^ !^& nS* S <:? r i^ !I ! ^r >^^ PRODUCT! SWINE HUSBAN r r BY G.E.DAY B.& f '. 5 i-jS Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2009 witii funding from NCSU Libraries littp://www.archive.org/details/productiveswineliOOdayg O/^t^P-^ Oh. -y^ ^1^144^^^ The first farmer was the first man, and all historic nobility rests on possession and use of land." — Embrson. LIPPINCOTT'S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OP COUNTRY LIFE, GEORGE rXABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE. PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY By GEORGE E. DAY, B.S.A. PROFBSSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, ONTARIO AGRICULTUHAL COLLEGE, GUELPH, ONTARIO, CANADA. LIPPINCOTT'S FARM MANUALS Edited l.y K. C. DAVIS. Ph.D. SECOND 1 UITIDN Rl VISl I) TRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY Bv GKORGE E. DAY, B.S.A. ^1.75 net. THIRD EDITION REVISED AM) KNI.AR(.KI) PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY Ry HARin' R. LEWIS, H.S. f 2.00 net. SECOND EDITION REVISED PRODUCTIVl-; HORSE HUSBANDRY By carl \V. gay, B.S.A. fi.7S ntt. PRODUCnVE ORCHARDING By FRED C. SEARS, M.S. $1-75 ntt. THIRD EDITION REVISED I'RODUCTIVE VEGETABLE GROWING By JOHN W. LLOYD, M.S.A. $1.75 net. SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED I'RODI'CTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS By V. W. WOLL, Ph.D. $1.75 vet. SECOND EDITION COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS By R. a. CRAIG, D.V.M. $1.75 nei. SECOND EDITION PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS By E. G. MONTGOMERY, M.A. $1.75 net. SftOND EDITION REVISED PRODUCTIVE BEE KEEPING By frank C. PELLETT $1.75 net. PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING By R. M. WASHBURN $1.75 ml. LNJLKJorS INSECTS AND USEFUL BIRDS I'.v V. L WASHFiURN, M.A. $2.00 net. PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY Bv W.\I.'II:R C. (■ encounter from time to time in his new undertaking. The chapter (»n " Suggestions to Beginners '' is written with the special desire to give the right words of counsel to those who for the lirst time are taking up annual breeding of swine. The beginner, tlie professional swine-breeder, the general farmer with a Miiall herd, and the student have all In-cn kept in miixl while jtreparing this Wdrk. The author will be glad to receive criticisms of any parts of the book. George E. Day. Ontario Ar.RirrLxrRAL College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada. COXTFATS PART I— INTR()l)r( TORY 1. The Place of the Hog Vpos the Fakm '.i II. Types of Swine 9 PART II.— PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING III. Breeding and Selection 25 PART III— BREEDS OF SWINE IV. Relation of Breed to Economy of Production 41 V. The Berkshire Breed 45 VI. The Poland-China Breed 54 VII. The Chester White Bref;i) 65 VIII. The Dcroc-Jersey Breed 75 IX. The Hampshire Breed (Thin Rind) 83 X. The Large Yorkshire or Large White Breed 90 XI. The Tamworth Breed 97 XII. The Victoria Breed 103 XIII. The Cheshire Breed 107 XIV. The Essex Breed 110 XV. The Suffolk Breed 114 X\T. The Small Yorkshire Breed 116 XVII. Three Minor Breeds, — Mule-Foot, Large Black, Middle White 120 PART IV.— RESLTLTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDLNG XVIII. Miscellaneous Investigations 131 XIX. Corn 142 XX. Supplementary Feeds with Corn 150 XXI. Various Grains, Meals, and By-products 164 XXII. Pasture and Soiling Crops. * 186 XXIII. Roots, Potatoes, Pumpkins, Apples, and Dairy By- products 205 XXIV. Prepar.\tion of Feed 213 ix Z CXDNTEXTS PART v.— FEEDINC AM) MANACKMKNT XXV. The Boar ^19 XX\I. The Sow 226 XX\II. The Younq Pigs 236 XXMII. Fatteninc; 243 XXIX. Suggestions to Be<;i.\neks 262 PART VI.— MARKKTIN(; AM) ( IKINC; XXX. Maukets AM) Swine Puoulcts 273- XXXI. CUKING POHK 285 P.\RT VII.— BUILDINGS. SA.MTATIO.V. A.M) DISEASED XXXII. Buildings 295 XXXIII. S.\nitatio.\ 319 XXXIW CuM.Mu.N Diseases of Swine 327 XXXV. Composition of Feeding Stuffs 352 Swine Literature ... 356 Index ... 357 ILLUSTRATIONS riG. PAGE " Mortgage I^iftcr? " in Comfort Frontispiece 1. Champion Chester Wlute Barrow 6 2. Poland-China Barrow 7 3. Grand Champion Pen of Barrows 11 4. Pen of Chester White Barrows 1- 5. Grouj) of Young Large Yorkshire Sows 11 6. Diagram Showing Location of Points of Hog l^' 7. Rear View of Pig of Bacon T\7)e 17 8. Young Sow of Same Type 1^ 9. Land-race Sow 32 10. Chester White Boar 35 1 1 . Large Yorkshire Boar • • 36 1 2. Excellent Type of Breed. ng Sow 37 13. Champion Herd of Berkshires 4li 14. Champion Pen of Berkshire Barrows 4/ 1.3. Champion Berkshire Boar 48 16. Berkshire Sow of Nearly Bacon Ty; c 50 17. Berkshire Sow 51 15. Champion Poland-China Sow 55 19. Yearling Poland-China Boar 56 20. Chester Wlnte Boar 63 21. A Prize-winning Chester White Sow 68 22. Duroc-Jersey Boar ^^6 23. Two-year-old Duroc-Jersey Sow ' ' 24. Herd of Hampshire Swine ^ 25. Large Yorkshire Sow ^^ 26. Champion and Reserve Champion Large Yorkshire Sows 93 27. Tamworth Boar ^'^ 28. Canadian-bred Tamworth Boar ^^ 29. Group of Tamworth Sows ^^ 30. Pair of Tamworth Sows ^"^ 31. Two-year-old Victoria Boar ^^'^ 32. Cheshire Barrow ^^'^ 33. Essex Boar ^ ^ 1 34. Small White Sow ^ 16 35. Small White Boar ^ 1" 36. Large Black Sow ^ — 37. Large Black Boar ^-'^ xi »i ILLUSTRATIONS 38. Middle White Sow 124 39. Middle Wliite Hour 125 40. Pair of Middle White Harrows 126 41. Oats and Peas 165 42. Good Plump Wheat ; Poor Wheat 168 43. Hlack-hulled White Kafir 169 44. Alfalfa 187 45. Cow-peas 195 46n. Side View of Alfalfa Rack 202 466. End View of Same 202 47. Hog Motor Grinder and Feeder 215 48. Type of Self-feeding Hopper 216 49. Yearling Berkshire Boar 221 50. Breeding Crate 223 51. Three-year-old Chester White Sow 230 52. Method of I-\astening Guard Rail to Wall 233 53. Group of Yorkshire Bacon Pigs 239 54. Yearling Duroc-Jcrse\' Sow 246 55. Panel and Support of Portable Hurdle Fence 252 56. Duroc-Jerscy Pigs Digging Johnson Griuss Roots ()i\ a Corn Headland 253 57. Mature Sow in Pasture 254 58. Piggery at the Mississippi Experiment Station 255 59. Hog Colony Hou.se Recommended by Mis.si.ssippi Agricultural College ." 259 60. One Method of Numbering Pigs by Means of Ear Marks 267 61. Another Method of Kar-marking Pigs 267 62. "Prime Heavy Hogs" 274 63. "Prime Medivmi Butchers" 275 64. " Prime Heavy Butchers" 276 65. "Choice Bacon" 278 66. Diagram of Wiltshire Side, showing Method of Cutting 280 67. Group of Selected Danish Bacon Hogs Suitable for Making Choice Wiltshire Sides 281 68. A No. 1 Wilt.shire Side; a Fat Side 282 69. King System of Ventilation for Dairy Barn or Hog-house 297 70. Plan of Piggery 299 71 . Cross-section of Piggery 301 72. Plan of Small Piggery.'. . . 304 73. Ground Plan of Maryland Piggi-ry 307 74. Cross-section of Maryland Piggery 307 75. Front Elevation of Maryland Piggery 307 76. Front View of Portable Pen 309 77. End View of Portable Pen 309 78. End View of A-shaped House 310 79. Side Vi?\v' of A-shaped House 310 ILLUSTRATIONS xiii 80. Front View of Shed-roof House ;{i;j 81. End View of Slied-roof House ;{13 82. A 1 ype of Galvanized Metal Portable Pen ;il4 83. Attachment for Shed-roof Portable Pen to Give Outside Shade 315 84. End View of Farrowing Pen 316 So. Front View of Farrowing Pen 317 8ti. A Form of Brood House for Sow and Pigs 321 87. Type of Hog Oiler to Destroy \'ermin 323 88. Hog Dipping Vat 324 89. Concrete Hog Wallow 324 90. Ulcers (Large Intestine), Chronic Form 328 91. "Button Llcers" (Large Intestine), Chronic Form 328 92. Group of Cholera Pigs 328 93. Injecting Serum behind Shoulder (Large Hog) 329 94. Injecting Serum into Mu.scle of Ham (Pig) 330 95. Injecting Serum behind Ear (Large Hog) 331 PART 1 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER I. THE PLACE OF THE HOG UPON THE FARM. TiiK swine iiulustry oc*cii[)ic's a rather ix'ciiliar pusitiuii in many localities. Swine ninltiply ra})i(ll_v and come into use for Ureeiling- at an earlier age thaii other farm aninuils; oun- seqiieutly, it t^kes only a short time for farmers to increase or decrease^ their stock, as the case may be. The Hog Supply. — ^When, owing to scarcity in the supply of iiogs, th(^ ])rice for hogs goes up, we find farmers increasing the nnniher of hrceiling sows, and in a very short time the supj)iy of hogs coming to market increases to such an extent that the price is likely to break. If the decrease in price is very severe, the farmer becomes disgusted, and the chances are that many farmers will sell their breeding sows and pi-ae- tically go out of the business. This unloading process adds to the burden of the market, and general demoralization is apt to follow. By and by, after the market has absorbed the excessive supplies thrown upon it, a scarcity occurs again, owing to so many having gone out of the business of hog raising, and prices once more reach a high level. This is a signal for farmers to rush again into hog raising, and overstock their fanns in many cases, so that once more the market becomes top-heavy, and the history of the hog market repeats itself. Xow, it is alt(-gether probable that very few of those who were tempted to rush into the business on account of high prices obtained any profit from the venture. They ])aid high prices for breeding stock, but by the time they had hogs ready for the market, the decline in prices l>egan, and before they were through they were selling their hogs at a loss. (3) 1 INTRODUCTORY Profit from Hogs. — The man who makes money out of hogs is the miui who. lias hogs to sell when prices are high, whose farm is never over-stocked, nor vcl eiitinly depleted of its supply. He kin»ws how many hogs his farm will carry to advantage under avcnigc circumstances, and he practises a wise conservatism. When prices are high, he has a good proiit, when tliey are low, his profit is small, but the average is fairly satisfactory. He may slightly expand or contract his operations at various times, but he never '* i)lunges." The "plunger'' is apt to tind himself "in" the hog business when he ought to 1k' "• ont." and "out" when he ought to 1)(' '• in." The other man is " in " nt ;ill tinws, hut never to .such an extent as to be seriously damaged when the mai'kct goes wi'ong. Judgment Required. — It is not the object of the writer to urge farmers to feed nioi-c hogs — far from it. Every farmer must be his own judge in this matter, and many farmers shoiiJd never attempt to raise hogs, owing to the fact that either the man himself is not adapted to the business or his conditions are unsuitable. Xevertludess, it is true that a few hogs might be kept profitably upon many farms where they do not find a place to-day. Hogs use By-products. — Generally speaking, tlu' hog niav bo regarded a.s a by-i)roduct of the farm, or, in other words, ho is a means of marketing the by-products of the farm. In the cattle feed lots, we find him utili/.ing the corn which the cattle have failed to digest and which othenvise would be wasted. In the dairy district, he is the means of obtaining good value for skim milk, buttermilk, and whey. Where mixed farming is practised, he consumes any dairy by-products, small potatoes, and various other unmarketable substances, and gleans the stubble fields, returning to his o^^^^er cash value THE HOG UPON THE FARM 5 for sulxstances that aro completely neglected on many farms. Kvc'ii the cottaiivr freciuently utilizes him to obtain a cash return from kitchen refuse and table scraps. It is as a con- sumer of l)y-i)roducts and socalled worthless materials that the hog shows to the best advantage from the stand-point of profit. Marketing Home-grown. Feeds. — The farmer who raises most of his own feed is in a much better position to fi^Ml hogs, or any other class of stock, than the man who has to purchase all his feed. The farmer who grows his own feed may not get any more than market prices for the grain or other ])roduce consumed by the hogs, and may still have a fair profit through selling his produce at market prices in the form of pork ; but the man who buys his feed can have for profit only what he obtains in excess of the market value of the feeds consumed by the hogs. Thus the farmer who grows his feed has two sources of profit, namely, the grower's profit, or the profit obtained by selling his produce at market price; together with the feeder's profit, or what he ol)tains for his ])roduce in excess of market ]irice by selling it in the form of pork. The man who Inis to buy all the ])roduce which he feeds his hogs can have oidy the feeder's profit, and under unfavorable conditions this profit may be so small that it will scarcely pay for the labor involved. Raising Pigs.- — Another ])oint worthy of consideration is the fact that under favorable eoiiditioiis and skilful manage- ment young pigs can he raised for feeding at a lower cost than that for which they can l>e bought. This point will Ix' dealt with more fully in Chapter XXVII, but is mentioned here as one of the factors which hel]) to explain why some people can make hog feeding profitable, while others cannot. One of the great difficulties in connection with the swine industry is the fact that so many people are not content to 6 LN'TRODrCTORY engage in tlio uiitlcrtiikinu' cxi-ciit tui a lar^c scale, and tlic jK'oplo who fan liandic Imos in lariic nnnilH'Vs and make tlie business a financial sncccss arc coniparativcly tVw. 'l'li(» aver- age fanner is safer to handle hogs in rather snniU numbers, and use them as an adjunct to his other fann operations. Used in tliis wav, and handled with a reasonable defj^-ee of jndirment. Fiu. 1.— Champion Chcatnr Whitf harrow at ChioaRo, oxhihjted by the luwa Agricultural College. Tills hog is ulmost the extreme lut type. the hog will give a good account, of himself in adding to the revenue and the profits from the fann. A very few years' experience should enable a farmer to detennine just abont linw many Irngs he can raise to advantage. Some farms will carry very large numbers owing to the syst^^m of fanning which is carried on, but for many of the snudler farms one breeding sow is plenty. THE HOG UPON THE FARM On Dairy Farms. — The ho-j: tits in (^specially well upon dairy farms -where skim milk, bnttcrmilk, or whey lias to be fed upon the farm. Perhaps no animal will i;-ive as high returns for dairy hy-pi-oducts eonsumcd, as the lioi>-, and no feed gives a finer (pudity of bacon than dairy by-])r(Mlucts. It is also worthy of note that the man who has skim milk is in a Fig. 2. — Polantl-Chinii harrow, cliampion at the international Kxpo.silion. This hog reprt- sents practically perfection of form from a lard hog standpoint. better position to raise pigs than the man who has none, for the reason that it is difficult to find a satisfactory sul>stitute for skim milk for young pigs just after weaning. Pure-bred Hogs. — What has l>een said in the preceding paragraphs has no refqrence to the raising of pure-bred hogs for breeding purjioses, but ap])lies simply to the production of market hogs. The breeders of pure-bred hogs understand 8 INTRODUCTORY their business, and kii<»\v about, liow far their conditions warrant the extension of their ulcerations, so that it is not so necessary to offer suggestions to thciii along this line. It is true that the breeder of market liogs always has a use for pure blood, but it is not every person who can make a success of breeding pure-breds to supply the demand fur bree usual tt'iidcnoy of farmera to vary the size of thoir honls. 2. dive a better plan of pcttinj^ profit from swino. 3. In what way must each farmer In- his own judirc rorrardinp the raising of more hops? 4. Tell of the use of hops as users of In-product^s. 5. Which is better, to raise or to purchase hop feed? 6. Which is usually better for the feeder, to raise younp pips or to buy them? 7. Tell of the fitness of swine upon dairy farms. 8. Under what circumstances should pure-bred hops be kejit? CHAPTER 11. TYPES OF SWINE. There are tM'o well-detinod tvpes of lioji's, which arc the ontconie of local conditions and market requirements, — namely, the fat or lard ty]ie and the bacon type. Reasons for Two Types. — The fat or lard type of hog; is the product of the " com belt." Corn feetection to the swine industry in ( 'anada and Pcnniark, and it was to escape direct conii)etition with the American jiroduct in Great Britain tliat Canada and Denmark engaged in the production of bacon hogs and the manufacture of Wihshire sides. Such an arrange- ment seems to be the ])art of wisdom, each country devoting its attention to the type of Img which it can prmhicc t<» best advantage. The fat or lard type of hog is characterized by a comjiact, thick, dee]), smooth Ixxly, remarkable for its depth and thick- ness rather than its length. There should be ;i ))roportionate develoj)ment of the ditl'erent i)arts, and all parts slundd blend smoothly together, giving what is called com])actness of form. The hams, back, and shoulders are the most valuaMe ])arts fi-om a market stand-])oint, and should be largely developed. The market hog should be fattened to a high degret^ becausi' lard is an important consideration with the packer, and a well- fattened hog will dress a larger ])ercentage of its live weight than one which is not well finished, which is another important point with the jtacker. (See Figs. 1 and 2.) QuaUtij is denoted by fine hair, smo, deej), and rnll, denoting cnnsiitnt ion ; and the fore-legs should be set well apart, short, ta])(riiig. and straight. The pasterns should be upright, the bone ratlici- iinc, and clean cut in appearance, ami the feet strongly formed. Along the region of the back and loin lie some of the most valuable cuts, and, therefore, large development is asked for in this region. The haeJr should be broad, straight, or very TYPES OF SWINE 13 slightly arched, medium length, iinifurm width from shoulder to ham, thickly fleshed, even, and smooth, without creases or lumps. The loin should be broad, strong, full, and thickly and smoothly fleshed. The ribs should be well sj)rung, and the side deep, smooth, and even between slioulder and ham. The heart-gidh should be large, the animal being full back of the shoulder, and deep and full at the fore flanks. The hind flank should also be deep and full. The ham is another important consideration from a packer's stand-point. It should be broad, deep, plum]i, smuothly and heavily fleshed, with the flesh carried well down towards th(^ hock on the inside as well as at the rear. The niinp should be the same width as the back, long, smooth, and slightly rounded from the loin to the base of the tail. The hind Icf/s should be short, straight, set well apart and s(puirely under the body, with bone, pasterns, and feet as already described. The above description gives a fairly clear impression of the general type of the fat hog, and shows how well the type meets the requirements of feeders in the corn belt. (See Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4.) Breeds of the Fat Type. — Poland China, Berkshire, Chester White, and Duroc-Jersey are the most popular breeds of the fat type. Others of less importance in America are Cheshire, Victoria, small Yorkshire, Essex, and Suffolk. For consideration of these breeds see other chapters. The Bacon Type. — To produce a good Wiltshire side of bacon requires a hog of certain definite peculiarities as to weight, condition, and conformation. The customers for this class of bacon are extremely fastidious, and, if the bacon does not come up to the standard in every particidar, it is very heavily discounted in price. As a rule, the weight limits are usuallv fixed at 160 pounds to 200 pounds live weight. It 14 INTRODUCTORY TYPES OF SWINE 15 is true that a hog may Aveigh slightly more than 200 pounds and still make a very good Wiltshire side, but most hogs arc inclined to be too fat after they pass the 200-pound mark, and consequently this is fixed as the limit, though it is not strictly adhered to. As to condition, it is possible to have the hog too thin or too fat. When the carcass is split down the back, the layer of fat along the back should nin from an inch to an inch and a half in thickness, and should be as uniform in thickness as possible from the loin to the neck. The most valuable meat in a Wiltshire side is the upper part of the side from the ham to the back of the shoulder, including the u]i])er corner of the gammon or ham, the loin, and the upper half of the ribs. The lower part of ham and the flank and l)elly meat are not worth as much per pound as the iipper ])ortion>;, and the shoulder and neck are comparatively cheap parts. Conformation. — In fonu, the bacon type of hog (Fig. 5) is very different from the lard type. It 'is longer in the leg and body, has less thickness and depth of body, and is lighter in the shoulder, neck, and jowd. The hog should be long from the back of the shoulder to tlie ham, but comparatively short from the back of the shoulder to the snout. Along with length, however, the hog must have sufficient depth and thick- ness to denote constitution. Xo nuitter how long in body it may be, if it has long, coarse legs, and a narrow, cramjied chest, it is an undesirable type to breed from. A trim Ix'liy is desirable, because the belly meat is cheaper than the upper l)art of the side. In judging sows that have produced several litters of pigs, some allowance must he made in this connection. A fine, smooth coat of hair denotes thriftiness and good (piality of flesh. Wrinkles on the skin, if at all marke iinu'll fiit. ill |)i-(i]>(iii idii lo Icnii. Tlifvc is a inarkcMJ difference belweeii llic liiiiidliiii; (|ii;ilil ics dl' a linislicd ItiietiU hog and ;i linisli('(l Inr,! hou, tlu- former being nincli tirniei* to the tuncli. The hactjn tyi)e uf hog has lieavicr bone than the fat or bird 1 >■])(', l)nt very coarse, puffy hooking l)one denotes ])oor (piality of llesb and is often ass(>eiate(l with poor feecliiig qualities, Thougli tlio lyonc is faii'ly heavy, the h'gs should present a elean-ent ap|icar:iiiee. Fia. 6. — Diagram .showing location of poiiit.s of the Iior. 1. Miiout ; 2, face; 3, poll; 4. jowl; 5, neck; 0, shoulder; 7, breast; 8, loin; it, riljs; 10, fore flank; II, hind Hank; 12, belly; 1.3, rump; 14, ham; lo, shank; l(i, pastern. The joirl lias \cry lillh' iiiarkcl \;iliic. A heavy jowl denoles a teiidene;, to piil on too iiiiich fat. (Jood widlli of jowl is desiraide iVom a feeder's st:iiid |)niiit , lull il shoiiM be \hould possess no tendency 1o arch on top. TYPES OF SWINE 17 Tho shoiiJ( the slmulder to the snout, but long from the back of the shouhlei: to tlie ruiiij). Tho shouhlor is a cheap part, and, therefore, shouhl be rather li2:ht. It shouhl be verA' compact over the top, sliouhl Ixi no Fig. 7. — Rear view of pig of bacon type, showing the neat, smootli, tapering ham desired in the bacon hog. wider than the back, and slunihl l)lend smootldy into the Imdy at all points. The had' carries the most valuable meat, but it slionld not be wide, because a wide back iiixarialily can'ies too much fat for a Wiltshire side. It should jwssess medium width, and should carry its width evenly throughout. The top line should be slightly arched, the highest point being over the loin. The loin is the most valuable cut in a Wiltsliire siilc, and 2 18 INTRODUCTORY should bo as wide as tlio rest of the back, full, strong, and well packed with flesh. The spring of rib of a bacon hog is verv characteristic. It should spring out lx>ldly from the backbone, then turn sharidy and drop in an almost vertical direction, giving a flat, straight side. From a packer's stand-point, a l)acon hog cannot have too Fia. 8. — This youDg sow furnishpa a Kood example of bacon type. long a side, l)nt tlie breeder must exercise care that he docs not secure this extreme length at the expense of constitution. It is well to avoid extremes of all kinds. It is absolutely necessary, however, that the hog should have good length of side, mucli more than is found in the fat type. The mrnp aifords a valuable cut, but a flat, broad rump indicates the presence of too much fat. The rump should be the same width as the back, should Ix^ very smooth, and sliglitly rounded from side to side over the top. TYPES OF SWINE 19 Great, broad, l)ulg:ing hams are not M-anted on the bacon \io'j:. Such hams ean-v too much fat, and reqnirc severe trim- ming in preparing the side of bacon for market. The ham of the bacon hog is smooth and tirm, and tapers toward the hock. (Figs. 7 and 8.) The flesh shoukl be carried well aronnd the bone, leaving no bareness of bone on the inside of the thigh. Bacon Breeds. — The leading breeds of the bacon ty|X" of swine are the Tamworth, and Large Yorkshire; sometimes the Hampshire is so classified. These are discussed in other chapters. SWIXE OF FAT. OR LAED, TYPE. DESCRIPTION AND SCALE OF POINTS. A. General Appe-vrance: Counts. Size — Well developed for age. 5 Form — Deep, thick, smooth, low set, good length, but compactly built, standing on well-placed legs. Top line straight, or slightly arching: under line, straight: belly, trim and neat.. 10 Quality — Uair, fine; skin, smooth, showing no tendency to wrinkle; bone, clean and fine; fiesh, smooth and mellow, but showing no flabbiness 10 Condition — Deeply and evenly covered with flesh, but not over- done for the purpose for which the animal is intended Style — Active and sprightly, walking without a swaying move- ment, and standing well up on toes. Breeding animals sliould show strong character •* n. He.\d and N'eck: Snout — Moderat^^ly fine ■ 1 Face — Broad between eyes: poll, broad and full 1 Eyes — Good size, full, and bright 1 Joicl — Full, broad, deep, smooth, and firm, carrying fulness back near to point of shoulder Ears — Medium size. fine, and soft ' Xcck — Short, thick, and deep. Rounding and full from poll to shoulder top 20 INTRODUCTORY C. Fore Quarters: tihouldcrs — Uruad and compact on top, doop, well tloshod, lilondin^' smootlily witli nock and body fi Breast — Wide, deep, and full ?, Fore Lcffs — Set well a])art. short, taperinp, and straight: pasterns, upright; bone, clean and fine; feet, medium size and strongly formed .'? D. Body : Ba^k — Hroad, straight or very slightly arched, medium length, uniform width from shoulder to ham, thickly lleshed. even, and smooth, without creases or projections S Loin — Broad, strong, full, and thickly and smootlily lleshed f) Ribs — Long and well sprung 4 Side — Medium length, deep, smootli. even between shoulder and ham (i Heart Girth — Large, full back of shoulder, and deep and full at fore flanks ;) Flank — Deep and full 2 E. Hind Quarters: Rump — Same width as back, long, smooth, slightly rounded from loin to base of tail 4 Ham — Broad, deep, heavily lleshed, plump, and reasonably smooth; flesh carried well down to hock on inside as well as at rear. . 8 Hind Legs — Short, straiglit. set well apart and scjuarely under body; bone, fine and clean; pasterns, strong; feet, medium size and strongly formed ^ Total 101) SWINE OF BACON TYPE. description and scale ok points. General Appearance: Counts. Size — Well developed for ago ;j Form — Long; smooth, all parts proportionately developed so as to give the impression of a well-balanced, strongly-built animal. Top line, strong; under line, straight; belly, trim and neat, , 10 TYPES OF SWINE 21 (Jitdlity — Hair, fiiK"; ^^kill, smootli. sliowiiij,' no tt-ndoiicy to wrinkle; bone, clean and stronjr Imt not eoarse ; llesii, firm and smooth, with no tlai)l)iness at jowl, fore-Hank, belly, or liam 10 Condition — Well covered with firm llesh. especially along back and loin, but not heavily loaded with fat <> glylf, — Active and sprightly, walking withoixt a swaying move- ment, and standing well up on toes. Breeding animals should show strong character -^ B. Head and Neck: Snout — ^Medium length and moderately fine 1 Pace — Broad between eyes; poll, broad and full 1 Eyes — Good size, full, and bright ' jQifj — Fair width and muscular, but very neat, showing no flabbiness £ars — Moderately thin, and fringed with fine hair 1 A'ect— Medium length and muscular, but possessing no tendency to arch on top C. Fore Quarters: ,S7iow?de»-s— Smooth, somewhat rounded from side to side over top, and very compact; no wider than back, and not running back on side' so as to shorten distance between shoulders and ham Breast — Good width and full Fore Legs— Set well apart, medium length and straight; pasterns, upright; bone, clean and strong; feet, medium siie and strongly formed D. Body : Bac/.— Medium width, rising 'slightly above the straight line, and forming a ven' slight arch from neck to root of tail <> Loi«— Wide as rJst of back, strong and full, but not unduly 5 arched • Ribs— Good length and moderately arched • • • ;Stde-Fairlv deep; long, smooth, and straight between shoulder and ham; a straight-edge laid over shoulder point and ham ^ should touch the side throughout Heart Girth-FnW. but not flabby at fore flanks, fille.l out even with side of shoulder; there should be no tucked-up appear- ^ ance back of fore legs nor droop back of shoulder top ■» Flank — Full and low 22 INTRODUCTORY E. Hind Quarters: Ranrp — Samo widtli as l)ack; lonp and sljfrlitlv rounded from a point above hips to tail, and somewhat ronnded from side to side over top 4 Ham — Full without flabbiness; thijjh, tapering towards hock witli- out wrinkles or folds, and carrying flesh well down towards hock (i Hind Legs — Medium lengtii ; hocks, set well apart, liut not l)owed outward; hone, clean and strong: pasterns, upright: feet, medium size and strongly formed 4 Total 1(10 RKVIKW. 1. Give reasons for the two types of hogs. 2. Tell where each is most commonly found. 3. Describe five or more characteristics of the fat or lard type. 4. Give five or more characteristics of the hacon type of swine 5. Give examples of breeds of the fat type. 6. Give examples of breeds of the bacon type. PART II PRINCIPLES OF SWIXE BREEDING CHAPTER III. BREEDING AND SELECTION. The Breeder. — The business of the stock-breeder is a peculiar one. He has to deal with life, and all those mys- terious possibilities that exist in the living creature have to be reckoned with in his operations. It is not a matter of fixed rules. Xo man can ma}) out a system which will apply to all cases and give a definite result with absolute a'rtainty. The successful breeder requires a thorough knowledge of his busi- ness and the ability to reason accurately, so that he may modify his methods and adapt them to the reipiirements of each in- dividual problem which comes before him. Knowledge of general principles can be acquired from books, but the success- ful application of those princii^les must be learned, very largely, in the school of experience. Theory and practice must go hand in hand, and knowledge must be combined with reason; but the really great breeder seems to possess a sort of intuitive genius given to the very few, and hence great breeders are not common. Another thing necessary to success is a love for animals. If a man dislikes hogs, he had better not attempt to bre^d them, because failure is sure to follow. It is the enthusiastic lover of a breed of animals who Avill make the gn^atest success of breeding them. Finally, there can be no progress unless the breeder has a very clear ideal before him towards which he is working, which implies, of course, that he must be a thorough judge of tlie breed he handles. He may never reach his ideal, but he must never lose sight of it. Xo matter how much money may (25) 26 PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING be invcstod in the enteiprise, it will amount to notliing unless the breeder has a clearly defined object in view. He will meet with many tilings to try his faitli, but he must not waver; he will be frequently cast down, but he must not despair. Difficulties, disappointments, and hope deferred are part of the heritage of the breeder, and he requires the highest class of courage to be able to *' stick to his gnns " and eventually bring victory out of what appeared to be certain defeat. There is no royal road to success as a breeder, and, while there may be few who attain to greatness, there is no reason why any man should not attain a reasonable degree of success in breeding swine, providing he possesses a liking for these animals and a determination to conquer the difficulties incident to the undertaking. Utility. — Every breeder should ask himself why he is breeding the animals of his choice. Is it to humor the whims (tf the few or to meet the demands of the many ? If his work as a breeder is t<3 be a success, he must never lose sight of the requirements of the man who produces tlie market hog for the money that is in it. i^o matter how pure the blood or how perfect the type from the breeder's stand-point, if the hog does not meet the requirements of the packer, if it is not suited to paying the rent and lifting the mortgage when placed in the hands of the average farmer, then all the effort employed in its production has been wasted. The watchword of the truly successful breeder must be utility. Utility is the touch- stone upon which each breeder's work will l)e tested. If his work stands the test it will surely meet with recognition, but if it fails in the test it will ultimately disappear and be for- gotten. Every step in the breeder's operations must be dom- inated bv this one great consideration, and if he ever loseg BREEDING AND SELECTION 27 sight of the importance of utility, he need never hope to achieve lasting distinction as a breeder. Utility must ho viewed from two stand-points: (1) The butcher requires an animal that will give him the largest pro- portion of valuable meat, and (2) the farmer requires an aninuil that will reproduce its kind in profitable numbers and make rapid and economical gains. There would be little use in aiming to please the butcher if the animal did not meet the requirements of the farmer, but tlie butcher must not be left out of consideration if a really useful animal is to be produced. In breeding operations, therefore, both these men must be kept in view, and the breeding, feeding, and killing qualities must each receive a due share of attention. In-breeding. — It is not intended to attempt a general dis- cussion of the principles of breeding; but the question of in- breeding — that is, the mating of animals that are closely related — is of such importance that it is deserving of some notice in a publication dealing with swine husbandly. Advice of a Breeder. — That very successful Berkshire breeder, X. II. Gentry, read a paper before the American Swine Breeders' Association, in which he gave his experience with in-breeding of Berkshires. His experience extends over a considerable number of years, and the following statement is taken from his paper: " Xeither in-breeding nor the reverse will be a success un- less matings are made with animals suited to each other, — that is, having no weakness in common if possible, and as much good in common as possible. This, in my opinion, is the key to success in all breeding operations, and success will come in no other way. In my opinion, in-breeding, as a rule, is very good or very bad. If you intensify the blood of animals that are good, you do good, but if they are bad, you go wrong 28 PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING as fast (»r f'asttT tliaii V(»u <::() riii:lit in the nihcr case. If it is true lli;il iii-hi'ccdiiiii- iiitcnsiiics weakness of constitution, lack of vigor, or t-oo great iinoncss of bone, as we all believe, is it not as reasonable and as wrtiiin that you can intensify strength of constitution, heavy bone, or vigor, if you have those traits well developed in the blnod of the animals yon are in-breeding with? The latter is certainly my belief and experience. . . . I believe there is little or nothing to fear from kinship of animals mated if they are suited to be luatod together." ]\Ir. G(Mitry states that he has not used a boar other than his own breeding for twenty years, and describes the good results from using the great boar Longfellow 16,!S35, and Longfellow's sons and gTandsons in his herd. One instance is a boar he showed at the World's Fair in Chicago in 1893. This boar weighed (iOO pounds at 13 months and days of age, and possessed as much aeti(»ii. strength, vigor, and mas- culine development as any boar he ever saw. The sire of this boar was a son of Longfellow, the dam was a daughter of Longfellow, and the sii-e of the dam was by the sire of Long- fellow. Ihis is an example of very i-lose iu-breedjng i»roe united together." lint how many men are capable of discerning whether the animals are suited to one another or not? Mr. Gentry states that if the animals are bad, a person will go wrong very fast by practising in-breeding. The chances are that more than ninety-nine \u r cent of the men breeding swine to-day could not say with any degree of certainty whether a given pair of animals were suited to be mated together, and since bad results are likely to follow an error in judgment, it seems safe to assume that in-breeding is something to he practised by the few only. It requires a master of the art of breeding to practise in- Itretding with success, and in the history of stock breeding we read oi some of the gi'eatest breeders the world has known who were compelled to resort to the introduction of fresh blood after persistently following in-breeding for a considerable time. Avoid In-breeding. — It will be safer, therefore, for the average breeder to avoid in-breeding, and to leave the practice in the hands of those who are exceptionally skilful in the art of breeding. If a breeder happened to secure a boar of ex- ceptional excellence as a stock getter, he might find it t<> his advantage to do a certain amount of close breeding, but l)oars of this description are not numerous, and it is seldom that we are fortunate enough to secure one. 'SVv. Gentry secured such a boar in Longfellow, and recognized the boar's merit, but 30 PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING Longfollows are scarce, We might think we had a second Longfellow, but an attireny were inbred. Cross-breeding means the mating of animals belonging to different breeds, and inijdies that both male and feuuUc are pure-bred. Though a good deal of cross-breeding is practised, very little systematic work has been done in the way of studying the relative merits of pure-bred and cross-bred hogs, and little in the best way of crossing to obtain a given result. Some work in cross-breeding at the Ontario Agi'icultural College gave indefinite results, so far as cheapness or rapiditv of gain was concerned. There was nothing to indicate that one method of crossing necessarily gave better results than another, or that cross-bred pigs were necessarily bettci- than pu re-bred s. J. II. Grisdale, Central Experimental Fann, Canada, reports cheaper gains from cross-breds than from pure-breds, but lie failed to find that any one method of crossing was superior to another, so far as his work went. The writer's experience leads him to Ixdieve that the progeny of animals which have become too fine and lack growth and thrift can be much inii)ruvod as ju-ofitablc feeders bv the introduction of the blood of a moiv growthy and hoavier- l)oned type; or that animals that are coarse-lx>ned. or slow feeders, can be improved by using the blood of a finer tvpe. Frequently, however, this result can 1k' attained without resort- ing to cross-breeding, by selecting types within the same breed. In the case of thrifty, rugged pure-breds. which are of a typo which meets the requirements of the feeder, it is difficult to see how any advantage is to be derived from cross-breeding. BREEDING AND SELECTION 31 In mating extreme types, it is probably safer to use a roomy, growthy type of female, because such sows are gen- erally moi-e prolific and better mothers than a very tine, com- pact type of sow. The roomy sow, mated with a compact typo of boar, will generally prove more profitable than a fine sow mated with a coai*se boar. The progeny will be similar in both cases, but are likely to be more numerous and better nourished from the roomy type of sow. In these matters, however, a man must work according to the material he has at hand, and he may find it necessary" to cross in the opposite way from that recommended here. (See Fig. 9.) Grade Breeding. — A grade animal may be defined as one whose parents are not both pure-bred. One parent may bo a pure-bred and the other not, or neither parent may be a pure- bred. Generally speaking, the more '' crosses " of pure blood an animal possesses, the better animal it is. There are grades which carry so many " crosses " of pure blood that they are essentially pure-breds in everytliing but name. For producing mark(t hogs — that is, hogs for fattening purposes — a good grade sow may answer just as well as a pure-bred, provided she is mated with a good boar. A large proportion of market hog>^ are ])rodiie('d in tliis way. Pedigree and Heredity. — A good many people are inclined to look upon pedigree as something distinct from utility. Noth- ing could be further from the truth. The question is frequently asked, " Which is of greater impoitance, individuality or pedigree ? " The question does not admit of a definite answer, for neither is complete ^vithout the other; that is to say, the desirable breeding animal should possess individual merit as well as a good pedigree. The reason we value pedigree is because we believe in heredity. The pedigree tells us the names of the ancestors 32 principi.es of swine breeding 5-' a I Q BREEDING AND SELECTION 33 of tlie animal in question, and we believe that the ancestors of an individual have an influence in detcnnining the char- acter of the i)rogeny of the individual. Therefore, if we tiud in the pedigree of a certain animal the names of a considerable number of animals known to possess a hiiih degree of merit, and if tlie animal under consideration is a reasonably gotid representative of the bned, we would feel fairly safe in breed- ing from such an individual. We would say that such an aninnil had a good pedigree, because it csnnes of a good line of ancestors. If, however, we found an animal that was quite satisfactory as an individual, but tlie pedigree showed us names of ancestors which we knew possessed very undesirable qual- ities, we would hesitate to select such an animal to put into our herd, especially if it were a boar, because we would be afraid that some of those undesirable qualities might crop out in the progeny and be spread throughout the whole herd. We might even go so far as to select a boar not quite equal as an individual to the one just described, but possessing a good t pedigree. -^ It would not bo advisable, however, to breed from a really bad individual merely Ijecause he had a good pedigree, bwause there are many animals with good pedigrees which should never be used for breeding. It is just here that exi^erience is necessary to enable a breeder to hold the balance properlv between individmdity and pedigree. It may be added that a tabulated pedigree means nothing to the man who does not know anything about the animals whose names appear therein, and the man who would become a breeder must make it his business to familiarize himself with tlie great sires and families which have attained to eminence in the breed he is handling. It must be remembered, also, that the immediate ancestors, such as the sire, dam, grand- 3 34 PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING sire, and graiuldain, are likely to have a greater influence for good or evil than more renioto ancestors, and, therefore, the first two or tliree generations — or, in other words, the top crosses — should receive si)ecial attention in studying a pedigree. The more remote the ancestor, the less important is its influence likely to be. Selection of the Boar. — In these days, when pure-bred males are plentiful and reasonable in price, there is practically no excuse for using anything but a pure-bred boar, even though the sows may be merely grades. The pure-bred male will transmit his own qualities to his progeny with greater certainty than a grade or cross-bred, and will get pigs of more uniform quality and excellence, so that it pays to use a ])urehred boar even for producing market hog's. It is true that many pure- bred boars should not l^e used for breeding, but this affords no reason for using a grade boar. The ''sci'iib " pure-bred should be rejected along with the grade and the cross-bred, and therv are reasonably good pure-bred lx)ars always available to the man who will make an effort to get one. Price and Merit. — When selecting a boar to head a pure- bred herd, it ^\nll not do to be too economical regarding price. This does not mean that we are to pay fancy prices, running into the thousands, such as we sometimes read about ; but it is well to bear in mind that a boar which is not good enough to command a fair price is seldom good enough to put at tlie head of a pure-bred herd. The importance of the herd will de- termine the price which tlie owmer can afford to pay for a boar, but a few extra dollars on the price of a boar is a small matter when it is the means of securing something tliat the breeder really needs. The mere size of the price, however, is not a safe criterion of the merit of the boar, but it refrts with the man \vho makes the selection to see that he gets value BREEDING AND SELECTION 35 for his money. It is right liere that a wide experience and a seasoned judgment connt for so much in stock breeding. Sometimes aged boars, which have proved their exceHence as stock getters, are to be had at a very reasonable price, and if tliey are still active, they are much safer to buy than young, untried boars. There is much unreasonable prejudice against Fig. 10. — Chester White boar, w-inner of sweepstake.* at the Louisiana Purchase Exi>osition. aged boars, and many an excellent aged boar is sent to the butcher long before his usefulness is past, merely because no person would buy him for breeding purposes ; and young boars, many of which should have gone to the butcher before being used at all, are taken in preference. These things are matters of judgment, and to select wisely tlie breeder must hno7V what he requires. 36 PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING The desirable cohfurmaliun of tlio boar will dcpciul upon whether ho behnijjs to the fat type ( Fii;. 10). «>r the hacon type (Fig. 11), and will also l>i' iiilhu'iiccd, more or less, by the breed to wliicli lie belongs. The general tyjie of the fat hog and tlie bacon ln»g is discussed in another jdaee, but it may be said that we expect a boar to be stronger in tlie liead I'm. 11.— I.,arne Vork.sliiro Ixiiii, ii winni i at I hi- l^iiRli^h Uu\ :il .-^liow. Xolc iho Icnuth, the smoothness, the strong top-line, un»l the trim bcllj'. Also note the strong, clean-cut bone and to possess a more mnscular neck, more massive shonlders, and heavier bone, tlian a sow or l)arrow. lie shonhl conform to the best type of the breed to which lu^ l)ehings, and shoidd have a l)ohl, impressive carriage and general appearance. There slioidd bo nothing effeminatt^ abont his a])i)earance and gtMieral make-up. Coarseness and roughness are not desirable, but if BREEDING AND SELECTION 37 it cnnu' to a choice iK'twocii two hoars, (nic of which was iiiio and etTcniinatc, and the other iiicliiiini^ to ooarsonoss hut stroiiii'lv niascnlino, the writer's e.\])erieii('e wouhl lead him to choose the latter, other thiuii's beinj:; e(iual. Selection of the Sow. — For the production of uuirket bogs it is not essential that a sow should be pure-hred. A crrade Fig. 12. — An excellent type of breeding sow. She po.s.^ossp.') Icnfrth, depili, smooth- ness, and quality. The head shows strength and dooility, and is truly feminine. The wi-ll- developed and well placed teats denote prolificacy and good milking qualities. SOW of good type and parentage will usually produce very satisfactory' pigs for market purposes, if mated with a boar of good breeding and quality, but, of course, none of her Ixiar pigs should be kept for breeding purposes. Wliether j)ure-bred or grade, a sow selected for breeding should be from a prolific mother, and by a boar tliat comes 38 PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING of a prolific faiiiilv, because fecundity is hereditars- to a very high deorec. It is safest to select a sow from a matured mother who has had a chance to demonstrate her usefulness. In mak- ing a selection, the number and character of the teats should be noted. A sow is more likely to make a good mother if she has at least twelve well-developed teats, set well apart, and th<' front ones well forward on the body. (Figs. 9 and 12.) In character, the sow is directly tlie opposite of the boar, and there is a femininity about her general appearance and bearing whicli indicates the prolific and indulgent mother. When a really good sow is once obtained, she should be kept in the herd as long as she retains her usefulness. A n ally first-class sow is not too easily obtained, and when once a('(|iiir('(I it will bp found the part of wisdom to keep her as long as she continues to produce satisfactory litters. RKVIKW. 1. Tell of tlic c-oniplcxitics of tlio I)roi'(l(>r's Ijiisincss. 2. Toll of tlio rcquiii-mcnts for a fuinifr to he a pood swine breeder. 3. Tell of tlie need oi liis keeping tlie element of utility in his mind. 4. Give two view-points for considerinn; utility. 5. What i.s meant hy " in-hreeding "? 6. Give Mr. Gentry's adviee regarding it. 7. What is the practice of prominent swine breeders regarding it? 8. What is the safe rule for the farmer to follow regarding in-breeding? 0. What is cross-breeding? Give some of its uses. 10. Gives suggestions to follow in mating extreme types. 11. Define "grades." "'high-grades." To what extent are they used? 12. Tell of the importance of pedigree and heredity in swine breeding. 1.3. Why select a pure-bred boar? Why do it well? 14. Tell of the desirable conformation of tiie l)oar. 15. Tell of the desirable conformation of brood sows. PART III BREEDS OF SWINE CHAPTER IV. RELATION OF BREED TO ECONOMY OF PRODUCTION. Probably tlie most extensive tests with breeds of swine have been conducted by the Ontario Agricultural College and the Iowa State Experiment Station. At tlie Ontario Agricul- tural College live tests were conducted in which six l)r('iMls of swine were compared as to the aniomit of feed ictiuircd f<>r 100 pounds gain live weight. At the Iowa Expcrinicnt Station three tests were made in which the same six bi-ceds were com- pared as to the amount of feed required for 100 pounds gain live weight. The results of these two series of tests are, there- fore, of considerable importance. In the Ontario tests, only the meal is considered in four of the tests, such feeds as dairy by-products and green feed, which were the same for all breeds, being omitted. In one test the results are given in terms of dry matter. Ontario Feeding Trials. — Following are the results of the Ontario tests: Meal Consumed Per 100 Pounds Gain in Weight. 1st Test. Pounds. Pounds. Berkshire 3J)8 Duroc-Jersey 424 Tamworth 400 Chester White 4.52 Poland-China 417 Yorksliire 468 2d Test. Pounds. Pounds. Berkshire 327 Chester White 340 Tamworth 331 Yorkshire 341 Poland-China 333 Duroc-Jersey 358 (41) 42 BREEDS OF SWINE 3d Test. Pounds. Pounds. Yorkshire 350 Chester Wliite . :ilH Berkshire 370 Tamwortli 378 Dirroc-Jersey 376 Poland-China 383 'ith Test (Dr;/ Matter). Pounds. Pounds. Berkshire 318 Chester White 337 Tamwortli 331 Durot-.Ierscy 337 Yorkshire 335 Poland-Cliina 350 .;tli Ti'ftt. Pounds. Pounds. Berkshire 409 Chester White 433 Yorkshire 422 Tamwortli 462 Duroc-Jersey 426 Poland-China 474 Before any comment is made on the Ontario results, we Avill look at the Iowa results, which are based upon drv matter. Iowa Feeding Trials. — Following are the results of the Iowa tests: Pou.xDS Dry Matter Consimed Pf.u loo Poi-nd.s G.\i\ in Weight. 1st Test. Pounds. Pounds. Duroc-Jersey 386 Poland-Ctiina 424 Yorkshire 398 Chester White 460 Tamworth 403 Berkshire 462 2d Te.1t. Pounds. Pounds. Dii roe-Jersey 337 Poland-China 392 Yorkshire 365 Chester White .394 Berkshire 381 Tamworth 407 3d Test. Pounds. Pounds. Poland-China 441 Chester White 506 Berkshire 481 Duroc-Jer.sey 506 Yorkshire 505 Tamworth 558 ECONOMY OF PRODUCTION 43 These results suggest some difficult questions. Why, for instance, do Berksliires, Yorkshires, Duroc-Jcrseys, and Poland- Chinas range all the way from the top to the hottoni of the list in the different tests; ami why would an average of the Ontario tests give a rating of the breeds which is entirely different from an average of the Iowa tests ? The averages have Ix^eu purposely omitted, because they are entirely mis- leading in a case of this kind. For example, one breed may suffer from some unfavorable circumstance in one or more of the tests which is in no way related to or influenced by the breeding of the animals, yet this circumstance may seriously affect the standing of the breed in question. Eliminating averages and looking over the individual tests with an imprejudiced mind, we can scarcely escape the con- clusion that the factor which placed a certain group at the top in any of the tests was in no way related to the breed represented by that group. This point is further emphasized by a test reported by Professor Bums in Texas Bulletin 131. In this test " razor backs " or scrubs were fed against good average Poland-China grades. The Poland-China grades made more rapid gains and sold for a higher price per pound, but the cost of producing 100 pounds of gain was practically the same for both, being approximately $6.02 for the scnibs and $5.94 for the grades, a difference of two twenty-fifths of a cent per pound. A Trial with One Breed. — If any person wishes to test the question further, let him take S or 10 pigs of the same litter, divide them into two groups as nearly even as possible, and feed the two groups exactly the same. The question of breed cannot enter into such a comparison, but in almost any sucli test it will be found that there is a difference in the amount of feed required for 100 pounds gain in the two groups. 44 BREEDS OF SWINE Bacon and Fat Types Compared.- — Another iiiU'rcsting point brought out in those breed tests is the fact that the bacon type is al)le to hold its owii ;iii,iiinsl the bird tvix- in {'coiioniv of i^rodnction. Take the two bacon breeds, Yorkshire and Tamwortli. in the Ontario tests and compare their stantling with such breeds as the Poland-China, Chester White, ajul I) u roc- Jersey; or take the Yorksliirc in tlie Iowa tests antl compare it witli the other breeds. So far as breed tests go, therefore, tliev fail to demonstrate that it costs any more to put a pound of gain on a hog of bacon type than it (b»es 1o put a pound of gain on a hog of bird type. Conclusion. — lined tests, therefore, have serA-ed a useful purpose in demonstrating that no one breed is su]>erior to all other breeds in ability to make cheap gains. A healthy, thrifty hog will make economical gains no matter what breed it represents. REVTFW. 1. Wliat kinds of tests have l)ri'n luadi! to dctcrmim- tiie best brtvds for feeding? 2. Wliat t)rceds have boon used in these feeding trials? .3. Wtiieh breeds were ahead in tlie live Ontario tests? Wliidi wen- poorest? 4. Wliieh were aliead in tlie lowa tests? Wliich fell behind? 5. What would he the probable nsult in :i fe.-diuir trial with several individuals of the same breed? 0. How do the bac(»n breeds roniinire with the lard breeds in these tests? 7. WTiat is the conelusion regarding these breed testa? CHAPTER V. THE BERKSHIRE BREED. Description. — The Berkshire is an attractive animal in appearance, and is rather above medium size, though, as a breed, it scarcely equals the Yorkshire and Tamworth in size. The face is moderately dished, the snout medium in length, the jowl full and rather heavy, and the neck short, with con- siderable crest. The cars should be firndy attached to the head, and are usually erect, though they frequently incline forward in aged animals. The breed generally has good width of shoulder, a broad back resulting from a well-spning rib, and good thickness through the rump and hams. The Berkshire is noted for a thickly meated, trim ham. In general, it has good depth of body; and should possess a deep, wide chest, with a full heart-girth. In tlie best representatives of the breed, the bone is all that could be desired, being strong and clean, and the animal generally stands well on its feet. The standard color is l)lack, with white markings in the face, on each foot, and on the tip of the tail. (Figs. 13, 14, 15.) A small splash of white on the arm is not objected to ; but when the white is too freely distributed, such as a white blotch on the jowl, shoulder, or other part of the l)ody, it is an objection, in the eyes of most breeders. Occasionally some of the standard white markings are missing, such as the white on the tip of the tail, on one or more of the feet, or the white mark on the face, and the absence of any of these markings would also constitute an objection. The standard of excellence of the American Berkshire Association says nothing about disqualify- ing an animal for defective markings, so that each breeder (45) 46 BREEDS OF SWINE must be his own judge as to how inucli latitude to aHow in the matter of markings. Unless the markings were glaringly de- fective, it would not seem to be the part of wisdom to reject Mil aiiiiiuil that was really first-class in other respects. Origin and History. — Berkshires derive their name from Berkshire in Knu'land. tliouah the l)rord is now to 1k^ found iu iid. 1.5. «. ii.iinpii.il ticra CI iUTkshirea, Iowa Stute Fair. all parts of tiu' British Isles. Very little is known regarding the origin of the original Berkshire, but the breed was very different from the Berkshire of to-day. The old Berkshire was very much coarser than the present type, had lopped ears, and its color was commonly a sandy or reddish b^o^v^l spotted with black, or white witb black spot-s. Tt had a reputation of producing a good quality of meat. THE BERKSHIRE BREED 47 It is claiinod by some that improvement was effected by using black Siamese boars on the original Berkshire soavs, and others claim that white and black-and-white Chinese boars were used. A. B. Allen, who bred Siamese swine many years ago, describes the breed as follows: " They varied in color from deep, rich plum to dark slate ¥ir,, 1 I. — Chiiinpion pen of Berkshire barrows at the International Kxposition. and black ; had two or three white feet, bnt no white on the legs or other parts of the body. The head was short and fine, wnth a dished face and rather thin jowl ; ears short, slender, and erect; shoulders and hams round, smooth, and extra large; back broad and slightly arched ; body of moderate length, deep, well ribbed up, and nearly as round as a barrel ; . . . legs fine and short; . . . hair soft, silky, and thin; no bristles, even on 48 BREEDS OF SWINE boars; . . . llesh firm, sweet, and vorv toiidor, with lo'^s loan than tlic Bcrksliirc.*' A l)r('cvo a coai'so hreed like tho uM Uerkshiro. Mr. Allon favors tho theory that Chinese hl^od was als.> used, and, from his investigations in Kngland, fixes tlie ei>m- Fio. 15. — Champion Herksliire boar, Iowa State Fair. monconuMit of improvement in tho r>erkshiro hv orossinjr as some time previous to 17>*0. EnrJii Importations. — Allon states that "Berksliires were fii-st imported to America in lS-2.'5 by John Breutnall of Xew Jersov. Tho first importation to Panada is said to have lxK?n made in 1838. Y. D. Cobum states that for ten yeai*s subse- quent to 1831 there was active speculation in importing Berk- THE BERKSHIRE BREED 49 shires and selling them at inflated prices, and that, the methods employed hv speenlators injnred the ])opnlarity of. the hreed and retarded its progi'ess. The real merit of the breed eventu- ally overcame the prejudice which had been created, and to-day the breed is very popular in both the United States and Canada. Distribution. — Berkshires are found in every state and ter- ritory of the United States, the most important centres being Illinois, Missouri, Indiana, Texas, Ohio, Kansas, Iowa, Xew York, ^lichigan, and Tennessee. They are found also in every Canadian province, Ontario taking the lead. They are dis tributed all over the British Isles, and have made their way into South America, Hawaii, and some countries on the European Continent. Types. — Berkshires var\' more or less in type, the type being intiuenced to a considerable extent by the demands of the market in the countries where they arc bred as well as by the methods of individual breeders. In the United States it is only natural to expect them to conform to the fat or lard type, and some breeders have gone rather to the extreme in breeding for fine bone, smoothness, and quality and neglecting size and fecundity. The best breeders, however, are succeed- ing in maintaining size and quality and in producing a really useful animal. In Canada the tendency is to select for a lengthy, strong- l)oned type, which looks somewhat coarse and leggy when compared with tlie extremely fine type, but which is a first- class farmers hog. The demand for the bacon type in Canada and competition with the bacon breeds have had an influence in bringing about this modification. (Fig. 10.) The so-called Large English Berkshire is not a distinct breed, nor is it necessarily a distinct family or branch of the breed. In England, as in any other country, the Berkshire 4 50 BREEDS OF SWINE will be found to vary more or less in type, and some importers select the larger, stronger-boned animals and import tliem under the name of Large English Berkshires. As a matter of fact, some of them may be litter mates of animals of the fine-boned type. Utility. — The Berkshire is better suited for supplying the market demand for fat hogs than it is for producing bacon Fio. 16. — A Berkshirf sow of nciirlv bacon lypo hogs. Where backs, shoulders, :uid liams are tlio ni;iiii re- quirements, the Berkshire fits in exceptionally well, but for the export bacon trade in " Wiltshire sides " it has scarcely enough length of side and has t on back and holding thick- ness well down to hock 10 THE BERKSHIRE BREED 53 Tail — Well set up on l>:uk : t:i]>i'riii<,r and not course 2 Legs — Short, straifjht. and stron and deej). As a rule, the legs an* very short, and the bone fine — too fine in some cases. Years ago, Poland-Chinas were freely marked with white, but the fashionable color to-day is practically the same as that of the Berkshire, — namely, black, with white on face, feet, and tip of tail. A limited numlKT of small white, markings on other parts ai"<' nrn feeding better than most other breeds. As a machine for turning corn into pork, it is hard to beat, and it is also a good grass hog. The meat of the Poland-China has been criticised freely for carrying too large a proportion of fat to lean, and there seems to be good ground for the criticism. In their etfort.s to bring the breed to its present stage of perfection as a feeder, breeders have overlooked the production of lean along with fat. but the breed seems to meet the demands of the American packer, and he is willing to pay top market price for it. Since so much attention has boon paid to the development of fine lx)no and a marked tendency to fatten in this breed, it is not surprising to find it criticised as lacking in fecundity. THE POLAND-CHINA BREED 59 Statistics appear to indicate that the Poland-China is not up to the average of other well-known breeds in point of fecundity, the deficiency occurring mainly in the very fine-boned strains. This point gives the breeder of Poland-Chinas food for serious reflection. Owing to its exceptional tendency to fatten, the Poland- China is valuable for crossing upon hogs which lack this tendency, and it is a useful breed for improving the common stock of the country. Poland-China Score Card. — Following is the description and scale of points for Poland-Chinas adopted by the National Association of Expert Judges of Swine : Counts. Counts. Head 4 Feet and legs 10 Eyes 2 Tail 1 Ears 2 Coat 3 Neck 2 Color 3 Jowl 2 Size 5 Shoulders 6 Action and style 3 Chest 12 Condition 2 Back and loin 14 Disposition 2 Sides and ribs 10 Symmetry of points. ... 3 Belly and flank 4 Ham and rump 10 Total 100 Detailed Descriptions. — Head should be broad, even and smooth between and above the eyes. Slightly dished, tapering evenly and gradually to near the end of the nose. Broad lower jaw; head inclined to shortness, but not enough to give the appearance of stubby nose. And in male a masculine expression and appearance. Objections. — Head long, narrow between eyes; nose uneven and coarse ; too large at muzzle or the head too short ; not full or high over eyes, or too wrinkled around or above the eyes. GO BREEDS OF SWINE Eycfi. — Full, clear, iti-oiiiiiiciit and expressive. OhjccliuHS. — I)ull ( .\i)i'essinii, dee]) set or obscure. Sig;ht impaired l>y wriid-cles, fat, or other cause. I'Jars. — Ears attached to the liead by a short, fimi kuuck, giving free and easy action. Standing up slightly, at the base to within two-thirds of the tip, where a gentle break or droop should occur; in size neither too large nor t(»o small, but even, fine, thin, leaf-shape. Slightly inclined outward. Objections. — Large, floppy, straight, upright, or coarse; knuck long, letting the ear droop too close to the head and face, hindering the animal of free use of the ears. Neck. — Short, wide, even, smooth, well arched. Hounding and full from poll to shoulder, with ro;id and oval at the top, showing evenness with the back and neck, with good width from the toj) to the bottom, and even smoothness extending well forward Objections. — Narrow at the top or bottom ; not as deep as the body; uneven width. Shields on pigs under eight months of age, or showing to<» much shield at any age. Chest. — Large, wide, deep, and full ; even under lino to the shoulder and sides, with no creases; giving plenty of room for heart and other organs, making a large girth, indicating THE POLAND-CHINA BREED 61 much vitality. Brisket smooth, even, and broad, wide between legs, and extendinc; well forward, showino^ in front. Objections. — Pinched appearance at th(^ top or bottom, or tucked in back of fore legs ; showing to|tulnrity and distrilmfion. r}. Tfll of tlie ohler and tlie recent types. (■). W lial can t>f said of their special utility? 7. Discuss tlit'ir early nuiturity; meat; size of litters. 8. Why are they valuable for crossing' with the "common stock" of the country? !). fJive some very ohjcctioiuiMc points, wlien found, rcj^'ardiufj slioul- der, l)ack and loin, liam and rump. CHAPTER VII. THE CHESTER WHITE BREED. Description. — At one time the Chester White was rated as tlie largest breed in the United States, but the tendency of modern breeding has been towards the production of a liner- boned, smoother, and smaller animal than the older type, and at present the Chester White is similar to the Poland-China in size, though it is commonly claimed that it is a larger breed. The face is straight, and the snout is usually a little longer than that of the Poland-China. It has a drooped ear, similar to that of the Poland-China, but the droop, or break, is usually further from the tip. As a rule, too, the ear is somewhat heavier, and it is quite common for it to be somewhat loosely attached. In general conformation, the Chester WHiite is similar to the Poland-China, though the latter generally excels in depth and fulness of ham, and many Chester Wliites are rather longer in the body than the Poland-Chinas. (I'ig. 20.) The color is white, no black hair being admissible, though it is common for black or bluish spots to occur on the skin. These spots do not indicate impurity of blood, but breeders aim to avoid them as much as possible, and, if the spots are large or numerous, they constitute a serious objection. In many specimens the hair has a tendency to be wa^'7, and in some cases it is almost curly. Origin and History. — ]\rost authorities recognize three sources of origin for Chester White swine, the history of which may be summarized as follows: 1. The original Chester White had its origin in Chester 5 (65) 66 BREEDS OF SWINE Couiitv, P<-nnsvlv:nii;i. liciicc the iiaiiic I.ni'ffo, white pig^ were conniMiM in ("licstci- ('ouiitv hkiiiv vciirs jiiTo. Tlicy were t;iken there hv tlie earliest setthrs, hut it is not clearly known where tlie original pigs came from. About the year 1818, Captain James Jeffries ini])orted from England a ])air of white ])igs wliich arc refernMl to l)y some as Bedfordshire i>igs, and hv Fici. 20. — Chester White bour, winner ol many pnzea at State fairs. others as Cumberland ])igs. Captain Jeffries used the boar on the white sows of the district witii good results. It is stated that, at a later date, white ('hincsc ]tigs were brouglit into Chester County and crossed on the st^x'k of the district. Kventu- ally tlie different strains of blood were combintMl, and fnmi this combination came the original Chester White breed. 2. The Improved Chester White, or Todd's Improved THE CHESTER WHITE BREED 67 Chester White, Ciiii hardlv be regarded as a distinct strain of the breed at present. At one time it had a herd record of its own, but in l>'St4 the articles of incorporation were changed to read American Chester White Record Association. Briefly, the hist.ory of the so-called Improved (liester White is as follows: About 1827, Xorfolk Thin Kind pigs were imported from England to Connecticut. Two brothers, named Todd, bought a boar of this breed and a sow of what was called the Grass breed, and tov fat; deformed, seriously deformed; barrenness; total hlimlness. Score. — TjCSS than sixty points. Pedigree. — Xot eligible to recor in crotch or twist ; not coming down to hocks; buttocks flabby; rumj) flat, narrow, too long, too stoop, sharp or peaked at root of tail. THE CHESTER WHITE BREED 73 Legs and Feet. — Legs short; straight; set well apart and squarely under body; bone of good size; firm; well muscled; wide above knee and hock; below knee and hock round and tapering, enabling animal to carry its weight with ease; pastern short aud nearly upright ; feet short, firm, tough and free from defects. Objections. — Legs too short, long, slim, crooked ; too coarse; too close together; weak muscles above hock and knee; l)one large and coarse without taper; pasterns long; crooked, slim like a deer's ; hoofs long, slim, weak ; toes spreading, crooked, or turned up.. Tail. — Small; smooth; tapering; well set on; root slightly covered with flesh ; carried in a curl. Objections. — Coarse; long; clumsy; set too high or too low ; hanging like a rope. Coat. — Fine ; straight or wavy ; evenly distributed and cov- ering the lx)dy well ; nicely clipped coats no objection. Objections. — Bristles; hair coarse; thin; standing up; not evenly distributed over all of the body except in the belly. Color. — "S^liite (blue spots or black specks in skin shall not argue impurity of blood). Objections. — Color any other than white. Size. — Large for age and condition ; boars two years old and over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds. Sow, same age and condition, not less than 450 pounds. Boars 18 months old in good flesh should weigh not less than 400 pounds. Sows, 350. Boars 12 months old, not less than 300 pounds. Sows, 300. Boars and sows six months old, not less than 150 pounds each, and other ages in proportion. Objections. — OvergTo^Vn ; coarse ; imcouth ; hard to fatten. Action and Style. — Action easy and graceful; style attract- 74 BREEDS OF SWINE ive; high carriage; in boars the testicles readily seen; same size and carriage. Objections. — Sluggish ; awkward low carriage ; wabbling walk ; in males testicles not easily seen ; not of same size or carriage, or only one showing. Condition. — Healthy; skin clear and bright; free fnnn scurf and sores; flesh fine and mellow to the touch; evenly lail on and free from lumps; good feeding qualities. Objections. — Unhealtiiy ; skin scaly, scabby, or harsh ; flesh lumpy or flabby ; hair harsh, drv', and standing up from body ; poor feeders; total deafness. Disposition. — Quiet; gentle and easily handled; witli am- bition enough to look out for themselves if neglected. Objections. — Cross; restless; vicious or wild; no ambition. REVIEW, 1. Give a general description of the Chester White breed. How do the ears differ from the other white breeds? 2. Tell of the origin and early history of this breed. 3. Give an account of the O. I. C. strain. 4. Tell of the distribution of Chester Whites. .5. What can be said of their difTeront typos? 6. For what is the breed best adapted ? 7. What are the most popular crosses with this breed in Canari. CHAPTER VIII. THE DUROC-JERSEY BREED. Description. — The Duruc-Jersey is similar to the Chester White and Poland-China in size, the tendency of modern methods of breeding being towards a medium-sized hog with rather fine bone. The snout is of mediimi length, the face slightly dished or straight, and the ear drooped, much the same as that of the Chester Wliite. The jowl is heavy, the body wide and deep, and the ham heavily fleshed. The legs are short, the bone medium in weight, and the body is noted more for tliickness and depth than for length. (Compare Figs. 22 and 23.) Cherry red is the popular color, but yellowish red and chestnut are often seen. A few black spots on the belly and legs do not disqualify, but are objectionable. Black markings on any other part of the body are very serious objections. Origin and History. — Red pigs have existed in the United States for a great many years, and there seems to be no satis- factory account of their origin. It is stated that slave traders brought in a red breed of hogs from western Africa, known as the Guinea breed. Also, it is said that Henry Clay imported red pigs from Spain in 1837, and that Daniel Webster brought red pigs from Portugal in 18.52. Further, it is claimed that the Berksliire, which was freely marked with red or sandy hair in early days, was a factor in the formation of some of the red varieties. Whatever their origin, a large, red breed of lings attained to considerable prominence in Xew Jersey, and eventually became known as JersPtj Erd^ik- and hair, but was valued on account of its size, strong constitution, and ra])id growth. TJie IJuroc originated in Saratoga County, Xew York, and is said to be the result of crossing a red boar u]>on the sows of the district. It is uncertain whether the boar cajne I'lO. 22. — Duroc-Jursry buur. An Inwn liip \miiiiit. fiviiii another pari of New ^'ssil)le to obtain detinite and rcliable information regarding its origin. As shoA\ni by the secretary of the American Hampshire Swine Record Association, tlie breed has made rapid progress of late years, but, in comparison with the older established breeds, the number in any one state is not large, owing to the fact that the Hampshire has only recently come into prom- inence. In recent years the breed has found its way into Canada, but it has not had time to become widely distributed in Canada as yet. Types. — ^ Though Hampshires may vary in color, they ajipear to \x^ quite uniform in general type. Possibly, as the breed becomes more numerous and better kno\\ai, variations in tyjx' may l)ecome more apparent. Utility. — It is generally claimed that the Hampshire is a bacon hog. but, in this connection, we must bear in mind that what the American packer calls a bacon hog is very different, as a rule, from the hog which is suitable for making Wiltshire sides for export to Great Britain. Judged from the stand- point of suitability for making export Wiltshire sides, the Hampshire falls far short of requirements, as it is too short in the side, too thick in the shoulder and back, and too heavy in the neck to make a really good Wiltshire side. Inasmuch as the terms " bacon hog " and " bacon type " have been used throughout this treatise to apply only to hogs suitable for >u]iplying export Wiltshire sides, wo prefer not to class the Hampshire as a hog of bacon type, though it is well suited for supplying bacon for home consumption. In quality of flesh the Hampshire has a high reputation. It has made a good record in the dressed carcass competitions at the International Live Stock Exposition at Chicago, and 86 BREEDS OF SWINE the packers appear to bold it iu high esteem. Its flesh carries a high per cent of kniii and is generally tiiu^grained. In earlv maturitv and feeding qualitiet; the Hampshire seems to be giving good satisfaction t/j those who arc handling it, and it is highly esteemed as a grazer. It is an active, hardy breed, and there is no apparent reason why it should not give as good an account of the feed it consumes as any other breed. The Hampshire ranks high in point of fecundity and is one of the most prolific of American breeds. Its value for cross-breeding is not well kno\vn, but it seems reasonable to suppose that it should cross well witli the fat types of hogs. Hampshire Score Card. — Following is the standard of excellence adopted by the American Hanij)sliire Swine llecord Association : Counts. Counts. Head and face 4 Eyes 2 Ears 2 Neck 2 Jowl 2 Shoulders G Chest 12 Back and loin 1") Sides and ribs 8 Belly and flank 6 llama and niinp 10 Disqualifications. — Color. — Spotted or more than twn-ihirds white. Form. — Any radical deformity, ears very large or (Irooj)ing over eyes, crooked or weak legs or broken-down feet. CondUion. — Seriously ini])aire(l or diseased, excessive grossness, barrenness in animals over two years of age, chuffy or squabby fat. Tail 1 Coat o Color Size 5 Action and style . . Condition 4 4 Disposition :? Total . . . 100 THE HAMPSHIRE BREED 87 Size. — Isot two-thirds standard weight. Pedigree. — Xot eligible to record. Detailed Description. — Head and Face. — Head medium length, rather narrow, cheeks not full; face nearly straight and medium width between the eyes, surface even and regular. Objections. — Head large, coarse, and ridgy; nose crooked or much dished. Eyes. — Bright and lively, free from wrinkles or fat sur- roundings. Objections. — Small, deep, or obscure, or vision impaired by fat or other cause. Ears. — Medium length, thin, slightly inclined outward and forAvard. Objections. — Large, coarse, thick, large or long knuck, drooping or not under good control of the animal. Ned: — Short, well set to the shoulders, tapering from shoulder to head. Objections. — Long, thick, or bulky. Jowl. — ^Light and tapering from neck to point, neat and firm. Objections. — Large, broad, deep, or flabby. Shoidd^rs. — Deep, medium width and fulness, well in line with back. Objection.s. — Xarrow on top or bottom; thick beyond line with sides and hams. Chest. — Large, deep and roomy ; full girth ; extending doA\'n even with line of belly. Objections. — Xarrow at top or bottom, small girtb, cramped or tucked up. Bad- and Loin. — Back straight or slightly arched ; medium breadth, with nearly uniform thickness from shoulders to hams and full at loins ; sometimes higher at hips than at shoulders. 88 BREEDS OF SWINE Objections. — Narrow, creased, or drooped behind shoulders; surface ridgj' or uneven. Sides and Ribs. — Sides full, smooth, firm; carrying size evenly from shoulder to hams; ribs stroiifr, well sprnnfr at top and bottom. Objections. — Sides thin, flat, flabbv, or creased, or ribs not well sprung. BcJh/ and Flank. — Straight and full, devoid of grossness; flank full and running nearly on line with sidos. Objections. — Belly sagging or flabbv; ihmk thin nr tucked up. Hams and Rump. — Hams of medium width, long and deep; rump slightly rounded from loin to root of tail; buttroteli, buttock flabby; rump too flat, too juiitow. or too stee]i, or peakeil at root of tail. Legs and Feet. — Legs nuMliuni length, set well a])art and squarely under lx)dy, wide above knee and Inick and rounded and well muscled below, tapering; Ixme niedinni ; pasterns short and nearly ujiright ; toes short and tirni, enahling the animal to carrv' its weight with ease. Objections. — Legs too long, slim, crooked, coarse, or short; weak muscles alM>ve h<»ck ami knee bone; large and coarse; legs without taper; pasterns too long to correspond with length of leg, too crooked, or too slender; feet long. slim, and weak; toes spreading, too long, crooked, or turned uj). Tail. — Medium length, slightly curled. Objections. — Coarse, long, clnnisy, swinging like a ]>endu- lum. Coat. — Fine, straight, smooth. Objections. — Bristles or swirls, coarse or curly. THE HAMPSHIRE BREED 89 Color. — Black, with exception of white belt encircling the body, including fore legs. Objections. — Wliite running high on hind legs or extending more than one-fourth length of body, or solid black. Size. — Large for condition; boar two years old and over, 450; sow, same age, 400; eighteen months' boar, 350; sow, 325; twelve months' boar or sow, 300; six months', both sexes, 140. Action and Style. — Active, vigorous, quick, and graceful; style attractive and spirited. Objections. — Dull, sluggish, and clumsy. Condition. — ^Healthy; skin free from all defcx'ts; fl(^h evenly laid on and smooth and firm, not patchy, and devoid of all excess of grossness. Ohjections.—^'kin scurfy, scaly, mang^', or otherwise un- healthy; hair harsh; dwarfed or cramped; not growthy. Disposition. — Docile, quiet and easily handled. Objections. — Cross, restless, vicious, or with no ambition. REVIEW. 1. Compare the Hampshires with the typical fat swine. 2. Tell of their color: what is meant by "listed"? .3. What is the origin of the name "Hampshire"? By what other name is it known? 4. Tell of the orifrin and early importations of these ho^s. .5. Compare the llampsliires with the typical l)acon hop;s. 6. Tell of their qualitr of flesh. 7. What is said of their early maturity, feeding qualities, and size of litters? 8. Mention the disqualifications for Hampsliires. CHAPTER X. THE LARGE YORKSHIRE OR LARGE WHITE BREED. Description. — The Largo Yorkshire is one of the largest of tlu' breeds of swine. The face is slightly dished, and the snout should be of medium length and iiracticallv straight. " Tumed-up " snouts, which were common at one time, are not ])(»])ul;ir witli T>arge Yorkshire breoilers at present. The jowl should be of good width and muscular, but not flabbv nor heavily loaded with fat. The ears arc large, and sometimes incline forward, especially in old animals, luit an erect ear, firmly attached to the head, is jtn^ferred. The ear shoidd not be coarse, and should be fringed with fine hair. The shoulder and back are of only medium width, the side is long, and the ham caiTies very little surface fat, making it lighter than the ham of the fat or lard hog. (Fig. 25.) The ham generally has a tapering apj)earance toward the hock, and should be well lleshed on the inside of tlie thigh, but there should be no wrinkles or flabbiness. The bone is fairly heavy, but should be clean-cut in appearance, and the leg is longer than the leg of a fat hog. The color is white. JJlaek hairs should disqualify, but i)lack or blue S})ot.s on the skin do not disipiality. The aim of the breeders is to reduce these skin sj)ols |(. a uiinimum, and they object seriously to an auinud which shows considerable patches of dark-colored skin. Origin and History. — The Large Yorkshire is of English origin, ami is descended from a race of large, coarse-boned, leggy, while hogs which wen^ eonunon in Y--!ng of the Yorkshire with the White Leicester, ViG. 25. — I, arm- York.shiro sow, chainpi(jn at the Kngli.sh Uoyal Show. The illu.stration shows a little weakness in hind pasterns, but the sow is not standing well. which was a large breed, but finer in the bone and more easily fattened than the old Yorkshire. It is also said that the Wliite Leicester resulted from crossing a white Chinese breed with the original Yorkshire. Further improvement was effected by crossing with the Small A\Tiite breed of England, — at least, such is the claim made bv some authorities, though we have no ven' definite 92 BREEDS OP SWINE infoniicitioii rcpinliiiii- tin- vai-ioiis sto])* taken in lini)r<»ving the breed. Careful selectinii in the hands of skilful breeders has done much to improve the breed \nthin recent years. Though " Large Whit^ " hogs have been brought into the United States at various times during the past century, tlie first importation of the improved type of Large Yorkshire was made in 1892. Disirihutiun. — The headquarters for the breed is Minnesota, though representatives arc to Ix? found in nearly all the state-? of the Union. Outside of ]\linn6sota, the states of Xorth Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, Xew York, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Virginia, and Massachusetts are probably the most important centres for the breed. In Canada the breed has made greater progress than in the United States, and is largely represented in every province, especially in Ontario. The fact that Canada has btH'n making a specialty of export bacon is responsible, in a large nu'asure, for the prominence which the breed has attained. Large Yorkshires also occupy a vers- important place in Denmark, and there are comparatively few countries of any im])ortan('(' from a live-stock stand-point where tlu^ breed is not i-e])resented. Types. — Large Yorkshires are inclined to vary more ur less in type, and it requires skill in selection to keep them true to the Ik'sI tyjK', It used to be ([uit<' common to find short, turned-up snouts among re])resentative)s of the breenl, but, since this style of snout is commonly associated with a h( avy jowl, neck, and shoulder, the best breeelers are striving to ediminate it. Another ty^e sometimes met with has a long, scrawny neck, narrow chest, and long, coarse-boned legs. This type generally has plenty of length and a smooth shoulder, but it is apt to Ix' a slow feeder, and possesses too much bone THE LARGE YORKSHIRE BREED 93 and too thick a skin, together with a lack in quantity and quality of flesh. The best type of Large Yorkshire has suffi- cient length to make a good Wiltshire side, and has constitution and quality to such a marked degree tliat it is unexcelled from a feeder's stand-point. Generally speaking, American breeders incline towards a rather shorter and thicker type than is popular with Canadian breeders. (Fig. 2G.) Utility. — The Large Yorkshire is highly valued for bacon production, where a long side abounding in lean meat, and a FiQ. 2G. — Champion and reserve champion Large Yorkshire sows at the Louisiana Pur- ch^'se Exposition. light shoulder and neck, are especially desirable. For quality of bacon, it is rivalled only by the Tamworth. The large proportion of lean to fat, the thick, fleshy belly, and great length of side render the breed peculiarly desirable from th(^ bacon-curer's and the consumer's stand-point. At the Ontario Provincial Winter Fair, held annually at Guelph. Canada, Large Yorkshires and their grades always take a prominent place in the bacon carcass competition, and carrs' off a large share of the prizes. 94 BREEDS OF SWINE The Large Yorkshiiv is spoken of quite commonly as being slower in maturing than the fat tyi)es of liogs, hut this is not a fair way of stating tlic case. From a bacon-cnrer's stand-point, Large Yorkshires will reach desirable market weight and condition at as early an age as any existing breed, and there are few breeds which CMpial them in this respect. Therefore, so far as the fanner, who is feeding liogs for the export bacon Iradc. is conccnicd. no breed excels the Largo Yorkshire in ])oint of early malni'ity. For the production of a very fat carcass at an early age, tlu^ Large Yorkshire is not so well adapted as the fat or lanl types. It is a special ]iur- pose breed, and foi' tliat special jnirpose will mature just as early, or earliei-, than almost any other l)reed. From the fact tliat it grows rajudly and develops Ixme and muscle nioi-o rapidly ilian it forms fat, feeders are inclined to regard the harge ^'oi-kshire as an expensive hog to feed; but ex])erinients go to show that such is not the case, and that, undei- most circumstances, it is capable of giving as large gains for feed consumed as any other breed. Probably it is not so well adajited to grazing as some other bret'ds, ami a hot sun is upr. to blister its skin. It is possible, too, that it would not thrive so well as some other breeds ujxm an ex<*lusivo com ration. "SMiere a mixed ration is used, and especially where pen ieeding is practised, it givcvS a good account of the feed it consumes. The large size and the strong bone of the Large Yorkshire make it valuable foi crossing u]ion breeds that have lK'Com(> unduly fine in the bone and that lack size. Tt crosses well with almost any of the fat breeds, increasing the size and the ))r. The Taimvorth is one (if the oldest of Kiifflisli breeds, Imt it was not j^iven a se})arate class at tlic Ifnyal Show until 1^85. Distribution. — Taniworths wcic hroiijfht to tlie T'nited States nearly thirty years ago, but they have not made rapid progress. Possibly the long snout tends to prejudice tlie Fio. 27. — Taniworth boar. An Enpli.-li Royal winner. farmer against tliem. but the fact that the production of bacon liogs T-eccives scant encouragement in the Vnited States is an important factor in deferring the ])rogress of the lireeil. Ke])re- sentatives of the breed are to be found in a niiiuber of states, notably in Illinois, KiMitucky. Towa, Kansas. Texas, Wisconsin, and Ohio. Tamwortlis have made much more progress in Canada THE TAMWORTH BREED 99 than in the United States, tlitmg'h they arc imt so nnin(n*ons as the Lars:e Yorkshire. Thev are to be found in ])ractically every province of (^anada, hut Ontario is tlie ])riii('i])al centre for the breed. Enghiml ;mil ( 'anachi take the had in the jM'(Mluction of Tamworths. Utility. — The Tamworth is especially adapted to the Fig. 28. — Tamworth boar, a Canadinn-i rize winner. production of export bacon, or a class of bacon which carries a larsre proportion of lean to fat. In early-maturing qualities it is similar to the Large York- shire, producing a bacon carcass fit for export at as early an age as any other breed, but for producing a fat carcass at an early age the Tamworth is not ?;o well suited as some other breeds. For bacon production, therefore, the Tamworth 100 BREEDS OF SWINE matures early, and it is from the bacon stand-point that this breed must always be judged. There is a popular belief that the Taniworth docs not make economical use of feed, but experimental work shows that this belief is not Avell founded, and that the Taniworth compares very favorably with other breeds as an economical Fio. 21). — Group of Tuimvorlh fow.s. ])n»dncer of meat. T>iko the Large Yorkshire, it is |)n»bably rather better adapted to pen feeding than to pasturing, but its ability to stand heavy corn feeding is practically unknowni. It is elninied by its admirers that the Tamwurth ])n)duces higher-class bacon than any other breed, but where it has come into competition with the Large Yorkshire in dressed carcass competitions the Large Yorkshire has carried off the larger TIIK TAMWOirril HKEED 101 share of the prize iiionov. There is no (luestioii, however, that the Tauiworth jtroduees bacon of exceptionally tine (jnalitj. well mixed with lean, and tine in the grain. The Large Yorksliire and thf Taniworth are the only strietlv hacon breeds with whicli we are familiar in America. Being a large breed with strong bone (Figs. 29 and 30), Fio. 30. — Pair of 'I'ani worth sows, winner at loading Canadian fairs. the Tamworth is suitable for crossing ni)on finer and fatter breeds, and is very popular for this purpose where it is best known. The boars are prepotent to quite a marked, degree, and the sows are good mothers, being prolific and good nurses. The Tamworth Standard. — Following is the standard of excellence for Tamworths adopted hv tlie National Pig Breeders' Association of Great "Britain: 1U2 BREEDS OF S\\ L\E Volur — (.ioldfii-iL'd liair uii a Ik-sli-fdlorfd skin, fift' from black. ^Head — Fairly long, snout nioderatt'lv Xow^ and (|iiite straijjht, face sliglitly dished, wide between ears. Ears — lt;itiier large, with line frin. What is the special use of the breed. C). Why do swine of the bacon type se<'in to mature more slowly than those of the fat type? 7. What do experiments show regarding their economical use of feed? 5. What is clainu'd for their (]u;ility of bacon? I) What uses are made of Tamworths in crossing? CHAPTER XII. THE VICTORIA BREED. Description. — The Victoria is a medium-sized breed, being similar in size to the Berkshire. It has a rather short snout, dished face, and a medium-sized, erect ear, which is firmly attached to the head. (Fig. 31.) The jowl is full, the neck short, tlu' shoulder wide, the body In-oad and deep, and the ham well developed. The legs are short, and the bone rather fine and of good quality. The color is white, witli occasional dark spots on the skin. Origin and History. — At one time there were two breeds of Victoria swine, but only one breed is now recognized. The breed which is now known originated in the hands of George F. Davis, Dyer, Indiana, and was formed by combining the blood of the Poland-China, Berkshire, Chester White, and Suffolk, and l)y careful selection of resulting types which were deemed satisfactor}-. The breed had its origin about 1870. About 1850 a breed known as the Victoria was originated by Colonel F. D. Curtis of New York State. It is said to have resulted from a combination of Irish Grazier, By field, Yorkshire, and Suffolk blood. This breed is not now generally recognized as a distinct breed. Distribution. — According to Professor Plumb, the Victoria is found mainly in Indiana, Ohio, and Illinois, Avitii odd herds in a few other states. For some reason, the breed does not seem to make much progress and is not at all widely known. Utility. — The Victoria belongs to the fat class of hogs. There seems to be a dearth of experimental data bearing upon the early maturity and feeding qualities of the Victoria, but (103) 104 BREEDS OF SWINE the fact that it has not gained more rapidly in popularity would indicate that farmers do not think that it possesses any ad- vantages over other biveds. The cpiality of the meat is said to be good, and the breed also bears a good reputation for being prolific. The value of the breed for crossing purj^oses is not well known. Victoria Score Card. — Following is the scale of points adopted by the Victoria Swine Jjrccders' Association : Counts. Counts Color . . . 2 3 Flank o Head . . . . liani . 12 Ears . . . . o Till! . •> Jowl .... 1 •\ Nock 3 Feet 3 ShouI(k'r.s 7 Hair . . .3 Cirtli aroi lul heart . (i Action ... 4 Back 12 Svininctrv 10 Sides . .. . (i 7 12 Total Rihs . . 100 Loin . . . . Detailed Description. — Color. — Wliitc, with occasional dark spots in the skin. Head and Face. — Head rathiT .>inall and neat. Vi\co medium dished and smooth; wide between eyes; tapering from eyes to nose. Eyes. — Medium size; proniiiuMit. bright; clear and lively in young, and quiet expression in aged animals. Ears. — Small, thin, fine, silky; u]UMght in yoniig ]>igs, pointing forward and sliglitly ontwanl in aged animals. Nrrl: — "Medium wide, deoji, short. W(>11 arcluMl. and full at top. Jov'J. — "NTediuni fnll. nicely ronnded, lu^at, and free from loose, flabby fat. THE VICTORIA BREED 105 Shoulders. — Broad, deep, and full, not higher than line of hack, ami as Avide as top of back. CJu^sf. — Large, wide, deep, and roomy, with large girth back of shoulders. Back- and Lohu — Broad, straight, or slightly arched; carry- ing same width from shoulders to ham ; level and full at loin, sometimes slightly higher at hip than shoulders. Fig. 31. — Two-year-old \'ictoria boar, winner of many first prizes in the United States. I{i})S and Sides. — Ribs well sprung at top ; strong and firm ; sides deep, full, smooth, and firm ; free from creases. Belli/ and Flank. — Wide ; straight and full ; as low or slightly lower at flank than at chest. Flank full and nearly even with sides. Hams and Rump. — TTams long; full and wide; nicely rounded ; trim and free from loose fat. Buttocks large and 106 BREEDS OF SWINE full; reaching well down to hocks. Kunip slir ]»ink in color; free from scurf; flesh firm and evcidy laid on. Disposl/ion. — (^niet and gentle. Disqualifications. — Colar. — Other than white, or creamy white, ^\^th occasional dark spots in skin. Form-. — Crooked jaws or deformed face; crooke(l or di'- fonned legs ; large, coarse, drooping ears. Condition. — Excessive fatness; barrenness; deformity in any part of the body. Pedigree. — Xot eligible for record. REVIEW. 1. Dpscrilto Victoria swino. 2. Arc thccars (Irooj)irij: or inatioii which eventually resulted in the breed known as tlie Cheshire. Distribution. — The Cheshire is f(iuii]) it into a fairly good iKicon breed. It appears to be a good feeder, and its meat is admitted li> be of excellent qnality. The sows are fairly prolific, and the boars apjiear Kiii. ;i2. — ("hcshire harrow. to ])e ])r('i)otent, bnt very little is known regarding their valne for crossing. The Cheshire Score Card. — Following is the standard of excellence and scale of ])oints adopted by the riieshire Swine Breeders' Association : Counts. Head — Short to inodium in Iciifrtli, short in proportion to length of body 8 Face — Somewhat dished and w idc Ix'twcen tlie eyes 8 Jowl — Medium in fulness 3 THE CHESHIRE BREED 109 Ears — Small, line, erect, and in old animals slightly pointing forward. .5 Xcck — yhort and h: oad 3 Shoulders — Bioad, full and deep G Girth around Heart 8 Pack — Ix)ng, broad and straight nearly to root of tail 10 Sides — Deep and full ; nearly straight on bottom line 7 Flank — Well back and low down, making jlank girth nearly equal to heart girth 3 Hams — Broad and nearly straight with back and running well down towards hock 10 Legs — Small and slim, set wi'll a|>aii. suiiporting body well on toes.. 10 Tail — Small, slim, ami tapering 3 Hair — Fine, medium in thickness and ipiantity 3 Color — White, any colored hairs to disqualify 2 Skin — Fine and plial)le, small blue spots objectionable l)ut allowable 3 Symmctri/ — Animal well projjortioned, handsome, and stylish, and when grown and well fattened should dress from 400 to (iOO pounds 8 Total 100 REVIEW. 1. Descril)e Cheshire swine. 2. Tell of the origin of the breed. 3. Where are they now found? 4. Tell of their variation, and tlieir stability as compared to other breeds. 5. Tell of their type, and (juality of meat. CHAPTER XIV. THE ESSEX BREED. Description. — Tho Essex belongs to the small breeds, bciiiir decidedly siiiallcr tlian siu-li breeds as the I>erkshii-e or I'uhind- ('hiiia. Tho suoiit is short, the face sliiz:htl_v dished, the fore- head broad, and the ears small, tine, and en'ct, bnt iiielin(Ml to droop slio-htly with ns^o. The jowl is heavy, the neck verv sliort. the back broad, and tiie shonlders and hams larirelv deve]o|teroving the Essex ])igs, one of his tenants, namess. It is found mainly in the Mississippi Valley, but herds are not numerous. Tn Panada the Im^ed has nearly disappeared. Utility. — What is said regarding Small Ynrkshin^ und,^r this heading applies to the Suffolk as well, since tlie breeds are vej-y similar. rSee pp. 117-118.) Suffolk Score Card.- — Following is the scale of points adopted by the American Suffolk Association : Counts. Color— Wiute 2 Head — Small, broad, and faci' dished .3 Kars — Fin*', erect, slifjhtly drooping with age 2 Joicl — Full and neat 1 (114) THE SUFFOLK BREED 115 Counts. Xcck — Short, full, and slightly arched 3 tShottldcrs — Broad and deep 7 Girth around Heart 6 Back — Straight, broad, level 12 Sides — DtH'p and full 6 Ribs — Well sprung 7 Loin — Broad and strong 12 Flank — Well let down 2 Ham — Broad, full, deep 12 Tail — Medium, fine, and curled 2 Lcfis — Fine, straight, and tapering 3 Feet — Small 3 Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles 3 Action — Fasy and graceful 4 l^ijmuirtry — Adaptation of tlie several j)arts to each other 10 Total 100 RKVIKW. 1. Describe the Suffolk breed. 2. What is thought to be the origin of the breed? 3. Where is it mainly found in America? 4. To what breed is this one most similar? 5. Can you give any reason why this breed is not popular? CHAPTER XVI. THE SMALL YORKSHIRE BREED. Description. — Tlio Sninll Yorksliiro iiinv bo toniicd the smallest breed in the United States. It has a very short. Fid. 34. — Small Wliilc now, fir.'-t prize winner. lurnc'(l-up snout, wide face, small, erect ears, heavv jowl, aJid a very short neck. The Ix>dy is short, thiek, deep, and smooth, and the legs are very short and v<'ry fine in the bnne. (Fip:s. 34 and 35.) The eolor is Avhite, and the hair is abundant but fine. Origin and History. — The Small Yorkshire comes from (110) THE SMALL YORKSHIRE BREED 117 England, wlii'i-e it. goes by tbt' name of " Small Wliilc," the name " Small Yorkshire " being of AmericaJi orijiin. The breed is belii'ved to be of Chinese origin, but UHMliticd by the metliods of English breeders. Varions types and strains of Small Whites have Ix^en bred in England, bnt at ]iresent they are all classed as one breed. Fu ...^U.-.h Royal Show. Dhtrihution. — The Small Yorkshire was brought to the United States alwnt ISfiO, but its progress has been slow. Small herds are to be found, mainly in the East, but the breed does not attract much attention. Utility. — There does not seem to he any very important place for the Small Yorkshire to fill in America. The breed matures earlv and fattens easily, but produces excessively fat 118 BREEDS OF SWINE meat. Like the Essex, it is probably most suitable for the cottager who wants a pig that can be matured witli a small amount of feed. There is no American breeil that reijuiivs crossing with a breed like the Small Yorkshire, unless it is the ^^ Razorback," and the Essex seems ratlier better adapted to this pur])()se. as its skin will stand the hot sun of the South better than tliat r»f a white breed. The Small Yorkshire is not not<(l for fecundity, and, unless some unforeseen con- ditions arise, the breed seems destined to gradually disa])]>ear. Small Yorkshire Score Card. — Following is tlie description and scale of ]>oint-s for Small Yorkshires adopted by the American Yorkshire Club: Counts. General Outline — Wide and deep in proportion to the lenjrth, straight al)ovt' and ludow. and ssliort in head, neck, body, and limbs .l Outline of Head — Short, abrupt, inclining to fine, and possessed of much dish and downward spxing under the jaws 4 Forehead and Foil — Wide 1 Fye — Medium size; clear and bright 1 Joicl — Large, smooth, and carried well back toward the neck 1 Snout — Short, turning ui)ward somewhat, with a deep indenture or curve immediately above it 1 Ear — Small, thin, erect, and inclining slightly forward ratlur t!ian backward at the tips 1 \eck — Short, wi ons nor widely distribnted. Indiana, "Nfissonri, Arkansas, Texas, and Louisiana are probably the principal states for the (120) THREE MINOR BREEDS 121 breed, but the breed is not largely represented in any state as yet. Utility. — The Xational ^lule-foot Hog Record Association makes the following claims for the breed : " As to the special qualifications and fine points of the !Mule-foot hog, we know it to have greater vitality than any other breed in the United States. We have never known a full-blood Mule-foot hog to luno hog cholera. It is an easy feeder, develops early and rapidly, is in strong demand on the market at a premium. . . . The sows are good, gentle mothers and raise large litters of J'igs, wliicli, if turned out, will hustle for a living, or they will grow fat and thrive, ])aying big i-('turns. under good care and attention." It nuist be remembered that the claims set forth above are made by admirers of the breed. The Arkansas Station tested !Mule-foot hogs with virulent cholera germs, and found them quite as susceptible to the disease as hogs of other breeds. LARGE BLACK PIG. Description. — The Large Black is a large breed, all black in color, and possessing very large drooping ears. In general conformation it approaches the bacon type, having a good length of side, medium width of back and shoulder, a rather light neck and jowl, ami fairly heavy bone. (Figs. 36 and 87.) Origin and History. — The Large Black pig is the latest aildition to the recognized pure breeds of swine in Great Britain. The origin of the breed is not well kuo^\^l, but it has been bred for a great many years in the east and south of England. Dis-frihufioti. — The Large Black is hardly known outside of England, and is not widely distributed even in England, 122 BREEDS OF SWINE iK'iiii;' coiitiiK'd iiKiinlv to the southern part of the eoniitrv. Sonio years aijo ii'preseiitatives (»f the breed were hronght to tlie Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, hut did not prove very satisfaetorv. At ])resent the breed is ])rae- tically not rejiresented on tlio American continent. Utility. — The main claims for the Larg-e Black are its bacon Fio. 36. — ^I.urKe Black sow, winner of first prize. qualities, its fecundity, and its value as a scaveni!;t'r. Its bacon is hiirhly esteemed in England, contain inj;, as it dacon of the Larije I'laek was not ccpuil to that of tlie Laro:e Yorkshire or Taniwortli. The sows are excellent nurses, and the breed is regarded as a first-class farmer's l)re('(l in England, THREE MINOR lUlEEDS 123 MIDDI.K WIIITK (. MIDDLE YOKKSIIIKe). Description. — Tlic Middle White, as the iiaiiie iiii])lies, is iTiteniiediiite in size between the Large \Vliite and the Small \\liito. It is recDgnizcd in England as a distinct l)roed, bnt it is a difficnlt breed to describe on account of its variations. Fio. 37. — Large I'lack hoar, a Show winner Some representatives of the breed might easily pass as Large ^^^lites, and from this extreme they shade down nearly all the way to the Small White type. There is little doubt tJiat many so-called Large Whit<' pigs carry some ^liddh' White blood, and that many ^fiddle Whites, or pigs containing a large percentage of ^fiddle AMiite blood, have been brought to America and passed as Large \\liit€S. Generally speaking, 124 UREEDS OF SWINE they are smaller lliaii the Lai-.uc Whites, have a shorter side, shorter leg, finer lM)iie, and a heavier neek and jowl. They nsually have a slidrlcr smmt than the l.arp- White, and have more dish in snont and face. They hchuii;' to the fat ty])e of horr. ( Fi.u's. :5S, ;3!>, and 40.) Origin. — The ^Middle White originated from a cross he- Fiu. ;j.S. — Midiiiu NVliilc sow. A l.siiical eixiiiiiun of tlic brceil. tween the Large and Small White lireeds. Even at the present, ])igs may ap])ear in Large White litters which are classed by their breeders as jNFiddle Whites, so tliat it sometimes happens that Large Whites and Middh' Whites may come from tlie same litter, especially in those herds where ]\Iiddle ^^^lito blood is occasionally nsed to refim^ the Large "\Miite. Some- times ^Afiddle AMiites are prodnced by one ero^ of Small THREE MINOR BREEDS 125 ^Ybite ii[)ou Large White, ami animals jn'oduced in tliis way should scarcely \)e reoarded as a distinct hreod. Distribution. — Tlic Middle \\'hile is unknown outsido of England, its native country, and, if any have been brought to America, they were introduced under the name of Large Yorksbire. Via. M. — Mi(Klle White boar, an EnRlish Royal .Show champion. Utility. — The utility of tbe Middle White is necessarily limited. Tbo practice of crossing, followed by many brawlers, has told against tbe usefulness of tbe breed, ^liddle Whites wliieb have been l)r('d j)ure for a number of generations woidd no doubt prove quite satisfactory, but so many of them possess recent crosses of other blood that the breed as a whole lacks prepotency jyid trueness to tA7)e. The mixing of ^liddle ^Mlite 126 BREEDS OF SWINE bltxjd with that uf Large White, as practised by niaiij English breeders, cannot be too strongly condemned. A so-called Large Yorkshii-e bdiir ])r(idu('ed in this way may look more attractive to tlio inexperienced breeder of Large Vorksliires than a pure Large Yorkshire, but he makes a very unsatisfactory sire. Breeders of Large Yorkshires soon leani to avoid boars showing anv evidence of Middle White blood. FlO. 40. — Pair of NUtldlr Whito Imrnuvs, prize winners. KEY TO THE BREEDS OF SWTXK. i''()r ii.sc of hc^^i unci's in niakiiij: (piick ri'c()i.Miiti()ii. IIooFH CLOVEN (including' all hut one broi'd). A. Color nil Mack. B. Fat type; ears small and erect Essex BB. Bacon type; ears largo and drooping Large Black THREE MINOR BREEDS 127 AA. Color >iu).stly blaik, witli soiiir white. J{. \\ liitf in form of lu'lt or liaiul aroiiiul body and fore legs IIami'.siiikk lili. Wliite markings on face, feet, etc. C. Face dished; ears erect Bekkshikk CC. Face straigiit; ear tips drooped ... I'ola.nd-Cii in a A.A.\. Color red or mostly so. 15. Fat tyi>e; heavy jowl; snont medium in length Duroc-Jeksky lili. IJacon type; very light jowl; snout long and straigiit Tamwoktu \AAA. Color white or nearly so. B. Ears drooped; face straight Chester White BB. Ears erect, except in a few wlien old ; face disiied or snout turned up. C. Bacon type; adults large, sides long, jowl not fat Large Yorkshire CC. J'at type; sides not long, jowls lleshy. D. Occasional black spots on skin under the wliite hair Vktokia DD. Hair soft, silky, yellowish wliite; skin, pink, no dark s])ots ; breed small Sukp'OLK DDD. Black skin spots few or none: legs long; snout straigiit, fact- only slightly dished ; depth of hody not great Cuksiiiuk DDDD. Skin and hair white; snout short and uj)turned; legs short; face much dished; good depth of body. E. Adults smallest of all breeds Small White. Small YoRKsirtRR EE. Adults medium in size. . ^fiDDLE White Hoofs solid (one breed only) Mule Foot 1 28 BREEDS OF SWINE SIZE OF BllEKUS. Very large — ■Tamwortli, Large Yorksliire, Large Black. Medium large — lierkahire, Cliester Wliite, Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey. Medium — llampsiiire, Chesiiire, Victoria, .Middle White, Mule-foot (t) Small — Sullolk, Essex, Small 'Surksiiire. REVIEW. 1. Describe the Mule-foot hog. 2. What is said of the origin of the breed? 3. Where is the breed now found? 4. What are the special claims for the breed? 5. Describe the Large Black breed. 6. In wliat country was it first known as a distinct breed? 7. What is said of its nresent distribution? 8. What is claimed for the breed? 9. Describe the " Middle White " breed. 10. What was their origin? 11. Where are they now found? 12. Of what use are they? PART IV RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN S^VINE FEEDING CHAPTER XVIII. MISCELLANEOUS INVESTIGATIONS. It is out of the question to review in detail all the work of experiment stations in swine feeding, but there are certain phases of the work Avhich niaj be dealt with profitably in a somewhat general way. The problems which face the swine feeder are numerous, and the experiment stations have been working for years to find solutions for some of them. To solve any problem in stock feeding is a tedious matter, because animals differ so much individually in. their ability to utilize feed, and it requires many rejietitions and the employment of large numbers of animals to answer an apparently simple que'stion. Great care is necessary, therefore, in interpreting the results of live-stock experiments, and it will not do to draw general conclusions where only a limited amount of work has been done. IXFLUENCE OF FEF.D UPON THE 30DY OF THE PIG. In his excellent book, " Feeds and Feeding," Professor Henry gives an account of work done along this line by Sanboni at the ^Missouri Agricultural College, Henry at the' Wisconsin Experiment Station, Shelton in Kansas, Duggar in Alabama, and Fortier in France. Com, which is the standard hog feed of the United States, is a feed rich in carbohydrates, or fat-forming constituents, but rather low in protein, or muscle-forming constituents. It is also low in ash. or bone-forming material. The question arose, therefore, whether a feed such as corn would not have a (isi: 132 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING tendency to produce more fat in the body of a hog tlian would feeds which contain a higher percentage of protein and ash. Without going into details, it may be said that com was fed in opposition to mixtures containing such feeds as dried blood, wheat middlings, peas, skim-milk, bran, and cow-peas, which are feeds much richer than corn in protein. Results. — The methods employed in the investigation varied somewhat, but the general results were as follows: 1. The pigs fed the protein-rich ration generally dressed a somewhat lower percentage of their live weight than those fed the corn ration. 2. In nearly every case the pigs fed the protein-rich ration had the largest quantity of blood, and in every case they had heavier livers than the others. Their kidneys were also heavier, as a rule, though there were some exceptions. 3. In the Wisconsin and Kansas exp'rimeiits, the tender- loin muscles were removed and weighed, and in both cases these were heavier in the case of the protein-fed pigs. The tenderloin muscle is an indication of the amount of Iran throughout the carcass, and hence it was demonstrated that the carcasses of the protein-fed pigs contained nmre lean tliau the others. 4. As a rule, the corn-fed ])igs gave more leaf-lard than the others. .^. At tlie Wisconsin and Kansas stations, the breaking strength of the thigh-bones was tested by a machine designed for such purposes, and in ever\' case the bones from the pigs fed the mixed ration proved stronger than those of the corn-fed pigs, the difference being as higb as 32 per cent in one trial. Limitations. — Though tlie experiments described demon- strate very clearly that it is possible to modify the carcass of the pig by a judicious selection of feeds, we must not assume MISCELLANEOUS INVESTIGATIONS 133 that lean meat or fat can be developed to any extent which the feeder may desire. Nature has set a limit in this con- nection, and what may be accomplished by the feeder in the way of developing lean meat cannot go beyond a certain point. The theory that any bi-cetl of hogs can bo fed in such a way as to produce choice bacon for the English nuirket is not borne out by these or any otlier experiments, nor by the experience of practical breeders who really understand the demands of the market. .-1 peculiar feature of swine is their tendency to develop fat. If the very best specimens of the bacon type are fed largely upon corn, they quickly assume the fat or lard type, and in one or two generations of such treatment the tendency to become shorter in side and thicker in body becomes so firmly fixed that it is very difficult to change them back to the bacon type again under any system of breeding and feeding. On tlie other hand, breeders of bacon hogs know that it re- quires careful selection and feeding to maintain the type. Even under the most favorable conditions there is a tendency for the bacon type to change gradually in the direction of the fat type, unless care is exercised in selection. It is safe to say, therefore, that it is easier to increase the proportion of fat in a hog's carcass than it is to increase the proportion of lean, and that the extent to which die lean may be increased by the character of the feed is very limited and is fixed by the individuality of the animal. Further, any attempt to increase the amount of lean through feeding must be started when the pig is very young in order to be successful. Causes of Soft Bacon. — In the manufacture of '' Wiltshire sides '' Canadian packers have experienced a great deal of difficulty with sides turning soft in the process of curing. In a soft side the fat is soft and spongy, and sometimes the lean 134 RESULTS OF EXPEHliMEXTS IN S\\ L\E FEEDING is affected. A really soft side is practically worthless, and even a slight degree of tenderness detracts very seriously from the value of the haeon. The Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, and the Central Experimental Fann, Ottawa. Canada, have conducted ex- haustive ex])crinients in fonnection with tlu- causes of soft hacon, and folliiwing an- the j»rin('i])al ]K)ints brought out in the investigation : 1. Lack of Maiurity. — Generally speaking, the more im- mature a hog is, the greater the tendency to 1k' soft. Almost invariably the largest percentage of softness occurs among the light sides of bacon. 2. Lnch 'of Finish. — Thin hogs have a marked tendency to. produce soft bacon. ^Marketing hogs before they are finislnHl is, no doubt, resjiojisible for a great deal of softness. 3. I'lil/iriflinrss in hogs, no matter what the cause may be, almost invariably produces soft bacon. 4. Ldch- of exercise has a tendency to ])rodu('o softness, ])ut this tendency can be largely overcome by judicious feeding. .5. Exclusive meal feeding is perhaps oTie of the most com- mon causes of softness, especially when hogs arc not given exercise. Some kinds of meal are more injurious than others, but wherever exclusive meal fe<'ding is practised and the ex- ercise is limited, more or less softness is always sure to result. C). Corn. — Of the grains in conunon use. corn has the greatest tendency to ])roduce softness. Tts injurii>us tendency can be modified by Tuixing it largely with other meal, or by feeding skim-milk, green feed, and roots, but its tendency to produce softness is so strong that it must he regarded as an un- desirable food for bacon hogs. Com a]>pears to give a good quality of meat in the case of the lard hog, but it must be remembered that the bacon hog is marketed at lighter weights and in thinner condition MISCELLANEOUS INVESTIGATIONS 135 than the lard hug, aiid possibly this may explain why corn is unsatisfactoiy for feeding bacon hogs. It is possible also that the difference in the methods of curing may have an influence. 7. Beans seem to have a more marked effect than com in producing softness, and should not be used for finishing bacon hogs. FEED REQUIREMENTS OF GRGWIXG AND FATTENING SWINE. Professor Wm. Dietrich, of the Illinois Experiment Station, has done much careful work upon feeding standards for swine.* Below are given some of the leading features of the standard evolved by him, though it is admitted that certain modifications may be necessary as the result of further investigation. The standard starts with pigs two months old and carries them along until they are eight months old, at which time tliey are ready for market. Water. — As a rule, pigs are allowed to take as much water as their appetite dictates, but Professor Dietrich believes that in warm weather pigs ordinarily drink too nuu-h water and in cold weather they do not drink enough, so tliat he prescril)ed definite quantities of water for each week of the pig's life from two months to eight months of age. The standard calls for 12 pounds of water daily ]K^r 100 pounds, live weight, for pigs two months old, and during the next 26 weeks, or until the pig is eight months old, there is a gradual and uniform decrease in the amount of water to 4 pounds per day for 100 pounds, live weight, for pigs eight months old. The reduction in water given daily per 100 |X)unds. live weight, is about .3 of a pound for oacli week. Crude Protein. — For pigs two months old the standard •Illinois Circulars 12() and 133 give details of the standards. 136 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING calls for .G of a pound of digestible protein per day per 100 pounds, live weight During the next seven weeks there is a uniform increase each week until the j)igs are receiving .7 of a pound per day per 100 pounds, live weight. During tin- next four weeks there is a uniform decrease to the starting- point of .0 of a pound daily per 100 pounds, live weight. Eleven weeks have now elapsed since tlie commencement of the feeding period, and at the beginning of the twelfth week, the protein is increased to .65 of a pound per day per 100 pounds, live weight, and is maintained at this point until the pig is six months old. After the pig is six months old, it is fed largely upon carbonaceous feeds, though it has been fitnnd an advantage to supply rather more protein than is found in corn. It will bo seen that the w^cekly increase of digestible ]irotein during the first seven weeks is about .014 of a pound. The weekly . decrease during tlio eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh weeks is .25 of a pound. Then there is nn increase for the twelfth week of .25 of a pound, and the allowance is then kept uniform until the pig is six months old. Carbohydrates. — For pigs two months old the standard calls for a daily allowance of 2.2 pounds of digestible earlxi- hydrates per 100 pounds, live weight, with a uniform increase, week by week, until the pigs are 6 months old, at which time the daily allowance is 2.fi pounds of digestible carbohydrates p(>r 100 pounds, live Aveight. The author of the circnlar states that their latest investigations indicate that the carbohydrate allowance might start at 2.4 pounds and end at 2.8 pounds. After the pigs are 6 months old the ration is largely car- bonaceous. According to the standarout .02 of a pound. Ether Extract or Fat.^ — The fat content of the ration was found difficult to control, but the author states that pigs will MISCELLANEOUS INVESTIGATIOxNS 137 apparently mako larffor uaiiis wlieii they are pven a little more fat in their ration than is supplied by ordinary fami feeds. Soy beans are recommended as a source of protein and fat. Linseed meal should also be a desirable feed from this stand- point. Mineral Matter. — The mineral matter is not under control, but to make sure that the hogs have an abundant supply, it is recommended to give the hogs free access to salt, charcoal, air- slaked lime, bone-meal, wood-ashes, clean soil, and soft coal cinder?. How to Use the Standard. — Following is an abbreviated description of the method of using the standard, as given in circular 133 : Suppose that a bunch of pigs is two months old and weighs 685 pounds. The standard shows that at this time the pigs require daily, per 100 pounds, live weight, 12 pounds of water, .6 pound of digestible crude protein, and 2.2 pounds of digestible carbohydrates. Multiplying these quantities re- spectively by the total live weight, namely, 685 pounds, and pointing off to the proper figure, we find that this bunch of pigs will require a total of 82.2 pounds of water, 4.11 pounds of digestible crude protein, and 15.07 pounds of digestible carbohydrates per day. Xext, we must make a selection of feeds which we think will be suitable, and, by reference to any table which gives the amount of digestible constituents in one pound of each of the feeds, we must take such quan- tities of the different feeds as to bring the protein and carbo- hydrates up to the standard, and add sufficient water to bring it to the standard also. We have now arrived at the amount of feed which this bunch of pigs should consume in one day when two months old. But each day the pigs will require a slight increase in feed, and, since it is not practicable to weigh the pigs every day and calculate our ration each day, we must 138 liESLLTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN .SWINE FEEDING estimate what tlie pigs will probably weigh at the end of the week, formulate a ration in accordance with this estimate, and gradually work tlioni uj) to the (puintity the standard calls for by the end of the week. Suppose we estimate that the pigs will gain G5 pounds during the week, making a total of 850 pounds. Referring to our standard, we lind tluU the daily water requirement per 100 pounds, live weight, lias decreased .3 of a pound by the end of the week, the digestible protein has increased .014 (say .015), of a pound, and the carbo- hydrate requirement has increased .02 of a ])()nn(l. Hence, by the end of the week the pigs should be receiving daily, 11.7 pounds of water, .615 of a pound of protein, and 2.22 jwunds of carbohydrates per 100 pounds of their live weight. ^Mul- tiplying these amounts by 850 (estimated weight) and dividing by 100, we get tlie total daily recpiirement per 100 ])ounds, live weight, for the bunch of pigs at the end of the week — which amounts to 99.45 pounds of water, 5.2275 pounds of digestible protein, and also 18.87 pounds digestible carbohy- drates. We must now refer to table of digestible constituents, and add feeds in such proportions as to bring our ration into con- formity with the standard. Having arrived at our ration for the beginning of the week, and also estimated it for the close of the week, we can make each day's feeding apjiroach suffi- ciently close to the standard. At the close of the week the hogs are weighed, their gain estimated for the following week, the ration adjusted to the weight and age of the hogs, as it was done for the first w^eek, and the operation repeated for each succeeding week. Features of the Standard. — There are two things about the standard which call for remark. Tn the first ])lace, the writer's experience is that the hog is a pretty good judge of the amount of water he requires, and the chances are tlint water MISCELLANEOUS IXVESTIGATIOXS 139 will be droppt'd from the standard in the course of time. This remark is based upon certain experimental work, but the work is not sutfieiently advanced to warrant a definite statement. In the second place, the standard is very complex, and it would be difficult for the busy farmer to calculate rations and follow the intricacies of the standard. On the other hand, Professor Dietrich deserves great credit for the thoroughness of his investigations, and the standard is especially valuable on account of the light it throws upon the protein requirement of young i^igs. There is no doubt that many a promising litter has been stunted through ignorance of this important point. Xo doubt the standard will eventually be modified and simplified until it is brought within the reach of the average intelligent feeder. IIOGS FOLLOWING STEEES. ^fany farmers who fatten steers regard the hog as a neces- sary adjunct to the business if a profit is to be obtained, Tlie hogs work over the dropjungs of the steers and fatten upon the undigested grain in the manure of the cattle. Illinois. — The number of hogs per steer, which can be used to advantage, will vary with the character of the ration fed the steers. H. W. Mumford, in Bulletin 103 of the Illinois Experiment Station, states: " Where enough pigs are provided to consume undigeste liogs P^r steer; shelled cdni, 1 to IMj hogs per steer; crushed or ground corn, i;', ^'^ ^ L' hog per steer." When steers are given feeds rich in protein in addition to corn, such as clover, alfalfa, or eow-pea hay, or concentrates such as linseed meal, a small alK)wance of cottonseed meal, etc., hogs make better gains than when feeds poor in protein are fed to the steers with corn. Tn summer feeding, access to a pasture will take the place of other supplemental feeds, clover and alfalfa being especially beneficial. Feed Required for Maintenance. — Investigations at the Wis- consin Station indicate that a pig can be nuiintained for one day (neither gaining nor losing in weight) on about one pet MISCELLANEOUS INVESTIGATIONS 141 cent of its live weight of feed in the form of whc«it middlings. That is to say, one pound of feed equal in value to one pound of wheat middlings will support a pig weighing 100 pounds for one day, but will provide nothing for gain in weight. Pro- portionately larger amounts would be recjuired for heavier pigs. Further, it was shown that a 50-pound pig used only 18 per cent of the feed it consumed for the support of its body, leav- ing 82 per cent of what it consumed for producing gain in weight. The percentage of feed required for body maintenance increased as the pig became heavier and a 200-pound pig required 36 per cent of its feed for maintenance, leaving only 64 per cent for production. This is a striking illustration of the ability of young animals to use feed economically. Spayed vs. Unspayed Sows. — Bulletin 70 of the Utah Station reports a test in wliicli three spayed sows were fed in comparison with three un- spayed sows. The gains were slightly in favor of the unspayed sows, but the difference was very slight. The results of this test, coupled with the results of feeding barrows and sows, point to the conclusion that spaying sows is an unnecessary and unprofitable operation. Barrows vs. Sows. — The Wisconsin Station compared the gains made by 98 sows and an equal numljer of barrows. The sows made an average gain during tlie feeding period of 102 pounds, and the barrows, 107 pounds. Professor Henry, in " Feeds and Feeding " quotes results from feeding 1216 pigs in Denmark, which showed practically no difference between bar- rows and sows as to gain, shrinkage, or quality of carcass. The Utah Station conducted tests in which the average gains made by Sows were higher than those made by barrows. REVIEW. 1. Give results of feeding corn in contrast with a protein-rich ration. 2. What can you say of the tendency of corn to produce fat? 3. Briefly discuss seven causes of soft bacon. 4. Discuss the question of water for swine by the Dietrich standard. 5. Discuss crude protein for the same; also carbohydrates. 6. Tell of the needs of fat and of mineral matter for the same. 7. Can you apply tlie Dietrich standard to the feeding of a pen of pigs?' 8. Mention two objectionable features of the standard. 0. Give soige conclusions regarding the question of hogs following steers. CHAPTER XIX. CORN. Pounds of Pork from a Bushel of Corn. — As in nearly all live-stock investiii:ations, wide variations have occurred in con- nection with this ai)])arently simple jtrohlein. .Fanners have been asked to report results through the agricultural papers, and numerous results have Ix^en obtained from experiment sta- tions. Professor Robbins, of the Iowa Experiment Station, presents a very concise summinii" u]i of the quostinn in the (•r>lnmns of The Breeder's Gazetir^ where he gives the following fable: Number Ol tests. Number of hogs. Number of days fed. Average weight of hogs at start Gain per day Corn for 100 lbs. gain. Gain per bushel of corn. 8 18 2G 322 144 466 56 79 C8 lbs. 157 149 153 lbs. 1.09 1.09 1.09 lbs. 544 5^8 546 lbs. 10.3 Experiment stations Farmers and experi- ment stations 10.2 10.25 The results given in the table are from tests where only whole com was fed, no sui)pleinentary feeds or pasture being used. The results from farmers and i-xjd'riment stations ngive very clo.sely, and confirm llic gcn('r;il liclicf tiuit liogs on full feed of whole com shoulil gam iiiiout one jiound j)er day, and make ten pounds of pork from a. l)ush(d of com. Tliis is not p laiflce return from a bu.shel of corn, but the method of feeding is no I the most economical. Whole Corn vs. (iround Con. — The Wisconsin Experi- ment Station has conducted exliaustive experiments with whole com and ground com for fattening swine. The experiments (142) CORN 143 extend over a jieriod of ten years. Eighteen separate tests were made, in whieli a total of 280 pigs were used. Bulletin 145 gives a suniniary of the results. The feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain varied from 360 pounds to 820 pounds, the poorest gains being made in the case of young pigs, weighing 84 pounds when the trial began, which were fed upon com alone, and the best gains for feed consumed were made by young pigs which were fed equal parts by weight of corn and middlings with a small allowance of skim-milk. The 140 pigs fed ground com ate 5510 pounds more grain and made 2036 pounds more gain than the 140 pigs fed whole com. The pigs fed whole corn consumed an average of 501 pounds of grain for each 100 pounds of gain, and the pigs fed ground corn consumed 471 pounds of grain for each 100 pounds of gain. Eleven trials out of the eighteen showed a saving from grinding, the amount saved varying from 2.5 per cent to 18.5 per cent. The remaining seven trials showed a loss from grinding, the loss varying from 1.1 per cent to 11.1 per cent. The average of the eighteen trials shows a saving of 6 per cent from grinding com. Of the 140 pigs fed whole corn, 45 pigs gained more than the average, and 95 pigs gained less than the average. Of the 140 i)igs fed ground corn, 91 pigs gained more than the average, and 49 pigs gained less tlian the average. The authors of the bulletin point out that the economy of grinding com will depend upon the price of com and the cost of grinding, and the following table is given to assist the farmer in determining when to grind : 144 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING Saving Effected per Bushel by Grinding Corn for Fattening Pigs. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. eta. When corn is worth:. . . Saved by grinding : 25 1.5 30 1.8 35 2.1 40 2.4 45 2.7 50 3.0 55 3.3 60 3.6 65 3.9 70 4.2 75 4.5 The authors conclude that where there is plenty of time for maturing pigs, it is doubtful whether it pays to grind the corn. Pigs eat more com when it is ground, and make somewhat more rapid gains. Ground com is recommended for finishing hogs that have been fed shelled corn until near the close of the feed- ing period. Ear Corn, Shelled Corn, and Com Meal (Soaked and Dry). — In Bulletin 106, the Iowa Experiment Station reports results of two years' work with hogs of different ages. As a result of these tests the follomng recommendations are made regarding farm practice: " These results clearly indicate the most profitable farm practice where corn is the main part of the ration for hogs. The fastest and most profitable gains were secured by feeding dry ear com until the hogs were close to 200 pounds in weight. The scoop shovel was all that was needed to prepare corn for them. Then, if the hogs were to be fed longer and the weather permitted, the most profitable gains were secured by changing them to soaked shelled corn. Spring pigs, to be sold the next fall and winter, thus gave the best results when fcnl dry ear corn until sold. Fall pigs, and the spring pigs carried over to be fattened the following spring, were handled most profit- ably by feeding dry ear corn until the weather became mild enough for soaking com in the following spring, and then feeding soaked shelled com until the finish. This was especially 1n*ue when the hogs were run on pasture. The old sows made CORN 145 faster autl more economical gains on dry com meal than on ear corn, but the benetit from this was largely lost when it was finally necessary to shij) them to market on ear com. They were handled most protitably by feeding soaked shelled com. It shonld be b<:)rne in mind that com soaked twelve hours gave better results than that soaked twenty-four hours." " Hogs fed on dry ear com required a longer time to eat than those fed soaked corn or corn meal, owing to the more thorough mastication of the dry ear com. Young hogs and pigs reduced tlie drs^ kernels from the ear com to a finer state of division than did the older hogs." " It proved useless to grind com for hogs of any age when the weather was warm enough to permit soaking. In every case where grinding has shown a saving of com, simple soaking twelve hours in water has shown a still greater saving." Trials Differ. — While not quite the same as the findings of the Wisconsin Experiment Station, the Iowa results are some- what similar to tliose of Wisconsin, and they bring out a very interesting and important point regarding young animals. The fact that young hogs masticate their feed more thoroughly than older ones helps to ex]ilain why they made better use of whole corn than did the older hogs, and also affords a reason for the fact that young hogs almost invariably make cheaper gains than older ones. Trial in Maryland. — The Maryland Experiment Station (Bulletin l.j(J) rejxjrts a tx'st of shelled com and ground com, and reports as follows : " It appears that in this expt^riment there was little difference in economy between shelled corn and com meal, but this small difference is in favor of com meal." Other experiment stations, including Alabama, Maine, New York, .Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, have conducted tests in connection with this problem. Out of eleven trials at these stations, where the total feed cx)nsuraed 10 146 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING is reported, four trials resulted in favor of whole corn and seven in favor of ground corn. In one trial -where whole com ffave l>etter results, the com was soalced. Hogging off corn means turning the hogs into a field of standing corn aiul allowing them to pull down the stalks and consume the corn at will. The Minnesota Experiment Station has issued a most interesting bulletin on tliis subject. Two experiments were conducted in which hogs allowed the run of a cornfield were compared with hogs fed in a drv lot on ear corn. In the first experiment no shelter was provided for either lot, but they were given straw for bedding. In the second experiment the yard hogs were given shelter, but the field hogs were treated as before. Shorts were fed to each lot as a supplement to the corn, at the rate of one pound of shorts per day per hundred pounds weight of the pigs. In the first trial there were 26 field hogs and 13 yard hogs; and in the second trial, 32 field hogs and 8 yard hogs. The first trial commenced Oetol)er 11th and ended ISTovember 29tli. The second trial commenced September 19th and ended November 9th. In each trial tlic field hogs were given an acre of corn at a time, instead of being allowed the run of the whole field. The ear corn consumed by the field hogs had to be estimated by taking samples. The average daily gain ])vr hog in the two trials was as follows : First trial: Field lot, 1.3 pounds; ear-coni lot, .98 pound. Second trial: Field lot, 1.44 pounds; ear-corn lot, 1.09 pounds. The amount of feed consumed per 100 pounds of gain was as follows: CORN 147 Feed Cunsumed Per Hundred I'uunda Uain. First trial . . . Second trial . Average of two trials J Field lot Yard lot Field lot Yard lot Field lot Yard lot Shorts Ear corn lbs. lbs. 139 696 169 831 103 .'i32 146 573 121 614 157 702 Total lbs. 835 1000 635 719 735 859 The larger amount of feed for 100 pounds gain in the first trial, as compared wdth the second trial, is due to the fact that the weight of the ear corn when first husked was used in the first year's calculations, whereas the second trial is calculat{>d upon a cured corn basis, tliat is, corn drs' enough for market. Results. — It will be seen that the field hogs made larger and more economical gains than the yard hogs in each experiment. In the second experiment a third group of hogs was used. These hogs were fed in a dry lot upon snapped com, — that is, the ears of com without the husks removed. This lot occu- pied an intermediate position, both in rate and economy of gain, the snapped com giving better results than the ear corn. A summar}' appearing in Bulletin 10-i gives the following notes: " The cost of fencing cornfields may be from $1.00 to $2.50 less per acre than the cost of husking." " It requires no more labor to prepare for subsequent crops, fields that have been ' hogged oflF ' than those that have been treated by the ordinary methods of har^-esting." " Hogs waste no more com in field than when fed in ynrd. They pick the com as clean as most men do in husking." 148 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING " Three pounds of rape seed (per acre) sown in corn at last cultivation, furnishes considerable succulent feed, wliich may take the place of high-priced shorts." " It is not expected that all corn raised be fed off with hogs, but the amount they can clean up from the time it is nicely glazed until the weather becomes unfavorable may be economically fed in this way." " Hogs should not, as a rule, be turned into more corn at one time than they can eat up clean in two or three weeks. The shorter period is preferable." Best Conditions. — It is recommended that varieties of corn be grown tliat will mature sufficiently by the first of September, so as to prolong the feeding period. Pigs weighing from 100 to 140 pomids are best for the purpose. Small pigs are not suitable. The table which follows is designed to show, approximately, the number of days required to " hog off " an acre of corn by a given number of pigs weighing 125 pounds. 30 bu. per Days Will keep 10 hoRS 22.5 Will keep 20 hogs 11.2 With corn shrunk to January 1, and yielding: 35 bu. per Days 26.2 13.1 40 bu. 45 bu. per per acre. acre. Days 30.0 15.0 Days 33.7 16.8 50 bu. per acre. 55 bu. per acre. Days 37.5 18.7 Days 41.2 20.6 60 bu. per 65 bu, per Days 45.0 22.5 Days 48.7 24.3 70 bu. per Days 52.5 26.2 Tests in Missouri. — The Missouri Experiment Station (Bulletin 95) reports five tests in " hogging off " com. In two of the tests rye was sown among the com at the last cultivation at the rate of one bushel per acre ; in two other plots cow-peas were sown at the last cultivation at the rate of one bushel per acre; and in one plot rape was sown at the rate of pounds per acre. The following table shows the principal details: CORN 149 Com with Forage. Feeding Period. Aug. 27 to Sept. 27. Aug. 27 to Sept. 26. Sept. 20 to Nov. 15. Sept. 20 to Dec. 3d. Sept. 20 to Nov. 1. Forage. Corn and rye. Corn and cow-peas. Corn and cow-peaa. Corn and rye. .Corn and rape. No. of hogs per acre Total gain per acre No. days corn lasted Average wt. per hog at commencement of test . . 10 010 lb. 31 140.6 10 568 lb. 30 141.4 12 276 lb. 57 102.5 12 302 lb. 75 100.3 12 220 lb. 51 931b. Teachings. — It will be noted that there was a very wide variation in the amount of pork produced per acre, and that the heavier hogs gave better results than the lighter ones. This method of harvesting corn helps to reduce the labor bill. It is recommended to use movable hurdles and give the hogs access to what they will harvest in about 10 days, the hurdles being moved as required. " Hogging off " corn gives best results when the weather is dry. It is recommended to accustom the hogs gradually to new corn before turning them into tlie field. Hogs may be turned into the cornfield as soon as the dent has formed on the kernel. REVIEW. 1. Give the number of pounds of pork from a bushel of corn as determined by the Iowa trial. 2. What does the economy of grinding corn for swine depend upon? 3. Give the conclusion regarding this after the Wisconsin trial. 4. What did the Iowa trial show regarding grinding and soaking of corn? 5. What is meant hy " hogging ofT corn "? 6. Give the result of the "Minnesota trial regarding this. 7. Give the points in the "Minnesota summary. 8. Give the best conditions for practising this method of feeding. 9. Give the teachings of the Missouri test. CHAPTER XX. SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS WITH CORN. It has been already noted that corn is essentially a fat- forming feed, and that it is not a good bone and muscle former. The evil effects of exclusive corn feeding are most conspicuous in the case of young, growing pigs, and numerous experiments have been conducted in combining other feeds with corn, which would tend to overcome its objectionable features. The influence of exclusive corn feeding upon the composition of the body has been discussed, but its influence upon the growth and economical gains of the animal has yet to be considered. Blood Meal and Pea Meal. — In " Feeds and Feeding," Henry, of the Wisconsin Experiment Station, reports gains and feed consumed by three lots of pigs fed as follows: Lot 1 : 1/^ blood meal, % com meal. Lot 2 : 1/^ pea meal, i/4 com meal. Lot 3 : Corn meal only. During the trial. Lot 1 gained 202 pounds, and required 409 pounds of feed for 100 pounds of gain. Lot 2 gained 180 pounds and required 449 pounds of feed for 100 pounds of gain. Lot 3 gained 155 pounds and required 481 pounds of feed for 100 pounds of gain. Blood meal is very rioli in protein, and peas arc much richer in protein than corn. The effect of using such feeds with com is very noticeable in the larger gains and smaller feed requirements for 100 pounds gain. (150) SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS WITH CORN 151 Bone Meal and Hard-wood Ashes. — Henry also reports tlirc'o trials in fcciling' Wmc nica.1 with corn, and hard-wood ashes \\'ith corn, ag^ainst corn alone, six pigs from the same litter being nsed in each trial. Regarding these trials the author writes: " As tlie trials progressed, it became evident that none of the pigs were properly nurtured, though the difference in favor of those getting bone meal or ashes was very marked. The pigs allowed neither ashes nor bone meal were most plainly dwarfed. . . . These dwarfs became so fat that the jowls and bellies of some of them nearly touched the ground." The following table, taken from " Feeds and Feeding," shows some striking differences: Com meal required to produce 100 pounds of gain, pounds Averasie breaking strength of thigh- bones, pounds Average ash in thigh-bones, grams. . When bone meal was fed. 487 680 166 When ashes were fed. 491 581 150 When neither was fed 629 301 107 It will be seen from the above table that the appetite of the hog for such substances as ashes is not without significance. Wheat Middlings and Skim-Milk.— J. G. Fuller, of the Wisconsin Kxperinient Station, reports an experiment with two lots of Berkshire pigs. They were young pigs, w^eighing alx)Ut 51 pounds each when the experiment began. One lot was fed com meal only, and the other was fed a mixture of e/)rn meal, wheat middlings, and skim-milk. The following conclusions are drawn from the experiment: Tf the pigs were valued at the same price per pound, the mixed ratirm hit would return a profit practically four times that of the corn lot. 152 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING The amount of drv matter required for a pound of gain was twice as great in the com group as in the mixed ration group. The mixed ration group made 4.2 times as great a gain as tlie pigs in the com group. On an average, the thigh-bones of the mixed-ration group were 50 per cent stronger than those from the com group. The constitution of tlie pigs in the com group was seriously impaired. Finally, it is highly impracticable to raise growing i)igs upon a ration of com alone. Soy-Bean Meal and Wheat Middlings. — Tlnnii)lirev and Fuller, of the Wisconsin Experiment Station, report, three tests in which soy-bean meal was compared with wheat middlings as a supplement to com. The soy luau is very rich in protein and fat, and the object of the experiment was to compare it with wheat middlings, which are generally recognized as being a good supplement to com. Two pounds of corn meal were fed with each pound of soy-bean meal or wheat middlings, and skim-milk was also fed to both lots. Part of tlie time the hogs were on pasture, and part of the time in pens. The authors draw tho folloAnng conclusions : " Soy-bean meal makes an excellent supplement to corn meal for growing and fattening pigs." " Soy-bean meal is from 8 to 10 per cent more valuable than wheat middlings for economical pork production when the cost of the two feeds is the same." " For firmness, fine grain and texture of flesh, and even distribution of fat and lean, the ration of wheat middling? and com meal is superior to that of soy beans and com meal." Looking over these conclusions, we must admit that soy- SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS WITH CORN 153 beans have not made a verv good showing;, beeanse, in most localities, wheat middlings would be very much cheaper. The influence upon the texture and firmness of the meat is also worthy of consideration. Barley, Shorts, Meat Meal, and Tankage. — The Iowa Ex- periment Stiition reports an experiment with forty-eight well- grown hogs divided into four lots. The rations of the different lots were as follows: Lot 1. Corn, two ])arts; barley, one part; shorts, one part^ Lot 2. Com. Lot 3". Com, nine parts; Armour's meat meal, one part. Lot 4. Corn, nine parts; Swift's tankage, one part. !Meat meal and tankage are by-products of the packing house, and are lx)th very rich in protein. The meat meal used in this experiment contained 60.36 per cent of protein, and the tankage 53.54 per cent. Such highly concentrated feeds must be used in small quantities. The hogs averaged 218 pounds each at the commencement of the trial, which lasted tliirty-two days. The average daily gain jier hog in each group was as follows: Meat meal, 2.6 pounds; tankage, 2.3 pounds; barley and shorts, 2.2 pounds; com alone, l.S pounds. The feed consumed per 100 poimds gain is shown in the following table: Lot 1. Com, barley and shorts Lot 2. Com alone liOt 3. Com and meat meal Lot 4. Com and tank- age.... Com. lbs. 198.9 463.5 333.3 358.8 Barley. lbs. 99.5 Shorts. lbs. 99.5 Meat meal. lbs. 37.0 Tankage Total. lbs. lbs. 397.9 463.5 370.3 39.9 398.7 154 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDLXG Feeds were vahuMl as follows: Corn, 43 wiits per ")() ])onii(L<, or 70.8 cents per luindred- weight. Barley, 35 cents per bushel, or 72.0 cents per hundred- weight. Shorts, $18.00 per ton, or 90 cents per hundred-weight. Meat meal, $35.00 per ton, or $1.75 per hundred- weight Tankage, $33.00 per ton, or $1.65 per hundred-weight. According to these values, the cost of 100 pounds gain was as follows: lot 1, $3.15; lot 2, $3.56; lot 3, $3.21; lot 4, $3.41. Conchisioii. — It will be noted that the group fed corn alone made the smallest daily gains and the most expensive gains. The cheapest gains Avere made by the lot fed com, barley, and shorts, though this lot stood third in rate of gain. The largest gains were made by the meat meal group, but the high price of the meat meal runs up the cost out of pro- portion to the rate of gain. In this experiment, meat meal proved superior to tankage as a supplementary feed with corn. Meat Meal. — A second experiment by the Iowa Experi- ment Station was conducted with different proportions of Armour's meat meal with com as compared with com alone. Thirty-six pigs, averaging 137 pounds in weight, wore divided into four groups and fed 100 days. Lot 1. Corn meal 7 parts, meat meal 1 ]iart. Lot 2. Corn meal 8V^ parts, meat meal 1 ])art. Lot 3. Corn meal 10 parts, meat meal 1 part. Lot 4. Com meal alone. The average daily gain per pig, the feed consumed per 100 pounds gain, and the cost of 100 pounds gain were as follows : SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS \MTH CORN 155 Average daily gain. Feed per 100 lbs. gain Cost of 100 lbs. gain. Corn. Meat meal Total. I/Ot 1. Corn 7, meat lueiil 1 lbs. 1.74 1.7S 1.85 1.16 lbs. 381.6 409.2 409.9 556.6 lbs. 54.5 47.9 40.9 lbs. 436.1 457.1 450.8 556.6 $3.73 Lot 2. Corn 832. meat meal 1 $3.81 Lot 3. Corn 10, meat meal 1 $3.68 Lot 4. Corn alone $3.97 Til (M>iiij)iitini>: tlie cost, corn meal was valued at 71.4 cents I 111' luuidred-wciglit, and Armour's meat meal at $37.00 per ton. Ir will 1)0 noted that tlie lot receiving 10 parts com to 1 part meat meal made tlie most rapid and the cheapest gains. As in the first experiment, the hogs fed corn alone made the slowest and most expensive gains. The report of the experiment states : " The pigs in all lots were uniformly very fat, and the difference in gain be- tween the lots getting meat meal and the one getting corn alone seems to have been mostly in growth, although the meat meal pigs showed smoother, glossier hair." Meat Meal, Tankage, and Shorts. — ^A third experiment of the Iowa Experiment Station had for its object the comparison of Armour's meat meal and Swift's digester tankage witli shorts, as supi)lements to a com ration with, young growing pigs. As the pigs were young, averaging 60 pounds in weight, it was not tliought advisable to feed any of them corn alone in dry lots. The lots that were fed com as the only concentrate were pastured on timothy or clover pasture. Altogether, 100 pigs were used, and divi five parts com meal. 156 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING ShorUi wore fcil in two |)rupurti(»ns, — ■iiainoly, one of shorts to two of com meal, and one of shorts to one of corn meal. The experiment lasted 112 days. Leading Points. — There are many interesting details of this exjXTimeut which cannot be given here, and only the leading points will be referred to. 1. Meat meal and tankage proved practically eqnal as supplements to corn in point of producing gains, as will be seen from the following statement : Ration. Gain per hog. Corn and meat meal on pasture 1G4.9 lbs. Corn and tankage on pasture 162.9 lbs. Corn and meat meal in drj' lot 128.8 lbs. Corn and tankage in dry lot 128.8 lbs. 2. The number of bushels of com replaced by one ton of supplementary feed was as follows: Ration Corn 2, siiorts 1 One ton shorts replaced 4G.G bu. corn Corn 1, shorts 1 One ton shorts replaced 45.;i bu. corn Corn 5, meat meal 1. . .One ton meat meal replaced 57.9 bu. corn Corn 5, tankage 1 One ton tankage replaced 64.4 bu. corn From this stand-i)oint, tankage proved most etfective. 3. When the hogs were upon pasture, shorts compared favorably with meat meal. The average total conamtrates re- quired for 100 pomids gain in the case of hogs fed corn and shorts on pasture was 403.5) pounds; in the case of the hogs fed meat meal and com it was 409.6 pounds; for the hogs fed tankage and com, it was 398.4 pounds. 4. In the drs' lots the highly nitrogenous feeds, meat meal and tankage, showed to best advantage as compared with shorts, the average total feed requirements for 100 pounds gain being SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS WITH CORN 157 494.7 pounds fur the shorts and corn lots, 409.9 ponnds for the meat meal and corn lot, and 4G0.4 pounds for the tiinkage and com lot. 5. Among the conclusions drawn from the experiment, the following statements occur: " Meat meal and tankage of similar chemical composition are almost eijual, pound for pound, as a supplement to a com ration for growing pigs and fattening hogs." " Hogs fed on rations composed of corn and meat meal, and corn and tiinkage, were fully as acceptable to the buyers, both from the stand-point of the quality and condition of the flesh, as those fed on any other rations used." '' Both meat meal and tankage are more valuable adjuncts to the com ration for dry lot feeding than when pigs or hogs are being developed and fattened on pasture, especially if the pasture be composed of leguminous crops." " A ration of one-half com and one-half shorts produced greater gains with less feed per 100 pounds of gain, botli on pasture and dry lot feeding, than a ration of two-thirds corn and one-third shorts." Skim-Milk. — From a test with skim-milk, tankage, linseed meal, soy-bean meal, and wheat middlings as supplements to com meal, conducted at the Indiana Experiment Station, the following conclusions are draA\Ti : " Skim-milk, tankage, linseed meal, so^'-bean meal, and middlings proved to be verv^ efficient supplements to com meal." '' Hosrs fed on com meal and skim-milk consumed more feed, made a greater increase in live weight with a smaller amount of feed and dry matter, and at less expense than similar lots fe0 per cwt. 24. cents per cwt. as compared with soy-bean meal at .fl.oO per cwt. 22.9 cents per cwt. as compared with tankafre at $2.00 per cwt. 28. cents per cwt. as compared witli iiiiddlinnjs at l.'i.'i per cwt. " Skim-milk has j)roved to be the most efficient supplement to shelled corn or a m meal used in the experimental feed lots at the station for the past five years in fattening hogs." " Tankage has been the most efficient commercial feed used as a supplement to com in fattening hogs under market conditions prevailing during the past five years." Sihorts, Skim-Milk, Tankage, Ground Bone, Alfalfa Pasture. — The Nebraska Experiment Station conducted a series of experiments with shorts, skim-milk. Swift's digester tankage, and steamed ground bone. Following are the rations used : Corn meal alone. Com meal 75 per cent, shorts 25 ]>er cent. Com meal 25 per cent, skim-milk 75 per cent. Com meal 90 per cent, tankage 10 per cent. Com meal 1)5 per cent, tankage 5 per cent. Corn meal 00 ]X'r cent, steamed ground bone 10 pov cent. During part of the time the hogs were on alfalfa pasture, so that it is possible to study the effect of alfalfa with corn. The last experiment brings out the comparison very clearly, as is shown in the following table: SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS WITH CORN 159 On alfalfa pasture. Feed for 100 pounds gain . Cost. In dry lot. Feed for 100 pounds gain. Cost. Corn meal alone ..." Corn 75 per cent, shorts 25 per cent Corn 25 per cent, skim milk 75 per cent Corn 90 per cent, tankage 10 per cent Corn 90 per cent, ground bone 10 per cent lbs. 343 \ 7 336 249* 704t 322 336 $2.38 $2.64 $3.19 $2.72 $2.62 lbs. 543 533 f 385*) \ 1063t / 487 533 $3.88 $4.18 $4.87 $4.10 $4.17 * Corn. t Skim-milk. In computing tlie cost, com was valued at 40 cents per bushel, shorts at $20.00 per ton, skim-milk at 20 cents per hundred pound.'^. tankag-e at $-i0.00 per ton, and ground bone at $30.00 per ton. Besults. — It will be noted that while the hogs were upon alfalfa pasture the amoimt of com required for 100 pounds of gain, with the lot fed com meal alone, compares very favorably with the other groups ; but when the hogs were put into dry lots the feed for 100 pounds gain in the com group is much higher than in the tankage group. The same is true of the com and shorts group as compared with the corn and tankage group, so that here we find the same result as was found in the Iowa experiments. If the same values for feeds were used in the Xebraska experiments as were used in the Iowa experiments, the sup- plementary feeds would make a better showing. It must also be remembered that in Nebraska the hogs were kept upon alfalfa pasture until they were well grown, and, in consequence, were in the best possible shape, to stand ex- clusive com feeding in the dry lota. 160 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING Followin<>' are suiir' points taken from Professor Burnett's conclusions in connection with the investiffation : A\Tien pigs were in a dry lot, the use of tankage as about 5 per cent of the ration generally reduced the cost of the pork produced. All these experiments tend to show the suitahilitj of corn and alfalfa as a ration for hogs. The lot receiving com and steamed ground bone show gains at practically the same cost as the lot receiving 5 per cent tankage. The lot receiving ground bone required more feed for 100 pounds of gain, but the ground bone cost less per ton. Skim-milk at 20 cents per 100 pounds proved the most expensive supplementary feed used. Wliere supplementary feeds were used, the hogs generally made more rapid gains and reached heavier weights in a given length of time. In a test of the breaking strength of the bones of tlie hogs in the Nebraska experiments, it was found that they stood in the following order in point of strength of bone: Com and ground bone, corn and tankage, com and skim-milk, corn and shorts, com alone. Tankage vs. Linseed Meal. — The Indiana Experiment Station reports four tests in wliieli Swift's digester tankage was fed in comparison with linseed meal as a sui)plement to corn. The proi)ortion of tankage to com meal was 1 to 10 in the first test, 1 to 32 in the second, 1 to 20 in the third, and 1 to 15 in the fourth. In each test the proportion of linseed meal to com meal was twice as great as the proportion of tankage to com meal, the linseed meal being poorer in protein than the tankage. SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS WITH CORN 161 Com was valiK'd at $1S.()U i)er ton, tankage at $40.00 por ton, and okl process linsood meal at $.'50.00 jier t^»n. In two tests linseed meal proved slightly more economical than tankage, and in the other two tankage had a fairly marked advantage. The averages of the four tests show the feed requirements and cost of 100 pounds of gain to be as follows: Corn meal and tankape: 370 lbs. corn. 24.5 lbs. tankage, costing $3.82. Corn meal and linseed meal: 363.6 lbs. corn, 46.2 lbs. linseed meal, costing $3.96. Conclusions. — It is noted in the summary that hogs fed on a ration of corn meal and tankage consume more feed and make more rapid gains than hogs fed a ration of com meal and linseed meal. Also, that a ration of com meal and tankage gives a better finish than one of com meal and linseed meal. Soy-Bean Meal vs. Linseed Meal. — Indiana also reports two tests comparing soy-bean meal with linseed meal as sup- plements to com. In the first test, 5 parts of com meal were fed ^vith 1 part of linseed meal or soy-bean meal. In the second test, 8 parts of com meal were fed ^vith 1 part of linseed meal, and 7 parts of corn meal with 1 part of soy-bean meal. Linseed meal and soy-bean meal are botli valued at $30.00 per ton, and com meal at $18.00 per ton. On an average of the results of the two trials, it required for 100 pounds of gain : Com meal and linseed meal, 378 pounds, costing $3.71. Com meal and soy-bean meal, 3G0 pounds, costing $3.55. The percentage of protein in linseed meal and soy-bean meal 13 very similar, and, though soy-bean meal showed an advantage 11 162 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING over linseed meal in these tests, the difference is slight. Liiiseed Meal. — E. B. Forbes, of the Missouri Experiment Station, reports results of an experiment in which 100 pounds of a mixture of five parts corn to one part linseed meal proved equal to nearly 14S pounds of corn alone. Tankage. — The Indiana Experiment Station was among the first to test tankage as a supplement to corn. In this trial, feeds were valued as follows : Corn meal, $20.00 per ton ; shorts, $16.00 per ton ; tankage $30.00 per ton. This method of valuing feeds is very much more in favor of tankage, as compared with corn, than the system followed in Nebraska. The cost of 100 pounds of gain was as follows: Lot I. 10 parts corn meal, 1 Lot III. Corn meal only .... $5.20 part tankage $3.80 Lot IV. 10 parts mixture of Lot II. 5 parts corn meal, 1 corn and middlings, 1 part part tankage 4.00 tankage 3.60 There were four pigs in each lot, and lot I gained 4.63 pounds per day; lot II, 4.91 pounds; lot III, 2.68 pounds; and lot IV, 4.55: a striking illustration in favor of tankage. Cottonseed Meal. — The Alabama Station reports tests with cottonseed meal as a supplementary feed with corn. In two tests the feed was mixed in the proportion of one part cotton- seed meal to 9 parts corn, by weight. The average for two years shows feed for 100 pounds gain as follows: Corn alone 727 lbs. Corn and cottonseed meal 43() lbs. In a third test, a third group was added to which was fed 1 part cottonseed meal to 2 parts corn. Feed required for 100 pounds gain was as follows: Corn alone 581 lbs. Corn Vio, cottonseed meal Vio, 389 Iba. Corn %, cottonseed meal %, 354 lbs. None of the pigs showed any ill effects from cottonseed meal in the three tests noted, but in another test, all of the pigs, but one, fed cottonseed meal, were dead before the experiment had SUFPLEMENTARV FEEDS WITH CX)RN 163 been in progress SI days. It is stated that there is a risk in feeding cottonseed meal. It is claimed, however, that cottonseed meal can be fed with safety, even in large amounts, for periods of not more than 25 days. When no deaths occurred, cotton- seed meal proved equal to tankage as a supplementary feed with corn.* Summary. — Many other instances of the effect of supplementary feeds with corn might be given if space permitted. Sufficient tests have been quoted to establish a few important points which may be enumerated as follows : 1. Com alone falls far short of being an ideal ration for hogs. It is especially injurious to young pigs, resulting in lack of growth, weakness of bone, and expensive gains. 2. When wisely combined with a feed relatively rich in protein, corn makes one of the best hog feeds obtainable. 3. Pasture, either grass or clover, makes a good supplement to corn, clover and alfalfa l)eing especially desirable. 4. \'ery liigli-priced protein feeds, such as tankage and meat meal, must be used in small proportions, and give best relative returns when used in dry-lot feeding. 5. When hogs are on pasture, a comparatively cheap feed, such as wheat middlings, will supplement corn to better advantage than expensive feeds like tankage and meat meal. 6. Where soy-beans can be grown to advantage, they constitute a valuable feed to use as a supplement to corn. REVIEW. 1. What is the need of supplementary feed to be used with corn? 2. What is found to be the effect of blood meal and pea meal? Why? 3. What is the special need of such feed as bone meal and hard-wood ashes as a supplement to corn? 4. Give the effect of using each feed discussed in this chapter along with corn. * Tliere is evidently considerable risk in feeding cottonseed meal to hogs, though the exact danger point has not l)een determined. It is not profitable to run much risk in the use of this feed, since the difference in cost between cottonseed meal and other feeds that are considered safer is now very small. The North Carolina Station has shown that giving iron sulfate in the drinking water, 1 pound to .50 gallons of water, or slop, will overcome the poisonous effects of cottonseed meal for pigs. See " Productive Feeding of Farm Animals," bv Woll. CHAPTER XXI. VARIOUS GRAINS, MEALS, AND BY-PRODUCTS. Peas or Canada Field Peas. — This grain is comparatively little known in the United States, and is used to a smaller extent for pig feeding in Canada than it was some years ago, mainly owing to the high price it commands for other pui*poses. (Eig. 41.) At the Utah Experiment kStation, hogs fed ground peas and bran, equal parts, made iin averagX' daily gain of 1.09 pounds and required o63 pounds of meal for 100 pounds of gain; while hogs fed corn and bran made an average daily gain of .63 pound and required 455 pounds of meal for 100 pounds of gain. At tJie South Dakota Station, the daily gain of pigs fed whole soaked peas was 1.21 pounds, and for soaked corn meal 1.40 pounds; but the grain required for 100 pounds gain was 421 pounds for tlie pea group and 458 pounds for the com lot. The Ontario Agricultural College found that feeding pea meal alone was injurious to pigs, the heavy, close nature of the meal making it indigestible. This peculiarity of pea meal is generally recognized. Pea meal alone was less satisfactory tliaii corn meal alone, but wlicn mixed witli one-third of its weight of wheat middlings, it gave mucli better results than com meal. The pea meal is very rich in ]u-otein and should make a good supplementary feed with com. Barley. — Barley is riclier in bone- and muscle-forming con- stituents than corn, having a higher percentage of ash and protein. In fattening constituents it is scarcely equal to com. (164) VARIOUS GRAINS, MEALS, AND HV-PRODUCTS 165 Till- Wisconsin Experimeut Station reports two feeding trials with barley and eora. In the first trial the p-ains were fed alone, and in the second they were fed with skini-milk. The first of the two trials shows that it required 471 Fio. 41. — Oats and peas sown in early spring may be cut when ripe, and the two threshed out together. The grinding for hog feed may be either together or separately. pounds of barley to produce 100 jjounds of gain, and 435 pounds of corn to produce 100 jwunds of gain. In tlie second trial it required 330 pounds of barley and 3^8 pounds of skim-milk for 100 pounds gain, and 306 pounds of com and 371 pounds of milk for 100 pounds gain. In each trial, therefore, it required more barley than corn for 100 pounds gain. 166 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING The South Dakota Station found barley and corn prac- tically equal as pork producers, it requiring 453 pounds of corn and 457 pounds of barley, respectively, for 100 pounds of gain. Colorado and Ontario experiments were in favor of barley as compared with corn. The first Wisconsin trial gave the most marked results in favor of corn, and it is worthy of note that the hogs in this trial averaged over 200 pounds in weight at the commence- ment of the trial. Wliere younger hogs were used, barley made a better showing as compared with corn. There is little doubt that, considered as a fat former, corn is superior to barley, and hence well-grown pig"s would be able to stand ex- clusive corn feeding much better than younger pigs. The A\Titcr's experience would lead him to prefer barley to corn as a meal ration for growing pigs, and this view is borne out by the experiments noted. The extensive use made of barley for swine feeding in Canada, Great Britain, Denmark, and otlier countries, is strong evidence of its value. One disadvantage of barley is the fact that it is not eaten so readily by pigs as one might wish, and should be mixed with some other feed to increase its i)alatubility. Barley is well adapted to mixing with corn as a ration for almost any class of pigs. Wheat. — Wheat has been ex])erinicnt('d with, more or less, as a feed for swine, and results show that there is comparatively little difference between wheat and corn in feeding value. Wheat contains less fibre than barley, but ground wheat alone can hardly be regarded as a satisfactory ration, owing to the fact that it is likely to cause digestive troubles. It gives much better results when mixed with other meal, and combines well M-ith com. As a general thing, feeding sound wheat is out of the question, owing to its relatively high price. It is only VARIOUS GRAINS, MEALS, AND BY-PRODUCTS 167 under exceptional circumstances that it can be counted among feeds for swine. The Wyoming Station secured better gains for feed con- sumed from wheat than from com in each of two tests, reported in Bulletin 74. Frosted Wheat. — In some years, considerable of this product is placed upon the market. In the northern belt, wheat may be sufficiently injured by frost to render it unfit for milling, and yet be practically equal to sound wheat for feeding puii^oses. Frozen wheat varies much in character, depending on the degree of maturity reached by the grain before frost. In his evidence before the Committee on Agriculture, J. H. Grisdale, of the Central Experimental Farm, Canada, gives details of swine feeding experiments with frozen wheat, fed alone and combined. This table brings out the main points : Average weight Average Pounds meal Character of Ration. of pigs at daily per 100 pounds commencement gain. gain. lbs. lbs. lbs. Lot 1. No. 1 frozen wheat 2 parts shorts 1 piirt 99.1 .76 390 Lot 2. No. 1 frozen wheat 2 parts, corn 1 part 76. .77 370 Lot 3. No. 2 frozen wheat 2 parts, com 1 part 118.2 1.03 390 Lot 4. No. 2 frozen wheat only 140 1.23 360 Lot 5. No. 2 frozen wheat only 85 .71 380 Lot 6. No. 2 frozen wheat 2 parts, barley 1 part 104.1 .81 410 Lot 7. No. i frozen wheat 2 parts, oats 1 part 112.1 1.02 390 Lot 8. No. 1 frozen wheat 2 parts, oats 1 part 74.2 .66 390 Lot 9. No. 2 frozen wheat with 3 lbs. skim-milk daily per pig 99. .86 340 Ix)t 10. No. 1 frozen wheat only 1.50.4 .94 410 Lot 11- No. 1 frozen wheat only 96.3 .79 390 Lot 12. Equal parts No. 1 froz- en wheat, No. 2 frozen wheat, and corn 124.8 .94 470 168 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING It is unsafe to make comparisons of the different rations, but the table fails to show any advantage of the Xo. 1 frozen wheat over the Xo. 2. The most remarkable feature of the experiment is tlie uniformly good results obtained with all the groups, indicating frozen wheat to be a valuable feed for swine. The same would probably be found of wheat slightly aif(>{'ted with smut disease, and of otherwise shrnnken wheat. (Fig. 42.) Frozen Wheat vs. Barley. — At tlie Ontario Agrieidtnral College, tlie writer fed three lots of pigs to compare frozen Fio. 42. — Clood pluiiii) wheat :it the left; a poor typo at the richt. wiili narrow shnvoleil kernels, suitable for hog feed. wlieat with l)ai-l(y. The frozen wheat tested (»nly Vo^-j poumls per bushel. Lot 1 contained IS ])igs and was fed ground bnrhy and wheat middlings. Lot 2 contained 20 i)igs and was fed ground frozen wlieat and wheat middlings. Lot 3 contained 1^ pigs and was fed ground barley and frozen wheat, equal ])arts, with middlings. • The ]>ro]>ortion of mi(bllings varied, being reduced as the experiment ])i'ogressed, but was the same lor all lots. The pigs in lot 1 averaged 11 jxainds in weight at the start, lot 2. .'57.7 ])ounds, and lot '■). .")!..") pounds. Lot 1 made an average daily gain per pig of l.OS pounds, lot 2, 1.1 pounds, and lot 3, I.IS ])ounds. VARIOUS GRAINS, MEALS, AND BY-PRODUCTS 169 The amount of meal consumed per 100 pounds gain was as follows: Lot 1, 430.9 pounds; lot 2, 431.4 pounds; lot 3, 432.0 pounds. Fig. 43. — Biack-hulled white kafir, much grown in dry climates to use in place of corn (Experiment Station, Kana.) Both in rate of gain and feed consumed per 100 pounds gain, the three rations may be said to have given practically the same results. In this experiment, therefore, we find that frozen wheat has proved quite equal to barley when fed with middlings. Oats. — Owing to their high percentage of fibre, oats do not possess a high value for fattening hogs. When used at all. they should be used as a comparatively small part only of the 170 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING ration, and they show to best advantage when used to lighten and give more bulk to a heavy, close-textured meal, such as pea meal, or even corn meal. They are especially useful for making up part of the ration of boars or breeding sows, where the aim is to maintain vigor without unduly fattening. Rye. — Extensive Danish experiments, summarized by Pro- fessor Henry in " Feeds and Feeding," indicate that rye and barley are about equal in value for pig feeding. Very little experimental work witli the grain of this cereal has been done in America. Rye meal is l)est fed in combination with other kinds of meal. Kafir. — At the Kansas Experiment Station, it was found that corn meal had a feeding value of from 17 to 29 per cent higher than kafir meal. The addition of soy-bean meal to kafir to the extent of one-third of the ration materially improved its value, but did not make it equal to a similar mixture of com meal and soy-bean meal. (Fig. 43.) Buckwheat. — The rentral Experimental Farm, Canada, re- ports two trials in wliicli l)nckwheat was compared with wheat. In the first trial, ground l)nekwheat was fed against ground wheat, and in this trial 445 pounds of gronnd buckwheat were required for 100 pounds gain, and 410 pounds ground wheat for 100 pounds gain. In the set'ond trial, one lot of pigs was fed a mixture of one-half ground buckwheat and one-half mixed meal, and the other lot a mixture of one-half gi'ound wheat and one-half mixed meal. In this trial it required 40.5 pounds of the buck- wheat mixture for 100 pounds of gain, and 380 pounds of the wheat mixture for 100 pounds of gain. This is a much better sho^ving for buckwheat than might be expected, since buckwheat has a thick, fibrous hull wliich the hog cannot digest. VARIOUS GRAINS, MEALS, AND BY-PRODUCTS 171 Grouiiil wheat showed an advantage of only ahout 8^/2 per cent over ground buckwheat, and the wlieat mixture an advantage of C)i o jx'r cent over the buckwheat mixture. Emmer. — This grain is commonly known as " spelt " or " speltz." Genuine spelt is a distinct plant, possessing general characters similar to emmer, but is a smaller yielder and possesses about ten per cent more hull than emmer. The South Dakota Station rei)orts one experiment Avith emmer, imder the name of "■ speltz." One lot of hogs was fed whole emmer, one ground emmer, and one emmer and corn. ^Vliole emmer required 771 pounds of feed for 100 pounds of gain, ground emmer 826 pounds, and emmer and com 529 pounds. It will be seen that a marked improve- ment was effected when corn was added to the emmer. Appar- ently emmer has too much hull or husk (about 21 per cent) to make a first-class hog feed. Its rational use would be for mixing with concentrated, heavy meals to give more bulk to the ration. Millet Seed. — The South Dakota Station (Bulletin 83) reports a comparison of millet seed with barley and wheat. The authors of the bulletin state that millet seed can be grown profitably as a fattening ration for swine, but it does not furnish as good a ration as barley or wlieat. It is also stated that it required one-fifth more millet than it did barley meal, and a trifle more barley meal tlian it did wheat to make a pound of gain, and that a bushel of 56 pounds of millet seed is equal to a bushel of 48 pounds of barley for hog feed. !Millet meal produced a softer quality of fat than did either barley or wheat meal. Beans. — Beans are best thoroughly cooked before they are fed to swine. Bulletin 243 of the Michigan Experiment Station reports results from feeding cull beans to growing pigs 172 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING and fattening pigs. Without going into details, it may be stated that an exclusive ration of beans is not regarded as satisfactory. For growing pigs, a ration consisting of three parts beans and four parts corn meal did not prove so satis- factory as a mixture of two parts beans, two parts wheat middlings, and three parts corn meal. The last-named mix- ture gave an average daily gain per ])ig of about one and one- third pounds per day, which is regarded as satisfactory. Three trials of beans compared with equal parts beans and com meal were made with fattening hogs. The results of the three trials are briefly summarized in the following table : Average live weight of liogs Average daily gain i)rr liog Average feed consumed per 100 pounds gain Fed equal parts beans and corn. lbs. 159 1.52 406.4 The addition of corn meal increased the efHciency of the ration about ^Vii pcr cent. The relative cost of the two feeds and the co.•^t of cooking would have to be considered by the feeder in coming to a decision regarding the economy of the rations. Wheat Middlings. — Wheat middlings, frequently called ".shorts," is oiie of the very best feeds for young ]iigs. It is rich in bone- and muscle-forming constituents, and d(^es not tend to make gi*owing pigs too fat. Its value as a supplement to corn has already been noted, and it combines well with almost any kind of meal. As a single feed for fattening, it is not economical, but it is conducive to thrift and growth when used as a part of a meal ration for fatten inc: pigs. The VARIOUS GRAINS, MEALS, AND BY-PRODUCTS 173 younger the pig tlie greater the value derived from feeding nn(h]liiig?^. Wheat Bran. — Bran is too bulky and fibrons to constitute a large part of a pig's ration, but is useful for mature animals, such as stock \)oar^ and breeding sow:^, or Avhore it is desired to give bulk to a ration that is considered too heavy in char- acter. As a rule, however, middlings can be used to better advantage than bran for the purjioses mentioned. Flour. — \'ariniH brands of low-grade flour are occasionally put upon the market. Low-grade flour has a higher feeding value than middlings, bnt is entirely unsuitable for feeding alone, owing to its pasty nature. The writers experience is that it will cause digestive derangement when fed alone, and must be diluted to a large extent with other feeds. Bulletin 167 of the Virginia Experiment Station reports better results from soaking low-grade flour than from feeding it freshly mixed with water. Hominy Feed. — Purdue Experiment Station reports three tests with hominy feed and shorts compared with corn meal and shorts. The meal was mixed in the proportion of two parts of hominy feed or corn to one part of shorts. " Hominy feed or chop consists of bran coating, germ, and part of the starch portions of the corn kernel secured as a by-product in the manufacture of hominy." According to analyses made at Purdue, hominy feed contains about the same per cent of protein as corn, but a higher per cent of fat and a slightly lower per cent of carlx)hydrates. The average of three trials shows the following result . Hominy feed. Corn meal. Average daily gain por head. .ToO pound .030 pound Meal consumed per 100 pounds gain.... 505 pounds 598 pounds 174 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING Four tests were also made with hominy feed and tankage compared with corn meal and tankage, mixed in the proportion of 20 parts hominy feed or com meal to 1 part of tankage. The avera5;e of the four tests shows the f(^llowing: Average daily gain per head Meal consumed per 100 pounds gain. Hominy feed Corn meal and tankage. and tankage. 1.4 pounds 1.2 pounds 372 pound* 4r)l pounds The results are summarized as follows : " Hominy feed produces more rapid growth on hogs than does com meal." " Hominy feed produces gains on less grain than does corn meal." "As a general rule the high cost of hominy^ feed hinders its more gt^neral use as a hog feed, and prevents its economical substitution for com, except w^hen the latter is very high in price." It is also pointed out that hominy feed, like com, should be supplemented by some feed high in protein, such as tankage and skim-milk. Com-and-Cob Meal. — The Iowa Experiment Station re- ports a test of com-and-cob meal both dry and soaked, and a summary of the results is given l)elow. The test lasted 140 davs. Kind of feed. Average daily gain per pig. Pound.s porn required for 100 pounds gain Dry corn lb. .74 .63 .72 ..56 .61 .51 lbs. 456 Soaked corn 513 Soaked corn meal. ... 555 Soaked corn-and-cob meal 5R3 Dry corn meal 505 Dry corn-and-cob meal 604 VARIOUS GRAINS, MEALS, AND BY-PRODUCTS 175 Til the table given above the cob has been deducted from the tigures for corn-and-cob meal, so that the actual corn is compared in all cases. It cost 6 cents per buslu4 to grind the corn-and-cob meal, and -2 cents per bushel to grind com meal. The results of the test were regarded as so conclusive against com-and-cob meal that no further tests were made. The Missouri Experiment Station also gives a decidedly adverse report upon feeding com-and-cob meal to hogs, but Kansas and Xew Hampshire report in its favor. Gluten Meal. — The Central Experimental Farai, Canada, reports unfavoraldy upon gluten meal as a feed for swine. J. H. Grisdale says regarding it: "Gluten has been fed in limited quantities, but has not proven very satisfactory for either bacon production, young pigs, or breeding stock. It seems to be rather unpalatable, and produces soft bacon." The Cornell Station also gives an unfavorable report of this feed as compared with com when both feeds were fed ^vith skim-milk. Linseed Meal (Oil !Meal). — Linseed meal has been already referred to under supplementary feeds with corn. It is seldom advisable to feed linseed meal to a greater extent than one-fifth of the total meal ration, and, as a rule, half this quantity will be found more economical. It is highly recommended by some as a feed for nursing sows, and for young pigs after weaning. The writer has had only fair success in its use as a substitute for skim-milk with young pigs. In experiments with substitutes for skim-milk for young pigs, the Central Experimental Farm, Canada, obtained an average daily gain of six-tenths of a pound per pig with a mixture consisting of four parts wheat middlings and one part linseed meal. It required 280 pounds of the mixture for 100 176 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING pounds of g:ain, which is a vorv satisfactory showiiic". The linseed meal was not so 'satisfactory as skim-milk, but gave better results than other substitutes for skim-milk tested at the same time. Cottonseed Meal. — This very concentrated feed possesses some property which renders it fatal to hogs when used in con- siderable quantities. A small allowance per day may be fed without injurious results, but great care is necessary. The Arkansas and Texas Experiment Stations have probably made the most thorough investigations with cottonseed meal, and their recommendations are worthy of note. Arkansas Bulletin 85 gives the following quantities of cottonseed meal per pig per day as being " well within the danger limit " : Pigs under 50 pounds, V4 pound per day. Pigs from 50 to 75 pounds, i/, pound per day. Pigs from 75 to 100 pounds, ? pound per day. Pigs from 100 to 150 pounds, i/> pound per day. Texas Bulletin 78 makes the following recommendations : " 1. For animals on heavy feed, that not more tlian one- fourth the weiglit of the grain ration consist of cottonseed meal. 2. That this feeding continue not more tlian 50 days, or that the proportion of meal Ije reduced if feeding is to be continued longer. 3. That the meal be mixed with other feed and all soured tofietlier. 4. Tliat as much green feed as possible Ije supplied to the liogs. 5. Tliat a close watch Ijc kept, and tiie meal taken from any animals not eating or not gaining well. " Feeders who have had experience with the meal will probably be able to exceed these recommendations, which, however, allow the use of enougii meal to greatly improve a corn diet. One pound of cottonseed meal to five of corn furnishes the nutrients in the most desirable propor- tions for fattening, while one or two of corn are more nearly correct for young, growing stock.'' Cottonseed Meal with Corn and Rice. — Bulletin 135 of the Texas Ex})erinient Station reports further trials of cotton- seed meal with corn chop and rough red rice. Que group of VARIOUS GRAINS, MEALS, AND BY-PRODUCTS 177 hogs weighed 99 pounds each, and the other 131 pounds each when the test commenced. At the start, one ^roup of ten liogs was fed G.5 pounds cottonseed meal and 10.5 pounds of corn chop daily, and the other group of ten hogs was fed 7.5 pounds of cottonseed meal and 16.5 pounds of rice. Towards the close of the experiment, lot 1 was fed 12.5 pounds of cottonseed meal and 78 pounds of corn chop, and lot 2 was fed 15 pounds of cottonseed meal and 70 pounds of rice daily. At first the feed was given fresh, but a month later all feed was fermented. The hogs made satisfactory gains, and no evil effect was observed at any time. The author states that the Station has hopes that further experience will remove any need for uneasiness when feeding cottonseed meal (see Caution, pp. 162 and 163). Hogs followiTig cattle which are fed a considerable amount of cottonseed meal in tlieir ration do not appear to be in- juriously affected, though there seem to be exceptions to this rule. Just how much cottonseed meal can be fed to cattle witli- out injury to the hogs following them, does not appear to be definitely settled. Prof. E. T. Robbins, of the Iowa Experi- ment Station, writing to the Breeder s Gazette, reviews the ex- perience of cattle feeders in connection with this problem, and states : " Even when fed to steers under the best of circum- stances it may possibly, in the opinion of some feeders, be associated with an unaccountable mortality among the hogs." In summing up, he says: " The general consensus of opinion is to the effect that if fed in no larger amounts than 2 to 3 pounds daily per steer, with as many hogs as steers in tlie feed lot, all danger to the hogs is practically eliminated." Oat Feed. — This by-product of the oatmeal mill sometimes has a considerable feeding value, but, owing to the fact that it often contains a large proportion of oat hulls, it is not a very satisfactory feed to buy for swine. Experiments with oat feed are not satisfactorv, because the product is anvthing 12 178 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING but constant in composition. The same remarks apply to all by- products of oatmeal mills, under whatever name sold. Brewers' and Distillers' Grains. — Grisdale, of the Central Experimental Farm, reports economical gains from " spirit grains " when fed in combination with a meal ration. Gen- erally speaking, these products are rather bulky and fibrous for swine, unless used in a limited quantity as a supplement to a grain ration, in much the same way as alfalfa hay or roots. Sugar-Beet Pulp. — In the wet state this product may be regarded as similar in feeding value to roots, and may be em- ployed in exactly the same way. The dried pulp is hardly a satisfactory" feed for swine. Beet-Sugar Molasses. — Beet molasses is impalatable and generally unsatisfactory for swine. Bulletin 199 of the Cornell Experiment Station reports apparent poisoning of hogs fed beet molasses; and Utah (Bulletin 101) reports scouring, and bad-flavored pork. Black-Strap Molasses. — Texas Bulletin 131 reports a test with ground com compared with ground corn and black-strap molasses. Three groups of hogs were used. Lot 1 was fed equal weights of ground com and molasses. Lot 2 was fed two parts ground corn to one part of molasses by weight. Lot 3 was fed ground com alone. There were eight hogs in each lot, and the test lasted 91 days. The average weight of the hogs at the commencement of tlie test was approximately 120 pounds each. Ground corn was valued at $28.20 per ton, and molasses at $16.66 per ton. . The average daily gains per hog and cost of gain were : Averace Cost 100 daily gaib. lb. gain. Lot L Corn and molasses, equal parts 9 pound $10.75 Lot 2. Corn 2 parts, molasses 1 part 1.45 pounds 7.53 Lot 3. Corn alone 1.66 pounds 7.36 VARIOUS GRAINS, MEALS, AND BY-PRODUCTS 179 In this test molasses proved lower in value than corn. Molas- ses is poor in protein, and would likely have given better results if fed with a feed richer in protein than corn. Sorghum Seed. — In a test at the Nebraska Experiment Sta- tion, one bushel of corn proved equal to nearly one and one-half bushels of sorghum seed for feeding hogs. Chemical analysis would indicate a lower feeding value for sorghum seed than fOr corn, but not such a wide difference as the Nebraska experiment shows. We would not expect such a wide difference in every case where those feeds are compared. Cow-peas (Seed). — The Alabama Station fed cow-peas alone and in combination with corn against corn alone. The amount of meal for 100 pounds gain in weight in two tests was as follows : let Test. Corn alone 487 pounds. Corn and cow-peas, equal parts 433 pounds. Cow-peas alone 481 pounds. 2nd Test. Corn alone 478 pounds. Corn and cow-peas, equal parts 395 pounds. At the South Carolina Station, corn fed alone required 602 pounds of meal for 100 pounds gain in weight, while cow-peas required 491 pounds. From these tests we learn that cow-peas have a higher feeding value than corn, but they show to greatest advantage when com- bined with corn. As a supplementary feed with corn, cow-peas apparently have a high value. Spanish Peanuts. — The Texas Experiment Station com- pared Spanish peanuts with corn, feeding the peanuts alone and in combination with corn. The results are summarized as follows: '' Spanish peanuts fed alone yielded a larger gain than corn fed alone. The results indicated that an acre of peanuts of a yield of forty bushels would produce approximately 180 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING $18.40 worth of pork at $6.25 per 100 pounds. Peanuts and eorn combined produced much more rapid gains than peanuts alone. The quality of pork produced by peanuts was nuicli inferior to that i)roduced by corn." Peanuts contain a high percentage of protein, and this fact renders them suitable for feeding with corn, which is deficient in ])rotein. Peanuts also contain a high percentage of oil, whicli jirobably accounts for their injurious eflfect upon the quality of the ni(>at. It wonhl seem, tluM'efore, that ]>oanuts are most suitable for young, growing hogs, but that they should not be f(Ml to hogs during the finishing period. Rough Red Rice. — The Texas Experiment Station (Bul- letin 1,'55) fed rough red rice with cottonseed meal, and with alfalfa meal, as compared with com chop fed in a similar manner. The conclusion drawn by the author is tliat ground rice is about equal to com chop when fed with cottonseed meal, and better than com chop when fed with alfalfa meal for pork production; and that ground rough i-cd i-ice is an economical ration for fattening hogs. Rice By-products. — Kice hulls are very woody, and are of very little use for any animals, but are especially objectionable for swine. Rice bran and rice jjolish have considerable f(^ed- ing value, but, since any feed made up from rice by-products is apt to contain a considerable proportion of hull, feeders are inclined to look upon these feeds Avith suspicion. The South Carolina Experiment Station compared rice meal and skim- milk with com meal and skim-milk for pigs, and obtained results slightly in favor of rice meal. The rice meal is stated to consist largely of rice flour, rice polish, and rice bran. At the Massachusetts Experiment Station, rice meal and milk proved practically equal to com meal and milk for pigs. VARIOUS GRAINS, MEALS, AND BY-PRODUCTS 181 Bums, Texas Bulletin 131, summarizes results of feeding rice bran as follows: " Kice bran, was much cheaper than corn and yielded a larger gain. The pork produced bj it was of an inferior quality to that produced by com. The shrinkage from the dressed weight hot to the dressed weight chilled was much greater, and the per cent of dressed cai*cass much less. Rice bran should be used more extensively in pork production when corn is so much higher in price, and, for the best results, should be fed in connection with a feed rich in protein." Weed Seeds. — Professor Henry conducted two trials at the Wisconsin Experiment Station with pigeon-grass seed, cooked and uncooked, for swine. The results are reported in " Feeds and Feeding." Lot 1 was fed two-thirds cooked pigeon-grass meal and one- third com meal uncooked. Lot 2 was fed com meal only, uncooked. Lot 3 was fed one-third pigeon-grass meal and two-thirds com meal, both uncooked. Lot 1 made the largest gains and required the least feed for 100 pounds of gain, and lot 3 made the smallest gains and required the most feed for 100 pounds of gain. Professor Henry says : " It is evident that pigeon-grass seed when cooked is a valuable feed for sAnne. ... To be satisfactory for pig feeding the seed of this grass should be ground and cooked." At the large elevators, weed seeds and small wheat accumu- late in large quantities, and this product can be used to good advantage in feeding swine when judiciously mixed with other meal. "Stock Feeds."— In Bulletin 151 of the Wisconsin Ex- periment Station, Prof. F. W. Woll gives a review of the work of experiment stations with so-called " stock feeds," or 182 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING " condimental stock feeds." In suniiuing up, Professor Well says, in part: " The feeding experinientvS include twenty-three different trials, conducted at more than a dozen different ex- periment stations, with 992 animals in all; viz., with 78 steers, 81 dairy cows, 604 sheep, 112 pigs, and 117 hens. ... In going over the evidence presented, we find that only two out of the twenty-three different trials show^ed tlie stock feed to possess any merit; the conclusions drawn from the results of the twenty-one trials is to the effect that nothing was gained by including these feeds in the ration fed; in fact, they were shown to be a positive detriment in so far that they rendered the rations more expensive and increased the cost of the product obtained, whether this be gain in live weight, milk, butter fat, wool, or eggs." Among the conclusions drawn from investigation %vork ^vith "stock feeds" are the following: " They are of no benefit to healthy animals when fed as directed, either as to increasing the digestibility of the feed eaten or rendering it more effective for the production of meat, milk, wool, etc." " They are of no benefit as a cure-all for diseases of the various classes of live stock ; neither do they possess any particular merit in case of specific diseases, or for animals out of condition, off feed, etc., since only a small proportion of ingredients having medicinal value is found therein, the bulk of the feeds consisting of a filler which possesses no medicinal properties whatever." " Exorbitant prices are charged for these feeds," " By adopting a liberal system of feeding farm animals and furnishing a variety of feeds, good results may be obtained without resorting to stock feeds of any kind. If a farmer believes it is necessary to feed stock feeds at times, he can / VARIOUS GRAINS, MEALS, AND BY-PRODUCTS 183 purchase tJie ingrodients at a drug store aud make his own stock feeds at a fraction of the cost charged for them by the manufacturers." The following formulas for stock feeds, suggested bv two American experiment stations, are given in the bulletin: "1. Ground gentian, 1 pound; ground ginger, 14 pound; powdered salpoter, l^ pound; powdered iron sulphate, 14 pound. Mix, and give one tablespoonful in feed once daily for ten days, omit for three days, and feed as above for ten days more. Estimated cost, 20 cents a pound. Estimated tonic value, about four times that of most condimental feeds on the market" '' 2. Fenugreek, 8 pounds ; ginger, 8 pounds ; powdered gentian, 8 poimds; powdered sulphur, 8 pounds; potassium nitrate, 8 ponnds; resin, 8 pounds; cayenne pepper, 4 pounds; flax-seed meal, 44 pounds; powdered charcoal, 20 pounds; common salt, 20 pounds; wheat bran, 100 pounds." This mixture is said to be " so near the average stock feed that neither the farmer nor his stock could tell the difference." Estimated cost, less than $4.42 per hundred pounds. " 3. Powdered gentian, 1 pound ; powdered ginger, 1 pound; fenugreek, 5 pounds; common salt, 10 pounds; bran, 50 pounds; oil meal, 50 pounds. Estimated cost $1.50 per hundred pounds." Soft Coal, Charcoal, and Tonic Mixture. — Bulletin 150 of the ]Mar\-land Experiment Station gives results of a single test with soft cx^al, charcoal, and tonic mixture, made np as follows : Wood charcoal, 1 poimd ; sulphur, 1 pound ; common salt, 2 pounds; bread soda, 2 pounds; sodium h\'posulphite, 2 pounds ; sodium sulphate, 1 pound ; black antimony, 1 pound. The ingredients of the tonic were pulverized and thoroughly mixed. The cost of the mixture was 4 cents per pound. 184 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING Four groups of pigs eleven weeks old were uschI iu the test, and all groups were fed a meal mixture composed of com meal, wheat middlings, wheat bran, and linseed meal. Lots 1 and 2 were given free access to soft coal and charcoal, respectively, lot 3 was fed one ounce of the tonic to every 10 pounds of meal, and lot 4 w^as fed nothing but the meal ration. The average daily gain per i)ig in the four lots was as follows: Soft coal, .695 pound; charcoal, .738 pound; tonic mixture, .958 pound; no corrective, .614 pound. The cost of producing 100 pounds gain in weiglit was as follows : Lot 1. Lot 2. Lot 3. Lot 4. Soft coal. Charcoal. Tonic. Nothing. Meal $5.93 $5.42 $4.74 $5.84 Corrective 20 .14 .11 Total cost $6.1.3 $5..56 $4.85 $5.84 It wdll bo noticed that the lot receiving the tonic mixtuiv made the most rapid and most economical gains, the lot receiv- ing charcoal coming second. The hogs which were allowed access to soft coal made greater gains than those fed meal alone, but the gains w^ere more expensive. It is stated that the hogs fed correctives had a decidedly better appetite than those which received none. The experiment indicates tliat correctives or tonics may l)e used to advantage at times, but that it is easily possible to pay too much for them. REVIEW. 1. \Vliat can you say of the value of Canada field peas for swine? In what forms are they fed? 2. In what ways is barley better than corn for certain lines of pig feeding? 3. Why is barley not used more? 4. Discuss the value of wheat for swine. 5. May frosted wheat be used with good results? / VARIOUS GRAINS, MEALS, AND BY-PRODUCTS 185 (i. Wliiili is fomul to be better, frozen wheat or barley? 7. Ihietly mention the value for swine feed — of oats and of rye. 8. In what sections is kafir grown with profit as a hog feed? !>. With what success may swine feeders use buckwheat? Emmer? Millet seed? 10. Imler wliat circumstances can beans be profitably fed to swine? 11. Discuss tlie special advantages of wheat middlings, of wheat bran, of low-grade Hour. 12. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of hominy feed for hogs? 13. Is corn-and-cob meal good for swine? Should the feeder use it always? Why? 14. In wliat ways is gluten meal proved unfavorable? 15. Compare linseed meal with other substitutes for skim-milk for pigs. 16. Give the cautions regarding tlie use of cottonseed meal. How liberally may it be fed? 17. What is the effect on hogs following cattle that are fed cottonseed meal? 18. Can the by-products of oatmeal mills be used successfully for swine? 10. What shall the feeder decide about the use of brewers' grains? Distillers' grains? Sugar-beet pulp? Beet-sugar molasses? 20. What was the result of the trial with black-strap molasses? 21. How does sorghum seed compare with corn for feeding bogs? 22. What are the special claims for Spanish peanuts? 23. How does rough red rice compare with corn? 24. Can the rice by-products be used with profit? 25. How should the feeder use weed seeds? 26. \Aliat is the advice about the purchase and use of patent " stock feeds"? What do they contain? 27. Mention several good forms of feeding mineral matter to swine. CHAPTER XXII. PASTURE AND SOILING CROPS. Alfalfa. — Bulletin 155 of the Kansas Experiment Station gives a summary of results from feeding alfalfa to hogs at that institution. The following is quoted directly from tlie bulletin : " At this station some years ago, a gain of 800 pounds of pork was made from a ton of alfalfa hay, and a little less than that amount of gain was made from an acre of alfalfa pasture. In another test here, an acre of alfalfa produced $20.20 worth of pork, while an acre of rape fed to a similar lot of hogs returned $10.05 worth of pork. "In a later experiment we found that 100 pounds of alfalfa hay saved 96 pounds of corn. Figuring on the basis of 5 pounds of com producing one pound of pork, the 96 pounds of alfalfa would produce 19 pounds of pork. Estimat- ing the average yield of alfalfa to be four tons per acre, on this basis it would mean a production of 1600 pounds of pork per acre with alfalfa fed in the fonn of hay in connection with com. This experiment was conducted during the winter season. " In an experiment during the summer, we found that 170 pounds of green alfalfa, cut and fed to hogs fresh in a dry yard, was equal to 100 pounds of com, and in this experi- ment it took 6 pounds of com to produce a pound of pork. Therefore, assuming 170 poimds of green alfalfa would produce 16% pounds of pork, a fraction over 10 pounds of green alfalfa would prmluoo one ]>ouiid of pork. Estimating that an acre of alfalfa will yield during the season 20,000 (186) PASTURE AND SOILING CROPS 187 pounds of greeu haj, this experiment would show that, such an acre of alfalfa, cut greon aaid fed fresh, would produce some- thing like 2000 pounds of pork. Of course, this is fed in connection \\'ith corn, and a statement that an acre of green alfalfa would produce 2000 pounds of pork would be verv' mis- leading. Figuring on the basis of these two experiments, alfalfa hay, yielding four tons per acre (8000 pounds), would produce 1600 pounds of pork, and its value at 4 cents per pound would be something like $64.00 per acre ; and green alfalfa producing ten tons per acre (20,000 pounds) would Fig. 44. — Alfalfa is good both for soiling and for hay for swine. produce 2000 pounds of pork, which, at 4 cents per pound, would be worth $80.00 per acre." Kansas and Wyoming Trials. — The Kansas results from feeding alfalfa are about the most favorable of which the writer is aware. Very fair results were obtained at the Wyoming Experiment Station, where alfalfa hay and wheat were fed against wheat alone. In this experiment it required 449 pounds of wheat for 100 pounds of gain where wheat was fed alone; and 319.3 pounds of wheat and 291.3 pounds of alfalfa for 100 pounds of gain where wheat and alfalfa hay were fed. On this basis, a ton of alfalfa hay would give 188 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING scMivclv I'OO jxMiiiils (if jiork, wliicli is only se. Such a discrepancy as that noted betw<'en the Kansas and Wyoming results might easily Ix' ac(v»unt('d for on the basis of dirt'crcnt (lualities of liny, anil in the meantime we may regard the Kansas results as repre- senting the maximum returns from alfalfa. It is also worthy of note that in one Kansas experiment the amount of ])ork jiroduccd l)y a t^iu of alfalfa hay was oidy 2''].") pounds, an amount oidy slightly greater than that obtained at Wyoming, so that it would be safer to regard the SOO ])ounds of pork from a ton of alfalfa hay as a possibility, rather than as something which can be generally depended upon. The Wyoming Station also tried feeding young pigs, weighing from (M) to 70 ])ounds, a ration of 1/} corn meal or wheat meal, and ^-^ alfalfa hay, but the })igs lost weight, and one died. On the other hand, mature sows were successfully maintaineil on a i-ation of alfalfa hay and nirni|is without art of chopped alfalfa, with the difference in favor of rack feeding. (S) The results of 5 years' indicate that fur fattening hogs the way to feed alfalfa most satisfactorily is to feed it without grinding or choj)ping. (9) In these tests 50 pounds of hay were worth more in the ration than a bushel of com. (10) The rations used in these tests are ranked in order of merit as follows : 1st. Com and alfalfa hay in a rack. 2d. 9 parts corn and 1 part clio|)|;t'(l alfalfa. 3d. 9 i)arts corn and 1 jjart alfalfa mt-al. 4th. Corn alone. 5tli. ',i parts corn and 1 part alfalfa meal. 6th. 3 parts corn and 1 ])art chopped alfalfa. 7th. 1 part corn and 1 part chopj)ed alfalfa. Sth. 1 part corn and 1 part alfalfa meal. (11) It is reconnnended to feed the finest and brightest hay possible. Hogs will not eat the coarse stems. REVIEW. 1. How many pounds of pork were produced from a ton of alfalfa hay? How does it compare with corn? 2. In the Kansas trials how much pork was ])roduced per acre of alfalfa? 3. Mention three or four ways of feec^nfi; alfalfa. 204 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING 4. Give the value of rape as green feed for pigs. 5. How does rape compare with clover? With alfalfa? With soy beans? 6. Tell of the values as pasture of clover, of timothy, of vetch, of blue grass. 7. \Miat is the value as a pasture mixture of rape, oats, and <'lover? 8. Tell of the relative values of first and second growth sorghum. 9. How may soy beens and cow-peas be used as forage for hogs? Will it pay ? 10. Tell of the results of " hogging off " rye. 11. Give four conclusions in the trials with various forage crops. 12. Tell of the methods and results in using Jerusalem artichokes. 13. Compare pasturing with soiling methods for swine. 14. Tell of the needs for grains when hogs are on pasture. l.T. Give the most important points in the results of the Nebraska trials with different forms of alfalfa. ^ CHAPTER XXIII. ROOTS, POTATOES, PUMPKINS, APPLES, AND DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS. Roots. — lu Henry's '* Feeds and Feeding '' there is an excellent summary of Danish experiments with roots for swine. The meal equivalent of roots was found to vary in a marked degi'ee in different trials, and 100 jxyunds of barley were found to be equivalent to 600 to 800 pounds of mangels and 400 to SOO pounds of stock beets. In the United States and Canada, wide variations in the meal equivalent of rootvS have also occurred in various tests. The following table gives an idea of the range of values found at several stations: Meal Equivalent of Roots. Central Experiment Farm 100 pounds meal = 786 pounrls roots Ohio Experiment Station 100 pounds meal = 642.5 pounds roots Montana Experiment Station .... 100 pounds meal = .529 pounds roots Utah Experiment Station 100 pounds meal := 45.5 po'inds roots Ontario Agricultural College .... 100 pounds meal =: 441.5 pounds roots Average 100 pounds meal =: 570. S pounds roots The variations in these trials is similar to the variation.'^ in the Danish experiments. Ontario obtained a remarkably high meal equivalent for roots, and it is worthy of note that in the Ontario trials the roots were pulped and mixed with an equal weight of meal, the hogs being fed all they would eat of the mixture. In the writer's experience hogs fed roots are thriftier look- ing and posisess better appetites than hogs fed meal alone, and it is no doubt due to their influence upon the general health of the animal that roots are able to make such a favorable showing. The degree to which the general thrift of the animals (205) 206 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING is injured by exclusive meal feeding; will be reflected in the relative feeding value shown by roots and gjain, and this fact renders extreme variations quite possible. Generally speaking, it may be said that sugar beets possess the highest feeding value among ordinary roots, and are most readily eaten by 'swine. Maugels, Swede turnips, and carrots may be counted practically equal in value, but hogs eat mangels with greater relish than they eat turnips. Potatoes. — At the Wisconsin Experiment Station, 141 pounds of potatoes, cooked and fed t<> swine, proved ('(lual to 100 pounds of com meal. In "Feeds and Fociling," Ilciiiy summarizes Danish experiments, where 400 ponnds of jxttatoes proved equal to 100 pounds of mixtnl meal. In connection with these investigations. Professor Henry says : " In general, Ave may say that a bushel of corn is worth four and one-half bushels of potatoes for fattening purposes when cooked and fed with com meal. Potatoes may have a higher value than the rating here given, in furnishing variety in ration to growing animals." Potatoes must be cooked for swine, and this item of expense cancels some of the advantage which they possess over roots as a. feed for swine. The sweet potato contains more starch and less protein than ordinary potatoes. In the South, it is used quite connnonly for hog feeding. The Florida Station (Bulletin 90) reports a four weeks' test with hogs which were nearly full grown. They were fed shorts and sweet potatoes in the proportion of one })Ound of shorts to between five and six pounds of sweet potatoes. The gains were large, and if the gain in weight is valued at five cents per pound, sweet potatoes would show a value of $10.70 per ton. At the same station, young pigs lost weight on sweet potatoes alone, and hogs weighing a little over 100 pounds each at the commencement of the test made an average daily gain per head of slightly over half a pound. In the last mentioned test, the sweet potatoes showed a value of $3.00 per ton when the ROOTS AND DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS 207 gain iu weight is valued at live cents per pound. In another test, sweet potatoes were fed with rape as compared with corn and rape. Pigs fed sweet potatoes and rape made an average daily gain per pig of 0.4 pound, and those on corn and rape, 0.0 pound. Florida Bulletin 113 reports an average daily gain per head of 0.65 pound in a 30 days' trial with hogs fed equal parts of corn and sweet potatoes. Corn was valued at $1.75 and sweet potatoes at $1.00 per hundred pounds. Under this valuation, the cost of 100 pounds gain in weight was $6.85. The South Carolina Station found that 500 pounds of sweet potatoes fed alone were equal to 100 pounds of corn, and the Alahama Station obtained 100 pounds gain in weight for every 313 pounds of corn fed to hogs pastured on sweet potatoes. Like other bulky, succulent feeds, sweet potatoes give best results when fed with a liberal meal ration — one fairly rich in protein. Cassava — This plant grows in Florida and along the Gulf Coast. It grows fleshy roots like the sweet potato. The roots con- tain about 30 per cent starch, but only about 1.1 per cent protein. The Florida Station (Bulletin 90) gives results of tests of cassava with swine. In a short test (4: weeks) with nearly full- grown pigs, cassava was fed with about one-third of its weight of shorts. The hogs made satisfactory gains on the average, and a ton of cassava showed a value of $11.80, when the gain pro- duced was valued at five cents per pound. Commenting on the test, the author of the bulletin makes the following statements: " The pigs fed on cassava gained rapidly at first, but towards the end of the four weeks the gain was very slow. . . . Cassava in the raw state does not seem to be palatable even to the hog." In another test, cassava alone, and equal parts of cassava and sweet potatoes were fed to two groups of young pigs. In both cases the pigs lost weight. Older pigs showed a very small gain on cassava alone, but it was not a profitable feed used in this way. Like roots and potatoes, it would seem that cassava should be accompanied with a liberal meal ration when fed to hogs. 208 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING Pumpkins and Squashes. — Pumpkins Wong to the same class of feeds as roots, giving bulk and succulence to the ration and thus promoting thrift. J. IT. Grrisdale, Central Experi- mental Farm, has a high opinion of pumpkins for swine. He says : " We cook them and mix meal witli them, and I don't think there is anything that will surpass them as a cheap fattening ration." He also states that the pigs like the seeds best, and that no injury comes from feeding the seeds. Ex- cellent results were obtained at the New Hampshire Experiment Station from feeding raw pumpkin's with meal and skim-niilk. The Oregon Experiment Station found that a 200-pound hog consuming 20 pounds of cooked pumpkin and a small amount of shorts gained 1.2 pounds per day. Other in- vestigators have found that 273 pounds of grain and 376 pounds of raw })unipkin produced 100 pounds of pork. Some experiments show that cooking pumpkins does not add to their value. The squash may bo counted as equal to the pumpkin in feeding value. Apples. — Apples do not appear to possess a high feeding value, but may often be used to good advantage to give variety and succulence to a ration. They are perhaps most suitable for mature breeding stock, but a liog should never be expected to subsist upon apples as the nuiin part of its ration. Skim-Milk. — The results of nineteen trials with eighty- eight pigs at the Wisconsin Experiment Station are well sum- marized by Henry in " Feeds and Feeding." It is a well- known fact that when a small proportion of skim-milk is fed with meal, the milk shows a higher meal equivalent than when a large proixirtion is fed; that is to say, it requires a smaller amount of skim-milk to be equivalent to a given amount of meal when a small proportion of milk to meal is used. Henry summarizes the Wisconsin results as follows : ROOTS AND DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS 209 Meal Equivalents of SJi'ini-MUk. Proportion of milk to meal. Pounds of milk equivalent to 100 poundv meal. 1 lb. corn meal, 1 to 3 lbs. milk 1 lb. corn meal, 3 to 5 Ib.s. milk 1 lb corn meal, o to 7 lb.s. milk 1 lb. corn meal, 7 to 9 lbs. milk Average of 19 trials 327 lbs. milk = 100 lbs. meal. 446 lbs. milk = 100 lbs. meal. 574 lbs. milk = 100 lbs. meal. 552 lbs. milk = 100 lbs. meal. 475 lbs. milk = 100 lbs. meal. The Ontario Aiiricnltiiral College reports a trial in which 355.6 pounds of skini-niilk proved equal to 100 pounds of meal. Tlie proportion of milk to meal was about 2.5 to 1, and the result is similar ti) the Wisconsin result with a similar propor- tion of milk to meal. The Minnesota Experiment Station reports six trials in which the i)roportion of milk to meal varied, the highest pro- portion being about 5 pounds of milk to one of meal. The average of these trials gives 467 pounds of milk equivalent to 100 pounds of meal, which is very close to the Wisconsin average. Utah experiments show 431 pounds of skim-milk equal to 100 pounds of grain, and Tennessee experiments 476 pounds of skim-milk equal to 100 pounds of grain. The Tennessee results are practically identical with the Wisconsin average, and the Utah results are rea.sonably close. These experiments show that, where skim-milk can be ob- tained cxjnveniently and in suitable quantity, it has a very considerable value in hog feeding. \Mien meal is worth $20.00 per ton, skim-milk is easily worth 20 cents per hundred pounds, unless an exceptional amount of labor is involved in procuring it For young pigs just after weaning, however, its value is very much higher than for older hogs. Sweet vs. Sour Skim-Milk. — Several experiments with sweet and .-^our .■^kim-milk indicate that there is little or no difference in the feeding value of the two products, — in fact, 14 210 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING the sour milk has, if anjthine:. had the advantage. For very yoimc; piijs sweet milk is preferal>le. Whey. — At the Ontario Agi'icultiiral College, the writer conducted seven trials with a view to ascertaining the value of whey for pig feeding. The average of these seven trials gives 744.5 pounds of whey equivalent to 100 pounds of meal. Two trials at the Wisconsin Experiment Station give an average of 800 pounds of whey equivalent to 100 pounds of meal. These trials probably show the maximum value of whey for pig feeding. Under ordinary methods of feeding, it would hardly be safe to expect quite as good returns for whey. Where labor is involved in procuring the whey, due allowance must be made in estimating the value of this product. Sweet vs. Sour Whey. — Five trials made by the writer failed to show any api)reciable difference between the feeding value of sweet and sour whey. Separated vs. Ordinary Whey. — In an experiment con- ducted by the writer, ordinary whey proved to be worth twenty- five per cent more than separated whey. The separated whey had been run through the cream separator to remove the fat for making whey butter. Buttermilk. — Experiments at the Ontario Agricultural College and elsewhere show that buttermilk is ])ra('tically equal to skim-milk for feediug pigs. Substitutes for Skim-Milk. — For young pigs just after weaning, it is difficult to find anything that will take the place of skim-milk, ^^^len skim-milk is not available, there is danger of the pigs becoming stunted at this period of their life, especially pigs that are weaned young. The Ontario Agricul- tural College conducted two trials with Swift's digester tank- age and blood meal as substitutes for skim-milk. These two feeds proved nearly equal in value, and, since the tankage costs nmch less per ton, it was regarded as the more satisfactory. ROOTS AND DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS 211 In the first trijil tlio tankas^e constituted ahont one-foiirtoentli of the total ration, and in tlie second trial one-tenth of the total ration. About two pounds of milk to one pound of meal were fed in each trial. The average of the two trials shows that to produce 100 pounds of gain it required : 375 pounds meal and 34 pounds tankage. 390 pounds meal and 727 pounds skim-milk. The pigs getting tankage ate their feed quite as eagerly as those getting skim-milk, and continued thrifty throughout the experiment. Tankage, therefore, proved a very satisfactory substitute, so far as gains in weight were concerned, but, when skim-milk can be obtained at 15 cents per hundredweight, it is cheaper than tankage at prevailing prices. In other experiments by the writer, the results of which have not been published, other substances, such as linseed meal, " black-strap " molasses, and tea from alfalfa hay, have been tried, but none of these approached tankage in efficiency as a substitute for skim-milk for young pigs. The ^Michigan Experiment Station also compared tankage with skim-milk for young pigs. The pigs on skim-milk made slightly larger gains, but, when skim-milk was valued at 20 cents per 100 pounds and tankage at $1.0214 per 100 pounds, the tankage-fed pigs made cheaper gains than the skim-milk pigs. Garbage. — Large hotels, boarding houses, and institutions have much kitchen refuse, often used in hog feeding. Such ma- terial possesses considerable feeding value, but there are serious dangers connected with its use. Ordinary garbage is likely to contain broken glass or crockery, washing powders, lye, poisonous medicines, and other substances which may prove fatal to hogs. In addition, ptomaines may develop in fermenting garbage, and the hog seems to be very susceptible to ptomaine poisoning. 212 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING Bulletin Xo. 141 of the Cornell Station deals with " Pow- dered Soap as a Cause of Death Among- Swill-fed Hogs." In connection with the many fatalities resulting from feeding swill, the following statement occurs in the bulletin : " In view of this danger, it seems better to abandon altogether the habit of giving dishwater to hogs. Although the feeding of garbage is gen- erally condemned, the scraps of vegetables and table refuse could, perhaps, if properly collected, be used with safety. But cer- tainly pure water is a much more wholesome drink, even for swine, than dirty dishwater. When the subject of swill-feeding as a business is studied, and the conditions as they exist arc under- stood, the wonder is, not that some of the hogs die, but rather that any of them live." The bulletin also points out the dangers connected with feeding decaying garbage apart from the dish- water, and the danger of hog cholera and swine plague germs being carried in the garbage. The man who would feed garbage should make arrangements to have all dishwater, broken dishes, lye, etc., kept separate from the table and kitchen scraps. Only the table and kitchen scraps, of course, should be used, and, before using, this material should be sorted, and finally cooked if one wishes to keep on the safe side. REVIEW. 1. Give the average equivalent of roots for 100 pounds moal. What kind of roots are best? 2. Give the meal equivalent for potatoes. How are they to be fed? 3. Tell of the value of j)unipkins for swine. How may they be fed? 4. Tell of the suitability and value of apples for swine. 5. How does the proportion of skini-niilk fed alTect its meal i(iui\ aleiit ? Give the average. 6. How do sweet and sour skim-milk compare as feed for pigs? 7. What is the meal equivalent of wliey ? Is tliere danger in letting it sour? 8. ^^^lat is separated whey? How does it compare with ordinary whey? 9. How does buttermilk comiiare with skini milk for pigs? 10. Mention some of the best substitutes for skim milk for pigs. CHAPTER XXIV. PREPARATION OF FEED. Cooking and Steaming. — Years ago there was a popular belief tluit cooking or steaming feed increased its digestibility, and hence its feeding value. The work of experiment stations and private investigators has thoroughly exploded this idea, and indicates that digestibility may be decreased rather than increased by cooking in the case of many feeds. There are some feeds which are rendered more palatable by cooking, such as potatoes and beans, but in the case of feeds which are eaten readily without cooking, it may be taken as settled that cooking or steaming is poor economy. Instead of being a commend- able practice, cooking is something which should be avoided as far as circumstances will permit, and employed only when feeds are not acceptable in the raw state. Where economy is no object, one may secure larger gains in weight by cooking portions of the feed to make the ration more palatable, thus stimulating the appetite, but such gains usually come at comparatively high cost. Grinding. — The question of grinding was discussed under com, and it was shown that, so far as corn is concerned, the gain from grinding is comparatively small. Xumerous experi- ments have been made ^\^th other grains to determine the effect of grinding, it being generally supposed that grinding would bo more effective in the case of small grains than it would be with com. Tt is out of tlie qncstion to review experimental work in detail in regard to this point, but it may l3e said that grinding small grains, such as peas, barley, oats, and rye, has almost invariably proved beneficial. Sometimes the advantage of the ground grain has been very slight, and sometimes very marked, but the general e.virlence indicates that it is advisable, when practicable, to grind such grains. T\lien the cost of grinding is excessively high, the practice may not be advisable, but, under (213) 214 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING ordinary circuinatances, it is the safe course. According to a compilation of experiment station results, by G. M. Rommel (Bulletin 47, U. S. Dept. of Agr.), the average saving effected by grinding small grains is 12.2G per cent, which is double the saving effected by grinding com in the Wisconsin experiments. Wet vs. Dry Feed. — Considerable experimental work has been done with wet and dry feed, and results are very con- tradictory. On an average, the two methods of feeding show practically equal results. The writer's experience is that when hogs can be fed dry meal in such a manner that they cannot waste it, they make as good use of it as when it is wet. There is more tendency to waste feed wlieu fed dry, especially when many feed at the same trough. Troughs arranged so as to pre- vent crowding will tend to lessen waste. In cold pens, dry meal feeding has some advantages, a good ration is to mix dry meal with an equal weight of pulped roots. Under ordinary condi- tions, it is difficult to see much advantage from dr\' feeding. Soaking. — Soaking feed is another practice which seems to give variable results according to experimental data. There seems little doubt, however, that, in the case of dry hard grain fed whole, soaking is to be commended. As to meal, freshly mixed feed will likely give as good results as soaked feed. Fermenting. — The practice cf fermenting feed for swine was formerly much more common than it is at present. In the case of cottonseed meal, it will be remembered that the Texas Station recommends mixing the cottonseed meal with other meal and allowing the whole mass to sour. The I^ew Hamp- shire Station obtained better results from fermented bran than from unfermented. With feeds well adapted to pig feeding, it is not likely that fermentation would be of any benefit. METHODS OT'' FEKDTXO. " Hog Motor Grinder " vs. " Hopper." — The Maryland Experiment Station (Bulletin 150) reports tests with the "hog motor grinder," a contrivance by which hogs grind their own PREPARATION OF FEED 215 grains as they require it. (Fig. 47.) The grinder was com- pared with a self-feed ho]>per. In the first test whole corn was used in the hopper, and in the second ground corn. The pigs were from four to five months old when the experiment began. In tlie first test hopper-fed pigs made an average daily gain per pig of 1.85 jwunds, and gTinder-fed pigs 1.05 pounds. The feed consumed per 100 pounds gain was as follows: Hopper pigs. — Corn, 25(> pounds; middlings, 68 pounds; milk. 839 pounds. (Iriiidcr pigs. — Corn, 22-1 pounds; niiddlinjrs, 76 pounds: milk, :?85 pounds Fig. 47. — Hog motor grinder and feeder. With this machine hogs grind their own feed. In the second test hopper-fed pigs averaged a daily gain per pig of 2.11 pounds, and the grinder-fed pigs, 1.86 pounds. The feed consumed per 100 pounds gain in second test was: TJopper pigs. — Corn, 287 pounds; middlings, 71 pounds. Grindrr pigs. — Corn. 273 pounds: middlings, 80 poimds. The author of the bulletin states : " The motor grinder and feeder gave good results in two tests. However, when used in comparison with hopper feeding of both shelled com and corn meal, tlie margin of profit was in favor of the hopper-fed pigs." Hopper Feeding vs. Trough Feeding. — Bulletin 150 also reports two tvsts in which the .self-feed hopper (Fig. 48) was compared with trough feeding. In the first test were 10 five- months-old pigs, and in the second, 10 three and one-half months. 216 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN SWINE FEEDING In the first test all tlie ])igs were fed a mixture of ground corn, wheat middlings, and bran ; and in the second test, hominy chop and middlings. Tn each test dry meal was fed in the liopjK'rs, and wet meal in tlie troughs. The results were: First Teat: Hopper fed. — Average daily gain per pig, .71 pound. Meal consumed per 100 pounds gain, 520 pounds. Trough fed. — Average daily gain per pig, .73 pound. Meal consumed per 100 pounds gain, 478 pounds. Second Tesf; Hopper fed. — Average daily gain per pig, 1.2() jjounds. iVfeal consumed per 100 pounds gain, 387 pounds. Trough fed. — Average daily gain per pig, 1.36 pounds. Meal consumed per 100 pounds gain, 348 pounds. Xoticc that in both testes trough-fed i)igs gained the more rapidly and cheaply, though the labor is less with hoppers. REVIEW. 1. What was the old helief as to the value of cooking feed for swine? \\niat do the trials show? 2. What is shown regarding the henefit of grinding small grains and com for swine? Under what circumstances does it pay? 3. Give advantages and disadvantages of wetting or soaking feeds? 4. Tell of the metliod of feeding by use of a hog motor grinder. 5. Compare it with the hopper method. 6. How does hopper feeding compare with trough feeding? PART V FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT CHAPTER XXV. THE BOAR. Use. — The age at which a young boar may bo first used depends largely upon his development. Some boars may be used to a few sows wheu not more than seven months old, without apparent injury. As a rule, it is safer not to use a Iwar before he is eight months old, and to use him as sparingly as possible until he is a year old. I^o hard-and-fast rule can be laid down, and the owner must use his judgment in the matter. Excessive use when young is likely to shorten the period of a boar's usefulness, and, since a boar will usually pro- duce the best pigs after he reaches maturity, the importance of saving him while he is young will be readily appreciated. Some good breeders allow only one service a day, with intervals of one or two days a w^eek ^vithout being used, in the case of valuable boars. This is a matter which can be regu- lat((l belter in larg-e herds, where several stock boars are kept, than it can where only one boar is kept and where outside sows are admitted. The owner of a boar under the last-named conditions will require to exercise all his ingenuity to prevent his boar from being used too freely during certain seasons of the year. In no case should more than one sen'ice to a sow be per- mitted, and the boar should not be allowed to nm at large with sows to which he is to be bred. Excessive use is likely to result in small, weak litters, and the aim should be to save the boar as much as possible. It is not good to use a boar immediately after he has been fed. (219) 220 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT Exercise. — Probably nothing is more essential to the health and vigor of an animal than exercise. In summer it is usually a comparatively simple matter to provide exercise in a ])addock or pasture lot, but in winter it is rather more difficult to furnish this. A roomy pen should be provided, with a sheltered outside yard. When practicable, it is well to feed the boar out-doors at some distance from his sleeping quarters, thus compelling him to take exercise in walking back and forth between his pen and the feeding place. Icy ground is the greatest dra\vl);ick to this method, l)ut this can be overcome by littering the walk with some strawy horse manure. Sonu'times the boar can be fed in a WTll-littered barnyard, which makes a very good arrangement when practicable. When several boars are k(']it, it is difficult to provide separate runs for each boar, and it t^implifies matters if they are taught to run together. The tusks should he removed and a cool day should be selected for turning them together for the first time. It takes a very short time, as a rule, to settle the (piestion of su]>renuicy, and when once settled no further disputes arise. The writer has liad considerable ex- ])erience with this method, and has never known bad results to follow. Tlie two mentioiiod conditions ;ii'(^ necessary, — iiaiiicly, llic tusks uiust be broken oil' and :i cool day S(dected for the founiiiment wliicli decides. After tliis lii-st struggle has taken ])hice, the boars will live together (piite as jx-aceably as sows. Removing Tusks. — Armed with long, sliarj) tusks, tlie boar is capable of inflicting serious injury upon man or beast, should he take th(> notion, ])ut, deprived of his tusks, he Ix^comes THE BOAR 221 comparatively harmless. It is the ])art of wisdom, therefore, to remove these tusks before any damage is done, because we never know what the quietest boar may do under provocation. Several methods may be cmjdoyed, and tlio following one will answer very well. The boar is first made fast to a post by means of a rope noosed about his upper jaw back of the upper Fia. 49. — Yearling iJLrk^hirc Luar, a Cauadiin p tusks. Then one man takes a crowbar and another a sharp cold chisel and a hammer. The sharp edge of the crowbar is placed against the tusk near its base, and lield firmly in position, and tlie edge of the cold chisel is placed on tho oppo- site side of the tusk directly across from, and even with, the edge of the crowbar. A sharp blow with tho haiumor on the cold chisel does the job. 222 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT Feeding. — Jt requires good judgment to keep a boar in the best possible condition. (Fig. 49.) Extremes are to be avoided. The over-fat boar does not make a satisfactory sire, as a nde, and a half-starved boar cannot transmit vigor and constitution to his progeny to the 'same degree tliat he would if properly managed. To get the best results, the boar should be in fair flesh. A reasonable amount of fat on his bones will do him no harm if he gets sufficient exercise. An exclusive meal ration will not give good -results, especially if the ration is made up of corn. It is true tliat corn can be fed to a l>oar without injuring him, but it must be fed in the right way. Corn is fattening, but its exclusive Tise is debilitating, and the feeder must combine something with it to get good results. Equal parts ground com, ground oats, and wheat middlings make a good meal ration. Equal parts ground oats and middlings make a first-class meal ration when com is not used. It gives sufficient bulk, and is nutritious without being heating or too fattening. Ground oats, middlings, or bran may be used singly to dilute corn ; in fact, a very great variety of grains may bo fed, so long as the feeder uses judgiuent. Supplemental Feeds. — But a boar needs something besides ffrain and meal to be in his best condition. Skim-milk and buttermilk are excellent, and will give good residts with corn, even if nothing else is used. In winter, roots of any kind are much relished. They have a cooling, laxative effect, preventing constipation and kee})ing the aiiiiiial thrifty and vigorous. If roots are not available, alfalfa hay of fine quality or even fine red clover hay may be used to give bulk to the ration. Some feed the alfalfa hay dry in racks, and others prefer to cut it and soak it with the meal ration, or THE BOAR 223 scald it witli boiling water before mixing witli the meal. As a substitute for roots, the soaked or steeped alfalfa would be preferable to tlie dry hay. Alfalfa or clover hay may be fed along witli roots, and will be found to give good results if the feeder takes care to supply a reason- able amount of concentrated feed to make the ration sufficiently nourishing. Summer management is usually simpler than winter. A pasture lot provided with shade is one of the best places to Fio. 50. — BreedinR crate. A. movable board hinged at left-hand end and held by chain B, both sided alike; D, six holes for the iron rod C to assume various positions. keep a boar. The grass or clover, or whatever the pasture may consist of, will furnish the bulky, succulent feed necessary for health, and gathering part of his food from pasture compels the boar to take exercise. If it is not possible to provide the pasture, he should be liberally supplied with green feed in his pen. The quantity of meal to feed a boar will vary with circum- 224 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT stances. During the season when lie is used most he aHII rc'(|iiii-c liheral treatment, l)ut at no lime should lie be fed more than he will oat up clean before leaving the trough. During comparatively idle seasons, a very light meal ratit)n will be sufficient, and if on go<")d pasture he will re(iuii'e but little feed in addition. It is entirely a matter of ju'^ day, the attendant can induce the sows to take considerable exercise. Another method is to use portable pens set in outside lots. The jiens should be placed facing the south, and fifty yards or more from the feeding THE SOW 229 place. If kept well bedded, and banked about the Iwttom with strawv horse manure, they luako comfortable sleeping quarters. The sows are forced to take exercise in walking backwards and forwards between the pen and the feeding place. It is better to keep not more than five or six sows in a pen of this kind, and care should be taken to provide plenty of trough room. The troughs should be placed on dry ground or on a platform, and it is preferable to have them in a place that is sheltered from the wnnd. Feeding and Management during Gestation. — During the period of gestation the sow should be kept in good, strong condition, but not overloaded with fat. Extremes in condition are to be avoided. The very fat sow is apt to be clumsy with her pigs, and sometimes her pigs are few in number or lacking in vitality. On the other hand, the very thin sow will either not do justice to her pigs, or will become a mere wreck herself during the time she is nursing her litter, and the chances are that both these things will happen. A sow may be kept in fairly liig-h condition and still produce satisfactory litters, provided she takes plenty of exercise. (Fig. 51.) Her Ration. — In districts where corn is plentiful, there is a temptation to feed sows almost exclusively upon corn. Such a method of feeding cannot give the best results, because corn does not funiish enough bone- and muscle-fonning constituents to properly develop the unborn ]dgs. It is also rather too fattening and heating to feed in large quantities to a sow^ at this stage. It is true that corn may be fed, but, as in the case of the boar, it must be fed wath judgment. The ration recom- mended for the lx)ar — namely, equal parts ground com, ground oats, and wheat middlings — will answer very nicely for the sow. The proportion of com should not be over one-third of 230 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT the meal ration, and wheal iniildlinjjs or hran may be used to dilute the corn meal without oats. In cold weather, if sows have a good deal of out-door exercise, they may he fed more com with safety than when they have to be kept pretty closely confined. A meal ration which is preferred by the writer to all others is equal ]iart>; jn*ound oats and niiddlincT'^, loavinc: out corn !i[^^>'^j'l ' 11 ^^^^^^^B "IT ^^H ViJ 1m mm^^ KiQ. 51. — Thrcf-yt'iir-okl C'licster white sow, winner of numerous prizes. altoiictiuT. It is possible, however, to use a wide variety of feeds, so long as the feeder realizes the importance of furnish- ing considerable bulk and of restricting the ju-oportion of heating or highly fattening feeds. As in the case of the boar, the sow requires something besides meal, and the furnishing of some such feeds as roots, or alfalfa or red clover hay, is even more important than in THE SOW 231 feeding the boar. Skim-milk is also excellent, but is not always available for sows. //( summer, a pasture field will furnish the bulky part of the ration, and, if sows are in good condition to start with and are given a good pasture, they will get along very well without other feed for two or three months. They should be given a little meal for several weeks before farrowing, to accustom them to its use, and render the change less violent when they are taken into the pens. With regard to the quantity of meal, the feeder must be guided entirely by the condition of the sows. ^[eal may be fed either wet or dry. When roots are fed, a good plan is to mix the dry meal with pulped roots, though the feeder has wide latitude in regard to tlie methods he may see fit to follow. In cold weather, when 'sows are fed out-doors, very little water should be used in mixing their feed. It will be found better to furnish them with water separately, should they require it. If they are fed roots, they will take verj' little water in cold weather. It should be seen to, however, that they have water when they need it, and in hot weather an abundant supply of fresh water is very important. A record shoidd he kept of the date of service of each sow, so that the date of farrowing will l)e known in advance, and due precaution taken. A week or two before farrowing, the sow should be placed in the farrowing pen, so as to become accustomed to her surroundings and changed conditions before the pigs are bom. Constipation is the bano of the swine breeder, and if the sow becomes constipated before she farrows, the chances are that she will lose her pigs, and possibly her o^vn life. Con- stipation, therefore, is one of the main things to be guarded against at this time. ^Mien it once occurs, very little can be done to overcome it and save the pigs, so that it is almost 232 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT altogether a matter of ])rcv('iitii>ii. If a sow is taken directly from a pasture tield, shut up in a ])en, and fed u])on an exclusive meal ration, trouble is almost sure to occur. Radical changes in feeding are to be avoided, ami the ration should be kept practically the same after takina; the sow into the pen as it was before. If anything, the feed should be made rather more sloppy, and green feed or roots should be supplied the same as they were Ix^fore the sow was taken in. A small amount of linseed meal (oil meal) or ir;rouii(l thixsccd added to the ration is also helpful in preventing constipation. The wisdom of feeding meal to sows while on pasture for a time before they farrow can be readily a])preeiated, as it prevents a violent change in their ration. The sow should also ])e given a chance and encouraged to take exercise. Farrowing. — The farrowing pen should Ix? dry, well ven- tilated, and free from draughts. It is a good plan to provide the pen with a guard rail made of two by eight inch planks fastened with their edges against the sides of the ]>eii a little above the bed. These prevent the sow from lying against the partition, and lessen the danger of injury to the little pigs, which often find the space under the guard a very convenient refuge. (Fig. 52.) There is a difference of opinion as to the amount of Ix^dding which 'should be us(>(l, some maintaining that the sow should 1)0 liberally supplied with iH'dding, and others that the Ixxiding shouM he limited. The writer's (experience is that active sows in comparatively light condition can generally be trusted with a lil)eral amount of Ix'dding. but sows which are in high con- dition, or which are at all clmnsy, had l>etter be given only a moderate amount of cut straw. Sows sJHtuld not be allowed to farrow in a large piggerv wliere many other ])igs are kejit. unless it is warm weather and windows and doors can be left open. The air of a piggery THE SOW 233 where many pigs are kept seems to be poisonous to little pigs, when tiie weather is cold and the doors and windows have to be closed, in spite of ordinarily good methods of ventilation. The writer has had good results from sows farrowing in portable single pens placed in a sheltered yard, even in zero weather. Tarred paper was put on the studding, and the pen tightly Ixiarded outside and inside. A ceiling of slats was put in the pen, and the space above the ceiling stuffed with straw. Fio. 52. — Method of fastening guard rail to wall or partition. A, guard rail, 2"x8"; B, three-cornered pieces of two-inch phink spiked, at intervals, to guard rail and wall. A window in the side, a small ventilator running from the ceiling out through the roof, and a lighted lantern hung in the pen on the coldest days when the pigs were very small, com- pleted the equipment. The air in this pen always felt dry and comfortable, and the pigs all kept healthy and thrifty. If the ventilating shaft runs up from near the floor, it will be better. It pays to treat sows kindly and to have them quiet. If thev are on ffood term>j with the attendant and reernrd him as 234 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT a friend, there is much less danger of tron])l(' from ner\'ous, excited sows when the eriticnl time of farrow iiiir arrives. Feeding and Management after Farrowing. — After farrow- ing, the sow shouhl not he di.sturhcd, and if she lies quietly for ten or twelve hours, or even more, so much the better. When she wants anything, she will come to the trongli for it. At first she should have little more than a drink. A very thin slop of middlings and water will answer very avoII. If the weather is cold, tepid water should be used. During the tirst three days, great care must be exercised not to over feed, and the ration 'should be kept very light. After this, tlio feed may be gradually increased, taking a week or ten (hiys to reach full feed. A good molher with a large litter reijuires very liberal feeding, l)ut if the litter is small, it nuiy be necessary to reduce the feed. Many different rations are used for nursing sows. Equal parts of finely ground oats and wheat middlings, allowed to soak Ix-tween feeds, makes a most excellent ration. If sweet skini- niilk can ])o added to the mixture, it makes an almost ideal ration. Com may be used as recommended for sows before farrowing, and in larger quantities if skim-milk is available. A certain amount of roots and gi'een feed are always in order, but the sow shoidd not be expected to snl)sist upon such feeds at this time. A limited amount of bulky, succulent feed helps to keep the sow healthy. TJtr sow's udder nuiy become hard and iiithiined. If so, it is a good ]»lan to hathe thoroughly with hot water and a]>ply equal parts of lai-d and tni-]teiit inc. ]Vhe)i the pi see that everything goes well. If the pigs are strong and the sow lies (juiet, it is l)etter not to interfere. Sows that have l)een properly- fed and given sutlicicnt exercise "seldom have difhenltv in farrowing. If the i)igs seem somewhat weak, or if the sow is very restless, it is safer to place the pigs in a well-bedded box or basket to keep them out of tlie way until all are born. If the |ien is chilly, a bottle of hot water placed in the bottom of the basket and covered with a blanket, with another blanket over the top of the basket, will helj) keep up the vitality of the pigs. The pigs should be placed to tbe teat t-o suck as soon as possible. The weaker the pigs, or the colder the pen, the more important an early drink of the mother's milk becomes. If parturition is not unduly protracted, and if the pigs are strong, lively, and comfoi'table, they may wait for their first drink until all are born, but in <\u-]\ matters the attendant must use his judgment. Tn cases of difficult parturition, a ])ig that is ap]iarently lifeless can often be revived by opening its mouth and blowing into it. To be successful, this o]ieration must be jierformed as soon as it is born. A chilled pig can sometimes be revived bv immersing up to the neck in water heated to a temperature of about OS degrees, ^^^len removed from the water, it should be rubl)ed dry. and induced to suck if possible. As soon as the sow appears t-o have settled down quietly, (236) THE YOUNG PIGS 237 it is best to j)ut the little pig's with her and leave them together. It is well not to interfere exeej)t when it is absolutely necessary. Learning (o Eat. — l>y the time the pigs are about three weeks old they will have learned to eat. If at all possible, it is a good i)lan t<» give them access to another pen in which is kept a small trough. Here they can be fed a little skim-milk with a very little middlings stirred into it. The quantity of middlings ean be increas(Ml gradually as the ])igs grow older. If tliey can be taught to nibble at sugar-beets or mangels during this time, so much the better. A small amount of soaked whole com, or almost any other grain, scattered on the floor of the pen, will cause them to take exercise while hunting for it. If it is not p<3ssible to ju'ovide an extra ^K'n, the sow may be shut out of the pen while the pigs are being fed. IMany people simply allow the young pigs to eat with the sow, and many good pigs are raised in this way, but better results will be obtained if the pigs can be fed separately. Exercise is very important for young pigs, and every pos- sible means of securing it must be adopted. If they are kept in a small pen with the mother, some of the best of them will likely become too fat, and will probably sicken and die. Out- door exercise is especially beneficial, but the pigs should be protected from cold winds or from a very hot sun. If the sow is turned out with her pigs, it is not well to give a" very largo range at first. She is likely to travel too far and unduly tire them. Boar pigs not intended for breeding purposes should be castrated before weaning, to get the best results, though there is not much danger from castrating at a later date, provided care is exercised in connection with the operation. Clean hands, a clean knife, and the use of a disinfectant upon the wound will obviate practically all danger. Pigs ruptured in the scrotum may be easily castrated as follows : Have an assistant hold the pig up by the hind legs. In making the incision, cut only through the skiu of the scrotum, 238 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT being careful not to cut the membrane or sac which envelops the testicle. Then draw out the testicle enclosed in its membrane, and, at the same time, work the intestine back into the body of the pig. With the pig held as described, the intestine will go back to its place with little or no assistance. Having drawn out the testicle far enough, tie a strong white string firmly around the cord of the testicle (including the membrane) and then cut away the testicle (enclosed in its membrane) just outside of where the string is tied. Leave the ends of the string three or four inches long, so that they hang outside the wound. If the string does not come away in a couple of weeks, it may be pulled out. If the rupture is only on one side, the remaining testicle may be removed in the ordinary way. The scrotum should be washed with disinfectant before any incision is made. The hands of the operator and the knife should also be washed with disin- fectant, and the string should be soaked in disinfectant before it is used. The incision in the scrotum should extend well down- wards to facilitate drainage from the wound. These simple precautions assure success. The writer has employed this method successfully, and when the wound heals no person could tell that the pig had been ruptured. Feeding and Management after Weaning — There is con- siderable difference of opinion as to the best age at which to wean pigs. Some advocate leaving the pigs with the sow for .ten or twelve weeks, — in fact, the sow is allowed practically to wean her o\vn pigs. For producing show pigs this method may answer very well, but it means only one litter a year; at any rate, it does not admit of two litters a yrar. The average farmer will find it more profitable to wean his pigs early enough to permit two litters a year to be raised. If the young pigs have been taught to eat as described, and skim-milk is available, they may be weaned successfully when six weeks old. It is true that many pigs are weaned before they are six weeks old. It is seldom advisable to do so if they appear to be thriving THE YOUNG PIGS 239 with the sow. If skim-milk is not available, it is generally advisable to defer weaning for two weeks more, and special pains should be taken to have the pigs well accustomed to their new feed and eating heartily before they are weaned. Skim-milk and middlincjs make about the best feed for young pigs after weaning. If the middlings are fine and floury, which is not very likely to occur under present-day methods of milling, they will sometimes cause indigestion, which may show itself either in the form of diarrhoea or con- stipation. Diluting the middlings with a little bran or finely Fio. ry.i. — tiroup of Yorkshire b:icon pigs. ground oats will help prevent the trouble. Soaking or scalding the middlings will also tend to prevent digestive troubles. Scald- ing the middlings is especially useful when no skim-milk is to be had, as it makes the pigs like the feed better. To scald the middlings, it is best to pour boiling water on them, cover the vessel, and allow to stand several hours, or from one time of feeding until the next, ^^^len the pigs are first weaned, it is better to feed four times a day, giving only a small quantity of feed each time, and taking care to keep the trough clean. "Wlien well started, they may be changed to three feeds a day. Other Feeds. — It is not well to be in a hurry to commence feeding corn, but if skim-milk is fed, corn feeding may com- mence earlier than when no skim-milk is avaihible. Generallv 240 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT speaking, when pigs are about three months old a little corn or other grain may be introduced into their ration. Two parts of middlings and one part of corn meal or ground barley, mixed with skim-milk to form a slop, make an excellent ration for growing pigs. As the pigs grow older the proportion of grain to middlings may be increased, but at no time should they be fed exclusively or almost exclusively upon corn, because corn is a poor bone- and muscle-former. The importance of feeding supplementary feeds with corn has been pretty fully discussed under the work of experiment stations. The need of such feeds is most important during the early life. A few roots will be found most helpful in keeping young pigs healthy during the winter, and green feed of almost any kind will answer the purpose during the summer. The feeder has a wide range of feeds to choose from, and if he understands something of their nature, has no difficulty in compounding a satisfactory ration. The aim should be to develop bone and muscle diiring the early stages of growth, and, while the pigs should be thrifty and sleek in the hair, they should not be fed in such a way as to overload them with fat, (Fig. 53.) This is especially true of pigs which are intended for breeding purposes, and which should Ix' carrii^l right throngli to breeding age upon ioeds which stimulate growth and general vigor rather than fat. A reasonable amount of fat is not objectionable, but the develop- ment of the frame, the niiisciilar system, and the vital organs must not be neglected, if a satisfactory breeding animal is to be produced. \'ariety in feeds and plenty of exercise aix' very essential features in raising an animal that will possess all- round development. Cost of Raising Pigs. — The Ontario Agricultural College obtained some interesting figures relative to the cost of raising young pigs until six weeks old, at which age they are commonly weaned. Feeds were valued as follows: Meal of all kinds, including THE YOUNG PIGS 24\ bran aiul middlings, $20.00 per ton; roots, $2.00 per ton; skim-niilk, ir> cents per 100 pomuls. It is assumed that the sow raises two litters a year, and that she nurses each litter six weeks. This would leave about nine and one-quarter months during the year that the sow would not Ik? nursing pigs, and the cost of maintaining the sow during the time she is dry is estimated at 75 cents per montli, it being assumed that the sow is fed as economically as possible during this time. The maintenance during the nine and one-quarter months at 75 cents per month amounts to $6.94, or, in round numbers, $7.00, Half of this amount, or $3.50, is charged against each litter, in addition to the cost of feed consumed by the sow and pigs before the pigs are weaned. Risk, interest on investment, labor, and manure are left out of the calculation. Twelve litters of pigs were used, which were weaned at six weeks old in each case. The following table gives particulars of each litter: Sow and litter. No. of pigs in litter. How bred. Cost of feeding sow and litter for six weeks. No. 1 4 9 6 5 8 3 9 8 8 8 6 4 Pure Yorkshire $3.20 " 2 " 3. Berkshire sire, Tamworth dam Pure Yorkshire 3.08 3.87 " 4 " 5 " 6 " 7 " 8 Yorkshire sire, Tamworth dam Yorkshire sire, Tamworth dam Yorkshire sire, Berkshire dam Berkshire sire, Yorkshire dam Pure Yorkshire 3.70 3.04 5.85 4.31 4.33 " 9 Pure Tamworth 3.88 " 10 " 11 " 12 Yorkshire sire, Tamworth dam Tamworth sire, Berkshire dam Tamworth sire, Berkshire dam 3.94 3.33 2.37 Average. . 6H 3.74 2'otal and A verage Costs. — To arrive at the total cost of the pigs at six weeks old, the service fee and half the cost of main- taining the sow when dry are charged against the average cost of maintaining the sow and litter for six weeks, making the total cost as follows : 16 242 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT Service fee $1 .00 Half cost of maintaining dry sow ( J/^ of $7.00) 3..")0 Average cost of feed for sow and litter 3.74 Total $8.24 Average number of pigs in litter, G^. Average cost per pig six weeks old, $1.27. Variations in Cost. — If the cost of maintaining the dry sow were phiecd at $1.00 per month, it would bring the cost of the young pigs to $1.44 each at six weeks old. It is probably a safe statement, therefore, that young pigs can be raised to the age of six weeks at $1.50 each, making some allowance for items not considered in the experiment described. J. H. Grisdale, Central Experimental Farm, Canada, estimates that a breeding sow can be maintained during a whole year at from $12.00 to $15.00, under careful manage- ment, and produce two litters during the year. This ap- proximates, very closely, the Ontario results, wliich, omitting service fee, make the cost of maintaining a sow lialf a year, and one litter of pigs for six weeks, $7.24. Since the above calculations were made, there has hoen a very material increase in the cost of feeds, but if we add 50 per cent to the cost of maintenance, all round, the cost of a pig six weeks old is about $1.S5, which is a very moderate cost. RKVIKW. 1. Give a plan of keeping new-horn pigs warm in very cold weather. 2. Tell of the importance of the first milk soon after farrowing. 3. Tell of tlie management of apparently lifeless pigs wlion first born. 4. Hive plans for teacliing sucklings to eat. 5. TIow may young pigs be induced to exercise? fi. When is the best time to wean pigs? fJive reasons for variation. 7. Give suggestions regarding best feeds after weaning. W]\y avoid giving corn only? S. What is the cost given for pigs six weeks old? TTow is it calculated? 9. What variation in these figures would be necessary for the present prices of feed? CHAPTER XXVIII. FATTENING. Many of the problems connected with the fattening cf hogs have already been discussed under experiment station work. Corn may be used much more freely for fattening hogs than for those intended for breeding, but experiments show conclusively that com has its limitations, even for fattening. and that it is greatly improved by having some feed richer in protein combined with it. The importance of using some sort of supplementan- feed with almost any meal ration in order to give bulk and variety has also been demonstrated, and the important place which pasture may play in the fattening of hogs has been quite fully dealt with. There are a few general facts of more or less importance remaining to be given under this heading. Winter Feeding. — Generally speaking, winter feeding is more expensive than summer feeding. Part of the extra feed required in winter is probably due to the fact that more feed is required to keep up the heat of the body during cold weatlier. There is little doubt, however, that much of the advantage of summer feeding is due to more sanitary surroundings, — that is, more fresh air and out-door exercise, coupled with more suc- culent feed, which seems to aid digestion. The man who feeds hogs in winter, therefore, should aim to approach summer con- ditions as nearly as possible. He cannot get summer tem- perature, it is true, but he can provide a fair amount of fresh air, and feeds that will keep the digestive organs in good condition. It is just here that the man who grows a few roots (243) 244 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT for winter foodino: lias a <»:roat advantoj^o over the man who does not. Skini-niilk, Inittennilk, and alfalfa hav may also l)e made to perfonn a useful part in giving variety and aiding the digestive organs to perform their functions properly. Quantity of Feed. — The test of the skill of the feeder is his ability to keej) just slightly within the appetite of the animals under his charge, lie must watch the animals closely and see that they clean up witli ajiparent relish all that he gives them. Feed left in the trough is a sign that something is wrong with the methods employed, and to have to cut hack in the quantity of feed means a loss of time. The ([uantity should be so gauged that there is a gradual increase as fattening advances, and radical changes, either in (piantity oi- kind, should be avoided. To 1h' successfid, the feeder must learn the lesson that all changes should be made gradually, and that undue haste in fattening may mean serious delay in the process, together with a waste of feed. Regularity and Comfort. — Eegidarity in time of feeding is n< cessary to regularity in the appetite of the animal. The animal which is fed at the same hours overs' day will take more feed with less danger of surfeiting than the one fed at anv time to suit the convenience of the feeder. Dry, comfortable quarters, and sanitary conditions generally in pen or feed lot, are important factors in securing satisfactorv gains, and in avoiding disastrous loss through disease. Cost Increases with Age. — VnA'. Henry, in ''Feeds and Feeding," gives a very instructive table, comjiiled from results from numerous exj)eriment stations, showing the feed con- sumed per 100 pounds gain by hogs of diflFerent weights. Fol- lowing is an abbreviation of the table as given in Prof. Henry's book: FATTENING 245 Weight of animals in pounds Total number of animals fed. Average feed eaten per day Feed eaten dailv per 100 lbs. live weight. Average gain per day. Feed for 100 pounds gain. 15 to 50 50 to 100 100 to 150 150 to 200 200 to 250 250 to 300 300 to 350 174 417 495 489 300 223 105 lbs. 2.23 3.35 4.79 5.91 6.57 7.40 7.50 lbs. 5.95 4.32 3.75 3.43 2.91 2.74 2.35 lbs. .76 .83 1.10 1.24 1.33 1.46 1.40 lbs. 293 400 437 482 498 511 535 The table shows that the heavier hogs made more raj)id gains and consumed less feed per 100 pounds of their live weight, but there was a steady increase in the ainoniit of fwd required for 100 pounds gain as fattening advanced. (See Fig. 54.) A similar result was obtained at the Ontario Agricultural College ^^^th 36 pure-bred pigs of different breeds, as shown bv the following table: Live weight of hogs. Meal required for 100 pounds increase in weight. 54 to 82 pounds 310 pounds 375 pound? 438 pounds 455 pounds 82 to 1 15 pound." ; 1 15 to 1 48 pounds 148 to 170 pounds These, figures, together with others that might be given, show very clearly that the cost of production steadily increa.ses as the hogs l>ec<3me older. Correctives. — Swine appear to have a craving for what might be called " unnatural " substances. This is especially true of hogs which are kept in confinement, which will eat greedily such substances as charcoal, ashes, mortar, soft coal, and rotten wood. It is probable that some of these substances 246 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT are not good for hogs, Ijut there is no don]>t that charcoal and wood ashes have a beneticial effect. Charcoal made from corn- cobs answers very well. It is a good practice to supply hogs udth charcoal, especially during the winter months, but, if the hogs have not had any charcoal for a considerable time and are then given a liberal supply, there is danger that they may Fia. 54. — YcarlinK Dti roc-Jersey now, a fu-qui-nl prizc-vMuiitT. take too niiu'h i'>>\- their own good. The same caution must be observed in regard to salt. If charcoal is not available, a very good mixture, to keep constantly before hogs in small troughs made for the pui'pose, can ho made up of one part salt, one part sulphur, and about ten parts M'ood ashes. Sods make a very fair substitute for (•liarc(\al, A wagon- FATTENING 247 load or two of sods placed conveniently near the piggery so that the feeder can throw one or two into each pen occasionally will be found very beneficial during the winter. ir(ig.-^ that are out-doors during the summer and have access to eartli and vegetable matter have little need of other correctives. Money Returns for Feed Consumed by Hogs. — Some in- teresting figures have been published by the Ontario Agricul- tural College relating to the value it is possible to obtain for feed consumed by boos, when the hogs are sold at varying prices per pound live weight. The investigation includes hogs fed by the College, as well as a large numl^er fed by farmers throughout the province. The following summary shows the scope of the investigation : Xumber of liogs 207 Weight when marketed 56,718 pounds Average weiglit per hog 190.0 pounds Total meal consumed, which included barley, peas, oats, corn, middlings, and bran 165,011 pounds Total skim-milk consumed 112.500 pounds Total roots consumed 64.600 pounds Miscellaneous feeds, such as pasture, green feeds, etc.. valued by experimenters at $77.00 The pigs are valued at $1.50 each at weaning time. This amount, together Avith the value of the skim-milk at 20 cents per cwt., roots at 10 cents per bu.shel, and the miscellaneous feeds valued at $77.00, is first deducted from the gross proceeds derived from the assumed sale of the hogs at eacli of thf^ different prices per pound, and the remainder represents the cash received for the meal consumed by the hoos. The follow- ing table shows the prices obtained for feed, under each valuation of the hogs when sold ; 248 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT Pnces Realized for Feeds Consumed by 297 Hogs. Assamed selling prices of hogs, live weight. Meal, including mixed grain, mid- dlings, and bran. Milk. Roots. If sold at 43^ cents per lb per ton $20.45 $23.87 $27.29 $30.71 $34.13 per rwt. $.20 $.20 $.20 $.20 $.20 per bu. $ 10 If sold at 5 cents per lb $ 10 If sold at 53^ cents per lb $.10 If solortal)li' Inirdlc fonoo, dcsinncd liy Dr. E. M. Ranok, of the Mississippi Agricultural College It is vi'ry simple ti) make and easy to erect. Note the notch in the bottom piece of the support. This notch is li'4 imhes wide and 3 inches deep. The ends of the bottom Ijoards of adjoining j)anels tit into the notch side by side, and the top boards fit snuKly into tlie apex of flie trianpular opening. Points to be Considered. — 'J'he following are given as im- portant points in raising crops for hogs: ^' All crops that produce feed underground, such as sweet potatoes, peanuts, chufas, artichokes, and root crops, grow best on sandy loam or in very mellow soils. " The legumes, such as peas, soy beans, and clover, should FATTENING 253 be rotated over poor clay and worn-out soils with some stable manure, as they will add fertilizer and produce fairly good graz- ing crops. " Permanent sod pastures are necessary for grazing during the very wet or very dry seasons of the year. " It requires very rich, well manured, and thoroughly pre- pared soils to grow profitably the grain crops, such as barley, Photograph ff- iplJi A^'ritultural College Fig. 56. — Duroc-Jersey pigs digging Johnson grass roots on a corn headland. This is an illustration of how hops can turn waste material into value. Another type of portable fence is shown in the picture, but it is not so simple as the one designed by Dr. Ranck, Fig. 55. wheat, rye, etc., although oats sometimes grow fairly well on poor soils. *' Whenever possible and practical, the crops should be har- vested by the hogs themselves. It is cheaper, and the exercise is beneficial." (Figs. 55, 56, 57.) For hogs fed in pens without grazing crops during the finish- ing period of fattening, the writer of the circular recommends 25-4 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT a ration of 8 parts corn chops to 1 part cottonseed meal. (Fig. 58.) When tankage was used in place of cottonseed meal, better results were obtained, but the ration was more expensive. A ration composed of equal parts corn chops and shorts is also commended. If one were disposed to criticize the recommendations made in the circular, it would be in connection with the amounts of meal recommended in the supplemental feeds on pasture. One Pholoyraph &om Dr. E. M. Ranck, MibiiiSippi A.L;riLultur.il Col Fig. 57. — A patch of field peas can be seen through the bars of the Kate. One can Ret an idea of the amount of pasture by comparing the height of the peas with that of the mature sow shown in the foreground. The sow appears to be in ideal breeding condition. per cent of meal, that is to say one pound of meal for each 100 pounds live weight of the hogs, looks like a rather light meal allowance for growing or fattening hogs. The reader is es- pecially referred to the discussion under " Amount of Grain on Pasture " in Chapter XXII. Results in Alabama. — Bulletin 143 of the Alabama Station gives results of three years' experimental work with swine. The following points are taken from the summary of results. \\Tien corn was used alone as a ration for fattening hogs, FATTENING 255 both the daily gains and the tiiiaiicial outcome were unsatis- factory. Ou the whole, peanut pasture was found to be more useful than any other pasture tried. Pork was made at a good profit when peanut pasture was used in conjunction with corn. Mature sorghum pasture has very little to recommend it as a feed for fattening swine. Both the gains and the financial outcome were unsatisfactory. Photograph from Agricultural CoUcije. Fig. 58. — Piggery at the Mibsisiippi Experiment Station. Details of plan may be obtained by writing the Director of the Station. When sorghum was cut and carried to the hogs, the results were better than when the hogs were made to graze the crop. Soy bean pasture ranked second to peanut pasture as a sup- plement to corn. Chufa pasture was not found to be as good as either peanut or soy bean pasture. ^\^len hogs have been grazing a green crop, it usually pays to enclose and feed them in a dry lot for a short period after the crop is exhausted. The same bulletin gives the following table : 256 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT A Succession of Green Crops for Hog Grazing. For Fall Planting. Crop. Alfalfa Burr Clover . Oats Rape Rye Vetch Alfalfa Chufas Cow-peas . . . Japan Clover Oats Peanuts Rape Sorghum .... Soy Beans . . Time to plant. Sept. 1 to Oct. Sept. 1 to Oct. Sept. 1 to Nov. Sept. 20 to Oct. Sept. Sept. 1 to Nov. 1 to Oct. 15 1 1 15 1 15 Amount seed per acre. 15 to 25 pounds '15 to 20 pounds cleaned seed 36 pounds in burr 1 3^2 to 3 bushels 4 to 6 pounds drilled 5 to 10 pounds broad- cast IJ^ to 2 bushels 1 bushel Number days from planting time to grazing time. For Spring and Summer Planting. Feb. 25 to April March 15 to June May March Feb. May 1 to July 10 1 to March 15 1 to March 20 1 to June 30 March 1 to March 31 April April 1 to June 30 1 to June 30 15 to 25 pounds 3 to 4 pecks H bushel drilled \ iy2 bushels broadcast/ 24 pounds 1 3^ to 3 bushels 1 to 2 bushels, unhuUed 4 to 6 pounds drilled 9 to 10 pounds broad- cast 1 H to 2 bushels 13^ bushels, broadcast. 90 to 120 90 to 120 90 to 120 60 to 75 90 to 120 90 to 120 75 to 90 120 to 150 75 to 90 60 to 75 75 to 90 90 to 120 60 to 75 60 to 90 90 to 120 Pasture the Entire Year. — The following is quoted from Bul- letin 113 of the Florida Station: " The following is a list of useful forage crops in Florida. The crops in this list will give pasture through the entire year. Dwarf Essex Rape, can be pastured from December to ^larch. Japanese Cane, can be pastured from November to March. Rye, Oats, Barley, can l)e pasturt-d from XovemU'r to April. Sor^'lium, can l)e pastured from May to November. Chufas, can be pastured from August to December. Sweet Potatoes, can be pastured from October to December. Cow-peas and Soy Beans, can be pastured from July to November. Peanuts, can be pastured from September to December. FATTENING 257 " For permanent pasture, it is doubtful >vliether we can get anything belter than Bermuda and Johnson grass." Pasture Supplemented with Grain. — Professor Good, in Bul- letin IT.") of tlie Kentucky Station, gives results of carefully con- ducted experiments with several forage crops for swine. Follow- ing is a summary of the principal points brought out in the expe- riments : To obtain best results young green rye, barley, wheat, and oats should be grazed by hogs when the plants are between 6 inches and 15 inches in height. There is no time that grain can be so profitably fed to a hog as when he is young and running on pasture. Some experiments showed as high as 18 pounds gain in weight for each bushel of grain fed. It is a mistake to run young pigs on forage crops without a grain ration. Breeding sows, when not nursing pigs, can be maintained on pasture alone, but young pigs are apt to become stunted. During the spring, summer, and early fall months, from one- Jialf to three-fourths of a full feed of grain was fed to hogs running on pasture. During the late fall, winter, and early spring, when the pastures were short, nearly a full ration of grain was fed. Corn meal should be supplemented with soy beans, tankage, middlings, or with some other nitrogenous supplement, when fed to pigs running on young rye or barley during the winter months. Pigs averaging 66 pounds per head, receiving corn meal alone, but allowed the run of a clover pasture until it was killed by frost, and then turned on a pasture of young rye, averaged 215 pounds in 124 days, making a gain of 1-1.65 pounds of pork . for every bushel of corn meal fed. Eighteen pigs, averaging 51 pounds per head, averaged 222 pounds at the end of 166 days, from receiving a ration of a mixture of corn meal 9 parts, and soy bean meal, 1 part, and 17 258 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT allowed a succession of forage crops, namely, 1 acre rye pasture, 2 acres oat pastnrc, and 1 acre succotash pasture. The gain was 1(5.47 pounds for every bushel of grain consumed. The suc- cotash, planted June 22nd, was composed of 2 Lushels of oats, 1 pound of rape, 30 pounds of cow-peas, 30 pounds of soy beans, and 2 pecks of corn. An important advantage in favor of pasturing hogs is the fact that practically none of the manure is wasted. Pasture for Breeding Stock. — It will not be found satis- factory to allow breeding sows wnth their litters to run in large pastures with other stock. This method is not fair to either the sow or her litter, because this is a critical time, and a little extra attention to the young pigs may make all the difference between growthy, profitable hogs, and unprofitable scrubs. Dr. Tait Butler, in a bulletin published by the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, describes the pasture lots for breed- ing sows and their litters at the Iredell Test Farm of the Depart- ment of Agriculture. The portable farrowing pens are set in a grove so that they are sheltered from the extreme heat of the sun, each pen being set in a lot 100 feet square in the grove. Running out from each grove lot is a lot 100 feet wide by 450 feet long. These large lots are divided lengthwise, giving each sow and her litter two lots, each 50 feet wide by 450 feet long. One of these lots is in permanent pasture, preferably alfalfa, and the other is planted with some other pasture crop, so that the sow and her litter can be grazed alternately on the two lots. The long, nar- row lot is convenient to cultivate. No doubt it is not practicable for every swine breeder to follow the plan described above, but the principle is sound, and may suggest to the thoughtful man ways and means of improving the conditions for his breeding stock at a very critical period of their existence. Shade and Water. — Ample provision for shade and an abun- dant supply of pure drinking water are of great importance in keeping hogs healthy and thrifty. To compel hogs to drink from FATTENING 259 filthy wallows, or other impure sources, is to court disastor from disease. Scope of Suggestions. — As this is not a treatise upon South- ern agriculture, it is out of the question to discuss suitable soils, methods of cultivation, etc., for the various crops mentioned. All that has been attempted is to show the possibilities of the South alone.- the line of cheap pork production, and to urge farmers to 1 ^^^1^^^ 1 ^"'^ ly.-^ ^ -^^^ ~ '^ ^^^-ShH Bh ^ .."■•'' 1 Photocraph from Dr. £. M. Ranck, Mississippi AgriLultural College. Fig. 59. — Hog colony house recommended by the Mississippi Agricultural College. It is a modi6cation of the A-shaped pen, the sides being hinged at the top. In summer the sides are lifted up as shown in the picture, in which position it affords shade during the whole day and allows a free circulation of air. In winter the sides are let down, when the pen is as comfortable as the ordinary A-shaped pen. Utilize the advantages existing in their location, whether the number of hogs they raise be few or many. Experiment Stations are for the guidance of the farmer, and the wide-awake farmer will look to his State Experiment Station for advice regarding the culture of crops with which he is not familiar. The reader is referred to the chapters dealing with results of experiments in swine feeding for further reference to many of the feeds mentioned. 260 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT SCRUBS NOT ECONOMICAL. The legitimate place of the hog, or any other meat-produc- ing animal, is to turn cheap feeds into valuable meat, and the more feed a hog can turn into pork during its short lifetime, the more valuable it is to its owner. Professor Burns of the Texas Experiment Station fed six scrubs and six grade Poland-Chinas on the same kind of ration. So far as amount of feed for 100 pounds gain in weight was concerned, there was practically no difference, but that is only one side of the question. While the scrubs were making 850 pounds gain in weight, the grades made 1130 pounds. It reijuired no more labor to feed the grades than the scrubs, it cost no more for a pound of pork in the grades than in the scrubs, yet the grades manufactured 280 pounds more pork than the scrubs. From the standpoint of labor alone the grades were the more profitable, but this is not all. When sent to market, the packer paid $0.00 per hundred weight for the scrubs, and $0.65 for the grades, and as a result the grades showed a profit of $1.48 per hog more than the scrubs. The scrub has outlived his usefulness, and there is clearly no place for him in present day agriculture. Scrub Methods. — The scrub, unlike the poet, can be made as well as horn. Methods of feeding and management which j)ro- duce a pig weighing from KHJ to 150 pounds at 10 months old, when it ought to weigh at least 300 pounds, may properly be described as scrub methods. We may have the best of blood in our herd, but fail to secure any advantage from it through our carelessness or indifference. To effectively eradicate the scrub requires intelligent methods of both breeding and feeding, and the scrub pig will disappear when scrub methods are abandoned. The principles underlying the successful handling of hogs have been pretty fully discussed in the preceding pages of this and other chapters of the book. FATTENING 261 REVIEW. 1. \\ liy is it more fxpi-nsive to fatten hofjs in winter? •J. How mn this expense he rediued? 3. (Jive eautions rejrardinjr quantity anil change of feed. 4. Tell of the importance of regularity in feeding and comfortable quarters for fattening. 5. What is the effect of age on the cost of fattening? 0. ^^■hat are "correctives"? 7. How are they supplied to swine? S. From the results given in this chapter, do hogs pay well for their feed? 9. Give advantages of the South for swine husbandry. 10. Outline a pasture succession for hogs in your section. CHAPTER XXIX. SUGGESTIONS TO BEGINNERS. Starting in Business, — ()no of the most coninion mistakes for a beginner to make is to be too ambitious, and to make his start on too large a scale. As a result, he is liable to meet with some rather serious losses and to become discouraged. Perhaps the safest way to start is to buy one or two young sows safely in pig to a good boar. It costs more money to start this way than to buy newly weaned i)igs, but this disadvantage is more than compensated by the fact that a ])erson is able to make a much more intelligent selection by buying a more fully develo])od aiiinial than he cnuld make if lie bought liis sow vorv young. In addition to this advantage, lie lias a shorter time to wait for returns. He is also saved the necessity of imnuMl lately buying a l)oar, if there is not a good one in the near neighborhood, and need not tie up capital in a b<»ar until lie has had some money returns from his venture, provided, of courso. that he cares to sell some of his young ])igs at an early age, ( Sec " Selection of the Sow," pp. 37 and :]S.) Breed to Select. — As to the breed to select, each man must l>o his o\m judge, Xearly any of (uir \vell-kn(»\vn breeds will give gowl results if intelligently handled. Generally speaking, however, it is safer for a lieginner to select a l>reeigs fur hnt'ding purposes. If he is merely raising market pigs, the drover or butcher is the only man to please, ^^^lateve^ breed is selected, it should be retained. Xo man need expect to make a success of breeding any class of animals if he keeps chaaiging from one breed to another. Buying a Boar. — Sooner or later the beginner will want to own a boar of his own, but if there is a really good boar in his neighlwrhood to which he can breed his sows, he had better post- pone the purchase until he has gained considerable experience. He %\'ill find that there are many things about selecting a lx)ar which cannot be learned from books, and that wisdom will come from experience. Boars can be bought for the least money when they are very small, but this method has too many of the elements of a game of chance to be commendable. When buying a young boar, it will be found safer to buy one from eight to twelve months old than a pig two or three months old. The reason for this recommendation is plain, it being im- possible to foretell just how the very young pig is going to develop. Highly-fitted show boars had better be avoided. As pointed out in another place, pedigree is important, but the boar should, to some extent at least, demonstrate the excellence of the blood l>ehind him. It is more satisfactory to select by personal inspection than to buy through correspondence. A visit to the herd which produced the boar enables one to judge the general quality of the hogs produced in the herd, and one can pick up information regarding the sire and dam that could not othen\'iso be obtained. It is easy to pay too much, and it is possible to be too economical. It is not so much a question of how few dollars we invest as it is one of how much real merit we can get for every dollar invested. If the boar is shipped some distance and arrives excited and tired, he should be fed very lightly at first and not used for several weeks after his an-ivnl. 264 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT Cheap Buildings.- — The iK-giunor should not go in for ex- pensive buildings, A few cheap shacks will answer his purpose very well for a few years, and before building he should take a look around among other breeders and see what kind of build- ings they find most satisfactory (Fig, 77). What will suit one part of the country may not suit another, so that it is important to study what is giving satisfaction in his o^vn neighborhood. For cold climates, the method of making the ceiling of the pen of poles or boards placed a few inches apart and covered with a layer of straw is woi-tli investigating. Of course, the straw should l)e renewed every year. Cheapening Production. — The Ix'ginner is urged to read Chapter 1, the place of the hog on the farm. Having hogs on hand at the time they are most needed for consuming sul)- stances which would otherwise go to wastt^ is one of the secrets of handling hogs profitably. At certain seasons there may be more dairy by-products to consume than at others, and on nearly every farm there are stubble fields to glean and fallen fruit to dispose of, or other ])(M*ishable jiroducts which may go to waste if hogs are not on hand at tJie right time. Any farmer who keeps hogs should make a study of this phase of the question, or he will not derive the full benefit from his hogs as economical revenue prod plan to insert ear labels in every pig at the time it is recorded ; but metal labels are not satisfactory for very small pigs. A plan followed by the writer is to use the ear punch, which is employed when insert- ing tags, and with it nij) a small ])iece out of the edge of the ear of each little pig before it is weaned, giving each pig in the litter the same mark. The location of the mark indicates the number, and the following plan of numbering will be found satisfactory with either pigs or lambs. I.oriitioii i)f mark. Lower side, next to head Lower side, midway between head and tip of ear Tip..... Upper side, midway between head and tip of ear Upper side, next to head Number indicated. Left ear. Right ear. 1 10 2 20 :i 30 4 40 5 50 SUGGESTIONS TO BEGINNERS 267 For example (Fig. Go) all the pigs in the first litter would have a nip taken out of the lower edge of the left ear next to the lioad, -which represents Xo.l. No. 2 is indicated hv taking a nip out of the lower edge of the left ear half way between the base and the tip ; and the pigs in the third litter have a nip taken out of the tip of the left ear, and so forth. Between 5 and 10 two nicks are necessary. Thus, 6 = 5-|-l. 7 = 5-1-2. S = 5-|-3. 9 = 5-|-4. For No. 10, we go to the lower side of the right ear next to the head. Larger numbers call for various combinations, for example :11::^10-|-1. 12 = 10-|-2. l7 = 10-|-5-f-2, etc. The nick should not be made deep, or it will disfigure the ear ; just a little deeper than the thickness ^•/f Tt.jht u/t. Fia. 00 Fig. 61 Fig. 60. — One method of numbering pigs by means of ear marks. If all the pigs in a litter are given the same mark, the large numbers will be unnecessary, except in very large herds. Fio. 61. — Another method of ear-marking pigs, which some may prefer to the one first mentioned. of the skin is sufiicient. If the piece is cu^ out cleanly, the mark will stay as long as the ear lasts. Another method of numbering is as follows: A cut on the lower or outer side of the right ear indicates " one," and ?. corresponding cut on the left ear indicates " three." Also, a cut on the upper or inner side of the right ear indicates " ten," and a corresponding cut on the left ear indicates "thirty." Thus Xo. 2 would be indicated by two cuts on outer side of right ear. Xo. 4 would be 3 + 1. Xo. G would call for two cuts on outer side of left ear. X^. 7 = 6 + 1. X^'o. 43 = 30 + 10 -|- 3. Two cuts on inner side of left ear would indicate GO, and three cuts would be 00. Thus it will be seen that a great many numbers may be indicated by using different combinations of cuts. (Fig. 61.) 26S FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT On the front page of the record book, a sketch should be made similar to the ones shown here, indicating the location and valnc of different cuts. This will make a convenient reference and will help to avoid mistakes. In case a breeder prefers to insert ear labels at the time of weaning, the system of marking described above will be unnecessary, a ml in the column headed " Ear mark " he would enter the numbers of all the labels used for the litter. Instead of ear labels, tattoo markers may be used for white pigs. Gestation Table. — On page 269 is a gestation table for sows, which will be found convenient for reference. In the table the period of gestation is placed at 112 days, but a great many sows will go a few days past the time stated. Everything should be in readiness, however, before the 112 days are up. Business Methods. — The importance of supplying registra- tion certificates prom])tly to customers, and of keeping an accurate record of breeding operations and of animals sold, has already been mentioned ; but^ in addition to these records, the breeder should have some method of book-keeping which will show the financial standing of the business. The system need not be complicated, but the books shoidd at least show all sales, and all purcliascs, wlictlier of feed or stock, and should contain an inventory showing the value of the stcK'k on hand at the beginning of each year. Ft is worth wliih', also, to use neatly and attractively printed letter-heads and envelopes in answering coiTcspondence. They help to secure business. Above all, the breeder must remember that a satisfied customer is an eifective advertisement, and lliai it is poor business to tiike advantage of a customer in any way. SUGGESTIONS TO BEGINNERS 269 5" c CO CO to lO to ts5 to to to fO N3 fO I-- ►- I-" 1-- >- H- i-- >— I-* H- fe* ^0«OOO^C50i»*>-OOtO>-OOOO^OiOi4-COtO^O OOOMOJOlrfkCOtOi-'p 1 Date Served a n bototO'—i-'i-'i-'H-i-ii— h-i-'k-i 2 M to to to to to to to tc^ tOH-o;cioo^05Cnrfi.cotOH-ooooMa>c;»t;kCobo h- p oooo^jc20i*>-co to^ Date Due Date Served . . _ ^ H- ►-. ^ >- ^ ►-. ►- i-i ►-. ^W CO to to to to to to tOi^ • • 05000^0;Cn4^0ilOH-OOX^OCnrf^OOlOH-3^-OC000^03C>i»;»tO» Date Due Date Served to _ _ ^ i_i H- 1-. ^ H- !-• i-» ^ CO to to to to to to to to to to c* OOaC^05C;i4^COtO>-'0«OOOM05Cn*>.COtOi-' — OcOa)^C5Cn*.COtOH-OB Date Due Date Served B C. C . W4 — H-r-i— t-i— ►-.1—1-. ^cooototototoiototototo^ Date • O 00 ^ 05 Oi rf^ 00 to H- O CO 00 ^ 05 Ctj >|i. CO to t-^ ►- O O 00 M 05 en 4^ CO to H- £- Due CO CO to to to to to to to to to to H- i-i ^ H- 1— h-i i-i H- i-i h-i S H-O;D00^050i*«.C0t0>-O«000^0iCn*i.C0 tO>-'Oir>00".COtOi-'P Date Served 3 CO s. ^ _ ►_. H- H- 1-1 h-i 1-i 1-1 i-i re CO CO to to to to to to to to to to p^ 000^050i4i.COtOt-'OOQOM05C;irfi-CObO l—^ H- OCDri0^05C;irfa>COtOH- o,^ Date Due a re Date Served o a . ^ i_ ►_> ^ H- 1-^ h- h- i— 1-- O CO t^ to to to to to to to to to re' • OOO^CJC;i4^COtO>-'0;000.COtOi-'nOCOOO^C:5tf»*'COtO'- o^ Date Due a. p Date Served o 5' H-. 1-. 1— _ _ H- »- h- ^ H- ^cooj to to to to to to to to to too COOO'vl05CT.f^COtOH-OC000^05Cn>;».COtO>— ^h- OC000^050i*>.COtO>— og. Date Due cr p a Date Served cr a to — i—H-^^i.-h-i-'i-'i-- Ocototototototototototo?'! Date o«Doo^oia»*-cotOH-.o«oooM05C;trfi.cotOH-g ooooMa>oirfi.coto — o° Due P a- Date Served 5 . i_>i_>^^H^i_>i_'^^i-'»->K^ ^cocotototototototototoD • oooMcscnrfi-coio — o«ooo4^COtOi— og 1 Due Date Served • totoi— 1— I)— ii-Ji— 11— 11— 11— 11— ii— I Stototototototototol? ■ H-OO00^05C;»*.C0t0i— O;000^05O^^f>.C0t0^-'S;00-^0>C^l*«.C0l0^-•oS• Date Due c C0C0tOt0t0t0tOt0t0t0tOt0l-'l-'l-'l-'l-•l-*— i-ii-i i-i o — OwOi^IC. OT4^COtOH-00(»"«4C5C;i>ti.COtOH- OCOOOMOtnif^COtOt— S Date Served a' — OOOoCJSSI^WtO — O«0 00^C>C7.i*^C0t0>--'S— OOX^OCnl^COlOS Date Due 270 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT REVIEW. 1. Give two plans to follow when starting in the swine business. 2. What is the proper breed for him to select? Why? 3. Before buying a boar, why visit the lierd from which he comes? 4. Give several ways in cheapening production. o. Give tJie points to be recorded in keeping a swine-breeder's record, fi. Describe the systems used for identifying pure-bred swine. 7. Tell of the use of a gestation table. 8. Why keep accounts? What items should be entered? 9. Give other points of good business methods. PART VI MARKETING AND CURING CHAPTER XXX. MARKETS AND SWINE PRODUCTS. The hog market of the United States is extremely com- plicated, local conditions and demands rendering it difficult to present the subject in anything like a clear and concise form. The subject is one of such great inijx>i*tance, however, that an attempt sliould be made to ex])lain some of its principal features. Grades of Hogs. — In the smaller packing-houses east of Chicago, the hogs are not so finely graded nor so systematically cut into standard cuts as they are in the great markets of Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, St. Joseph, and Omaha. The method of gi-ading live hogs in the large markets does not materially differ, and the Chicago market may be regarded as typical of the American hog and provision trade. If we read Chicago market reports, we find the following classification of live hogs : Choice to prime heavy. (Fig. 62.) Medium to good heavy. Butclier weights. Good to prime mixed. Rough heavy ])acking. Poor to prime ])igs. Straight to licavy ])acking. Selected bacons. Stags. Boars. " Prime " refers to the degree of finish and maturity evinced by the hog. To grade as prime, a hog must be highly finislied 18 (rjz) 274 MARKETING AND CURING and give evidence of being fitted to a liiuli degree of perfection. (Fig. 62.) In other words, prime hogs are those which fully come up to the highest standard of the class to which they belong. Choice hogs are •scarcely equal to prime hogs, and good hogs stand a little lowei- still, than the choice. " Mcdhun" sduietimes refers to weight, alone, and some- Fia. 62. — "Prime heavy hoRS," weiKht 350 to 500 pounds, the cxlrciiic etween the live hog and it-s product, owing to the fact that tlie t7-:j ' X . ■^ i^/. H fei HH[H^\^. ;.; J^^H w ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^r ^ ""'■"' Yj^ pHpiP ^^^^^^^^^^^Bjl^ T V ^^^Bs^iHI iB^^^Evi ..:^%4^" '^ M ^EL t'iG. ii'6. — "Pniiif iiiedium butchers," weight 220 to 2SU pounds, very Hiiioolh jind highly finished. "Light butchers" are of the same general type but lighter, 180 to 220 pounds. Butcher hogs are commonly used for the fresh meat trade. Prime butcher hogs represent the highest quality of fat hog. (Photo, from Illinois Experiment Station.) packer must shape his course largely to suit market demands, and these vary from time to time. "Butcher" hogs (Figs. 63 and 64) may vary in weight from 180 to 350 pounds. This class may be subdivided as follows: Heavy l)ntchers, 280 to 350 pounds; medium butchers, ±20 to 280 pounds; light butchers, 180 to 220 pounds. The heavy butchers are also graded into " prime " and " good," and the medium and light butchers each into " prime," " good," and " common." The Chicago market report referred to has lumped all the butclior hogs togotlier. P)Utelu'r liog^ are prin- 276 MARKETING AND CURING MARKETS AND SWIXE PRODUCTS 277 cipally barrows, aucl are commonly iised for the fresh meat trade, though they may be variously used, according to the peculiarities of the market. *' Packing " hogs are not equal in quality to " butcher " hogs. Old brood sows tliat have been well fattened tind their way into this class, as well as all hogs tliat have not the re- quisite quality and finish for the " butcher " or *' prime heavy " classes, but have suilicient weight and finish to qualify for the purpose for which packing hogs are used. The meat from ]KU'king hogs is cured and packed in barrels or boxes, hence the name of the class, as well as the name of the industry. Packing hogs are usually graded as *" heavy," '' medium," and '* mixed." Heavy packing hogs weigh from 300 to 500 pounds, and medium packing from 250 to 300 pounds. '' Mixed packing " is a term applied to hogs which are marketed without grading, and the class may contain representatives of almost all classes, packing hogs, of course, predominating. Generally they sell at a slight discount as compared witli properly classified and graded hogs, and frequently they are bought by speculators in the stock yards, who buy large nmnbers, divide them up into their proper classes and grades, and resell tliem. " Bough " packing hogs are coarse, and lacking in condition. "Pigs" are light hogs, weighing from 60 to 125 jx^unds. They are young, as their weights indicate, and tlieir meat is unsuitable for curing. They supply a demand for cheap fresh meat. " Bacon hogs " as quoted in Chicago, are not suitable for making Wiltshire sides. They are merely selected light hogs, weighing from 155 to 195 pounds. (Fig. 65.) They are of the same breeds that produce the lard type, but they are young, from six to eight months, and have not Ixn^n fattened to the highest degree. They are used principally f(^r supplying the 278 MARKETING AND CURING home (h^iiiand for comparatively lean meat. A hog suitable for making Wiltshire sides is usually classed as an *' English hacon hog," since the Wiltshire side is especially adapted to the English triidc The St. Vnw] niiirket is about the only American market which gives ])r()minenc(' to the English bacon hog. ■ Stays " are males which have been castrated too late in life Kio. 65. -^"Choice bacon," as classified by Chicago packers. These hogs are not suit- able for " Wiltshire sides," but are simply light hogs of tne fat or lard type. They help to supply a growing demand for leaner meat. (Photo, from Illinois Experiment Station.) to grade as barrows. The smoothest of them may go into the packing class, the roughest, with the boars, and various uses are found for intermediate sorts. They are docked 80 pounds in selling, so that the quoted market price is higher than the seller actually receives. T}ie meat from hoars is used largely for sausages, and also helps to ■supj)ly the (lemand for cheap meat. Tendency toward Lighter Hogs. — Generally speaking, it MARKETS AND SWINE PRODUCTS 279 may be f^aid that the knidency of tlic Ainerican market during the past teu years has boon towards a lighter and leaner hog. The most desirable weight for butcher and packing hogs is 250 pounds, though, as previously stated, there are times when heavy hogs command a j)remium. It is also worthy of note that " butcher " hogs represent the best market hogs of the fat or lard type. Hog Products. — The market for live hogs is somewhat com- plicated, but the market for hog products is very much more complicated than the former. The speculative provision market quotes only *" pork," "" ribs/' and " lard." These are the only pork products traded in on the Board of Trade in the way of options. To a certain extent they govern the prices of other pork products. " Pork " refers to standard mess pork, which is made from the sides of well-fattened liog-s. The hams and shoulders are removed, and tlie sides cut into strips about six inches wide. These pieces are packed in barrels with salt and brine, the number of pieces to a barrel varying from seven to sixteen. Barrel pork is quoted on the market on the basis of 200 pounds net to the barrel. There are other classes of barrel pork, such as prime mess ])ork, in which the shoulder is included with the side, extra ])rime pork, and extra shoulder ])ork, taken from the shoulders alone, and numerous other kinds which it would be scarcely profitable to describe, because each packer has his own methods of cutting pork, outside of certain standard products. " Ribs," or short rib sides, are cut from the sides, leavinsr out hams and shoulders, in the same way as standard mess pork. These are dry salted and packed in Iwxes containing 500 to 525 pounds net, or shipped loose in the car, salted. Lard is usually divided into two gi.ades, — namely, " choice 280 MARKETING AND CURING lard " aiul '' prinie steam lard."' 'riic ('liicago Board of Trade regulations state: '^Choice lard to be made fnuii leaf and trimming-s only, either steam or kettle-rendered, the manner of rendering- to lie branded on the tierce." The same regulations state: " Standard ])rinie steam lard should be solely the product of the triiiiiiiings and other fat ])ai'ts of hogs." This permits the intestinal fat or fat from any other parts to be used in the manufacture of ])rime steam lard, whereas choice lard is made from the leaf and trinnnings only. Market quotations are based upon choice lard. Mcfis pork and shorl rihs arc im longer jMipnlar cuts, and Fio. 66. — Diagram of Wiltshire side, ahowinn rptnil dcnlor's nieltuHl of cuttinR, and approx- imate range of values in Great lirilain are only made at a time when there is a surplus of hogs above the number required for tlu^ fresh meat trade, or when, owing to speculative conditions, the market j)rice of these products is relatively higher than the ]»i-i('e of fresh pork cuts, Thr "' WiHsliirc side" (Figs. dG and G8) constitutes the main export product of Canada and Denmark, but has never attained any great importance in the l"'^nited States. It is especially designed to meet the reciuircmcnts of a certain class of English consumers. A Wiltshire side consists of the whole side of the hog, less the head and feet. The blade bone of the shoulder, the neck bono, and the aitch bone are removed, the top of tlie ribs sawed off, and thie side trimmed as smoothly A No. 1 Willsliire Siilo. A Fat Side. l-'ia. t>8. — Note superior length of side, greater uniformity of thickness of luj-er of fat uloug the back, lighter shoulder, lighter ueek, and less cheap meat generally in the No. 1 tftde than in the fat side. MARKETS AND SWIXE PHODFCTS 283 as possible. The siik's are mild eured, and shipped to England in the green states where they arc smoked before they reach the consumer. The ty})e and weight «»f hogs siiital)le for this pur- pose have already been d(^soril)ed. One of the gi'eatest drawbacks to the trade in Wiltshire sides is the fact that the meat has to l)e mild cured, and, therefore, must be consumed within a very short tim<\ or it will go " off flavor." The result is that it is impossible to hold over Wiltshire sides when there happens to be an extra amount thrown upon tlie market at one time, and prices often suffer severely through this cause. Ham and Bacon. — Generally speaking, it may be said that the consum]>ti<)n of ham and bacon is steadily on the increase, and large quantities of these products are taken by Great Britain, ^lexied. ( 'nha, Porto Tiico, and the Philippines. Xor- 'vay. Sweden, and Italy take very heavy, fat meats. The bulk of other standard cuts and products outside of tliose already mentioned are taken for hom(> consumption. Leading Features. — This discussion of markets is anything but exhaustive. To attempt a description of all the many classes of products placed upon the market by different packers would probably only tend to confuse the reader, and all that has been attempted is to present, as briefly as possible, some of the leading features of the trade. REVIEW. 1. Why should feeders study and keep in touch with the swine markets ? 2. Name ten grades of market hogs in order. 3. Explain the market meanings of " prime," " medium," " common," " poor," and " rough." 4. Oive the range in weight of "heavy" hogs. .T. \Miv do prime heavy hogs often command a premium over other sorts ? 284 MARKETING AND CURING 6. Give till- laiij^c in u'ci^^iit foj- " luitchcr "' liogs. 7. How aic tlii'sc often subdivided? 8. \\ licit is tile quality of " paekinj,' " hogs? 9. Of what is this class made up? 10. What is the meaning of "mixed packing"? 11. Would it be better for the farmer to sort them? 12. What is the market meaning of tlie term '• i)igs"? 1.3. What is tlie Chicago market meaning of " bacon " liogs? 14. How much are stags docked in weigiit? How may this custom fool the seller? 1"). How is the meat from stags and boars used? 10. Wiiat is the market tendency toward weiglit of hogs? 17. Name the tliree hog products mentioned in market reports. 18. What does the term " pork" include? 19. Wliat are the different methods of packing it? 20. Wliat are "ribs"? ITow packed? 21. Name the two grades of lard and tell of tlie make-up of each grade. 22. Under what circumstances are mess pork aiiest conditions for smoking. When this cannot well be iirranged, a fire may be built on the floor of the house and the meat shielded by a sheet of metal. Where the meat can be hung six or seven feet above the fire, this precaution n,eed not be taken. The construction should Ix^ such as to allow the smoke to pass u]) freeh' over the meat and out of the house, though rapid circulation is at the expense of fuel." "• Brick or stone houses are best, though the first cost is greater than if they are built of lumber. Large drj^-goods boxes, and even barrels, may be made to serve as smoke-houses where only small amounts of meat are to be smoked, but a permanent place is much more satisf actor)'." " The best fuel for smoking meats is green hickory or maple wood smothered with sawdust of the same material. Hard wood of any kind is preferable to soft wood. Corn-cobs are the best substitute for hard wood, and may \ye used if desired." " Meat tliat is to be smoked should l)e removed from the brino two or three days before being ])nt in the smoke-house. Washing the ni(>at in tepid water and scrubbing clean with a brush is a good ])ractice. The ]ueces should then be hung up to drain for a day or two. \\lien drained, they may be hung in the smoke-house. All should l)e suspended below the ventilators, and shonld hang so that no two pieces come in contact." "A slow fire niav ihcn Im" started, wanning uj» the meat gradually. During the winter months in cold climates it is best CURING I^ORK 289 to keep the tire going eoiitimiallv until the smoking is coni- l»leto, holding the temperature at about the same point. During the spring months and in the summer, a light fire may be started every second or tliird day for a couple of weeks, the meat being allowed to hang in the smoke-house until sufficiently colored. When the fire is kept going steadily twenty-four to thirty-six hours will be required to finish one lot of meat. Smoke will not penetrate frozen meat. As soon as smoked sufficiently the meat should be cooled by opening the ventilators or doors. When hard and firm it may be packed away." Liquid Smoke. — Those who wish to obtain the flavor of smoke without going to the trouble of smoking the meat in the ordinary way, or who have not the necessary equipment for smoking, may obtain practically the same result by the use of liquid smoke, or smoke compound. This liquid may be applied by means of a ])rush. It should be painted on the surface of the meat very lightly, and, as each application dries, a fresh coat should be painted on for two or three applications. Smoke Flavoring Powder. — This powder is used for giving a smoky flavor to sausages, one ounce of powder being used to ten pounds of sausage meat. The skins of the sausages may be colored by means of " smoke dye." There is nothing injurious in these smoke products. Keeping Smoked Meats. — " A dry, cool cellar or an attic with froo circulation will be a satisfactory place for smoked meats at all seasons, if it is kept dark and flies are excluded." " If to be held only a short time, hams and bacon will need only to be hung out separately without covering. For longer keeping it will be necessary to wrap them first in paper, and then in burlaps, canvas, or muslin, and bury them in a grain bin (or in wood ashes) or other suitable place, the object being to gain a uniform temperature and to keep away insects. For absolute safc-keei)ing for an indefinite period of time, it is 19 290 MAlllvETlNG AND CUEING essential that the meat he thoroughly cured. After it is smoked and has become drv on the surface, it slionld ho wrappi-d in parchment paper or old newspapers. Then inclose in heavy muslin or canvas, and cover with yellow wash or ordinars' lime whitewash, glue being added to the whitewash. Hang each piece out so that it does not come in contact with other pieces. Do not stack in piles." Trying Out Lard. — " Only the best of fat should be u.^ed for choice lard. Leaf fat is the best. The back strip of the side also makes nice lard, as do the ham, shoulder, and neck trimmings. Gut fat sliould never Ix^ mixed Avitli tlio loaf and back fat. It makes a strong-smelling lard and should be kept separate. All scraps of lean meat should be cut out of the fat before trying out, as they are very likely to stick to the kettle and get scorched, giving an unpleasant flavor to the lard. When preparing the fat for trying, cut it into pieces from 1 to lYo inches square. They should be nearly eciual in size, so that they will try out in about the same time. Fill a clean kettle about three-fourths full and put in a (juart of water, or, if con- venient, a (juart of hot lard. One or the other is necessary to prevent the fat from burning Ix^fore the heat is sufficient to bring out tlie grease. Keep the kettle over a moderate fire until the cracklings are bro^vn and light enough to float. Fre- (picnt stirring is necessary to prevent burning. When done remove from the stove and allow to cool slightly, and then strain through a niusliu cloth into a suitable jar or crock. Stirring whiles the hird is cooling tends to wliiten it and make it smoother. A (iu;irt<'r of a pound of saleratus (baking soda) added to each 100 ])ounds of fat has a like effect." REVIEW. 1. Give directions for coolinf; fresli meats before curinf». 2. ^^^lat are suitaMe vessels for meat euririfr? How prepared for use? 3. Compare brine curinfj with dry curing for farm use. CURING PORK 291 4. Ti'll of the clangers associated witli its use. 5. Give directions for treatment of plain salt pork. 6. Tell of tlie treatment of cooled meat to produce supar-cured hams and bacon. 7. Give tlie treatment for jiroducinp dry-cured pork. 8. Describe tbe essentials of a pood smoke-liouse. n. Tell bow to carrA' on tbe smokinp process. 10. TIow sbould smoked meats be kept? 11. ^^^lat fats are best for lard? 12. Tell bow it is tried out. PART VII BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES CHAPTER XXXII. BUILDINGS. The question of buildings for swine is such a complicated one that it seems almost a hopeless task to attempt a discussion of the subject. Almost every piggery that is built possesses certain features peculiar to itself and rendered necessary by the circumstances which it is intended to meet. All that can be attempted is to discuss the most desirable features of a piggeiy, for the general guidance of those who wish to build, but every man will have to adapt his building to his own peculiar requirements. The most imjxirtant qualities of a piggery are dryness, ventilation, light, freedom from draughts, reasonable warmth, and convenience. Dryness. — Di-^mess is closely associated with ventilation, but is also intluenced by the material of which the building is constructed. Good results cannot be obtained in a damp pen, and dripping walls are a i)retty sure indication of impending disaster. Stone and cement walls are very cold in winter and chill the air of the pen, causing it to deposit its moisture upon their surface. In a short time the wall becomes quite w^et, and tro\d)le is stored up for the pigs. A hollow cement or hollow tile wall is much less objectionable than a solid one. but there is little doubt that wooden Avails constructed in such a way as to form a complete dead-air space inside are the best. The floors and foundation may be constructed of cement concrete, and the foundation may rise about two feet above tlie surface of the floor. This will presence the wood of which the (295) 296 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES walls are eonstnicted and is imt likely t<> prove at all injurious to the pigs. A very good wall can 1k' inaeii, the ceiling can be iiuide of poles, placed a few inches apai-t, and well covered with straw. The straw absorbs moisture and helps to keep the pen dry. Where this is done, the straw should Ix" renewed at least every year, otherwise it becomes a harbor for dust and disease germs. Ventilation. — Thorough ventilation is a great help in ])re- serving dryness, but it is a difhcult thing to secure in a piggery without nnduly lowering tlie temperature. It is an aid to ventilation to provide a large air space; in other words, to have a high ceiling. The tendency at ])resent is to do. away with the common loft over the piggerv, and to have the space al>ove the pigs extend to the roof. This gives more air space and makes ventilation a sim])ler ]U'oblem. but it necessitates lining tlie under siile of the i"af"t( vs with matched bnnber in order to ])revent the pen from becoming too cold. SJnifl ]'cii/ ilaiors. — The ;'(lmis-ioii of fresh air can l)e ])rovided for by constructing shafts in tli(> walls at intervals of fifteen or twenty fcvi. These shafts should not b(> more tlian al>out four by six inches in siz(\ and should o|)en (Mitside Tiear tlie ground, and inside at the ceiling. Provision 'should be made for closing, or ]iartial closing, of these intakes when cold air is admitted too rapidly. The outlets may consist of BUILDINGS 297 shafts about eight inches square, starting near tlie floor and extending through the nwf, and equipped on the top with a device for preventing the wind fn>ni l>lt>\viiig down tlie shafts. (Fig. 60.) Chimiu'i/ and Pipe. — Tf a feed cooker is usee provided. Partitions. — Tliere is a partition three and a half feet high between the IxkI and the feeding pen, and the opening from the bed to the feeding pen is two and a half feet wide. The par- BUILDINGS 301 No)rtk S I etter view of the pigs. Floors. — Tt will b(> noticed that the sleeping quarters have cement floors. When bedding is ])lentiful this may give no trouble, but it woidd be safer to place a portable wooden plat- form on the cement. The floor may be kept warm and free from the ascending soil moisture by placing a layer of tar paper or tar paint l^etweQn tho BUILDINGS 303 layers of concrete when the tloor is constructed. The rougli part may be painted with two coats of tar. and then the top layer of cement one inch thick or more is jdaced on tlie tar. The tar is a perfect insulator from soil moisture, ^^^len sows are lying on such a sleeping bed, it becomes warm and retains its heat much as soapstone does. The roof is supported by four lines of posts to which tlie partitions are fastened. Each row carries a line of plates which support the rafters. Light. — There are six windows, each five feet long and two and a half feet high, in the south wall, and the same number in the roof, placed as already described. The north wall has only two windows. Not Good Farrowing Pens. — The pens as described are not suitable for farrowdng pens. As stated in another place, it is better to have the sows in a building away from other pigs, especially during cold weather, w^hen the building must be kept pretty well closed up. The air of a piggery wliere a large number of pigs are kept does not agree well with little pigs. If a part of the large piggery is to be used for farrowing ]iens, it shoidd be closely partitioned off from the rest of the building. The same style of pen could be made suitable for sows with little pigs by making the sleeping apartments two feet wider, thus giving beds eight feet square. The absence of a loft for storing straw will be a strong ol>joction in the eyes of many. Tlie ventilation of the build- ing, however, and the health of the animals are of vastly greater importance than the inconvenience occasioned by the absence of a loft. It is generally possible to locate the building so as to make it comparatively easy to obtain straw for bedding. If it is not possible to have the building situated with one end adjoining a straw shed, a loft for straw could be constructed 304 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES over that part of the biiildiiii;; used for farrowing- ])cns and feed room. Study Plans. — It is, of course, impossible to give plans which would likely meet all requirements, and possibly the plan submitted could not be adopted in its entirety by many f,utk SUt. Ltt. ti'^fC l.tt "p.-'-E Ou.td.oo r 9'-l' « ;'■ ]i-L'E Yar 4LS f-6"K 7-0' ]i-f E • 4'x J- ]3^-E St A lO'- «" < 7'-o" ..... ... ..■^TTni>-' rr-f', ••A 0: fee a. Tiijs A J t . f- i' wide. JJL /^tc4 o I-:; 1 ret, ••' FiQ. 72. — Plan of small piKgery. d, door; w, ■window; p, low partition betwpon bod and fending place; (>r yards (»n the sdnth side <>f tlu' bnilding-. The main windows are placed nil the south side also, thus letting the sunli<2;lit freely into tlie pens. The great objection to this plan is the fact tliat it is not economical of space, because the same passage could be made to serve another row of pens on the opposite side. If desired, the plan could 1x3 changed very easily to put a row of pens on each side of the paJssage by simply making the building about twelve feet wider, or thirty-two feet wide. If this were done, it would be necessary to have a feed room, because the bins in the passage would interfere with the feeding. The passage could be made narrower, however, if the feed bins were removed. Beds 'should be raised several inches above drainage gutter. Foundation, floors, and troughs are recommended to be made of cement, but walls of wood, as in Mr. Brethour's Piggerv\ The bed floors should be insulated with a tar layer as already- described. If bedding is plentiful, an overlay of boards or planks need not be placed on the part occupied by the bed. If an overlay is used it should be made so that it can be raised up when desired, to admit of cleaning and disinfection. The ceiling should lie alx)ut eight feet from the floor, and a loft may be put over the whole building with straw chutc^s leading to each bed. The ont-door yards should be cemented, otherwise they ho- come verv filthy. Attention is called to the arrangement of the doors (d2) leading from each pen into the passage. The post at the end of the partition is set back from line of passage. In this way, trough room is economized. 20 30G BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES A SOUTHERN PIGGERY. Bulletin 150 of the Maryland Experiment Station gives plans for a piggery adapted to Southern conditions. Drawings and description of this piggery are given herewith. (Figs. 73, 74, 75.) " Each pen is made up of three parts made by different levels of the floor. The central part is a manure pit which is ten inches lower than the rest of the floor. The south division of the pen is a feeding floor with a trough across the end while the north division is the sleeping floor or bed. The entire floor of the building is cement except the feed bins and the sleeping floor. " The frame is made f)f the following pieces : Sills G" X G" Plates 4" X 6" llain posts G" X G" Purlines 2" X 8" Intermediate posts 3" X 4" Kafters 2" X 6" Braces 3" X 4" Joists 4" X 6" " This frame is made heavy in order to support the slate roof. The floor in the beds is made of oak planks 2" by 12". The partitions between pens, including the gates, are 1" by 2I/2" slats 2" apart nailed on 2" by 4" cross-pieces. Under each gate is a movable 2" by 12" oak plank as partition in manure pit. The sides of the building are made of a single thickness of %" by 5" German or Novelty siding. The front is boarded up five feet above foundation and covered with inch-mesh wire from this height to the roof. The troughs are of iron. " It may be well to enumerate a few of the special points in construction anv J 4 It- I r»-ou.^li. \-ff'ou.4'K Xf-raUHtc To. s s- Q~ ^ e U re e cL 73i i^ S Fis. 73. Fig. 75. „i^ ^,\?' "3~G[ound plan of Maryland piggery. Note gates, which, when swung back. Close the p^gs in the beds and allow a cart to be driven right through the pen for cleaning out f , k'°- or ■"°*?i^*''^*'°? °^ •'^^"'■>'""'' P'KBery. Note difiference in floor levels. The leed bin 13 2 feet wide at the bottom. 2 feet (i inche.s at widest part, and 2 feet 10 inches nign next to passage. .v... ^'°' '^p— Front elevation of Maryland piggery. Jt js boarded to a height of 5 feet from the ({round, and the remaining space left open, - 308 BUILX)INGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES it, aids materially in inaintainiiiii' a pi(ij)or sanitary condition. The manure pit is concreted, which enahles the saving of all liquid excrements. '" The swinging gates close the pigs into their beds, facilitate the changing of pigs from pen to pen and allow the easy removal of manure. " The general plan can be used and the dimensions and ma- terials uioditied so as to meet the demands of circumstances. " The (|uostion most dltcn asked al)out this piggery is whether it is warm enough. This can be answered in the affirmative except for very cold winter wea her. Wlien a sheltered location cannot be chosen, sufficient proteciion can be furnished by some kind of movable or swinging frames to close the beds during ex- tremely cold nights. Another (jucstion often asked is whether the cement floor is conducive to the health and comfort of the pigs. The cement floor is satisfactoi-y in tliis rc^spect for a large part of the year, and, during winter, the feeding floor is the only part not covered heavily with bedding. " Provision is made in the plans of this piggery for outlets at the north ends of pens to yards for exercise. The yard is a valuable accessory to a building of this nature, and in choosing the site care should be exercised to allow space for yards." PORTAULE PENS. The accompanying sketches (Figs. TO and 77) show a very cheap and easily constructed pen suitable for winter quarters for breeding sows. The pen is sixteen feet long by eight feet wide. It is seven feet high in front and three and a half feet high at the rear. Tt is boarded with cheap hnnber, but all cracks are securely battened. It should be practically wind and rain proof. The opening is at one corner, and the pen should be set with the opening towards the south. A door is not necessary. Plenty of bedding should be supplied and the pen should be banked up outside with fresh horse manure to a BUILDINGS 309 deptli of about two foot, in ordor to provout drauiilits about the floor. This method of housiuir sows is better than close confinement in warm pens, and will be found to answer very Ofoe-Ki 2- 4 FiQ. 76. — Front view of portable pen. Fig. 77. — I-^nd view ot portiible pen. •well when other means to provide shelter and exercise are not available. The A-shaped Pen. — The acconipanyinc: sketches (Figs. 78 and TO) show a convenient portable pen which may be used 310 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES Fio. 78. — End view of A-sh:ipcd house. w - - - - ' 1 r .'- ... -•y '.t.:- .... ■ •-^ licfc- /T«.«.»i.er- Fio. 79. — Side view of A-shaped house. BUILDINGS 311 for a sow and her littor, or as a shelter for tw^ or three sows. The description is taken from Bulletin !;)."> of the Wisconsin Experiment Station. The pen is construct<'(l l)y nailinji^ inch boards on six joists, each 2 bv 4 inches, and 7 feet S inches long, for the floor. Beneath the joists are nailed three stringers, each 2 by 6 inches, and 8 feet long, which serve as runners fur moving the house. Xcxt, a plate piece 2 by 8 inches, and !• feet 4 inches long, is spiked to the ends of the joists, liaving the bottom of the 2" by 8" even with the bottom of the joists, which will allow it to project 3 inches above the floor. It will also extend out 7 inches at each end. This 2" by 8'' forms a plate to which the rafters and roof boards are nailed. The 7-inch extension's of the plate at the ends support the cornice, and protect the lower corners of the roof, which otherwise would be easily split off. The 2" by 8" planks, besides strengthening the house, raise the rafters and the roof boards nailed to them, at least three inches off the floor, and thereby increase the floor space and capacity of the house. The following lumber is necessary to construct the A-shaped pen illustrated here : Nine pieces. 1" X 12" X 16' and 110. G. battens 1(3' long for roof. Five pieces 1" X 12" X 14' for ends. One piece 2" X 4" X 10' for ridge. Two pieces 2" X 8" X 10' for plates. Seven pieces 2" X 4" X 16' for rafters, and braces in frame. Three pieces 2" X 6" X 8' for runners. Four pieces, 1" X 12" X 16' for flooring. • If the house is to be used in cold weather, a door will be necessary, which may be hung on hinges or made to slide up out of the way. The doorway is shown in the drawing, two feet by two feet six inches. In the case of very large sows, it would be better to make the door three feet high. The dotted lines in the drawings indicate the scantlings which constitute the framework of the pen. 312 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES Tlie ventilator is luadf hy ciittini;- tlic iij)jK'r ends from two roof boards, o])posite one another. Theii 2" by 2" pieces are nailed |> of the baltens on eacli side of tlie opening, meeting at the top, and lM)ards are nailed on top of these strips on each side of the roof. The upper ends of these boards meet at the top, and the lower ends come an inch or two past the lower sides of the opening. It is recommended to have a door at the back of the build- ing, similar to the one in front, for purposes of ventilation in hot weallicr; also a 'small ojiening near the peak at the rear of llic liiiililing, wliicli could he^ covered with a slide, aiul used to assist vciitilat i ( — z' ■■ )l o Fig. so. — Front view of shed-roof house. TIJ 4-^" - Fig. 81. — End view of shed-roof house 314 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES high in front and three feet high at the rear. (Figs. 80 and SI.) The following lumber is necessary to construct the pen : Six pieces 2" X 4" X IC Five pieces 2" X 4" X12'. Two pieces 2" X 4" X 14' for frame. Tliroe pieces 1" X 12" X 10', rough, for floor. Eleven jiieces 1" X 12" X 12' (dressed on one side) for sides and ends. Five pieces 1" X 12" X 10' (dressed on one side) for roof. Four pieces O. G. battens 10', and eleven pieces O. G. battens 12' long for roof and sides. Courtesy of National Manufacturintj Company, Des Moines, Io«a. Fio. 82. — A type of galvanized metal portable pen. In hot weather the lower half of the side can be raised as shown in the illustration, increasing the shade and admitting fresh air. In cold weather the side can be lowered to close the opening. If a shingled roof is desired, the following material is neces- sary for roofing : One piece 1" X 12" X 14'. Five pieces 1" X 0" X 14' (dressed on one side). Ihree bunches of shingles. (Figs. 82 and 83.) Portable Cold-weather Farrowing Pen. — ^Tho farrowing pen shown in the ilhistrations (Figs. 84, 85) is the one re- ferred to when discussing the management of the i^ow. The pen is 8 feet scpiarc and five feet fmm the gnmnd to the eaves. The hase, the corner i)ost.s, and the two plates are made of 4" 1)V 4" scantlinc:, and the remainder of tho frame is made BUILDINGS 315 of 2" bv 4" scantliiij»:. The dotted lines in the drawings show the position of the scantlings comprising the frame. An opening should be made in the gable at the end farthest from the ventilator. Then, if a few strips are laid across the plates, straw can be shoved in through the opening, tilling in the peak of the roof, and making the building warmer. As shown by the dotted lines, the ventilator shaft is run down to near the floor to draw out the foul air and moisture. » •■•.•-; Fig. 83. — Attachment for shed-roof portable pen to give outdoor shade. (Wisronsin Bulletin 242.) The roof may be shingled, or made of boards with battens over the cracks. The battens are not shown in the drawings, except in the end view of the roof. Outside, the pen is single boarded with battens over the cracks. Inside, tarred paper may be put on the studding and then tightly boarded, but a better job will be made by first covering the studding with rough lumber, covering this with tarred paper, and then tightly lioarding on the inside. The window comprises three 12" by 14" panes set in a sash, which should l)e hinged at the top so that it will swing inwards. In hot weather it can be swung up to the ceiling and fastened there, allowing a good circulation of air. The pen may be built on runners, or temporary skids may 316 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES be provided when it is necessary to move the pen. In very cold weather, a lighted lantern hung in the pen will make it quite comfortable for new-born pigs. By the time the pigs are twenty-four hours old, the pen will need no artificial heat. ■--f . - pj- — U- ■ ir ■ " •I 1' II II |i - - • 'It * ' • • i • • 1 1 1 • • 1 j ^ 1 i iri i: !i 11 1' 1 1 ii • • 1 • Ii! !*• 1 t 1 1 !| II ij 1 t 1 1 ..-.IL V" A 14-' -J-L- _ _L. ?'- o" Flo 84 — Km! view of furrowing pen. A i)eii such as this will be found much safer for winter litters than a large building where other pigs are kept. The vai'idus ])laiis wliich Iiavc been submitted are capable of many inoditications, and the man gifted with a little in- genuity nuiy be able to improve u})on them so far as his con- ditions are concerned. They are presented in the hope that BUILDINGS 317 they may prove suggestive of ideas to the man who intends to build, and each man must decide for himself what modifications would render them most suitable to his circumstances. z" J<. V " I : rv I ! -' ! ;w : ; I ,L__il.! Ln: /i"x/v" V" >x ^- VK /•- ? " I Fic. 85. — Front view of farrowing pen. Bulletin 152 of the Iowa Station is an excellent treatise upon ••ortaLle houses for swine. It is worthy of note that the Iowa Station found the temperature in metal pens to vary much moro than that in -^oden pens. 318 BUILDINGS, SANITATIOX, AND DISEASES REVIEW, 1. Tell of the necessity of dryness for swine quarters. 2. Give several advantages of having good ventilation witliout draft. 3. Describe the intake pipe of a King ventilation system. 4. Describe the outlet shaft of the King ventilation system. 5. Tell how cooker ])ii)es and chimneys may be used to aid ventilation, fi. \\']iat are the advantages of direct sunlight in a piggery? 7. Give several good features of the piggery such as that built by Mr. Brethour. 8. Tell how to insulate the concrete floor of the sleeping bed. 9. Give two important advantages of such insulation. 10. Give several criticisms of the Brethour piggery. 11. Give the good ])oints and any bad points you may discover in the plan of the " small piggery." 12. What are advantages of portable pens? 13 Give the general plan of the portable pen you would prefer. 14. Tell how to make the portable pen warm enough for farrowing in very cold weather. 15. How are portable pens most easily moved to a new location? CHAPTER XXXIII. SANITATION. The hog is a difficult animal to treat when attacked by disease, and hence the breeder must adopt every means within his power to prevent disease from entering the herd. One can never be too careful in this matter, and the proverb " An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure " is especially applicable in the management of swine. Cleanliness. — Filth is an excellent harbor and breeding ground for disease germs. Care should be taken to have the pens cleaned frequently, and the pens should be so constructed that there are no places for filth to accumulate where it cannot be cleaned out. Water-tight floors with as few cracks and corners as possible, together with adequate drainage, are im- portant in a piggery. Disinfection. — Every swine breeder or feeder should acquire the habit of using disinfectants freely. There are numerous proprietary- or patent disinfectants upon the market, such as Chloronaptholeum, Zenoleum, etc., which give good satisfaction. Before purchasing an unknown patent disinfectant, the purchaser should insist upon the seller furnishing results of independent laboratory tests showing the value of the prepara- tion. A mixture of five parts of crude carbolic acid to one hundred parts of water also makes a good disinfectant for pens. Chloride of lime is also good, and is especially recommended by some for pens where cholera has existed. Five or six ounces of chloride of lime to a gallon of water makes an effective dis- infectant. In case of disease, all bedding and manure should be removed and burned. Loose boards or planks should also be (319) 320 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES removed, and all adhering filth scraped off the floors, par- titions, and troughs. It is of little use applying a disinfectant on top of a coating of filth which may conceal and i)rotect millions of disease genns. A good spray pump is best for applying the disinfectant, so as to force the liquid into every crack and cranny, and it is not wise to be economical in the use of the disinfectant. Every part of the pen should be thoroughly saturated with the solution. If there are small outside yards attached to the piggerj', they should bo floorcd with concrete, and then they can be dis- infected in the same way as the interior of the building. If they are not floored it is almost impossible to disinfect tl\em thoroughly, and they are a constant menace to the health of the animals. Pasture lots and large paddocks or feed lots are more difficult to deal with. Liberal liming and plowing up is about all that can be done. In case of some diseases, such as cholera, it is safer to remove the hogs to other feed lots or pastures for at least several months. Of course, the lots could Ix' disinfected by saturating the surface soil with a good disinfectant, but it would be an expensive operation. (Fig. 9'6.) Systematic disinfection of the premises should not be neg- lected even if there is no disease. A small spray pump and a constant su]iply of disinfectant to bo used at frequent intervals about the buildings constitute an inij)ortant part of the equip- ment of a piggery. At least once a year, a general house- cleaning is advi'^able, and whitewashing the walls, ceiling, and partitions with lime and crude carbolic acid will go a long way towards keeping the building sanitary. A good pint of crude carbolic acid to three gallons of whitewash will answer the purpose. SANITATION. 321 Quarantine. — Provisiou should be made in large herds for quarters where hogs that have been purchased, or brought home from shows, can be kept entirely separate from the rest of the herd for at least three weeks. The plan of using portable pens and dividing the herd up into small groups has a marked advantage over keeping the hogs in a large piggery, in case a contagious disease breaks out. With the- portable pens, all hogs are not exposed, and it is a simpler matter to effect a quarantine. Ilog cholera is the most dangerous contagious disease that Flo. 86. — A form of brood housp lor sow and pies. j,:i~ii\- nm to prevent disease. ■lonn place the swine breeder has to contend with. In case of an outbreak of either cholera or swine plague in the neighborhood, a most rigid quarantine should be put into force. There should be no visiting back and forth by either man or beast between infected farms and those which are clear, because the vims which causes the disease may be easily carried on the boots of the persons or the feet of animals. Even dogs have Ix^en known to carry the disease from one farm to another. Dogs should be tied up until an outbreak of this disease is under control. On the farm where disease breaks out, healthy animals should be separated at once from diseased animals, and differ- ent attendants should feed the two lots, each attendant keeping 21 324 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES also be applied by means of a good spray pump, wbieh forces' the dip through the hair and into all crevices. It may also be applied by means of a broom, using a pail to hold the dip. By Fig. 88. — Hog dipping vat recommended by the Wisconsin Siaiion. (Bulletin 2J2.) Courtesy Tennessee Depaitment of Auriculttire Fig. 89. — Concrete hog wallow. bnishing the dip into the hair the job can be done thoroughly. The cement dipping vat illustrated herewith is the kind recommended by tlie Wisconsin Station (Bulletin 242). It is provided with a chute at each end, and there is a return drain SANITATION 325 apron where the hogs emerge from the tank. By keeping the hogs a short time on this incline after they come ont of the tank, a great deal of dip can be saved from waste. (Fig. 88.) The tank should contain enough lukewarm water, to which the dip has been added, to thoroughly immerse the hogs, the quan- tity varying with the size of the hogs. If crude oil is used, 12 to 15 gallons to a tank of water is sufficient. The hogs should work their wav through the dip by their rear legs, with their noses just out of the water. When lice have been in a building for some time, it will be necessary to treat the building in practically the same way as recommended for disinfection, the disinfectants being also good insecticides. In treating for lice, one application of insecticides is seldom sufficient, because there will be many eggs to hatch out to give a new brood. A second treatment, about a week after the first, should always be given, and a third treatment would not be out of place. Hog Wallows. — Hogs suflPer from heat, and enjoy wallowing in water or mud. The ordinary wallow becomes very filthy and is a good breeding ground for disease. Cement hog wallows, located in a shady place, and constnictcd so as to contain eight or ten inches of water, are sanitary and add much to the comfort of the pig in hot summer w^eather. Crude oil or coal tar dip may be added to the water in the wallow, and thus help to keep down lice, and to promote sanitary conditions. (Fig. 89.) REVIEW. 1. How may cleanliness be secured in a pipperv? 2. Mention several disinfectants and tell liow to use them. 3. Tell of the necessary steps in securinfi purity of quarters after a disease among the hogs. 4. Mention methods of purifying yards and pastures. 328 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES Courtesy Tennessee Department o( Aj;ricultiire. FiQ. 90. — Ulcers (large intestine), chronie form. Cuurlcsy lcUIn-■^SL■L• Dc|iarliic<;nt of Ayric.iUiirc. Fig. 91. — "Button ulcers" (large intestine), chronic form. Courtesy I b'la. 'J2. — Group of cholera pigs. COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE 329 siderable time, jiossibly several weeks or even two or three iiioiitlis. Often the pig becomes a complete wreck, and death at last occurs. Treatment. — "When a hog once contracts the disease, little can be done in the way of treatment. Preventive measures are the only effective means for fighting this disease. In case the disease should ho found in a lierd, it is safer to divide the herd u]) into small gi'oups, keeping hogs wliich have been ex- Courtesy Tennessee 1 >ep;irtrnent ^t A^^'ncuiturt-. Fig. 93. — Injecting serum behind shoulder (large hog). posed to the disease se])arate from tho.se which liave not. Dis- eased carcasses should In- burned, and thorough disinfection of the premises and the animals should 1k' made. Tlie disease enters the system tlirough the stomach, and, therefore, care should be exercised at all times in providing clean water and feed. The importance of quarantine, isolation, and disin- fection, and methods of conducting the same, have been dealt with under " Sanitation/' which see. 332 BUIIJDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES allowed to rnu with the sick auiiiials aloiii;- with a nuiiil)cr of untreated aiiinuils, which served as controls, and the success following vaccination can therefore l)e attributed to the action of the serum. In the herds where hog chol- era a])peared subsequent to treatment, all of the vaccinated hogs remained well, while more than rtem inspection, as a measure of self-pro- tection." " It is known beyond all doubt that the majority of tul)er- culous hogs are productnl by the following causes: " 1. Feeding raw milk and slime from creameries. " 2. Feeding hand-sejiarated milk from tuberculous cows. " 3. Feeding Ix'liind tuberculous cattle. " 4. Feeding tubci-culous carcasses. " 5. Feeding slaughter-house offal. " The danger of feeding hogs behind tuberculous cattle lies in the fact that such cattle discharge enormous nundn'rs of tuljerculosis germs in their faeces," Symptoms Obscure. — The rjuotations given show the im- portance of tiiis disease, and the need for the farmer to be on liis guard. It is a contagious disease and must be treiited as such. The sym])toms are not well marked, and a hog may be badly diseased and show ])raclically no clinical symjifoms. If the lungs are affet'ted, the liog usually has a cougli, and, if the digestive organs are badly affected, there is generally indiges- tion, and general lack of thrift; but similar symptoms may shf)W themselves with otln r diseases, and it rcipiires a great deal of experience to diagnose the disease^ with c(>rtainty. Treatment is entirely ]>reventive. Since the disease is usually communicated to hogs through their feed, it is neces- COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE 337 sary to make certain that their feed contains no germs. In dair\' districts, the practice of sterilizing skim-milk, butter- milk, and whey is to be commended, because daiiy by-products constitute the main medium for transmitting the disease to hogs. Sanitar\' surroundings, pure feed, and fresh air are the feeder's main safeguards in connection with this dangerous disease. INDIGESTION. Indigestion in various forms is caused by mistakes in feed- ing. Over-feeding and lack of exercise will sometimes bring on the trouble, or the feeding of swill containing injurious substances, such as washing powders, is apt to cause derange- ment. In the acute form it causes the animal a good deal of pain, causing it to arch its back and give general evidences of suffering. In such cases it is well to have a veterinarian prescribe for the trouble. The chronic form sometimes follows an attack of acute indigestion, causing an unthrifty, stunted condition of the animal. Perhaps the best home remedy is a dose of castor oil, followed by careful feeding upon easily digested feeds. If the trouble is not relieved, a veterinarian should be consulted. CONSTIPATION. As mentioned in another place, constipation is most disas- trous in the case of pregnant sows, and is the result of too little exercise and too much concentrated feed. In cases of constipa- tion, perhaps the simplest remedy is to give from two to four ounces of raw linseed oil once daily in the slop of a mature animal. If this is not effective, give four ounces of Epsom salts. Give exercise and supply laxative feeds, such as bran, oil meal, or ground flax-seed, roots or alfalfa. 22 338 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES SCOURS. Dr. Alexander (Wisconsin Bulletin 184) writes as follows: *' When young nursing pigs begin to scour, it is evident that the milk of tlie sow is disagreeing with them, and immediate attention, tlierefore, should be directed towards improving her ration. Most often the trouble comes from overfeeding on corn, or other rich feed, just after farrowing, and pigs of fat, flabbv. pampered, cross, ner\'ous, constipated sows are most apt to suffer. Sudden changes of feed, or feeding sour or decom- posing slop, or feed from dirty troughs or sour swill-barrels, also tend to cause diarrhoea either in nursing pigs or those that have been weaned, and all such causes should be prevented or removed. " To correct scouring in nursing pigs, give the sow 15 to 20 grains sulphat<' of iron (copperas) in her slop night and morning, and if necessary slightly increase the dose until eflFective. Lime water may, Avith advantage, be freely mixed with the slop as a preventive when there is a tendency to derangement, or after the trouble has been checked, and it is also an excellent corrective for weaned pigs showing a tend- ency to scour on slop or skim-milk. Where little pigs are scouring severely, each may with advantage be given a raw egff and ;"» to 10 grains of subnitrate of bismuth twice daily, in addition to changing the feed of the sow and mixing copperas in her slop. Tn eases which do not promptly respond to treat- ment, success may follow tlie administration of a dose of castor oil shaken up in milk. Tii all cases it is important to set right all errors in diet and sanitation, and to provide the pigs with dr^', sunny, well-ventilated quarters. The derangement is always most apt to occur, and sure to prove disastrous, among pigs kept in unsanitary cuuditions." COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE 339 INFECTIOUS SORE MOUTH. This disease is quite common in small pigs from a few days to several weeks old. It is caused by a germ. Filthy quarters and damp, muddy yards favor the development of the disease. One of the first symptoms is a disinclination to suck on the part of nursing pigs, or a falling off in appetite in older pigs. The lining membrane of the mouth becomes inflamed, and sometimes the snout and lips become swollen. Later, ulcers form, oft^n involving the lips and snout. Dr. Craig recommends the following treatment : " As soon as the disease breaks out in a litter, both the mother and pigs should be removed from the herd. The affected pigs can be treated by dipping head foremost into a four per cent water solution of some reliable tar disinfectant ; or permanganate of potassium, one ounce to a gallon of water, can be used. A more thorough way to treat them is to wash out the mouth by injecting the solution directly into it with a syringe. It is advisable to use this method wherever prac- ticable, and especially in advanced cases. It is also advisable to clean the ulcerated parts by scraping away the dead tissue and rubbing the surface of tlie ulcer with lunar caustic. The above treatment should be repeated twice a day in advanced cases, and in mild ones once a day. It should be kept up for as long a time as necessary. It is usually more economical to kill the badly diseased pigs than it is to treat them, as they are apt to scatter the disease and bc^come badly stunted and deformed." If treatment is aditjitcd upon rhe Hrst appearance of trouble, the disease is not too difficult to cure, THUMPS. This disease is caused by a disordered digestion which irritates the nerves connected with the diaphragm, causing sud- 340 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES den contractions of the diaphrat^in at irrciiiilar intervals. The contractions or spasms of the diaphrag^n cause a jerking move- ment of the Hank, which is a characteristic symptom of the disease. The ])ig' l)ecomes nntliriftv and stunted, and very young pigs are likely to succumb or to become practically worthless. Too liberal a supply of feed and too little exercise will often bring on the trouble. Young ])igs often contract the disease before they are weaned if they have a good mother and are not given much exercise, and it is usually the finest and fattest pig in the litter wliicli is th(^ first to go wrong. Treatment is mainly preventive, and hence the necessity for providing exercise for young pigs, especially if their mother is a lilx^ral milker and the pigs become very fat. Judicious feeding and exercise will entirely prevent the disease. If a case occurs, it is a signal that a change in methods should be made at once. Sometimes it is difficult to obtain exercise for young pigs in cold weather, and some recommend shutting them in a pen away from the mother for an hour or so twice a day. As a rule, this plan will stimulate the laziest of them to take considerable exercise. INFLAMMATION OF THE TDDER. Heavy milkers are most liable to have this trouble. Whatever the cause, the disease calls for prompt treatment. Dr. R. A. Craig, in his excellent Iwok, " Diseases of Swine," recommends the following treatment: " Milking the sow's udder two or three times a day will usually relieve its congested condition. A physic of Epsom salts should be given every other day, and a sloppy diet fed. In case the udder becomes inflamed, it should Ix? kneaded gently with the fingers, and the following ointment applied daily: Extract of belladonna and gum camphor (one dram of CX)MMON DISEASES OP SWINE 341 each), and vaseline (three ounces). Hot fomentations may also be used. " Sore teats should be bathed daily w-ith white lotion (one part zinc sulphate, three-fourths of a part lead acetate, and thirty parts water) until healed." ECZEMA. Eczema, and similar skin troubles, can usually be success- fully treated by washing or spraying with a one per cent solution of creolin, or some of the well-known tar disinfectants. The hog should be kept in a clean, dry place, and out of the sun until cured. It sometimes requires time to effect a cure, and the treatment should be given every day until the disease is conquered. RHEUMATISM. In northern latitudes, rheumatism often occurs among swine, especially during cold, damp weather. Damp, ill-ven- tilated pens are a common cause, and it may sometimes be caused by overfeeding. Piggeries built with stone or concrete walls and floors are generally more dangerous than those built of wood. When such walls are hollow and the floors insulated with a tar layer, they are much safer. The hog becomes verj' lame and stiff and moves about with difficulty. Sometimes the joints become swollen and very painful, and the animal becomes practically helpless. In such cases it is seldom that the hog makes a recovery. The feeder must be on his guard against this disease. Dr\', well-ventilated pens and careful feeding will generally enable him to avoid disaster. Animals which become affected should be kept in dry, warm quarters. Dr. Craig ("Diseases of Swine ") says: " Salicylate of soda is the most useful drug :U2 lUll.DlNCJS. SANITATION', AND DISEASES to give in this (lis<'as(>. The dose is twenty or thirty grains in the iov(\, i»r as a drench, three times a day. Larger doses, and at more frequent inten'als, may be given in acute cases for a short time. Quinine and bitter tonics can also be given. Blistering ointment.s and liniments should l)e applied to the inflamed articulations." RICKETS. In this disease, which is commonly found among young pigs, there is enlargement, bending, and distortion of tlie bones of the joints and limit-;, and fractures of leg bones are not unconmion. The become scattered over the premises. Eventually, some of them are taken up by other hogs along with tlicir feed. They do not seem to cause the hog any inconvenience unless they are present in very large numbers, when they may cause digestive troubles, and the writer has known death to result. There can be little doubt, however, that a ]iig affected with worms cannot make the Vst use of its feed, even though it may appear quite thrifty. CX)MMON DISEASES OF SWINE 345 Thorn-headed Worm. — This j^arasite is much less common than the round worm. It is usually found attached to the wall of the intestines bv its hooked proboscis, from which it derives the name of "' thorn-headed.'' In length it is similar to the round worm, but its surface is somewhat wrinkled, and the posterior extremity is blunt. Though only a few are usually found in an animal, they do much more damage than the round worm, irritating tlie lining of the intestine, and sometimes causing severe inflammation. It would be difficult to distinguish the symptoms from other intestinal derange- ments, but a post-mortem examination w'ould readily reveal the presence of the wonn. Pin-Worm. — The pin-worm is very small and might be easily overlooked in a careless post-mortem. It is usually found near the beginning of the large intestine, often hidden in the folds of the lining membrane. It is a very common parasite of s\vine, and does not seem to cause much incon- venience to the animal. Whip-Worm. — This is also a small worm, being about one and one-half inches long. It attaches its head to the lining of the intestine, and is usually found in the beginning of the large intestine. The anterior portion is very thin and hair- like, and the posterior portion is thick and cylindrical in shape. Like the pin-worm, it does not seem to create much disturbance, but must be more or loss injurious. Treatment for Intestinal Worms. — Preventive treatment consists in keeping buildings and surroundings clean and sanitary. Feeding in filthy yards and allowing to drink stag- nant water are practices which favor the spread of parasites. As to medicinal treatment, the writer has found that allow- ing hogs to have access to a mixture of charcoal and salt, or charcoal, wood ashes, and salt, seems to be quite effective iu driving out round worms. 346 BFILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES Turpentine is commonly recommended for worms, especially the thorn-headed worm. The dose is a teaspoonful for every eighty or one hundred pounds live weight of the hogs to be treated. It can be given in the feed, and the hogs should be fasted at least twelve hours before treatment. A dose each day for three days will generally prove effective. Another remedy which is recommended is five grains of calomel and eight grains of santonin for every hundred pounds live weight of the hogs. This remedy can also be given in tlic feed. It is generally advisable to give a physic after treatment for worms. LUNG WORMS. The lung worm is a small, tliread-like, whitish worm, some- times found in large numbers in the air-passages of the lungs. Ordinarily, about the only symptom is a spasmodic cough, which is somewhat similar to the cough whicli accompanies bronchitis. Sometimes tlie irritation caused by the worms produces inflammation and consolidation of the lung tissue, in which case the animal dies, but in many cases no bad effect is apparent. In a post-mortem examination, the wonns can be detected by cutting the lung near the apex and then squeez- ing tlie tissue next to the cut. The pressure forces the thread- like worms out upon the cut surface. There is practically no effective treatment for this parasite. Clean pens, in wliicli disinfectants are liberally used, and clean, well-drained yards will help keej) the wonn in check. Filthy yards and wallows favor its development. Ploughing up old hog lots and re-seeding them is also a preventive measure. FOOT-AXI)-.MC)UTlI DISEASE. Dr. A. S. Alexander, veterinary editor of the Breeder's Ga- zette, gives a very full summary of the nature of foot-and-mouth COMMON oisp:ases of swine 347 ilisease iu "The (Jazctte '' of November 12, 1914. The follo'yving points are taken from the article in question : " So highly con- tagious is the character of foot-and-mouth disease that its eradica- tion and control necessitates instant isolation and slaughter of atfeoted animals, deep burial of the carcasses in quicklime, thor- ough cleansing, disinfection, and whitewashing of the infected premises, strict quarantine of all infected stables, farms, and areas, restriction of the movement of animals and pasteurization or boiling of milk." Hogs usually take the disease from cattle, hence it is important to be able to recognize the disease in any class of stock. Symptoms. — Following are some of the characteristic symp- toms as given by Tlr. Alexander : " The temperature of the cow rises 2 to 4 degrees, the pulse accelerates, appetite diminishes, shivering may be seen, while the hair is roughened, the muzzle hot and dry, the teats and membranes of the mouth become red, saliva drools or froths from the mouth, and a characteristic smack- ing of the tongue is heard. Tenderness of the feet is shown by lameness and soreness. Tn two to three days large and small vesicles (blisters) develop on the inner surface of the lips and cheeks, the gums, palate, and top and borders of the tongue. . . . Simultaneously, with the eruption of vesicles upon the mucous membranes of the mouth, vesicles may develop in cattle on the muzzle, and at the base of the horns, and in hogs on the snout. . . . Sheep, goats, and swine do not commonly show severe lesions of the mouth when attacked by the disease. In these animals the feet are most affected." Dr. Charles F. Ljmch, iu "Diseases of Swine," says: "In an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease, cattle are usually first affected, and the disease may then spread to the swine. The characteristic symptoms of this disease are the linding of large numbers of vesicles or blisters between the toes and along the lower part of the mouth. There may also be some blisters in the mouth and on the tongue." 348 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES What to Do. — Prohalily onougli has boon said to enable the fanner to recognize tliis dread disease. If he should be so un- fortunate as to find it on his fann there is only one thing to do, and that is to notify the Government authorities immediately he maizes the discovery. It is of no use to try to hide it, because matters will only go from bad to worse, and the sooner the proper authorities are notified, the sooner the outbreak can be brought under control. OTHER DISEASES. The diseases which have been mentioned represent only a few of the troubles which may affect the hog, and no attempt has been made to treat the subject from a veterinarian's stand- point. There are other diseases. The aim has been to note only a few simple remedies for common ailments, and to emphasize especially the importance of prevention, rather than the cure of disease. The hog is not easy to treat for disease, and the main effort of the farmer should be towards maintain- ing health and preventing the entrance of disease into his herd. In regard to the long list of diseases which have not been men- tioned, together with many of those included in the list, it will generally be advisable to consult a skilled veterinarian, but the services of a veterinarian can often Ix^ rendered un- necessary if the fanner inak(^s the best use of the means at his disposal. Examine Carcasses. — Every man who has to deal with stock should make a i)ractice of holding a post-mortem upon every animal that dies upon the fann. He will soon learn what healthy organs should look like, and will Ik* able to locate the seat of the trouble. If lie cannot determine the nature of the disease, he can take ilie diseased organ or organs to a veter- inarian, or send them innnediately to the nearest Experiment Station, and have the disease identified. Experiment Stations COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE 349 exist for the purpose of helping the farmer, and the officers of the stations will be glad to send him any information they can to help him overcome his difficulties. ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINE. Medicines which are not distasteful can be given with the feed, provided the hog has not completely lost its appetite. Wherever possible, the administration of medicine in the feed is preferable to drenching. Dr. Craig (''Diseases of Swine") recommends the fol- lowing method of drenching hogs: " To hold the animal while drenching it, a noose of sash- cord or quarter-inch rope can be placed around the upper jaw well back toward the angles of the lips, and the medicine thrown into the back part of the mouth with a dose syringe. As tliere is danger of the hog breaking the syringe, it is best to use a metal one. Sometimes, when the drench is bulky and the hog hard to hold, it is necessarv' to elevate tlie head and raise the fore-feet off the ground. For this purpose a pulley and rope wire stretcher is recommended. It is best to wait until the hog has become quiet and well under control before giving it the drench, as there is some danger of the medicine getting into the air-passages and doing harm." The writer has seen more than one hog killed in the opera- tion of drenching. If the drench is poured too rapidly into the throat, it is almost sure to be drawn into the lungs, and the hog will probably die in a few minutes. The medicine should be poured verv' slowly, and it is best to pour it just inside the cheek instead of into the throat. REVIEW. 1. What parts are attacked by the cholera germ? 2. Describe the symptoms of this disease. 350 BUILDINGS, SANITATION, AND DISEASES 3. What measures should be taken in ease of an ()utl)reak of cliolera among swine? 4. Wliat ean he done to make lio;,'s ininiune to eholera? 5. How was it proved tliat tiie serum treatment was effeetive? 6. Describe the first metliod of vaccination (serum alone). 7. Give the " simultaneous metliod." 8. Give the " combination method." 0. \Miat is the proper time to use the serum in a herd? 10. What are the differences between swine plajrue and cholera? 11. Give several points repardinji bronchitis. 12. Give causes and symptoms of pneumonia. 13. What is said refrardinfr the wide-spread existence of tuberculosis? 14. IIow does the feedinjr of raw skim-milk sjjread this disease? 15. Why are hogs sometimes bought subject to post-mortem inspection? 16. What can you say of the difficulty of detecting the disease? 17. Mention several preventive measures against tuberculosis. 18. Give causes and dangers of indigestion. 19. Give causes of and remedies for constipation. 20. jMention several causes of scours in young pigs. 21. What are some of the best remedies? How applied? 22. Mention cau.ses and symptoms of infectious sore mouth. 23. What treatment is recommended? 24. Describe the disease called " thumps." 2.5. Give causes and treatment. 26. Give treatment for inllamed udder of sows. 27. What are good preparations to use on the skin for eczema? 28. In what secti(ms of the country is rheiimatisni most prevalent? 29. Give its causes and prevention. 30. Give a description of the disease called rickets. 31. What precautions should he taken to prevent it? 32. What is said of the dangers of swine paralysis? 33. Describe mange, and give remedies. 34. Tell of the importance of the trouble from common round worms. 35. Describe the thorn-headed worm. .36. Where are pin-worms and whip-worms most commonly found in Bwine ? 37. ^Mention several preventions and remedies for inte.stinal worms. 3S. What are the dangers from lung worms? 39. What are the best means of preventing them? 40. Give reasons for examining the diseased parts of a hog after death. 41. Give suggestions as to methods of giving medicine to hogs. CHAPTER XXXV. COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. The table which follows has been taken mainly from Prof. Henry's " Feeds and Feeding." The table is not complete, bnt it covei*s most of the feed-stuffs which are at all likely to be used for hogs, and a number which are not suitable for hogs are included for purposes of comparison. It will be noted that the table gives the composition of the feed-stuffs, and not the digestible constituents. There are three main reasons for iising this style of table in preference to one showing digestible constituents. In the first place, digestion trials are usually conducted with nmiinants (sheep or cattle), and the digestive powers of ruminants, in some cases at least, are different from the digestive powers of the hog ; consequently the table might be misleading if it purported to show the digestible matter only. In the second place, digestion trials have not been made ^^"ith all of the feed-stuffs mentioned. Finally, in the case of feed-stuffs Avhich are sold under guaran- tee, it is the composition and not the digestible matter which is sho\\Ti in the analysis, therefore, when purchasing feeds, a t^iblo showing the composition of feed-stuffs would be much more Viiluable for purposes of comparison than one showing digestible matter. AftJi represents the mineral matter in the feed, and is useful in building up the skeleton of the growing animal. Crude protein is the nitrogenous part of the feed, and is useful in forming muscle or lean meat, blood, milk, and nearly all tissues. (351) 352 COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS Carbohydrates are similar to starch or sugar in composition. It will be noted that they axe divided into two classes, fibre and nitrogen-free extract. The former represents tlie woody portion of the feed, which is dithcult to digest. The nitrogen-free extract is the more soluble and easily digested portion of the carbohydrates, as starch and sugar. Carbohydrates, in general, are useful in forming fat and keeping up the heat of the body. Fat is the oily part of the feed, and its functions are similar to those of the carlx)hydrates. It would be extremely valuable to the purchaser of feed- stuffs, if there were some exact means of arriving at the actual money value of a feed-stuff as compared with other feed-stuffs. Unfortunately, no 'such method of comparing values is avail- able, but there are a few general facts, which may be helpful in studying the composition of a feed. Generally speaking, home grown feeds are inclined to be low in protein, but contain an abundance of carbohydrates; consequently, a high percentage of protein is always a strong recommendation. Other tilings being satisfactory, we would be Avilling to pay more for a feed-stuff rich in protein in making a purchase. On the other hand, a high ])ercentage of fibre is always a serious objection, especially in foods for hogs, because hogs cannot handle much fi])re to advaiitiige. Other things being nearly equal, the feed-stuff containing a high percentage of fibi-e is worth less per ton tlian one lower in fibre, but just how much less will depend upon the percentage of other constituents, and upon how much it exceeds the otlier in fibre. Of course it stands to reason that a high percentage of water necessarily reduces the value per ton of a feed-stuff. COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS Average Composition of Feeding Stuffs. 353 Feeding Stuffs. Water. Per cent. Acorns Alfalfa, green Alfalfa hay Alsike clover, green Alsike clover, hay Apple pomace Apples Artichoke, Jerusalem . . . Barley Beet pulp, dried Beet pulp, wet Bermuda grass, green . . . Brewer's grains, dried . . Brewer's grains, wet . . . . Broomcorn seed Buckwheat Buckwheat bran Buckwheat hulls Buckwheat middlings . . . Buttermilk Cabbage Carrot Cassava Chufa Cocoanut cake Common beet Common millet, green... Com Corn-and-cob meal Com cob Cotton seed Cotton-seed hulls Cotton-seed meal Cow^jea Cowpea, green CowTaea hay Cow's milk Cow's milk, colostrum. . Crimson clover, green. . . Distillers' grains, dried.. Dried blood Dried fish Emmer (speltz) Flax seed Fodder com, green 55.3 71.8 6.4 74.8 9.7 83.0 80.8 79.5 10.8 8.4 89.8 71.7 8.7 75.7 12.8 13.4 8.2 13.2 12.8 90.1 90.0 88.6 66.0 79.5 10.3 88.5 80.0 10.6 15.1 10.7 10.3 11.1 7.0 14.6 83.6 10.5 87.2 74.6 80.9 7.6 8.5 10.8 8.0 9.2 79.3 Ash. Per cent. Carbohydrates. 1.0 2.7 8.6 2.0 8.3 0.6 0.4 i.o 2.5 4.5 0.6 2.1 3.7 1.0 2.8 2.0 4.9 2.2 5.0 0.7 0.8 1.0 0.7 0.4 5.9 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.4 Crude protein. Per cent. 3.5 2.8 6.6 3.2 1.7 14.2 0.7 1.6 1.7 2.0 4.7 29.2 3.9 4.3 1.2 2.5 4.8 16.3 3.9 12.8 1.0 0.7 2.6 12.0 8.1 0.9 2.2 25.0 5.4 9.9 10.8 12.6 4.6 26.7 4.0 2.6 1.1 1.1 0.7 19.7 1.5 1.5 10.3 8.5 2.4 18.4 4.2 45.3 20.5 2.4 8.9 3.6 17.6 3.1 31.2 84.4 48.4 11.5 22.6 1.8 Fibre. 'Nit-|en- : extract. Per cent. Per cent. 4.4 7.4 27.1 7.4 25.6 2.9 1.2 O.S 4.2 17.5 2.4 5.9 13.6 3.8 7.0 11.7 32.9 43.5 4.4 0^9 1.3 1.8 2.2 14.4 0.9 6.5 2.2 6.6 30.1 23.2 46.3 6.3 3.9 4.8 21.2 5.2 11.6 11.1 7.1 5.0 34.8 12.3 39.2 11.0 40.7 11.6 16.6 15.9 68.7 60.8 6.3 17.2 42.3 12.5 64.3 59.7 37.9 35.3 44.3 4.0 5.5 7.6 30.2 10.5 38.7 8.0 10.5 70.4 64.8 54.9 24.7 33.4 24.6 56.3 7.1 42.6 4.9 2.7 8.4 35.4 62.9 23.2 12.2 Fat. Per cent. 1 1 2 2 0.9 0.4 0.2 1.8 0.7 '6'9 6.7 1.6 3.2 2.4 3.5 1.1 6.8 1.1 0.2 0.4 0.2 6.6 11.0 0.1 0.3 5.0 3.5 0.5 19.9 2.2 10.2 1.5 0.4 2.6 3.7 3.6 0. 12. 2. 11. 2. 33.7 0.5 ^ 354 COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS Average Composition of Feeding Stuffs. — Continued. Feeding Stuffa. Gluten-feed Gluten meal Hairy vetch, green Hairy vetch, hay Hog millet, green Hominy feed (chop) Horse bean Horse beans, green Hungarian grass, green. . . Hungarian grass seed .... Kafir Kentucky blue grass.green Linseed meal, ninv process Linseed meal, old process Malt sfjrouts Mangels Meat and bone meal Meat scrap Millet seed Milo maize seed Molas,ses beet pulp, dry. . Molasses, black st raji .... Mola.sses, Porto Rico Oat dust Oat feed Oat hulls Oat middlings Oats Oats and peas, green Oats and vetch, green. . . . Orchard grass, green Palmnut cake Parsnips Pasture gra.ss Peanut cake Peanut kernels, without hull Peanut vine, hay Peas, Canada field Peas, Canada field, green Potatoes Potato pomace Pumpkin Rape Rape-seed cake Water. Per cent. 9.2 9.5 85.3 11.3 80.0 9.6 11.3 84.2 71.1 9.5 9.9 65.1 9.0 9.8 9.5 90.9 6.0 10.7 12.1 9.0 7.0 20.9 25.9 6.5 7.0 7.4 8.8 10.4 79.7 80.0 73.0 10.4 88.3 80.0 10.7 7.5 7.6 15.0 84.7 79.1 91.7 90.9 85.7 10.0 Ash. Per cent. Crude protein. Per cent. 2.0 1.5 2.1 7.9 1.4 2.7 3.8 1.2 1.7 5.0 1.6 2.8 5.5 5.5 6.1 1.1 37.4 4.1 2.8 2.3 5.5 8.8 6.3 6.9 5.3 6.7 4.5 3.2 1.6 1.8 2.0 4.3 0.7 2.0 4.9 2.4 10.8 2.4 1.3 0.9 0.3 0.5 2.5 7.9 25.0 33.8 3.6 17.0 1.5 10.5 26.6 2.8 3.1 9.9 11.2 4.1 37.5 33.9 26.3 1.4 39.5 71.2 10.9 10.7 9.6 '2^7 13.5 8.0 3.4 16.2 11.4 2.4 3.0 2.6 16.8 1.6 3.5 47.6 27.9 10.7 23.7 2.8 2.1 0.7 1.3 2.2 31.2 Carbohydrates. Fibre. Per cent. 6.8 2.0 4.0 25.4 6.5 4.9 7.2 4.9 9.2 7.7 2.7 9 8.1 3.0 16.1 18.2 21.5 30.7 7.1 10.8 6.1 6.3 8.2 24.0 1.0 4.0 5.1 7.0 23.6 7.9 4.4 0.4 1.0 1.7 2.1 11.3 Nitrogen- free extract. Per cent. 53.5 46.6 4.6 36.1 10.2 64.3 50.1 6.5 14.2 63.2 71.5 17.6 36.4 35.7 44.9 5.5 6.3 0.3 62.6 72.2 61.3 60.4 65.1 50.2 55.3 50.5 56.5 59.4 9.6 8.4 13.3 35.0 10.2 9.7 23.7 15.6 42.7 50.2 6.3 17 6 5 7 4 4 2 30.0 Fat. Per cent. 3.5 6.6 0.4 2.3 0.4 8.0 1.0 0.4 0.7 4.7 3.1 1.3 2.0 7.8 1.6 0.2 10.8 13.7 3.5 2.8 0.5 4.8 2.9 1.3 6.9 4.8 0.6 0.5 0.9 9.5 0.2 0.8 8.0 39.6 4.6 0.8 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.5 9.6 CX^MI'OSlTIOxN OF FEEDING STUFFS Average Composition of Feeding Stub's. — Concluded. 355 Feeding Stuffa. Red clover, green Red clover, hay Red dog flour Rice Rice bran Rice hulls Rice meal Rice poUsh Rough rice Rutabaga (Swede turnip) Rye...... Rye fodder Rye middlings Sanfoin, green Sanfoin, hay Skim milk, centrifugal. . . . Skim milk, gravity Sorghum fodder, green . . . Sorghum seed Sow's milk Soy-bean Soy-bean, cake Soy-bean, green Starch feed, wet Sugar beet Sugar-beet molasses Sugar cane, green Sunflower seed Sunflower-seed cake Sweet potato Tankage Timothy, green ; . . . Turnip, fall Velvet bean, green Wheat Wheat bran Wheat flour Wheat middlings, flour. . . Wheat middlings, stand- ard (shorts) Whey Water. Per cent. 70.8 15.3 9.9 12.4 9.7 8.8 10.2 10.8 11.2 88.6 8.7 76.6 11.8 75.0 15.0 90.6 90.4 79.4 12.8 80.8 11.7 11.3 75.1 68.8 86.5 20.8 84.2 8.6 10.8 68.3 7.0 61.6 90.1 82.2 10.5 11.9 12.4 10.0 11.2 93.8 Ash. Per cent. 2.1 6.2 2.6 0.4 9.7 15.6 8.1 4.8 4.9 1.2 2.1 1.8 1.7 2.1 7.3 0.7 0.7 1.1 2.1 1.1 4.8 5.9 2.6 0.4 0.9 10.6 1.1 2.6 6.7 1.1 15.9 2.1 0.9 1.9 1.8 5.8 0.4 3.2 4.4 0.4 Crude protein. Per cent. 4.4 12.3 18.4 7.4 11.9 3.2 12.0 11.9 7.3 1.2 11.3 2.6 14.3 4.4 14.8 3.1 3.3 1.3 9.1 6.2 33.5 42.7 4.0 5.0 1.8 9.1 1.2 16.3 32.8 1.9 53.9 3.1 1.3 3.5 11.9 15.4 12.0 19.2 16.9 0.6 Carbohydrates. Fibre. Per cent. 8.1 24.8 3.0 0.2 12.0 36.2 5.4 3.3 8.0 1.3 1.5 11.6 2.4 6.0 20.4 6.1 2.6 4^5 6.0 6.7 2.9 0.9 4^0 29.9 13.5 1.1 5.8 11.8 1.2 5.1 1.8 9.0 3^2 6.2 Nitrogen- free extract. Per cent. 13.5 38.1 63.5 79.2 46.6 35.2 51.2 62.3 66.6 7.5 74.5 6.8 66.9 11.6 39.5 5.3 4.7 11.6 69.8 4.8 28.3 28.1 10.6 19.9 9.8 59.5 9.0 21.4 27.1 26.8 5.6 20.2 6.3 6.6 71.9 53.9 74.0 59.6 56.2 5.1 Fat. Per cent. 1.1 3.3 4.0 0.4 10.1 1.0 13.1 7.2 1.9 0.6 2.9 0.9 3.0 0.3 0.9 0.5 3.6 7.1 17.2 6.0 1.0 3.0 0.1 0^5 21.2 9.1 0.7 11.8 1.2 0.2 0.7 2.1 4.0 1.2 4.8 5.1 1 SWINE LITERATURE. Coburn, F. D.: Swine in America. New York (1909). Coburn, F, D.: Swine Husbandry. New York (1888). Coleman, John : Cattle, Slieep, and Pigs of Great Britain. London ( 1887 ) . Craig, John A.: Judging Live Stock. (1904.) Curtis, George W. : Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine. (1888.) Dawson, H. C: Tlie Hog Book. Chicago (1911). Dietrich, Wm.: Swine. Cliicago (1910). Harper, M. W. : Manual of Farm Animals. New York (1911). Harris, Joseph: Harris on the Pig. New York (1870). Long, James: The Book of the Pig. London. Low, David: On the Domesticated Animals of the British Isles, London (1842). Plumb, Charles S. : Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. Columbus, Ohio (190G). Ronunel, Geo. M.: Tlie Hog Industry. Washington (1904). Sanders, J. H.: The Breeds of Live Stock. Chicago (1887). Sliaw, Tliomas: The Study of Breeds in America. New York (1900). Shepard, S. M. : The Hog in America. Indianapolis (1896). Sidney, Samuel: The Pig. London (1871). Spencer, Sanders: Pigs: Breeds and Management. London (1897). Various Writers: The Best Breeds of British Stock. London (1898). Walker, John: Pigs for Profit. London (1905). Wallace, Robert: Farm Live Stock of Great Britain. Edinburgh (1907). Youatt, Wm., and Martin, W. C. L.: The Hog. New Y^ork (1863). INDEX Acorns, 200 Administration of medicine, 349 Alfalfa, green, 186, 187 Alfalfa hay, feeding of, 186-188 methods of feeding, 201-203 tea from, 211 Alfalfa meal. 201 Alfalfa pasture, 193, 249 compared with rape, 188, 189 with com, 158, 160 Apples, 208 Artichokes, Jerusalem, 198, 199, 251 A-shaped pen, 309-312 Ashes, with com, 151 Bacon, causes of softness, 133-135 sugar cured, 286, 287 Bacon hogs, American, 277, 278 English, 278 Bacon type, 9, 10 breeds of, 19 description of, 13-19 feed required compared with land type, 44 scale of points, 20-22 Barley, characteristics of, 164 compared with corn, 165, 166 compared with frosted wheat, 168, 169 compared with millet seed, 171 compared with rye, 170 for pasture, 249 palatability of, 166 with corn, 153, 154 Barrows vs. sows, 141 Beans, a cause of soft bacon, 135 methods and results of feeding, 171, 172 Beet pulp, 178 Beet-sugar molasses, 178 Beginners, suggestions to, 262-268 Berkshire, comparative tests, 41, 42 description, 45, 46 distribution, 49 Large English, 49, 50 origin and history, 46-49 score card, 52, 53 Berkshire, types, 49, 50 utility, 50-52 Bermuda grass, 250, 251 Big Chinas, 55 Black -strap molasses, 178, 179, 211 Blood meal, 150, 210 Blue grass, as pasture, 192, 193 Boar, the, breeding crate for, 224, 225 chapter on, 219-225 conformation of, 36 exercise for, 220 feeding, 222-224 market class, 278 removing tusks, 220, 221 selection of, 34-37, 263 use of, 219 Bone meal, 151, 158-160 Bones, breaking strength of, 132, 151, 152 Bran, fermented, 214 wheat, 173 Breaking strength of bones, 132, 151, 152 Breed, choice of, 262, 263 Breeder, 25, 26 Breeding and selection, chapter on, 25-38 Breeding crate, 224, 225 Breeds, key to, 126-128 relation to economy of produc- tion, 41-44 Brewers' grains, 178 Brine, 286, 287 Brine curing and dry curing, 286 Bronchitis, 334 Buckwheat, 170, 171 liuildings, chapter on, 295-318 cheap, 264 dryness, 295, 296 plans of, 298-308 portable pens, 308-318 ventilation, 296-298 Business methods, 268 Butcher hogs, 275-277 Buttermilk, 210 Byfield swine, 55 357 358 INDEX Carbohydrates, requirement of, 136 Carrots, 206 Cassava, 207 Castration, 237, 23S Charcoal, use of, 1S3, 184 Chesliiro, (IcscTijjtion, 107 distril)Ution, 107 origin and history, 107 score card, 108, 109 types, 107, 108 utihty, 108 Chester \Vhite, comparative tests, 41, 42 description, 65 distribution, 67 Improved, 66 O. I. C. strain, 67 origin and history, 65-67 score card, 70-74 typos, (iS, ()•) utility, (')'.), 70 Choice steam lard, 270, 280 Chufas, 200, 2r)0, 2')^, Classification of hogs, 273 Cleanliness, 319 Clover, compared with rape, 190 for pasture, 191, 192, 193 with barley, 249 with rape, 249 with ra|)c and oats, 194 with wheat or rye, 250 Combination method of vaccinating, 333 Composition of feeding stufTs, 351- 355 Condiniental stock feeds, 181-183 Conformation of boar, 3(i Consti()ati()n, 337 Cooking feed, 213 weed seeds, 181 Corn, causes soft bacon, 134 characteristics of, 131 compared with barley, 165, 166 comparefl with corn-and-cob meal, 174, 175 compared with hominy feed, 173, 174 compared with kafir, 170 compared with peas, 164 compared with rice and its bj'- products, ISO, ISl compared with soriilium seed, 179 compared with wheat, 1(57 hogging olT, 146 1 19, 250 influence on carcass, 132 Corn, pounds of pork from bushel of, 142 shelled, meal, soaked, and dry, 144, 145 whole vs. ground, 142-144 with barlo}', shorts, meat meal, and tankage, 153, 154 with blood meal and pea meal, 150 with bone meal and ashes, 151 with cottonseed meal, 162, 176, 177, 254 with meat meal, 154, 155 with meat meal, tankage, and shorts, 155-157 with shorts, skim milk, tankage, groimd bone, and alfalfa i)as- ture, 158-160 with skim milk, tankage, linseed meal, soy beans, and alfalfa, 157, 158 with soy bean meal and linseed meal, 161, 162 with soy bean meal and middlings, 152 with tankage, 162 with tankage and linseed meal, 160, 161 with wheat middlings and skim milk, 151, 152 Corn-and-cob meal, 174, 175 Correctives, 245, 247 Cost at ditTerent ages, 244, 245 Cost of raising jugs, 240-242 Cottonseed meal, characteristics of, 176 effect on hogs following steers, 177 general recommendations, 176 (piantity to feed, 176 to prevent poisoning, 163 with corn, 162, 176, 177, 254 Cow-peas, for ])asture, 194, 195, 197, 198, 249, 250 seed, 17'J vs. soy beans, 198 with corn, 250 Cross, breeding, 30, 31 Curing pork, l)rine and drv, 286 chapter on, 285-290 cooling, 285 drv-cured, 2S7 keeping, 289. 290 INDEX 359 Curing pork, liquid smoke, 289 plain salt, 286 smoke flavoring powder, 289 smoking, 2S7-2S9 sugar cured hams and bacon, 2SG, 2S7 trying out lard, 290 vessels for, 285 Dipping, 324, 325 Diseases, bronchitis, 334 chapter on, 327-350 const ipiat ion, 337 eczema, 341 foot-and mouth disejise, 346-348 hog cholera, 327-333 home treatment, 348 indigestion, 337 infectious sore mouth, 339 inflammation of the udder, 3-10, 341 mange, 343, 344 medicine, administration of, 349 paralysis, 342, 343 pneumonia, 334, 335 post mortems, 348 rheumatism, 341, 342 rickets, 342 scours, 338 swine plague, 333, 334 thumps, 339, 340 tuberculosis, 335-337 worms, 344-346 Disinfection, 319, 320 Distillers' grains, 178 Draughts, 298 Drenching, 349 Dry cured pork, 287 Dryness of piggery, 295, 296 importance of, 322 Dry vs. wet feed, 214 Duroc, 76 Duroc-.Iersey, comparative tests, 41, 42 description, 75 disqualifications, 78 distribution, 77 origin and history, 75, 76 score card, 78-82 types, 77 utility, 78 Eczema, 341 Emmer, 171 English bacon hogs, 278 Essex, description, 110 distribution, 111 origin and history, 110, 111 score card, 112, 113 types. 111 utihty. 111, 112 Ether extract or fat, requirement of, 136, 137 Exercise, influence on firmness of meat, 134 the boar, 220 the sow, 228, 229 young pigs, 237 Fall rye, for pasture, 197, 250, 251 Farrowing, 232 jiens for, 303 portable pens for, 309-317 P'at or lard type, 9 breeils of, 13 descrii)tion of, 10-13 feed required comjjared with bacon typo, 44 scale of points, 19, 20 Fattening, chapter on, 243-261 correctives, 245-247 cost increases with age, 244, 245 money returns for feed, 247, 248 quantity of feed, 244 regularity, 244 winter, 243, 244 Feed for maintenance, 140 Feeding and management, of boar, 219-225 of fattening hogs, 243-261 of sow, 226-235 of young pigs, 236-242 Feeding for health, 322 Feeding standard, 135-137 criticism of, 138, 139 how to use, 137, 138 Feeding stuffs, composition of, 351- 355 Fermenting feed, 214 Floors, 302, 303 Flour, 173 Foot-and-mouth disease, 346-348 Frosted wheat, compared with barley 168, 169 fed in combinations, 167 Garbage, 211, 212 Gentry, advice on in-breeding, 27 Gestation, period of, 227 table of, 269 360 INDEX Gluten meal, 175 Grade breeding, 31 Grades of hops, market, 273-278 Grain, on pasture, 196, 200, 201 Grinding, corn, 141, 144, 14.5 small grains, 213, 214 Ground bone, 158-lGO Hairy vetch, 192 Hampshire, description, 83 origin and history, 83-85 score card, 86-89 typos, 85 utility, 85, 86 Hams, sugar cured, 286, 287 Heavy hogs, 274, 275 Heredity. 31-34 Hog cholera, 327-333 Hogging off corn, 146-149, 250 Hogging off rye, 196 Hog motor grinder vs. hopper, 214, 215 Hogs following steers, 139, 140 effect of cottonseed meal on, 177 supplemental feeds for, 140 Hog supply, the, 3 Hog wallows, 325 Home grown feeds, 5 Homing feed vs. corn, 173, 174 Hopper vs. hog motor grinder, 214, 215 vs. trough, 215, 216 Immunization against cholera, 330- 333 Improved Chester White, 66 Improved Essex, 110 In-breeding, benefits, 28 dangers of, 29 Gentry on, 27, 28 to be avoided, 29 Indigestion, 337 Individuality, 31 Infectious sore mouth, 339 Inflammation of the udder, 340. 341 Insulation of floors, 302, 303 Irish Grazier, 56 Japan clover, 251 Jersey Red, 75 Jerusalem artichokes. 198, 199, 251 Kafir, compared with corn, 170 with soy bean meal, 170 Keeping cured meat, 289, 290 Key to breeds, 126-128 Lard, "choice," "prime steam," 279, 280 tr>-ing out, 290 Lard type, see fat type Large Black, description, distribu- tion, origin and history, utility, 121, 122 Large White, 90 Large Yorkshire, comparative tests, 41, 42 description, 90 distribution, 92 origin and historj% 90-92 score card, 95, 96 types, 92, 93 utility, 93-95 Lean meat, development of, 132, 133 Lcspedeza, 251 Lice, treatment for, 322-325 Light, importance of, 298, 322 Linseed meal, substitute for skim milk, 175, 211 use of, 175 with corn, 157, 158, 160- 162 Liquid smoke, 289 Literature, 3.56 Litters, number of, 227, 228 Lung worms, 346 Maintenance, feed for, 140 Mange, 343, 344 Mangels. 206 Markets and swine products, chapter on, 273-284 grades of hogs, 273-278 hog iiroducts, 279-283 _^ market classification, 273 Marketing yovmg pigs. 266-268 Meal equivalent, of roots, 205 of skim milk, 209 Meat meal, 1.53-157 Medicine, administration of, 349 Mess pork, 279 Middle White, description, distribu- tion, origin, utility. 123-126 Middlings, see wheat middlings Millet seed, 171 Mineral matter, requirement of, 137 Mixtures, for pasture, 198 Molasses, beet-sugar, 178 black-strap, 178, 179, 211 INDEX 361 Money returns for feed, 247, 248 Mule-foot, description, distribution, origin and history, utility, 120, 121 Oat feed. 177, 178 Oats, 169, 170 ifor pasture, 249 Oats, rape, and clover pasture, 194 O. I. C. strain of Chester White, 67 Packing hogs, 277 Paralysis, 342, 343 Pasture, amount of grain on, 196, 200, 201 Pasture and soiling crops, chapter on, 186-204 for the South, 248-259 Pasture vs. soiling, 200 Pea meal with corn, 150 Peanuts, 179, 180 for pasture, 199, 250, 255 Peas, Canada field, 164 Pedigree, 31-34 Pigeon grass seed, 181 Piggeries, Brethour's, 298-304 plans of, 298-308 small, 304, 305 Southern, 306-308 Pigs, feeding and management, after weaning, 238-340 before weaning, 236, 237 castration, 237, 238 chapter on, 236-242 cost of raising, 240-242 exercise, 237 market definition, 277 marking, 266-268 reviving weak or chilled, 236 Pin-worm, 345 Place of hog upon farm, 3-8 Plans of piggeries, 298-308 Pneumonia, 334, 335 Poland-China, comparative tests, 41, 42 description, 54 distribution, 57 origin and history, 54-57 score card, 59-64 types, 57, 58 utility, 58, 59 Pork, curing of, 285-290 dry cured, 287 from bushel of corn, 142 mess, 279 plain salt, 286 Pork, production in South, 248-261 Portable pens, A-shaped, 309-312 for winter farrowing, 314- 316 for winter quarters, 308, 309 shed-roof, 312-314 Post mortems, importance of, 34S Potatoes, 206 Preparation of feed, chapter on, 213- 216 Prime steam lard, 280 Production, cheapening of, 264 cost at difTerent ages, 244, 245 cost of young pigs, 240-242 possibilities of, 247, 248 Products of hogs, 279-283 Profit from hogs, 4-8 Protein, requirement of, 135, 136 Pumpkins, 208 Pure-bred hogs, 7, 8 Quarantine, 321, 322 Rape, compared with alfalfa, 188, 189 compared with clover, 190 compared with soy beans, 190, 191 for pasture, 189, 190, 249 with oats and clover, 194 Records, 265, 266 Red clover, see clover Registering, 264, 265 Relation of breed to economy of pro- duction, 41-44 Rheumatism, 341, 342 Ribs, or short ribs, 279 Rice, bran, 180, 181 by-products, 180, 181 hulls, 180 meal, 180 polish, 180 rough red, 180 with cottonseed meal, 177 Rickets, 342 Roots, dairy by-products, etc., chap- ter on, 205-212 effect of, 205, 206 meal equivalent of, 205 relative merits of, 206 Round worm, 344 Ruptured pigs, castration of, 237, 238 Rutabagas, 206, 251 362 INDEX Rye, compared witli barley, 170 for pasture, 197, 250 hogging off, 196 with vetch, 251 Sand vetch, 192 Sanitation, chapter on, 319, 326 cleanhness, 319 dipping, 324, 325 disinfection, 319, 320 feeding for health, 322 hog wallows, 325 lice, 322-325 quarantine, 321, 322 ventilation and dryness, 322 Scale of points, bacon hog, 20-22 fat or lard hog, 19, 20 Sec also under each breed Score card, see under each breed Scours, 338 Scrub methods, 2G0 Scrubs, 43 not economical, 260 Selection, of boar, 34-37, 263 of sow, 37, 38 Serum alone method, 332 Shed-roof pen, 312-314 Short ribs, 279 Shorts, with corn, 153, 155, 158 Siamese swine, 47 Simultaneous method of vaccinating, 333 Skim milk, meal equivalent of, 208, 209 substitutes for, 175, 210, 211 sweet vs. sour, 209, 210 value of, 209 with corn, 151, 152, 157~1()0 Small Hlack swine, 114 Small White swine, 114-117 Small Yorkshire, description, etc., 110-119 Smoke flavoring powder, 2S9 Smoke, li(}uid, 2S9 Smoking meat, 2S7-2S9 Soaking, corn, 145 feed in general, 214 Soft bacon, 133-135 Soft coal, use of, 1S3, 184 Soiling and j^asture crojis, see i)iustiue Soiling vs. pasture, 200 Sore mouth, infectious, 339 Sorghum, for i)asturc, 194, 197, 251, 255 seed, 179 South, Uie, advantages of, 248 pasture crops for, 248-259 pork production in, 248-261 Sow, the, age of breeding, 226 best time for farrowing, 227 breeding mature, 226, 227 chapter on, 226-235 eating pigs, 235 exercise, 228, 229 farrowing, 232-234 feeding and management, 229 284 one or two litters, 227 period of gestation, 227 selection of, 37, 38 Sows vs. barrows, 141 Soy bean meal, with corn, 152, 161, 162 with kafir, 170 Soy beans, comi)ared with rape, 190, 191 for ])asture, 194, 195, 250. 255 vs. cow-peas, 198 Spanish peanuts, see peanuts Spayed vs. unspayed sows, 141 Speitz (emmer), 171 Squashes, 208 Stags, 278 Starting in business, 262 Steaming feed, 213 Stock beets, 251 "Stock feeds," criticism of, 181, 182 formulas for, 183 Substitutes for skim milk, 175, 210, 211 Suffolk swine, 114-115 Sugar beet pulp, 178 Sugar beets, 2(H) Sugar cured lianis and bacon, 280, 287 Suggestions to beginners, chaijter on, 262 270 Supplementary feeds with corn, 150- 163, 253-255 Supi)ly of hogs, 3 Swede turnips (rutabagas), 206 Sweet potatoes, 206, 207, 250 Swine plague, 333, 334 Tamworth, comparative tests, 41,42 description, 97 distrihiitioii, 9S, 99 origin and history, 97, 98 standanl of excellence, 101, 102 utility, 99-101 INDEX 363 Tankage, substitute for skim milk, 210, 211 witli corn, 153, 155-162 Thin Rind. cS3 Tliorn-licadptl worm, 345 Thumps, 339, 340 Timothy, for jnist^iro, 191, 192 Tonic mixture, 1S3, 1S4 Trough vs. hopper, 21.5, 216 Trying out hird, 290 Tuberculosis, 335-337 Turnips, 251 Tusks, removal of. 220, 221 Types of swine, 9-22 Udder, inflammation of, 340, 341 Utility, in breeding, 26, 27 Vaccinating against cholera, 332, .333 Various grains, meals, and by- products, chapter on, 164-184 Velvet bean, 192, 2.52 Ventilation, 296-298 importance of, .322 Vessels for curing meat, 285 Vetch, hairy and smooth, 192, 249 with Bermuda grass, 250 with wheat, 251 Victoria, description, distribution, origin and history, score card, utility, 103-106 Wallows, 32.5 Warmth in piggerj', 298 Water, requirement of, 135 Weed seeds, 181 Wet vs. dry feed, 214 Wheat, characteristics of, 166 comjiared with buckwheat, 170, 171 compared with corn, 107 compared with millet seed, 171 frosted, 167-169 pasture, 2.50 with vetch, 251 Wheat bran, 173 WTieat middlings, with corn, 151, 1.52 uses of, 172 Whey, meal equivalent of, 210 separated vs. ordinary, 210 .sweet vs. sour, 210 \Miip-worm, 345 Whole corn, 142-146 Wiltshire side, 9, 280, 283 Worms, intestinal, 344-346 lung, 346 treatment for, 345, 346 Yorkshire, Large, see Large York.shire, 41, 90 Small, see Small Yorkshire, 116- 119 Young pigs, see pigs, 236-242 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