension-rods, adapted for a span of from 40 to 50 feet. The collar-beam, it will be seen, is locked into the under side of the principal-rafters, and secured by two bolts at each connection. The tension-rods are extended from the heel of the rafters to the apex, in a single bar, passing each through an iron shoe placed on the under side of collar-beam and secured by a nut at either end. Immediately over each of the shoes, near to the point where the bar intersects the collar-beam, is placed a strut or post extending to the principal-rafter, into which it is notched just under the purlin. The shoe at the foot of each rafter is secured by three bolts. The upper ends butt against a cast-iron head with a rule joint. As will be seen, by reference to the plate, this roof is intended for a curved ceiling. The curvature of the arc may be readily formed of 2 inch planks. The ribs thus formed may be cross-cleated with 2X4 inch scantling, notched in so as to afford convenient nailing, and the whole may be still further secured by planting vertical cleating against the sides of the ribs and scantlings. The distance of the cross-scantling should not exceed IG inches between centres, so as to insure firm nailing to the plastering laths. Fig. 2 shows in detail the mode in which the principal and common rafters butt against the cast-iron head at the apex; the manner in which the collar-beam is secured and bolted to the under side of the principal; and the form and position of the iron shoe and camber-rod. Fig. 3 represents the heels of common and principal rafters, showing the construction of the cornice by aid of the look-out joists; the manner in which the heel-piece is bolted to the principal; and also how the lower end of the camber-rod intersects the rafter and is secured. Fig. 4 shows the manner in which the collar-beam is connected with the lower side of the principal-rafter. TABLE OF SCANTLINGS. Tie-beams tX 14 inches. Collar-beams 7X14 " Purlins 4X 10 " (38) Common-rafters 3X4 inches. Look-out joists 3X10 " Ridge-pole 3X10 ^_.;i'jja ~a- - LcazL i-~r.*- J^.oserr^.AL s"!ii's^^}ul^ SPIRES; THEIR PROBABLE ORIGIN AND PECULIARITIES OF STYLE. Having reviewed Domes and Eoofs, briefly noticing their most remarkable features, and giving such historical information in regard to their origin and progress as might be deemed interesting, we shall now proceed to offer some observations on Spires, having reference more particularly to their probable origin, — a subject enveloped in much mystery, and which seems to be little understood 5 and those peculiarities of style which mark the different erections of this character, in the several periods of ecclesiastical architecture. It seems very unaccountable, that neither history nor tradition should have pre- served the least remembrance of the origin of spires. Their original builders, how- ever, must have had some special motive in their erection, for we can hardly conceive that appendages so expensive and difficult of execution should be merely the result of caprice. About the twelfth century the custom of burying in churches appears to have become general throughout Europe, consequently the same fabric was at once a cemetery and a church. The architects of the structures intended for this two-fold use, would naturally desire to engraft upon their style some characteristic denoting the double purpose for which these early churches were intended. What more pro- bable than that they should turn back for precedent to the nations of antiquity? The history and antiquities of these nations would at once inform them, that it was the invariable practice of all civilized communities who believed in the immortality of the soul, to erect lofty pyramids over their cemeteries or places of sepulture. May not the Gothic architect in like manner have adopted the pyramidal form to (39) PLATE XIV. Fig. 1. A rafter constructed upon the principle shown in this plate may be used with perfect safety in a span extending from 40 to 50 feet. In the present instance a tie-rafter, sustained and strengthened by bolts at the several connections, is substituted for the camber-rod used in Plate XIII. This example also differs in other particulars from either of those intended for curved ceihngs, vrhich are given in the preceding plates. The timbers are to be halved and locked together at all the joints, excepting those at the heels and upper ends of the principal-rafters; the former are secured with bolts, shoes, etc., as shown; the latter butt against a cast-iron head, as in the instances previously referred to. The halvings are each one-fourth in depth, with the ends reversed. It ought here to be remarked, that all the timbers used in the construction of a roof on this principle should be thoroughly seasoned, as much depends upon the joints remaining perfect. If a roof of this description be executed with care, it will prove perfectly reliable, and may be applied with confidence to the greater of the spans above mentioned. The ceiling may be, in this case, constructed and prepared for the plaster in the manner mentioned in the example preceding. Fig. 2 represents, on a large scale, the heels of the principal and common rafters; the cornice as secured to the look-out joists; and the sheathing as prepared for the metal. Fig. 3 shows the junction of the tops of the principals with the cast-iron head; and Fig. 4 shows the crossings of the lower timbers. TABLE OF SCANTLINGS. Principal-rafters 6 X 14 inches. Tie-rafters 6X12 " Collar-beam 7X12 " (40) Purlins 4X10 inches. Common-rafters 3X4 " Look-out joists 3X10 " iPioixav Soservthalis L.tS\ .Ihil'* SPIRES; THEIR ORIGIN AND STYLE. 41 characterize the cemetery, at the same time that they preserved the figure of the cross in then- ground plans, the better to denote the Christian temple? Hence, per- haps, the origin of spires, and the subsequent introduction of pinnacles, pointed arches, angular ornaments, etc. The probable reason here assigned for the origin of spires may be also similarly applied to those curious constructions, the round towers, still to be found in exist- ence near the ruins of some of the old churches in Ireland; for it may be remarked that at the time these towers were built the architects of that country were unac- quainted with the art of raising a spire over the pillars at the intersection of the nave and transepts. They may have had recourse then to an easier but less sci- ■ entific expedient, by constructing upon solid bases those round pyramids, the existing examples of which all terminate like the Egyptian obelisk. Notwithstanding the many learned conjectures which have been hazarded respecting the use of these pyramids, we think it may not unreasonably be concluded that they were simply intended to denote cemeteries. And their proximity to churches strengthens this supposition. It has also been remarked, "that spires owe their origin and use to the peculiar nature of the Christian worship, which invites all persons to join in its ceremonies and partake of its benefits, differing in this respect essentially from all previous reli- gious systems. From this arose the use of bells to notify the time of meeting, and also the appropriate buildings to contain them; which, in order to diffuse more widely the sounds, were elevated above the contiguous ordinary dwellings. These buildings were called Campaniles, and in the early Christian churches were often detached from the edifice and placed in a corner of the surrounding area. With the use of the Christian religion extended the use of such towers, which became necessary adjuncts to buildings erected for its service. In these, therefore, they have always formed conspicuous features, and are to be met with in almost every variety of form and situation consistent with their essential quality of loftiness. As the mediaeval archi- tecture gradually improved in lightness and elegance, the steeples became more slender and lofty, and, to assimilate their outhne more completely with the leading lines of the style, spires were added, which, from the stability of the pyramidal form, could be carried to a greater height than would otherwise have been practicable. Hence originated the Christian steeple." Having discussed the probable origin of the spire, and the uses to which its F PLATE XV. Fig. 1 is an example also applicable to a span of from 40 to 50 feet. This is likewise designed for a curved ceiling. At the heel the principal-rafter is bolted to a tie, which terminates at the centre of the collar-beam by butting against its fellow, which proceeds from the opposite direction. Both of these are notched between the collar-beam, and a tension-bar passing through at the notch on either side, intersects the principal close to the head and is secured by a nut on the outer edge. It will be seen that in this example the collar-beam is halved, having its ends locked into the principal, and being further secured by bolts at the connection. The upper ends of the principal-rafters butt to a cast-u-on head, and the heels require shoes, which have then- bear- ing on the wall-plates. At the points where the collar-beam is intersected by the tension-bars, posts or struts arc inserted, which extend to the under side of the upper purlin. These are intended to equalize the camber produced in the principals by the tightening of the tension-bars. The manner in wliich the curve of the ceiUng is formed may readily be seen by reference to Plates XIII. and XIV. Fig. 2 shows the connection of the rafters with the cast-iron head. Fig. 3 explains the mode of halving ties with collar-beam. Fig. 4 shows the heels of the principal and common rafters ; the lower purlin, and the formation of the cornice. Figs. 5 and 6 show the notchings where the ties cross the collar-beam. Fig. T is a section of the tie showing the notchings where the collar-beam crosses. Fig. 8 is a section showing the notchings on the principal-rafter for the end of the collar-beam. Figs. 9 and 10 show the notchings at the ends of the collar-beam, where they are intended to be joined into the principal-rafters. DIMENSIONS OP THE TIMBERS. Principal-rafters 7X14 inches. Ties 7X14 " Collar-beams 6X12 " (42) Purlins 4X10 inches. Common-rafters 3X4 " Ridge-piece 3X10 " (F-U.»\y F,_y 3 /■;,/ i ^Sf/ jj — ^.J Sairinir.u; IRoser.tlial s Rtn pjv"^;* SPIRES; THEIR ORIGIN AND STYLE. 43 earlier prototypes may have possibly been dedicated, we will now proceed more fully to define the term spire, as more particularly applied in pointed architecture, taking occasion to notice the peculiarities of the difierent styles, and concluding with a few short practical remarks. A Spire is an acutely pointed termination or covering, most usually found on towers of churches, or turrets. Spires are constructed either of stone or wood, the latter description being generally covered with lead, slate, or shingles. They are usually carried to a great height, and terminated at the apex mth a finial, metal cross, or vane. It is doubtful whether any very decided approach toward spire building was made in English ecclesiastical architecture for a considerable time after the Norman conquest. In the earliest examples they are usually of the same plan as the tower, either square, circular, or octagonal, and are of very great height. Thus, in some of the early churches of Britain and Normandy, circular turrets ter- minate in circular spires; in another an octagonal turret has an octagonal spire; while in others square towers are surmounted by square spires or pjrramids. These were commonly of very low proportions compared with later structures, and in truth were little more than pyramidal roofs; the whole of the remaining specimens of this date are of stone, and rise from the outer surface of the walls, so as to leave no parapet or gutter around the base. These high pyramidal roofs were clearly the harbinger of spires, and have therefore that term generally applied to them, though scarcely deserving of the name. As the early English style arose, a considerably greater elevation was given to spires, although they were still very frequently less acute than they afterwards became. With the exception of a few rare examples, the spires of this period were always octagonal, and when placed on square towers the angles of the tower not covered by the base of the spire were occupied by pinnacles, or by semi-pyramidal masses of masonry sloping back against the spire. The outline was generally broken by one or more tiers of small open windows, termed spire lights, the faces of which were vertical, and therefore projected out at the top from the sloping sides of the tower. These were usually covered with gablets or sharp pediments, and were sometimes placed on the alternate faces of the spire in alternate tiers. Early English spires were usually what are termed hroach spires; that is to say, they were usually made to spring directly from the exterior of the tower walls without the intervention of a parapet, whereas in the later styles gutters and parapets around the bases were seldom omitted. PLATE XVI. DESIGN I. Fig. 3 is a principal-rafter, designed to span an extent of from 30 to 40 feet. Fig. 1 shows the footing of the braces upon the tie-beams. Fig. 2 shows the ends of the rafters at their con- nection with the iron licad. Figs. 4 and 5 show a slight change in the mode of construction, whereby the tenons used in the rafters on Figs. 1 and 2 are dispensed with. Fig. G explains the manner in which the heel is connected with the tie-beam, and the construction of the gutter. TABLE OP SCANTLINGS. Tie-beam 6X12 inches. Purlins 4X 8 " Common-rafters 3X4 " Principal-rafter 6X12 inches. Braces 4X 6 " Look-out joists 3X8 DESIGN II. Fig. 9 is a description of roof applicable for a span of from 60 to 60 feet. In this example the joints are square, and butt together in connection with an iron plate at the apex, and in a manner almost similar at the foot of the braces. The tic-beam is sustained by three bolts, the central one serving as a king-post. When the span is of the widest advisable extent, the centre- bolt should be IJ, and those on either side IJ inches in diameter. The tie-beam should have from 2J to 3 inches of camber when tightened up. The mode of construction employed in this roof is very simple, and well adapted for either of the given spans. It is also perfectly reliable, and will sustain itself without danger of deflection, provided the timbers are thoroughly seasoned. Fig. 10 explains the connection at the apex, showing the centre-bolt; a section of the ridge-pole; and the common-rafter with the sheathing. Fig. 11 is a section of the tie-beam, showing the centre-bolt, and the iron shoe over which the braces butt. Fig. 12 shows the heel of the rafter, and its con- nection with tlio tie-beam; the purlin; the gutter, etc. DIMENSIONS OF TIMBERS. Tie-beam 8X14 inches. Braces CX 6 Common-rafters 3X 5 " (44) Principal-rafter 8X14 inches. Purlins 4X10 " Look-out joists 3X9 " ^a-m^ SToam. Ait"S* SPIRES; THEIR ORIGIN AND STYLE. 45 Daring the prevalence of the Decorated style, spires were almost always very acute ; they generally had gutters or parapets, though broach spires of this date are by no means uncommon. They did not differ materially from the early spires except in the character of the details and the amount of enrichments, which now began to be introduced in profusion ; crockets were often carved at the angles, and small bands of panelling or other ornaments formed around them at different heights ; the open- ings were also often enriched Avith crockets, finials, and pinnacles ; the angular pin- nacles were also enlarged, and not unfrequently connected with the spire by small flying buttresses. Many fine examples of this style and date remain in England and Normandy. In the latter country they are generally ornamented externally with shallow Vandykes, little arches, or other similar patterns cut on the surface ; these are sometimes arranged in bands, and sometimes spread over the whole spire. They are also frequently pierced with a number of small openings. In the Perpendicular style the same general arrangement was continued, although the character of the details and enrichments was altered in common with the other features of Gothic architecture. At this period broach spires seem to have been abandoned. In the Flamboyant style of the continent of Europe, spires somewhat partook of the same redundancy of ornament as the rest of the buildings. There are many rich examples of this date of beautiful design still in existence. Before concluding this part of our subject we may instance a few of the more remarkable of these constructions. The spire of old St. Paul's is one of the earliest of which we have any account. It was finished in the year 1222, and was in height 534 feet, being 39 feet higher than the Great Pyramid. That of Strasburgh, built by the famous Irwin de Steinbach, is 474 feet high. It is noticeable for its curious construction, being formed so entirely of open work as to resemble a pile of scaffolding. Some spires, instead of having the sides straight, are formed with an entasis or swelling outwards, as at Caythorp, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, and some other places; this kind of construction is found in the Decorated and Perpendicular styles. No settled proportion seems to have been observed in the dimensions of spires in general. Sometimes the height did not exceed four times the diameter of the base, while at other times the ratio of the height to the breadth taken at the base PLATE XVII. Fig. 1 is a design for an open timber roof in the Gothic stylo, suited to a span extending from GO to 70 feet. This form of roof is possessed of striking and beautiful features. It is in strict accordance -with the spirit of media;val architecture, and may be very advantageously and judiciously introduced in any considerable structure which partakes of this character. In this example the rafters are notched together, except at the apex, where they butt against an iron-head, through which passes an iron rod which' serves as a king-post. The purlins have their bearings over the connections by which the truss is foi-med. One half of the elevation of the rafter shows the framing, displaying the several connections of the timbers at the heel, and with the hammer- beam, side-post, perdent-post, and curved brace. The corresponding half of the elevation shows the complete finish of the roof, with its mouldings, tracery, spandrels, etc. The line of the plas- tering for ceiling is seen on the upper side of the moulded rib. Figs. 2 and 3 are portions of the preceding, drawn to a larger scale, so as to be rendered more perspicuous. Figs. 4 and 5 are sections of the moulded rib. TABLE OP DIMENSIONS OF THE TIMBERS IN A SPAN OP SIXTY PEET. Principal-rafters 9X14 inches. Tie-rafter 9X14 " Hammer-beam 9 X 14 " Collar-beams, (each double) ..5X12 " (46) Side-posts, (each double) . . . 5X12 inches. Pendent-posts, (single) .... 9 X 9 " Purlins 4X10 " Common-rafters 3X5 " iio^v'ja Sajn-^ SluajL^rcK^ SPIRES; THEIR ORIGIN AND STYLE. 47 was as eight to one. We have an example of the last- mentioned proportion in the spire built by Hugh Sibergin upon the towers of St. Nicase, the two largest of which were 50 feet high upon a base of 6 feet. Notwithstanding the amazing height to which many spires were carried, they were constructed so exceedingly shght that we should be apt to conclude — reasoning from theory — that they would be inadequate to sustain their own weight. That of Salis- bury, for instance, is but seven inches thick, and that of Batalha is of no greater thickness, taken independent of the embossed work, with which almost a fourth of its superficies is perforated. Great care must consequently have been taken in select- ing the materials of which such slight fabrics were constructed, especially as they are generally supposed to be connected without the aid of iron cramps, for this metal, when exposed to air or moisture, is liable to contract rust, which, in time, will shiver in pieces that portion of the block with which it comes in immediate contact. It is said that the stones of the spire of Batalha are keyed together by means of dove- tail wedges of pine wood. It is pretty certain that the ancients on similar occasions adopted this expedient. Wedges, or cramps of wood, have been found in ancient Roman buildings, and in several instances among the ruins of old temples in Athens and Sicily. Cramps of copper were also used by the ancients in their buildings, which were tempered to an exceeding hardness. There are many fine spires in Normandy, of which a considerable number appear to belong to the period of transition from the early French to the Decorated style, of which those at Ifs-les-Alemague, near Caen, and Bretteville I'Orqueilleuse, between Caen and Bayeux, are good examples. Beautiful examples of the Flamboyant exist at Chartres Cathedral, the Church of St. Jean, Soissons, etc. ; there are others of plainer character at Harfleur and Lillebonne, in Normandy. The latter of these rises from an octagonal lantern on the top of the tower, an arrangement which is not unusual on the continent; the lantern almost always consists of open work. The foregoing observations refer to spires of stone ; but spires were often made of timber and covered either with lead or shingles. Many specimens of these old timber spires, covered with shingles, are still to be met with in England; a curious example of one covered with lead remains at Chesterfield, Derbyshire, in which the lead is so disposed as to give the appearance of the spire being twisted; most of these spires are so devoid of architectural features as to afford no clue to their date ; some of them may be decorated, but the majority are probably perpendicular. PLATE XVIII. Fig. 1 Is an example of a roof formed witli a king-post, braces, and side-bolts. The tie- beam is sustained to the king-post by an iron stirrup, and the heads of the rafters are secured in a similar manner at the apex. Both of these are fastened with jibs and keys. The ends of the rafters and braces butt against the king-post with curved joints. This rafter may readily be adapted, and with perfect safety, to a span of 50 feet. When king or queen posts are used they should be formed of hard wood. For this purpose oak is preferable, as it is more capable of resisting the pressure at the connections than the softer material commonly employed for the rafters and tie-beams. Fig. 2 shows the heads of the king-post and rafters, drawn to a large scale. Fig. 3 shov.s the connection of the brace with the principal-rafter. Fig. 4 displays por- tions of the tie-beam and king-post ; shows the mode of their connection by means of the stirrup ; and the footing of the braces. Fig. 5 shows a portion of the tie-beam ; the heel of the rafter ; the lower purlin ; the mode of forming the gutter ; and the common-rafter, with the sheathing, etc. TABLE OF SCANTLINGS. Tie-beam 7X12 inches. Principal-rafter 7X12 King-post 7X16 Braces 6X 6 Purlins 4X 9 Ridge-piece 3X10 inches. Common-rafters 3X5 " Look-out joists 3X10 " Wall-plate 4X12 (48) i' i- ■'- - „ J S3Tn"*' Sica'n ^:ri"*- ■E-oserrOiall^ftli 3*iula SPIRES; THEIR ORIGIN AND STYLE. 49 On the continent there are some timber spires, apparently of Flamboyant con- struction, considerably ornamented, with portions formed of open work entirely cased in lead ; small light spires of similar chai'acter are also to be seen frequently, rising from the roofs of churches, especially over the east end of the choir. There are also numerous plain spires in Normandy and Flanders, many of which are covered with small slates, probably modern substitutes for lead or shingles. Having noticed the peculiar form and characteristics of spires, during the preva- lence of the Gothic styles, we will briefly refer to those of later construction. It is apparent, as before remarked, that this species of composition owes its origin and use to the Christian worship. When, therefore, during the seventeenth century, influenced principally by the compositions of Inigo Jones and Sir Christopher Wren, a great change was effected in the ecclesiastical architecture of England, this form was not discarded. The steeples which then came into use were in imitation of the early spires. Of the many classic structures with which the taste and genius of Wren embellished London, the majority have steeples. Some of these are constructed wholly or in part of wood. Of the form, however, used by the mediajval architects, nothing but the general idea is preserved. For the slender and acutely pointed spires with which they terminated their towers, compartments are substituted, in which the classic orders form a conspicuous feature ; and the superstructure is generally finished in receding gradations, each, at least the lower of these, being composed of columns and a regular entablature. Urns, pyramidal, and other ornaments are also employed, and the apex generally terminates in a small and slender adaptation of the spire. In some instances different orders are employed in the several stories of the same steeple. A few concluding remarks may now be made in regard more particularly to spire construction among ourselves. Our large and rapidly increasing population, and the consequent necessity which exists for enlarged church accommodation, make this a matter of much imjDortance to all. While churches are urgently required in our large towns and teeming cities, they are scarcely less needed in small villages and sparsely populated districts. The church — no less than the school-house — is the inseparable accompaniment of American progress. Economy in their erection is generally desirable, and in many instances indispensable. Thus, those immediately interested in these constructions are often compelled, contrary to their own immediate wishes and preferences, to dispense with G PLATE XIX. Fig. 1 is a roof constructed with queen-posts, to which the tie-beam is sustained by means of iron stirrups, fastened with jibs and keys, as in the preceding example on Plate XVIII. It may be applied to a 60 or 65 feet span. In the larger span the camber-beam should be sus- tained to the small king-post by a joint-bolt, as shown on the plate. Where, as in this instance, the queen-posts are notched into the tie-beam to resist the thrust of the braces, the straining- piece is omitted. In a span of this extent the camber of the tie-beam should be 3J inches. Fig. 2 shows the head of the small king-post over the camber-beam. Fig. 3 shows the head of the side- bolt, and the connection of the brace with the principal-rafter. Fig. 4 describes the connection between the head of the queen-post, the camber-beam, and the rafters, showing the position of the bolt, the section of the purlin, and a portion of the sheathing. Fig. 5 shows the notch at the bottom of the queen-post ; the foot of the brace ; and the iron stirrup which sustains the tie- beam. Fig. G is explanatory of the several connections at the heels of the rafters with the tie- beam, look-out joists, gutter, etc. TABLE OF SCANTLINGS. Tie-beam 9X16 inches. Principal-rafter 9X14 Camber-beam 9X14 Queen-post . ' 9X10 Braces G X 7 King-post, over camber-beam . 6X8 Upper truss-rafters 6X8 inches. Burlins 4X10 " Common-rafters 3X 5 " Look-out joists 3 X 10 " Raising-plate 4X G (60) IPa...5S!ES S arrt?- Sio amAr cIl" _tlr:. se-nfc.&i'^ Tvfb^i^l, SPIRES; TUEIll ORIGIN AND STYLE. 51 the spire, solely on account of the increased outlay which its erection would involve. Heavy and costly spires of stone, similar to those of the mediaeval times, are there- fore in most cases too expensive, and in many altogether inapplicable. With us, timber is almost always a suitable and desirable material. It is cheap, light, and abundant. Spires of wood can be erected on comparatively slight foundations; in ordinary cases their framing is of easy construction, and they are capable of being carried to a great altitude at a moderate expense. They are also susceptible of easy adaptation to any style, and can be formed as much in keeping with the character of the simple and unpretending village fane, as that of the more costly and magnifi- cent temple of the great city. Of late years, many spires of this description have been erected in our cities, and throughout the country generally. Some of these are of beautiful proportion and amazing height. There can be no more pleasing feature in a landscape. And whether it "points its airy finger toward heaven" from amid the trees, which in sylvan districts cluster around the humble sanctuary and embower the homes of rustic worshij)pers, or rises in towering magnificence far above the roofs and domes of the populous and busy city, the spire is always a beautiful and appro- priate appendage to the house of God. PLATE XX. We here give six designs for truss-beams, all drawn to a uniform scale of 8 feet to tlie inch. Fig. 1 is suitable for a span of 75 feet. The tie and straining beams are of double thick- ness ; each thickness of the tie-beam is 6X16 inches; those of the straining-piece are 6X14 inches each. All of the truss-pieces are single and of hard wood ; they are 7X7 inches. The several thicknesses of which the straining-piece and tie-beam are composed, are bolted together, pieces of hard wood being notched in the space between each bolt. The vertical bolts are placed at equal distances apart, and when tightened up should produce a camber of 3J inches. Fif. 2 is intended for a span of GO feet. In this example we have employed the camber- rod, in addition to the struts. The rods are tightened by means of keys. The timbers in this truss are much lighter than those in the design preceding. The tie-beams arc 5 X 14 inches in each thickness ; the pieces for the straining-sill are 5 X 12 inches each ; and the several struts are 6X6 inches, formed of oak or other hard wood. The camber in this span should be 3 inches. Fig. 3 is an example of a single thickness, adapted for a span of 50 feet. The tie-beam is 7 X 14 inches thick, the camber-beam 7 X 12 inches, the strut's 6X6 inches ; and the camber produced should not be less than 2| inches. Fig. 4 is an example intended for a still shorter span. It may, however, be easily constructed for a span equal to that mentioned in the preceding figure, by increasing the thickness of the tim- bers and the heights of the trusses. For a span of 40 feet — the distance contemplated in the present figure — the timbers will be as follow : Tie-beam, which is double, 5 X 12 inches, each thickness ; camber-beams, 5 X 10 inches each ; struts, 5X8 inches, of oak, notched into the beams 1 inch, and butting with rule-joints against iron heads and shoes. Camber, 2 inches. Fig. 5 is a single truss, composed of two thicknesses, between which is inserted another of iron ; and is intended for a span of 35 feet ; each of the thicknesses is 6 X 16 inches. Camber, If inches. Fig. 6 is intended to be constructed on the same principle as the truss shown on Fig. 4 ; and may be applied to a span of 30 feet. The tie-beams arc each 4 X 12 inches ; the camber-beams, 4 X 10 inches ; and the struts 4X6 inches, notched into the timbers 1 inch each way, and made of hard wood. Camber, IJ inches. (52) ^'O^JSi. ha I ^■1 LJ*T_1 llo5>rat3ial sTaSi. TKaa SPIRES; THEIR ORIGIN AND STYLE. 53 TABLE OF ALTITUDES OF CELEBRATED SPIRES. Tower. Old St. Paul's 260 Salisbury 207 Norwich 140 Lichfield 114 Chichester St. Mary's, Oxford 86 Louth 148 Bloxham 101 St. Michael's, Coventry ; 136 Cologne, (as designed) 330 Strasburg 364 St. Stephen's, Vienna 285 TJlm, (as designed) 320 Freyburg 221 Marburg 184 Antwerp 184 Bayeux 142 St. Stephen's, Caen 155 St. Peter's, " I34 Batalha 113 Glasgow . . . .* 115 Spire. Total Height. 274 534 197 404 163 303 138 252 270 94 180 140 288 94 195 164 300 200 530 110 474 180 465 171 491 159 380 88 272 88 366 104 246 107 262 110 244 57 170 105 220 PLATE XXI. We close tliis department of our -vrork by appending to the various examples of roofs con- tained in tlie preceding plates the accompanying plan and elevation of a spire of considerable altitude, recently erected by the author in the northern portion of Philadelphia, and -which has attracted a considerable degree of attention. Being of wood, this or a similar construction is capable of being easily adapted to almost any locality, and can be erected at a comparatively mode- rate expense. It will be seen by reference to the plate that one-half of the elevation displays the framing and mode of construction, while on the other is exhibited the finished exterior. The base is supported on sills, whose bearings rest partly on the solid masoni-y and partly upon piers built specially to receive them. These, where they cross, are locked into each other and securely bolted together. The eight principal posts which form the angles are morticed into the sills, whence they extend vertically to receive- and support those which form the spire. All these pieces are locked where they connect, and firmly secured by bolts. The position of the cross-ties and braces will be easily comprehended by reference to the plan, on which they are accurately and perspicuously described. All the different timbers and their connections are minutely drawn, and with such care as to render further description unnecessary. TABLE OF THE SEVERAL SCANTLINGS. Tie-beam, (of principal-rafter) Principal-rafter Camber-beam Braces to do Principal-posts to spire . . Long braces to do 10X16 inches. 10X16 " 10X16 " 8X 8 " 6X 8 " 6X 8 " Bottom-sills 10X16 inches. Ties or Girts 5 X 10 Braces within Sections ... 4X8 Spire-posts, (at foot 6 X 6,) at top 4X4 Ties to do 4X6 Braces 4X6 (54) INSERT FOLDOUT HERE \ CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. The term Carpentry is generally applied to the art of employing timbers in the construction of buildings. This art Is of such general and important use that there can be no doubt of its being of the highest antiquity; little of its history, however, has been transmitted to us from the ancients. Pliny and Vitruvius are almost the only authors whose writ- ings on the subject have reached modern times; but as their observations are merely confined to the choice and felling of timber, they are of no use as to the constructive part, and only demonstrate that such an art existed. The practice of carpentry in its rudest form must of necessity have commenced in the very earliest ages; for in the first attempts at the construction of the primitive buildings of those days carpentry must have been brought into exercise. It is pro- bable that the necessity of introducing the pediment roof occasioned the first use of timber frames, and consequently the art of carpentry in building. The invention of the pediment roof is justly attributed to the Greeks, as the oldest buildings of this description are to be found in their country; they also appear to have used timber for other purposes, as in the framing of floors, and the construction of rustic buildings. Tn warm countries furnishing stone or marble, it is probable that the use of timber was not very frequent, and that it was confined to movable articles where lightness was an essential quality ; we must, therefore, not look to these climates for any traces of the art. The next great people in succession of time to the Greeks, were the Romans, who seem to have employed timber for all, or nearly all, the purposes that the moderns are acquainted with. They not only constructed their roofs, but whole buildings of timber ; in Vitruvius we have a description of their manner of constructing the archi- (55) PLATE XXII. On this plate are given a variety of designs for framing, bridging, and trussing joists. Fig. 1 represents a girder ; 2 is the method of splicing the same ; 3 is a section of the binding-joists ; 4 a section of girder ; 5. 5. the binding-joists as framed into the girder ; 6. 6. are the straps or iron by which they are clamped together ; 7. 7. are the sections of the flooring-joists ; 8. 8. these as notched into the binding-joists ; 9. 9. are sections of the ceiling-joists ; 10. 10. these, as also notched to the binding-joists ; 11. 11. 11. are the laths nailed on the sides of the binding-joists, over which the ceiling-joists are notched; 12 is the counter-ceiling, formed of cross-boarding for the deafen- ing, and laid upon laths nailed to the sides of the flooring-joists 3 inches below the floor line; and 13 is an isometrical view of the construction of a floor formed of the several parts which have just been described. In this view the timbers are all shown. A is the girder ; B the binding- joists; C the flooring-joists; E the counter-flooring; F the flooring; and G G the counter-lathing, each lath of which is 1 inch thick by 3 inches in width, and placed 16 inches apart from centres. Figs. 14 and 15 are two -examples of bridging-joists, which are greatly preferable to the usual mode. The former is applicable for joists exceeding 12 inches in depth, and has two tension-rods of iron ; the latter has but one rod which passes through the centre. Fig. 16 shows the framing of a trimmer. Fig. 17 is a section of the main-trimmer, showing a portion of the cross-trimmer, with the tenon or key. Fig. 18 is a section of the cross-trimmer, which shows the framing into it of the tail-joists. Fig. 19 shows a method of connecting ti-immers with stirrups, instead of being morticed like the foregoing; in this case they are first suflBciently notched to steady them, and then secured to each other with joint-bolts, as at Fig. 20, which represents a section of the main-trimmer, and shows its connection with the cross one. The examples which follow, from Figs. 21 to 30, inclusive, are diflercnt forms of trussing-joists. On Fig. 21 the truss is formed by curved laths, which may be either secured to the sides of a single joist, as shown at section A, or placed between a double joist, as shown on the figure, and at B. Fig. 22 is trussed with a tension-rod or rods, which may be similarly applied to the centre or sides. Fig. 23, in connection with C, shows the former mode ; and Fig. 24, in connection with D, the latter. Fig. 25 is trussed with a lath in three sections. Fig. 26 is the plan. Fig. 27 is trussed with an oak lath in two sections, which butt together ; of this Fig. 28 is the plan. Fig. 29 is an example, suited like the foregoing to a short span, in which the tension-rod forms the truss. Fig. 30 is the plan. Fig. 31 is a secure and reliable method of splicing girders ; and Fig. 32 is a method of inserting joists which deprives them of their leverage upon the walls, and thus to a considerable extent prevents their liability to be disintegrated or thrown out in case of fire or other possible mishaps. (56) li;E^,';aanii fi-,/ , A A ji_ ■h U lL , Jn : 1 1 ^ HH — ' — ^^ -n in-^ ^j P4 % m o ____fi 1 1 . o 1 o[ G o — ^^^^^^^^^::z2 o " — 1 >— ' r-i r-i 1 — 1 f-1 (—1 J'O- 5»m' ?loo.BAitTi^ it OS en. flu ;~ ^ictPiil CARPENTRY AND JOliNERY. 57 traves of Tuscan temples, and of the foundations of arched ceihngs and fioors in timber work. The Romans also used wooden cornices. The theatres and amphi- theatres at Rome, and in different parts of Italy, were at first constructed of timber. The roofs of the Roman buildings were not always concealed; the timbers were sometimes exposed, and in magnificent buildings they were gilt, as in the basilica of St. Peter, erected hy Constantino; sometimes they were incrusted with bronze. Though circumstances require certain dispositions of timbers in a building, the timbers will still admit of infinite decoration without injury; and sometimes so much as at first view to conceal the principal use. In the middle ages carpentry partook of the style of building called GoiJiic; the roofs were pitched very high, height being one of the predominant features of this species of architecture. Of late years many improvements have been introduced into the various branches of carpentry, in regard to simplified and more scientific modes of construction; and the almost general use, at least in this country, of machinery for the purposes of sawing, planing, and mortising; and for the manufacture of doors, sashes, etc. In accuracy and celerity of execution our workmen are unequaled. Latterly, the improvements in the manufacture of iron, both cast and wrought, have caused the introduction of that material into buildings, in every variety of form, as girders, beams, etc. The floors, and sometimes even the roofs of those intended to be secured from fire, have been constructed of iron. The use of this material, however, as a substitute for wood, does not change the principle, as both materials are affected by the same gravitating laws. This important and useful art, which is so intimately connected with the comforts and requirements of man in every stage of civilized society, may be divided into two grand branches. Carpentry and Joinery. The first includes the larger and rougher kinds of work, or that which is essential to the construction and stability of an edifice; and generally all the work wherein timber is valued by the cubical foot. Joinery includes all the interior finishings and ornamental work, and is generally valued by the superficial foot. Carpentry itself is properly divided into three branches, viz.. Descriptive, Cmv- strvctive, and Mechanical. Descriptive Carpentry is the art of forming a diagram on a plane by the rules of geometry, in order to construct any piece of carpentry of a known property, from certain given dimensions of the thing to be constructed. This is a necessary qualifi- H PLATE XXIII. On this plate ia represented the manner of constructing a bay window. Fig. 1 is the ground plan, forming in its outline the sides of a half octagon, and so arranged as to allow of the inside shutters being folded within the boxes prepared for them in the side-jambs. Fig. 2 is the eleva- tion of half of the exterior. Fig. 3 shows similarly the elevation of the interior, with the extended shutter ; and the moulded architrave which runs around the recess which forms the bay. Fig. 4 is the vertical section. According to the method usually pursued in the construction of windows of this description, boxes are formed in each jamb to receive the inside shutters, which are folded one-half each way. This is a convenient arrangement when the window is of such considerable dimensions as to admit of the space necessary for the formation of the angle-boxes, without hurting the proportion of the jamb. But when the window is of an ordinary size, averaging from 6 to 9 feet in the width of the bay, the method which we here present, of folding the shutters within the side-boxes only, is preferable, as by adopting it the angle-jambs can be lightened considerably, the width of the glass increased, and a much better proportion given to the general appearance of the window. It is also worthy of remark, that by this method no more space is required in the angle-jambs than is actually necessary for the formation of the boxes to contain the weights, and even these can be reduced to one in each angle by attaching a pulley to each weight, in a way which will be found described in the succeeding plate, so that if the window be small the inside face, or rather edge of the jamb, may be reduced to the width of a single bead. In other instances the whole of the recess forming the bay is shut oiT from the area of the apartment by means of sliding doors. When this method is adopted sash-fasteners only are used, shutters being unnecessary; the sliding doors, however, prevent egress to the apartments through the bay, more effectually, perhaps, than the ordinary inside shutters. The term oriel is generally applied to a bay when it is elevated from the ground, and supported by a corbel, or moulded bracketings. The form of the bay prevents the use of outside shutters. Pivot blinds may be sometimes introduced with advantage, especially in southern houses. They are neat in appearance, and economical of space, and may be readily attached to the window by making each blind in two divisions and hinging the upper of these to the side-jamb, and the lower one to it at the meeting- rails of the sash, so that it can be easily opened for cleaning when required. (58) jp[i.5S!saaa >3jti.- r-i.'-ar. . CAUPENTRY AND JOINEUY. 59 cation for those engaged in the work of construction, not only to enable them to anticipate the effect, but to judge of the propriety of the execution of any proposed work. Constructive Carpentry shows the method of reducing wood into forms, and joining the parts, as directed by the rules of Descriptive Carpentry, or by the laws of strength, and thereby forming a complete design. Every species of construction should be characterized by staljility, and a careful regard to economy of materials. These objects can only be obtained by judicious combinations of the substances used, so that the greatest amount of strength be secured with the smallest expenditure of material. Unless the builder possess a con- siderable knowledge of the principles of mechanics; unless he be acquainted with the effect of pressure, and the resisting powers of different materials, he cannot com- prehend, much less design, such combinations ; but becomes a mere laborer, putting together the several parts of a work without knowing their relative dependence on each other, or the strength, or want of strength, of the whole. He is, indeed, from the want of such knowledge as we have described, incapable of judging what are the best forms of construction, or which of several modes of uniting timbers is the best. It is the province of Constructive Carpentry to show this, and the carpenter wh.0 is desirous to make himself thoroughly acquainted with his business, should study to acquire not only a practical knowledge of its details, but also some insight into the principles on which it is founded. Medmnical Carpentry is that part of the art of construction in timber which treats of the proper disposition of framing, so as to enable it to resist its own weight, or any additional load or pressure that may be casually laid upon it. It is so called from the principles of mechanics being employed in the construction of truss-framing, or other parts of the art. The mechanical principles of a piece of carpentry are therefore first to be considered; because they must, in some measure, regulate the disposition and size of the timbers in the design after which they are to be prepared or formed, according to the rules of Constructive Carpentry. Having thus briefly referred to the general principles of carpentry, the introduc- tion of a few remarks on the absolute strength of timber, with some practical observations on wood, given with a view to assist in the proper choice of timber as a material, may be of great use to the practical carpenter. PLATE XXIV. We here show the construction of a twin-window, in which each division of the sash on either side of the mullion is hung to a single weight, running within the centre box. "We thus dispense with the broad jambs required for the reception of the double boxes, when the usual method is employed. According to the old plan, each sash is hung with a separate balance-weight ; in this simple arrangement, nothing more is necessary than to have the weight cast of double dimension, with a pulley in the end upon which the cord plays, instead of being attached to the end of the wcifht. Fig. 1 is a horizontal section showing the inside shutters in two positions, folded within the side-jamb, and extended so as to cover the sash; the manner of hanging the outside shutters is also described on this figure. Fig. 2 exhibits in elevation as much of the window and its finish- ing as is necessary to be shown. Fig. 3 is a vertical section explanatory of portions of the con- struction. "We may add, that in regulating the movement of the sash the weight will only rise or fall to one-half of the distance required for the sash ; and that this method may be employed with great advantage in cases where the bottom sash is requh-ed to fly up into the head, or in attic windows, as the pulley is thus placed in a position where it is easy of access, and immediately opposite that belonging to the upper sash. In these or similar cases, the end of the cord should be secured to a hook driven within the box opposite the stile-pulley. The letters placed on the figures in this plate will serve, by using them as references, to eluci- date the more important parts of the construction. The letters AAA, where placed on both sections, denote the walls ; B B, similarly placed, denotes the top of outer window-sill on Fig. 1, and its section on Fig. 2 ; C C denotes the inside shutter in its folded and extended forms on Fig. 1 ; D D, on the same figure, denotes the outside shutter hinged to the frame ; E E E, placed on each of the three figures, denotes in difierent positions the upper sash, as hung within the frame ; F F F, similarly disti-ibuted, denotes in the same manner the lower sash ; I, where placed on the elevation, denotes the vertical section of the centre box, which shows _two of the sash-weights and the parting-shps ; and G G G denotes the moulded architrave, both in section and in elevation ; II H n II II II, distributed on Figs. 1 and 2, denotes the sash-weights within their boxes, and the manner of attaching them to the cord. (60) '■i r»;^1^S!^f?'«i'^lS^#tS*^«^' ':'-' I ■p„.»,,i-v.i . ^ CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 61 OF THE ABSOLUTE STRENGTH OF TIMBER. • The strain occasioned by pulling timber in the direction of its length is called tension; it frequently occurs in roofs, and is therefore worthy of consideration. The absolute strength of a fibre, or small thread of timber, is the force by which every part of it is held together, which is equal to the force that would be required to pull it asunder; and the force which would be required to tear any number of threads asunder is proportional to that of their sum; but the areas of the sections of two pieces of timber composed of fibres of the same kinds, are as the number of fibres in each ; and, therefore, the strength of the timber is as the area of the sections. Hence all prismatic bodies are equally strong; that is, they will not break in one part rather than in another. Bodies which have unequal sections will break at their smallest part; and, there- fore, if the absolute strength which would be required to tear a square inch of each kind of timber be known, we shall be able to determine the strength of any other quantity whatever. The following table, taken from reliable experiments, shows the absolute strength of a square inch of various descriptions of timber : — Locust-tree 20-100 pounds. Beech-oak 17-300 Orange 15-500 Alder 13-900 " Elm 13-200 " Mulberry 12-500 WiUow 12-500 " Ash 12-000 " Plum 11-800 Elder 10000 Pomegranate 9 Lemon 2 Tamarind 8 Fir 8 Walnut 8 Pitch-pine 7 Quince 6 Cypress 6 Poplar 5 Cedar ........ 4 750 pounds. 950 750 330 130 650 750 000 500 880 PLATE XXV. Represents the method employed in the construction of a window with sliding shutters, which in this example arc substituted for the ordinary covering. Fig. 1 is a plan of the entire construction. Fig. 2 is the elevation, showing on the interior one-half of the drawn shutter, and on the exterior the corresponding portion of the window. Fig. 3 is a vertical section, explanatory of the preceding figure. Fig. 4 is a plan of one side of the construction, which is rendered more distinct by the aid of an enlarged scale; and Fig. 5 is its vertical section. Fig. 6 shows a portion of the inside elevation; and Fig. 7 is a section of the shutters and the centre-bar, taken at the division and drawn to the full size. This may, perhaps, be esteemed the most secure and reliable method of closing a window. It is necessary to make sliding shutters, or at least the outer frame-work, of two-inch plank, in order to afford a thickness sufScient to insure permanency to the sheaves, and strength and firmness to the bar, which forms the way for the upper division, as well as the guide for the lower. This may be discerned by a reference to Fig. 7, on which is also represented a plate of iron, let into the groove at each end to prevent the wearing of the wood. The flanges of the bar or way are rounded, so as to form the centre-bead at the division of the shutters. The lower section will likewise require to have a way with the usual side-plate, set in flush and screwed fast to the sill. The centre-bar is usually made in three sections ; the middle of which crosses the window, and is secured to those within the side-grooves by means of a slip and lap, so that it can be taken off at pleasure. The flanges of the side-sections project beyond the shutters on either face, in order to give them a bearing in grooves, which are cut in the sides of the cavities which receive the shutters. If arranged in this manner the sections may be taken out separately, if necessary; that in the centre should be of brass ; those at the sides of iron. Shutters of this description may be readily made of two thicknesses, (except the stiles and rails,) and plates of sheet-iron inserted between the thick- nesses ; thus forming a perfect safeguard against the operations of burglars. (62) Fi-S,/ CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 63 PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS ON WOOD. 1. The wood immediately surrounding the pith, or heart, is the weakest; and its inferiority is so much the more remarkable as the tree is older. It is certain, from experiments on large oaks and pines, that the heart is much weaker than the exterior parts. 2. The wood next to the bark, commonly called sap, or wliite, is also weaker than the rest; and the wood gradually increases in strength as we recede from the centre to the sap. 3. The wood is stronger in the middle of the trunk than at the springing of the branches, or at the root ; and the wood of the branches is weaker than that of the trunk. 4. The wood on the north side of trees is the weakest, and that on the south side the strongest; and the difference is most remarkable in such as grow singly. The heart of a tree is never in its centre, but always nearer to the north side, and the annual coats of wood are thinner on that side. In conformity to this, it is a general opinion of carpenters that the timber is strongest whose annual plates are thickest. 5. All woods are more tenacious while green, and lose very considerably by drying after the tree is felled. Joinery, the other grand division of general carpentry, is the art of framing or joining wood together for internal and external finishings of houses ; thus the cover- ings and linings of rough walls, or the coverings of rough timbers, and the construc- tion of doors, windows, and stairs, are joiners' work. Joinery requires much more accurate and nice workmanship than carpentry; the latter consists only of rough timbers, used in supporting the various parts of an edifice ; joinery is therefore used by way of decoration, and being always near to the eye and consequently liable to inspection, requires that the joints should be fitted together with the utmost care, and the surfaces made smooth. In no art or business has greater changes taken effect within the last few years than in this particular branch of mechanical employment. Appliances once thought the most perfect of their respective kinds have been superseded; old terms have become obsolete; while modern invention has simplified labor and led to the intro- PLATE XXVI. Exhibits a metliod of constructing sliding doors, in which the sheaves and ways are placed at the top, thus leaving the floor entirely clear of obstructions, and obviating the necessity which exists for separating the carpets between the apartments, when the sheaves and ways are placed at the bottom as in the method usually employed. Fig. 1 is the ground plan of this construction, on which is described the connection with the partitions. The half marked A displays the crank and lever for shifting the bar at the top; and that marked B is the plan at the floor. Fig. 2 shows the elevation of the doors ; also at C a portion of the face of the wall, and on the opposite side, at D, the naked studding. E, where placed above the doors, denotes the truss-framing of the partition ; and F F the sheaves upon the bar as they appear when the doors are closed. The cavities formed within the partitions to receive the doors are boarded between the studs, as will be seen by reference to A and B. Fig. 3 is a vertical section of the elevation. Fig. 4 is a transverse section of the head, drawn to a large scale. Fig. 5 is a longitudinal section of the head, drawn to a similar scale, which shows on its under portion at C the crank and bar. Fig. 6 is a section showing the bar or way at I ; the side-plate as secured to the door at H ; and the sheave at K. In connection with this figure we must again refer to Figs. 4 and 5, in order to make our description more intelligible. L, where shown on Fig. 5, is a section of Fig. C ; and the M placed immediately beneath, denotes that of the door, as secured by the plate to which the sheave is attached. K, on this figure, denotes the sheave. By this arrangement, the movement of the cranks is regulated by the lever, until the way becomes central in the cavity, when the flange described at enters the groove, as shown at P on Fig. 4, and by the dotted line at R and G on Fig. 5. In this manner the way is held firm in its position by the flange opposite to the plate by which the door is suspended, which also aflbrds to it a bearing along its whole length. (G4) ^Sam^i Sloan AjcV i* r seiLtiial-^riJt^Piisli C A R P E N T R Y A N D .1 O I N E R Y. 65 duction and employment of suitable machinery in departments formerly intrusted to the most expert and careful artizans. In many European countries old methods still prevail, in others the spirit of improvement in joinery is more or less discernible; while with us its development has kept pace with the rapid strides which the country is making in almost every other branch of art and scientific discovery, and manifests itself in nearly everything which pertains to the modus operandi of general carpentry. It must not, however, be inferred, that because of modern ingenuity and invention there is less need of care and skill in our workmen now than formerly. On the contrary, owing to the higher degree of finish and embellishment generally bestowed upon our structures, there is an increased necessity for the exercise of taste and circumspection in every branch of joinery. In order to keep pace with the spirit of the age, every intelligent mechanic, who aims at being thorough in the practice of his profession, should make himself acquainted with its principles, should closely scan and well consider every new invention which claims to efiect an improvement in their application ; and, above all, should endeavor to attain such a knowledge of geometrical lines and construction as will enable him to understand with facility the several drawings given him from time to time for his guidance. To the minor tools and materials used in joinery we need not refer. These are well known to almost every one who has had even moderate experience in joinery or its uses. And in fact, the improvements to which we have referred have led to such changes in their preparation and application as would lead us, did we touch on them at all, into descriptions much more lengthened than the limits at our disposal would afibrd. On the character and finish of a joiner's work depend much of the appearance of a building, and no exertions should be spared in the endeavor to perfect it in a neat and tasteful manner; for no matter how much strength and accuracy may be consulted in the several joints, if the finishing be disregarded, elegance can never be obtained. When a joiner works in the harder and more costly descriptions of wood, such as walnut, oak, or mahogany, his main object should be to obtain a perfectly smooth and even surface. Too much pains cannot be taken in the finer descriptions of joiners' work : glue, where it oozes on the outer surface, should be nicely removed ; the joints should be carefully leveled; and the use of a smooth scraper and fine I PLATE XXVII. On this plate are given four different designs for folding doors. Of these, Figs. 1 and 2 are best adapted for vestibules. The example on Fig. 1 is two panels in height, the upper of which are intended to be filled with plate-glass of at least one-fourth of an inch in thickness. The door will be double-faced, with similar mouldings on both sides. The inner mouldings which surround the fillets project from their face, flush to that of the stiles and rails ; the outer ones, which are of smaller dimensions, are also flush with the stiles, etc., thus leaving a surface free of projections, which is necessary, in cases where the doors are made to slide. This arrangement of the mould- ings, however, is not desirable when the doors are not intended to be of this description. In other cases, the centre mouldings should have a suitable projection, thus adding much to the appearance of the door, and giving to the finishing a bold and increased efi"ect. The other example on Fig. 2 is also intended for glass panels, for which, however, wood may be substituted, if deemed more suitable. This door is almost similar to the preceding, the only point of difference being in the form of the corners of the panels. The mouldings may be treated in either of the methods alluded to above, as circumstances may determine. Fig. 3 is well adapted for an outer door. It has three panels in each fold. In form and finishing the mouldings resemble those in Fig. 1, with the exception that the frieze-panel is here introduced. When doors of this description are intended to be used in important buildings, they should be framed in two thicknesses and screwed together. If it be desirable, sheet-iron may be inserted between the thicknesses of the panels and fillets, or made to cover the entii-e surface. When the iron is not introduced, a single thickness will be suflicient for the panels and fillets, but the latter in either case should be framed. Fig. 4 is an example of two panels in height; the upper of these being made circular at the top. The character of this form is also appropriate for an exterior finish. It is equally well adapted for vestibule and other interior doors. None of the foregoing examples can in any instance be less than one inch and three-quarters in thickness, if made double-faced. (60) "-^ ^^^^. y ':j, icy .v_ ^ jff=^ 3j ■P'kATt 'xw-m. '^1 ' 'fS^^SPiii f^/C. :. vOli ^4^^^ ,^ ^^^ ^ ^ !^ ■ # 'Iff.li, ?^ < ggggg y. o 3S7 O ^^S'' ■^^^ R r j^,^->- i'ii-.4. Sloan AtcVi! L\ Bosfmlnl i.:ih l-i. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 67 glass-paper is in many instances necessary, more especially when the wood is intended to be left in its natural color for the purpose of being afterwards polished with wax, or varnished. When work is intended to be grained in imitation of any particular kind of wood — a process now in very extensive use — great pains should be taken in its preparation. In more than one case which has recently come under the author's cognizance, the interior wood-work of all the principal apartments of a residence has been left in its natural colors, and afterwards coated with preparations of varnish calculated to bring out the grain and enhance the appearance of the various woods. In many descriptions of wood this process of varnishing over the natural ligneous color has a very pleasing effect. A whole suite of apartments may be finished in this manner, each with a different wood, — the doors of the several rooms alone being uniform, as these are generally made of darker and heavier material. The choice of particular descriptions of wood depends to a considerable extent upon the location of the dwell- ing in which they are intended to be used. Some species of timber are indigenous, and can, of course, in particular cases, be more readily obtained than others. We may instance some woods within the scope of our own immediate practice, which, when arranged and varnished in the way we have mentioned, produce a very pleasing and pretty effect, viz., cotton-wood, chma-wood, maple, ash, cherry, beech, poplar, and yellow-pine; not to mention walnut, oak, and mahogany, which have been previously treated m this manner. In the internal finishing of the higher class of buildings, the aid of turning has been made extensively available. By this means, ornaments of varied description, and balusters to stairs, galleries, etc., of peculiar merit, have been produced. They possess almost every conceivable advantage over those formerly in use, both in regard to the beauty of their design and workmanship, and the -variety of their forms. Carving also lends its aid in the work of embellishment, and is rapidly growing into favor. Formerly it was little used in consequence of the expense. But now, when almost palatial residences, costly stores, and magnificent churches are springing up around us, and meet the eye at almost every turn, the use of this beau- tiful decorative art cannot be dispensed with. An improved kind of marquetry, or curious inlaid work, composed of pieces of hard fine wood, arranged in various forms, and woven as it were into each other, has recently been patented and introduced. In particular cases it makes an admirable substitute for common flooring. It is well adapted for use in vestibules, libraries, picture-galleries, and large apartments in PLATE XXVIII. Six designs are here presented for single doors, the upper panels of the first three of which are intended to be filled with plate-glass, which may be either stained or enameled. Fig. 1 may be easily adapted to vestibules in narrow passages, in cases where single doors are most desirable. The panels below the lock-rail are moulded with a plain fillet. Fig. 2 is an example in the Gothic style. When a door of this description is intended to be double-faced, it is necessary that the thickness should be at least two inches, in order to obtain sufficient depth for the sinking of the mouldings. Fig. 3, like both of the preceding examples, is intended to be employed in vestibules. The three remaining examples are designed for exterior doors. Of these. Fig. 4 is made with frieze-panels above. All the panels have mouldpd fillets, which project from their face, and finish flush with the outer surface. As used for external finish, the outer mouldings should have suitable projection, so as to overlap the stiles and rails. This gives a better effect to the finish, and bold- ness and character to the mouldings. The method usually pursued in finishing the inner side of doors, such as we have reference to, consists in making the face of the panels flush with the stiles. This is technically termed finishing with "bead and flush," or "bead and butt." These merely differ in the manner of beading the joint around the panels, as according to the former the bead is mitred at the corners, while in the latter mode the beads butt against each other. This form of finish gives increased thickness, and greater solidity and firmness to the panels, than if they were moulded on both faces. Fig. 5 is a Gothic example, square in its outline; the filling in of the panels are in keeping with the style. This form is appropriate for external finish, in a Gothic edifice, when head-lights are requisite. When thus used, the contour pecuhar to the style should be formed by the con- tinuation of the head-light, in connection with the square outline of the door. If, as intended, this example be applied externally, and made double-faced, it will requii-e to be fully two and a half inches thick, with the stiles and rails in two thicknesses, and screwed together. Fig. 6 is also adapted for external use. The panels are finished and moulded on both sides, and those above have circular tops. (68) i?Lia¥^ ^3?^yijLi[{„ 1 3^ 1 i •kj ^^^ r^r^ I'J'^. .'l. ^ ^^ r^ r i.;ir.-4. .Kia-o. ■fj^-ti Sam! Sloan. Arch* LNHoscmhai.LiihFhil* / CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 69 which, owing to their great extent, or the paucity of furniture, an increased effect on the walls, ceiling, or floor, is desirable. Brackets and scrolls of unique form and beautiful finish are also turned from the saw, ready, without further elaboration, to occupy the positions for which they were designed. The foregoing are but a few of the most noticeable imj^rovenients which have of late years been introduced into what, taken as a whole, may not inaptly be termed Ornamental Joinery. It would be impossible for us, in our present limits, to particu- larize any further, or to specify the minor arts and inventions which the teeming brain of industry brings forth from day to day, to improve and simplify its work. The application of steam machinery to sawing, planing, and mortising, and for the manufacture of mouldings, sash, and doors, may be incddentally mentioned, as having tended to the introduction of essential changes in the practice of joinery. We think we have said enough in the preceding observations to make it apparent that in no former time were taste, neatness, and intelligence more requisite qualifica- tions in our artizans than in the present. No abstract rules will teach a man his business. Close study and intelligent observation are necessary. He who aims at excellence must make himself conversant with the principles on which his art is founded. PLATE XXIX. This plate contains six examples of different forms of doors, all adapted for interior finish. Fig. 1 is a six-panel door, in which the panels are equally divided, and single-moulded. These need not be made more than one and a half inches in thickness; and if made single-faced, with raised or flush panels on the inner side, may be still further reduced to one and a quarter inches. Fig. 2 is a foui'-pancl door of almost similar construction, having a broad centre, or, as it is more usually termed, lock-rail. Fig. 3 is another description of six-panel door, with frieze-panels in the centre ; those above have circular tops. Fig. 4 is an eight-panel door, those in the centre and at the top being of the form termed frieze. Fig. 5 is six-paneled, with frieze-panels at the top. Fig. 6 is another example of the six-paneled form, with frieze-panels in the centre. For the general information of the reader, we insert the method necessary to be employed in order to determine the widths of the panels, stiles, and rails, in doors of this description: — Divide the entire width of the door into seven equal parts, and of these give two to the breadth of each panel, and one part to the width of each of the stiles. The width of the upper rails should always equal that of the stiles ; the width of the bottom rail is usually made twice the width of the stiles, or equal to two of the given parts. The width of the lock-rail varies according to the description of the panels used ; but where there is no frieze-paneling, it is generally made equal in width to two of the stiles. To find the proportion of the frieze-panel: — Divide the space between the stile and munton into seven equal parts, of which five given vertically to the panel will form its height. The divi- sion of the parts is marked on Fig. 4. For further explanation in regard to the forms and application of mouldings and fillets, the reader is referred to Plate LXVI., on which will be found a variety of these forms, all drawn carefully to a scale of one-half the full size. (70) ■TiL- aaiia jl 11 Fi^J I (^ \ \ F,ff^ JTl^ J jr,s,^ I I I ' y^^o jr-i„ ff 3 a-Tn.' Slo aji Ju: cIl* B.o&eiLrl).d"li"LidiPl«la THE FIYE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. Having in the preceding pages explained and illustrated several of the most important and useful branches connected with Constructive Architecture, the next division of our work brings us to the consideration of those great creations of the ancients which have never been added to or excelled — the Five Orders. The examples we have chosen are the best and most celebrated of their respective kinds, arranged with care, and accompanied by such plain yet minute descriptions as will serve clearly to elucidate the principles of the different orders, and thus make the distribution and proportions of their several parts and members easily apparent. In the fulfilment of our task we have exercised great care. Our principal object has been so to simplify the arrangement and description of the orders as to present them in the plainest and most intelligible form. We have culled the best examples, consulted the most reliable authorities, and availed ourselves generally of the mate- rials placed at our disposal by those whose researches in this field have rendered them eminent. Our first examples are Grecian. The Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, were the only orders used by the Greeks. The Tuscan and Composite were used only in Italy; the first more rude, the latter more ornate, than the Greek orders, which occupied a middle rank. To attain a proper knowledge of the true principles of Architecture, the student should devote his most careful attention to the study of the three Grecian orders, as in them these principles are faithfully portrayed. The first Grecian order in point of antiquity is the Doric, so called from the Dores, a small tribe in Greece ; or, as others say, from Dorus, an Achaian chief, who first employed the order in erecting a temple to Juno, at Argos. Our first plate contains an example of the Grecian Doric, taken from the Temple of Theseus, at Athens. (71) PLATE XXX. THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE GRECIAN DORIC ORDER. Any altitude being proposed for this whole order, make the lower diameter of the shaft of the column one-eighth of the entire height of the order ; divide the diameter of the column into two equal parts, then one of these parts will be a module; divide the module into thirty equal parts, and each of these parts will be a minute. Make the height of the column twelve modules, and tliat of the capital one module. Divide the height of the capital into five equal parts ; and of these, give one to the neck, and two to the annulets and echinus ; make the annulets one-quarter of the echinus, and give the remaining two parts to the abacus. Make the upper diameter of the shaft three-quarters of its lower diameter, and the length of each side of the abacus two modules and twelve minutes. The height of the entablature is four modules, of which the cornice has one module, and the frieze and architrave each forty-five minutes. Again divide the height of the frieze into eight parts, giving the upper one to the capital of the triglyph, and the three lower to the channels. Make the inner edge of the angle triglyph directly over the axis of the column; its breadth should be twenty-eight minutes ; and the distance between the intermediate triglyphs should be equal to the height of the frieze, and their position directly over the centres of the columns. Make the tenia or upper fillet one-tenth of the height of the architrave, and the regula, together with the drops, equal in height to the tenia. The height of the cornice being one module, give to the small bead on its lower part one minute, and to the height of the mutules and gutt£C, four minutes and a half. The length of the mutules equals the breadth of the triglyphs, and their projection beyond the triglyphs extends to two-thirds of their length. These should be placed directly over the centres of the triglyphs and in the middle of the metopes or intermediate spaces. The fillet above the mutules, which is one and a' half minutes high, projects beyond the mutule half a minute. Make the height of the corona ten minutes, and its projection beyond the fillet one minute ; the height of the small echinus is one minute and a quarter ; and over it comes a fillet of the same height. Over this fillet make another echinus six minutes and a half high, and two minutes will remain for the height of the fillet above the echinus. The opposite example is taken from one of the most celebrated buildings now remaining of this order. The module is divided into thirty parts or minutes ; the measures are all numbered in these parts; the projections are reckoned from a line representing the axis of the column, and are figured at the extremities of each member. (72) THE FIVE ORDERS OE ARCHITECTURE. 73 THE GRECIAN IONIC OllDEK. GENERAL REMARKS. It may be observed in the general definition of the orders, that every order con- sists of a column and an entablature; that every column consists of a shaft, base, and capital, except in the Doric, where the base is omitted ; that every entablature consists of an architrave, a frieze, and a cornice; that the base, shaft, capital, archi- trave, frieze, and cornice, are the principal members of an order; and that the pecu- liar mode or form of the members determines the particular name of the order. But since many of the mouldings are common to all the orders, and are gene- rated in a similar manner, what has been said on the Doric order will render it unnecessary to repeat the same things in the Ionic, as such mouldings cannot form a distinctive feature of any particular order. The subjoined definitions show how these members ought to be modified so that they may constitute the Ionic order. DEFINITIONS. 1. K from the under side of the abacus of an order there project two or more spirals on each end of the front, in a plane parallel to the frieze, so that the extremity of each shall be at the same distance from the axis of the column, and also two others upon the opposite side of the abacus, parallel to the former and projecting the same distance from the axis of the column, so that each of the spirals shall have the same number of revolutions, and equal and similar to each other, the pro- jecting part contained between any two spirals is called a volute. 2. An order which has volutes and mouldings in the capital of the annular kind, and the ichnography of the abacus square, as in the Doric order, the archi- trave finishing of plain facia, and mouldings either plain or enriched, the frieze a plain surface, the cornice consisting of a cyma recta, then a fillet, and an echinus only; and if to the under side of the corona are hung a row of equal and similar parallelopipeds, equidistant from each other, whose fronts are in a plane parallel to that of the frieze, then each of these is called a dentil. 3. An order so constructed is similar to that invented by the lonians, and, con- sequently, is the Ionic order. PLATE XXXI. FROM THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS AT TEOS, IN IONIA. This temple was first begun of tlie Doric order by Hermogenus; but afterwards lie changed it into that of the Ionic, and dedicated it to Bacchus. This example is drawn from the accurate measurements, as taken from that celebrated building. The dentils in the cornice add greatly to the character of the order. Of the elevation of the order, it may be observed that the measurements of the parts marked by letters have been supplied by conjecture, as no remains of the originals could be found. It is thought by some, from the little differences which exist between the shaft at the base and the portion of it immediately under the capital, that the base which is here exhibited in con- nection with the shaft, did not occupy that position in the original order, but rather belonged to some of the interior columns. This supposition is strengthened by the fact that the ancients always made their interior ranges of columns less in diameter than those on the exterior, as in the Temple of Minerva, the Propylea, and other celebrated Athenian buildings. Be this as it may, the form of base shown, which is termed the Attic, seems to have been the most favorite one among the ancients, as it is also among the moderns. It is not so heavy as that termed the Ionic; its contour is pleasing, and in general appearance elegant. In this example, the channel connecting the two volutes is not formed with a border on the lower edge, but is terminated with a horizontal line, which falls a tangent to the curve of the spiral at the commencement of the second revolution of each volute. It may here be generally remarked, that in the Ionic the shaft is fluted, as in the Doric, with this difference, however, that the number of flutes is increased from twenty to twenty-four, and their junctions are formed by fillets, instead of sharp arrises. The channels being thus multi- plied, and set apart from each other, are consequently much narrower than those of the Doric order, and are much deeper in proportion to their breadth ; and their extremities terminate in the semi-circle, or semi-ellipse. (74) THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 75 ROMAN DORIC. The Doric, as we have observed before, is the oldest and simplest of the three orders used by the Greeks, but it was ranked by the writers of the Renaissance as the second of the five Roman orders. The shaft of the column has twenty flutings, which are separated by a sharp edge, and not by a fillet as in the other orders, and they are less than a semicircle in depth; the moulding below the abacus of the capital is an ovolo; the architrave of the entablature is surmounted with a plain fillet, called the tenia; the frieze is ornamented by flat projections, with three chan- nels cut in each, which are called triglyphs; the spaces between these are called metopes; under the triglyphs and below the tenia of the architrave are placed small drops or guttae; along the top of the frieze runs a broad fillet, called the capital of the triglyphs; the sofiit of the cornice has broad and shallow blocks worked on it, called mutules, one of which is placed over each metope and each triglyph; on the under surface are several rows of guttos or drops. Li these respects the Roman Doric is identical with the Grecian, but in other points there is considerable difier- ence. In the pure Grecian examples the column has no base, and its height varies from about four to six and a half diameters; the capital has a perfectly plain square abacus, and the ovolo is but little if at all curved in section, except at the top, where it is quirked under the abacus; under the ovolo are a few plain fillets and small channels, and a short distance below them a deep narrow channel is cut in the shaft; the flutes of the shaft are continued up to the fillets under the ovolo. In the Roman Doric the shaft is usually from seven to eight diameters high, and generally has a base, frequently the Attic, and sometimes that which is peculiar to the order, consisting of a plinth and torus, with an astragal above it; the capital has a small moulding round the top of the abacus, and the ovolo is in section a quarter circle, and is not quirked; under the ovolo are two or three small fillets, and below them a collarino or neck. In the Roman Doric, the triglyphs at the angles of build- ings must be placed over the centre of the column, and the metopes must be exact squares. Sometimes the mutules are omitted, and a row of dentils is worked under the cornice. PLATE XXXII. The example given on tlie opposite plate is an Elevation of tlie Doric order from the Eaths of Diocletian, at Rome, with the proportions in numbers. Owing to the abundance of mouldings and enrichments in the cornice, this may be termed enriched Boric. The disposition of the triglyphs and metopes in the frieze is according to the rules of Vitruvius. We append a method, whereby may be determined the proportions of the different parts, the intcrcolumniations and the distribution of the metopes, in a fa9ade or portico of the Doric order, according to the rules observed by the ancients in the erection of their temples. The front of a Doric temple, where the columns are placed, is divided, if it be terastyle, into twenty-eight parts ; if hexastyle, into forty-four. One of these parts will be the module. The thickness of the column must be two modules ; the height, with the capital, fourteen ; the height of the capital itself one module, and the breadth two modules and a sixth. The height of the capital is divided into three parts, of which one is given to the abacus with the cimatium ; another to the echinus with the annulets ; and the third to the hypoti-achelion. The height of the epi- stilium, with the tenia and drops, is one module. The tenia has the seventh of a module, the length of a drop under the tenia, coinciding with the perpendicular of the triglyphs. Their height with the regula is one-sixth of a module. The breadth of the epistilium also answers to the hypotrachelion of the column. On the epistilium are placed the triglyphs, one module in breadth and one and a half in .height. Two of these are between each column, and one over the centre of the 6olumn at the angle. The breadth of the triglyphs is divided into twelve equal parts, of which the breadth of the femur in the middle will be two parts. On each side of the femur is cut a channel, whose breadth is equal to two parts. Next to the channels two other femurs are left, each equal to the breadth of the middle femur, and the part which remains next to the edge of each triglyph is cut in the form of a semi-channel. On either side of this, channels are sunk, as if imprinted by the elbow of a square. To the right and left of these another femur is formed. In the same manner serai-channels must be sunk at the extremities. The triglyphs being thus disposed, the height of the metopes equals their length. On the angles the semi-metopes are made half a module in width. The capitals of the triglyphs have one-sixth of the module. On these is placed the corona, which projects a half and one-sixth of a module, having a cimatium above and another below. In the under part of the corona, over the triglyphs and metopes, the drops in the mutules are distributed, six in length and three in breadth. The spaces between the metopes being rather broader than the triglyphs, are left either plain or carved; and at the edge of the corona, a channel, termed a scotia, is cut. All the remaining members are the same as in the Ionic order. (76) THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 77 OF THE ORDERS IN GENERAL. The term order, as applied to Architecture, conveys the same meaning as that of liarmony when applied to music ; or the more ancient one of ordminance, when used in relation to painting. It means in fact an assemblage of parts and mould- ings, so disposed as to give an effect at once pleasmg to the eye, and proportioned and adapted to the office each has to perform. Vitruvius, who was perhaps the first writer on Architecture who flourished after the birth of Christ, expresses this idea as follows : " It is an apt and regular dispo- sition of the members of a work separately, and a comparison of the universal pro- portion with symmetry." Scamozzi, one of the old masters, a contemporary of Palladio, and who after the death of that great architect had no competitor, seems to convey the same meaning when he observes : " That it is a kind of excellency which infinitely adds to the shape and beauty of buildings, sacred or profane." The idea thus expressed is comprehended in the terms lyropriety and harmony. Each of the compositions known generally as "The Five Orders" consists, as we have elsewhere stated, of two parts, the column and entablature; each of which is again divided into three other parts, which are severally composed of mouldings, each respectively proi^ortioned and adapted to the order of which it forms a part. The orders are, the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite; each of which is peculiar in its composition, and well calculated to express the various attributes of strength, grace, elegance, and richness. These orders, rightly understood and cor- rectly applied, are the foundation upon which Architecture has long rested. The three most ancient are the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, to which the Romans added the Tuscan, as they subsequently did the Composite. Vitruvius speaks of the former as " rustic even to deformity ;" nor were the later masters more favorable to it, except Palladio. The Composite, the other Roman invention, is termed by Sir Henry Wotton the comjjounded order. It is composed of parts of the other orders, but principally of the Ionic and Corinthian. The proportions of the parts of the orders are as various as the examples, but few authors agreeing. In those we have chosen the parts are figured, and as we proceed, explanations of the orders more in detail will be furnished under the proper heads. PLATE XXXIII. Is a finished elevation of the modern Doric from Sir William Chambers, who took his example from Vignola. As on the other plates, the correct proportions are here given in numbers, thus rendering further description unnecessary. We insert in this place the following rules, given by Vitruvius, for the diminution of columns, which is equally appUcable to tliis and all other kinds of shafts, the Tuscan alone excepted. "The diminution of the top of the column at the hypotrachcllon is thus regulated. If the column be not less than fifteen feet high, the thickness at the bottom is divided into six parts, and five of these parts are given as the thickness at the top. If the height be from fifteen to twenty feet, the bottom of the shaft is divided into six parts and a half, and five and a half of these parts make the thickness of the column at the top. If it be from twenty to thirty feet, the bottom is divided into seven parts, and six of these make the diminution at the top. If from thirty to forty feet high, the thickness of the shaft at bottom is divided into seven and a half parts, of which six and a half are the measure of the diminution at the top. If the column be from forty to fifty feet in height, it is divided into eight parts, whereof seven will make the thickness of the hypotrachelion at the top of the shaft. And if their altitude be still greater, the same proportional method is to be observed in the treatment of columns; for, as a greater height causes them to appear more diminished, they are therefore to be corrected by an addition of thick- ness, beauty being the province of the eye, which, if not satisfied by the due proportion and augmentation of the members, correcting apparent deficiencies with proper additions, the aspect will appear coarse and displeasing." Of the order in general it has been remarked, that "on viewing and comparing the examples of the Doric order, the first emotion will probably be one of surprise, at beholding the different proportions, — a diversity so great that scarcely any two instances appear which do not materially differ in the relative size of their parts, both in general and in detail, and presenting differences •which cannot be reconciled upon any system of calculation, whether the diameter or the height of the column, or the general height of the order, be taken as the clement of proportion. At the same time, they all resemble one another in certain characteristic marks, which denote the order; the differences are not generic, but specific, and leave unimpaired those plain and obvious marks which enable us to circumscribe the genuine Doric order within a simple and easy definition." (78) THE FIXi: ORDERS OP ARCHITECTURE. 79 ROMAN IONIC OllDER. In tliis order the capital becomes the chief characteristic, which is sufficient to distinguish it from any other, although from the preceding, or Doric order, it is dis- tinguishable by many other marked differences, such as the employment of a distinct base; the much altered proportions; the increased number and different contour of the flutes, and the introduction of fillets ; the increased ornamentation of the entablar ture; and by many other variations. The shaft varies from eight and a quarter to nine and a half diameters in height. The echinus, astragal, and fillet, are common to both Grecian and Ionic capitals, and the echinus is uniformly cut into eggs, surrounded with angular-sectioned borders, and with tongues between every two borders. The astragal is formed into a row of beads, with two small ones between every two large ones. These mouldings are cut in a similar manner in all the Roman buildings except the Coliseum. The capitals of all the columns are sometimes made to face the four sides of the abacus alike on each side, as in the Temple of Concord, at Rome, from which example the Scamozzian capital was formed. The Attic base was adopted by the Romans, and seems to have been their most favorite form, for it is not only employed in all the examples of this order at Rome, but frequently in the Corinthian and Composite orders also. However, the proportions of the Attic base as employed by the Romans are different from that employed by the Greeks. There are but few examples of this order, as practised by the Romans, remaining entire; among them are the Theatre of Marcellus, the Temple of Concord, and that of Fortuna Virilis. Although these Roman examples are of considerable merit, they would seem to fall short of the Grecian in taste and elegance. The capital was impoverished by the volutes being considerably reduced in size. In the Temple of Concord the volutes are placed diagonally. This is one among many varieties of the Roman Ionic capital, of which there is no lack, some being ornamented with human figures, masks, busts, etc. These differences are sufficient to show that the ancients did not confine themselves to the same treatment of this order on all occasions. The Roman entablature differs also from the Grecian, especially in the proportions of the cornice, which in the latter case is less than either of the other members, whereas in examples of Roman practice the cornice is by far the most important division. PLATE XXXIV. In this plate is rcprcsenteil the design of the antique profile, collected by Sir William Chambers, from different antiquities at Rome, proportioned by modules and minutes. The height of the column is eighteen modules, and that of the entablature four and a half, or one-quarter of the height of the column, as in the other orders ; which is a trifle less than in any of the ancient examples. The base is Attic, as it is in most of the Roman antiques, and the shaft of the column may be cither plain or fluted, with twenty-four or twenty flutings only, the plan of which flutings should be a trifle more than semicircular ; because, when so executed, they arc more distinctly marked. The fillets, or intervals between the flutes, should not be much broader than one -third of their width, nor narrower than one-quarter. The ornaments of the capital should correspond with the flutes of the shaft ; and there should be an ove or dart, according to the strict rules of the Romans, over the middle of each flute. The three parts of the Ionic entablature, as represented in this plate, bear the same propor- tion to each other, as in the Tuscan order; the frieze is plain, as being the most suitable to the simplicity of the rest of the composition ; and the coimice is almost an exact copy — without the enrichments — from Vignola's design, in which there is a purity of form, a grandeur of style, and a close conformity to the most approved specimens of the ancients, not to be equaled in any of the profiles of his competitors. If it be requisite to reduce the Ionic entablature to two-ninths of the height of the column, which in most cases is preferable to that of one-quarter, it may easily be accomplished by making the module of the entablature less, by one-ninth, than the semi-diameter of the column ; after- wards dividing it as usual, and strictly observing the same dimensions as are figured on the plate. The distribution of the dentil-band will, in such case, answer very nearly in all the regular inter- columniations, and in the extreme angle there will be a dentil, as there is in the best examples of the antique. In the decorations of the interior of all apartments, when much delicacy is requisite, and the eye has to contemplate diminutive objects, the height of the entablature may be reduced even to one-fifth of the column, by observing the same method, and making the module only four- fifths of the semi-diameter. (80) THE FIVPJ ORDKRH OF ARCHITECTURE. 81 ROMAN CORINTHIAN ORDER. Although the Romans in all probability borrowed the idea of this order from the Greeks, and cannot therefore rightly lay claim to its invention, they are fully entitled to the praise due to its perfection; the order, as far as we know it, is rather Roman than Greek. We cannot be said to know of more than three examples in Greece, and these are the Tower of the Winds, the Monument of Lysicrates, and the Temple of Jupiter at Olympia; there are others, it is true, as the Temple of Jupiter Olym- pius at Athens, but this was erected long after the order had been practised by the Romans. The principal Italian specimens are the Temple of Jupiter Stater, three columns of which remain in the Campo, Rome ; the Pantheon ; the Temple of Vesta, or the Sibyl, at Tivoli; the temples of Mars Ultor, Jupiter Capitolinus, Vesta at Rome, Antonius and Faustina, and of Jupiter Tonans. Among all the specimens which have come to our knowledge there are not two alike; they all vary in detail, and some very much so; some fragments bear evidence of the introduction of figures of animals, etc. The Romans, in borrowing their architecture from the Greeks, appear to have indiscriminately employed the Corinthian order, which they found possessed of an ornamental character adapted to the splendor and magnificence of their taste, in the same manner that the early Greeks used the Doric, and the lonians the order which bears their name. The orders of Architecture appear to be altogether national; thus the numerous temples of Greece and its Sicilian colonies are Doric, and bear one general character; the Ionian cities present the best, the most elegant, and chaste examples of the Ionic order; while Italy, Balbec, and Palmyra, exhibit the Corinthian almost to the exclu- sion of any other. Some writers suppose that the Corinthian arose naturally out of the Doric order, while most modern writers are of opinion that the capital was invented by the Egyp- tians; yet, although many bell-formed capitals are to be found among the ruins of Egypt, the Corinthian is superior to anything yet discovered there; and even in the present day, this capital exhibits the utmost elegance, beauty, and richness, that have ever been attained in architectural composition, though many attempts have been made to excel it. L PLATE XXXV. Is a finished elevation of tlic Corinthian base, capital, and entablature, with the proportions of the members figured in minutes. The example here chosen is from the three famed columns in the Campo Vaccine at Rome, supposed to be the remains of the Temple of Jupiter Stater, and certainly one of the most perfect and elegant remains of this order that antiquity can produce. It may be well, in lieu of a more extended notice of the example, to append a general description of the standard form of this order, for the details vary to a considerable extent in different examples : The average height of the column, inclusive of capital and base, taking a mean proportional between those of the Pantheon .and the Temple of Jupiter Stater, is ten diameters, the shaft containing eight, and the remaining two being made up in the capital and base. The shaft in the ancient examples was almost invariably fluted, and the flutes occasionally filled to about one- third of their height with cabling; the number of the flutes is generally twenty-four, as in the Ionic order, and arranged in the same manner. The capital is separated from the shaft by an astragal and cinctm-e, and is in the shape of an inverted bell, ornamented as follows : Imme- diately above the astragal are two rows of acanthus, or olive leaves, one above the other, each row consisting of eight leaves ; the upper row is arranged in such a manner as to have one leaf immediately in the centre of each side of and beneath the abacus, and one under each corner of the abacus, which, altogether, one in the centre of each side, and one at each angle of the capital, will make up the eight leaves. The leaves of the lower range are disposed so as to alternate with those of the upper, or, in other words, the upper leaves rise between the divisions of the lower ones. Between every two of the leaves of the upper, or second series, rises a stalk, out of which springs a bunch of foliage, consisting of two leaves, one of which branches toward the centre of the abacus, and the other toward the angle. Out of each of the leaves, at the angles, proceeds diagonally a volute, the two at each angle meeting under the abacus, which they support; two smaller ones, emerging from the central leaves, meet under the centre of the abacus, and are sur- mounted by a small flower, called the flower of the capital. The abacus is square in its general plan, with concave sides, curving out toward the angles, which are cut off. The mouldings consist of a cavetto, fillet, and echinus, the first and last of which are sometimes enriched. The proper Corinthian base differs from the Ionic or Attic, in having two smaller scotia, separated by two astragals; both bases, however, arc used indiscriminately, and perhaps the Attic is more gene- rally employed. (82) THE B^IVE OKDERS OP ARCHITECTURE. 83 THE FIVE ORDERS ARRANGED IN PARTS. In the six preceding plates are contained some of the best and most celebrated examples of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, with their several proportions correctly figured in modules and minutes. And in order still more fully to elucidate and simplify the arrangement of this important department of our work, and to com- press within restricted limits all that will be likely to prove most useful and inte- resting, we here propose to give what may be termed a continuation of the ti'eatment of the orders, which consists of an arrangement of all of their princij)al parts in detail, accompanied by simple descriptions. Interspersed with these will be found the opinions of some of the most eminent among ancient and modern architects on the " Proportions of the Orders," etc., collected from standard authorities and ar- ranged with perspicuity. THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE TUSCAN ORDER. Divide the given height for this whole order into ten parts, of which take two for that of the pedestal; and then divide the remaining eight parts into five, giving one of these to the altitude of the entablature, and the other four to the length of the column, inclusive of the base and capital ; by these means the entablature is made one-fourth of the length of the column. The entablature is divided into seven parts, of which two are given to the archi- trave, two to the frieze, and three to the cornice. Observe, also, that four of these parts are equal to the diameter of the column, and that seven of these diameters form its height. The altitude of the pedestal is divided into six parts, two being for the base and plinth, three for the height of the dado, and one for that of the cap. In order to find the breadth of the dado, the diameter of the column is divided into five parts, and seven such proportional parts form the breadth, and also determine the projection of the base of the column. The proportion of the base of the pedestal may be found by dividing the two parts allotted for the base and plinth into three, and giving one of these to the base and the remaining two to the plinth ; the projection of the base and cap of the pedestal is equal to the height of the former. PLATE XXXVI. « THE TUSCAN PEDESTAL, WITH PART OP THE SHAFT OP THE COLUMN AND ITS BASE. The altitude of the base of the column is half a diameter; this is divided into two equal parts, one of which is given to the plinth ; the remaining part is again divided into four, of which one is given to the fillet, and three to the torus. The whole projection is equal to one-fifth of the diameter of the column; and the projection of the fillet equals its height. The altitude of the base, plinth, and cap of the pedestal has been already shown, but in order to find the pi'oportions of the several members, the base is divided into three parts, of which one is given to the fillet, and two to the hollow. The altitude of the cap is divided into four parts, of which one is allowed to the ogee, two to the corona, and one to the band at the top. In regard to the projections, they both equal the altitude of the base; and being each divided into three parts, the projection of the several mem- bers may readily be obtained. (84) ^ ^^^ ..%UOk .^ . "/lyf i f E'Sg ?" rf> ■■? .JT ^TUE FIVE ORDERS OF ARC UITECTURE. 85 GENERxVL REMARKS ON THE TUSCAN ORDER. The Tuscan is the simplest and most solid of the orders. It is composed of few and large parts, and is of a construction so massive that it seems capable of sup- porting the heaviest burdens; whence it is by Sir Henry Wotton compared to a sturdy laborer, dressed in homely apparel. This order will not admit of ornaments of any kind; on the contrary, it is some- times customary to represent in the shaft of its column rustic cinctures, as at the Luxembourg in Paris, and in many buildings of considerable note in London. This practice, though frequent and to be met with in many of the works of distinguished architects, is not always excusable, and should be indulged in with great caution, as it is calculated to hide the robust, characteristic, and truly rustic, but manly figure of the column, and also alters the proportions and aflfects the simplicity of the entire composition. Few examples of these bandages are to be found in ancient remains; and, in general, it is advisable to avoid them in all large designs, reserving the rustic work for the rntercolumniating, where it may be employed with great propriety, and will serve to produce such a contrast as at once renders the aspect of the entire com- position perfect, distinct, and striking. But in smaller works, where the parts are few and easily comprehended, rustic cinctm'es may be sometimes introduced and sanctioned, as they serve to diversify the forms, produce strong and impressive contrasts, and contribute most essentially to the bold and masculine effect of the composition. PLATE XXXVII. THE TUSCAN ENTABLATURE AND CAPITAL. The -ivliolc altitude of the entablature being equal to one and three-fourths of a diameter, and the principal heights of the architrave, frieze, and cornice having been set off, the architrave is next divided into six parts, of which two are given to the first face, three to the second, and one to the band at the top. The projection of the band is equal to its altitude, and that of the second face is one-third of the foregoing. The altitude of the cornice is divided into nine parts, (or rather each principal third into three,) and of these one and a half are given to the hollow ; one-half to the fillet ; one and a half to the ovolo; two to the corona; one-half to the fillet; two to the cyma-recta; and one to the upper fillet. The projection of the cornice is equal to its altitude, and is similarly divided; and the pro- jections of the several members are thus made so apparent on the plate, as to render further description unnecessary. The capital is half a diameter in height, and is divided into three parts, of which one is given to the frieze of the capital ; another to the ovolo and fillet, of which the latter has one- fourth; and the remaining part to the abacus. To find the projection of the capital, divide the diameter of the column at the top into six equal parts, and give one of these to each side of the abacus; the whole of which will thus form eight parts, as described. The astragal or collarino is equal to one-third of the frieze of the capital in height, and that of the fillet is equal to one-half of the astragal; the projection of each of these equals their height. It may be remarked, that the proportions for this moulding serve for those in all the other orders. (86) :f^i.ii;ixyaii. iis^A^ i^T^iiiL-a-iruju THE FIVE ORDERS OP ARCHITECTURE. 87 THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE DORIC ORDER. An altitude having been proposed for this whole order, divide it first into ten parts, of which allow two to the pedestal, and make the remaining eight parts into five ; then give four of these to the base, shaft, and capital of the column, and reserve the other for the entablature, which must be again subdivided into four parts, of which two will form the diameter of the column. Thus the column will be eight diameters in height, and the entablature one-fourth of the length of the column. Of the four divisions of the entablature, one is given to the architrave, one and a half to the frieze, and one and a half to the cornice. The architrave projects one-sixth of its height, and the projection of the cornice equals the diameter of the column. The height of the pedestal is divided into seven parts, of which two are given to the base and plinth, four to the dado, and one to the cap. The column diminishes one-sixth of its diameter in the upper two-thirds of the length of the shaft. If the lower diameter of the shaft be divided into five parts, and one of these added to each side, the whole will give the projection of the base, and also the breadth of the dado of the pedestal, which thus forms a perfect square. The base of the pedestal contains one-third of the two parts allotted for the base and plinth; its projection equals its height; the cap projects four-fifths of its height. PLATE XXXVIII. THE DORIC PEDESTAL, WITH PART OP THE SHAFT OF THE COLUMN AND ITS BASE. The height of the base of column is half its diameter, and the projection gives the breadth of the pedestal, -which is one diameter and two-fifths. The several heights of the jjlinth, base, and cap of the pedestal are described on the preceding page. To find the proportions of the indi- vidual members, divide the height of the base into six parts, of which three are given to the torus; one to the fillet; and two to the hollow; the projections being figured in parts, are easily obtained by a reference to the plate. The cap is divided into five parts, of which one is given to the hollow ; half a part to the fillet ; one and a half to the ovolo ; one and a half to the corona; and half a part to the fillet at the top. The whole projection of the cap equals four- fifths of its height; and that of each particular member may be seen upon the plate. The height of the base of the column has three divisions ; the lower one of these being reserved for the plinth, the upper torus receives a half of the corresponding division ; and the whole of the remainder, as will be seen by the plate, is divided equally between the lower torus and the portion embracing the scotia and the fillets ; the half which contains these is again sub- divided into six parts, of which the scotia receives four, and the fillets the remaining two. The whole projection of the base is one-fifth of the diameter, and is divided into three parts, of which one forms the projection of the upper fillet, and two are given to that of the upper torus. All of these heights and projections are fully explained in the example. On the lower part of the shaft is described the plan for fluting the column. The flutes should be twenty in number, merely separated by an edge or arris. A and B denote different methods of finding the form or depth of the flutes. (88) f ^ic.;yxx" y/m[ intii ^■^j-T rrf iTiiin %m., t h- ^ _i THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 89 GENERAL REMARKS ON THE DORIC ORDER. The Doric order, next in strength to the Tuscan, and of a grave, robust, or masculine aspect, is, by Scamozzi, called the Herculean. Being the most ancient of all the orders it is more primitive in its form than any of the others, having triglyphs in the frieze to represent the ends of joists, and mutules in its cornice to represent rafters, with inclined soffits to express their direction in the originals, from which they were imitated. The Doric columns are often seen in ancient works, executed without bases, in imitation of trees ; and, in the primitive buildings, without any plinths to raise them above the ground. Freart de Cambrai, in speaking of this order, observes that dehcate ornaments are repugnant to its characteristic soHdity, and that it succeeds best in the simple regularity of its proportions. " Nosegays and garlands of flowers," says he, " grace not a Hercules, who always appears more becomingly with a rough club and lion's skin; for there are beauties of various sorts, and often so dissimilar in their natures, that those which may be highly proper on one occasion may be quite the reverse, even ridiculously absurd, in others." In most of the antiques, the Doric column is found to have been executed without a base; this is particularly observable in examining the remains of Grecian examples. Vitruvius also makes it without one; the base, according to this author, having been first employed in the Ionic order to imitate the sandal or covering of a woman's foot. Scamozzi blames this practice, and most of the moderns have been of his opinion; the Attic base is now generally employed in this order. Chambers says, that the ancients employed the Doric in temples dedicated to Minerva, to Mars, and to Hercules, whose grave and manly dispositions suited well with its character; and Serlio remarks that it is proper for churches dedicated to saints remarkable for their fortitude in exposing their lives, and suffering for the Christian faith. It may be employed in private dwellings; and is particularly well adapted for columns erected to the memory of brave men, or intended to commemorate great victories or heroic actions. PLATE XXXIX. THE DORIC ENTABLATURE AND CAPITAL. As previouslj mentioned, the whole height of this entablature, -which consists of two diameters, is divided into four parts, of which the architrave receives one ; the frieze one and a half ; and the cornice one and a half. To find the proportions of the several members, the architrave is divided into six parts ; two of these are given to the first face, three to the second, and one to the band at the top. The drops on the second face have one of its parts, of which their fillet receives one-third; their projection also equals a part. The frieze is embellished with triglyphs, which are half a diameter in breadth ; one of these must be placed over the centre of the column ; and the space between each is termed the metope, which should be equal to the height of the frieze. The triglyphs arc each divided into twelve parts, of which one is allowed to each half channel, two to each whole channel, and two to each of the spaces between the channels ; the projection is one aad a half of these parts. The height of the cornice is divided into three parts, and the lower of these is subdivided into three smaller parts, one of which gives the height of the cap of the triglyph ; another that of the hollow and fillet ; and the remaining one that of the ovolo. The other two parts are divided into seven. Of these two are given to the mutule and its cap ; two to the corona ; one to the cyma-reversa and its fillet ; and two to the cyma- recta and its fillet. The smaller divisions are easily discovered on the plate. The projections are divided into four parts proportional to the three which constitute the height; and the first of these is again subdivided into three, of which one is given to the cap of the triglyph ; another to the cavetto ; and the other to the ovolo. The other part is also subdivided into seven, which regulate those of the cyma and corona, as may be seen on the plate. The altitude of the capital is divided into three parts ; one of these gives the height of the frieze ; another the fillets and ovolo ; and the third the abacus, cyma-reversa, and fillets. The minor subdivisions are figured on the plate. The projection of the capital equals the height of the frieze and fillet, and its subdivisions, which are four, designate the projections of the several members, as will be seen by inspection. (90) fi'L.xxxxa. ULl'D^UUUir L£>'JU*Jt:LU^.'J" THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 91 THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE IONIC ORDER. Divide the whole given height for this order into ten parts, of which apportion two for that of the pedestal; and then make the remaining eight parts into six, of which five constitute the length of the column, (inclusive of the capital and base,) and the one which remains is the height of the entablature. The length of the column being divided into nine parts, one of these will form the diameter of the column, by which the proportions of several of the smaller members are regulated. The height of the entablature is divided into six parts, of which two are given to the architrave, one and a half to the frieze, and two and a half to the cornice. The projection of the architrave is one-fourth of its height; and that of the cornice is equal to its height. The height of the pedestal is divided into seven parts, of which two are given to the base and plinth, four to the dado, and one to the cap. The diameter of the column is diminished from a point taken at the commence- ment of the second third of the shaft, in the same manner as that of the preceding order; and the base of the column has a similar projection, which also gives a like breadth to the dado of the pedestal. The base of the pedestal forms one-third of the two parts allowed as the pro- portion of the height for the base and plinth ; and its projection is equal to its height. The projection of the cap is equal to three-fourths of its height. PLATE XL. THE IONIC PEDESTAL, WITH PART OF THE SHAFT OF THE COLUMN AND ITS BASE. The height of the base of the column in this order is equal to the half of its diameter; and the projection is equal to one-fifth of the -whole. This also gives the breadth of the pedestal. The heights of the plinth, base, and cap of the pedestal have been fully described in the preceding page; but in order to apportion the heights of the several members, that of the base is divided into four parts, of which one-half part is given to the fillet; two to the cyma; another half to the fillet; and one to the hollow. The projection is equal to the height, and being simi- larly divided into parts, the proportion of each member may be readily seen by reference to the plate. The cap is also divided into four parts, of which the hollow and its fillet, the ovolo, the corona, and the ogee and its fillet, each receive one respectively. The whole projection is equal to three- fourths of the height; and each third being subdivided into three parts, they are set off, as may be seen on the plate. The height of the base of the column is divided into three parts, of which one is reserved for the plinth, and the other two are apportioned as in the Doric order. The bead above the upper torus, which is part of the column, is double the height of the fillet. The fillets are all of similar dimensions. The projection of the base is identical with that of the preceding order. AVhen the column of this order is fluted, the flutes amount to twenty-four in number. These are sunk to the depth of a semicircle, of which the fillet between each equals a third part, as is more plainly shown on the plan given of one-quarter of the column. (92) ^^^fT.'^K^i'jrjSM "--"""' • ' '■:^ ^^^^ i THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 93 GENERAL REMARKS ON THE IONIC ORDER. The Ionic, being the second of the Grecian orders, holds a middle station between the other two, and stands in equipoise between the grave solidity of the Doric and the elegant delicacy of the Corinthian. Among the antiques, however, we find it in diflferent dresses : sometimes plentifully adorned, and inclining most toward the Corin- thian; sometimes more simple, and bordering on Doric plainness, — all according to the fancy of the architect, or nature of the structure where employed. It is, through- out, of a more slender construction than either of the preceding orders; its appear- ance, though simple, is graceful and majestic; its ornaments should be few, rather neat than luxuriant; and, as there should be nothing exaggerated or affectedly striking in any of its parts, it is not inaptly compared, by Sir Henry Wotton, to a sedate matron, rather in decent than magnificent attire. "Among the ancients," says Chambers, who always refers to the Roman architects, "the form of the Ionic profile appears to have been more positively determined than that of any other; for in all of the antiques, the Temple of Concord excepted, it is exactly the same, and conformable to the description given by Vitruvius." "As the Doric order," he further remarks, "is particularly affected in churches and temples dedicated to male saints, so the Ionic is chiefly used in such as are consecrated to females of the matronal state." It may be well employed in courts of justice; and may be also introduced in libraries, colleges, seminaries, and other structures having relation to arts and letters, as well as private houses; and, as Le Clerc says, in all places dedicated to peace and tranquillity. • The ancients employed it in temples sacred to Luna, Bacchus, Diana, and other deities, whose dispositions they esteemed to hold a medium between the severe and the effeminate. PLATE XLI. THE IONIC ENTABLATURE. The whole height of this entablature is divided, as previously mentioned, into six parts, of ■which two are given to the architrave ; one and a half to the frieze ; and two and a half to the cornice. To find the proportions of its several members, the height of the architrave is sub- divided into sixteen parts, of which three are given to the first face; four to the second; and five to the third : the bead also receives one ; the ogee two ; and the fillet one. The extreme pro- jection of the architrave is equal to one-fourth of its height, and that of the upper face is equal to one-third of the preceding part. The outline of the frieze is formed by describing a triangle in the centre division of its height, (as shown,) the extreme angle of which forms the point for the centre of the curve or swelling. The height of the cornice is divided into eight parts, of which the hollow and fillet (one- fourth) receive one ; the ovolo another ; and the modillion and cap (half a part) two. The upper four are subdivided into five, of which two are given to the corona ; one to the cyma-reversa and fillet, (one-fourth ;) one and a half to the cyma-recta ; and half a part to the fillet. The whole projection is equal to the height, and is divided into nine parts, each of which forms one-twelfth of the diameter. The projections of the several members may be seen by referring to the plate, on which they are fully figured and described. (94) i?*L« 31111 "^ liir; + i ■•J THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 95 THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. Divide the whole height given for this order into six parts, of which two are for the height of the pedestal. The remaining eight parts are then divided into six, of which five form the length of the column, with its capital and base ; the other is the height of the entablature. The length of the column is subdivided into twenty parts; two of these will be the diameter, by which several of the minor parts are proportioned. The height of the entablature is divided into six parts, of which two are allotted to the architrave, one and a half to the frieze, and two and a half to the cornice. The architrave projects to one-fourth of its height, and the projection of the cornice and its height are equal. The whole height of the pedestal has seven divisions, of which two are given to form that of the base and plinth, four for that of the dado, and one for the cap. The column is diminished in a manner similar to the preceding orders. And if half of the height of the pedestal be taken, it will give the projection of the base of ^ the column and the breadth of the dado of the pedestal. The base of the pedestal forms a third of the two parts allotted for the base and plinth, and its projection equals its height. That of the cap is three-fourths of its height. PLATE XLII. THE CORINTHIAN PEDESTAL, WITH PART OF THE SHAFT OF THE COLUMN AND ITS BASE. The altitude of the base is half the diameter of the column, and its projection is equal to half the height of the pedestal, which also gives the breadth of the dado. To find the proportions of the several members of the pedestal, the height of the base is divided into three parts, of which one is given to the torus and fillet, (one-fourth;) another to the cyma; and the third to the ogee and fillet, (of which the latter receives one-fourth.) The whole projection of the pedestal is equal to its height, and is divided into five parts, two of which are given to that of the ogee ; two to the cyma ; and one to the torus. The height of the cap is divided into four parts, of wliich half a part is given to the hollow, and one-fourth to its fillet ; one part to the cyma, and one-fourth to its fillet ; one entire part to the corona; and one to the ogee and fillet. The whole projection is# equal to three-fourths of the height, and is set off in minor subdivisions, as will be seen by reference to the plate. The height of the base of the column is divided into three parts, of which one is allotted to the plinth. The two upper parts are again subdivided into five, of which the lower torus receives one and a half ; the upper torus one ; the scotia one ; and the remaining one and a half are distributed among the beads and fillets. The proportions of these minor divisions are fully described on the plate. The whole projection is divided into three parts, as will be easily com- prehended by referring to this plate, in connection with the arrangement of the preceding bases. If the columns of this order be fluted, the flutes must be similar in form and number to those of the Ionic order. (96) r.-,i.-.t..i i\ I'.,,-.- ^P THE PIA'E ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 97 GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. This order is peculiarly adapted to buildings in which gaiety or magnificence is required. The ancients employed it in temples dedicated to Venus, to Flora, Proserpine, and the nymphs of fountains ; because the flowers, foliage, and volutes, with which it is adorned, seemed well adapted to the delicacy and elegance of such deities. Being the most splendid of the Five Orders, it is also extremely appropriate for the decoration of palaces, galleries, theatres, banqueting-rooms, and other places devoted to festive mirth or convivial reci'eation. "The Corinthian order," says Sir Henry Wotton, "is a column lasciviously or extravagantly decked, like a wanton courtezan or woman of fashion. Its proportions are elegant in the extreme ; every part of the order is divided into a great variety of members, and abundantly enriched with a diversity of ornaments." "The ancients," saya De Cambrai, "aiming at the representation of a feminine beauty, omitted nothing either calculated to embellish or capable of perfecting their work;" and he observes, "that in the many examples left of the order, such a pro- fusion of different ornaments is introduced that they seem to have exhausted imagina- tion in the contrivance of decorations for this master-piece of the art. Scamozzi calls it the Virginal, and it certainly has all the delicacy in its form, with all the gaiety, gaudiness, and affectation in its dress, peculiar to young women." N PLATE XLIII. THE CORINTHIAN ENTABLATURE. The whole height of this entablature is divided into six parts, (as previously mentioned,) and of these two are given to the architrave; one and a half to the frieze; and two and a half to the cornice. To find the proportions of the individual members, the two principal parts of the architrave are divided into four, which are again subdivided as follows: one-fifth of the lower division is given to the bead; of the second part the ogee receives a third; and the division of the fourth or upper part into three, gives half a part to the bead ; one and a half to the ogee ; and one to the upper fillet. The whole projection of the architrave is equal to one-fourth of its height, of which the middle face receives one-half. For the lesser projections refer to the plate. The height of the cornice is divided into eight parts, of which one is given to that of the ogee and fillet, (one-fourth ;) one to the dentils ; and another to the ovolo and fillet. The remain- ing five must be again divided into six, which are apportioned as follows : one and one-fourth to the modillion ; one-fourth to its fillet ; half a part to the ogee and fillet ; one and a half to the corona ; half a part to the ogee ; one-fourth to its fillet ; one and one-fourth to the cyma-recta ; and half a part to its fillet. The whole projection of the cornice is equal to its height, and being divided into a similar number of parts, the projections of the several membei's will be easily apparent on inspection. On this plate is also shown the plan of the entablature, on which the construction of the modillions, dentils, coffers, etc., is explained. (98) (P[LoiXlL3]a" ^ h R1 Tvm " - ii 1 niTA© nxTin m : 6 - 'n 6 "i: 7.-«- ri 2 - THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARC HITEC f U RE. 99 THE riUNCirAL TARTS OF THE COMPOSITE OllDER. The given height proposed for this whole order is divided into ten parts, of which two are allowed for that of the pedestal. The remaining eight parts are then divided into six, of which one forms the height of the entablature, and five are given to the length of the column, with its capital and base. The diameter of the column, at its base, is equal to a tenth part of its whole length; thus the pedestal is three, the column ten, and the entablature two diameters in height respectively. The height of the entablature is divided into six parts, of which two are given to the architrave; one and a half to the frieze; and two and a half to the cornice. The projection of the architrave is two-sevenths of its height, and that of the cornice is equal to its height. The whole height of the pedestal is divided into seven parts, of which two are allotted to the base and plinth; four to the dado; and one to the cap. The column is diminished as in the preceding order; and the diameter at the base is divided into five parts, of which one is added to each side for its projection. This also gives the breadth of the dado of the pedestal. Of the two parts given to the height of the base and plinth of the pedestal, the base itself receives one-third, and its projection is equal to its height; the pro- jection of the cap equals four-fifths of its height. PLATE XLIV. TUE COMPOSITE PEDESTAL, WITH PART OF THE SHAFT OF THE COLUMN AND ITS BASE. The height of the base of the column is equal to one-half of its diameter; and its projec- tion on either side equals one-fifth part of the whole diameter of the shaft. The breadth of the whole of the pedestal is limited to the projection of the base. To find the proportions of the particular members of the pedestal in height, that of the base is divided into four parts, of which one is given to the torus ; one-third of one part to the fillet ; one and two-thirds to the cyma; and the remaining part to the astragal and fillet. The height of the cap is divided into five parts, of which one is given to the astragal and fillet, (one-third ;) two to the cyma and fillet, (half a part ;) one to the corona ; and one to the ogee and fillet. The whole projection of the base of the pedestal is equal to its height; its divisions are five ; and the minor projections are easily apparent on the plate. That of the cap is equal to four-fifths of its height, and the projections of the several members arc so clearly shown, as to render further explanation unnecessary. The height of the base of the column is divided into six parts. Of these the plinth receives one part and three-fourths ; the lower torus one ; the fillet one-fourth ; the scotia half a part ; and one is distributed among the astragals and fillets ; the upper scotia then receives half a part ; the fillet one-fourth ; and the upper torus the remaining three-fourths. The upper fillet, which is part of the column, is twice the height of that immediately beneath the torus. The whole projection is divided into three parts, and its minor divisions are easily under- stood by an examination of the plate, and a reference to the preceding instances. When the column is fluted, the flutes should amount to twenty-four, as in the Corinthian order. (100) I', ,1,-1. .I.N lli.s.- TUE FIVE OllDEUS OF A U C IIITE C T U RE. IQl GENERAL REMARKS ON THE COMPOSITE ORDER. It is manifest, from an examination of the best worlcs, that this order is com- pounded chiefly of the component parts of the Ionic and Corinthian, without possessing the native simplicity pertaining to either of these classical orders. The Composite is, nevertheless, an order of considerable merit, which on many occasions will claim a decided preference, and cannot fail to be duly appreciated when judiciously introduced. The Romans introduced the Composite more frequently in their triumphal arches than in any other buildings; meaning, as Serlio supposes, to express their dominion over other nations, the inventors of the orders of which this is composed. It may with great propriety be used wherever elegance and magnificence are to be united ; but more especially in buildings designed to commemorate great and signal events, or to celebrate the combined achievements of conquerors and legislators. It may here be remarked, that the ingenuity of man has, hitherto, not been able to produce a sixth order, though large premiums have been ofiered, and numerous attempts have been made by minds of first-rate talent to accomplish it. Such is the fettered state of human imagination, such the scanty store of its ideas, that Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, have ever been uppermost; and all that has yet been produced amounts to nothing more than different arrangements and combinations of their parts, with some trifling deviations scai'cely deserving notice ; the whole generally tending more to diminish than to increase the beauties of the ancient orders. PLATE XLV. TUE COMPOSITE ENTABLATURE. The whole height is divided into six parts, of which (as previously mentioned) two are given to the architrave ; one and a half to the frieze ; and two and a half to the cornice. To find the proportions of the several members, the architrave is divided into seven parts, of which two arc given to the first face ; half a part to the ogee ; two and a half to the second face; and the remaining or upper two parts are subdivided into five, of which the bead has half a part; the ovolo, one and a half; the hollow, two; and the fillet, one. Its whole projection is equal to two-sevenths of its height, and the minor divisions are set ofi" upon the plate. The frieze is formed in a similar manner to that of the Ionic. The whole height of the cornice is divided into ten minor parts, of which one-fourth part is given to the fillet ; one-fourth to the bead, and one part to the ogee ; another to the first face of the modillions, and half a part to the ogee ; one and one-fourth part to the second face ; one-fourth to the fillet ; half a part to the ovolo ; two parts to the corona ; one to the cyma-reversa and fillet ; one and a half to the cyma-recta ; and half a part to the fillet. The whole projection of the cornice is equal to its height, and is divided into a similar number of parts, by which the projections of the several members are regulated, as may be seen on the plate ; on which is also shown the plan of the entablature, with the modillions, etc. (102) ii='lL>.Jii,V THE PROPORTIONS OF THE ORDERS; WITH THE PRACTICE OF PILASTERS. In the opinion of Scamozzi, columns should not be less than seven of their diame- ters in height, nor more than ten ; the former being, according to him, a good proportion in the Tuscan, and the latter in the Corinthian order. The practice of the ancients in their best works being conformable to this jsrecept, we have generally followed the doctrine of Vitruvius, and made the Tuscan seven diameters, the Doric eight, the Ionic nine, as Palladio and Vignola have done, and the Corinthian and Composite ten; which last is a mean between the proportions observed in the Pantheon at Rome and in the three columns in the Campo Vaccino, both of which are esteemed excellent examples of the Corinthian order. The common practice of the ancients was to make the height of the entablature equal to one-quarter of the height of the column; and in all the various descriptions of entablature they seldom exceeded or fell short of this measure. Nevertheless, Palladio, Scamozzi, Alberti, Barbaro, Cataneo, Delorme, and others of the modern architects, have made their entablatures much lower in the Ionic, Com- posite, and Corinthian orders, than in the Tuscan or Doric. This, on some occasions, may not only be excusable, but highly proper ; particularly where the intercolumnia- tions are wide, as in a second or third order, in private houses, or inside decorations, (103) PLATE XLVI. THE CAPS AND BASES TO THE PEDESTALS OF THE SEVERAL ORDERS, IN DETAIL. The purpose of this plate is to show these portions of the pedestals on an enlarged scale, still preserving the method of proportioning them previously observed, in order that they may be more easily comprehended, and the relation of their members to the several scales of height and projection rendered more distinctly perceptible. It will be seen that the height of the caps exceeds that of the bases by one-half, except in the case of those of the Tuscan order, which are equal. (104) -=j \ I ii TUE PROrORTIONS OF THE ORDERS. 105 where lightness should be preferred to dignity; and where expense, with every impedi- ment to the convenience of the fabric, should be carefully avoided. Perrault, in all his orders except the Doric, divides the whole height of the entablature into ten equal parts, three of which he gives to the architrave, three to the frieze, and four to the cornice ; and in the Doric order he divides the whole height of the entablature into eight parts, of which two are given to the architrave, three to the frieze, and three to the cornice. These measures deviate very little from those observed in many of the antiques now extant at Kome, where they have stood the test of many ages; and their sim- plicity renders them singularly useful in composition, as they are easily remembered and applied. Of the two modes used by ancient and modern architects to determine the dimen- sions of the mouldings, and the lesser parts that compose an order, perhaps the sim- plest, readiest, and most accurate is by means of the module, or semi-diameter of the column, taken at the bottom of the shaft and divided into thirty minutes. Many prefer the method of measuring by equal parts, affirming that beauty depends on the simplicity and accuracy of the relations existing between the whole body and its members, and alleging that dimensions, which have evident affinities, are better remembered than those whose relations are too complicated to be immediately apprehended. Columns, in imitation of trees, from which they derive their origin, are tapered in the shafts. In the specimens of antiquity the diminution is variously performed; sometimes beginning from the foot of the shaft, at others from one-quarter, or one-third of its height; the lower part being left perfectly cylindrical. The former of these methods was most in use among the ancients, and, being the most natural, seems to claim the preference, though the latter has been almost universally practised by modern architects, from a supposition, perhaps, of its being more graceful, as it is more marked and strikingly perceptible. "The first architects," says Monsieur Auzott, "probably made their columns in straight lines, in imitation of trees, so that their shaft was the frustrum of the cone ; " but finding this form abrupt and disagreeable, they made use of some curve, which, springing from the extremities of the superior and inferior diameters of the column, swelled beyond the sides of the cone, and thus gave the most pleasing feature to the outline. Vitruvius, in the second chapter of his third book, mentions this practice; PLATE XLVII. THE BASES OF THE COLUMNS BELONGING TO THE SEVERAL ORDERS, SHOWN IN DETAIL. All the bases are equal in height to one-half of the diametei' of their columns; and their projection equals one-fifth of the whole diameter. The mouldings of these are easily formed, being mostly semicircles, except the scotias, which are struck from two centres. Take as an instance the scotia in the Boric order, the height for which being given, divide it into three, and on the line which separates the upper of these parts from the two lower, and perpendicular to the fillet, inscribe the centre for the first quarter circle ; the same distance repeated on the line out- ward, will give the centre for the other quarter, and at the same time limit the projection of the lower fillet. This method is applicable to all the other orders. (100) THE PROPORTIONS OP THE ORDERS. 107 but in so obscure and cursory a manner, that his meaning has not been clearly under- stood; and several of the modern architects, intending to conform themselves to his doctrine, have made the diameters of their columns greater in the middle than at the bottom of the shaft. Lconi Baptista Alberti, with several of the Florentine and Roman architects, carried this practice to a very absurd extent, for which they have been justly blamed, it being neither natural, reasonable, nor beautiful." Sir Henry Wotton, in his Elements of Arckiiecture, says, in his usual quaint style: '•' And here I must take leave to blame a practice groioie (I know not how) in certaine places too familiar, of making pillars swell in the middle, as if they were sicke of some tympany, or dropsie, without any authentique pattern or rule to my knowledge, and unseemly to the very judgment and sight." And Monsieur Auzott further observes : " That a column, supposing its shaft to be the frustum of a cone, may have an additional thickness in the middle without being swelled in that part beyond the bulk of its inferior parts;" and supposes the addi- tion mentioned by Vitruvius to signify not anything more than the increase toward the middle of the column, occasioned by changing the straight line, which at first was in use, into a curve, and thus, by dexterous means, to "snatch a grace beyond the reach of art." This supposition is extremely just, and founded upon what is observable in the works of antiquity, where there is not any single instance of a column thicker in the middle than at the bottom, though all or most of them have the swelling hinted at by Vitruvius, all of them being terminated by curves — some few granite columns excepted, which are bounded by straight lines; a proof, perhaps, of their antiquity, or of their having been wrought in the quarries of Egypt by unskillful workmen. In the remains of antiquity the quantity of diminution at the upper diameter of columns is various, but seldom less than one-eighth of the inferior diameter of the column, nor more than one-sixth of it. The last of these is, by Vitruvius, esteemed the most perfect; and Vignola has employed it in four of his orders, as we have in all of them, there being no reason for diminishing the Tuscan column more, in pro- portion to its diameter, than any of the others. Our intention being to give an exact idea of the orders of the ancients, they are represented elsewhere in this work under such figures and proportions as appear to have been most in use in the esteemed works of the Romans and Grecians, who, in the opinions of the most eminent writers, carried Architecture to its highest degree PLATE XLVIII. THE ARCHITRAVES BELONGING TO EACH OF THE ORDERS, SHOWN IN DETAIL. On this plate the heights of the architraves of the Tuscan and Doric orders are each divided into six parts, and then with some minor subdivisions in those of the Doric, the mouldings are set off, as is apparent on the plate. The next two — the Ionic and Corinthian orders — have each of theirs divided into four parts, which are again subdivided, — those of the former into sixteen, and those of the latter into twelve ; and by these minor parts, the proportions of the several members are regulated. The architrave of the composite order is divided into seven parts, the upper two of these being further subdivided into five; and by these several divisions the heights of the several mem- bers are regulated. All the projections are set off from the lower or first face, and in the first two orders, each of these is equal to one-sixth of the height ; in the succeeding two, to one-fourth ; and in the last, to two-sevenths of the height. All the minutice of these are plainly shown by the minor divisions and dotted lines on the plate. (108) ■s'i...i±.wyn THE PROPORTIONS OP THE ORDERS. 109 of perfection. It must not, however, be imagined that the same general proportions will, on all occasions, succeed. Those in our first series have been taken chiefly from the temples and other public structures of antiquity, and may be employed in churches and other important edifices, where majesty or grandeur is required. Where the whole composition is large, the parts require an exti-aordinary degree of boldness to make them distinctly perceptible from the proper general points of view; but in less considerable edifices, and under various circumstances, more suitable and perhaps more elegant proportions may often be designed by the ingenuity of man. THE PRACTICE OF THE PILASTERS. Columns differ from the pilasters in their plans only; the latter being square or rectangular, whereas the former are round. Pilasters, when accompanied by columns in the Roman style, have their bases, capitals, and entablatures the same as the columns, and their component parts are all of similar heights and projections; and when complete, they are identified by the names of Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Composite, and Corinthian pilasters. " Of the two opposite compositions," says Chambers, " the column is, without any doubt, the most perfect as well as the most beautiful. Nevertheless, it would be impossible for composers in Architecture to dispense with pilasters; and upon most, if not upon all occasions, they may be employed with fitness and great propriety. In numerous instances, and on various accounts, they are even preferable to columns." Pilasters are stated to be of Roman invention; and doubtless their composition is an improvement upon the Greeks, who employed what are called the anta; ; the servile imitation of which is a most objectionable practice, and is quite inconsistent with any regard to primitive types, from which the Grecian Architecture is supposed to have originated. The Greeks employed these antas in their temples to receive the architraves where they entered upon the walls of the building; and in nearly all the examples of the antique the front of the antge is equal in diameter to the upper one of the adjacent column ; the antae being also of the same width at the top as at the bottom, and not diminished as in the Roman examples of pilasters. It is supposed that the Romans, disgusted with the meagre aspect of these antce and the want of accordance in their bases and capitals, substituted pilasters in lieu PLATE XLIX. IMPOSTS OP ARCHES, WITH THEIR ARCHITRAVES. All of tlicso imposts arc equal in height to one-eighth part of the opening of their respective arches. And this height is also equal to the -width of the pilasters on either side of each arch. The height is then divided into three principal parts, each of which is again divided into three smaller divisions, so that by reference to the plate no difEculty can be experienced in setting oflf the several members. The projections are all similarly dealt with, and in such a way as to make their different proportions readily apparent. It may also be observed that the astragal at the foot of the impost is equal in height to one of the nine minor parts, and the fillet is equal to half a part. The projection of the fillet is equal to its height; and that of the astragal exceeds its height by one -fourth. The architrave that circumscribes each arch, more properly termed the archivoU, is propor- tioned in its width by similar divisions to the foregoing, and the several projections are plainly shown on the plate. The width of the pilaster is equal to that of the architrave. (110) i.-u-'JA •"-1 1 :;jj:j.r;r'73 l)[? ASiX-. j^BaAyjs *> ^V ' '■ t.! J'llaslcT I'll. •'can V ri/„.H,- /h,r,r loni c T.J iTim' -^ — ^B^ J',/„.1/,, Corinthian ( mn posi tc . THE PROPORTIONS OF THE ORDERS. 11 of them; which, being proportioned and decorated in a similar manner with the column, are, in the eyes of most thinking and unprejudiced persons, more appropriate and applicable as tending at once to preserve the unity and harmony of effect in all those architectural compositions in which columns and pilasters accompany each other. " Several authors," says Chambers, " are of different opinions about pilasters and their application, and to the end of time such differences will exist in the minds of scientific men upon points of taste." " A French Jesuit," says the same intelligent writer, "many years ago published an essay on Architecture, which, from its plausi- bility, force, and elegance of diction, went through several editions, and operated very powerfully on the superficial part of European connoisseurs." The Abbe Laugier, who, it is understood, is the author referred to, inveighs in the strongest terms against pilasters, and every other architectonic form, except such as were imitated, by the first builders in stone, from the primitive wooden huts; as if in the entire catalogue of arts Architecture should be the only one confined to its pristine simplicity, and debarred from any deviation or improvement. To pilasters the learned father objects because they are, in his opinion, nothing better than bad representations of columns. "Their angles," he says, "indicate the formal stiffness of art, and are a striking deviation from the simplicity of nature ; their projections, sharp and inconvenient, offend and confine the eye ; and their surfaces, without roundness, give to the entire order a tame and insipid effect." They are not, he thinks, susceptible of diminution, one of the most pleasing properties of columns; and, in his opinion, they never can be necessary. To assert that pilasters are not susceptible of diminution at once discovers very little acquaintance either with books of architecture or with buildings. Innumerable are the instances in the remains of antiquity, of their being diminished, particularly when associated with columns. Those in the Temple of Mars the Avenger, in the Frontispiece of Nero, in the Portico of Septimus Severus, and in the Arch of Constan- tino, at Rome, are all diminished. Scamozzi always gave to his pilasters the same dimi- nution as his columns ; Palladio has diminished them in all his buildings at Venice, and Inigo Jones has treated them in a. similar manner in most of his designs. And if we trace pilasters back to their origin, and consider them either as the representation of the ends of partition walls, or trunks of trees reduced to the diameter of the round trunk but left square for greater strength, the reason for diminishing will in either case be made apparent. PLATE L. CLASSIC DOORS AND WINDOWS. Classic doors and windoAVS have their heads either square or circular, accordingly as they are used in the Greek or Roman orders. The latter form must not be used, however, when the impost does not exceed the height of a man. There is no certain proportion for their opening, but their height generally equals twice their width, and should never exceed two squares and one-fourth. In this example we present a method of finding the proportions of these openings by a geometrical rule. ' Make the square A B C D, each side being equal to three times the width of the intended opening; then draw the diagonals from A to D, and B to C, and their intersection at E will give a centre for the pitch of the pediment F. The lines from F to C and D being then drawn, will cut the diagonals at the proper height, and also give the width of the opening, which will be two diameters in height, as is shown by the circles. The architrave around the opening is equal to one-sixth of its own width ; the frieze is of similar proportion ; and that of the cornice is one-fourth part additional. The length of the elbow of the architrave is one-third of the width ; and the width of the pilaster is of the same proportion, as will be seen by inspection. (112) THE PROPORTIONS OF THE ORDERS. 113 It is also a strange error to suppose, or to assert, that pilasters are never necessary, but that columns will at all times answer the same purpose ; for at the angles of most architectural fronts to buildings they are indispensably necessary, both for solidity and beauty. For the angular support, having a greater weight to sustain than any of the others, should be proportionately stronger; so that its diameter must be increased or its plan altered from the circle to the square. The latter is certainly the more rea- sonable expedient, especially as it obviates a very striking defect occasioned by employ- ing columns at the angles of buildings, namely, that the angle of the entablature is left, as it were, suspended in the air without any apparent support. Engaged pilasters may be appropriately employed in the interior decoration of churches, galleries, halls, and similar structures, in order to economize space; for as they seldom project more than one-fourth of their diameter, tliey occupy much less extent than attached three-quarter columns. They are also introduced with great propriety in exterior decorations, very frequently with a view to avoid superfluous expense. Blondel says that pilasters may be substituted for columns in the formation of porticos; but among the Roman antiques no examples of this sort are to be found. When pilasters are introduced as the chief ornaments in a composition, they should always project to at least one-quarter of their diameter from the face of the wall, as this projection is necessary in order to produce that degree of boldness so requisite in buildings of a certain character; by this means, also, the stems of the volutes, and the small leaves in flank of the capitals of the Corinthian and Composite orders, are cut exactly through their centres. This method is taught by Scamozzi, and employed by Inigo Jones in several of his compositions. But if the cornices of the windows be continued in the interpilasters, as is some- times the case; or if there should be cornices to mark the separation between the stories, or large imposts of arches, the projection must in all such cases be increased, provided that it does not interfere with any prominent part of the decorations. For it is extremely offensive to an architectural eye to observe several of the upper mould- ings of an impost or cornice cut away perpendicularly, in order to make room for the pilaster, while the cornice or impost on either side projects considerably beyond it. When pilasters are placed closely behind columns, they should not project beyond one-eighth of their diameter, or even so much, unless there be imposts or continued cornices in the interpilasters. Where flutings are required to the shafts of pilasters, the same proportions should be used as in the similar treatment of columns. p PLATE LI. CLASSIC WINDOWS. In proportioning windows, regard must be had to the altitudes of the several stories in an edifice. This plate contains si.x designs of different proportions, some of which are suitable to the height of any room. No. 1 is a circular window. No. 2 is a perfect square. No. 3 ; the height is the diagonal of a square. No. 4 ; the height is equal to a square and two-thirds. No. 5 ; the height is equal to a square and three-fourths. No. G is equal in height to two squares. All of the proportions ^re fully described by the dotted lines. The architraves to the several windows are in general equal to one-sixth of the width. {11-)) MOULDINGS AND ORNAMENTS. Having in the preceding pages combined, in an essay form, all that we thought would be most likely to prove valuable and interesting in regard to the Orders, we here purpose to conclude this important department of our work by prefixing to the necessary Definitions a few pertinent remarks on the theory of Mouldings and Ornaments. Of Regular Mouldings there are but eight, the names of which are the Ovolo, the Tblon, the Cyma, the Cavetto, the Torus, the Astragal, the Scotia, and the Fillet. The names of these are allusive to their forms, and their forms are adapted to the uses which they are intended to serve. The Ovolo and Talon being strong at their extremities, are fit for supports. The Crjma and Cavetto, though improper for that pui'pose, as they are weak at the extremities and terminate in a point, are well adapted for coverings to shelter other members; the tendency of their outlines being very opposite to the direction of falling water, which, therefore, cannot glide along their surface, but must necessarily drop from it. The Ibrus and Astragal, shaped like ropes, are intended to bind and strengthen the parts on which they are employed; and the use of the Fillet and Scotia is only to separate, contrast, and strengthen the effect of other mouldings, to give a graceful turn to the profile, and to prevent that confusion which would result from joining several convex members together. That the inventors of these forms meant to express something by these different figures will scarcely be denied; and that the above mentioned were their destinations may be adduced not only from their figures, but from the practice of the ancients in their most esteemed works. Mr. Gwilt very justly observes, that the Ovolo should be used only above the level of the eye of the spectator; that the Cavetto ought not to be seen in bases or capitals; that the Cyma-recta ought to be used only in crowning members; the Scotia below the eye; and the Fillet when required to separate the curved parts. Mouldings are generally divided into Grecian and Roman. They differ mainly from the fact that the Romans usually employed segments of circles in their ornaments, while the Greeks often introduced parts of an ellipsis, or some other section of a cone. PLATE LII. The range of mouldings included under Fig. 1, are of the form known as the echinus, or Grecian ovolo; it is found in the corona and beneath the abacus of the Doric order, and is frequently otherwise applied, particularly in bed-mouldings for cornices, for which its form is very suitable. The diagram No. 1 in this range shows the method of obtaining the desired curve. Having the given projection, C D, and height, E C, divide the height into four parts ; one of these, E B, forms the upper or receding portion of the moulding called the quirk. Divide B C into five parts ; give one of these to the lower fillet, and two will determine the distance of the point 4 from G. Set ofi" the point A at a distance from G equal to G D, including the width of the fillet below. Then draw B 4, and divide it into four equal parts ; from D draw the radiating lines D 1, D 2, etc. ; and from A draw lines cutting B 4 in the points 1, 2, 3, and the required curve may then be traced through the points of intersection with D 1, D 2, etc. The others of this range arc described on the same principle. Fig. 2 exhibits three forms of the cyma-recta. In No. 1 divide the height and projection each into two equal parts ; on the line A C set ofi" F A, G C, each equal to one of these parts ; divide II F, H D, E L, into four equal parts ; from B draw lines to the points in H D and E L ; then from A and draw lines through the points in F H and G L ; the intersections of these are points in the required curve through which it may be traced. No. 2 is drawn in the same manner; and No. 3, where the projection is much greater, is performed by the subdivisions of the horizontal lines, and setting of the vertical points in diagonals H B and F M. The manner of drawing the mouldings in Fig. 3 will be found in the description of the next plate. No. 1, Fig. 4, is a Grecian ovolo, formed by the intersection of radiating with horizontal lines. No. 2 is an example of the same with a fillet above. The tangent A B, and the greatest pro- jection of the moulding at C being given, from A draw A D E, perpendicular ; from C draw C D parallel to A B, making D E and D A equal. Having divided C B and C D into an equal number of parts, draw lines from A to the points in G B ; then draw from E lines through the points in C D ; through the intersections of these with the former the required curve may be traced. The scotia No. 3 is formed on the same principle. (116) Fill I , ' 'H /■■u, ■-' ^K" 3 r Fi^.J J"» .i F,., / .V" _' .'iT-. 1 SlCSJi.-?;- _-_c?eri-riiaj.s Liri, yj.ti MOULDINGS AND ORNAMENTS. 117 varying from the circle. The Roman Ovolo and Oavetto are never found in Grecian Architecture, nor the Greek Ecliinus in Roman ; the otliers they possess in common. An assemblage of essential parts and mouldings is termed a profile. On the choice, disposition, and proportions of these, depend the beauty or deformity of the composition. The most perfect profiles are those which consist of few mouldings, varied both in form and size, fitly applied with regard to their uses, and so distributed that the straight and curved ones succeed each other alternately. In every profile there should be a predominant member to which all of the others ought to appear subservient; and where the profile is considerable, the predominant member should always be accompanied by one or more principal members, calculated to attract the eye and assist the perception of the beholder. Thus, in a cornice, the corona pre- dominates ; the modillions and dentils are principals in the composition ; the cyma and cavetto cover them; the ovolo and talon support them. When ornaments are employed to decorate profiles, some of the mouldings should always be left plain in order to form a proper repose; for when all are enriched, the figure of the profile is lost in confusion. In the cornices of entablatures neither the corona, the modillion bands, nor the other facias of the architraves should be orna- mented. Neither should plinths of columns, fillets, or any square members be curved. For, generally speaking, they are either principals in compositions, or boundaries to other parts ; and, in either instance, their figures should be simple, distinct, and unem- barrassed. A distinct outline, and an equal distribution of enrichments, should on every occasion be strictly attended to. Variety in ornaments should never be carried to excess. Those of the mouldings, in particular, should be simple, uniform, and never composed of more than two different representations on each moulding; these ought to be cut equally deep, formed of the same number of parts, and all nearly of the same dimensions, so that the eye may not be more strongly attracted by any particular part than by the entire composition. It is further to be remarked, that ornaments should partake of the character of the order they enrich. Those applied to the Doric and Ionic orders should be of the simplest forms, and of larger size than those employed in the Corinthian and Com- posite. With regard to the execution of ornaments it is to be remembered, that as in sculpture drapery is not esteemed unless its folds are contrived to grace and indicate the parts it covers, so in Architecture the most delicate and classic ornaments lose all their value, if they load or confuse the forms they are intended to enrich and adorn. PLATE LIII. Exhibits a variety of mouldings, the curves of which arc struck from centres. They describe the Roman ovolo ; the points a and h being given at each extremity of the curve, it is only neces- sary to bear in mind that this moulding is either a quadrant, or some part of a circle greater or less than a quadrant ; hence the variation of the centre from which it is struck depends on the amount of projection desired to be given in proportion to the height, as shown by the examples A, B, C. The manner of describing the cavetto or hollow is very simple, and is fully represented by the examples D, E, and F. To describe the cyma-recta G, the points a and h being given, join a and 5, bisect ah in e ; from the points J, c, and a describe arcs cutting each other in c and d ; from the centres c and d, and with the same radius, draw the curves h e and a e, which gives the required cyma-recta. The cyma-reversa or ogee, H, is drawn in the same manner, except that the position of the centres is reversed. The torus and cavetto, so frequently employed in the finishing of stairs, arc shown by the example I. J is a semi-hollow. K, a form suitable for a bed-mould. L, an ogee and bead. (118) O^ULJlJli SaTYi^ Slo ait -&xclt-*^ DEFINITIONS. If a Circular Column has no base, it is called a frustum column; but if it has one, the shaft, base, and capital together, form the Cohimn ; and the mass supported thereby is denominated the Entablature. The beam, which is presumed to rest upon the column, and forms the lower part of the entablature, is called the Architrave, or Epistylium. The space comprehended between the upper side of the architrave, or epistylium, and the under side of the presumed beam over the joists, is called the Frieze, or Zophorus. The profile or edge of the presumed inclined roof, upheld by the joists or cross- beams, projecting beyond the face of the frieze or zophorus, is called the Cornice. The thickest or lowest part of the column is called the lower diameter ; and its upper and most slender part is called the up'per diameter. Half of the lower diameter is called a Module, which is divided into thirty equal parts called minutes; by this scale every part appertaining to the order is regulated, both as regards the altitude and projection of the several component parts. The depth of the column, from the lowest part of the architrave to the upper diameter, is called the Capital. The space comprehended between the upper and lower diameters of the column is called the Shaft; and the space between the pedestal, or step, is called the Base; if there be none, the column must of necessity rest upon the step, as in Grecian and Doric examples. The smallest spaces between the lower diameters of columns, which stand in the same range, are called Intercolumniations. When intercolumniations are equal to one and a half of the lower diameters of columns, they are called pycnostyle, or columns set thickly. When the intercolumniations are equal to two of the lower diameters, they are called systyle. (119) 120 DEFINITIONS. When the intercolumniations are equal to two and one quarter of the lower diameters, they are called eustyle. When the intercolumniations are equal to three of the lower diameters, they are called decastyle. When the intercolumniations are equal to four of the lower diameters of columns, they are called ceosystijle, or columns set thinly; in which case they may be coupled. When porticos consist of four columns, with three intercolumniations, they are called tetrastyle ; with six columns, hexastyle ; with eight columns, octastyh ; and in like manner, according to the number of the columns, they are identified by Latin terms, which may be created ad infinitum. Porticos to public buildings, with six, eight, or ten columns, are the most esteemed ; yet among the ancient buildings beautiful examples with four columns only are frequent, of which the much admired Doric portico at Athens, and the Ionic specimen on the River Ilissus, are striking instances. /.■> GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. To the Glossary we prefix, in a tabular form, a detailed comparison of the most striking variations in what may be termed the two extreme styles, the Grecian and the Pointed, or Gothic. GRECIAN. The general running lines are horizontal. Arches not necessary. An entablature absolutely necessary ; consisting al- ways of two, and mostly of three distinctive parts, having a close relation to, and its character and ornaments determined by, the columns. The columns can support nothing but an entabla- ture, and no arch can spring directly from a co- lumn. A flat column may be called a pilaster. The arch must spring from a horizontal line. C ilumns the supporters of the entablature. No projections like buttresses, and all projections stopped by horizontal lines. Arrangement of pediment fixed. Openings limited by the proportions of the column. Regularity of composition on each side of a centre necessary. Cannot form good steeples, because they must re- semble unconnected buildings piled on each other. GOTHIC. The general running lines are vertical. Arches a really fundamental principle, and no pure Gothic building or ornament can be composed without them. No such thing as an entablature composed of parts ; and what is called a cornice bears no real rela- tion to the shafts which may be in the same building. The shaft can only support an arched moulding, and in no case a horizontal line. Nothing analogous to a pilaster ; every flat orna- mented projecting surface is either a series of panels or a buttress. No horizontal line necessary, and never any but the small cap of a shaft. Shaft bears nothing and is only ornamental, and the round pier still a pier. Buttresses are essential parts, and stop horizontal Pediment only an ornamented end-wall, and may be of almost any pitch. Openings almost unlimited. Regularity of composition seldom found, and variety of ornament universal. From its vertical lines, may be carried to any prac- ticable height, with almost increasing beauty. PLATE LIV. GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. Fig. 1. To inscribe in a Circle a regular Hexagon and an Equilateral Triangle. — Apply the radius c a six times to the circumference, and then will be inscribed a regular hexagon. Join the alternate angles of the hexagon, and there -will be inscribed an equilateral triangle. Fig. 2. To inscribe in a Circle a Regular Pentagon. — Draw two diameters, a h and b i, per pendicular to each other. Bisect the radius J e at e ; take e d, equal to a e; then from a, as a centre, and with the radius a d, describe the arc d f, and the chord a f will be one side of the required pentagon. Fig. 3. To inscribe in a Circle a Square and a Regular Octagon. — To inscribe a square, draw two diameters at rightangles to each other, and join their extremities. Bisect the arc subtended by one of the sides of the square, and the chord, a i of half the arc, will be the size of the octagon required. Fig. 4. To make an Octagon out of a Square. — Draw the diagonals / e and d g ; from / and e, as centres, and with a radius equal to one-half of the diagonal, describe arcs cutting the sides of the square in a and b ; remove from eacli corner of the square a triangle equal to ab g. Fig. 5. To draw a Segment by Rods to any Le^igth and Height. — Make two rods, a b and a d, each being equal to the base b d oi the segment, to form the angle bad; then, having them secured, and placed as in the figure, put a nail at b and one at d. Now, place a pencil-point at a, and move the frame either way, sliding against the nails at b and d, and the point a will mark the arc of the required segment. Second Method. — If the segment required is too large to be conveniently drawn in this way, we may cut a triangular piece of board, as shown at Fig. 9, the height, i c, of the triangle being half the height of the segment. Now, by putting a nail also at a, we may, with this triangle, draw half the arc of the required segment at a time, in a manner similar to the above, placing it as shown by the rods at e a and e b. Fig. 10. To draw the Segment of a Circle by means of Intersecting Mnes. — Let b d he the base of the segment, and a 6 its height ; draw the chord a b, and erect b m perpendicular to it, and e b perpendicular to b d; divide 6 6 and 6 (Z each into six equal parts, at the points 1, 2, etc. ; divide, also, a m into six equal parts at the points 1', 2', etc., and draw the lines 1 1', 2 2', etc. ; and their point of intersection with the lines a 1, a 2, etc., are points of the curve ; trace the curve through them, and you will have the half-segment a b. The other half may be drawn in the same way. (122) j'luxa^ N-^ tig.i \L \ h. - ::^s Tig 3 c . b 3 Fi,i/ 4 T..-.,.:.^-:™ ^".1 GLOSSARY. A. Aaron's Rod. — An ornamental figure, representing a rod Tvitb a serpent twined about it ; called by some the Caduceus of Mercury. Abacus. — The upper member of the capital of a column, serving as a kind of crown-piece in the Grecian Doric ; a collection of members or mouldings in the other orders. Acanthus. — A plant, the leaves of which are represented in the Corinthian order, etc. Acanthine means ornamented with leaves of the Acanthus. Acropolis ; from the Greek. — The highest part of a city ; the citadel or fortress. AcROTERiUM ; (plural Acrotria.) — The extremity or vertex of anything ; a pedestal or base placed on the angle or on the apex of a pediment, which may be for the support of a vase or statue. ^Gis. — In decoration, a shield or breast-plate, particularly that of Minerva. .^TOMA. — A pediment, or the tympanum of a pediment. Aisle, or Aile. — ^A walk in a church on the side of the nave; the wings of the choir. Alcove. — A recess, or part of a chamber, separated by an estrade or partition with columns. Ar^ostyle. — The greatest interval or distance that can be made between columns. Alto-relievo, or high relief. — That kind of sculpture which projects so much from the surface to which it is attached as to appear nearly insulated. Amphora; (plural Amphorce.) — In decoration, a vase or jar with two handles. Ancon. — In decoration, a curved drinking-cup or horn. Ancones. — Ornaments depending from the corona of Ionic doorways, etc. Angular Capital. — The modern Ionic, or Scamozzian capital, which is found alike on all the four faces. Annulet, or Fillet. — A small square member in the Doric capital, under the quarter round. ANTiE. — A species of pilasters common in the Grecian temples. Arc-boutants, or Boutants. — Arch-formed props in Gothic churches, etc., for sustaining the vaults of the nave. They are at times called flying buttresses, and arch-butments. Arch. — Arches are either circular, elliptical, or straight; the latter term being technical. Architectonic. — Anything calculated to assist the architect. Architecture. — The art or science of designing and superintending edifices. (123) PLATE LV. THE ELLIPSE. An Ellipse is a curve, sucli that, if from any point two lines bo drawn to two fixed points, their sum will be always equal to a given line. The fixed points, as 0' on Fig. 1, are called foci. A diameter is any line passing through the centre, and terminating in the curve. The diameter which passes through the foci is called the transverse, and the one perpendicular to it the conjugate axis. Thus, D E, Fig. 1, is the transverse, and A B the conjugate axis. Fig. 1. To describe an UUijJse with the Trammel, the Centre and Axes being given. — Place the trammel at the centre, as seen in the figure, and so arrange the rod efg upon the arms, and the pencil 1/ upon the rod, that e g will be equal to the transverse, and f g equal to the conjugate axis. Move the pencil around and it will describe an ellipse. Fig. 2. To describe an JElUpse by intersecting Lines, the Axes being given. — Describe a rect- angle upon the axes, and divide the conjugate axis into equal parts, at the points 1, 2, 3, etc. ; divide the transverse into the same number at the points 1', 2', 3', etc. ; then draw the lines A 1, A 2, etc., B 1', B 2', etc., and their intersections will bo points of the curve. Trace the curve through these points. Fig. 3. To describe a rampant Ellipse. — This problem is performed like the preceding, except that the parallelogram a 5 E D is used instead of the rectangle ab d c, m Fig. 2. Fig. 4. The transverse and conjugate Axis of an Ellipse being given, to draw its Represen- tation. — Draw b E parallel and equal to A C ; bisect it at /, and draw A / and b B intersecting at k ; bisect A A by a perpendicular, meeting A B produced in c, and draw b c, meeting E C in e ; then from e, as a centre, describe the arc E h, and from c, as a centre, describe the arc A h, and you will have one-fourth of the curve. Draw the other parts in the same way. Fig. 5. An Ellipse being given, to describe tvithin it another, having the same Eccentricity. — Describe the rectangle a b d c on the transverse and conjugate axis, and draw the diagonals a d and b c ; let A' B' be the conjugate axis of the required ellipse, and through A' B' draw a' b' and c' d' parallel to D E ; join «' c', V d', and D' E' will be the transverse axis of the required ellipse. Fig. 6. An Ellipse being given, to find the Centre, Axes, and Foci. — Draw any two lines, a c and d e, parallel, and draw i k through their middle points ; bisect i k at C, and C will be the centre. From C describe two arcs, intersecting the curve at m and n ; draw m n, and D C E, perpen- dicular to it, will be the transverse, and A C B, perpendicular, will be the conjugate axis. From B, witli a radius equal to C E, describe two arcs, intersecting the transverse, and the points of intersection and 0' will be the foci. • (124) p'Loi^y J^T^ 3 E B l-i^ia GLOSSARY. 125 Architrave. — A beam; that part of an entablature which lies immediately upon the capital or head of the columns. Astragal. — A small moulding whose profile is semicircular, and which bears also the name of talon or tendino. The astragal is often cut into beads and berries, and used in ornamental entabla- tui'es to separate the faces of the architrave. Attic. — A low story erected over an order of architecture. Attic Order. — An order of low pilasters generally placed over some other order of columns. B. Balcony. — A projection from the surface of a wall, supported by consoles or pillars, and surrounded by a balustrade. Baluster. — A small pillar or pilaster, serving to support a rail. Balustrade. — A connected range of a number of balusters on balconies, etc. Band. — A term used to express what is generally called a face or facia ; that from which the Corinthian or other modillions, or the dentils, project, is called the modillion band, or the dentil band, as the case may be. Base. — The lower part of a column, moulded or plain, on which the shaft is placed. Basilica. — A town or court hall ; a cathedral ; a palace. Bas-relief. — The representation of figures projecting from a background without being detached from it. Batter. — When a wall is built in a direction that is not perpendicular. Battlements. — Indentations on the top of a parapet or wall. Bay; (in G-othic architecture.) — An opening between piers, beams, or mullions. Bay-window. — A window projecting from the front in two or moi-e planes. Belfry. — Anciently the Campanile; the part of a steeple in which the bells are hung. Belvedere. — A turret, look-out, or observatory ; generally very ornamental. Bed-moulding. — The moulding between the corona and frieze. Boss; (in Gothic architecture.) — A sculptured protuberance at the interjunction of the ribs in a vaulted roof. BouLDER-WALLS. — Those Constructed of flints or pebbles, laid in strong mortar. Bossage; (a French term.) — Any projection left rough on the face of a stone for the purpose of sculpture. Broach; (in Gothic architecture.) — A spire or polygonal pyramid. Buttress ; (in Gothic architecture.) — A projection on the exterior of a wall to strengthen the piers and resist the pressure of the arches within. PLATE LVI. THE PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA. A Parabola is a curve, any point of which ia equally distant from a fixed point and a given line. Let AB, Fig. 1, be the given line, and F the fixed point; then for any point of the curve, as G, the distances G F and G C are equal. The given line, A B, is called the directrix. The fixed point, F, is called the focus. The line H D, drawn through the focus, and perpendicular to A B, is called the axis. The line m n, drawn through the focus, perpendicular to the axis, is called the parameter. A Hyperbola is a curve in which the difference of two lines, drawn from any of its points to two fixed points, is constantly equal to a given line. Fia. 1. To describe a Parabola. — Take a straight edge, A B, and T-square, G C ; fasten at G one end of a string, equal to G C, and the other end at F ; place a pencil against the string, keeping it always stretched, and move the square along the straight edge. The pencil will describe a parabola. Fig. 2. To describe a Parabola by intersecting Lines. — Take the rectangle A H c a, and divide the sides a c and c H into the same number of equal parts at the points 1, 2, 3, 1', 2', 3', etc. ; draw perpendiculars to c H at the points 1', 2', 3', etc. ; and, also, the Imes A 1, A 2, etc., inter- secting them; trace the curve through the points of intersection. Fig. 3. To do the same by another method. — Take the triangle Q c d, and divide the sides C c and C d into the same number of equal parts at the points 1, 2, 3, etc. ; draw the lines 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, etc., and trace the curve so that these lines shall be tangent to it, as represented in the figure. Fig. 5. To describe a Eyperbola by means of intersecting Lines. — Divide the sides a c and c B of the rectangle A B c a into the same number of equal parts at the points 1, 2, 3, 1', 2', 3', etc. ; produce B A to C, and trace the curve through the intersection of the lines CI, A 1, C 2, A 2, etc. TRACERY. Having given any Gothic Arch, to draw another, either Right or Banijmnt, so that the tivo shall intersect a Mitre truly together.— Let Fig. 4 bo the given arch. Draw the chord a o, and divide it into any number of e([ual parts, as four ; then, from the point e, draw lines through 1, 2, 3, inter- secting the arch at h g f. Erect ad perpendicular to a e, and from o, through f g h, draw lines intersecting the perpendicular in deb. Now, let the arch, Fig. 7, which we wish to draw in con- nection with 4, have the same height, e o, and a greater base, ae; draw the line a o, and divide it also into four equal parts ; make the divisions on ad equal to those on a d. Fig. 4, and draw lines from to the points bed. Having drawn lines from e, through 1, 2, 3, trace the curve o g h a through the points of intersection. This will give the desired arch. By similar construction, the rampant arch on Fig. 6 may be made to correspond with either Figures 4 or 7. (120) j'i!-ai'3u •vc: ^-— nS\ i;,, I y A A X / X \ _: 'i 1 r-i-t'-B. *' J' ^' ■'■ l-\g 2 Fill i f - - r !.., I fit/ 6 Ftgl f. J„ ^toar. ArcTi." RoseufhAlsIifix P>j1» GLOSSARY. 127 C. Cabling. — The filling up of the lower part of the fluting of a column with a solid cylindrical piece. Capital. — The head or uppermost part of a column or pilaster. Cakyatides. — Figui-os of women, which servo instead of columns to support the entablature. Casement. — A sash hung upon hinges. Cavetto. — A hollow moulding, whose profile is a quadrant of a circle. Cincture. — A ring, list, or fillet, at the top or bottom of a column. Chamfer; (in Gothic architecture.) — An arch, or jamb of a door, canted. CiNQUEFOiL ; (in Gothic architecture.) — An ornamental figure, with five leaves or points. Coping ; (in Gothic architecture.) — The stone covering the top of a wall or parapet. Corbel ; (in Gothic architecture.) — A kind of bracket. The term is generally used for a continued series of brackets on the exterior of a building, supporting a projecting battlement, which is called a corbel table. Cornice. — The projection consisting of several members which crowns or finishes an entablature, or the body or part to which it is annexed. Corona. — That flat, square, and massy member of a cornice, more usually called the drip or larmier, whose situation is between the cimatium above and the bed-moulding below. Corridor. — A gallery or open communication to the difierent apartments of a house. Crenelle; (Gothic.) — The opening of an embattled parapet. Crocket ; (Gothic.) — An ornament of leaves running up the side of a gable, or ornamented canopy. Cupola. — A small room, either circular or polygonal, standing on the top of a dome. It is some- times called a lantern. Cusp; (Gothic.) — A name for the segments of circles forming the trefoil, quatrefoil, etc. CrMA, or Cimatium. — A moulding which is hollow in its upper part and swelling below. D. Decagon. — A plain figure having ten sides and angles. Decoration. — Anything that enriches or gives beauty and ornament to the orders of architecture. Demi-Metope. — The half metope which is found at the retiring or projecting angles of a Doric frieze. Dentils. — Small square blocks or projections used in the bed-mouldings of the cornices in the Ionic, Corinthian, Composite, and sometunes Doric orders. Details of an Edifice. — Drawings or delineations for the use of builders, otherwise called working drawings. Diagonal Scale. — A scale subdivided into smaller parts by secondary intersections or oblique lines. PLATE LVII. To draw Arches of various forms, and to find the Lines of the Joints between the Arch-stones. As carpenters are frequently called upon to prepare centering for arclies, and also to cut out patterns of the arch-stones, to be used by the stone-cutter, we have thought it expedient to intro- duce a plate which will familiarize the student with the best method of dividing and drawing arches. Fig. 1. This is the semicircular, or perfect arch. It is drawn from the centre, C, and the joints between the voussoirs are part of the radii. If it is not convenient to draw the radii, make each line perpendicular to a tangent, as at t. Fig. 2. This is a diminished, segmental, or imperfect arch, being composed of an arc less than a semicircle. An easier method of drawing the joint is here exhibited. From the points 1 and 3, as centres, draw small intersecting arcs above the arch ; and from the point of intersection draw a line through the point 2 bisecting 1, 3 ; this will give the line of the joint correctly. Fig. 3. This is a Moresque, or horseshoe arch. It consists of an arc greater than a semi- circle. The joints between the springers below the centre must not be drawn from the centre, as C c, but must be made parallel to the imposts, or base line, D E, as a b. Fig. 4. The Elliptical Arch. — Various methods for drawing the ellipse are laid down in Plate LV., and it is unnecessary to repeat them. To draw the joints, let F F' be the foci of the ellipse ; then a line bisecting the angle F 1 F' will give the first joint, and so on. If the curve is to be composed of a series of arcs of a circle, the points 0, a, b, c, may be used as centres. Fig. 5. The Gothic lancet arch consists of two arcs, the radii of which are longer than the span AB. The joints are drawn from the points oo'. Fig. G. The equilateral arch is described by radii equal to the span. Fig. 7. The obtuse pointed arch is described by radii shorter than the span. Fig. 8. The ogee, contrasted or reflected arch, is described from four centres, two within and two without the arch, a, b, o, o'. The proportions may be varied at pleasure. Fig. 9. The Tudor arch is described from four centres within the arch, 0, 0', o, o'. For an arch whose height is half its span, they may be found thus: divide the base line AB into three equal parts at and 0'; then will 0' be the centre of the arc Bn; from D, through 0, draw a line, and make the distance from C to o' equal to C D ; then is o' the centre with which to describe the arc D N. Those arches which have their height greater or less than half the span, are found by other rules. (128) • # fwum '■0 3 J'lfl " ATn I I^IoMi ArA' "R'jren**!* I.«Il PIuia.i* GLOSSARY. 129 Diameter. — The line in a circle passing from the circumference through the centre. Diapered; (in Gothic architecture.) — A panel or other flat surface, sculptured with flowers. DiASTYLE. — That intercolumniation or space between columns which consists of three diameters. Die or Dye. — A naked square cube. Thus the body of a pedestal is called its die. Some call the abacus the die of the capital. Dimension. — In geometry, means either length, breadth, or thickness. Diminution. — A term expressing the gradual decrease of thickness in the upper part of a column. Dipteral. — A term used by the ancients to express a temple with a double range of columns in each of its flanks. Dodecagon. — A regular polygon, with twelve equal sides and angles. Dodecastyle. — A building having twelve columns in front. Dome. — An arched or vaulted roof, springing from a polygonal, circular, or elliptical plane. Docks. — Flat pieces of wood of the shape and size of a brick, inserted in brick walls; sometimes called plugs or wooden bricks. Door. — The gate or entrance of a house or other building, or of an apartment in a house. Dormer Window; (Gothic.) — A window set upon the slope of a roof or spire. Dormitory. — A sleeping room. Drawing-Room. — A large and elegant apartment. Dressing-Room. — An apartment contiguous to the sleeping room, for the convenience of dressing. Drip; (in Gothic architecture.) — A moulding much resembling the cimatium of Roman architecture, and used similarly as a canopy over the arch of a door or window. E. Echinus. — The same as the ovolo or quarter round; only termed echinus with propriety. Edging. — The reducing the edges of ribs or rafters, so that they may range together. Elbows of a Window. — The two paneled flanks, one under each shutter. Elevation. — A geometrical projection drawn on a plane, perpendicular to the horizon. Embankment. — An artificial mound of earth, stone, or other material. Embrasure. — See Crenelle. Encarpus. — The festoons on a frieze, consisting of fruits, flowers, and leaves. Entablature. — The assemblage of parts supported by the column; it consists of three — the architrave, frieze, and cornice. Entail ; (in Gothic architecture.) — Delicate carving. Entasis. — The slight curvature of the shafts of ancient Grecian columns, particularly the Doric, which is scarcely perceptible, and beautifully graceful. Entresol. — See Mezzanine. R PLATE LVIII. To describe the Intersecting or Angle-ribs of a Qroin standing upon an Octagon Plan, the Side and Body-7-ibs being given both to the same height. Fio. 1 is a quadrant of the octagon. E is a given body-rib, wliicli may be either a semi-circle or a semi-ellipse, and A is a side-rib given of the same height; D is a rib across the angles. Trace from E, the base of both E and D being divided into a like number of equal parts, and divide the base of the given rib A into the same number of parts. From these points draw lines across the groin to its centre at m, and from the divisions of the base of the rib D draw lines parallel to the side of the groin. Then trace the angle-curves through the quadrilaterals, and the result will give the place of the intersecting ribs. Draw the chords a b and b c, then mark the moulds B and C from E or D, taking care not to mark them from the crooked line at the base, but from the straight chords ab and be. To describe and range the Angle-ribs of a G-roin upon a Circular Plan, the Side and Body-arches being given. Fig. 2. On this quadrant, the ribs are described in the same manner as in the preceding example for the octagon groin ; and the ranging is found in a similar manner. E and F are the same moulds as are shown at B and D. To find the Jack-ribs of a Plaster Groin when the given Arch is the Segment of a Circle. Fig. 3. The ribs in this case may be found by the method explained on Plate LVI., Figures 4, 6, and 7, and as shown at B E and F on the present figure ; also, we may take the height of the segment A, and place it from b to c, at C and D ; now take twice the radius a c, at A, and place it from c and c, the crowns of C and D, to a and d; the arches C and D, which are parts of ellipsis, may then be drawn by intersecting lines, as explained on Plate LV., Fig. 2. Either of these methods is much easier, in practice, than to trace the ribs through ordinates. (130) ff-'CUlL'iiJUU fJ;^s,'T-: GLOSSARY. 131 Epistylium. — The same as Architrave. EusTTLE. — That form of intercolumniation which, as its name would import, the ancients con- sidered the most elegant; namely, two diameters and a quarter of a column. Facade. — The face or front of any considerable building to a street, court, garden, or other place. Facia. — A flat member in the entablature or elsewhere; being, in fact, a band or broad fillet. Fane, Vane. — A church ; a plate of metal cut into some characteristic form, and turning on a pivot to determine the course of the wind. Fastigium. — See Pediment. Feather-edged Boards. — Are narrow boards, made thin on one edge. Festoon. — An ornament of carved work, representing a wreath or garland of flowers or leaves, or both, interwoven with each other. Fillet. — The small square member which is placed above or below the various square or curved members in an order. FiNlAL ; (Gothic.) — The ornament consisting usually of four crockets, which is employed to finish a pinnacle, gable, or canopy. Flank. — The side of an edifice; the least side of a pavilion, by which it is joined to the main building. Fliers. — Steps in a series which are parallel to each other. Flight. — In stairs, is a series of steps from one landing place to another. Floor. — The bottom of rooms. Flutings. — The vertical channels on the shafts of columns, which are usually rounded at the top and bottom. Folding-Doors. — Doors made to meet from opposite jambs. Foliage. — An ornamental distribution of leaves or flowers on various parts of an edifice. Foreshortening. — A term applicable to drawings or designs, in which, from the obliquity of the view, the object is represented as receding from the opposite side of the plane of the pro- jection. Foundation. — That part of a building or wall which is below the surface of the ground. Foot. — A measure of twelve inches. Framing. — The name given to the wood-work of windows enclosing glass, and the outward work of doors and windows, or window-shutters, enclosing panels ; and in carpentry, to the timber- work supporting floors, roofs, and ceilings ; or to the intersecting pieces of timber forming partitions. Fret. — A kind of ornamental work, laid on a plain surface. The Greek fret is formed by a series of rightangles of fillets, of various forms. PLATE LIX. The Plan and Inclination of an Ascending Groin, one of the Body-rihs, and the Place of the Intersection on the Plan, being given, to find the Form of the Side-ribs, so that the Inter- section of the Arches shall lie in a Perpendicular Plane. Divide half the circumference of the body-rib at B into any number of equal parts ; draw lines from these points perpendicular to its base, and continue them to the line of intersection on the plan ; from thence, let them be drawn at rightangles toward C, and make the distances 16, 1 e, \d, le, etc., at C, equal to the corresponding distances at B ; then will the curve abed, etc., be the true curve of the side-rib. This curve is a semi-ellipse, and may be found by intersecting lines, as at F, according to the rules for describing a rampant ellipse. To find the Moulds for placing the Jack-ribs. At C draw lines from the points a, b, c, d, etc., perpendicular to the line of ascent h, g, toward D and E ; draw the semi-ellipse A as wide as the body-range, and as high as ah at C ; continue the ordinates lb, Ic, Id, etc., up to A; bend a slip around A, and mark upon it the points 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. ; extend the slip upon the line A 6, at D and E, and divide it correspondingly ; now through each of these points draw perpendiculars across ^6 to intersect the lines drawn perpen- dicular to the rake ; then curves traced through the points of intersection will give the moulds for placing the jack-ribs. The edges of these moulds, bent over the body-vault when boarded in, will exactly coincide with the intersection of the side and body-vaults. To find the Jack-ribs of the Side-groins, Draw the number of the jack-ribs upon the arch B, at theii- proper distances, and take their several heights, hi, hi, mn, etc., and set them upon the arch G from a to b, from b to c, from c to d; draw lines through bed, parallel to the rake, and they will show on the curve the proper length and form of the jack-ribs. To bevel the Body-ribs. Since all the body-ribs stand perpendicular to the plan, the upper edge must be beveled to correspond to the rake of the groin. To do this, let the under edge 1111, at B, of the body- ribs, be beveled according to the rake, so that they may stand perpendicular; then take a mould from B, or one of the body-ribs will answer, and place it on each side of the rib to be cut, making the lower beveled edges correspond. The upper edges may now be marked and beveled. (132) [MUQJM Saio^ Sloan Aich* ■Roiintlvjli lid PJujl" GLOSSARY. 133 Frieze. — The middle member of the entablature of an order which separates the architrave and the cornice. Frontispiece. — The face or fore-front of an edifice; more generally applied as a term to desig- nate the decorated entrance. Front. — A name given to the principal interior facade of a building. Frustum. — A piece cut oflF from a regular figure. FUNINGS. — Are flat pieces of timber, plank, or boards, used by carpenters to bring dislocated work to a regular surface. Fust. — The shaft of a column. G. Gable; (in Gothic architecture.) — The triangularly-headed wall which covers the end of a roof. Gable -Window ; (Gothic.) — A window in a gable, generally the largest in the composition. Gablet; (Gothic.) — A small gable. See Canopy. Gage. — In carpentry, an instrument to strike a line parallel to the straight side of any board or piece of stuff. Gain. — The beveled shoulder of a binding-joist. Garland; (Gothic.) — An ornamental band, surrounding the top of a tower or spire. Glyphs. — The vertical channels sunk in the triglyphs of the Doric frieze. Gouge. — A chisel of a semicircular form. Groin; (Gothic.) — The diagonal line formed by the intersection of two vaults in a roof. Groined Ceiling. — A surface formed of three or more curves, so that every two may form a groin, all the groins terminating at one extremity in a common point. Groove, or Mortise. — The channel made by a joiner's plane or chisel in the edge of a moulding, sill, or rail, to receive the tenon. Ground Floor. — The lowest story of a building. Ground Plane. — A line forming the ground of a design or picture, which line is a tangent to the surface of the face of the globe. Ground Plot. — The ground upon which a building is placed. Grounds. — A term used by joiners to designate narrow strips of wood put in walls to receive the laths and plaster. GuTT^, or Drops. — Those frustra of cones in the Doric entablature which occur in the architrave below the tenia, under each triglyph. Gutter. — A kind of canal in the roofs of houses to receive and carry off rain-water. PLATE LX. Given, one of the Body-ribs, the Angles straight upon the Plan, and the ascent of a Q-roin not standing upon level ground, to find the form of the ascending Arches and the Angle-ribs. Let baa at E be the angle of the ascent ; from the point b make b c perpendicular to a b, and describe the rampant curve B ; then draw the diagonal ab at E, and make b c perpendicular to it, and equal to bo at B; then draw the hypothenuse ac, and describe the angle-rib E in the same manner as that of B. To find the length of the Jack-ribs, so that they shall fit to the Jtake of the Groin. Draw lines up from the plan to the arch, as at D, in the same manner as explained hereto- fore; then the arch from « to a is the first jack-rib, from b to b the second, and from c to a,o&3giag|Di ZRoseivt'ua'L s "Lxtli PiiiiA GLOSSARY. 141 P. Panel. — A thin board, having its edges inserted in the grooves of a surrounding frame. Parapet. — A breastwork ; the defence around a terrace or roof. Parastat^. — Pilasters standing insulated. Pedestal. — The substructure under a column or wall ; the pedestal of a column consists of three parts — the base, the die, and the cap or coi'nice. Pediment. — The low triangular crowning ornament of a facade ; or over a door, window, or niche. Pend; (Gothic.) — A vaulted roof without groining. Pendant; (Gothic.) — A hanging ornament in highly enriched vaulted roofs. Pinnacle; (Gothic.) — A small spire. Peripteral. — A term used by the ancients to express a building encompassed by columns, forming as it were an aisle around the edifice. Peristtlium. — In Greek and Roman houses, a court, square, or cloister. Perspective. — The science which teaches how to dispose the lines and shades of a picture so as to represent on a plane the image of objects exactly as they appear in nature. Piazza. — A continued archway, supported by pillars or columns ; a portico. Pier. — A solid between the doors or windows of a building, etc. Pilaster. — A square pillar engaged in a wall. Pile. — A stake or beam of timber driven firmly into the earth. Pillar. — A column of irregular form, always disengaged, and deviating from the proportions of the orders ; hence the difi'erence between a column and a pillar. Plinth. — The square solid under the base of a column, pedestal, or wall. Porch. — An arched vestibule at the entrance of a church or other building. Portico. — A covered walk; more usually employed to denote the projection before a church or temple, supported by columns. Principal-Rafters. — The two inclined timbers which support the roof. Profile. — The contour of the different parts of an order. Projection. — The prominence of the mouldings and members beyond the naked surface of a column, wall, etc. Proscenium. — The front part of the stage of a theatre. Prostyle. — A building or temple with columns in front only. Purlins. — Pieces of timber framed horizontally from the principals, to prevent the deflection of the intermediate or common-rafters. Pycnosttle. — An intercolumniation equal to one diameter and a half. Pyramid.— A solid with a square, polygonal, or triangular base, terminating in a point at the apex. PLATE LXIV. On this plate is represented a moulded architrave of the description usually employed in the trimming of doors and windows, drawn to one-half of the full size. It is simple, yet effective in the style and character of its finish, and, as a general example, may prove acceptable and suggestive. A shows the plan of the architrave ; B the position of the door ; C the rebate strip nailed upon the face of the jamb. D E describes the mitre at the angle of the head ; F F F the return of the wash-board moulding at the back of the architrave, of which, in its continuation, it forms a part ; and G its face as it butts to the architrave. H denotes the face of the surbase and the manner in which its scotia returns up and around the architrave, forming a part of its finish- ing ; and T is its section. K is the section of the wash-board ; L shows a portion of the floor and the manner in which the surbase is tongued in; and M denotes the face of the wall. (142) iPictkiJ ow a-- ilo.- r o •^. ••. r: ' 'i ■> 1 -L- J ~ i i" i ii • GLOSSARY. 143 a. Quatrefoil; (in Gothic ai'cliitccture.) — An ornament in tracery, consisting of four segments of circles, or cusps within a circle. QuiKK-MouLDiNGS. — The convex part of Grecian mouldings, forming, where they recede at the top, a reenticent angle with the surface which covers the moulding. Quoins. — The corners. See Coins. R. Radius. — In geometry, is the semi-diameter of a cu-cle, or a right line drawn from the centre to the circumference ; in mechanics, the spoke of a wheel. Rails. — In framing, the pieces that lie horizontal to the stiles. Raking. — A term applied to mouldings, whose arrises are inclined to the horizon. Reticulated-Work. — That in which the courses are arranged in a net-like form. The stones are square and placed lozengewise. Rib. — An arched piece of timber sustaining the plaster-work of a vault, etc. Ridge. — The top of the roof which rises to an acute angle. Relievo. — The projection of an architectural ornament. Rustic. — Applied to courses of stone or brick in which the work is jagged out into an irregular surface ; also, work left rough without tooling. s. Sagging. — The deflection of a body caused by its own weight, when suspended horizontally from its bearings at either end. Saloon. — A lofty hall, usually vaulted; an apartment of state, etc. Sash. — The wooden frame which secures the glass in windows. Scantling. — A term for pieces of timber, usually applied to those used in the framing of parti- tions, roof-timbers, etc. Scarfing. — The joining and bolting of two pieces of timber together transversely. Scotia. — The name of a hollowed moulding, principally used between the tori in the base of columns. Shaft. — That part of a column which intervenes between the base and capital. Shoulder.— The plane transverse to the length of a piece of timber from which the tenon projects. Shutter. — The framed paneling which shuts up the aperture of a window. PLATE LXV. This plate contains seven designs for architraves to doors and windows, of varied form and finish, drawn to full size, and accompanied by portions of the corresponding wash-boards. These may be applied with peculiar propriety in many instances ; and in others they will prove valuable as suggestive examples. In the latter case they may be enlarged or diminished at pleasure, taking care, however, to proportion their mouldings accordingly. Fig. 1 is square on the back, which receives the wash-board and its moulding. Fig. 2; only the scotia of the surbase is continued around the architrave. Fig. 3 with 4, is moulded on the back, and its mouldings mitre with those of the wash- board and its surbase. Fig. 5 with 6, is square on the back, and finishes similarly to Figures 1 with 2. Fig. 7 with 8, has a similar finish to that shown on Figures 3 with 4, with the single exception that the ovolo of the wash-board butts to the square of the architrave. On Fig. 9 with 10, the wash-board, with its mouldings, butts to the back of the archi- trave. In this example there is no surbase. Fig. 11 with 12 ; there is no surbase ; the moulded wash-board continues around the archi- trave. Fig. 18 with 14, only differs from the preceding example in the form of the mouldings. (144) la .. '^'JiX r ^!' t Aiy . //,/ / fiy J \ r; J ~a_ ^ i^> / Lv'' -N,^.^ Ayty ^ ^y j> ^v_:] r J i / V Mff /O V HuU Mif /P f! g /J /fc'/ // Bio a.^1 Ax ch' r.'.-t.' I--.0. FJ-tla. GLOSSARY. 145 Sill. — The timber or stone at the bottom of a window or door. The ground timbers which support the posts of a frame. Skirtings. — The narrow boards which form a plinth around the margin of a floor. Soffit. — The ceiling or under part of a member in an order. It means, also, the under side of the larmier, or corona, in a cornice ; the under side of that part of the architrave which does not rest on the columns. See Lacunar. SoMMER. — The lintel of a door, window, etc. A beam tenoned into a girder to support the ends of joists. Spandrkl ; (Gothic.) — The triangular space enclosed by one side of an arch, and two lines at right angles to each other — one horizontal and on a level with the apex of the arch, the other perpendicular, and a continuation of the line of the jamb. Spiral. — A curve line of a circular kind which in its progress recedes from its centre. STRETCHiNa-CotTRSE. — Bricks or stones laid in a wall with their longest dimensions in the hori- zontal line. SuRBASE. — The mouldings immediately above the base of a room. Systyle. — An intercolumniation equal to two diameters. T. Table. — Any surface or flat member. T^Ni. — A term usually applied to the lastel above the architrave, in the Doric order. Templet. — A mould used by bricklayers and masons for cutting or setting their work ; a short piece of timber sometimes laid under a girder. Tenon. — A piece of timber fitted to a mortise. Tetrastyle. — A building having four columns in front. Torus. — A moulding of semicircular form, used in the bases of columns. Tracery; (in Gothic architecture.) — A term for the intersection, in various forms, of the mullions in the head of a window or screen. Transom; (in Gothic.) — A cross muUion in a window. The impost over a door. Trefoil; (Gothic.) — An ornament consisting of three cusps within a circle. Triglyph. — The frieze ornament in the Doric order, consisting of two whole and two half channels, sunk triangularly on the plan. Trimmer. — A small beam into which are framed the ends of several joists. The two joists into which the ends of the trimmer are framed are called trimming-joists. Truss. — A framed support used in roofs, or to support floors, when the weight to be sustained is very considerable or the girders of great length. Tusk. — A level shoulder made above a tenon, to strengthen it. Tympanum. — The space enclosed by the cornice of the sloping sides of a pediment, and the level fillet of the corona. T PLATE LXVI. We conclude our labors in the present work by presenting, on this our last plate, twelve carefully designed examples of moulded panelings for doors, drawn to half of the full size. It is hoped that these will prove of essential service to the practical mechanic, for whose use this work was more particularly designed. It will be seen that they are susceptible of easy adaptation to particular forms. Being very distinctly arranged and shown, a brief descrip- tion will suffice. Fig. 1 shows a sunk panel, with its moulding planted against, and flush with the stile. Fig. 2 is slightly varied, with a moulding on each sinking. Fig. 3 has its fillet framed and paneled, with mouldings on each sinking ; these overlap, which is preferable to a straight joint, as it prevents the unseemly appearance occasioned by shrinkage. Fig. 4 is almost similar, differing only in the foi'm of its mouldings. Fig. 5 has also a framed fillet; the panel moulding is in this case the largest, and comes flush with the stiles, which adapts it more particularly for a sliding-door. Fig. 6 differs only in the form of its mouldings. Figs. 7 and 8 have sunk-panels, with the largest mouldings upon the flllets, and projecting beyond the face of the stile. Figs. 9 and 10 have also sunk-panels ; these have small mouldings on their panels and fillets ; the latter being flush with the stile, adapts them for sliding-doors. Figs. 11 and 12 have their fillets framed into the stiles, which are in two thicknesses, screwed together. This construction is necessary when the doors are of large dimensions, or extra strength is required. On these examples the mouldings are bold and eSective. (UO) sfijLSk'm a am aioan Axcb.' KosenthalsLiUiP-KiU (JLOSSAUV 147 V. Vault. — An arched roof, so constructed that the stones or other materials of which it is com- posed support and keep each other in their places. Vermiculated Rustics. — Stones worked or tooled so as to appear as if eaten by worms. Vestibule. — An ante-hall, lobby, or porch. Vice; (in Gothic.) — A spiral staircase. Volute. — The scroll in the Ionic capital. w. Wainscot. — The lining of walls; mostly paneled. Wall-Plates. — Pieces of timber so placed as to form the supports to the roof of a building. Well. — The space occupied by a flight of stairs; the space left in the centre, beyond the ends of the steps, is called the well-hole. z. Zigzag. — An ornament so called from its resemblance to the letter Z. ZoPHORUS. — See Frieze. GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS. A POINT is that which has neither length, breadth, nor thickness, but position only. A line is that which has length, without breadth or thickness. A right or straight line preserves the same direction between any two of its points. A curve or curved line changes its direction at every point. A surface is that which has length and breadth, without any height or thickness. A plane is a surface, such that, if any two of its points be joined by a straight line, that line will lie wholly in the surface. When one straight line meets another straight line, without being inclined to it on the one side any more than on the other, the angle formed is called a rightangle, and the two lines are said to be perpendicular to each other. An angle less than a rightangle is an acute angle. An angle greater than a rightangle is an obtuse angle. A polygon is a portion of a plane terminated on all sides by lines. A polygon of three sides is a triangle ; one of four sides, a quadi-ilateral ; one of five, a pen- tagon ; one of six, a hexagon ; one of seven, a heptagon ; one of eight, an octagon ; one of nine, a nonagon ; one of ten, a decagon. A trapezium is a quadrilateral which has no two of its sides parallel ; a trapezoid is a quadri- lateral which has two of its sides parallel ; a parallelogram has its opposite sides parallel ; a rhom- bus has its opposite sides equal and parallel — its angles not rightangles ; a rectangle has its opposite sides parallel, and its angles rightangles. A square has all its sides equal. A regular polygon is one whose sides and angles are equal to each other. An irregular polygon is one whose sides and angles are not equal. A polygon is said to be inscribed in a circle when the vertices of its angles lie in the cir- cumference. A circle is a portion of a plane bounded on every side by a curved line, every point of which is equidistant from a point within, called the centre; the radius is a right line drawn from the centre to the circumference ; the diameter is a line passing through the centre, and terminated on both sides by the cu-cumference ; an arc is any part of the circumference. A chord is a right line which joins the extremity of an arc ; a segment is the part of a circle included between an arc and its chord; a sector is the part of a circle included between an arc and two radii drawn to its extremities; a line is tangent to a circle which does not inter- sect it. The circumference of a circle is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees ; it will be observed that an angle of 45° is the half of a rightangle ; an angle of 60° is two-thirds of a right- angle; and the chord of 60° is equal to the radius of the circle. (148) »'>