SF487 .L75 c.l Lippincott , William Adams, 1882-1931. Progressive poultry raising, 1923. '-. ^!.*^^.,"*!'\"^'T,'^. ,?, " "\-,.: S00309454 Date Due 250 '?/^ [ Feb2-;'- ' Jan2J'A i'i-. ' f j:-- '^Oli^i?'^^ iAm i 32 Teb4*33| 4teb?* 77:i'i';--/ I8Way53 WHZl ZiMar' 58^ Tis r i 1 1 ! 1 1 1 L. B. Cat . No. 1137 IROGRl Mi iilJlJRYRASW ''"i^frfi?:-:' ^i^,r'i^if>^:f Wl National Poultry Associations American Poultry Association, Mrs. Thos. F. Riggs, Secretary, 319 Citizens Trust BIdg., Fort Wayne, Ind. Blue Andalusian Club of America, Voris Morrison, Secretary, Ram- sey, 111. United Ancona Club, R.W.Van Hossen, Secretary, Franklinville, N.Y. International Baby Chick Assn., Fred H. Thayer, Secretary, Balti- more, Md. National Bantam Association, J. Hart Welch, Secretary, Douglaston, L. I, N.Y. American Game Bantam Club, J. K. Brokaw, Secretary, Somerville, N.J. American Light Brahma Club, Harvey C. Wood, Secretary, Bound Brook, N.J. American Buckeye Club, E. F. Trimble, Secretary, Benton, Ky. American Buttercup Club, H. J. Lalone, Secretary, Potsdam, N. Y. American Cornish Club, Fred H. Schrer, Secretary, Utica, N. Y. National American Dominque Club, C. W. Boose, Secretary, 29 Park St., Lewiston, Mo. American Guinea Club, Edward R. Flint, Secretary, Flindell Farm, Tunbridge, Vt. National Game Club, E. J. W. Dietz, Secretary, 736 Cornelia Ave., Chicago, III. Jersey Black Giant Club, M. L. Chapman, Secretary, Trenton Jet., N.J. American Houdan Club, Daniel P. Shove, Secretary, Fall River, Mass. Hamburg Fanciers Club, Robert C. Morse, Secretary, 19 Congress St., Boston, Mass. American Incubators Manufacturers Assn.,E. L. Coatsworth, Secre- tary, care Queen Incubator Co., Lincoln, Nebr. American Java Association, Seth W. Morton, Secretary, P. O. Box 587, Albany, N. Y. National Black Langshan Club, Wm. Buddenhagen, Secretary, Brooklyn Station R. R. 2, Cleveland, Ohio. American Black Leghorn Club, G. B. Wadsworth, Secretary, Hemp- stead, L. I., N. Y. American Buff Leghorn Club, Geo. S. Barnes, Secretary, Battle Creek, Mich. American Rose Comb White Leghorn Club, J. M. Chase, Secretary, Wellkill, N. Y. American Single Comb Brown Leghorn Club, C. C. Gresham, Secre- tary, Parkville, Mo. National Single Comb White Leghorn Club, A, F. Rolf, Secretary, Box 1 104, New Orleans, La. American Single Comb White Minorca Club, G. G. Truman, Secre- tary, Perrysville, Ohio. International Single Comb Black Minorca Club, H. S. G. McCart- ney, Secretary, Hall of Records, Los Angeles, Cal. ^ {Continued on back cov —A A Prize White Plymouth Rock. PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING BY WILLIAM A. LIPPINCOTT PROFESSOR OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE ARMOUR'S LIVESTOCK BUREAU EDWARD N. WENTWORTH. Director UNION STOCK YARDS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 1923 Requisition No. $08,266 Introduction POULTRY has been one of the chief sources of human food the world over, even during the days before history was re- corded. In early America nearly every family had a small flock, but the rapid industrial expansion of the United States follow- ing the Civil War brought about a congestion of our population into restricted areas which prevented the production of eggs and poultry by each family. Consequently, a commercial demand developed from these people that was fundamental in the growth of the modern marketing services, especially artificial refrigeration. The discovery that eggs can be preserved when kept cold, the building of cold storage ware- houses to prepare for periods of scarcity, and the invention of the refrigerator car, have all played their part in supplying the city population with poultry necessities. Armour and Company has been no small factor in the service of storing and transporting these foods. Every family now considers eggs a daily necessity, and, thanks to modern methods, the supply is daily forthcoming. This development in marketing poultry produce has had the direct effect of increasing production. Instead of growing just enough poultry to supply the family needs, it has been found profita- ble to enlarge this activity to a point that provides a sure and steady source of income. The average annual return from sales of poultry and eggs for all farms in the United States is approximately $140, while many general farms receive $500 to $1,000 from this source. The value of all poultry products annually produced in America is now over one billion dollars. This book is designed to foster the production of poultry prod- ucts of a kind needed to meet the demand of the consuming public, to supply a higher grade fowl for the farmers' tables and to bring a higher return to those engaged in poultry raising. The author, William A. Lippincott, is Professor of Poultry Husbandry at the Kansas State Agricultural College and Secretary of the Interna- tional Poultry Instructors' and Investigators' Association. He is the author of "Poultry Production," one of the most widely used text-books on poultry 'raising, and the courtesy of its publishers. Lea &z Febiger, Philadelphia, is hereby acknowledged in permitting the use of certain material from this work. — H. S. JOHNSON, Manager; Butter, Cheese, Egg and Poultry Department, Armour and Company. PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Chapter I History of American Poultry Production Place in System of Farming — A farm without poultry is unusual. In early days a home without it was just as much so. With the growth of the towns and cities, the development of the refrigerator car and of the egg packing industry, with its cold storage facili- ties, the town and city dwellers came to depend upon the people of the open country for the production of poultry and eggs. In the beginning, the farmer or his wife simply sold the surplus from the flock which supplied the family needs. This is still largely true, though the size of the flock has grown and the surplus has increased as the prices for poultry products have risen. Fowls have received increasing recognition as a means of marketing waste grains, grasshoppers and other insects. Moreover as consumers of specialized farm crops, fowls provide one of the most economical means of trans- forming grains and cereals into high priced products. Place of Poultry Husbandry in Commerce — Unfortunately for consumptive demand the produc- tion of poultry and eggs is largely seasonal. The bulk of the year's lay comes between the first of February and the first of August in most states. The poultry crop comes to market between the first of August and the Holidays, yet people need these highly perishable products the year around. It is artificial refrigeration which makes it possible for the farmer to sell eggs in April and live poultry in November at prices that are profitable, and for city folks to buy eggs in December and broilers in February at prices which are not pro- hibitive. The cold storage houses are the city's cellars. ?>'^ ^v% I 12400 PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Early Poultry History in America — Poultry raising in the United States has been a home industry from the very beginning. It appeared in this country at least as soon as the first homes were established in, Jamestown in 1607. The entire product of the flock, including the feathers, was used at home. Poultry production has never been a frontier occupation in the sense that beef production has, or to a less degree, wheat production. Both of these tend ultimately to be replaced by crops yielding more food units per acre. Eggs and poultry have always been, for the most part, by-products of a general agriculture. It was not until long after most of the present-day industries which emanated from the farm, had become fairly well estab- lished, that poultry raising, with its associated indus- tries, began to be accounted of major importance and recognized as of broad commercial value. This was largely due to two associated causes. The first was the high perishability of both poultry and eggs, and the second was the poor means of trans- portation in early days. The commercial development of the industry is entirely dependent upon present-day railroad facilities, and the history of its development has very largely paralleled the history of railroad development, and has advanced in step with the im- provement of refrigerator cars. It was not until about i86q, when the refrigerator was first brought into use for long distance hauling, that means were afforded for transporting poultry products from the farm to distant cities, and production, beyond that demanded by home needs, became an object, and poultry a source, of any considerable money income. Later Development of Poultry Production — The early phase of the development of poultry produc- tion may be designated as the "home poultry" phase. With the advent of the refrigerator car and the possi- FOUT PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING bility of marketing surplus products in distant cities there appeared a growing tendency to produce more eggs and poultry on farms than were necessary for home needs, and to market the surplus. This was the beginning of the "farm poultry" phase in the history of poultry production. It is the phase which predomi- nates over much of the United States to-day. In some sections, however, the evolution has gone further and farms upon which poultry and eggs are the principal products and main source of income are quite common. Such sections have already entered the third and last phase of the industry's development in which poultry has become a specialty and which may be referred to as the "poultry farm" phase. The outlet for poultry products has from the first been a steadily increasing one, and the need to-day is for more, larger, and better farm flocks. The general farm that is understocked on poultry is not fully efficient, because it is failing to utilize its by-products. Worms, weedseeds and windfalls can command good prices when transformed into poultry and eggs. Kind of Stock for the Farm — Except in the case of the strictly meat birds, such as the turkey, duck (with the possible exception of the Runner) and goose, the return from the eggs sold constitutes about two- thirds of the income for poultry products, while the carcasses sold, whether alive or dressed, furnish the other one-third. The egg is undoubtedly the more profitable of the two products and the farm flock should always be good layers. Having in mind his own home needs, however, the farmer usually wishes stock that furnishes a sizable carcass as well as a good number of eggs. He should also have in mind that quick gains are the cheapest gains with chickens as well as hogs and cattle, and early maturity an asset to any flock. Fne PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Chapter II Breeds of Poultry Early American Poultry — There is little informa- tion to be found concerning the status of poultry pre- vious to the rise of the breeds in the middle of the last century. According to Carver's Principles of Rural Economics, "with the exception of the turkey all our farm animals and poultry were imported from the Old World. The first to reach the New World were brought by Columbus on his second voyage in 1493. * * * Chickens, ducks and geese are known to have been brought at that time." According to Robinson, the ordinary native stocks of fowls, ducks, geese and tur- keys in America at the time of the general awakening of interest in improved poultry and for some years after, were, even when compared with the average mongrel stocks of to-day, small birds of distinctly inferior table qualities, and usually inferior also in egg production. This degeneracy of stock was due to the common practice of selecting for the table first. That such practice, persistently followed, did not quickly run the stock out was due to these saving cir- cumstances; (i) the natural tendency of the stock to improve under the very favorable conditions which small flocks at liberty on farms enjoyed, and (2) the occasional introduction of blood of improved native stock. Now and then a person particularly interested in poultry would breed his flock to one type or color, but the prevailing belief was that the best breeding was that which combined the greatest variety. Breeds and Classes — There are four classes of chickens that have found favor on general farms. These are the Asiatics which include the Brahmas, Six PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Cochins and Langshans; the Mediterraneans which include the Leghorns, Minorcas, Andalusians, Anconas and Spanish; the Americans which include the Ply- mouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Dominiques, Buckeyes, and the Javas; and the Eng- lish which include the Orpingtons, Dorkings, Sussex, Cornish and Redcaps. The Asiatic breeds have not been as popular for general farm use of late as they formerly were. They are for the most part large, slow-maturing birds which lay only indifferently and are greatly given to broodi- ness. The loose, heavy feathers also furnish an ideal refuge for lice and render it more difficult to keep the flock free from parasites. Of the American breeds the Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and Rhode Island Reds are found in farm flocks with frequency. Members of these breeds are intermediate in size between the Asiatics and the Medi- terraneans, giving a carcass of desirable size and quality for marketing or for home use. While the average egg production of these breeds is not so high as in the case of the Leghorns, there are strains and families which are great producers. At the Vineland, N. J., contest a White Plymouth Rock laid 301 eggs during her first laying year and a Barred Plymouth Rock accomplished the feat of producing 501 eggs in two years, these being the highest one-year and two-year records at the con- test. There appears to be no reason why a satisfactory egg production and a sizable carcass should not be found in the same flock. Among the English breeds the Orpington is the only one extensively used for the farm flocks. The Orping- tons are quite similar in general characteristics to the American breeds, being a little heavier than the Ply- mouth Rocks, a little slower maturing and rather more given to broodiness. Like the Plymouth Rocks, they are fair layers of rather light brown eggs. Seven PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING The Mediterranean breeds are smaller than the English, American and Asiatic breeds and much more active than the latter. Taking the White Leghorn as representative of the class (this variety probably being bred in larger numbers than all the other Mediter- raneans combined), the average egg production is larger than for any other class. The Leghorn, how- ever, finds its popularity on specialty farms where eggs are the main cash crop, rather than on general farms. The Leghorn has not proved popular as a general farm fowl largely for two reasons. The first is that as usually bred, it furnishes a rather small carcass for table use and second, it is so flighty as to be difficult of control. It is possible, however, to breed a Leghorn of good size which is fairly desirable for table use. The fact that it lays a pure white egg which is in demand in certain extreme Eastern and Western markets makes it desirable in those sections. Egg Laying Records of the Common Breeds — A recent bulletin (No. 338) from the New Jersey Agri- cultural Experiment Station gives some very interest- ing figures on the representatives of the various breeds entered in the egg laying contest at Vineland, N. J. The Plymouth Rocks included the Barred, White and Columbian varieties. The Wyandottes were White and Columbians. The Rhode Island Reds were all Single Combs and the Leghorns were mostly Single Comb Whites, with a very few Single Comb Buffs and Blacks. In judging the results of this contest it should be remembered that the figures show the returns from eggs alone and not what the result would he upon marketing the flock after the profitable egg producing period. The numbers of representatives of each breed, the average first-year production, feed consumption and financial returns were as follows: Eight PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Table I Plymouth Wyan- Rhode Island Leg- Rocks doUes Reds horns Number of Birds 170 150 80 600 Number of Eggs per Bird 155.0 144.3 150.6 169.7 Per Cent Production 42.5 39.5 41.2 46.5 Per Cent of 200-Egg Hens 14.7 8.6 11.2 22.8 Weight of Eggs per Bird (lbs.) 19.73 17.98 19.74 21.36 AverageWeightof Birds (lbs.) 5.94 4.99 5.31 3.49 Feed Consumed per Bird (lbs.) 89 . 78 80 . 34 86 . 56 76 . 19 Average Cost of Feed per Bird $2.52 $2.30 $2.47 $2.19 Pounds of Feed to 1 pound of Eggs . 4.6 4.6 4.5 3.5 Actual Price per Dozen Eggs $0 . 43 $0 . 43 $0 . 43 $0 . 46 Actual Value of Eggs per Bird $5.46 $5.22 $5.44 $6.49 Actual Returns above Feed per Bird $2.91 $2 . 92 $2 . 97 $4 . 30 Choosing a Breed — The choice of the breed or variety is largely one of personal preference after one has decided on the class of birds that will best meet his needs. If a general purpose fowl for the average farm that will produce a good number of eggs and furnish a sizable carcass is looked for, accompanied by fairly quick growth and early maturity, one of the American or English breeds will meet the need. If one looks for- ward to making eggs the important cash crop, one of the Mediterraneans will probably be chosen. It makes very little difference in many sections what particular breed and variety is chosen, the important problem of the progressive poultry raiser being to secure the best breeders possible of the breed and variety selected. In some sections, however, varieties showing black pin feathers are being discriminated against. It is not always easy to get hold of good breeding stock, from the farmer's standpoint, though fortunately the agencies for helping him in this regard are increasing rapidly. Laying contests conducted by a number of the State Agricultural Experiment Stations are proving a great help. Many of the other stations are compiling lists of breeders who carefully trap-nest and pedigree their flocks in regard to egg production. Nine PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING, Chapter III Poultry Breeding Methods of Breeding — Characteristics to be desired in a farm flock are in the order of their import- ance: vigor, high production and uniformity. It is possible to secure these by the use of vigorous pure- bred males from high producing strains with flocks of mixed breeding. In a recent test at the Kansas Agri- cultural Experiment Station it was possible to increase the average egg production of what was a mongrel flock from 98 to 155 eggs per year and secure uniformity instead of diversity by using Barred Plymouth Rock males from trap-nested stock for three successive years. Where White Leghorn males were used for the same length of time, the improvement of egg production was found to be even more marked. The original mongrel hens gave an average production of 72 eggs. After grading by the use of purebred single comb White Leghorn males for three years the flock average was increased to 192 eggs. The original mongrel flocks were a mixture of red, black and buff. The third gener- ation grades were pure white. The grade Leghorns, however, were smaller than the grade Plymouth Rocks and not as desirable from the market standpoint. While it has been proven that a poor-laying mongrel flock containing several types and colors may be made over into a high-producing flock of uniform color that is just as desirable from the market standpoint as pure- breds, within the space of three years, the fact should not be overlooked that a considerable source of profit may come from selling breeding stock. This can only be done satisfactorily where one keeps purebred stock. It costs no more to house and feed a purebred flock than it does a bunch of mongrels or grades and where Ten PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING stock can be disposed of at satisfactory prices, the purebred flock will prove much more profitable. Culling — Whether the poultry producer keeps purebreds or grades, he will increase his profits very materially by culling his flock closely every year. Though the trap nest is the most accurate means of selecting the best layers in the flock, its use is only practicable for those who make poultry breeding a specialty. The trap nest usually has no place on the general farm. On the average, the pullet laying year is more profitable than any other. Yearlings and two- year-olds are likely to be kept at an actual loss unless they are carefully culled. The best time of year in which to do the culling is late July, August and early September. This comes from the fact that the poor layers are usually early molters while the better layers as a general thing do not molt until November or December. In general, therefore, the poor producers are the best lookers in the late summer, while the high layers are likely to appear old and ragged. The body feathers change first and the main wing feathers last. As it requires about six weeks to grow the first new flight feather and two weeks more for each succeeding one and as hens seldom lay while molting, it is possible to estimate fairly closely how long it will be before they will get into laying condition again. This is done by counting the new flight feathers beginning at the elbow and sub- tracting the number of weeks indicated from 24. To tell the length of time since the hen stopped laying add up the number of new flights. The late molters will usually be birds of good vigor. A strong consitution is so tremendously important in either the laying or breeding flock that even the late molters should be carefully scrutinized in this regard. Only females which exhibit activity and Eleven PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING vitality should be kept over for laying or breeding. All specimens that are scrawny, undersized, weak on the legs, light in weight, excessively fat, or which have deformities such as crooked legs, back or beak, should be eliminated. It is well to dispose of birds that have long toe nails, overhanging eyelids, or any defect which handicaps them in their search for food. The long slender head (crow head) or spindling shanks indicate the lack of thrift and vigor. Such individuals cannot be profitable producers. A bright red comb and wattles indicate a good circulation. The laying hen is a hustler and working all the time. She sings at her work and is usually more gentle and sociable than the non-layer. In order to lay a large number of eggs a hen must have large organs of digestion and of reproduction. In the live bird these of course cannot be examined. It goes without saying, however, that an individual cannot have a large and well developed digestive and reproductive apparatus unless it also exhibits a capa- cious body. Capacity is indicated by a long keel (breast bone) and the long, deep and wide body. When a hen is laying the point of the keel (breast bone) moves away from the pelvic bones (lay bones). When the hen is not laying these come closer together and are less pliable. The actual distance is compara- tive only and varies in different individuals, depending on the size and the breed. When the bird is laying, the pelvic bones (located just below and to either side of the vent) are quite far apart and pliable, whereas in a male bird or a hen that is not laying, they are quite close together. They are also quite thin due to the fact that fat is not deposited in this region. While the hen is laying heavily the skin of the abdomen is soft and pliable in a good layer and the flesh of this region is not firm and hard to the touch as in the case of a non- Twelve PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING layer, when considerable masses of fat are likely to be deposited here. The abdomen should not hang down, indicating a fatty degeneration of the supporting tissues. Neither should it be tucked up, indicating lack of capacity. The latter condition is very frequently found when the keel is short. The vent is large and moist in a good layer. In the yellow shanked varieties (all Americans and Mediterraneans except the black varieties), the yellow color, which is by no means limited to the shanks but is found in the skin as well, gradually disappears from the various parts of the body in the following order: 1. The vent. 2. The eye ring. 3. The beak, starting at the base. 4. The shanks, beginning at the toes and leaving the back of the hock the last. A glance at the latter section will indicate how much the shank is bleached. Loss of color from the shanks indicates that a much longer period of laying has elapsed than loss of color from the other sections named. Generally a bleached shank indicates that there have been fifteen to twenty weeks of heavy pro- duction. When laying, a hen's comb is comparatively large, red and warm to the touch. The wattles are also com- paratively large and warm, apparently due to the func- tioning of the ovary. Therefore if the comb is small, limp and cool to the touch the bird is not laying. Fre- quently the comb of a non-layer is covered with a white scale-like crust. The characteristics of high and low producers have been summarized in University of Missouri Extension Circular No. 70, as follows : Thirteen PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Characteristics of High Layers — The best pro- ducing hens will show all of the following character- istics: 1. Vigor — Strong, healthy, active, gentle and happy. 2. Molt — Not molting before October first. 3. Pigmentation — Shanks and beak pale. Ear lobes showing no yellow. 4. Quality — Skin soft, fine and velvety. Breast bone thin and of fine quality. Pin bones straight and flexible. 5. Laying condition — Abdomen soft and flexible. Vent moist and expanded. Body depth four fingers or more. Width of pin bones at least three fingers. Characteristics of Poor Layers — The poor pro- ducers in the flock will show all of the following charac- teristics at culling time: 1. Vigor — Lazy, inactive, wild, cross. 2. Molt — Beginning to molt in July, August or September. 3. Pigmentation — Shanks and beak prominent yellow; yellow in ear lobes on Mediterranean breeds, such as Leghorns. 4. Quality — Skin thick, dry and coarse. Breast bone thick and blunt on the edge. Pin bones blunt and unyielding. 5. Laying Condition — Abdomen hard. Vent dry and puckered. Body depth less than three fingers. Pin bones less than two fingers apart. The Breeding Pen — Where careful culling is practiced, the most satisfactory type of mating from the standpoint of egg production, is a highly vigorous cockerel from a family of high producers mated with yearling hens which molted late and gave evidence of good vigor and production. This applies whether one is keeping purebreds or is simply grading up his flock. Fourteen PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING The number of females to be mated with one male varies with the class of stock. For the Asiatics it should be eight to ten. For the American and English classes it should be ten to fifteen and the Mediter- raneans may be fifteen to twenty. The hens to be mated should be kept away from other males for at least three weeks prior to the saving of the first eggs for hatching, and should have associated with the males it is desired to breed from, for at least ten days, while two weeks is better. Care of Eggs for Hatching — Successful hatching of eggs in incubators depends fully as much on the vigor and vitality of the parent stock and the care of the eggs before being put into the incubator as upon the incubator itself. Successful hatches can be ex- pected only when the birds in the pens from which the eggs come are enjoying an abundant health. Poor hatches are probably caused more frequently by poor breeding stock than by poor incubators. Eggs that are being saved for hatching should be of good size and normal in shape and color. The egg starts to develop at a temperature between 68 and 69° F. and should be kept where the temperature is below 65° F. until it is set. A good dry cellar usually fur- nishes the ideal place. The eggs should be turned over every day or two if they are kept any length of time before hatching. The sooner the eggs are incubated after being laid, the better, though they may usually be kept, if under proper conditions, for a week or even ten days without injury. If for any reason it is de- sirable to set dirty eggs they should be put into the incubator without washing. The probability of their hatching is better if they are not washed. Incubating — The small incubator is fast replacing the setting hen in most sections of the country and in some sections is in turn being replaced by the mam- Fijuen PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING moth incubator at the customs hatchery. Buying day- old chicks or having the eggs from the farm incubated at a hatchery is gaining in popularity. The small lamp-heated incubator will continue to be used on most farms for a good many years to come, however. In purchasing an incubator it usually pays not to depend on the very cheapest makes. The difference in cost between a poor machine and a good one is small in comparison with the loss that may be caused by an inefficient hatcher. The machine should be set up in some room that is fairly uniform in tem- perature. This is most hkely to be a cellar. It should be so located that the sun cannot strike it at any time of day and should be made perfectly level by the aid of an ordinary carpenter's level. In the case of used machines care should always be taken thoroughly to disinfect with a 3 percent solution of any of the coal tar stock dips. If a spray pump is not available the work can easily be done by dipping a whisk broom in the disinfectant and flirting into the interior of the machine, making sure that the ther- mometer, regulator and the sides, top, bottom and all the trays are thoroughly drenched. Directions for operating each make of machine are usually sent out by the manufacturers. While the directions vary somewhat for different makes, it is the intention of the manufacturer to give the directions which will bring the best results for his particular make of machine and they should, therefore, be followed unless some reason for varying from them is found. At the beginning of every season it is safe precau- tion to test the thermometer and make sure it is registering accurately. This may be done by borrow- ing a physician's thermometer, heating some water to a temperature of about 106 F. and moving the bulbs of the physician's and the incubator thermometers back and forth through the water together. If they agree, Sixteen Fig. 1. Proper way to hold a hen for finding the distance between the pelvic bones. Fig. 2. Showing the v/ay to find the distance from the pelvic bones to the keel. (Courtesy T. S. Townsley, Univ. Mo.) Fig. 1, Kansas 65, a mongrel hen. First year production 100 eggs. Fig. 2, Kansas 16, a daughter of mongrel hen Kansas 65 and a Barred Plymouth Rock male from a high-laying family. First year production 182 eggs. Fig. 3, Kansas 616, a daughter of Barred Plymouth Rock grade. Kansas 16, and a Barred Plymouth Rock male from a high-producing family. First year production 208 eggs. Fig. 4, Kansas 664, a Barred Plymouth Rock grade, daughter of Kansas 616 and a Barred Plymouth Rock male from a trap-nested high-producing family. First year production 248 eggs. (Courtesy Kans. State Agr. Col.) PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING it is safe to assume that the incubator thermometer is all right. If they disagree, it will be the best plan to invest in a new thermometer. Not infrequently a thermometer which registers perfectly one season may be found to be very inaccurate the following season. It is the general practice to start the machine at a temperature of about 102° and carry it at that tempera- ture during the first week. The second and third week it is allowed to run as near 1 03° F. as possible and during the hatch is likely to go to 104° F., which is a good tem- perature for bringing the chicks out. It should never be allowed to go above 105° F., which is the danger point. In all localities except where the climate is very humid, it will help the hatches to introduce moisture into the machine. The most convenient way of doing this is to place large shallow galvanized iron trays below the egg trays. These should be filled with sand and the sand kept puddled with water. Where pro- vision is made for the chicks to drop down into the Nursery below, the moisture pans should be removed on the 18th day. It is customary to turn the eggs at least twice a day until the 18th day and to cool them once. The turning may be done by removing a few eggs from one end of the tray, rolling the eggs in the tray and then replacing those taken out. This turning largely prevents the difficulty known as "stuck germs" which refers to the fact that as the egg loses its moisture, the developing chick occasionally adheres to the shell. A stuck germ seldom, if ever, hatches. The cooling of the eggs is accomplished by taking the tray out of the machine and placing it on a table or, where the regulator does not interfere, on top of the machine. The eggs should be allowed to cool until Seventeen PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING they feel cool though not stone cold, to some sensitive part of the body such as the lips or the eyelid. It is customary to test the eggs twice during the incubation period, usually about the seventh and four- teenth days, so that the infertile and dead-germ eggs may be removed. The exact time of testing is really immaterial. Some incubator operators prefer to make the test on the 10th and 18th days. The testing should always be done, however, so that the infertile eggs may be made use of by feeding to other chicks or the laying stock and the dead-germ eggs destroyed before they begin to putrefy in the machine. After the 18th day the incubator should be closed and kept closed until the hatch is well over unless some very unusual circumstance makes it desirable to open it. After the hatch is well over which will be usually the 20th day for Mediterranean breeds and the 21st for the heavier breeds the chicks should be left in the incu- bator without feeding for at least thirty-six hours. A very large chick loss by inexperienced poultry raisers would be avoided if they did not make the mis- take of feeding the chicks too soon after hatching. At the time the chick breaks its way out of the shell nearly half of the original yolk of the egg is still in the digestive tract undigested. It usually takes at least thirty-six hours for the digestion and absorption of this material. If the chicks are fed before this material fully absorbs it is quite likely to prove fatal owing to its fermentation and putrefaction. Time of Hatching — March and early April is the time to hatch chicks of the heavier breeds where winter eggs are looked for from the pullets. This means that they must be set in February and March. The eggs of the Mediterranean breeds should be set in March and the first three weeks of April so that they will be out in April and early May. Chicks hatched earlier or later Eightten PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING may do well but the chances are against it. Chicks hatched too early are likely to go into a molt in the fall and not lay till spring. Late hatched pullets are likely not to come into laying until cold weather, in which case they will not probably lay before spring. Farm Brooders — Two types of brooders which usually meet the farm poultry raisers' needs are the small oil heated Colony Brooder and the large coal heated Colony Brooder. The first usually has a capac- ity from fifty to seventy-five chicks while the latter will brood from 400 to 600 and even more. It is little more work to attend a coal stove brooder which will care for several hundred chicks than it is a small oil heated brooder. Where chicks are raised in any considerable numbers, it will take very much less labor to take care of them in comparatively large groups than in small flocks, and where they have a good range and fresh ground, they will do nearly, if not quite, as well. An oil-heated brooder should have lamps with bowls large enough to contain a forty-eight-hour supply of oil. In windy, stormy weather it is sometimes difficult to get the lamp lit and the heater door closed, before the wind puts the lamp out. At such times, it is highly desirable to let the lamp burn another day before open- ing up the heater box. With the small oil-heated brooders, one should also be very sure that the chicks get a constant supply of fresh air when they are under the hover. Young and old stock both are highly sensi- tive to the lack of ventilation. While the larger coal-heated brooders usually do not interfere with proper ventilation, the small hovers with the cover curtains reaching clear to the floor are frequently very defective in this regard. With insuffi- cient ventilation, one can only expect dopy, unthrifty chicks. With the coal-heated brooder, the main thing to look out for is a fire box large enough to carry fire and Nineteen PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING keep up the temperature over night. This type of Colony brooder particularly meets the needs of those persons who wish to rear 250 to 300 pullets or to buy perhaps 600 or 700 baby chicks at one time. A used brooder should be thoroughly disinfected before the chicks are put under it. In any case, the brooder should be heated up until it gives a temperature of about 1 00° under the hover and run two or three days to make sure that it can maintain that temperature. It is a good thing to take the chicks from the incu- bator and put them under the hover, at night, as they seem to become accustomed to the hover and return to it when chilly, more quickly than when they are first put under it in daylight. Some sort of litter should always be scattered under the hover and over the floor surrounding it. The material used when the chicks are first put out should be digestible, such as mealed alfalfa, bran, or the shatterings from alfalfa or clover hay. Not infrequently before the chicks have learned to distinguish between the different kinds of feed, they get to eating the litter. In the case of sand, gravel, chaff or chopped straw, which are all highly indigestible, their crops become impacted and a large death loss results. With brooder chicks the main effort should be to keep them comfortable. As a general rule it will be found that where a temperature of 100° F. is given at first it can be reduced 4° or 5° a week until the chicks are well feathered out. If the weather is over-warm it may be reduced even faster. If it turns cold, it is fre- quently necessary to increase the heat again. It is always well to furnish plenty of heat for the chicks, they will move out from under the hover if they are too warm. If on the other hand, they are too cold, they are likely to bunch and pile up resulting in the smothering of some chicks and more or less injury to all. A chick that has been thoroughly chilled probably never regains its full thrift and vitality. Twer^y PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Chapter IV Rearing Young Chicks Feeding Chicks — The secret of the successful feeding of little chicks, insofar as there is any secret, lies in four things. The first is in not feeding too soon. The second is to feed sparingly, giving a little at a time and often; the third is to feed only grains which are absolutely free of must or mold, and the fourth is to furnish those ingredients which supply their growing needs. Chicks should not be removed from the incubator until they show by their actions that they are quite hungry. This is never sooner than thirty-six hours after hatching and is frequently forty-eight or even seventy-two. The reason for this is that when the chicks are fed before all of the yolk material which is taken into the digestive tract just before hatching is fully absorbed and digested, it sours and causes scours, usually followed by a loss of chicks. It must be remembered that when the little chicks are put in brooders, they are left largely to their own resources. There is no mother hen to keep them alert and interested in picking up their food a bit at a time. The tendency, particularly with the beginner, is usually to overfeed rendering the chicks dull, listless and highly susceptible to the many ills to which they are heir. For the first two weeks after they come from the incu- bator the chicks should be fed at least five times a day, and never more at one time than they will clean up fairly readily. The grains used must be sweet. Whenever a new supply is gotten, either by purchase, or from a bin, it should be carefully inspected by burying the nose in a double handful to see whether there is any musty or moldy taint. One may almost as well feed poison to Twenty-One PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING chicks as to feed grains that have heated or musted in the bin. Much of the so-called white diarrhea found in the Central and Western States is not a contagious disease at all, but a condition caused by one of two things: feeding too soon after the chicks are hatched or feeding grain that is not perfectly sweet. In furnishing the chicks with the proper ingredients for growth, it has been found that sour milk when used in connection with the grains usually available in most sections of the country, comes as near being what the chick needs as anything that can be found. This is emphasized in the following outline taken from Bulletin No. 96 of the Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station: Sour Milk the First Feed — ''On removing from the incubator take each chick individually and dip its beak in sour milk in order to make sure that milk is the first food taken into its system. Be sure that the chick swallows two or three times before passing it on to the box or basket in which it is to be carried to the brooder. Extensive experiments have shown that milk is a quickly and easily digested food and that it has a most favorable influence in promoting growth and in reducing mortality from all causes. It has been the practice at this station not to give the chicks any water to drink until they are eight or ten weeks old, provided they are given all the milk they will consume. This method insures the consumption of milk by all the chicks whereas, if both water and milk are available, some of the chicks are likely to drink only water. For best results sour milk should be fed in a thickened con- dition but before the curd has separated from the whey. The chicks seem to like it best in this condition and will consume more than if it is not yet thickened or if separation has taken place. "Practical considerations may prevent feeding the milk in this ideal condition. In the first place thick Twenty-Tivo PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING milk does not readily feed down in a drinking fountain and fountains are often preferred to open drinking pans. Furthermore, it may not always be possible to get milk in just the same condition every day so that uniform souring can be allowed to take place before feeding. In avoiding these difficulties it is better to feed the milk before it has thickened than to wait until it has sepa- rated. Chicks apparently do not relish the clear whey which always remains at the top, but if one follows the natural inclination to pour it off, a lot of valuable food will be lost. "In many cases, especially where milk is produced on the farm, it may be more desirable to feed sweet milk than to wait for it to sour. In deciding this, as with many other problems, the poultryman must be governed by his own particular conditions. In all our experiments we have obtained substantially equal results with sweet and sour milk. The only reason for advocating sour milk is that the chicks seem to prefer it. The lactic acid in sour milk is not at all a necessary factor in milk feeding. "Part of the beneficial effect of the milk seems to come from the fact that it induces the chicks to con- sume larger quantities of grain and mash than will chicks of the same age when not given milk. For this reason, if for no other, a supply of milk should be kept constantly available from the time the chicks are placed in the brooder and for just as long as it can be obtained at a reasonable price. Feeding Practice — "The first day's rations should consist of fine chick feed in which has been mixed a large percentage of fine grit. It may even be well to give clear grit for the first feed. If coarse sand is used on the floor it will take the place of commercial grit. The chicks will learn to eat grit just as readily as they will pick up grain. Under no circumstances should the Twenty-Three PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING early feeding of grit be omitted for without it the chick cannot make use of the hard food which it is to be given. After two or three days the proportion of grit may be reduced and after the first week it may be hopper fed if desired, in order to prevent waste. "As soon as the chicks learn to eat the grain it should be scattered in a litter where they will have to work for all they get. Feed them sparingly four or five times daily and make them exercise. It is very easy to overfeed young chicks. They should be kept always hungry for more. Let the digestive organs gradually work up to their maximum capacity during the first two or three weeks, after which time the chicks may safely be fed all they will consume. "Beginning with the third day wheat bran should be constantly available. Bran is a mild laxative and in this connection probably has some value. More important, however, is the fact that it is bulky. The consumption of bran insures a considerable distension of the digestive tract, putting it in shape for the work that it will soon be compelled to do. Bran satisfies the chick's craving for something to eat without calling upon the digestive system to assimilate a lot of nutrients which it is not yet prepared to handle. Another im- portant point to remember is that bran is rich in mineral matter except lime. In particular it contains a large amount of phosphorus and this is very impor- tant for the formation of bone. The building of bone also requires lime in some form. This may be fur- nished by using grit that contains a considerable amount of lime or by feeding fine ground oyster shells in hoppers where the chicks can get them as desired. "During the second week feed the grain three or four times daily and substitute chick mash for the wheat bran. When the chicks are about six weeks old, the chick feed may gradually be replaced by inter- Twenty-Four Fig. 1. Oil lamp heated small sizsd hover. I w^uM__f^^^^^ '•^~~r- .^^B^H f ^ ''I '^^m V. _,^^|_ ^1 Bfx^^ - J IbIBBiH^^^^^^^^H Fig. 2. A coal stove brooder, hover raised. This type seems to be displacing the smaller oil heated hover. Courtesy Kans. State Agr. Col. ) PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING mediate or scratch feed and the number of feedings reduced to three daily. Also the chick mash may be replaced by the regular laying mash. "Make all changes of feed gradually. If changed suddenly from all chick feed to all scratch feed, the chicks will probably eat very little of the new feed and in consequence will receive an undesirable set-back in growth." The feeding formulas which have been used by the Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station for several years are as follows: Chick Feed Cracked Wheat 1 5 lbs. Fine Cracked Com 15 lbs. Pinhead Oats 10 lbs. Broken Rice 3 lbs. Fine Charcoal 2 lbs. Dry Mash Wheat Bran 20 lbs. Corn Meal 10 lbs. Sifted Ground Oats 10 lbs. Low Grade Flour 10 lbs. Beef or Fish Scrap 10 lbs. At six weeks of age the chick feed was gradually re- placed by scratch feed and the chick mash by the regular laying mash. The formula for each of these is given ; Scratch Feed Cracked Com 200 lbs. Wheat 200 lbs. Laying Mash Com Meal 100 lbs. Wheat Bran 100 lbs. Ground Oats 100 lbs. Flour Middlings 100 lbs. Beef or Fish Scrap 100 lbs. Green Feed — For the best growth and develop- ment of chicks another factor is also necessary, namely, Twenty-Five PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING green feed in some form. This may consist of mangels, table beets, sprouted oats, lettuce, lawn clippings, or other things which are available at different seasons. The supplying of green feed should begin early — chicks will eat it as soon as the third or fourth day. If mangels are used they should be cut fine and scattered a little at a time where all the chicks may have a chance to get a taste. As soon as they learn to eat them well the mangels may be sliced and hung on finish nails on the wall. The chicks cannot get too much green feed and they should have access to a bountiful supply at all times. Separate the Sexes — As soon as the sexes can be distinguished they should be separated. Unless the cockerels are to be sold as breeders, they should be penned up and heavily fed until they are large enough to be disposed of as broilers weighing 1 Yi to 2 J^ pounds. They will never come nearer to returning a profit than at the broiler age. In some sections where good prices for capons prevail it may pay to caponize the cockerels and grow them out for the holiday market. In most cases, however, the room can be used to better advan- tage in developing pullets. Location of Poultry House — When the chicks are well feathered out and all danger of their needing further heat is past, they should be given quarters supplied with perches so located that they can have abundant range. Whether it is to be used for old or young stock, the poultry house should be located where the drainage is good and there is an abundance of shade near by. Although the chicken originally came from a very hot country, it was a jungle-dwelling fowl unable to survive the burning sun without the protec- tion of trees and shrubs. Its need of this kind of pro- tection has not changed and the poultry house should be very close to the orchard or woodlot. If the chicken Tvoenty-Siz PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING house is to be dry, as it must be to give good results, it must be located where the drainage is good either naturally or because of tiling. Essentials of Good Hen House — There are four essentials of a good chicken house. When these are taken care of, it makes little difference what style or type the house is. These four essentials are dryness, ventilation without drafts, sunlight and plenty of room. The domestic fowl is very much more dependent upon its breathing apparatus to regulate the body tem- perature through evaporation than other farm animals. It also depends upon its lungs and air sacs, to a large extent, to get rid of the excess moisture of the body. Whenever a chicken is forced to breath damp air, it is at a physical disadvantage and it is uncomfortable. It is only the comfortable chick that will thrive and the comfortable hen that will lay many eggs. One of the means of keeping a hen house dry is to furnish plenty of ventilation. Chickens, however, are sensitive to drafts and take cold easily, hence this ven- tilation should be furnished in such a way that the birds are never in a direct draft. Pound for pound, fowls use a very great deal more oxygen from the air than do horses, cattle, sheep and swine. An insufficient supply of fresh air is more quickly injurious to them than to any other class of farm animals. Plenty of sun shining into the house is also an aid in keeping it dry. Sunlight also makes the house more cheerful and attractive and the hens more comfortable. It is further the best natural disinfectant that we have and is a great preventive of disease. A common fault of farm hen houses is that they are too dark. The chicken house may be dry, well ventilated without drafts and have window space sufficient to admit plenty of sunlight and still give bad results if too many individuals are crowded into a given house. Twenty-Seven PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING For the older birds the best results will usually be secured if from 5}^ to 4 square feet of floor space per bird is allowed. As a usual thing, the net returns from a flock of 100 laying hens kept in a house 20x20 will be greater than from 200 hens kept in the same house taken year in and year out. In years when the windows are open and the birds can be out of doors most of the time, the results from the crowded house might not be so bad, but in ordinary years, the winter egg production, which is the most profitable production, would be very seriously interfered with. Plans of a very successful laying house, taken from the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 325, are shown in Figures 1 and 2, which give the arrangement of perches, nests, watering devices and feed hoppers. In all those sections where it is not unusually dry, it would be advisable to put in a layer of coarse crushed rock below the cement floor in Two Unit Scctiom Cmxs Sffcr/o/v r^ r^ 9 ^ li^ — ^ lr~ — 1! }.[ cr- fhorvT {//evv 3 BL ^ New JCBStY Multiple Unit Lavh^ House. Fig. 1 Twenty-Eight PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING order to keep out the moisture that is constantly work- ing up through the ground and, unless prevented, through the floor into the hen house. Proper con- struction of the floor of the hen house is one of the most important items. Attention is also called to the ventilator at the rear of the house behind the dropping boards which allows for a summer ventilation. The space immediately behind and above the dropping boards is fixed so that the draft cannot strike the birds when at roost but will pass above or below them. II j II iT 1 II 1 1 IT*"" II . _l r II---- 1 II II ^T- * J i_: II II II II ^ j -t" II ■■ II II ■ II 1 ■ II II '^ Alrs/s ufKHrr/nnto^dnfiping board f i 1 ! !■ : ! 1 -r i i F ^ Mttti unOerfn «t of dropping J ' 3 boora—^ I T !!. M R /^■ v_J i New Jersey Multiple Unit Laying House Floor Plan - Two Unit Section Scale f-l Fig. 2. — Floor plan of an excellent poultry house. (Courtesy N.J. Agr. Expt. Sta.) Care of the House — Good results from the flock depend to a marked degree upon the care of the build- ing that houses them. The house that is not cleaned and thoroughly sprayed at intervals is almost sure to harbor mites and lice and to be filthy as well. Filth provides a great place, not only for the breeding of mites, but for the development of disease germs. Twenty-Nint PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING The chicken house should be thoroughly cleaned out and the floor, walls, ceiling and fixtures thoroughly drenched with some powerful disinfectant at least twice a year, preferably the early spring and in the fall. A three percent solution of a coal tar stock dip will serve. The litter kept in the house should be removed and replaced with fresh whenever it becomes so broken up that grain thrown out to the birds does not disappear so that the birds have to scratch it out to find it. In commercial poultry plants where fowls are kept in quite large numbers, the artificial lighting of the houses, morning and evening, proves profitable during the winter. Giving hens 12 hours of light increases egg production at the season when prices are high. It apparently does not increase the yearly production. For ordinary farm flocks, however, it would hardly pay. Yards — Fowls should be fenced out of places where they are not wanted rather than into yards. Free range is the ideal chicken yard, for it usually furnishes cheap feed and good health. Hence, the practice of fencing chickens out of the door yard and garden and away from the granary and giving them the run of the farm is growing. Where it is necessary to confine the birds, the larger the yards can be made the better. Whenever they are so small that the chickens keep them bare of greenness, the flock is in danger of a bad epidemic of disease. Such yards should be turned over at least once a year (twice a year is better), and seeded down to some quick growing crop. Only by such means can the soil be kept free from disease. It is highly important that the pullets be put into the laying house early. They should be in winter quarters long before they begin to lay. When they are neglected and are not moved into the permanent laying house until after they begin to lay, they are very likely to be thrown into a molt which will in turn seriously interfere with their winter egg production. Thirty PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Chapter V Poultry Feeding Feeding Laying Hens — Contrary to the general belief, there is no one ration which is better than all the rest and which is a guarantee of egg production. As much depends upon how a ration is fed as upon what the ration contains. The following ration taken from the Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 218 has been widely used and has given most excellent results. It has the very great advantage of being quite simple. Grain Corn 10 lbs. Wheat 10 lbs. Oats 5 lbs. Mash Bran 5 lbs. Shorts 5 lbs. Meat Scraps 3.5 lbs. Where there is plenty of skim milk available, it may be used to replace the meat scrap, if given as a drink. The following routine in feeding laying hens taken from Lippincott's Poultry Production has proved successful in a large number of cases. "In the morning give a light feed of grain, soon after the birds leave the perch. This should be scattered in a deep litter of straw to every part of the pen so that the birds will be compelled to scratch vigorously for some hours in order to search it all out. Fresh water should be supplied in the morning. "At noon as much succulence as the birds will clean up in twenty minutes to half an hour should be supplied. Fresh water should be given and the dry mash hopper opened. Thirty-One PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING "Two to three hours before the birds go to roost they should be given a full feed of grain thrown in the litter. It is essential to the best results that the birds go to roost with full crops, and this feeding should not be stinted. An examination of the crops of the birds should now and then be made after they are on the perch to ascertain whether they are well filled. "It is better to overdo the matter of evening feeding a little than to slight it. If a little grain is left in the litter, it will be eagerly scratched out in the morning. Great care should be taken, however, so to feed that the straw is scratched absolutely free of grain at least once a day. In following this particular routine this should be the condition at noon. The really skilled feeder is the one who so handles the ration that he con- stantly piques the appetite of his fowls, making them consume large amounts of feed with relish, yet never giving quite all they would like to consume. As noted in other connections, of the two evils, 'overfeeding' or 'underfeeding' to a slight degree, the latter is prefer- able. It limits production slightly, by not furnishing quite all the raw material that could be made over into a finished product, but it keeps the appetite keen and the body in good working order. Overfeeding, on the other hand, cloys the appetite and clogs the system, thereby limiting production even more than in the first case. "Unless the weather is quite cool, fresh water should be supplied at the time of the evening feeding. In the event of freezing weather, the water pan should be emptied." In the Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station ration given above it is assumed that the hens will consume 25 pounds of the grain while eating 133^ pounds of the dry mash where meat scrap is used. Where meat scrap is not used, they will consume 25 Thirty-Two PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING pounds of grain to 10 pounds of dry mash and drink 50 to 60 pounds of skim milk. Another ration originating at the Cornell Station and fed with excellent success is as follows : Grain Wheat 3 parts Corn or Kafir 2 parts Oats 1 part Dry Mash Corn Meal 60 lbs. Wheat Middlings or Shorts 60 lbs. Meat Scrap 50 lbs. Wheat Bran 30 lbs. Linseed Oil Meal 10 lbs. Alfalfa Meal 10 lbs. Salt 1 lbs. This ration may also be fed according to the routine outlined above. Fattening for Slaughter — While the final finish- ing for slaughter is done in the feed lot in the case of most of the farm animals, this does not hold true for poultry. Instead it is done at the packing house by means of milk feeding in crates, because birds that are properly fattened on the farm are so tender that they cannot stand the handling necessary for shipment without bruising. These bruises develop into highly colored green and blue patches that spoil the appearance of the carcass and interfere with its sale. The fatten- ing process also has a peculiar effect on the bones, rendering them so chalky and brittle that it is almost impossible to ship finished stock without breaking legs and wings. While the final finishing must be done at the packing house, it pays to send the birds to market in good f^esh. In the case of mature birds, it is a good plan to pen them up and feed all the corn they will eat for a period of two weeks prior to sale or shipment. Thirty-Three PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Chapter VI Poultry Diseases The Disease Problem — In dealing with poultry diseases, preventive rather than curative measures should be depended upon. The flock that is well bred from the standpoint of vigor, is reasonably well fed and given a comfortable house and run on land that is sodded or grows a crop each year, is not likely to give much difficulty from diseases. As a usual thing it will be found easiest and the least expensive to isolate indi- vidual ailing birds and except in the case of slight ail- ments which quickly recover, kill and burn them. Where one is so unfortunate as to have an epidemic make its appearance, the veterinarian should be called or fowls that are just coming down with the disease should be shipped to the State Experiment Station for examination and diagnosis. Lice and Mites — In the control of lice sodium fluorid is nearly 100 per cent efficient. It is easily the best louse killer to be obtained. It can usually be secured from the local drug store and comes in the form of a white powder. It may be applied in two forms, as a dust or as a dip. Where applied as a dust, small pinches of it should be worked into the feathers on the head, neck, back, breast, under the wings and below the vent. During the warm weather it is very much quicker and much more effective to dip the fowls. The solution is colorless and does not stain the feathers. Where the dipping is done on a warm, quiet, sunny day the birds dry out quickly and no ill effects follow. The following is quoted from Farmers' Bulletin 801 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture: "In using the dipping method all that is necessary is a supply of tepid water and a tub. If two persons Thirty-Four PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING are to dip at the same time it is advisable to use a large tub. The water should be measured into the tub and three-fourths to one ounce of commercial or two-thirds of an ounce of chemically pure sodium fiuorid added to each gallon of water. It is readily dissolved by stirring. The tub should be filled to within 6 or 8 inches of the top, and as the amount of solution is lowered through dipping numbers of fowls, water with the proper proportion of sodium fluorid dissolved should be added from time to time. **In dipping the fowls it is best to hold the wings over the back with the left hand and quickly submerge the fowl in the solution, leaving the head out while the feathers are thoroughly ruffled with the other hand so as to allow the solution to penetrate to the skin on different parts of the bird. The head is then ducked once or twice, the bird is lifted out of the bath and allowed to drain a few seconds and is then released. "It is not necessary to keep the fowl under the water longer than 20 to 30 seconds and the head only an instant." Mites can be controlled by spraying thoroughly the interior of the hen house and all the fixtures with a mix- ture of kerosene and crude oil in the proportion of 1 to 3. As a usual thing, one thorough application will com- pletely eradicate the mites of the infested house but to make sure, it is advisable to make a second spraying a month after the first. Thirty-Five PROGRESSI\^E POULTRY RAISING Chapter VII Turkeys Standards — Of the six varieties of turkeys recog- nized in America the Bronze is by far the most widely bred. It is also the largest and is usually the most desirable for market purposes in spite of its dark feath- ers. The standard weight of the young tom is 25 pounds, yearling, 33 pounds and adult 36 pounds. The standard weight of the young female is 16 pounds and the mature female 20 pounds. Next in popularity comes the variety known as the White Holland, which is a somewhat smaller bird. The standard weights for the males of different ages is 20, 24 and 28 pounds and for the females 14 and 18 pounds. Management — It is unnecessary to provide a house for turkeys though it is the part of wisdom to have a shed handy into which they may be driven on extremely stormy nights. As a usual thing they will do better roosting out in the open even in quite severe weather. Where only a small flock is kept 1 5 females may be mated with one male if he is unquestionably vigorous. If a flock of about 25 or 30 is kept, two males will be needed but they should not be allowed to run with the flock at one time. One should be allowed to run with the flock one day and the other the next. The reason for this is that where both are al- lowed to mingle with the flock at the same time, they will fight until one of them becomes boss, after which he will do most of the mating and the flock will be very little better off so far as the fertility is concerned than if it had a single male. When one experiences difficulty with having the laying hens hide out their nests during the hatching season, this can usually be overcome by shutting the Thirty-Six PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING birds in a pasture or better still, the orchard, until they are through laying, when they may be let out for exer- cise. They may be driven in at night-fall if there are suitable roosting quarters, or allowed to roost out all night and driven in in the morning. The latter is not difficult to do where one has been following the prac- tice of giving a morning feed. During the winter the birds should be fed twice a day on equal part of oats, wheat and corn. Something in the line of green feed should be given and also feed of animal origin such as meat scrap, high grade tankage or sour milk. Raising Poults — As a usual thing it is the best plan to raise the poults with their natural mothers or with chicken hens. Turkey hens are the most satis- factory mothers for poults but where it is desirable to break up the broody turkey hens and get them to laying again, chicken hens may be used. Turkey hens will ordinarily cover fifteen to seventeen eggs while chicken hens of the middle weight breeds will take care of seven to nine. Whether turkey or chicken hens are used the nests should be made on the ground and lined with straw. The setting hen should always be carefully dusted with sodium fiuorid so that she will certainly be louse free at the time of bringing off the hatch. Handling Young Poults — For brooding young poults plenty of exercise and dryness are the two great essentials. The coop used for the mother hen should be weather tight, though allowing for ventilation. It should also be movable so that it can be shifted about from place to place. Where the poults are on range they will usually need little, if any, feeding. When the conditions are such that they cannot be out on the range some attention must be given to their feeding. The following is a method outlined in Farmers' Bul- ThirtySeven PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING letin No. 791 of the United States Department of Agriculture, "For the first two days after hatching, poults require no feed, the yolk of the egg which they absorb before breaking out of the shell being sufficient to maintain them for that length of time. Access to clean drinking water and a little coarse sand and green feed to pick at, is all that is needed until the third day. Beginning with the third day, the poults should be fed according to the quantity of natural feed they are able to pick up outside the coop. They should always be hungry. To feed all they will clean up several times a day removes the cause of searching for food, so little exercise is taken and indigestion is sure to result. When natural feed is scarce, or when the poults have to be kept from ranging outside, they should be fed lightly about five times a day. If al- lowed to run outside the coop where they can find insects, seeds, and green feed, they need not be fed oftener than two or three times a day. Successful turkey raisers use many different kinds of feed, some of the most common being as follows: 1. Hard-boiled egg chopped fine and corn-bread crumbs for the first week, and then whole wheat and hulled oats. 2. Stale bread, soaked in milk and squeezed dry, for the first few days and then common chick feed. 3. Clabbered milk seasoned with salt and pepper, corn-bread crumbs. 4. Equal parts "pinhead" oats, whole wheat, and cracked corn. 5. Cracked wheat. 6. Corn meal and wheat bran mixed in the propor- tion of three to one and baked into bread. 7. Bran or middlings one-half, cracked Egyptian corn one-quarter, wheat and hulled oats one-quarter. In addition to the above, skim milk and buttermilk are quite often fed, with excellent results. A good plan Thirty-Eight PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING is to keep the milk in front of tiie poults during the morning and water during the afternoon. If grit and green feed cannot be picked up outside the coop, they must be provided in some other way. Chopped onion tops, lettuce leaves, dandelion leaves and alfalfa make excellent green feed. Grit can be furnished in the form of coarse sand. Feeding for Market — In getting the turkeys ready for market it is a good thing to begin feeding a little night and morning about the middle of Septem- ber. The feed should be very light at first and the amount gradually increased until about ten days before marketing when they should be given all they will consume three times a day. In the beginning equal parts of wheat, oats and corn may be given but the proportion of corn should be gradually increased until the last of October when they should be fed on corn alone. As a usual thing results are not satisfactory where the birds are confined during the fattening period. Thirty-Nine PROGRESSIVE PO U LTRY RAISING Chapter VIII Ducks Management — Ducks like turkeys are looked upon as meat producing birds. While the Runner duck is quite well known for its laying propensities, it is the only one of the several varieties that can be looked upon as an egg producer. Among the meat breeds the Pekin stands pre-eminent. Where these birds are given proper attention they may be marketed at ten to twelve weeks weighing five to six pounds. They can be raised with success on general farms but the duck business has tended very rapidly to be concen- trated on intensive duck farms of large size. A house similar to the one required for chickens is desired. The essential of the duck house is that it shall be dry and have fresh air with freedom from drafts. The floor of the house should be kept well bedded with straw and cleaned out as soon as the straw becomes matted and damp. Dry feet while in the house at night seems to be a necessity for egg production. Ducks make their nests on the floor of the house by burrowing the straw. The number of ducks per house should be one for every 6 feet of floor space for breeders, though fattening and young ducks may be kept closer. A mesh fence 18 inches high will hold most ducks and a 2-foot one all of those commonly raised as most of them cannot fly. Breeding — At the beginning of the breeding season one drake should be allowed for five or six ducks. The number of males should be reduced to one for every seven about March 1st and then one for every nine or ten about April 1st. The number of drakes should always be decreased when they begin to worry the ducks. Forty No. 1 Fowl <^ ^ ^ i lARREO ROCK -P^ Standard B WHITE ROCK EMBOEN GEESE lHW t' >< tt^. I?**— TT^Sl^ ^1 BUFF ORPINGTON l_IQHT BRAHMA ^ =?^= ^s =^^ <^ Is of Poultry RHODE ISl-ANO RED BRONZE TURKEV §r^ ITE ueaHORi 1 ..J» XOUl-OUSE GEESE # S WHITE WYANDOTTE ^S ^S ^ 3 P " o c 2 D w PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING The desire to incubate their own eggs has been bred out of many strains of ducks, particularly the Pekin. For this reason the egg must be hatched in incubators or under hens. Duck eggs should be gathered daily, kept in a cool place and turned daily. They should be set as soon as possible after laying as they do not keep as well as hens' eggs. In incubating duck eggs artifi- cially, they are handled about the same as hens' eggs except that the temperature should be held at 102° for the first three weeks and more moisture supplied in the machine. They may be tested for fertility on the fourth or fifth day. Ducks take very kindly to artifi- cial brooding and are in fact usually easier to handle than chicks. The incubation period is twenty-eight to thirty days for all varieties except the Muscovy, in which case it is thirty-five days. Raising Young Ducks — Where they are to be sold as green ducks at ten to twelve weeks, the young ducks are usually not allowed to range but are fed heavily from the first. The brooder temperature should be about 95° to start with but is reduced more rapidly than for chicks, usually being brought down 10° the first week and reduced even more rapidly there- after. Ducklings should not be fed for at least thirty- six hours after hatching. The ration for the first week may consist of equal parts of bran, corn meal and middlings with 5 percent of sand in it to serve as grit. This should be given to them five times daily, care being taken that no more is fed than will be completely cleaned up. After the third day 5 percent of sifted meat scrap should be added and green feed in the form of chopped lettuce, alfalfa or clover fed freely. After the first week the number of feedings may be reduced to four and the ration, two parts wheat bran, one part wheat middlings, one part corn meal and one-half part meat scrap with 5 percent sharp sand, may be given. Forty-One PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING In addition all the green food they will consume should be furnished. At about eight weeks of age the young ducks should be confined in a cool, shady place and fed for three weeks on a fattening ration which may consist of equal parts of wheat, bran, middlings, corn meal, to which is added 10 percent of meat scrap and 5 percent of sharp sand and all of the green feed they will consume. Birds saved for breeding should not be pushed for growth but they should be kept in a shady, grassy pasture and light feeding of two parts wheat bran, one part corn meal and one part ground oats may be given twice a day. With all ducks, young and old, fresh water should be kept before them at all times and the drinking dishes should be deep enough so that the nostrils may be cleansed. Along about the first of November these birds should be given access to a mash consisting of two parts wheat bran, one part middlings, one part corn meal and one part meat scrap. This ration should be continued throughout the breeding season. Forty-Two PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Chapter IX Geese Varieties — The Toulouse and Embden geese are by far the most popular breeds for farm raising. The Toulouse, which is gray in color, is the larger of the two, the young gander weighing 20 pounds and the young goose 16 pounds. The adult gander weighs 26 pounds and the adult goose 20 pounds. The Embdens are white geese weighing 18 and 16 pounds for the young gander and goose respectively while the adult male and female weigh 20 and 18 pounds, if up to standard weight. Feeding and Management — Except in the most extreme weather no shelter is necessary for geese. When some protection is necessary usually a sh^d in- tended primarily for some other purpose will be availa- ble. Geese should not be used for breeding purposes until they are coming two years old though the ganders may be used the first season and for several seasons thereafter. For best results not more than two geese should be mated to one gander. While goose eggs may be artificially hatched and brooded, it is usually found more satisfactory to hatch them under hens. Hens used for hatching eggs should be carefully dusted with sodium fluorid and given good care during the hatching period as this lasts from 28 to 30 days. Whether eggs are put in incubators or under hens they should be sprinkled with warm water every day during the first week. The first goslings should not be hatched until the grass is green. When they are about due to hatch if hens are used the eggs should be carefully watched and the first goslings taken out as soon as they hatch and wrapped in a woolen cloth and kept in a warm place. They should be kept away from the nest Forty-Three PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING until the youngest goslings are several hours old, when they may be given back to the hen. If this is not done the hen is likely to become restless and leave the nest with the older goslings before the late ones are strong enough. They should be closely confined with their mother until they are three or four days old, after which they may be allowed liberty with their mother in a grassy pasture. Goslings should be fed carefully for the first week or ten days after which they secure most of their food if allowed to run in a good pasture. The rations fed by different raisers are numerous but all agree in feeding only a mash. This may consist of corn meal to which is added 10 per cent of meat scrap, or five parts corn meal, five parts shorts and one part meat scrap. Either of these rations should be moistened to a crumbling consistency with milk or water. As a usual thing mature geese will be self-maintaining if kept on a good pasture. In case of drought or during the winter, however, they should be fed such bulky feed as mangels, turnips or steamed clover supplemented by the mash of equal parts corn meal, bran and ground oats. For both young and old stock there ought always to be an abundance of drinking water handy to the place of feed. Ground bone or charcoal should always be available. Geese intended for breeding purposes usually do better on pasture than in the feeding lot with other stock, as in the latter case they are likely to get too fat. Forty-Four PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Chapter X The Poultry Industry Geographical Distribution of Poultry Produc- tion — The great egg and poultry producing territories of the United States can be divided according to their geographical location and the character of the industry, into three quite distinct sections. The first of these comprises the northeastern states, including New Eng- land, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Mary- land. This is a section in which the poultry industry is one of importance and where many large and special- ized poultry farms are located. Inasmuch as it also happens to be one of the greatest consuming sections of poultry products, the local supply does not meet the demand, and large quantities are brought in from other parts of the country. The second producing section comprises the states bordering on the Pacific. Here the conditions are in many respects identical with those of the first section, though production has outrun consumption and a considerable surplus is now marketed in the east. The third section comprises principally states lying in the Mississippi Valley. They are Minnesota, Wis- consin, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Okla- homa, Arkansas and Texas. In this great section the vast majority of the eggs are produced; yet the charac- ter of the poultry keeping is quite different from that in the other two sections discussed. There are in this whole stretch of country few farms which can properly be termed poultry farms or where poultry raising can properly be considered one of the main branches of the farm work. Forty-Five PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Present Organization of Poultry Industry — The poultry industry as a whole is a combination of several more or less clearly defined co-ordinate indus- tries which have to do with growing and marketing poultry and poultry products. Classifying them ac- cording to the particular industries in which they are engaged, the persons associated with the poultry industry may be designated as (1) production breeders; (2) fanciers and fancier breeders; (3) producers; (4) custom hatchers and baby chick dealers; (5) buyers; (6) packers and (7) distributors. Between these groups there are no hard and fast lines and the same person frequently engages in more than one line of work. Thus the producer of the best type carries on breeding operations within certain limits, the production breeder should be somewhat of a fancier and the packer is usually a buyer and may be a distributor as well. The Production-Breeder — A breeder is one who seeks to improve stock through proper selection and mating. From the standpoint of poultry production, improvement refers to an increased efficiency in the production of human food. A breeder whose primary aim is to raise the food-manufacturing efficiency of any species of poultry may for convenience be called a "production breeder." A comparatively small, but constantly growing number of breeders are turning their attention toward production. Their principal function with regard to production is to furnish the producer with breeding males of standard varieties with which to improve his flocks whether the flocks are mongrel or purebred. Pedigree breeding, the only method by which prepotent males able to sire efficient producers can be produced with any regularity, is out of reach of the producer who must make his profit by securing a narrow margin on many birds, rather than Forty-Six PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING a wide one on a few. The true breeder, however, is a producer in the very best and highest sense. For the producer can follow only as far as the breeder leads the way. Fanciers and Fancier-Breeders — The term "fan- cier" refers to a person who breeds poultry as an art rather than for the production of food, while a "fancier- breeder" is one who breeds poultry for fanciers. At the present time the fancier-breeders as far outnumber the production-breeders as the fanciers are outnum- bered by producers. The preponderance of fancier-breeders over produc- tion-breeders is largely due to three causes. The first is the elaborate poultry show system in vogue in this country, the second is the lack of anything like the general adoption of a merit system in the purchase of farm poultry products, and the third is a profound ignorance of the laws of productive breeding. The Producer — A "producer" is a person who raises poultry primarily for human consumption. While there is at present an undoubted tendency for the production of poultry and eggs for food to be made a specialty, well over ninety percent of the poultry products marketed in the United States are produced on general farms where poultry raising is one phase of a diversified agriculture. In the extreme eastern and western states, and in the vicinity of certain of the large cities of the central states there are sections containing numerous small farms given over to the production of eggs and poultry for special trades. Possibly most famous of these is the Petaluma district of California which specializes in white eggs and markets its surplus on the New York market, which demands a white egg. The Vineland district in New Jersey furnishes new-laid white eggs for the fancy trade in New York. The Little Compton Forty-Seven PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING district of Rhode Island produces brown eggs for the New England markets. Specialized, intensive, small poultry farms bear a somewhat similar relation to general poultry produc- tion that the greenhouse culture of vegetables does to general market gardening. They are useful for the production of out-of-season luxuries for the wealthy, but have little to do with feeding the nation. And in common with the production of luxuries generally, though large and tempting profits are sometimes made, they are hazardous as an exclusive occupation. The general farm producer usually disposes of his products as staples and his problem, since he sells at the current quotation, is to reduce the cost of produc- tion. Where the poultry or eggs are handled as specialties, the great problem is marketing, of getting a special or fancy price for each individual unit of the product. The Custom Hatcher and Baby Chick Dealer — A present tendency in poultry production is for the producer to depend upon a skilled hatcher to furnish him with living chicks. This practice though ages old in Egypt and China, is a comparatively recent development in America. Though assuming large proportions, the baby chick industry is yet in its in- fancy in this country and an expansion hardly yet dreamed of is the prospect of the next few years. It is not improbable that the hatching of chicks for the surrounding territory may ultimately become as cen- tralized a function as fattening and finishing already have. The term "custom hatcher" refers to a person who incubates, for a consideration, eggs which he does not own, usually for nearby producers. Good sized cen- tralized hatching plants are appearing in most com- munities where poultry forms an important item among Forty-Eight PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING the agricultural products. This takes the bother of hatching and the necessity of purchasing an incubator away from the farm, yet allows the producer to develop his own line of stock. The baby chick dealer is one who owns the eggs he incubates and sells the chicks. The latter are frequently hatched by the thousand and may be shipped hundreds of miles to customers. At the present time over two- thirds of the baby chicks sold go to city or town cus- tomers. The Buyer — In nearly every trading point in the United States there is someone who is willing to buy eggs and poultry from the producer at any season of the year. At the smaller points this is usually the mer- chant of whom the farmer buys his supplies, and who pays for the poultry and eggs in trade. At larger points there are likely to be, besides the merchant one or more persons who give their whole attention to buying farm produce, and in many cases to buying poultry produce alone. Such a buyer usually pays a little less than the merchant gives in trade, but is able to handle a considerable volume of business because he makes immediate payment in cash. To be a really efficient member of the poultry industry a buyer should give his quotations only on a quality basis and provide himself with refrigerator facilities. Whether the buyer is a merchant, an independent produce man, or an agent of the packer or distributor, his is the first step in the gathering and concentrating of a gigantic crop of highly perishable products, aggre- gating hundreds of millions in value, from very many farms whose average yearly sales probably amount to a few hundred dollars at most. As indicated in Fig. 3, the original buyer may be any one of several classes of dealers, or in sparsely settled districts where concentration, assembly and grading are difficult, the Forty-Nine PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING goods may pass through the hands of as many as three classes of buyers before the work of distribution is begun. f^^OD(/C£R Kyoi9^^/x> rZ /=?£7yi//.^/^ /=^y^C/<^.R COAY^£C7-/OA/£-/?S /-/07-£:l3 C/.UB3 CO/VSC/MSj^ Fig. 3. — Showing routes by which poultry products reach the consumer from the producer. Fijt» PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING The Packer — The function of a packer is to prepare food products for preservation and consumption, and to preserve them. The home killing of poultry for general consumption is passing just as the home slaughtering of beef and pork has largely given way to the slaughterhouses of the large packing centers. The states of Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Minnesota, Indiana and Tennessee are those in which the poultry-packing business has shown the greatest development. While it is carried on to a greater or less extent in all the states, most of the establishments dressing poultry or shipping eggs are small, without adequate equipment and employing only the crudest methods. The present tendency is toward centralized plants having all the facilities of a first-class packing establish- ment, of which mechanical refrigeration is the most fundamental item. Aside from dressing and preserving poultry, elimi- nating the bad eggs (which, under the present general system of buying eggs from producers without regard to quality, are bound to find their way into the channels of trade), and preserving the good ones, the packer has been forced by the exigencies of the business to take up the work of fattening and finishing the poultry before killing it. The Distributor — As indicated in Fig. 3, poultry products may reach the consumer by various routes. In a very small proportion of cases the producer deals with the consumer direct, and is also a distributor. In an increasing, though still small, number of cases, the local buyer is a merchant who retails the products at the place of production. In the great majority of cases, however, both eggs and poultry reach the con- sumer by a more circuitous route. After the products have been concentrated in the hands of the wholesale Fifty-One PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING buyers, including the packers, they may be turned over to a commission merchant or broker, who disposes of them to the jobber in quite large quantities. The jobber in turn distributes them among the various retailing agencies, which include the retail markets, bakeries, confectioneries, hotels, clubs, restaurants, dining cars, the steamship dining service, and the like, which deal directly with the consumer. There are numerous modifications of this route. One or more of these steps in distribution may be eliminated, as would be the case if a local buyer or co-operative marketing association dealt directly with the packer or the retailer in sparsely settled sections, or the packer sold to a hotel, but the great bulk of the goods at present passes through the several steps indi- cated at the left of Fig. 3. The fundamental reason for this is that the value of the individual unit in poultry is so small that it is cheaper to pass assembling and distribution through several hands than to integrate all services of slaughter, dressing, grading, packing, transportation, etc., under one head. In other words, the poultry trade of a retail store or of a hotel, club or restaurant is so small that the time of a single employe required to perform necessary services costs out of all proportion to the volume of poultry handled. The Magnitude of the Poultry Industry — The 1911 report of the Secretary of Agriculture placed the national annual income from poultry products at $750,000,000, or approximately the combined value of the gold, silver, iron and coal mined the same year. The report of the 1920 census places the national annual income from eggs produced and poultry raised at a little over $1,047,000,000, leaving the production of the villages, towns and cities unaccounted for. The census figures for the different states, while incomplete, are fairly comparable, because of the fact Fi/ty-Two PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING that the same method was used in securing them in each of the several states. The first ten states in point of value of poultry and eggs produced are shown in Table 2. Table 2. — The Rank of the First Ten States with Reference to the Value of the Total Production of Eggs and Chickens in 19 19. Total Value Rank State Chicken Producers 1 Iowa $70,212,644 2 Illinois 67,690,085 3 Missouri 66,271,029 4 Ohio 64.109.133 5 Pennsylvania 53,709.243 6 Indiana 52.765,970 7 Kansas 44.199.844 8 Texas 43,303.622 9 New York 42,841.499 10 California 40,341.744 Comparative Numbers of Different Species of Poultry — Chickens are of pre-eminent importance among the various species of poultry. The total number of poultry found on the farms of the United States January 1, 1920, was 372,825,264 birds. Of these 96.4 percent (359,537,127) were chickens; a little over 1 percent (3,627,028) were turkeys; less than .75 percent (2,817,624) were ducks; a trifle over .78 percent (2,939,203) were geese; while the total for guineas (2.410.421), pigeons (1,493,630) and ostriches (231) was slightly over 1 percent (3,904,282). Although 90.5 percent of all the farms of the United States reported chickens, there was but .3 percent that reported any species of poultry that did not report chickens. From 1910 to 1920 the number of chickens in the United States increased 28.2 percent, while during the same period the number of turkeys, ducks and geese decreased 1.7, 3.1 and 33.7 percent respectively. Fifty-Three PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING It should be noted in this connection, however, that the figures of 1910 and 1920 are not strictly com- parable. This is owing to the fact that the 1910 enumeration was made April 15, and takes into ac- count no chickens under three months of age, while the enumeration of 1920 was as of January 1. The abso- lute gain in the number of chickens was undoubtedly less than the foregoing would indicate while the de- creases of the other species were probably greater. The popularity of the chicken is due to the fact that it furnishes a convenient source of fresh meat on the farm, and is, almost universally, a greater egg pro- ducer than are other sorts of poultry. Eggs the Principal Poultry Product — Eggs are the primary poultry product. The average state in- come from poultry products sold in 1919 was $10,699,- 704, of which only $2,443,318 was credited to poultry carcasses sold, while $8,256,386 or considerable over three-fourths of the total income was credited to eggs. At the same time the average annual farm income from eggs for all the farms in the United States was $98.95, as shown by the census of 1920, and the income from carcasses sold was $44.37, or considerably less than half as much. The reason for this difference probably lies in the uniqueness of eggs among human foods, their high digestibility, healthfulness, and general attractiveness. It is likely to continue until some economic condition arises whereby the poultry carcass becomes more highly valued by the general public, in comparison with the egg, than at present. In the light of recent discoveries concerning their content of food accessories or vitamins, eggs are likely to increase in esteem, rather than decrease. Although the eggs of ducks and guineas find their way into the regular channels of trade, their number Fijty-Four PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING is so small when compared with the number of hens' eggs as to make them practically a neglible quantity. Turkey and goose eggs are used for hatching purposes only. Farm Incomes fromi Poultry — The importance of a state as a factor in an industry and the importance of that industry to the state in the case of poultry production, are very different matters. While Cali- fornia, for instance, ranks tenth in the total state income from poultry products, she ranks first in the average farm income derived from poultry. According to the 1920 census report the average farm income from poultry products sold in the United States was $143.33. Figures are not available which show what proportion of the average total farm income the average income from poultry is, but it seems reason- able to suppose it will generally be greatest in those states whose average farm income from poultry is largest. The ten states showing the largest average farm incomes from poultry sold are listed according to their income in Table 3. Table 3.— The Relative Rank of the First Ten States with Reference to the Average Farm Income from Poultry. Average Farm Income Rank State Poultry Products Sold 1 California $636.86 2 New Jersey 399 .02 3 Rhode Island 374.67 4 Massachusetts 374 . 29 5 Utah 329.82 6 Conneticut 282 . 07 7 Washington 252 . 59 8 New Hampshire 250 .71 9 Delaware 234.83 10 Nevada 229.92 In addition to the cash income, the poultry products consumed on the farm must be considered. The average quantities of home produced meats (including eggs) consumed in 1920 by 955 families (average size Fifty-Five PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING 4.8 adults or equivalent), in fourteen states was re- ported in Farmers Bulletin 1 082, to be as shown in Table 4. Poultry and eggs furnish 39 percent of the home produced meat food. Table 4. — Home-Produced Meat Foods Consumed Annually by Farm Families. Pounds Pork and lard 499 Beef 97 Poultry 226 Eggs _1£6 Total 978 Fi/ty^ix PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Chapter XI Poultry and Egg Prices Prices of Eggs— According to Pennington and Pierce in the 1910 yearbook of the Department of Agriculture, the output of eggs is steadily growing, but the demand is growing even faster than the supply, due to the increased preference for eggs as food ; hence their price has risen. In 1 899 the farm price was 11.15 cents per dozen, as an average for the United States; in 1909 the average was 19.7 cents, weighted according to monthly production. The average farm price per dozen eggs on the first day of each month from January, 1910, to December, 1921, is shown in Table 5. Table 5. — Department of Agriculture Average Farm Price per Dozen Eggs on the First of Each Month Since 1910. 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 Ayenige January .... February . . . March April May June July August .... September . , October November.. . December 30.4 922.1 16.5 14.9 14.7 14.5 14.2 15.5 17.4 20.0 23.5 28.7 26.8 22.8 30. 7131. 630 28 4 19.4(24.2 .6 6 29.2126.8 21.3 21 37.7146.3 4 35.8 49 16.4 16.1 16.9 17.0 17.2 19.5 23.4 .3 6 .2 5 927.425.3 2 16.617.9 33.840 17.1 16.6 16.8 17.0 18.723 22.3 26.3 33.029.730.6 25.9 30.0 31.1 7128.3 729.8 33.2 37.4 239.4 143.3 57.2 48.3 33.1 34.3 36.8 38.6 36.8 39.3 441.0 6144.7 54.0 .2 .1 .9 61.965.0 61.1 49.6 29.2 20.4 30.2 19.4 7(22.0 26.6 30.4 34.2 44.2 51.1 39.8 35.6 27.8 32.5 22.8 22.9 22.9 24.5 27.0 30.8 35.6 41.3 Average.. 20.8 17.3 20.2119.3 20. 5 19.822.2 31 .936. 1 40. 4'43 .7 28.4 26.7 Note. — The averages for the year are based upon the following " "weights" for the monthly prices: January. February, December, each 4; March. 9; April and May, each 15; June. 13; July. 10; August, 8; September. 7; October, 6; Novem- ber, 5. These figures represent, approximately, the normal relative sales at each monthly price Prices of Poultry Products — As indicative of the advance in prices of poultry as well as eggs during the last twenty-four years, the weighted average New York prices (estimated), furnished by the "Urner- FiftySeven PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Barry Company", New York City, are given in Table 6. These prices represent those paid wholesale re- ceivers by jobbers for western products, all grades considered except extras in the case of eggs. Table 6. — Weighted New York Average Prices (Estimated) on Eggs, Live and Dressed Poultry for the Years 1896 to 192 1, inclusive. Live IDressed Year Eggs Poultry Poultry 1896 14.00 9.00 10.00 1897 14.50 8.50 9.00 1898 15.50 8.80 9.10 1899 17.00 9.80 11.00 1900 16.00 9.30 10.00 1901 18.00 9.50 11.00 1902 20.00 11.50 14.50 1903 18.50 12.50 15.50 1904 20.00 12.50 15.00 1905 20.00 13.00 16.00 1906 19.00 12.80 15.00 1907 18.50 13.80 15.50 1908 19.00 13.50 15.80 1909 23.50 16.00 18.30 1910 23.00 17.00 19.80 1911 19.30 15.00 17.80 1912 22.80 15.50 18.30 1913 21.60 16.00 18.50 1914 23.10 16.20 17.50 1915 22.40 15.70 16.20 1916 26.00 18.75 20.25 1917 37.00 24.00 23.00 1918 42.00 33.00 30.00 1919 48.00 32.00 37.00 1920 52.40 35.40 38.20 1921 36.50 28.90 35.20 Storage and Egg Prices — During these same years the Chicago prices into and out of storage are shown in Table 7. These figures were obtained through the courtesy of Paul Mandeville, Merrill and Eldredge, and S. S. Borden Co., Chicago. Fi/ty-Eight PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Table 7. — Cost of Storage Packed Eggs into Store, f. o. b. Chicago Year April May June 1896 93^to IIM 83^ to 11 101^ to 11^ 1897 8H to 9M 83^ to 1 1 9^ to 103^ 1898 9 to 10^ 9 tollH 93^tol2 1899 llMtol3i^ 12 toI5 13 to 143^ 1900 lO^to 113^ 103^ to 13 113^ to 14 1901 12 to 131^ 11 to 11^ 10^ to 123^ 1902 143^ to 17 153^ to IbH 15^ to 17 1903 14^ to 15^ 15 to 16 143^ to 16 1904 163^ to 18 173^ to 18 163^ to 18 1905 16^ to 171^ 16 to 17 U%to\5% 1906 153^ to 18 15 to 16^ \5}4to\6H 1907 163^ to 173^ 16 to 173^ 15 to 153^ 1908 15 to 16^ 16 to 163^ 16 to 17 1909 18iito223^ 21 to 223^ 193^ to 21 1910 21 to 22^ 1934 to 21 19 to 20 1911 \5^tol7}4 16 to 17M 15 to 16 1912 193^ to 213^ 19 to203€ 183^ to 193^^ 1913 183^ to 19 l8Htol9}4 18 to 19 1914 19 to 19M \8}4to\9H 19 to 19^ 1915 193^ to 20^ 183^ to 1934 18 to 19 1916 20^ to 223^ 213^ to 223^ 21^ to 22M 1917 30Mto36^ 34 to 3634 303^ to 353^ 1918 33% to 36 33 to 353^ 32 to 36 1919 41Kto44 42^ to 46 38^ to 43 1920 43 to 45% 42 to 45 403^ to 42% Selling Price of Aprils and Northern Mays, Including Carrying Charges f. o. b. Chicago. Year October November December 1896 14 to 15 15 to 17 13 to 17 1897 13 to 133^ 113^ to 13^ 12 to 15 1898 13>^tol43^ 14 to 163^ 16 to 19 1899 16 to 163^ 15 to 16 13 to 16 1900 153^ to 163^ 153^ to 19 19 to 21 1901 163^ to 17 163^ to 18 18 to 20 1902 19 to 20 19 to 20 20 to 20^ 1903 193^ to 203^ 203^ to 25 24 to 29 1904 18 to 183^ 18 to 21 19 to21H 1905 19 to 20% 20 to 203^ 19 to 203^ 1906 20 to 20^ 203^ to 223^ 20 to 24 1907 16% to 191^ 153^ to 17 153^ to 17 1908 203^ to 223^ 223^ to 25 23 to 27 Fifty-Nine PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Year October November December 1909 221^ to 233^ 22 to 23^ 21 to 24i^ 1910 22Mto23 2234 to 23^ 21 to 22^ 1911 183^ to 19^ 193^ to 22 21 to 23 1912 223^ to 23^ 21 to 223^ 173^ to 21 1913 23 to 263^ 25 to 28 25 to 303^ 1914 20 to 2234 203^ to 24 20 to 253/^ 1915 22^ to 233^ 20Mto23J^ 203^ to 22 1916 263^ to 3034 30 to 37 28 to 3434 1917 32^ to 37 30 to 333^ 31 to 41 1918 393^ to 443^ 43 to 443^ 42Hto45 1919 44 to 47 46 to 48 4734 to 50 1920 46 to 50 48 to 563^ 56 to 59 On the average it will be seen that by storage the price of eggs per dozen is increased from two to six cents, averaging somewhat above three. When one considers the cost of maintaining cold storage ware- houses, the expense involved in grading and sorting, and the regular loss due to spoilage and breakage, as well as the fact that only in this way can a year-around product be provided ; this margin seems very reasonable in proportion to the services performed. Sixty PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Chapter XII Grades and Classes of Eggs. Grades of Eggs — The different kinds and degrees of deterioration have led to the classification of eggs into generally recognized commercial grades known as firsts, seconds, checks, leakers, spots, blood rings and rots. The grading is done by means of a "candle." Candle is the name given to an egg tester when it is used in connection with market eggs. It operates on precisely the same principle as the lamp tester usually sent by incubator manufacturers, and usually consists of a tin can with a hole in the side and an electric light bulb inside. In addition to the foregoing many markets have additional grades such as the "Extra Fancy" or "Near- by Hennery Whites" which are furnished by producers in the territory immediately surrounding. Firsts — A first is the nearest approach to a fresh egg that is known to the general egg trade. Besides being new laid it must be clean and unwashed, average very close to 45 pounds to the thirty-dozen case (13^ pounds per dozen), show a very small air cell, and a smooth, strong shell free from cracks. Only firsts are usually considered as fit for storage. Seconds — Second-class eggs are those which are not up to standard in physical qualities or show a more or less marked deterioration in food qualities. The poor physical qualities that cause rejection for the first grade, without regard to its food qualities, are lack of size, being dirty, stained, washed or having a markedly rough or misshapen shell. The kinds of deterioration in food quality and which render them unfit for successful preservation by storage or preservative compounds are evidences of heating, Sixty-One PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING shrinkage, blood clots and discoloration of the albumen giving what are known to the trade as "grass" eggs. Checks — Checks are cracked eggs. Those in which the crack is small and the contents of the egg is still retained are called "blind checks." Where the contents are escaping they are designated as "leakers." Such eggs may be perfectly sweet and wholesome, but are extremely perishable, and are good for im- mediate consumption, or to be broken out and frozen. Spots — Eggs in which mould or bacteria has developed in isolated areas inside the shell are called "spots." They are not fit for food. Eggs in which the yolk has adhered to the shell are also classed as spots, being known as "stuck spots." These eggs are unfit for food, but may be used for tanning purposes. Blood Rings — In fertile eggs in which the embryo has so far developed as to show considerable blood and then died, the blood is usually left in a more or less imperfect circle surrounding the germ. Before the candle this appears as a pink ring which from its nature has given the name "blood ring" to eggs containing dead germs. These eggs are declared by the govern- ment authorities to be unfit for human food and are a total loss, except that in the vicinity of tanneries they may be disposed of at a very low price for use in tan- ning certain classes of leather goods. Producing Good Eggs — While it is possible to keep a good egg, that is produced in March and April, good until mid-winter, a good egg cannot be made from a poor one. During the spring month before the hot weather sets in most of the eggs marketed arrive in fairly good condition but with the onset of warm weather the situation is much changed and eggs reach the packing house in considerable numbers that are Sixty-Two PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING not only not fit for storage but are actually unfit for use as food at all. The Bureau of Animal Industry has carried on investigations which show that the following simple precautions taken during the very hot weather re- sulted in the marketing of eggs which graded 97 per cent first class. These results were reported in Bulletin No. 160 of the Animal Husbandry Department, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1. Infertile eggs were produced by keeping the males from the laying flock. As has already been suggested, this may be accomplished by disposing of the cockerels as broilers before they reach the breeding age, or by caponizing. 2. The hens were furnished plenty of roomy, clean nests. 3. The eggs were gathered twice daily. 4. They were kept in a cellar that was cool, dry and free from odors. 5. The eggs were taken to market twice a week, being carefully protected from the sun on the way to town. 6. The eggs that were small, dirty, misshapen or found in stolen nests were kept for home use. Sixty-Thr PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Chapter XIII Grades and Classes of Poultry Market Classification of Live Poultry — The market grades and classes of poultry both alive and dressed vary somewhat in different parts of the country and with different packers. The classifications which follow are fairly representative of the general practice in this regard. Live chickens are classified according to sex, size, age or hardness of bone, into (1) broilers, (2) springs, (3) fowl, (4) stags, (5) capons, (6) slips. (7) roosters. ( 1 ) A broiler is a young chicken of either sex weigh- ing two pounds or under. (2) A spring is a young, soft-boned bird of either sex that weighs over two pounds. (3) A fowl is a hen (female over one year old), or a pullet that shows too much hardness in the breast bone (keel) to be classed as a spring. (4) Stags are cockerels that exhibit too much hardness of bone, development of spurs or comb to be classed as springs, but not enough to be classed as roosters. (5) Capons are cleanly castrated male birds. (6) Slips are birds upon which the operation of castration has not been entirely successful. (7) Roosters are cocks (male birds over one year old). Chickens with black legs are discriminated against in the dressed poultry trade as the carcasses invariably have a large number of pin feathers. Turkeys are classified as young (under one year) and old (over one year) toms, young and old hens, though some packers make the age distinction only in the case of the toms. Ducks are usually marketed as green (young) roasting ducks. Geese are classified as young and old, one year being the dividing point. Sixty-Four o 5w •a 1- c « *J c o S c JQ CO Ollu be 51 PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Grades of Dressed Chickens — The same terms do not always refer to the same weights in the dressed classification as they do in the live classification. In the following classification the weights are for a dozen birds in each case whereas the weights in the live classi- fication are for single birds. Class Weight Grade {1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade {1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade {1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade {1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade fist grade Fryers 31 to 36 pounds J 2nd grade (Also referred to as chickens commercially.) ] 3rd grade [4th grade ilst grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade fist grade Roasters 43 to 47 pounds ) 2nd grade 1 3rd grade [4th grade ilst grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade {1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade Sixty-Five PROGRESSIVE POL'LTRY RAISING Class WeiRht Grade {1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade All of the foregoing came out of the broilers and springs of the live classification. In addition some packers have a further classifi- cation called C Roasters packed in three weights, 42 pounds and under, 43 to 48 pounds and 49 pounds and higher which are the stags of the live weight classifica- tion. Others work the stags into the lower grades of roasters of the proper weights. Class WeiEht Grade (1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade {1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade fist grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade {1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade {1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade {1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade The foregoing are the fowl of the live weight classi- fication. Capons are divided into light and heavy with 72 pounds as the dividing point. Slips are sold in mixed weights as are also old roosters. Sixty-Six PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING The several grades of the different classes and weights are usually sold under various trade names or brands by different packers. In general the first grade chickens show the full effect of milk feeding, have the perfect bleach which comes from such feeding and are free from all blemishes, very even in quality and size. They are suitable for the most discriminating trade. The second grade also shows the full effect of milk feeding and is similar to the first grade except that it may show slight defects in dressing. The third grade are milk fed but do not show the full effects of the feeding. Birds that show pin feathers or other marked defects in dressing are included. In the fourth grade are included birds that are extremely pin feathery, have torn skin, broken wings or are de- formed. Grades of Dressed Turkeys — Turkeys are packed according to their live weight classification in three grades — namely No. 1, No. 2 and culls. Picking, Packing and Shipping — When received at the packing house all broilers and springs are milk fed in crates or batteries, for at least ten days and all fowl for at least five days. Other classes of poultry are not fed. On the last morning of the feeding period the birds are given nothing but water which is kept before them from early morning until they are sent to the killing floor. This is for the purpose of flushing out their crops. After the birds are killed by sticking and neatly picked, their heads and feet are washed, and their heads wrapped in parchment paper. They are then placed on racks and taken to the chill room which is held at a temperature of 33° to 35°F. They are kept in this room until their internal temperature does not exceed 35° F., which usually takes at least 24 hours. Sixty-Seven PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING From the chill room they are taken into the grading room where they are sorted according to quality and size. All broilers and fryers up to 36 pounds to the dozen are individually wrapped in parchment paper and packed one dozen to the box. Fryers over 36 pounds, roasters and fowl are not wrapped but are packed one dozen to the box. When the birds are finally graded and packed they are put in a cooler of not over 33° F. temperature. The boxes are placed upside down and held until enough stock is accumulated to make a carload. During the summer months poultry is placed in a freezer below zero and hard chilled for 72 hours. While this does not freeze the birds clear through it stiffens them to such a degree that they can be shipped a considerable distance without spoilage. The receiver of poultry must be extremely careful as to the manner in which he handles it. It should be put immediately into a cooler of not to exceed 33° F. unless the stock is sold the day of arrival. Where there are facilities for holding the poultry at a tem- perature below freezing they should be made use of without fail. In either event great care must be taken that the temperature does not fluctuate, for poultry held at 15° one day and 25° the next, is practically sure to mould. Principal Poultry Outlets — Seventy-five to eighty percent of the poultry handled by the packing houses is marketed in the east, particularly in Boston, New York, Philadelphia and surrounding territory. Broilers are largely consumed by hotels and restaurants. The bulk of the frying chickens are exported, England taking by far the most of them. Roasting chickens are consumed by all classes of trade, but particularly the eastern and southern resorts. The fowl are con- sumed by all classes and conditions of trade. SixXy-Eight PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Relation of Price to Grade — Poultry that costs 18 cents alive delivered at the packing house becomes a finished product at a cost of at least 7 cents a pound. This seven cents covers the milk feeding cost, dressing, shrinkage, picking and packing labor, refrigeration and other overhead expenses. A carload of live poultry costing 18 cents into the packing house will come out at about 25 cents packed as an average of all grades. The percentage of the different grades of dressed poultry coming out of the average car of live poultry varies with different packers because the severity of the grading varies. Some houses set a very high stand- ard for the first grade and get less than 18 percent firsts. On the average, however, there will usually be about 25 percent first grades, 55 percent seconds, 15 percent thirds and five percent fourth grades and rejects (birds unfit for consumption which are burned). On the basis of the percentages given, when the average price is 25 cents, the first grade should move at about 32 cents, the second grade at around 30, the third at around 24 cents, with the fourth grade bringing about 18 cents. Prices are fixed by the supply on the one hand and market demands on the other, both of which vary and at times some grades and classes will be quite out of line with the foregoing, but it is fairly repre- sentative of the relative levels of market quotations. Sixty-Nine PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Chapter XIV The Seasonal Trade in Poultry Products The Seasonal Production of Eggs — According to the Bureau of Statistics, United States Department of Agriculture, as shown in their Bulletin No. 101, 49.8 percent or practically half of the egg crop of the United States is produced in the four months of March, April, May and June, though July and August are usually counted as part of the egg season. The flush (point of highest production) usually falls in April though in 1906 and 1909 it fell in May. This date is somewhat earlier in the southern states than in the northern. The heavy lay in Tennessee and Kentucky is from December until April. In March and April, southern Ohio and Missouri stocks appear on the market, helped along by Texas, southern Mis- souri and southern Kansas. In the later spring, northern Kansas, Iowa, Indiana, Illinois and the Central States generally have their heavy producing season, and it is when this occurs that eggs are best and most plentiful. Minnesota and Michigan with a still later season, help out somewhat when the supply of the central states begins to fail. The mean percentage of the national egg crop pro- duced each month is shown in Table 8 and presented graphically in Figure 4. Table 8. — The Mean Percentage of the National Egg Crop Produced Each Month. January 6.6 July 9.6 Febnjary 7.1 August 8.6 March 12.4 September 6.2 April 13.4 October 4.2 May 13.3 November 3.1 June 10.7 December 4.3 Seventy PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING / / \ / \ / —\ X 1 X POULTPY / h >-C / / / / / J c / \ / \ / \ , > ^ \ V J \ i 1 V ~~X>' J — T— -\ c^ J ? ) \ ; \ \ r / \ \ / \ > \ EGGS \ / ) \ ) J .. \ s / \ V '' Jam Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec Fig. 4.— Graphic presentation of the mean percent of the national egg crop produced each month, and of the mean percent of poultry receipts at a central western packing house each month for the period 1910 to 1920, inclusive. PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING The Seasonal Marketing of Poultry — The poul- try season usually begins in July and lasts until about the first of January. The most of the broilers are accumulated and stored during July and August. The season for storing frying chickens is roughly September and October, while the year's supply of roasting chickens and fowl are accumulated during the months of October, November, December and to some extent in January, with the heaviest receipt falling in Novem- ber. The mean percentage of the annual poultry crop marketed each month, as indicated by packing house receipts is shown in Table 9 and presented graphically in Figure 4. Table 9. — Mean Percent of the Annual Poultry Crop Marketed Each Month as Shown by the Receipts at a Central Western Packing House for the Period 191 o to 1920 Inclusive. January 5.41 July 6.50 February 3.98 August 9.88 March 3.81 September 11.46 April 2.85 October 14.49 May 4 . 82 November 16 . 45 June 5.86 December 14.49 It must be understood that these seasons are longer and are hardly so clearly defined as the seasons for strawberries and vegetables. They are sufficiently marked, however, so that during the egg season prac- tically the whole force at a packing establishment is employed in packing eggs. The transition from the egg season to the poultry season is somewhat gradual, but in October, November and December the whole force is busy packing poultry. This discussion, of course, applies to the general condition. Both eggs and poultry may be and are produced out of season. Out-of-Season Products — Specialized poultry farms east and west, and indeed in increasing numbers Seventy-Two PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING in the central states make a practice of furnishing poultry products out of season. Very many general farms secure a few eggs during the winter, and with a little care and attention may get more. As previously noted, however, farmers specializing on out-of-season broilers and eggs bear much the same relation to the general production of poultry that truck gardeners who raise radishes, lettuce, and tomatoes under arti- ficial heat bear to the general production of vegetables. Fresh winter eggs, like winter radishes and lettuce, are out of season products and must be paid for as such. For most persons, the fruit and vegetables eaten in winter must be preserved by canning and saved over from the previous season. The eggs eaten out of season by most of the consuming public must also be preserved, usually in cold storage. The Turkey Season — Ninety-five percent of the turkeys are killed, dressed and marketed during No- vember and December. About seventy-five percent of all the turkeys consumed in the United States are sold for the Thanksgiving and Christmas trade. A comparatively small quantity marketed at Christmas time, is stored. The Thanksgiving turkeys are usually not fully grown or fat. The extra month's feed gives them a much better finish. They can then be suc- cessfully frozen, and thaw out bright and clear. This freezer stock is used almost exclusively by the hotel trade, some of the larger hotels having turkey on their menu the year around. Seventy-Three PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Chapter XV The Import and Export Trade Imports and Exports of Eggs — For the five years ending June 30, 1920, the average annual imports of eggs were only 1,131,602 dozens. During the same period the average annual exports of eggs were 27,400,- 313 dozens. These figures refer to eggs in the shell. A rather recent development is the importation of con- siderable quantities of dried and frozen eggs, chiefly from China. During the five years ending June 30, 1920, the average annual imports of this class of goods were 12,822,693 pounds valued at $3,727,661. During the same period the average value of the exports of the same class of goods was only $286,425. Table 10. — Import of Eggs into the United States, by Countries, for Fiscal Years Ending June 30* Years Denmark (doz.) Germany (doz.) Russia (doz.) United Kingdom (doz.) Austria- Hungary (doz) Rou- mania (doz.) Canada (doz.) 1906 53 181 59 128 498.786 1.280.486 688.915 1.127.531 360.872 12.756 16.520 1907 10 3 1.816 5 33.121 1908 28.022 1909 1910 191 1 3 12,001 562 4 10 1.847,237 64.200 55 301 360 39 810 35.272 1912 25.817 1913 "388,632' 3,540 16.894 1914 1915 1916 5,880 35,080 1.009.028 57.14 3 56.962 735.625 225.708 1917 752 441.151 1918 778,200 1919' 1 68 120 325,846 1920' 276 392 192 P 794,068 'Statement prepared by foreign markets service, bureau of markets. 'Calender year. Seventy-Four PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Table 10 (Cont'd) — Imports of Eggs into the United States, by Countries, for Fiscal Years Ending June 30* Argen- Hong All Years Mexico tina China kong Japan other Total (doz.) (doz.) (doz.) (doz.) (doz.) (doz.) (doz.) 1906 2.250 100.861 120.750 600 241.034 1907 925 85.431 111.801 380 10 231.859 1908 431 91,386 111.375 25 188 231 939 1909 17.200 98.817 114.778 522 85 288.650 1910 10.458 130,326 123.458 3.000 63 818.267 1911 3,135 122.015 130.357 50 1,517 1.573.394 1912 14.047 114.958 122.364 990 5,958 973.053 1913 500 95.639 124.110 1.405 1,137 1.367.226 1914 4.663 1.895.618 69,079 7.915 12.929 6.014,955 1915 67.404 2.035,862 85.744 5.670 750 3,046.631 1916 1.855 15.000 320.718 161.464 7.821 732,566 1917 200 464.568 159.116 44.465 70 1.110.322 1918 5 479.617 121.223 236.420 3.604 1.619.069 1919 90 474.502 240,286 84,086 122,5503 1.247.355 1920 21.000 846,863 269,567 84 755 210.056* 1,708.701 1921 210 309,000 1.131 514 475,422 232.737 119,5305 ^Statement prepared by Foreign Markets Service. Bureau of Markets. •Australia. 'Australia 209.718 dozen. Table 11. — Exports of Eggs from the United States, by Countries, for Fiscal Years Ending June 30' Year United Kingdom Canada (doz.) Panama (doz.) Mexic (doz.) 1906 182.570 2.770 197.720 7,275 910 2,330 58,470 51,055 6,001 7,395,143 8,255.909 4,359,192 3,679.795 12.330,488 11.521,631 4,062,881 425,648 742,220 1.159.626 866,609 868,454 2.457,188 8.697,568 12.856,690 9.064.948 6.116,988 7,916,534 10,850,678 5,216.179 3,091,982 11,014,980 7,350.732 113.380 288,027 553.225 591.374 591.673 848,667 791,065 818.470 794.286 621.250 852,960 849,508 681.921 737.830 618.065 831.105 776 271 1907 941 807 1908 . ... 930 775 1909 631 194 1910 585 540 1911 688 022 1912 776 459 1913 847 615 1914 485 842 1915 143 693 1916 447 818 1917 1 170 450 1918 1 301 495 1919 2.091 073 1920 1 521 573 192P 5.936.196 'Statement prepared by Foreign Markets Service. Bureau of Markets. 'Calendar year. Seventy-Five PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Table 11 (Cont'd) — Exports of Eggs from the United States, by Countries, for Fiscal Years Ending June 30' Year Cuba (doz.) Argentina (doz.) Other Countries (doz.) Total (doz.) 1906 3.275.391 4.889.701 4.682.950 3.055,706 3.220.037 4.499,211 4.999.958 5.721.200 5.651.261 5.290.945 8.046.128 7.447.257 7.996.499 9.804.376 12.402.771 15.015.726 178.803 104.460 66.681 54.993 59.322 83,294 91.089 112.860 146.511 261.171 309,684 225.000 93.218 329.034 1 .247.966 94.647 4 952.063 1907. 6 968 985 1908 7.590.977 1909 5 207 151 1910 5.325.936 1911 8.558.712 1912 15.405.609 1913 1.5000 20.409.390 1914 16 148 849 1915 955,234 567.173 24.330 60 20.784.424 1916 , 26.396.206 1917 24.926.424 1918. 18.969 167 1919 28 384 783 1920 38.326.986 192P 33.291.287 •Statement prepared by Foreign Markets Service. Bureau of Markets. ^Calendar year. Table 12. — Imports of Dried and Frozen Eggs, for Fiscal Years Ending June 30 Year Pounds Value 1910 869,923 $56,121 1911 433,405 30,798 1912 43,822 4,430 1913 228,305 36,892 1914 3,420,412 504,619 1915 8,571,758 798,129 1916 6,021,672 921,502 1917 10,317,744 1,732,948 1918 14,597,503 4.057,417 1919 9,085,449 3.143,190 1920 24,091,098 8.783.258 1921' 17.898,019 3.166.701 •Calendar year. Seventy-Si PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING Table 13. — Exports of Dried and Frozen Eggs, for Fiscal Years Ending June 30 1910 $ 3.585 1911 5,353 1912 29.541 1913 67,854 1914 47,968 1915 88,865 1916 210.265 1917 72.491 1918 525.880 1919 341.304 1920 282.198 192P 155,917 'Calendar year. Exports of Poultry — Unfortunately no statement of the imports of poultry seems to be available and the only report of the exports is in combination with a report of the exports of game. The total value of the exports of poultry and game is given for each year from 1906 to 1920 in Table 14. Table 14. — Total Exports of Poultry and Game from the United States for the Fiscal Years. Ending June 30 1906 $1,397,004 1907 1,086,618 1908 881.792 1909 848,644 1910 599,548 1911 981.805 1912 697,955 1913 1.303.399 1914 913,632 1915 1.187.771 1916 1,561,398 1917 1,327.348 1918 1,241.144 1919 3.799,348 1920 1,627,633 Seventy-Seven PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING REFERENCES GENERAL BOOKS "Poultry Production,"* By Wm. A. Lippincott. Published by Lea 6j Febiger, Phila- delphia. "Productive Poultry Husbandry," By H. H Lewis. Published by Lippincott Pub. Co., Phila- delphia. "Poultry Breeding and Management," By James Dryden. Published by Orange-Judd Pub. Co., New York. "Poultry Culture, Sanitation and Hygiene," By B. F. Kaupp. Published by W. B. Saunders Co., Phila- delphia. "Poultry Breeding," By Miller Purvis. Published by Breeders' Gazette, Chicago. BREEDING "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry," By Harry Lamon and Robert Slocum. Published by Orange- Judd Pub. Co., New York. "Pedigreeing Poultry," Circular No. 67, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. "Improving Mongrel Farm Flocks Through Selected Standardbred Cockerels," Bulletin No. 223, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. "Profitable Culling and Selective Flock Breeding." Published by Reliable Poultry Publishing Co., Dayton, Ohio. "Cull the Flock." Circular 123, Wisconsin Agricultural Experi- ment Station. "Culling Farm Poultry." Circular 93, Kansas Agricultural Experi- ment Station. THE BREEDS The Standard Varieties of Chickens. I. The American Class. Farmers' Bulletin No. 806, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. II. The Mediterranean Class. Farmers' Bulletin No. 898, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Seventy-Eight PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING 'The Plymouth Rocks" "The Wyandottes" "The Orpingtons" I Published by Reliable Poultry Pub. Co., ■Rhode Island Reds" | Dayton, Ohio. 'The Leghorns" 'The Asiatics" J 'Turkey Raising," Farmers' Bulletin No. 791, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 'Duck Raising," Farmers' Bulletin No. 697, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Goose Raising," "Farmers' Bulletin No. 767, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. HOUSES 'Poultry Houses and Fixtures," Published bv Reliable Poultry Publishing Company, Dayton, Ohio. "Poultry Buildings," Bulletin No. 325, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. 'Use of Artificial Light to Increase Winter Egg Production," Published by Reliable Poultry Publishing Company, Dayton, Ohio. INCUBATION 'Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hens' Eggs," Farmers' Bulletin No. 585, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. REARING 'Rearing Chickens," Bulletin No. 96, Storrs (Conn.) Agricultural Experiment Station. 'Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chickens," Bulletin No. 624, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PARASITES 'Mites and Lice on Poultry," Farmers' Bulletin No. 801, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Seventy-Nine PROGRESSIVE POULTRY RAISING CONTENTS Introduction 2 Chapter I — History of American Poultry Production 3 Place in System of Farming 3 Place of Poultry Husbandry in Commerce 3 Early Poultry History in America 4 Later Development of Poultry Production 4 Kind of Stock for the Farm 5 Chapter II — Breeds of Poultry 6 Early American Poultry 6 Breeds and Classes 6 Egg Laying Records of the Com- mon Breeds 8 Choosing a Breed 9 Chapter 1 1 1 — Poultry Breeding 10 Methods of Breeding 10 Culling 11 Characteristics of High Layers. . . 14 Characteristics of Poor Layers. .14 The Breeding Pen 14 Care of Eggs for Hatching 15 I ncubating 15 Time of Hatching 18 Farm Brooders 19 Chapter IV — Rearing Young Chicks 21 Feeding Chicks 2! Sour Milk the First Feed 22 Feeding Practice 23 Green Feed 25 Separate the Sexes 26 Location of Poultry House 26 Essentials of Good Hen House. . .27 Care of the House 29 Yards 30 Chapter V — Poultry Feeding 31 Feeding Laying Hens 31 Fattening for Slaughter 33 Chapter VI — Poultry Diseases 34 The Disease Problem 34 Lice and Mites 34 Chapter VII— Turkeys 36 Standards 36 Management 36 Raising Poults 37 Handling Young Poults 37 Feeding for Market 39 Chapter VI 1 1— Ducks 40 Management 40 Breeding 40 Raising Young EXicks 41 Chapter IX— Geese 43 Varieties 43 Feeding and Management 43 Eighty Chapter X — The Poultry Industry. .45 Geographic Distribution of Poul- try Production 45 Present Organization of Poultry Industry 46 The Production-Breeder 46 Fanciers and Fancier Breeders. . .47 The Producer 47 The Custom Hatcher and Baby Chick Dealer 48 The Buyer 49 The Packer 51 The Distributor 51 The Magnitude of the Poultry Industry 52 Comparative Numbers of Differ- ent Species of Poultry 53 Eggs the Principal Poultry Prod- uct 54 Farm Incomes from Poultry 55 Chapter XI — Poultry and Egg Prices 57 Prices of Eggs 57 Prices of Poultry Products 57 Storage and Egg Prices 58 Chapter XII — Grades and Classes of Eggs 61 Grades of Eggs 61 Firsts 61 Seconds 61 Checks 62 Spots 62 Blood Rings 62 Producing Good Eggs 62 Chapter XIII — Grades and Classes of Poultry . . ; 64 Market Classification of Live Poultry 64 Grades of Dressed Chickens 65 Grades of Dressed Turkeys 67 Picking. Packing and Shipping. .67 Principal Poultry Outlets 68 Relation of Price to Grade 69 Chapter XIV — The Seasonal Trade in Poultry Products 70 The Seasonal Production of Eggs 70 The Seasonal Marketing of Poul- try 72 Out-of-Season Products 72 The Turkey Season 73 Chapter XV — The Import and Ex- port Trade 74 Imports and Exports of Eggs. . . 74 Exports of Poultry 77 References 78 Give the chickens a free range, fencing them out of places where they are not wanted. National Poultry Associations Bufif Minorca Club, Edward F. Schmidt, Secretary, Hazelrigg, Ind. Bufif Minorca Club of America, \Vm. F. Williams, Secretary, 1 102 W. 52nd St., Los Angeles, Cal. American Black Orpington Club, Ora Overholser, Secretary, Me- chanicsville Md. American White Orpington Club, J. I. Lysle, Secretary. 1200 E 7th St.. Plainfield. N.J. '^ National Rose Comb Orpington Club, E. M. Mengel, Secretary, Auburn, Pa. National S. C. Buff Orpington Club, Harold N. Bush, Secretary, E. Stroudsburg^^ Pa. American Barred Plymouth Rock Club, L. T. Robinson, Secretary. Union City, Mich. American Buff Plymouth Rock Club, Jas. H. Hertz, Secretary, Han- oven, Pa. American Columbian Plymouth Rock Club, T. J. Enslin, Secretary. Hackettstown, N. J . American White Plymouth Rock Club, G. A. Krueger, Secretary. Plummer, Minn. International Partridge Plymouth Rock Club, Roy W. Sutton, Secretary, Minneapolis, Kans. American Polish Fowl Club, Hiram W. Schriver, Secretary, Groton, Conn. Rhode Island Red Club of America, W. H. Card, Secretary, Man- chester, Conn. Rhode Island White Club of America, Mrs. E. Alphonso, Secretary, Union, Mo. National Bronze Turkey Club, Chas. E. Bird, Secretary, Meyers- dale, Pa. National Bourbon Red Turkey Club, Mrs. Minnie M. B, Brown. Secretary, Appleton City, Mo. International Turkey Club, Mrs. Rea E. Fowler, Secy, Rochelle, 111. American Buff Wyandotte Club, M. M. Clark, Secretary, West Pawlet. Vt. National Black Wyandotte Club, Bradley Cook, Secretary, Oley, Pa. National Partridge Wyandotte Club, Paul D. Cahow, Secretary, 219 E. Liberty St., Ann Arbor, Mich. National Columbian Wyandotte Club, Levi A. Ayres Secretary Bo.x 760, Granville, N. Y. Silver Wyandotte Club of America, A. E. Rettig, Secretary, 3724 E. 28th St., Brightwood, Ind. International Silver Penciled Wyandotte Club, Fred F. Field, Jr.,. Secretary, Montello, Mass. International Black Wyandotte Club, Ralph Roudebush, Secretary, Arcadia, Ind, National White Wyandotte Club, E. B. Rose, Secretary, E. Strouds- burg, Pa. Waterfowl Club of America. Stanley Mason. Secy, Albrightsville, Pa.