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AMERICAN FARMING 
 
 .VXD 
 
 Stock Raising, 
 
 WITH 
 
 USEFUL FACTS FOR THE HOUSEHOLD, 
 
 DEVOTED TO 
 
 FAKMING IN ALL ITS DEPARTMENTS, INCLUDING ROTATION OF CROPS, DRAIN- 
 AGE. FERTILIZERS. ENSILAGE, THE DAIRY. ORCHARD. VINEYARD 
 GARDEN. DOMESTIC ANI.'^IALS, THEIR BREEDING. MANAGEilENT. 
 AND DISEASES : BEES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. FISH CUL- 
 TURE, SILK CULTURE, ARCHITECTURAL DESIGNS FOR 
 HOUSES AND OTHER FARM BUILDINGS. IM- 
 PROVED SANITARY CONDITION OF 
 COLTS'TRY HOMES. Etc., Etc. 
 
 EOltcJJ bv 
 
 Charles L. Flint, 
 
 Secretary op tub State Board or AoRicrLTiRE of Massacuusett9 for twenty-eight coNSECfTn-E years, akd 
 
 Author op " Grasses and Foiuoe Plants," "Milch Cows and Dairy Farming," 
 
 " Manval op AoRicrLTiRE." Editor op " Uarris on Insects," Etc. 
 
 with 
 
 AN APPENDIX 
 
 by 
 
 MANLY MILES, M.D., D.V.S., F.R.M.S., 
 
 Formerly pB<tFE?-=oB of Acjrici-lturk in Michigan AoRicfLXURAL College, Aithob op *' Stock Breeding," 
 "Silos. En8ULa.ob, and Silage/^ Etc. 
 
 Hilustratc& witb over .Sij 1bun&re& EngravinGS. 
 
 COMPLETE IN THREE VOLUMES. 
 
 Volume 1. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 CASSELBERRY COMPANY. 
 
COPYHKiHTED, 1892, 
 
 By the henry G. ALLEN CO. 
 
 THE CASE, LOCKWOOD & BEAINAED CO., 
 
 Prixtkr^ ASTi Binders, 
 
Hon. MAESHALL P. WILDER, 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 
 
 THE ENLIGHTENED AND LIBERAL FRIEND AND PATRON 
 
 AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL PROGRESS IN AMERICA, 
 
 BY 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 
 20290 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The prosperity of a country depends chiefly upon the intelligent cultivation of its soil. 
 No one can doubt that. The intelligent cultivation of the soil depends upon information. 
 This is equally plain. Practical and theoretical knowledge is power in agriculture, as in 
 everything else. It lies at the foundation of individual and national wealth. Those who 
 know the most will, in the long run, do the best work at the best time and in the best way. 
 They will work out the best results, both for themselves and for the community in which 
 they hve. 
 
 The progress made within the last twenty years in the sciences which are intimately con- 
 nected with the cultivation of the soil is something wonderful. It has opened new fields of 
 thought, of investigation, and of experiment. During that time the science of chemistry has 
 made rapid advances, and its methods of investigation have been greatly improved. It has 
 brought its contributions to agriculture from a great variety of sources, each of which brings 
 something peculiar to itself. It has explained the composition of soils and manures. It has 
 added greatly to our stock of knowledge as to the methods of feeding animals to obtain 
 special results, giving us accurate information of the composition of feeding substances, and 
 the effect of different processes of feeding upon the development of the animal economy. 
 
 At the same time botany has solved the mysteries of plant-growth, and, with the aid of 
 vegetable physiology, has thrown a flood of light upon the elements of plant-food, and the 
 means by which the production of crops can be greatly promoted. All the sciences, indeed, 
 have contributed to the development of agriculture, some of them directly, others by leading 
 the minds of men to a higher standard of intellectual activity. 
 
 The agricultural literature of the country has grown up almost entirely within the last 
 quarter of a century, and has taken a rank worthy of the importance of the industry to the 
 development of which it is devoted. Thirty years ago there were few works on farming in 
 this country that were at all creditable either in style or the information they contained. 
 Most of the books on the subject were English, or reprints of English publications. They 
 were not well adapted to meet the wants of American farmers. They often contained much 
 that was interesting, but generally lacked that full and practical information based on actual 
 experiment that was well calculated to meet the wants of daOy life upon the farm. They 
 abounded in theories rather than facts. 
 
 The present work is designed to embody the most practical information upon agriculture, 
 the results of scientific investigation in the laboratory, and of experiment in the field. It is 
 comprehensive in plan, treating of a great variety of subjects so fully as to make it unneces- 
 sary to purchase many books on special topics — a farmer's hbrary, in fact, condensed within 
 the covers of two volumes. It aims to present the most intelligent practice of the best 
 cultivators in all sections of the country, and to meet the wants of every practical farmer who 
 desires to rise above the drudgery of his calling. It does not deal to any extent in theories. 
 The effort has been to present facts. They have been gleaned from many fields, from con- 
 versations with intelligent farmers, from the talks at farmers' clubs, from the agricultural 
 press, and from actual experience on the farm. 
 
jj PREFACE. 
 
 Other books of less comprehensive character have appeared from time to time, and they 
 are all more or less valuable and instructive, but it is some years since they appeared, while 
 changes have taken place in the condition of many parts of the country, owing to the rapid 
 growth of the means of transportation, and the consequent modifications ui the systems of 
 farmincr. The farmer, like the merchant, is under the necessity of keeping up with the times, 
 in order not to be left behind in the close competition which he has to meet. Principles may 
 not change, but practice must be flexible enough to adapt itself to the present condition of 
 things and the wants of the market in which the infinite variety of the products of the farm 
 are to be sold. 
 
 This work is committed to the press in the confident hope and belief that it will prove 
 to be of permanent value and helpfulness to every farmer into whose hands it may fall. 
 
 CHARLES L. FLINT 
 
The Publishers' Announcement. 
 
 In presenting "The American Faemeh" to the general public, it is proper to state that 
 it has been the object and aim of the publishers to make it both comprehensive and exhaus- 
 tive ; in brief, an authoritative standard work on general and scientific agriculture, in all its 
 departments and details, and the best work in this class of literature ever published in this 
 or any other country. To this end we have spared neither time nor expense, and flatter our- 
 selves that the " well done " of the American Public awaits us. 
 
 The editor of this work, Hon. Chas. L. Flint, of Boston, Mass., needs no introduction 
 to the Agricultural World, nor does he need the encomiums of the publishers ; for his twenty- 
 seven annual reports on the " Agriculture of Massachusetts," issued during twenty-eight con- 
 secutive years of service as Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, his " Grasses 
 and Forage Plants," "Milch Cows and Dairy Farming," "Manual of Agriculture," "Harris 
 on Insects," and his numerous essays, lectures, and contributions to the press, all stamp him 
 as a practical man, and able authority on all that pertains to advanced agriculture. 
 
 Now when we add, that the youth and early manhood of Mr. Flint were passed upon 
 the home farm at Middleton, Mass., this work may be justly regarded as the choice fruitage 
 of a life devoted to the interests of Agriculture — a union of practice and theory; a secure 
 guaranty, as to the entire trustworthiness, of the facts for farmers contained in this work. 
 
 This, his latest production, — possibly his valedictory to the Agricultural World, — will be 
 welcomed in many a farmer's home, not only for its fullness and completeness in every depart- 
 ment of which it treats, but also for the plain and practical discussion of all subjects; the 
 reader understanding clearly the abundant facts, principles, and suggestions found herein, 
 touching the cultivation of the soil, which, when rightly understood and utilized by the intel- 
 ligent, practical farmers of our country, becomes at once, not only the foundation of our 
 highest national prosperity and wealth, but the very keystone of our body politic. 
 
 The piiblishers congratulate themselves that they have been so fortunate as to secure 
 the services of so high an authority on practical and scientific agriculture for the editor of 
 this work ; nor should they neglect to congratulate the American Public that they are to be 
 the recipients of Mr. Flint's valuable work, and able to avail themselves of the many advan- 
 tages that such a volume as this affords. 
 
 As might be anticipated, this work is very appropriately dedicated to the Hon. Marshall 
 P. Wilder, of Boston, the life-long friend of the farmer and the personal friend of Mr. Flint, 
 being officially associated with the latter in the Agriculture of Massachusetts and the country 
 for over thirty years. Col. Wilder, now in his eighty-sixth year, (of whom Mr. Fhnt gives 
 a brief memoir in prefatory pages of Vol. II,) was bom at Rindge, New Hampshire, in 
 1798, and has taken an active interest in agricultural pursuits all his life, having been 
 one of the foremost in organizing the "Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture," and also 
 the "State Agricultural College;" besides being the President of the "Massachusetts Horti- 
 cultural Society" from 1840 to 1848, and of the "United States Agricultural Society" from 
 1852 to 1858, and the President of the "American Pomological Society" since its formation 
 in 1848. In this connection it is proper to remark, that it was through the personal soUcita- 
 
iv PUBLISHERS ANNOUNCEMENT. 
 
 tion of the publishers, that Col. Wilder permitted us to place his portrait in our work ; and 
 we are confident that liis many friends in the United States and Canada will thank us for the 
 favor. We present also, as a fitting frontispiece to this work, an excellent steel engraving of 
 its editor, whose genial face, as represented, is a speaking picture of the man, of whom we 
 may say truthfull)' : "All his works do praise him." 
 
 Without disparaging any of the few agricultural works now before the public, we may 
 say generally of books of this sort, as Daniel Webster once said of the legal profession : 
 "There's always room at the top"; at this point, only expressing the hope that happily a 
 critical public will accord to our work that honorable place in agricultural literature, which 
 we believe it merits. 
 
 The methods of tillage and fertilization of the soU, the cultivation of that portion of the 
 vegetable kingdom here presented, whether of products in the East, "West, North, or South, 
 will be found not only entirely reliable, but the latest word on the subject treated, and sug- 
 gestive of still better conditions of improved agriculture in the future. 
 
 Broad and liberal, as well as humane views are here inculcated with reference to the 
 breeding and management of all domestic animals ; the hundreds of engravings in steel and 
 wood being an attractive as well as instructive feature of this exhibit. 
 
 The systematic arrangement of this work into Parts and Departments, with Sub-headings, 
 greatly adds to its utility by making it convenient for ready reference, and invaluable, if not 
 indispensable, to all farmers, and those interested in general agriculture, as well as to fanciers 
 of fine stock of whatever variety or breed. 
 
 In conclusion, it is our agreeable duty to acknowledge our indebtedness to the late 
 United States Commissioner of Agriculture, Hon. Wm. G. Le Due, and his successor. Hon. 
 George B. Loring, Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, Hon. Spencer F. Baird, Director of the United 
 States Fish Commission, and Seth Green, Esq., from all of whom we have received valuable 
 assistance; to the Commissioners of Agriculture generally in the several States who have 
 favored us with copies of their reports and other important documents; to Prof. C. V. RUey, 
 Entomological Department of Agriculture, "Washington, D. C, for valuable printed documents, 
 to Professors Brewer, Johnson, and other leading agricultural writers. Our acknowledgments 
 are also due to the agncultural press generallj^, to the Librarian of the Massachusetts Agri- 
 cultural Society, and to the officers of the Boston Public Library, who have greatly aided us 
 m the prosecution of this work; to Hon J. H. Pope, Minister of Agriculture in the Canadas, 
 who lias rendered great assistance by reports and other documents; and finally, to that agri- 
 culturist of world-wide reputation who established, and for nearly fifty years has conducted 
 an " Experiment Station " on his estate at his own expense, and solely for the advancement of 
 knowledge in agriculture, .the Hon. J. B. Lawes, LL.D., of Rothamsted, St. Albans, England; 
 we would also tender our sincere thanks for the many valuable documents he has furnished 
 us, giving the rich results of his experiments and investigations 
 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 THE PUBLISHERS. 
 
nOPERTT UBRAHt 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. GENERAL AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Farming as an Occupation. 
 
 Agriculture tne basis of civilization and wealth of a country — Its aim and scope compared with other 
 avocations. — Dignity of farm labor. — Its relation to physical, mental, and moral culture — Its 
 influence upon National industry and prosperit}- — Original calling of mankind — Independence of 
 the farmer — Advantages of a farmer being educated to his business — Old and new methods of fann- 
 ing compared — Elements of success in farming — Farming can be made profitable. 3 
 
 Soils. 
 
 The origin of soils — The constitution and texture of soils — Their classification — Clay soils and their 
 management — Gravelly soils — Loamy soils — Marly and calcareous soils — Silt and alluvial toils — 
 JIuck — Peat soils and their cultivation — Sub-soils — Friableness of the soil — Light colored clays — 
 Marls and sands — Color of soils — The Dew Point — Analysis of various soils — Analysis determines 
 the constituents of a soil, but not its mechanical condition — Analysis of plants more satisfactory 
 than that of soils — Both are aids when combined with experience and observation. lO 
 
 Fertilizers. 
 
 Elements of plant food — Elements necessary to supply soils — Organic and inorganic elements — Plant, 
 life and plant food — General propositions concerning plant food — Exhaustion of soil Iiy farm crops 
 ■ — Materials removed from the soil by various products — Deficiency of potash in common fertilizers 
 and in soils — Common manures and commercial fertilizers — ^Barn3'ard manure and its value — Poul- 
 try manure— Night soil and poudrette — Sewage as a fertilizer — The sewage of Paris — Sail in a Paris 
 sewer — Composts — Their value — How to construct a compost pile — The value as fertilizers of flesh 
 — Blood — Hair — Horns— Hoofs — Fish — Fish Guano, &c — Cotton seed as a fertilizer — Castor and 
 Linseed Pomace — Animal dust — Peruvian Guano — Rectified Peruvian Guano — American Guano — 
 Lime — Ground Limestone and shells — Gas Lime — Wood ashes — Coal ashes — Soot — Charcoal dust — 
 Peat and peat ashes — Sea-weed and sea-weed ashes — Bones — Marl — Gypsum — Salt as a fertilizer — 
 Potash — Sources of supply of potash — The Stassfurt potash mines — Composition of German Potash 
 salts — How to use potash salts as a fertilizer — Leaves of trees as fertilizers — Manuring with green 
 crops — Clover for vegetable manure — Various crops for green manure — Sod — Special fertilizers for 
 various crops — Stockbridge Formula for Wheat, Indian Corn, Fodder Corn, — Rye, — Oats, — Buck- 
 wheat, — Potatoes, — Field Beans, — Swede Turnips or Rutabagas, — Onions, — Hay. — Application of 
 manures — Quantity to be used — The fallow system. 39 
 
 Tillage. 
 
 The advantages of tillage — It aids in supplying plant food — Objections to tillage answered — Judgment 
 and skill necessary to successful tillage — Different soils require different methods — Tillage should 
 always be adapted to the wants of the crops cultivated and the character of the soil — The best im- 
 plements essential — The plow the principal reliance of the farmer in the labor of tillage — The plow 
 should be suited to the kind of work required, — a light plow should not be used for heavy work, 
 nor a sub-soil plow for light work — Sulky and Gang plows. Chilled plows, &c — Lands that should 
 be plowed in the fall — Lands that should be plowed in the spring — Best method of fall plowing — 
 Ridging — Manner of plowing a field — Deep and shallow plowing — Depth of plowing must depend 
 upon difEerent conditions, such as the character of the soil and the crops to be cultivated — Subsoil 
 plowing — The principal material for plant food is to be found in the surface or agricultural soil- 
 When desirable to break up the subsoil — A knowledge of the character of the subsoil essential to 
 
successful tillage — Benefits occasionally derived from mixing the subsoil with the surface or agri- 
 cultural soil — An instance given — Clay soils, heavy loams, etc., best pulverized by plowing when 
 drj' or nearly so — Use of the harrow — Its use for any purpose most effectual when the soil is dry — 
 Best implements required — Various harrows and clod crushers described and illustrated — The use 
 of the Roller — Beuetits derived from pressing the soil upon the seed — Exterminating noxious weeds. 
 
 86 
 
 What Crops to Raise. 
 
 A judicious choice of crops essential to success — Crops that can find a ready market to be cultivated — 
 Principle always to be regarded — Choice modified by the character of the soil, etc. — Relative cost 
 and value of different crops. 104 
 
 Rotation of Crops. 
 
 Benefits of a judicious rotation of crops — Theories relative to the cause of failure or depreciation of the 
 same kind of crops produced continuously from the same soil — Nature follows a course of rotation 
 —This strikingly illustrated in the succession of different forest trees — " Clover sick " lands — A 
 scheme of rotation to be so formed as to cultivate the same or similar crops on the same ground at 
 intervals as remote as practicable — The English practice called the "Four-field or Norfolk Sys- 
 tem" — Rotation in Agriculture in Italy — Various methods of rotation adopted in this country — 
 Rotation of crops in the Southern States — Rotation for the worn lands of the South — Grass — Pas- 
 turage — Whatever the rotation, good crops cannot be produced in any section without proper man- 
 agement, and a suflicient supply of manure to the soil. 107 
 
 Irrigation. 
 
 Water one of the sources of supply of plant food — The benefits derived from irrigation — Various meth- 
 ods of irrigating lands — Use of the windmill in irrigation — When irrigation is injurious — An excess 
 detrimental — When irrigation should begin in the spring — Should always be adapted to the charac- 
 ter of the soil and the kind of crops cultivated. 117 
 
 Drainage. 
 
 Various methods— Benefits to be derived from drainage — Difference in temperature of drained and un- 
 drained soils — Drainage tends to render soils warm and more friable — Enables the farmer to plant 
 earlier in the spring — Tends to prevent injur}' to crops from excess of moisture — To prevent 
 drought — To prevent surface washing and winter killing of grain — Tends to an earlier harvest — 
 Renders a location more healthful — Drainage system at the South — Reclaiming the Everglades of 
 Florida by draining Lake Okeechobee — The drainage system two hundred years ago — Partial drain- 
 age — Average amount of rain-fall — What lands require drainage — Location of drains — Necessity of 
 drains being properly constructed and the work well done — Tile draining the best method — Care- 
 ful planning of location of drains necessary to secure the best results — How to dig the trenches — 
 Deptli of drains — How to lay the main drains — How to lay the tributaries — Protection against sand 
 and other obstructions entering at the joints — Filling the trenches — Stone drains — Plank drains — 
 Turf — Brush, etc. — The mole plow — Open ditches — Furrow draining or ridge cultivation — Tile 
 draining the most effectual, permanent, generally satisfactory, and eventually the most economical. 
 
 137 
 
 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 Grasses and Forage Plants. 
 
 Great importance of the grass product — Varieties — Description of more than one hundred varieties of 
 grasses — Their cultivation — Forage plants — Varieties — Cultivation — Indian Millet — Common Millet 
 — German or Golden Millet-— Pearl Millet — Indian Corn as a forage plant — Japan Clover — Mexican 
 Clover — Red Clover — Time of cutting and method of curing clover — Conditions favorable to fer- 
 mentation in clover hay — Cultivating clover seed — Harvesting clover seed — Clover as a fertilizer — 
 "Clover sickness" of lands— Alsike clover and its cultivation — White clover — Crimson clover — 
 Alfalfa or Lucerne — Value as a forage plant — Cultivation — Sainfoin — Cultivation — Vetch — Spurrj' 
 — The Cow or field pea — Lupine — Prickly Comfrej' — List of grasses and forage plants, witli their 
 common and botanical names, their time of blossoming, whether wild or cultivated, and the kind of 
 soil adapted to their growth — Glossary of terms used in describing grasses — Grouping of grasses — 
 Nutritive value of grasses — Analyses of different varieties — Tables for the mixture of seeds for tiie 
 following lands — Mowing lands. Permanent pastures. Hay and pasture combined — Rotation and 
 improvement of soil — Meadow lands — Sununer pastures — Winter pastures — Permanent pastures 
 
according to English methods — Permanent pastures as practiced in Scotland — Lawn grasses — Fine 
 lawns frequently mown — Ha)' and pasture in orchards and shady places — Mowing on light lands — 
 Keclaimed peaty lands — Marshy grounds liable to be occasionally overflown with fresh water — 
 Rocky lands — Time to sow grass seed — Selection of seed — Time of cutting and manner of curing 
 hay — Improved implements in hay making — Mowing machines — Hay tedders— Horse rakes — Horse 
 hay forks— Hay carriers— Hay cups— Storage of hay— Stacking of hay — Hay stacking apparatus- 
 Baling hay — Aftermath or Rowen — Cultivating grass seed — Fall grazing of mowing lands — The 
 practice injurious to the crop of the following year if done after cutting the aftermath — Manuring 
 mowing lands — Rolling mowing lands and pastures beneficial — Renovating grass lands. 138 
 
 Cereals. 
 
 Importance of the cereal product — The great advance in the production of cereals in the I'nited States 
 during the last ten years— Comparative advancement in the production of the different cereals— 
 Wheat— Description of different varieties— Preparation of soil for wheat— Fertilizers— Selection of 
 seed — Time of sowing spring wheat— Time of sowing winter wheat— Quantity sown to the acre — 
 Sowing broadcast and drill sowing compared — Depth of covering — After-cultivation— Improved 
 implements in the cultivation of wheat— Harvesting — Threshing— Diseases and insects of wheat — 
 Rust— Chinch Bug — Hessian Flj-— Rye — Varieties— Soil— Fertilizers — Sowing— Harvesting— Thresh- 
 ing — Diseases of Rye— Oats— Varieties — Soil— Fertilizers— Cultivation— Harvesting— Threshing — 
 Diseases — Barley — Varieties— Soil— Fertilizers — Seeding— Harvesting— Threshing — Buckwheat— 
 Soil — Sowing — Harvesting — Corn — Its importance among cereals — Analysis — Varieties described — 
 Selection of seed — Preparation of seed for planting — Soil for corn and its preparation — Time for 
 planting in the different sections of the country — Methods of planting — The mixing of different 
 varieties to be obviated— Hill and drill planting compared — After-cultivation— Harvesting— Fodder 
 — Stalks in the field — Husking — Shelling — Shelling unhusked corn — Grinding corn — Grinding un- 
 husked corn — Cob meal — Diseases and enemies of corn — Rice — Its value as an article of food — Va- 
 rieties — Analysis of rice — Lands adapted to its cultivation — Cultivation — Harvesting — Threshing 
 and milling. 263 
 
 Roots and Esculent Tubers. 
 
 The common potato — Native of this continent — Improvement through cultivation — Introduction into 
 Great Britain — Subsequent cultivation — Description of varieties — Soil and its preparation — Fertili- 
 zers — Selecting and cutting potatoes for planting — Cutting to a single eye — Number of eyes to the 
 hill — Planting — Hill and drill planting compared — Potato planters — Benefits of early planting — The 
 manner of growth of different varieties illustrated— Hilling and level culture compared — Forcing 
 potatoes — Cultivation — How to raise potatoes from cuttings — Two crops of potatoes a year — 
 H)'bridizing potatoes — How to raise seedlings — Harvesting — Potato digger.? — Storing — Diseases — 
 Potato rot— Potato Bug or Colorado Beetle — Use of Paris Green, etc.— Scabby Potatoes— How to 
 tell a good potolo — Sweet potatoes— Native of Southern Asia — Not exclusively a Southern product, 
 and may be raised with fair success in many of the Northern States — Its nutritive value — Varieties 
 — soil — Fert'iizers — Obtaining plants — Transplanting — Cultivation— Harvesting — Storing — The Yam 
 — Varieties— Chinese yam — Cultivation — Turnips — Varieties — Table of nutritive value of roots — 
 Soil— Fertilizers — Preparation of soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Cultivation of spring turnips — Ruta- 
 baga or Swedi.sh turnips — Harvesting — Storing — Raising turnip seed — Beets — Varieties — Prepara- 
 tion of soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Mangel Wurtzels — Cultivation — Harvesting — Storage— Root 
 Cutters — Carrots — Varieties — Cultivation — Carrot weeders — Harvesting and storage — Parsnips — 
 Varieties — Preparation of soil — Cultivation — Artichokes — Analysis of artichokes and potatoes com- 
 pared — Their value as food for swine and other live stock — Varieties — Planting and cultivation — 
 Yield — Chufas — Cultivation — Ridge culture for root crops — Root pits — Ventilators for root pits 
 essential— How constructed— Onions— Varieties— Soil and its preparation— Cultivation from seed- 
 Cultivation of Sets — (Cultivation of top onions— Potato onions — Shallots— Rareripes— Onion weeders 
 — Cultivation of onion seed — Harvesting and storing onions. 330 
 
 Miscellaneous Products. 
 
 Cotton— The great importance of the product— History— First exportations— Cotton growing section — 
 Beauty of the cotton blossom — Varieties — Upland cotton — Sea Island cotton — Cotton product of 
 British India and Egypt— Unproductive cotton fields of the South— How the evil may be remedied 
 
 Invention of the cotton-gin — Varieties — Soil — Preparation of soil — Fertilizers — Planting — 
 
 Cidtivation — Securing the crop— Ginning- Baling— Use of seed— Seed hulling— Facts elicited 
 respecting the cotton product at the Atlanta Exposition in 1881 — Enemies of the cotton 
 
Viii CONTENTS. 
 
 plant — Sugar — Sources of supply — Importation — Introduction of Sugar cane — Section suited to the 
 production of the sugar-cane — Varieties of sugar-cane — Preparation of tlie soil — Fertilizers — Cuttings 
 — Setting the cuttings — Cultivation— Ilarvesling — ^Jlanufacturing sugar — ^Machinery required — 
 Sorgho and Imphees — Soil — Planting — Cullivation — Harvesting — iianufacturing syrup — Sugar Beet 
 — Varieties — Preparation of soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Harvesting — Storing — Manufacturing 
 sugar — Sugar maple — Obtaining sap — Sugar making — Tobacco — Varieties — Soil — Preparing seed 
 beds — Sowing — "Weeding — Preparationof soil— Fertilizers — Transplanting — Cultivation — Enemies — 
 Worming — Topping — Suckering — Cutting — Curing — Stripping — Packing — Coffee — Climate suited 
 to the cultivation of coffee — Soil — Cultivation — Harvesting — Preparing for market — Tea — Southern 
 localities adapted to its culture — Varieties — Jlelhods of cultivation — Gathering — Curing — Peanuts 
 Where successfully culti^■ated — Soil— Fertilizers — Planting — Cultivation — Harvesting — Indigo — Cul- 
 tivation — Flax — Varieties — Preparation of soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Harvesting — Preparation 
 for market — Cultivating seed — Hemi>^SoiI — Sowing — Method of cultivation — Cutting — Drying — 
 Cultivating seed — Jute — Cultivation — Harvesting — Preparing for market — Peas — Varieties — Soil — 
 Cultivation — Beans — Varieties — Preparation of soil — Planting — Cultivation — Castor Beans — Culti- 
 vation — Broom corn — Preparation of soil — Planting — Cultivating — Harvesting — Curing — Hops — 
 Soil — Cultivation — Stacking — Harvesting — Drying — Mustard — Varieties — Cultivation — Harvesting. 
 
 383 
 
 Ensilage. 
 
 History of the discovery of the ensilage system — Various experiments — Objects to be secured — Manner 
 of building silos — Earth silos — The most profitable crops to ensilage — Cultivation — Cutting — How 
 to fill a silo — Removing fodder from silos— How to feed ensilage — Economic value of ensilage com- 
 pared with other fodder — Improved farming methods — Ensilage adapted to the Southern States — 
 Analysis and composition of corn (or maize) when cut in its green state — Advantages of the ensilage 
 system — Opinions and experiments from various authentic sources respecting the system. 489 
 
 Good Seed. 
 
 Newfssity of care in the production of good seed — Choice of plants — Improvement by cultivation — Ho'»^ 
 effected — Seed plants to be grown apart from others — Special cultivation should be given — Protec- 
 tions afforded against adverse influences — Importance of removing inferior plants — Gathering anO 
 storing seed — Seed from the strongest plants selected — Injury from moisture — Qualities of good 
 seed — Vitality — Vigor — Productiveness — The use of old or poor seed attended with loss to the 
 farmer. 513 
 
 Timber Culture. 
 
 The great importance and value of limber — The destruction of American forests to be deplored — Influ- 
 ence of forests upon rain fall — Climate — Soil and vegetable growth — Healthful influence of forests 
 — Forests should be restored — Tree planting a necessity — Varieties — Large trees of California — 
 Time and manner of transplanting forest trees. 516 
 
 Water Supply of the Farm. 
 
 Importance of a sufficient supply of pure water for the farm — Sources of supply — Springs — Ponds — 
 Biooks — Rivers — Wells — Contamination of water from various sources — Sickness and death often 
 caused by use of impure water — Surface drainage — Injurious effects of metallic pipes — Artesian 
 Wells — Hjdraulic rams — The windmill as a motive power for pumping water — Use of syphon in 
 water supply. 537 
 
 Motive Power for Farms. 
 
 Various powers employed for farm use — Dog and sheep power — Horse power — Wind power — Stean» 
 power — Farm engines — Their importance and utilit)' on large farms — Steam power employed ou 
 the farm of Mr. Dalrymple in Dakota — Steam power for tillage. 543 
 
 Farm Teams. 
 
 Good teams essential for farm use — Best animals for the purpose — Horses — Mules — Oxen — Relative 
 cost and value — Number of animals should be in proportion to the work to be performed — Farm 
 animals should have good care and kind treatment. 547 
 
 Roads and Road Making. 
 
 Importance of having good roads — Improper manner in which the earlj' settlers laid out roads — Eleva 
 
tions in surveying for roads to be avoided — How roads should be laid out — Should be substantially- 
 constructed A solid and unyielding foundation necessary — Form of the road-bed — Removing ob- 
 structions and repairing roads— System of drainage for roads— The construction of catch waters or 
 ■bars— Value of the stone crusher and roller in road making. 549 
 
 Farm Roads. 
 
 The ureat convenience of roads connecting different portions of the farm — How constructed— The 
 road grader— Farm roads an economy in the saving of time, labor, and accidents. 558 
 
 Farm Fences. 
 
 Necessity of fences on the farm— A surplus found in many sections— Expense and labor in constructing 
 and repairs— Different kinds of fence— Rail fence— Post and rail— Board fence— Stone wall— 
 Hedge— Wire fence— Arguments for and against the wire fence — Importance of fences being well 
 made and kept in good repair. 500 
 
 Wastes and Wants of the Farm. 
 
 Common waste of fertilizers — Exhaustion of soil from constant cropping with an insufficient supply of 
 manure— Neglect to perform work at the proper time— Labor not always economized— Carelessness 
 or indifference — Slovenly management — Doing work overnice — Use of poor tools — Lack of care 
 of farm implements— Insutficient help on the farm— Poor teams— Inconvenience of farm buildings 
 and arrangement of farms— Farmers should read the best agricultural books and papers and keep 
 up with the times in advanced methods of farming— Less drudgery in farm life and more knowl- 
 edge and skill in conducting the business— Better farm implements essential— Labor-saving imple- 
 ments to be used wherever practicable— Larger crops should generally be produced from the same 
 amount of land — English agriculture an example — A more perfect system of management in farm- 
 ing — Advantage of keeping an accurate account of receipts and expenditures — Farmers too often 
 piit the receipts of the farm into the bank or bonds instead of using them for the improvement of 
 lands or farm buildings— More capital required for successful farming. 573 
 
 PART II. FARMS AND FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 Choice of Farms. 
 
 A. wise choice essential— Location— Quality of soil— Size- Theadoption of improved methods often bet- 
 ter than change of locality — A change should not be thoughtlessly made— Desertion of the old 
 homestead too frequently a mistake— xYdvantage of large farms — Advantage of small farms — Pro- 
 prietors of small farms should cooperate— The farm should be no larger than can be properly 
 managed — All the capital should not be invested in land. 583 
 
 Model Farms. 
 
 Advantages of a thorough system in conducting a farm — The best methods always the most profitable 
 — Examples of model farm.s — "Echo Farm" — Its management — Improvements, etc. — " Deerfoot 
 Farm "— " Mountain Side Farm "— " Lorillard Stock Farm "— " Hillhurst "—Long View Farm," etc. 
 
 587 
 
 Large Farms of the Country. 
 
 Large farms a necessity in some sections of the country — Western farms — Southern — Eastern — Products 
 — Noted large farms of the country — "The Dalrymple Farm," including Cass, Cheney, The Alton, 
 and Grandln farms — " Quinn farm" — "Glen Farm, etc." 609 
 
 Farm Buildings. 
 
 What buildings are necessary on the farm — All farm buildings should be made convenient, and in as 
 good taste as practicable — Expense — Repairs — Painting buildings — The farm house should be 
 pleasantly located, near the road — Should be convenient, tasty, roomy, light and well-ventilated — 
 The farmer should make his home attractive to his children — Influence upon character — The exhi- 
 bition of good taste not necessarily an extravagance — Size should be adapted to the needs of the 
 family — Height of buildings — Plans for houses— Interior arrangement — Expense — Warmth- 
 Windows— Doors— Floors— Stairs— Roofs— Chimneys— Mantels and closets— Piazzas— Eave troughs 
 —Blinds— Lightning rods— Ventilation— Cellars— The barn— Granary— Hog house— Poultry house 
 —Wagon house or shed— Wood house— Store house— Water closets and vaults— Tool house and 
 repair shop — Ice house. "13 
 
PART III. DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 
 
 The Horse. 
 
 History— Value to mankind— Qualities desirable in a horse— The farm horse— The carriage and saddle 
 horse— Points by which a good horse may be known— Tlie eye— The ear— Tlie head— Tlie neck — 
 The chest— The bones— The shoulder— The pastern— The foot— The back— The hind quarter— The 
 rump— The thigh bone— The hock— Varieties— The Clydesdale— Percheron-Xorman-Englisli draft 
 — Boulotmaise draft— Conestoga— Cleveland Bay— Hambletonian — llessenger— Morgan— Orloff — 
 The trotting horse of America — Xoted trotting horses, their description, record, etc. — Progenitors of 
 trotting families of horses— Breeding— Disqualifications for breeding — Influence of the sire — 
 Influence of the dam — Breeding for beauty, style, speed, docility, strength, endurance — What 
 horses to breed — Only thoroughbred or high-grade stallions to be used — Care of breeding mares — 
 Care of young colts— Castration— Breaking or training colts — The old-time method of managing 
 colts— The present system of colt management — How to break or teach a colt — Uniform kindness 
 to be the rule in colt training— Valuable colts often ruined by the ignorance and brutality of the so- 
 called professional "colt breaker "—The training to begin early — Halter breaking— Driving the 
 
 colt — Teaching a colt to back — The bitting process — Value of good training— Age for working 
 
 General management of horses— Use of check-rein — Blinders — The stable — Impaired eyesiffht from 
 improper amount of light in stables— Horse stables— Proper Tcntilation of stables— Warmth— Food 
 — W^ater — Horse shoeing — Importance of having horses properly shod — Different systems of shoe- 
 ing — Shoe tips — Barefoot — Diseases of horses — Their treatment — Good care will usually prevent 
 disease— Treatment of old horses — Kind treatment at all time* conducive to the best results. 677 
 
 The Ass. 
 
 Native of Asia — Usefulness — Great endurance — A'arieties and characteristics — Breeding in the United 
 States — The progenitor of the mule. 826 
 
 The Mule. 
 
 Economy of inule laltor — Hardiness and other valuable qualities — Mule and horse labor compared — 
 Too often overworked and otherwise .ibused — Benefits of kind treatment — Rearing, breaking, and 
 general management — Quality and kind of food — Shoeing — Diseases and their treatment. 829' 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 V^aluable to mankind — Various breeds — Characteristics — Heavy, or beef breeds — Short-horns — Descrip- 
 tion — Short-horns as beeves — As milkers — .Middle horned or Devon cattle — Description — Devons in 
 the dairy — Devons for beeves — Long-horns — Desciiption, etc. — Herefords — Characteristics — Their 
 value for the dairy and the beef market — Herefords as Oxen — Galloway or Polled Cattle — High- 
 land Cattle — Dairy Breeds — Alderneys or Jerseys — Description — Scale of points for cows — Charac- 
 teristics — Quality of milk— Testing Jersey Cow.s — Guernseys — Dairy Characteristics — Guernseys for 
 beet — Ayrshires — Origin of the breed — Ayrshires in the United States — Dairy Characteristics — 
 The Dutch — Description — Holsteins — General description — Holstcins in the dairy — Swiss Cattle — 
 Suffolk Duns — Kerry — Shetland — Grades of various breeds — Native Cattle — Texas Cattle — What 
 constitutes a first-class bovine animal — Beef production — Marbled Beef — Classes of Dairy Cows — 
 What breeds to keep — Cattle one should never buy — Breeding — How to improve farm stock — Thor- 
 oughbred bulls and grade cattle — Care and food — Drying off cows — Care at time of calving — Care 
 of calves— Feeding — Castration — Fall care of calves — Shelter for stock — Handling young animals 
 — Generous feeding — Care of bulls — Winter management of cattle — Food— Quality — Quantity — 
 How often to feed — Water — Salt — Care of beef cattle — Feeding value of different articles of food 
 — Soiling— Advantages^Objections — Soiling and pasturing compared — Stables — Heavy weight of 
 fat steers — Weighing with a tape line — How to cut up a carcass of beef — Training steers — Work- 
 ing Oxen— Diseases of cattle and their treatment. >iS5 
 
 The Dairy. 
 
 Milk and its composition — Relative nutritive value <if cow's milk — Analysis of milk— Yariat ion of milk 
 — Difference in quality of one milking— Cream — Effect of different kinds of food on the milk of 
 cows — Swill — Garbage — Milk — Roots — Cotton-seed meal, etc. — Only good cows should be kept — All 
 inferior cows should be sold — Selecting cows for the dairy — The Guenon System — The escutcheon 
 — The escutcheon on bulls — The ovals — Prof. Magnes' system of selecting cows — Good milkers— 
 —Healthy animals necessarj^ — Testing cows — A variety of food required — -A. sufficient quantity — 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 Steaming food — Preparing food for steaming — Ensilage for milch cows — A sufficient supplj' of 
 pure water — Kind treatment — Harsh tones almost as abusive as blows and kicks— No man guilty 
 of either should be allowed the care of cows — Thoroughbred and native cows compared — Grade 
 cows from thoroughbred stock — Driving cows from pasture — Milking — Study the disposition of 
 cows — Gentle manners in the milker — The Milk maids of Holland — Milk pails — Sore teats — Clean- 
 liness essential — Taints and odors — Keeping milk sweet — The best pasturage — Shade in pastures — 
 Milk houses — Ice in milk houses — First requisites of a milk house — Ventilation — Dampness — How 
 removed — Butter as an article of food — Buttbr Making — Methods of obtaining cream — Large opca 
 pans — Closed pans — Deep setting with Cooley Creamer — Shallow setting — Centrifugal system of 
 raising cream — The Danish machine — The Fairbank system — Various other systems — Butter mak- 
 ing from sour cream — Butter making from sweet cream — From milk — Different varieties of churns 
 — Churning — Temperature of cream — Time required for churning — Butter granules — Absolute 
 cleanliness — "Working butter — Butter workers — Salting — Packing — Rancidity in butter — Adultera- 
 tions in butter — The making of Oleomargarine or "Counterfeit butter" should be prohibited by law 
 in every State — English butter making — French butter making — Butter yields — Creameries — The 
 best quality of butter will always command the best market price — Cheese Making — Factory 
 cheese — Farm cheese — Varieties of cheese — Different methods of cheese making — Proper tempera- 
 ture of milk essential — How to prepare rennet — Quantity and quality of cheese — Imperfect sep- 
 aration of whey injurious to the quality of cheese — Cause of floating curds — Prevention — 
 Implements required in cheese making — Addition of cream or butter to the curd — Cutting the 
 curd — Salting the curd — Salt as an agent in ripening cheese — Checks acidity — How to distinguish 
 good salt — Curing cheese — Heat in curing rooms — The cheese fly — Boxing and packing cheese for 
 market — Profits of the dairy — Inauguration of the creamery — Stock fanciers and the good they 
 accomplish. 1005 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 History of sheep husbandry — Wide distribution throughout the different zones — Indispensable to civ- 
 ilized races of men — Uses — Mutton — Wool — Improvement of the land — Varieties — Long wooled 
 breeds — Improved breeds — The Merino — Oxford Downs — Southdowns — Hampshires — Shropshires 
 — Cotswolds — Leicesters — Border Leicesters — Lincolns — Caraman or Fat-Tailed Sheep — Dorsets — 
 Cheviots — Black-faced or Heath breeds — Native sheep — Cross breeds and grades — Improved Ken- 
 tucky sheep — Breeding — Period of gestation — Management of lambs — Recuscitating chilled lambs — 
 Disowned lambs — Raising by hand — Docking — Castrating — Feeding — Weaning — General Manage- 
 ment of sheep — In Summer — Winter — Sheep folds — Food — Salt — Water — Shade in pastures — Sep- 
 aration of old and weak sheep — Good sheds a necessity — Exercise — Washing — Shearing — Packing 
 the fleece — Ticks and lice — How to determine the age of a sheep — Sheep as fertilizers — Wool and 
 its uses — Sheep ranches — Value of the Collie-dog to the sheep-raiser — Goats often used as leaders 
 and defenders of the flock — Most extensive flocks in the world — Profits of sheep raising — Wool- 
 eating — Cotted wool and its causes — Diseases of sheep and their remedies — Good care a great pre- 
 ventive of disease. 109-1 
 
 Goats. 
 
 The Angora goat — Importations into the United States — Its successful rearing limited to a few individuals 
 in this country — Prospects of the industry for the future — The Angora often improperly confounded 
 with the Cashmere goat— Characteristics of each — Description of the Angora — The products — 
 Habits and general management — Prolificacy — Period of gestation — Care of young kids — Food for 
 goats — Coarse herbage preferred by them — Their native habitat to be considered in their management 
 — Shearing goats— Preparation of mohair for market — Diseases and parasites of the Angora goat. 
 
 Alpacas. 
 
 Native habitat— Domestication— Attempts to introduce them into the United States— Results— Causes 
 that have hitherto contributed to the partial failure of the enterprise — Value— Quality and value of 
 the alpaca wool — Size of the alpaca— Adapted to endure cold more severe than in most parts of the 
 United States — In raising them their natural life and habitation should be considered — Probable 
 success of the industry in the United States if properly conducted. 1191 
 
 Swine. 
 
 Their use and value— Origin of present breeds— The wild boar— The old English hog— Chinese— Nea- 
 politan— The old Irish or " Irish Greyhound " hog— Varieties of swine under domestication — Im- 
 
xii CONTENTS. 
 
 proved breeds — Berkshire — Chester White— PoUiud China— Essex— Jersey Red or Duroc— Tork- 
 shire— Large Yorkshire — Small Yorkshire — Chester— Suffolk — Description — Special characteristics 
 — Use and value of thoroughbred swiae — Selection of breeding stock — Age for breeding — Care of 
 breeding stock — Suitable food for brood swine — Care of young pigs — llow lo prevent crushing 
 young pigs — Feeding— Castration — Spaying — Fattening pigs— Variety of food necessary— Cooked 
 food— Soiling pigs— Pasturing — Salt — Plenty of pure water — Fat and lean pork — Plenty of room — 
 Pigs for profit — General management of swine — Convenient piggeries — Raising large hogs — 
 Weight of hogs — Curing pork— Various methods of preserving pork — Salting— Smoking — Curing 
 Hams — Observance of sanitarj' conditions better than medicine, and a preventive of disease — 
 Cleanliness — Pure air — Pure water — Good food in quality, variety, and quantity — Origin of hog- 
 cholera — Its prevention — Diseases of swine and their treatment. 1195 
 
 Breeds and the Principles of Breeding. 
 
 Importance of having good stock — The best types of the breed should be perpetuated— Monetary aspect 
 of breeding — Nature works according to fixed laws — Influence of the sire — Inlluence of the dam — 
 Difference in circumstances will sometimes lead to different results — Variability— Heredity — Pre- 
 potency of transmission— Objects to be secured— Methodical selection— Unconscious selection- 
 Breeding of animals in a wild state— Cross-breeding and grading up— Art of breeding- The animal 
 and the pedigree— Breeding calendar— Important facts for farmers — The breeder and the farmer. 
 
 1248 
 
 Poultry. 
 
 Domesticating native wild breeds of fowls— Improvement of wildfowls by domestication— Wild Jungle 
 fowl of the East Indies the progenitor of the domestic fowl— Hens the most profitable and most 
 numerously reared of the feathered tribes— In order to be profitable, poultry should have intelligent 
 care and supervision — Pleasure as well as profit attending the rearing of poultry— Poultry on the 
 farm— The best breeds to keep— Varieties— Their description— Characteristics— Merits and defects 
 —Brahmas— Light Brahmas— Dark Brahmas — Cochins— Buff Cochins— Black Cochins— White Co- 
 chins—Partridge Cochins— Pea-coml)ed Partridge Cochins— Silky Cochins or Emu Fowls— Leg- 
 horns— Brown Leghorns — White Leghorns— Rose-combed White Leghorns — Dominique Leghorns 
 — Black Leghorns— Hamburgs— Silver Penciled Hambuigs— tilvcr Spungled Bambuigs— Goldtn 
 Spangled Hamburgs — Black Hamburgs — White Hamburgs — Games — Their close resemblance to the 
 Gallus Bankiva or Wild Jungle fowl of India— Black-breasted Red Games— Brown-Red Games— Sil- 
 ver Duckwing Games — Yellow Duckwing Games — Ginger-Red Games — Red Pile Games — White Pile 
 Games — White Games — White Henny Games — Black Games — Blue Games — Gray Games — Spangled 
 Games — Spanish fowls — Black Spanish — Minorca or Red-faced Black Spanish — Anconas — White 
 Spanish — Andalusians — Polish Fowls — White-crested Black Polish— Black-crested White Polish — 
 Golden Polish— Bearded Golden Polish- Silver Polish— Bearded Silver Polish— White Polish- 
 Bearded White Polish — Black Sumatras — French breeds — Houdans — Crevecoeurs— La Fleche — La 
 Bresse — Bredas or Guelders — Dorkings — Silver Gray Dorkings — Colored Dorkings — White Dor- 
 kings — Cuckoo Dorkings — Dominiques — Plymouth Rocks — Black Javas— Mottled Javas — Malays — 
 Russians — Sultans— Silkies — Dumpies or Creepers — Rumpless Fowls — Frizzled Fowls — The Gray 
 Livonian Fowl — Bantams — Game Bantams — Rose-combed Black Bantams— Rose combed White 
 Bantams — Booted White Bantams — Golden Seabright Bantams — Silver Seabright Bantams — Japan- 
 ese Bantams — Nankin Bantams — Pekin Bantams — General management of poultry — Winter care of 
 fowls— Summer care — Incubation- — Rearing chickens artificially — Incubators and their management 
 — Fattening poultry — Profits of poultry keeping — Poultry houses — Diseases of poultry. 1373 
 
 Turkeys, Water Fowls, Pigeons, etc. 
 
 Turkeys — The wild turkey — Varieties — The mammoth Bronze — White Holland — Black — Buff — Slate — 
 Narragansett — Crested turkey — Rearing and general management- Profits — Diseases — Ducks — Wild 
 ducks — Varieties — Aylesbury — Pekin — Rouen— Cayuga — White-crested — Muscovy— The Black East 
 Indian — Mandarin— Carolina — Their general management — Geese — Varieties — Toulouse — Embden 
 Canada — Chinese — Their management — Swans — Varieties — Rearing — Pigeons — Varieties — Rearing 
 and general management — Guinea fowl — Pea fowl — Pheasants — Quails — Description and general 
 management. 1443 
 
 Dogs Useful to the Farmer. 
 
 The value of a good dog on the fiirm — Dogs useful to the shepherd — Dogs should be thorougnbred as 
 well as other farm animals — Useless curs should be exterminated — Varieties mo.st useful- Intelli- 
 
gence and fidelity of certain races — Their care and general management — How to train a Shepherd 
 or Collie dog — Diseases and their treatment. 1.509 
 
 Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. 
 
 Laws respecting this subject should be enacted in every State in the Union — A society for the preven- 
 tion of cruelty to animals should be established in every town — The influence of such measures in 
 tiie formation of character — Children should be instructed to be kind to dumb animals — Intluence 
 on societj- — Animals kindly treated the most useful and valuable — Destruction of birds — Pigeon 
 shooting — The reflex influence of kindness to dumb animals — How to kill animals humanely. 15.j7 
 
 PART IV. FRUIT CULTURE. 
 
 Fruit on the Farm, 
 
 Truit should be grown on every farm for family use — Beneficial results of the liberal use of fruit — Ren- 
 ders a home more pleasant and attractive — Increases the selling value of a farm — Combined with 
 farming — Pleasures of fruit culture — The choicest varieties to be grown — Profits. 1568 
 
 Transplanting Trees. 
 
 Preijaring the soil — Select the most vigorous trees for setting — Plans for orchards or fruit gardens — 
 Mapping orchards and labeling trees — When to plant — Fall planting — Spring planting — Pruning 
 and setting — Care in placing the roots — Avoid crowding — The distance apart to be adapted to the 
 average size of the variety when fully grown — Dwarf trees — A few trees should be set out each 
 year — Old and useless trees to be removed. 1.574 
 
 Cultivation. ' 
 
 Benefits of cultivation — Application of fertilizers — Mulching around trees — Resuscitating trees and 
 plants — " Heeling in " trees — Staking trees — How to promote fruitfulness — Changing the bearing 
 year. 1580 
 
 Pruning. 
 
 Benefits of pruning — Summer pruning — Fall and Spring pruning — Commence when llie trees are small 
 — Trees require frequent care — Modification in form — High or low trees — Method of pruning. 1583 
 
 Thinning Fruit, 
 
 Benefits of thinning— Evils of overbearing — Imperfect fruit — Thinning fruit the remedy of imperfect 
 growth and maturing of the wood — Increase of size and value of fruit by thinning. 1591 
 
 Gathering Fruit. 
 
 Time for gathering — Fruit should be gathered with care — Assorting — Preparing for market — Storing 
 for winter use — A cool, dr_y temperature essential to the preservation of fruit. 1593 
 
 Drying Fruit. 
 
 The old method of drj-iug fruit — The benefits of the newer sj'stem by evaporation — A surer method of 
 preservation than canning — Fruit dryers — How to use them — Perishable fruits easily and quickly 
 preserved by drying — Improved quality of fruit dried by evaporation. 1594 
 
 Propagation. 
 
 Methods of propagating trees and plants — Cuttings — Setting cuttings — Root cutting.s — Layers — Runners 
 — Different methods of budding — Grafting — Liquid grafting wa.\ — Various methods — Selecting and 
 cutting scions. 1.584 and. 1597 
 
 Diseases and Enemies. 
 
 Various evils to which fruit trees are exposed — Good care and cultivation a preventive^Blight — Leaf 
 blight — Mildew — Yellows — Black knot — Canker worm — Curculio — Caterpillar — Tent caterpillar — 
 "Web worm — Apple worm — Rose bug — Aphides — The borer — Codling moth — Bark louse — Woolly 
 Aphis — Mice — Rabbits — Sheep — Cattle, etc. — Prevention the best remedy. 1678 
 
 The Larger Fruits. 
 
 The apple — Varieties suited to Xorthern States — Jliddle — Western — Southern and Southeastern — The 
 best varieties suited to the section should be grown — Large orchards — How to keep apples — Diseases 
 
xiv CONTENTS. 
 
 and enemies — Pears — Dwarf and standard trees — Varieties — When to gatlicr pears — How to ripen 
 and improve the color of pears — How to keep pears — Yield and profits — Marketing — Diseases and 
 enemies — Peaches — Localities best adapted to their cultivation — Varieties — Frequent plauling of 
 trees essential — Yield and profit — Marketing — Diseases and enemies — Nectarines — Varieties — Plums 
 — \'arieties — Diseases, etc. — The apricot — The cherry — Varieties — The quince — Varieties — Diseases 
 and enemies — Grapes — Soil and its preparation — Planting — Trellis — Cultivation — Summer pruning 
 and treatment — Winter protection of vines — Varieties — Hybrids — Seedlings — Grafting — Ripening 
 latff varieties — Marketing — Yield and profit— Preserving for winter use — Figs — Oranges — Varieties 
 — Methods of propagation — Seed — Grafting — Budding and cuttings — The latter not generally as 
 successful as the other methods — Planting — Howtomake an orange grove — Cultivation — Gathering 
 — Preparing for market — Lemons — Planting — Cultivation — Gathering — Marketing — Limes. I.i96 
 
 The Small Fruits. 
 
 Should be cultivated for home use — The strawberry — Varieties — Soil — Manures and fertilizers — Pre- 
 paring the ground — Planting — Summer planting — Fall planting — Distances of planting — How to 
 prevent mixing — Cutting off flowers — Cultivation — Mulching — Growing large berries — Hastening 
 the time of ripening — Ripening or coloring berries — Winter protection — Cultivation the second 
 year — Picking and marketing — Treatment of plants after fruiting — Yield and profits— Strawberries 
 at the South — Enemies — Raspberries — Soil — Fertilizers — Varieties — General directions for plant- 
 ing — Planting at the South — Fall planting — Cultivation — Cultivation after the first year — Summer 
 pruning — Winter pruning — Mulching — Staking — Winter protection — How to obtain a crop in the 
 fall — Raspberry rust — Blackberries— Varieties — Planting and cultivation — Hardiness and winter 
 protection — Currants — Varieties — Soil and cultivation — Pruning — Hardiness — Prolonging the fruit 
 ing season — Enemies — Gooseberries^ Varieties — Soil and planting — Prevention of mildew, etc. — 
 Cranberries — Varieties — Cultivation — Gathering — Mulberries. H54-"i 
 
 PART v.— GARDENING. 
 
 The advantage of having a good garden on every farm — Improvements suggested — Gardening made 
 easy by the use of suitable implements — A vaiiety of garden plants and vegetables should be 
 cultivated— Cold frames — Preparing the ground — Transplanting — Setting plants in dry weather — 
 Variou.s garden products— Their varieties and cultivation— Asparagus— Beans— Beets— Borecole or 
 Kale— Cabbage— Carrots— Cauliflower — Celery— Chernvil— Chicory — Corn— Cress or Peppergrass 
 — Cress — Cucumbers — Citron — Dandelion — Eg?-plant — Endive — Garlic— Horse-radish — Leek — 
 Lettuce — Melon — Mushrooms — Mustard — Nasturtium or Indian cress — Okra or Gombo— Onion — 
 Parsley^Parsnip — Peas — Pepper — Potatoes — Pumpkin — Radish — Rhubarb — Salsify or oyster plant 
 — Spinach — Squash — Tomato — Turnip — Rotalion of crops as necessary for the garden as for 
 field crops — Reasons for failure of seeds— Garden herbs and their cuKivation — Anise— Arnica — 
 Horcliound — Lavender — Saffron — Sage — Summer Savory — Sweet Marjoram — Thyme. lf>((6 
 
 PART VI.— BEES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Bee ke<'piug an attractive employment — History of the honey bee— Modified by climate — Varieties — 
 Black or German— Italian or Ligurian— Cyprian— Syrian — Description and characteristics— The 
 colony, and what composes it— Queen bee — Workers— Drones— Their use— Fertile Workers- 
 Introducing a new queen — Bee-hives — Hives adilpted to the storage of honey, the health and 
 comfort of the colony essential — The use and advantage of foundation — Stimulative feeding — 
 Adulterations in bee food— Honey-bearing plants — Summer management of bees- Swarming — 
 Artificial swarming — Securing the surplus honey — Extracting honey — Handling of the hive should 
 alw.ays be done in the most gentle manner — Implements and articles for the apiary — Wintering Iiees 
 — Bees in the Southern States — Profits of bee keeping. 1734 
 
 PART VII.— VARIOUS TOPICS. 
 
 Silk Culture. 
 
 A.ntiquily of the silk industrj- — History— Value compared with olhor textile materials— The silk worm 
 — Varieties and characteri.stics — Different states or stages of the silk worm — The egi; — Tlie l:,rva or 
 worm — Moltinff — Color— The cocoon — The chrysalis — The moth — AVintering and hatching the 
 
eggs— Feefling and rearing the worms— Spinning— Gathering the cocoons- Destroying llie clirysulis 
 —Egg laying— Reeh^g— Pood— Diseases and enemies— The raising <,f cocoons a profitable iiud 
 pleasant eniploymenf for children or invalids of a familj-- The silk in<Iustry may he made profita 
 We in the United States — The principal obstacles. " " « 
 
 Fish Culture, 
 
 The importance of fish cultnre in stocking the lakes, rivers, ponds, and streams of the country with 
 desirable varieties of fish— The importance of fish culture to the farmer on his own lands for home 
 use— Artificial fish propagation not a new industry- Practiced in China and Japan for thousands 
 of years— Fish can be raised with much less labor than any of the farm animals or farm products- 
 Its culture may extend to almost every variety of fish desirable for food— But small capital re 
 quired— It may be made profitable— Methods of fish culture— Desirable varieties for general propa- 
 gation— Characteristics— How to prepare a fish pond, artificial spawning beds, hatching houses, etc. 
 
 17.5:3 
 Agricultural Uses of Birds, 
 
 The utility of birds as agents in the destruction of noxious insects— They are the friends of the farmer 
 —The wanlon destruction of biids a serious detriment to agriculture— Nature, when not interfered 
 with, establishes a wholesome balance— She produces no more of one species than may be kept in 
 check by another— The ignorant and brutal destruction of birds tbe chief cause of the insect' pest 
 in the country— Relative fertility of birds and insects— Food of birds— Decrease in number of 
 birds— Increase of insects— Tabular view of food of birds— Crows and robins— How to protect 
 birds— Laws for the protection of birds should not only be enacted in every State in the Union, 
 hut RIGIDLY E.XFORCED- Bird houscs— Their consti-uction— Birds pleasant companions around the 
 country home — Benefits to children from being taught to love and protect the birds. 1777 
 
 PART VIM— A HIGHER STANDARD FOR THE 
 FARMER. 
 
 Business Principles, 
 
 Farming should be managed upon systematic business principles— Bookkeeping essential— Advantage 
 of keeping accounts of receipts and expenditures, etc.— An accurate knowledge of the condition of 
 his business only secured by this means- Establishes good business habits— Tends to prevent losses 
 and incurring debt— Books required for keeping accounts— Debts and credits— Ledger— Balanciu"- 
 accounts— Inventory— Insurance to be recommended— Its compensations— Life Insurance— Fire 
 Insurance— Accident Insurance— Importance of keeping well insured— False economy. 1789 
 
 Education. 
 
 Advantages of a good education to the farmer— Special knowledge of his business— General knowledge 
 —The farmer should keep abreast of the times, as well as men of other professions or avocations— 
 -Means of improvement— Books and ne wspaper.s— Agricultural societies— Farmers' clubs— Public 
 libraries— Lyceums— Constitution, bjMaws, etc., -Lectui-es— A knowledge of the courtesies 
 observed iu good society— Farmers should be interested in all that pertains to public improve- 
 ments or the .social elevation of the town iu which they reside— Social life in the country. 1793 
 
 Character. 
 
 A man's reputation is not always an index of his true character— He may be sometimes misrepresented 
 or misunderstood— Overestimate of qualities— Lack of appreciation— A good reputation ought al- 
 ways to be founded upon a good character— Xo one should be indifferent to public opinion— Public 
 opinion may differ in different localities— Conscience and duty to God. and man a higher standard 
 of guidance than public opinion— Methods of securing a good reputation— Avoid penurionsness- 
 Extravagance to be avoided — Penurionsness is not economy, neither extravagance liberality — A 
 truly nol)le nature will generally be recognized as such by those of a similar character— A true 
 Christian principle the only sure guide— " Honesty " always " the best policy "—Temperance- 
 Use of spirituous liquors, except as a medicine, a great evil— Injurious results of a moderate use- 
 Injurious effects of the u.se of tobacco— Smoking— Chewing— The difliculty of breaking an estab- 
 lished habit. .„.„ 
 
XTl CONTENTS. 
 
 Boys on the Farm. 
 
 iV;iy so maDv boys leave tbe farm for oihcr occupaiious — An evil wbich may be rcmeukd — Tl;o 
 remt'cly — Farmers' boys sbould Snd farm life attractive. .Shoul.l be taiig#t tbat farming is j'j;tr.3 
 bduorable an occupation as any other — Tbe labor must be interesting in order to be attnictive — 
 How to make it interesting — Boys should be consulted about tbe farm management — Should bo 
 encouraged to try experiments in farming— Should be given positions of responsibility and trust — 
 Should be allowed the ownership of certai:i f^irm animals- -Should be given the use <.f a siiiiill 
 porlion of land, and have tbe sole control and charge of it — Should have as their personal owncr- 
 .ship the i>rofits and proceeds of such labor and i)roperty — Should be furnished with interesting and 
 instructive reading on agricultural and other subjects — Should be dressed neatly and suitably — 
 Should be treated iu such a manner that they may feel that their advantages for social and intel- 
 lectual improvement equal those of the sons of merchants, lawyers, or any of the other avocations 
 or profession.s — That farming may be made as profitable as any otiier business, when the amount of 
 capital involved i.s considered — Farmers' daughters should be taught to respect farming, and not 
 feel above performing the duties perlaiuing to the farm home. ISIK) 
 
 PART IX -HOUSEHOLD DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The Home and the Household. 
 
 Influence of surroundings on character — Pleasant surroundings — Adornment of farmers' homes — Taste 
 — Comfort — Cleanliness — Health — Happiness — Books and papers — ^fusic — Pictures and other orna- 
 mentations — Hygiene of the home — Air — Water — How wells aie polluted — Locality — Surface 
 drainage — Food — Adulterations in food — Clothing — Labor — Overwork — Farmers and farmers' 
 wives too frequently overworked — How avoided — Use of the improved labor-saving implements — 
 Kest — Sufficient sleep — Recreation — Visiting — Entertaining company — How to spend Winter even- 
 ings — Duly of parents — Duty of children — Education — Reading — Kindness and politeness of the 
 members of the household toward each other — Refining infiueuces — Moulding the character — 
 Observance of the Sabbath — ilore holidays should be observed — Birthdays — Marriage anniversaries 
 — Associations connected with home iu after life. IS03 
 
 Practical Suggestions to Housewives. 
 
 Jveatness of the home — Order — Slovenly house-keeping the cause of much discomfort and unhappiness 
 — Economy — E.xtravagance — Inefficiency — Ingenuity, capability and tact — Inordinate neatness 
 often makes home an uncomfortable place — "Best rooms" — Rooms in which the family spend 
 the most time should be the most pleasant — Fretfulncss in the home often the cause of the ruin 
 of many of its inmates — Home should be the most pleasant place in the whole world to the husband 
 and sons, as well as other members of the household, in which to spend evenings — Home influence 
 — Good cooking essential to the health and comfort of the household — Jlore dyspeptics made by poor 
 cooking than auj' other cause — Xecessitj' of good bread — House furnishing — Oeneral care of the 
 bouse — House cleaning — Sweeping — Dusting — Washing — Ironing — Polishing bosoms and collars — 
 Selecting meats — Fowls — Fish — Flour — Groceries — How to .set a tabic — Serving — How to carve a 
 turkey — Care of food — Table economy — Table linen. 181'2 
 
 Recipes for Cooking. 
 
 Weights and measures in cooking — Recipes for soups of various kinds — Meats — Poultry — Game — Fish 
 Salads — Sauces for meat and fish — Vegetables — Pies — Puddings — Bread — Biscuit — Rolls — Cake — 
 Mtifiins — Ice-cream — Blanc mange — .lellies — Charlotte russe — Floating islands — Other dessert dishes 
 — Fruit jelly— Preserving fruit — Canning fruit — Pickles — Ketchup — Breakfast dishes — Dinner 
 dishes — Tea — "Warmed-over" dishes, etc. l§'3rt 
 
 Miscellaneous Items. 
 
 &. large and valuable collection of various useful tables, recipes, antidotes for poisons, and suggestions, 
 for the home and farm. 1S38 
 
LIST OF FULL PAGE PLATES. 
 
 Engravtm: of the EDiTori. 
 
 COI.ORV.D LiTIIOGRAPn OF TUOTTING StALLION, GoV 
 
 Alpaias 
 
 Akooka Goats, .... 
 
 Angus Cattle 
 
 ATRsnntE Bull, "Honest Joirx," 
 
 Ati!shire Cow, "Flora," 
 
 Aylesuury Ducks, 
 
 Barn-yard Grass, 
 
 Bearded Silver Spangled Polish Fo\v 
 
 Berkshire Swine, 
 
 Bermuda Grass, Wire Grass, 
 
 Black Cochins, .... 
 
 Black Javas, .... 
 
 Black-Breasted Red Games, . 
 
 Black Swan 
 
 Black Sum.\tr.\s, 
 
 Braiimas, Dark, .... 
 
 Braiim.\s, Light, 
 
 Brighton Grapes, 
 
 Brown Leghorns, 
 
 Broo.m Grass, or Sedge, . 
 
 Broo.m Sedge, .... 
 
 C.IIiBAOES 
 
 California Quail, 
 
 Can.\da Goose, .... 
 
 Cattle Ranch 
 
 Champion Ro.\d-G)!adt;h at "Work, 
 
 Cleveland Bay Stalliox. "Cay Si 
 
 Clydesdale Stalliox, " Victor,'' 
 
 Cock's Foot Grass, ... 
 
 Cotton Field, .... 
 
 Cotton Gin (Powfr), . 
 
 Colored Dorkings, 
 
 Cotswold Group, 
 
 Cotswold Ram, "Standard," . 
 
 Crested Turkey, 
 
 Crested White Ducks, 
 
 Creve Coeurs 
 
 Crap. Grass, .... 
 Crow Foot Grass, 
 
 Dark Braiimas 
 
 Devon Grade Steer, 
 
 Design for a Country House, 
 
 Dog's Tail Grass, 
 
 Double-Geared Plantation Cane Mill 
 
 Dorkings, AViiite, 
 
 Dorkings, Colored, . 
 
 Dl\gra.m for Cutting up a Carcass of Beef, 
 
 Downing's Gooseberry 
 
 Frontispiece. 
 
 IIHO 
 
 1183 
 
 863 
 
 883 
 
 1081 
 
 1461 
 
 187 
 
 13^34 
 
 1194 
 
 160 
 
 1295 
 
 1335 
 
 1314 
 
 1489 
 
 1329 
 
 1288 
 
 1274 
 
 1639 
 
 1415 
 
 180 
 
 ITO 
 
 1710 
 
 1497 
 
 1485 
 
 957 
 
 557 
 
 714 
 
 686 
 
 187 
 
 381 
 
 398 
 
 1345 
 
 1117 
 
 1114 
 
 1449 
 
 140S 
 
 1335 
 
 188. 
 
 163 
 
 1283 
 
 915 
 
 61* 
 
 165 
 
 416 
 
 1341' 
 
 1345 
 
 gsff 
 
 1673 
 
LIST OF FULL PAGE PLATES. 
 
 Dkaco Puince, .... 
 1)i!op-Ski;i), Ni.mblk Wm.i., 
 Di CHESS Gu.MMc, 
 E.vsT Indi.\ Silk Woum, . 
 
 E.MIIDEN GeESK 
 
 Eider Duck, etc., 
 
 Echo Fau.m Buildings ,vnd Jehset Group, 
 
 Eclipse Wind Engine, 
 
 P:nglisii Dr.vft St.\llion, "Lincoln," 
 
 Egypti.vn Gr.vss, 
 
 Erecting B.\ri! Wire Fence, . 
 
 Feather Grass 
 
 Field Pitciiin(! Apparatus, 
 
 Fowl Meadow Grass, 
 
 Gama Grass, .... 
 
 Gathering Tea, 
 
 Grain Dropper, 
 
 Grasshoppers in a Wheat Field 
 
 Grade Devon Steer, "Jim Lockwood." 
 
 Gradj: Hereford Steer, "Conqueror." 
 
 Gr.-vde Short-Horn Steer, "John Sherman 
 
 Group op Alpacas, 
 
 Group op Polled Cattle, 
 
 Guernsey Cow, "Elegante," . 
 
 Guinea Fowl, M.\le Pintado, . 
 
 Guinea Hen, .... 
 
 Ha.mpsiiire Ram, 
 
 Half-Blood Percheron Norman Stallion, 
 
 Hambletonian Stallion, "Satellite,". 
 
 H.ARVESTER AND TwiNE-BlNDER, 
 
 Hay AND Suoar-Cane Scales, 
 Hay Elevator and Carrier, . 
 Hay Rakes, .... 
 
 Hereford Bull, "Success," . 
 Hereford Grade Steer, . 
 Hereford Heifer, 
 Holstein Bull, "2d Consul," 
 Holstein Cow, " Zuider Zee," 
 Holstein Heifer, " JIeika." 
 
 Houdans, 
 
 House for W.\ter Fowls, 
 Horse Power, .... 
 
 ilYDRAVLIC Ra.M IN Ol'ER.\TION. 
 
 Improved Far.m Engine with iron Truck W 
 
 Indian Grass 
 
 Iron Mower, .... 
 litoN TriiiiiNE Wind Engine. . 
 Iiiisii Setter, " ME(i." 
 Iitisii Setter, " Rory O'More," 
 Jack, "Magnum Bonum," . 
 
 Jm'an Clover 
 
 Japanese Banta.ms, 
 
 Jersey Bull, " Le Brocq's Prize 
 
 Jehsev Group 
 
 Jersey, "(Jieen of Barnet," 
 Jersey Bui. I.. "Litchfield," . 
 Johnson Okass 
 
 POI.EON III 
 
I>1ST OF KL I.I, PAOK I'LATKr- 
 
 KkMI'S MANrRE-SpUEADKl!. 
 
 Kkstucky Blue Ghass. 
 La Flechb Fowls, 
 
 Lhaf op Tea 
 
 Light Brahmas 
 
 Lincoln Ewes, .... 
 IjI.ncoln Ram, "Loud Ciiancki.i.' 
 Llewelin Settek. 'C'uack," 
 Llewelix Settek, ■Diana." 
 Mai.h Pintado, oh Guinea Fowi 
 
 MlOl.ONS ANB MUSIIROO-MS, . 
 
 Meiu.no Ewes 
 
 Merino Sheei', .... 
 
 >Ieans Grass, .... 
 
 Mexk AN C!i,over, 
 
 JloDKi. Barn, Northeast View, 
 
 Model Barn, Northwest View, 
 
 iMoDEL Barn, Southeast View, 
 
 Mountain Red-Top, Northern Red-Top, 
 
 "Mountain-Side Farm," Front View of Barn 
 
 "Mountain-Side Farm," Rear View of Barn. 
 
 Moore's Early Grape, 
 
 Mottled Javas, .... 
 
 North Devon Cow, "Henrietta," 
 
 North Devon Bill, " Shelto 2d,' 
 
 Oxford Down Ram, " Freeland, ' 
 
 Oxford Down Yearling Lambs. 
 
 I'EAcocK Pheasant, . 
 
 Pekin Ducks, .... 
 
 Percheron-Norman Stallion, "Eldorado, 
 
 Pkrcheron-Norman Stallion, "Romulus,' 
 
 Pigeon Grass, Buille Grass, . 
 
 Power Cotton Gin 
 
 POCKLINGTON GrAPES, .... 
 
 Plymouth Rocks, 
 
 PoL.tND China Swine 
 
 Polled Angus Cattle 
 
 Poultry Groiinds of George S. .Iossei.vn, 
 Poultry House of William Gray. 
 
 Prairie Farm 
 
 Rescue Grass 
 
 Reliance Raspberry, .... 
 
 Red Pile Games, 
 
 Rose Combed White Banta.ms, 
 Rose Combed Wiiitic Leghorns, 
 
 Rouen Ducks 
 
 Rocky Mountain Locust 
 
 Rysdyk's PLvmbletonian 
 
 Scene on the Grandin Far.m, Dakota 
 
 Schrader's Grass 
 
 Scotch Collie, "Champion Tweed 2d, 
 
 Scotch Collie, " Lass O'Gowtue," . 
 
 Self-Binding Harvester. 
 
 Sequoia Gigantea — Giant Red Wood. 
 
 Sharpless Seedling Strawberry, . 
 
 Short-Horn Bull. "2d Dike Northumberland,' 
 
 Short-Horn Cow. " Tth Duchess of Hillhurst," 
 
 Twenty Gang Plows 
 
 IN Operation 
 
 139 
 
 1337 
 
 4."):; 
 
 1274 
 
 1123 
 
 1123 
 
 1.52.5 
 
 1525 
 
 1494 
 
 1716 
 
 1163 
 
 1101 
 
 183 
 
 196 
 
 640 
 
 644 
 
 639 
 
 142 
 
 600 
 
 602 
 
 1618 
 
 1355 
 
 1046 
 
 849 
 
 1095 
 
 1105 
 
 1497 
 
 1467 
 
 676 
 
 702 
 
 169 
 
 398 
 
 1-569 
 
 1350 
 
 1206 
 
 863 
 
 143T 
 
 1430 
 
 604 
 
 178 
 
 1663 
 
 1314 
 
 1371 
 
 1303 
 
 1465 
 
 284 
 
 724 
 
 608 
 
 178 
 
 1.508 
 
 1508 
 
 278 
 
 .521 
 
 1644 
 
 841! 
 
 845 
 
LIST OF FULL PAGE PLATES. 
 
 SnoRT-lIo!!x Grade Steer, "Jons Srekman 
 
 SnoRT-HiiiiN Steer, " William Allen," 
 
 Silver Pencilku Hamburos, 
 
 Silver SEBHiiiiiT Bantams, 
 
 Small Yorkshires, 
 
 Smut Grass, 
 
 SouiiEGAN Raspberry, 
 
 Southdown Buck. "Lord Walsingha.m," 
 
 Steam Sugar Wop.ks, 
 
 Swiss Bull, "Frederick ScniLLEU," 
 
 Swiss Cow, "Orbie," (Imported), . 
 
 Tagg.\rt's Abdallaii, 
 
 Tall Panic Grass 
 
 Tall Ked-Top, 
 
 Tea Leaves 
 
 Texas Millet 
 
 The Silos ov JI. Auguste Goffart, at 
 
 Tomatoes, etc 
 
 Toulouse Geese, .... 
 
 Traction or Self-Propellixg Farm Engine 
 
 Trotting Horse, "Jay-Eve-See," . 
 
 Trotting Stallion, "Alexander," 
 
 Trotting Stallion, "Gov. Sprague,' 
 
 Trotting Stallion, "Thornb.vle," 
 
 Vanilla Gr.\ss, . 
 
 Vegetables, 
 
 Vergennes Grape, 
 
 Water Grass, 
 
 White Crested Bl.vck Polish Fow 
 
 White Crested White Polish 
 
 White Crested White Ducks, 
 
 White China Geese, . 
 
 White Cochins, . 
 
 White Dorkings, 
 
 White Georgian Games. 
 
 White Leghorns, 
 
 Wild Birds, 
 
 Wild Turkeys, . 
 
 Wild Fesque, 
 
 Wood Grass, 
 
 Yard Grass, 
 
 Y'<JUNG Tea Plant and Root 
 
 1 
 
 1308 
 
 1375 
 
 1212 
 
 ITG 
 
 16.) 7 
 
 110!) 
 
 410 
 
 89!) 
 
 1004 
 
 764 
 
 VJ'i 
 
 169 
 
 4r)4 
 
 141 
 
 4H8 
 
 1721 
 
 1478 
 
 .54.) 
 
 738 
 
 754 
 
 o 
 
 748 
 179 
 169.") 
 1627 
 174 
 1324 
 1329 
 1461 
 1478 
 1381 
 1341 
 1319 
 1303 
 1785 
 1443 
 177 
 184 
 165 
 457 
 
General Index of Illustrations. 
 
 Acme PulvL'riziiiij; Ilnvrow, 
 
 A Country Villa, .... 
 
 A Cheap aii:l Convenient Fowl House 
 
 Adult Intiistinal Trichina, . 
 
 Adumiuit Calib.tge Plow, or Corn Subsoiler 
 
 Adamant Plow, 
 
 Advanced Chilled Plow, 
 
 A.nrilus Ruficollis 
 
 A Life-boat, 
 
 Alpacas 
 
 Alpha Potato 
 
 American Hay-Tedder, 
 
 American Quail 
 
 American 8el)right.s, .... 
 
 American Swsui 
 
 American Shrike, 
 
 An.g'ora Goats, 
 
 Angus Cattle. .... 
 
 Annular Budding 
 
 An Ornamental Cottage, . 
 Apple-tree Burer Beetle, Round-headed, 
 
 •■ Pupa, . 
 '• " " Larva, 
 
 " Beetle, Flat-headed. 
 
 " " • P"I':i 
 
 .. f^.,j.^.,| 
 
 Artificial Mother, 
 Artificial Spawning Beds, 
 Ayrshire Bull, 
 Ayrshire Cow, . 
 Aylesbury Ducks 
 
 Baltimore Oriole, 
 Baling-Press, Lever, . 
 Baling-Press — Steam Pow 
 Barb Wire, . 
 
 Barb Wire Fence in Siieep 
 Barn-Yard Grass, 
 Barrel Coops (three cuts). 
 Barren Egg, 
 Basket of Eggs. 
 Bastian's Early Red Beet, 
 Bastiau's Half Long Blood Beet, 
 Beauty of Hebron Potato, . 
 Bermuda Grass, Wire Grass, 
 
 Husbandry, 
 
 101 
 
 623 
 
 1-431 
 
 1346 
 
 i)4 
 
 94 
 
 97 
 
 1691 
 
 1400 
 
 1190 
 
 343 
 
 240 
 
 1276 
 
 i:r>n 
 
 1 78.") 
 1783 
 1182 
 
 803 
 l.")90 
 
 624 
 1681 
 1681 
 1681 
 1683 
 1683 
 1683 
 1404 
 1762 
 
 883 
 1081 
 1461 
 
 1780 
 
 247 
 
 348 
 
 570 
 
 571 
 
 187 
 
 1393 
 
 1389' 
 
 1428 
 
 366 
 
 366 
 
 334 
 
 160 
 
 Bea-aed Silver-spangled Polish Fowls, 
 
 1334 
 
 " Bille of Scituate," .... 
 
 876 
 
 Bee Drone. 
 
 1735 
 
 " Hive, Chaff Eclectic, . 
 
 1730 
 
 " " Circular 
 
 1731 
 
 " " Interior, .... 
 
 1731 
 
 " Nellis' Chair, . 
 
 1730 
 
 " North Star, 
 
 1731 
 
 " Langstroth, 
 
 173'' 
 
 " " Improved, 
 
 1730 
 
 " ■' Frames and Boxes of 
 
 1731 
 
 " Worrall's Centennial, 
 
 1731 
 
 " Italian, . , . . . 
 
 1728 
 
 " Moth 
 
 1737 
 
 " Smokers (two cuts), . 
 
 1738 
 
 " Veil, 
 
 1738 
 
 " Worker, 
 
 1725 
 
 " Queen 
 
 1725 
 
 Berkshire Swine, . . .119 
 
 I, 1247 
 
 Sow and pigs. 
 
 1203 
 
 Bird's-eye View of Mr. Sin.sabaugh's Poul 
 
 
 try Grounds, .... 
 
 1434 
 
 Bird-houses (si.x cuts), . . .178 
 
 (5, 1787 
 
 Bird Louse, 98 
 
 I, 1554 
 
 Bird's Nest 
 
 1788 
 
 Black Bass. 
 
 1754 
 
 Black-breasted Red Games, 
 
 1314 
 
 Black-billed Cuckoo 
 
 17.S1 
 
 Black Cochins 
 
 1295 
 
 Black and Yellow Warbler, 
 
 1780 
 
 Black Italian Watermelon, 
 
 1716 
 
 Black Javas 
 
 1355 
 
 Black-necked Swan 
 
 1492 
 
 Black Spanish Fowls, 
 
 1333 
 
 Black Suraatras, .... 
 
 1329 
 
 Black Swan 
 
 1489 
 
 Black Hawk. . ... 
 
 728 
 
 Black Hawk, Jr 
 
 696 
 
 Blanchard Churn, 
 
 10.54 
 
 Bloodhound 
 
 1535 
 
 Blue Jay 
 
 1782 
 
 Bloodsucker 
 
 15.54 
 
 Bobolink 
 
 1778 
 
 Border Leicester Ram. 
 
 1121 
 
 Boston Market Dwarf Celery, . 
 
 1695 
 
 (xxi) 
 
GKNEHAI. INDEX OK ILLl .sTIiATIO.NS 
 
 J}()iies (if liic llurscs Leg, . 
 Boston Horse Hoc. 
 Brahiiias, Dark, . 
 Brabiiias. Llglii. . 
 Hriglildii (Irapc, . 
 
 Vim-. 
 Brook Trout. 
 Brown Lcjrliorns. 
 
 Broadcast Plaster ami {Inano Distributor 
 Broadcast Secd-Sonc-rs. 
 Broom Grass, or Sed^^c. 
 Broom Sedge. 
 Bullards Hay-Tedder. 
 Butter Box and Cooler, 
 
 Granules, . 
 •• Tray, 
 
 Trier, 
 
 Cabbage, Drumhead Savoy, 
 
 Early French Oxheart. 
 
 Flat Brunswick. 
 
 Jersey Wakefield, 
 
 Large Flat Dutch, 
 
 Summer. . 
 
 Winnidgstadt 
 Large Late Drumhead 
 Cant You Talk ? 
 Calf Louse. 
 California Quail. 
 Canada Goose. 
 
 Cane-Mill 
 
 Carrot and Cotton-Weeder. 
 Cassaday Sulky Plow. 
 Caraman, or Fat-tailed Sheep, 
 Carving a Turkey. 
 Carolina or Wood Duck. . 
 Cattle Ranch, 
 Cattle Stanchion. 
 Cayuga Ducks. . 
 Celery. Large White. . 
 
 Boston Market Dwarf 
 " Turnip rooted, 
 " ' Plants Banked Up, 
 Centennial Brooder, . 
 Centennial Incubator, 
 Champlain Wheat, 
 Champion Road-Grader at Work, 
 Check-Rowing Corn-Planter, 
 Cheese Trier, 
 Chester White Swine. 
 Chuck-wills Widow. . 
 Chinese Sow, 
 Chinese Sugar-Cane, . 
 Circular Hive, . 
 
 " " Interior of, 
 
 Cleft Grafting, . 
 Cleveland Bay Stallion, " Bay Splendor. 
 Clod-Crusher and Leveler, . 
 
 Paue 
 6SI'3 
 -.'SI 
 1288, l-2!ti 
 1274, 12.HJ 
 . Hj:Jl 
 . Hi20 
 , 1753 
 , 1415 
 290 
 289, 290 
 . 180 
 170 
 241 
 . 1068 
 . 1054 
 . 1058 
 10G7 
 
 1710 
 
 1710 
 
 1710 
 
 1710 
 
 1710 
 
 1710 
 
 1710 
 
 1710 
 
 1.532 
 
 982 
 
 1497 
 
 1485 
 
 414 
 
 369 
 
 88 
 
 1128 
 
 1819 
 
 1472 
 
 957 
 
 1562 
 
 1469 
 
 1695 
 
 1695 
 
 1695 
 
 1712 
 
 1404 
 
 1395 
 
 266 
 
 557 
 
 312 
 
 1090 
 
 1204 
 
 1780 
 
 1199 
 
 421 
 
 1731 
 
 1731 
 
 1856 
 
 714 
 
 101 
 
 C'lover-Hull<-r and Cleaner, 
 Clydesdale Stallion, •■ Victor.' . 
 Cochins. Black, , . . . . 
 Pea-comiied Partridge, 
 
 White 
 
 Cock's-Foot Grass 
 
 Colossid Asparagus 
 
 Colt's Foot at Two Years. . 
 Colt's Foot, Showing Quarter^. 
 
 Colored Dorkings 
 
 Comb Foundation 
 
 Comstock's Seed Sower and Ciillivat 
 
 Combined. ..... 
 
 Comstock's Seed Sower and Cultiv.ilor 
 
 Combined as a Weeder 
 Comstock's Seed Sower sind Cultivator 
 
 Combined as a Cultivator. 
 Comstock's Seed Sower and Cultivator 
 
 Combined as a Strawberry Running 
 
 Cutter 
 
 Comstock's Seed Sower and Cultivator 
 
 Combined as a Mole Plow, . 
 Comstock's Seed Sower and Cultivator 
 
 Combined as ScufBe-hoe. 
 Comstock's Seed Sower and Cultivator 
 
 Combined as a Shovel-plow, 
 Comstock's Seed Sower and Cultivator 
 
 Combined as a Verge or Border Cutter, 
 Comstock's Seed Sower and Cultivator 
 
 Combined as a turf cutter. . 
 Compton's Surprise Potato. 
 Cooley Creamer, . 1039, 104(i 
 
 " Cans, . 1039, 1040 
 
 " " ' ■ interior of, 
 
 " " Skimming Bench. 
 
 Cooling Can, 
 
 Vat for Setting ililk. 
 Coop with Covered Run. . 
 Corn-Cultivator. 
 Com-ShcUer, hand, . 
 Corn-Sheller. power, . 
 Com-Sheller for Husked and 
 
 Com 
 
 Corn, Evergreen Sweet, 
 
 Cotswold Group, 
 
 Cotswold Ram, . 
 
 Cotton Field. 
 
 Cotton-Gin, hand, 
 
 CottonGin, hand, with Feeder 
 
 denser attached, . 
 CottonGin. power. 
 Cotton-Sced HuUer, . 
 Cotton-Planter. . 
 Cotton-Press, 
 
 Covered Run for Chickens, 
 Cream Dijiper and Skimmer, 
 Crested Turkey. . 
 
 White Ducks, 
 
 ri,.;i. 
 
 204 
 680 
 1295 
 12!tH 
 
 vm 
 
 lis: 
 
 aeo 
 
 786 
 7><ti 
 l:«5 
 17:!2 
 
 1697 
 
 1697 
 
 1697 
 
 Unhusked 
 
 and Con 
 
 1697 
 
 1698 
 
 1698 
 
 1698 
 
 1698 
 
 1098 
 
 342 
 
 1041 
 
 1041 
 
 1039 
 
 1041 
 
 104S 
 
 1065 
 
 1394 
 
 314 
 
 321 
 
 321 
 
 322 
 1695 
 1117 
 1114 
 383 
 399 
 
 400 
 398 
 402 
 383 
 383 
 1494 
 1038 
 1449 
 1461 
 
GENERAL INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Brtiin iii 
 Brain iu 
 
 Crab Grass, 
 C'reve Coeurs, 
 Crow-Foot Grass, 
 Curd Knives (two cuts), 
 
 •■ Sink 
 
 Cumberland Triumph Strawberry 
 Cucumber, Early Russian, 
 English Prize, 
 Hybrid, . 
 Whlte-Spined, 
 Curculio Beetle, . 
 Pupa, . 
 " Larva, . 
 Cuts showing situation of the 
 
 Cattle, . 
 Cuts showing situation of the 
 
 Horse, .... 
 Cutting a bud for grafting, 
 Currant, .... 
 Fay's Prolific, 
 " Worm, . 
 Cuthbert Raspberry, . 
 Cutting the Potato to a Single E 
 
 Dairy Barns, 
 
 Dalmatian or Coach Dog, . 
 
 Dark Brahmas, . 
 
 Davis Swing Churn, . 
 
 Deere Spring Cultivator, 
 
 Defiance Wheat, . 
 
 Design for a Country House. 
 
 Diagram for cutting a car(a.sh 
 
 " for cutting up Pork 
 
 " for technical term.s in Poultry. 
 Discharging Ova, 
 DUapidated Barn, Fig. 3, . 
 Dog Power, 
 Dog's-tail Grass, . 
 Dog and Sheep Power. 
 Dog and Cat Flea (magnified), 
 Dorkings, White, 
 
 Colored, 
 Double-Geared Plantation C'ane- 
 Double-Row Stalk-Cutter, . 
 Downiug's Gooseberry, 
 
 Drone Bee 
 
 Drinking Tank for Fowls, . 
 Draco Prince, ... 
 Drop-Seed — Nimble Will, 
 Duchess Grape, ... 
 
 iof 
 
 Beef, 
 
 Page. 
 
 188 
 1335 
 
 165 
 1086 
 1080 
 1647 
 1695 
 1695 
 1695 
 1695 
 1683 
 1683 
 1683 
 
 1565 
 
 1564 
 1589 
 1670 
 1671 
 1691 
 1659 
 339 
 
 651 
 1536 
 1288-93 
 1053 
 316 
 266 
 614 
 950 
 1233 
 1286 
 1767 
 053 
 543 
 165 
 1053 
 1553 
 1341 
 1345 
 
 East India Silk Worm, 
 
 Early Amber Sugar-Cane, . 
 
 Early Half-Long Carrot, . 
 
 Early Half-Long Scarlet Carrot, 
 
 Eaily Half-Short Scarlet Carrot, 
 
 Early Scarlet-Horn C'arrot, 
 
 Eiho Farm Buildings, and Jersey Group, 
 
 416 
 318 
 1673 
 1725 
 13S0' 
 781 
 155 
 1633 
 
 ir41 
 431' 
 370 
 370 
 370 
 370 
 586 
 
 • 
 
 Page. 
 
 Echo Farm Butter-Stamp, . 
 
 . 594 
 
 Echo Farm Butter-Worker, 
 
 594 
 
 Echo Farm Churn 
 
 593 
 
 Echo Farm Cream Strainer, 
 
 593 
 
 Echo Farm Group of Yearling Jersey Bulls, 589 
 
 Echo Farm Group of Yearling Jersey 
 
 Heifers, 588 
 
 Echo Farm, Interior of Cow Stable. 
 
 591 
 
 Echo Farm Jersey Bull. " Litchfield. 
 
 592 
 
 Echo Farm Triple Strainer Pail, 
 
 . 593 
 
 Eclipse Artificial Mother. . 
 
 . 1404 
 
 Eclipse Incubator, 
 
 . 1395 
 
 Eclipse Wind-Engine, 
 
 . 538 
 
 Eclipse Wind-Engine in motion. 
 
 . 539 
 
 Eclipse AVind-Engiue at rest. 
 
 . 540 
 
 Eider Duck, .... 
 
 . 1785 
 
 Embden Geese 
 
 . 1481 
 
 English Bull Terrier, . 
 
 . 1533 
 
 English Pheasants, 
 
 . 1499 
 
 English Cottage, 
 
 . 635 
 
 English Cottage, chamber plan of. 
 
 625 
 
 English Cottage, ground plan of. 
 
 635 
 
 English Draft Stallion, " Lincoln," 
 
 710 
 
 Ensilage Corn-Planter, 
 
 501 
 
 Ensilage Cutter 
 
 503 
 
 Ensilage Cutter, .... 
 
 504 
 
 Egyptian Blood Turnip Beet, 
 
 366 
 
 Egyptian Grass, .... 
 
 183 
 
 Erecting Barb Wire Fence, 
 
 . 568 
 
 Erecting Barb Wire Pence. Use of St 
 
 retcher, 570 
 
 Escutcheon 
 
 . 1013 
 
 European Quail, .... 
 
 . 1276 
 
 Esse.v Beauty Strawberry, 
 
 . 1649 
 
 Essex Sow, ..... 
 
 . 1209 
 
 Eureka Butter Worker, 
 
 . 1057 
 
 Excelsior Oat 
 
 . 394 
 
 Family Scales 
 
 . 1830 
 
 Family Cider Mill. 
 
 . 1601 
 
 Fantail Pigeon, .... 
 
 . 1503 
 
 Farm Barn, .... 
 
 . 650 
 
 Farm Mill 
 
 333 
 
 Farm Mill 
 
 . 333 
 
 ; Farm Pets 
 
 . 935 
 
 Farmers' Cider Mill, . 
 
 . 1600 
 
 1 Farmer's Favorite, Grain-Drill, . 
 
 374 
 
 1 Fat-Tailed Sheep, 
 
 . 1128 
 
 with •■ Go-Cart," 
 
 . 1137 
 
 Fattening Coops for Fowls, 
 
 . 1407 
 
 Fay's Prolific Currant, 
 
 . 1671 
 
 Feed Cutters 
 
 . 1030, 1031 
 
 Fertile Eggs 
 
 . 1389 
 
 Feather Grass 
 
 173 
 
 Field Pitching Apparatus. . 
 
 346 
 
 Field Roller 
 
 103 
 
 Filled Silo Being Emptied by V 
 
 Brtieal 
 
 Slicing, .... 
 
 505 
 
 Flat-Headed Apple-tree Borer. . 
 
 . 168? 
 
 Fountain Pump, 
 
 . 1693 
 

 GENKItAL INDEX OF ILLUSTKATIOXS. 
 
 ■ , ,Fo/l^t;iin Pump, in use, 
 ,;>'^]£6ivl .Muailow Grass, . 
 '4i Roxhoiiml '■ Watiliiiian," . 
 /Fox Teiiicr, .... 
 Frames aud Boxes of Laugstroth Iliv 
 Friz/.k'd Fowls, . 
 Fruit Baskets, . 
 Crate, 
 " Evaporator, 
 Fused-Foot, Steel Point, . 
 Gallus Bankiva, or Wild Jungle Fow 
 Galvanized Iron Cheese Hoops, . 
 Game Fowl and Dog, . 
 
 Gama Grass 
 
 Gang Cheese Press, 
 
 Garden Koller, .... 
 
 Gathering Tea 
 
 Gilpin Sulky Plow, 
 
 Gleaner llay and Grain Rake, . 
 
 Gooseberry, .... 
 
 " Downing's, 
 
 Grade Devon Steer, . 
 " Hereford Steer, 
 " Sliort-Horn, 
 Grapevine Flea Beetle, 
 
 Leaf, with Larva, of Flea 
 Flea Beetle Cocoon, . 
 Gray Call Dueks, 
 Grain-Dropper, .... 
 Grapple Hay-Fork, 
 Grasshoppers in a Wheat-Field, 
 Gregg Raspberry, 
 Ground Plan of Mr. E. C. Coniey's P 
 
 House 
 
 Gound Plan of Jlr. Wm. Gray's I' 
 
 House 
 
 Group of Yearling Jersey Bidls, 
 Group of Yearling Jersey Heifers, 
 
 Guernsey Bull 
 
 Cow 
 
 Guinea Fowls 
 
 Half-Blood Pereheron-Normtui St 
 
 " Napoleon III.," 
 Hainbletonian Stallion, "Satellite," 
 Hampshire Uani, 
 Harvester and Twine-Binder, 
 Harpoon Hay-Fork. . 
 Hatching Bo.xes, 
 
 " " In Door, . 
 
 " House, Nursery, and Pone 
 
 Hawk Owl 
 
 Hay and Sugar-Canc Scales, 
 Ilay-Carrier, .... 
 Hay-Elevator and Carrier, . 
 Head of Auroi-a, 
 Head of Guernsey Cow, 
 Head of Hound, .... 
 
 Is, 
 
 lultry 
 
 Pao-j:. 
 
 , 1694 
 
 140 
 
 1534 
 
 1536 
 
 1T30 
 
 13G5 
 
 1655 
 
 1655 
 
 1595 
 
 93 
 
 1375 
 
 1089 
 
 1378 
 
 166 
 
 1089 
 
 1699 
 
 458 
 
 88 
 
 244 
 
 1672 
 
 1673 
 
 915 
 
 909 
 
 905 
 
 1684 
 
 1684 
 
 1684 
 
 1470 
 
 270 
 
 245 
 
 261 
 
 1659 
 
 1439 
 
 1433 
 589 
 588 
 881 
 1050 
 1494 
 
 703 
 
 729 
 
 1147 
 
 263 
 
 245 
 
 1764 
 
 1767 
 
 1157 
 
 1784 
 
 415 
 
 247 
 
 244 
 
 843 
 
 8S0 
 
 1556 
 
 
 Pahb. 
 
 Hereford Bull 
 
 854 
 
 Grade Steer, 
 
 9U9 
 
 Heifer 
 
 857 
 
 Ilerstine Raspberry, .... 
 
 1665 
 
 Hilling Cultivator, .... 
 
 315 
 
 Iloosier Grnin-Drill, .... 
 
 274 
 
 Horse's Foot 
 
 785 
 
 Horse-IIoe 
 
 316 
 
 Horse Power 
 
 542 
 
 Holsteiu Bull 
 
 889 
 
 Cow, 
 
 1017 
 
 " Heifer 
 
 894 
 
 Honey E.vtractors (2), 
 
 1729 
 
 " Knives (2) 
 
 1738 
 
 Hooded Merganser, . 
 
 1785 
 
 Houdans, 
 
 1335 
 
 House for Water Fowls, 
 
 1413 
 
 Wren.s 17* 
 
 7-1781 
 
 How Wells are Polluted, . . . 1805-1806 
 
 Hungarian Millet, .... 
 
 190 
 
 Hydraulic Ram in operation. 
 
 526 
 
 Imperial Sugar Beet 
 
 3;o 
 
 Improved Farm Engine, with iron truck 
 
 
 wheels, 
 
 546 
 
 Improved Long Blood Beet, 
 
 366 
 
 Improved Peach Blow Potato, . 
 
 333 
 
 Improved Langstroth IIi\c, 
 
 1730 
 
 Imported Currant Worm, . 
 
 1691 
 
 Improved Kentucky Sheep, 
 
 1132 
 
 Improved Lima Bean, 
 
 366 
 
 Indian Grass, 
 
 184 
 
 Internal Structure of the Horse, 
 
 800 
 
 In-Door Hatching Box, 
 
 1767 
 
 Interior View of 3Ir. E. C. Comey's Poultr 
 
 
 House 
 
 143G 
 
 Interior Appearance of Fowls' Eggs dur 
 
 
 ing Incubation — 3d to 21st day, 
 
 1390 
 
 Irish Setter " Meg," .... 
 
 1.529 
 
 Rory O'More," 
 
 1539 
 
 Iron Beam Plow, .... 
 
 93 
 
 Iron Mower 
 
 236 
 
 Iron Turbine Wind Engine, 
 
 525 
 
 Italian Bee, ...... 
 
 1728 
 
 Jack, " Magnum Bonur.i," . 
 
 827 
 
 Japan Clover, 
 
 195 
 
 Japanese Bantams -13 
 
 57-1377 
 
 Jamestown Bull " St. Patrick,". 
 
 861 
 
 Jersey Bull " Lc Brocq's Prize," 
 
 869 
 
 Cow " Belle of Scituate," 
 
 876 
 
 Group 
 
 1071 
 
 lied Swine 
 
 1210 
 
 '■ Jersey Queen of Barnet," 
 
 873 
 
 Johnson Grass 
 
 183 
 
 Justin Morgan 
 
 713 
 
 Kemp's ilanure Spreader, . 
 
 30 
 
GENERAL liS'DEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Kentucky Blue Grass, 
 King Bird, . 
 King Charles Spaniel, 
 Keiffer's Hybrid Pear, 
 Kittatinny Blackberry. 
 
 Lady Grape, 
 La Pleche Fowls, 
 Langstrotli Hive, 
 Laying Down the Law, 
 
 Langshans 
 
 La Dow's Pulverizing Harrow, 
 Lampas Iron, 
 
 " use of, . 
 Large Globe Artichoke, 
 Large Orange Carrot, 
 Large White Belgian Carrot, 
 Leaf of Tea, 
 Leconte Fear, 
 Lever Butter Worker, 
 Lever Baling Press, . 
 Liberian Sugar Cane, . 
 Liglit Brahnias, . 
 Lincoln Ewes, 
 
 Ram, . 
 Little Chicks, 
 Llewellyn Setters, 
 Location of the Internal Organs 
 Long Red JIangcl Wurzel, 
 Long-Horn Ox, . 
 Longfellow Strawberry, '. - 
 
 Making a Choice, 
 
 Mallard Drake, . 
 '• Duck, . 
 
 Mammoth Bronze Turkeys. . . 144: 
 
 Manchester Strawberry, 
 
 Maple Sugar Making, — view of sugar hou; 
 
 Means Grass, 
 
 Meadow Fescue, 
 
 Meadow Fox-tail, 
 
 Meadow Lark, . 
 
 Melon, Musk Netted Green Citron 
 
 " " " Pineapple or Nutme 
 
 " " " Jenny Liud, 
 
 " " " Persian, . 
 
 Water. Black Italian, 
 '■ Mountain Sweet, 
 
 Merino Ewes, 
 " Sheep, 
 " Ram, 
 
 Mexican Clover, 
 
 Milk Mirror or Escutcheon, 
 
 Monarch of the West Strawberry 
 
 Moore's Early Grape, . 
 
 Mottled Java Fowls, . 
 Screech Owl, 
 
 139 
 1779 
 1.540 
 160.J 
 1669 
 
 1024 
 
 1337 
 
 1730 
 
 1543 
 
 1300 
 
 100 
 
 796 
 
 796 
 
 366 
 
 370 
 
 370 
 
 453 
 
 1606 
 
 1058 
 
 247 
 
 421 
 
 , 1290 
 
 1123 
 
 1123 
 
 1506 
 
 1535 
 
 B, 817 
 
 370 
 
 866 
 
 1G49 
 
 1385 
 
 1475 
 
 1785 
 
 , 1445 
 
 1646 
 
 :, 431 
 
 183 
 
 151 
 
 146 
 
 1783 
 
 1716 
 
 1716 
 
 1716 
 
 1710 
 
 1716 
 
 1710 
 
 1163 
 
 1101 
 
 1104 
 
 196 
 
 1013 
 
 1648 
 
 1618 
 
 1355 
 
 1784 
 
 Model Barn, — cow stable, . 
 
 " " feeding-floor and yard; 
 
 plan of, 
 " " ground plan of. . 
 
 " " horse stable, 
 
 " Northeast view, . 
 
 " Northwest " . 
 
 " Southeast " . 
 
 Model Horse Barns, . 
 
 " " " plans of, 
 
 Modern Barn, Fig. 1, . 
 Mountain Red Top, . 
 " Mountain-Side Farm," Front View of 
 Interior " 
 ,. j,;^..„. 
 
 Mudgett Hay Tedder, 
 Jlushroom Bed, .... 
 Mushrooms from Spawn, . 
 Muscle Tricliina Encysted, 
 Mute Swan, .... 
 
 Narragausett Turkeys, 
 Natural Position of the Horse's Head 
 Nellis Chaff Hive, 
 Newfoundland Dog, . 
 Nishwitz Harrow, 
 Northern Red Top, 
 North Devon Bull, 
 " " Cow, 
 
 North Star Hive, 
 
 Ocellated Turkey, 
 Old English Hog, 
 
 Old Irish Hog 
 
 Old Style Barn, Fig. 2, 
 
 Oliver Chilled Plow, 
 
 Ooraseeana Sugar Cane, 
 
 One Way of Playing Fox and Geese, 
 
 Owl Pigeon 
 
 Open View of Swing Churn, 
 
 Osborne Sulky Plow. . 
 
 Oxford Down Yearling Lambs, . 
 
 " Ram. . 
 Ox Lou.5e 
 
 Pake. 
 . 649 
 
 646, 647 
 646 
 648 
 640 
 644 
 639 
 654 
 655 
 652 
 142 
 
 ru, 
 
 Pasterns 
 
 Peacock 
 
 Peacock Pheasant, 
 Pea-Combed Partridge Cochins, 
 Pekin Ducks, .... 
 Pen for Turkey Poults. 
 Perfect Jlilk Pail. 
 Percheron-Norman Stallion, "Eldorado,' 
 Percheron-Norman Stallion. " Romulus,' 
 Philadelpliia Revolving Churn, . 
 Pigeons, group of. ... . 
 Owl, . . . . 
 
 600 
 602 
 599 
 241 
 1716 
 1716 
 1246 
 1491 
 
 1446 
 775 
 1730 
 1513 
 102 
 142 
 849 
 1046 
 1731 
 
 1451 
 1197 
 1198 
 
 652 
 97 
 
 421 
 1484 
 1505 
 1053 
 93 
 1105 
 1095 
 
 9!S2 
 
 693 
 1496 
 1497 
 1298 
 1467 
 1453 
 1031 
 676 
 703 
 10.54 
 1.500 
 1505 
 
(;knekal index of ilia^tkations. 
 
 Pigeon. WliiU' Ftiiuail, 
 Piircon Grass — liiistle Grass. . 
 Plan (if United Silos. . 
 Plan for Orchards. 
 
 Platform Scales 
 
 Plum and Peach C'ureulio Beetle. 
 
 •■ Larva, 
 
 ■■ Pupa. 
 
 •• Showing Mark made by ( 'uniili( 
 Plymouth liocks. 
 Pond and Fish way, 
 Pointer. '• Ru>h. ' 
 Points of the Horse. . 
 I'ocklington (irapc, 
 Pol.md China Swine, . 
 Polled Angus Cattle, . 
 Poultry (;roun<ls of G. S. Josselyn, 
 
 • (i) ■' L. E. Siusabaugl 
 House " G. W. Chidsey 
 •■ E. C. Comey, 
 
 ■■ Ground Plan of, 
 " '• ■■ Interior View of, 
 
 ■ William Gray, 
 
 Ground PI 
 
 ■■ F. Waugh, . 
 Vermiu (five eutsl 
 
 Potato Coverer 
 
 Potato Diggers 
 
 Potato Planter 
 
 Power Cotton Gin, 
 
 Prairie Farm 
 
 Pratt's Rare Ripe Peach. . 
 Prentiss Grape Vine, . 
 Prepared Stock and Bud. . 
 Ptarmigans. .... 
 Pug Dog 
 
 (Juail. American. 
 
 California. 
 
 European, 
 
 t^ui'en Bee 
 
 Queen of the Market Raspberry. 
 
 Haven 
 
 Rectangular Churn, . 
 
 Factory Churn. 
 Red. Winged Blackbird, . 
 Red Pile Games. 
 
 Red Start 
 
 Red Top 
 
 Rescue Grass, .... 
 Retriever. ... 
 Reliance Incubator. . 
 Reliance Raspbeiry. . 
 Rocky Mountain Locust, . 
 
 Root Cutters 
 
 Rose-Combed White Bantams. . 
 Leghorns. . 
 
 49; 
 I.57S 
 108^ 
 1683 
 1683 
 1683 
 :, 1683 
 1350 
 1756 
 15-33 
 683 
 1509 
 1206 
 863 
 1437 
 1434 
 1432 
 1436 
 1439 
 1436 
 1430 
 1433 
 1440 
 1422 
 442 
 347 
 340 
 398 
 604 
 1610 
 1631 
 1589 
 1785 
 l.)41 
 
 1276 
 1497 
 1276 
 1725 
 1660 
 
 1784 
 
 1054 
 
 1067 
 
 1782 
 
 1814 
 
 1779 
 
 153 
 
 178 
 
 1548 
 
 1396 
 
 1663 
 
 284 
 
 363 
 
 1371 
 
 1303 
 
 Page. 
 
 Uouen I)«Rks 146.5 
 
 liound Headed Apple Tree Borer, . . 16(<1 
 
 Pupa of. 1681 
 
 Larva of. 16SI 
 
 Ruhlniairs Wheel Hm' 1698 
 
 Rumpless ImjwIs 1364 
 
 Rural Cottage 627 
 
 Chamber Floor, Plan of, . 627 
 
 Grounrl Plan of. . .627 
 
 Rustic Bird Houses (M.\ cuts), . . 178G-1787 
 
 Rye Thresher 290 
 
 Rj'sdyk's Ihuubletonian 724 
 
 Salmon Trout. One Year old, 
 
 Two Years old, . 
 Tliree 
 Seeue in the Black Tea District. 
 Scene on the Graudin Farm, Dakota, Twen 
 ty Gang Plows in operation. . 
 
 Schrader's Grass 
 
 Scotch Collies 
 
 Scotch Terrier. .... 
 
 Sebastopol Geese 
 
 Self-Binding Harvester. 
 
 Seqtioia gigantea, — Giant Red "Wood, 
 
 Share's Coulter Harrow. . 
 
 Sheep's Fescue, 
 
 Sheep Ticks and Egg, 
 Short Stem Cauliflower, 
 Sharpless Seedling Strawberry. . 
 Shorthorn Bull. . ~ . 
 
 Cow 
 
 Grade Steers, 
 
 Steer 
 
 Silver-Pencile<l Hainburgs. 
 Silver Sebright Bantams, 
 
 Silver Skin Potato 
 
 Silk AVorm, East India. 
 
 Skeleton of the Hog 
 
 Sheei\ 
 
 Ox 
 
 Hor.se. 
 Skye Terrier. ..... 
 
 Small Chicks. : . . . . 
 
 Small Yorkshires. .... 
 
 Small Gherkin, or Burr Cucumber. . 
 
 Smut Grass 
 
 Snow-FIake Potato 
 
 Snow Bird, 
 
 Snowy Heron 
 
 Song Sparrow 
 
 Souhegan Rasjiberry,. 
 
 Southdown Buck 
 
 Southern Bent 
 
 Southern Seed Corn, . 
 
 Spring Cultivator for Cotton. . 
 
 Sparrow Hawk 
 
 Si)anish Fowls. ..... 
 
GENERAL INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 Paoe. 
 
 Stallion ■■ Frank Allen." . 
 
 
 751 
 
 Turnip, Early Flat Dutch, 
 
 . 1721 
 
 Stalk Cutter for Cotton or Corn Stalks 
 
 in 
 
 
 Twig Girdler 
 
 . 1686 
 
 the Field, 
 
 
 397 
 
 
 
 Stalk Cutters, 
 
 317, 318 
 
 Unnatural Po.sition of Horse's Hi-ad, 
 
 7T5 
 
 Steam Sugar Works 
 
 
 410 
 
 Use of Lampas Iron. . 
 
 790 
 
 Stone and Root Puller, 
 
 
 97 
 
 
 
 St. Bernard Dog " Don." . 
 
 
 1515 
 
 Vanilla Grass 
 
 179 
 
 Steam Cheese Vat, .... 
 
 
 1080 
 
 Vergennes Grape, 
 
 . 1627 
 
 Sultan Fowls 
 
 
 1361 
 
 Vesey Homestead Cottage. 
 
 623 
 
 Sub-Soil Eagle Plow, .... 
 
 
 93 
 
 Victor Clover Machine, 
 
 . 205 
 
 Sub-Soil Plow, Grub Honk, 
 
 
 97 
 
 
 
 Sugar Evaporator 
 
 
 417 
 
 Wagon Jack, .... 
 
 667 
 
 Stationary Sugar Evaporator. . 
 
 
 419 
 
 Warren Strawberry. . 
 
 . 1649 
 
 Swiss Chard Beet, .... 
 
 
 366 
 
 Water Grass 
 
 174 
 
 Swiss Bull 
 
 
 899 
 
 Whip or Tongue Grafting, 
 
 . 1.586 
 
 '• Cow, 
 
 
 903 
 
 White-crested Black Polish Fowls. 
 White •• 
 
 . 1324 
 . 1329 
 
 Taggart's Abdallah 
 
 
 7G4 
 
 ■• DucU^.. . 
 
 . 1461 
 
 Tall Panic Grass. Switeli Grass. 
 
 
 192 
 
 White Call Ducks, . 
 
 . 1471 
 
 Tall Red Top, 
 
 
 169 
 
 China Geese, . 
 
 . 1478 
 
 Tea Leaves, 
 
 
 454 
 
 Cochins, 
 
 . 1381 
 
 Texas Jlillet, 
 
 
 141 
 
 Dorkings, 
 
 . 1341 
 
 Texas Cattle 
 
 
 914 
 
 Fantail Pigeon, 
 
 . 1503 
 
 The Angler's Pride 
 
 
 1755 
 
 Georgian Games, 
 
 . 1319 
 
 The Highland Shepherd's Chief Mourner, 
 
 1520 
 
 Henny 
 
 . 1322 
 
 The Last Struggle, .... 
 
 
 1753 
 
 " Holland Turkeys. . 
 
 . 1447 
 
 The Old 'ft^orld and the New, . 
 
 
 1487 
 
 Leghorns, 
 
 . 1303 
 
 The Society of Fi-iends, 
 
 
 1560 
 
 " Silkies, .... 
 
 . 1362 
 
 The New Buckeye Table Rake, 
 
 
 279 
 
 Winged Crossbill, . 
 
 . 1783 
 
 The Silos of M. Aviguste Goflfart. Burt 
 
 n, 
 
 
 Wild Fescue 
 
 . 177 
 
 Frauce, 
 
 
 488 
 
 " Boar 
 
 . 1196 
 
 Thomas Harrow, .... 
 
 
 103 
 
 " Goose, .... 
 
 . 1785 
 
 Threshers and Cleaners, 
 
 280, 282 
 
 •' Turkey, .... 
 
 . 1443 
 
 Tillage in India, ..... 
 
 
 89 
 
 Wilson's Early Blackberry. 
 
 . 1668 
 
 Timber-land Plow, .... 
 
 
 88 
 
 .Junior 
 
 . 1667 
 
 Timothy 
 
 
 145 
 
 Tern 
 
 . 1784 
 
 Titmice 
 
 
 1782 
 
 Wired Comb Foundai ion, . 
 
 . 1 732 
 
 Tobacco Ridger. .... 
 
 
 442 
 
 Wood Ducks 
 
 1472, 1785 
 
 Tomatoes, Early Acme, 
 
 
 1721 
 
 Wood Grass, .... 
 
 . I«4 
 
 Paragon,. 
 
 
 1721 
 
 Woodpeckers 
 
 . 1777 
 
 Trophy 
 
 
 1721 
 
 AVood Peewce. .... 
 
 . 1779 
 
 To Prevent Inversion of the Vagina 
 
 iu 
 
 
 Working Bue, .... 
 
 . 1725 
 
 Cows 
 
 
 981 
 
 Worrall's Centennial lli\c, 
 
 . 17:!1 
 
 Toulouse Geese, ..... 
 
 
 1478 
 
 
 
 Traction or Self Propelling Farm Engine, 
 
 545 
 
 Yard Grass 
 
 165 
 
 
 
 1031 
 
 Yellow Globe Mangel Wur/.el. . 
 
 . 316 
 
 Trotting Stallion " Alexander, " . 
 
 
 754 
 
 Yellow-rum ped W.-irbler, . 
 
 . 1781 
 
 Trotting Stallion " Gov. Sprague," . 
 
 
 o 
 
 ■• Warbler. 
 
 . 1780 
 
 Trotting Stallion •■ Thorndale.". 
 
 
 743 
 
 Young Tea Plant and Root. 
 
 . 457 
 
 Trotting Horse " .Tay-Eyc-See," . 
 
 
 T:!8 
 
 
 
XXX 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 Analysis of Natural Grasses, . . . 229 
 
 Corn 37, 39, 304 
 
 •' when cut in green state. 508 
 Grain and Straw, 
 Green Crops, . 
 
 Hay 
 
 Milk 
 
 Hoots ami Tops, 
 
 Soils 
 
 37 
 37 
 37 
 1007 
 37 
 
 '• Table of, . 
 
 27, 28 
 
 Unproductive Soils, Table of. 
 
 28 
 
 Sugar-Cane. 
 
 412 
 
 Weeds 
 
 229 
 
 Anchylosis. 
 
 803 
 
 Auconas. ...... 
 
 1334 
 
 Andalusian Fowls 
 
 1352 
 
 ,," Merits and Defects of. . 
 
 1353 
 
 Angel Cake 
 
 1829 
 
 Angora Goat 
 
 1183 
 
 Importation of into United States,llS4 
 
 Habits of, .... 
 
 1185 
 
 General Management of, . 
 
 1185 
 
 " Care of Kids 
 
 1186 
 
 Food of 
 
 1186 
 
 Grades of 
 
 1186 
 
 " Use of to Protect Sheep, . 
 
 1187 
 
 Products of 
 
 1187 
 
 Shearings of 
 
 1188 
 
 Preparing Jlohair for Market, 
 
 1188 
 
 " Diseases of, ... . 
 
 1188 
 
 Parasites of 
 
 1188 
 
 .iVnglers" Pride 
 
 1755 
 
 Animal Excrements. Analysis of. 
 
 38 
 
 " Dust 
 
 57 
 
 " Analysis of. . 
 
 57 
 
 
 1897 
 
 Animals and Plants, Relation of. 
 
 1884 
 
 as Machines 
 
 1848 
 
 Composition of 
 
 1955 
 
 Constituents of Foods retained by. 
 
 1884 
 
 Feeding of 
 
 1954 
 
 Improvement of. . 
 
 1953 
 
 on Grain Farms 
 
 1S9S 
 
 Aunular or Ring Budding. 
 
 l.-)9(t 
 
 Anthrax, 96.-) am 
 
 I 1943 
 
 An Ornamental Cottage 
 
 624 
 
 Antidotes for Poisons 
 
 1835 
 
 Aphides 
 
 1679 
 
 or Cotton Lice 
 
 403 
 
 A Picturesriue Country Villa, . 
 
 623 
 
 Apparent Trifles. Significance of. 
 
 1S44 
 
 Appearance of Interior of Fowls" Eggs 
 
 
 during Incubation 
 
 13!H) 
 
 Apiary 
 
 1724 
 
 Apo])lexy in Swine 
 
 1236 
 
 Apple, flu- 
 
 1596 
 
 Crab. Varielies of 
 
 159:) 
 
 Apple Orchards, Site and Soil for. . 1597 
 
 Propagation of 1597 
 
 Storing 1599 
 
 " Varieties of, 1597 
 
 adapted to the extreme 
 
 Northern Section, 1598 
 
 " North, . . 1598 
 
 Sliddle Section. 
 Southern and South- 
 
 iit Hendc 
 
 western Sections 
 Apple Worm, 
 
 Tree Borer, 
 
 " Round and Fl 
 
 Application of Manures, 
 
 Commercial Fertilizers 
 " Manures 
 
 Apricots, 
 
 Varieties of, . 
 " Cultiyation of, 
 Artesian Wells, . 
 Arsenic, 
 Arrow Root, 
 
 Articles of Diet for the Sick 
 Artichokes, . 
 
 Analysis of, 
 Cultivation of. 
 Globe. 
 Planting of. 
 Varieties of. 
 Artificial Spawning Beds 
 
 Swarming of Bees, 
 A Sail in a Paris Sewer, 
 Ash Constituents of Foods, 
 Ashes. Coal, 
 •• Leached. 
 ■ of Sea-Weed. 
 
 • Peat 
 
 • Wood, 
 Asparagus 
 
 Varieties of. 
 Cultivation of, . 
 Cuttingand Prepariu 
 Colossal . 
 Ass, The. . 
 
 " Varieties, etc.. 
 Assorting Tobacco. 
 Asufficient supply of Pure Water for Milch 
 
 Cows, . ! 
 Atavism. 
 Atmosphere. Composition, and Relation 
 
 lo Plant Growth, 
 .Vverage Age. Weight, and Gain of Bee 
 
 Cattle per Day. 
 .\venige Life of Working Bees, 
 Axtell. . " . 
 
 Ayrshires. .... 
 Desciijiliou of. 
 
 1598 
 
 1679 
 
 1681 
 
 1682 
 
 1890 
 
 83 
 
 83 
 
 1613 
 
 1613 
 
 1613 
 
 535 
 
 1835 
 
 1837 
 
 1836 
 
 371 
 
 372 
 
 372 
 
 366 
 
 372 
 
 372 
 
 1762 
 
 1733 
 
 50 
 
 1957 
 
 61 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 1706 
 
 1706 
 
 1706 
 
 g for Market, 1707 
 
 1598 
 
 826 
 
 826 
 448 
 
 1023 
 1251 
 
 1910 
 
 948 
 1726 
 1968 
 

 Page. 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 Ayrshiri's, Dairy CliaiaclcTistics of, . 
 
 886 
 
 Barrel Coops, 
 
 1393 
 
 A>iosl)uiT Ducks 
 
 1460 
 
 Barren Eggs, ..... 
 
 1389 
 
 
 
 Barrenness in Cows, .... 
 
 968 
 
 liacoii. Curing of 
 
 123:i 
 
 Bartlett Pears 
 
 1603 
 
 Smoking of, . 
 
 1234 
 
 Bars in Road-Making, 
 
 552 
 
 IJiutcria, ... 
 
 1849 
 
 Bat Guano 
 
 60 
 
 Baked Shad, ami Bluefish, . 
 
 1823 
 
 Bath for Hogs 
 
 1331 
 
 Bale of Cotton, Weight of. 
 
 1840 
 
 Beans, ....... 
 
 1707 
 
 Baltimore Oriole 
 
 1780 
 
 Cultivation of 
 
 1708 
 
 Balking 
 
 772 
 
 Varieties, etc., 
 
 475 
 
 Baling Hay, 
 
 347 
 
 Cultivation of 
 
 476 
 
 Pres.s, Lever 
 
 247 
 
 Harvesting, .... 
 
 476 
 
 " Steam 
 
 248 
 
 Field, Formula of Fertilizers for, 
 
 81 
 
 Bantams 
 
 1366 
 
 Castor, ..... 
 
 477 
 
 Booted, White, . 
 
 1373 
 
 Cultivation of. 
 
 477 
 
 Games 
 
 1369 
 
 Horse, Cultivation, etc., . 
 
 476 
 
 Golden Sebright, . 
 
 1373 
 
 Improved Lima, 
 
 366 
 
 Silver Sebright, . 
 
 1374 
 
 Lima, ..... 
 
 1708 
 
 Japanese 
 
 1377 
 
 " Cultivation of. 
 
 1708 
 
 Merits and Defects of , . 
 
 1378 
 
 Bearded Golden Polish, 
 
 1328 
 
 Nankin. .... 
 
 1377 
 
 Silver Polish, 
 
 1328 
 
 Pekin 
 
 1377 
 
 White Polish, 
 
 1331 
 
 "_ Kose-Combed Black, . 
 
 1370 
 
 Bed Bugs, How to Exterminate, 
 
 1834 
 
 White, . 
 
 1370 
 
 Beef Productions, .... 
 
 944 
 
 General JIauagement of. 
 
 1378 
 
 " Soup 
 
 1831 
 
 
 l.JOl 
 
 " Steak Smothered in Onions, 
 
 1823 
 
 Harl) Wire Fence, .... 
 
 570 
 
 " Tea 
 
 1837 
 
 Harcfoot Horses 
 
 793 
 
 " .Juice and Wine. 
 
 1837 
 
 Bark Louse 
 
 1679 
 
 Bees and their Management, 
 
 1724 
 
 Bailey 
 
 297 
 
 •' Natural History of, . 
 
 1724 
 
 Cultivation nf 
 
 298 
 
 " Queen 
 
 1725 
 
 Harvesting, .... 
 
 299 
 
 " Working 
 
 1736 
 
 and Clover 
 
 1867 
 
 " Drone 
 
 1737 
 
 Climate and Range of Growth ul, 
 
 1914 
 
 " Average Life of Working, 
 
 1736 
 
 Every Year. Yields, 
 
 1867 
 
 • Prolific Workers, 
 
 1737 
 
 in notation, .... 
 
 1867 
 
 " Varieties of, .... 
 
 1737 
 
 Statistics of, .... 
 
 1914 
 
 " Black or German. 
 
 1737 
 
 CTruel 
 
 1836 
 
 " Cj'priau, ..... 
 
 1728 
 
 Soup 
 
 1821 
 
 '■ Italian 172 
 
 7. 1738 
 
 •■ Water 
 
 1837 
 
 •■ Implements Essential in the Apiary, 
 
 1738 
 
 Barn. The, 6 
 
 41, 650 
 
 '■ Veil 
 
 1728 
 
 •• Cellars 
 
 42, 661 
 
 " Honey Knives, .... 
 
 1728 
 
 Location of, plans for. etc.. 
 
 643 
 
 " Smokers, 
 
 1728 
 
 Ground Plan for. 
 
 646 
 
 " Honey E.xtractors, 
 
 1729 
 
 Bams, Cattle 
 
 656 
 
 " Hives, 
 
 1729 
 
 " .Dairy 
 
 651 
 
 " Chaff Eclectic Hives, 
 
 1730 
 
 Farm 
 
 650 
 
 " Nellis Chaff Hives, . 
 
 1730 
 
 " Hor.se. ..... 
 
 653 
 
 " Langstroth Hives, 
 
 1731 
 
 '■ Model 639, 6 
 
 40, 644 
 
 " " " Improved, 
 
 1730 
 
 old and new. .... 
 
 652 
 
 " Frames and Boxes of Langstroth, 
 
 1731 
 
 Barnyard Manure 4 
 
 ), 1883 
 
 " North Star Hive, 
 
 1731 
 
 and Drainage, 
 
 1858 
 
 " Enemies and Diseases of, . 
 
 1737 
 
 Effects of. 
 
 1872 
 
 . " Moth 
 
 1737 
 
 how preserved, 
 
 1890 
 
 " Keeping Honey, 
 
 1738 
 
 Management of. 
 
 1887 
 
 " Marketing Honey, 
 
 1738 
 
 Value of. 
 
 1885 
 
 " Profits of Bee Keeping, 
 
 1739 
 
 " " Waste of. 
 
 1847 
 
 Bee Hives, Worrall's Centennial. 
 
 . 1731 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Bcc Hives, Circular I'i^Sl 
 
 " Conil) Foundation of, . . 1732 
 
 " Summer Manucement, . . 1732 
 
 " Swarmin;;, .... 1732 
 
 Artificially, . . 1733 
 
 " Hiving New Swarms, . 1734 
 
 " Wintering, .... 1734 
 
 Introducing a Xcw Queen, . 1735 
 
 Stimulative Feeding, . 1735 
 
 Removing Honey From Hires, 1736 
 
 Honey -Bearing Plants, . . 1736 
 
 Beets, 364 
 
 " Varieties of 365 
 
 " Cultivation of, 365 
 
 " Harvesting, 367 
 
 " Storage of, 307 
 
 " Blood Turnip, 366 
 
 " Early Red 366 
 
 " Imperial Sugar, .... 370 
 
 " Long Blood 366 
 
 " JIaugel Wurzcl, . 366, 367, 370 
 
 " " Cultivation of, . 367 
 
 " Swiss Chard 366 
 
 Boetle, Colorado, 349 
 
 Bi'lgiau Carrot 370 
 
 Benefits to be Derived from Grafting, 1584 
 
 Berkshire Swine, 1202 
 
 " Description of , . . . 1202 
 
 Best Breed of Fowls to Keep, . . . 1278 
 
 " Time for Grafting 1585 
 
 " " Pruning 1582 
 
 " American Trotting-time, . 719, 741 
 
 " ^Method of Shoeing Horses, . 792 
 
 " aietbods of Killing Cattle, . 1565 
 
 " " " " Swine, . . 1566 
 
 Sheep and Lambs, 1566 
 
 " " " " Calves, . 1565 
 
 " Russian Trotting-time, . . 719 
 
 " Records of Fleetest Running Horses, 742 
 
 Bitting Process, The 767 
 
 Biological Conditions of Soils, . . . 1849 
 
 Factors in Farming, . . . 1938 
 
 Bidwcll Strawberry 1647 
 
 Bird Louse 982 
 
 " Houses 1786, 1787 
 
 Birds, Agricultural uses of, . . . 1777 
 
 Classilication of 1777 
 
 Birds' Xcst Pudding 1828 
 
 Birds, Tabular View of Food of. , . 1781 
 
 Biscuit 1826 
 
 Black and Tan Terrier 1537 
 
 " Yellow Warblers, . 1780 
 
 " Bass . 1754 
 
 Blackberries 1667 
 
 " Varieties of, . . 1667 
 
 Planting 1667 
 
 Cultivation 1667 
 
 Blackberries, Wilson's Early 
 
 " Winter Protection of, 
 
 " Kittatinny, 
 
 Yield and Profit of, 
 " Enemies and Diseases of , 
 
 Blackberry Wine, 
 Black-billed Cuckoo. . 
 Blackbird, Red- winged. 
 Black-crested White Polish Fowls, 
 
 " Spanish Fowls, 
 
 " East India Duck, 
 
 " Faced or Heath Breeds, 
 Breasted Red Games, 
 
 " Games, 
 Blue 
 
 Black Cochins. . 
 Hamburgs, 
 
 " Knot, 
 Blackleg, . 
 Black Necked Swan, . 
 Swan, 
 
 " Turkey, . 
 Blackwater, 
 Black Hawk, 
 
 Junior, . 
 Black Tea District, . 
 Bladder, Inflammation of. 
 Blanching Celery, 
 Blanc Mange, 
 Bleeding Horses, 
 Blinders for Horses, . 
 Blinds for Buildings, . 
 Blight, 
 
 Bloodgood Pear, 
 Bloodhound. 
 Bloodsucker, The, 
 Bloody Jlilk. 
 
 " Murrain, 
 Blood as a Fertilizer, . 
 Blue Jay, . 
 Boar, Selection of. 
 Bobolink, . 
 Boiled Cider Pie, 
 Border Leicester Sheep. 
 Borer, Apple Tree, 
 
 " " Round Headed, 
 
 Flat 
 Borecole or Kale, 
 Bottling Cider, . 
 Bottom of Fish Ponds, 
 Boxing and Packing Cheese, 
 Boys on the Farm, 
 Boards In Drains, 
 Bolometer, Prof. Langley's, 
 Bones as a Fertilizer, . 
 
 " How to Reduce and Pulverize 
 Bokhara Clover, .... 
 

 liNl 
 
 Jt^ji.. 
 
 XXXlll 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 Boll-Worm, The 
 
 . 407 
 
 Brood Sows, 
 
 . 1218 
 
 Boulounaise Draft Horses, . 
 
 . 708 
 
 Rearing of, . 
 
 . 1218 
 
 Box-Stalls 
 
 . 659 
 
 Brook Trout, 
 
 . 1755 
 
 " to Preserve Manure, . 
 
 . 1889 
 
 Brooks, ...... 
 
 . 529 
 
 Brabmas, ...... 
 
 . 1289 
 
 Broom Corn, . . . 
 
 478 
 
 " Light, 
 
 . 1290 
 
 Soil anil Preparation for, 
 
 . 479 
 
 Dark, 
 
 1293 
 
 Planting, 
 
 . 479 
 
 Merits and Defects of. 
 
 129.3 
 
 " Cultivation of. 
 
 . 480 
 
 Breaking Up Broody Hens, 
 
 1410 
 
 Harvesting of. 
 
 480 
 
 and General Management of 
 
 
 " Curing, .... 
 
 . 481 
 
 Mules 
 
 832 
 
 Brown-red Games, .... 
 
 1317 
 
 Colts to the Harness, . 
 
 768 
 
 Leghorns, .... 
 
 . 1302 
 
 " " " Saddle, . 
 
 771 
 
 " Soup, ..... 
 
 . 1821 
 
 Bredas or Guelders, .... 
 
 1339 
 
 Brown's Troches 
 
 . 1833 
 
 Breeding of Horses, The, . 
 
 746 
 
 Buckwheat, ..... 
 
 . 299 
 
 " Disqualiiications for, 
 
 747 
 
 " Varieties, 
 
 . 300 
 
 " Mares, Care of, . 
 
 751 
 
 Cultivation, Harvesting of 
 
 
 " Mules, .... 
 
 831 
 
 etc 
 
 300 
 
 " of Animals in a Wild State, 
 
 1268 
 
 Formula of Fertilizers for. 
 
 80 
 
 
 1219 
 
 " When Grown, . 
 
 1916 
 
 " Influence of First Impregnation 
 
 
 Budding, ...... 
 
 1588 
 
 on the Dam, . 
 
 1267 
 
 " Selecting Buds for. 
 
 1588 
 
 of Cattle 
 
 920 
 
 Cutting Buds for. 
 
 1589 
 
 Dogs 
 
 1541 
 
 Prepared Stock and Buds for. 
 
 1589 
 
 " Sheep, .... 
 
 1134 
 
 Annular, .... 
 
 1590 
 
 " Swine, .... 
 
 1215 
 
 Shield 
 
 1588 
 
 Breeds of Sheep, .... 
 
 1099 
 
 Buffalo Clover, . ' . 
 
 210 
 
 " of Cattle and their Characteristics, 
 
 836 
 
 " Moth, 
 
 1816 
 
 " and Principles of Breeding, . 
 
 1248 
 
 Buff Cochins, ..... 
 
 1294 
 
 " How Formed, 
 
 1248 
 
 " Turkeys 
 
 1448 
 
 Atavism of 
 
 1251 
 
 Buildings, Farm, .... 6 
 
 13, 654 
 
 " Heredity of, . 
 
 1251 
 
 ■' Height of, 
 
 655 
 
 " Variability of, ... 
 
 1255 
 
 " " Painting, 
 
 616 
 
 " Selections of, . 
 
 1257 
 
 " Plans of, . 
 
 621 
 
 " The Best Animals Selected, . 
 
 1258 
 
 " " Repairing, 
 
 616 
 
 " Respective Influence of Sire and 
 
 
 Necessary on the Farm, 
 
 615 
 
 Dam, 
 
 1258 
 
 Bull Terrier 
 
 1522 
 
 Prepotency of Transmission, . 
 
 1260 
 
 " Dog, 
 
 1521 
 
 " -The Animal and the Pedigree, 
 
 1261 
 
 Bulrush, Morgan, .... 
 
 727 
 
 " Inbreeding, . . • . 
 
 1262 
 
 Burr Cucumber 
 
 370 
 
 Crossing, .... 
 
 1263 
 
 Business Principles in Farming, 
 
 1848 
 
 " Age for Breeding, . 
 
 1264 
 
 .... 
 
 1789 
 
 Controlling the Sex of OU'spriug, 
 
 1265 
 
 Butter as an Article of Food, 
 
 1035 
 
 " Breeding Calendar, 
 
 1269 
 
 " Coloring of, . 
 
 1059 
 
 Important Facts for Farmers, 
 
 1271 
 
 " Methods of Obtaining the Cream of 
 
 1037 
 
 " Choice of, ... . 
 
 1953 
 
 " Packing of 
 
 1059 
 
 Futility of Experiments to Deter- 
 
 
 " Working of, . 
 
 1057 
 
 mine Relative Value of, 
 
 1953 
 
 " from Sweet Cream, 
 
 1051 
 
 Brandy wine Raspberry, 
 
 1660 
 
 " Sour Cream, . 
 
 1051 
 
 Brighton Grape 
 
 1631 
 
 " Salting of, .... . 
 
 1057 
 
 Brinkle's Orange, .... 
 
 1661 
 
 " Granules, ...... 
 
 1054 
 
 Brick Silos, 
 
 491 
 
 " Washing of, . 
 
 105 ! 
 
 Brittle Hoofs, Remedy for, etc. , 
 
 794 
 
 Adulteration of, . 
 
 1061 
 
 Broccoli 
 
 1709 
 
 Butter-Worker, 
 
 594 
 
 Bronchitis 
 
 968 
 
 •' AVhite Specks in, . 
 
 1060 
 
 Bronze Turkeys, 
 
 1445 
 
 " Rancidity in 
 
 1061 
 
 Mammoth, 
 
 1445 
 
 " Grain in, 
 
 1059 
 

 
 Paoe. 
 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 Butter Tniy 
 
 
 1058 
 
 Castor Beans, Cultivation of, . 
 
 477 
 
 ■' Yields 
 
 
 1063 
 
 Castor Pomace as a Fertilizer, 
 
 57 
 
 ■■ Trier 
 
 
 1067 
 
 Castration of Colts, 
 
 756 
 
 " Box aud Cooler, 
 
 
 1068 
 
 Calves, ..... 
 
 929 
 
 ■ Milk, Cheese 
 
 
 1080 
 
 Lambs, ..... 
 
 1140 
 
 liy-l'roduets of (;;is- Works, Value of. 
 
 
 1844 
 
 Catarrh in Sheep 
 
 1233 
 1171 
 
 CaMi.Mii,c 
 
 
 1700 
 
 Catch-waters in Ituad Alakiii;:, . 
 
 552 
 
 Calendar, IJreediiig 
 
 12(i>J 
 
 1270 
 
 Catch Crops, 
 
 1875 
 
 Calf Lou.se, 
 
 
 983 
 
 Catchup, 
 
 1833 
 
 Call Dueks 
 
 
 1470 
 
 Caterpillars 
 
 1682 
 
 •' Gray and Wliile, 
 
 1470 
 
 1471 
 
 Cattle 
 
 835 
 
 Caleareous Soils 
 
 
 15 
 
 " Adaptation of Breeds to Localities. . 
 
 837 
 
 Canadian Horse. The, 
 
 
 730 
 
 " Advantages of the Soiling System, . 
 
 937 
 
 Canada Goose, .... 
 
 
 1480 
 
 " Average Age, Weight, and Gain of 
 
 
 Canker Worm. .... 
 
 .,1 
 
 1683 
 1946 
 
 Beef Cattle Per Day, . 
 ■■ Barn 
 
 948 
 656 
 
 Canned Articles of Food. 1k>\a" Preser\' 
 
 "(l, . 
 
 (,'anning Tomatoes, .... 
 
 
 1833 
 
 ■' Breeds and their Characteristics, 
 
 835 
 
 Cantaloupes 
 
 
 1717 
 
 
 ■ Alderney, .... 
 
 879 
 
 Can't You Talk 
 
 
 1533 
 
 
 ' Angus 
 
 860 
 
 Capital, (iomhinations of, . 
 
 
 1844 
 
 
 ' Ayrshire, ..... 
 
 882 
 
 Loss of in the Industries, 
 
 
 1846 
 
 
 ' Ayrshire Cow, 
 
 1081 
 
 ('arbohydrates as Factors in Nutrition 
 
 
 1955 
 
 
 Description of, . 
 
 886 
 
 Caranian, or Pat-tailed Sheep, . 
 
 1127 
 
 1138 
 
 
 Dairy Characteristics o 
 
 f, 886 
 
 Care of Chickens 
 
 
 1393 
 
 
 ' Devon 
 
 848 
 
 " Ewes During Period of Gestati 
 
 on, . 
 
 1136 
 
 
 as working Oxen, 
 
 852 
 
 " Calves, ..... 
 
 
 927 
 
 
 Description of. 
 
 851 
 
 " Hot Beds 
 
 
 1700 
 
 
 '• for Beef, 
 
 852 
 
 " House Plants. 
 
 
 1833 
 
 
 in the Dairy, 
 
 851 
 
 " Kids 
 
 
 1186 
 
 " 
 
 ' Dutch 
 
 888 
 
 " Poultry in Summer, 
 
 
 1380 
 
 " 
 
 Color of , . . . 
 
 891 
 
 ' Winter, 
 
 
 1383 
 
 
 Dairy Characteristics of, 
 
 892 
 
 " Sick Dogs 
 
 
 1549 
 
 " 
 
 ' " Description of. 
 
 888 
 
 " Young Pigs 
 
 
 1331 
 
 
 '■ Flexibility. . 
 
 891 
 
 " Breeding-Mares, 
 
 
 751 
 
 
 " Horns 
 
 891 
 
 " Cattle at Mountain-Side Farm, 
 
 
 601 
 
 " 
 
 Varieties of, . 
 
 888 
 
 " Cows at Deerfoot Farm, 
 
 
 601 
 
 .. 
 
 " Quality of Milk, . 
 
 892 
 
 " Roads, Objection to Present System, 
 
 554 
 
 " 
 
 ' Galloway, .... 
 
 862 
 
 " Stallions, . , , . 
 
 
 751 
 
 
 Description, 
 
 862 
 
 " Young Colts 
 
 
 753 
 
 " 
 
 ' Guernsey, .... 
 
 880 
 
 Carriage Horse, The 
 
 
 681 
 
 
 Bull. 
 
 881 
 
 Carrot, 
 
 368 
 
 1711 
 
 
 Cow, 
 
 1110 
 
 Cultivation of, . , . 
 
 
 368 
 
 
 Dairy Characteristics of ,881 
 
 Harvesting of, ... 
 
 
 369 
 
 
 ' " Description of. 
 
 880 
 
 Varieties of 
 
 
 369 
 
 " 
 
 ' " Scale of Points of, . 
 
 881 
 
 Storing of 
 
 
 369 
 
 
 ' Herefords 
 
 855 
 
 Seed, Cultivation of, etc.. 
 
 
 369 
 
 
 " as Oxen, . 
 
 860 
 
 Belgian 
 
 
 370 
 
 " 
 
 Beef Qualities of, . 
 
 859 
 
 Carenton 
 
 
 370 
 
 " ' 
 
 Description of. 
 
 856 
 
 Early Scarlet, 
 
 
 370 
 
 
 " Value of in the Dairy 
 
 859 
 
 Horn, 
 
 
 370 
 
 
 ' Highland, .... 
 
 866 
 
 " Long Orange, 
 
 
 370 
 
 " 
 
 Classes of. 
 
 868 
 
 Scarlet 
 
 
 370 
 
 
 Dairy Breeds, . 
 
 867 
 
 Weeder 
 
 
 369 
 
 
 Description of, 
 
 867 
 
 Carolina, or Wood Ducks, . 
 
 1472 
 
 1475 
 
 
 ' Holstein, 
 
 895 
 
 Carrier Pigeons 
 
 
 1501 
 
 " 
 
 ' " Dairy Characteristics, 
 
 89G 
 
 Cassady Sulky Plow, .... 
 
 
 88 
 
 " ' 
 
 ' " Description of. 
 
 896 
 
INDEX. 
 
 C*ttle, Breeds, Holstein for Beef, . . 898 
 
 " Jersey 868 
 
 ' Belle of Scituate," . 876 
 
 " Cow, Scule of points of, 873 
 
 Description of, . . 871 
 •• "Eurotas," . . .877 
 
 •• "Queen of Barnet," . 87r) 
 •' Testing of. . .875 
 
 " Kerry, 904 
 
 " Dairy Properties, . . 907 
 
 " " Description, . 904 
 
 " Long Horns, .... 865 
 
 Ox, .866 
 
 ■■ Polled or Hornless, . 860 
 
 " Jamestown Bull, 861 
 
 '■ Shetland 907 
 
 " Short-Horns 841 
 
 as Milkers, 844 
 
 " Working Oxen, . 847 
 
 " " Description of, 843 
 
 for Beef, ... 844 
 
 " Suffolk 861 
 
 ■' Swiss 898, 1004 
 
 " " Description of, 901 
 
 " for the Dairy, . 903 
 
 " Texan 913 
 
 " " Acclimation of, . 914 
 " Group of, . .914 
 
 Beef Production 944 
 
 Breeding 920 
 
 Calves, Care of Young, . 935 
 
 Castration of, . . 939 
 
 Pall and Winter Care of, . 937 
 
 for Veal 926 
 
 Rearing by Hand, 926 
 
 Food for 932 
 
 Winter Protection for, . . 931 
 
 Care of Cows at Time of Calving, . 924 
 Diagram for Cutting a Carcass of Beef, 950 
 
 Diseases of, 961 
 
 Abortion 962 
 
 " Principal Cau.ses of, 963 
 
 " Symptoms of, . 964 
 
 Treatment of, . 965 
 
 Albuminaria, . 965 
 
 Anthrax, .... 965 
 
 " Barrenness (See Sterility), . 968 
 
 Catarrh 969 
 
 Chapped Teats, . . .969 
 
 Choking 970 
 
 Colic 970 
 
 " Congestion of Brain, . . 971 
 
 " Constipation, . . . 971 
 
 " Cow Pox or Vaccine Variola, 972 
 " Cystitis (See Inflammation 
 
 of Bladder), . . .973 
 
 Diarrhea 972 
 
 Cattle Diseases, Dysentery, . 
 Epilepsy, . 
 Fouls. 
 Fractures, . 
 Garget, 
 Glossitis, 
 Grub, . 
 Haematuria, 
 Hernia. 
 
 Husk, or Hoose, 
 Hoven, 
 
 Intlammatiini of Bladder 
 Brain, 
 Kidneys 
 " Livei-, 
 
 Inflammation of Lungs (See 
 
 Pneumonia), 
 Inflammation of Uddei 
 
 (See Garget), 
 Inversion of Uterus, . 
 Itch (See Mange), 
 Jaundice, or Yellows, 
 Laryngitis, or S o r ( 
 
 Throat, 
 Leakage of Teats, 
 Leucorrhea, or Whites, 
 Lice, .... 
 Ox Louse. . 
 Calf "... 
 Bird "... 
 Loss of Cud. 
 Malignant Sore Throat, 
 Mammitis (See Garget), 
 Mange, 
 Milk Fever. 
 Nephritis, . 
 Ophthalmia, 
 Pleuro Pneumonia, . 
 Pleuro Pneumonia. Pre 
 
 vention of, . 
 Pneumonia, 
 Puerperal Fever, 
 Rabies, or Hydrophobia 
 Red Water (Haematuria) 
 Rinderpest, 
 Ringworm, 
 Sprains, 
 Sterility, 
 Stricture, or Obstruction 
 
 of Cows' Teats, . 
 Tetanus, or Lock-jaw, 
 Texas Fever, 
 
 " Symptoms of 
 Post Mortem 
 
 Appearance of Car 
 
 cass. 
 Tuberculosis, 
 
Cattle, Diseases, Tympanites (See Hoven), 994 
 
 ■' Venomous Bites, 
 
 994 
 
 Warbles (See Grub 
 
 . 995 
 
 Warts, . 
 
 . 995 
 
 Wens, . 
 
 995 
 
 Wounds, 
 
 995 
 
 " Diagram for Cutting a Carcass of 
 
 Beef 
 
 950 
 
 " Dryina; off Cows, 
 
 923 
 
 ■' Earlv Breeding of Heifers, 
 
 923 
 
 " Farm Pets, 
 
 . 925 
 
 " Feeding for Beef, 
 
 . 945 
 
 " Feeding Value of Different Kinds of 
 
 Food 
 
 936 
 
 " Flavor of Beef, . 
 
 946 
 
 " General Indications of Disease in. 961 
 
 " General Treatment of Breedin^ 
 
 r and 
 
 Milch Cows, 
 
 923 
 
 '• Grades of Various Breeds of. 
 
 . 908 
 
 " Habits of Prairie Cattle, . 
 
 955 
 
 " HeaTv Weight of Fat Steers, 
 
 949 
 
 " Herding 
 
 953 
 
 Essentials in, 
 
 954 
 
 '• How to Cut a Carcass of Beef, 
 
 951 
 
 " How to Determine the Age of. 
 
 943 
 
 " How to Improve Farm Stock, 
 
 921 
 
 '• Marbled Beef, . 
 
 947 
 
 ■' Native 
 
 911 
 
 '• One Should Never Buv, . 
 
 920 
 
 " Pulse, Respiration of, etc.. 
 
 . 960 
 
 " Quality and Quantity of Food i 
 
 or. . 933 
 
 •' Riinch, Description of. 
 
 . 956 
 
 ' ' Rations for Farm Animals, 
 
 934 
 
 " Skeleton of the Ox, . 
 
 960 
 
 " Soiling 
 
 937 
 
 " " Advantages of Soiling 
 
 Svs- 
 
 tem, . 
 
 . 937 
 
 " Objections to SoUing Sy 
 
 stem, 938 
 
 " and Pasturing Compare 
 
 d. . 938 
 
 " " Crops for. 
 
 940 
 
 " Methods of, . 
 
 941 
 
 '■ Spaying Cows, . 
 
 929 
 
 '• Table of Feeding, . 
 
 935 
 
 " What Breeds to Keep, 
 
 . 919 
 
 Constitutes a Good Bovin 
 
 e An- 
 
 imal, . 
 
 918 
 
 Cats and Clover Seed, 
 
 . 1947 
 
 Cauliflower, .... 
 
 . 1711 
 
 Recipe for Cooking. 
 
 . 1825 
 
 Cayuga Ducks 
 
 1464, 1469 
 
 Celery, 
 
 . 1711 
 
 Blanching, 
 
 . 1712 
 
 Plants Banked up, . 
 
 . 1712 
 
 Wintering. 
 
 . 1713 
 
 Varieties of, . 
 
 . 1712 
 
 Cellars. Barn 
 
 42.661 
 
 " for Dwellings, 
 
 . 636 
 
 Centennial Brooder, . - . 
 Centrifugal System of Raiding Cream, 
 ■' Machines of Deerfoot Farm, 
 
 Cereals, 
 
 and Animal Products, . 
 " Annual Value per Acre. 
 " in the United States, Statistics of. 
 Cereal Products in the United States, 
 Champlain Wheat, 
 
 Chaff Hive 
 
 Changing the Bearing Tear of Fruit Trees, 
 
 Character 
 
 Charlotte Russe, .... 
 Charcoal Dust, .... 
 Cheap Conservatory, How to Construct 
 Check-rein, Use of, . 
 Chest of the Horse. 
 Chemical Elements of Plants. 
 " Theories of Nutrition, 
 
 Cheese Fly 
 
 " Making, .... 
 " on a Small Scale, 
 
 •' Trier 
 
 Varieties of, . 
 
 Cherries, 
 
 Cherry Slug, .... 
 
 Chervil 
 
 Cheshires, 
 
 " Description of, . 
 Chester White Swine, 
 
 " ■' '■ Description of, 
 
 Cheviot Sheep 
 
 Chicken Broth, .... 
 " Cholera, 
 
 " Jelly 
 
 Salad, .... 
 
 Chicory 
 
 Chinese Geese, .... 
 Chinese Imported Sow. 
 
 " Hog 
 
 Chimneys of Dwellings, 
 
 Chinch Bug 
 
 Chinese Yam, Cultivation of. 
 Chloride of Sodium, . 
 Chufas. Cultivation of. 
 Chocolate Cream Drops, 
 
 " Caramels, . 
 Chowder, Clam, .... 
 
 Fish 
 
 Churning 
 
 Choking in Sheep, 
 Choice of Bucks, 
 Farms, 
 " Plants for Producing Seed 
 Chorea in Dogs, .... 
 
 Cider Bottling 
 
 " Making, .... 
 
Cider AViue, . . . . 
 
 Citrons 
 
 Circular Hive, . . . . 
 Circulating Capital of the Farm, 
 
 Cisterns, 
 
 How Coustructed, 
 
 Page. 
 1601 
 1714 
 1731 
 1885 
 531 
 532 
 
 Circular Cisterns, How to Find Capac- 
 ity of 533 
 
 Cisterns, Filters for 533 
 
 Classiflcation of Soils 14 
 
 Clay Loams, 14 
 
 " Soils and Their Management, . . 15 
 
 Cleaning Harness Plate 798 
 
 Cleveland Bay 708 
 
 Stallion, " Bay Splendor," 714 
 
 Clam Chowder 1824 
 
 •• Broth 1838 
 
 Cleanliness Essential in Milking, . 1030 
 
 Cleft Grafting 1586 
 
 Climate and Crop Rotations, . . . 1893 
 
 Clipping Horses, 776 
 
 Closets of Dwellings 632 
 
 Clover, Alsike 207 
 
 '• Bokhara 210 
 
 " Buffalo 210 
 
 " Crimson 209 
 
 " Hare's-foot 210 
 
 '• Hop 210 
 
 " Japan 194, 195 
 
 Mexican 196, 197 
 
 " Red 198 
 
 
 '• Cultivation of. 
 
 199 
 
 " 
 
 " Time of Cutting, . 
 
 201 
 
 
 " Method of Curing, . 
 
 201 
 
 " 
 
 and Barley, .... 
 
 1867 
 
 
 " Gypsum 
 
 1850 
 
 " 
 
 " Soil Fertility, . 
 
 1870 
 
 " 
 
 " AVheat, .... 
 
 1892 
 
 " 
 
 Hay Compared with Corn ]\Ieal, 
 
 1957 
 
 " 
 
 Seed and Cats, 
 
 1947 
 
 " 
 
 Hay, Conditions Favorable to Fer 
 
 
 
 mentation in. 
 
 203 
 
 " 
 
 How Fermentation can be 
 
 
 
 Prevented in, 
 
 203 
 
 " 
 
 Seed, Cultivation of. 
 
 204 
 
 " 
 
 Harvesting of. 
 
 204 
 
 " 
 
 Storing and Cleaning, . 
 
 205 
 
 " 
 
 Huller and Cleaner, . 2 
 
 04, 205 
 
 " 
 
 as a Fertilizer, 
 
 75, 205 
 
 " 
 
 Sickness, .... 
 
 207 
 
 " 
 
 White 
 
 209 
 
 " 
 
 Yellow 
 
 210 
 
 
 Zigzag 
 
 210 
 
 Clothing 
 
 1807 
 
 Clvd 
 
 esdale. The 
 
 707 
 
 
 Stallion, "Time o' Day," 
 
 686 
 
 Coal 
 
 Ashes 
 
 61 
 
 Cockroaches, How to Exterminate, 
 Cochins, ..... 
 
 ■• Black 
 
 •• Buff 
 
 " jNIerits and Defects of, . 
 
 " Partridge, 
 
 " Pea-combed Partridge, . 
 
 " Silky 
 
 " White 
 
 Cocoanut Dessert, 
 
 Nibs or Shells, . 
 Pie, .... 
 
 Codfish Balls 
 
 Codling Moth 
 
 Cold Frames 
 
 Colic in Swine, 
 
 Collie Dog, 
 
 Coloring Butter, 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Collars for Tiles, • . . . . 
 Color in the Horse, .... 
 
 '• of Soils 
 
 Colorado Beetle, The, 
 Colossal Asparagus, .... 
 Colts, Age for Working, . 
 " Breaking to Harness, 
 " Saddle, . 
 " Foot at Two Years, . 
 " Halter Breaking, 
 " Old-Time Jlethod of Managing, 
 Present System of Management, 
 " Raising by Hand. 
 " Teaching to Back, . 
 " Weaning, ..... 
 Comb Foundation, .... 
 Combinations in the Industries, Evils of, 
 Commercial Manures, . . .18 
 
 " Residues of, 
 Fertilizers, 
 
 Analysis of. . 
 
 Application of. 
 
 Common MUlet, ..... 
 
 Cultivation of, . 
 Communicable Diseases, . 
 Competition, Effects of, . 
 Composition of Animals not an index of 
 
 food required, 
 
 Composition of Crops, not a Guide in jMa- 
 nuring, . . 1866, 1872, 1878 
 . Composition of Crops, Influenced by Sea- 
 sons, 
 
 Composition of Manures, . 
 
 " " German Potash Salts, 
 Composts, 
 
 Compost Pile, How to Construct, 
 Poudrette, . 
 
 Page. 
 
 1834 
 
 1294 
 
 1297 
 
 1294 
 
 1299 
 
 1297 
 
 1298 
 
 1298 
 
 1297 
 
 1833 
 
 1837 
 
 1826 
 
 1825 
 
 1683 
 
 1699 
 
 1237 
 
 1516 
 
 1059 
 
 1087 
 
 1925 
 
 698 
 
 24 
 
 349 
 
 366 
 
 771 
 
 768 
 
 771 
 
 780 
 
 765 
 
 760 
 
 760 
 
 756 
 
 770 
 
 755 
 
 1732 
 
 1844 
 
 . 1876 
 
 1872 
 
 36, 77 
 
 38 
 
 83 
 
 190 
 
 191 
 
 1944 
 
 1843 
 
 1955 
 
 , 1955 
 
 1881 
 • 36 
 70 
 1891 
 51 
 51 
 45 
 

 
 Pace. 
 
 
 
 Pagk. 
 
 ('(iiiiptou'.s .Surprise Potiitoes. . 
 
 
 342 
 
 Cols wolds, ....... 
 
 1115 
 
 Concrete Silos, ..... 
 
 
 4!)3 
 
 
 Description of, . 
 
 1115 
 
 Ciiiiestoga, The 
 
 
 T(is 
 
 
 Standard of Excellence for Ram, 
 
 iiin 
 
 Conditions InlUifiicing tlie Growtli 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 Ewes, 
 
 1119 
 
 Plants 
 
 
 1917 
 
 Cott 
 
 ige Pudding, . . , 
 
 1838 
 
 Conservation of Energy, . 
 
 
 1941 
 
 Cotted Wool and its Causes, 
 
 1168 
 
 ■ the Elements of Fcrtil 
 
 ty. 
 
 187.-, 
 
 Cotton 
 
 383 
 
 (^)nservatory. How to ('(instruct a Cheap, 
 
 074 
 
 
 Aphides, or Cotton-lice, 
 
 403 
 
 Constipation in Dogs, 
 
 
 1550 
 
 
 Baling of, 
 
 400 
 
 •• Swine, 
 
 
 1237 
 
 
 Bolls, Rotting of 
 
 409 
 
 Constituents of Plants and Animals, 
 
 
 1883 
 
 
 Boll-worm, . . 
 
 407 
 
 Contagion iu Communicable Diseases, 
 
 
 1944 
 
 
 Caterpillar or Cotton Worm, 
 
 403 
 
 Controlling the Sex of Otfspring, 
 
 
 1265 
 
 
 •■ Egg of. 
 
 403 
 
 Convenient Piggeries, 
 
 
 1231 
 
 
 " Larva of. 
 
 403 
 
 Constitution for Debating Societies, . 
 
 
 1794 
 
 
 " Chrysalis of, 
 
 405 
 
 Convulsions. ..... 
 
 
 1830 
 
 
 " Moth of. 
 
 405 
 
 Cooked Food for Pigs, 
 
 
 1220 
 
 
 Cultivation of, ... 
 
 394 
 
 Cooling Can 
 
 
 1048 
 
 
 Cultivator 
 
 895 
 
 Cooling Vat for Setting JlilU, . 
 
 
 1065 
 
 
 Fertilizers for 
 
 393 
 
 Cooley Creamers, . '. . . 
 
 
 1040 
 
 
 Gins 398, 399 
 
 , 400 
 
 Coops for Fattening Fowls, 
 
 
 1407 
 
 
 Ginning, ..... 
 
 399 
 
 Coop with Covered Run for Chickens, 
 
 
 1394 
 
 
 Growing Belt, The, 
 
 385 
 
 Corn-Starch or Farina. 
 
 
 1837 
 
 
 Lauds, Exhaustion of, . 
 
 391 
 
 Pudding, 
 
 
 1838 
 
 
 How Prevented, 391 
 
 Corn (Sweet), 
 
 
 1718 
 
 
 Harvesting of, ... . 
 
 896 
 
 as a Feeding Crop, . 
 
 
 1911 
 
 
 History of 
 
 383 
 
 • Forage Crop, . 
 
 
 1910 
 
 
 Lice 
 
 403 
 
 ill tlie Manufacture of Glucose. 
 
 
 1909 
 
 
 Plant, Blight of 
 
 409 
 
 •• Starch, . 
 
 
 1908 
 
 ,, 
 
 " Diseases of, ... 
 
 409 
 
 •■ Spirits, 
 
 
 1908 
 
 
 " Rust of 
 
 409 
 
 ■ Meal C'orapared with Clover Hay, 
 
 
 1957 
 
 
 ' ' Enemies of, 
 
 403 
 
 Order of States in Production of. 
 
 
 1890 
 
 
 Planter 
 
 383 
 
 •■ -Uialysis of, ... 3" 
 
 . 3il 
 
 . 304 
 
 
 Plants, Thinning of. . 
 
 396 
 
 When Cut Green. 
 
 
 508 
 
 
 Press 
 
 383 
 
 " Diseases of, etc., 
 
 
 323 
 
 
 Production in the United States, 
 
 
 " Cultivation of, 
 
 
 314 
 
 
 and Average Product per acre. 
 
 
 " Cidtivators, 314, 
 
 31.- 
 
 , 316 
 
 
 Table of, " 
 
 386 
 
 " Grinding, ..... 
 
 
 320 
 
 
 Rotation for 
 
 393 
 
 " Harvesting 
 
 
 317 
 
 
 Seed Iluller 
 
 403 
 
 " Hilling and Level Culture, 
 
 
 315 
 
 
 •■ Pomace, .... 
 
 57 
 
 " Hill and Drill Planting, . 
 
 
 311 
 
 
 ■' Selection of for planting. 
 
 390 
 
 '■ Hilling Cultivator, . 
 
 
 315 
 
 
 ■■ Uses of, .... 
 
 401 
 
 " Hi.story of, etc.. 
 
 
 803 
 
 
 Soil, and its Preparation for. 
 
 391 
 
 " lasect Enemies of, . 
 
 
 324 
 
 
 Stalk Cutter, 
 
 397 
 
 " Mills, Farm 
 
 322 
 
 , 323 
 
 ■' 
 
 Underdraining of Soil for. . 
 
 392 
 
 " Planter, 
 
 
 312 
 
 
 Varieties of, . 
 
 384 
 
 " Planting, ..... 
 
 
 311 
 
 
 Worm 
 
 403 
 
 " Preparation of Seed for Planting, 
 
 
 308 
 
 
 Rank of American, 
 
 401 
 
 " Selection of seed, 
 
 
 306 
 
 Covering of Wheat, Depth of, . 
 
 275 
 
 " Shellers, 
 
 321 
 
 333 
 
 Cow, 
 
 or Field Pea, Cultivation of, clc, . 
 
 317 
 
 " Shelling and Grinding, 
 
 
 330 
 
 Cow Stable for Model Barn, 
 
 649 
 
 " Soil for, and its Preparation, . 
 
 
 309 
 
 Cranberries, 
 
 1675 
 
 " Stalk Cutters 
 
 317 
 
 318 
 
 Creamers 
 
 1039 
 
 ■■ Summary of Rules for Securing 
 
 
 Creamer Cans 
 
 1039 
 
 liargc Crops, 
 
 
 313 
 
 Cress 
 
 or Peppergrass 
 
 1713 
 
 " Varieties of 
 
 
 305 
 
 
 Water, 
 
 1713 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate 
 
 
 1835 
 
 Crest 
 
 jd Turkey 
 
 1448 
 
Crested White Ducks, 
 
 Creve Coeurs, 
 
 Merits and Defects of , . 
 Crooked Breasts in Poultry, 
 Crops, a Judicious Choice of, Essential, 
 Crops, Choice of. Modified by Demand, 
 " " " " " the character 
 
 the Soil, etc 
 
 Crops, Relative Cost in the Production of. 
 
 Rotation of 
 
 Various for Green JIanure, 
 ■■ What to Raise, 
 Crop Rotations, ..... 
 Advantages of, 
 and Climate, 
 Crops, Adaptation to Soils, 
 
 " Protit not Detcrniined by Size of, 
 Cross Breeds and Grades. . 
 Crossing Breeds, .... 
 
 Cucumbers, . . . . 1 
 
 Cultivating Orchards. 
 Cultivation of Grass Seed, . 
 
 Curculio 
 
 Curing or Ripening Cheese, 
 
 Bacon, 
 
 " Hams, ..... 
 Cutting up Beef, .... 
 
 Curd, 
 
 up Pork, .... 
 " Potatoes for Planting, . 
 to a Single Eye, 
 Cybrian Bee 
 
 107 
 
 Dairy 
 
 , The 
 
 Barns, ..... 
 
 Breeds 
 
 Classes of Dairy Cows. . 
 Characteristics of Aysliires, 
 Devons. 
 Dutch, . 
 " Quality of iMilk 
 " Guernseys, , 
 " Ilerefords, 
 
 Highland Cattl 
 Holsteins. . 
 " Jerseys, 
 Kerry, . 
 Swiss, . 
 
 Addition of Cream or Butter to Curd 
 A Device for Self-Sucking Cows, 
 Adulteration of Butter, . 
 Analyses of CUieese of Different Varie 
 
 ties 
 
 Analyses of Milk, 
 A Good Escutcheon, 
 A Poor Escutcheiiii, 
 
 Page. 
 
 14G9 
 
 1335 
 
 1336 
 
 1457 
 
 104 
 
 lOo 
 
 (jf 
 
 106 
 
 107 
 
 , 1865 
 
 76 
 
 104 
 
 1865 
 
 1866 
 
 1893 
 
 1871 
 
 1903 
 
 1129 
 
 1263 
 
 , 1713 
 
 1580 
 
 248 
 
 1683 
 
 1089 
 
 1333 
 
 1333 
 
 951 
 
 1087 
 
 1332 
 
 337 
 
 339 
 
 1738 
 
 1005 
 651 
 
 867 
 
 818 
 888 
 >f,893 
 880 
 855 
 866 
 895 
 868 
 904 
 898 
 1087 
 1038 
 1061 
 
 1075 
 1007 
 11)13 
 1013 
 
 Dairy 
 
 
 XXXIX 
 
 
 P.Mo:. 
 
 a sufficient supply (if Pure Water 
 
 Essential for Milch Cows, 
 
 . 1023 
 
 Blanchard Chuin, . 
 
 . 1054 
 
 Butter as an Article of Food, 
 
 . 1035 
 
 ■' Bo.x and Cooler, 
 
 . 1068 
 
 " Coloring, 
 
 . 1059 
 
 '• from Sweet Cream. 
 
 . 1051 
 
 , " ■' Sour 
 
 . 1051 
 
 '■ Grain of. 
 
 . 10.59 
 
 •■ Granules, 
 
 . 1054 
 
 ■ ' How niudi Cream for a I 
 
 ound 
 
 of, 
 
 . 1063 
 
 JIaking, English, , 
 
 . 1063 
 
 French, 
 
 . 1063 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 . 1063 
 
 Buttermilk Cheest^. . 
 
 . 1080 
 
 Butter Packing, 
 
 . 1059 
 
 ■' Rancidity in. 
 
 . 1061 
 
 • Salting of. 
 
 . 1057 
 
 ■■ Tray. . 
 
 . 1058 
 
 ■ Trier. . 
 
 . 1067 
 
 '■ Washing of. . 
 
 . 1056 
 
 •■ White Specks. 
 
 . 1060 
 
 " Working, 
 
 . 1057 
 
 " Workers, 
 
 1057, 1058 
 
 " Yields, . 
 
 , 1063 
 
 Cans for Setting Milk, 
 
 1039, 1041 
 
 Interior of. 
 
 . 1039 
 
 " Centrifugal System df I{ 
 
 lising 
 
 Cream, 
 
 . 1043 
 
 Cheese, Analyses of ditlerent V 
 
 irieties,1075 
 
 Bo.xing, , 
 
 . 1093 
 
 " Cheddar, 
 
 . 1077 
 
 Cheshire, 
 
 . 1077 
 
 Packing, 
 
 . 1093 
 
 Pressing, 
 
 . 1089 
 
 Sage, . 
 
 . 1091 
 
 Coloring of, . 
 
 . 1087 
 
 Curing or Ripening, 
 
 . 1089 
 
 Filing up Cracks in. 
 
 . 1092 
 
 Fly. 
 
 . 1091 
 
 .MakJTig, 
 
 . 1073 
 
 on a Small Sea 
 
 e. . 1090 
 
 " •■ iiseofThermon 
 
 eterin, 1083 
 
 Quantity and (Quality ( 
 
 r. . 1085 
 
 Trier, . 
 
 . 1090 
 
 Varieties of. . 
 
 . 1074 
 
 Churning. 
 
 . 1053 
 
 Cleanliness Es.sential in makin 
 
 g. . 1030 
 
 ('ooley Creamer, 
 
 . 1039 
 
 Cooling (!an. 
 
 . . 1048 
 
 Cooling Vat for Setting JlilU. 
 
 . 1066 
 
 Cream, Jleasui'cment of, . 
 
 . 1069 
 
 Creameries, 
 
 . 1065 
 
 Creamery System, Inauguratii 
 
 .n of. IOCS 
 
 Cream, Shallow Setting of, 
 
 . lo:;: 
 
xl 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 i'-.V Cream, Deep Setting of, . 
 
 iu;5y 
 
 Curd Knives. .... 
 
 lOt-G 
 
 •• Salting 
 
 loy? 
 
 " Sink, .... 
 
 10S6 
 
 Cutting Curd 
 
 1087 
 
 Dampness in Milk Cellars, 
 
 1033 
 
 Davis' Swing Churn, 
 
 1053 
 
 Difference in Quality of Milk of One 
 
 
 Milking, .... 
 
 1007 
 
 Dog and Sheep Power, . 
 
 1053 
 
 Driving Cows to Pasture, 
 
 1028 
 
 Drying off Cows, . 
 
 923 
 
 ■ EtTcct of Food on Milk. . 
 
 1015 
 
 EtTect of Thunder Storms on Milk, 
 
 1035 
 
 Escutcheon, Good, . 
 
 1013 
 
 Poor, . 
 
 1013 
 
 On Bulls, . 
 
 1014 
 
 ' Fairlamb System, 
 
 1047 
 
 Favorable Milk Marks, . 
 
 1011 
 
 Feed Cutters 
 
 1020 
 
 Filling Cracks in Cheese, 
 
 1092 
 
 Floating Curds, 
 
 1086 
 
 Galvanized Iron Cheese Hoops, 
 
 1089 
 
 Gang Cheese Press, . 
 
 1089 
 
 Gorgonzola Cheese, . 
 
 1079 
 
 Gueuon System, The, 
 
 1010 
 
 How to Distinguish Good Salt. 
 
 1089 
 
 Inauguration of tlie Creamery Syste 
 
 11,1008 
 
 Kind Treatment of Cows, 
 
 1025 
 
 Lactometer, Use of in. 
 
 1069 
 
 Magne's Sy.stem of Selecting Cows 
 
 1014 
 
 Methods of Obtaining Creara, 
 
 1037 
 
 Milk, and its Composition, 
 
 1005 
 
 ' " Relative Nutritive Value of. 
 
 1006 
 
 Milk Houses 
 
 1031 
 
 ' Milking 
 
 1028 
 
 Other Systems, 
 
 1048 
 
 ' Ovals, The 
 
 1014 
 
 ' Pail, Cream Dipper, and Skimmer, 
 
 1038 
 
 ' Perfect Milk Pail, . 
 
 1031 
 
 ' Platform Scales, 
 
 108S 
 
 Preparation of Rennet, . 
 
 1084 
 
 Preparing Food for Steaming, . 
 
 1020 
 
 ' Profits of, .... 
 
 1093 
 
 Proper Temperature of Curd, 
 
 1080 
 
 ' Quantity and Quality of Cheese, 
 
 1085 
 
 Rectangular Churns, . . 105 
 
 i. 1067 
 
 ' Rennet, Preparation of, . 
 
 1U84 
 
 ' Results of Cooking Food, 
 
 1022 
 
 Revolving Dash Churn, . 
 
 1054 
 
 ' Schalzegar Cheese, . 
 
 1080 
 
 Selecting Cows for the Dairy, 
 
 1008 
 
 ' Self-Sucking Cow, Device for. 
 
 1028 
 
 ' Shade in Past\ires, . 
 
 1024 
 
 ' Single Gloucester Cheese, 
 
 1078 
 
 ' Skimming Bench, . 
 
 1041 
 
 Steaming Food for Cattle, 
 
 1019 
 
 Dairy, Steam Cheese Vat, . 
 Stilton Cheese. 
 
 Study the Disposition of Cows. 
 T.diits and Odors, . 
 Teat Tubes and Milking JIachines 
 Temperature of Cream while Churn 
 
 " Temperature for obtaining Cream 
 
 " Time required for Churning. . 
 
 " Thoroughbred and Native Cow 
 
 Com)iared, .... 
 " Triple Strainer. 
 " Use of Ice in. . 
 " " the Lactometer in. 
 
 " " " Thermometer in Cheese 
 
 Making, 
 Dampness in Milk Cellars, . 
 
 Dandelions, 
 
 Dark Brahmas, ..... 
 
 Day Book, 
 
 Dalrymple Farm, The. 
 Debating Society, Constitution for, . 
 Decrease in Number of Birds, . 
 Deep Setting of Milk, 
 
 Dcerfoot Farm, The 
 
 Defiance Wheat, 
 
 Deficiency of Potash in Common Fertilizers 
 
 and in Soils, .... 
 
 Depth of Covering Wheat, . 
 Depth of Drains, .... 
 
 Depth of Plowing, .... 
 Design for a Country House, 
 Description of a Cattle Ranch, . 
 Determining the Outlet of Drains, 
 Determining the Age of Horses, 
 
 De.xter, 
 
 Dew Point, The 
 
 Diagram for Cutting Beef. 
 Pork, 
 " Planting Orchards, 
 
 Diet for Sick Horses 
 
 Digestibility of Foods, 
 Direct, Pacing Record of, . 
 Diseases, Communicable, . 
 
 and Enemies of Fruit, 
 
 the Apple, . 
 
 " Cherry, 
 
 " Currant, 
 
 " Grape, . 
 
 " Gooseberry, 
 
 " Orange, 
 
 " Peach, . 
 
 " Pear, . 
 
 " Plum, . 
 
 " " " " Qinnce. 
 
 " " " ■• Strawberry 
 
 of Cattle 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xli 
 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 Diseases of Fry, .... 
 
 1TT5 
 
 Dogs, Yorkshire Terrier, 
 
 1539 
 
 aud Enemies of Adult Tniut. 
 
 . 1773 
 
 " Breeding of, ... . 
 
 1541 
 
 of Poultiy, .... 
 
 . 1417 
 
 • ■ Care of 
 
 1549 
 
 ■' Sheep 
 
 . 1170 
 
 ■■ Diseases of, .... 
 
 1549 
 
 ■• Swine 
 
 . 1336 
 
 Abscesses and Tumors, 
 
 1550 
 
 and Parasites of Angora Goats, 
 
 . 1188 
 
 Chorea. . 
 
 1550 
 
 " of tlie Horse, 
 
 . 801 
 
 " " Constipation, . 
 
 1550 
 
 ■' •• Mule. 
 
 . 833 
 
 " " Diarrhea, 
 
 1551 
 
 ■' and Insects of Wheat, 
 
 . 283 
 
 " " Distemper, 
 
 1551 
 
 • Rye 
 
 . 291 
 
 " " Dysentery. 
 
 1551 
 
 " Oats 
 
 . 297 
 
 " " Fevers (See Distemper), 
 
 1552 
 
 " " Com, .... 
 
 . 323 
 
 Fits, 
 
 1552 
 
 " Potatoes 
 
 348 
 
 Fleas, 
 
 1552 
 
 " the Cotton Plant, . 
 
 . 409 
 
 " " " Dog and Cat Flea, 
 
 1552 
 
 Deficiency of Ash Constituents of Foods, 
 
 1960 
 
 " Fractures, 
 
 1552 
 
 Disqualifications for Breeding, . 
 
 . 747 
 
 " " Goiture, . 
 
 1553 
 
 Distances Apart for Planting Fruit Trees, 
 
 1577 
 
 " " Hydrophobia, or Madness, 1553 
 
 Docking Lambs, .... 
 
 . 1139 
 
 " " Inflammation of Bowels 
 
 1553 
 
 Docking 
 
 . 759 
 
 ',' " Jaundice, 
 
 1553 
 
 Dog Power, 
 
 . 543 
 
 " Lice, 
 
 1554 
 
 Dogs, 
 
 1509 
 
 " " Mange, . 
 
 1554 
 
 
 ' Administering Medicine to. 
 
 1549 
 
 " Rabies, . 
 
 1553 
 
 
 ' Black and Tan Terrier, 
 
 1537 
 
 The Blood Sucker, 
 
 1554 
 
 
 ' Bloodhound, .■ . 
 
 1534 
 
 " The Bird Louse, 
 
 1554 
 
 
 • Bull 
 
 1531 
 
 " " Paralysis, 
 
 1554 
 
 
 ■■ English Terrier, 
 
 1523 
 
 " " Poisons, . 
 
 1554 
 
 
 ' Collies 
 
 1516 
 
 " " Ring Worm, . 
 
 1555 
 
 
 ' ■ Clumber Spaniel, 
 
 1533 
 
 Surfeit, . 
 
 1555 
 
 
 ' Dachshund, .... 
 
 1536 
 
 " " Tetanus, or Lockjaw, 
 
 1555 
 
 
 ' Dalmatian, or Coach Dog. 
 
 1536 
 
 Worms. . 
 
 1555 
 
 
 ' Decrhound, .... 
 
 1533 
 
 Tape. 
 
 1555 
 
 
 ' English Greyhound, . 
 
 1533 
 
 Round. . 
 
 1555 
 
 
 ' English Setter 
 
 1524 
 
 " " Maw, 
 
 1555 
 
 
 Points of. . 
 
 1527 
 
 " " " Kidney, 
 
 1555 
 
 
 " Spaniel 
 
 1532 
 
 " " " Symptoms and 
 
 
 
 ' Fo-xhound, .... 
 
 1533 
 
 Treatment, 
 
 15.56 
 
 
 ' Fox Terrier 
 
 1536 
 
 " Wounds, 
 
 1556 
 
 
 ' German Badger Hound, . 
 
 1536 
 
 " Exercise for 
 
 1543 
 
 
 Sheep, .... 
 
 1521 
 
 " General Management of, . 
 
 1543 
 
 
 ' Irisli Setter 
 
 1528 
 
 " Highland Shepherd's Chief Mourner 
 
 1520 
 
 
 Points of, 
 
 1531 
 
 " Kennels, ..... 
 
 1543 
 
 
 '• AVater Spaniel, . 
 
 1532 
 
 " Killing 
 
 1566 
 
 
 ' Italian Greyhound, . 
 
 1589 
 
 " My Dog Blanco, 
 
 1510 
 
 
 ' King Charles Spaniel, 
 
 1540 
 
 " Period of Gestation in, 
 
 1542 
 
 
 ' Maltese Terrier, 
 
 1539 
 
 " Training 
 
 1544 
 
 
 ' Mastiff 
 
 1513 
 
 " " Shepherd or Collie, . 
 
 1544 
 
 
 ' Newfoundland 
 
 1513 
 
 " " Pointers and Setters, 
 
 1547 
 
 
 ' Pointer, 
 
 1533 
 
 " " Retrievers, 
 
 1548 
 
 
 ' P"g 
 
 1541 
 
 " Useful to the Farmer, 
 
 1511 
 
 
 ' Retriever, 
 
 1531 
 
 Doing Work Over Nicely 
 
 574 
 
 
 ' Rough-coated Scotch Greyhound, 
 
 1533 
 
 Dominiques, 
 
 1348 
 
 
 ' Setter 
 
 1524 
 
 Merits and Defects of , . 
 
 1351 
 
 
 Scotch Terrier 
 
 1537 
 
 Doors, ...... 
 
 630 
 
 
 Skye ■■.... 
 
 1538 
 
 Doors for Barns, 
 
 663 
 
 
 Spanish Shepherd, 
 
 1521 
 
 Domestic Animals 
 
 677 
 
 
 
 1521 
 
 Double Row Stalk-Cutter. 
 
 318 
 
 
 St. Bernard, 
 
 1514 
 
 Double Teams, Trotting Records, 
 
 1969 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 
xlii 
 
 Dorkiugs, .... 
 Colored, 
 Cutkoo, 
 
 Merits and Defects of 
 Silver Gray. 
 White, 
 
 Porsets 
 
 Dr. J. B. Lawes' Experiments with Manures 
 on Meadow Lands. 
 
 Dr. Bailey's Silos 
 
 Draco Prince, 
 
 Drainage ami Rainfall, 
 
 Effects of Barnyard Manure on, 
 Loss of Nitrogen by, . 
 of Uivcr Basins, . 
 
 Drainage 
 
 for Roads, .... 
 Furrow. .... 
 (lid Time .Metliod of, . 
 
 Tools for 
 
 What Laii.U liniuire, 
 Delenniiiiiig the Depth of, 
 the Outlet of. 
 
 Planks tor 
 
 '■ Locating the j\Iaiu Drains and 
 Tributaries of, 
 Size and Kind of Tile for 
 
 Stone 
 
 Tile 
 
 Turf 
 
 Ob.slructions in, . 
 Open Ditches, 
 
 Rule to find how many Acres 
 Given Main will Drain, 
 Draining, Advantages of, . 
 in Michigan, 
 Scoops, 
 Spades, 
 Tools. 
 Drain-Gauges at Rothamsted, 
 Drains, Size of Tiles in. 
 Draft, in Plowing, 
 of Mowers, 
 
 Traction Force of Horses in, 
 Whippletrees to Equalize, 
 Dressing for Roast Turkey, 
 Dried Blood. . . 
 
 Drill-Planting of Corn, 
 Drinking Fountains for Fowl 
 Driving Cows from Pasture, 
 Drone Bee, .... 
 Drying Fruit, 
 
 Ducks 
 
 Aylesbury, 
 Black Ea.st India, 
 
 " Call 
 
 " Gray, 
 
 1928 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 I'Aiii;. 
 
 1340 
 
 Ducks, Calt White 
 
 117V 
 
 1343 
 
 •' Carolina 1472 
 
 , 1175 
 
 1347 
 
 ■• Cayuga, ... . 1464, 146'.> 
 
 1347 
 
 Crested Amoor 
 
 14C.9 
 
 1343 
 
 White 
 
 1469 
 
 1844 
 
 " Mallard 
 
 1475 
 
 1128 
 
 Jlandarin, ..... 
 
 1472 
 
 
 Muscovy, ..... 
 
 1471 
 
 256 
 
 ■• Pekin, " 
 
 1463 
 
 494 
 
 Rouen, ..... 
 
 14li0 
 
 781 
 
 " General Mau.-igement of, . 
 
 1475 
 
 1854 
 
 Houses for, .... 
 
 1476 
 
 1858 
 
 Dumpies or Creepers, 
 
 1303 
 
 1855 
 
 Duroc Swine, ..... 
 
 1213 
 
 1921 
 
 Dutch Cattle 
 
 888 
 
 127 
 
 Dairy Characteristics of. 
 
 893 
 
 552 
 
 Dwarf an<l Standard Pears. 
 
 1603 
 
 138 
 
 Driven Wells 
 
 535 
 
 167 
 
 Dry Substance of Foods, Variation in. 
 
 19.58 
 
 134 
 
 Dwellings, Warmth in. 
 
 628 
 
 128 
 
 Lifluence of on Character, 
 
 620 
 
 133 
 
 
 
 130 
 
 Early Amber Sugar-Cane, . 
 
 421 
 
 137 
 
 Breeding of Heifers, 
 Eave Troughs, 
 
 922 
 633 
 
 131 
 
 Echo Farm, 
 
 587 
 
 134 
 
 Buildings, 
 
 586 
 
 136 
 
 Eclipse Incubator, .... 
 
 1395 
 
 130 
 
 Artificial Mother, . 
 
 1404 
 
 137 
 
 Economy, False, .... 
 
 1791 
 
 132 
 
 Economy of Manures in Crop Rotations, 
 
 1871 
 
 138 
 
 of Mule Labor, . 
 
 829 
 
 
 Education, ...... 
 
 1792 
 
 134 
 
 " Agricultural, 
 
 1847 
 
 1917 
 
 Effects of Thunder Storms on Milk, . 
 
 1035 
 
 1923 
 
 Egg Production, .... 
 
 1412 
 
 1928 
 
 Eggs, Quality of 
 
 1412 
 
 1928 
 
 Egg Plant 
 
 1714 
 
 . 1929 
 
 Eggs of Silk Worm, .... 
 
 1740 
 
 1854 
 
 Eider Duck 
 
 1785 
 
 1925 
 
 Elderberry Wine 
 
 1833 
 
 1967 
 
 Embden Geese. ..... 
 
 1479 
 
 1967 
 
 Elements of Plant Food, . 
 
 31 
 
 1967 
 
 ■' Organic, 
 
 31 
 
 1965 
 
 • Inorg.anic, 
 
 31 
 
 1822 
 
 Embankments, ..... 
 
 567 
 
 56 
 
 Enemies and Diseases of the Cotton Plant 
 
 403 
 
 311 
 
 of the Tobacco Plant, . 
 
 444 
 
 1380 
 
 Energy, Conservation of, . 
 
 . 1941 
 
 1028 
 
 Endive 
 
 1714 
 
 1725 
 
 English Breakfast Cake, . 
 
 . 182b 
 
 1594 
 
 Butter Making, 
 
 1062 
 
 1400 
 
 Cottage 
 
 . 62- 
 
 1460 
 
 Draft. The 
 
 707 
 
 1470 
 
 " Stallion, " Lincoln," . 
 
 . 710 
 
 1470 
 
 [ ■' Greyhound. .... 
 
 . 153; 
 
 1470 
 
 1 " Setter 
 
 . 1521 
 
xliii 
 
 Page. 
 English Setter, Points of, . . . . 1")27 
 
 Spaniel, I'i32 
 
 Engineering Triumphs ami Manufacture 
 
 "of Steel 184.1 
 
 Ensilage. Advantages of 1964 
 
 "" History ami Progress of. . . 1961 
 
 Ensilage, . ". . ". . . .489 
 
 Adapted to the Southern States, 508 
 
 Analysis of, .... 509 
 
 " Corn-Planter, .... 501 
 
 Cutters 503, 504 
 
 How to Feed 50T 
 
 Method for Cultivating Maize for, 500 
 
 Mr. Mills' .System of.". . 499 
 
 Mr. Morris' " . . .497 
 
 Most Profitable Crops for, . . 500 
 
 Southern Seed Corn fgr, . . 500 
 
 " System, Advantages of, . . 509 
 
 " Experiments Respecting, . . 510 
 
 " Opinions Respecting, . . . 510 
 
 Time of Harvesting Maize for. . 501 
 
 Silos. Brick 491 
 
 " " Concrete. .... 49'3 
 
 " Dr. Bailey's. . .494 
 
 " Earth 49T 
 
 " How to Build, . . .491 
 " How to Cut Maize for. .502 
 
 " How to Fill, . . 504 
 
 " M. GofTart's, . 488, 496 
 
 " United. Plan of, . 497 
 
 Silo, Vertical Slicing in, . 505 
 
 Removing Fodder from, .506 
 
 Epilepsy, 973 
 
 Erecting Barb 'SVire Fence, . . . 568 
 
 Escalloped Oysters 1823 
 
 E.sseutials in Building an Icc-House, . . 669 
 
 Profitable Gardening, . .1702 
 
 Herding Cattle. . 954 
 
 Esse.K Beauty, .... 1648 
 
 Swine, 120s 
 
 Description of, . . . 1209 
 
 •■ Sow, ■•Black Prince.ss," . . . 1209 
 
 Estimate of Seed per Acre, . . . 1839 
 
 Eurotas 877 
 
 Eureka Butter Worker 1057 
 
 European Quail, 1376 
 
 Evaporation and Rainfall 1889 
 
 Evaporating the Juice of Sugar-Cane, . 41.S 
 Eveners, Defective Forms of, . , 1907 
 
 Evils of Combination in the Industries, 1844 
 
 Excelsior Cooling V;.t 1066 
 
 Exercise for Dogs, .1 .543 
 
 Exhaustion of Soils, ..... l:-t51 
 
 by Drainage. I.'^i5t! 
 
 " " by Grain-Growing, 1870 
 
 " " Influence of Fallows on 
 
 the 1863 
 
 Exhaustion of S<iils by C'rops, . 
 
 Table of. 
 Experiments in Rotation of C'rops, 
 
 with Manures on Permanent 
 Meadow Lands, by Dr. Lawes, . 
 Extraction of the Juice of Sugar-Cane, 
 
 Fall Fallowing, ... . . 85 
 
 Fall Fallows, 1865 
 
 Fallows, Sutnmer 1862 
 
 Advantages of 1804 
 
 and Soil Moisture, . . 1859 
 
 Relations to Fertility, . . . 1863 
 
 Fallow System. The 84 
 
 Fall Grazing of Jlowing Lands, 249 
 
 Fall and 'VVinter Calves 927 
 
 Fairlamb's System of R;vising Cream. . 1047 
 
 False Economy 1791 
 
 Family Scales" 1820 
 
 Fantail Pigeons, 1502 
 
 Farm, a Microcosm of Living Beings, . 1953 
 
 Farm Buildings 582, 613 
 
 Design for a Country House, . . 614 
 
 " an Ornamental Cottage, 624 
 
 English Cottage, . . 025 
 
 Ground Plan of, . 625 
 
 Chamber-Floor Plan, . (i25 
 
 Designs for a Picturesque Country 
 
 Villa ".623 
 
 Designs for a Rural Cottage. . . 627 
 " Ground Plan, 627 
 " " " Chamber-Floor 
 
 Plan, 627 
 
 That are necessary 615 
 
 Should be made Tasty and Allr.ictive, 
 
 616, 620, 621, 622, 652 
 
 Paue. 
 36 
 37 
 110 
 
 2.56 
 417 
 
 Height of 
 
 
 621 
 
 Painting 
 
 
 616 
 
 Plans of, . 
 
 
 655 
 
 Repairing, .... 
 
 
 61 & 
 
 Vesey Homestead Cottage, The, 
 
 
 623 
 
 The Farm-Housc, 
 
 
 618 
 
 Location of. 
 
 
 618 
 
 " " Should be Pleasant 
 
 etc 
 
 ,620 
 
 Influence of Dwellings on Character, 
 
 030 
 
 TheFarm-House, Plans for, 
 
 
 622 
 
 Blinds, . 
 
 
 033 
 
 Cellars, 
 
 
 036 
 
 Chimneys, . 
 
 
 OSS 
 
 Closets. 
 
 
 033 
 
 Doors, . 
 
 
 630 
 
 " " Eave Troughs, 
 
 
 033 
 
 Floors. . 
 
 
 030 
 
 " Light in. 
 
 
 020 
 
 " " Lightning Rods 
 
 
 o;;:5 
 
 " " Safest Position d 
 
 uring 
 
 a Thundcr-Storm, 
 
 034 
 
xliv 
 
 iXi^xJX. 
 
 Farm niiikliiigs — Conlimied. 
 
 The Fanu-House, JIantels in, 
 Piazzas, 
 Roofs, . 
 
 Stairs, . 
 Ventilatiou iu, 
 Vaults, 
 Warmth in, . 
 Watcr-Closets and 
 
 Vaults, 
 Windows, 
 
 632 
 632 
 631 
 631 
 634 
 638 
 629 
 
 The Barn, 
 
 Box-Stalls, 
 Cellars, 
 Doors of, . 
 Location of. 
 Plans for, . 
 Old and New, . 
 Scaffolds for, . 
 Stables, . 
 
 ' ' Floors of, 
 
 " for Horses and Stable 
 Management, 
 
 " Light in, . 
 
 " Manure-Gutters m, . 
 
 " Stalls, Box, 
 
 '■ Ventilation of. 
 
 . 638 
 . 629 
 
 641, 650 
 . 659 
 42, 661 
 . 662 
 . 643 
 . 643 
 . 652 
 . 662 
 
 658, T7T 
 . 659 
 
 Cattle Barns, 
 
 Dairy 
 
 Horse 
 
 777 
 658 
 659 
 659 
 658 
 656 
 651 
 653 
 
 Model Barns 
 
 Stables, and Stable Man- 
 agement in, . 777 
 639, 640, 644 
 Cow-Stall for, . . 649 
 " Feeding-Floor and Yard, 
 
 Plan for, . . .647 
 
 Grountl Plan for. . 646 
 
 Horse-Stall for, . . 648 
 
 Sheep Barns, 657 
 
 Granarj', . 
 Hog-House, 
 
 Plans for Piggeries, 
 
 Ice House, 
 
 Essentials iu building. 
 " Plans for, 
 
 " How to cut Ice, 
 
 " " keep small quantities 
 
 of Ice in summer, 673 
 " How to make Ice, . . 673 
 
 " How to store Ice, . . 672 
 
 " Keeping Ice without Ice- 
 
 Houses, . . . 672 
 
 Summer-Houses 674 
 
 How to construct a Cheap Conservatory, 674 
 Shed, or Wagon-House, , . . 667 
 
 Store-House 668 
 
 Tool-House and Repair-Shop, . . 668 
 
 Farm Buildings — Contiuiied. 
 
 Wagon-House, or Shed, . 
 Poultry-Houses. 
 
 Repair-Shop 
 
 Wood-House 
 
 Piggeries, or Hog-House, 
 
 Plans for. ... 
 
 Farm Pets 
 
 " Gardens, 
 
 " Care of Hot-Beds. 
 " " Cold Frames, 
 
 " " Essentials iu Market Garden 
 
 ing. .... 
 " " Garden Implements, . 
 
 '■ Roller. 
 ■' Seeds, 
 " Gardening ,for Farmers' Wives and 
 
 Daughters 
 
 " Gai-dens, Hot-Beds for, 
 " " Irrigation of. . 
 
 " " Market Gardening, 
 
 •■ Profit of, 
 
 " " " " Preparing pro 
 
 duce for Market, 
 
 " " Seed Sower and Cultivator, , 
 
 667 
 667 
 668 
 668 
 663 
 665 
 925 
 1696 
 1700 
 1699 
 
 1702 
 1698 
 1699 
 1701 
 
 1722 
 1699 
 1704 
 1702 
 1702 
 
 1705 
 1697 
 
 Strawberrv Runner and Cutter, 1698 
 
 " " Transplanting, 
 
 " " Verge or Turf Cutter, . 
 
 Farm Fences, ..... 
 To what Extent Essential, 
 " " Removing of, 
 
 " " " Stone-heaps, 
 
 " " Barb Wire, . 
 
 " " " " Erecting, 
 
 " " " " Use of Stretcher, 
 
 " " Wire 
 
 " " Embankments, 
 
 " Flood. .... 
 " " Hedges, 
 
 " " " Varieties of. . 
 
 " " '■ Planting of. 
 
 " " ■■ Trimming of. . 
 
 " Portable, 
 " " Post and Board, . 
 
 •' " Rail. 
 " " Preserving Fence-Posts, 
 
 " Rail 
 
 '• Stone Walls, . 
 
 •' Wire 
 
 Farm Life, Pleasures of. 
 
 " Roads 
 
 Farm Teams — Horse. Mule. Ox. etc.. 
 Farm, Wastes and Wants of the. 
 Farm Practice. How Improved. 
 
 " Products, Low Prices of, . 
 Farming as an Occupation, 
 
 -658 
 547 
 572 
 
 1848 
 1846 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xlv 
 
 Farming, Permanence and Independence of, 
 
 8 
 
 Profitable 
 
 9 
 
 Farming, Profits of 
 
 1845 
 
 Farms and Farm Buildings, 
 
 583 
 
 Farms, Choice of, . . ■ ■ • 
 
 582 
 
 Large, Advantages of, 
 
 583 
 
 " Small 
 
 584 
 
 Large, of the Coimtry, 
 
 609 
 
 Dairy mple Farm,610 
 
 " " " " Glenn Farm, . 
 
 613 
 
 " •' " " Quinn Farm, . 
 
 613 
 
 " " " " Schaeffer " etc., 
 
 
 612 
 
 ,613 
 
 " Model, 
 
 587 
 
 " " Deerfoot Farm, 
 
 595 
 
 " Echo Farm, . . .586 
 
 , 587 
 
 " " Hillhurst Farm, . 
 
 604 
 
 " Long View Farm, . 
 
 605 
 
 " " Lorillard Stock Farm, . 
 
 603 
 
 
 598 
 
 Farmers' Cider Mill 
 
 1600 
 
 " Wives, 
 
 1809 
 
 Fat Steers, Heavy Weight of, . 
 
 949 
 
 " Tailed Sheep, 
 
 1137 
 
 Fat or Lean Pork, 
 
 1228 
 
 Fattening Fowls 
 
 1407 
 
 Coops for. 
 
 1407 
 
 " Pigs, 
 
 1233 
 
 " " Cooked Food for, 
 
 1326 
 
 " " Green " " . 
 
 1337 
 
 " " Pure Water for, . 
 
 1337 
 
 " Salt for, .... 
 
 1237 
 
 " Turkeys, 
 
 1457 
 
 " Geese, 
 
 1487 
 
 Fats in Foods, Use of, .... 
 
 1956 
 
 Feather Eating, ...... 
 
 1411 
 
 Feeding Value of different Articles of Food 
 
 , 986 
 
 " Beef Cattle, 
 
 945 
 
 Feed Cutter, 
 
 1020 
 
 Feeding Lambs 
 
 1140 
 
 " and Manure Supply, 
 
 1886 
 
 for Fat and Lean, .... 
 
 1959 
 
 Object in 
 
 1960 
 
 of Animals, 
 
 19.54 
 
 General Principles, 
 
 1937 
 
 Ratios, 
 
 1847 
 
 Fermentation, ...... 
 
 1851 
 
 ' ' Cause of, ... . 
 
 1943 
 
 Fermented Barnyard Manure, . 
 
 1887 
 
 Fertile Eggs 
 
 1389 
 
 Fertility Conserved by Growing Crops, 
 
 1857 
 
 Loss of, by Following, . 
 
 1863 
 
 " of Soils, Natural and Acquired, 
 
 1876 
 
 Fertilizers 
 
 29 
 
 American Guano, 
 
 60 
 
 Animal Dust, .... 
 
 57 
 
 " " " Analysis of, . 
 
 57 
 
 Fertilizers, Animal Excrement, Analysis of, 38 
 Application of Manures, 
 
 Ashes, Coal 
 
 of Sea Weed, . 
 
 " Peat 
 
 " " Wood, .... 
 
 " " " Leached, 
 
 " Barnyard Manure, 
 
 " Bat Guano, 
 
 " Bones, 
 
 " " Pulverizing and Reducing of, 
 
 " 'Charcoal Dust, .... 
 
 " Chloride of Sodium, Salt, . 
 
 " Clover for Vegetable Manure, . 
 
 " Commercial, ... 36 
 
 " " Application of, 
 
 " " Analysis of, 
 
 " Composition of German Potash 
 
 Salts, 
 
 " Composition of Manures, . 
 " Compost Poudrette, . 
 
 " Composts 
 
 " " How to Construct a Pile, 
 
 " Caster Pomace 
 
 " Cottonseed Pomace, . 
 " Deficiency of Potash in Common 
 Fertilizers and Soils, 
 
 Dried Blood 
 
 " Dr. Lawes' Experiments with Ma- 
 nures on Meadow Lands, 
 Elements Necessary to Supply Soils, 33 
 Elements of Plant Food, . . 31 
 " Escape of Ammonia from Ferment- 
 ing Manures, How Prevented, 43 
 " Exhaustion of Soils by Crops, 
 ' ' Formula of, for Buckwheat, 
 " " " Field Beans, 
 
 " " " Fodder Corn 
 
 '■ Hay,. 
 " " " Indian Corn, 
 
 " Oats, 
 " " " Onions, 
 
 " " " Potatoes, 
 
 ■' Rye, 
 " " " Swede Turnip or 
 
 Rutabagas, 
 •' Wheat, . 
 Fall Fallowing, . 
 Fallow System, The, . 
 " Fish, Fish Guano, Fish Pomace, 
 Flesh, Blood, Hair, etc., as a Fer- 
 tilizer, 
 " Gas Lime, . 
 
 General Propositions concerning 
 Plant Food, . 
 " Ground Limestone and Shells, 
 " Guano, American, 
 
 61 
 63 
 63 
 60 
 61 
 40 
 60 
 65 
 65 
 63 
 68 
 75 
 77 
 83 
 
 70 
 36 
 45 
 51 
 51 
 57 
 57 
 
 39 
 56 
 
 356 
 
 81 
 
 81 
 
 81 
 
xlvi 
 
 
 PA(iE. 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 IViiilizers, Guano, Peruviau, 
 
 5^ 
 
 Firkin of Butter, .... 
 
 1840 
 
 Rectifled, 
 
 .j!) 
 
 Fish Chowder 
 
 1834 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 67, 200 
 
 Fish Culture, ..... 
 
 1753 
 
 " Dr. Franklin's Experi 
 
 
 Anglers' Pride, 
 
 1755 
 
 ment in the Use of, 
 
 38, 200 
 
 Artificial Spawning Beds, 
 
 1762 
 
 " How to Construct a Compost Pile, 51 
 
 Black Bass, . 
 
 1754 
 
 " How to use Potash Salts as a 
 
 
 Brook Trout, 
 
 1755 
 
 Fertilizer, 
 
 71 
 
 " Bottom of Ponds, . 
 
 1758 
 
 " Leaves of Trees as Fertilizers, 
 
 73 
 
 Cleaning Screens, . 
 
 1774 
 
 " Lime, .... 
 
 G3 
 
 Discharging Ova, . 
 
 1767 
 
 •• Gas, 
 
 65 
 
 Killing 
 
 1567 
 
 Linseed Pomace, 
 
 57 
 
 Diseases of Fry, . 
 
 1775 
 
 Magnesia, . . " . 
 
 73 
 
 and Enemies of Adult 
 
 Manuring Mowing Lands, 
 
 250 
 
 Trout, . 
 
 1775 
 
 with Green Crops, 
 
 74 
 
 Varieties Best Adapted to. 
 
 1754 
 
 Marl 
 
 62 
 
 Filter 
 
 1760 
 
 Miscellaneous, Analysis of. 
 
 38 
 
 Food of Fry, 
 
 1771 
 
 Night Soil, 
 
 44 
 
 " of Adult Trout, . 
 
 1772 
 
 Nitrogen, .... 
 
 36 
 
 Gravel for Troughs, 
 
 1761 
 
 Peat 
 
 62 
 
 Growth in the Egg, 
 
 1769 
 
 '• Ashes, 
 
 62 
 
 General Management of Eggs, 1768 
 
 Peruvian Guano, 
 
 58 
 
 Hatching-Hou.se, Nursery, and 
 
 Rectifled, 
 
 59 
 
 Pond, 
 
 1757 
 
 Phosphoric Acid, 
 
 34 
 
 Hatching-House. . 
 
 1759 
 
 Plaster 
 
 67 
 
 ■■ "Bo.\es, . 
 
 1764 
 
 Potash, .... 
 
 35, 69 
 
 Trout and Salmon, 
 
 1769 
 
 " " Sources of Supply of, 
 
 6i) 
 
 Implements for Fish Culture 
 
 , 1761 
 
 " " Strassfurt Potash Mines 
 
 69 
 
 " Improving Streams, 
 
 1763 
 
 Poudrette, 
 
 44 
 
 Indoor Hatching Works, 
 
 1767 
 
 Blood and Meat, 
 
 44 
 
 Last Struggle, The, 
 
 1753 
 
 Compost, . 
 
 45 
 
 " Laying Out Ponds, 
 
 1756 
 
 " Humid, 
 
 45 
 
 " Natural Spawning, 
 
 1763 
 
 Simple, 
 
 45 
 
 " Number of Eggs, . 
 
 1764 
 
 Poultry Manure, 
 
 44 
 
 Nursery, 
 
 1770 
 
 Salt. 
 
 68 
 
 " Pond and Fishway, 
 
 1756 
 
 Sewage as a Fertilizer, . 
 
 46 
 
 Points in. 
 
 1754 
 
 Sewage of Paris, 
 
 48 
 
 " Placing Eggs in Troughs, 
 
 1768 
 
 Sea Weed, 
 
 63 
 
 Precautions against Escape, 
 
 1774 
 
 Soot, .... 
 
 61 
 
 " Racewaj's, 
 
 1758 
 
 " Sulphate of Lime, . 
 
 67 
 
 Raceway, Wild, . 
 
 1758 
 
 Special Fertilizers, . 
 
 79 
 
 Salmon, 
 
 1763 
 
 Superphosphates, 
 
 38 
 
 Trout One Year Old 
 
 , 1770 
 
 Table for calculating the Exhau 
 
 s- 
 
 " " •• Two " 
 
 1770 
 
 tion of Soils by Crops, . 
 
 37 
 
 •• Three " 
 
 1770 
 
 Table showing the Materials R 
 
 e- 
 
 Screens, 
 
 1759 
 
 moved from the Soil by vario 
 
 as 
 
 " Shape of Ponds, . 
 
 1757 
 
 Crops 
 
 39 
 
 " Signs of Spawning, 
 
 1763 
 
 Tobacco Stems, 
 
 73 
 
 Spawning Season, 
 
 1763 
 
 " for Tobacco, 
 
 441 
 
 Stocking Ponds, . 
 
 1775 
 
 " Various Crops for Green Manu 
 
 re, 76 
 
 Temperature of Water, 
 
 1769 
 
 Fertilization of Soil for Wheat, . 
 
 268 
 
 Time of Incubation, 
 
 1769 
 
 Fever, Texas 
 
 991 
 
 Taking Spawn by Hand, 
 
 1765 
 
 Fever in Dogs, ..... 
 
 1552 
 
 Trout," .... 
 
 1762 
 
 Field Roller, The 
 
 103 
 
 ■• Ponds, 
 
 1756 
 
 Filling the Silo, 
 
 1963 
 
 " " " Location of. 
 
 1756 
 
 up Cracks in Cheese, 
 
 1093 
 
 Troughs, 
 
 1760 
 
 Fillers for Cisterns 
 
 533 
 
 Water Supply for Trout, 
 
 1759 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xlvii 
 
 
 PA.iE. 
 
 
 Pace. 
 
 Fibb Culture. Water iSupply for Hatdiiug 
 
 Fruit, Annular, or Ring Budding, 
 
 . 1590 
 
 Trough, 1760 
 
 " Apple, The 
 
 . 1596 
 
 Flax 
 
 466 
 
 Propagation of. 
 
 . 1597 
 
 •' Cultivation of for Fiber. 
 
 . 460 
 
 " " Varieties of, . 
 
 . 1597 
 
 of for Seed. 
 
 . 468 
 
 " Apricots 
 
 . 1613 
 
 " Harvestiug of, . 
 
 . 468 
 
 " " Varieties of. 
 
 . 1613 
 
 " Preparing the Fiber of, 
 
 . 460 
 
 " Cultivation of. 
 
 . 1613 
 
 the Seed for Market. 
 
 4!i!) 
 
 " Bartlett Pear 
 
 . 1603 
 
 Flemish Farm Praetiee, 
 
 . 1874 
 
 Bark Louse, .... 
 
 . 1679 
 
 Fleas in Dogs 
 
 . 15.53 
 
 " Baskets for Strawberries, . 
 
 . 16,55 
 
 Floating Island 
 
 . ism 
 
 " Benefits to be derived from Grafting 
 
 . 1584 
 
 •■ " Curds 
 
 . 1086 
 
 " Budding 
 
 . 1588 
 
 Flora Temple 
 
 7-'52 
 
 " Beurre d'Anjou Pear, 
 
 . 1604 
 
 Forage Plants, Grasses and. 
 
 . i;J8 
 
 " Bidwell Strawberry, . 
 
 . 1647 
 
 Forcing Potatoes. 
 
 ■M-i 
 
 Blackberries 
 
 . 1667 
 
 Forests. Intluence Exerted by, . 
 
 51 7 
 
 Varieties, 
 
 . 1667 
 
 "on Climate, 518 
 
 Kittatinny, 
 
 . 1669 
 
 "on Rainfall, 518 
 
 " " Wilson's Early, . 
 
 1668 
 
 Form of a Road-bed, . 
 
 5.50 
 
 " ' Planting of, 
 
 1667 
 
 " of Constitution for Debating Society, 1794 
 
 " " Cultivation of, . 
 
 1667 
 
 Food for Angora Goats. 
 
 . 1186 
 
 " " Winter Protection for 
 
 1669 
 
 " for Birds 
 
 . 1779 
 
 Yield of. . 
 
 1669 
 
 " for Cattle 
 
 . 932 
 
 Profits of, . 
 
 1669 
 
 " for Ewes with Lambs, 
 
 . 1138 
 
 " Borer, 
 
 1681 
 
 " Effects of on Milk, . 
 
 . 1015 
 
 " Black Knot 
 
 1681 
 
 " for Fowls 
 
 . 1386 
 
 " Brandywine Raspberry, 
 
 1660 
 
 " Steaming for Cattle, . 
 
 . 1019 
 
 " Blight, 
 
 1680 
 
 Foods. Advantages of Variety of. 
 
 . 19.59 
 
 " Brighton Grape, 
 
 1620 
 
 Ash Constituents of. 
 
 . 1957 
 
 " Brinkle's Orange Raspberry, 
 
 1661 
 
 Canned 
 
 . 1946 
 
 " Bloodgood Pear, 
 
 1604 
 
 Digestibility of. 
 
 . 1958 
 
 " Bottling Cider, .... 
 
 ICOl 
 
 Energy of, in Nutrition, . 
 
 . 1941 
 
 " Canker Worm 
 
 1682 
 
 False Theories of Liebig, 
 
 . 1954 
 
 " Captain .Jack Strawberry, . 
 
 1648 
 
 Influence of Nitrogen in. 
 
 . 1959 
 
 " Carolina Raspberry, . 
 
 1661 
 
 Manurial Value of, . 
 
 . 1885 
 
 " Catawba Grape, 
 
 1620 
 
 Variation in Composition of. 
 
 . 1958 
 
 " Caterpillar, .... 
 
 1682 
 
 li'odder Corn for Ensilage, . 
 
 . 1963 
 
 " Charles Downing Strawberry, . 
 
 1647 
 
 Forces of Natvire. Direction and Mastery of. 1845 
 
 " Cherries, ..... 
 
 1614 
 
 Fcu'ms of Life. lulerdependence of, 
 
 1849, 1947 
 
 " " Varieties of. 
 
 1614 
 
 Fouls in Cattle 
 
 974 
 
 " " Cultivation of. 
 
 1614 
 
 Fox Hounds. 
 
 . 1533 
 
 " " Diseases of, . 
 
 1615 
 
 " Terriers, .... 
 
 . 1536 
 
 Cherry Slug, 
 
 1615 
 
 French Butter-Making, 
 
 . 1062 
 
 To Prevent Birds from Rob 
 
 
 Breeds of Fowls, . 
 
 . 1334 
 
 bing. 
 
 1615 
 
 Fried Potatoes, 
 
 1825 
 
 " Changing the Bearing Year, 
 
 1581 
 
 " Rolls 
 
 . 1826 
 
 " Cider Making 
 
 1599 
 
 " Cake 
 
 . 1829 
 
 " AVine 
 
 1601 
 
 Fractures in Cattle, . 
 
 . 974 
 
 " Clapp's Favorite Pear, 
 
 1604 
 
 In Swine, . 
 
 . 1237 
 
 " Cleft Grafting 
 
 1586 
 
 Fretfulness, .... 
 
 . 1813 
 
 " Clinton Grape 
 
 1631 
 
 l''ried Oysters 
 
 . 1824 
 
 " Codling Moth 
 
 1683 
 
 " Onions 
 
 . 1825 
 
 " Concord Grape, . . . 
 
 1619 
 
 Frizzled Fowls, .... 
 
 . 1365 
 
 " Cultivation of Orchards, . 
 
 1580 
 
 Merits and Defects of 
 
 . 1365 
 
 " Curculio 
 
 1683 
 
 Frr.it Cake, .... 
 
 . 1829 
 
 " Crates, etc., 
 
 1655 
 
 " Evaporator. 
 
 . 1595 ! 
 
 " Culture 
 
 1568 
 
 on the Farm, 
 
 . 1 5r,s 
 
 Heeling In Trees and Plants, 
 
 1577 
 
xlviii 
 
 Fruit Culture, Labeling Trees, . 
 
 Mapping Out Orchards. 
 Plans for Orchards and Fi'uit 
 Gardens, .... 
 Preparation of Soil for Trans- 
 
 1579 
 loi'J 
 
 planting, .... 
 
 ir.U 
 
 Production of New Varieties, 
 
 1.5T3 
 
 Proper Age of Trees for Trans- 
 
 
 planting. .... 
 
 15T6 
 
 Orchards, Cultivation of. 
 
 1580 
 
 Resuscitating Trees and Plants,lo7T 
 
 Taking up Trees, . 
 
 1574 
 
 Currants 
 
 1670 
 
 Varieties of, . . . 
 
 1071 
 
 Pay's Prolific, . 
 
 1671 
 
 Cultivation of, . 
 
 1072 
 
 Pruning of. ... 
 
 1673 
 
 Diseases and Enemies of. 
 
 1674 
 
 Cranberries 
 
 1675 
 
 Varieties of. . 
 
 1675 
 
 " Cultivation of. 
 
 1675 
 
 Gathering of. 
 
 1677 
 
 Diseases and Enemies of , . 
 
 1678 
 
 Agrilus Ruficolis 
 
 1691 
 
 Aphides, . 
 
 1679 
 
 Aphis, Woolly, 
 
 1687 
 
 Bark Louse, 
 
 1679 
 
 Black Knot, 
 
 1681 
 
 " "the Blackberry, 
 
 1690 
 
 " Blight, . 
 
 1080 
 
 " " Borer, 
 
 1681 
 
 " Flat Headed, 
 
 1683 
 
 " " Canker Worm, 
 
 1683 
 
 " " Caterpillar, 
 
 1683 
 
 " " Cherry Slug, . 
 
 1083 
 
 " " Codling Moth, . 
 
 1688 
 
 " " Curculio, . 
 
 1683 
 
 " " the Currant, 
 
 1691 
 
 " " Currant Worm, 
 
 
 Imported, 
 
 1691 
 
 " "the Gooseberry, 
 
 1691 
 
 Grape-vine Flea 
 
 
 Beetle, . 
 
 1684 
 
 " " Imported Currant 
 
 Worm, 
 
 1691 
 
 " " Mildew, . 
 
 1085 
 
 " " Protecting Trees 
 
 
 from j\Iicc, 
 
 1088 
 
 " " Protecting Trees 
 
 
 from Rabbits, . 
 
 1088 
 
 " " Protecting Trees 
 
 
 Sheep and C'attle 
 
 1688 
 
 " " the Raspberry, 
 
 1691 
 
 " " Rose Bug, 
 
 1686 
 
 " Rot, . 
 
 1686 
 
 " " Sprinklers and 
 
 
 Atomizers, 
 
 1693 
 
 Fruit, Diseases and Enemies, Twig-Girdler, 
 • Web Worm, . 
 " " " Woolly Aphis, . 
 
 " " " Yellows, 
 
 " Delaware Grape, 
 " Diagrams for Fruit Orchards, 
 " Distance Apart for Planting, 
 
 " Drying 
 
 " Duchess d'Angouleme. 
 
 " Dwarf and Standard Pears, 
 
 " Essex Beauty, . 
 
 " Figs 
 
 " Varieties of, 
 
 " Cultivation of, . 
 " Flemish Beauty, 
 " Assorting of, . 
 
 Gathering, . 
 Gooseberries, 
 
 Varieties of. 
 
 Cultivation of, 
 
 Diseases and Enemies 
 
 of. 
 
 Grafting, 
 
 Annular, or Ring Budding, , 
 " Benefits to Be Derived from, 
 " Best time for. 
 
 Cleft, . 
 " Cutting Buds for, 
 '' Methods of, . 
 " Preparing Stocks for, 
 " Root, . 
 Saddle,. 
 " Selecting Buds for. 
 
 Shield Budding, . 
 " Splice, . 
 Side, . 
 Wax, . 
 
 Whip or Tongue. 
 Propagating by Cuttings. 
 
 " Layers and Suckers, 
 Rooms, 
 Storing of , . 
 Thinning of, 
 Grapes, 
 
 Varieties of, . 
 " Culture and Pruning of, 
 " Brighton, 
 " Catawba, 
 " Clinton, . 
 Concord, 
 Delaware, 
 " Duchess, 
 " in Winter, 
 
 Hartford Prolific, . 
 " Hastening the Ripening 
 " Jefferson, 
 " Lady, 
 
 of, . 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xlix 
 
 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 "'ruit, Grapes, Moore's Early, 
 
 1618 
 
 , 1621) 
 
 Fruit, Pears, Seckle 
 
 1605 
 
 Niagara, 
 
 
 16-23 
 
 Cultivation of, ... 
 
 1606 
 
 " " Other Fine Varieties, 
 
 
 1623 
 
 " " Diseases of 
 
 1609 
 
 " " Pocklington, 
 
 
 1621 
 
 " " Improving Color of. 
 
 1608 
 
 " " Pruning vines, 
 
 
 1629 
 
 Marketing of 
 
 1608 
 
 " Prentiss, 
 
 
 1621 
 
 Proper Time to Pick, 
 
 1607 
 
 " " Scuppernong, 
 
 
 1623 
 
 Retarding Time of Ripening, 
 
 KiOS 
 
 " Soil. Choice of Vines, etc., . 
 
 1625 
 
 " Soil for, 
 
 10U6 
 
 " Stakes and Trellises for 
 
 
 1628 
 
 " " Storing of 
 
 1607 
 
 " " Transplanting Vines, 
 
 
 1628 
 
 " Yield of 
 
 1608 
 
 " " Vergennes. . 
 
 1633 
 
 , 1627 
 
 " Plums 
 
 1613 
 
 " " Wilder (Rogers No. 4), 
 
 
 1623 
 
 " " Varieties of 
 
 1613 
 
 " Worden, 
 
 
 1623 
 
 " " Cultivation of, . . . 
 
 1613 
 
 " " Wine Making. 
 
 
 1633 
 
 " " Diseases and Enemies of. 
 
 1613 
 
 " AViuter Protection o^ A 
 
 ^ines, 
 
 1630 
 
 " " Propagation of, . 
 
 1613 
 
 " Heeling In of Trees and Plants, 
 
 
 lo77 
 
 ' ' Protecting Fruit Trees and Vineyards, 
 
 1.596 
 
 " Hermaphrodite Plants. 
 
 
 1649 
 
 " Pruning, 
 
 1.582 
 
 " How to Plant an Orange Grove 
 
 
 1636 
 
 Best Time for. 
 
 1582 
 
 " How to Promote Fruitfulness in 
 
 Trees, 
 
 1580 
 
 " " Methods of. 
 
 1.583 
 
 " Lemons 
 
 
 1645 
 
 " " Wash for Wounds made in. 
 
 1.583 
 
 " Limes 
 
 
 1645 
 
 " Quinces, 
 
 1615 
 
 " Mulching, 
 
 
 1580 
 
 " " Varieties of. 
 
 1616 
 
 " Nectarines, 
 
 
 1612 
 
 " " Cultivation of, . 
 
 1616 
 
 Varieties of, . 
 
 
 1613 
 
 " " Diseases of, ... 
 
 1617 
 
 " " Cultivation of. 
 
 
 1613 
 
 Gathering of. 
 
 1616 
 
 Pruning of, . 
 
 
 1613 
 
 " Raspberries 
 
 1656 
 
 " Oranges 
 
 
 1634 
 
 " " Varieties of , . . . 
 
 1659 
 
 Varieties of, 
 
 
 1634 
 
 " Brandy wine, 
 
 1660 
 
 Cultivation of. 
 
 
 1638 
 
 " " Brinkle's Orange, 
 
 1661 
 
 " Diseases and Insect Enemies 
 
 
 " " Carolina 
 
 1661 
 
 of, . 
 
 1641 
 
 1642 
 
 Cuthbert, . . . . 
 
 1659 
 
 Fertilizers for. 
 
 
 1640 
 
 Herstine, . . . 1660 
 
 1665 
 
 " " Gathering, . 
 
 
 1641 
 
 " " Queen of the Market, 
 
 1660 
 
 " How to Plant an Oi 
 
 ange 
 
 
 Reliance, . . . 1660 
 
 1663 
 
 Grove, 
 
 
 1636 
 
 Schaffer 
 
 1660 
 
 " " Insects of, . 
 
 
 1642 
 
 Souhegan, . . . 1657 
 
 1660 
 
 " " Packing for Slarket, , 
 
 
 1641 
 
 " " Superb 
 
 1660 
 
 " " Pruning of, . 
 
 
 1639 
 
 " Cultivation of, . 
 
 1663 
 
 Rust 
 
 
 1641 
 
 " After First Season, 
 
 1666 
 
 " " Transplanting of. 
 
 
 1637 
 
 " " How to obtain a Crop of in 
 
 
 " Peaches, 
 
 
 1609 
 
 Fall 
 
 1666 
 
 Varieties of. 
 
 
 1609 
 
 " " Manures and Fertilizers for, 
 
 1661 
 
 " Propagation of, . 
 
 
 1609 
 
 " " Mulching, .... 
 
 1663 
 
 " " Cultivation of. 
 
 
 1610 
 
 " " Planting of, . . . 
 
 1661 
 
 " Pratt's Rareripe, . 
 
 
 1610 
 
 " at the South, . 
 
 1662 
 
 " •' Pruning of, . 
 
 
 1611 
 
 Profits of, .... 
 
 1666 
 
 " " Diseases and Enemies of, . 
 
 1612 
 
 " " Protection of in Winter, . 
 
 1666 
 
 
 
 1601 
 
 " " Rust in, ... . 
 
 1667 
 
 
 ' Varieties of, . 
 
 
 1603 
 
 " " Soil for 
 
 1661 
 
 
 • Bartlett, . . . . 
 
 
 1603 
 
 " " Staking of, ... 
 
 1662 
 
 
 ' Beurre d'Anjou, 
 
 
 1604 
 
 " " Summer Pruning, 
 
 1663 
 
 
 ' Bloodgood, 
 
 
 1604 
 
 Winter "... 
 
 1665 
 
 
 Duchess d'Angouleme, . 
 
 
 1604 
 
 Yield of, . . . . 
 
 1666 
 
 " 
 
 Keiffer's Hybrid, . 
 
 
 1605 
 
 " Renovating Old Orchards, 
 
 1.581 
 
 
 Leconte 
 
 
 1606 
 
 " Small Fruits 
 
 1645 
 
 " 
 
 ' Louis Bond, . 
 
 
 1604 
 
 " Storing Apples, .... 
 
 1599 
 
 ** 
 
 ' Louise Bonne d'Jersey, . 
 
 
 1606 
 
 " Strawberries, 
 
 1645 
 
Fruit. Stniwljcrrik's, Varietii.- 
 Hidwell, . 
 
 C'iiptain .hu'k. . 
 Cliiirk'.s J)(iwiiiiig. 
 Crescent Seedliiijr. 
 ('uinlierhind Triunipli. 
 Essex Beauty. . 
 Jersey Queeu. . 
 Loiiiltellow, 
 Maiicliester. 
 Monarch of the West, 
 President Wilder, 
 Prince of Berries, 
 Sharpless Seedlings, . 
 Warren, 
 Wilson, 
 Baskets for. 
 Crates for, . 
 Cultivation of, . 
 
 the Second Year, 
 Cutting off the Blossoms, 
 Diseases and Insects of. 
 Growing Large Berries, 
 Hermaphrodite Plants, 
 Manure and Fertilizers for 
 Mulching, . 
 Picking, . 
 Pistillate Plants, 
 Planting, . 
 
 Distance of, . 
 Profits of, . 
 I'ropagation of. . 
 Soil for. 
 
 To Hasten the Ripening of, 
 To prevent mixing different 
 
 Varieties, 
 'I'reatinent of Plants afte 
 
 Fruiting, 
 Time for Setting Plants. 
 Watering in Drouth, . 
 Winter Protection, 
 Yield of, . 
 
 Furrow Draining. 
 
 Gallus Bankiva Fowls, 
 Galloways, . . . . , 
 Galvanized Iron Cheese Hoops. 
 Games, .... 
 
 Black, . 
 
 Black-breasted Red. 
 
 Blue 
 
 Brown Red, . 
 
 Ginger Red, . 
 
 Golden Duckwing, 
 
 Gray, 
 " Henny, ... 
 " Merits and Defects of , 
 
 164t) 
 1647 
 164S 
 1(vl7 
 liilT 
 KU; 
 1(>4!» 
 1647 
 1649 
 1646 
 1648 
 1647 
 1647 
 1648 
 1649 
 1647 
 1653 
 1655 
 1652 
 1654 
 1652 
 1656 
 1653 
 1649 
 1650 
 1653 
 1655 
 1.549 
 1650 
 1651 
 1656 
 1649 
 1349 
 1655 
 
 1652 
 
 16.54 
 1650 
 16.",3 
 1654 
 1656 
 138 
 
 1375 
 863 
 1089 
 1315 
 1318 
 1316 
 1318 
 1317 
 1317 
 , 1331 
 1318 
 1331 
 1325 
 
 Games. Red Pile 
 
 Silver Duckwing, . 
 Spangled. .... 
 
 White 
 
 White (ieorgiau. 
 
 W hite Pih' 
 
 Gang Cheese Press, .... 
 
 Gauge Stakes 
 
 Garget in Cows 
 
 " " Sheep. .... 
 
 Gardening, Farm, .... 
 
 Market 
 
 " "■ Essentials in, 
 
 " Profits of, 
 '" Preparing Produce for 
 Market, 
 
 " " Rotatian of Crops for, 
 
 " " Storage of Crops, . 
 
 Gardening for Farmers' Wives and Daugh 
 
 ters, 
 
 Garden Herbs and their Cultivation, . 
 
 " Implements 
 
 Garden Roller 
 
 Garlic, 
 
 Gas liime, 
 
 Gathering and Assorting Fruit, . 
 Generation, Spontaneous, . 
 General Indications of Disease in Animals 
 Management of Dogs, . 
 Ducks, 
 Gee.se, . 
 Fish Eggs, . 
 " " Guinea Fowls, 
 
 Poultry, 
 " " Pigeons, 
 
 " " Sheep, 
 
 " " Swans, 
 
 Swine, 
 " Peacocks, . 
 
 Turkeys, 
 " Treatment of Breeding and Mile! 
 
 C!ows 
 
 German Badger Hound. 
 
 Sheep Dog 
 
 Gluco.se, ...... 
 
 Glossary of Terms used in describing Grasses 
 
 Glos.sary of Terms 1001, 
 
 Glossitis 
 
 Glossy Starch 
 
 Goat, Angora 
 
 Goats for Protecting Sheep, 
 
 Goiture in Dogs, ..... 
 
 Goffart, M. Auguste, book on Ensilag 
 
 Gold Du.st 
 
 Gold Cake 
 
 Golden Sebright Bantams, . 
 " Spangled Ilamburgs, 
 

 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 Golden Polish Fowls, 
 
 
 1327 
 
 Gr 
 
 
 • Bearded, 
 
 
 1328 
 
 
 Goldsmith Muid 
 
 
 734 
 
 
 Cood 
 
 Seed 
 
 
 512 
 
 
 
 " Choice of Plants in Producing. 
 
 513 
 
 
 
 ■■ Speii d Cultivation Essen 
 
 ial, . 
 
 515 
 
 
 " 
 
 " Harvesting Seed, 
 
 
 515 
 
 
 " 
 
 " Storing, 
 
 
 515 
 
 
 
 " Qualities Desirable in. 
 
 
 516 
 
 
 lOSt 
 
 berries 
 
 Varieties of, 
 Cultivation of. 
 Diseases and Enemies of, 
 
 
 1672 
 1672 
 1674 
 1675 
 
 
 Gorg 
 
 )nzola Cheese. 
 
 
 1079 
 
 
 Gov. 
 
 Sprague, .... 
 
 3, 78!) 
 
 
 Grad 
 
 ■s of Various Breeds of Cattle, 
 
 
 908 
 
 
 Graft 
 
 ing-Wax 
 
 
 1588 
 
 
 Grah 
 
 im Bread 
 
 
 1820 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 Crops, why Exhausting, . 
 
 
 1870 
 
 
 
 Growing, Kelation to Farm Ai 
 
 limals. 
 
 1898 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 of Butter, .... 
 
 
 1059 
 
 
 Grail 
 
 •s 
 
 
 1617 
 
 
 
 Brighton, 
 
 1620 
 
 16;il 
 
 
 
 Catawba, 
 
 
 1620 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Choice of Vines. 
 
 
 1625 
 
 
 
 
 
 1621 
 
 
 
 Concord, 
 
 
 1619 
 
 
 
 Culture of, . 
 
 
 1629 
 
 
 " 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 
 1621 
 
 
 " 
 
 Diseases and Insects of, . 
 
 
 16:^2 
 
 
 '• 
 
 Duchess. 
 
 
 1623 
 
 
 
 Hartford Prolific, . 
 
 
 1620 
 
 
 
 Hastening the Ripening of. 
 
 
 1630 
 
 
 
 In Winter, 
 
 
 1632 
 
 
 
 JefTerson, 
 
 
 1623 
 
 
 " 
 
 Lady 
 
 
 1624 
 
 
 
 Moore's Early, 
 
 
 1620 
 
 
 
 •Niagara 
 
 
 1623 
 
 
 
 Pocklingtou, . 
 
 1569 
 
 1621 
 
 
 
 
 
 1621 
 
 
 
 Pruning of, . 
 
 
 1629 
 
 
 
 Si'uppernong, 
 
 
 1623 
 
 
 
 Soil for, .... 
 
 
 1625 
 
 
 
 Stakes and Trellises, 
 
 
 1628 
 
 
 •' 
 
 Transplanting, 
 
 
 1628 
 
 
 " 
 
 Varieties of , . 
 
 1619 
 
 1625 
 
 
 
 Vergenues. 
 
 1623 
 
 1627 
 
 
 " 
 
 Wilder (Rogers No. 4). . 
 
 
 1623 
 
 
 
 Wine Slaking. 
 
 
 1632 
 
 
 " 
 
 Winter Protection of Vines. 
 
 
 1630 
 
 
 
 Wordan, .... 
 
 
 1623 
 
 
 Grass 
 
 Seeds, Mixed, . 
 
 
 1U51 
 
 
 Grasses and Forage Plants. 
 
 
 138 
 
 
 
 Aftermath or Rowen, 
 
 
 348 
 
 
 
 Agrostis-*ike Panic Grass, 
 
 
 189 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa. lAicerne. 
 
 
 210 
 
 
 
 Value of as a Forage : 
 
 ='lant, 
 
 311 
 
 ' 
 
 asses and Forage Plants — Continued. 
 Alfalfa, Manner of Cultivating, 
 
 Soil to which it is Adapted 
 Analysis of Green Alfalfa, 
 Alfalfa Hay. . 
 
 Alsike Clover 
 
 " " Cultivation of, etc.. 
 
 " " Analysis of. 
 
 Analysis of Natural Grasses, . 2 
 
 213 
 213 
 213 
 213 
 307 
 208 
 209 
 
 Ash of Natural Grasses, 339 
 Artiticial Grasses, 226, 337 
 339 
 339 
 154 
 149 
 156 
 
 Ash of Artiticial Grasses, 
 
 Weeds 
 
 Alpine Brown Bent, 
 Annual Spear-Grass, 
 Awnless Muhlenbergia, . 
 Barnyard-Grass, Cock's-foot Grass, 186, 187 
 Beach-Grass. Sea Sand Reed, Mat-Grass, 157 
 
 Bengal-Grass 158 
 
 Bermuda-Grass, . . . 160, 163 
 
 Blue-Grass, Wire-Grass, . . . 149 
 
 Blue-Joint Grass 157 
 
 Bonnet-Grass 153 
 
 Bottle-Grass 158 
 
 Bristly Fox-Tail, .... 158 
 Broad-Leaved Panic-Grass, . 189 
 
 Broom Grass, .... 180. 182 
 
 Sedge 170, 182 
 
 Brown Bent, ..... 156 
 
 Bokhara Clover 210 
 
 Buffalo Clover 210 
 
 Clover as a Fertilizer, . . 205 
 
 Clover, Red, Cultivation of, etc., . 199 
 
 Seed, " •■ . 304 
 
 Sickness 307 
 
 Common Canary-Grass, . . 173 
 
 ': Millet 190 
 
 Couch-Grass. Quitch-Grass, etc., . 163 
 
 Crab-Grass 186, 187 
 
 Creeping Meadow-Orass, . . 150, 151 
 Crow-Foot. Yard-Grass, ... 164 
 Dew-Grass, White-Top, English-Bent, 153 
 
 Dovyny Oat-Gra.ss 163 
 
 Drop-Seed Grass, Nindjle Will, 155, 156 
 Featlier-Grass,Black-Oat Gra.ss, 167,172,173 
 Foul Meadow-Grass, . . 140, 150 
 
 Fresh Water, Cord-Grass, . .167 
 
 Fringed Brome-Grass, . . . 181 
 
 Gama-Grass 164, 106 
 
 Giant Sainfoin, ..... 215 
 Glaucous Small Reed, . . 157 
 
 Glossary of Terms used in Describing. 221 
 
 Golden Mdlet, 191 
 
 Green Fo.xtail, Bottle Grass, . . 158 
 Green Meadow-Grass, June-Grass, etc., 147 
 
 Grouping of 223 
 
 Guinea-Grass, 189 
 
Hi 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Grasses and Forage Plants — Continued. 
 ■• llair-Stalked Meadow-Grass, . . 189 
 Hair-Grass, Flyaway-Grass, . . 154 
 Uanl Fescue-Grass, .... 153 
 
 ■■ Hares-Foot Clover 210 
 
 Ilerd'sGrass, Timothy, . . 144 
 
 ■' Red-Top. etc., . . 152 
 
 •■ Hop Clover, Yellow Clover, . . 210 
 
 Hungarian-Grass, Hungarian-Millet, . 190 
 
 " Indian-Corn as a Forage Plant, . 193 
 
 Indian-Grass, "Wood-Grass, . 184, 185 
 
 •• Millet 186 
 
 " Italian Rye-Grass 161 
 
 " Japan Clover 194, 195 
 
 " Kentucky Blue-Grass, . . . 139 
 
 " Kidney Vetch 216 
 
 " Long-Panicled Manna-Grass, . . 167 
 " Lucerne, Value of, etc., . . 310, 211 
 " " Cultivation of, etc., . . 313 
 
 " Lupine 318 
 
 " List of Grasses and Forage Plants, . 220 
 " Maize as a Forage Plant, . . . 193 
 " ^lauures affecting different species of, 1950 
 " Meadow Brome-Grass, . . . 181 
 Meadow Fescue, .... 151 
 
 " Meadow Foxtail 146 
 
 Oat-Grass 163 
 
 " Jleadow Soft-Grass, Velvet-Grass, . 168 
 " Meadow Spear-Grass, Nerved Man- 
 na-Grass 148 
 
 Mean?, .lohnson. Egyptian-Grass, 182, 183 
 " Mexican Clover, ". . . 196, 197 
 " Mexican Muhlenbergia, . . 156 
 
 " Millet-Grass, 173 
 
 Mixture of Grass Seed. . . . 231 
 " Mixture of Grass Seed for Fine Lawns 
 
 Frequently Mown, . . . 284 
 " Mixture of Grass Seed for Hay and 
 Pasture in Orchards and Shaded 
 
 Places 334 
 
 Mixture of Grass Seed for Hay and 
 
 Pasture Combined, . . . 333 
 Mixture of Grass Seed for Marshy 
 
 Grounds 234 
 
 Mixture of Grass Seed for Meadow 
 
 Lands 333 
 
 Mixture of Grass Seed for Mowing 
 
 Lands 231 
 
 Mixture of Grass Seed for Mowing on 
 
 Light Lands, . . . .234 
 
 Mixture of Grass Seed for Permanent 
 
 Lawns 233 
 
 Mixture of Grass Seed for Permanent 
 
 Pastures, . . .231, 232, 233 
 Mixture of Grass Seed for Reclaimed 
 
 Peaty Lands, .... 234 
 
 Mixture of Grass Seed for Rocky Hills, 284 
 
 Grasses and Forage Plants — Continued. 
 " Mixture of Grass Seed for Rotation and 
 
 Improving the Soil. . . . 233 
 " Mixture of Grass Seed for Summer 
 
 Pastures 232 
 
 " Mixture of Grass Seed for Winter 
 
 Pastures 333 
 
 " Mountain Red-Top, .... 142 
 " Mountain or Northern Red-Top, . 156 
 
 ^Mountain Rice, .... 167 
 
 Nutritive Value of 234 
 
 " Obtuse Flowered Panic-Grass, . 189 
 " Obtuse Spear-Grass, . . . 197 
 " Orchard-Grass, Rough Cock's Foot. 147 
 •■ Pearl 3Iillet 191 
 
 Perennial Rye-Grass, Darnel, . . 161 
 " Pigeon-Grass, Bristle-Grass, . 159, 161 
 
 Poverty-Grass, Threc-Awned Grass, 167 
 
 " Prickley Comfrey 219 
 
 " Prolific Panic-Grass, . . .189 
 
 " Quaking-Grass, .... 161 
 " Rattlesnake-Grass, .... 167 
 " Red-Top, Fine-Top, etc., . . 153 
 
 " Rice-Grass, Cut Grass, etc., . . 153 
 " Reed Canary-Grass, .... 171 
 
 Rough-Stalked Meadow-Grass, . 149 
 " Rush Salt-Grass, .... 168 
 
 " Sainfoin, 215 
 
 Cultivation of, . . . 815 
 
 Giant 215 
 
 " Salt Marsh Grass, .... 168 
 
 " Salt Reed-Grass 167 
 
 " Sand-Grass, 168 
 
 " Schrader's Grass, . . . 178, 181 
 " Sheep's Fescue, .... 151 
 
 " Slender Crab-Grass, . . . .189 
 " " Spiked-Fescue, . . . 152 
 
 " Smut-Grass 175, 176 
 
 " Southern Bent, .... 154 
 
 " Spurry 216 
 
 " Sweet-Scented Vernal Grass, . . 16& 
 " Sylvan Muhlenbergia, . ... 156 
 
 " Texas Millet 141 
 
 " Timothy, or Herds-Grass, . . 144 
 " Tall Fescue Grass, . . . .152 
 " Tall Meadow-Grass, Tall Oat-Grass, 163 
 '■ Tall Panic-Grass, . . 189, 192 
 
 " Tall Red-Top 168, 169 
 
 " Texas-Millet 186 
 
 " The Florin, Broad-leaved Creeping 
 
 Bent 154 
 
 " Vanilla-Grass, Seneca-Grass, . 179, 181 
 
 " Vetch Tare 216 
 
 " Water-Grass 173, 174 
 
 " Water Spear-Grass, ReedTMeadow- 
 
 Grass 150 
 
 White-Clover, 209 
 
INDEX. 
 
 liii 
 
 Cult 
 
 and 
 
 Defe 
 
 Grasses and Foliage Plants — Continued. 
 " , Wild Chess, 
 " Willdenom's Mublenbergi 
 " Wild Fescue, . 
 
 Wood Meadow-Grass, 
 Yard-Gi'ass, 
 " Yellow Oat-Grass, 
 " Zigzag Clover. . 
 Grouping of. 
 Gravel for Troughs in Fish 
 Gray Gaines, 
 
 " Livonian Fowls. 
 
 ' Merit 
 
 Green JIauuring. 
 Gregg Raspberry, 
 Grinnell Cake, 
 
 Ground Limestone and Shells. 
 Growing Crops, Conserving Fer 
 Grey, . 
 
 Grub in Cattle, . 
 Sheep, . 
 Guano, American, 
 " Bat, 
 
 Peruvian, 
 " Rectitied, 
 Gypsum, 
 
 tility 
 
 Habitations, 
 
 Habits and General IManagement 
 
 Angora Goat, 
 Habits of Prairie Cattle, . 
 Haematuria. 
 Hams, Curing of. 
 Hams and Bacon, Smoking of, 
 Haraburgs, .... 
 Black, . 
 
 Golden Penciled, 
 " " Spangled, 
 
 Silver Penciled, . 
 ■' " Spangled, 
 
 White, 
 
 " Merits and Defects of, 
 Hampshires, 
 Hambletonian as a Trotting Sire, 
 Handicrafts, or Trades, 
 Harrowing, 
 
 Hatching Boxes for Fish, . 
 " In-door, 
 " House for Fish, . 
 Trout and Salmon, 
 
 Hawk Owl 
 
 Hay Caps, .... 
 '■ Elevator and Carrier, 
 " Forks, 
 " Method of Curing, 
 
 " Press 
 
 " Pitching Apparatus, . 
 
 lo7 
 
 17d, 177 
 
 . 149 
 
 . 1C.5 
 
 . 163 
 
 . 210 
 
 . 223 
 
 . 1761 
 
 . 1318 
 
 . 1366 
 
 sof, 1366 
 
 . 1891 
 
 1659, 1660 
 
 . 1829 
 
 65 
 
 . 1857 
 
 . 1968 
 
 . 977 
 
 . 1173 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 67, 300 
 
 . 1807 
 the 
 
 . 1185 
 . 955 
 . 977 
 . 1333 
 . 1234 
 . 1309 
 . 1313 
 . 1310 
 . 1311 
 . 1309 
 . 1310 
 . 1311 
 . 1313 
 1146 
 1968 
 1843 
 100 
 1764 
 1767 
 1759 
 1769 
 1784 
 243 
 , 347 
 245 
 237 
 , 248 
 246 
 
 1111, 
 
 Hay Rakes, 
 
 
 
 243 
 
 " Scales, 
 
 
 
 415 
 
 " Stacking, . 
 
 
 
 245 
 
 " Storage of, 
 
 
 
 242 
 
 " Tedders, . 
 
 
 34C 
 
 , 241 
 
 " Time of Cutting Grass for 
 
 
 
 237 
 
 " Mowers, . ' . 
 
 
 336 
 
 , 238 
 
 " Renovating Grass Lands. 
 
 
 
 3.52 
 
 " Rolling ^lowing Lands an 
 
 iPas 
 
 tures, 
 
 ■ 250 
 
 " Selection of Grass-Seed, 
 
 
 
 33t) 
 
 " Time to Sow Grass-Seed, 
 
 
 
 329 
 
 " Crop, Manures utilized by 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 Heavy Weight Fat Steers, . 
 
 
 
 949 
 
 Healing in Trees and Plants, 
 
 
 
 1577 
 
 Height of Buildings, . 
 
 
 
 631 
 
 Hemp, .... 
 
 
 
 470 
 
 " Cultivation of, . 
 
 
 
 470 
 
 " Harvesting of, . 
 
 
 
 471 
 
 " After-management of. 
 
 
 
 471 
 
 Henny Games, . 
 
 
 
 1321 
 
 Heredity 
 
 
 
 1251 
 
 Herefords. .... 
 
 
 
 855 
 
 As Oxen, 
 
 
 
 860 
 
 Beef qualities of, 
 
 
 
 859 
 
 " Description of, . 
 
 
 
 856 
 
 " For the Dairy, 
 
 
 
 859 
 
 Hermaphrodite Plants, 
 
 
 
 1649 
 
 Hernia, .... 
 
 
 
 978 
 
 Hessian Fly, ... 
 
 
 
 285 
 
 Hill and Drill Planting, . 
 
 
 311 
 
 , 815 
 
 "Hillhurst," 
 
 
 
 604 
 
 Hilling Cultivator, 
 
 
 
 315 
 
 High Farming, . 
 
 
 
 1934 
 
 " Feeding, . 
 
 
 
 1938 
 
 Hives, 
 
 1739 
 
 1730, 
 
 1731 
 
 " Chaff Eclectic, . 
 
 
 
 1730 
 
 " Circular, . 
 
 
 
 1731 
 
 " Improved Lang,strolh, 
 
 
 
 1730 
 
 " Nellis Chaff, 
 
 
 
 1730 
 
 " North Star, 
 
 
 
 17S1 
 
 " Worrall's Centennial, 
 
 
 
 1731 
 
 Hoarseness, .... 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 Hog Cholera, 
 
 
 1337, 
 
 1944 
 
 " Preventive measures 
 
 for. 
 
 
 1239 
 
 Symptoms of, . 
 
 
 
 1238 
 
 Treatment of, . 
 
 
 
 1288 
 
 Hog-House, 
 
 
 
 663 
 
 Holsteins, .... 
 
 
 
 895 
 
 " Description of, . 
 
 
 
 896 
 
 Beef Qualities of. 
 
 
 
 898 
 
 Dairv Characteristics 
 
 of. 
 
 
 896 
 
 Home and Household, The, 
 
 
 
 1803 
 
 Honey-Bearing Plants, 
 
 
 
 1736 
 
 Extractors, 
 
 
 
 1729 
 
 Knives, . 
 
 
 _ 
 
 1728 
 
 Hooded Merganser, 
 
 
 
 1785 
 
 Hoof Rot in Sheep, . 
 
 
 
 1173 
 
liv 
 
 Hops 
 
 " Cultivation of, 
 ■' Varieties of. 
 '■ Harvestiug of. . 
 " Drying of. . 
 Horse, The. 
 
 Qualities De.sirable in. 
 Activity. . 
 A jrooil Disposition. . 
 ■' Eudunnce. 
 lutelligeni 1-. 
 Streugtli. . 
 ■■ The Back. . 
 Balking of. 
 ■■ Black Hawk. . 
 
 Junior. . 
 Blinders, Use of. 
 Bits. Frosty, 
 " The Bones, 
 " ■■ of the Leg, 
 
 " Boulannaise Draft, . 
 Breeding of. 
 Breeding. Dlsqualilications for. 
 
 Influence of Sire and Dum 
 What Hors<.'S to Breed. 
 Care of Breeding-Glares, 
 " " Care of Young Colts. 
 
 Care of Stallions. 
 " Chest. The. 
 " Canadian. The. 
 " Carriage Horse, 
 '• Cleveland Bay. The. 
 
 Clipping. . 
 •• Clydesdale, 
 " Color in, . 
 " Colts. Age for Working 
 Balking of, . 
 Breaking of to Halter. . 
 Harness. 
 Bitting Process 
 •• Saddle. . 
 Cheek Rein. Use of. 
 Natural and Unnatural Po; 
 
 tion of a Horse's Head. 
 Teaching a Colt to Back. 
 
 Care of 
 
 " " Castnition of, 
 
 " ■ ■■ How to Prevent a Colt fron: 
 being Easily Friguteneii. 
 (lid-time GIetho<i of Managin: 
 Present System of Colt Man 
 
 agement. ... 
 Ii;ii.sing by Hand. . 
 " ■■ AVeaning. 
 
 " ■■ Coifs Foot at Two Years, 
 
 " Conestoga, The, 
 " Diet for Sick Horses, 
 
 Pace. 
 
 482 
 
 ins 
 
 ■Dr. 
 (57 
 
 GT'.i 
 6711 
 67.1 
 6ii4 
 
 69U 
 77G 
 
 OS, 
 
 686, 
 
 6yi 
 692 
 
 708 
 746 
 747 
 747 
 7411 
 751 
 
 689 
 720 
 681 
 714 
 776 
 707 
 698 
 771 
 
 76.5 
 768 I 
 767 I 
 771 ' 
 774 
 
 771 
 760 
 
 760 
 7.56 
 
 Hor.se. The — Continued. 
 
 Diseases of. and Treatment for. 
 Anchylosis. . 
 BUmkI Spavin. 
 Bl.H..ly Urine. 
 Bog Spavin. 
 Bone Spavin. 
 Bots. . 
 Broken Wind. 
 Bruises. 
 Burns. . 
 Capped Ankles, 
 
 Elbow. . 
 
 Hock, 
 Colic, . 
 
 ■■ Syiuptoms of. 
 Contusions, . 
 Corns. . 
 Cough. 
 •' Crib Biting, 
 
 • Curb. . 
 Diabetes. 
 Diarrhea. 
 Distemper. . 
 Epizootic. . 
 
 •• Farcy, . 
 
 • Fistula. 
 Founder. 
 Fracture, 
 
 • Galls. . 
 Glanders, . 
 Grease. 
 
 • Gripes. 
 Heaves. 
 Hematuria. . 
 Hide Bound, 
 Inflammation of the Bladder, 
 
 Bowels. 
 ■' Symp- 
 toms of. 
 Inflammation of the Kidneys, 
 
 Lungs, 
 Influenza. 
 
 • Itch. . 
 Ijiminitis. 
 
 . " Lice. 
 " " Lock-.Taw, . 
 
 " Lung Fever. 
 •■ Mange. 
 
 ilegrims. 
 
 Navicular Disease, 
 
 Occult Spavm, 
 
 Ophthalmia,. 
 
 Overreaching. 
 
 Pink Eye, . 
 
 Pneumonia, 
 •' PoUEvU, . 
 
Horse, The, Diseases and Treatment 
 Diseases, Quarter-Crack, 
 Riug-Bone, . 
 Roaring, 
 Sand-Cracli, 
 Scratches, . 
 Sore Slioulder, 
 Spavin, 
 
 Splent or Splint 
 Staggers, 
 Strangles, 
 Strains or Sprains 
 String Halt, 
 Tetanus, 
 Thoroughpiu 
 Toe-Crack, 
 " Thrusli, 
 " Tread, . 
 " Warts. 
 •■ Wind Galls, 
 " " Worms, 
 
 " Docking, . 
 •■ The Ears, . 
 " The English Draft, 
 •■ The Eye, . 
 
 The Farm Horse, 
 '• The Foot, . 
 " Gold Dust, 
 " The Ilambletonians, 
 " The Head, 
 Henry Clay, 
 The Hind-Quarters, 
 Hints to Purchasers of 
 " Hints on Driving and Draft, 
 •• The Hock, 
 " Lampas, . 
 " Lamp.as-Iron, . 
 The Limbs, 
 The Messengers, 
 " The Morgans, . 
 Mustang Horses, 
 " The Neck, 
 " Nicking, . 
 
 Noted Trotting Horses, 
 American Girl, 
 Dexter, . 
 Flora Temple, 
 Goldsmith Maid, 
 " Governor Sprague 
 Jay-Eye-See, 
 Maud S, 
 Rarus, . 
 " Santa Clans, 
 " Smuggler, 
 St. Julien, 
 Thorndale, 
 " Trinkett, 
 
 Pace. 
 
 Continued. 
 . 832 
 
 Horse, Orloff, . 
 
 The Pasterns, . 
 Perclieron-Norman 
 
 716 
 
 
 823 
 
 
 823 
 
 815, 
 
 833 
 
 
 833 
 
 
 823 
 
 
 833 
 
 
 823 
 
 
 833 
 
 
 833 
 
 
 833 
 
 
 833 
 
 
 834 
 
 
 835 
 
 
 835 
 
 
 835 
 
 
 825 
 
 
 825 
 
 
 825 
 
 
 759 
 
 
 687 
 
 707 
 
 710 
 
 
 687 
 
 
 680 
 
 693 
 
 785 
 
 
 731 
 
 711 
 
 730 
 
 
 687 
 
 
 726 
 
 
 694 
 
 
 098 
 
 
 783 
 
 
 693 
 
 
 796 
 
 
 796 
 
 
 691 
 
 711 
 
 726 
 
 711 
 
 727 
 
 731 
 688 
 759 
 731 
 733 
 735 
 733 
 734 
 739 
 738 
 730 
 735 
 739 
 736 
 736 
 740, 743 
 . 740 
 
 676, 
 
 03, 704 
 Grade, . . 706 
 
 Points of 682 
 
 Prairie Horses, .... 721 
 
 Progenitors of Trotting Families, . 726 
 
 •• Black Hawk, ... 728 
 
 ■• Gold Dust 731 
 
 •■ Henry Clay, . . . .726 
 
 ■■ Mambrino Chief, . . .726 
 
 '• Messenger, . . . 711, 726 
 
 ■' Morgan, Bulrush, . . . 727 
 
 Justin, . . . 737 
 
 Sherman, . . 727 
 
 Woodbury, . . 727 
 
 " Rysdyk's Hambletonian, 724, 726 
 
 '■ Stockholm's American Star, 726 
 
 Young Bashaw, 
 
 Pulse of 
 
 798 
 
 Saddle Gait, .... 
 
 682 
 
 Saddle Horse 
 
 682 
 
 Shetland Ponies, 
 
 720 
 
 Shoeing 
 
 785 
 
 Best Jtethod of, . 
 
 792 
 
 Barefooted Horses, . 
 
 793 
 
 Brittle Hoofs 
 
 794 
 
 Colt's Foot at Two Years, 
 
 786 
 
 Horse's Foot 
 
 785 
 
 Showing Qviarters, 
 
 786 
 
 Shoe-tips, ..... 
 
 790 
 
 The Charlier System of Shoeing, 
 
 790 
 
 The Goodenough Slioe, 
 
 790 
 
 The La Fosse System of Shoeing, 
 
 788 
 
 Results of Improper Shoeing, . 
 
 793 
 
 Tl)^ Shoulder 
 
 691 
 
 Sick Horses, Diet for. 
 
 798 
 
 " " Treatment of. 
 
 798 
 
 Skeleton of, ... . 
 
 803 
 
 Stable and Stable Management, 
 
 777 
 
 " Care of Harnesses, . 
 
 797 
 
 How to Clean and Oil a Harness, 797 
 
 " How to Clean Harness Plate 
 
 798 
 
 " Feeding. 
 
 770 
 
 " Grooming, 
 
 783 
 
 " Stopping the Feet. . 
 
 795 
 
 " Watering, 
 
 780 
 
 The Teeth 
 
 694 
 
 " Determining Age of Horses b 
 
 J, 694 
 
 " At E.xpiration of First Year, 
 
 695 
 
 " At Two Years, 
 
 695 
 
 " At Three " 
 
 605 
 
 ■• At Four 
 
 696 
 
 " At Five 
 
 696 
 
 ■' At Six 
 
 697 
 
 " At Seven " 
 
 G97 
 
 ■' At Eight " 
 
 697 
 
Ivi 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 "At Nine Years, 
 
 
 697 
 
 " At Ten ami Eleven Years, 
 
 
 697 
 
 " After Eleven Years, 
 
 
 697 
 
 " " •• Fourteen ■' 
 
 
 697 
 
 " " " Nineteen " 
 
 
 697 
 
 " Twenty -one Years, 
 
 
 697 
 
 Temperament in, . 
 
 
 683 
 
 " " Billions, . 
 
 
 684 
 
 Lymphatic, 
 
 
 684 
 
 Nervous, . 
 
 
 684 
 
 Sanguine. 
 
 
 684 
 
 " Thoroughbred, 
 
 
 703 
 
 ' ' Treatment of Old or Disabled Horses, 
 
 796 
 
 " Treatment of Sick Horses, 
 
 
 798 
 
 " The Trotting Horse of America, 
 
 
 725 
 
 " Best Americau Trotting Time, 
 
 
 719 
 
 " Russian " " . 
 
 
 719 
 
 " Trotting Record. 
 
 
 741 
 
 " Best Records of Fleetest Running 
 
 
 Horses, 
 
 
 743 
 
 " Trotting with Double Team, , 
 
 
 742 
 
 " Hurdle Races 
 
 
 746 
 
 Pacing 
 
 
 742 
 
 Trotting under Saddle, . 
 
 
 742 
 
 " Trotting to Wagon, . 
 
 
 743 
 
 Horse Hoe, . . . . 
 
 ol6 
 
 , 361 
 
 Horse Power, 
 
 542 
 
 , 543 
 
 Horse Radish 
 
 
 1715 
 
 Horses, Notable Prices of, . 
 
 
 1969 
 
 " Trotting Records, . 
 
 
 1968 
 
 " Pacing 
 
 
 1969 
 
 " tv. O.xen 
 
 
 1898 
 
 Hot-Beds and Cold Frames, 
 
 
 1699 
 
 Care of, . 
 
 
 1700 
 
 Houdans, ...... 
 
 
 1334 
 
 Merits and defects of, . 
 
 
 1335 
 
 Houses for Ducks, .... 
 
 
 1467 
 
 House Cleaning, etc., .... 
 
 
 1815 
 
 " Plants, Care of, . . . 
 
 
 1833 
 
 " Wren, 
 
 1777 
 
 -1781 
 
 Housewives, Practical Suggestions to, 
 
 
 1813 
 
 Household Economy, Microbes in, 
 
 
 1945 
 
 How Breeds are formed, 
 
 
 1248 
 
 " Long Animals Live, . 
 
 
 1839 
 
 " to Broil a Steak, 
 
 
 1821 
 
 Carve a Turkey, 
 
 
 1819 
 
 " Clean Lamp Burners, 
 
 
 1835 
 
 " Cut up a Carcass of Beef, 
 
 
 951 
 
 Pork, . 
 
 
 1333 
 
 " Determine the Age of Cattle, 
 
 
 943 
 
 " Sheep and Lambs 
 
 1158 
 
 " " Situation of the Brain 
 
 1564,156.5 
 
 " " Voluntary and Involuntary 
 
 Motions in Animals 
 
 
 1563 
 
 " Exterminate Red Ants, . 
 
 
 1834 
 
 " Improve Farm Stock, . 
 
 
 931 
 
 PAOi 
 
 How to Kill Animals Humanely, . . 1563 
 
 " ■' Cats and Dogs, Best Methods of, 1.566 
 
 " " Calves, " " 1.565 
 
 " Cattle. ■• " 1.505 
 
 •• Fish. ■• ■■ 1.567 
 
 '• Poultry. ■■ '■ 1.567 
 
 " " Sheep and Lambs," " 1566 
 
 " Swine, " " 1566 
 
 " Deprive Animals of Sensibility, . 1564 
 
 " Kill Animals by Pithing, 1563 
 
 " " " " Precautions 
 
 concerning, .... 1563 
 
 Know Good Salt, .... 1089 
 
 Lay Tiles 1935 
 
 Plant an Orange Grove, . . 1686 
 
 Promote Fruitfulness in Trees, . 1580 
 
 Protect Birds 1784 
 
 " Prevent Lamp Chimneys from 
 
 Cracking 1835 
 
 Renovate Black Silk, . . . 1835 
 
 Set a Table, 1818 
 
 Wash Black Lace 1835 
 
 " Prints, 1816 
 
 " " Ti'"indow Curtains, . . 1816 
 
 " Wells are Polluted, . . , 1805, 1806 
 
 Hovenin Cattle 978 
 
 Sheep 1174 
 
 Hurdles for Sheep, 1153 
 
 Husk or Hoose, 978 
 
 Hydrophobia 988, 1553 
 
 . 1803 
 
 . 1804 
 
 . 1807 
 
 . 1806 
 
 . 1807 
 
 . 1808 
 
 . 1805 
 
 . 345 
 536, 537 
 
 Hygiene of the Home, 
 
 Air, . 
 
 Clothing, 
 
 Food, 
 
 Habitation, 
 
 Occupation, 
 
 Water, . 
 
 Hybridizing Potatoes, 
 Hydraulic Ram, . 
 
 Ice House 669 
 
 " Essentials in Building Ice Houses, 670 
 
 Plans for, 670 
 
 " How to Cut Ice for, . . 071 
 
 " How to Store Ice in, . . 072 
 
 Ice,— Keeping without an Ice House, . 673 
 " How to Keep Small Quantities of in 
 
 Summer, 673 
 
 " How to Make, 673 
 
 " Cream 1831 
 
 " Candy, 1832 
 
 Icing and Ornamenting Cake, . . . 1830 
 
 Implements Essential to the Apiary, . 1728 
 
 to Fish Cultiu-e, . 1761 
 
 Importance of Sheep Husbandry, . . 1098 
 
 Important Facts for Farmers, . . . 1271 
 
 Imported Berkshire Sow, .... 1203 
 

 INDEX. 
 
 Ivii 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 Imphee Sugar Cane 
 
 . 4->l 
 
 1 Influence Exerted by Forests, . 
 
 . 517 
 
 Improved Hoosier Grain Drill, . 
 
 . 2T4 
 
 on Climate, 
 
 518 
 
 Peach Blow, 
 
 o3y 
 
 on Rainfall, 
 
 . 518 
 
 Lima Bean, 
 
 3G6 
 
 of Dwelling on Character, . 
 
 . 030 
 
 Farm Implements Essential, 
 
 ."578 
 
 the Sire and Dam respectively, 
 
 747 
 
 Breeds of Swine, 
 
 . 1201 
 
 Inherited Feeding Habit of Plants, . 
 
 . 1868 
 
 Kentucky Sheep, 
 
 . 1133 
 
 Inorganic Matter, Contrasted with Organic 
 
 , 1940 
 
 Langstroth Hive, 
 
 . 1730 
 
 Inordinate Neatness 
 
 . 1812 
 
 Farm Practice, . 
 
 . 1848 
 
 Insurance, 
 
 . 1791 
 
 Improvement of Animals, . 
 
 . 1958 
 
 Insufficient Help, .... 
 
 . 576 
 
 Improving Streams for Fish Culture. 
 
 . 1763 
 
 Interior of Cow Stable, 
 
 . 591 
 
 Inauguration of the Creamery System, 
 
 . 1068 
 
 Intelligence of the Hor.se, . 
 
 079 
 
 luBreeding 
 
 1363 
 
 Intelligent Supervision Essential toSucces 
 
 
 Increase of Insects. .... 
 
 1783 
 
 in Poultry Raising, 
 
 . 1277 
 
 Incubation, 
 
 1387 
 
 Interdependence of Different Forms of Li 
 
 e, 1947 
 
 Indigestion and Inflammation in Fowls, 
 
 1430 
 
 Introducing a New Queen into a Hive, 
 
 . 1735 
 
 Indian Corn 
 
 37, 303 
 
 Inversion of Uterus in Cows, 
 
 . 980 
 
 " Stalks and Leaves of. 
 
 37 
 
 " " Swine, 
 
 1241 
 
 " Advanta.ges of Growing, 
 
 1870 
 
 Irrigation 
 
 . 117 
 
 '■ as Fuel 
 
 1908 
 
 Methods of. 
 
 . 120 
 
 " Climatic Range of, . 
 
 1904 
 
 When to Irrigate, 
 
 136 
 
 " " Cultivation of. 
 
 1901 
 
 Iron Mower, ..... 
 
 336 
 
 " " Elevation where Grown, 
 
 1906 
 
 Iron Turbine Wind Mill, . 
 
 535 
 
 " Hills or Drills, 
 
 1901 
 
 Ironing, ...... 
 
 1815 
 
 " " in Rotations, . 
 
 1875 
 
 Italian Bee, 
 
 1738 
 
 " " Manufactured Products of, 
 
 1908 
 
 Itch in Cattle (see Mange), 
 
 981 
 
 " " Preparation for the Crop, 
 
 1901 
 
 Itch in Swine 
 
 1343 
 
 " Prize Crops of. 
 
 19(i3 
 
 Itch in Horses 
 
 819' 
 
 " " Rainfall where Grown, . 
 
 1905 
 
 
 
 " " Range in Latitude, . 
 
 1906 
 
 Jack, "Magnum Bonum," 
 
 838 
 
 " " Statistics of. . 
 
 1900 
 
 Jacobins, ...... 
 
 1502 
 
 
 1910 
 
 Jamestown Bull " St, Patrick," 
 
 861 
 
 " " Time of Growth and Ripening 
 
 1906 
 
 Japanese Bantams, .... 
 
 1377 
 
 " Varieties of. . 
 
 1906 
 
 Japan Clover, 
 
 195 
 
 '• Yield per Acre, 
 
 1901 
 
 Jaundice, or Yellows in Cattle, . 
 
 981 
 
 India, Tillage in, .... 
 
 89 
 
 " Dogs, . 
 
 1553 
 
 ludigo, 
 
 464 
 
 Javas, Black, ..... 
 
 1354 
 
 Cultivation of, ... 
 
 404 
 
 Mottled 
 
 1357 
 
 Preparing for JIarket, . 
 
 465 
 
 " Merits and Defects of. 
 
 1358 
 
 In-door Hatching Bo.v, 
 
 1767 
 
 Jay-Eye-See 
 
 1968 
 
 Industrial Progress, Law of. 
 
 1845 
 
 Jellies, 
 
 1831 
 
 Industries, Progress of, . 
 
 1843 
 
 Jelly, Lemon, . . . ; . 
 
 1831 
 
 Inconvenience of Farm Buildings, 
 
 577 
 
 Orange 
 
 1833 
 
 Inferior Stock 
 
 577 
 
 " Strawberry, etc 
 
 1833 
 
 Inflammation of Bladder in Cattle, . 
 
 979 
 
 Jerseys, 
 
 868 
 
 " Brain, '" " 
 
 979 
 
 " "Belle of Scituate," 
 
 876 
 
 " Kidneys ;' 
 
 979 
 
 Cows, Scale of Points in. 
 
 873 
 
 " Liver ■• ■■ 
 
 980 ; 
 
 Description of 
 
 871 
 
 Lungs (see Pneumonia), . 
 
 980 
 
 "Eurotas," 
 
 877 
 
 " •■ in Swine (see Pneu- 
 
 
 " " Queen of Barnet," . . 8 
 
 "3-875 
 
 monia), 
 
 1341 
 
 Jersey Red Swine, . . . . . . 
 
 1210 
 
 U<lilcr (see Garget), . 
 
 980 
 
 " Testing of 
 
 875 
 
 Inflammation of the Bladder in Horses, . 
 
 817 
 
 " Bull, Litchfield 
 
 592 
 
 •■ Bowels ■■ •■ 
 
 817 
 
 Bulls, Group of 
 
 589 
 
 Kidneys '• 
 
 818 1 
 
 Heifers, "".... 
 
 588 
 
 Lungs 
 
 818 
 
 Johnston, ....... 
 
 1969 
 
 Influence of First Impregnation iu the Dam, 
 47 
 
 1367 1 
 
 Joints of Tiles, How Protected, 
 
 1935 
 
Iviii 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Justin Morfr.iii. . . . . .7 
 
 2, 727 
 
 Jute 
 
 473 
 
 " Cultiviition of 
 
 472 
 
 ■ iliiivcstiugof 
 
 473 
 
 KcL'pinn; and .Marketing Honey, 
 
 1738 
 
 Keeping lee without lee Houses, 
 
 67-2 
 
 Kemp's Manure Sprcailer 
 
 30 
 
 Kerry Cattle 
 
 904 
 
 Dairy Properties of, 
 
 907 
 
 Kidney Worm 
 
 l.wS 
 
 Killing Animals by Poisonous Gases, 
 
 1567 
 
 and Preparing Fowls for ilarket. 
 
 1408 
 
 Dogs and Cats, 
 
 1566 
 
 •■ Fish 
 
 1567 
 
 " Poultry 
 
 1567 
 
 King IJirds, ..... 
 
 1779 
 
 Charles Spaniel, 
 
 1540 
 
 Kind Treatment of Cows, . 
 
 1025 
 
 Pigs, . 
 
 1231 
 
 Kindness and Politeness in the Household 
 
 1811 
 
 Kinds of Tiles 
 
 1925 
 
 Knowledge, Tendency of Superlieial, 
 
 1847 
 
 Labor, Subdivision of in the Industries, 
 
 1843 
 
 La Brcsse Fowls 
 
 1339 
 
 Merits and Defects of , 
 
 1339 
 
 Lack of Economy in Labor, 
 
 573 
 
 Lack of Care of Farm Implements, . 
 
 575 
 
 La Dow's Pulverizing Harrow, . 
 
 100 
 
 La Fleche Fowls, .... 
 
 1336 
 
 Merits and Defects of. 
 
 133G 
 
 Lamb and Mutton Broth, . 
 
 1837 
 
 Lam pas. 
 
 796 
 
 Iron 
 
 796 
 
 
 1730 
 
 Langshaiis. 
 
 1300 
 
 Merits and Defects of. 
 
 1301 
 
 Lard Worm. ..... 
 
 1242 
 
 Large Crops Not Always Profitable, 
 
 1903 
 
 Large Farms of the Country. 
 
 609 
 
 Large Fiuit Farms 
 
 1692 
 
 Laryngitis, or Sore Throat in Cattk. 
 
 981 
 
 Late Beauty of Hebron. 
 
 334 
 
 Laudanum, Poisoning by, . 
 
 1836 
 
 Laying Down the Law. 
 
 1543 
 
 Out Fish I'ouils, . 
 
 1756 
 
 ■■ Tiles 
 
 1921 
 
 " in Quicksand, 
 
 1931 
 
 Leached AsUcs 
 
 61 
 
 Leaf of Tea 
 
 453 
 
 Leaves of Trees, .... 
 
 73 
 
 Leakage of Teats, .... 
 
 983 
 
 Ledger, . .... 
 
 . 1790 
 
 Leeks, 
 
 . 1715 
 
 Leghorns 
 
 . 1302 
 
 Brown, .131 
 
 2, 1415 
 
 Pagj 
 Leghorns — Con tin ucd. 
 
 White 1308, 130.-. 
 
 White Rose-Comb, . . . 1305 
 
 Merits and Defects of, . 130(1 
 
 Legiiniinous Crops and Mineral Manures, 1950 
 
 Promote Nitritication, 1851 
 
 •• Hea.lilyObtahi Nitrogen, 186'.i 
 
 Leicester Sh< cp 112ii 
 
 Lemon Jelly 1837 
 
 ■• Pie 1826 
 
 Lemons 1645 
 
 Lettuce 1715 
 
 Lever Butter Worker, .... 1058 
 
 Lever Bailing Pnicess 247 
 
 Level Culture 315 
 
 Liberian Sugar Cane, .... 421 
 
 Lice on Cattle 982 
 
 ■• Dogs 15.54 
 
 • Poultry 1421 
 
 Swine 1242 
 
 l.iebig's Division of Foods, . . 19-54 
 ■• Life," Intcrde|iendence of Different Forms 
 
 of 1947 
 
 Microscopic Forms of. . 1942 
 
 on the Farm, .... 1939 
 Light an Important Factor ui Plant Xutri- 
 
 Uon 1910 
 
 Ijight Brahmas, 1274-1290 
 
 Light in Stables, 658 
 
 Lime 63 
 
 " Ground Limestone and SIkIIs, . . 65 
 
 " Gas Lime, 65 
 
 Limes, 1645 
 
 Line to Determine Grade of Tiles, 1926 
 
 ■ How Adjusted. . 1931 
 
 Lin.secd Pomace. ..... 57 
 
 Li.st of Gra.sses and Forage Plants, . 220 
 List of Medicines with Quantity Suited to 
 
 Different Animals 996 
 
 Liver Hot in Sheep. . .1175 
 
 Live Stock as Machines 184.8 
 
 Living Matter, Characteristics of, . . 1939 
 
 Loamy Soil 14, 19 
 
 Loaf Cake 1829 
 
 Location of Fish Ponds 1756 
 
 Maple Sugar House. . 431 
 
 Farm Roads, .... 549 
 
 Barns. . . • . . .64:; 
 
 Locating Main Drains and Tributaries, 131 
 
 Long Blood Beet 366 
 
 Orange Carrot, ..... 370 
 
 View Farm, 605 
 
 System of Management at, 605 
 
 • Horns. ." 865 
 
 Lo.ssofCud 983 
 
 Lorillard Stock Farm 603 
 
 Low Prices of Farm Products. Causes of, . 1846 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ixi 
 
 Page. 
 
 Sheep, Breeds of , Cheviots, . . . 1128 
 
 " Cotswolds, . . . 1114 
 
 Dorsets, .... 1128 
 Hamp.shires. . . 1111-1147 
 
 Improved Kentucky, . 1132 
 
 Leicester, .... 1120 
 Border, . .1121 
 
 Lincoliis 1122 
 
 Merino 1100 
 
 O.xford Downs, . 1095-1104 
 Shropshires, . . . 1111 
 South Downs, . . . 1108 
 Wild Sheep of the Moun- 
 tains 1137 
 
 Breeding of 1134 
 
 Cure of Ewes during 
 
 Period of Gestation, . 1136 
 
 Breeding, Castrating Lambs, . . 1140 
 
 Choice of Buck, . . 1134 
 
 " Disowning Lambs, . . 1187 
 
 " Docking Lambs, . 1139 
 
 " Feeding Lambs, . . 1140 
 
 Food for Ewes with Lambs, 1138 
 
 Management of Lambs, . 1137 
 
 " Period of Gestation, 1137 
 
 " Rearing Lambs by Hand, 1138 
 
 Resuscitating C h i 1 1 e d 
 
 Lambs, . . . 1138 
 
 " Selection of Ewes, . . 1135 
 
 ■' Weaning Lambs, . . 1141 
 
 Classes and Grades of Wool, . 1162 
 
 Cotted Wool and its Causes, . . 1168 
 
 Diseases of, .... . 1170 
 
 " Abortion, . 1170 
 
 " Brain, Disease of, . . 1170 
 
 Catarrh, .... 1171 
 
 Choking, . . . 1171 
 
 Colic 1171 
 
 Diarrha?a, . . 1173 
 
 Dysentery, . 1172 
 
 Garget 1173 
 
 Grub in Head, . . 1172 
 Hoof Rot, . . .1173 
 
 " Hoven 1174 
 
 Liver Rot. . . . 1175 
 
 Maggot Fly, . . . 1175 
 
 Ophthalmia, . 1176 
 
 Scab, .... 1176 
 
 " Parasite, . . 1176 
 Sore Eyes, . . .1179 
 
 •■ Lips, . 1179 
 
 Ticks and Lice, . . 1180 
 
 Worms in, . . . 1180 
 
 Feeding Lambs 1152 
 
 Dr. Lawes' Experiment in, 1140 
 
 Fences, etc 1144 
 
 Food for 1146 
 
 Page. 
 
 Sheep. Food for Ewes with Lamb, . 1138 
 
 " Fold 1145 
 
 General Management of, . 1141 
 
 " Hurdles for, 1153 
 
 Husbandry. Importance of, . . 1098 
 
 '• Maggot Fly 1175 
 
 Management of L.ambs, . . . 1137 
 
 " Packing the Fleece 1158 
 
 I " Period of Gestation in Ewes, . 1137 
 
 I " Poison 1176 
 
 j " Rearing Lambs by Hand, . 1138 
 
 " Resuscitating Chilled Lambs, . . 1138 
 
 I " Salt for Sheep 1154 
 
 i " Shearing, 1156 
 
 Skeleton of Sheep 1169 
 
 Table, Showing Average Weeklj' 
 Consumption of Food; also. 
 
 Weekly Increase per Sheep, . 1149 
 " Table, Showing Average Consump- 
 tion; also. Average Gain of Thirty 
 
 Sheep for Eleven Weeks, . . 1150 
 " Table, Showing Consumption of 
 Food and Increase of Each Ani- 
 mal per Week for Each 100 Pounds 
 
 of Live Weight lir,! 
 
 " Table, Showing Comparative Feed- 
 ing Value of Different Articles of 
 
 Food 11,52 
 
 " Washing 11,55 
 
 " Weaning Lambs, .... 1141 
 
 '■ Which Breeds are Best, . . . 1134 
 
 " Wild Sheep of the Mountains, . 1137 
 
 " Sherman Morgan," ..... 727 
 
 Shetland Ponies, 720 
 
 Shetland Cattle, 907 
 
 Shield Budding, 1,588 
 
 Short-Horned Cattle 841 
 
 As Milkers, . . 844 
 '■ For Beef, . . .844 
 
 "As Working Oxen, . 847 
 
 Short-Faced Tumblers 1500 
 
 Shovel Hoe, 1698 
 
 Side Grafting 1,587 
 
 Silage Detined 1961 
 
 " Fermentation of 1964 
 
 Silk Culture, 1740 
 
 Silk Worm, Characteristics of the Chrysalis, 1740 
 
 Choking the Chrysalis, . . 1748 
 
 " Chrysalis 1744 
 
 " Cocoon 1743 
 
 " Egg Laying, . . . . 1748 
 
 " Enemies and Diseases of, . 1751 
 
 Feeding and Rearing Worms, 1745 
 
 Food Plants of , . . . 1750 
 
 " Gathering the Cocoons, . . 1748 
 
 " Larva 1743 
 
 Moth 1744 
 
Ix 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 1031 
 
 1006 
 
 1031 
 
 1038 
 
 1037 
 
 1038 
 
 1034 
 
 1028 
 
 1031 
 
 499 
 
 1826 
 
 1828 
 
 1334 
 
 38 
 
 1951 
 
 231 
 
 231 
 
 231 
 
 233 
 
 232 
 
 332 
 
 232 
 
 232 
 
 Milk, Nutritive Value of, . 
 ■' Houses, 
 ■■ Deep Setting of, . 
 '■ Shallow 
 
 " Pails 
 
 " Taints and Odors in, . 
 
 Milking 
 
 " MacUiues, .... 
 Mills's System of Ensilage, 
 
 Mince Pies, 
 
 " " Summer 
 
 Minorca, or Kcd-faced Spanish Fowls, 
 Miscellaneous Fertilizers, . 
 
 Mixed Grass Seeds 
 
 Mixture of Grass Seed, 
 
 for Mowing Lands, 
 
 Permanent Pastures, 
 
 Hay and Pasture Combined 
 
 Rotation and Improving the Soil 
 
 Meadow Land, 
 
 Summer Pasture. , 
 
 Winter Pasture, 
 
 Permanent Pasture 
 
 Permanent Lawns, . 
 
 Fine Lawus Frequently Mown, 
 
 Hay and Pasture in Orchards 
 
 and Shaiied Places, 
 Mowing on Light Soils. . 
 Mowing on Reclaimed Peaty 
 
 Lauds 
 
 jNIarshy Grounds, . 
 Rocky Hills, .... 
 Barns, .... 639, 640, 644 
 
 I Farms 087 
 
 " Deerfoot Farm." 
 
 " Centrifugal Machines 
 
 at, . 
 " Care of Cows at, . 
 "Echo Farm," .... 
 " Buildings, etc., 
 " Group of Jersey Bulls, 
 " Group of Heifers, 
 " Interior of Cow Stable, 
 " Jersey Bull, " Litchfield"," 
 " Stable Management of, 
 ■ The Dairy, . 
 " llillhurst,'' Management of, etc., 
 " Long View Farm," 
 
 System of Management at, 
 Lorillard's Stock Farm, 
 "Mountaiu Side Farm," 
 Barns of. 
 
 Interior View of 
 Care of Cattle at, 
 Moline Stalk-Cutter, . 
 More Capital in Farming, . 
 Morgans, The, 
 
 Mode 
 Mode 
 
 232, 233 
 . 233 
 234 
 
 234 
 234 
 
 234 
 234 
 234 
 
 59.5 
 
 .597 
 097 
 587 
 586 
 589 
 588 
 591 
 593 
 593 
 593 
 604 
 600 
 605 
 . 603 
 . 598 
 599, 600 
 . 602 
 . 001 
 . 318 
 . 580 
 . 711 
 
 Morphine, Poisoning by, . 
 Morris's System of Ensilage 
 Most Profitable Crops for. 
 Motive Power for Farms. 
 Mottled Javas, 
 
 Jlerits and 
 Moulting, . 
 ■■ Mountaiu Side Farm." 
 
 Muck 
 
 Mule, The, . 
 
 Breaking of, 
 
 " Breeding of, 
 
 " Diseases of, 
 
 " Economy of Mule Labor, 
 
 " General Management of, 
 
 " Shoeing of. 
 
 Mulberries 
 
 Mulching Strawberries, 
 " Raspberries, 
 Trees, . 
 Mushrooms, 
 Mustard, .... 
 
 Cultivation and Harvesting of, 
 
 Pace. 
 
 ib-ae 
 
 497 
 500 
 043 
 1357 
 1358 
 1411 
 598-600 
 20 
 829 
 832 
 831 
 833 
 829 
 832 
 833 
 1677 
 1653 
 1663 
 1580 
 1717 
 1718 
 486 
 486 
 
 on Digestion, 
 
 Nancy Hanks, ..... 
 Naukin Bantams, .... 
 Narragansett Turkeys, 
 Nastuilium, or Indian Cress, 
 Natural History of Bees, . 
 Natural Position of the Horse's Head, 
 Nature Follows a Course of Rotation. 
 Natural Fertility of Soils, 
 Nectarines, . 
 
 " Cultivation of, 
 
 " Pruning of. 
 
 " Varieties of, 
 
 Ncllis Chaflf Hive, 
 Nelson, 
 Nephritis, . 
 
 Nervous System, Influence 
 Nests for Turkeys, 
 New Buckeye Table-Rake, 
 Nicking, 
 Night Soil, . 
 
 Night Soil and Poudrette, 
 Nishwitz Harrow. 
 Nitrate of Silver, Poisoniuj 
 
 Nitritication 
 
 Influenced by Temperature 
 Nitrogenous Foods, Effect of, . 
 
 Substance Consumed for One 
 in Increase, 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 As Manure for Cereals, 
 •■ Nitrates, after Cropping, and 
 Bare Fallow, 
 
 with. 
 
IIsDEX. 
 
 
 
 P.1GE. 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 Nitrogen as Nitrates in Drainage, . 
 
 
 1856 
 
 Onions, Cultivation of Onion Seed, . 
 
 379 
 
 *• Nitric Acid. . 
 
 
 1869 
 
 Harvesting of. 
 
 880 
 
 Greater Loss by Drainage 
 
 than 
 
 
 " Storage of 
 
 380 
 
 by Crops 
 
 
 1855 
 
 Oomseeana Sugar-Cane, 
 
 421 
 
 In Soils 
 
 
 1852 
 
 Open Yards for Manure, . 
 
 1889 
 
 " Per Acre in Meadow Soils, 
 
 
 1862 
 
 Ophthalmia in Cows 
 
 984 
 
 " '• Wheat Soils, . 
 
 
 1861 
 
 Sheep, 
 
 1176 
 
 " Stored in Increase of 
 
 Ani- 
 
 
 Opium, Poisoning by. 
 
 1836 
 
 mals, .... 
 
 1957 
 
 1960 
 
 Opodeldoc 
 
 1838 
 
 Noted Trotting Horses, 
 
 
 731 
 
 Orange Jelly 
 
 1832 
 
 North Star Hive 
 
 
 1731 
 
 Oranges, 
 
 1634 
 
 Number of Tons of Hay in Load, 
 
 
 1840 
 
 " Cultivation of, . 
 
 1638 
 
 " Mow, 
 
 
 1840 
 
 " Diseases and Insect Enemies of. 
 
 1641 
 
 " Square 
 
 or 
 
 
 " Fertilizers for. 
 
 1640 
 
 Long Stack, 
 
 1840 
 
 " Gathering and Packing for Mar- 
 
 
 " " " Windrows, . 
 
 1840 
 
 ket 
 
 1641 
 
 Nursery for Trout 
 
 
 1770 
 
 " How to Plant a Grove of, 
 
 1636 
 
 Nutrition, Chemical Theory of. . 
 
 
 1847 
 
 " Pruning of, ... 
 
 1639 
 
 Complex Conditions in. 
 
 
 1847 
 
 Transplanting, 
 
 1637 
 
 Nurtritive ilaterials, Loss of, in Drying, 
 
 
 Varieties of, . 
 
 1634 
 
 and in Silage, . 
 
 
 1964 
 
 Origin and Age of Muck Deposits, . 
 
 20 
 
 Ratios, .... 
 
 1847 
 
 1954 
 
 Origin of Breeds of Swine, 
 
 1196 
 
 Value of Roots. 
 
 
 359 
 
 Ornamenting Frosting with Paste, . 
 
 1881 
 
 Grasses, 
 
 
 224 
 
 Osage Orange 
 
 Outlets of Tile Drains, 
 
 1751 
 1934 
 
 Oats 
 
 
 293 
 
 Owl Pigeon 
 
 1505 
 
 " Varieties of 
 
 
 293 
 
 Oxford Downs, .... 
 
 1104 
 
 " Pringle's Excelsior, . 
 
 
 294 
 
 Description of, . 
 
 1107 
 
 " Cultivation of 
 
 
 295 
 
 O.x-tail Soup. ..... 
 
 1821 
 
 '• Harvesting of 
 
 
 297 
 
 Oxalic Acid, Poisoning by. 
 
 1835 
 
 ' ' Diseases of 
 
 
 297 
 
 Oxen rs. Horses, .... 
 
 1898 
 
 Oats, 
 
 
 1913 
 
 
 
 " As an Exhausting Crop, . 
 
 
 1869 
 
 Pacing Records, .... 
 
 1969 
 
 " Climatic Conditions of Growth, 
 
 
 1913 
 
 Packing Butter. .... 
 
 1059 
 
 " Order of States in Production of. 
 
 1896 
 
 the Fleece of Goats, 
 
 1188 
 
 •• Statistics of 
 
 
 1913 
 
 ' Sheep, . 
 
 1158 
 
 " Weight per Bushel, . 
 
 
 1913 
 
 Pork 
 
 1333 
 
 Oatmeal, or Indian Meal Gruel, . 
 
 
 1836 
 
 Panada 
 
 1837 
 
 Object in Feeding Stock, . 
 
 
 1960 
 
 Parsley 
 
 1718 
 
 Objections to the Soiling System, 
 
 
 938 
 
 Parsnips, 
 
 1718 
 
 Occupation, 
 
 
 1808 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 371 
 
 Ocellated Turkey 
 
 1448 
 
 1451 
 
 Varieties of 
 
 371 
 
 Okra, or Gombo, .... 
 
 
 1718 
 
 Cultivation of, . . . 
 
 371 
 
 Old Irish Pig, 
 
 
 1198 
 
 Peaches 
 
 1603 
 
 " English Hog, .... 
 
 
 1197 
 
 Varieties of 
 
 1609 
 
 Old-Time Implements Compared with New 
 
 , 6 
 
 " Cultivation of, . . . 
 
 1610 
 
 Farming 
 
 
 7 
 
 Diseases and Enemies of, 
 
 1612 
 
 Method of Managing Colts, 
 
 
 760 
 
 Pratt's Rareripe, . 
 
 1610 
 
 Oliver Chilled Plow, .... 
 
 
 97 
 
 Propagation of, . 
 
 1609 
 
 Onions, ...... 
 
 374, 
 
 1718 
 
 Pruning of 
 
 1611 
 
 " Varieties of 
 
 
 373 
 
 Peanuts 
 
 463 
 
 Cultivation of from Seed, 
 
 
 376 
 
 Cultivation of. 
 
 461 
 
 " " of sets. 
 
 
 378 
 
 Harvesting of, 
 
 463 
 
 " " " Top Onions, . 
 
 
 379 
 
 Preparing for Market, . 
 
 463 
 
 " Potato Onions, 
 
 
 379 
 
 Pear blight, 
 
 1944 
 
 " " " Shallot Onions, 
 
 
 379 
 
 Pears, 
 
 1601 
 
 " Rareripes, 
 
 
 379 
 
 Varieties of, ... . 
 
 1602 
 
INDEX. 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 Pack. 
 
 I'cars. Burtlett 
 
 1603 
 
 Pie, Boiled Cider 
 
 1828 
 
 Buurre d'Anjou 
 
 1604 
 
 " Cocoanut 
 
 1826 
 
 Blootlgooii, 
 
 1604 
 
 " Lemon, 
 
 1826 
 
 C'lapp's Favorite 
 
 1604 
 
 " Mince 
 
 lb26 
 
 Cultivation of, . . . . 
 
 1606 
 
 Summer 
 
 1828 
 
 Diseases and Enemies of, 
 
 1609 
 
 " Raisin 
 
 1826 
 
 Dwarf and Standard. 
 
 1602 
 
 Rhubarb 
 
 1826 
 
 Diiehess d'Angouleme, 
 
 1604 
 
 Pigs, gain for milk consumed. . 
 
 1937 
 
 Flemish Beauty 
 
 1604 
 
 Piggeries, Plans for 
 
 665 
 
 ■ Howell, . " 
 
 1604 
 
 Plan of Orchards 
 
 1578 
 
 Improving the Color of. . 
 
 1008 
 
 Plantation Cane-Mill 
 
 416 
 
 Keifor's Hybrid. .... 
 
 1605 
 
 Plant Food in Soils 
 
 ISoC 
 
 Leconte 
 
 1606 
 
 " Nutrition, 
 
 1910 
 
 Louise Bonne 
 
 1604 
 
 Plants and Animals, Relations of. 
 
 1884 
 
 Louise Bonne d'Jersey. . 
 
 1606 
 
 Competition of, in the Struggle for 
 
 
 Jlarketing of 
 
 1608 
 
 Existence 
 
 1947 
 
 Proper Time to Pick. 
 
 1607 
 
 Constituents of 
 
 1883 
 
 Retarding the Time of Ripening, 
 
 1608 
 
 Selective Feeding Power of, . 
 
 1865 
 
 •■ Seckel 
 
 IGOo 
 
 Water Exhaled by 
 
 1921 
 
 Soil for 
 
 1606 
 
 Platform Scales 
 
 1088 
 
 Storing of. 
 
 1607 
 
 Pleasures of Farm Life, .... 
 
 9 
 
 ■ Yield of 
 
 1608 
 
 Pleuropneumonia 
 
 1944 
 
 Peas 
 
 473 
 
 in Cattle. 
 
 985 
 
 •' Cultivation of 
 
 474 
 
 Prevention of. 
 
 985 
 
 •■ Harvesting of 
 
 474 
 
 Plowing 
 
 91 
 
 Pease 
 
 1718 
 
 Plow, Subsoil 
 
 92 
 
 Pea Scnip, 
 
 1821 
 
 Iron Beam. ..... 
 
 93 
 
 Peat 
 
 62 
 
 " Sulky, 
 
 93 
 
 Peat Ashes, 
 
 62 
 
 Adamant, ...... 
 
 94 
 
 Peaty Soils and their Cultivation. 
 
 oo 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 94 
 
 Peppers 
 
 1719 
 
 Advance Chilled, .... 
 
 97 
 
 Percheron-Norman Stallion, "Romulus," . 
 
 702 
 
 " Oliver 
 
 97 
 
 "Eldorado,". 
 
 076 
 
 " Stubble 
 
 98 
 
 (Half-Blooded) 
 
 
 Gilpin Sulky, ' 
 
 88 
 
 " Napoleon 3d,' 
 
 706 
 
 Timber Land 
 
 88 
 
 I'erceutage of Profits and Competition, 
 
 1846 
 
 Cassaday Sulky 
 
 88 
 
 Period of Gestation in Domestic Animals, . 
 
 1839 
 
 • When to 
 
 !t4 
 
 Cows, 
 
 924 
 
 How to 
 
 95 
 
 Dogs. 
 
 1542 
 
 Plowing. Depth of 
 
 90 
 
 Ewes. 
 
 1137 
 
 Plums. 
 
 1613 
 
 Goats, 
 
 1186 
 
 Cultivation of 
 
 1613 
 
 Sows, 
 
 1219 
 
 Diseases and Insects of. . 
 
 1613 
 
 Permanence and Independence of the Farm- 
 
 
 Varieties of, 
 
 1613 
 
 er's Vocation. ..... 
 
 8 
 
 Pneumonia in Cattle 
 
 986 
 
 l\-rmancnt Jleadow. Gramineous Herbage 
 
 
 Swine, ..... 
 
 1245 
 
 in. 19-18 
 
 1949 
 
 Poa Pratcnsis and Poa Trivialis. Choice of 
 
 
 Leguminous Herbage 
 
 
 Food 
 
 1865 
 
 in, 1948 
 
 1949 
 
 Pocklington Grape 1569, 
 
 1621 
 
 Miscellaneous Herbage 
 
 
 Pointers 
 
 1523 
 
 in, 1948 
 
 1949 
 
 Training of 
 
 1547 
 
 Species of Plants in- 
 
 
 Poisons. Antidotes for. .... 
 
 1835 
 
 fluenced by Manures. 
 
 1948 
 
 " Ammonia. 
 
 1836 
 
 Peruvian Guano. 
 
 58 
 
 " " " Arsenic, 
 
 1835 
 
 Phosphoric Acid in Soils 
 
 1852 
 
 " Corrosive Sublimate 
 
 1835 
 
 Phosphoric Acid, ..... 
 
 34 
 
 " " Dog Wood. . 
 
 1836 
 
 Physics in Biology 
 
 1942 
 
 " Ivy. 
 
 1836 
 
 Pickled Cucumbers 
 
 1832 
 
 " " " Laudanum. . 
 
 1836 
 
Ixiii 
 
 
 
 I-AliE. 
 
 
 Paoe. 
 
 I'nisoiis, Autidotes for, ^hitches. 
 
 1830 
 
 Poultry, Bantams 
 
 1366 
 
 " Mui'phiue, 
 
 183G 
 
 Booted, . 
 
 1373 
 
 " Nitrate of Silver, . 
 
 1836 
 
 Game. . 
 
 1309 
 
 " Opium, . 
 
 1836 
 
 Golden Sebright, . 
 
 1373 
 
 " Oxalic Acid, . 
 
 1835 
 
 Japanese, . . 1367, 1377 
 
 " Strong Lye, . 
 
 183G 
 
 " " Nankin, 
 
 1377 
 
 " Strychnine, . 
 
 1835 
 
 Pekin. . 
 
 1377 
 
 " Sugar of Lend, 
 
 1835 
 
 Rose-Combed, 
 
 1370 
 
 Poison in Sheep, 
 
 11T6 
 
 Black, 
 
 1370 
 
 Pollution of Wells, . 
 
 
 1805 
 
 White, 
 
 1370 
 
 Poor Teams, 
 
 
 577 
 
 Silver Sebright, 
 
 1374 
 
 Pork, Fat and Lean, Feeding fo 
 
 r. 
 
 1959 
 
 Merits and Defects of. 
 
 1378 
 
 Potash in Soils, . 
 
 
 1853 
 
 " Brahmas, .... 
 
 1389 
 
 Potash 
 
 
 35 
 
 Dark. . . . 1288, 1292 
 
 Sources of Supply, 
 
 
 69 
 
 Light, . . . 1374, 1390 
 
 Potato, .... 
 
 
 331 
 
 Merits and Defects in. 
 
 1293 
 
 Varieties of the. 
 
 
 333 
 
 Cochins, .... 
 
 1394 
 
 " The Alpha, . 
 
 
 343 
 
 Black, . 
 
 1297 
 
 Compton's Surprise, 
 
 
 343 
 
 Buff, 
 
 1394 
 
 Improved Peach Blow, 
 
 
 333 
 
 Partridge, 
 
 1297 
 
 Snow Flake, . 
 
 
 333 
 
 " " " Pea-Combed, 
 
 1298 
 
 Late Beauty of Hebron. 
 
 
 334 
 
 " " Silky, or Emu Fowls. 
 
 1398 
 
 Silver Skin, 
 
 
 334 
 
 White, . 
 
 1397 
 
 Selecting and Cutting fo 
 
 - Planting, 
 
 337 
 
 Merits and Defects of. 
 
 1299 
 
 " Planting of, . 
 
 
 339 
 
 Dominiques, 
 
 1348 
 
 Cutting to a Single Eye, 
 
 
 339 
 
 Merits and Defects of 
 
 1351 
 
 " Planter, . 
 
 
 340 
 
 Dorkings 
 
 1340 
 
 Forcing of. 
 
 
 343 
 
 Colored, 
 
 1343 
 
 Coverer. . 
 
 
 442 
 
 Cuckoo, 
 
 1347 
 
 ■■ Cultivation of. 
 
 
 344 
 
 Silver Gray, . 
 
 1343 
 
 IIow to Raise from Cuttings, . 
 
 344 
 
 White. . ■ . 
 
 1344 
 
 How to Raise Two Crops per Year. 
 
 345 
 
 Merits and Defects of. 
 
 1347 
 
 Hybridizing of 
 
 345 
 
 Dumpies or Creepers, . 
 
 1363 
 
 How to Raise Seedlings, 
 
 340 
 
 Merits and 
 
 
 Harvesting of, .... 
 
 346 
 
 Defects of 
 
 1363 
 
 " Digger, . 
 
 
 347 
 
 French Breeds. 
 
 1334 
 
 Storing of. 
 
 
 34S 
 
 •• Bredas and Guelders, 
 
 1339 
 
 Diseases of. 
 
 
 348 
 
 Merits a 
 
 nd 
 
 " Rot of, . 
 
 
 349 
 
 Defects of 
 
 1340 
 
 •• Bug. 
 
 
 349 
 
 " Creve Coeurs, 
 
 1335 
 
 " Beetle (Colorado), . 
 
 
 349 
 
 " Merits and 
 
 
 Scabby, . 
 
 
 353 
 
 Defects of 
 
 1336 
 
 " How to Tell a Good, 
 
 
 353 
 
 '■ Iloudans. 
 
 1334 
 
 Sweet, 
 
 
 353 
 
 " ■■ " Merits and Defects 
 
 f, 1335 
 
 Varieties of, . 
 
 
 353 
 
 "La Bresse, 
 
 1339 
 
 Cultivation of. 
 
 
 353 
 
 " " " Merits and De 
 
 
 Harvesting of. 
 
 
 356 
 
 fects of. 
 
 1339 
 
 Storing of, . 
 
 
 357 
 
 " La Fleche. . 
 
 1336 
 
 " Analysis of, 
 
 
 373 
 
 MeritsandDe 
 
 
 French Fried, . 
 
 
 1825 
 
 fects of. 
 
 1336 
 
 " Poudrette, 
 
 
 44 
 
 Gallus Bankiva, . 
 
 1375 
 
 Poultry 
 
 
 1375 
 
 " Games, . 
 
 1315 
 
 American Sebriglits, or Wyandottes, 1353 
 
 " Black, 
 
 1318 
 
 ■■ Merits and Defectsof,13,M 
 
 " Black-Breasted Red, 
 
 1316 
 
 " Anconas. ..... 
 
 1334 
 
 •■ Blue, 
 
 1318 
 
 Andalusians. .... 
 
 1352 
 
 Brown Red, 
 
 1317 
 
 Merits and 
 
 Defects of. 
 
 13,53 
 
 " " Gray, .... 
 
 1318 
 
Ixiv 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Poultry, Games, Ginecr Red. . . . 1317 
 •• Gokiuu Buckwiug, . . 1318 
 •• Heiiuy, . . .1321, 1322 
 
 " Red Pile 131T 
 
 " " Silver Duckling, . . 1318 
 
 " Spangled 1321 
 
 •' White, . 1317, 1321 
 
 Merits and Defects of, . 1825 
 
 Frizzled Fo^ls 1365 
 
 •' Merits and Defects of, 1365 
 Gray Livonian Fowl, . . . 1366 
 " " •■ ■' Merits and 
 
 Defects of, 1366 
 
 Hamburgs 1309 
 
 Black, . . . 1311, 1312 
 Golden Penciled, . 1310 
 
 " " " Spangled, . 1311 
 
 Silver Penciled, . . 1309 
 " Spangled, . . 1310 
 White. . 1311 
 
 Merits and Defects of, 1312 
 
 .lavas 1354 
 
 •■ Black, .... 1354 
 
 " Mottled, . . . 1355-1357 
 
 " " Merits and Defects of, . 1358 
 
 " Langshans 1300 
 
 ]\Icrits and Defects of, 1301 
 
 " Leghorns 1302 
 
 Brown, . . . 1303-1415 
 
 Rose Comb, . . 1308-1305 
 
 White, . . . 1303-1305 
 
 Merits and Defects of, . 1306 
 
 Plytiiouth Rocks, .... 1351 
 
 ■ ■ Merits and Defects of, 1853 
 
 Polish Fowls, .... 1835 
 
 '• Bearded Golden, . 1838 
 
 Silver, . 1338 
 
 White, . 1331 
 
 " Black Crested White, 1327 
 
 " Golden, . . . 1327 
 
 " Silver, . . . 1328 
 
 " White Crested Black, 1326 
 
 White, 1331 
 
 " Merits and Defects of , 1331 
 
 Malays 1359 
 
 " " Merits and Defects of, . 1359 
 
 " Russians, 1360 
 
 " " Merits and Defects of, . 1360 
 
 " Rumpless Fowls 1363 
 
 " " " Merits and Defects of, 1364 
 
 Silkies, 1361 
 
 " White, .... 1363 
 " " Merits and Defects of, . 1363 
 
 Sultans 1360 
 
 ■' Merits and Defects of, . 1861 
 
 Spanish Fowls, .... 1383 
 
 " " " Anconas, . . 1834 
 
 Page. 
 
 .iltry, Spanish Fowls. Black, . . . 1338 
 
 ■■ Minorca or Red Faced, 1334 
 
 ■• White. . . 1334 
 
 Merits and Defects of, 1334 
 
 Sumatras 1333 
 
 Merits and Defects of, . 1332 
 
 Ducks 1460 
 
 " Aylesbury. . . 1460, 1461 
 
 " Black East India, . 1470 
 
 •' Call 1470 
 
 " " Gray, .... 1470 
 
 " " White 1471 
 
 " " Carolina, or Wood, . 1472-1475 
 
 " Cayuga, . . . 1464-1469 
 
 " Crested Amoor, . . .1469 
 
 " White, . . 1461-1469 
 
 " Mallard 1475 
 
 " " Mandarin, .... 1473 
 
 " " Muscovy, .... 1471 
 
 '■ Pekin 1463-1467 
 
 " Rouen, . . . 1460-1465 
 
 " " General Management of, . 1475 
 
 " " Houses for 1476 
 
 Geese, 1479 
 
 " African, .... 1480 
 " Canada or Wild. . . 1480-1485 
 
 ■• Chinese 1480 
 
 White, . . . 1478 
 '■ Embden, . . . 1479-1481 
 
 •• Egyptian 1480 
 
 " Sebastopol, .... 1488 
 
 " Toulouse. . . . 1478, 1479 
 
 " " Fattening of, . . . 1487 
 
 •■ Game of Fox and, . . 1484 
 
 " " General Management of, . 1488 
 
 Guinea Fowls, . . . 1494, 1495 
 
 " " " Management of. . 1495 
 
 Pea Fowl, . . " . . .1496 
 
 Peacock, 1496 
 
 " " Management of, . 1496 
 
 Pheasants 1499 
 
 English, . . . 1499 
 
 Peacock, . . 1497 
 
 " Pigeons. . . . . . 1500 
 
 " " Principal Varieties, . 1500 
 
 " " Antwerps, . . . 1505 
 
 " " Archangels, . . . 1505 
 
 Barbs 1501 
 
 " " Carriers, . . . 1501 
 
 Fantails, . . . 1502 
 
 White, . . 1503 
 
 Jacobins, . . . 1502 
 
 " Magpies, . . . 1504 
 
 Nuns, .... 1505 
 
 Owl 1504 
 
 " "WTilskered, . . 1504 
 Priests, .... 1502 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ixv 
 
 Pigeons 
 
 , Sljort Faced Tumblers, . 
 
 1.500 
 
 " 
 
 Swallows, 
 
 lo04 
 
 " 
 
 Trumpeters, . 
 
 1502 
 
 " 
 
 Turbits 
 
 1.502 
 
 
 Jlanagement of. 
 
 150.-) 
 
 Quails 
 
 
 1499 
 
 
 American, 
 
 1276 
 
 
 California, 
 
 1497 
 
 " 
 
 .European, 
 
 1276 
 
 " 
 
 Care of when Domesti- 
 
 
 
 cated 
 
 1499 
 
 Swans 
 
 
 1488 
 
 
 Black, .... 
 
 1491 
 
 
 Necked, 
 
 1493 
 
 
 Mute, The, . . 1488 
 
 -1491 
 
 
 Whistling. 
 
 1491 
 
 
 Jlanagcnicnt of. 
 
 1492 
 
 Turkeys 
 
 1443 
 
 " 
 
 Black, .... 
 
 1448 
 
 " 
 
 Bronze, Mammoth, 1442 
 
 -1445 
 
 
 Buff, .... 
 
 1448 
 
 " 
 
 Crested, 
 
 1448 
 
 " 
 
 Narragansett, 
 
 1446 
 
 " 
 
 Ocellated, . . 1448 
 
 -1451 
 
 
 Slate 
 
 1448 
 
 " 
 
 White 
 
 1447 
 
 
 " Holland, . 
 
 1447 
 
 " 
 
 ♦Crooked Breasts in, 
 
 1457 
 
 " 
 
 Fattening, 
 
 1457 
 
 " 
 
 General Management of. 
 
 1448 
 
 " 
 
 Nests for. 
 
 1453 
 
 
 Pen for Fattening Poults 
 
 1453 
 
 " 
 
 Pi'ei)aring for Market, . 
 
 1458 
 
 
 Profits of Raising, 
 
 1458 
 
 " 
 
 Roosts for, . 
 
 1456 
 
 
 To Prevent Lice on 
 
 
 
 Young, 
 
 1455 
 
 
 Young, Care of. . 
 
 1453 
 
 " 
 
 Slielter for. 
 
 1455 
 
 Best Breeds to Keep, . 
 
 1278 
 
 Breeding 
 
 1387 
 
 Diseases of 
 
 1417 
 
 
 " Accidents, Maladies, 
 
 1435 
 
 
 Chicken Cholera, 
 
 1418 
 
 
 Indigestion, 
 
 1430 
 
 
 Intiammatiou, etc., . 
 
 1420 
 
 
 " I.icc. 
 
 1431 
 
 
 Jloulting, 
 
 1411 
 
 
 Poultry Vermin, 
 
 1422 
 
 
 Roup and its Phases, 
 
 1423 
 
 Breaking up Broody Hens. 
 
 1410 
 
 Drinki 
 
 ng Tanks for Fowls, 
 
 1380 
 
 Egg Production 
 
 1412 
 
 Eggs, 
 
 Quality of, ... 
 
 1412 
 
 Fattening Poultry, 
 
 1407 
 
 
 Coops, 
 
 1407 
 
 Feather Eating, .... 
 
 1411 
 
 Page. 
 
 Poultry, Food for 1386 
 
 General ^Management of, . . 1379 
 " ■■ "in Sum- 
 
 mer, . 1380 
 ■• •• Win- 
 ter, . 1383 
 
 '■ Houses 1431 
 
 " " Cheap and Convenient, . 1431 
 
 Warmth in, . . 1440 
 
 " Glossary of Technical Terms of, 1284 
 
 " Incubation, 1387 
 
 " " Advantages of Arti- 
 
 ficial Hatching, . 1406 
 " " Appearance of Inte- 
 
 ■ rior of Fowls' Eggs 
 , during Incubation, 
 
 3d to 21st Day, . 1390 
 " " Artificial Brooders 
 
 and Mothers, . 1404 
 
 Barrel Coops, . . 1393 
 
 Barren Egg, . . 1389 
 
 Care of Chickens, . 1393 
 
 " " Coops with Covered 
 
 Runs, . . . 1394 
 Fertile Egg, . . 1389 
 " " Rearing Chickens 
 
 Artificially, . 
 " " Sex of Eggs, . 
 
 " Incubators 
 
 " " Management of, 
 
 " " Proper Temperature 
 
 of, . 
 
 " " Register of, 
 
 " " Turning the Eggs, 
 
 " Intelligent Supervision Essential 
 
 to Success in Raising, 
 
 " Life Boat, A, . . . 
 
 " Making a Choice, 
 
 " Technical Terms Used in, . 
 
 " Manure, ... 
 
 Power, Motive for Farmers, 
 
 " Dog 
 
 " Wind, 
 
 " Horse 
 
 " Steam 
 
 Practical Suggestions to Housewives, 
 Prairie Horses, .... 
 Prentiss Grape, .... 
 Prepai-ation of Rennet, 
 Preparing Mohair for Market, . 
 Prepotency of Transmission. 
 " President Wilder " Strawberry, 
 Pressing Cheese, ... 
 
 Preventing Sows from Eating Pigs, 
 Principal Causes of Abortion, . 
 Pringle's Excelsior Oat, 
 Products of the Angora Goat, . 
 
 542 
 
 1404 
 1391 
 1394 
 1400 
 
 1399 
 1403 
 1399 
 
 1377 
 
 1400 
 
 1385 
 
 1386 
 
 44 
 
 543 
 
 543 
 
 543 
 
 543 
 
 544 
 
 1813 
 
 721 
 
 1621 
 
 1084 
 
 1188 
 
 1260 
 
 1647 
 
 1089 
 
 1221 
 
 963 
 
 394 
 
 1187 
 
i)f Horses 
 
 l^oduction. Cost of, Dimiuished Through 
 
 Competition. . 
 Profits in the Industries, . 
 of Farming, . 
 ■■ the Dairy. , 
 I'rofitable Farming. . 
 Progenitors of Trotting Familie 
 Progress in Agriculture. 
 
 the Industries. 
 Propagation of Muslirooins from Spawn. 
 Proper Temperature of Curd 
 Proteeting Trees from Mice. 
 Proteids. Constitution of. Not Known 
 
 How Estimated in Chemical 
 
 Analysis 
 
 Nutrition, . . , . 
 of Foods, Variation in, 
 Protoplasm, Constantly Changing, . 
 Formed by Living Matter. 
 
 Ptarmigans. 
 
 Public Drains in Micliigan. 
 Pudding. Blanc Mange or Corn Starch, 
 Bird's Nest. 
 
 Cottage 
 
 Sauce For. 
 Queen of Puddings, . 
 
 Snow 
 
 Sauce for. . 
 Steamed. . 
 
 Tapioca 
 
 Puerperal Fever. ... 
 
 Pug Dog 
 
 Pumpkins. ..... 
 
 Pure Water for Swine. 
 Purc-l>red Animals. Diffusion of. 
 
 Quality and Quantity of Food for Cattle. 
 " of Cream at Different Skimmings 
 
 Quails, 
 
 Queen of the Market Raspberry. 
 
 • Bee 
 
 of Puddings. . 
 Quicksand. Laying Tiles in 
 Quinn Farm, The. 
 (Juinsy in Swine. 
 (J winces. ... 
 
 Cultivating aud GatUerin 
 Diseases and Enemies of. 
 Varieties of. . 
 
 Rabies, or Hydrophobia. . 
 Racks for Feeding Sheep, , 
 
 Radishes 
 
 Rainfall and Drainage, 
 
 Evaporation, . 
 in the United States, 
 Ranches. Cattle, . 
 
 1»43 
 1844 
 184.1 
 1092 
 
 726 
 1846 
 1843 
 1717 
 1080 
 1688 
 1956 
 
 1956 
 1955 
 1958 
 1955 
 in39 
 1785 
 1934 
 1838 
 1828 
 1828 
 1828 
 1828 
 1828 
 1828 
 1828 
 1828 
 987 
 1541 
 1719 
 1227 
 1953 
 
 1051 
 1499 
 1660 
 1725 
 1828 
 1931 
 612 
 124.5 
 1615 
 1616 
 1617 
 1616 
 
 1553 
 1144 
 1719 
 18.54 
 1889 
 1920 
 956 
 
 16.59. 
 
 Pack. 
 llGo 
 1656 
 1659 
 1660 
 1661 
 1661 
 16.59 
 1660 
 
 1660-166.5 
 . 1600 
 . 1660 
 
 Ranches, Sheep 
 
 Raspberries, .... 
 Varieties of. 
 Brandywine. . 
 Brinkle's Orange, . 
 Carolina. . 
 Cuthbert. 
 Gregg. . 
 Herstine. . 
 Queen of the Market 
 Reliance. . 
 
 Shaffer 1660 
 
 Souhegan. . 1657-1660 
 
 Superb 1660 
 
 Cultivation of. ... 1662 
 after the First Sea- 
 son, . . 1666 
 Manures and Fertilizers for. . 1661 
 
 Mulching 1662 
 
 Planting of 1661 
 
 Rust on 1667 
 
 Soil for 1661 
 
 Staking of 1662 
 
 Summer Pruning. . 1662 
 
 Winter " ... 1665 
 
 • Protection of. . 1666 
 
 Yield and Profits of. . 1666 
 
 R;itions for Farm Animals. ^. 934 
 
 Ratios, Nutritive 1954 
 
 Raven. The 1784 
 
 Rearing Chickens Artiticially. . 1404 
 
 Lambs by Hand 1138 
 
 Recipes for Articles of Diet for the Sick. . 1836 
 
 • Arrow Root, . 1837 
 
 • Barley Gruel, . 1836 
 • Water, 1837 
 
 •' Beef Tea. . 1837 
 
 Juice and 
 
 Wine. . 1837 
 
 Chicken Broth, 1837 
 
 " Jelly. . . 1837 
 
 ■• Clam Broth. . 1838 
 
 " " Corn Starch, or 
 
 Farina. . 1837 
 " " Cocoa Nibs, or 
 
 Shells, . . 1837 
 Indian Jleal 
 
 Gruel, . . 1836 
 Lamb and Mut- 
 ton Broth. . 1837 
 •■ Lemon Jelly, . 1837 
 Oatmeal Gruel. 1836 
 Panada. . . 18;!7 
 Stewed Oys- 
 ters. . . 18;J8 
 •■ Rice Jelly. . 1837 
 •• Thickened Milk. 1836 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ixvii 
 
 
 Pane. 
 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 Kecipes for Articles of Diet. Toast Water, 
 
 isa? 
 
 Recipes for Puddings, 
 
 
 1828 
 
 Wine Jelly, 
 
 1837 
 
 " Roast Chicken, 
 
 
 1823 
 
 ■' Whey, 
 
 1837 
 
 Meats, . 
 
 
 1822 
 
 " " Beefsteak Smothered witL 
 
 
 •' Turkey, 
 
 
 1823 
 
 Onions, 
 
 1832 
 
 "■ Salads 
 
 
 1824 
 
 " Bread, Biscuit, etc.. 
 
 1825 
 
 " Sausages, 
 
 
 1825 
 
 " " " Brown, 
 
 1826 
 
 " " Smothered Chicken, 
 
 
 1823 
 
 " " '• Graham, 
 
 1826 
 
 " Soft Custard, . 
 
 
 1831 
 
 •• Wheat, 
 
 1825 
 
 " Soups 
 
 
 1820 
 
 " Bi.scuit 
 
 1826 
 
 " Spiced Blackberries, 
 
 
 1833 
 
 " English Breakfast Cake, . 
 
 1826 
 
 Currants, 
 
 
 1833 
 
 " Frencli Rolls, . 
 
 1826 
 
 " Staining Wood, 
 
 
 1838 
 
 •• Jlixing Dough, 
 
 1825 
 
 " Steak, How to Broil, 
 
 
 1821 
 
 " Brown's Troches, 
 
 1833 
 
 " Sugar Kisses, . 
 
 
 1833 
 
 •■ Cake 
 
 1828 
 
 ■' Toast Water, . 
 
 
 1837 
 
 " Canning Tomatoes, . 
 
 1832 
 
 "To Brown Flour for 
 
 Meat 
 
 
 " Cauliflower. 
 
 1825 
 
 Gravies, 
 
 
 1822 
 
 " Codfish Balls. . 
 
 1825 
 
 " Tomatoes, Canning, 
 
 
 1832 
 
 " Charlotte Kusse, 
 
 1833 
 
 " Tomato Catchup, or Catsup, . 
 
 1833 
 
 " Chocolate Caramels, 
 
 1832 
 
 Cliow-chow, 
 
 
 1832 
 
 Cream Drops, . 
 
 1832 
 
 " Wine and Wine Making, 
 
 1632 
 
 1833 
 
 " Cocoanut Dessert, . 
 
 1832 
 
 " Wonderful Liniment, 
 
 
 1838 
 
 " Cream, Ice, 
 
 1831 
 
 Recreation, 
 
 
 1810 
 
 " " " Candy, . 
 
 1833 
 
 Rectangular Churn 
 
 1054-1067 
 
 Velvet, 
 
 1831 
 
 Red Ants, How to Exterminate, 
 
 
 1834 
 
 " Custard, Soft, . 
 
 1831 
 
 " Water 
 
 
 988 
 
 " Chow-chow, Tomato, 
 
 1832 
 
 " Winged Blackbird, 
 
 
 1782 
 
 '• Chowder, Clara, 
 
 1824 
 
 •' Clover, 
 
 
 198 
 
 Fish. 
 
 1824 
 
 Reihlen, M.. and Ensilage of Maize, . 
 
 
 1961 
 
 " Dressing for Roast Turkey 
 
 
 Relations of Plants and Animals, 
 
 
 1884 
 
 Stuffed Veal, etc.. 
 
 1822 
 
 Relative Cost in Production of Crops, 
 
 
 107 
 
 " E.scaloped Oysters. . 
 
 1823 
 
 Nutritive Value of Milk, 
 
 
 1006 
 
 •■ Fish, Baked! . 
 
 1833 
 
 Reliance Incubator, .... 
 
 
 1396 
 
 " Floating Island, 
 
 1832 
 
 Removing Fresh Ink Stains from C'ai 
 
 pets, 
 
 1834 
 
 " French Fried Potatoes, . 
 
 1825 
 
 Renovating Black Silk. 
 
 
 1835 
 
 " Fried Onions. . 
 
 1825 
 
 Old Orchards, . 
 
 
 1581 
 
 " Oysters, 
 
 1824 
 
 Repairing Tools. .... 
 
 
 576 
 
 '■ Hoarseness, 
 
 1838 
 
 Buildings. .... 
 
 
 616 
 
 •■ How tn Broil a Steak. 
 
 1821 
 
 Residues Utilized, Value of in Ga.s- Works, 
 
 1844 
 
 " Ice Cream, 
 
 1831 
 
 Respective Influence of Sire and Dam 
 
 
 1258 
 
 ■• Jellies 
 
 1831 
 
 Restorative Crops 
 
 
 1869 
 
 ■" Jelly, Lemon, . 
 
 1831 
 
 Results of Cooking Food for Animal:- 
 
 
 1022 
 
 Orange, . 
 
 1837 
 
 Resuscitating Chilled Lambs, . 
 
 
 1138 
 
 Strawberry. . 
 
 1837 
 
 Trees and IJlants, 
 
 
 1577 
 
 " '■ Macaroni. 
 
 1825 
 
 Retrievers, Training of. 
 
 
 1548 
 
 '■ Jli.King Dough, 
 
 1825 
 
 Rheumatism in Swine. 
 
 
 1345 
 
 '• Oatmeal Gruel, 
 
 1836 
 
 Rhubarb, ...... 
 
 
 1719 
 
 " Opodeldoc, 
 
 183S 
 
 Rice 
 
 
 326 
 
 " Orange Jelly, . 
 
 1832 
 
 Rinderpest 
 
 
 988 
 
 '■ Ornamenting Frosting will 
 
 
 Ringworm 
 
 
 990 
 
 Sugar Paste, 
 
 1831 
 
 Ripening or Coloring Berries, 
 
 
 1655 
 
 '■ Oysters, Escaloped, 
 
 1823 
 
 River Basins. Drainage of. . 
 
 
 1921 
 
 " " '■ Fried, 
 
 1824 
 
 Roads, Removing Obstructions from. 
 
 
 551 
 
 '; " ■■ Stewed, . 
 
 1838 
 
 Drainage for, .... 
 
 
 535 
 
 " Panada 
 
 1837 
 
 •■ Catili-Walrr tor, . 
 
 
 552 
 
 " Pickled Cucumbers, 
 
 1832 
 
 ■• Bars for 
 
 
 552 
 
 " Pies 
 
 1826 
 
 Repairing of 
 
 
 553 
 
Ixviii 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 Roads, Care of, 
 
 554 
 
 Ruta Bagas, Cultivation of, 
 
 361 
 
 " Objections to Present System of, . 
 
 554 
 
 Harvesting of, . . . 
 
 362 
 
 Grader 
 
 557 
 
 Rye . . . . 
 
 287 
 
 " Farm, ...... 
 
 558 
 
 •' Varieties of. 
 
 
 288 
 
 Roller, Use of * . 
 
 103 
 
 " Soil for, . 
 
 
 288 
 
 " The Field 
 
 103 
 
 " Sowing of, . 
 
 
 288 
 
 How to Construct for Farm Use, . 
 
 104 
 
 " Harvesting of, . 
 
 
 288 
 
 " Romulus " — Percherou-Norraan Stallioi 
 
 , 702 
 
 " Diseases of. 
 
 
 291 
 
 Roosts for Turkeys 
 
 1456 
 
 " Thresher, . 
 
 
 290 
 
 Root Residues, 
 
 1886 
 
 " Where Profitably Grown, . 
 
 191(5 
 
 Roots and Stubble, Composition of, . 
 
 1887 
 
 Rysdyk's Hambletonian, ... 7 
 
 U, 726 
 
 Roots and Esculent Tubers, 
 
 330 
 
 
 
 " Cutters, ..... 
 
 363 
 
 Saddle and Tongue Grafting, . 
 
 1587 
 
 Crops, Ridire-Culture for. 
 
 373 
 
 Sage, 
 
 1722 
 
 Rose-Combed Black Bantams, . 
 
 1370 
 
 " Cheese, ..... 
 
 1091 
 
 White ■' . . 
 
 1370 
 
 Salmon Salad 
 
 1824 
 
 Leghorns. . 
 
 1303 
 
 Stilsify 
 
 1720 
 
 Rotation of Crops. . . .10 
 
 7, 1865 
 
 Salting Butter, 
 
 1057 
 
 Theories of, . 
 
 108 
 
 Salt 
 
 68 
 
 Economy of Manures in, ISTl 
 
 Sanil Bags for the Sick Room, . 
 
 1835 
 
 Fertility Conserved by 
 
 1865 
 
 Sauce for Steamed and Cottage Pudding, 
 
 1828^ 
 
 " " Systems of, . 
 
 1874 
 
 " Snow Pudding, . 
 
 1828 
 
 What is Best, 
 
 1875 
 
 Sausages, 
 
 1825 
 
 Nature Follows a Course of. 
 
 109 
 
 Scene on Grandin FaiTn, . 
 
 608 
 
 Experiments in, . 
 
 110 
 
 Schalzieger Cheese, .... 
 
 1080 
 
 Schemes of, . . . 112, 115 
 
 Science, Value of, in Agriculture, 
 
 1847 
 
 Rough-Coated Scotch Greyhound, . 
 
 1533 
 
 Scoops, " Push" and "Pull." Forms of. 
 
 1928 
 
 Rou]), and its Phases in Fowls, . 
 
 1423 
 
 In Laying Tiles in Quicksand, 
 
 1932 
 
 Rules for Computing Interest, . 
 
 1841 
 
 Scotch Terrier, 
 
 1537 
 
 Weight of Cattle, 
 
 1841 
 
 Scuffle Hoe, 
 
 1698 
 
 Estimating Amount of Seed oi 
 
 
 Seasons, Influence of, on Composition o 
 
 
 Different Kinds per Acre, 
 
 1839 
 
 Crops 
 
 1881 
 
 Laying Out an Acre in Rectang 
 
 
 Sea-Weed 
 
 62 
 
 ular Form. 
 
 1840 
 
 Ashes of, . 
 
 62 
 
 Rules for Measuring Corn in Cob, 
 
 1839 
 
 Sebrights, Silver 
 
 1374 
 
 Crib, . 
 
 1839 
 
 Selecting and Cutting Potatoes for Plantii 
 
 ig. 337 
 
 " Grain in Bins, . 
 
 1839 
 
 Selecting Meats, 
 
 1816 
 
 Hay, . 
 
 1840 
 
 Fish, 
 
 1817 
 
 " " in a Load, . 
 
 1840 
 
 Groceries 
 
 181T 
 
 " " Mow, 
 
 1840 
 
 Poultry, .... 
 
 1817 
 
 " "Square or 
 
 Sequoia Gigantea, .... 
 
 . 521 
 
 Long Stacks 
 
 , 1840 
 
 Setters, Training of, . 
 
 1547 
 
 " " Windrows, 
 
 1840 
 
 Setting a Table, 
 
 . 1818 
 
 Inch Boards, 
 
 1841 
 
 Sewage as a Fertilizer, 
 
 46 
 
 " " Land, 
 
 1840 
 
 of Paris, ... 
 
 48 
 
 " Lumber, . 
 
 1840 
 
 Sex of Eggs 
 
 1391 
 
 Wood, 
 
 1840 
 
 Shade in Pastures 
 
 1024 
 
 to Measure an Acre Plot, . 
 
 1841 
 
 Shallow Setting of Cream, 
 
 1037 
 
 Stone and Brick Walls, 
 
 1840 
 
 Shallot, 
 
 379 
 
 " for Weight of a Bale of Cotton, 
 
 1840 
 
 Share's Coulter-Harrow, 
 
 101 
 
 " " " Bushel of Produce 
 
 
 Shears, Use of, in Laying Tiles, 
 
 1926 
 
 of Different Kind 
 
 s, 1841 
 
 Sheep as Fertilizers 
 
 1159 
 
 Firkin of Butter, 
 
 1840 
 
 Barn, 
 
 657 
 
 Riuiipless Fowls 
 
 1363 
 
 Breeds of 
 
 1099 
 
 Rural Cottage 
 
 627 
 
 " " Black-faced or Heath, 
 
 1128 
 
 Ground plan for. 
 
 627 
 
 Border Leicester, 
 
 . 1121 
 
 Chamber-floor plan for. 
 
 627 
 
 " " Caramen or Fat-tailed, 
 
 . 1127 
 
INDEX. 
 
 lix 
 
 
 V.KUE. 
 
 
 Paoe. 
 
 Low Prices of Farm Products, Remedy Foi 
 
 . 1S4T 
 
 Manures, Relations to Crop and Drainage, 1855 
 
 Lucerne 
 
 43, 210 
 
 Special 
 
 . 1877 
 
 Value of as a Forage Plant, 
 
 211 
 
 Manure Spreader 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 Manuring with Green Crops, 
 
 74 
 
 M. Goffarfs Silos, .... 
 
 496 
 
 Mowing Lands, . 
 
 . 250 
 
 Macaroni 
 
 1825 
 
 Manure Gutters in Staliles, 
 
 . 659 
 
 Soup 
 
 1821 
 
 Maple Sugar JMaking, 
 
 . 433 
 
 Maggot Fly in Sheep, 
 
 11T5 
 
 ()l)taining Sap foi 
 
 , . 429 
 
 Magne'.s System of Selecting Cows, . 
 
 1014 
 
 flapping Orchards and Labeling Trees, 
 
 . 1579 
 
 
 73 
 
 Marbled" Beef. . . . '. 
 
 . 947 
 
 Magnum Bonum, Jack, 
 
 827 
 
 Margin of Profit in the Industries, 
 
 . 1844 
 
 McCormick Harvester, 
 
 263 
 
 Market Gardening 
 
 . 1702 
 
 Dropper^ .... 
 
 376 
 
 INIarl 
 
 62 
 
 Main Drains, Size of 
 
 1924 
 
 Marly Soils 
 
 14, 19 
 
 Maize, ^letliod of Cultivating for En.silage 
 
 500 
 
 Maud S 
 
 . 736 
 
 Time of Harvesting 
 
 501 
 
 Meadow, Species of Plants in Pcrmanen 
 
 t, 1948 
 
 " How to Cut for Silos, 
 
 503 
 
 Meadow Lark, 
 
 . 1783 
 
 Making a Choice 
 
 1385 
 
 Measles in Swine 
 
 . 1244 
 
 Malays 
 
 1359 
 
 Measuring Rod in Tile Laying, . 
 
 . 1937 
 
 ' ' Merits and Defects of, . 
 
 1359 
 
 Measurement of Cream, 
 
 . 1069 
 
 Mallard Ducks 
 
 1475 
 
 Grain in Bins, . 
 
 . 1841 
 
 Malignant Epizootic Catarrh in Swine, 
 
 1243 
 
 Hay, 
 
 . 1840 
 
 Sore Throat in Cattle, 
 
 984 
 
 " Inch Boards, . 
 
 . 1841 
 
 " " " " Swine, 
 
 1243 
 
 " Land. 
 
 . 1840 
 
 Maltese Terrier, 
 
 1539 
 
 Lumber. . 
 
 . 1840 
 
 
 984 
 
 AVood, . 
 
 . 1840 
 
 Mammoth Bronze Turkeys, 
 
 1445 
 
 Melons, 
 
 . 1715 
 
 Mambrino Chief, .... 
 
 726 
 
 Musk, Varieties of. 
 
 . 1717 
 
 JMauagement of Incubators, 
 
 1400 
 
 Jlerino Ram, 
 
 . 1104 
 
 Lambs, 
 
 1137 
 
 " Sheep 
 
 . 1100 
 
 Managing Brood Sows, 
 
 1220 
 
 Messenger, The, .... 
 
 711, 736 
 
 Management of Barnyard Manure, . 
 
 1887 
 
 Metallic Pipes, Injurious Effects of, . 
 
 . 529 
 
 Mandarin Ducks 
 
 1472 
 
 Metabolism Defined, .... 
 
 . 1849 
 
 Mange in Cattle, .... 
 
 984 
 
 of Soils, .... 
 
 . 1848 
 
 Dogs 
 
 1554 
 
 Methods of Grafting 
 
 . 1586 
 
 " Swine 
 
 1243 
 
 " Obtaining Cream, . 
 
 . 1037 
 
 Mangle Wurzel Beet, . . 366, 3 
 
 67, 370 
 
 " Irrigation, 
 
 . 120 
 
 " " " Cultivation of, . 
 
 367 
 
 " Curing Hay, . 
 
 . 237 
 
 " " " Harvesting of, . 
 
 367 
 
 Priming, .... 
 
 . 1582 
 
 " " Storage of, 
 
 367 
 
 Soiling 
 
 . 941 
 
 Mantels, .....'. 
 
 632 
 
 Microbes, or Bacteria. 
 
 . 1849 
 
 Manufacturing Sugar, 
 
 414 
 
 and Soil Metabolism. 
 
 . 1851 
 
 " " and Syrup from Sor 
 
 
 Classified, . ' . 
 
 . 1849 
 
 
 425 
 
 Distiibution in Soils. 
 
 . 1850 
 
 " " from Beets, 
 
 428 
 
 " in Household Economy, 
 
 . 1945 
 
 Manufactured Products of Indian Corn, 
 
 1908 
 
 Relations to Plants and Animf 
 
 Is, 1849 
 
 Manures, . 
 
 1876 
 
 Size and Reproduction of, 
 
 . 1945 
 
 and Soil Moisture, 
 
 1859 
 
 Microscopic Forms of Life, 
 
 . 1942 
 
 " " Struggle for Existence, 
 
 1947 
 
 Miles's Draining Scoop, 
 
 . 1928 
 
 Economy of in Rotations, 
 
 1871 
 
 Mildew in Grapes 
 
 . 1685 
 
 in Box Stalls, 
 
 1889 
 
 Gooseberries, 
 
 . 1675 
 
 " Cellars 
 
 1889 
 
 Milk Consumed by Pigs, . 
 
 . 1937 
 
 " Influence of. on Different Species 
 
 
 " Cellars, Dampness in. 
 
 . 1033 
 
 of Plants 
 
 1948 
 
 " Effect of Thunder Stiirm on, 
 
 . 1035 
 
 in Open Yards, 
 
 1889 
 
 " Fever 
 
 . 984 
 
 Kot All Accounted for. 
 
 1855 
 
 " Analysis of. .... 
 
 . 1007 
 
 " " Recovered in a Crop, 
 
 1879 
 
 " Composition of 
 
 . 1005 
 
Ixj 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 Silk Worm, Osage Orange, 
 
 1751 
 
 Soils, Gravelly 
 
 Preparation for Spinning Silk 
 
 , 1747 
 
 " Loamy, ..... 
 
 Reeling from Cocoons, . 
 
 1749 
 
 " Marly an<l (.'alcareous. 
 
 Reproduction, 
 
 1748 
 
 " Silt and Alluvial 
 
 Silk Culture in the Unitcc 
 
 
 •■ Muck 
 
 States, .... 
 
 1752 
 
 Origin and Age of Muck De- 
 
 Varieties of, . 
 
 1744 
 
 posits 
 
 Wintering and Hatching Egg 
 
 s, 1745 
 
 ■' Peaty, and their Cultivation, . 
 
 Disease, .... 
 
 1944 
 
 " Svibsoils 
 
 Silo, Cover and Weights, . 
 
 1964 
 
 " Friableuess of, . 
 
 " IIow to Build a 
 
 1963 
 
 " Color of 
 
 " of Masonry, .... 
 
 1961 
 
 " Analysis of, . . .25 
 
 Silos of 51. Goffart 
 
 488 
 
 " " I'nproductive, 
 
 " IIow to Fill 
 
 504 
 
 ■' Table of Analysis, . 
 
 Silver Selirights 
 
 1S74 
 
 ■• Soot 
 
 Siphon, I'se of in Water Supply, 
 
 540 
 
 Sore Throat 
 
 Size and Reiiroduction of Microbes, . 
 
 1945 
 
 Sorgho, Sugar-Canc, .... 
 
 ■■ Of Tiles 
 
 1919 
 
 Sovips, 
 
 Situation of the Brain in Animals, . 
 
 1564 
 
 Sources of plant food. 
 
 Skye Terrier 
 
 1538 
 
 Southern Seed Corn, .... 
 
 Slaughtering Calves, .... 
 
 1565 
 
 Spangled Game Fowls, 
 
 Sheep and Lambs, 
 
 1566 
 
 Spanish Fowls 
 
 Sleep 
 
 1810 
 
 Spaying Cows 
 
 Smothered Chicken 
 
 1823 
 
 Sows, etc., .... 
 
 "Smuggler," 
 
 736 
 
 Special Fertilizers 
 
 Snow Cake, 
 
 1829 
 
 Special Manures, .... 
 
 " Pudding 
 
 1828 
 
 Species of plants in permanent meadows. 
 
 Snowy Heron, ..... 
 
 1785 
 
 Speed, influence of, on draft. 
 
 Society of Friends 
 
 15G0 
 
 Siiirits made from Corn, 
 
 Social Life in the Country, 
 
 1795 
 
 Spiced Currants and Blackberries, 
 
 Soft Custard, 
 
 1831 
 
 Sponge Cake, ..... 
 
 Soil E.xhaustion and Fallows, 
 
 1863 
 
 Spontaneous Generation, . 
 
 " Fertility, how Lost, 
 
 1853 
 
 Sp'-ings 
 
 " Microbes. Depth of Range, 
 
 1850 
 
 Stables 
 
 " Moisture and Manures, 
 
 1859 
 
 " Light in. 
 
 in Cropped and Uneroppet 
 
 
 Ventilation of. 
 
 Land, . 
 
 1859 
 
 Stacking Hay 
 
 " Summer and Winter, 
 
 1859 
 
 Staining Wood 
 
 Soils, Biological Conditions of, . 
 
 1849 
 
 Stamboul, ...... 
 
 " " Condition," or Acquired Fertility, 
 
 1853 
 
 Starch made from Corn, 
 
 " Exhaustion of, . 
 
 1851 
 
 Stassfurt Potash Mines, 
 
 " Metabolism of, . 
 
 184S 
 
 Steam Transportation, . . . . 
 
 " Natural Fertility of, . 
 
 1853 
 
 Power, 
 
 '■ Plant Food in 
 
 1853 
 
 •• Baling-Press, 
 
 Soils, .• 
 
 10 
 
 Sugar Works 
 
 '• Origin of 
 
 10 
 
 Steamed Food for Cattle, . 
 
 " Classification of, ... 
 
 14 
 
 Pudding, .... 
 
 " Pure Clay 
 
 14 
 
 Steel, quality of, .... 
 
 " Strongest Clay Soil, . 
 
 14 
 
 Stewed Oysters, 
 
 " Clay Loam 
 
 14 
 
 Sterility in Cows, 
 
 " Loamy, ..... 
 
 14 
 
 St. Julien 
 
 " Sandy Loam 
 
 14 
 
 Stock Breeding, Principles of. 
 
 " Marly, ..... 
 
 15 
 
 Feeding, object in, . 
 
 " Calcareous 
 
 15 
 
 Stone Drains, ..... 
 
 '• Vegetable Molds, 
 
 15 
 
 Heaps, ..... 
 
 " Clay Soil.s an<l their Management, 
 
 15 
 
 •• Walls 
 
 " Sandy 
 
 17 
 
 Storage of Crops, .... 
 
Ixxi 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 Storing Fruit 
 
 1593 
 
 Sunshine Cake, 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 Strawberry Jelly 
 
 1833 
 
 Sunstroke, . 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 Runner and Cutter, 
 
 1698 
 
 Swans, 
 
 
 
 1488 
 
 Stricture or Obstruction in Cows' Teats, . 
 
 990 
 
 
 American 
 
 
 
 1785 
 
 Strong Lye, Poisoning by. 
 
 1836 
 
 
 Black, 
 
 
 
 1489 
 
 Struggle for Existence, . . . 1844 
 
 1946 
 
 
 ■■ Necked 
 
 
 1492 
 
 in Meadows. . 1947 
 
 1952 
 
 
 Mute, 
 
 
 1488 
 
 -1491 
 
 Strychnine 
 
 18;i'> 
 
 
 JIanagcment of. 
 
 
 1492 
 
 Stubble and Roots, Composition of, . 
 
 1887 
 
 Suno' 
 
 
 
 1968 
 
 1969 
 
 Stubble Plow 
 
 98 
 
 Supei 
 
 ticial Knowledge. Tendencies of. 
 
 
 1847 
 
 Subsoil " 
 
 93 
 
 Survi 
 
 val of the Fittest. 
 
 1844 
 
 194G 
 
 Suez Canal, Influence of, on Means of 
 
 
 Sweet Potato. 
 
 
 
 353 
 
 Transportation 
 
 1845 
 
 Swine 
 
 
 
 
 1195 
 
 Sugar 
 
 411 
 
 Swine 
 
 Plague, 
 
 
 
 1944 
 
 Sugar Kisses, ...... 
 
 1833 
 
 
 Age for Breeding, . 
 
 
 1219 
 
 of Lead, Poisoning by, . 
 
 1835 
 
 
 Bath for. 
 
 
 
 1231 
 
 Cane, V^arieties of, . 
 
 411 
 
 
 Breeding 
 
 of 
 
 
 1215 
 
 Analysis of, 
 
 412 
 
 
 Breeds of 
 
 
 
 
 Cultivation of 
 
 413 
 
 
 
 Berkshires, 
 
 1194^1202 
 
 " Harvesting of, .... 
 
 413 
 
 
 
 Cheshires, 
 
 
 1208 
 
 " Plantation Mills. . . . 414, 416 
 
 
 
 Chester Whites, 
 
 
 1204 
 
 Extracting the Juice of, . 
 
 417 
 
 
 
 Chinese, . 
 
 
 1198 
 
 " Defecation or Classification of the 
 
 
 
 
 Duroc. 
 
 
 1213 
 
 Juice of. ..... 
 
 417 
 
 
 
 Essex. 
 
 
 1309 
 
 Evaporation of the Juice of. . 41 
 
 -,418 
 
 ■■ 
 
 
 Jersey Reds. . 
 
 
 1210 
 
 Evaporators, ..... 
 
 419 
 
 
 
 Neapolitan, 
 
 
 1199 
 
 Crystallizalion of Sugar, 
 
 420 
 
 
 
 Poland-China, 
 
 
 1207 
 
 " '" " Centrifugal 
 
 
 
 
 Sntrolk.s. 
 
 
 1214 
 
 Machines for 
 
 420 
 
 
 
 Yorkshires, 
 
 
 1213 
 
 " Scales 
 
 415 
 
 
 Care of Y 
 
 oung Pigs, 
 
 
 1321 
 
 " Sorgho and Ir.iphee, 
 
 421 
 
 
 Castration 
 
 of Pigs, . 
 
 
 1222 
 
 " " " \ aricties of. . 
 
 421 
 
 
 
 Old Boars, . 
 
 
 1223 
 
 Soil and its Prepa- 
 
 
 
 Convenient Piggeries, 
 
 
 1231 
 
 ration for, . 
 
 423 
 
 
 Cooked Food for. 
 
 
 1226 
 
 Sugar-Caue, Sorgho and Imphee, Planting 
 
 
 
 Curing Hams anil Bacon, 
 
 
 1233 
 
 of, . 
 
 423 
 
 
 Cutting Pork 
 
 
 1232 
 
 " " " Cultivation of. 
 
 434 
 
 
 Diseases of, ... . 
 
 
 1236 
 
 Harvesting. 
 
 424 
 
 
 
 Apoplexy, . 
 
 
 1236 
 
 " " " Manufacturing 
 
 
 
 
 C.ilic, . 
 
 
 1237 
 
 Syrup and Sugar from. . 
 
 425 
 
 
 
 Constipation. 
 
 
 1237 
 
 Sugar-Beet, 
 
 426 
 
 
 
 Diarrha'a, 
 
 
 1237 
 
 Cultivation of, .... 
 
 427 
 
 
 
 Fractures, 
 
 
 1237 
 
 Harvesting of. . 
 
 427 
 
 
 
 Hog Cholera. 
 
 
 1237 
 
 Storage of, .... 
 
 427 
 
 
 
 Intlaniniation of the 
 
 
 
 Manufacturing Sugar from. 
 
 428 
 
 
 
 Lungs, 
 
 
 1241 
 
 Sugar, Jiaplc . 
 
 429 
 
 
 
 Inversion of the Vagina 
 
 
 Obtaining Sap 
 
 429 
 
 
 
 and Uterus, 
 
 
 1241 
 
 " Location of Rugur-House, 
 
 431 
 
 
 
 Itch, 
 
 
 1342 
 
 Making, 
 
 433 
 
 
 " 
 
 Lard Worm, . 
 
 
 1242 
 
 Yield of Maple Trees, . 
 
 433 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 Lice. 
 
 
 1242 
 
 Sultans, ... ... 
 
 1360 
 
 
 " 
 
 Malignant Epizootic 
 
 
 
 Sulky Plow 
 
 93 
 
 
 
 Catarrh, . 
 
 
 1242 
 
 Sulphate of Lime 
 
 67 
 
 
 
 Malignant Sore Throat, 
 
 1243 
 
 Summer Houses, 
 
 674 
 
 
 
 Mange, . 
 
 
 1243 
 
 Summer Fallow, . . . . 
 
 84 
 
 
 
 Measles. 
 
 
 1244 
 
 Summer Mince Pies 
 
 1838 
 
 
 
 Pneumonia, . 
 
 
 1245 
 
Ixxii 
 
 Swine, Diseases of, Protnisiou of tlie R 
 
 ectum, H4j 
 
 Quiusv, or luHammatiou 
 
 
 of tlie Tonsils, . 
 
 124.5 
 
 Rlieumatism, 
 
 
 124o 
 
 " " Trichina. 
 
 
 124U 
 
 Worms, 
 
 
 1246 
 
 Fattening of, . 
 
 
 1223 
 
 Fat and Lean Porli, 
 
 
 1228 
 
 General JIauagemeut of, 
 
 
 1229 
 
 Green Food for, 
 
 
 1227 
 
 Improved Breeds of. 
 
 
 1201 
 
 •■ Is the Pig a Filthy Animal? 
 
 
 1230 
 
 Kind Treatment of Pigs, 
 
 
 1231 
 
 Managing Brood Sows, . 
 
 
 1220 
 
 " Origin of Breeds of , 
 
 
 1190 
 
 Chinese, 
 
 
 1198 
 
 India Ilog, 
 
 1200 
 
 " " " Neapolitan, 
 
 1199 
 
 Old English, 
 
 1197 
 
 " • " " Old Irish, 
 
 1198 
 
 Wild Boar, 
 
 1196 
 
 " Packing Pork, 
 
 1233 
 
 " Periods of Gestation in Sows, 
 
 1219 
 
 Preventing Sows from Eating Pig 
 
 ~, 1221 
 
 Pure Water for. 
 
 1227 
 
 •• Salt for 
 
 . 1227 
 
 Selection of the Boar, 
 
 . 1217 
 
 Selecting and Rearing Brood Sows 
 
 , 1218 
 
 Skeleton of Hog, . 
 
 . 1235 
 
 " Spaying 
 
 . 1223 
 
 To Prevent Crushing Young Pigs 
 
 1220 
 
 Use of Disinfectants, 
 
 . 1247 
 
 Weaning Pigs, 
 
 . 1222 
 
 Swiss Cattle, 89 
 
 8, 1004 
 
 Cows for the Dairy, . 
 
 . 902 
 
 Systems of Crop Rotations, 
 
 
 . 1874 
 
 Table for Calcidating the Exhaustion of 
 
 Soil by Crops 37 
 
 Table Showing Materials Removed from 
 
 the Soil by Various Crops, . , . 39 
 Table Showing the Nutritive Value of Roots, 359 
 Table of Feeding Standards, . . .935 
 Table Showing Time Required for Diges- 
 tion of Different Kinds of Food, . 1842 
 Taints and Odors in Jlilk, .... 1034 
 Taking up Fruit Trees, . . . . 1574 
 
 Tape Worm in Dogs, 1555 
 
 Tapioca Pudding 1828 
 
 Tare 21fi 
 
 Tea 453 
 
 •• Leaf of 453 
 
 " Leaves, 454 
 
 " Varieties of, 455 
 
 " Cultivation of, 455 
 
 •' Picking of 456 
 
 " Curing of 456 
 
 Tea, Plant and Root 
 
 ■' Gathering of 
 
 " Adulteration of, , . . 
 Teaching a Colt to Back, . 
 Teat Tubes and Milking Machines, . 
 Teetii of Horses, Age Determined by 
 TccJuiieal Terms used in Description of 
 
 Poultry 
 
 Temperance 
 
 Temperature for Obtaining Cream, 
 and Nitrification, . 
 " •' Growth of Living Beings, 
 
 Tetanus, or Lockjaw, 
 
 Te.xan Cattle 
 
 Group of, 
 Texas Fever, .... 
 The Use of Ice in the Dairy, 
 The Trotting Horse of America, 
 The Wire Worm, 
 Thick Seeding in Corn Growing, 
 Thickened Milk, 
 "Thorndale," , . . . 
 Thoroughbred Horse, The, 
 Thoroughbred and Native Cows Compared 
 
 Threshing, 
 
 Thresher and Cleaner, 
 
 Ticks and Lice, 
 
 Tile Draining 
 
 " Advantages of, . 
 
 Tile Drains, How to Lay, . 
 In Quicksand, 
 On Farm of A. P. Wood, 
 Outlets of. 
 
 Tile Hammer, 
 
 Tiles, Collars for 
 
 Kinds of 
 
 Sizes and Prices of, . 
 Tools for Laying, 
 
 Tillage 
 
 Benefits of , , . . . 
 Theories Concerning, . 
 " Should be Adapted to Nature of 
 
 Soil 
 
 " In India, 
 
 For Clay Soils, 
 " Benefits to the Soil from Freezing 
 " Summer Tillage, . 
 " Plowing, 
 " Harrowing, . 
 
 Use of the Roller, 
 
 Timber Culture 
 
 " Forests, Influence Exert- 
 
 ed by, 
 " " Influence of on 
 
 Rainfall, 
 
 " " Influence of on 
 
 Climate 
 
 457 
 458 
 460 
 770 
 1031 
 694 
 
 1286 
 
 1797 
 
 1051 
 
 1850 
 
 1941 
 
 991 
 
 913 
 
 914 
 
 991 
 
 1033 
 
 725 
 
 324 
 
 1910 
 
 1836 
 
 40, 743 
 
 703 
 
 1025 
 
 281 
 
 282 
 
 1180 
 
 130 
 
 1917 
 
 1925 
 
 1931 
 
 1923 
 
 1934 
 
 1933 
 
 1925 
 
 1925 
 
 1919 
 
 1928 
 
 86 
 
 86, 91 
 
 86* 
 
 89 
 89 
 89 
 89 
 90 
 91 
 100 
 103 
 516 
 
Ixxiii 
 
 Timber Culture, Trees, Varieties of for 
 
 Planting, 
 
 " Age and Size of, 
 
 " Sequoia Gigantea, Giant 
 
 Redwood, 
 " Where and When to Plant 
 
 " Planting from Seeds, 
 
 Transplanting, 
 Time of Sowing Spring Wheat, 
 
 Winter " 
 Time Required for Churning, 
 
 Titmice 
 
 To Compute the Weight of Cattle 
 
 Bushel of Pro 
 duce 
 Clean Lamp Burners, . 
 Exterminate Bed Bugs, Cockroaches 
 etc., 
 " Cockroaches, Jloths, etc., 
 
 Red Ants, 
 Lay out an Acre in .Rectangular Form 
 My Black and Tan, 
 " Dog Blanco, .... 
 Prevent Lamp Chimneys from Crack 
 
 Remove Fresh Ink Stains from Carpets 
 Renovate Black Silk, . 
 Wash Black Lace, 
 
 Tobacco, 
 
 Varieties of, ... 
 Soil for 
 
 " Preparation of Plant-Beds, 
 Sowing and Weeding, 
 
 ' ' Preparation of Soil for, 
 
 " Fertilizers for, 
 
 " Ridger, .... 
 
 " • Transplanting, . 
 
 " Cultivation of, . 
 
 " Enemies of, ... 
 
 " AVorming of, . . . 
 
 " Topping 
 
 " Suckcring 
 
 " Cutting, .... 
 
 " Curing, .... 
 
 " Stripping 
 
 " Assorting 
 
 " Packing 
 
 " Cultivating for Seed, . 
 Tobacco Stems for Fertilizers, . 
 Tomatoes 
 
 " Canning, .... 
 
 " Catchup or Catsup, . 
 
 " Chow-Chow, 
 Tool House and Repair Shop, . 
 Tools for Laying Tiles, 
 Trades or Handicrafts, 
 
 519 
 
 520 
 
 521 
 , 522 
 522 
 527 
 271 
 271 
 1056 
 1782 
 18-11 
 
 1841 
 1835 
 
 1834 
 1834 
 1834 
 1840 
 1837 
 1510 
 
 1835 
 1834 
 1835 
 1835 
 434 
 436 
 436 
 437 
 438 
 441 
 441 
 442 
 442 
 443 
 444 
 445 
 445 
 446 
 446 
 447 
 448 
 448 
 449 
 449 
 73 
 1720 
 1832 
 1833 
 1832 
 668 
 1928 
 1843 
 
 Transportation, Facilities for Cheap, 
 
 . 1846 
 
 Training Dogs 
 
 . 1544 
 
 Pointers, .... 
 
 . 1547 
 
 " Retrievers, .... 
 
 . 1548 
 
 Setters, .... 
 
 . 1547 
 
 " Shepherd Dogs, . 
 
 . 1544 
 
 " Steers 
 
 . 951 
 
 Transplanting Fruit Trees, 
 
 . 1637 
 
 Treatment of Old and Disabled Horses. 
 
 796 
 
 ' ' Sick Horses, . 
 
 . 798 
 
 Abortion in cattle. 
 
 964 
 
 " in Convulsions, 
 
 . 1836 
 
 " Hog Cholera, 
 
 . 1237 
 
 Trichina, 
 
 '. 1246 
 
 Trifles, Significance of apparent. 
 
 . 1844 
 
 "Trinket," 
 
 740 
 
 Trotting Records, .... 
 
 741 
 
 
 . 1968 
 
 Trumpeter Pigeon, .... 
 
 . 1502 
 
 Tuberculosis 
 
 . 1944 
 
 in Cattle, 
 
 993 
 
 Turkevs, 
 
 . 1442 
 
 Varieties of, . 
 
 . 1442 
 
 Black, 
 
 . 1448 
 
 " " Bronze, Mammot 
 
 1, . 1445 
 
 Buff, 
 
 . 1448 
 
 Crested, . 
 
 . 1448 
 
 Narragansett, . 
 
 , 1446 
 
 " " Ocellated, 
 
 1448-1451 
 
 Slate, 
 
 . 1448 
 
 White Holland, 
 
 . 1447 
 
 Wild, 
 
 . 1443 
 
 Care of Young, 
 
 . 1453 
 
 Crooked-Breast in. 
 
 . 1457 
 
 Fattening of, ... 
 
 . 1457 
 
 General Management of, 
 
 . 1448 
 
 " Lice on Young, . 
 
 . 1455 
 
 Nests for, .... 
 
 . 1452 
 
 " Pen for Poults, 
 
 . 1453 
 
 " Preparing for Market, . 
 
 . 1458 
 
 Profits of Raising, 
 
 . 1458 
 
 Turbit Pigeons, .... 
 
 . 1502 
 
 Turf Drains, 
 
 . 187 
 
 Turning Eggs in Licubators, 
 
 . 1399 
 
 Turnips 
 
 . 1772 
 
 Turnips, Cultivation of. etc.. 
 
 . 358 
 
 Two Crops of Potatoes a year, . 
 
 . 345 
 
 Unnatural Position of Horse's Head, . 
 
 . 775 
 
 Underdrainage, .... 
 
 127 
 
 Upland Cotton, 
 
 . 384 
 
 Upright Creamer 
 
 . 1041 
 
 Uses of Disinfectants, 
 
 . 1247 
 
 Uses of Wool 
 
 . 1161 
 
 Use of Birds in Protecting Corn, 
 
 325, 326 
 
 Use of Poor Tools 
 
 . 574 
 
Ixxiv 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Uses of Cotton Seed, . 
 Useful Tables for the* Farmer 
 dener, 
 
 Pace. 
 •iOl 
 
 and Gar- 
 
 Value of Barnyard Manure, 
 
 1847, 
 
 1885 
 
 Various Crops for Green Manures, 
 
 
 76 
 
 Velvet Cream 
 
 
 1831 
 
 Venomous Bites, .... 
 
 
 994 
 
 Ventilation of Dwellings, . 
 
 
 634 
 
 Stables, 
 
 
 658 
 
 Vergeunes Grapes, 
 
 1623 
 
 1627 
 
 Vermicelli Soup, . . 
 
 
 1831 
 
 Vetch, The 
 
 
 216 
 
 Victor "Cane Mill 
 
 
 414 
 
 Wagon House, The 
 
 
 667 
 
 " .Jack, The 
 
 
 667 
 
 Warbles 
 
 
 995 
 
 Warmth in Poultry Houses, 
 
 
 1440 
 
 Warmth in Dwellings, 
 
 
 628 
 
 Warts 
 
 
 995 
 
 Washing Sheep, .... 
 
 
 1155 
 
 Black Lace 
 
 
 1835 
 
 Window Curtains, 
 
 
 1816 
 
 Wastes of the Farm, Avoidable, 
 
 
 1846 
 
 Wastes and Wants of the Farm. 
 
 
 573 
 
 Better Knowledge of Farming 
 
 and 
 
 
 Less Drudgery, 
 
 
 578 i 
 
 Waste of Manure 
 
 
 572 
 
 Lack of Economy in Labor, 
 
 
 578 
 
 Slovenly Management, . 
 
 
 574 
 
 " Doing Work Over-nicely, 
 
 
 574 i 
 
 " Use of Poor Tools, . 
 
 
 574 
 
 " Borrowing Tools, . 
 
 
 575 
 
 " Lack of Care of Farm Implements. 
 
 575 
 
 Repairing Tools, 
 
 
 576 
 
 Insufficient Help, . 
 
 
 576 
 
 Poor Teams 
 
 
 577 
 
 Inferior Stock, 
 
 
 577 
 
 Inconvenience of Farm Buildings, 
 
 577 
 
 Improved Farm Implements Essential, 578 
 
 
 580 
 
 More Capital in Farming, 
 
 
 580 
 
 Water-Closets 
 
 
 638 
 
 Supply for the Farm. 
 
 
 537 
 
 " Metallic Pipes, Injurious Effects of. 
 
 529 
 
 " Springs 
 
 
 529 
 
 " Brooks, .... 
 
 
 529 
 
 " Cisterns 
 
 
 531 
 
 " Wells 
 
 
 584 
 
 Hydraulic Rams, 
 
 
 587 
 
 Wind Mills, . 
 
 
 537 
 
 Wind Engines, 
 
 538, 539 
 
 Siphon, Use of, etc.. 
 
 
 540 
 
 E.xhaled by Crops, . 
 
 
 1931 
 
 Per Acre in Barley SoD, . 
 
 
 1859 
 
 FalUw " . 
 
 
 1859 
 
 of, 
 
 Water per Acre in Wheat Soil, Summer 
 
 and Winter, . 1859, 
 
 " Table, . 
 
 Watering Horses. 
 
 " in Drouth, . 
 Water Supply for Fish, 
 Sheep 
 " Swine 
 Weaning Lambs, 
 Pigs, . 
 Colts, . 
 Web 'S^orm, 
 
 Weighing with a Tape Line, 
 Weights and Measures in Cooking, 
 Weight per Bushel of Oats, 
 Wells, . 
 
 ' ' Artesian 
 " Driven, 
 " Tube, 
 Wens, . 
 What Horses to Breed, 
 
 Lands Require Irrigating, 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Bread, .... 
 " Diseases and Insect Enemies 
 " " Smut, 
 
 Rust,. 
 " Insect Enemies of, . 
 " " Chinch-Bug 
 
 " " Rocky Mounta 
 
 cust, 
 " Hessian Fly. 
 
 and Clover, 
 
 " Rainfall, . 
 As a Bread Crop, . 
 " Crop, Manures Appropriated 
 Every Year, Yields of, . 
 In Rotations, . 
 " Order of States in Production 
 " Range in Elevation, 
 " Statistics of, . 
 
 Temperature where Grown, 
 ■ ' Varieties of , . 
 '■ Champlain, 
 " Defiance,. 
 
 " Preparation of Soil for, . 
 Fertilizers of Soil for, . 
 Selection of Seed for. 
 Time of Sowing Spring Wheat 
 
 " " Winter ' 
 
 Quantity Sown to the Acre 
 " Sowing. .... 
 " Grain Drills, . 
 
 Depth of Covering, 
 
 Dropper 
 
 After-Culture of Wheat, 
 " Harvesting, 
 
 n Lo 
 
 bv. 
 
 of. 
 
 264 
 

 INDEX. 
 
 IXXT 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 Pase. 
 
 "Wheat, yelf-Binding Harvester, 
 
 . 278 
 
 "Wire Worm 
 
 324 
 
 •• Table Rake, . 
 
 . 379 
 
 Wood, A. F., Farm Drains, 
 
 1923 
 
 Thresher and Cleaner, 
 
 280, 281, 282 
 
 "Wood Ashes, 
 
 60 
 
 Threshing, 
 
 . 381 
 
 Wood-House, The 
 
 668 
 
 AVhen Bitten by a Dog, 
 
 . 1836 
 
 " AVoodbury Morgan," 
 
 727 
 
 "When to Irrigate, 
 
 . 126 
 
 "Woodpecker 
 
 1777 
 
 Plow, . 
 
 94 
 
 "Woolly Aphis, 
 
 1687 
 
 "WTiippletrees and Draft, 
 
 . 196.5 
 
 "Wool and its Uses, .... 
 
 1161 
 
 " Defective Form of 
 
 , 1965, 1966, 1967 
 
 "Wool Eating 
 
 1168 
 
 " Correct 
 
 . 1965 
 
 "Worms in Dogs, 
 
 1555 
 
 " On Omnibuses, 
 
 . 1966 
 
 Kidney, . 
 
 1555 
 
 '■ Mowers, . 
 
 . 1966 
 
 ]Maw, 
 
 1555 
 
 White Clover, 
 
 . 309 
 
 Round, 
 
 1555 
 
 " Cochins, . 
 
 . 1297 
 
 ■■ Tape, 
 
 1555 
 
 Hamburgs, 
 
 . 1311 
 
 " " Symptoms of, . 
 
 1556 
 
 " Holland Turkeys, . 
 
 . 1447 
 
 Sheep, 
 
 1180 
 
 " Pile Games, 
 
 . 1317 
 
 Swine, 
 
 1246 
 
 Specks in Butter, 
 
 . 1060 
 
 "Worming Tobacco, .... 
 
 445 
 
 "Wild Boar « 
 
 . 1196 
 
 "Wounds in Cattle, .... 
 
 995 
 
 "Wilder Grape (Rogers No. 4), 
 
 . 1623 
 
 
 
 "Wilder, President (Strawberry), 
 
 ^ 1647 
 
 Yams, Cultivation of, etc.. 
 
 357 
 
 Wild Goose, 
 
 . 1785 
 
 Chinese, Cultivation of , etc. , . 
 
 357 
 
 " Turkey, 
 
 . 1443 
 
 Yellow Clover 
 
 210 
 
 "Wind Mills, Use of, etc., . 
 
 . 537 
 
 "Warbler 
 
 1780 
 
 Engine, 
 
 . 538 
 
 Rumped W^arbler, . 
 
 1781 
 
 At Rest, 
 
 . 540 
 
 Yellows or Jaundice in Cattle, . 
 
 981 
 
 " " In Motion, . 
 
 . 539 
 
 Dogs, . 
 
 1553 
 
 " Power, 
 
 . 543 
 
 In Fruit Trees, . 
 
 1687 
 
 Windows 
 
 . 629 
 
 Yield of Maple Trees, 
 
 433 
 
 "Wine Jelly, .... 
 
 . 1837 
 
 Yorkshires, ...... 
 
 1213 
 
 " "Whey, 
 
 . 1887 
 
 
 
 Winter Evenings, 
 
 . 1811 
 
 Zigzag Clover 
 
 210 
 
 Wire Fence, 
 
 569 
 
 
 
The American Farmer. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 GENERAL AGRICULTURE. 
 
 FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION. 
 
 AGRICULTUEE is the foundation of civilization ; the basis of all other industrial 
 pursuits ; its advancement having a more powerful influence on the prosperity and 
 social elevation of a people than any other of the world's industries. Were it not for 
 this time-honored vocation, mechanics, manufactures, and commerce, would have nothing 
 to supply the material upon which to depend, and mankind be devoid of the resources of 
 physical life. In its aim and scope, the amoimt and variety of its productions, it stands 
 supreme among man's material interests, underlying and upholding all others. 
 
 Webster never uttered a more forcible and important truism than when he said, " All 
 national wealth depends upon an enlightened agriculture ; " a truism illustrated in the history 
 of every nation on the globe ; prosperity and wealth ever being found proportionate to a 
 nation's advancement in agricultural knowledge and practice. This will always be true of 
 any country or limited section of a country; and while the fact is recognized with respect to 
 all nations in all ages of the world's history, it is equally true that the decrease in a nation's 
 wealth and prosperity has ever been found to be proportionate to the decrease in the pro. 
 ductiveness of the soil, and the neglect of agricultural interests ; the depreciation of agricul- 
 ture being an index of the demoralization and decay of a nation. Agriculture furnishes the 
 sources of all phj'sical and intellectual energy; in fact, the products of all other trades and 
 professions seem insignificant when compared either in quantity, variety, or value with those 
 of the farmer. No one can compute the deplorable results that would follow the suspension 
 of agricultural labor for even a single year ; in all probability, famine with its attendant 
 horrors would extend throughout the civilized world, which would soon become, by this 
 means, in a great measure depopulated. This could not result by the suspension of anyone of 
 the other branches of industry for one year or several years ; in fact, any one of them might 
 be suspended for a succession of years without exerting a very marked influence upon the 
 progress of civilization, all of which proves the supremacy of agriculture. It supplies the 
 indispensable wants of the human race, feeding and clothing mankind ; the materials for this 
 purpose being received by the farmer directly from the inexhaustible stores of earth and 
 air placed there by the bountiful Giver of all good. This brings lis to another important 
 consideration in connection with the avocation of the farmer, and that is, its true honor and 
 dignity, and tendency towards the advancement of religion and moralit)^ as well as the 
 opportimities afforded for physical and mental development. It was the original calling of 
 man, appointed by the Creator, who planted a garden in Eden and made it man's duty to 
 " dress and keep it," and when by disobedience he was driven from Eden, it was still his 
 mission to till the ground. As this was the first employment assigned man by God, we 
 have here not only a proof of its vast importance, but every reason to believe it also 
 especially adapted to man's requirements in every respect, all of which has been fully con- 
 
4 IHK AiLEKlCAN FAKMER. 
 
 firmed by the subsequent history of tlie human race. There is no employment that brings 
 man into such close communion with nature — a communion so intimate that it must 
 almost of necessity reach to nature's God ; hence, we find, as a general rule, that there are 
 fewer skeptics among farmers, in proportion to the number engaged in the occupation, than 
 among other branches of industry. Farmers, as a class, are moral and law-abiding citizens, 
 and the embodiment of those principles that constitute the very foundation and framework 
 of good societ)'. In making this assertion, we would not ■wish to extol the avocation of the 
 farmer beyond its real importance, or place other industries beneath their proper standard ; 
 there are exceptions to all rules ; honor and worth, as well as the lack of these essentials 
 of true character, are to be found in all occupations under the sun ; but we believe the 
 verdict of the public generally would concur in the opinion pre-i-iously expressed, viz. : that 
 the avocation of the farmer has a tendency towards inctilcating a reverence for the Deity, 
 with its attendant ennobling influences. 
 
 It is true that character makes the man, and not his occupation or surroundings, and that 
 a truly honest man will prove himself such in whatever capacity he may be placed r also, that 
 a man lacking these quahties will not be changed by merely engaging in the most honorable 
 and ennobling occupations ; still it cannot be denied, tnat the associations and influences con. 
 nected with the emplo3Tnent of the hands and bi-ain, do have a powerful influence in forming 
 the character of an individual. Farming, as an avocation, presents one of the most exten- 
 sive fields of varied research and close investigation of any of the various professions and 
 trades represented in the world, and yet how few comparatively that are engaged in it, who 
 reaUze the opportunity for mental, as well as physical development, their employment affords. 
 As a class, however, farmers are becoming better educated, and thus better fitted for suc- 
 cessful achievement in their business than formerly, while the Agricultural Colleges, Associa- 
 tions, and journals of the present time are rapidly increasing these facilities. There is no 
 good reason why the farmer should not be specially educated to his business, and fanning 
 rank among the learned professions of the day. It seems to us that scientific farming 
 requires a knowledge of a greater variety of things than almost any other kind of business. 
 As far as the nature and treatment of soils is concerned, some knowledge of mineralogy is 
 very essential ; a knowledge of chemistry, botany, and entomology are all, to a certain 
 extent, equally valuable as far as they apply to the successful growing of crops and their 
 preservation from the ravages of insects. The farmer must also be a manufacturer as far 
 as the making of butter, cheese, cider, curing of hay or preserving of ensilage and crops 
 generally are concerned, while a thorough imderstanding of the habits, necessities, diseases, 
 etc., of domestic animals is indispensable to success in the work. Surely the farmer, in order 
 to be well fitted for every department of his avocation, must not only possess a natural taste 
 and aptitude for his respective calling, but should receive special instructions in these several 
 departments : in other words, he should be educated for his business, thereby increasing his 
 usefulness and success in life. 
 
 One of the wants of the agricultural interests of the country is a greater facility for the 
 education which is especially directed to the practical business of farming. Our agricultural 
 colleges are supplying this need to a certain extent, but we should have more of them ; 
 besides, our public schools practically ignore in their system of instruction everything 
 pertaining to this important branch of national industry. A great improvement upon the 
 present system would be instituted by inculcating a more general knowledge of those sciences 
 which are more intimately connected with it, such as chemistry, mineralog)', geologj% botany, 
 and their relations to agriculture, the laws that modify and regulate the conditions of the 
 great mysteries of plant-life and plant growth, together with the best methods of fertilizing, 
 grafting, budding, and the history and practice of everything connected with this pursuit, 
 which afifords emplojTnent to so large a proportion of our population, and which forms the 
 basis of our national subsistence, wealth, and power. The large number of schools in various 
 portions of Europe, in which practical instruction is given in farming in all its various 
 branches and departments, have obviously done much in bringing the agriculture of those 
 
FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION, 5 
 
 sections of the Eastern Continent to the high standard it has attained. In these schools, boys 
 from twelve to fourteen years of age are instructed in the practical business of farming, and 
 also in mechanics, as far as the use and repairing of all kinds of agricultural implements are 
 concerned, — theories being taught only in connection with their practice, which is the only 
 true method of instruction. Science has opened the door to successful progress in agriculture 
 in the past, a progress that will approach nearer and nearer to perfection in the art as time 
 advances. Sir Humphrey Davy may be said to have inaugurated, in a great measure, this 
 improvement in the early part of the present century, although it was not until 1840 that 
 Liebig announced propositions that opened a new field of thought and investigation, and 
 awakened the attention of intelligent farmers to the importance of applying the results of 
 chemical investigations, which in a great measure essentially modified the agricultiu-al practice 
 of all the civilized portions of the world. He opened the way to the whole system of 
 concentrated fertilizers in the following simple words : — 
 
 '• To manure an acre of land with forty pounds of bone-dust is sufficient to supply three 
 crops of wheat, clover, potatoes, turnips, etc., with phosphates ; but the form in which 
 they are restored to the soil does not appear to be a matter of indifference; for the more finely 
 the bones are reduced to powder, and the more intimately they are mixed with the soil, the 
 more easily they are assimilated." 
 
 Since that period the progress in improvement, although gradual, has been marked, and 
 the use of commercial fertilizers has become in many sections a necessity ; not only this, but 
 they are now regarded by our best farmers everywhere as an important and indispensable 
 adjunct to farm-yard manures. What science — which is justly regarded in all civilized 
 countries as the handmaid of successful agriculture — will accomplish in the future, remains to 
 be seen ; but if, in the words of King Brobdignag to Lemuel Gulliver, she will cavise "two 
 blades of grass to grow where only one grew before," great good will be accomplished. 
 
 We are essentially a nation of farmers ; more than one-half of our population rel}ang 
 upon agriculture for support, and no country is more dependent for prosperity on its resources 
 in this respect than our own ; yet, while much has already been done, and great advancement 
 made in this branch of industry during the past half century, there remains much to be 
 accomplished before we, as a nation, shall approximate to that high standard and degree of 
 success that it is our privilege to attain. 
 
 We believe no one would think of disputing the fact that a given area of land, with a 
 similar soil, season, and equally favoring conditions otherwise, would, with an equal 
 amount of time and labor, produce more wheat, corn, grass, cotton, rice, tobacco, or any other 
 product now, than it would twenty-five or fifty years ago. And this is due to the advanced 
 methods of farming, including the use of improved agricultural implements, etc., which 
 practice causes the soil to produce more with the same or less expense of time and labor, and 
 hence, farming is more profitable now than at that period, not only in the amount produced 
 from the soil, which will bring more in return, but in the expense of production in time and 
 labor. It is also true that more can be accomplished with the same amount of labor and 
 expenditure in any of the other departments of business, than could have been performed 
 twenty-five or fifty years ago, owing to new and scientific discoveries, increased skill and 
 mechanical art ; therefore, the farmer of to-day need not make his business the drudgery 
 that it was formerly ; or, if he works as hard, he can have better returns for his labor in the 
 form of more of the necessaries and luxuries of life. Consequently, farmers, as a class, are not 
 necessitated to labor as hard, or practice as much self-denial in the rigid eeonomies of life, in 
 order to attain success, as in the olden time, and this is all due to advanced science and its 
 application to agriculture. 
 
 When we compare the implements for tilling and cultivating the soil that were used by 
 our forefathers, with those of the present time, we are able to realize more fully the benefits 
 bestowed upon agriculture by men of science, inventors, and manufacturers. The improve- 
 
6 TirE AMERICAN FAKMEH. 
 
 ments in agricultural machines alone is something wonderful. Formerly the principal 
 farm implements consisted of a one and two-horse plow, a harrow, a few hoes, rakes, and 
 scythes of the crudest kind, a sickle, a reaping cradle, and a flail for threshing the grain. 
 The only power employed in the use of these rude implements was that of the horse, mule, 
 and ox, and the hand of the farmer ; the latter being the main reliance, except in propelling 
 the plow and harrow, and even here the holding and guiding of the plow often called for the 
 most severe physical exertion of all the farm labor. Compare these machines with those of 
 to-day, the plows of every conceivable pattern adapted to the various kinds and conditions 
 of soil ; sulky plows that will tm-n the furrow to any desired depth with but slight manipu- 
 lation from the driver, who rides, except to hold the reins and guide the horses; the harrows 
 and clod-crushers of various devices and plans of operation, that pulverize the soil to a 
 degree of perfection that was once never dreamed of ; the drills and planters that deposit the 
 seed and cover it with a uniformity that is truly astonishing ; and not only this, but in the 
 vast amount of labor accomplished in a given time, the driver not being obliged to even walk 
 over the ground ; the rollers, the cultivators, and horse-hoes, the mowers, tedders, horse- 
 rakes, forks, carriers, and stackers that facilitate the former laborious and slow process of 
 hay-making, not only enabling the farmer to secure his crop of grass when it is in the best 
 condition for cutting, and not oblige him to leave a portion until it is over-ripe, but also 
 rendering him less dependent upon th» weather in securing this crop, as it can be harvested, 
 cured, and put under shelter in much less time than formerly. 
 
 Thus we have ensilage cutters that dispose of the forage crop in a green state, with con- 
 siderable less labor and time than by the hay -making method; the I'eapers and self-binders, 
 that reap and bind the grain as if by magic hands, one machine doing the work of many men 
 in a given time ; the threshers and cleaners, that prepare the grain for market; the stalk- 
 3utters, corn-harvesters, buskers, and shellers. In the use of these implements, we have not 
 only the powers appropriated to the purpose in the olden time, but steam as a motive power in 
 the form of farm engines, that can be utilized in threshing, plowing, husking, grinding, and 
 various other kinds of farm work, one such machine often being made to perform the work 
 of over twenty horses at once, the agricultural implements alone of some well conducted farms 
 now often representing more money than the entire value of a good farm fifty years ago. 
 Hence, it will be seen that the application of science to agriculture has vastly increased the 
 productions of the country, and enabled the farmer to rise above the mere drudgery that 
 formerly characterized his calling. 
 
 But these are not the only advantages emanating from scientific agriculture; the innu- 
 merable experiments, investigations, and labors originating from this source, have resulted in 
 giving to the world improved varieties of all kinds of agricultural products, including grain, 
 fruits, vegetables, flowers, etc. ; also farm animals of such improved utility and beauty as to 
 be scarcely recognized as akin to their predecessors. 
 
 Fifty or more years ago the farmers of the country were generally the hardest laboring 
 class that could be found, their lives being a constant round of severe toD, which left no time 
 for the employment of mind or hands with other business. But little attention was paid to 
 the improvement of farm stock — a horse, cow, sheep, or pig being recognized merely as such 
 without regard to desirable points of preference in individual animals. Fanners, as a gen- 
 eral rule, depended almost wholly upon the products of their farms for a Hving, raising nearly 
 all the supplies for their own tables, and also largely for their clothing, which was manu- 
 factured from the raw material in their own homes. 
 
 "Wheat was more commonly cultivated than now, but not in sufficient quantities to supply 
 bread for the household, flour being rarely bought by the barrel. Rye floiur and corn meal 
 were mostly used for making bread, that made from wheat flour being considered quite a 
 luxury, and in many sections was dignified with the name of "cake," and used only on 
 extra occasions, such as when company was entertained. An instance illustrative of this fact 
 
FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION. 7 
 
 is said to have occurred in those early days in the eastern part of New England. A high- 
 toned gentleman, known as the "Squire," called at a farm house one day on some business, 
 and when he had finished his errand, and had remounted his horse at the door, the good 
 housewife, wishing to impress the 'Squire with the dignity and thrift of her family, said to 
 him " 'Squire, won't you stop and have some cake and butter," — thinking it now too late for 
 him to accept her invitation. To her chagrin, the doughty 'Squire replied, "Thank you, 
 marm, I don't care if I do," and promptly dismounted and entered the house. 
 
 The poor woman could only explain that to her surprise she found the flour bread all out, 
 and offered him the best she had, some Indian "bannock." 
 
 There was httle market in those times for farm produce, except in the larger towns, and 
 these were often reached only after long journeys. To these towns, such things as the farm- 
 ers had to spare were taken and exchanged for " store goods," said " store " usually being 
 some corner grocery, where more rum than any other commodity was sold, it being purchased 
 and used by the most respectable people, and its sale considered as legitimate and laudable 
 a business as any other. 
 
 Each farmer owned his flock of sheep, from the wool of which the family were princi- 
 pally clothed. It was carded, spun, and woven at home, and made into garments for the 
 entire family, that from which the " best clothes " of the mascuUne portion were made being 
 called " fulled cloth," which was woven at home from the finest wool of the flock, and after- 
 ward taken to the fulling mill, where it was subjected to a process of fulling or thickening, and 
 afterwards dyed, pressed, and otherwise finished for use. The material for the dresses of the 
 feminine portion of the household, — which were designated " gowns," — was a home-made 
 flannel, which was taken to the mills and pressed so as to present a glossy surface. Each 
 farmer had also a small patch of flax for home use. At the proper season the flax was pulled 
 and spread in rows on the ground, "rotted," and afterward, "broken" and " swingled," — as 
 the process was termed ; it was then prepared for combing, carding, and spinning on the 
 small machine which was called the " httle wheel," to distinguish it from the larger imple- 
 ment for spinning wool. It was woven into cloth for table covers, towehng, sheeting, shirt- 
 ing, etc, the coarser portion called " tow," which was combed out of the waste material of 
 the flax at the first combing, was spun into a coarse yarn and made into cloth for the sum- 
 mer suits of men and boys, these being usually' as harsh and uncomfortable to the wearer as 
 they were coarse and uncouth in appearance. Ready-made clothing being unknown in those 
 times, the hard-worked tailor, with his " goose " for pressing seams, the gossiping tailoress, 
 who carried all the neighborhood news from house to house, and the old-fashioned shoemaker, 
 working in each house in turn till all the family were supplied with a pair of shoes, were 
 important adjuncts of society, as they went their accustomed rounds, plying their individual 
 trades, but they are personages entirely unknown to the present generation. 
 
 Great, indeed, has been the change since that period, and were one of these old farmers 
 of the past to awake from his sleep of fifty years, and make his appearance among the gen- 
 eration of to-day, he would scarcely be able to recognize this earth as the same lie once 
 inhabited and tilled. Fifty years from the present will possibly mark an era characterized by 
 an equal extent of progress, although it may be as difficult for us to realize it, as it would have 
 been for the generation of half a century ago to predict the present standard of advancement. 
 The future prospects of American agriculture are indeed promising, and its progress may be 
 estimated in a great measm-e by the thirst for knowledge, energy, and enterprise that every- 
 where characterizes the American people. In striking contrast with the agricultural advance- 
 ment of our own nation during the last half century, may be instanced that of the Chinese, 
 where the same rude agricultural implements are employed in tillage to-day that were used 
 by their ancestors thousands of years ago. It is not difficult to understand why the agricul- 
 ture of an intelligent, free people must ever essentially differ from that which is developed 
 by an ordor of society less free, and characterized by ignorance and superstition. 
 
8 TIIK AiAIERlCAK FAHMER. 
 
 The permanence and independence of the farmer's avocation are strong arguments iu its 
 favor in tlie choice of a business, while there are few callings in which a small amount of 
 capital can be as safely invested and at the same time prove as lucrative. It is also a busi- 
 ness that is always sure to give plenty of employment to those engaged in it, with a certainty 
 of a fair remuneration. It is very true that there are many farmers that make but a poor 
 success of it, — if success it could be called withoiit a misuse of the term — but it is equally true 
 that there are failures in every kind of business, and that there is no calling known but what 
 may be represented by incompetent men that are engaged in it, such men as would not 
 make a success in anything they might undertake, the fault not being in the business, as such, 
 but in the persons representing it. In any occupation or department in life, more depends 
 upon the man than the business, as regards tlie ultimate success. In order to be successful 
 in any position, there are certain requisites that cannot be ignored, and the observance of 
 these is quite as essential in farming as in any other employment or profession. 
 
 Some persons seem to have a kind of general capacity or aptitude for almost any 
 avocation, and will make a success of anything they may undertake, but these are the 
 exceptions. As a general rule, men have a special talent for certain kinds of business, and 
 in following those to which they are by nature fitted, they will be more successful and happy 
 in their pursuit than in any other. However, a taste for certain avocations can be cultivated 
 where it does not naturally exist, but at the same time there must be certain natural aptitudes 
 or capacities inherent in the individual in order to make it a success in such cases. 
 
 The really successful farmer is he who chooses his vocation for the love of it, and who 
 feels that in if he is in his own native element, as it were; he enters it with a just conception 
 of its nature and demands, and in its pursuit he is not disappointed. The man who has no 
 love for the business, but, on the contrary, detests it, and only pursues it from necessity, 
 ought not to expect to succeed, for he lacks the first great essential in the elements of success. 
 The successful farmer will not only need a love and taste for the business, with a proper 
 appreciation of its nature and duties, but a healthy and vigorous body, and a well- 
 balanced, cultivated mind. He should get beyond the narrow-mindedness that characterizes 
 so large a class of farmers, and keep abreast of the times, profiting by the improvements, 
 and progress of the age in which he lives, and be willing to believe there may at present be 
 systems of practice in agriculture superior to that of his forefathers, and that the years of 
 labor and investigation since that period have not been spent in vain. What would be the 
 success of the merchant, if he should refuse to conform to the demands and customs of the 
 present, and persist in selling only the old-fashioned goods of twenty -five or fifty years ago ? 
 He might, it is true, sell a few articles as ancient relics, but his business as a merchant would 
 be very far from proving a success. It is just as essential for the farmer to meet the demands 
 of the times, as for the merchant or any other business man, in order to insure success ; and 
 to accomplish it he must study the wants of the market, and raise those crops that are most 
 in demand, and consequently will bring the highest price ; and not only this, but he should 
 inform himself as to the best methods of improving his lands, and cultivating such crops so 
 as to procure the best results. A man of one idea may possibly succeed in some pursuits, 
 but not in farming. The farmer of the highest success must be a man of broad views, 
 cultivated mind, and well-developed resources. The time is passed for the opinion of the 
 olden time to be popularly entertained, when the merest ignoramus was thought to be compe- 
 tent to do well enough on the farm, and that the boys of the family that were intending to 
 be farmers did not require as good an education as those who were intending to follow some 
 other calling or profession. The farmer of the present and future must be well informed to , 
 answer the demands of his position ; he must be competent to meet the various questions 
 constantly presenting themselves to him from every side in the duties of his vocation ; he 
 must be capable of understanding, as far as possible, the nature of the elements with which 
 
FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION. 9 
 
 he has to deal, and the laws that control and regulate them. He must be able to appreciate 
 the agricultural literature of the times, and make himself familiar with it, and not only thus 
 to receive the products of other minds, but he must be competent to think and investigate 
 for himself. 
 
 Successful farming demands the practice of systematic business principles. No man can 
 succeed well in any employment whose practice lacks method and thoroughness. A slack 
 and slovenly manner of doing work of any kind can never be very remunerative, and in no 
 business is this fact more clearly verified than in farming. No farmer can manage his affairs 
 on strictly business principles who does not keep an account of his receipts and expenditures, 
 and take an occasional inventory to see how he stands financially. A merchant might run 
 the risk of being bankrupt if he did not do this, but how few farmers ever have a systematic 
 financial account kept from year to year. 
 
 Farming can be made profitable when the same thought, energy, business tact, and prin- 
 ciples are associated with it that are required for other successful enterprises, and under such 
 favoring conditions the profits will compare favorably with those of other employments. It 
 is true that few among the many farmers can be called wealthy, but this is equally true of 
 other vocations ; it is only one among many, in any business the world over, that rises to 
 eminence above his fellows and distmguishes himself by extraordinary achievements of any 
 kind, and those who acquire wealth and power are few compared with the masses in the 
 enjoyment of but a competence. But the farmer can trust in the assurance that if he gives 
 a proper amount of attention to the business, and utilizes the aids within his reach, he can 
 make it pay, and the compensation will be a fair one in comparison with that of other callings. 
 That farming pays best which will produce the largest amount from a given area, with an 
 equal expenditure of time and labor ; in other words, it is the surplus production of each 
 acre over the cost of raising the crop, or the raising of maximum crops at a minimum cost, 
 which constitutes the real profit of farming. 
 
 Aside from the other advantages to be derived from agricultural pursuits, there is much 
 of pleasure connected therewith, in an esthetic point of view, or what might be termed the 
 poetry of farming, and which those with an eye for the beautiful in nature cannot fail to 
 appreciate. There are few persons so constituted as not to enjoy and appreciate, to a certain 
 extent, works of art in the form of beautiful pictures or fine statuary, and those possessing 
 the means will often pay large sums of money for these master-pieces of the best artists, and 
 consider them indispensable in furnishing their homes ; but what painting ever equaled the 
 changing scenes of nature of which the farmer is ever a participant or observer ; the glory 
 of a beautiful sunrise or sunset, the ever-changing clouds in storm or sunshine ; the vast 
 forests and fields of waving grain ; the quiet loveliness of the valley among the hills ; the 
 grandeur of the distant mountains, or the broad expanse of the green prairies that seem like 
 the ocean with its rolling waves suddenly made stationary by the word of some mighty 
 power. To one with a love for domestic animals, there is much enjoyment in the care of these 
 mute creatures that so wilHngly recognize man as their lord, and so often look the affection 
 and gratitude they cannot speak. 
 
 The farmer needs the painting of no Landseer, Bonheur, or other artist, however distin- 
 guished, to cause him to appreciate a fine horse, cow, or other animal, for these are but copies 
 from life, and he has the originals ever about him ; hence, if a man with a love for the 
 beautiful has not the means to gratify his taste in art, he can do so to a great extent by 
 becoming a farmer and possessing the subjects of which art furnishes but the copy. 
 
 But this is only the poetic side of farm-life, though by no means to be overlooked, and 
 the business of the farmer requires the best energies of hands and brain, much thought and 
 hard labor ; and to him life is earnest and real, and he who makes the wisest and best use 
 of these energies will, other conditions being equal, receive the largest remuneration for his 
 labors, in the profits that are the result of intelligent farming. 
 
10 THE A31ERICAX FARMER. 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 SOILS may be defined as those portions of the upper stratum of the earth which contain 
 a mixture of mineral, vegetable, and animal substances in proportions suited to the 
 growth and nourishment of vegetation ; thus containing the food of plants, which 
 assimilate it in some mysterious way, and combining with it the requisite elements supplied 
 by the air, build up their structures, and in their turn furnish sustenance for man and the 
 lower animals. 
 
 Since all soUs are formed from the disintegration and decomposition of the rocks which 
 constitute the solid crust of the earth, together with a mixture of vegetable and animal 
 remains, they take their character from or are combined mainly of the elements of the 
 rocks from which they take their origin ; hence, the great diversity of soils. 
 
 This relation is, of course, modified by circumstances, such as the prevalence of one or 
 other of the series, or the greater or less inclination of the strata by which the debris from 
 different sections are more or less mixed, and also by the action of the water in washing 
 certain portions of the surface free from some constituents of the soil, and carnnng the 
 debris in a greater or less quantity to others. Hence, the great difference often found 
 between the fertility of the soil on a higher ground from which certain of its elements have 
 been washed, and that of the valley to which they have been conveyed. 
 
 The names commonly appUed to the different soils, have respect to their qualities ; thus 
 they are from their composition designated clay soils, loam, sand, gravel, chalk, peat, etc.; 
 or from their texture, in respect to which, those in which clay predominates are called heavy, 
 stiff, or impervious. &nd. the others, light, friable, or porous. From the tendency of the clay soils 
 to retain moisture, they are often called wet and cold, and the other soils, for possessing the 
 opposite properties, dry and warm. According to their degree of fertility, they are also often 
 spoken of as rich or poor. 
 
 Tlie Origin of Soils. — It is now a generally accepted theory, and one which does not 
 antagonize with the teachings of the Scriptures, that the greater portion of the soil which 
 covers the earth surface, and which is cultivated by man, was once a solid rock forming the 
 crust of the earth, and that long ages before man's creation and occupancy of the earth, this 
 rock was covered by sheets of ice many thousand feet in thickness in the form of glaciers, that 
 extended over nearly the entire continent; and that by the gradual melting and mo^^ng of this 
 vast mass, the rocky sm-face of the earth was ground, scoured, and pulverized, forming grooves 
 and scratches in the rocks that can even now easily be traced to the extent that the course of 
 the moving mass can be determined, which was from the north in a southerly direction ; and 
 also grinding, as if by an immense machine, the loose materials resting upon the surface of the 
 earth to a powder or paste, which forms the basis of the agricultural soil ; that by climatic 
 changes, the vicissitudes of heat and cold, terrific storms and various chemical and mechanical 
 changes thus produced, the earth became fitted for the production of a lower order of vegeta- 
 tion. These having matured, died, and decayed, were followed by those of another order, the 
 higher classes of plants appearing as the soil became enriched by the decay of previous vege- 
 table organisms. During these ages it is supposed that the earth was constantly imdergoing 
 changes of climate and vegetation, which latter became in time so dense and luxuriant as to 
 store up vast quantities of carbon taken from the air, and in this manner were formed the 
 immense beds of coal which are now found in various parts of the world ; thus preparing the 
 earth for man's future necessities long before his creation. It will be found that soils vary 
 much in color; this is caused mainly from the nature of the different rocks from which they 
 are formed. This manner of soil formation, — the mixing up of the ground-up fragments of 
 many kinds of rocks, — have given great variety to soils both in formation and fertility, and 
 in man)^ sections has prevented uniformity to the extent that often adjoining farms, or dif- 
 ferent portions of the same farm, are very unlike in soiL T::ere is, of course, a great differ- 
 
SOILS. 11 
 
 ence 'between the upper and subsoil, the upper being mixed more or less with vegetable 
 matter, besides being modified by atmospheric agencies. The broken and pulverized 
 material lying above the solid rocks is known to geologists by the general name of drift. 
 With respect to the origin of the agricultural soil, Prof. Agassiz says: — 
 
 ''There is hardly anywhere in the world an extensive tract of cultivated soil which 
 lias not been brought to the place where it exists from considerable distances. It is no 
 doubt the case that the rocks are decomposing in places constantly ; and the amount of this 
 decomposition is vei-y great, varying according to climate, and is the result of influences which 
 are also different under different climatic conditions. In our colder northern regions the 
 decomposition is owing chiefly to the filtration of water into rocks, to the frosts following 
 that infiltration, to the splitting of the surface of the rock into fragments in consequence of 
 the expansion of frozen water, and thus the disintegration of the rocks themselves. In more 
 southern climates, where warm tropical rains are incessantly pouring upon the hard rock, it 
 is chiefly that agency and the decaying of the rock by the heat of the tropical sun which pro- 
 duces a similar result. And yet this process, extensive as it is, is not the chief cause, hardly 
 an extensive cause, of the production of agricultural soil. There is another cause which 
 ought to be taken into account — the wearing of the rock by the action of running water. 
 Here again we have an accumulation of an immense amount of loose materials which are the 
 result of the wearing action of running water. And yet even that is only a small portion of 
 the amount of loose materials which are scattered over the earth and form part of the agri- 
 cultural soil. The main mass of the agricultural soil is derived from an entirely different 
 source, and is produced by an entirely different cause. There has been at work a grinding 
 machine more powerful than the action of the sun, of water, of frost or of wearing currents. 
 It is the agency of ice ; and to that agency we owe not only the grinding of the rocks to 
 powder and all the comminuted material which forms the chief portion of the loose coatings 
 above the rocks which serve as the basis for our agricultural operations, but we owe also to 
 that natural machinery, the mixture of rocks derived from different regions, which have 
 formed the compoimd coating over the whole surface of the earth, without which agriculture 
 would be hmited to those regions the rocky foundation of which is such as to afford a suit- 
 able soil. The agency of ice has been such as to bring together from remote countries the 
 loose materials from the limestone rocks, the slaty rocks, the marl beds, the granite rocks, 
 and the wearing of those materials into paste has transformed them into that coating which 
 really constitutes the bulk of our agricultural soil. Those materials have been remodeled 
 since by atmospheric agencies; they have been rained upon since the time they were deposited, 
 and of course the action of water has carried far off to other places what had been first 
 worked upon by ice. But this is not very extensive and does not constitute a part of the 
 primary formation of agricultural soil. 
 
 " It would lead very far to enter into an extended discussion of the manner in which ice 
 can have produced these results. It would probably excite a smile if I were to begin by 
 saying that the whole extent of the United States has at one time been covered with a sheet 
 of ice many thousand feet in thickness; and yet geology can show that it was so. It would 
 probably excite doubt if it were stated that the whole sheet, moving from the north in a 
 southerly direction, has ground the loose materials resting upon the surface of the earth to 
 that paste which constitutes the agricultural basis; and yet it is so. It has been by a suc- 
 cession of observations, starting from small beginnings, that this result has been reached and 
 is now recognized as a fact among geologists" 
 
 The Constitution and Texture of Soils. — Since soils are derived mamly from the 
 rocks, they will contain all the elements which the rocks originally did from which they were 
 formed ; usually, however, in different proportions, and in different chemical combinations, 
 and to this mineral matter is added various materials derived from the air (aside from the 
 
12 THE AMERICAX FARMER. 
 
 vegetable or animal substances whicb they may contain in a greater or less proportion), hence 
 their mechanical texture, as well as their mineral composition, depends upon their origin. 
 
 According to texture, soils are commonly termed rocky, stony, gravelly, sandy, silt, 
 marl, and calcareous, loam, clay, etc. Though rocks and stones cannot properly be tenned a 
 portion of the soil, yet when mingled with the finer soil or found to any gi-eat extent upon 
 the surface, these terms are commonly applied to distinguish such soils from others of different 
 characteristics. 
 
 Although rocks and stones have long been, and are at present, the great pest to the New 
 England farmer, yet they are not entirely useless, as they frequently benefit crops by the 
 warmth, protection from winds, and the moisture they afford, as well as by the gradual 
 decomposition of those which contain lime, potash, and other fertilizing elements which con- 
 tribute to the support of the soil, these elements being furnished by the decomposition of 
 the rocks through the action of the atmosphere, the crumbling of them by the agency of 
 frost, or by the dissolving of their mineral pi-operties by water — pure water itself being a 
 strong solvent, — while water containing carbonic acid, such as rain-water (which always con- 
 tains it), will dissolve limestone, chalk, and even the hardest marble in time, though the 
 latter, of course, much more slowly than the former. 
 
 Some soils are peculiarly fine in texture, being almost entirely free from stones, gravel, 
 or sand, such as that of certain of the Western prairies, while others possess but little mineral 
 element, being composed mostly of vegetable matter, such as peat swamps, and salt marshes. 
 
 Prof. S. W. Johnson, Director of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, who 
 is one of the best authorities on this subject, says, that the fertihty of the soil depends, 
 chemically, first, upon the presence in it of all the ash elements and of nitrates in proper 
 quantity, and, second, on their occurrence there in such states of combination as to give a 
 constant and regulated supply ; that numerous experiments have demonstrated that a soil 
 destitute of either phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, potash, lime, magnesia, or oxide of iron, is 
 absolutely barren on account of such deficiency ; and that it is equally certain that a soil 
 which contains the usual amount of potash, but only in the form of feldspar, or of phosphoric 
 acid, but only as apatite, or of magnesia, but only as serpentine, is infertile, because these 
 substances do not yield their elements to the solvent agencies of the soil or plant rapidly 
 enough to serve as plant food. 
 
 Also of silica, which was formerly supposed to be a necessary element of the soil in order 
 to sustain a healthy and prolific vegetation, that recent investigations appear to show, that 
 though it is present in many plants, it is an accidental ingredient and in no manner essential 
 to their growth or perfection; and alumina, though an abundant element of soils, is always 
 absent from agricultural plants; that soda likewise appears to be unessential to most of the 
 vegetative processes, for although it is perhaps never entirely absent from cultivated plants, 
 it often occurs in them in extremely minute quantity, so that the soda which is indispensable 
 to the blood and milk of animals must be obtained, in part at least, directly from mineral 
 sources. 
 
 Hellriegel's experiments show that .5,5 pounds of potash, 55 of phosphoric acid, 17 of 
 magnesia, 17 of soda, ,23 of lime, 11 of sulphuric acid, 8 of chlorine, and 54 of nitrogen (in 
 the form of nitrates), are sufiBcient in soluble condition, in 1,000,000 pounds of soil, in order 
 to establish thei'e a fertility equal to the production of 33 bushels of barley grain and 2,000 
 pounds of straw per acre. Good soil, however, may contain a larger proportion of available 
 plant-food than this. The weight of an average loamy soil is estimated to be about 4,000,000 
 pounds per acre for each foot of depth. 
 
 It is estimated by good authority, that a crop of grain of thirty-three bushels removes 
 from the soil but 140 pounds of ash elements; that is, — forty pounds in the seed and one 
 hundred pounds in the straw. 
 
SOILS. 13 
 
 AVe see by this how small a proportion of the ash element is taken from the soil by a 
 single crop of the above mentioned quantity. 
 
 There is a wise provision in nature which prevents some soils from being worn out or 
 permanently exhausted, as they otherwise might be, could aU their fertilizing elements be 
 extracted by man at will, which is in the slow and gradual solution of their stored-up treas- 
 ures of mineral wealth, and the chemical changes wrought in time through the agency of 
 air and water. 
 
 It is a fact well-known to any farmer that when soils have become poor or infertile from 
 too extensive cropping without sufficient fertihzers of the proper kind to restore in a measure 
 the elements extracted by the production of the crops, often a rest of a few years, without 
 aid from any kind of applied fertilizers, will in a measure restore the fertility. This is caused 
 by the decay of the insoluble part of the soil, which thus assumes a new chemical combination 
 and becomes soluble, these being chemical changes brought about through the agencies of the 
 atmosphere and water. 
 
 Prof. "Wm. H. Brewer, also of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, says 
 in relation to this subject: 
 
 "If the original rock which furnishes the sand and gravel of a soil, contains all the min- 
 eral elements of fertility, such a soil may be impoverished by too hard cropping, but it cannot 
 be exhausted, or, as you would say, luoni out. The annual weathering, by making soluble 
 what was before insoluble, is a process of continually restoring fertility to a greater or less 
 degree. We are told of certain soils in Greece which have been cropped for thousands of 
 years, and are still reasonably fertUe, because of such changes. 
 
 A soil having this character in a less marked degree may be temporarily impoverished; 
 we say then, that it is in a low condition, or " run down," and yet it recuperates rapidly with 
 rest, and with proper tillage or pasturage. 
 
 On the other hand, there are some soils that have great fertility for a time, and when they 
 run down remain very poor indeed. "What fertilizing material the soil had that was mostly 
 in an available condition for plant-food, is used up by a few crops, and then barrenness fol- 
 lows. I have heard of some remarkable cases of this in the Western States, where the soils 
 seemed wonderfully fertile at first, produced a few large crops, then utterly failed, and are 
 now abandoned. These first few large crops took up the plant-food which had been prepar- 
 ing for centuries. It was like a long investment suddenly becoming available in ready cash, 
 which is as suddenly spent, poverty following in its track. 
 
 Some years ago I began a microscopic examination of different sands in connection with 
 certain geological studies. Sands from the sea-shore in many parts of the world, from the 
 shores of lakes fresh and salt, the wash of rivers, from placer mines, from mountains and 
 valleys, the drifting sands of the Pacific slope, and from the deserts of the great basin, and 
 finally the sands washed out from various soils, arable and otherwise. It is curious to see 
 how some of those from soils have been modified by the influences here spoken of — often 
 there is a partial cementing again, by which each larger particle is coated with smaller grains 
 adhering to it; in others the splits and cracks by frost, and more interesting still, the way 
 some show that they have been partly dissolved. Only this week I was examin- 
 ing some from a sandbank deposited in Central New York, near Cayuga lake, so long ago 
 that a ravine four hundred feet deep has been worn in the rock since that sand was depos- 
 ited.' When depositei^ it was evidently all worn and rounded by the water which left it 
 where we now find it. Now each quartz grain is all roughened by little pits sunk into it by 
 being partly dissolved in the long ages it has lain there. In another, from the old silt left 
 near Niagara Falls before the gorge was made in its present shape, the solution of some 
 ingredients has partially re-cemented others. 
 
 The matter of oxidation is a curious one. Wooden posts last very differently in differ- 
 
14 THE AMEIUCAN FAK.\LEll. 
 
 ent soils. --Vs a rule, they decay quickest in open sandy soils, and last longest in heavy clays 
 or wet peat. It is just so with all organic matters. It is well known that in some grave- 
 yards human bodies decay in four or five years, in others only in fifteen or even twenty 
 years. Now, this has an important bearing on the use of manui'es. In some soils the 
 organic part of the manure disappears quickly, particularly in sandy soils, while in others, 
 particularly loams and clays, they remain much lunger, modifying both the chemical compo- 
 sition and physical character. 
 
 Again, soluble mineral salts are washed out unequally. As a general rvle, those salts 
 which are of most use to plants are held more tenaciously, while those that are injurious 
 wash out easier. 
 
 There is another way in which the composition and constitution is affected by the air^ 
 that is, through the climate. AlkaUne soils and salty soils of various kinds are only found in 
 dry chmates. All the saline and alkaline soils of the interior and western parts of our con- 
 tinent, and indeed of all countries (except sliores) would be soon purified if the rains were 
 abundant enough for numerous springs and streams. The countries are salt and alkaline 
 because these salts have been developed by the disintegration of the rocks, and the soils have 
 not been sufficiently washed out. Even our Connecticut c;past salt marshes soon lose their 
 saline character and become fresh if the sea water is e.xcluded.' 
 
 Thus we see that many soils contain in themselves the elements of fertility, which are 
 gradually supphed through the agency of water and air, while others soon become exhausted 
 without the use of manures or other fertilizers to restore the elements that have been extracted 
 by the crops produced. 
 
 Classification of Soils. It is a well known fact that soils frequently, by a gradual 
 process, change from one character to another, so that a minute classification is almost 
 impossible. We prefer for general reference the arrangement adopted by the noted British 
 authority, Prof. Johnston, which is based upon their chemical constituents. 
 
 " 1st. I'ure clay (pipe clay), consisting of about 60 of silica and 40 of alumina and oxide 
 of iron, for the most part chemically combined. It allows no silicious sand to subside when 
 diffused through water, and rarely forms any extent of soil. 
 
 " 2d. Strongest clay soil (tile clay, imctuous clay), consists of pure clay mixed with 5 to 
 
 15 per cent, of a silicious sand, which can be separated from it by boiling and decantation. 
 
 "3d. Clay loam differs from a clay soil, in allowing from 15 to 30 per cent, of fine 
 sand to be separated from it by washing, as above described. By this admixture of sand, its 
 parts are mechanically separated, and hence its free and more friable nature. 
 
 "4th. A loamy soil deposits from 30 to GO per cent, of sand by mechanical washing. 
 
 " 5th. A sandy loam leaves from 60 to 90 per cent, of sand, and 
 
 '■ 6th. A sandy soil contains no more than 10 per cent, of pure clay. 
 
 '• The mode of examining with a view of naming soils, as above, is very simple. It is 
 only necessary to spread a weighed quantity of the soil in a thin layer upon writing paper, 
 and to dry it for an hour or two in an oven or upon a hot plate, the heat of which is not 
 sufficient to discolor the paper — the loss of weight gives the water it contained. While this 
 is drying, a second weighed portion may be boiled or otherwise thoroughly incorporated 
 with water, and the whole then poured into a vessel, in which the heavy sandy parts are 
 allowed to subside until the fine clay is beginning to settle also. This point must be care- 
 fully watched, the liquid then poured off. the sand collected, dried as before upon paper,. and 
 again weighed. This weight is the quantity of sand in the known weight of tnoist soil, 
 which by the previous experiment has been found to contain a certain quantity of water. 
 
 " Thus, suppose two portions, each 200 grs., are weighed, and the one in the oven loses 
 50 gi-s. of water, and the other leaves 60 grs. of sand, — then the 200 grs. of moist are equal 
 to 150 of rfrp/, and this 150 of dry soil contains 60 of sand, or 40 in 100 (40 percent.). It 
 would, therefore, be properly called a loam, or loamy soil. 
 
SOILS. 15 
 
 '• But the above classification has reference only to the clay and sand, while we know 
 that lime is an important constituent of soils, of which they are seldom destitute. "We have 
 therefore, 
 
 " 7th. Marly soils, in which the proportion of lime is more than 5 per cent., but does 
 not exceed 20 per cent, of the whole weight of the dry soil. The marl is a sandy, loamy, or 
 clay marl, according as the proportion of clay it contains would place it under the one or the 
 other denomination, supposing it to be entirely free from lime, or not to contain more than 
 5 per cent., and 
 
 "8th. Calcareous soils, in which the lime, exceeding 20 per cent., becomes the distin- 
 guishing constituent. These are also calcareous clays, calcareous loams, or calcareous sand, 
 according to the proportion of clay and sand which are present in them. The determination 
 of the lime, also, when it exceeds 5 per cent., is attended with no difficulty. 
 
 "To 100 grs. of the dry soil diffused through half a pint of cold water, add half a wine 
 glass full of muriatic acid (the spirii of salt of the shops), stir it occasionally during the 
 day, and let it stand over night to settle. Pour ofi the clear liquor in the morning, and fill 
 up the vessel with water to wash away the excess of acid. When the water is again clear, 
 pour it off, dry the soil and weigh it; the loss will amount generally to about one per cent, 
 more than the quantity of lime present. The result will be sufficiently near, however, for 
 the purposes of classification. If the loss exceed 5 grs. from 100 of the dry soil, it may be 
 classed among the marls; if more than 20 grs., among the calcareous soils. 
 
 '• Lastly, vegetable matter is sometimes the characteristic of a soil, which gives rise to a 
 further division of, 
 
 " 9th. Vegetable molds, which are of various kinds, from the garden mold, which contains 
 from 5 to 1 per cent., to the peaty soil, in which the organic matter may amount to 60 or 
 70 per cent. These soils also are clayey, loamy, or sandy, according to the predominant 
 character of the earthy mixtures. 
 
 " The method of determining the amount of vegetable matter for the purposes of classi- 
 fication, is to dry the soil well in an oven, and weigh it; then to heat it to dull redness over 
 a lamp or bright fire till the combustible matter is burned away. The loss on again weighing 
 is the quantity of organic matter." 
 
 The preceding are commonly recognized as such general divisions as possess properties 
 sufficiently common to require a similar process in testing. The earthy, or what are termed 
 inorganic parts of soils, are found almost exclusively in combination with earths, salts, or 
 minerals, and constitute from less than one-half of one p3r cent, to over 10 per cent, of all 
 plants; in addition to these inorganic parts, fertile soils must also contain carbon, oxygen, 
 nitrogen, and hydrogen, which are called organic parts of soils, because of their greater pro- 
 portion in vegetables and animals, of which they constitute in substance from about 90 to 
 over 99 per cent. 
 
 Clay Soils and their Management. — From their affinity for water, and a ten- 
 dency to hold it in such quantity as to often impede a rapid or luxuriant growth of vegetation, 
 clay soils are commonly denominated cold and wet. 
 
 Clay owes its origin mainly to the decomposition of other minerals, and consists largely 
 of alumina, which is the most abundant of all the earths, combined with silica and water, 
 its plasticity being due to the alumina it contains, which being so fine in texture and com- 
 pact, prevents the escape of water resting upon the surface of such soils, or contained within 
 it. In its pure state, alumina is an earth resembling soft, white powder, without taste; in its 
 crystaline form, it occurs as sapphire and ruby, which are among the hardest and most val- 
 uable of the precious stones. 
 
 Prof. Brewer states that when on bottom lands, or in valleys, clays are usually the sedi- 
 ment deposited from muddy wa;ter in some earlier age of the earth's history, but when on 
 hillsides, they are often, in part at least, due to the decay of slate rocks. 
 
16 THE AMERICAN FxVRMEH. 
 
 The feldspar which by its decomposition largely yields the alumina of clay soils, contains 
 also potash and soda; hence, a mixture of calcareous matter with other earths proves bene- 
 ficial to crops. Clay soils have also a remarkable power for absorbing ammonia and other 
 substances, which constitute the food of plants. 
 
 Under-draining is the best means of removing the water from clay soils, and thus ren- 
 der them more available for cultivation, though open drains are effectual to a certain 
 extent. 
 
 Sand, being porous, is very valuable to mix with the too compact clay, thus producing 
 a soil neither too porous or compact; for large fields, this may often pi'ove too expensive for 
 practical purposes. Coarse vegetable manures, such as straw, corn-stalks, fine chips, etc., 
 which have a tendency to reduce the compactness, are recommended by some writers on this 
 subject. Barn-yard manure is also excellent. Lime and gypsum add much to the fertility of 
 such soils. 
 
 English writers on agriculture mention the use of burnt clay in many parts of Europe, 
 a practice long in vogue there for the improvement of clay soils, but in this country it would 
 be attended with too great expense to be practicable. Their method is to roll and harrow the 
 field in dry weather till the majority of the clods are about the size of a large walnut; when 
 perfectly dry, collect them into rows about six yards apart with iron-teeth rakes ; about four 
 yards apart in the rows apply faggots and burn the clay slowly, to prevent hardening. When 
 the heaps of earth are cold, they are spread over the surface and plowed in. This method, 
 it is stated, has astonishingly increased the productiveness of some of the poor clay soils in 
 certain localities of England, but as we have previously stated, we doubt the expediency of 
 its adoption in this country, where labor is attended with so much greater expense. 
 
 It is desirable to plow clay soils in the autumn, that the action of frost, rain, and heat 
 may aid in pulverizing the earth, after which, if barnyard manure be applied (which we think 
 one of the most desirable manures for clay soils), it acts both chemically and mechanically to 
 reduce it to a mellow condition and perfect its texture, being in a condition to freely admit 
 air and moisture, and consequently warmth and increased fertility, while it is neither too 
 porous or compact, and readily discharges surplus water, yet retains sufBcient for moisture; 
 by the fineness and closeness of its particles, the soil settles sufficiently compact around the 
 roots of the plants to increase their absorption of nutritive properties, which produce a rapid 
 and healthy growth. If plowed in the spring or summer, it should not be either too wet 
 or dry ; if too wet, it turns over heavy and soon becomes hard and lumpy by drying in the 
 hot sun, and subsequent plowing or harrowing will not effectually coimteract the evil for a 
 long time, thus often injuring the texture of the soil for many years. The action of frost 
 will afterwards correct this difficulty in a measure, but not wholly. If plowed too dry, the 
 soil is so compact that it renders the task a difficult one; besides, it remains in clods. After 
 the rain has sufficiently moistened such clods, the harrow may be applied effectually to reduce 
 them with considerable success; but it is better to plow such soil "Z'hen neither too wet or 
 dry, but of medium consistency. Plowing umaer green crops is very beneficial to clay soils; 
 but one of the most important points in their successful management is to keep the texture 
 in a desirable condition by the judicious use of implements in working the land over, and 
 preventing its becoming lumpy and .hard, thus at the same time improving its texture and 
 increasing its fertility in a proportionate degree. 
 
 Thorough mixture should never be neglected in any soil, as the change of particles gives 
 the opportunity for the extended union of the fertilizing elements, while new combinations 
 are thus formed, aided by the atmosphere and the increased moisture resulting from the stir- 
 ring of the soil. 
 
 The gradual deepening of clay soils, that is, deepening it some with each season's plow- 
 ing, is thought by most farmers to be a good rule, though a very old one. 
 
SOILS. X7 
 
 Clay soils are strong and durable, and retain more than any other the fertilizing ele- 
 ments that may be added in the form of manures, etc., and when properly managed, are 
 among the most valuable and productive. They are admirably adapted to the production of 
 most of the grains, especially wheat, also clovers of various kinds, and beans. They are also 
 peculiarly suited to grasses, hence are often denominated grass lands, owing to their peculiar 
 fitness for mowing lands and pastures. 
 
 Sandy Soils and their Management. — Sandy soils are in almost all respects the 
 reverse of clays — being warm, light, and dry. Under judicious cultivation, for most kinds 
 of crops, no soils yield more readily or bountifully, while they possess the advantage of being 
 ready for working earlier in the spring than clay soils, and are less liable to be affected by 
 frosts. Being leachy, they have but a slight hold on manures, as water soon washes out the 
 fertilizing elements, consequently it is best not to apply them until near the time of planting, 
 such as late in the wdnter or early in the spring, instead of the fall, as on some other soils. 
 
 The texture and quality of sandy soils are much improved by a mixture of clay and 
 humus, or mold, while muck and vegetable matter, liberally applied, are also often very 
 beneficial. With a good supply of humus in the soil, little fear need be entertained of 
 drought. 
 
 Allen says : " As clay soils are much benefited by a mixture of sand, so likewise are sandy 
 soils greatly improved by the addition of clay, yet in a much higher degree; for though it 
 would never pay, as a general rule, to add sand to clay, yet the addition of a few loads of the 
 stiffest clay to a light sand, would in almost every instance much more than compensate for 
 the trouble and the expense. For this purpose, the clay should be thinly spread in autumn 
 upon sward land pre%aously plowed, and the winter's frost will effectually separate the parti- 
 cles. It should then be harrowed thoroughly and deeply in the spring, and subsequently 
 plowed if necessary. Such a dressing on a light, crawling land, is more than equivalent to 
 an equal quantity of the best manure, and will be permanent in its effects. Clay and sand 
 are necessary to each other, as they both contain qualities which are essential to a good soil ; 
 and that will always be found the best, which has the proper proportion of each. 
 
 Sandy soils are improved by the frequent use of a heavy roller: it cannot be used too 
 often. They require to be made more compact, and any treatment that secures this object 
 will be advantageous. 
 
 Lime, by its chemical action on the constituents of soils, while it separates clay, render.^' 
 sand more adhesive; and when cheaply obtained, it is always a profitable dressing for sandj 
 soils, to the full amount they may require. Gypsum, in considerable quantities, has an effect 
 similar to lime, both on clay and sand; and when added in smaller portions, produces a 
 striking increase in the crops of sandy soils. Clay marls, containing either carbonate, sul- 
 T)ha.te. or phosphate of lime, are of great value to sandy soils. Equally beneficial are ashes, 
 leached or unleached, peat, or vegetable manures of any kind. Some calcareous sands, con- 
 taining a large proportion of lime, like those of Egypt and extensive regions in the Barbary 
 States, will produce luxuriantly, if supplied with a slight addition of manure and an abund- 
 ance of water. Sandy soils can never be profitably cultivated till they have acquired 
 suflBcient compactness and fertility to sustain a good growth of grass or clover; and when 
 once brought to this condition, they are among the most valuable. 
 
 They are at all times easily plowed and worked; they require no draining; and though 
 light and dry, are quick and kindly soils, giving an immediate and full return for the labor 
 and manure bestowed upon them. "Wlien in a condition to produce grass, sheep are admira- 
 bly adapted to preserve and augment their fertility, and by their incessant migrations over it, 
 their sharp hoofs pack the surface closely, producing the same effect as the roller." 
 
 For corn or any strong-growing crop in sandy soils, it is well to give the land a large 
 supply of barn-yard manure — applying it after the land is plowed, which should be a few 
 
IS THE A5IERICAN FAIOIER. 
 
 weeks before planting, that the soil may be saturated with the fenilizing properties at the 
 time of plantiug. This practice favors quick starting in growth, the roots being fed with the 
 manure that is constantly being diffused through tlie soil. Sandy soils being warmer and 
 more drj' than others, favoring, as we have previously stated, early working, which not only 
 gives an early start to the crops, but furnishes them with the winter moisture therein con- 
 tained, and enables them to secure a good hold upon the soil before the dry season sets in, 
 and thus many of the bad effects of drouth may be in a measure avoided. Where the season 
 is unusually wet, much of the fertilizing element of the manure will be washed out of the 
 soil and wasted, but where dry weather is more prevalent than wet, the above Tpr&cticSfnU. 
 give the best of results. * 
 
 Leachy soils generally must have frequent and light applications of manure, as they will 
 not retain, like clay, the wealth of soil till the following year ; they will only hold it long 
 enough for the growing vegetation during the season, the remainder passing through' the 
 light soil, and is lost. Where there is a considerable amoimt of clay mingled with the soil, 
 the effect of retaining will be varied proportionately. Clover is exceedingly beneficial in 
 increasing the productiveness of poor, sandy soils that are capable of producing but very light 
 crops. We give the following method from the pen of a farmer whose land at the time of 
 his purchasing it was of such poor, sandy quaUty as to be considered almost worthless for 
 agricultural purposes. 
 
 ''Clover is my main dependence for keeping up and increasing the productiveness of my 
 lands. The entire tract (300 acres) is now all under cultivation, and the annual yield to the 
 acre of wheat, rye, corn, and clover hay will average with the best land, in Wisconsin or 
 Iowa, which has been the same number of yeai's under cultivation. My favorite plan is to 
 have one field each of clover, corn, and wheat every year. This makes a three-year rotation. 
 The first crop of clover is cut for hay in June. The second crop is allowed to go to seed, 
 and plowed in late in the fall ; in the following spring it is planted with corn ; the next spring 
 sown with wheat, and the land will be fo\md to be abundantly seeded to clover. The clover 
 is dressed with one hundred pounds of land plaster to the acre. The manure made on the 
 farm is spread where most needed. ' 
 
 It is sometimes desirable to let the land remain in clover for a longer period. My 
 experience is that clover, being a biennial plant, wiU winter-kill the third winter after sowing, 
 but leaves behind a great mass of roots that wonderfully enrich the soiL Land laid down 
 viith clover is better than money in bank, drawing more interest than any bank can pay and 
 compounding the interest oftener. 
 
 Boussingault took a portion of pure sand, burned it until all traces of organic matter 
 were expelled, then took up some growing clover plants, washed them clean, removed the 
 external moisture with blotting paper, weighed them, and set them in the sand. He then 
 watered them with distilled water, placed them in the air, and in two months' time found 
 that they had tripled their amount of organic matter — thus proving that aii-, pure water, and 
 sand have all the elements necessary to sustain the growth of clover. In rich soil the 
 results would doubtless have been increased, but we see in this little experiment the elements 
 of all successful agriculture. Had he buried the perfected plant in his sand, and planted 
 again, and continued the process, it is evident that there would be no end to the amount of 
 fertility which might be accumulated, and this would not be in an arithmetical but in a 
 geometrical ratio, for the presence of manure in the soil would make it easier to accumulate 
 still more from the atmosphere. 
 
 Eaxly in the month of September I plowed a field of forty-three acres of well-worn 
 land, from which a crop of rye had been harvested the preceding July, and sowed it again 
 with rye. In November, cattle and horses were permitted to run on it, and continued to do 
 so until March — no snow covering the ground. Early in May the rye averaged nearly three 
 
SOILS. 19 
 
 feet high, and was beginning to head out, when the plows were set in motion, and the green, 
 juicy rye was turned under and the field planted with corn. The yield was forty-four bushels 
 (if No. 1 shelled corn to the acre. There was less labor and expense attending the plowing 
 and soi^ang of that rye than there would have been to have hauled sufficient manure from 
 my own barnyard, even if I had had the manure to have spread on the land to produce the 
 same quantity of corn that plowing in the rye did. Again, the corn did not require one-half 
 the labor to keep it clean that it would have done had ordinary barnyard manure, full of all 
 kinds of seeds, been spread on the land and plowed in before planting. Rye is the best of 
 all the small grains to clean land from weeds. The late fall and winter feed which the rye 
 furnished to the stock was of more value than the seed sown. 
 
 Some farmers make a practice of sowing rye among their corn in July, just before 
 cultivating the corn the last time. The rye does not make much growth imtil the corn is ripe 
 and the deadened leaves let tlie sun on it. After the corn is picked, the cattle are turned in, 
 and thrive on the stalks and green rye. In May, the rye and what is left of the stalks are 
 plowed in, and is said by those who have practiced it to increase the yield of corn ten to 
 fifteen bushels to the acre. There is abundance of evidence that heavy clay lands that have 
 been worn out by successive cropping, can be restored to at least their original fertility by the 
 same process that I have found so beneficial on sandy land." 
 
 Gravelly Soils. — Gravelly soils, being coarser in texture than what are commonly 
 called sandy soils, are peculiarly leachy and permit the escape of manures, both by evapora- 
 tion and rapid drainage ; they are therefore not as valuable as sandy soils. Some of the 
 gravelly soils are composed of essentially the same elements as the coarse granites, viz., sand, 
 clay, and potash, with a small percentage of iron, lime, and magnesia. Carbonic acid is found 
 in the air, water, and soils ; when in a state of solution in water it is the principal agent in 
 decomposing tlie granite rocks and setting free the potash contained in them ; when in large 
 quantities in the soil, or, as chemists say, in excess, it forms bicarbonate of potash, soda, mag- 
 nesia, and lime, all being soluble in water. By different processes new compounds are thus 
 formed which constitute the food of plants, and thus the coarser soils are made available for 
 agricultural purposes. Gravelly soils that are in their nature calcareous, or composed of 
 decomposed limestone, are more valuable for tillage than the former, since they have a ten- 
 dency to retain more of the elements of plant-food, and are consequently richer and more 
 compact. The poorer gravelly soils are used principally for pasturage, not yielding sufficient 
 returns in crops generally to repay the expense and labor of tillage. 
 
 Loamy Soils.— A loamy soil is an intermediate in character between sandy and clayey 
 soils, being lighter and warmer than a clay, and stronger and more retentive than a sandy 
 soil. Most loamy soils contain, in different proportions, silicious sand, clay, carbonate of lime, 
 with more or less oxide of iron, magnesia, and various salts, etc. These soils, when of 
 desirable combination, are generally regarded as among the best for the various agricultural 
 purposes. When they contain a large per cent, of clay they require, like clay soils, careful 
 drainage , this is especially desirable for an orchard, otherwise many of the tender varieties 
 •would be liable to be winter-killed. In cultivating such soils they should be treated like 
 either clayey or sandy soils in proportion as they approximate nearest to the one or the other 
 of these soils in characteristics. 
 
 Marly and Calcareous Soils. — Marly soils contain a mixture of clay and sand with 
 a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime, the latter being a very valuable ingi'edient as 
 a fertilizer. They are designated as calcareous, clayey, or sandy, according; to the preponder- 
 ance of one or the other main ingredient. Pure marl, in order to be of much value as a 
 manure, must be rich in carbonate of lime, and sufficiently soft to be excavated by ordinary 
 digging utensils. It is generally formed of the shells of moUusks and other marine animals 
 
20 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 of a former age ground or crushed by various natural causes, and cemented by clay or ren- 
 dered compact by the pressure of the overlying stratum of earth, or from other causes. South 
 Carolina and New Jersey have immense beds of underlying marl, which are especially 
 valuable as a fertilizing element, and to which much of the fertility of their soil is doubtless 
 due. Marl containing a large per cent, of gypsum, and in which crystals of gypsum are 
 easily descernible to the naked eye, is found in great quantity and readily accessible on the 
 shores of Lake Jessup, Florida. The large amount of gypsum it contains renders it of great 
 value to the agricultural interests of that section. Like loamy soils, marly soils may contain 
 also a greater or less proportion of sand or clay, and should be treated according as they 
 approach nearest the characteristics of either a sandy or clayey soil. These soils are very 
 tenacious of manures, and are what may be termed durable or lasting soils. 
 
 Silt and Alluvial Soils. — Silt being synonymous with sediment, denotes those soils 
 ■which are formed by water transporting fine sediment or mud into lakes and estuaries, and 
 depositing it in their beds. Alluvial soils are such as have been formed by the deposit of 
 rivers or streams, hence a silt soil, according to Prof. Brewer, may be a river-deposit and 
 consequently alluvial, or it may be a salt marsh by the sea, or such a marsh reclaimed, and in 
 no way pertaining to a river deposit, in which case it cannot strictly be called alluvial, and 
 properly is not. These soils vary greatly in their characteristics from a mixed clay to pure 
 sand, but generally combine the elements of such soils as are denoted loamy or sandy loams. 
 "When of this character, they are exceedingly fertile, and if favored with an annual overflow 
 from a stream above them, thus depositing upon their surface the fertilizing elements of 
 other soils, they yield remarkably large crops constantly without other fertilizing agents. 
 They are suited to the various agricultural purposes, and are easily tilled. Such soils yield 
 large crops of the best of grasses, and when particularly exposed to injury by freshets, this 
 crop is less liable to be damaged by such exposure than any other ; therefore it will be safer 
 for farmers having such particularly exposed lands, to appropriate them to the permanent 
 production of grass. The rich bottom lands in the valley of the Mississippi furnish a good 
 illustration of alluvial formations, as also the valley of the Nile. 
 
 The drainage of Lake Okeechobee and the Everglades in Southern Florida, thus reclann- 
 ing 1 2,000,000 acres of the best sugar land in the world, will prove a grand scientific agricultural 
 achievement, and one that will result in great benefit, not to Florida alone, but to the United 
 States; since Florida, according to an accurate estimate, is by this means capacitated to pro- 
 duce more sugar than the United States consumes. 
 
 Muck. — The principal constituent of muck is of vegetable origin, being formed from 
 decayed vegetation in swampy lands, hence as a soil it is too wet to admit of cultivation, as 
 such, but is principally used as an absorbent for manures, and in composts, in which case it 
 must be well dried before it is suited to absorb the liquid portions of manure. When thus 
 saturated it makes an excellent fertilizer. Muck varies much in value, according to its origin. 
 When originating from a mass of decayed forest leaves and other plants, it must of necessity 
 contain considerable fertilizing matter; if from mosses and coarse sedges, it will contain far 
 less of the valuable elements; and when composed largely of sand, nearly worthless; or it may 
 be impregnated with protoxide of iron, which is a deadly poison to vegetation , lience, its 
 value depends entirely upon its origin. Its chief value when used alone consists in the quan- 
 tity of vegetal)le matter it contains, and which is well adapted to soils of an opposite nature 
 to muck, or dry soils that require vegetable manures. When thus used it should be well 
 drained to dispose of the surplus water it contains. 
 
 The Origin and Age of Muck Deposits. — Wlierever stagnant water has existed 
 for a long time a certain class of coarse marsh plants, grasses, and mosses, are usually found, 
 such conditions favoring their rapid and luxuriant growth. These plants year by year mature 
 
SOILS. 21 
 
 and decay in the impure water that is the source of their origin, and at the same time is like- 
 wise their grave. As years go by and centuries succeed each other with their changes of 
 heat and cold, these basins become filled up and other forms of vegetation present themselves-, 
 sometimes trees and shrubs cover the spot, together with coarse grasses and mosses, the bed 
 remaining spongy and soft, the annwal fall of leaves and the decay of plants constantly con- 
 tributing to the filling up of the stagnant ponds. In some cases large trees have fallen and 
 become covered with the accumulated muck and peat, and have thus been preserved from 
 destruction for ages, forming some of the most durable timber known for ship-building and 
 other purposes. Cypress Swamp, located in the southern portion of Delaware, presents an 
 interesting example of this kind. Here for several miles around can be found buried in the 
 muck and peat at various depths, remnants of a fallen forest, with forests of another genera- 
 tion — mostly white cedar — growing above. 
 
 The method of obtaining these buried trees is described as follows, by a recent writer: 
 
 "The huge trees which he imder the swamp to unknown depths are of the white cedar 
 variety, an evergreen, known scientifically as the Cupressus Thyoides. They grew years ago 
 in the fresh water, which is necessary for their sustenance, and when in time, either by a 
 subsidence of the land or a rise of the seas, the salt water reached them, they died in great 
 numbers. But many of them, ere they died, fell over as living trees, and were covered 
 slowly by the deposits of muck and peat which fill the swamp. The trees that fell over by 
 the roots are known as windfalls to distinguish them from the breakdowns. The trees which 
 were broken off are the ones most sought for commercial uses, and they are found and worked 
 as follows: The log-digger enters the swamp with a sharpened iron rod. He probes in the 
 soft soil until he strikes a tree, probably two or three feet below the surface. In a few min- 
 utes he finds the length of the trunk, how much stUl remains firm wood, and at what place 
 the first knots, which will stop the straight spht necessary for shingles, begin. Still using 
 his rod hke the divining-rod of a magician, he manages to secure a chip, and by the smell 
 knows whether the tree is a windfall or breakdown. Then he inserts in the mud a saw, like 
 that used by ice-cutters, and saws through the roots and muck until the log is reached. 
 
 The top and roots are thus sawn off, a ditch dug over the tree, the trunk loosened, and 
 soon the great stick, sometimes five or six feet thick, rises and floats on the water, which 
 quickly fills the ditch almost to the surface. The log is next sawn into lengths two feet long, 
 which are split by hand and worked into shingles, as well as into the staves used for pails and 
 tubs. The wood has a coarse grain, and splits straight as an arrow. The shingles made 
 from it last from sixty to seventy years, are eagerly sought for by builders in Southern New 
 Jersey, and command in the market a much higher price than tlie ordinary shingles made of 
 pine or chestnut. In color the wood of the white cedar is a delicate pink, and it has a strong 
 flavor, resembling that of the red cedar used in making lead pencils. The trees, once fairly 
 buried under the swamp, never become waterlogged, as is shown by their floating in the 
 ditches as soon as they are pried up, and, what is more singular, as soon as they rise they 
 turn invariably underside uppermost. These two facts are mysteries which science has thus 
 far left so. The men who dig the logs up and split them earn their money. The work is 
 hard, exacting, requiring lusty manual labor, skill, and experience. 
 
 Owing to the fact that the swamps are soft and treacherous, no machinery can be used, 
 and long stretches of mud and water must be covered with boughs and bark before the 
 shingles can reach the village and civilization. The number of the trees which lie" below the 
 surface of the ten square miles of swamp is almost countless. In many places the probe will 
 be sunk many times before it fails to strike a log. As the workmen only dig for those near 
 the surface, and none but the best trees are selected, it is certain that only a small fraction of 
 the logs have been exhumed since 1812, when the industry first sprang up. The sunken 
 forests he in all shapes. Sometimes the trees are found parallel, as though a wind blowing 
 
22 THE A.MEHICAN FAKilKK. 
 
 from one quarter Lad felled them, but usually they lie pointing in every direction, and when, 
 as occasionally happens, the wet soil sinks or dries, the mighty trunks are seen piled upon 
 each other as in a Maine log-jam. What are seen, too, are but the uppermost strata of piles 
 upon piles unseen below." 
 
 The time required to form a muck-bed cannot be estimated, the stage of decay of the 
 materials composing it not always indicating the lapse of time. Hundreds of centuries must 
 have been required for the formation of the deposits in the swamp previously referred to. and 
 human computation fails in arriving at any definite conclusion. 
 
 Muck differs very materially in texture and color, according to its origin and the degree 
 of change reached by the material of which it is composed. It is generally regarded by 
 chemists and agriculturists as most valuable for agricultural purposes when dried and used 
 as an absorbent of liquid manures, its application alone to soils of any kind not being consid- 
 ered generally of sufficient value to warrant a recommendation of its use for this purpose. 
 
 Peaty Soils aud their Cultivation. Peaty soils are frequently called vegetable 
 soils, because they consist mostly of vegetable matter, with biit little of the mineral element. 
 They are usually found in low swampy localities, but sometimes on declivities where the 
 water is obstructed in its course by basin-shaped cavities. They are formed mostly by the 
 growth and decay of aquatic vegetation. In many swamps the peat is found to be of great 
 depth, sometimes reaching to that of from thirty to fifty feet. In such cases the locality is 
 supposed to have formerly been a lake which was gradually filled up with peat. When peaty 
 swamps are overflowed from time to time b)'' a river that deposits sand or clay, some of the 
 most productive soils wiU frequently thus be formed. The rich lands of Holland, which 
 support such a dense population, consist of a soil of this character. The islands near the junc- 
 tion of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers in California are well-known examples m this 
 country. 
 
 Prof. Brewer says: "Peaty soils may shrink on drying even more than clays. Tliis is 
 due to two causes, — first, the actual shrinkage of the dried material, and second, its oxidation 
 or decay. When such lands are dried and brought into cultivation, the vegetable matter 
 decays. When the Holland peat-bogs have been drained, they have sometimes sunk several 
 feet in the course of years, by such decay, and the same is true of the drained marshes in 
 New Jersey. We have a similar case in New Haven, where the salt water was shut off from 
 a salt marsh over a century ago, and it has since been used for pasture; the embankment 
 was broken last year, and the tides now cover it like a lake; the land has sunk away from a 
 few inches near the edges to more than two feet in the more peaty portions." 
 
 When drained and exposed to the air sufficient to become dry, peat in its natural state 
 is often used for fuel, as is the case in Ireland. It is vahiable as an absorbent of hquid 
 manures; also as a fertilizer when applied alone to a dry, gravelly or sandy soil. 
 
 In England, charred peat has been iised as a manure, both when applied alone and when 
 combined with night-soil, liquid manure, sewage, water, etc, which it dries and deodorizes. 
 So great at one time were the expectations of an enormous demand for it, besides the bene- 
 fits to result to Ireland by thus disposing of her bogs, that a royal charter was granted to a 
 company for its manufacture. It is not at present, however, used in that form as extensively 
 as that which is merely dried, the latter being a better absorber and retainer of ammonia 
 than that which is charred. Peaty soils, being naturally wet, should be well drained of sur- 
 plus water and moisture, in order to be successfully cultivated. 
 
 It is a good practice to cut up the hummocks or bogs after draining, throwing them 
 into heaps, and after they are sufficiently dried, to burn them and scatter the ashes over the 
 land thus drained. Wood ashes and gypsum are valuable fertilizers for peaty soils. 
 
 Subsoils. The character of the stratum or bed of earth l.ving immediately beneath 
 the surface soil, called subsoil, affects very materially the efficiency of soils in their produc- 
 
SOILS. 23 
 
 tion. If it is of a clayey nature, that prevents the escape of water, and thus permits an 
 accumulation on the surface, many crops will he seriously injured hy heavy rains. Soils 
 having such a subsoil will be greatly benefited by under-draining, and this should be done 
 if possible. Some recommend breaking up and loosening this hard strata with a subsoil 
 plow. This should be cautiously done, however, for unless the subsoil is of a nature to ben- 
 efit the surface soil by mi.xing with it (which is rarely the case), or additional manure be 
 apphed, the latter will be injured by the mixing ; for, while deep plowing is very desirable in 
 some soils, furnishing additional moisture to the roots of crops, and admitting the air, besides 
 increasing the depth of the soil, and obviating the effect of drouth in the hot season, still, with 
 other soils, it is a positive injury, and the few benefits derived are more than counterbalanced 
 by the evil effects upon the soil of bringing up coarse gravel or other undesirable materials 
 to the surface. If the subsoil can be broken or loosened without mixing with the surface 
 soil, much benefit may be thus derived. Since soils differ so greatly in character, only gen- 
 eral rules can be given in this respect- the farmer being able to judge of the nature of his 
 own soil, must be guided accordingly. 
 
 When the subsoil is porous and leachy, readily permitting the escape of not only water, 
 but the soluble portions of manure and other fertilizing elements, the above-mentioned pro- 
 cess of subsoil plowing would be very injurious, since the sand or gravel would be brought 
 to the surface and mixed with the fertile surface soiL Most writers recommend in such 
 cases the deepening of the surface soil by the addition of vegetable manures, in order to 
 afford greater depth for the roots and thus increase the moisture. This is a laborious and 
 expensive process, however, and such lands make usually the best return for what is expended 
 by being kept as permanent wood or pasture lands. 
 
 If the subsoil and surface soil be of such a nature as to be improved by mixing, such 
 as the one being of a sandy or gravelly nature, the other of a clayey or marly character, the 
 mixing of the two soUs by deep plowing will be very advantageous, since the very ingredi- 
 ents wanting to perfect or improve the surface soil will thus be furnished. 
 
 Allen, in his American Farm Book, says: "The effect of long-continued cultivation, 
 besides exhausting what is essential to the earthy part of plants, is to break down the coarser 
 particles of the soil, by the mechanical action of the plow, harrow, etc., and in a much more 
 rapid degree, by the chemical combinations which cultivation and manuring produce. A 
 few years suffice to exhibit striking examples in the formation and decomposition of rocks 
 and stones. Stalactites and various specimens of limestone, indurated clays, sandstone, and 
 breccias, or pudding stones, are formed in favorable circumstances, almost imder our eye; 
 while some limestones, shales, sandstones, etc., break down in large masses annually, from 
 the combined effect of moisture, heat and frost. The same changes, on a smaller scale, are 
 constantly going forward in the soil, and much more rapidly while under cultivation. The 
 general tendency of these surface changes is towards pulverization. The particles forming 
 the soil, from the impalpable mite of dust to the large pebbles, and even stones and rocks, 
 are continually broken up by the combined action of the vital roots and the constituents of 
 soils, by which new elements of vegetable food are developed and become available, and in a 
 form so minute as to Ije imbibed by the spongioles of the roots, and, by the absorbent vessels, 
 they are afterwards distributed in their appropriate places in the plant. Where this action 
 has been going on for a long period, a manifestly beneficial effect has immediatelj'- followed 
 from bringing up and mixing with the superficial earth portions of the subsoil which have 
 never before been subject to cultivation. 
 
 " A subsoil which is permeable to water is sometimes imperceptibly beneficial to vegeta- 
 tion, not only by allowing the latent moisture to ascend and yield a necessary supply to the 
 plants, but a moisture frequently charged with hme and various saline matters, which the 
 capillary attraction brings from remote depths below the surface. It is probably from this 
 
24 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 cause that some soils produce crops far beyond the yield which might be reasonably looked 
 for from the fertilizing materials actually contained in them. This operation is rapidly going 
 forward during the heat of summer. The water thus charged with saline matters ascends 
 and evaporates at and below tlie surface, leaving them diffused throughout the soil. After 
 long-continued dry weather, a thin white coating of these salts is frequently discernible on 
 the ground. 
 
 " Where rain seldom or never falls, this result is noticeable in numerous and sometimes 
 extensive beds of quiescent (not shifting) sand. Deposits ofttimes occur several inches in 
 thickness. Such are the extensive beds of impure muriate of soda and other salts in the arid 
 deserts of Arizona; in the great Salt Lake Basin; in the southern parts of Oregon; the 
 nitrates found in India, Egypt, Peru, and various other parts of the world. 
 
 " Besides the qualitiesof soils already noticed, there are several physical conditions which 
 affect their value. They should be of sufficient depth, friable, or easily pulverized ; 
 they should possess the right color, and be susceptible of the proper admission and escajDe of 
 heat, air, and moisture. 
 
 " Friableness of the Soil is a quality equally removed from the adhesion of strong 
 clay or the openness of loose sand. Good loams and fertile alluvial soils always possess this 
 property. When stirred by the plow, the spade, or the hoe, the earth should fall and crumble 
 readily, although wet. Such a condition secures a ready admission to the roots, which thus 
 easily pervade the soil, and draw from it in every direction their necessary support. Under 
 draining, and the addition of coarse manures to clay, fermented manures and ashes to sand, 
 and lime and gypsum to both, will materially enhance their friableness. 
 
 " Color of Soils. — Color is an essential feature in soils, and, like friableness, it has 
 an important relation to their capacity for heat and moisture. Dark-colored earths, and black 
 in the highest degree, absorb heat more rapidly than any other when exposed to a temperature 
 above their own, and it escapes with equal readiness when their relative temperature is 
 reversed. A rough, pulverized surface, which is seen in the minute inequalities of a friable 
 soil, produces the same result. During the heat of the day, especially when the sun's rays fall 
 upon the earth, the dark friable soil imbibes the heat freely, and transmits it to the remotest 
 roots, thus securing warmth to the plant, which is one of the necessary conditions of its 
 growth. When the temperature of the air falls, on the approach of evening, a reversed 
 action in the soil takes place, by which the heat as rapidly escapes. This immediately brings 
 the surface to 'the dew point,' and secures a copious deposit of moisture, which a friable 
 soil speedily conveys to every part of the roots." 
 
 For reasons above given, namely, that dark soils absorb the heat more readily than 
 lighter ones, a dark soil, other conditions being equal, will be more productive than a light 
 one. In cold climates, melons are often ripened by covering the soil an inch deep with char- 
 coal dust, while it is a well-known fact that in Belgium grape-growers spread fragments of 
 black slate over their light soils, and thus greatly improve them. Muck and peat both 
 improve the soil to which they are applied, in this respect, in addition to their fertilizing 
 elements. 
 
 The Dew Point. — The temperature at which dew begins to form is called the "dew 
 point," and this is a degree of temperature when the air begins to part with its vapors. It is 
 generally attained when the surface of an object is below the temperature of the air 
 surrounding it, as is often illustrated by the moisture on an earthern, glass, or metallic vessel 
 filled with cold water on a hot summer day, or when set in a warm room in cold weather. 
 The temperature at which the vapors of the atmosphere condense to form dew is usually 
 several degrees below that of the atmosphere in clear weather, varying from four to ten 
 degrees ; but in damp or rainy weather the dew point will often be found to correspond 
 
ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 25 
 
 nearly with the temperature of the atmosphere, proving that any cause vhich contributes to 
 bring tlie temperature of the air to this point, or tlie degree at which vapor condenses to form 
 dew, will also condense the moisture of the atmosphere into mist, clovids, rain, snow, etc. 
 The formation of dew and its influence upon vegetation and soil is an interesting subject, as 
 well as an important one in agriculture. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 
 
 WHILE it is true that an analysis of a soil or of any of its products gives us its 
 component elements with sufHcient accuracy for us to theoretically estimate its 
 capacity for production or value in nutritive element, we frequently find such 
 estimates at fault in practical experience. However, this should not cause us to discard 
 analyses of soils or their products, for much benefit has been derived thereby in many ways, 
 and valuable knowledge thus obtained which could not have been derived from any other 
 source ; for while chemistry can do much to unlock the hidden secrets of Nature and show 
 us the means by which she accomplishes certain results, it cannot do everything, and this latter 
 fact should not cause us to undervalue the light and knowledge it does afford us. 
 
 The productiveness of a soil depends much upon its mechanical condition, for although a 
 soil may contain all the elements suited to a luxuriant and healthy plant-growth, if these 
 elements are not in a condition for a plant to assimilate, and thus derive from them its 
 nourishment or plant-food, it is no more benefited by the presence of these nutritive elements 
 in the soil than if they were entirely wanting. For instance, if a soil is hard, or much of the 
 essential substance for the crop production is largely in a coarse, crude state, and not in a 
 condition to furnish the right proportion of the elements in a solvent form, which is the 
 accepted standard of the amount of crop-production in any given soil, we can readily see 
 that the delicate roots of the plants cannot penetrate it or appropriate its various combinations 
 to its use ; and although there may be large quantities of nutrition locked up thei'e, it is 
 practically useless as far as the crops are concerned. Chemistry can separate the different 
 elements, by analysis, and tell us what proportion of each the soil may contain, and what 
 essentials are wanting ; it can instruct the farmer how to test his soils, so that he can easily 
 determine the kind of fertilizers they require to render them productive ; it can tell him the 
 composition of the different plants he cultivates, and thus show him what kind of nutri- 
 ment and in what proportion they require to abstract from the soil to produce their own 
 growth ; hence, he will be able to determine what kind of fertilizers to apply. But chemistry 
 cannot tell him whether tht «e elements are in a condition for the plant to derive from them 
 present nourishment ; in oth«r words, it cannot tell him the mechanical condition of the soil; 
 hence, a chemical analysis may often show very favorable results from certain soils, while the 
 practical experience of the farmer in its cultivation may result very unfavorably. On the 
 other hand, a chemical analysis may prove certain soils veiy deficient in some of the elements 
 which plants require for their food, and yet its texture and mechanical condition generally be 
 so favorable that the roots can easily penetrate it and take up almost entirely the nutrition in 
 store there, and thus favorable results reached in the crop obtained. 
 
 It has also been found that a mixture of clay and sand soils produces much better and 
 larger crops than either the clay or sandy soil alone. Analysis would prove the clay the most 
 abundant in the nutritive elements, and hence, reasoning from that fact, we would conclude 
 that the mixture of the poorer sandy soil would deteriorate the clay soil instead of 
 increasing its productive qualities. This proves that while the chemist can greatly 
 benefit the farmer by his skill in separating and testing the component elements of the soil, 
 
26 THE AMERICAN FAltMER. 
 
 such analysis does not determine accui-ately its degree of fertility, since practical experience 
 proves that successful agriculture depends quite as much, if not more, upon its mechanical 
 condition, as its composition. Notwithstanding these facts, chemistry, as we have previously 
 stated, has been of great value to the farmer, and the high standard attained in agriculture 
 at the present time is due largely to its instructions. 
 
 Notwithstanding the inabihty of chemical analysis to furnish us all the knowledge 
 desired, sufficient information can be obtained through its teachings for all practical purposes. 
 Chemistry teaches that plant nutrition depends upon two great classes of matter — organic 
 and inorganic ; and that no jslant can accomplish a perfect growth without being supplied 
 with both of these, in such proportions as it needs; and that if a plant has access to all the 
 requisite mineral elements in abundance, these mineral elements of nutrition are valueless in 
 the production of the plant, unless it can at the same time obtain in some way all it requires 
 of the inorganic elements of nutrition ; also, that plants derive a large portion of their con- 
 stituents from the atmosphere, either directly or indirectly, and the remainder from the soil, 
 and that the elements suppUed by the one are as essential to plant growth as those of the 
 other. If there were even one of the requisite mineral elements wanting, though there were 
 an abundant supply of all the others, there woiild not be a perfect growth of the plant; neither 
 could an excess of one element make up the deficiency in the quantity of the others. For 
 instance, potash and phosphoric acid are both essential to plant growth, and this growth can- 
 not be produced without the requisite quantity of each ; now, if there should be a deficiency 
 in the quantity of potash in the soil, no surplus quantity of phosphoric acid, however great, 
 could counterbalance that deficiency in potash. We therefore see, that if any one of the 
 requisite elements of the soil becomes exhausted, or so diminished in quantity that it cannot 
 afford a necessary supply for the plant growth, the crop will be a small one until this neces- 
 sary element is restored to the soil. Only a few of the elements of the soil are at all liable 
 to become exhausted. As a general rule, the principal mineral constituents that may become 
 60 are phosphoric acid and potash: while nitrogen is the only organic element the farmer will 
 probably ever be required to supply. 
 
 Prof. Stockbridge, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, says that '■ carbon, of 
 which plants in their di-y state contain about fifty-five per cent., the farmer never need sup- 
 ply, because in the soil and in the air there is an abundant supply for all the plants that 
 ever have grown or that ever wiU grow on the earth, and nature made the plant with the 
 capacity to gather it, so that without any aid from man the plant can gather all its carbon. 
 There is no need then that you feed a plant with carbon; it wUl take care of itself. So with 
 oxygen, and so with hydrogen. In the water and in the air, — with which the plant is filled, 
 — and by chemical action, the union of certain substances in the plant, carbon, oxygen, and 
 hydrogen, the plant can always supply itself with. No farmer need ever feed his plants 
 with these substances to promote their growth. If, however, we come to nitrogen, it has 
 been abundantly proved by scientists that there is here a deficiency. The plant takes large 
 quantities of nitrogen, especially in its seed ; it may gather some nitrogen naturally from the 
 air, perhaps in the form of carbonate of ammonia, and from the soil in the form of ammonia 
 taken in soil water. It can gather some, and yet the quantity of nitrogen available to the 
 plant is insufficient to supply its wants. Now, it is the farmer's clear duty, so far as these 
 four elements are concerned, to regard only the supply of nitrogen. Give youi- plant nitro- 
 gen, and you may rely upon it as a natural law, that they themselves can take care of the supply 
 of the other organic elements. 
 
 Turning now to the inorganic elements, the same law holds good. Take soda, for 
 instance; all our plants require soda, but so far as the farmer is concerned, he wUl find that 
 any of the soils that are made of micaceous rocks contain enough magnesia and soda to sup- 
 ply all the plants probably that will ever be produced on that soil; he will probably find enough 
 
ANALYSIS OF S(JILS. 
 
 27 
 
 sulphuric acid and silica. If, however, we come to the substance that we call potash, we 
 shall find, as a rule, that plants take a large quantity of it, — a large proportional quantity, — 
 and that potash is very deficient in the soil. The constant cropping has exhausted the soil of 
 potash, and the farmer must supply it. All scientists agree on this matter, that so far as 
 the farmer is concerned in supplying the wants of the plant, the only substances that he need 
 supply will be potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen. My own experiments seem to show 
 that with one or two plants, he should give them a little of something else, which are mag- 
 nesia, and a Httle lime for the tobacco and cotton plant." 
 
 We see, therefore, that if the above principle is correct, it will be a very easy matter 
 for the farmer to test his soU, and find in what it is deficient. It may be deficient in one or 
 all of these elements, but by careful experiment and noting the effect upon different plots of 
 ground, of each of the above mentioned fertilizers, applied separately and m combination, he 
 can soon determine by the results, which of these elements are requisite to the improvement 
 of his lauds. 
 
 These elements can be obtained in commercial fertUizers, or they can be prepared by the 
 farmer himself, who can obtain a good supply of potash in the form of wood ashes; of nitro- 
 gen, in the form of fish-guano, and phosphoric acid from a quantity of bones. By careful 
 experiment, any intelligent farmer can thus learn the elements of his soil, and supply the 
 elements of plant-food requisite. 
 
 Since soils differ so greatly that those taken from no two localities, or even from differ- 
 ent portions of the same field, will be found, on analysis, to contain the same proportion of 
 ingredients, stOl, a fair estimate of the predominant constituents of different kinds of soil 
 can thus be obtained. 
 
 The following are very fertile and arable sods, of which Professor Johnston, an eminent 
 English authority, says: — 
 
 " The first had been cropped for 160 years successively, without either manure or naked 
 fallow. The second was a virgin soil, celebrated for its fertility. The third had been unma- 
 nured for twelve years, during the last nine of which it had been cropped with beans, barley, 
 potatoes, winter barley and red clover, clover, winter barley, wheat, oats, naked fallow." 
 
 Sou 
 Silica and fine Sand, 
 Alumina, . 
 Oxides of Iron, 
 O.xide of Manganese, 
 Lime, 
 
 Magnesia, . 
 
 Potash, chiefly combined with Silica, 
 Soda, ditto, . . 
 
 Phosphoric Acid combined with Lime and Oxide 
 
 of Iron. 
 Sulphuric Acid in Gypsum, 
 Chlorine in common Salt. 
 Carbonic Acid united to the Lime, 
 Humic Acid, 
 Insoluijle Humls, . 
 Organic substances containing Nitrogen, 
 
 
 From Ohio. 
 
 
 Soil. 
 
 from Moravia. 
 
 Sou. 
 
 Subsoil. 
 
 
 From Belgium 
 
 77.209 
 
 87.143 
 
 94.261 
 
 
 64.517 
 
 8.514 
 
 5,666 
 
 1.376 
 
 
 4.810 
 
 6.593 
 
 3.230 
 
 3.336 
 
 
 8.316 
 
 1.520 
 
 0.360 
 
 1.200 
 
 
 0.800 
 
 0.937 
 
 0..564 
 
 0.243 
 
 ;«rb. 
 Lim 
 
 "' 9.403 
 
 I.IGO 
 
 0.313 
 
 0.310 
 
 '"m^."' 10-361 
 
 0.140 
 
 0.120 
 
 0.340 
 
 
 0.100 
 
 0.i640 
 
 0.025 
 
 0.240 
 
 
 0.013 
 
 0.651 
 
 0.060 
 
 trace 
 
 
 1.321 
 
 0.011 
 
 0.027 
 
 0.034 
 
 
 0.009 
 
 0.010 
 
 0.036 
 0.080 
 
 trace 
 
 
 0.003 
 
 o'.dis 
 
 1..S04 
 
 
 
 o!447 
 
 0..540 
 
 1.073 
 
 
 
 
 1.108 
 
 1.011 
 
 
 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 The following analyses were made by Prof. Collier, chemist for the department of agri- 
 culture, at "Washington, D. C. : — 
 
 No. 1. — Green sand marl, from Meridian, Miss. 
 
 No. 2. — Clay from Maryland. 
 
 No. 3. — Clay from Potomac, Terra Cotta Company. 
 
28 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 No. 4. — Kaolin (porcelain clay), from Maryland. 
 No. 5. — Kaolin from Virginia. 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 Water 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 10. SO 
 3.18 
 
 36.55 
 6.00 
 2.38 
 
 15.94 
 
 3.09 
 
 ".14 
 Trace.. 
 Trace . . 
 10.90 
 
 Per Cent. 
 3.98 
 
 5'3'.33 
 
 ' '.5.5 
 1.96 
 
 10.60 
 .30 
 
 39.90 
 
 Per Cent. 
 9.16 
 
 38.09 
 2.33 
 3,48 
 7.63 
 .80 
 
 33.31 
 
 9.59 
 
 Per Cent. 
 17.42 
 
 ".86 
 
 .29 
 
 .81 
 
 33.34 
 
 3.49 
 
 45.69 
 
 Per Cent. 
 10.65 
 
 
 
 Sand 
 
 
 
 .18 
 
 Ma giK'sin 
 
 Trace. . 
 
 Tiiicc. 
 
 
 30.06 
 
 
 
 Silicic acid (condensed) 
 
 51.49 
 
 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 
 
 
 
 99.54 
 
 100.45 
 
 94.39 
 
 99.81 
 
 98.98 
 
 Gypsum Marl. — A sample of marl said to exist in very great quantity and readily 
 accessible on the shores of Lake Jessup, Florida, gave upon analysis the following : — 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Water and organic matter, 
 
 6,36 
 
 Sand and day, .... 
 
 68.94 
 
 Gypsum (CaSO,, 2HsO), 
 
 13.79 
 
 Limestone (CaCOs), .... 
 
 3.77 
 
 Iron and ahmiiniiun o.vides, . 
 
 7.14 
 
 Phospliorie acid, .... 
 
 Traces. 
 
 100.00 
 The crystals of gypsum are easily discernible to the eye, and the large percentage of 
 this fertilizer makes this deposit of very great value to the farming interests of that section. 
 Unproductive Soil.— The following analysis of soil (which was from Oak Hill, 
 Volusia Co., Florida) shows that its barrenness is very likely due to a lack of constituents 
 suitable for plant nourishment, and not to the presence of any injurious substance. 
 It contains — 
 
 Pel- Cent. 
 
 1.05 
 
 Moist m'e, 
 Organic matter, 
 Soluble in acid, 
 White sand, 
 
 7.00 
 3.60 
 89.35 
 
 100.00 
 
 One of the most fertile soils of Sweden is said by Bergmaim to contain 30 per cent, of 
 carbonate of lime. A very productive soil in France was found by the analysis of Chaptal 
 to contain nearly 25 per cent, of carbonate of lime, beside 7 per cent, of organic matter. 
 Tillet analyzed a soil that contained 37,5 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which was exceed- 
 ingly fei'tile. Some of the best Mississippi Valley soils are said to yield, upon analysis, from 
 20 to 25 per cent, of magnesian lime, and from 2 to 3 per cent, of phosphate of lime, while 
 many other soils throughout the United States have been known to yield an equal proportion 
 of carbonate of lime, when analyzed. 
 
 As we have seen, chemistry will sliow the constituents of tlie soil, and what elements are 
 lacking that are essential to the growth of certain crops, but will not indicate whether those 
 
FERTILIZERS. 29 
 
 elements contained within it are in a condition to be utilized by the plants. Although this 
 knowledge imparted by chemistry is imperfect, it is nevertheless of value to the farmer, for 
 it tells him what elements are necessary to apply to his lands in order to make them produc- 
 tive. It goes farther than this ; it shows the composition of the various plants that he 
 cultivates, and what proportion of the various fertilizing elements each variety of product 
 abstracts from the soil ; therefore the amount of fertilizing material removed from the soil 
 by the different crops can be calculated with considerable accuracy, and by applying a 
 sufficient supply of these elements to his soil he may be sure that it contains the necessary 
 elements of fertility in a form to be utilized by the plants. It wiU be seen, therefore, that 
 both the analysis of soils and plants are of great use in agriculture, and that when both are 
 combined with experience and observation, the farmer may derive great benefit from the 
 teachings of chemistry. This is a subject of great interest and importance, and will be more 
 fully treated in connection with fertilizers. 
 
 FERTILIZERS. 
 
 PLANTS require food on which to subsist, it being just as essential to their sustenance 
 as with animals. They also require a variety of nutrition for their proper nourish- 
 ment and growth, which can no more be secured without it, than a perfect animal 
 growth when subsisting constantly on one element. It is also equally true that different plants 
 require different proportionate elements in their food, just as different species of animals 
 require different kinds of nutriment, and they will dwarf and starve unless that nourishment 
 is furnished them. When farmers learn to feed their crops with the same care and consider- 
 ation that they feed their animals, they will be more successful in their business, and find that 
 farming pays well for the labor bestowed. 
 
 Although some soils contain all the requisite elements of plant-food in the proper propor- 
 tions for certain kinds of crops, and will produce them for a long time without any apparent 
 impoverishing, others contain certain necessary substances of nutrition in smaller quantities, 
 which must be furnished in fertilizers of some kind in order to produce a healthy and 
 luxuriant growth. These elements that are needed in the soil to supply the suitable plant- 
 food may be contained in the proper proportion in vegetable manures plowed into the soil 
 in a green state, stable manure, lime, wood ashes, guano, or any of the other substances 
 used for fertilizing purposes. It depends upon the farmer to ascertain what is needed, 
 and supply the requisite demand ; certain it is, that aU cultivated soils, however rich, will 
 in time become impoverished with constant cropping, imless a portion of the elements 
 extracted from the soil by the growth, of these crops be returned in the form of fertilizers of 
 some kind ; it may be by a deposit of rich mud or sediment drained to impoverishment from 
 other soils by inundation, as is the case with the valley of the Nile and banks of the Ganges, 
 or it may be by other agencies ; it makes no difference how the supply comes, the principle 
 remains the same, which is, that soils producing constantly must be supplied with nutriment 
 from some source. The Nile and Ganges rivers have continued by their overflow to furnish for 
 more than 3,000 years all the fertilizing elements requisite to produce crops constantly during 
 that period. "When soils remain in their natural state, or are used only for pastures, but 
 little change is perceptible in their character. Changes, however, are constantly going on 
 both in their texture and capacity for production, although so gradual as to be perceptible 
 only after a long period. Soils constantly cropped are the ones to become exhausted soonest. 
 The decay of vegetable matter upon the surface of lands, the fertilizing properties washed 
 down by the rains and melting snows from the steep declivities of hills and mountains, the 
 
'"iitii fill s 
 
 ' 111'. '/, 
 
 I'!/ 1 
 
 
 #'1 \ 
 
 I' 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 II 
 
FERTIIJZEH8. 31 
 
 mineral elements contained in the soil and rocks, that are rendered solulile through the 
 agencies of the atmosphere, water, heat, and cold — all these, though silent and gradual in 
 their working, afiect the productiveness of soils in a remarkable degree. Tlie washing of the 
 fertilizing ptoperties from the mountains and hills is one great reason why the valleys contain 
 usually the most productive soils. 
 
 The food of plants is derived from two sources, viz., the soil and atmosphere. The 
 elements obtained from these two sources, though greatly varying in proportionate quantities, 
 are equally essential, as far as the plant-growth is concerned, and no excess in the amount 
 furnished from one soui-ce can make up or counterbalance the deficiency in the quantity 
 furnished from the other, both being equally necessary. 
 
 Elements of Plant-Food, The elements of plant-food necessary to produce plant- 
 growth are called organic and inorganic elements, and, in a general sense, embrace every 
 material which, if added to the soil, will tend to increase its fertility. Organic elements 
 embrace animal and vegetable substances which have a certain proportion of nitrogen ; 
 inorganic elements comprise those that are purely mineral or earthy, and which generally 
 contain no nitrogen. The organic elements, to be in the proper proportion, should be about 
 ninety-five per cent., the inorganic the remaining five per cent. By burning a pLint, the 
 organic elements will be converted into gases, while the inorganic elements remain in the 
 form of ashes, called in analysis the ash of plants ; thus the organic element, or the ninety- 
 five pounds out of every one hundred pounds of the dried plant that is burned, and which is 
 derived mainly from the air, disappears, while the inorganic, or the five pounds out of every 
 one hundred pounds that are left behind in the form of ashes, are obtained from the soil. 
 Different plants differ somewhat in the proportion of the organic and inorganic elements 
 contained in them. The tobacco plant, for instance, having a larger proportion of ash than 
 many others, but, on the average, every plant that grows will have about ninety-five per cent. 
 of organic matter and five per cent, of inorganic matter, the organic matter being furnished 
 by the air, the inorganic by the soil. This, iu the main, is the unchangeable law of nature. 
 
 Since the atmospheric elements are found present in the soil, in a greater or less degree, 
 according to its texture and degree of porosity, it has been estimated that about one-Iialf of 
 the material furnished to plants is derived from the earth. It was formerly believed that 
 plants depended for their nutrition upon the organic matter (or what is called humus) in the 
 soU. This humus theory was set aside by chemistry, which proved that certain soils were 
 extremely fertile with but two or three per cent, of humus in their composition, while certain 
 other soils were sterile with from twenty to forty per cent, of humus contained in them. 
 Afterward it was advocated by even the noted Liebig, that plants for nutrition required only 
 the application of the mineral elements. Tliis theory was met by the nitrogen theory, 
 between which two (the mineral and nitrogen theories) a long contest ensued, until it was 
 discovered that in some respects both theories were right, and in others that both were 
 wrong. Then followed the theory, that in order to ascertain the wants of plants and provide 
 them with proper nutriment, we had only to analyze the soil and determine its wants, also 
 the structure and composition of plants, and by supplying the soil with the elements necessary 
 to certain plants, and in which it was deficient, a perfect supply of nutriment would thus be 
 furnished the plant. Although this theory seemed to approximate nearer the truth than 
 either of the preceding ones, still it had its objections, and its advocates were disappointed in 
 not meeting with that success in its practical application that had been anticipated ; for it 
 was soon found that the acids of the chemist, in analysis, would take from the sample of soil 
 certain elements which the plant never could find and appropriate from the soil, owing to its 
 being in such a state that it rendered it impossible to extract it from the soil. For instance, 
 the analysis of the soil might prove an abundant supply of phosphoric acid contained within 
 it, but it might not be in such a solvent state as is necessarv for the tender roots to derive 
 
32 THE AMEUICAN FARMER. 
 
 nourishment from it ; hence, the plant would just as surely starve for the wjtnt of that phos- 
 phoric acid as though the soil contained none. In other words, the analysis determined the 
 constituents of tlie soil, but not its mechanical condition, upon which so much depends in 
 successful agriculture. Besides these objections, different samples of soil taken from 
 different portions of the same field might vary greatly in their composition ; hence, an 
 analysis of soil from one portion of a field might not apply to other portions. 
 
 Elements Necessary to Supply Soils. With respect to the obstacles met with 
 In chemical analysis, and the elements abstracted from the soil by different crops, Prof. W. 
 Q. Atwater says: 
 
 " It was once thought that the chemical analysis of a soil would easily reveal its deficiencies 
 in plant food. But later experience has shown that this is, at best, a costly and very defective 
 source of information. Different samples of soil taken from different places in the same 
 field and at different times may vary widely in composition, and, what is a still greater diffi- 
 culty, the chemical tests which prove the presence of a given ingredient in the soil, do not 
 tell whether it is already in such a form that the plant can use it, nor whether or how soon 
 it may become so. And there are many other factors of vital importance to the development 
 of the plant which soil analysis does not reveal. 
 
 To find what materials crops remove from tlie soil is an easier matter. Tliousands of 
 analyses of the more important vegetable products have been made, nearly all in Europe, 
 however, and we have tables prepared from them giving the average composition of our field 
 crops. From these any farmer may calculate how much plant-food a given crop takes on the 
 average from his soil. These figures might possibly fit his case no closer than would the cal- 
 culation of his own weight from that of the average European, but the}' will suffice well 
 enough for practical purposes. 
 
 Formulas for fertilizers for special crops are commonly based upon calculations of this 
 sort. For instance, a crop of fifty bushels of corn, with the stalks, would take from the soil 
 on the average. 
 Nitrogen, - - - - 76 lbs. Magnesia, - - - - 23 lbs. 
 
 Plioaphoric acid, - - - 51 " Lime, 27 " 
 
 Potash, 72 " Sulphuric fxid, ... g " 
 
 Now we may assume that nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are the only ones the 
 soil will fail to furnish in plenty, or that if lime and sulphuric acid are needed in addition, 
 there will be enough in the superphosphates and other materials to be used to supply them. 
 "We have then to provide 76 lbs. of nitrogen, 51 lbs. of phosphoric acid, and 72 lbs. of 
 potash, in forms readily available for plant-food." 
 
 The organic elements that enter into the composition of plants are four in number — 
 oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. All of these, with the exception of nitrogen, are 
 supplied by nature in sufficient quantities; thotigh this is furnished to a certain extent, stOl 
 it is often found in such small quantities as to require an additional supply applied in order 
 to render its fertility available in the production of good crops. 
 
 This mysterious element, nitrogen, in order to be beneficial to plants, must undergo a 
 chemical change. By uniting with oxygen, it forms nitric acid; by uniting with hydrogen, 
 it forms ammonia, which is the form in which nearly all the nitrogen used by plants is taken: 
 hence nitrogen and ammonia are often used, in connection with agriculture, as synonj-mous 
 terms. Both nitric acid and ammonia are powerful fertilizers. It is estimated by good 
 authority that the nitrogen in organic matter is worth only about three-fifths as much as pure 
 ammonia. Nitrogen in the form of ammonia, also in the form of nitric acid, is washed 
 down to the soil by water. The nitrates are carried in the water to the roots of plants; the 
 leaves also absorb nitrogen from the air, and in this manner the plants obtain their nitrogen. 
 
FERTILIZERS. 33 
 
 The inorganic elements, which form only about five per cent, of the constituents of 
 plants, are eight or ten in number, but most of these are, as a general rule, supplied in 
 abundance by the soil. 
 
 Prof. Atwater also asserts that we may take it as pretty well settled "that the only ingre- 
 dients of plant-food which we need supply to our soils are Potash, Lime, Magnesia, I'hosphoric 
 Acid, Sulphuric Acid, and Nitrogen. Iron and chlorine are necessary to the perfect growth 
 of plants, but only in minute quantities. Silica and soda are needed, if at all, in similarly 
 small proportions. Every ordinai-y soil supplies these last four substances in abundance. 
 
 Of the above list the magnesia is rarely deficient in even "worn-out" soils. Sulphuric 
 acid and lime are more often lacking, and hence, doubtless, one reason of the good effect so 
 often observed from the application of lime and plaster. The remaining substances. Phos- 
 phoric Acid, Nitrogen, and Potash, are the most apt to be deficient. In some soils one, in 
 others several or all of these may be wanting. When we say the ingredients are "wanting," 
 we do not mean that the soil does not contain them, but that it does not supply the crops as 
 much as they need. It is not so much because our " worn-out" soils have not enough plant 
 food in store, that crops starve upon them, but rather, because the food is locked up in such 
 combinations that the roots cannot get at and use them. Such is the general result of the 
 best testimony that experience and experiment have placed at our disposal." 
 
 We find that the elements usually deficient in almost all soils, as above stated, are Phos- 
 phoric Acid, Potash, and Nitrogen. Oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, those elements supplied 
 by the atmosphere, will be abundant and always available, providing the plants to be culti- 
 vated are grown in such a manner that the air can have free access to them. "When the 
 roots and stalks are so compact that the air and sunlight cannot penetrate the dense mass and 
 the air circulate freely among them, there will never be a perfect or healthy growth of any 
 crop, though some crops require more favoring in this respect than others. Sufficient space 
 must be given the stalks and roots, and with a good supply of air and sunlight, other con- 
 ditions being equally favorable, a good crop must of necessity follow. Nitrogen, as we have 
 previously stated, although furnished in part by the atmosphere, is not thus furnished in suffi- 
 cient quantity for a perfect plant growth, and must needs be supplied by man in some form. 
 "Water is also an essential agent in furnishing a source of food supply to plants, since the 
 elements derived from the soil can be appropriated to the use of the plant only in a liquid, 
 or soluble form, and water is necessary to produce this condition of these elements. Some 
 plants require more water than others, but all require it in a greater or less quantity. It is 
 stated from good authority that the cabbage plant is composed of about nine-tenths water, 
 and the potato-tubers nearly three-fourths, which shows how large a proportion of water 
 enters into the composition of some plants. 
 
 General Propositions Concerning Plant Food. The following important 
 propositions concerning plant food, agriculturally considered, are given by Dr. E. L. Sturte- 
 vant of Massachusetts, an authority that will be a sure guaranty of their reliability and true 
 value to the farmer. 
 
 1st. The soil contains plant-food. 
 
 2d. The plant removes this plant-food from the soil. 
 
 3d. Analyses of plants will show the character and quantity of the plant-food removed 
 from the land. 
 
 4th. A supply of the elements removed by the plants from the soil in such a way that 
 they can be appropriated by the plants, will produce the plant-growth, under proper condi- 
 tions. 
 
 5th. Plants remove varying quantities of plant-food from the soil, according to their 
 species, their manner of growth, and the proportions and quantities of plant-food present in 
 the soil. 
 
34 THE AMKKK AN I'AH.MKi;, 
 
 6th. The con.stituents of plants furnished from the atmosphere being beyond our con- 
 trol, in studying plant-growth and food supply, we can limit oui-selves to the earth alone, and 
 study the air-supply only as modified by our control over the elements supplied to our land. 
 
 7th. The soil contains the elements of plant-growth in varying proportions and condi- 
 tions; some elements far in excess of the needs of our plant, other elements in quantities suili- 
 cient only to support a scant growth. 
 
 8th. The plant-food in the land must, to be of service to the crop, be in a soluble state, 
 or in a state capable of being taken up by the rootlets of our plants. 
 
 9th. When the elements of plant-food, in the form of chemicals or dung, are added to 
 our soil, there is a chemical action taking place between them and the soil constituents, in 
 the presence of moisture. 
 
 10th. The soil has the power of decomposing most of the chemicals which are applied, 
 and has a retaining power on their compounds, varying with the character of the element. 
 
 11th. As a rule, phosphoric acid is firmly held by the soil, and is not subject to loss 
 through drainage, and has a limited diffusibility; potash is strongly retained, but has a 
 greater diffusibility; nitrogen, in its various forms, is less strongly retained, and has a ready 
 diffusibility. 
 
 12th. In proportion to the presence of, and diffusion of these fertile elements in our 
 soil, other conditions being favorable, will be the amount of our crop. 
 
 13th. Waste of fertility in our land arises from drainage, and the changing of soluble 
 plant-food into insoluble forms. 
 
 14th. Plants require different proportions of plant-food, and different combinations, at 
 different periods of their growth. 
 
 15th. The presence of certain elements in excess has an influence on the growth and 
 composition of the plant. 
 
 16tli. The seed has an influence, in itself, in determining the crop, aai influence apart 
 from the presence of a full supply of food, or the climatic features of the season. 
 
 PllOSphoric Acid. — With respect to the three elements requisite to be supplied to 
 lands in increasing their productiveness, viz., phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen, we quote 
 the following, also from Dr. Sturtevant, as one of the best authorities in the country on this 
 subject: — 
 
 " Phosphoric acid is one of the principal compounds of bone, in the form of a phosphate 
 of lime, and is furnished to commerce either in bone, phosphate guanos, phosphate rock, or 
 in the wastes of commerce. It occurs in three forms: an insoluble condition, in which it is 
 unassimilable by the plant; a soluble form, wherein it is readily absorbed, and an interme- 
 diate form, the reduced or reverted form, of the soluble, wherein its adaptability as plant- 
 food is questioned, but which we esteem of some value, on account of the condition in which 
 it occurs, and the conditions under which it is usually presented to the plant rootlets. It is 
 commercially prepared from bone or phosphate rock, by the addition of sulphuric acid, which, 
 uniting with a portion of the lime with which the phosphorus is combined, leaves a soluble 
 form. The reaction may be expressed as below: 
 
 Bone nsh. Sulphuric acid. Superphosphate of lime. Sulphate of lime. 
 
 3CaO, POp + 2(H0, SO3) = 2H0, CaOPO^ + 2(CaO SO3) 
 
 Three atoms of lime, 1 Diluted Sulphuric acid. Supherphosphate of liuie, Gypsum, 
 
 combined with Phos- 1- uniteil with \vater. 
 
 phoric acid. I 
 
 This product, the superphosphate, is tlie valuable portion of the fertilizers placed on 
 the market under this name, and it may compose from i per cent, to 23 per cent, of their 
 mass by weight of soluble phosphoric acid. We thus see the importance of the sale of fer. 
 tilizers by guaranteed analysis under government control. Ordinarily, a good superphos- 
 phate will contain about 10 per cent, of soluble phosphoric acid, and a few per cent, of nitro 
 
FERTILIZERS. 35 
 
 gen, in addition to insoluble and reverted phosplioric acid. We can estimate its value on the 
 basis of 12 cents a pound for the soluble phosplioric acid, from 4 to 6 cents a pound for the 
 reverted, and 1 or 2 cents for the insoluble. Yet these figures are subject to changes. 
 
 When this fertilizer is applied to oui- land, and the rains fall, it is washed into the soil^ 
 but only to a certain distance. The soil has a retaining power on this element, and holds it 
 firmly against washing. So far as the phosphoric acid extends through the soil, it is diffused: 
 that is, it is evenly distributed, and the soil holds it in saturation, but in a quantity for a 
 given area dependent on the nature of the soil. What follows from this? If we apply a 
 given quantity to the surface of our land, a quantity sufficient if aj)plied to our plant to raise 
 a maximum crop, so far as this constituent is concerned, the rains wash it down, and it is 
 retained, we will suppose, by the first inch of our soil. Now, as it is retained by the soil in 
 this position, despite the rain-falls, it is evident that in this supposed case, o/ily the root fibers 
 which enter this upper inch of earth can feed on it. If a double quantity be applied, then it will 
 extend down two inches, and the same facts about the plant feeding holds for this two inches, 
 and so on. It is evident that it can only be by applying phosphoric acid in large quantities, 
 or repeatedly during a series of seasons, that we can so saturate our land with this element, 
 under these assumed conditions, as to furnish the whole root-area with plant-food. 
 
 These considerations would lead us into the practice of looking for the full effect of this 
 fertile element from repeated applications, rather than from a single trial. They would also 
 lead us to apply this element within reach of the principal plant fibers in all cases. They 
 show us that it is safe to apply a superphosphate at any period of the year, so far as loss 
 by drainage is concerned. In apphang on sod for corn, we like to apply this element of our 
 fertilizer on the surface, so that it may be washed in by the rains before plowing. Then when 
 the sod is inverted, shallow, as is our custom, the fertile strata of the earth is in the right 
 position for the roots. 
 
 We also have an action of the acids of our combined fertilizers in rendering more solu- 
 ble the phosphoric acid which has reverted in the soil, but space will not admit of further 
 considerations. 
 
 Potash. — Potash, as supphed in commerce, occurs in three forms, — the carbonate, sul- 
 phate, and muriate. The first form occurs in ashes, and we will suppose a bushel of ashes to 
 weigh 4.8 lbs. to the bushel, as has been determined as the average for house ashes as they 
 usually occur. Now ashes contain about 6 per cent, of potash, and about 2 per cent, of phos- 
 phoric acid, in a reduced or insoluble form. Hence a bushel of ashes would be held as of 
 the value of 2.8 poimds of potash and .9 pounds of phosphoric acid. If these ashes are 
 worth 30 cents a bushel, and we consider the phosphoric acid worth 6 cents a pound, the pot- 
 ash in our ashes stands us at about 8f cents a pound. If leached ashes are used, at 10 centa 
 a bushel, the potash supply is costing about 20 cents a pound. Carbonate of potash is, how- 
 ever, a good form in which to use potash, as the carbonic acid has an action of itself in the 
 soil, in aiding the solution of plant-food. 
 
 Of late years, however, the principal agricultural supply of potash is looked for in 
 Kainite or German potash salts. These are the product of the salt mines of Germany, and 
 are put on the market in the form of sulphate of potash and muriate of potash of varying 
 strength. The most economical for the farmer are the high grades. The sulphate of potash 
 which contains 78-80 per cent, of the pure salt, furnishes about 43 per cent, of actual potash, 
 and when the commercial salt is quoted at 4 cents a pound, the actual potash therefrom is 
 costing about 9^ cents a pound. Muriate of potash, the other potash salt of these mines, 
 when of 80 to 8.5 per cent, muriate, contains about 50 pounds of actual potash, and furnishes, 
 when the commercial article is selhng at 3 cents a pound, the potash at about 6 cents a pound. 
 We thus find that the cheapest supply of potash is in the high grade muriate. To furnish 
 the potash at the price it is procured for in the muriate, we should buy the sulphate of the 
 same grade at about 2^ cents a pound, and wood ashes at about 17 cents a bushel. 
 
36 THE A3IERICAN FARMER. 
 
 These salts of potasli are supposed to act difEerently on crops, but we do not consider 
 the matter at all, proved at present. Indeed, at present prices, we prefer to apply the muri- 
 ate in nearly every case, or, better still, two-thirds muriate and one-third svdphate. 
 
 When we apply our potash compounds to the land, they become dissolved by the rains, 
 and wash into the soil. They are then decomposed into their constituent parts, separating 
 into sulphuric and muriatic or carbonic acid, and potash, and while the acids are not retained 
 at all closely by the soil, but follow the water of drainage imtil they meet new compounds, and 
 are subject to different actions, the potash is quite strongly retained. It is, hence, easier to 
 saturate our soils with potash than with sulphuric acid, and if our soil is deficient in this 
 element, we can hope to more speedUy cause it to be diffused through the soil, and thus 
 become more accessible to the crops. 
 
 In applying potash, then, we desire to keep it near the surface at first, as we are quite 
 certain it wUl pass downward into the root pasturage, and we are never quite sure against a 
 smaU. waste." 
 
 Nitrogen. — This element is furnished in various forms by the atmosphere, as well as by 
 the decay of organic materials in the soil. As generally supplied, it is in the form of ammonia 
 or a nitrate, such as nitrate of soda. It is found quite abundantly in guano, which is one of 
 the important sources from whence this valuable fertilizer is obtained. It is also obtained 
 from dried blood and various waste materials. Its effect on plants is generally speedy, being 
 readily diffused through the soil, and in this way promptly supplied to the roots of plants, 
 hence, for this reason is subject to waste, and as it is the most expensive element of plant- 
 food the fai-mer has to supply his crops, it is well while providing a sufficient amount to meet 
 the wants of the crop, to avoid applying an excess. 
 
 This element can often be procured from local waste materials, as in the refuse of 
 woolen mills, fish from which the oil has been extracted, powder factories, etc. Leather con- 
 tains it, but as the decomposition is very slow, a long time is generally required to render its 
 fertilizing qualities perceptible. Old boots, shoes, or harnesses are often buried under fruit 
 trees, and by their gradual decay prove of considerable value as a fertilizing agent. 
 
 The bodies of dead animals added to the compost heap will also furnish in their decom- 
 position a valuable amount of nitrogen. Some soils respond more promptly to its effects than 
 others, but all lands are more or less benefited by its application ; especially so are those that 
 have long been under cultivation. 
 
 The amount of nitrogen left in the soil by a crop of clover, either where it has been cut 
 for hay, or ripened for seed, is often astonishingly great, and furnishes a source of rich food 
 for cereals. Prof. Voelcker found by careful investigation, that the amount of nitrogen thus 
 left after a crop of clover was from two and a half to three tons per acre. He also found 
 that on soils where clover had been grown, not only were vast quantities of nitrogen stored 
 up by this product, but the soil was left in a better condition in the spring than could have 
 been secured by the apphcation of any fertilizer. These investigations of Prof. Voelcker 
 were made at different depths of soil; first taking an upper layer of six inches, then the 
 next six inches below the former, and then the next six inches below that, making eighteen 
 inches of soil in depth carefully analyzed. 
 
 Exhaustion of Soils by Crops— The Composition of Manures — Commercial 
 
 Fertilizers, etc. — We give the following tables from authentic European sources, showing 
 the composition of many of our common farm products: also, by way of comparison, a table 
 showing the composition of a variety of fertilizers commonly used. These figures, it must 
 be remembered, represent only general averages; in special cases, there might be more or 
 less variation from these percentages, which are sufficiently definite for all practical purposes. 
 As the first table given represents the average composition of the different products, it also 
 represents the amount of fertilizing ingredients removed from the soils in producing these 
 
FERTILIZERS. 
 
 37 
 
 products; hence the farmer may be able to calculate the extent of exhaustion of his soil 
 caused by certain crops. On the other hand, by consulting the table representing the compo- 
 sition of different manures, he can find what fertilizers will best supply the requisite elements 
 for special crops, or what will best restore the elements extracted by the growing of certain 
 products. 
 
 TABLE 
 For Calculating the Exhaustion of Soils hy Crops and Enriching ly Mamires. Average Quanti- 
 ties of Water, Organic Matter, Ash, Nitrogen in Organic Matter o.nd Potash, Lime, Phosphoric 
 Acid, and other Ingredients in Ash, of Fresh ( Green') and Air-dry Materials. 
 
 Pl.\NT8. 
 
 VBGETABLE MATERIALS. 
 1,000 LBS. CONTAIN 
 
 GRAIN AND STRAW. 
 
 Wheat, grain 
 
 Wheat, straw 
 
 Rye, grain 
 
 Rye, straw 
 
 Oats, grain 
 
 Oats, straw 
 
 Indian Corn, grain 
 
 do. stalks and leaves. . . . 
 
 Buckwheat, grain 
 
 Buckwheat, straw 
 
 Beans 
 
 Bean straw 
 
 Pease 
 
 Pea straw 
 
 HAY. 
 
 Average Meadow Hay 
 
 Timothy Hay 
 
 Red Clover Hay 
 
 Swedish Clover Hay 
 
 Lucerne (Alfalfa) 
 
 GREEN CROPS. 
 
 Young Grass 
 
 Timothy Grass 
 
 Fodder Rye 
 
 Fodder Corn 
 
 Red Clover in blossom 
 
 ROOTS (tubers) and TOPS, 
 
 Potatoes, tubers ! . . . . 
 
 do. vines nearly ripe . . 
 
 Turnips, roots 
 
 Turnips, tops 
 
 Sugar Beets, roots 
 
 Sugar Beets, tops 
 
 Carrots, roots 
 
 Carrots, tops 
 
 Hops, entire plant 
 
 Hops, the cones 
 
 Tobacco, leaves 
 
 ■ga 
 
 lbs. 
 
 840.1 
 812.9 
 839.1 
 816.5 
 830.0 
 816.6 
 843.0 
 808.1 
 848.2 
 788.3 
 824.3 
 796.1 
 833.5 
 796.0 
 
 805.5 
 794.9 
 783.1 
 800.3 
 777.9 
 
 179.3 
 
 278.4 
 223.7 
 166.0 
 206,3 
 
 240.6 
 210,3 
 72.7 
 90.1 
 177.9 
 84.9 
 142.2 
 152.0 
 
 778.6 
 813.2 
 769.0 
 
 lbs. 
 
 16.9 
 46.1 
 17.9 
 40.5 
 27.0 
 40,4 
 13.0 
 41.9 
 11.8 
 51.7 
 30.7 
 43.9 
 23.5 
 44.0 
 
 51.5 
 62.1 
 56.9 
 39.7 
 63.1 
 
 20.7 
 21.6 
 16.3 
 12.0 
 13.7 
 
 9.4 
 19,7 
 
 7.3 
 11.9 
 
 7.1 
 18.1 
 
 7.8 
 26.0 
 
 81.4 
 
 lbs. 
 
 20.8 
 
 4.8 
 17.6 
 
 4.0 
 19,2 
 
 5.6 
 16.0 
 
 4.8 
 14.4 
 13,0 
 40.8 
 16,3 
 35,8 
 10.4 
 
 15.5 
 1.5.5 
 19,7 
 24.0 
 23.0 
 
 5.6 
 5.4 
 5.3 
 1.9 
 5.1 
 
 3.4 
 4.9 
 1.8 
 3.0 
 16 
 3.0 
 
 Ingredients of Ash. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 5.3 
 6.3 
 5.6 
 
 7.8 
 4.4 
 8.9 
 3.7 
 9.6 
 2.7 
 24.2 
 13.1 
 18.5 
 9.8 
 10.1 
 
 13.2 
 20.4 
 18.3 
 11.0 
 15.3 
 
 11,6 
 7.4 
 6.3 
 4.3 
 4.4 
 
 .5.7 
 4,3 
 3.3 
 2.8 
 3.9 
 6.5 
 2.8 
 2.9 
 
 29.1 
 23.0 
 30.3 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0.6 
 
 2.7 
 0.5 
 3,5 
 1.0 
 3.6 
 0.3 
 4.0 
 0.5 
 9.5 
 1.5 
 9.8 
 1.3 
 16.2 
 
 8,6 
 4.5 
 20.0 
 13.5 
 26.3 
 
 2.2 
 1.6 
 1.2 
 1.6 
 
 4,8 
 
 0.3 
 6.4 
 0.8 
 3.9 
 0.4 
 ■2.7 
 0.9 
 
 18.1 
 11.1 
 62.8 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 3 
 < 
 
 1 
 
 =3 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2.0 
 
 7.9 
 
 0.1 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.3 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.1 
 
 8.4 
 
 0.3 
 
 1.1 
 
 3,1 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.9 
 
 6.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 1,3 
 
 2.0 
 
 5.8 
 
 0.2 
 
 2.6 
 
 5.3 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.5 
 
 .5.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.9 
 
 6.1 
 
 2.7 
 
 2.2 
 
 11.9 
 
 0.8 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.2 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 8.6 
 
 0.8 
 
 3.5 
 
 3.5 
 
 3.7 
 
 3.3 
 
 4.1 
 
 2,4 
 
 1.9 
 
 7.2 
 
 1.8 
 
 6.1 
 
 ,5.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 5.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 1,6 
 
 3.3 
 
 5.5 
 
 3.7 
 
 0.6 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.7 
 
 3.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.4 
 
 1,3 
 
 04 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.6 
 
 0,6 
 
 3.3 
 
 1.6 
 
 1,3 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.5 
 
 0,9 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.5 
 
 0,8 
 
 0,3 
 
 2,7 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.9 
 
 0,4 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.0 
 
 6.4 
 
 7.5 
 
 3.7 
 
 3.7 
 
 11.3 
 
 2 4 
 
 17.7 
 
 4.8 
 
 5.8 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0.4 
 31.3 
 0.4 
 22.9 
 12.0 
 19.6 
 0.2 
 11.7 
 0.1 
 2,9 
 0.2 
 3,3 
 0.3 
 3.0 
 
 13.9 
 22.1 
 1.4 
 1.6 
 3.8 
 
 2.1 
 7.7 
 5.3 
 1.7 
 0.3 
 
 0.3 
 0.9 
 0.1 
 0.5 
 0.1 
 0.7 
 0.2 
 2.9 
 
 16.4 
 11.1 
 13.5 
 
38 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 JIanttres. 
 
 FERTILIZING MATERIALS. 
 
 1;000 (or 100) LBS. CONTAIN 
 
 ANIMAL EXCREMENTS. 
 
 l.OUO LBS. CONT.VIN 
 
 Stable manure, frcsli 
 
 " moderately rotted 
 
 " thoroughly rotted 
 
 Dungheap liquor 
 
 FiBces, fresh , 
 
 Uriuc, human, fresh 
 
 Night soil, fresh , 
 
 COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. 
 
 100 LBS. CONTAIN 
 
 Peruvian guano 
 
 Dried blood 
 
 PHOSPHATES. 
 
 Bone-meal, average 
 
 Bone-meal, from solid parts 
 
 do. from porous parts. 
 
 Bone black, fresh 
 
 Bone black, spent 
 
 Bone ash 
 
 Baker guano 
 
 Jarvis guano 
 
 Navassa Phosphates 
 
 SUPERPHOSPHATES. 
 
 Rectified Peruvian guano 
 
 Baker guano, superphosphated. 
 Navassa ' ' 
 
 Boncblack " 
 
 Bone-meal " 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Sulphate of Ammonia 
 
 Nitrate of Soda 
 
 Plaster 
 
 Gas-Lime 
 
 Sugar-house Scum 
 
 Ashes, Evergreen Trees 
 
 Ashes, Deciiluous Trees 
 
 Leached Ashes 
 
 Peat Ashes 
 
 Anthracite Coal Ashes 
 
 14.8 
 14.0 
 
 6.0 
 5.0 
 7.0 
 6.0 
 10.0 
 6.0 
 10.0 
 11.8 
 2.6 
 
 16.0 
 15.0 
 15.0 
 15.0 
 13.0 
 
 4.0 
 2.6 
 
 20.0 
 7.0 
 
 34.5 
 5.0 
 5.0 
 
 20.0 
 5.0 
 5.0 
 
 51.4 
 79.0 
 
 33.3 
 31.5 
 37.3 
 10.0 
 6.0 
 3.0 
 
 41.9 
 6.2 
 2.5 
 8.0 
 13.8 
 
 lbs. 
 44.1 
 58.0 
 65.0 
 10.7 
 29.9 
 13.5 
 16.0 
 
 33.8 
 7.0 
 
 60.7 
 63.5 
 55.7 
 84.0 
 84.0 
 91.0 
 81.0 
 80.0 
 92.0 
 
 42.1 
 
 78.8 
 
 82.5 
 
 
 
 63.3 
 
 
 
 15.5 
 
 
 80.0 
 
 
 1.3 
 
 91.7 
 
 0.4 
 
 34.5 
 
 41.0 
 
 1.2 
 
 5.0 
 
 90.0 
 
 
 5.0 
 
 90.0 
 
 
 5.0 
 
 75.0 
 95.0 
 
 
 5.0 
 
 90.0 
 
 
 lbs. 
 4.5 
 5.0 
 5.8 
 1.5 
 10.0 
 6.0 
 7.0 
 
 13.0 
 11.7 
 
 10.0 
 0.3 
 
 INOBEDIEKTS OF ASH. 
 
 0.3 
 0.3 
 6.0 
 10.0 
 
 3 5 
 l!i5 
 0.1 
 
 35.0 
 
 11.0 
 0.7 
 
 31.3 
 33.0 
 29.0 
 43.0 
 37.0 
 46.0 
 41.5 
 39.1 
 37.5 
 
 9.5 
 25.9 
 17.0 
 25.0 
 22.4 
 
 0.5 
 0.2 
 31.0 
 64.5 
 20.7 
 35.0 
 30.0 
 24.5 
 
 lbs. 
 2.4 
 3.6 
 3.0 
 0.1 
 10.9 
 1.7 
 2.6 
 
 13.0 
 1.0 
 
 23 2 
 25^2 
 20.0 
 82.0 
 26.0 
 35.4 
 348 
 20.6 
 33.3 
 
 10.5 
 21.8 
 15.4 
 16.2 
 16.6 
 
 
 a 
 
 "a. 
 
 -a 
 J 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1.2 
 
 12.5 
 
 1.6 
 
 16.8 
 
 1.3 
 
 17.0 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.4 
 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.3 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.4 
 
 3.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 3.5 
 
 0.1 
 
 3.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 3.5 
 
 0.4 
 
 5.0 
 
 0.4 
 
 15.0 
 
 0.4 
 
 6.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.8 
 
 18.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 5.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 28.5 
 
 0.9 
 
 19.5 
 
 3.3 
 
 21.0 
 
 9.3 
 
 19.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 58.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.5 
 
 44.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 12.5 
 
 3.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 9.1 
 
 1.6 
 
 18.0 
 
 1.6 
 
 18.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 30.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 •? 
 
 5.0 
 
 ? 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1.5 
 1.9 
 1.6 
 1.2 
 0.4 
 5.0 
 4.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 "We see by the first of these tables, that in the wheat grain we have, in 1,000 pounds, on 
 the average, about 21 lbs. of nitrogen; 5^ lbs. of potash and 7.9 lbs. of phosphoric acid. In 
 the same amount of wheat straw there would be 4.8 pounds of nitrogen; 6.3 lbs. of potash 
 and 2.2 lbs. of phosphoric acid. In 1,000 lbs. of hay, made from the comrhon grasses, we 
 would have 15.5 lbs. of nitrogen; 13.2 lbs. of potash, and 4.1 lbs. of phosphoric acid. In 
 1,000 lbs. of ordinary clover hay there would be 21.3 lbs. of nitrogen; 18 lbs. of potash 
 and 5.6 lbs. of phosphoric acid. 
 
FERTILIZERS. 
 
 39 
 
 We quote below, a table arranged by Prof. Atwater, based upon the previous table, 
 showing how much of each of the more important ingredients is removed from the soil by 
 various crops of ordinary size. 
 
 TABLE. 
 Materials removed from the Soil by Various Crops. 
 
 
 Is 
 
 3 
 02 
 
 2 — 
 
 M 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 J3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 RYE. 
 
 Grain 25 bushels — 1,400 lbs., 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0.3 
 3.8 
 
 lbs. 
 
 11.8 
 7.3 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0.7 
 12.2 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2.9 
 3.9 
 
 lbs. 
 
 7.8 
 27.3 
 
 lbs. 
 24.6 
 
 Straw 3,500 lbs. 
 
 14.0 
 
 
 
 Total, 
 
 4.1 
 
 0.4 
 2.6 
 
 19.1 
 
 6.0 
 3.8 
 
 12.9 
 
 1.0 
 
 7.2 
 
 6.8 
 
 1.8 
 3.2 
 
 35.1 
 
 4.2 
 17.8 
 
 38.6 
 
 OATS. 
 
 Grain, 30 bushels— 960 lbs., 
 
 18.4 
 
 Straw 2 000 lbs 
 
 11.2 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3.0 
 
 0.1 
 3.3 
 
 9.8 
 
 9.5 
 6.6 
 
 8.2 
 
 0.7 
 8.1 
 
 5.0 
 
 2.4 
 3.3 
 
 22.0 
 
 6.4 
 18.9 
 
 29.6 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Grain 20 bushels— 1,200 lbs., 
 
 25.0 
 
 Straw 3 000 lbs 
 
 14.4 
 
 
 
 Total, 
 
 3.4 
 
 0.6 
 ■7.8 
 
 16.1 
 
 16.5 
 34.5 
 
 8.8 
 
 0,8 
 26.0 
 
 5.7 
 
 5.6 
 16.9 
 
 25.3 
 
 10.4 
 62.4 
 
 39.4 
 
 CORN. 
 
 Grain, 50 bushels— 2,800 lbs., 
 
 44.8 
 
 Stalks, 6,500 lbs., 
 
 31.2 
 
 
 
 Total, 
 
 8.4 
 
 7.2 
 
 5.4 
 
 14 
 3 
 
 51.0 
 
 12.3 
 
 1.44 
 
 7.5 
 15 
 
 26.8 
 
 25-8 
 
 1.8 
 
 73 
 15 
 
 22.5 
 
 9.9 
 
 3.6 
 
 17 
 2 
 
 72.8 
 39.6 
 51.3 
 
 71 
 
 47 
 
 76.0 
 
 HAT. 
 
 46.5 
 
 POTATOES. 
 
 30.6 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 Leaves, 1,800 lbs., (1,260 lbs. dry,) 
 
 Stalks 1 100 lbs. dry, 
 
 49 
 33 
 
 
 
 Total, 
 
 17 
 
 22.5 
 
 88 
 
 19 
 
 118 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 These elements that are thus removed from the soil must be supplied in some way, or 
 exhaustion of soil follows. If stable manure could be supplied in suflScient abundance to such 
 lands, not only would all the materials removed from the soil by the crops be returned and 
 the fertility of the land kept up, but it would be gradually increased. But as this cannot be 
 done, owing to an insufficiency of the article, the farmer must depend upon other materials, 
 such as guanos, superphosphates, etc., to make up the deficiency. Prof. Atwater says in this 
 connection, with respect to the 
 
 Deficiency of Potash in Common Fertilizers and in Soils. — "Most of our 
 artificial manures are only special fertilizers. Guanos, phosphates, fish and bone manures and 
 the like, contain more or less nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and lime; the superphosphates con- 
 tain sulphuric acid also. With the exception of some to which German potash salts have 
 
40 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 been added, very few of them contain any appreciable quantities of magnesia or potash. 
 They supply part but not all the materials which soils may lack. 
 
 Many farmers find that guano, fish, and other special fertilizers whose action is quick 
 and stimulating, seem to leave their soil m a more exhausted condition than before they were 
 applied. And the complaint is not uncommon that such fertilizers do not bring the same 
 return as formerly. 
 
 May we not at least question whether the immediate effect of these special fertilizers 
 has not been, in many cases, to aid the plant to use the more available stores of food in the 
 soil, until these latter have become so far exhausted as no longer to respond to the stimulat- 
 ing action of these special manures ? 
 
 If the above supposition be correct, it is clear that what such exhausted soils need, is 
 something to supply, not only the nitrogen and phosphoric acid of the guano, or fish, or bone, 
 or superphosphates, or other special fertihzers, but also the potash and other materials that 
 these latter do not furnish. 
 
 Ashes are, for many soils, a standard fertilizer. Places where a tree or a brush-heap 
 has been burned, often show the effects of the manuring for years. It is a trite saying, that 
 'The land never forgets ashes.' Ashes supply directly all the soil ingredients of plant-food, 
 except nitrogen. Their indirect action is also very important in rendering nitrogen and the 
 other materials already in the soil, available to crops. Instead of wearing out soils, they 
 strengthen them. May not this difference be due, in part at least, to the fact that they supply 
 the other ingredients of plant-food that the guano and fish lack? 
 
 Stable manure furnishes all the ingredients of plant -food. It is a complete fertilizer. 
 Farmers do not complain that it helps to exhaust their land. 
 
 There are soils which, by applications of nitrogen and phosphoric acid, in the form of 
 guano, bone, or nitrogenous superphosphates, may be made to bear good crops year after 
 year. They supply, of themselves, the other materials needed. They have abundant stores of 
 magnesia and potash, and so on, and by weathering, tUlago, and the action of the fertilizing 
 materials added, these are worked over from unavailable forms into those which the plant 
 can use. 
 
 But such is not always the case. Among the worn-out soils of New England, there are 
 a great many which lack more than nitrogen, phosphoric acid, sulphuiic acid, and lime. 
 
 This is very strikingly illustrated in the elaborate experiments of Prof. F. H. Storer, at 
 the Bussey Institution, at Jamaica Plain, Mass. These were made upon what Prof. Storer 
 calls 'a very good representative of the light, leachy soils that overlie gravelly drift in New 
 England.' In these experiments, which continued through a series of years, different crops 
 were raised with different manures, the same crop being grown with the same manure on the 
 same plot, year after year. Those raised with fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphoric 
 acid only, showed very little good effect from the manuring, while the potash compounds 
 brought the most satisfactory returns. As Prof. Storer says, the ' crying want ' of this land 
 was for potash." 
 
 Barnyard Manure- — Farm manures, as a general rule, may be regarded a.s containing 
 all the essential elements of plant-food, hence, are complete fertilizers. In this respect 
 they difier from commercial fertilizers, any one of which contains but a portion of tlie 
 requisite elements appropriated by plants in their growth. Animal excrement was 
 formerly almost the only reliance of the farmer for replenishing his lands, he depending 
 mainly for the supply upon what was furnished by the barn-yard, the pig-sty, and the 
 sheep-fold; and even these manures were usually lessened in value by being left until 
 wanted for use, where their most valuable fertilizing elements would be leached out by the 
 rains and evaporated by tlie sun. 
 
 The improvements in the system of agriculture during the last half or quarter of a 
 century, while they bring new aids to the farmer by the use of concentrated fertilizers of 
 
FERTILIZERS. 41 
 
 various kinds, have fumished nothing that has caused this old time-lionored fertilizer to be 
 less valued, or less useful; but since the old source of supply is not at present sufficient for 
 the demands of the soil in crops produced, these furnish important and valuable substitutes, 
 or rather are supplementary aids to that which our forefathers depended upon principally. 
 
 Though there has been a great improvement within a few years with regard to preventing 
 the waste of stable manure among farmers generally, still there is a great loss in this respect 
 on many farms, which a little pains-taking and care would prevent. The soil needs all the 
 manure that can be made upon the farm, both liquid and solid, which, if saved and applied 
 will result in larger crops, and consequently larger profits; hence, a waste of anything that 
 can increase the productiveness of the farm, is a loss in money to the farmer. Among the 
 fifty important theses published by Liebig as axioms of his theory, he says: 
 
 " In the productions of the field, through the harvests, a great quantity of the elements 
 of the soil which have become elements of the plants is taken away and removed from the 
 soil; before the sowing, the soil is richer than after the harvest, — the composition of the soil is 
 changed after the harvest. 
 
 The lost fertility is again restored by means of manures, — stable manures, — excrement 
 of man and animals. 
 
 Stable manure consists of putrefied materials from plants and animals, which contain a 
 certain quantity of soil elements. The excrements of animals and men show the ashes of the 
 food which has been consumed in the bodies of animals and men, and derived from plants 
 that have been harvested from the fields. The urine contains the soil elements of nourish- 
 ment sohxble in water, the fseces those that are not soluble therein. The manure contains 
 the soil elements of the harvested products of the field." 
 
 Hon. Alexander Hyde of Mass., says: " We have yet to learn that there is any effec- 
 tual substitute for large loads of barn-yard manure and compost. There are two great objec- 
 tions to all these concentrated forms of patent fertilizers, even supposing them to be pure 
 and good of their kind. The first is that they generally contain only two or three elements 
 of plant-food, and the second is that they utterly ignore the fact that one great object of 
 putting manure upon the land is the mechanical effect — the putting of the soil in such a con- 
 dition that it can absorb nutriment from that great reservoir of fertility, the air, and also 
 allow the plant free foraging ground for appropriating to itself all the food that mother earth 
 contains in her bosom." 
 
 It is estimated that the urine of the horse is of more value as a fertilizer than the solid 
 manure. Though that of the cow is less valuable than the solid, still it is quite a valuable 
 fertilizer, the average weight of that produced by an ordinary cow being about two thousand 
 pounds in one year, and the estimated worth about three dollars. In some portions of Europe 
 a much higher estimate is placed upon its value as a fertilizer. In Flanders, for instance, its 
 estimated value, according to good authority, is about ten dollars per year. According to 
 the analysis of Sprengel, the average urine of the cow contains 92.6 per cent, of water; that 
 of the horse, 94; the sheep, 96; the hog, 92.6; and that of the human species 9;i.3. The 
 remainder is composed of various salts, and rich vegetable food, very valuable as fertilizers; 
 but the human is much richer in these elements than any other. Like the solid manures, its 
 quantity and value varies greatly, and depends upon the quality and quantity of food and liquid 
 taken into the stomach, etc. By reference to the table of analysis of various manures previously 
 given, the composition of these products of the farm, so often wasted, will be ascertained. 
 Many farmers spend large sums of money yearly in the purchase of guanos and other com- 
 mercial fertilizers, which, with a little forethought in the economy of manures produced upon 
 the farm, would not only render that expenditure needless, but prove the farm product more 
 valuable often for agricultural purposes than the former. Since manures lie at the foimda- 
 tion of all successful husbandry, it becomes a question of importance to the farmer as to 
 how this necessary element can best be utilized and increased ; in other words, how shall the 
 
42 THE AJIERICAN FARMER. 
 
 manure, both liquid and solid, and the compost piles from aU sources on the farm, be saved, 
 increased, and utUized ? In answering this question, we would say that the first consideration 
 of importance was the proper construction of the barns or sheds, in order that all the 
 manure made could be preserved, instead of allowing aU the liquid portion to be wasted, and 
 throwing the soUd manure out of the stable windows to lie in piles, exposed to the leaching 
 process of the storms, permitting the rain and eaves droppings to wash out the most valu- 
 able inorganic part of it, and the sun to evaporate a large proportion of the nitrogenous 
 elements, as is still too often the practice with the farmers of our country. Barn cellars, 
 when properly constructed, are very convenient receptacles for both solids and Hquids, and 
 also furnish protection from exposure to the sun and storms. But whenever used, a sufficient 
 amount of suitable absorbents should be applied to take up aU the Hquid portions, so that 
 they can be applied to the land as readily and with as little inconvenience to the farmer as 
 the soUd manure. T\'e do not, however, recommend the use of bam cellars for the storage 
 of manure, unless more than the ordinaiy facilities are employed, in order to carry ofi the 
 gases that must of necessity arise from the decomposing mass in the cellar to the floor above, 
 where the animals are kept. These must be carried off by a perfect system of ventilation. 
 No animal can be healthy and continue to breathe such atmosphere; and animals thus 
 stabled will be compelled to breathe it unless great care is taken in making provision 
 for thorough ventilation; for, although many absorbents employed will prove to a great 
 extent deodorizers, such as dried muck, loam, etc., they will not generally be i;sed in sufficient 
 quantities to become wholly so. 
 
 Neither do we approve of the practice, followed by some farmers, of keeping pigs in a 
 barn cellar which is used for the storage of manure. The foul, confined air in such a place, 
 almost destitute of simlight, cannot be otherwise than injurious to the health of the swine. 
 No animal can be healthy, and hence fit to become the food of man, that does not, while 
 living, have a sufficient supply of pure air and sunlight. Otherwise the blood becomes 
 poisoned, the whole animal system diseased, and the meat thus produced will be anything 
 but a wholesome sanitary diet. In order, also, to prevent, as far as possible, the foul air of 
 the maniu'e thus stored below the barn from arising and vitiating the air where the cattle 
 or horses are kept, it should be mixed with a sufficient supply of absorbents in order to pre- 
 vent the escape of ammonia and other substances. The barn cellar should also be well ven- 
 tilated, while all barns where animals are stabled should be supplied wdth a sufficient amount 
 of pure air by means of proper ventilation ; that is, the ventilators should be so arranged as 
 to permit the escape of the foul air of the barn and admit the fresh air from without, 
 without producing a draft upon the animals, which latter would be the means of serious 
 trouble among the stock,- — a draft of air being one of the worst exposures for either man or 
 beast to severe colds, with possibly pneumonia or lung fever, etc., that could be found. "We 
 have known valuable animals to have died from such exposure through the thoughtlessness 
 or ignorance of their owners. 
 
 A very important fact for the farmer to have in mind is, that the better the animal is 
 fed, the better wiU not only be the meat, the milk, butter and cheese, but the better will be the 
 fertilizing properties of the manure furnished by such animals. Excessive and rapid fer- 
 mentation should be avoided, as much of the ammonia is often thus wasted. Horse manure 
 is especially hable to ferment or "burn," as the fermenting process is termed, and is often 
 rendered almost worthless by the loss thus sustained. Many farmers prevent this by mixing 
 it with cow manure, which is colder and less liable to fermentation, thus easily obviating the 
 difficulty. If, however, this is not convenient, owing to the locality of the horse and cow 
 stables, or for any other reason, it is desired to keep them separate, decomposition can be 
 greatly retarded by keeping the manure trodden compactly and saturated with water to keep 
 out the air as far as possible; thus keeping the temperature low, it can be preserved a long 
 time before fermentation commences. 
 
FERTILIZERS. 43 
 
 Where no cellars are provided for the manure taken from the stables, it should be 
 protected from the rain and sun by covered sheds, which will repay the farmer for 
 furnishing, in the amount of rich fertilizing material saved, the quantity thus saved 
 soon repa)ring expense of the sheds. Where cellars for its storage are used, many farmers 
 prefer muck or peat as an absorbent of the liquid portions ; but in such cases it is necessary that 
 the material be perfectly dry, and in order to secure this condition, it should be dug from the 
 muck or peat bed and thrown into heaps, where it is left several months exposed to the air and 
 sun. The drying and decomposing process can be greatly facilitated by shovelling over the 
 piles and admitting the air occasionally. Some advise mixing lime, (three or four bushels to 
 a cord of muck,) first slacking it with water; wood ashes are also often used for this purpose, 
 about fifteen bushels to the same quantity. When dry and ready for use it should be stored 
 in some convenient shed. Only a small quantity will be required to absorb the liquid accumu- 
 lations of the stable each day. Dried leaves, straw, and clay are also used for this purpose. 
 Some prefer saw dust for the bedding of stock, and as an absorbent of the liquids of the 
 stable, which is found very valuable for this purpose ; but it should be quite dry, or it will 
 be entirely useless. It readily absorbs the liquids, and is easily mixed with the solid manure 
 and soil, when applied to lands. Dry loam has been found to be a valuable absorbent also, 
 when used in the stables for this purpose. Mr. Albert Day of Brooklyn thus describes his 
 method of preserving stable manure: — 
 
 " In the preservation and preparation of manure the principle of the old adage holds 
 good — 'A penny saved is a penny earned.' Hence, my first care is to guard against the loss 
 of valuable ingredients of the manure caused by the action of the weather, and by the escape 
 of the ammonia set free in the process of fermentation. 
 
 " To accomplish this end and to make the largest quantity of the most valuable manure, 
 my milch cows are kept in the stable nights from about the first of September until about the 
 first of June, and in the winter months eighteen to twenty hours per day. The stables are 
 littered with refuse hay or straw, and the manure is thrown into a cellar beneath, where I 
 usually have some three-cart loads of loam for every animal housed. The manure is spread 
 over a portion of the cellar at intervals and covered with the loam, at the same time throwing 
 on plaster. I have preferred this course to that of putting muck or loam in the stable to 
 absorb the liquid portion, as one involving less expense, and securing equal benefits. The 
 bulk of the other manures upon the farm are from the hog-pen, horse-stable, and barn-yard. 
 
 " The compost in the cellar is worked over two or three weeks before use, when it is 
 drawn to the field and ploughed in, and the compost from the barn-yard and hog-pen worked 
 in on the furrows with a Shares harrow. I plow in much less now than in former years, for 
 the reason that from experiments in both methods I am much better satisfied with the re- 
 sults of surface applications. Prom this statement it will be seen that the manure is applied 
 fresh rather than fermented. 
 
 " A slight covering of earth is sufficient to prevent the escape of ammonia and other 
 gases, even from the rapidly fermenting compost heap; and spread in or upon the field, 
 where the process of fermentation is comparatively slow, very little is lost, in the opinion of 
 many good, practical farmers, even by top-dressing." 
 
 Tanks for holding the liquid manure from the stables, have long been in use in many 
 portions of Europe and this country, it being conveyed to them in drains from the stables. 
 These tanks or cisterns, which are made of cement or concrete, are so constructed as to be 
 closely covered to prevent the escape of ammonia, which is produced by the fermenting pro- 
 cess. This fermentation rapidly progresses in warm weather, but the loss can be retarded by 
 putting in gypsum or charcoal, which absorb the ammonia. A few days after fermentation 
 commences, the liquid is pumped into casks and carried on to the lands. When designed for 
 watering plants, it must be diluted with water to prevent injury. This process is attended 
 with considerable labor, although it may prove a good one where a large number of animals 
 
44 THE AMEUICAX FAKMER 
 
 are kept, but for the general fanner we tliink the use of absorbents, as above stated, far 
 preferable. Horse manure is one of the valuable farm manures, and the easiest to ferment. 
 When packed in heaps this process will sometimes commence in twenty-four hours. Even in 
 the severe weather of winter, fermentation will progress rapidly, if a large quantity is accu- 
 mulated. When not arrested, it becomes in a short time of about as little value as ashes, 
 and loses about nine-tenths of its original weight. The fermentation or " burning," as it is 
 sometimes called, can be arrested or prevented, as we have previously stated, by mixing with 
 other manures, or rendering the mass compact, and saturating with water to prevent the cir- 
 culation of air. 
 
 Sheep manure, and that furnished by the pig sty, are also very ricb fertilizers, the 
 former being considered by many to be more valuable in producing good crops than even cow 
 manure. It is rendered most available by being composted, as it frequently injures the seed 
 of plants if placed in the hill or near it before the fermentation is completed. By supplying 
 the pig yard with plenty of muck, the material from that source is greatly improved, and 
 proves a valuable fertilizer. 
 
 The illustration represents a manure spreader manufactured by the Kemp and Bur- 
 pee Manufacturing Co., Syracuse, New York, a most valuable acquisition to the agricultural 
 implements of the present time, being, in fact, a manure spreader, pulverizer, and cart com- 
 bined. It not only is a great labor-saving machine, but does the work better than could be 
 done by hand, spreading the manure more uniformly and at the same time pulverizing it, 
 which increases its value, since the finer the manure is pulverized when appUed to the soil 
 the more readily it is assimilated. It will spread all kinds of manure, whether coarse or 
 fine, wet or drjf^, heavy or Ught, and is regulated to spread different quantities to the acre, so 
 that the farmer may know just what amount per acre he is using. It can also be attached to the 
 fore wheels of any ordinary farm wagon. 
 
 Poultry Manure. — This is a valuable fertilizer, and any farmer who has been 
 accustomed to neglect his flock of hens, caring little or notliing for their products or the care 
 they received, would be surprised at the quantity and quality of the guano they manufacture 
 when properly fed, and which might be utilized by being saved from their roosting place. 
 The droppings of the poultry should be secured from under their roosts everj' few days and 
 mixed with earth, or with a compost, as they are very soluble. It is a good plan to scatter 
 a little sand over the floor of the hen house every day or two, which has a tendency to keep 
 the place clean. When applied to the soil, it should be harrowed in lightly, since the excre- 
 ment of fowls contains both the foeces and lu-ine combined; it is peculiarly rich in the 
 fertilizing elements, and is considered, in this respect, next in value to night-soil. Poultry 
 should always be pro\'ided with warm quarters for roosting, and we hope no farmer is so far 
 behind the times in this respect or so inhumane as to adhere to the old and barbarous custom 
 of forcing his hens to roost in trees, and take care of themselves on the scanty pittance they 
 are able to glean from the barn-yard. 
 
 Night-Soil and Poudrette. — One of the most powerful fertilizers known is human 
 excrement. In China, Japan, and many portions of Europe, it has long been one of the chief 
 fertiUzing substances used in agriculture, where the continued fertility of the soil and abun- 
 dant crops fully attest its value. In our own country, this source of supply has for various 
 reasons been in a great measure ignored and neglected, though it is sometimes found in the 
 market among the various commercial fertilizers, mixed with charcoal, dust, charred peat, or 
 other substances under the name of poudrette or tafeu. By being thus mixed and dried, it is 
 disinfected of its effluvia, and becomes a convenient article for transportation. With regard 
 to this substance. Prof. C. A. Goessmann, of the Mass. Agricultural College, and also State 
 Agricultural Chemist, says: — 
 
 "There are sometimes four different kinds of poudrette offered for sale: — 
 
 " I. Blooii or Meat Poudrettes, which are manufactured from the solid portion of the human 
 
FERTILIZERS. 45 
 
 excretions, with the addition of blood and refuse meat from the slaughter-house, or the carcasses 
 of dead animals. They are usually sold in a dry and pulverized state. 
 
 II. Simple Poudretles, which consist of the dried, pulverized, solid human excretions. 
 
 III. Humid Poudrettes. These consist usually of the entire contents of the vaultsi 
 which, after being deodorized, are left in large tanks for evaporation by mere exposure, or 
 receive additions of gypsum, etc., as absorbers of moisture. 
 
 IV. Comjjost Poudrettes. The following course is frequently pursued in their manufac- 
 ture, the sweepings of the streets, ashes, refuse lime from gas-houses, and various other suit- 
 able refuse materials of factories, etc., are screened to remove stones and other worthless 
 materials. The screened mass is subsequently filled in alternate layers with deodorized night- 
 soil, in large tanks containing water-tight floors. These tanks are frequently large enough to 
 store five hundred tons at one time. After the material has been left for from four to five 
 months for a thorough disintegration, it is cut through from the surface to the floor, and 
 thereby thoroughly mixed. The fertilizers Nos. Ill and No. IV are, for economical reasons, 
 best adapted for consumption in 'the vicinity of the manufacturing establishment, whilst Nos. 
 I and No. II, on account of their higher value, may enter with good succe.ss more distant 
 markets. There is scarcely any other class of commercial fertilizers which is apt to suffer as 
 readily a depreciation in value from careless mangement of its raw material and its mode of 
 manufacture, as the poudrettes. For this reason, they ought to be sold by analysis; at least 
 with reference to the amount of ammonia, phosphoric acid and potassa. A detailed state- 
 ment of these substances gives a somewhat more definite idea regarding the nature of the 
 excretions which served in their manufacture. It needs no particular argument to show the 
 great value of the human excretions in the agrKjBltural industry, as long as those of our 
 domesticated animals are considered most efiicient'fbr the manuring of our farm-lands. 
 
 "•' The food of man, as a general rule, is much richer in the most valuable elements for 
 plant^growth than that of our farm live-stock; the same relations are true, for obvious 
 reasons, with regard to the excretions of both. To establish that claim among our farmers 
 requires the manufacture of standard articles of definite chemical and physical properties. 
 It is a fact worthy of notice, that in the most densely-populated countries, the superior efiiciency 
 of the human excretions for manurial pui-poses has been most decidedly recognized. Belgium, 
 hke China and Japan, is largely indebted for its high state of cultivation to the extensive use 
 of night-soil as a fertilizer. Prejudice against the more general use of the latter for the 
 reproduction of our garden and farm crops contributes largely to the indifference which still 
 prevails among many agriculturists regarding the magnitude of the pecuniary interests 
 involved in the question of securing the human excretion in the most advantageous form for 
 agricultural purposes. The same indifferent management which characterizes quite frequently 
 the treatment of the barn manure causes usually a most serious depreciation of the contents 
 of the vaults. The wasteful practice adopted in our large cities with regard to the disposi- 
 tion of the human excretion is not unfrequently the outgrowth of considerations which have 
 largely lost their importance in consequence of the accumulated experience elsewhere. An 
 intelligent solution of the sewage question in our large cities touches the pecuniary interest 
 of every farmer. However intricate the various considerations which deserve careful atten- 
 tion may render the problem, the sewage question cannot be considered satisfactorily settled 
 without a due recognition of the agricultural interests of the country." 
 
 A noted agriculturist has said that the waste from the kitchen and the contents of the 
 water-closet, if properly composted, would be of greater value than the same amount of 
 many of the commercial fertilizers that are bought at a high figure by our farmers. 
 
 Says Liebig: " If we admit that the Uquid and solid excrements of man amount on an 
 average to 547 pounds in a year, which contain 16.41 pounds of nitrogen, this is much more 
 than is necessary to add to an acre of land in order to obtain, with the assistance of the 
 nitrogen derived from the atmosphere, the richest possible crop every year." 
 
46 THE AMERICAN FAItMER. 
 
 Prof. Hilgard, of the University of Mississippi, states that all the products of our fields, 
 excepting a portion of the feed crops, ultimately go to serve as food or raiment to man. 
 Hence man's excrement, rags, paper and bone, must and do contain the ingredients withdrawn 
 from our soils; and were we faithfully to return all these things in the proper form and in 
 the right place, we should need no guano islands to eke out the deficiency in the return made 
 in the offal crops and manure of cattle. Prof. J. F. W. Johnston says of it: " Night-soil is 
 the most valuable of all the soUd animal manures. When dry, few other solid manures can 
 be compared with it, weight for weight. Dried night-soil is equal to thirty times its bulk of 
 horse manure." 
 
 The cesspool and privy are necessary conqomitants of every family, but it is the manner 
 in which they are regulated that renders them a source of pestilence and ill odoi-s, or that 
 can transform these imseemly parts of the farm-house into comehness and a source of profit, 
 in converting, by the natural process, these noxious odors into elements of fertiUty for farm 
 iise; thus producing utility and beauty, which may be in the form of farm crops, garden veg- 
 etables, fruits, or flowers, from what would otherwise be a source of noxious effluvia to poison 
 the air, and breed disease. How shall this be accomplished ? In the first place, we would 
 say, let such places be surrounded with some kind of shrubbery or vines, conceaUng the 
 deformities of art (which are in such cases usually conspicuous) with the beauties of nature. 
 As a disinfectant, there is nothing better than dry earth; a httle used each day to cover the 
 contents of the vault and absorb the hquids will prevent all offensive odors, and keep the 
 contents in a condition to be easily handled when taken out to apply to the soil. It is nec- 
 essary that the earth should be perfectly dry, in order to be an effectual absorbent. Earth- 
 closets have long been in use in England f||d France, and to a limited extent in this country, 
 and have been found to be completely deodorized, when used as above described. 
 
 It has been found by experiment, thaf sucli soil, after being exposed to the sun and air, 
 and thoroughly dried, can be used repeatedly in the same manner, even six or seven times, 
 without being offensive, which proves the powerful deodorizing effect of earth. 
 
 By adopting the earth-closet principle, any farmer can easilj' secure, free of expense, one 
 of the best fertilizers in quality that can be found. Road-dust, sifted coal-ashes, pulverized 
 charcoal and dry muck, or any kind of dry soil, may be used for this pui-pose. AVhen either 
 is used in sufBcient quantity each day. it can afterwards be as easily handled and removed as 
 any kind of soil; it is also improved in quality by being mixed with earth or some foreign 
 substance. By this means also is it not only deodorized, but the evU effect of drainage into 
 wells can be obviated, thus preventing the contamination of the water, which is so often, in 
 the coiintry, the fruitful cause of tyjihoid fevers, and other diseases. 
 
 Sewage as a Fertilizer. — The sewage question, both in a sanitary and agricultural point 
 of view, — in other words, the question as to how the sewage of our cities can best be utilized 
 to fertilize the soil, and thus prove the double benefit of a sanitary and agricultural means, 
 has long engaged the attention of scientific men, and, although no definite solution of the 
 problem or practical plan has yet been adopted, we feel sure that the time is not far distant 
 when this question, which so materially affects the sanitary interests of the country, will be 
 satisfactorily settled in the interests of agriculture, as it has been in various European cities. 
 
 Of course, the sanitary view of the subject is firet in importance, and demands the high- 
 est consideration, irrespective of agricultural benefits to accrue therefrom. It cannot be 
 otherwise in the nature of things, than that the water supplied by rivers and lakes to our 
 cities, is contaminated with poison, disease, and filth from the sewers that empty into them. 
 When we remember that the city supply furnishes the drinking-water to the inhabitants of 
 those cities, we do not wonder at the various diseases, and the extended death lists that swell 
 the records; we only wonder that they are so few. Gen. N. N. Halsted of Newark, N. J., 
 States as follows respecting this subject : 
 
FERTILIZERS. 47 
 
 " It has been ascertained by Boussingault, that a man in a healthy state passes three 
 pounds of urine daily; and Liebig states, that, in the same state, he voids five ounces and a 
 half of dung. These two quantities give a total annual quantity of 1,220 pounds of liquid 
 and soUd manure voided by every person, on ths average. Now, taking two million as the 
 population of London, the quantities of those manures voided by the inhabitants of the 
 metropolis amount annually to 1,089,285 tons. Chemistry has ascertained that the compo- 
 nent parts of the excrements of man are as valuable to vegetation as those of guano ; and, as 
 the different sorts of guano sell from £6 to £10 per ton, we are warranted in estimating 
 the value of night-soil and urine at £8 per ton, which would give the entire value of this 
 manure in London alone every year at £8,714,280, or $43, 571, 400 in gold. This 
 may seem like exaggeration; but, put it at half the amount, and the subject is serious 
 enough to address itseK to every thinking mind. This waste is not the worst of it. We 
 claim that there is a sanifary point of view, higher in importance than all considerations of 
 moneyed value : we mean so far as this waste of sewage into the rivers affects the suppl_y of 
 drinking-water for our cities. "We take two prominent instances within the State of New 
 Jersey; the two largest cities both taking their supply of water from the same source, — the 
 Passaic River. This river, furnishing an illimitable supply, takes the drainage of the large 
 manufacturing town of Paterson, and the smaller towns along the river, to the points where 
 the supply is taken up: in addition to these, the sewage of the city of Newark, with a hun- 
 dred and twenty-five thousand population, discharged into the Passaic River, is carried up 
 by every flood-tide beyond the city, and to the very conduits where the water is taken for 
 the supply of the two cities, Newark and Jersey City. The operations of the United States 
 Government in removing the reef, and the obstructions to navigation in the river above the 
 city of Newark, have greatly facilitated this flow; and there can now be no question but that 
 the supply of each city is contaminated by tliis sewage. The joint commission of Newark 
 and Jersey City employed an eminent chemist to analyze the waters of the Passaic as fur- 
 nished the two cities. We quote so much of his report treating of sewage pollution of rivers 
 as applies forcibly to our subject, and the sanitary point now involved : ' That class of scien- 
 tists who study microscopic fungi, mycologists (in common with many distingui.shed scientific 
 physicians), are now setthng down to the belief that most epidemic and epizootic diseases are 
 accompanied (as causes, not merely as effects) by certain fungoid growths: in other words, 
 that these diseases are produced by vegetable parasites. When these fungi take root in live 
 animal tissues, they develop into abnormal and monstrous forms, which have not been recog- 
 nized until lately; but it is now known that the spores discharged (by millions of millions it 
 may be) with the excreta, when cultivated outside the body, come back again to their normal 
 forms, and the fungi are recognizable. Thus in common dysentery and cholera-morbus, the 
 spores, when replanted, produce a common fungoid parasite of wheat; wliile, during the fear- 
 ful Asiatic cholera, the spores produced a parasite of the East India rice-plant. These facts 
 (if they must be admitted as such, which seems inevitable) are suggestive with regard to 
 sewage contamination of rivers. One case of cholera brought to Paterson, or any of the 
 towns Ipng on the upper Passaic, might fill the whole river with the Uving seeds of the pes- 
 tilence. A like propagation would take place from Newark throughout Jersey City and 
 HobokeB, and even throughout Newark itself. I am aware that these are appalling consid- 
 erations, and may be rejected by some as contingencies too remote and dreadful to be possi- 
 ble. But human experience, alas! will not counterbalance any such puerile view as this. We 
 must stare these horrors sternly in the face, bring all our science to bear, and study preven- 
 tion, rather than wait till called upon to endure the evil when it shall have passed beyond 
 our cure.' 
 
 It is not only river water that is contaminated by the sewage of the cities, but the 
 wells are also poisoned from which many of the inhabitants derive their sole supply of cool 
 
48 THE A3IERICAN FARMER. 
 
 drinking-water, in their innocence supposing they are drinking the purest and best. "We give 
 a single instance in illustration. A well in Market street, in the city of Newark, standing in 
 front of the office of one of the daily journals of that city, had been so lauded for its cool 
 and sparkling water, that people were wont to stop and refresh themselves with a drink from 
 its pump: nay, instances were frequent of passers-by in the throng of Broad street crossing 
 over and going down to this pump, as if to a favorite soda-fount. It might have been a rival, 
 for aught we know, to some such popular establishment in its vicinity. This well, with two 
 others very much used, was designated by the chief engineer of the water board, to Profes- 
 sor Wurtz, as among those of the city most resorted to. Samples were taken; and, on anal. 
 ysis, the one we have selected was found to contain, in the words of the professor, 'about five 
 grains to the gallon of an ingredient which cannot be traced to any other source than the 
 infiltration of urine of man or beast, or both.' He further recommended the closing of this 
 well to the public use, and it was done. 
 
 These words require no comment: they speak for themselves." 
 
 We see from the above that for both sanitary and economic reasons, the night-soil should 
 not go into the sewage of the city. The following will show how the French have utiHzed the 
 sewage of Paris for agricultural purposes. 
 
 The Sewage of Paris.- — The benefits of appropriating sewage water to irrigating 
 the land is fully shown in the following account given by Prof. Geo. H. Cook, of New Jersey, 
 in his report on Agriculture and Agricultural Teaching in Europe : — 
 
 " The 24th of June was given to an excursion to Gennevilliers, where the sewage water 
 of Paris is used to irrigate and enrich market-garden land. The question of sewage, its 
 removal and purification for sanitary benefits, and its uses for agricultural pui-poses, have 
 been discussed in Paris much as in other cities. Friends of sanitary improvement, however, 
 have insisted that the first step should be taken and the first expenses incurred in the interests 
 of public health, and, in spite of determined opposition, have carried their point. A very 
 successful beginning has been made. 
 
 In most of the houses of Paris there are two sets of drain-pipes. One of these connects 
 the washing-sinks, bath tubs, etc., with the city sewers ; the other connects the water-closets 
 with cesspools in the house-yards, and these last are pumped out, and the contents are carried 
 off to be used on the land. It is only the sewage from the former kind that have to be 
 attended to, and for this purpose the whole contents of the public sewers are collected in 
 very large conduits from both sides of the Seine, and are conducted down to Asnieres, on 
 the river, and just at the outskirts of the city. Here, by means of powerful pumps, about 
 one-third of all the sewage water is raised high enough to flow by gravity over a large tract 
 of flat land in the bend of the river just below this place. The rest of the sewage is allowed 
 to enter the river here. The amount of sewage carried in the sewers yearly is about one 
 nundred and thirty-three million cubic yards, and — as a cubic yard is not far from two hun- 
 dred gallons — the daily flow of sewage is about seventy -three million gallons. One-third of 
 this, or twenty-four millions, is daily pumped up twenty or thirty feet to distribute it over 
 the peninsula on which GennevilUers stands, comprising about one thousand acres. 
 
 The sewage is carried to various parts of this plot in closed pipes, and is then let out 
 into open ditches, which are a little above the general surface of the ground. From these it 
 is let out into little irrigating ditches, which are drawn parallel to each other, and about three 
 feet apart, so that the whole ground looks as if laid out in garden beds. The beds are 
 planted, and water in the little ditches soaks through and moistens and feeds the roots of the 
 growing plants without defiling or in any way injuring their leaves or stems, and a most 
 luxuriant growth is produced. Every year the little ditches are changed, and where those 
 of one year are, is the middle of the bed the next year, and the sediment of the ditches is 
 scraped out to mix with the soil as manure. In winter the water can be distributed over the 
 
FERTILIZERS. 49 
 
 whole surface, but in summer, when the vegetation is active, it needs skill and experience to 
 put on the water or withhold it at proper times. The gardeners, however, have learned to do 
 it successfully — and the land which nine years ago was only an open gravelly sand, so poor 
 that but moderate crops of rye could be grown on it, is now the most productive garden-soil 
 about Paris. When the experiment was begun no one would take the water, and the city 
 bought about twenty -five acres of ground on which to make the first trial. That land is now 
 rich, and rents yearly for $40 an acre, and the adjoining land-owners, who have concluded to 
 try the effect of the water, have increased their rents fourfold — the average rent being now 
 about $36 an acre. No one who has taken the water has yet discontinued its use. 
 
 The first effect sought — that of purifying the water — is produced completely. As it 
 comes from the sewers it is dark-colored, tiu'bid, and of a vile odor. After being filtered 
 through the cultivated ground it collects in the imderdrains and runs out clear, cool, without 
 smell or taste, and to chemical tests shows no organic matter. In fact, the little brook we 
 saw looked like the purest and most tempting of spring waters, and those who drank it said 
 it was so. 
 
 The crops grown on this soil are cabbages, beets, carrots, beans, artichokes, cauliflowers, 
 garlic, onions, leeks, celery, Salsify, pumpkins, potatoes, mint, absinthe, angelica, and nursery 
 and fruit trees. 
 
 A committee of investigation who examined this subject in all its relations, reported the 
 following as crops per acre raised on these grounds : — 
 
 Artichokes — From 14,000 to 30,000 heads. 
 
 Cauliflowers — 12,000 to 20,000 heads, weighing from 30,000 to 35.000 pounds. 
 
 Garlic— 32,000 pounds. 
 
 Carrots — 52,000 to 72,000 and even 115,000 pounds. 
 
 Celery — 87,000 pounds. 
 
 Cabbage— 120,000 pounds. 
 
 Onions — From 52,000 to 72,000 pounds. 
 
 Leeks — 52,000 pounds. 
 
 Potatoes— From 25,000 to 35,000 pounds. 
 
 Pumpkins— 100,000 to 120,000. 
 
 Salsify — 8,000 to 10,000 bunches, weighing 22,000 pounds. 
 
 A remarkably fine dairy is kept there, and the cattle are fed on lucerne grown with 
 sewage, and we were treated to strawberries grown on ground irrigated with sewage water, 
 which were as large and unexceptionable in flavor as Durand's " Great American." The 
 vegetables are among the finest-looking in market, and are unquestioned in flavor and good 
 quality. The commission reported that ' the quality of the products, which had been con- 
 demned by some persons, was now acknowledged good ; they retain the flavor which properly 
 belongs to them, and do not contract any bad taste.' 
 
 The benefits of this use of sewage water, both for its sanitary and agricultural effects, 
 are fully demonstrated, and proves the soundness of the views of those who devised and 
 carried it out. So far, the expense has been borne by the city. No charge has been made 
 for the supply-ditches and drains, or for the water. At the present time the question is being 
 raised, whether the land-owners, whose rents have been increased, and the gardeners, whose 
 crops have been so much enlarged, should not pay a part of the expense. It is, however, 
 generally conceded that the main part of the expense must be paid for the public good, and 
 for the benefit which it brings to health, and that it cannot be expected that sewage water, 
 diluted as it is, can ever be used on agricultural land so as to pay the wliole cost of distrib- 
 uting it. The present effort is very encouraging to sanitarians, and has only been reached 
 after a great deal of talk and unsuccessful work for the same end. On the ground where 
 the sewage is now distributed, we saw large reservoirs into which the sewage water was 
 
50 THE AMERICAN FARMEli. 
 
 formerly drawn, in order to precipitate the fertilizing matters by some chemical process, but 
 it failed. The water was made clear, but the main impurities were not removed, and the 
 works stand there as a monument of the work required to accomplish this end, so important 
 for all cities, where filth will accumulate and must be removed or destroyed." 
 
 France has set a good exam.ple to other countries in thus disposing of the sewage of her 
 largest city, and though some improvements can doubtless be made in this system, it is 
 admirable in its results thus far practiced. As apropos to the subject, a description of a sail 
 in the Paris sewors, as given by a Boston journalist, may not be devoid of interest to our 
 readers : — 
 
 "A Sail in a Paris Sewei*. — A visit to the sewers of Paris is indeed a novel one. 
 There are two visiting dr.ys per week for the sewers, and, by writing to tlie prefect, the person 
 who desires to make them a visit can obtain a paBS. Thi.s pass is about three inches square, 
 and is as finely embellished and printed as an invitation to a millionaire's reception. The 
 entrance to the sewers is at the Place du Chatelet, and is simply a slab removed fi-om the top 
 of the main sewer. "When my turn came to enter into the yawning blackness below, I 
 shuddered as one would who never expected to see the light of day again. Descending the 
 narrow, winding stairs, I found myself in a large vaulted space. This was the main sewer, 
 black as the Styx, and probably many times na.stier. Directly over the nastiness, the rails 
 resting on either side of the sewer, were a number of open cars, holding fifteen or twenty 
 each, whose construction would almost warrant tlie term elegant. Bottoms and sides were of 
 light wicker-work, and at either end shone two globular lamps. As fast as a car was filled with 
 passengers, two men on either side of the sewer passed a stout bar through fixed iron rings 
 in the car-frame, and, bracing themselves against the projecting ends, trolled off and trundled 
 us away into the darkness. At short intervals the noise of murmui'ing rills and babbling 
 brooks came to our ears. These, as we were rushed by them, we saw to be the tributaries of 
 uhe main stream. The sewer over which we rode was named from the street under which it 
 ran — the Rue de Rivoli — and the murmuring rills, brooks and ri\aLlets, were called from the 
 streets under which they passed. Some bounded into the main river in joyous little cascades, 
 and the meeting of others with the parent river was conducted in a more quiet, orderly, and 
 solemn fashion. The average smell was simply that of a sewer, somewhat carbolized, 
 perhaps, but still a sewer. We stopped. Here we were to leave the car. Here began the 
 remainder of the passage by water — at least, it is called water, and for navigation the fluid 
 answers the purpose ; but it isn't water. "We left the car. The barges were loading up. 
 Each would hold fifteen or twenty people. Our barge started. It rolled unctuously in the 
 dark-colored fluid. As the passengers moved about in getting to their seats, it rolled as a 
 vessel might roll in a lake of molasses. It was an unpleasant sensation. The motive power 
 was furnished by a few blouse-covered Frenchmen attached to long ropes, who, in the capacity 
 of mules, hauled us along. Silently we moved on. Not a ripple was heard under the prow. 
 The sewer had no capacity for rippling. Little was seen, save the ghmmer of the lamp on 
 the barge ahead of us, and a long, straight, silent stream. The barge, loaded deeply, seemed 
 but a few inches above this Parisian Styx. As we slightly rocked, there came awful sugges- 
 tions to our minds of the posfibility of shipi>ing a sea. On the current we saw straws, corks, 
 and lemon peelings. A young man, actively and unpleasantly curious, thrust his cane in the 
 stream, with a view of getting soundings. On bringing the cane on board, all in its vicinity 
 moved away. Some folks never can let well-enough alone. We turned into the Rue Royale. 
 The stream grew wider, the current more rapid. Most of the ladies now held handkerchiefs 
 to their faces. They seemed a deeply-affected company. The smell was that of carbonated 
 sewage. It was discernible by the tongue as well as the nose. The combined ride and sail 
 occupied one hour and a quarter. I suppose we traversed two miles of sewer; anyhow, I 
 was only too glad when the voyage ended and I once more inhaled the pure air of heaven." 
 
FERTILIZERS. 51 
 
 Composts.— We sometimes hear the question asked by farmers, " What is the use of 
 composting barnyai'd manure? Why not take it directly from the stables to the field and 
 thus save the labor of composting it?" We know of no better answer than this: Since 
 manure contains the elements of plant-food, and must be decomposed and become soluble or 
 gaseous before it can properly feed the Uttle rootlets tliat are reaching out in the soil for their 
 nourishment, thus to support and promote plant growth, — the sooner this decomposition is 
 accomplished, the earlier will the plant be supported, and the better its growth established. 
 Instead of waiting for this process to take place in the soil, after being plowed under, which 
 sometimes requires considerable time, unless well pulverized when apphed to the land ; besides, 
 even then the manure is so inaccessible to the amount of air required to produce fermentation, 
 that the process of decomposition is much retarded; but when composted before being 
 applied, it is readily assimilated. Another good reason for composting might be the use that 
 can be made of the fermenting manure to produce a similar fermentation in other substances 
 mixed with it, thus utilizing for fertilizing purposes, what might otherwise be entirely 
 useless. 
 
 The word " compost " signifies "placed together," hence it means a compound. Alex- 
 ander Hyde, of Jlassachusetts, thus defines it in a lecture on this subject: 
 
 ''Compost is 'hash,' and as we can make hash of fish, flesh, or fowl, using for this pur- 
 pose cod, halibut, salmon, or any other kind of fish; beef, pork, mutton, or any other kind 
 of meat; brahmas, dorkings, shanghais, or any other kind of fowl, using nice cuts, or the 
 refuse pieces, as economy or skill may dictate; so we may compost out of an almost unlimited 
 number of substances. There are almost as many modes of compounding food for plants as 
 for man, and every house-wife knows that these are endless. Speaking generally, it may be 
 said that everything that has once been organized into plant or animal life, may be made to 
 go the round of life again. 
 
 More specifically, as we generally use potatoes as the base of bash, by which to extend 
 the animal food, so we generally use muck, or some substance abounding in vegetable matter, 
 such as sods or leaf mould, as the base of the compost heap, so as to extend the more concen- 
 trated animal fertilizers and render them more easily assimilated by plants." 
 
 By the use of dry earth, muck, and other substances as absorbents, in stables, pig-yards, 
 and privy-vaults, as has been indicated in the previous pages, these manures are composted 
 and greatly improved in condition, for apphcation to lands, besides the saving by this means 
 of much of the liquid that might otherwise be lost, and preventing the escape of ammonia 
 and other valuable gases. But as it is often desirable to compost by a different process, wo 
 will consider the usual and most approved method of doing it. 
 
 Many farmers compost their manures under the stable-floors in a barn-cellar for that 
 purpose, where the various manures of the farm are mixed with muck and other absorbents 
 imtil well fermented ; others preserve the liquid manure in tanks under the stable for that 
 purpose, and produce a valuable fertilizer in the form of ammoniated superphosphate, by 
 mixing with it ground phosphate and sulphate of lime. Perhaps the more common method 
 of composting is by making a compost heap. 
 
 How to Construct a Compost Pile. — An elevated and dry spot is generally selected 
 as the site of the compost heap, in order that it may not receive the wash from a higher 
 source and thus much of the fertilizing substance be washed away and lost. 
 
 Boards should be placed at the bottom to prevent the liquid portion from soaking into 
 the ground, as would be the case were the soil of a sandy or gravelly nature. A layer of 
 muck or loam, from a foot to a foot and a half thick, should be placed so as to form a base 
 for the heap ; over this a layer of stable manure of equal thickness should be spread, which 
 forms the fermenting principle of the heap. This may be covered by a layer of leaves, or 
 refuse of any kind, such as straw, cornstalks, decaying vegetables, etc. If in the vicinity of 
 
52 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 a woolen or paper mill, or tannery, the waste substances furnished by these are often utilized 
 in the compost heap with good effect. Some farmers put in old woolen rags, old boots and 
 shoes, bones, brine, soap suds and all the garbage from the kitchen, and old refuse of every 
 kind and description that can be collected together, and which will, in time, become subject 
 to the chemical changes of the compost heap, and produce an excellent fertilizer. 
 
 In the cotton growing states, cotton -seed is often utilized as an important ingredient of 
 the compost pile, after having been fermented with wood-afhes to soften and reduce the 
 hulls. Another layer of muck should foUow this, then stable manure and waste material, 
 thus alternating until the pile is made of sufficient size. The manure from the sheep fold, 
 pig-sty and poultry-house, together with night-soil, aU furnish rich material for this purpose, 
 and are thought by most faxmers to be more beneficial to various crops when composted in 
 this manner than when applied separately. The compost heap should be composed of about 
 one load of manui-e to two loads of muck, in proportionate quantity of each, and from twenty- 
 five to thirty pounds of plaster added to each load. It should be built five or six feet high 
 (if not under cover), to prevent the rains from leaching it. The top of the heap should be 
 covered with muck. Some surmount this with boards on straw, as they fiinish a hay-stack, 
 which is a very good practice. When built under a cover, leaching by the rain is prevented, 
 but it involves the additional labor of keeping the mass wet. The three essentials necessary 
 to produce rapid decomposition in the pUe are air. moisture, and a temperature above 60°, 
 and these conditions, except in quite cold weather, are generally found in a compost heap. 
 Superphosphate of Ume, about two himdi-ed pounds to each cord of material, is considered by 
 many a very valuable addition to the compost pile, also finely groiuid bone, which is a good 
 substitute for the latter when that material is difficult to obtain. 
 
 Freshly slacked lime hastens decomposition, and thus gets the mass in condition to be 
 u^ed much sooner than it otherwise would be, but its use is objected to by many as having a 
 tendency to set free much of the nitrogen, and thus involving too much loss to be profitablv 
 used. Salt in sufficient quantity to give five or six bushels to the acre is also often a valuable 
 acquisition to the pUe, Some mis ashes, both leached and unleached, with the compost, 
 wliile others prefer to apply the ashes to lands separately. 
 
 Alexander Hyde says further respecting composts: "Muck, mixed up with fermenting 
 manure, becomes quickly infected with a tendency to decomposition, the manure acting much 
 Uke yeast in the housewife's bread-bowl, A little leaven of manure is thus made to leaven 
 the whole lump. "WTien shoddy was not so much in vogue as it is at present, we were accus- 
 tomed to use the refuse of a neighboring woolen-mUl for composting with muck, and as the 
 wool was generally oUy, ready to absorb oxygen from the air rapidly, and thus undergo a 
 spontaneous combustion, we have seen the pile in an almost boiling condition, A yellow oily 
 substance exuded from it, and a stick thnist into the pile, soon became feverishly heated. 
 In contact with such fermentation, muck is rapidly cooked, and made into good plant-food. 
 
 Common barn-yard manure does not ferment so furiously as oily wool-waste, but the 
 effect is similar. A board placed in it rots twice as fast as when in common earth. Even 
 old boots, which, from the tannin in them, resist decay with great pertinacity under ordinary 
 circumstances, placed in the compost heap, become as powerless as Samson with his head 
 shaven, and are as easOy torn as so much pasteboard. Horse-manure is more inclined to 
 fermentation than that fi'om cows, and is therefore best adapted to produce this decomposing 
 influence in the compost heap, 'We have known bones in a pile of horse-manure become so 
 soft that they could easily be crushed, 
 
 "We are not prepared to assent to the assertion so often made, that no additional virtue 
 is acquired by manure in the process of composting and fermentation. It might as well be 
 asserted that flour acquired no additional nutriment by composting it with a little yeast and 
 water. In the process of fermentation great chemical changes are going on; old compounds 
 are destroyed and new ones formed. 
 
FERTILIZERS. 53 
 
 The power of absorption is not the only recommendation of muck for the base of com- 
 post. Pure muck is pure vegetable matter, has been once organized into vegetable hfe, and 
 in its decay must furnish food for future vegetation. Placed in contact with animal manures, 
 or any dead animal substance, the decomposition of the muck is also accelerated, and the 
 mutual action is highly favorable for forming a good plant-food. 
 
 The quahty of muck varies in different locahties. "We have dug that which had the 
 odor of burning gunpowder as it first came from the pit. Such muck is a good manure in 
 itself. Other deposits possess less intrinsic value. The goodness depends in a measure upon 
 the character of the vegetation which, by its partial decay, has formed the muck bed. 
 Rushes, ferns, and mosses form a muck of less value than that made from leaves of deciduous 
 trees, and soft, sappy wood, partially decayed, furnish less fertilizing material than hard 
 •woods. 
 
 But muck is not the only base of the compost heap, and whether we should use it at all 
 will depend somewhat on the nature of the soil to which the compost is to be applied. If 
 this is sandy or gravelly, or a loam in which sand predominates, there is no better compost 
 than that with muck or leaf -mold as the base. On clay land, also well-drained, muck operates 
 favorably in making it loose and friable ; but if it is inclined to be wet and cold, muck 
 increases this tendency, as it is a great absorbent and retainer of moisture. We have used a 
 muck compost on a clay loam, pretty well drained too, till we perceived that the vegetation 
 started a little later in the Spring, when we changed the base of the compost, usmg alluvial 
 soil instead of the muck. The change was decidedly beneficial. The soil was apparently 
 pretty much destitute of vegetable matter, but was rich in silicates and other salts. 
 
 The caterer of plant-food finds that plants, like animals, are fond of a variety. Barn- 
 yard manure is the staple fertihzer, and, like bread in the animal economy, makes the best 
 steady diet. But this manure is better when made up or composted of the excrements of 
 different animals. Let a farmer feed a piece of land with the droppings of sheep alone, or 
 cows alone, for a series of years, and he will find that the effect is not so great after a time, 
 and that a little horse-manure put for a change upon the same land will work v.-onders. 
 Night-soil is one of the most efficient fertilizers, and has been much used by market-gardener.'' 
 near our large cities, yielding in its first applications immense crops, but after a time it lose? 
 its magical influence, and«a market-gardener once said to us that he was so well convinced of 
 the necessity of a change in plant-food, even where night-soil was used, which he considered 
 the best for the growth of vegetables, that once in the course of six or eight years he would 
 prefer a dressing of muck or rotted sods, or leaf-mold, or even good loam, to any pure nitro- 
 genous manure. A compost made of nitrogenous manure, salt, lime, ashes, bone-dust, refuse 
 vegetables, and refuse of almost every nature, will make a fertilizer of which plants will not 
 soon tire. 
 
 Different methods are employed for forming composts, according to the judgment and 
 opinions of different individuals; some preferring a hill-side slope for locating the compost 
 heap to an elevated, level situation. 
 
 Dr Thomas Pollard, late Commissioner of Agriculture in Virginia, gives the following 
 method in his recent report: 
 
 " A good plan for a compost heap is to select a gentle slope, and from the place selected 
 for the compost, dig a ditch, say a foot wide and half a foot deep, as long as may be necessary. 
 and sink a keg or barrel at the mouth to catch the drainings. On each side -of the compost 
 pile slope the ground with a hoe down to the ditch, so that all the drainings will flow into the 
 ditch; cover the whole bottom where the compost is to be formed with plank and cover the 
 ditch with plank, so that the drainage will get into it and the compost be prevented from 
 clogging it up. To build up the pile straight it will be well to make a temporary barricade 
 of plank across the ditch about three feet up from the keg. Commence building the compost 
 
54 'IHE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 pile against this plank fence. Build up the pile in sections of about six feet to a convenient 
 height, sloping the sides so as to shed rain. Finish each section to the top, sprinkle the 
 outside with dissolved bone, or if ground bone is used, then with gypsum, and cover with 
 boards or with straw like a stack, unless the compost is made under shelter, as some prefer, to 
 prevent loss of the liquid manure by heavy rains. But this will involve the labor of keeping 
 the pile wet by pouring water over it. When one section is finished proceed to form the 
 next section above and .so on. The advantage of finishing off in sections is, that decompo- 
 sition starts sooner, and by the time the last section is done, the first will be sooner ready. 
 
 The constituents and proportions for the composts must be determined with reference 
 to the crops to be grown, and the soil. 
 
 It is particularly important that putrescent manures shoiild be composted, for the quan- 
 tity can be largely increased with very httle or no loss in quality, particularly if phosphoric 
 acid and potash be added. Even without these it would be profitable to compost, for by 
 adding rich dirt, scrapings of fence-comers and ditch banks or woods' mold, and adding all 
 the hen-man\ire, hog-manure, urine, soapsuds, etc., from the house, a pile can be made of 
 equal value and much larger than if no compost is attempted, because many things will be saved 
 and added which would be thrown away and neglected. And by adding these things, 
 ammonia, which would escape, will be absorbed and retained, and the fermentation will 
 reach and embrace all the materials in the pile, and ' a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump.' 
 But groimd bone or ground phosphate, or these materials in dissolved form, should be 
 added, and potash, if the soils and crops require it. Do not add ashes or lime to the compost 
 unless gypsum is applied at the same time to prevent the ashes driving off the ammonia. It 
 is probable that it is better not to add lime at all. In making composts, the farmer must 
 study the wants of his different crops and of his soil. If the compost has to be formed in 
 a .short time, it will be better to use dissolved bone or phosphate; but if there is sufficient 
 time, then ground bone or phosphate should be used, as the ammonia and other things in the 
 pile will have time to make the phosphoric acid soluble. Observe, we frequently use the term 
 phosphoric acid for the bone or phosphate, in which form it is available to crojis. If the 
 dissolved article is used, gj'psum will not be necessary, If the ground article is used, then 
 gypsum wLU be necessary to prevent escape of the ammonia. Professor' Pendleton, using 
 stable-manure as the basis, directs that about the first of January tWs be removed to an open 
 space, the manure to be chopped and the compost formed by a layer of stable-manure six 
 inches thick, with a good sprinkling of ground phosphate (South Carolina) over it; then a 
 layer of cotton seed (previously saturated with water) ; then another layer of superphosphate 
 half an inch thick; then a layer of stable-manure, and soon, until the heap is completed, which 
 should be conical in form. (We think the pile had better be flat to catch water enough to 
 promote fermentation and prevent firing:) Over the heap then apply several inches of dry 
 clay soil to prevent the escape of ammonia. But if swperphosj^hate is used this will not be 
 necessary. Professor Pendleton in one place says ground phosphate, and in another super- 
 phosphate. This compost is to be put in corn or cotton beds in March and April. As we 
 cannot get cotton-seed, which are rich in nitrogen, then we must substitute sulphate ammonia 
 or nitrate soda, if we think we have not enough nitrogen for the crop. If we have a clover 
 or pea-fallow, or there is much vegetable matter in the soil, we can do without these. In the 
 cotton states veiy little grass is raised, and the land is usually clear of vegetable matter. 
 Cotton-seed comes in there very happily, and is very valuable in the production of a cotton 
 crop. In our compost heaps for a tobacco crop we can profitably put in the compost all the 
 tobacco stalks and stems we can get; they should, as far as practicable, be put in before 
 Christmas, to give them time to decompose. So much putrescent manure will not be 
 required in compost with these other materials as when used alone. "We may do with ten or- 
 fifteen one-horse cart-loads per acre, or less than this if some material, as sulphate ammonia or 
 
FERTILIZERS. 55 
 
 nitrate soda, is added to supply ammonia. In the cotton States they always add cotton- 
 seed to the heap, which fvirnishes as much ammonia, pound for pound, as good, dry stable- 
 manure. Judge Turner, of Hancock county, Geoi-gia, reported to the commissioner of 
 ao-riculture of that State the following experiment: dissolved bone, applied at the rate of two 
 hundred pounds per acre, yielded only six himdred and seventy-two pounds of cotton per 
 acre while fifty poimds dissolved bone, seventy-five poimds cotton-seed and seventy-five 
 pounds of stable manure to the acre, yielded one thousand and eight pounds cotton to the 
 acre. This seems a remarkable result for so small a quantity of stable-manure and cotton- 
 seed. 
 
 "When the compost is hauled out, every layer in the heap should be chopped down and 
 well mixed and pulverized. For wheat, it should of course be applied broadcast; for corn, 
 tobacco, potatoes, etc., in the trenches, unless there should be a plenty to apply broadcast." 
 
 An agricultural writer from Georgia recommends that a compost, which he has found 
 extremely valuable, be formed according to the following method: "If 360 pounds of cotton- 
 seed be well wet and then mixed with four bushels of hard-wood ashes, and permitted to 
 ferment, all the time kept moist, and turned several times, they will form a compost that will 
 saponify the oil in the cotton-seed, break down the hulls, and reduce them to a pulpy mass 
 of most wonderful fertilizing properties. Then mix this mass with one ton of well-rotted 
 stable-manure;' let the whole stand three weeks; turn it twice; keep all the time under shel- 
 ter, and it will be fit for use. I consider this quantity equal to 400 pounds of guano, and 
 think it will bring as large crops as can be gotten from that quantity of guano applied to an 
 acre in the drill. 
 
 The practice of composting cotton seeds directly with phosphates and manure is objec- 
 tionable, judging from my experience. The following are the reasons: The cotton-seeds are 
 made dry and hard, the hulls are not broken up; the benefits from the seeds are not obtained 
 on these accounts. I have noticed the seeds entire two years after using the compost, show- 
 ing they had not given up their valuable properties to plants. The phosphate forms an 
 insoluble fatty acid with the oil in the seed, which coating defies rot and prevents decompo- 
 sition. To avoid all these inconveniences, I prefer composting the cottonseed with an alkah, 
 so as to form a soap, as this will break up the hulls, and permit the valuable fertilizhig prop- 
 ■ erties of the seed to be readily surrendered to the plant for food. Ashes contain the cheapest 
 alkali for this purpose; 100 pounds of ashes will saponify 300 pounds of cotton-seed, and 
 reduce them to pulp. Hence the above compost is recommended, which has proved emi- 
 nently valuable in my experience.'' 
 
 The fermentation process will commence in a few days after the compost heap is 
 formed, if the weather be moderately warm, which will increase to a certain degree before 
 subsiding. By keeping the mass compact, fermentation can be retarded ; water apphed will 
 also produce the same efiect. The only danger at this stage in the process is, that if the 
 fermentation proceeds too rapidly, some of the most valuable elements, such as ammonia, 
 will escape in the exuding gases and be lost. This, however, can be detected by the odor; 
 and if there be a strong odor similar to ammonia, or what is commonly called " hartshorn," 
 in the vapor that escapes, this proves that these elements are being lost, and the evil will 
 have to be remedied by putting on a covering of wet plaster with a covering of dry earth 
 above it, which is considered the best method of checking it, since wet plaster arrests 
 decomposition as well as retains any ammonia that may have been generated, — or it may be 
 checked by turning on water only. 
 
 If the compost pile be made rather late in the autumn, such as the latter part of October 
 in the colder climate, and in December in the warmer, too rapid decomposition might, in a 
 great measure, be avoided by the temperature of the air. It is always a benefit to the com. 
 post thus formed to be shoveled over and mixed before using. The time required to properly 
 
56 THE AJIERICAN FARMER. 
 
 compost fertilizing materials (wliich. is not done until the materials are all broken up and 
 separated), varies according to the kind and quality of the substances used, the manner in 
 which they are treated, the degree of heat, cold, and moisture to which they are exposed, 
 etc. It is sometimes accomplished in three or four weeks, but often not under six months or 
 a year; r^ome writers say two years, but we think this, as a general rule, is quite too long, 
 though there may be exceptional cases where the materials used would require this length of 
 time. When made, as above described, in the fall, the composted manure will usually be 
 ready for use in the spring. 
 
 General Grant states that when in China he was shown a piece of land which had been 
 under cultivation every year for 5,000 years without deterioration of the fertility of the soil 
 This result is effected by returning to the soil everything taken from it. Fish constitutes a 
 large proportion of the food of the people, and ofial not consume':', f jr nuinan food is care- 
 fully applied to the soil, and fish is a great fertilizer. Even th? roots of the wheat — which 
 is grown to a very limited extent — are taken and rotted in a compost heap and returned to 
 the soil. All the leaves and garbage are utilized in the same manner. Thus the Chinese 
 have shown us that by returning to the soil the elements extracted from it, deterioration in 
 fertility may be entirely prevented. 
 
 Flesh, Blood, Hair, Uorns, Hoofs, etc. These substances, when decomposed, 
 afford, in a condensed form, some of the most valuable fertiUzing elements, such as nitrogen, 
 phosphate of Ume, etc. They are not, however, always procurable by the farmer, but when 
 a loss occurs among the animals of the farm, or if the refuse of a slaughter-house can be 
 obtained and buried in a peat-bed, or rich garden mold, until a perfect decomposition has 
 taken place; or, if put into the compost pile, the fertilizing material thus obtained will well 
 repay the trouble and labor attending it. When buried, a little lime added to the pile before 
 covering will greatly quicken the process of decomposition. It is estimated that a dead cow 
 or horse thus buried and mixed with eight or ten times their weight of soil, will yield from 
 ten to fifteen loads of the richest manure. When the body is cut in pieces and mixed with 
 dry muck or loam, decomposition is hastened and a more uniform mixture produced ; but 
 this never should be done if the animal died of a vinilent disease. In such a case, the 
 dead animal should be buried deep i-n the earth and far from any farm building, and never 
 be used as a fertilizer. The compost, in any case, should be made at a distance from the 
 house. AUen says that butchers' offal will give twenty times its weight of more valuable 
 manure than any from the cattle-yard. 
 
 Dried blood, when unadulterated, forms a valuable commercial fertilizer. Meat scraps 
 of any kind, fish-offal, shoddy, gelatine, and glue-waste are all valuable sources of nitrogen. 
 Much, however, depends upon their mechanical condition, with respect to their value, such 
 as their fineness, freedom from moisture, etc. Horns, hoofs, clippings from hides, etc., are 
 also rich in organic substances required by plants, when mingled with the soU, but must be 
 very finely pulverized to be available as fertilizers, as their naturally indestructible character 
 prevents them from decaying easily. The horns and hoofs are prepai-ed by first steaming, 
 which renders them soft and pliable like rubber; they are then quickly dried, which makes 
 them very brittle, and are easily ground into a fine powder, which jnelds, on analysis, over 15 
 per cent, of nitrogen. 
 
 Dried Blood. This fertilizer is one of the most valuable animal substances on account 
 of the nitrogen it furnishes, and its rapid formation of ammonia. The western cities supply 
 largely the markets of the country with this commodity, which has within a few years 
 become to be highly valued in the agricultural world. It is prepared for the market for 
 fertilizing pui-poses in the following manner: from two to four tons of fresh blood are put 
 into wooden or iron tanks of suitable size, containing double bottoms several inches apart. 
 The upper bottom is perforated with small holes and covered over with a coarse sacking t 
 
FERTILIZERS. 57 
 
 serve as a strainer or filter. These two bottoms of the tank have each a larger opening, 
 which is closed by a long stick fitting into them, and reachmg to the surface of the tank 
 which is used to discharge the liquid that has passed through the strainer, after the treat- 
 ment of the blood has been accomplished. A steam-pipe passes down to the filter, which is 
 controlled by a valve. The steam is then turned on and remains so for an hour or more, which 
 heats the blood and changes it into a coagulated mass that collects upon the filter or strainer 
 after the liquid at the bottom has been discharged. It is afterward dried by steam and pul- 
 verized for the market. This substance will contain, when pure, from 1 to 16 per cent, of 
 nitrogen. The amount of nitrogen lost by discharging the liquid is very slight, amounting 
 to only about one-half of one per cent. 
 
 Animal Dust. — This fertilizer is prepared from the blood, meat, scraps, and a part of 
 the bones obtained from large slaughter-houses, some of which, in the vicinity of Boston, are 
 large enough to dispose of three hundred head of cattle and two thousand sheep per day, 
 and the daily production of the fertilizer made from the refuse is equal to about six tons. It 
 is made by the meat scrapis and smaller bones being passed through the rendering process to 
 secure the fat ; the refuse matter is then mixed with blood and dried by steam heat. When 
 properly dried and ground to a powder, it furnishes a good fertilizer, which is easily decom- 
 posed and assimilated by the plants, and is said to be a good substitute for Peruvian guano. 
 Of course, this material varies in its composition and value, and is, like most other commodities 
 in the market, susceptible of adulteration, but the following table from an authentic source, 
 giving the analysis of this article manufactured by a reliable firm, will show about what its 
 average fertilizing proi^erties should be : — 
 
 ANIMAL DUST. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 Volatile and orgame animal matter, . . . . 71.00 
 
 Ash constituents, . . . . . . . 28.90 
 
 Moisture, ........ 11.50 
 
 Phosplioric acid in ash, ...... 11.26 
 
 Nitrogen in organic matter, ...... 6.84 
 
 Insoluble matter, . . . . . . . .56 
 
 Most of the blood and refuse of the large slaughtering establishments in the Eastern 
 States are used for making this manure. 
 
 Cotton Seed, Castor, and Linseed Pomace. — The pomace left after expressing 
 
 the oil from cotton-seed, linseed, castor beans, etc., is rich in nitrogen, and can be made very 
 profitable for fertUizing the soil, when of a suitable texture, since the finer the texture, the 
 more easily is it decomposed to become available plant-food. Prof. White, of Georgia, in 
 his treatise on the " Complete Analysis of the Cotton-plant," states that the ashes of the hulls 
 of the cotton-seed contain fourteen per cent, of potassium oxide, and seven per cent, of phos- 
 phoric acid. Cotton-seed furnishes a valuable ingredient to the compost pile, but when taken 
 whole will become most readily reduced and the hulls broken up by first being fermented by 
 having the seeds well wet and mixing with hard-wood ashes, in the proportion of about 360 
 pounds of seed to four bushels of ashes. This should be kept well wet until thoroughly 
 fermented, as described under the heading of Composts. It is conceded by the best agricul- 
 turists, as a general rule, that the waste material of any farm-crop pays best when used upon 
 the same field which served for its production, and that this is especially true in case of the 
 industrial products where a frequent reproduction of the same crojj becomes a leading feature 
 of the farm management. In this way, the elements extracted from the soil in the production 
 of certain crops are in a measure restored, and exhaustion of soil prevented. 
 
 Fish, Fish Guano, Fish Pomace, etc. — Fish have long furnished manure for 
 agricultural purposes to this and other countries, and will probably continue to be one of the 
 chief sources of supply for the future, since it is rich m phosphoric acid and nitrogen, two 
 
58 THE AMERICAN FARMER 
 
 valuable elements </f plant-food. The aborigines of our country were acquainted with its 
 value as a fert'lizer, and were accustomed to place one or two fish in a hill when planting 
 theii" maizfi, burying t.hem with the seed, that their decomposition might enrich the soil, by 
 the time the seed had well started in growth. Tliis practice, as well as that of plowing them 
 into the soil, of course, involves mucli waste, as the sUght covering of earth would not be 
 sufficient to retain the gases produced by the decomposition. Various species of small fish 
 are used for this purpose, the menhaden being used the most extensively in this coiintry. 
 The best and only proper mode of using them for a fertilizer is to first compost them with 
 dry earth or muck. This should be done by making a compost heap of alternate layers of 
 fish and earth, one above the other to the desired height, and covering the pile at the top 
 ■with three or four feet of soil. The pile shoidd have about a foot of earth at the bottom, 
 apon which a layer of fish should be spread from four to five inches deep ; upon this a layer 
 of earth about a foot deep, followed by another layer of fi'sh, and so on till the pile is complete, 
 the top to be covered with a foot of soil. As the fish decomposes, the soU acts as an absorbent 
 and deodorizer, which are so effectual that no annoyance wdll be occasioned by the escape of 
 any effluvia offensive to the most fastidious oKactories. In a few weeks, if the weather be 
 warm, the pile can be shoveled over and thoroughly mixed with the earth. It may be appHed 
 at any time to the soil, but should not be left exposed to the storms, as the rains wtU leach 
 out its valuable properties ; when not intended for immediate use, it should, therefore, be 
 kept under a shed or cover of some kind. 
 
 Upon the Atlantic coast, the menhaden fish are used principally for this purpose, being 
 very abundant, and fiu-nish a large portion of our fish guanos. The fish are usually first 
 subjected to a process that extracts a great portion of the oil, and the pomace is then dried 
 and ground, ready for use. The flesh of fish, like that of all domestic animals, c iiitains about 
 fifteen per cent, of nitrogen, and a fish guano that contains the largest amount of nitrogen 
 is, of com-se, the most valuable. "When an undue amount of heat is apphed in extracting 
 the oil from the fish, the guano is injured for agricultural purposes in a proportionate degree. 
 Prof. Goessmann says: 
 
 "Nobody familiar with the natiu'e of a good fish guano considers it less efficient for 
 agricultural purposes than any other animal refuse matter of a corresponding percentage of 
 phosphoric acid and nitrogen. In fact, all true guanos, the Peruvian not excepted, owe their 
 most valuable constituents, in a controlling degree, directly or indirectly to the fish. A weU- 
 dried and finely-ground fish guano is one of our best substitutes for Peruvian guano, and 
 ranks equally high with the best quality of animal dust from our butcher-refuse estabhsh- 
 ments. It deserves the liberal patronage of farmers wherever a rich nitrogenous phosphate 
 is called for." 
 
 In England, an immense amount of fish guano is made from little herrings (clupea 
 sprattus), that are taken in vast quantities off the southern coast of that country. 
 
 When the ground material is used, it should be mixed with about twice its bulk of dry 
 earth and usually scattered broadcast, and either harrowed in at once or covered by plowing 
 a shallow furrow. When used in the hiU, this mixture should be covered slightly with soil 
 before dropping the seed. The quantity required depends upon the condition of the soil, and 
 the kind of crops to be produced. 
 
 Peruvian Giiano. — It is a well-known fact that the deposits of guano upon the 
 Chincha Islands, after furnishing to the world from twelve to fifteen millions of tons of this 
 substance, are nearly exhausted, and that other islands now furnish almost entirely the supply 
 to meet the demand. The Guanape Islands, located about three hundred miles north from the 
 Chincha Islands, on the coast of Peru, now produce large quantities of it, but will not be 
 
Chincha. 
 
 Guauape. 
 
 13.50 
 
 9.70 
 
 14.54 
 
 13.10 
 
 — 
 
 14.20 
 
 FERTILIZERS. 59 
 
 t 
 able to fumisli as mucli as the former, and the quality is not quite equal to that produced by 
 the Chincha, as will be seen from the following analysis of the two varieties compared : — 
 
 Nitrogen, ..... 
 
 Phosphoric acid, .... 
 
 Sand, 
 
 Considerable quantities are also furnished by the Lobos, Macabi, and Ballistas islands. 
 The Chincha Islands are peculiarly adapted to furnishing a fine quality of tliis material, 
 as they are located only about twelve miles from the coast of Peru, in a region where rain 
 never falls, and the air is so dry that the juices of meat will evaporate so rapidly that it can 
 be preserved by drying without salt. Therefore, the accumulations of the excrement deposited 
 there for ages by the sea-birds have never been leached of the-ir valuable fertilizing properties 
 by the rains, and possess the elements suited to plant-gTowth in an eminent degree. These 
 islands are almost entirely devoid of vegetation, are very rocky, and covered to an incredible 
 depth with these deposits of the excrement of the sea-fowl, which gather there and feed upon 
 the fish that are so numerous in the waters surrounding their shores. It is said to look in 
 the distance, on approaching the islamls, lilce light-colored hills covered with snow, so great is 
 the amount accumulated. It is, as will be seen by consulting the table giving the analysis of 
 manures on a previous page, very rich in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and well adapted to 
 most crops and soils. No definite rule can be given with respect to what soils will be most 
 suited to its use, and hence the most benefited by its application, since soils differ so greatly, 
 that this can best be determined by experiment. 
 
 If used too long, however, upon any soil without a change to some other manure for a 
 time, the soil will be liable to become exhausted of those elements that it does not largely 
 furnish. This is true of all fertilizers that do not furnish a fair proportion of all the elements 
 of plant-food. It is wonderfully stimulating in its effects when applied to old, exhausted 
 soils. Peruvian guano should not be appUed in its pure state to seed of any kind, as it will 
 be liable to injure it. Some farmers recommend mixing it with three or four tunes its 
 weight in good soil before using. For such crops as grass, wheat, oats, etc., it should be 
 sowed broadcast in the early spring. For corn, potatoes, cotton, beans, peas, etc., the mixture 
 should be placed in each hill, covered sUghtly with earth, and the seed dropped upon it, thus 
 giving the opportunity of mingling its elements with the soil before the tender rootlets pene- 
 trate it. It is best in all cases to apply it in damp weather ; in fact, its value is greatly 
 aiiected by the moisture or dryness of the season whenever used, an u.nusually dry or wet 
 season being injurious, as the former prevents decomposition, while the latter, in many soils, 
 especially sandy soils, leaches out its most valuable properties, and places them beyond the 
 reach of the plant-roots. The average quantity for use is from two hundred to three hundred 
 pounds per acre. When applied to flowering plants and garden vegetables, it is well to dilute 
 it in water and sprinkle about the roots. 
 
 Rectified Peruvian Guano. — For several years after the introduction of Peruvian 
 guano into the market, it continued to be of uniform quality; after a time, however, it was 
 observed that various admixtures of stones from the underlying rocks, and sand from beach 
 washings, showed that some portions of the supply were becoming exhausted. It also some- 
 times happened that entire cargoes, or a portion of them, became damaged by sea-water in 
 the transportation, or by being packed in a very damp place. It was decided by parties 
 interested in the guano trade, to endeavor to restore the value thus lost by treating the 
 damaged material with sulphuric acid, by mixing from twenty to twenty -two pounds of the 
 acid with every one hundred pounds of guano when dried, which experiment was found to 
 be very successful, the rectified guano meeting with unusual favor, so much so that when the 
 damaged article was disposed of, the good guanos were subjected to the same process. 
 
60 THE AMERICAN FAUMER. 
 
 American Guano. — This name lias been applied to the product furnished by the low 
 coral islands in the far western Pacific, and which is inferior to the guanos of the islands on 
 the coast of Peru, owing to its being deposited in a region exposed, to a certain extent, to 
 rains, also moisture from the low character of the surface of the islands, and from being 
 mingled more or less with the soil. These islands are ten in number, the principal being 
 Baker, Rowland, Jarvis, Enderbury, and Starbuck. The guanos they furnish differ much 
 from the Peruvian, being free from odor, and resembling brown dust in appearance, while 
 they are nearly destitute of nitrogen, but rich in phosphates. The African and Peruvian 
 guanos are hght in color, and have a pungent odor. It is estimated that Baker Island alone 
 contained 160,000 tons before the supply was diminished by transportation, since the inaugu- 
 ration of the guano enterprise. Enderbury also contained about the same amount, while 
 that of the other islands varied in quantity from 20,000 to 50,000 tons. Some of the islands 
 have already been abandoned, their supply being exhausted. Asa general rule, a larger 
 quantity of this will be required for most soils than the Peruvian, as it is less rich in fertilizing 
 properties than the latter. 
 
 Bat Gnano is found in caves in many of tlie Southei-n States from Virginia to Texas. 
 It is stated that, before the war, this substance was experimented with for the cxti-action of 
 nitre, which it was thought to contain in abundance, many of the experiments proving qmte 
 successful in obtaining a large per cent, of tliis compound, but not suflBciently so to warrant 
 continuing the working of it for this purpose. It is, however, thought to be a valuable 
 fertilizing material, most of the samples that have hitherto been analyzed having been found 
 to contain a fair per cent, of organic nitrogen, while many of them contain ammonia and 
 nitrates. In Highland Co., Virginia, also in Tuscumbia, Alabama, these deposits are said to be 
 quite extensive, the latter containing a cave from eighty to ninety feet deep, and about three 
 miles wide, where it is found in great quantities. The guano furnished from this source has 
 been tried on corn, tobacco, and some other products, with good results. The Commissioner 
 of Agriculture says: 
 
 "The continued examination of bat-guano has afforded results confirming those obtained 
 by the former analysis, and proving the wealth of native fertilizing material existing in the 
 South. Indeed, calculations based upon the reported extent of the deposits and the proportion 
 of valuable constituents they are found by analyses to contain, show the aggregate value of 
 this material that may be considered in sight to amount to about $20,000,000. Surely 
 Southern cultivators need no urging to induce them to take advantage of these stores of 
 fertility for their poor or exhausted soils." 
 
 Dr. Goessmann, of Massachusetts, says the value of bat-guano, as a fertilizer, compares in 
 value favorably with those of the fish products largely manufactured in New England, and 
 even with Peruvian guano. Not having used this substance, or seen the result of its 
 application, we are not able to speak from experience or observation on this subject, but, 
 judging by the estimation placed upon it by those having a knowledge of its use, as well as 
 by the result of chemical analyses, we do not doubt that this product may be utilized to the 
 great advantage of agriculture in many of the Southern States. 
 
 Wood Ashes. — Wood ashes are particularly valuable as a fertilizer, containing a large 
 proportion of potash, which is in a condition to act quickly upon the soil in furnishing a 
 stimulating element of plant-food, and are consequently the best of saline manures; they 
 liowever vary in quality according to the quality of that from which they are produced, ashes 
 from hard wood being more valuable than those from the soft varieties. But any farmer 
 who knows the value of ashes, would not permit to be wasted those from any source; all 
 would be carefully saved and applied to his lands; and when they can be procured on rea- 
 sonable terms, it would well repay purchasing them for this purpose. 
 
FEllTILIZElJS. 61 
 
 Potash is a more lasting manure than some fertilizers, and does not wash so readily from 
 the soil; hence, ashes can be relied upon as a manure of considerable permanence, and have 
 long been, like barn-yard manure, one of the chief dependences of the farmer for feeding his 
 crops. The ashes of seaweed, and plants that grow near the sea, contain large quantities of 
 soda, while bone ashes consist mostly of phosphate of hme. 
 
 Ashes are valuable for grass and various other crops, such as grains, potatoes, turnips, 
 clover, lucern, peas, beans, etc. When mixed with bone-dust they are said to be more valu- 
 able for all root crops — peas, beans, and clover. They may often supplement the use of sta- 
 ble-manure, but cannot take the place of it, since stable-manure contains all the elements of 
 plant-food, and ashes do not. The quantity to be applied must depend upon the soil and the 
 kind of crop to be cultivated. Soils containing a large amount of potash will require less than 
 those not having a sufficient supply. As a general rule, light soils should have a smaller quan- 
 tity, and rich, heavy clays a larger supply, but as the constituents of different soils differ so 
 greatly, the reverse will often prove true, and many light and dry soils be benefited to a greater 
 extent by their appHcation than the heavy and damp. Experiment will be the surest guide 
 to the farmer. 
 
 As to quantity, we have known some soils to be best benefited by about 50 bushels per 
 acre; others, to be equally benefited by from 10 to 15 bushels, the quantity to be used 
 entirely depending upon the nature of the soil. When used a long time without the applica- 
 tion of an equal amount of vegetable or barnyard manure, they will exhaust the soil, manures 
 requiring a rotation, as well as crops. 
 
 But they can be applied to grass lands for a longer period without injury to the soil, than 
 to tillaged lands. They should be sown broadcast, and well harrowed in to plowed lands. 
 
 Ashes should be kept quite dry until used. They are valuable in reducing bones for 
 fertilizing purposes, and in composts. 
 
 Leached Ashes are those from which the potash has been in a great measure extracted 
 in the form of ley, by water, and are composed of carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime, oxide 
 of iron, etc. They will furnish nearly as much phosphoric acid as unleached ashes, but only 
 a small amount of potash ; hence, while they are of some value for agricultural purposes, they 
 axe not as valuable as the unleached, where potash is needed in the soil. They also fiu-nish 
 a less amount of lime than the unleached. 
 
 Coal Ashes have been known to benefit certain heavy soils by rendering them lighter 
 and more porous, but do not in themselves possess much value for fertilizing purposes, as will 
 be seen by reference to the table giving the analyses of various manures on a former page. 
 Their chief value is as a mulch when spread wide and thick enough to smother weeds and 
 grass. They are sometimes useful for spreading around the roots of young fruit-trees, for 
 reasons above given. When used as a fertilizer, and contain many cinders from not having 
 been thoughly burned, they would be injurious to light soils, though they might improve the 
 mechanical condition of such as are heavy and damp. 
 
 Soot has long been valued as a top-dressing for cereal crops in the early stage of their 
 growth, and for grasses. It contains ammonia, charcoal, and other desirable fertilizing ingre- 
 dients. It may be applied at the rate of from 15 to 50 bushels per acre. On light soils, the 
 addition of from 8 to 10 bushels of salt per acre is said to increase its good effect. Like 
 ashes, its best effect is not appreciable in a very dry season, moist weather being most desir- 
 able for the application of either. It is often used mixed with absorbents like earth, marl, or 
 muck, which aid in preventing the escape of ammonia. It may be sown broadcast or m 
 trenches, and harrowed in. The mixture of salt and soot is said to be the most powerful of 
 all manures for carrots. 
 
62 THE AMERICAN PARMER. 
 
 Charcoal Dlli^t, when applied as a top-dressing to lands, serves to condense ammo- 
 nia, nitric acid, and the gases of the atmosphere. It has an extraordinary capacity for absoi'b- 
 ing gases, and is said by reliable authority to absorb ninety times its bulk of ammoniacal gas. 
 It renders soils warmer by absorbing the sun's rays, and also serves to check rust in wheat, 
 and mildew in other crops. 
 
 Peat is used for agricultural purposes — principally for making composts, and as an 
 absorbent of other manures. Dried peat is valuable for absorbing the liquid manures of sta- 
 bles. As it contains from 75 to 90 per cent, of water in its natural state, it should be dug 
 and exposed to the atmosphere several months before being used for this purpose. 
 
 It varies in quality according as it is mi.xed more or less with the soil, some being much 
 more rich in ammonia than others. 
 
 Peat Ashes were at one time highly recommended for their value as a manure, both 
 ■when applied alone, and as an absorbent of night-soil, sewage-water, the liquid manure of 
 stables, etc. 
 
 It should first be dried thoroughly. It has been proved by Dr. Anderson of Scotland 
 that peat, when well dried, is a better absorbent and retainer of ammonia than after it has 
 been eliarred. 
 
 In reclaiming peat soils farmers frequently burn the peat and spread the ashes over the 
 beds from which the peat was taken. 
 
 Sea- Weed. — To those farmers living within convenient distance of the sea-shore, a 
 valuable manure can be obtained from the drifted sea-weed. It is often thrown upon the 
 sandy coast by the waves in large quantities, and can easily be raked up and carried away 
 after the tide has receded. 
 
 It is frequently used as a bedding for cattle, and makes a valuable addition to the com- 
 post heap. In England it is frequently applied as a top-dressing to grass and clover. It may 
 be plowed into the soil in the spring with a shallow furrow, three or four inches, and is valu- 
 able for most crops, especially grain, which it is said to produce of a very fine quality. It is 
 also said to be highly valuable in the cultivation of potatoes. Large quantities are recom- 
 mended in using. 
 
 Ashes of Sea-Weed. — As sea-weed is quite bulky, and is sometimes inconvenient to 
 remove to a distance, it is often burned where gathered, and the ashes saved for agricul- 
 tural purposes. These ashes contain soda, potash, and other fertilizing substances. The 
 ashes of sea-weed are known under the names of kelp, barilla, and varec. In Sicily, Spain, 
 and some other countries, the ashes of marine plants, called barilla, were used for making 
 soap. Kelp and varec are terms applied to the ashes of sea-weed made from the algae and 
 fuci species, which grow upon rocks in great abundance on a large portion of the coast of 
 Great Britain and some other countries. The sea- weeds are dried and burned in large ovens, 
 twenty-four tons of the sea-weed being required to produce one ton of kelp. This is at pres- 
 ent the principal material from which iodine is obtained. The name for sea-weed ashes issued 
 in France is varec. 
 
 From the above it wiU be readily seen that sea-weed ashes have alkaline properties that 
 may be valuable as a fertilizer of the soil. 
 
 Marl is soil containing clay, carbonate of lime, sand, and sometimes sulphate and phos- 
 phate of lime, differing in its composition ii; different localities, some containing more or less 
 of these ingredients than others. It is ofton applied to lands to increase their fertility, the 
 lime it contains being the most essential element. When it is found in the proximity of, or 
 lying imder sandy or peaty soils, its application in largo quantities is attended with the best 
 effects. 
 
FERTILIZERS. 63 
 
 It is adapted to all soils that have not already a sufficient supply of lime. It is 
 especially adapted to grass and clover. The clay marl produces the best effect on light, sandy 
 soils, and the sandy marl on clay and heavy soils. It is better to be well exposed to the sun 
 and air before applying it to any kind of soil. The green sand marl, of which there are 
 extensive beds in New Jersey, contains a large amount of potash, besides lime, magnesia, 
 sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, silica, and vai'ious other substances, and is a valuable fertili- 
 zer. It has long been a staple manure in that State, where it occui's in three distinct depos- 
 its, — the upper, middle, and lower marl beds, which stretch across the State from the High- 
 lands of Navesink, near Sandy Hook, to the Delaware River, below Wilmington, and in many 
 localities is easily excavated. It seems especially adapted to the use of vegetation as plant- 
 food, its apphcation having a speedy effect. The result of its use is seen in a remarkable 
 degree in the improvement of the light, sandy soils of Eastern New Jersey, where large tracts 
 of sandy and almost worthless lands have been transformed into a garden. It must be 
 applied in large quantities, ofteti several tons to the acre, in order to obtain the best results, 
 and then furnishes potash and other fertilizing properties with a considerable degree of 
 permanency. 
 
 Lime. — Lime is manufactured from limestone, marble, and shells, by burning or sub- 
 jecting them to intense heat, which expels the carbonic acid. After this acid has been driven 
 off by calcination, it has great affinity for water and carbonic acid, and readily combines with 
 both, on exposure to either water, earth, or the atmosphere; in the latter case it is said to be 
 " air-slacked." 
 
 With respect to the manner and extent of benefiting soils by the application of lime, 
 there exists among the farmers of the present day a difference of opinion, some claiming it 
 to be of no appreciable value whatever; others, that it acts, not only as a fertilizer, but 
 by its chemical action upon some of the constituent elements of the soil, renders them more 
 available as plant-food ; in other words; it unlocks the stores of rich plant-food, which by the 
 mechanical condition of the soil are locked up beyond the reach of the plant-roots, and hence 
 are useless to them. 
 
 Lime enters into the composition of nearly all crops, and when not found in sufficient 
 quantities in the soil, will prove a valuable fertiUzer; but most soils contain in themselves a 
 fair proportion of lime for the production of most crops, yet, as has been previously stated, 
 the quantity sufficient for the present requirements of the plant, may not be available; hence 
 experiment alone, as is the case with most fertilizers, will best prove to the farmer whether 
 his lands will be benefited by its use or not. Its application hastens the decay of vegetable 
 substances contained in the soil, and converts them into available plant-food, and by its 
 chemical action upon the coarser particles of the soil, causes them to become broken up and, 
 in a measure, pulverized, thus setting free the mineral properties therein contained, and 
 which are so essential to vegetation. When not contained in any soil in sufficient quantity, 
 it can be apphed separately, or combined with sulphuric acid, in the form of gypsum or plas- 
 ter; and since these two ingredients — lime and sulphuric acid — wash out of the soil more 
 readily and freely than most of the other constituents, it must be frequently applied to make 
 up the constant loss of these elements, and keep the soil supplied with the requisite amount. 
 
 A farmer of large experience says, he knows of a farm that has not had a bushel of lime 
 applied to it in twenty years, and it is now infested with sorrel; previous to this time, lime 
 was used upon it, and it was very productive ; he draws the natural conclusion, that lime 
 would prove a remedy for the evil. We think he argues correctly, and that all such lands 
 as will produce sorrel and other weeds better than the common farming products, will be 
 greatly improved by the application of lime, which corrects the acidity of the soU, and ren- 
 ders it suited to the production of more valuable crops. It also is very beneficial in destroy- 
 ing many noxious insects and worms that injure the roots of plants. Allen says of it : — 
 
64 THE A3IER1CAN FARMER. 
 
 " Lime, next to ashes, either as a carbonate or sulphate, has been instrumental in the 
 improvement of our soils beyond any other saline manures. Like ashes, too, its application 
 is beneficial to every soil, not already sufficiently charged with it. It makes heavy land 
 hghter, and Hght land heavier; it gives adhesiveness to creeping sands or leachy gravel, and 
 comparative openness and porosity to tenacious clays ; and it has a permanently beneficial 
 effect, where generally used, in disinfecting the atmosphere of any noxious vapors existing in 
 it. It does not condense and retain the organic matters brought into contact with it by the 
 air and rains, but it has the better effect of converting the insoluble matters in the soO into 
 available food for plants. It has proved in many instances the wand of Midas, changing 
 everything it touched into gold. It is the key to the strong box of the farmer, securely lock- 
 ing up his treasure till demanded for his own use, and yielding it profusely to his demands 
 whenever required. In its influence in drying the land, and accelerating the growth of plants, 
 the use of Hme is equivalent to an increase of temperature; and the farmer sometimes expe- 
 riences, in effect, the same benefit from it, as if his land were removed a degree or two to 
 the south. The influence of lime in resuscitating soils after they have been exhausted has 
 been frequent and striking; and it may be stated as an incontrovertible truth, that wlierever 
 procurable at low prices, lime is one of the most economical and efficient agents in securing 
 fertility within the farmer's reach. 
 
 It has been falsely said to be an exhauster of soils; that it enriches the fathers and 
 impoverishes the sons. So far as it gives the occupant of the land the control over its latent 
 fertility, this is true; but if he squanders the rich products when within his reach, it will be 
 his own fault. Lime gives him the power of exhausting his principal; if he uses aught 
 beyond the interest, his prodigality is chargeable to his own folly, not to the liberality of his 
 
 Lime made from shells is the most valuable. Our cultivated crops contain on the aver- 
 age about as much lime as potash. 
 
 Lime should be slacked before being applied, except when used to decompose the organic 
 substances in the soil ; it can then be applied without slacking, but in any case, while it is nec- 
 essary that it should be thoroughly mixed with the earth, it should be kept near the surface, 
 as it is liable to sink into the soil. In whatever wa)' it is apphed, it is well to remember that 
 the carbonic acid which has been expelled from it by the heat is quickly regained from the 
 atmospliere, and it should, in consequence of this, be as little exposed to the air as possible 
 before being applied to the land. It should be put upon the land as soon as practicable after 
 slacking. Some farmers pile it in heaps "upon the land, and by mixing it with water apply 
 it at once, and harrow it in. Another method is to place it in large piles and cover it thickly 
 with earth and leave it to gradually slack. In this case there is danger from loss by drench. 
 ing rains, unless the pile be well-protected to prevent washing. Some favor a compost of 
 earth, lime, and salt, in the proportion of one part of salt to three or four parts of lime. It 
 is better to apply lime in small quantities, and do so frequently, than to make a large appli- 
 cation of it at longer intervals, from ten to fifteen bushels being considered by good judges 
 a fair allowance for ordinary soils, though we have known 1 00 or more bushels per acre to 
 be used. By watching the efl:ect of a small application, the farmer will be able to judge 
 whether his lands require it in larger quantities, or whether its use on his particular soil be 
 at all beneficial, since there is scarcely anything that is so dependent upon repeated experi- 
 ment, and so independent of all definite rules, as the fertilizing department of agriculture, 
 owing to the great diversity of soils, the difference in their mechanical condition, and various 
 other causes. 
 
 Lime is particularly valuable in the cultivation of tobacco, causing the ashes to be very 
 white. 
 
FERTILIZERS. 65 
 
 ■ Ground Limestone and Shells are sometimes applied as a fertilizer, and are similar 
 in effect to old air-slacked lime, or sheU-marl, being a carbonate of lime in their principal 
 composition. 
 
 Its action is more speedy when ground fine than when coarsely ground. It is useful on 
 such soils as are benefited by the appHcation of lime. Ground shells are also sometimes used 
 as a fertilizer. They contain carbonate and phosphate of lime, and often some animal mat- 
 ter. It is better to burn them first, as they are then converted into nearly pure lime; besides, 
 this is the easier and cheaper method of preparing shells for use. 
 
 Gas Lime. — Lime from gas-works is said, by competent writers, to be for agricultural 
 purposes about equal in value to common lime. 
 
 It is the refuse lime that has been used in the manufacturing of gas, and consists mainly 
 of carbonate of lime, some sulphur, tar, and sulphate of Ume, and must be applied more 
 cautiously or in more moderate quantities than common Mme. It is safer to apply it after a 
 few weeks' exposure to the air, as it would be liable to poison vegetation if used fresh from 
 the gas works. It is very important that it be weU pulverized, that it may be evenly spread 
 upon the land. It may be applied to grass or plowed lands for wheat or other crops, and 
 should in the latter case be well harrowed in. Some farmers pile it in small heaps in the faU 
 or winter, and spread it in the spring. When designed for plowed crops, it would be well 
 to spread it upon the soil late in the fall or winter, that it may be exposed to the air before 
 being harrowed in. It is also valuable for the compost heap. 
 
 Its acrid qualities are said to render it valuable as an insect-repeller, and, when strewn 
 sparingly over young turnip-plants, to repel the turnip-fly. Some writers recommend its use 
 at the rate of 25 bushels per acre, but we think it would be well to experiment cautiously 
 with a smaller quantity at first. 
 
 Bones contain a large proportion of phosphate of hme and other substances which ren- 
 der them valuable for fertilizing purposes. There is, in fact, no ingredient of the bone tliat 
 is not useful to vegetation, and it is well adapted to almost all soils and nearly all agricul- 
 tural products, especially so to the various kinds of grains, to potatoes, turnips, clovers, and 
 most garden vegetables. Since bones decompose so slowly, one of their chief factors of value 
 in agriculture is the fineness to which they are reduced before applying, since the finer they 
 are ground the more readily will the plants be able to appropriate them as plant-food. 
 
 Bone is especiallj' valuable for fruit-trees. Many farmers use bones to place under the 
 roots of grape-vines and fruit-trees when setting tliern, putting a peck or more of old bones 
 in the bottom of the place dug for inserting the roots. This will give something for the 
 rootlets to feed upon for years, as they become slowly decomposed, and will be of great value 
 in promoting the future growth and vigor of the trees or grape-vines. As bone-dust is rather 
 slow in decomposing, it is recommended by many writers on agriculture to apply it in 
 autumn or early winter, thus giving the rains and melting snows an opportunity to act upon 
 it, and wash it among the roots of plants. It may be sown broadcast at the rate of from five 
 hundred pounds to a half ton or more per acre, according to the nature and needs of the 
 soil. In England, the enormous quantity of a ton and a half of bone manure per acre is often 
 applied to pastures of old clay soil in keeping them productive; and English writers on the 
 subject state that there is nothing equal to it, either in the permanency of its effects, or in the 
 production of a sweet, luxurious herbage, of which the cattle are fond. 
 
 Pulverizing and Reducing Bones. — There are various methods of pulverizing or 
 reducing bones for agricultural purposes. Grinding is the best process when a mill is acces- 
 sible for that purpose, and the finer they are ground the better. When grinding is impos- 
 sible, for lack of a suitable mill, many farmers reduce them by the use of ashes and liquid 
 manure, by first breaking the bones, as well as may be, with a sledge-hammer, and then 
 
66 THE AMEIUCAN FAIJMER. 
 
 mixing them in a large barrel or hogshead, in alternate layers, with wood ashes, the layers to 
 be each three or four inches deep. When tlie bones are th\is disposed of, wet the whole with 
 urine from the cattle or horse stable (which can easily be saved by placing a tank under the 
 stable-floor)- there should be a sufficient quantity of the liquid manure to wet the whole mass 
 thoroughly. After fermenting a few weeks, the bones will be sufficiently soft to be easOy 
 crushed with the shovel, and they can then be mixed with dry earth, road-dust, muck, or any 
 other dry absorbent, and are ready for use. 
 
 Some use water only, fii-st making a hole in the bottom of the barrel and covering it 
 with straw for a filter, placing a tank underneath to receive the lye. As the lye accumulates in 
 the tank, it is again poured into the barrel. This is to be continued daily, with perhaps 
 occasionally a little addition of water to restore the quantity lost by evaporation. A month 
 or two of warm weather, it is said, will render the bones soft and ready to be mixed for use. 
 The addition of a little caustic potash of commerce will hasten the operation and give 
 increased value to the manure. The use of liquid manure is preferable to water for this 
 purpose. 
 
 A recent writer gives the following method of reducing bones with lye: 
 
 " Where unleached ashes are easily obtained, bones can be reduced to a very fine state by 
 boiling them in strong lye. This eats them up with great rapidity. We have reduced a half 
 ton of them in a day with two four-barrel kettles. The fine bone must be frequently taken 
 from the bottom of the kettle with a shovel made of the proper shape, to keep it from burning 
 on the bottom. When the bone is reduced to a fine state in this way, it is not all soluble, as 
 in the case of being reduced with acid, but it is so fine that ifc becomes soluble in a short time, 
 by the action of the air and soil. When the wood-ashes can be obtained, this is an excellent 
 . way to reduce bones, as it may be considered very cheap, since the potash or lye is all saved 
 in the manure, and is worth all it costs. The leached ashes are also valuable as a manure, and 
 the only expense that can properly be counted in reducing the bones by this method is the 
 labor. Although the fine bone reduced with lye is not so soluble as that dissolved in 
 sulphtu-ic acid, yet it is more rapidly dissolved by the action of air and soil than fine groimd 
 bone. Dry earth is excellent to mix with this lye-reduced bone, if it is to be applied in the 
 hill to potatoes or corn; but if it is to be applied through a drill with grain, or corn planted 
 with driU, it must be dried with some dry, fine sifted material, such as coal-ashes, or dried 
 and sifted clay, lime, or land-plaster. 
 
 We have found this the best application for potatoes. We might expect this result, as 
 the ash of the potato is 59 per cent, potash and 20 per cent, phosphoric acid, and these two 
 most important elements are the principal ones in this manure. We have also fotmd it suc- 
 cessftil upon wheat, oats, rye and grass." 
 
 It is a custom with the German farmers to decompose even the grotmd bone, before 
 applying it to the soil; for this purpose they mix it with sawdust or dried peat, and pour 
 over it liquid manure or water, letting it stand in piles about a week to ferment, then turn it 
 over and mix it with earth and put it upon the field, where it is either plowed under quite 
 shallow, or harrowed imder rather deeply. It is often composted with manure to advantage, 
 the bone-dust and manure acting and re-acting upon each other in the process of fermenta- 
 tion, producing a valuable fertilizer. 
 
 Bones can be pulverized by burning, but this drives off the organic matter, which con- 
 tains nitrogen, and hence greatly diminishes their value; it leaves, however, the phosphate of 
 Hme, which is a very rich fertilizer. 
 
 A very good manure can be made by the use of sulphuric acid in reducing bones, but it 
 must be \ised with the greatest caution, as it vnW make the hands sore, and spoil clothing, if 
 they come in contact with it. 
 
 Old bones that have been lying about the farm for a long time exposed to all kinds of 
 
FERTILIZERS. 67 
 
 weatlier, are harder to reduce than fresli bones containing gelatine. As a general thing, it 
 will be found more satisfactory to purchase ground bone from the manufacturers, who have 
 every facility for putting them in a condition favorable and convenient for use. The only 
 objection is, that this material is often adulterated by mixing something of inferior value with 
 it, and the fraud is difBcult of detection except by chemical analysis, which will neither be 
 convenient nor economical for the farmer to have done. The best safeguard will be to deal 
 only with manufacturers who have a good reputation for honesty in producing a pure article. 
 Mineral phosphates, as well as bones, furnish a supply of pliosphoric acid to the agricul- 
 tural world. They are found in South Carolina in great abundance, and are sometimes called 
 phosphate marls. They are supposed by geologists to be coprolites, or the excrementitious 
 remains of fossil animals, that seem to have congregated in great numbers in this region. 
 They are reduced with sulphuric acid, and are considered among the best of fertilizers. 
 
 Gypsnm, Plaster, or Sulphate of Lime. — The pure gypsum, when ground and 
 subjected to the proper degree of heat, constitutes what is called " Plaster of Paris," which is 
 so extensively used for stucco, hard-finish, and for various purposes in ornamental art. 
 
 The most celebrated gypsum-beds are those of Montmartre, near Paris. In this country 
 gy|DSuni is found in Nova Scotia, New York, Virginia, Tennessee, Michigan, and various 
 other localities. It is valuable as a fertihzer, containing lime, combined with sulphuric acid, 
 and a few other substances. 
 
 The pure gypsum is usually white, but the ground land-plaster is white or light gray, 
 and sometimes of a dark gray, like that quarried in central New York. Its agricultural 
 value depends upon its amount of sulphate of lime principally, and cannot be judged of 
 accurately by its color or appearance after being ground. 
 
 The use of gypsum is attended with great benefit to certain soils and crops, being best 
 adapted to sandy, loamy, or clay soils, though requiring a larger application to such soils as 
 contain a considerable amount of vegetable matter. Its use is especially beneficial to the pro- 
 duction of the red and white clovers, grass, lucem, sainfoin, peas, beans, etc. It has been 
 found, by the experience of most farmers, that in the use of plaster, as with wood-ashes and 
 some other fertilizers, that the season has much to do with the benefits derived from its appli- 
 cation; that gypsum requires a large amount of water, and when the season is very dry, the 
 benefits resulting, even upon the same field, are greatly inferior to those of a moist season; 
 also, another noticeable fact in its use is, that it almost always shows better results upon the 
 north and northeastern slopes of hills, than upon the southern. This can be accounted for 
 only in the fact that the northern slopes of hills are longer in the shade than the southern, 
 and usually have a heavier deposit of dew ; hence the soil there would contain more moisture 
 tlian the southern slopes, proving the necessity of a sufBcient supply of moisture in attaining 
 the best results. 
 
 Plaster is a great absorbent, and its efficiency is supposed to be in a measure attributable 
 to its power of absorbing and retaining ammonia, and furnishing it to plants to which it is 
 applied, as they have need. It is a very good absorbent to apply to the manure-heap, com- 
 post-pile, and privy vaults, not only acting as a disinfectant, but, by thus mixing it with 
 ammonical manures, a sulphate of ammonia is obtained which is less volatile than carbonate 
 of ammonia, the natural product of these substances. 
 
 When applied to the soil, the sulphate of ammonia more readUy parts with its fertilizing 
 properties than the carbonate form, which effect is of course modified by the amount of 
 moisture in the soil. 
 
 Liebig says on this subject: '-Soluble sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime are 
 formed, and this salt of ammonia, possessing no volatility, is consequently retained in the soil. 
 All the gypsum gradually disappears, but its action upon the carbonate of ammonia continues 
 as long as a trace of it exists." 
 7 
 
68 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 Gypsum seems to produce very diSerent effects, as we have previously stated, on differ- 
 ent soils, and in different seasons. Sometimes its results are astonishing in its prompt effect in 
 increasing the yield of crops, as in the case of Dr. Franklin (mentioned in the chapter on 
 clover), whose name, traced by its application to a clover-field, could be distinctly seen from a 
 long distance, by the darker green and more luxuriant growth than the other portion of 
 the field. In other cases its application seems to have no effect whatever. It is often a 
 powerful stimulant to old worn-out lands, as it seems to set free the potash and phosphoric 
 acid in the soil; but it must be used with judicious care, for, if applied too long continuously 
 upon any soil, such lands will become exhausted and cease to produce crops worth cultivating; 
 they will become what is sometimes termed "plaster sick," which is simply a starvation of the 
 soil for want of a greater variety of food, as it furnishes only a part of the elements of 
 plant- food. 
 
 Plaster, from its own constituents and by absorption of ammonia from the air, can 
 furnish only two of the many inorganic elements which enter into the composition of plants. 
 If its use could be followed by clover, as a green manure every three or four years, thus 
 restoring in a measure the elements extracted by its stimulating effects, such soils would be 
 greatly benefited, and its use in this manner could be continued for a long time with no 
 injurious effects. 
 
 The necessity of moisture in obtaining favorable results in its use will be apparent 
 when we remember that it requires over 400 parts of water to dissolve one part of gypsum. 
 
 For corn, potatoes, and crops cultivated in a similar manner, it is usually put in the hill 
 at the time of planting the seed, though some sprinkle it upon the plants after the crops have 
 been hoed the first time, and when they are wet with dew or rain. For many crops, such as 
 grass, clover, grains, etc., it is sown broadcast, whicli can be done with almost any broadcast 
 seed-sower. 
 
 Experiment alone can determine definitely to what soils its use is best adapted, and the 
 quantity to be applied. Some English writers mention two or three hundred pounds per acre 
 as a proper amount, but American writers generally do not recommend over one hundred or 
 one hundred and fifty pounds per acre. When deposited with the seed by the grain-drill, it 
 should be mixed with three or four times its quantity of soil, otherwise the germ of the seed 
 might be injured. 
 
 Salt (Chloride of Sodium). — The use of common salt as a fertilizer of the soil is 
 of remote date. In China and Hindostan, the rice-fields have been kept in fertility for ages 
 by applying sea-water. Its use has also been long known in various portions of Europe. It 
 supplies plants with chlorine and soda, but its principal value as a fertilizer is in its chemical 
 action upon other elements of plant-food in the soU, which it renders more available. It also 
 is a valuable agent in exterminating grubs, wop is, and other vermin from the soil, being very 
 beneficial in the culture of garden vegetables, -or this reason. It has a tendency to keep the 
 land cool and moist, and thus neutralizes drouth, and is thought by many farmers to glaze 
 and stiffen the straw of grains, and prevent crinkling and rust. Salt mixed with wood-ashes, in 
 the proportion of one part of salt to four of ashes, and appHed at the rate of a handful to 
 the center of each hill of corn immediately after planting, is said by good authority to 
 supersede the use of scare-crows and coal-tar, as no worm or crow will touch it; besides, the 
 fertilizing properties of the compound are highly beneficial. When sown on _ wheat, it is 
 said 10 destroy the chinch-bug, so destructive to that crop. To lands near the sea-coast and 
 that occasionally receive a supply of salt from the spray that is carried to them by the ocean 
 storms, it usually produces no apparent effect, as they are already supplied with a sufBcienI 
 quantity of this element. It is a fertilizer that must be used with care, for if too large { 
 quantity be applied, it is liable to injure vegetation. When applied in contact with seed, as 
 is sometimes done with grain-drills, only a small quantity should be used, as it may destroy 
 
FERTILIZERS. 69 
 
 the germ. It will destroy the eyes of potatoes, when put in contact with them in the hUIs at 
 planting. A western farmer and writer states that he has never seen any damage done the 
 wheat-crop by the chinch-bug where there had been two hundred pounds of salt to the acre, 
 • sown broadcast, and that the best time for sowing it is when the wheat is about four inches 
 high. The refuse salt from packing-houses is often used for this purpose. Prof. Whitney 
 states that there is no mauurial substance of less rehability than salt, for the reason that its 
 effects depend not only upon the kind of crops raised, but upon the character of the land 
 itself, and in no less degree on the other fertihzers with which it may be used. On sandy 
 soils, devoted to the growth of the mangold-wurtzel, the results of its use are often marvelous; 
 under these conditions its application is very common and profitable in England. It rarely 
 benefits stiff clay soUs, as it renders them too wet. It is thought by most farmers to be 
 adapted to light soUs, such as a light sand or loam ; also to those soils that are rich in organic 
 matter, and which contain considerable humus. It is not, however, of advantage to apply it 
 to very loose, sandy soils, or what are termed gravelly soils. 
 
 According to Dr Voelcker, the good effect of applying salt is in its power of hberating 
 tbe ammonia from soils which have been highly manured with decomposed stable manure, 
 and that it is most beneficial when applied to light land after a good dressing of this manure, 
 either alone or with Peruvian guano. English writers generally favor its use in combination 
 with some other fertilizer, such as lime, soot, nitrate of soda, etc. The following are the 
 results of Dr. Voelcker's experiments : — 
 
 On a sandy soil, containing only a moderate quantity of soda and potash, and with a 
 deficiency of hme, from a given area, without the use of salt, there was obtained 12 tons, 
 2 cwt., and 76 pounds of mangolds. When salt had been applied at the rate of two hundred 
 pounds per acre, 18 tons, 19 cwt., and 93 pounds were produced, showing an increase per 
 acre, from the use of salt, of 58 tons, 14 cwt., and 20 pounds. Three hundred pounds of salt 
 per acre were applied, and the increase was sKghtly less than the preceding. On increasing 
 the amount of salt to eight hundred pounds per acre, the yield was 21 tons, 18 cwt., and 84 
 pounds, or an increase of over nine tons as compared with the area that was unmanured with 
 salt. From one hundred to two hundred pounds of salt per acre are often beneficial to 
 pasture-lands ; cattle and sheep greatly relish such grass. When applied to coarse grasses 
 it has a tendency to greatly improve the quality of the herbage. 
 
 The quantity of salt to be applied must be determined, in the main, by experiment, as 
 well as the kind of soil to which it is adapted. It would be well for the farmer to apply it 
 to a portion of his field, and carefully note the result. Some writers speak of using at the 
 rate of two bushels per acre with good effect; but it seems to us that this is an unusually 
 small quantity; four hundred poimds is about tlie quantity generally recommended by Eng- 
 hsh authorities, while many agriculturists of our own country recommend two hundred or 
 three hundred pounds per acre as a sufficient quantity. The quantity required will, of course, 
 depend upon the nature of the soil, the same as with all other fertilizers. 
 
 Potash— Sources of Supply— The Stassfurt Potash Mines, etc.— Since 
 potash is such an essential element in plant-production, and consequently an element greatly 
 needed in the soil, where it is rarely found in sufficient quantities, it is a question of no small 
 import to the farmer as to how this necessary substance can be obtained. Wood-ashes are 
 valuable in this respect, but cannot always be procured in sufficient quantities, or at a rate to 
 render their use an economical fertilizer. Very fortunately for the agricultural interests of 
 the world, an immense deposit of the salts produced from the evaporation of sea-water, and 
 containing a number of compounds, including potassium, has been discovered in northern 
 Germany, which is supposed to be the remains of an ancient sea. An all-wise and kind 
 Providence has thus provided for the wants of man in this respect, as in all others, and has 
 left them there for him to discover and apply to use through the patient labor of his hand 
 
70 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 and brain. These famous German potash mines are located near the Hartz Mountains, 
 partly in Prussia and partly in the small Duchy of Anhalt. These include the mines of 
 Stassfurt proper, the contiguous mines at Leopoldshall, and those more recently opened about 
 ten miles distant at Westeregeln. According to the best authority, the deposits of this 
 region consist chiefly of the various compounds of sodium, potassium, inagnesium. and lime. 
 with sulphuric acid, and chlorine. The larger proportion, however, consists of chloride ot 
 sodium, or rock-salt, which seems to be stored there in an inexhaustible supply. Lying on 
 the top of the rock-salt deposit are various mineral salts, such as kieserite, polyhalite, kainite, 
 carnallite, etc. The total area of this salt-basin is supposed to be about six hundred square 
 miles; the upper surface of the deposit at Stassfurt being from 350 to 830 feet from the surface. 
 It is stated that in the year 1856 the minere penetrated to the depth of 1,856 feet, finding 
 pure rock-salt in a seemingly inexhaustible supply as they bored down, and that they then 
 said, '' We have made the depth equal to the date; tlie salt layer seems to be as immeasurable 
 as the centuries. Let us stop." Prof. Atwater says of these mines: — 
 
 " It is a comparatively few years since the deposits were discovered, but the products 
 have come into very general use in Germany and other parts of Europe, and are being im- 
 ported quite largely into this country. When rightly used on soils deficient in potash, they 
 are very profitable fertilizers. A vast amount of experimenting has been done with them, 
 more in Germany than anywhere else. The results indicate that the usefulness of these salts 
 as fertilizers depends not only upon the character of the salts themselves, of which there are 
 various grades, but also on the kind of soil, th^mode of application, and the kind of crop. 
 
 Composition of German Potash Salts.— The potash salts, as taken from the 
 mines, contain only small proportions of potassium compounds, the bulk consisting of materials 
 which have comparatively little agricultural value, and are sometimes positively injurious. 
 In the early history of the Stassfurt potash industry, many experiments were made with 
 these crude salts, but, with the exception of the ' Kainit,' their use has been attended perhaps 
 oftener by failure than by success. It has been found necessary to subject them to chemical 
 treatment, by which the potash compounds are more or less completely purified. This is done at 
 factories near the mines, where immense quantities of the potash salts are manufactured for 
 technical and agricultural uses. As prepared for market, the potash fertilizers contain potas- 
 sium in the form of either chloride of potassium or sulphate of potash, and, along with 
 these, chloride of sodium, chloride of magnesium, sulphate of soda, and sulphate of magnesia, 
 and small quantities of other materials. 
 
 The basis of potash compounds is the element Potass ' urn. Tliis. combined with oxygen, 
 forms potassium oxide, or potassa, or, in familiar language, potash. The same term, potash, 
 is applied to two other potassium compounds. One, which may be considered as a compound 
 made up of potassa and water, is known in the chemical laboratory as potassium hydrate, 
 and, in common language, as caustic potash. The other is a compound of potassa with car- 
 bonic acid, and is commonly called carbonate of potash. The ordinary potashes and pearl- 
 ashes, prepared from the lye of wood-ashes, are more or less impure carbonate of potash. 
 Potassium, combined with chlorine, forms potassium chloride, commonly called chloride of 
 potassium, or 'muriate of potash.' Potassa imited with sulphuric acid forms potassium sul- 
 phate, or sulphate of potash. By adding to ordinary potash lye from ashes, a proper amount 
 of sulphuric acid, and boiling the liquid down, we might, with proper care, obtain a solid 
 substance, which would be a sulphate of potash, [f we were to use hydrochloric (muriatic) 
 acid instead of sulphuric, we should obtain a chloride of potassium, or muriate of potash. 
 Other elements, as well as potassium, combine with sulphuric acid and chlorine to form 
 sulphates and chlorides. Sodium chloride is common salt. Sulphate of soda (sodium sul- 
 phate) is known as Glauber's salt, and sulphate of magnesia as Epsom salts. The German 
 potash salts consist of potassium chloride and sulphate, mingled with more or less of the just- 
 
FERTILIZERS. 71 
 
 named compounds. It is customary to reckon the potassium of these salts as 'actual potash.' 
 In the sulphates this term expresses the amount of potassium oxide, potassa, or potash present. 
 In the muriates it represents the amount of potash which the potassium would make if it were 
 combined with oxygen instead of chlorine — 100 lbs. of pure sulphate of potash contains 
 about 54 lbs. of 'actual potash.' 100 lbs. of sulphate of potash are therefore said to be 
 equivalent to 54 lbs. of actual potash, and vice versa, 54 lbs. of potash iu the sulphates are 
 reckoned as equivalent to 100 lbs. of sulphate of potash. In the 'muriates,' 100 lbs. of 
 chloride of potassium are reckoned equivalent to about 63 lbs of potash, and vice versa. 
 
 How to use Potash Salts as Fertilizers. — "The results of experiments in differ- 
 ent places are so varying that it is impossible to lay down precise rules to apply to all cases. 
 The potash salts sometimes bring a remarkable increase of crop, and sometimes do no good 
 at all. Whether a given soil is deficient in potash or not, can be best told by actual experi- 
 ment. In general, potash is most likely to be lacking in light, sandy, and calcareous soils, 
 and in those which consist largely of decayed vegetable matter, like peat and muck beds and 
 moors. It is more apt to be plenty in loamy and in clayey soils that come from what the 
 geologists call igneous rocks, which, like the trap rocks of our region, and the granites, 
 syenites, and other rocks that contain felspar and mica, are rich in potash. But in soils of 
 either of these classes the available supply may be reduced by cropping. Where guanos, 
 phosphates, bone, fish-manures, and other fertilizers rich in nitrogen, phosphoric acid and 
 Kme, but furnishing little or no potash and magnesia, do not bring as large returns as for 
 merly, a trial of potash salts is to be recommended. 
 
 The potash salts have proven especially beneficial for fodder crops, like clover, grass, 
 and rye; for leguminous crops, such as beans and peas, and vetches; and for potatoes, roots, 
 tobacco, and fruits. The immediate effects upon grain crops are usually not so beneficial. 
 WTien applied shortly before putting in the seed, the result is often u.nsatisfactory, especially 
 as regards the quality of the grain. For tobacco they have proved highly beneficial, and 
 tiiere is reason to presume they might do the same for corn. They have been found 
 remarkably useful in some cases for fruits, especially grapes, and their use for our failing 
 orchards and other fruit-trees is worthy, at least, of trial. 
 
 In fact, the question whether it will pay to use potash salts in any given case or not, Is 
 one that cannot be decided in advance. Chemists can not give prescriptions for your failing 
 soils as doctors do for your diseased bodies. You must settle such questions yourselves by 
 actual trial. 1 should therefore by no means advise any one to invest in large quantities of 
 these salts before he had found whether they were going to benefit him enough to make it 
 profitable or not. 
 
 As I have said, the high grades wOl, generally speaking, be best for our use. The 
 chlorides are the cheapest, because they are produced at less cost from the crude salts ; but 
 for such crops as potatoes and tobacco, the sulphates are safer. The general effect of the 
 chlorides is to increase the quantity rather than to improve the quality of these crops. They 
 are apt to make the potatoes soggy, and to injure the burning quality of tobacco. So if you 
 want your potatoes mealy, use the sulphates; and if you grow tobacco, and would have it good, 
 use the sulphates. The mm-iates are apt to injure the burning quaUty of the leaf, giving 
 it a tendency to char and hold fire but a short time, which is not the case with the sulphates. 
 
 For fodder crops, like clover, grass, and corn, and for grain, and, indeed, for any of 
 the crops we raise in this part of the country, except the ones just mentioned, the chlorides 
 may be used to advantage. I have lately noticed some statements, by the way, that the use 
 of the chlorides for sugar-beets is rather on the increase in Germany, the effect on the per- 
 centages of sugar and of objectionable materials in the juice not being so bad as had formerly 
 been supposed. 
 
 The method of applying potash salts is a matter of great importance. Cases are very 
 
72 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 common — I haye known several myself — where crops were injiu-ed or destroyed by improper 
 application. The great point is to have the material uniformly difiused through the soil, so 
 as to be within as ready reach of as many of the roots as possible, and not to be concentrated 
 in single places in such quantity as to injure the plants. The best way to secure this distrib- 
 ution is to apply it some time before the seed is put in. For a crop to be sown in the spring, 
 it is well to put the potash fertilizers on in the fall, so that the water from rains and melting 
 snows may have opportunity to carry the potash down into the soil, and thus secure a deep 
 and uniform disti'ibution before it is wanted for the growing crops. This is a particularly 
 good plan with the chlorides, and \\ath the low grade salts, if the latter are used. The chlo. 
 rine is gradually leached down into the lower strata of the soil, and away beyond where it 
 will do harm. There is no reason to fear loss of potash or magnesia in this way, since they 
 are retained by the absorptive power of the soil, and do not get beyond reach of the roots. 
 The only ingredients thus exposed to loss are the soda and chlorine, which have very little 
 value. There may, perhaps, be danger that the chlorine, in leaching out, will take lime with 
 it from the soil, but the loss would probably be of little practical moment. If, however, you 
 cannot apply your potash salts in fall or early spring, the next best plan is to mix them with 
 three or four times their bulk of earth, spread the mixture uniformly, and either plow under 
 or harrow in. Another most excellent way is to mix the salts with stable manure, by 
 spreading them on the heap from time to time as it accumulates. For clover or grass lands> 
 where the potash salts are to be used as a top-dressing, a very good plan is to compost and 
 apply as long as possible before the gi'owth of the crop begins. 
 
 It is especially advisable to apply the potash compounds — not alone, but mixed with 
 phosphates and nitrogenous fertilizers. In this way the best practical results have been 
 obtained. Penivian guano, ammoniated superphosphates, bone and fish, furnish nitrogen, 
 phosphoric acid and lime, and, if superphosphated, sulphuric acid also. The potash salts 
 supply potash with more or less sulphuric acid and magnesia. Such mixtures therefore 
 would form "complete fertilizers." 
 
 In Germany, where the potash salts have come into very general use, quantities cor- 
 responding to from 200 to 400, or at most 500 pounds of the higher grades, and from 300 to 
 600 of the lower grades, per acre, are recommended." 
 
 The general conclusions respecting the use of the German potash salts as fertilizers are 
 given by Prof. Atwater as follows: 
 
 "1. Potassium, the basis of potash compounds, is indispensable to the gi'owth of all 
 our cultivated plants. It has at least one specific office in the nutrition of the plant, that of 
 aiding in the formation of carbo-hydrates (starch). Without a plentiful supply of potash in 
 available forms, full crops are impossible. 
 
 2. The German potash salts afford at present the cheapest and most available supply 
 of potash for fertihzere. They supply also more or less of magnesia and sulphuric acid, 
 ■which are essential ingredients of plant-food, and sometimes deficient in our soils, and of 
 sodium and chlorine compounds, which latter may be beneficial or harmful, according to the 
 circumstances of their use. 
 
 3. The higher grades will be, in general, most profitable for use in this country, 
 because they furnish the most potassium with the least admixture of inferior materials, on 
 which costs of freight and handling must be paid. The chlorides (muriates), with 80-84 
 per cent, of chloride of potassium, and the sulphates, with 70 to 80 per cent, of sulphate of 
 potash, or the sulphate of potash and magnesia, with 54-57 per cent, of sulphate of potash, 
 are to be especially recommended. , 
 
 4. For potatoes, sugar-beets, or tobacco, the sulphates are preferable: for other crops, 
 the chlorides, which are cheaper, are equally good. 
 
 5. In order to secure uniform diffusion through the soil, the potash salts should be 
 
FERTILIZERS. 73 
 
 applied as long as possible before the crop is sowii. It is well to mix with earth, or to com- 
 post, before applying, especially if used shortly before sowing the seed. And, in general, 
 potash salts are well adapted for composting with muck, earth, stable-manure, phosphates, 
 fish, and the like. 
 
 6. The best results are generally obtained by using potash salts not alone, but with 
 other fertilizers, as superphosphates, guanos, and fish. Mixtures of these latter with potash 
 salt form "complete fertilizers." The proper use of potash salts is as adjuncts to other fer- 
 tilizers. 
 
 7. From 200 lbs. to 400 or 500 lbs. per acre of the higher, and 300 to 600 lbs. of 
 the lower grades, are appropriate quantities. 
 
 8. The question of the need of potash in a given soil can be best decided by actual 
 trial. It wUl be generally advisable to test the question by experiments on a small scale 
 before making large purchases." 
 
 Magnesia is contained in many soils, and in limestones, which are often caUed mag- 
 nesian limestones, when this element is found in them in large quantities. 
 
 It is also found in wood-ashes, oyster-shell lime, New Jersey green marl, and various 
 other fertilizing materials. 
 
 The waters of the ocean contain magnesia, to the presence of which is attributed the 
 peculiar bitterish taste it possesses. It is estimated that every cubic foot of sea- water con- 
 tains two and a half ounces of magnesia. It is supposed that the celebrated Strassfurt 
 deposit referred to in previous pages, which is one of the principal sources of commercial 
 magnesia and its salts, is the residue of some ancient sea. 
 
 The trap rocks of the Hudson River Palisades have been found on analysis to sometimes 
 contain ten per cent, of this substance. The ashes of grains of some wheat have been found 
 to contain 11.75 per cent, of magnesia; hence, a soil deficient in this element would not pro- 
 duce wheat, however rich it might othei-wise be. Since lime is abundant in wheat straw, a 
 good calcareous soil, when lacking magnesia, might produce straw without any wheat, or, if 
 the heads were formed, they would be very imperfect in wheat formation. 
 
 Leaves of Trees can be made available in furnishing fertilizing substances in the 
 form of potash, phosphoric acid, and lime, in limited quantities. Used in the compost heap, 
 as bedding for stock, or as a covering for plants to protect them in winter, they are valua- 
 ble. When mixed with the compost heap, or with the manure from the stables, they will 
 soon become decomposed and add to the fertilizing properties of the mass, and will well repay 
 the farmer for gathering, providing he is not required to go a long distance to obtain them. 
 The best time for gathering them is when damp with dew or rain, as they can then be put in 
 a more compact form, and be more easily handled. If tJiere are boys upon the farm, a late 
 autumn day could not be spent by them in labor much more profitably or pleasantly than in 
 gathering and storing leaves for the various uses to which they can be applied. Stored under 
 shelter, in some barn or shed, they should be spread and raked over occasionally in order to 
 dry them, if designed for the bedding of stock. Besides being valuable, the gathering of 
 leaves that would otherwise be blown about the farm buildings, giving the premises an 
 untidy appearance, would be of advantage to any farm. 
 
 Tobacco steins. — The refuse of the cigar manufactories, consisting of tlie stems and 
 midribs of tobacco leaves, have been utilized to a considerable extent as fertilizers, especially 
 in the culture of tobacco. 
 
 Analysis proves that they are a good general fertilizer, supplying all the elements of 
 plant-food to a certain extent, and are especially rich in potash and lime. They are liable to 
 be rather variable in composition, especially in respect to moisture. They are generally 
 plowed into the soil a few weeks before planting. On clayey soils, they are frequently ap- 
 plied in autumn, but this practice would not be advisable on a sandy or porous soil, as the 
 
74 TiiE AJIEKICAI^ FAIiMEU. 
 
 fertilizing elements would be likely to be leached out by the rains and melting snows, and 
 lost before the time of plantLog. 
 
 In plowing them under, care should be taken not to bury them too deep in tlie soil, where 
 their fertilizing elements will be beyond the reach of the roots of the young plants. 
 
 Manuring with Ureeu Crops is. in the opinion of many farmers, one of the most 
 economical and, to certain lands, one of the surest and most speedy means of improving the 
 mechanical condition or textme and fertilizing properties of the soil that are known in 
 agriculture. 
 
 Besides fertilizing the soil by the use of green manures (as most plants have all the ele- 
 ments of fertility ia a good proportion), the soil is rendered more mellow and thus better 
 fitted for the production of other crops. The land is also cleared of troublesome weeds by 
 plowing before the seed ripens. Soils are also improved by changing the combination of cer- 
 tain elements in them, which may be done by the simple process of plowing in the crop. If 
 plants derived all their nourishment or fertilizing properties from the soil alone, simply plow- 
 ing in again what the soil had produced would not prove of so much advantage as far as 
 adding fertihty; but the plant obtains its constituent elements not from the soil alone, but 
 from the soil and atmosphere combined ; many plants also draw a portion of their food from 
 the subsoil, and these elements combine to form compounds in the plant, some of which are 
 found in the leaves, others in the roots, sap, and stems, etc. Nitrogen is contained in some 
 of these compounds, which is a promoter of decomposition. By the decomposition of these, 
 other elements become involved, and new combinations are formed, which we call decay, but 
 which is, in fact, only a change in the elements forming the plant. By this means, the aver- 
 age farmer may derive great benefit to his lands with but slight expense, and we think it a 
 great error in farmers generally that they do not resort to the use of vegetable manures more 
 frequently in obtaining a supply of plant-food for their crops. 
 
 The time when the crop is plowed under, and the depth to which it is covered by the 
 furrow, are both very important considerations in this system. With regard to the former, 
 there is a difference of opinion among farmers, some regarding the best time to be when the 
 crop — clover or buckwheat, for instance — is in full bloom; others prefer the period just 
 before blossoming. In no case should it be deferred until the blossoms fall and the seed 
 begins to form. The harder the fiber of the stems, the longer the time required to make 
 them available for plant-food. When green vegetation is allowed to decay in the open air, 
 much of the fertUizing material is evaporated by the atmosphere, and hence lost to the soil. 
 In the other extreme, if the crop is buried too deeply in the soil, it decays more slowly, and 
 also much of the fertility designed for plant-food will be buried too far from the reach of the 
 roots of many plants; hence it is very essential that the vegetalile manure be covered by the 
 soil just enough to prevent the fertilizing elements from passing off into the air, and suffi- 
 ciently for the soil to absorli all these properties. It should be turned down onlj' enough to 
 be simply well covered ; in this way the strength of its f ertuizing properties lies near the sur- 
 face, and the heat and hght rains will also aid in the decomposition, and if plowed under in 
 the proper stage of its growth, this will be very rapid. 
 
 Vegetable manures are especially adapted to such soils as have a large proportion of lime, 
 but when lime does not exist in a fair proportion in the soil, it will be well to apply it. This 
 corrects any sourness in the soil, and aids decomposition. Gypsum and ashes ai-e recom- 
 mended by some as good substitutes when lime or marl are not easily proctired. 
 
 Some writers recommend vegetable manures for all soils except low, peaty lands. They 
 are beneficial often to a surprising extent, to the two extremes of clay and sandy soils, giving 
 a peculiar mellowness to the one, and a retentive character to the other, impro\ang their 
 texture and color by the necessary humus supplied ; also improving their capacity for moist- 
 ure, especially to the sandy soil. 
 
FERTILIZERS. 75 
 
 The eSect of theii* use will vary according to the peculiar character of the soil upon 
 which they are used, the kind of crop produced, and the manner in which the system is 
 conducted. 
 
 For the exhausted lands of New England, upon which certain crops have been continu- 
 ously grown for years, and have thus been rendered but partially productive, and for many 
 of the wom-oiit soils of the Southern States, which have become exhausted by the constant 
 cultivation of cotton, sugar-cane, and tobacco, etc., this system is highly recommended by 
 many of the best agricultural writers of the country. 
 
 Before sowing any crop for green manure, it will be well to apply to the soil well-decom- 
 posed and pulverized barnyai'd manure, bone-dust, guano, or some other good fertilizer, in 
 order to give the plants a good vigorous start, since the more luxuriant and lieavy the growth 
 of the crop to plow under, the more fertilizing material will be obtained from it, and conse 
 quently the greater benefit to the soil. 
 
 Some exhausted soils require considerable time to recuperate in this way, but it does not 
 involve much expense. Often three or four crops of green manure are turned under before 
 certain worn soils will be rich enough to produce a fair product. 
 
 For green manuring, various crops are used, but some are more valuable than others. 
 First and foremost in value we place red clover. The crops most commonly used for this 
 purpose are red clover, buckwheat, rye, oats, com, millet, many of the grasses, the cow-pea, 
 etc. Rape, vetches, mustard, spurry lupine, and the leaves of turnips, after removing the 
 bulbs, ai'e frequently used for this purpose in Europe. 
 
 Clover-for Yegetable Manure has been styled by one of the best authorities in 
 agriculture (Joseph Harris), -'the grand renovating crop of America." 
 
 Hon. George Geddes, so well known throughout the United States as a practical, scien- 
 tific, and eminently trustworthy farmer, says of it: 
 
 " The agriculture ef Onondaga county is based on the clover plant. It is used for pas- 
 ture, for hay, and for manure. Strike this plant out of existence and a revolution would fol- 
 low that would make it necessary for us to learn every thing anew in regard to cultivating 
 our lands. What their value would be without clover, we will not attempt to conjecture. 
 We have this most valuable treasure, and appreciate it. * * * 
 
 If our soils require improving, we turn the clover crop under, and repeat the operation 
 imtil there is sufficient fertility to allow us to carry the clover off. The oftener we can fill 
 the soil with roots, and then plow them under, and thus allow them to rot, the sooner do we 
 expect to get our land in condition to bear a crop of grain." 
 
 A very considerable part of the cultivated land of this county (Mr. Geddes might have 
 appropriately said " a very considerable part of the cultivated land in Central and Western 
 New York) " has never had any other manuring than this clover and gypsum, and its fertility 
 is not diminishing. Fields that are distant from barnyard manure are rarely treated to any 
 thing but gypsum and clover. These fields are not cropped with grain as often as those that 
 have the benefit of barnyard manure, but they are manured with much less expense. 
 
 The cost of clover seed, at $6 per bushel, is, . . . . . $1 50 
 
 The cost of sowing is about, . . ...... 8 
 
 The cost of three bushels of gypsum at the mills is, ..... 24 
 
 The cost of drawing the same, . . . . . . ... 12 
 
 The cost of sowing at three different times, ...... 38 
 
 Total cost of manuruig one acre, . . . . • . |2 32 
 
 A field having the first year given a crop of hay and another of seed, the second year an 
 acre will nearly or quite pasture a cow from the twentieth of May until the middle of 
 August. If then plowed in the most perfect manner, it will be in the best possible condition 
 
76 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 for winter wheat ; the land may bo used the second year for pasture the whole season if not 
 wanted for wheat, and pui iutu com or any ottier crop tiie nexc.'" 
 
 He also has stated that he had a field which for seventy-four years had been manured 
 with nothing except clover, grown upon it and plowed in, and that this field had produced 
 wheat, corn, oats, barley, and grass. The clover thus used had for fifty years been regularly 
 treated with gypsum, and that the land is constantly increasing in fertility. Sufficient tests 
 have been given clover as a fertiUzer, when plowed under, to prove that it can be used con- 
 tinuously on many soils for a long period with good results, many farmers considering it a 
 good substitute for barnyard manure. If it can be thus utilized, it proves a great conven- 
 ience for use on such lands as are at a distance f rorh the farm buildings, where the carting of 
 yard manure would be attended with considerable labor and expense. As clover will pro- 
 duce two or three crops during the season, many farmers cut the first for hay, and plow under 
 the second for manure, while others secure both crops for hay, and plow under merely the 
 stubble and roots, which are accounted by many as equivalent to a good dressing of stable 
 manure; but, of course, the greater the quantity of this fertilizing material that is left in the 
 soil the greater will be the fertilizing properties of the soil resulting from the system of green 
 manuring, and the sooner — other conditions being equal — will the entire crop used for this 
 purpose restore and enrich the lands upon which it is used. Some recommend sowing buck- 
 wheat with the clover seed. As we have never practiced this method, we cannot give the 
 result of it from experience. Clover should be plowed under when perfectly green, having 
 attained a good growth ; and most farmers consider the best time for doing this to be when 
 in full blossom; it should then remain undisturbed until the proper time for sc^wing grain or 
 planting other crops. 
 
 Various Crops for Green Manure. — Next in value to clover, buckwheat is thought 
 by many to merit a place, and to be nearly equal to clover in fertilizing properties. It can 
 be easily sown and raised, and requires but a short time for growth; hence, where a crop of 
 wheat, rye, or barley has been removed it is especially adapted to the purpose. It also shades 
 the ground well, keeping it cool, and thus lessens the evaporation of its fertilizing gases and 
 renders it mellow, while it keeps down the weeds. It tlms furnishes a very good substitute 
 for clover. 
 
 Winter rye is also valuable for green manure. It should be sown early in the fall, and 
 a further growth given it in the spring before turning it under. 
 
 Corn also sown broadcast is highly valued by many for this purpose. 
 
 The wonderfully valuable properties of the cow-pea, as a renovator of poor soils, are well 
 known in the South, where it is considered the best of vegetables for this purpose. It grows 
 luxuriantly and rapidly, producing two crops in a season, and will thrive on very poor land, 
 but the crop will be greatly improved by the application of about a hundred pounds of plaster 
 per acre. 
 
 It should be turned under when most of the pods are al_)out half-grown, and none are 
 near being ripened. 
 
 Dr. Pollard, late Commissioner of Agriculture in "\'irginia, gives the following directions 
 relative to improving partially -exhausted lands in the Southern States, by the use of vegetable 
 manures: 
 
 " By husbanding all animal manures, and sowing peas and clover, we can obtain a large 
 amount of nitrogen for the soil. It may be said that a considerable portion of our lands are 
 too poor to produce clover or even a crop of peas. Then let two hundred pounds of ground 
 South Carolina phosphate, and three hundred pounds of kainit (Dr. Ravenel's ' ash element') 
 be applied to the land, and peas be seeded ; turn these under and sow clover with wheat, or 
 oats if thought best, and we shall be apt to get a stand of clover, particularly if the land be 
 limed after the peas are turned under. But tlie clover will do better by itself than with 
 
FERTILIZERS. 77 
 
 wheat or rye, if a stand can be obtained. The wheat or oats, to be sure, will be some protec- 
 tion in the spring f;;om frost, but grass and weeds will soon spring up to protect the clover. 
 If this plan should be tried, as a means of furnishing nitrogen and improving poor lands, it 
 might be well to sow the clover in the fall as soon as the peas are turned under, if it is deter- 
 mined to grow the clover alone. If this is done, the land should be rolled after seeding 
 clover, as the peas will leave it in a spongy state. But if the farmer cannot get the ' ash 
 element,' let him sow oats or rye early in the fall, or oats early in the spring, turn them under 
 in Jime, then sow peas, and then clover, if a good growth of peas has been secured, applying 
 lime, however, if possible, after the peas are fallowed in." 
 
 Hungarian grass possesses rich vegetable substances, has a luxuriant growth, and turns 
 under very easily, as its fine fibrous roots hold fast to the ground, while the upper portion is 
 turned into the furrow, never clogging the plow. It is a cheap crop and grows quickly, being 
 ready for plowing under usually in about sixty days, requiring only about a dollar's worth of 
 seed per acre. Its growth will be facilitated by finely pulverizing the soil before sowing; 
 and after covering it lightly with a harrow to use tlie roller, which promotes a quick germi- 
 nation of the seed. 
 
 After the crop has been plowed under, the decomposition of the buried vegetable matter 
 wiU be hastened by harrowing the ground and rolling it. It is said to leave the land in a 
 better condition for wheat than oats used for this purpose. 
 
 Sod of any kind of grass is valuable for fertilizing purposes, and the more grass there 
 is on it, when turned down, the better. It is a noticeable fact among farmers in cultivating corn, 
 that the best crops are generally produced when the seed is planted upon the mverted grass 
 turf; the roots and stubble of the grass furnishing an immense quantity of valuable plant-food 
 for the growing crop. Besides the vegetable substances we have mentioned for fertil- 
 izing purposes, various others are often used; in fact, every decomposable thing adds to the 
 productiveness of soils, when applied in the proper quantity and manner. 
 
 Even weeds of rank growth plowed under can be utilized in furnishing enriching 
 elements to the soil, when suitably decomposed; they should, however, be plowed before any 
 of them have ripened their seed, as they would otherwise become self-sown and produce 
 another crop of weeds. It is as true in agriculture, as everywhere else, that every creation 
 has a purpose, and "nothing is made in vain." 
 
 Commercial Fertilizers. — The question often asked by the farmer is. Do commer- 
 cial fertilizers pay? — in other words. Is the amount expended in artificial fertilizers realized in 
 benefit to the crops? In answering this question, many considerations must of necessity be 
 taken into account. 
 
 They may be very beneficial and well repay the expenditure involved in increasing the 
 quantity and often the quaUty of the crops, or they may result in a serious loss to the farmer, 
 with an injury to the soil; much depending upon the kind and quantity used, and the manner 
 of using. In the use of all fertilizers, the needs of the soil and requirements of the crop to be 
 produced must be taken into account; it must also be properly applied. 
 
 If a farmer expends large sums of money for phosphoric acid and applies it to the soil, 
 when nitrogen is what that soil needs in producing the desired crop, disappointment will be 
 the result; or, if he suppUes to a soil nitrogen when phosphoric acid is the element needed, 
 the result will be no more satisfactory than the former; or, as is often the case, if too small 
 a quantity of the proper kind be applied to produce any change in the productive capacity of 
 the land, or if an unwarrantable amount of certain kinds be used and in a short time it 
 exhausts certain elements of the soil, with other undesirable results — in either of these cases 
 the fault v/ould not be with the fertilizer itself, but with the lack of skill in the one who 
 selected and applied it. Soils widely differ in their capacity for supplying crops with 
 plant food, and correspondingly in their demands for aid from fertilizers; some soils 
 
78 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 will, consequently, give the best results with one kind of fertilizer, and others with 
 another kind, while others still will not respond to any application whatever, until the condi 
 tions are changed, which can only be effected by suitable drainage, irrigation, the use of 
 lime, or proper tillage. 
 
 In order to attain the highest results in agriculture, as with everything else, we must 
 make use of the right materials in the right place; and if artificial fertilizers are thus used 
 they cannot bring results otherwise than satisfactory, providing the season and other circum- 
 stances be favorable. The world-renowned experiments at Rothamsted, England, by Mr. 
 Lawes, embracing a period of over forty years, besides those from other noted scientific agri- 
 culturists covering a more limited space of time, all prove conclusively that ai'tificial fertilizers, 
 when rightly used, will prove the most potent aids in agriculture, and that the only means of 
 determining what a soil needs is to study it by careful observation and experiment. 
 
 In making this statement favorable to artificial fertilizers, we do not wish to be under- 
 stood as recommending them as substituting entirely the various farm manures that the 
 farmer has recourse to in improving his lands and crops; we do not recommend them as 
 supplanting, but supplementing the fann manure. 
 
 We think it would be a very poor policy indeed for any farmer to allow the farm 
 manures to go to waste, and expend money for commercial fertilizers. We believe in Tising 
 all the available wastes of the farm possible, fur manure — the compost heap, cess-pool, privy-vault, 
 ashes, old bones, and ever}i;hing that can add to that best of all the fertilizers, stable manure 
 — to aid in furnishing plant-food to crops. It would be very poor economy for a farmer to 
 neglect to gather his own crops and buy of his neighbor, and it would be equally poor 
 economy for him to neglect to make use of his farm manure, and buy commercial manures to 
 take their place. The poor farm management in the one case would be equal to that of the 
 other. 
 
 We simply advise that the farmer use the artificial fertilizers to supplement or help out, 
 as it were, the farm manure, as most farms require more manure than the farm furnishes for 
 keeping them up in their best condition in soil, and giving the best results in crops. It is 
 thought by many of our leading agricvilturists, that a liberal supply of barn-yard manure 
 increases the effect of the commercial fertilizers, and vice versa, when the two are used 
 together. 
 
 Mr. Wood of Mt. Kisco, N. Y.. recently stated at an agricultural meeting that, as a 
 result of his experience in commercial fertilizers, he would warn farmers against their use in 
 small quantities, or without the application of sufficient plant-food to support the growth of 
 the plant after the fertilizers have started it vigorously: that, by the use of phosphates, he 
 can raise one hundred bushels or more per acre of southern white Dent corn, and it will be 
 sufficiently ripe to be cut by the first of September. His lands are made very rich otherwise 
 by the use of barn-yard manures, and the phosphates force the growth of his crops so rapidly 
 that the effect is to give him the results of a climate like that of southern New Jersey. 
 
 Prof. Atwater, in giving the result of farm experiments with fertilizers, in connection 
 with the Connecticut Experiment Station, also says: 
 
 " 17. The common impression among fanners that the best use of artificial fertilizers is 
 to supplement farm manures is, doubtless, in ordinary circumstances, correct." 
 
 With respect to the requirements of different crops, a very accurate estimate can be 
 obtained from a table giving their analyses by a competent chemist. Much can also be 
 learned by the experience of the most successful farmers in the country, given in the best 
 agricultural works and newspapers, which will render valuable assistance to the farmer in all 
 the departments of agriculture; but since soils vary so widely in their constituents, the bef^t 
 and surest test in determinmg the needs of certain soils is found only by careful study and 
 experiment, which each farmer can accomplish for himself in a small way very easily. Having 
 
FERTILIZERS. 79 
 
 once determined those requirements for his particular lands, important information has thus 
 been obtained and much been accomplished toward successful results. 
 
 Prof. Johnson, of Yale College, the author of several agricultural works, and chemist of 
 the Connecticut Experiment Station, suggests that in making such experiments, it is better to 
 have a long and narrow plot of ten or fifteen square rods area to experiment upon, because 
 the inequalities of the soil are less liable to disturb the results. The land being prepared for 
 a crop, a number of measured plots or strips are laid off, and different fertilizing materials 
 are applied to them in appropriate quantities. On one, for example, use gypsum; on another, 
 fresh slacked lime ; on another, a superphosphate made from bone-ash or bone-black, or 
 ground bones ; on another, pulverized blood and meat-scraps, rich in nitrogen, but nearly 
 free from phosphates; on another, sulphate ammonia; on a sixth, muriate of potash; seventh, 
 a nitrogenous phosphate or a fish guano ; eighth, stable manure, etc. Two or three plots with 
 no manure should intervene to make a basis of comparison. The experiments should extend 
 over a series of three or four years, the same plots being each year treated with the same 
 kinds and quahties of fertilizers, but cultivated with different crops. Different fertilizing 
 materials, or the combination of certain substances to form special fertihzers for special 
 crops, could thus be tested. Mr. Lawes, of Rothamsted, states that in order to obtain large 
 crops he would use artificial fertilizers. Prof. Ville, the noted French agricultural chemist, 
 concurs in the same opinion from his numerous experiments. For speedy results, when 
 skillfully used, and for restoring partially-exhausted lands, rendered so by over-cropping, 
 commercial fertilizers, when properly used, are among the most valuable agents of the farmer. 
 By combining stable manure and commercial fertilizers, we think the result in all respects 
 will prove perfectly satisfactory. 
 
 Since commercial fertilizers are so frequently adulterated with worthless substances, it is 
 safe to purchase only those manufactured by some well-known firm of reputed integrity, 
 whose products have been well-tested in the markets, or after a sample has been subjected to 
 chemical analysis by a competent chemist. The principal deficiencies of our soils, as we have 
 previously stated, are potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen, with often a lack of sulphuric 
 acid, lime, and rarely magnesia. In England, according to Mr. Lawes, nature has furnished, 
 generally, a sufBcient supply of potash, and consequently the soils there do not require it 
 artificially to the extent that those of the United States do, the principal demand there being 
 nitrogen ; consequently the tests of English soils will not always apply definitely to our own 
 in the production of certain crops; yet, notwithstanding, these tests of foreign soils serve to 
 illustrate the potency of chemical fertilizers as agents in successful agriculture, when applied 
 to any soil deficient in the elements that such fertilizers can supply. 
 
 Special FertilizerSt — According to authentic sources, Prof. Johnston, of Scotland, 
 was the first to prescribe special fertilizers in detail for special crops, his general principle 
 being that the manure applied to the soil must contain all those inorganic or mineral sul> 
 stances which the crop we wish to grow carries off the soil, and in the relative proportions in 
 which they are respectively found in the ash of the plant (the ashes remaining after burning 
 the entire plant), the exception being to omit from the application those elements already 
 abundant in the soil. He also favored the addition of organic matter to the soil, in the form 
 of animal or vegetable substances, in order to restore the elements of this nature that the 
 cultivated crops had extracted in their growth. 
 
 Prof. Ville, of France, has based a theory of fertilizing upon the following propositions: 
 " 1st. Give the earth more phosphates, more potash and lime, than the harvests have taken 
 from it. 2d. Give it fifty per cent, of the nitrogen they contain." He has also given various 
 recipes for complete fertilizers for special crops, based upon the above principles. Prof. 
 Stockbridge, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, has arrived at the opinion, after 
 various and repeated experiments at the agriciiltural college farm, that the only substances 
 
80 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 generally needful to be supplied artificially, in order to produce good crops, are nitrogen, 
 potash, and phosphoric acid, and that to compound these substances in the proportion in 
 which they are contained in crops, according to an average of many of the most reliable 
 analyses, will make a special fertilizer for each crop, which, if applied, will produce the best 
 of results without apparent exhaustion to the soil. The nitrogen, as given in Prof. Stock- 
 bridge's formulas for special manures (known as the Stockbridge fertilizers), is supplied in the 
 form of sulphate of ammonia, or its equivalent, potash as muriate or sulphate of potash, and 
 phosphoric acid as super-phosphate of lime. We give a few of the Stockbridge formulas for 
 some of the principal crops, which show how small a quantity of each ingredient is necessary 
 when supplied in the proper proportion. With regard to them. Prof. Stockbridge says: — 
 
 " The form in which 1 have obtained nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid to compound 
 for the nutrition of plants, in these experiments, has been in that of a neutral salt for the 
 nitrogen and potash, and a superphosphate for the phosphoric acid. For root-crops aad 
 beans, I have used the potash in the form of sulphate; for grain and forage crops, in the 
 muriate form. No specific rule can be given as to the quantity of the compounds to be used 
 in preparing any of my formulas, because the percentage of nitrogen, potash, and soluble 
 phosphoric acid they contain is quite variable; but having learned the percentages of the com- 
 pounds, the required quantity is easily ascertained. 
 
 WHEAT.— For One Acre. 
 
 Nitrogen, . • . . 41 lbs., in the form of Sulphate of ammonia, 205 lbs. 
 
 Potash, . . . . 24 lbs., " " Muriate of potash, . 48 lbs. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid, 20 lbs., " •' Superphosphate, . 160 lbs. 
 
 The crude materials for the above will comprise, as will be seen by the table, over 400 
 
 lbs., and are said to increase the crop 25 bushels over the natural yield of the soil. 
 
 INDIAN CORN.— For One Acre. 
 
 Nitrogen, ... 64 lbs., in the form of Sulphate of ammonia, 320 lbs. 
 
 Potash, .... 77 lbs., " " Muriate of potash, . 154 lbs. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid, 31 lbs., " •' Superphosphate, . 248 lbs. 
 
 The above is designed to increase the natural product of the soil 50 bushels. 
 
 FODDER CORN.— For One Acre. 
 
 Nitrogen, . . . 20 lbs., in the form of Sulpliate of ammonia, 100 lbs. 
 
 Potash, .... 66 lbs., " " Muriate of potash, . 132 lbs. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid, 16 lbs., " " Superphosphate, . 128 lbs. 
 
 Increase over natural yield, two tons. 
 
 RYE.— FoK One Acre. 
 
 Nitrogen, ... 25 lbs., in the form of Sulphate of ammonia, 125 lbs. 
 
 Potash, .... 24 lbs., " " Muriate of potash, . 48 lbs. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid, 16 lbs., " " Superphosphate, . 128 lbs. 
 
 Increase over natural yield, 20 bushels. 
 
 OATS.— Foe One Acre. 
 
 Nitrogen, ... 23 lbs., in the form of Sulphate of ammonia, 115 lbs. 
 
 Potash, .... 20 lbs., •' " Muriate of potash, . 40 lbs. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid, 12 lbs., " '' Superphosphate, . 90 lbs. 
 
 Increase over natural yield, 25 bushels. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT.— For One Acre. 
 
 Nitrogen, ... 37 lbs., in the form of Sulphate of ammonia, 185 lbs. 
 
 Potash, .... 50 lbs., " " Muriate of potash, . 100 lbs. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid, 15 lbs., " " Superphosphate, , 105 lbs. 
 
 Increase over natural yield, 25 bushels. 
 
FERTILIZERS. 81 
 
 POTATOES.— For One Acre. 
 
 Nitrogen, ... 21 lbs., in the form of Sulphate of ammonia, 105 lbs. 
 
 Potash, .... 34 lbs., ■' " Muriate of potash, . 225 lbs. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid, 11 lbs., " " Superphosphate, ,. 85 lbs. 
 
 Increase over natural yield, 100 bushels. 
 
 FIELD BEANS.— For One Acre. 
 
 Nitrogen, ... 53 lbs., in the form of Sulphate of ammonia, 265 lbs. 
 
 Potash, .... 33 lbs., " ' Muriate of potash, . 198 lbs. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid, 20 lbs., " " Superphosphate, . 160 lbs. 
 
 Increase over nattiral yield, 20 bushels. 
 
 SWEDE TURNIPS, OR RUTABAGAS.— For One Acre. 
 
 Nitrogen, . . . 11 lbs., in the form of Sulphate of ammonia, 55 lbs. 
 
 Potash, .... 18 lbs., " " Muriate of potash, . 118 lbs. 
 
 Suluble phosphoric acid, 8 lbs., . " " Superphosphate, . 63 lbs. 
 
 Increase over natural yield, 100 bushels. 
 
 ONIONS.— For One Acre. 
 
 Nitrogen, . . . 1 1 lbs., in the form of Sulphate of ammonia, 55 lbs. 
 
 Potash, .... 9 lbs., " " Muriate of potash, . 54 lbs. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid, 4 lbs., " " Superphosphate, . 32 lbs. 
 
 Increase over natural yield, 100 bushels. 
 
 HAY. — Foe One Acre. 
 
 Nitrogen, ... 36 lbs., in the form of Sulphate of ammonia, 180 lbs. 
 
 Potash, . . . . 31 lbs., " " Muriate of potash, . 70 lbs. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid, 12 lbs., " " Superphosphate, . 95 lbs. 
 
 Increase over natural yield, one ton. 
 
 The above is founded on an average of the formulas for red clover, white clover, Enghsh 
 hay, and timothy. 
 
 Having never used the above special fertilizers, we cannot speak of their merits from 
 experience, but from what we have been able to leai'n concerning them, they seem better 
 adapted to any other soil than heavy clays, the latter giving often unsatisfactory results. If 
 they will accomplish what is claimed for them on other soils, it will certainly be of assistance 
 to the farmer to learn the results of careful experhnents by others, in determining the quantity 
 and kind of fertilizers suited to different crops, and spare him the trouble of experimenting 
 for himself ; however, in the use of commercial fertilizers of any kind, we favor the applica- 
 tion of a liberal supply of barn-yard manure, occasionally, as that is a complete fertilizer, and, 
 hence, contains all the elements of plant-food, and will greatly aid in keeping the land in a 
 high state of fertihty, and, at the same time, causing it to yield abundant crops. Special 
 fertihzers will, without doubt, also aid in restoring lands exhausted by excessive cropping. 
 As we have previously stated, we regard barn-yard manure, of the best quality, the most 
 desirable general fertilizer that can be used by the farmer, and commercial fertilizers as sup- 
 plementary to that; but where the former cannot be obtained in sufficient quantities, as is the 
 case with most of our farms— the farm-supply not being adequate to the demand, where the 
 lands are fertilized to the extent that high cultivation and successful farming requires— com- 
 mercial fertilizers are valuable substitutes. Fertilizers of all kinds should be made very fine, 
 that they may be easily taken up and appropriated by the plants, and their fertihty, in a great 
 measure, depends upon the fineness to which they are reduced before being applied. 
 
 In addition to the above formulas for fertilizers, the Mapes Co. of New York have, for 
 sugar-cane or sorgo, one containing from two to three per cent, of ammonia, from ten to 
 
82 THE AMERICAN FAUMEU. 
 
 twelve per cent, phosphoric acid, and from six to eight per cent, of potash. This is said to 
 prove valuable for either Southern sugar-cane or sorgo, and to greatly increase the quantity 
 of saccharine matter produced by the stalks. 
 
 They also have a formula for cotton, containing from tlu-ee to four per cent, of ammonia 
 and from ten to fourteen per cent, of available phosphoric acid. 
 
 Dr. Nichols also has a formula for imitating barn-yard manure in its constituents and 
 results, but which is said to act rather more slowly than that substance, yet is more lasting in 
 its effects. It is as follows : — One cord of seasoned muck, sixty-five pounds of crude nitrate 
 of soda, two bushels of wood-ashes, one peck of common salt, ten pounds of fine bone-meal, 
 two quarts of plaster, and ten pounds of Epsom salts. These are all to be carefully composted 
 before applying to the soil. 
 
 The manufacturers of nearly all special fertilizers make use of the same materials, but in 
 different proportions, some giving potash a larger proportion than others, while some rely 
 more upon nitrogen and phosphoric acid than potash. 
 
 Application of Manures. — Formerly, it was the custom to plow in farm manure, 
 even on sod lands, it often being plowed under so deep as to be beyond the reach of most of 
 the plant roots during tlie first season after its application, while so large a portion of the 
 fertilizing elements were washed still lower by the rams, that they failed to benefit subse- 
 quent crops; hence, much of the value of the material applied was wasted and lost to the 
 crops it was intended to benefit. 
 
 Light covering and surface application were afterwards practiced with more satisfactory 
 results, and at the present time we find none among the more intelligent farmers, who would 
 think of covering manure heavily with soil. 
 
 The reasons for receiving the most benefit with manures near the surface are obvious. 
 In order to obtain a vigorous start, plants need the stimulus supplied by this plant- food in the 
 early stages of life; and in order to be benefited by it, it must lie near them, where their short 
 and tender rootlets can reach it. If it is beyond their reach, they cannot be nourished by it. 
 By having it near the surface, they can grasp it readily, otherwise they will need to wait until 
 they can grow to the depth in which their food is hidden, before they can be benefited by it, 
 and this may be a slow and starving process. By having the plant-nourishment at the start, 
 a much larger crop will not only be secured, but it will mature earUer, and be more perfect 
 in its development. 
 
 There is a tendency in manures generally to sink deeper in the soil; this fact argues in 
 favor of surface application. The principal objection brought against the latter is, that when 
 exposed to the atmosphere much of the ammonia contained in the manure is evaporated and 
 lost. This may be true to a certain extent, but we think the loss occasioned in this manner 
 not as great as is generally supposed. 
 
 When stable manure is applied to the surface of lands, the moisture dries very quickly, 
 and as soon as dried, all evaporation and consequent loss of ammonia ceases; it is then left 
 for the rains and dews to gradually dissolve and take to the soil, where the rootlets can feed 
 upon it. The greatest loss to manure from exposure to sun and air, is during the process of 
 fermentation; that occasioned by such exposure after this process being very slight, while 
 the benefits resulting from surface application are very apparent, and many times counter- 
 balance the loss occasioned by it. 
 
 When green manure is applied to grass-lands, many of our most successful farmers sow a 
 moderate supply of plaster upon it, as soon as spread, in order to hasten decomposition and 
 aid in preventing the escape of the ammonia. 
 
 Seeds are generally mixed with unfermented manure, and often noxious weeds, that may 
 prove very troublesome to eradicate, are sown by its application ; they, however, will not take 
 root as readily on grass lands, where the turf is compact, as on a pulverized soil ; hence 
 
FERTILIZERS. 83 
 
 for all crops ou tilled lands, we would recommend that the manure be partially, if not wholly, 
 fermented, or, as is commonly termed, rotted, before being applied. This may be done by 
 composting it with soil, as we have previously described, which process will have a tendency 
 to destroy the germs of any seed it may contain ; or it may be occasionally turned, giving the 
 seeds an opportunity to sprout, and die in the process, but the former is the surest method of 
 destroying them. In no case do we approve of appl3nng strong manure directly to the seed 
 of crops. The safer way for hoed crops, such as potatoes, for instance, is to have a slight 
 layer of soil cover the manure before the seed is dropped ; and as a general rule for all soils, 
 the best method of applying it, is to spread it on the surface after the last plowing, and har- 
 row it in with the crop, if practicable. 
 
 When manures are covered by heavy clay or loam soils, they remain, owing to the 
 nature of the soil, nearly dormant, and as no decomposition takes place, they are of little use 
 to the growing crop. On lighter soils their action is more speedy, but in any case they are 
 more efficacious when near the surface, or upon it, as we have previously stated. 
 
 For grass lands, we advise that the application of farm manure be always in the late 
 autumn or early winter, that it may have the benefit of the melting snows and early spring 
 rains in dissolving it, and the finer it is pulverized when applied, the better. 
 
 Dr. Nichols says on this subjejfej ''I have had considerable experience in this matter of 
 top-dressing grass lands, and feel coirpetent, therefore, to advise on the subject. In the use 
 of stalile dung, we say, apply it rather late in autumn, but not too late, that is, do not wait 
 until the ground freezes, but do it about a month before the usual time of the advent of severe 
 frosts. If apphed too early, as in August or September, in the Northern parts of the 
 country, it dries hard in the sun, and' is not so readily acted upon by frosts, and besides it 
 sinks deep into the growing grass, and is, therefore, not so well distributed as it should be. 
 The active principles have time enough to undergo chemical change from October to the next 
 April or May. Concentrated fertilizers should not, under any ordinary conditions, be apphed 
 in the autumn. The reason is, that by the rapidity of the change the active elements of food 
 are brought almost immediately to the open mouths of plants, and thus by absorption they 
 are stimulated to growth when growth is not desirable." 
 
 Application of Commercial Fertilizers. — Respecting the application of com- 
 mercial fertilizers, we know of nothing better than the following, from the Director of the 
 Connecticut Experiment Station. 
 
 " The fertilizers may be applied broadcast, or if more convenient, they may be put in 
 the hill or drill, provided, they are will diffused ihrough the soil. To accomplish this, they had 
 better be diluted with several times their bulk of earth before using. The important points 
 are, that they be: 
 
 "1st. Applied evenly over the plots where they belong and not allowed to get outside. 
 
 "2d. Well distributed through the soil. 
 
 " Experiments with concentrated fertilizers are often spoiled, just as crops are injured or 
 lost through wrong application. Farmers are apt to think that the manure must be put close 
 to the seed or the plant will not get the benefit of it. This is wrong. It is not the just ger- 
 minated plantlet that needs the manure, but the plant, from the time it is well started imtil 
 its growth is done. We want, not only to give the crop a good start, but to help it out on 
 the home stretch as well. The roots and tlieir branching rootlets run out in all directions in 
 search of food, and the fertilizers ought to be where as many of the rootlets as possible can 
 get at them. If we distribute the fertilizers as well as we can, the water in the soil, aided by 
 the chemical and physical forces that nature keeps in operation, will do the rest. In illus- 
 tration of this, remember how well barn manure acts when applied as a top-dressing long 
 before the seed is put in. 
 
 " But if we concentrate the fertilizers in one place, fewer roots will get them, and theso 
 
84 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 may be injured by coming in contact with them or with their concentrated solutions in the 
 soil. The roots will find their way to the manure and develop more where it lies, it is true; 
 still, we should not oblige them to huddle together in one place, but should rather encourage 
 them to spread around where, with the increased capacity the fertilizer gives them, they can 
 get the more from the soil. Roots join with other natural agents in rendering inert stores of 
 plant-food available. 
 
 "Above all, do not let the fertilizers come too close to the seed. A coarse, dilute 
 material like yard manure may do the plants no harm, but such concentrated fertilizers as 
 potash salts, dried blood, nitrate of soda, or high grade superphosphates, may kill them." 
 
 " The testimony of the experiments is on the whole against applying in the hill or drill. 
 The best results in the majority of cases came where the fertilizers were sown broadcast. 
 Several of the very best were where the materials were scattered over a strip a couple of feet 
 or so wide along the rows. Many of the worst results were where the fertilizers were put in 
 the hill or drill. The nitrate of soda and potash salts thus applied often injured the crops, 
 especially in dry weather." 
 
 Prof. Pendleton of South Carolina, on the contrary, says that in his experiments, super- 
 phosphates never produce remarkable results sown broadcast, and he has found that two 
 himdred pounds of phosphoric acid will produce more eS^t in the drill than five hundred 
 pounds sown broadcast. The explanation he gives for this effect is, that the superphosphates 
 find plenty of bases, such as clay, iron, lime, etc., in the whole soil to reduce the solubility 
 before the rootlets of the plants find it; while in the drill, sufficient remains in direct contact 
 with the roots to give the plant a vigorous start. He also found by experiment, that equal 
 parts of lime and superphosphate produced one hundred and thirty-seven pounds of cotton 
 less per acre than the same quantity of supei-phosphate alone. 
 
 When used in the drill, we have, in our experience and observation, found the best 
 results only to be attained when the fertilizers were mixed with four or five, or more, times 
 their bulk of earth and thus diluted. This is very important, as the strong chemical sub- 
 stances contained in them will be liable to injure the germs of the seeds or the rootlets of 
 the young plant. When applied as a top-dressing to growing crops, artificial manure should 
 be applied only in wet weather. 
 
 The Fallow System was formerly much practiced in England, and also in this coun- 
 try to a certain extent, but at present is partially, if not almost entirely, discarded by the 
 leading agriculturists of both countries. It is a very ancient custom in agriculture, and is a 
 means of enriching lands by allowing them to rest for one or more seasons, after partial 
 exhaustion occasioned by continuous production. No tillage is required except one or more 
 plowings, and thus exposing the soil to the action of the elements. Such lands are some- 
 times termed "naked fallows." This system is founded upon the principle that the soil has 
 stored up within it vast quantities of plant-food, which is not in a condition to be available 
 for the present use of vegetation; that the crops which the soil has previously produced have 
 exhausted most of the available soluble food, such as potash, phosphoric acid, etc., and unless 
 these elements that have been extracted from the soil, in the production of previous crops, can 
 be returned to it in some form of fertiUzers, suited to the immediate support of plants, 
 time must be given for dissolving (by the disintegrating process so constantly going on in 
 all soils) such elements as are now locked up in the soil, and which will become available 
 before the period of another sowing. The advocates of this practice claim that it not only 
 greatly improves the condition of the soil, but is also the surest means of destroying noxious 
 weeds; while the objections urged against it are not only a loss of the use of the land by the 
 period of idleness, but a great loss of much of the fertilizing element of the soil by evapora- 
 tion and drainage, exposed as it is during the summer to the hot rays of the sun, drying 
 winds, and leaching rains. 
 
FERTILIZERS. 85 
 
 The unlocking of the mineral elements of the soil, or, in other words, changing its 
 mechanical condition, as well as the destruction of troublesome weeds, can, it seems to us, be 
 accomplished in a more economical way, and without wasting any of the soil elements; and 
 that is by the "green fallow," which has generally taken the place of the old-time fallow sys- 
 tem. Some green crop, such as clover or buckwheat, is often sown after the plowing, and 
 allowed to grow until at the proper stage of growth for plowing under; in this way the 
 advantages of vegetable manuring are secured, with but slight expense of time or labor, and 
 the soil will acquire more nutriment and benefit by the vegetable manure than if allowed to 
 lie idle, while all troublesome weeds that are plowed under before ripening their seeds will 
 not be self-sown. Where the land lies idle, some recommend that the plowings be about six 
 weeks apart. "We consider that land is better prepared for grain, or any other crop, by the 
 use of vegetable manures as above described, than by the fallow system. 
 
 Fall Fallowing. — The old-time practice of summer fallowing, or working the soil for 
 a year without a crop, for the purpose of producing a larger crop the second season, is, as 
 pre\'iously stated, regarded as nearly obsolete by the best agriculturists of both this country 
 and Europe. Whatever may be the opinion concerning the summer fallow, there can be no 
 doubt whatever of the value of fall fallowing. The benefits derived from the latter practice 
 are very justly set forth by the following extract from one of our leading agricultural 
 journals: — 
 
 "The constant turning and working of the ground during the fall months cost nothing 
 but time and labor, at a season when these cannot be otherwise employed, and so, in reality, 
 cost nothing. But the benefits to the soil are very considerable. Especially is this the case 
 with heavy clay soils, and less, in a descending ratio, through the gradations from heavy clay 
 down to hght loams — at least, it is so considered by many; and it is reasonable to suppose 
 that if the atmospheric effects upon the particles of a clay soil serve, to some extent, to dis- 
 solve the mineral particles, they may easily do the same service for a sandy soil, and help to 
 set loose some of the potash contained in the granitic or feldspathic particles of such a soil. 
 The mechanical effects of the fall-working are certainly more useful upon clay than a light 
 loam; but there are other purposes to serve than merely to disintegi-ate the soil, and mellow 
 and loosen it. There are weeds to destroy, and the forwarding of the spring work by the 
 preparation of the ground for early sowing. These services are useful for a light soil as a 
 heavy one, and as it is reasonable to look for some advantage from the working in the way 
 of gain in fertility on light as well as heavy soils, it is advisable that owners of either kind 
 sliould avail themselves of whatever benefits the practice affords. Fall fallowing consists in 
 plowing and working the soil with the cultivator or the harrow. This may be done at such 
 intervals as may be convenient, or which will help to start some weeds into growth, when 
 these may be destroyed by the harrow or cultivator. Heavy soils should be left in rough 
 ridges at the last plowing, with as deep furrows between them as possible, in order to expose 
 the largest surface to the effects of frost and thaw. Light soils may be left in a less rough 
 condition, but the last plowing should be so done as to throw the furrows on edge, and not flat, 
 leaving the field somewhat ridged. A very httle work in the spring will put the ground into 
 excellent order for the early crops, and for spring wheat, especially, this better condition of 
 the soil will be of the greatest benefit. When thus treated in the fall, the soil is remarkably 
 mellow, and is dry enough to work much earlier than the compact stubble-land which remains 
 as it was left after the harvest. As to the time for doing this work, the sooner it is begun 
 and the oftener it is repeated, the better. It is not too late to finish w'hen the ground is 
 frozen, or there is an inch of snow on the ground." 
 
86 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 TILLAGE. 
 
 TILLAGE has been defined as tlie art or practice of preparing land for seed, and keeping 
 it in a state favorable for the growth of crops. The object of tillage is defined by 
 another to be that of extirpating from the soil the growths that we do not want, and 
 putting it in the best possible condition for the growths that we do want. The means employed 
 and the nature of conducting tlie proper tillage of the soil, together with the benefits to be 
 derived thereby, are among the most important considerations in agriculture, since tillage has 
 relation not only to the mechanical condition of the soil, but to its moisture, warmth, aeration, 
 fertilization, and the many benefits derived from the mixing of different elements of the soil, 
 and setting free those mineral constituents of plant-food that are locked up in all soils ; hence, 
 to a certain extent, judicious tillage is equivalent to the application of fertilizers to the land, 
 and many writers have placed so much importance upon it as to assert that if lands were allowed 
 to lie fallow every other season, producing only once in two years, manure would never be 
 required to produce good crops, and no deterioration of the soil would result. On the other 
 side of the question, there are those who take the opposite extreme view of the subject, and 
 claim that tillage has a tendency to make land sterile by the exposure of its elements to the 
 air, thus permitting the fertilizing properties contained in the soil to escape. Either extreme 
 has its objections, and the medium position, sometimes denominated "the golden mean," is, in 
 regard to this, as in most subjects, the most desirable course to pursue. By following the 
 fallow method, the farmer would require twice the area of land that he now uses in order to 
 produce the same amount in crops, while that portion of his land which produced the previous 
 season was lying idle; besides, we very much doubt whether, even with this rest of alternate 
 seasons, most soils would not suffer a gradual deterioration when entirely unsuppHed with 
 manure. The other theory above mentioned sets at naught all the experience of the past 
 with its important teachings, and gives but a partial view of the subject. There are many 
 good reasons for believing that too much plowing, as well as too deep plowing, is injurious to 
 man}' lands, and has a tendency to make them sterile; the former, by ctmtinuous exposiu-e of 
 the fertilizing matter which the soil contains to the air, involving a waste of these elements, 
 and also increasing the porous condition of such soils, while too deep plowing throws up often 
 a gravelly or sandy subsoil, and buries the rich humus of the surface beneath, where it is 
 beyond the reach of the roots of the plants, and consequently is lost to them ; but, as a general 
 rule, we believe the loss of plant-food occasioned by this exposure to the air and sun to be 
 very slight, and that the fertilizing properties of the soils are greatly increased by cultivation. 
 As almost all good is liable to be perverted to a wrong or mjudicious use, so the good results 
 of tillage may, in some cases, be perverted by the farmer plowing his fields too much, but we 
 believe such cases are rare, and are greatly outnimibered by those where the soil is not 
 plowed enough to produce the successful results that might be obtained by a thorough and 
 judicious tillage adapted to the character and needs of the soil and crops to be produced. 
 Because an overdose of the proper kind of medicine might prove injurious, and perhaps fatal 
 in some cases, is no reason why all medicine should be discarded and denounced as positively 
 injurious; but such a course would be quite as reasonable as the assertions of those who claim 
 tillage to be injurious to lands because it is sometimes practiced to excess. Success in 
 agriculture requires intelligent thought and action as well as every other department of 
 business, and the results of ignorance and carelessness are fully as disastrous here as every- 
 where else. All soils contain the mineral elements of plant-food in abundance, while the crops 
 produced require but a small amount; hence, but little of the mineral substance of the soil is 
 extracted by the growing crops, yet, small as that amount may be, and abundant as this element 
 may be in the soil, it is almost wholly locked up, as it were, beyond the reach of plants, or 
 rather, is not in the condition to be assimilated by them, but requires the agency of the air, 
 f unsliine, dew, and rain, and the various chemical changes that are constantly being produced, 
 
to set free or unlock these elements suited to plant-growth. But these agencies are slow in 
 their work of preparing these elements, and do not generally supply them with sufficient rapidity 
 for the use of plants; hence, it is necessary that the farmer should aid the soil by applying the 
 elements needed in the form of manure of some kind, and also ia hastening these chemical 
 changes by tillage, both of which are essential to the highest success in most soils, thus adding 
 to the materials suited to plant-food, and also putting in an available form those elements 
 already contained within it. Both are essential aids, and the best results in agriculture are 
 only reached when they are combined. Prof. Johnson explains some of the reasons for tillage 
 as foUows : — 
 
 '• In soils which have long lain undisturbed by the plow, and carry an inferior growth of 
 vegetation, grass or weeds — which have become 'bound out, ' in farmers' language — chemical 
 influences doubtless have oftentimes set in with the effect of gradually filling up the pores, 
 anil solidly cementing together the particles of earth by the very processes which, operating 
 through long periods of time, have converted into actual rocks what once were soils, either 
 gravels, sands, or clays. The red rock, so abundant in the central parts of Connecticut, at 
 New Haven is plainly seen to be a petrified gravel ; at the Portland quarries it is a consolidated 
 sand. The writing and roofing slates we are all familiar with are petrified clays, while the 
 limestones, so abundant in New Yoi'k and further west, were once the dust and mud of shores 
 and sea-bottoms, full of shells and lime. Geologists assure us that there is evidence to show 
 conclusively that all the rocks of New England, even her granites, were once sediments and 
 soils. In exclusion of air and of surface-water oft replenished with air, soils petrify or turn 
 to rocks, while in free contact with air, and water charged with air, rocks decay or disinte- 
 grate, and crumble into soil. Hard-pan, in many or most cases, is clay or clayey gravel 
 cemented in this manner, and many soils, even sands and loose-textured gravels originally, 
 liave been made comparatively impervious by some cementing material. That which acts as 
 foment is sometimes carbonate of lime, or carbonate of iron dissolved in water, and deposited 
 by the evaporation of the solvent. In other cases it is humate of iron, the same as bog iron 
 ore, the same also essentially as the moorbed pan, which often forms a thin but impervious 
 bottom to peat beds and muck swamps, even when situated on coarse gravelly sands. In 
 other cases silica and various silicates are the petrifying agents, as in the geysers of Iceland 
 aud the Yellowstone. They form in the soil itself by the chemical interaction of the 
 substances there. 
 
 " A full consideration of all the facts makes it quite evident that in most soils there are 
 tendencies constantly exerted with more or less vigor, towards mechanical compacting not 
 onl}', but towards chemical induration or petrifaction, and one of the important offices 
 of tillage is to counteract these tendencies. Tillage accomplishes this office, not by crushing 
 of solid grains, and not to any great extent b}^ any direct mechanical reduction of lumps of 
 coherent particles, but rather by lifting up masses of soil, turning them and letting them fall 
 so that the close contact produced by rest and moving water is broken, and the grains of 
 sand and the minute aggregations of loam are brought into new positions with regard to each 
 other, and to greater distances from each other. The soil ought to be moist when plowed. 
 Moist saiids may be thrown up to a ridgey surface, and the mass be full of considerable 
 cavities, whereas dry sand, if plowed, falls into nearly its original level and compactness. A 
 mass of clay soil in a certain stage of moisture is broken by the plow into a multitude of 
 small lumps, which if let dry a little more wiU yield to the impact of the harrow teeth and 
 fall to smaller lumps, and in part to powder. The subsequent drying of the earth thrown up 
 by a plow has much to do with its loosening. Some heavy clays of the plastic kind require 
 their spring tillage to be done, as it were, " on the wing." If a trifle too wet, the plow makes 
 paste of them where its pressure is felt, and the upturned soil falls to putty-like clods, which 
 harden on drying, so that the field after plowing is as unfit for a seed-bed as before it was 
 touched. If let stand too long before plowing, such clays bake at the surface to a crust tl^^r 
 turns up cloddy, and is difficult to reduce. 
 
THE ajierica:^ farmer. 
 
 " What really loosens clay soils by detaching the particles from each other is the act of 
 drying. The ten to twenty per cent, of impalpably fine real clay in such soils, distended by 
 physical hydration, is the glue which sticks their coarser parts together. As the water dries 
 
 GILPm SULKY PLOW. 
 
 TIMBER LAND PLOW 
 
 out, this cement shrinks around the sand-grains, and must either bring these together into 
 closer contact, or itself crack and break. It does both in fact. A brick Just moulded shrinks 
 on drjdng, aud its sides move together. The sides of a field of clay cannot approach each 
 
 THE CASSADAY SULKY PLOW. 
 
 Other, and therefore when it dries, innumerable cracks form over all its surface, and penetrate 
 downwards as the drying deepens. Wlien the soil is so dry as not to be plastic, so that water 
 cannot be squeezed out of a ball of it when worked in the hand, and so that when thrown up 
 
by the spade it does not stick to the tool, then plowing throws apart the granular masses 
 along the lines of the dry -cracks, and the soil is adequately loosened. 
 
 Some clay-lands are very difficult to till at all in spring time. In drying, they form not 
 many small, but a few wide cracks, and when they are dry enough below to crumble as the 
 plow passes, the surface is already baked to clods, so that after plowing, the clod-crusher — a 
 series of toothed wheels revolving independently, but close together, on a common axle — is 
 needed to actually pick and cut to pieces these tough lumps. 
 
 Other clay lands that are very close-textured and heavy when wet, slack or fall to pieces 
 as they dry, and on such soils early spring tillage may be pi-acticed, and m short seasons may 
 be necessary to dry out the land. This class of clays, and many heavy loams remain for a 
 long period wet at the surface during the spring rains, as they retain water with great tenac- 
 ity, and although they dry out finally, and come into good condition after a time, yet time 
 may be made and seed 
 got in earlier by put- 
 ting the plow to work 
 and actually raising 
 the earth and shaking 
 it in the air (as we 
 would lift and agitate 
 a wet cloth), for the 
 sake of drying out the 
 excess of moisture, 
 which, if not removed, 
 would cause planted 
 seed to rot. This dry- 
 ing of the soil is an 
 essential preliminary 
 to warming it up to a 
 point favorable for the 
 germination of seeds 
 and growth of young 
 plants. 
 
 The best time to 
 plow heavy clay lands 
 for loosening their 
 texture is the autumn, 
 soon after the crops 
 have been removed, 
 and before the naked 
 
 surface hardens under the late rains. Fall plowing may be done, if needful, when the clay 
 is wet, for if plowed dry it will become wet, and wetting is an essential part of the loosening 
 process. Alternate freezings and thawings of wet clay will loosen it as no other agency can. 
 "Water in freezing expands ^'^th its bulk, and the energy of its expansion is enormous. This 
 energy is exerted throughout the entire mass of the frozen earth, and in its finest pores. 
 But severe frost is needful, for, under sufficient pressure, or in strong capillary tubes, as in 
 the fine pores of brick and sandstone, water either does not freeze because it cannot expand, 
 or it requires a temperature much reduced below 32° Fahrenheit for its congelation. 
 
 The act of freezing not only effects a mechanical separation of adjacent particles of sand 
 and silt between which the water expands into ice, but it has a special influence on the real 
 clay. When water, turbid from suspended clay that would remain without settling for weeks 
 
 TILLAGE IN INDIA. 
 
90 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 together, is frozen, the clay particles, before so attenuated as to be invisible under the micro- 
 scope, are precipitated in distinct flocky masses, which, under the microscope, transmit much 
 light and have a granular or cellular appearance; and the water maybe poured ofi quite clear 
 and free from mUkiness. This result of freezing clay-water appears to be quite analogous to 
 that of freezing a thin starch paste, the starch being separated in glutinous clumps, and very 
 like the action of rennet or vinegar on milk, whereby the casein is coagulated or curdled. 
 Freezing thus coagulates clay, causes the swollen, gelatinous, transparent, clayey substance, so 
 retentive of water and so attenuated with water, to discharge the liquid and condense to a visi- 
 bly flocky or granular matter. 
 
 It is plain that tillage may modify the storage of water in the soil. If a compact clay or 
 loam be loosened in its texture, subsequent rains will more readily pass through the loosened 
 tilth and will penetrate and remain in reserve in the soil immediately underlying. This will 
 be advantageous in two ways. It will, first, give the sowed crop an aerated and therefore 
 healthy root-bed, and second, it will tend to conserve the rain against time of drought. 
 
 On coarse-textured soils, deep and frequent tillage may too much promote the descent 
 of rain, and therefore be detrimental to vegetation. 
 
 Let us now suppose the surface of the several soils we instanced, after being fully 
 charged with rain, to be equally exposed to the prolonged influence of sunshine and drying 
 winds, whereby the water at the surface and to a certain depth evaporates. At the very sur- 
 face the soils all become quite dry. At some distance down they kept moist, because, as the 
 water escapes above, it is raised by capillary action. The larger the pores the deeper the soil 
 dries out, because the larger the pores the less does water rise in them. It will thus happen 
 that so long as there is water in the deeper layers of soil, so long the clay will remain moist 
 at almost the surface, while the quantity of moisture will decrease from soil to soil, in propor- 
 tion to the coarseness of the pores, until in the gravel it may be dry almost throughout. 
 
 That stratum of the soil which is subjected to loosening tillage is always dried thereby. 
 A wet soil sometimes may be advantageously plowed for the purpose of di-ying it. A dry 
 soil may be made too dry by deep and repeated tillage. The reasons are — 1st. By loosen- 
 ing, the soil is made to expose a vastly greater evaj)orating surface to the atmosphere than 
 the compact soil presents. 2d. The capillary connection of the loosened earth with the 
 underlying sod is impaired, and its power of taking up and distributing bottom-water is 
 diminished. 3d. The rain that falls upon it flows more freely and completely into the sub- 
 soil. Thus its rate of losing water is increased, and the sources of supply are rendered less 
 rapidly effective. It is evident that the amount (depth and frequency) of tillage which would 
 benefit crops on a clay soil might damage those on a sandy one. 
 
 To conserve the water of a loose-textured soil its main tillage should be shallow, so that 
 the bulk of the earth remains compact enougli to hold the rain and to transmit bottom-water 
 steadily from the subsoil upwards to the roots of crops. The surface only, which has been 
 puddled by the latter and early rains, need be disturbed in spring-time to prepare a seed-bed 
 and to cover in manure. That surface, as often as it settles to compactness or forms a crust, 
 should be loosened up again with the horse-hoe, so as to maintain over the water-conducting 
 body of compact earth a relatively non-conducting layer of loose soil, to cut off the escape of 
 moisture into the atmosphere. 
 
 Summer tillage, to conserve moisture, should be shallow, and should not extend to the 
 roots, unless, indeed, with the object of compelling them to develop lower down and nearer 
 to the water supply. Generally, however, the depth of the well-manured stratum is but small, 
 and as little as possible of it should be withdrawn by frequent stirring and consequent drying 
 from serving as forage-ground for the roots of crops. 
 
 It is, however, easy to see that the effects of surface tillage will differ according to the 
 
PLOWING. 91 
 
 nature of the soil. If, instead of sand or soil made up of solid, coarse particles, it is a loam 
 which spring preparation has reduced, not to dust, but to lumps hke sand-grains in size, but 
 themselves porous and easily broken to dust or made finer by the passage of the cultivator, 
 then the loosening effect of tillage on the mass may be more or less compensated by its pul- 
 verizing effect on the lumps. 
 
 Again, unless there be uninterrupted capillary communication between bottom-water 
 and the surface soil, surface working will not prevent the inevitable drying out of the tilth; 
 nay, it may in the later stages of that drying-out hasten the result. 
 
 A light, loamy land, underlaid at a Uttle depth by coarse sand, and deeper still by a 
 loose gravel, will subject the vegetation on it to severe extremes of water supply, for when 
 heavy rains fall, the fine interstices of the surface will remain gorged, because the coarse 
 material below cannot suck the water down, and when, in drought, the surface-water is 
 exhausted, there is no capillary connection between the loam and bottom-water. Subsoils are 
 not, however, necessarily deficient in capillarity because they contain some gravel. A proper 
 kind and amount of porosity insures the ready distribution of water, whatever be the name 
 of the material. 
 
 The use of the roller after harrowing in seed, and of striking with the flat of the hoe 
 upon the hill after planting, is obviously to facilitate the access of moisture to the seed. The 
 capillary connection between the surface-soil and the moist earth below is largely interrupted 
 by putting in the seed, for that is, in itself, a loosening process. The soil must be compacted 
 in order to restore that connection and insure to the seed and young plant a steady and 
 sufEcient supply of water." 
 
 We therefore see that proper tillage — which means tillage adapted to the character and 
 conditions of the soil — not only enables the land to retain a greater amount of moisture in 
 time of drouth, but permits the air to penetrate and aerate the soil, thus increasing the vigor 
 and growth of plants, and in various ways greatly augmenting its productive capacities. The 
 soil, having its origin in the solid rock, and thus being abundantly supplied with mineral 
 elements, can never become exhausted of these, as long as any soil remains to be cultivated ; 
 but the necessity of tillage and other aids will probably always remain, in order to put these 
 elements in the best condition to be taken up by the plant.* and used as plant-food. 
 
 PLOWING. 
 
 TT is a fact worthy of note that the agricultural implements used by a nation or people 
 are a sure inde.x of that nation's civilization and commercial prosperity; and that 
 where the best are in general use, there will be foimd the best crops, the most wealthy, 
 enterprising, and intelligent people. The principal reliance of the farmer in performing the 
 labor of tillage, is the plow: it may be followed by a variety of other implements, such as the 
 harrow, roller, etc., to complete the process, but the primary and indispensable utensil is this 
 time-honored implement; hence, plowing, being the most important of the mechanical opera- 
 tions of tillage, should always be adapted to the cliaracter of the soil and the crops to be 
 
92 
 
 THE AMEHICAX FARMER. 
 
 produced. Its object 
 may be simply to invert 
 the sod, to slightly mel- 
 low the surface of the 
 soil, or to penetrate into 
 the depths of the sub- 
 soil and break it up 
 without bringing it to 
 the surface, or for vari- 
 ous other purposes, 
 therefore it is very im- 
 portant that the plow 
 should be adapted to the 
 kind of labor to be per- 
 formed, and the depth 
 and time of plowing 
 should vary according 
 to the nature of the soil 
 and the crop to be culti- 
 vated. Light or shal- 
 low plowing cannot be 
 performed with a plow 
 designed for heavy 
 work, suited to that of 
 the sub-soil plow, 
 neither can deep plow- 
 ing be well accomplished 
 with an implement de- 
 signed for light surface- 
 work. Great improve- 
 ments have been made 
 in these implements 
 within the past few 
 years, and one is led, in 
 seeing the^mplete suc- 
 cess of the work per- 
 formed by some of 
 them, to almost believe 
 that perfection lias at 
 least been reached in 
 this department of farm 
 utensils; but as progress 
 and improvement are 
 ever inseparable from 
 intelligence and culture, 
 probably improvements 
 will continue to be made, 
 although it may be diffi- 
 cult to tell how it could 
 well be accomplished. 
 Iron plows are gen- 
 
TILLAGE. 
 
 93 
 
 erally preferred for stony lands, but the steel plow is better adapted to soils that are of a 
 sticky character, like certain clays, or soft, mucky soils, that adhere to the share in turning a 
 furrow, and with care, will prove the most durable for general use, even on stony fields. The 
 " chilled " plows, which are produced by pouring a fine quality of iron over an iron chill or 
 mould, giving them a hard temper and rendering them very durable, are also very good for 
 all uses. 
 
 IRON BEAM PLUW. 
 
 OSBORNE PLOW SULKY. 
 
 The sulky and gang plows, so extensively used on large farms in the "Western States, and 
 to a certain extent in New England, are admirably adapted to perform the most perfect work 
 with facility and rapidity. The ease with wliich the operator performs his task with one of 
 these plows, as well as the amount of work accomplished per day, forms a peculiarly-striking 
 contrast with the excessive labor and rude implements with which our forefathers tilled the 
 soil, and are an index of our nation's progress in the art of agriculture since that time. 
 
 Every farmer should 
 have farm-implements adapt- 
 ed to the different uses of 
 his avocation, and among 
 none of such implements is 
 this adaptation more essen- 
 tial than in the choice of 
 plows, since the yield of 
 crops will depend largely 
 upon the manner and thor- 
 oughness with which the 
 plowing is performed. If 
 the plow is a poor one, not 
 adapted to the kind of work 
 to be accomplished, the plow- 
 ing will be very poorly done. 
 It should be of the proper 
 form and good material, the best being the cheapest in the end, since it will perform better 
 work, and last longer than a cheaper implement that will soon wear out or break. Besides, 
 a plow that is perfectly adapted to the purpose desired will not only perform better work, 
 but that work can be accomplished with less labor and expense than with a poor plow or one 
 ill adapted to the kind of work for which it is used. It is therefore necessary that the farmer 
 have good plows, and those of different styles for the various uses in tillage. Some farmers, 
 
 FUSED FOOT, STEEL POINT. 
 
94 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARIIEK. 
 
 even on small farms, claim that at least three or four good plows of different styles are neces- 
 sary while on larger farms a greater number would be found necessary. 
 
 The plow which is to invert a sod in the best manner must differ from that designed for 
 a loose soil, and which leaves it in the most desirable condition for seed or tender plants; 
 while the plow designed to turn a deep furrow must differ widely in style from one that 
 turns a shallow furrow. Those generally considered necessary for a small farm are a sod- 
 plow, stubble-plow, and a light, one horse plow for marking out lands for planting, etc., and 
 for various other purposes that can be accomplished only by such a plow. Additions might 
 be made to these, as the requirements of the soil and crops demand. Good implements will 
 
 ADAMANT CABBAUi: FLOW, OR COKN SUB-SOILER. 
 
 always prove a paying investment to any farmer, while cheap, inferior ones will be dear in 
 the end, in the failure of crops for lack of proper tillage of the fields, hindrance and expense 
 from constant breakage and repairs, etc., all of which will prove a great detriment to suc- 
 cessful farming. 
 
 AVlieil to Plow. — Some lands will be more benefited by fall-plowing, others by plow- 
 ing in the spring, and as near to the planting season as possible. Lands that should be 
 plowed in the fall are stiff clays, clay loams, and heavy loams, and any kind of soil that is 
 inclined to become more compact by the rains and become what is termed, in farmers' phrase, 
 "puddled in." Fall plowing will be greatly beneficial to such soils, on acconnt of the action 
 
TILLAGE. 95 
 
 of the frost, wbicli pulverizes and reduces them to a liner condition than could be effected in 
 any other manner; besides, such soils become thoroughly aerated, and through the agency of 
 the sun, snow, rain, and air, these wonderful forces of nature, such chemical changes are 
 wrought by the blending and mingling of the different elements contained in the soil, that 
 these elements can readily be taken up by the plants as their proper noui-ishment. The frost 
 lifts the surface of the soil, rendering it more open, porous, and flexible for the next season's 
 work, as well as increasing its fertility. 
 
 Lands that should be plowed only in the spring, and not until wanted for planting, are 
 light, sandy soUs, such as dry quickly in the wind. If such lands are plowed in the fall, and 
 thus exposed to the rains, atmospheric influences, and the sim, their fertilizing properties are 
 very liable to be washed out or exhaled, and such soils derive but little fertility from the 
 atmosphere; in fact, not enough to compensate for the loss sustained by the exposure. 
 
 How to Plow. — In plowing in the fall, it is always well to so turn the fiirrows that 
 they will lap over, one upon the other, forming what is called the "lap-furrow," which 
 will admit of a free circulation of air by forming an air-chamber under each furrow the 
 entire length of the field. By this means a better drainage of the land will be secured, the 
 soil aerated, and a greater benefit derived through the agency of the frost, since not only the 
 furrow-slice will be frozen, but the soil beneath it to quite a depth, thus breaking it up, 
 thoroughly pulverizing it, and rendering it more porous and friable. Lands plowed in this 
 manner are in good condition when the frost leaves the soil, and are ready for use much 
 earlier than when plowed in the spring. Some farmers recommend ridging the entire field 
 by turning two furrows together, thus exposing a larger portion of the surface-soil to the 
 action of the frost than by the previous method. Lands tilled in this manner may be cross- 
 plowed and cross-harrowed in the spring ; or, if this is not done, the furrows should l^e 
 divided by running a plow through the center of each, and afterwards cross-harrowed. 
 
 A. "W. Cheever, of Boston, a practical farmer, and editor of the Kew England Farmer, 
 gives the following sensible advice on the manner of plowing a field: — 
 
 " If the field to be plowed is of regular shape, with four right-angle corners, and with 
 no fences to obstruct the team in turning, it may be plowed and left nearly as mellow as by 
 spading, and without leaving the track of a single hoof upon the entire field. If enclosed by 
 fences, the team should start on one side and travel to within a convenient turning-distance 
 from the fence, then reverse and plow back, leaving a strip of uniform width at either end. 
 The plowing should go on back and forth, till a strip of the same width of the ends is left at 
 the side of the field, when the team, instead of coming back at the end of each furrow, 
 should so move as to plow on the three sides with once reversing the plow. This avoids use- 
 less turning of the plow at the corners, and prevents excessive tramping of the furrows. 
 Where there are no fences in the way at the ends, if the first furrow turned is carted across 
 the field and neatly laid in the bottom of the last furrow, the field will be as level and as 
 smooth throughout as before plowing. In plowing sod-land for immediate use, whether for 
 planting or for sowing, it is very important that every foot of soil is completely inverted and 
 the furrow-slices laid regularly in their appropriate places, and the furrows should be of 
 uniform depth and width throughout their entire length. If the furrow-sUce is too wide for the 
 preceding furrow, its outer edge will be lapped over the previous furrow, and be liable to be 
 turned back during the after cultivation, If the plow dodges its work and takes more land 
 than it can turn, ugly depressions are left, which cannot be properly filled by any amount of 
 subsequent harrowing. It is, therefore, of the greatest importance that the plow should run 
 steadily, and with a uniform width and depth of furrow. Many farmers use too short a 
 chain between plow and team. With a long chain a misstep of the animals is less felt, and 
 the plow less liable to leave its place than with a short hitch, and by using a wheel to govern 
 the depth of furrow, the plow will run Just as easily with a long, as with a short hitch, pro- 
 
96 THE AMEHICAX FARMER. 
 
 vided the amount of work done is the same in both cases. A long yoke or wiiiffletree, besides 
 being easier for the team, especially among rocks, is more necessary when using a swivel than 
 a landside plow, as a full width furrow is more readily obtained. Farmers have sometimes 
 condemned swivel plows for no other reason than because they used too short yokes and chains. 
 Farmers also make a great mistake when they neglect to use a good sharp cutter when run- 
 ning plows in sod-land. The difference between plowing with or without a good cutter is 
 about the same as the difference between cutting and tearing cloth or paper. With a cutter 
 running from two to three inches deep, and well forward of the rising furrow-slice, the latter 
 is brought up and turned over with a smooth, straight edge, which folds down into the pre- 
 vious furrow, leaving no ragged or unsightly edges to be hauled back by the harrow. The 
 cutter is also useful in clearing away stubble or rubbish, when plowing corn or grain fields, 
 and prevents the choking and obstructing of the work of the mould-board." 
 
 Depth of Plowing. — With regard to the depth of plowing, there has been much dis- 
 cussion, and various opinions expressed; many eminent authorities in scientific agriculture 
 advocating deep plowing, and asserting that we cannot plow too deeply ; others — equally good 
 authorities — have given strong arguments in favor of shallow plowing. We believe, how- 
 ever, that the majority of the best agriculturists at present concur in the opinion that the 
 depth of plowing must depend upon certain conditions, which may be as various as the char- 
 acter of the soils cultivated and the crops grown — some soils and crops requiring much deeper 
 plowing than others; hence, each farmer must be "a law unto himself" in such matters, and 
 by a careful study of the nature of his soil, and by experiment, learn the depth of soil-stirring 
 best adapted to his own particular farm. As a general rule, however, the plowing should be 
 as deep as the soil, or rather, the plowing should go to the subsoil, and should sometimes 
 break up the subsoil, but should rarely bring it to the surface. A deep, mellow soil is, of 
 course, to be preferred to a shallow one that overlies a hard subsoil. 
 
 Mr. Cheever recommends eight inches of well-pulverized, rich, mellow top-soil, as a 
 pretty good standard, as a general rule, to aim for on most farms, and quite as much as most 
 farmers have sufficient manure for, and says that in order to reach the eighth inch with a 
 common plow, he has found great benefit from the use of the steel subsoil plow, without 
 mould-board, — a plow that simply loosens the subsoil without bringing it to the surface. 
 
 To turn a flat furrow eight inches in depth, the width should be from fourteen to sixteen 
 inches. The principal material for plant- food is to be found in the surface or agricultural soil; 
 hence, it is always safe to plow as far down as that soil extends, whether it be four, five, six, 
 or even twelve inches in depth. When the surface soil is very thin and it is desirable to 
 deepen it, it will be well to plow an inch or so deeper each year into the subsoil, mingling it 
 with the surface-soil gradually in this way, together with the application of manure, until the 
 soil attains the required depth. As a general rule, it will not be safe to deepen it much more 
 than this degree each year, as the surface-soil will be liable to become deteriorated by the mix- 
 ture of a great amount of the raw subsoil, since time will be required for it to become suited 
 to plant growth. Many fields have been rendered sterile by too rapid deepening of the soil 
 in this manner, and required years of culture to recover from the effects. The reason for this 
 is very evident: suppose we have a surface-soil of five inches, rich and mellow, overlying a 
 subsoil of coarse gravel or hard clay; now, if we attempt to plow to the depth of eight or nine 
 inches, and throw up this coarse gravel, or compact, lifeless clay that forms the subsoil, we 
 bury the principal portion of the soil that can produce vegetable growth deep in the earth, 
 away from the reach of the seed, or yoimg and tender plants, and have upon the surface a 
 coarse soil unsuited to plant-growth, and in which the plants would starve and die for lack of 
 proper food ; and it would probably require several years' time for the action of the air, rains, 
 dews, frost, and the various agencies of nature that aid in the changes and decomposition 
 
PLOWING. 
 
 97 
 
 constantly going on in the earth, to bring that soil up to the degree of fertility that it had 
 attained before the plowing. 
 
 ADVANCE CHILLED PLOW. 
 
 It is sometimes de- 
 sirable to break up the 
 subsoil, which can 
 easily be accomplished 
 with a good subsoil 
 plow without bringing 
 it to the surface; but 
 the instances are very 
 rare where benefits 
 will be derived by 
 mingling it to any 
 ()ii\Li I ini in) I'Liiu great extent with the 
 
 surface soil and it should always be doi e with great caution When the surface-soil is very 
 sandy, with a subsoil of stiff clay, or the reverse, such soils may be improved bv mixing the 
 clay and sand as thoroughly as prac- 
 ticable, and subjecting them to the 
 various processes of proper tillage. 
 Soils of great value are sometimes pro- 
 duced in this way from such as have 
 previously been considered of inferior 
 quality. 
 
 Sometimes the subsoil is a hard clay, 
 almost impervious to water; hence, in 
 
 rainy seasons, the surface-soil is satu- __^^j y^\E^''W ga^g5p 
 
 rated with a surplus of water that can- THE goodall suBsoiir~pIow, grue-hook, stone and 
 not make its escape downward through root-puller. 
 
 the impenetrable layer beneath, and the land must depend almost wholly upon evaporation 
 for becoming dry enough to promote the growth of crops; in such cases, a breaking up of 
 the hard subsoil will materially improve the condition, as it furnishes room for deep-rooted 
 crops, and a means of drainage by opening a way of escape through it for the surplus water 
 in the soil, and also admits of the moisture from beneath finding access to the roots of plants 
 
98 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 in time of drought, while the roots also can penetrate deeper in search of the requisite amount 
 of water. 
 
 There maj' be other instances where the breaking up of the subsoil would be a positive 
 injury to crops, such as certain loams or an}' kind of leachy soil, with a coarse, sandy sub- 
 soil that would, if undisturbed, form to a certain extent by its compactness, a barrier to the 
 rapid escape of water and fertilizing properties that would otherwise wash through it and be 
 wasted. It is easy to see that the breaking up of such a subsoil would be very hazardous to 
 crops, and the fertilizing element.? contained in the surface-soil capable of being washed out 
 by heavy rains. On old fields that may have a shallow surface-soil, and have been plowed to 
 a certain depth for a succession of years, and never reaching beyond that depth, or, on certain 
 soils formed from the fine sediment of a river, a hard subsoil is (jften found which seems to 
 resemble hard-pan in compactness, and which is evidently rendered so in a great measure by 
 the plow always going to a certain depth. Such soils are materially benefited by breaking 
 through this hard crust with a subsoil plow. 
 
 STUBBLE PLOW. 
 
 One of the first and most important things for every owner of a farm to ascertain — 
 aside from the nature of the surface-soil — is the character and value of the subsoil imder- 
 lying his land. In many instances it will prove of little value, and should either be 
 left undisturbed, or loosened simply for the purpose of giving greater capacity for supplying 
 moisture, according to the conditions and nature of the soil, as we have previously stated. 
 In other cases, the subsoil has been known to materially increase tlie value of the agricul- 
 tural soil when mixed with it, but as we have before stated, it should be done very cau- 
 tiously and gradually, accompanied with a mixture of manure each year. 
 
 A recent authentic writer gives the following striking instance of benefits derived from 
 a mixture of the surface and subsoils: 
 
 " An open ditch two feet deep was cut through a portion of a field, and the excavated 
 subsoil scattered to the distance of a rod on each side. The field was afterwards sown with 
 wheat, the season for which was so unfavorable that the field averaged only five bushels per 
 acre, except where the subsoil from the ditch had been scattered. Here the product was 
 estimated at no less than twenty bushels per acre. It would have paid well to dig up enough 
 of the subsoil to scatter over the whole field. A farmer in one of the wheat-growing regions 
 informed us that he increased his wheat ten bushels per acre by running the plow two inches 
 deeper than it had ever gone before, throwing up and intermixing a small portion of the subsoil." 
 
PLOWING. 99 
 
 Several years ago. John Johnston of Geneva made in substance the following statement: 
 '■ 1 had some 800 oak and black walnut stumps pulled, bringing up earth from four to six 
 feet deep, and ten feet square or more on the surface. The next year I sowed the field to 
 wheat. Where the stumps stood, the wheat was not so good as elsewhere, but it is now, after 
 some yeai-s, in wheat again, and I never saw such wheat as where ttie stumps were pulled. 
 You could see wliere every stump had been; the wheat is all of ten inches taller, stands far 
 stockier on the ground, and looks as if a load of barnyard manui-e had been laid down and 
 not half spread." 
 
 We are inclined to believe such instances as above quoted, rare, and as being the escej) 
 tion rather than the rule, although subsoils of value are common in some localities. 
 
 As we have previously stated, no definite rule can be given with respect to the depth of 
 plowing. We have specified general rules, and stated various conditions and circumstances, 
 with probable results, but soils differ so widely in character that ditiereut methods will be 
 required for different fields, and each farmer, by careful experiment and observation, will be 
 able to best determine for himself the methods most suited to his own soils, always bearing 
 in mind the general principles relative to the character of different soils, and the relation 
 which the surface or agricultural soil bears to the subsoil. 
 
 Clay soils, heavy loams, or heavy soils of any kind are best pulverized and made friable 
 by plowing when dry or nearly so. If plowed when wet, they will turn over in smooth, 
 compact furrows, which will dry in the ^n into hard lumps that will require often the entire 
 season to pulverize, and usually will remain so imtil subjected to the action of the frost, 
 which has a tendency to separate their particles and reduce them to a pulverized condition. 
 
 Gravelly soils may be plowed when either wet or dry. The accompanying illustrations 
 in this department represent several of the standard plows at present in use. 
 
 The Gilpin Sulky, Timber Land, Stubble and Iron Beam Plows represent cuts made 
 from photographs of implements manufactured by Deere & Co., Moline, 111. 
 
 In the Gilpin Sulky Plow one lever varies the depth of plowing, levels the plow at all 
 depths, and raises it out of the ground when desired. Sulky plows are admirably adapted to 
 large fanns and level lands free from stones, and are much used in the Western States. The 
 Deere Gang Plow, — an illustration of which will be seen in connection with another depart- 
 ment, on large farms of the country, where twenty of them are employed in a single field, — is 
 similar to the Gilpin Sulky, except it plows two furrows at once instead of one, and is more 
 heavy and cumbersome than the latter, being used only on very large farms. Its use requires 
 three or four horses or mules. It is very strong and not easily broken by striking large 
 stones or other obstructions. The Cassaday Sulky Plow, and Oliver Chilled, by the WTiitte- 
 more Bros, of Boston, Mass., are also fine implements. The former is especially adapted to 
 lands where there are stones «r other obstructions, and for this reason is proving especially 
 valuable to the farmers of New England. Two horses are sufficient for its use. 
 
 The Osborne Plow Sulky, manufactured by Gregg & Co., Trumansburg, N. Y., has a 
 system of levers by which the driver is enabled to regulate the depth and width of the 
 furrows at will. 
 
 The Green-sward and Subsoil Eagle Plow, by the well-known firm of Ames Plow Co., 
 Boston, Mass., may be made to turn fiu-row slices from nine to fourteen inches deep, and from 
 sixteen to twenty inches wide when desired. 
 
 The Advance Chilled, and the Goodall Subsoil Plow, also used as a grub hook, stone and 
 root-puller, and manufactui'ed by Joseph Buck & Sons, Boston, Mass., are too well-known to 
 require comment. 
 
 The Adamant plows, by the New York Plow Co., of New York City, are exceedingly 
 durable, being made of metal of uniform hardness. They are so constructed as to be fitted 
 with "slip points" of steel, — of which we give an illustration — by means of which the plows 
 ean be kept constantly sharp, while the cost of repairs is thus greatly reduced. 
 
100 
 
 THE AMERICAN FAR3IER. 
 
 HARROWING. 
 
 THE harrow is indispensable to any farm, however smaU, being useful in various ways, 
 principally for pulverizing the soil, and covering the seed when only a slight covering is 
 necessary; it is also often valuable for exterminating weeds. Its use for any purpose is 
 most effectual wheu the soil is dry and capable of being crumbled cr pulverized mto a fine 
 mellow condition; therefore, a field should never be harrowed when the soil is wet. But a few 
 years since, the straight-toothed harrow, in the form of a triangle or letter A, was the only har- 
 row known among farmers; although a useful implement in many respects, it was a very un- 
 satisfactory one for fitting green sward for planting or sowing, as well as for some other pur- 
 poses for which the unproved harrows in use at the present time are so admirably adapted. 
 A thorough pulverization of the soil will well repay the labor bestowed m rendering it so, since 
 a soil that is reduced to a fine and mellow tillage, other conditions being equal, requires less 
 manure than one that is not thoroughly reduced to this condition, besides, it is an important 
 
 LA DOW S PTTLVERIZINO HABBOW. 
 
 principle in agriculture, that the more thoroughly the soil is mixed and worked over, the 
 better are the crops. Those agricultural machines that will best accomplish this complete 
 pulverization of the soil, are of course the best implements. For reducing heavy soils, such 
 as sodded or stiff clay lands, the eflSciency of the harrow is increased by its moving quickly 
 through the soil, and striking the larger lumps with sufficient force to break them in pieces ; 
 for this reason an active team is better then a slow-moving one for this pui'pose, and horses 
 or mules are often preferred to oxen. 
 
 The above illustration represents La Dow's jointed pulverizing harrow, manufactured by 
 the Wheeler & Melick Co., Albany, N. Y. This is a very efficient implement for pulverizing 
 and preparing lands for seed, as the discs are of steel and very sharp, and break or cut 
 through all the solid portions of the soil, leaving it fine, even, and mellow. It cuts uniformly 
 deep the entire length of each gang, and performs very thorough work by once going over 
 
HARROWING 
 
 101 
 
 the ground. Each disc is supplied with a patent scraper bar attachment, which obviates all 
 difficulty in sticky soils by keeping them clean from any earth that may adhere to them ; this 
 scraper being controlled by the driver simply moving a lever toward him. The number of 
 discs or wheels in the different sizes of this harrow range from twelve to twenty-four, and the 
 width of the cut from six feet to fifteen feet. 
 
 Qm 
 
 ACME PULVERIZIXO HARROW, CLOD-CRUSHER. AND LEVELER. 
 
 The Acme harrow, manufactured l>y Nash & Brother, New York city, is a combined 
 harrow, clod-crusher, and leveler, which very effectually breaks down the hard portions of 
 the soil, and levels the surface, while the curved steel coulters cut and pulverize it to the 
 
 SHARE S COULTER HARROW. 
 
 depth of four or five inches, leaving it mellow and fine. It can be made to effectually pulver- 
 ize a field of com stubble, or run light enough to cover grass seed. It covers seed to a 
 xmiform depth, and will also thoroughly mix commercial fertilizers with the soil. The weight 
 of the driver while riding adds to its efficiency. 
 
102 
 
 TJIE AMERICAN FAUMEK. 
 
 Share's Coulter Harrow, by the firm of Belcher & Taylor, Cbicopee Falls, Mass., is an 
 implement, the merits of which are well-known. 
 
 The Thomas and Nishwitz harrows, manufactured Ijy Joseph Breck & Sons, Boston 
 Mass., have also been extensively used. The essential principle of the former consists in 
 placing the teeth at a double angle, both backward and sidewise in the bar, so that the 
 
 ^^m- 
 
 THE THOMAS HAHKOW. 
 
 THE NisHwrrz HAIU; 
 
 position of each shall be directly backward in the line of draft, or direction in which the 
 harrow is moving. If the bar in which the teeth are placed moved directly lengthwise, all 
 the teeth in a bar would follow each other; and, to avoid tliis, tlie bar is made to advance 
 somewhat diagonally or sidewise, so that each tooth will cut a sHce for itself, and no two 
 teeth follov,- each other. The distance between the teeth is a little less than one inch as they 
 
USE OF THE ROLLER. 
 
 103 
 
 work in the ground, or about one-third the distance usual in most harrows, thus securing the 
 perfect and minute pulverization of the entire surface. Owing to this position of the teeth, 
 they never clog, keep themselves scoured clean and bright, and bury any rubbish, such as 
 straw, roots, manure, etc., completely beueatli the soil. 
 
 The latter harrow consists of a series of revolving concave discs, and is somewhat similar 
 in its construction to La Dow's harraw. 
 
 USE OF THE ROLLER. 
 
 THE field-roller is a valuable machine for every farmer to possess, although it is more 
 rarely seen on farms than almost any other farm implement. 
 It is very useful for crushing the clods and lumps that are left by the harrow, and 
 for pressing down stones and rendering a field smooth for a mowing machine, also in pressing 
 the soil down upon the seed, which produces a more sure and quick germination by the 
 increased moisture thus secured. It also consolidates soils that are too loose in texture. All 
 lands, whether seeded down in the spring or fall, should be rolled every spring. AH grass 
 lands even are greatly benefited by its use, since the action of the frost has a tendency to 
 throw up the ground; the tender roots are thus e.'tposed and will soon dry up if not replaced. 
 By pressing tliem back again to their proper places with the roller, an increased crop of grass 
 will result whicli will abundantly repay for the labor. Its use is said to have often doubled 
 a crop on certain sandy soils that are not sufficiently compact to hold the roots of plants firmly, 
 and retain sufficient moisture for their support. 
 
 THE FIELD ROLLER. 
 
 As a general rule, the tillage operations of the roller, as well as those of the harrow, can 
 be performed to best advantage when the soil is not wet. 
 
 Rollers are made in various ways, the material of which they are constructed being of 
 both wood and iron ; but the iron roller is the most approved kind, as it does better work 
 and is more durable than wood. It is made in sections of cast-iron. Tlie box attachment is 
 very servicable for holding stones, weeds, roots, etc., picked iip in the field, and for supplying 
 weight to the roller, according to the work required. 
 
 The above illustration represents one of the best iron rollers in use. 
 
 For clay lands that have become very compact and hard, a heavy iron roller which has 
 teeth attached to the external surface is sometimes used in breaking up the soil, but such an 
 
IQ^ THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 implement might very properly be superseded by the use of some of the most approved kinds 
 of harrows for stirring and pulverizing the soil, which might be followed by the ordinary 
 roller for crushing the smaller clods that would escape the harrow. 
 
 How to Construct a Farm Roller. On small farms where often the moderate 
 means of the farmer would not warrant the purchase of a good iron roller, a substitute for 
 light work is sometimes found in a log drawn over the ground without rolling. 
 
 Some farmers use a square piece of timber for this purpose, either of which will do fairly 
 well where the lumps are not very hard, as in some clay soils. In using the log for this pur- 
 pose, a pair of shafts will be needed for one horse, and a pole like that of a wagon for two 
 horses. Of course, the round stick of timber, or log, will approach nearest the roller, and will 
 be the more desirable substitute, as it is less liable to clog and become obstructed in the work. 
 
 A very cheap and serviceable roller can be easily made from a round piece of timber of 
 suitable size and length, (which should be eight or ten feet; if too long it would not be conve- 
 nient to manage in turning round,) and inserting irons of sufficient size and strength in the 
 center of each end, as axles on which the log shall turn. The box attachment can also be 
 added, and a roller, simulated after the common iron roller in finishing, be made to answer 
 the requirements of a small farm. Of course, it will be necessary that the log of which it is 
 made should be as nearly straight and as near the form of a perfect cylinder as possible. 
 Almost any farmer can find such a log in his woodland, and but little ingenuity and labor 
 would be required in the construction of such an implement, which would be found very 
 serviceable on those farms where the iron roller is not used. 
 
 WHAT CROPS TO RAISE. 
 
 FARMING is constantly becoming more of a mercantile business than formerly. 
 In the earlier days, it was the custom for farmers to raise everything for home 
 use, even the clothing worn by the family, and scarcely a farmer was known who 
 did not produce his yearly crop of flax and wool for this purpose. The old maxim was, 
 that farmers should sell and not buy. At present this idea is in a great measure ignored, 
 and although it is customary for farmers to raise what is used on the farm, as far as practicable, 
 there is a tendency towards the opinion that division of labor, or specialties, are as applicable 
 to farming, as to other kinds of business. 
 
 That the shoemaker should endeavor to make clothes, hats, and bonnets for his family, 
 would be thought absurd ; and that the tailor should attempt to make the shoes, furniture, 
 etc., for his household would be considered, to say the least, very poor economy, when by 
 working at his trade he could earn many times as much as those articles would cost, and the 
 purchased goods would be in every way superior to any that he could manufacture. That 
 the farmer should endeavor to cultivate everything consumed, or in demand upon his farm, 
 without regard to the expense attending it, the nature of his soil, -the relative market value 
 compared with other crops, the demands of the market, and other considerations, would also 
 be very poor policy, since the real profits, or the attainment of the largest possible excess of 
 receipts over expenditures, is the aim of the farmer as well as those engaged in other depart- 
 ments of business. 
 
 A Judicious Choice of Crops Essential. There are few things that have so impor- 
 tant a bearing upon the success or failure of the farmer's business, as the choice of crops to 
 be produced. Of course his success also depends upon many other considerations in connec- 
 tion with this one great essential, such as the manner of cultivation, judicious management. 
 
WHAT CROPS TO RAISE. 105 
 
 and other things too numerous to mention, which, if ignored, would fail of giving success, 
 even with the most desirable choice of crops that might be made; but where all other condi- 
 tions are favorable, a judicious choice is one of the first essentials to success, and a failure or 
 error here will inevitably lead to disastrous results, — such results as no amount of labor and 
 care, or skill in culture, can to any great extent ameliorate. 
 
 Choice of Crops Modified by Demand. It will be generally conceded that the 
 choice of crops is to the farmer what the selection of goods is to the merchant. The selection 
 of goods is to the merchant, a consideration of the first importance in his success, and his 
 study must be to learn the wants of his customers and meet their demands, both in kind and 
 quality of goods with which to continually replenish his stock. If he fails to do this, he soon 
 loses custom, for no one would think of buying things he may liappen to have on hand, simply 
 to accommodate him, when they were not what was wanted ; and if he did not have the goods 
 desired, his customers would go elsewhere for them, and other merchants would gain the 
 trade tliat he had lost. One of the great principles of mercantile business everywhere 
 recognized is to meet the demands of the trade, and if this be ignored, failure of success 
 must inevitably follow. This same principle is equally applicable to the agricultural pursuit, 
 since the farmer as well as the merchant depends upon the sales he makes for the profits in 
 his business, the only difference being that the merchant purchases his goods for sale, and tlie 
 farmer produces his from the soil by skill and labor in cultivation. 
 
 If the merchant requires skill and judgment in determining the wants of his ctistomers, 
 and in selecting his goods with a view to meet those wants, so does the farmer require an 
 equal amount of skill and judgment to meet the demand for the class of products he is to 
 supply. And if in the mercantile business, there is constantly a demand for something new, 
 the old going out of fashion to give place for the new, — so in farming, is there no permanency 
 in the demand for certain products. What is most in demand now, may not be required by 
 the markets a few years hence. 
 
 New varieties of fruits and other products are constantly being introduced, some of 
 which find a more ready market than those formerly cultivated, and it is the farmer's business 
 to learn what kinds of products and the varieties of these that are most in demand, and wiU 
 consequently bring the highest price, and cultivate these. In many instances the varieties 
 most popular with the purchasers may seem no better to the farmer than the old ; but since it 
 is but right that the consumer who pays his money for the products should be the one to 
 decide which he will buy, the farmer will find it for his interest to cultivate the kind desii'ed. 
 In other words, the farmer, as well as the merchant, must keep up with the times and the 
 demands of the age in which he lives in order to be successful. The farmer then, as a general 
 rule, must keep himself informed with respect to the state of the markets at which he is to 
 dispose of his crops, and raise such as are in demand there. 
 
 Principle SllOUld be Regarded. There are, however, exceptions to the above rule 
 governing the choice of crops. We cannot recommend it only as far as it does not involve a 
 violation of moral principle. Popular demand should always be subservient to that, and no 
 truly honest man would sacrifice principle for the profits that may be the result. We have a 
 profound respect and admiration for an old New England farmer, who in a time of general 
 scarcity of apples, being offered a high price for those from his large, well-bearing orchards, 
 for the purpose of manufacturing cider-brandy, replied, "No! though I want the money, 
 I'll let 'em rot upon the ground before I'll sell 'em for such a purpose!" 
 
 If all farmers were equally true to principle with respect to the disposal of their pro- 
 ducts, there would be less perversion of the good and useful, and what the Creator designed 
 for man's sustenance, into evil, and that element that destroys annually morally, mentally, and 
 physically, so many of the human race. He who administers to an evil habit or depraved 
 
106 THE AjVrERICAN FARMER. 
 
 taste, aids in debasing his fellow-man, and is himself debased by the act. To all farmers we 
 would say, — ^in the cultivation and disposal of your crops, be true to the principle of right 
 and honor; let that be the standard of choice always, and the popular demand secondary 
 to this. 
 
 Choice of Crops Modified by the Character of the Soil. — Another veiy im- 
 portant consideratidn, in determining the kind of crops to be cultivated, is the character of 
 the soil. No farmer can be very successful in his business who does not understand the 
 nature of his soil and the crops to whi«h it is best adapted. The soil of some farms is better 
 suited to grass and the rearing of stock; others for grain, roots, and other cidtivated crops; 
 others still for fruit culture principally. Some farms are better adapted to certain particular 
 kinds of stock — those for special pui-poses; others still for specialties in farming, while many 
 are suited to a mixed husbandry, or the cultivation of many of the farm products. 
 
 In making a choice of crops, therefore, the farmer will find it to his advantage to imder- 
 stand the character of the soil he is to cultivate, as well as the demands of the market, and 
 produce those for which his lands are best adapted. If he attempts to cultivate products that 
 are best suited to a dry, warm soil, in a cold clay or wet lands, or the reverse, he will generally 
 meet with failure, unless by imderdraining the wet lands or othenvise changing the condi- 
 tion of the respective soils, they become suited to the growth of the plants for which they are 
 not naturally adapted. Again, some soils may possess more of certain kinds of elements of plant- 
 growth than of others; for instance, one soil nipy be more deficient in phosphoric acid than 
 the other desired elements of plant-food; another may have an abundance of phosphoric acid, 
 but be lacking in potash, etc., the same principle applying to a deficiency of any of the 
 elements of plant-food, the stores of which may be capable of a partial or complete exhaustion 
 in a soil. Fortunately for the farmer, science has come to his aid and pointed out to him the 
 way to restore the elements that may be deficient in his lands, through over-cropping without 
 sufiicient fertility restored to the soil, or for other reasons, and when once he has determined 
 the great want of his lands, he may, by applying it in the form of commercial fertilizers or 
 farm manure, so change its nature and condition as to adapt it to the successful cultivation 
 of crops that it would not otherwise produce. 
 
 He may use special fertilizers for special crops, or he may use barn-yard manure, if it 
 can be obtained in sufiicient quantities, since it is a complete fertilizer for aU crops, and the 
 commercial fertilizers are not. Special fertilizers that are complete can, however, be made 
 for certain crops by a proper combination in kind and quality of commercial manui'es, which 
 have given remarkable results even in soils not especially adapted to their production. Barn- 
 yard manure is more slow in its results than commercial fertilizers, since it requires a longer 
 time for it to become assunUated to plant-growtli, being coarse in textiu-e, while commercial 
 fertilizers, being reduced to a condition to be readily taken up by the plants, act more quickly 
 in stimulating the growth of crops. For this reason, where barn-yard manure is applied 
 alone, the yield is always modified more largely by the adaptation of the land for the particular 
 crop under cultivation, than where commerciaJ fertilizers are iised, and much of the fertility 
 in the soil is left over to the following year, while the fertilizing properties of commercial 
 manures are usually mostly extracted during the first season. With skillful management 
 with special fertilizers — those adapted to certain products — many crops may be grown suc- 
 cessfully on lands that otherwise were not well adapted to their production; still, as a general 
 rule, the best permanent results are attained on lands naturally suited to the crop to be culti- 
 vated. It is well, however, for the farmer to bear in mind that one of the most important 
 things to be considered is the necessity of thoroughly understanding, as far as can be, the 
 nature of the soil he is to cultivate. The value of this knowledge cannot well be over- 
 estimated. The soil is the element with which the farmer has to deal, and unless he possesses 
 a good knowledge of it, and knows the crops to which it is best adapted, he cannot expect to 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 107 
 
 succeed. If he meets with any deg:ree of success while working in ignorance, it is by mere 
 chance that he reaches the result — a kind of " guess work " without knowledge of the facts 
 that lead to it. What could be expected of a mechanic who attempted, in the pursuit of his 
 business, to use tools constructed in a complicated manner, when entirely ignorant of their 
 use and construction? Equally presumptuous would it be for the farmer to expect to cultivate 
 
 intelligently and with successful results the most complicated of elements combined the 
 
 agricultural soil — when entirely ignorant of its composition, or of what it was best adapted 
 to produce. 
 
 Relative Cost in Production, etc. — Another important point to be considered in 
 
 the choice of crops is the relative cost in production, and the value of diiferent crops when 
 liarvested. There may sometimes be crops in popular demand in the market, for the production 
 of which the soil of the farmer may be admirably adapted, but the expense of which production 
 may so far exceed that of other crops less in demand, that the latter may be found to be the 
 most profitable. When it costs a farmer fifty per cent, more to produce a bushel of potatoes 
 than it does corn, for instance, or any other crop, and the former brings but twenty-five per 
 cent, more profit than the latter, he will find it for his advantage to cultivate the latter, since 
 by so doing he realizes a larger per cent, of profit; that is, his receipts are larger in excess 
 of his expenditures than on the more expensive crop. It is not profitable to raise large and 
 expensive crops that do not bring a large proportionate profit in return. The fact should be 
 kept in mind that that farming is most profitable that brings the largest returns for what is 
 expended. Farmers should keep an accurate account with respect to the expense of each 
 crop (including cost of fertilizers, expense of cultivation, harvesting, marketing, etc.), and 
 determining relatively what the cost of production and receipts of their sale are, they will 
 thus learn which pays best and wbich are the most unprofitable. By so doing, a decision as 
 to which are the most desirable to raise can easily be reached. 
 
 Where it will be found that the crops for home consumption on the farm can be grown 
 cheaper than they can be purchased, it wiU, of course, be best to cultivate enough of such at 
 least, as are necessary for that purpose ; but where certain products for home production can be 
 bought for less money than the farmer could grow them himself, it will not pay to cultivate 
 such, when money and labor could more profitably be expended on other products. By giving 
 due thought and attention to the subject of a choice in crops, and taking measures to so 
 inform himself as to obtain all the light possible on the subject, the farmer wUl be liable to 
 make a more judicious choice than otherwise; and having once taken such steps in the right 
 direction — although he may make some mistakes, and often obtain benefit from such experi- 
 ence — yet he will, in the main, with other favoring conditions, meet with success. The 
 farmer who profits by the experience of the past, and wisely appropriates to his use the 
 advantages within his reach that the present affords, must win success, however close the 
 competition with which he meets, or diflicult the obstacles he has to overcome. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 IT has become an established fact in agriculture that the continued growth for 
 successive years of the same kind or family of plants on the same soil is one of the 
 surest and most speedy means of impairing, and, in many instances, rendering that 
 particular soil unfit for bearing further crops of that kind. More especially is this true 
 if the crop matures and ripens its seed, like the various kinds of grain, etc. It has also been 
 ascertained by long practice, that if a proper system of rotation be adopted, exhaustion of 
 soil will be greatly deferrei.l, and that by the use of fertilizers, which will return an equivalent 
 
108 THE AMERICANS FARSIER. 
 
 for tlie elements extracted from the soil by the production of crops, the exhaustion can be 
 largely prevented. Yet, even in such cases, it is found that for all soils a change by way of 
 rotation is the most satisfactory in the result upon both the soil and crops produced, most 
 writers on the subject claiming that the application or withholding of manures only serves to 
 retard or accelerate this process of exhaustion. 
 
 As a general rule, the poorer the soil the greater the necessity of diversifying the crops, 
 consequently the greater the necessity of a rotation, and those crops that are whoUy removed 
 from the soil in root, branch, and seed, will exhaust lands sooner than those that permit of a 
 portion remaining on the lands to fertilize it, Buch as stubble, etc. Even on the rich lands of 
 the West, it is found that special crops, such as wheat, cannot be cultivated year after year on 
 the same soil without deteiioration. When lands became unproductive among the earlier 
 cultivators of the soil, it was concluded that it was because such lands needed rest; hence, 
 the fallow system was introduced, which was a common practice among the Romans. Their 
 usual course was to permit the land to rest after each crop; a crop and a year's fallow 
 generally succeeding each other, although, where manure was applied, two and sometimes 
 several crops were taken between the fallo\ving peiiods. Among the ancient Egyptians the 
 fallow system was almost unknown, since their agriculture was confined to the banks and 
 lands adjacent to rivers having an annual overflow, which inundation caused a rich deposit of 
 mud to be left upon the surface yearly, thus famishing a rich top-dressing sufficient to keep 
 the soil in constant fertility. The practice of changing the crops with more or less regularity, 
 although found to be attended with beneficial results, has never been quite satisfactorily 
 explained. 
 
 Theories Relative to the Necessity of Rotation of Crops. — Various the- 
 ories have from time to time been advanced relative to the cause of the failure or depre- 
 ciation of the same kind of crops produced continuously from the same soil. One of these 
 theories formerly was, that plants, in growing, exuded or threw off from their roots waste 
 substances, which rendered the soil unfit, to a certain degree, for the production of the same 
 variety of plants, until time had neutralized the deleterious properties thus imparted, but 
 that those properties given off were not injurious to other kinds of plants. This theory is 
 now generally discarded. Another theory, and the one now generally adopted, is that differ- 
 ent kinds of plants exhaust certain elements from the soil in different degrees, and that this 
 explains why a change in the production of crops is beneficial. This may be a true reason 
 to a certain extent, but it does not fully answer the question, since it is found that different 
 crops, requiring about the same elements of plant-food in similar quantities, do not affect 
 the soil in the same manner, or, in other words, that the slight difference in the proportionate 
 elements of plant-food of different crops does not account for the great difference between 
 the alternation of these crops, and the successive following of the same, as is the case with 
 wheat and corn, as instanced by the following from Prof. Blount, of the State Agricultural 
 College, Colorado: — 
 
 " In the vegetable, as well as the animal kingdom, it is the infallible law of nature that 
 constant cropping and continual feeding of one thing to the exclusion of all others, tend to 
 reduce the strength, \-igor, growth, and product. Now corn takes from the soil only about 
 6.V pounds of its whole substance when dried, and wheat 7 pounds, AU the rest of the mat- 
 ter comes from the atmosphere in the shape of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, etc. If 
 a succession of croppings be made, it necessarily takes from the soil these elements to a 
 greater or less degree. Both wheat and com, chemists tell us, take up the same essential ele- 
 ments, but they fail to make the process or operation clear enough to show why one crop 
 following itself lessens, and following another does not lessen the jield. Com has its own 
 natural habit of extracting food from the soil ; so has wheat. The operation of both cannot 
 be alike, or the exhaustion, lessening of the yield, and the same condition of the soU would 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 109 
 
 follow rotation. It is very evident that wheat leaves the soil in a better condition for corn 
 than it does for wheat again, and corn leaves it better for wheat. Clover, peas, and sweet 
 potatoes are among the best crops for preparing or leaving the ground for any crop. Wheat 
 does much better after Irish potatoes and tobacco in some States, than after any other grain 
 or vegetable. 
 
 Several instances have come under my observation where sweet potatoes were raised for 
 10 to 20 years in succession, without any apparent exhaustion, but with great fertility to the 
 soil. In looking into the chemistry of this subject, we find in the analyses that wheat con- 
 tains about 55 per cent, of starch, and com 70 per cent. The gluten in the former runs from 
 1 to 19 per cent., while in the latter it is about 12 per cent. Now if the soil contains a cer- 
 tain average supply of these and other inorganic substances upon which the plant feeds, and 
 the same wheat or corn crop is grown in the same soil year after year, the crops wiU carry off 
 some of these substances in a greater proportion than others, so that they will become rela- 
 tively less every season. The result is, the soil will become so impoverished of these sub- 
 stances that no crop of the same kind can be ra'sed, although it may contain a large store of 
 other inorganic substances. When these crops are grown one after the other, one draws 
 especially upon one class of elements and the other upon another, thus keeping up the equi- 
 librium of fertility necessary to support either plant. 
 
 In connection with these operations there must be two kinds of exhaustion — general and 
 special — the former consisting of gradual extraction of all the essential elements upon which 
 each crop feeds, and the latter consisting of a want of one or more of these elements." 
 
 There evidently are other reasons for the difference, in connection with the many theories 
 advanced, which are not yet understood, and which are not necessary for the farmer to under- 
 stand, since he has to deal with the fad itself, and its relations to agriculture. He can afford 
 to leave the explanation of this phenomenon to the agricultural chemists, and give his atten- 
 tion to the benefits that may be derived from a knowledge of the facts. "We find that 
 
 Nature Generally Follows a Cour.se of Rotation in her various departments of 
 vegetable production. Although mowing lands part with their annual crop of hay, and by a 
 partial rest, or a pasturage of their aftermath or " rowen," will remain fresh and seem to 
 retain the original plants that produced the crop, yet on a close examination it will be ascer- 
 tained that the varieties of the grasses and other plants will change gradually from year to 
 year, some kinds predominating at one time and others at another, in a c Dntinuous round of 
 rotation. 
 
 But this fact of change is more strikingly illustrated in the succession of forest trees, 
 which cannot fail to attract the attention of even the most casual observer. "We distinctly 
 recall, among our childhood memories, a grand old forest of oak, walnut, and chestnut. Many 
 of these monarchs of the forest succumbed to the fate of the woodman's axe. Soon appeared 
 in their places a thick growth of white pine, which increased with remarkable rapidity. 
 These pines were subsequently cut down, and maple, chestnut, and oak came up with scarcely 
 a pine tree among them. And thus it is always found that when a forest is cut down, and 
 the roots destroyed, another growth of trees succeeds of an entirely different nature, and 
 these are followed by stiU another variety, completing in time a rotation all probably pro- 
 duced from seeds that may have lam doiTnant in the soil for centuries, waiting for favoring 
 conditions to germinate. 
 
 It is often found that when a soil becomes exhausted to a certain extent by one particu- 
 lar crop, and ceases to give a sufficient return of it, it will stiU yield a large crop of some 
 other kind that is adapted to it, and which calls for just the elements of plant growth that 
 this soil may contain ; this is not only a fact concerning field crops, but the same is true of 
 gardening, and the culture of trees, etc. There would be found few gardeners of experience, 
 it any, who would think of cultivating cabbages, turnips, or peas, on the same piece of land 
 
110 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 without an interval of at least two or three years; and although in some special casts, they 
 may be grown successfully on the same soil for several consecutive seasons, this would be an 
 exception to the general rule ; the general and most successful method being to have an inter- 
 val of two or three years between the crops and this interval to be occupied by plants entirely 
 different from them. 
 
 Dr. Daubeny has experimented by cultivating crops on the same and different plots in 
 successive years, and given the average taken from five years as follows : 
 
 Potatoes, . 
 Flax, 
 Beans, 
 Barley, . 
 Turnips, . 
 Oats, 
 
 in the same plot, 
 in diSerent plots, 
 same, 
 different, 
 same, . 
 different, 
 same, . 
 diSereut, 
 same, 
 different, 
 same, . 
 different, 
 
 72.9 lbs. tubers 
 
 93.8 
 
 
 15.0 
 
 
 19.9 
 
 
 33.8 
 
 
 34.8 
 
 
 30.0 
 
 
 46.5 
 
 
 104.0 
 
 
 178.0 
 
 
 28.0 
 
 
 32.4 
 
 
 This shows an advantage in change, which varies from one to seventy-five per cent. 
 
 A Massachusetts nurseryman, eminently successful in his business, says: "I have wit- 
 nessed the most extraordinary effects follow the carrying out of the principle of rotation of 
 crops. To illustrate the point, I will say, that in the preparation of the ground for apple- 
 trees, for instance, we are obliged to prepare it very nicely, in order to be successful; as 
 nicely as for a vineyard, or for garden vegetables. We plow deep, manure thoroughly, and 
 then, in setting out the small plants, the seedling apples, we calculate that the ground is in a 
 fit condition to carry those trees almost to their maturity. Now you will see that the grow- 
 ing of a crop of apple-trees successfully, which requires three or four, and sometimes five 
 years, exhausts the soil of all its ingredients which the apple-tree calls for, or perhaps any 
 deciduous tree calls for. A nurseryman who understands his business knows that it would 
 be folly for him, after he has taken off that first crop, to attempt to put a second crop upon 
 that land, even if he manured equally as weU as he did the first time, because his crop has 
 exhausted the soil of certain things which are peculiarly necessary; and which can only bo 
 found in newer soil. My practice has been this: after my apple-trees have been removed, I 
 find the land admirably adapted to the growth of evergreen trees, such as spruce, arbor vits, 
 hemlock, etc. Withouti reman uring that land, without any repreparation, almost, except it 
 be plowing, I can set out evergreens, and get an admirable crop, because the elements which 
 the evergreens call for still exist in that soil ; because the elements which the evergreens call 
 for are different f i om those which the apple trees call for. I grow them three years, and 
 then they pass away. Wliat is the condition of the soil then? It is exhausted for the ever- 
 green, it is exhausted for the deciduous tree, and you might say that the soil was entirely 
 exhausted. But such is not always the case. I may plow that land thoroughly and lay it 
 down to grass, without even putting any manure upon it, and raise a splendid crop of grass. 
 
 "We believe it is because the grass calls for different elements in the soil from either oi 
 the varieties of trees specified, and the farmer will find the same principle true respecting his 
 crops." For this reason orchards planted upon old orchard sites seldom do well. Tlie super- 
 intendent of gardens and grounds for the department at Washington states that the same 
 results have been foimd in the culture of the grape. For a number of years past, it has 
 been customary for the department to propagate several thousands of plants, embracing many 
 varieties of native grapes. These are mostly grown from single eye cuttings in sand beds 
 iinder glass, and placed singly in pots when rooted. About the end of May they are turned 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. m 
 
 out of the pots, and planted out in the open field rather closely, in rows which are about 
 three feet apart. When they have finished growth for the season they are lifted and 
 removed from the field; the ground receives a coating of rotted manure, which is either 
 plowed in or worked with a spade, leaving the surface rough to be acted upon by the frost. 
 In the following spring the surface is again worked over, and the soil placed in good order 
 for planting. At the proper period young grapes are again planted as before. These are 
 removed at the end of the season, and the ground receives similar 'treatment to that of the 
 previous year. Notwithstanding this treatment, the third crop is very indifferent, and if a 
 fourth successive crop is planted, it will prove to be an entire failure. 
 
 Experience shows, that by selecting a field which has never been occupied with grapes, 
 the young plants will make an average growth of about four feet in length the first year; the 
 average growth of the second year will reach about two feet; the growth of the third year 
 will be exceedingly weak, the best plants reaching to about eighteen inches in length, many 
 weak kinds not reaching the length of one foot. 
 
 This result of diminishing yearly growtlis has not been sensibly affected by the applica- 
 tion of different manures, and the question naturally arises, that if a deterioration of growth 
 becomes so marked in so short a time, and with such attention to the soil, what may be 
 expected when acres are closely planted with grapes, as in the case of vineyards, where the 
 entire soil speedily becomes filled with roots? It need not be a matter for surprise if vine- 
 yards become unproductive after producing several satisfactory crops. 
 
 It is a fact well-known to florists, that even the smaller plants require a change, and such 
 small growths as petunias and verbenas, if continued for a few years on the same ground, 
 will not give satisfaction, however richly fertilized with different manurial applications, and 
 that when it is desirable to grow these plants year after year in the same spot, it is necessary to 
 remove six or eight inches of the sod, and replace it with fresh earth from other sources. 
 
 Clover, which is the great renovator of the soil, may be cultivated upon the same land 
 until it becomes "clover sick," and ceases to produce it. 
 
 In his experiments at Rothamstead, Mr. Lawes found that with occasional variations due 
 to the character of the seasons, the average annual produce of a certain field for twenty suc- 
 cessive years without manure was sixteen bushels of wheat per acre, and sixteen hundred 
 weight of straw. This soil was a strong clay loam resting at a depth of five or six feet upon 
 chalk, and probably produced a larger yield under the circumstances, than most soils. In the 
 case of turnips, when treated in the same manner, he found that after a few years they ceased 
 to grow larger than radishes, and he could not afterward by the application of any kind or 
 quantity of manure obtain a crop equal to the first. The result was very different with the 
 wheat experiment above referred to, for by the appUcation of four hundred weight of Peru- 
 vian guano, the crop was at once doubled. 
 
 Strawberry plants require a constant change of ground, in order to do well, and are 
 constantly seeking to occupy new territory by throwing out their long -runners;" and it is 
 said, by those familiar with the cultivation of mushrooms, that they never rise in two succes- 
 sive seasons from the same spot. 
 
 Nature has in such, and various ways, sufficiently indicated the law of rotation as the 
 law of successful growth, and we doubt whether any agriculturists can improve upon it. 
 Exceptions to this law are found, but they are exceedingly rare, change being the great 
 demand for all varieties of plant-growth. 
 
 By a judicious system of rotation, the soil not only has the different elements of plant - 
 food extracted in various proportions suited to the growth of different crops, thus preventing,- 
 the exhaustion of a few elements suited to one variety, but permits certain crops, that might 
 be injured by a direct application of manure, to have the benefit of that which has become 
 thoroughly decomposed and blended with the soil, and hence, suited to its successful cultura 
 
112 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 As some crops require more cultivation than others — such as corn and potatoes, for instauce, 
 more than wheat or oats — which cultivation necessitates the stirring up of the soil at intervals, 
 and pennits the air to permeate it more effectually, thus hastening the changes in its mechan- 
 ical condition and bringing its elements into a state to supply plant-food, and also clears the 
 soil of troublesome weeds, a rotation with such crops is exceedingly beneficial. Besides, the 
 destruction of the weeds also cuts off, in a measure, the food supply of noxious insects, and 
 further reduces tJie numbers of these pests by distiu-bing them in their haunts, and in autumn 
 exposes them to the frosts, all of which have a tendency to destroy them. 
 
 Still another benefit in rotation may be found in the fact that while some crops are 
 almost wholly removed from the land upon which they have been cultivated, others, like 
 oats or wheat, leave a portion of their product in the form of stubble; or, like clover, leave a 
 wealth of fertility in their long roots, all of which supply more or less organic material to the 
 soil, which, when suitably decomposed, greatly aids in the production of the future crop. 
 
 Schemes of Rotation. The choice of crops for rotation will differ with different 
 soils, climates, and conditions; consequently, in deciding upon a scheme for any particular 
 farm, various considerations must be regarded, such as the nature and capacity of the soil for 
 production, the demand of the markets which may be accessible for the disposal of the crop, 
 and the quantity and kind of manure to be applied. Each farmer will have to decide these 
 for himself. It is well to have a scheme made out of from four to six of the best crops, and 
 the lands given to the culture of these in successive order. In all cases the best results will 
 be attained when the soil is abundantly fed with fertilizers of some kind for each crop. 
 
 The general rule for a farmer to base his scheme of rotation upon, is to cultivate as 
 large a variety of crops as his soil, circumstances, and the demand of the market will render 
 profitable, and to have the scheme so arranged that the same, or a similar species of plants, 
 shall occupy the same ground at intervals as remote as practicable. In the English practice, 
 called the "four-field or Norfolk system," which is considered, for that country, one of the 
 best for friable soils of fair quality, in which half the lands are in grain and half in cattle 
 crops annually, a great variety of changes may bo introduced, which will bring the interval 
 between the same kind of plants on the same soil, one of eight years, instead of four, for one 
 or two of the more important crops. 
 
 This is described by Thornton in the following, which we insert simply as an illustration 
 of how it may be accomplished : "Instead of a rigid one-fourth of the land being each year 
 under turnips, barle}', clover, and wheat or oats respectively, half only of the barley division 
 is frequently in practice now sown with clover-seed, and the other half cropped on the fol- 
 lowing year with beans, peas, potatoes, or vetches. On the same set of fields, coming round 
 again to the same point, the treatment is reversed by the beans, etc., and clover being made 
 to change places. An interval of eight years is thus substituted for one of four,. so far as 
 these two crops are concerned." 
 
 Hon. C. C. Andrews gives the following information relative to rotation in agriculture 
 in Italy, based upon personal observations: 
 
 " The system of culture and of rotation of crops is not everywhere the same in the v.Iley 
 of the Po. The most fertile land is never left in fallow. Above Turin the rotation is usually 
 Indian corn one year, then wheat two years, followed with clover one year. Around Milan 
 the rotation is, first, white-bearded wheat, sown in November, with clover sown the following 
 February. The wheat is harvested in July; the next month some clover is cut, and then 
 cattle are allowed to feed in the field. The second year four crops of clover are cut, the land 
 having been periodically overflowed. In the succeeding winter the ground is manured, and 
 clover is cut the third year. The fourth year the ground is plowed once, harrowed four 
 times, sown with hemp in March, and rolled. The hemp is cut in June, during which month 
 the ground is again plowed once, harrowed once, and planted with Indian corn, which is 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. ]^]3 
 
 harvested in October. The ground is then plowed again, harrowed once, sown in November 
 with wheat, which is harrowed in. The soil about Milan is easy to work, only one pair of 
 oxen being required to draw the plow, while toward Mantua, on account of the stiffness of 
 the clay, five pairs are required. 
 
 In the ricli rice district of Verceil a three-years' course is the more common, but the best 
 cultivators, including Mr. JIalinvemi, follow a sLx-years' rotation, as follows: First year, 
 wheat (which w;is sown the preceding October, after the harvest of rice, and after deep cul- 
 ture and manuring at the rate of one cwt. of guano per acre.) Clover having been sown in 
 the wheat in the spring, a fair crop of this is cut in August, after the wheat crop. Second 
 year, the clover is liberally manured, irrigated, and cut three times. Third year, Indian corn 
 manured with guano. Fourth, fifth, and sixth years, rice. The rice-fields are inundated five 
 months. There is a depth, of 4 inches of water till the grain is up, then the quantity of 
 water is lessened. Some sorts of rice grow to a height of 4 feet, others less. It costs 20,000 
 francs a year to supply a rice-farm of 600 acres with water. The rice-crop is gathered in 
 September, the harvest sometimes running into October. 
 
 In the country above Turin it is a practice to plow twice after a crop of wheat once at 
 
 the time of manuring and again at the time of sowing — and but once after a crop of Indian 
 c jrn. In preparing the soil for hemp, it is usual there in the autumn to cover the ground 
 with heaps of stubble and brush, in such number as 300 heaps to an acre, and to burn them 
 slowly. This is called half manuring. In spring some manure is added, the ground plowed, 
 and the hemp sown in April. Among the smaller farmers on hilly land, the rotation is 
 wheat two years, manured each year with stable-manure ; the third year, rye, with clover to 
 a part of it. Timothy is not used in the Po Valley." 
 
 In this country, it is generally deemed desirable to have grass for one of the principal 
 crops in the rotation system. It is thought by many farmers that wheat succeeds better after 
 peas and corn than after any of the other crops. The following rotation, practiced by Mr. 
 "Waring, is considered by those that have followed it a desirable one for some sections: Grass 
 is followed by corn ; the next year the land is occupied by either potatoes, carrots, or sugar beets ; 
 then follows green forage crops (generally oats or corn), and when the land is cleared of these, 
 winter rye is sown in the fall. The next year the rye is sometimes cut while green, for fodder, 
 and other forage crops are grown upon the land which are ready to be cut earliest. In the 
 fall of the same year wheat is sown, and the land seeded with timothy and clover. When the 
 grain is harvested the following season, the grass remains and soon shows a vigorous growth. 
 Peas or clover plowed imder is thought to be one of the best preparations for wheat; 
 and old pastures, plowed under in the fall, are generally considered precursors of fine crops of 
 corn, while corn-fields are, in turn, followed by good pastures. 
 
 Grass followed by corn, then a green fodder crop, and this followed by wheat, and after- 
 ward grass again, is recommended by some agriculturists as a good rotation for the Northern 
 and Middle States. Of course, as a general rule, each crop should have its liberal supply of 
 manure, in some form. 
 
 The following systems have been adopted by many in this country and found admirably 
 adapted to certain soils: Grass is followed by corn, the land being heavily manured, and 
 ashes and lime added, if suited to the soil. Gj^jsum is applied to the corn-plants after the 
 first hoeing, which is as soon as it is well out of the ground ; the second year, some kind of 
 root crop occupies the ground ; ths third year, either wheat, barley, rye, or oats, witli grass 
 or clover; the fourth year, grass or clover, as the case may be. A rest is often given such 
 lands by pasturing for a year or two. 
 
 Another: — Grass followed by corn, or a root crop of some kind; second year, oats or 
 barley; third year, peas or beans, removed early, and sown in theautumn with wheat; fourth 
 year, wheat, which can be followed by grass or clover, or both. 
 
114 THK AMERICAN FARMEU. 
 
 Grass may also be followed by peas or com, then wheat; some root crop, followed by 
 barley, with grass and clover seed, which will produce a good crop of grass the following 
 year. In this way, changes can be made in rotation almost ad infinitum, and, as we have 
 previously stated, a scheme for such can best be made when the character of the soil, and the 
 crops desired are known, since soils differ so greatly that a rotation for one section, or farm 
 even, may not be suited to another, and only the general principles of rotation can be given 
 as applicable to all. We have aimed to lay down general rules simply, the details of which 
 each farmer can best arrange to suit his individual requirements and circumstances. 
 
 It has been found by long practice that better results are reached when two crops of 
 grain are not cultivated in succession on the same field, though com may be an exception to 
 this rule; also, that certain products are mutual fertilizers, being so mysteriously related that 
 tlie growth of one is the best preparation of the soil for the other. 
 
 The following rotation for wheat, corn, oats, peas, and clover, is recommended by the 
 editor of the Country Gentleman : 
 
 " Two modes of rotation are adapted for these crops, the most common being to invert 
 sod, and plant corn on it, with good manuring the previous autumn or winter on the surface; 
 follow with oats, barley, or peas ; and the same autumn sow winter wheat with a moderate 
 seeding of timothy, and the next spring, clover-seed. The field may remain in grass any 
 number of years, according to the number of your fields. This rotation is modified where 
 the brown cut-worm is prevalent, by first sowing wheat on the well-inverted and pulverized 
 sod, and follow this with com and the other crops already mentioned. The decaying sod and 
 the manure which is applied give a good crop of corn. " 
 
 Of course, a rotation suited to one portion of the country would not be adapted to another 
 portion where the products were very dissimilar, such as the Northern and Southern States. 
 
 With respect to rotation of crops in the Southern States, Mr. C. W. Howard, of Georgia, 
 says: 
 
 " A great defect of Southern planters is, that they do not keep, in the way of fertility, 
 what they get. That is to say, when they make a piece oi ground rich, they afterward con- 
 tinue to work it in exhausting crops until all the richness is gone. The true policy is not 
 merely to keep the ground rich, but to make it richer. To illustrate: If a piece of rich land 
 is put in cotton, it may be followed with corn, small grain, with clover being sowed among 
 the corn in August. If the clover is allowed to occupy the ground for two years and to go 
 to seed, even under a longer rotation than the above, it will not be necessary to sow it again. 
 As soon as the ground is at rest, it will be covered with young clover. Three years ago a 
 piece of ground was put in turnips, manui'ed in the ground with farm-yard manure. The 
 turnips were eaten on the ground by the sheep. The next year it was put in corn; the next 
 in cotton worked very clean, and the following year in oats. 
 
 After the oats were cut a fine stand of red clover appeared. This seed was never sown, 
 but must have been in the manure applied three years since to the turnips. This is not a 
 solitary case. Many similar instances have occurred within the observation of the writer. It 
 is such plants as clover and peas that not only hold, but increase the fertility of the soil. 
 
 In order to illustrate the writer's views of diversified husbandry, the following rotation 
 of crops is submitted as one suited to the agricultural condition of the South. 
 
 We will suppose a farm of 500 acres of open laud under fence. Let 250 acres be devoted 
 to arable purposes, and the rest to grazing. The rotation might be as follows: 1. Cotton and 
 corn in the same field in suitable proportions. 2. Oats sown in August on the cotton and 
 corn land. 3. Rye, or rye and wheat, sown in September, the land having been twice plowed 
 in order to kill the germinant oats. 4 and 5. Clover, if the land is in sufficient heart to pro 
 duce it; if not, the fourth year rest ungrazed, and the fifth year sheep and cattle penned upon 
 it every night during the year, using a portable fence. An ordinary farm of 500 acres will 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 115 
 
 support five hundred sheep, besides the crop in the above rotation. The oats and rye will 
 feed them during tlie winter nearly or entirely, without injury to the grain. Five hands 
 would be sufficient to work such a farm and take care of the live-stock." 
 
 During the first year with this practice, the same authority thinks the following results 
 might be expected from an ordinary farm. 
 
 25 acres in cotton, 12 bales at$.15, . . . $900. 
 
 250. 
 
 25 " corn, 250 bushels " 1.00, 
 
 50 '• oats, 500 " " .SO, 
 
 25 " rye, 200 " " 1. 00, 
 
 25 " wheat, 150 " " 1.50, 
 
 Increase and mutton sales of 500 sheep, 
 Wool, 3 pounds per head at .33 per lb., 
 Manure at $1.00 per head, . 
 
 Total 
 
 400. 
 200. 
 225. 
 500. 
 495. 
 500. 
 
 3,470. 
 
 When taken separately each of these estimates in production is small; they however 
 result in the aggregate to more than .$600 per hand employed. Yet this is about three times 
 what was estimated to be the average product per hand in the cotton states, that of Georgia 
 having been estimated to be $209; South CaroUna, $202; Virginia, $211, and North Caro- 
 Hna $214; these being the lowest averages. 
 
 In the case above supposed, the amount given is the result of the first year of the rotation. 
 
 "The next year the cotton and corn would be more than double by penning 500 sheep at 
 night on 50 acres. It is the writer's experience that ten sheep regularly penned will manure 
 well, one acre in a year. Five hundred would, therefore, manure well fifty acres. The appear- 
 ance of the ground would not indicate this high manuring; but it should be remembered 
 that the liquid manure, which is equal in value to the solid, is not visible. If, in addition, a 
 stock of cattle is kept and penned on the same fifty acres, their fertility would be increased in 
 proportion. It should never be forgotten that accimiulating, saving and applying manure, is 
 as important a business of the farm as making corn or cotton. At the end of the fifth year of 
 this rotation, the change in the farm would be equal almost to a transformation, the crops being 
 doubled or trebled, without (which is a most important point) any material increase of labor 
 or other expense. 
 
 " This improvement of the soil, accompanied at first by moderate profits, and with a 
 great diminution of vexatious and unreliable labor, should be the great end of the Southern 
 planter. It involves a double profit from increased production and increased salable value of 
 the soU." 
 
 Prof. Pendleton, one of the leading agricultural authorities of the Southern section, recom- 
 mends for the warm lands of the South, a rotation of cotton for two years, followed by com 
 on the most productive portions, and wheat or oats on the rolKng lands, with a fourth year 
 of rest, the land to lie fallow. According to his opinion, cotton will give better results for 
 two successive years, providing the soil is not very deficient in vegetable material, than if an 
 intervening crop is made to occupy it. For lands badly exhausted by constant cropping 
 without sufficient manure to return an equivalent for the elements exhausted, this fallow 
 system may prove quite beneficial ; but as a general rule it is thought by most writers on this 
 subject, that the plowing under of green crops, such as clover, peas, etc., combined with the 
 application of an abundant supply of manure will prove more beneficial to most soils than 
 fallowing. 
 
 Wherever practicable, pasturage may form a part of the rotation with profit. Especialljr 
 80 on farms where the live stock interest is one of the principal features in the management. 
 ''y using a portion of the f arna for keeping cattle and sheep a few years, and afterwards till 
 
116 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 ing it for crops, while a field lately tilled is in turn taken for pasturage, the various tilled 
 fields may often be utilized with profit in completing the rotation. 
 
 Sheep especially, are very beneficial in improving tlie fertility of the soil, as is seen in 
 English husbandry. They can be as successfully reared at the South as in other sections of 
 the country, since it has been found that they are as healthy in the cotton-growing states as 
 those of the North, while the time of grazing is much longer at the South than at the North, 
 thus giving a better opportunity to utilize pasturage in rearing them. 
 
 Besides, cotton seed will furnish a cheap and nutritious feed in winter, and aside from 
 the wool product, sheep on cotton plantations are worth their keeping simply for the weeds 
 and briars they will destroy, and the fertilizer they furnish to the soil. We believe that the 
 proper management of sheep on cotton plantations, will prove one of the most potent aids in 
 restoring fertility to partially exhausted lands, as well as maintaining the fertility of such 
 as have been properly tilled. 
 
 Dr. Lawes, of Rothamsted, England, found, in his experiments on unmanured rotation, 
 extending over a period of more than thirty years, that upon an unmanured soil, where the 
 crops were entirely removed, such cereal products as wheat and barley continued to give a 
 considerable yield after what are commonly described as restorative crops have almost ceased 
 to exist on the land. He refers to them as follows: — 
 
 " The experiment may be described as a struggle for existence — not one, however, where 
 the fittest survives, but rather where each crop is allowed to get what food it can from an 
 ordinary unmanured soil, while other plants are prevented from interfering with its opera- 
 tions. This experiment has been going on for thirty-four years, and adds one more to the 
 many proofs we possess of the fact that the graminaceous plants which yield the cereal crops 
 have a far greater power of obtaining food from an unmanured soil than any other description 
 of plants. At the commencement of the experiment the land was in high condition, and the 
 first crops of both turnips arid clover were large; since then the former have arrived at a 
 point where they resemble weeds rather than turnips; while the red clover, when repeated at 
 the end of the second period of four years, died off altogether; it was then considered 
 advisable to grow in its place beans, which, except on one occasion, have proved a very small 
 crop, amounting to not more than about eight bushels per acre. The last crop of barley — 
 the ninth of the rotation — yielded between twenty-six and twenty-nine bushels per acre, and 
 the wheat crops have also continued fairly good. We have, therefore, evidence that upon an 
 ordinary soil of fair quality, the cereal crops can obtain a supply of food, where the so-called 
 restorative crops have failed to do so." 
 
 Whatever the system of rotation may be, or whatever the nature of the soil, it is well 
 for the farmer to bear in mind that good crops cannot be produced without proper manage- 
 ment, and that that management has for one of its main features, a sufficient supply of manure 
 to furnish the elements of plant food to the soil that is expected to produce so abundantly. If 
 we are to have satisfactory results in the rearing of live stock, we expect to feed these animals 
 with a sufficient supply of proper food ; but many farmers seem to think that lands can con. 
 stantly produce large crops with only a meagre supply of plant-food furnished for this pur. 
 pose. This is a great mistake, as any farmer whose practice involves this principle will learn 
 sooner or later, for as a general rule, lands will produce and remain in a state of fertility and 
 exempt from exhaustion, only in proportion to the proper amount of fertilizing material 
 applied to furnish the elements of growth to the crops they produce ; and if they are con- 
 stantly forced by successive cropping without this aid, exhaustion must follow as a natural 
 result. 
 
IRRIGATION. 117 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 WATER is not only one of the sources of supply of plant food, since all the materials 
 that promote vegetable life must be in a soluble form before being available, but it 
 also furnishes the elements essential to plant life and growth. Most countries, as a 
 general rule, receive this necessary element in sufBcient quantities to favor vegetable growth in 
 the supply of rain and dew; but in many sections of different climates irrigation, or the arti- 
 ficial appHcation of water to growing crops, is one of the essentials in successful agriculture. 
 In this country, crops often suffer more from drought than from all other causes combined, and 
 this evil seems to be extending, especially in the west and southwestern portions, where, as the 
 forests disappear through the agency of the axe and fire, the rains are less frequent. The yearly 
 amount of rainfall may not be, and probably is not, much diminished, since this change, but 
 the intervals between the showers are more prolonged, and to the extent that the earth 
 frequently becomes parched and the crops suffer accordingly. Besides, the rains coming 
 between such long intervals generally descend in torrents, and although a portion of the water 
 will be absorbed by the soil, a large portion flows into streams and is lost as far as agricultural 
 uses are concerned. Forests have long been regarded as the regulators of rainfall, and if they 
 could be in a measure restored by tree-planting, in a few years the evil would be largely 
 remedied, and the rain-storms more frequent and less violent. Irrigation is found to be one 
 of the most primitive of agricultural arts, the remains of reservofrs and canals for this purpose 
 still existmg in those regions where civilization had its origin, as among the most ancient 
 human relics. Egypt and the Barbary States, Syria, and other parts of Asia, Italy, Spain, 
 and other portions of Europe practiced irrigation extensively hundreds of years ago, and to 
 this means may be traced the high rank in agriculture that was early attained in these 
 regions. Lombardy and Piedmont average from thii-ty-seven to thirty-eight inches of rainfall 
 during the year, most of it falling between March and October, the irrigating months, and 
 yet it is estimated that 1,000,000 acres in Lombardy are irrigated by works costing 
 $200,000,000, which fact explains in a measure why that section should be one of the most 
 productive of all Italy, and the very garden of that region. In Italy the canals for irrigating 
 purposes are owned principally by tlie government; in France there are no government canals, 
 they being generally built by the land-owners, yet are periodically inspected by government 
 engineers. In our own hemisphere there are many portions of Spanish America where irri- 
 gation has always been necessary to successful agriculture; beside, there are vast tracts, both 
 on the east and west of the Rocky Mountains, which are usually considered an arid desert, 
 and estimated to be equal to nearly one-fifth of the productive area of the United States, 
 portions of which have been irrigated and found to be productive in an astonishing degree, 
 especially for the common cereals, and we believe the time is not far distant when that entire 
 section will, by artificial watering — whether it be by artesian wells or otherwise — be made 
 productive, and its value to the country proportionately increased. Utah furnishes a most 
 remarkable illustration of the wonderful effects of irrigation, which, since the year 1847, has 
 transformed the Salt Lake Valley, then a barren wilderness, into one of the most productive 
 regions in the world, and this has all been accomplished by means of irrigation alone. 
 Whatever objections we may have toward the Mormons in their religion and practices, we 
 must give them the credit of having one of the most perfect systems of agriculture by irri- 
 gation known. There are there at present from four hundred to five hundred irrigating canals, 
 many of them of considerable size and length, and these have not only completely changed 
 this formerly barren desert into a land of luxuriant vegetation and beauty, but have been the 
 means of producing other important and beneficial results, such as cooling the temperature of 
 the atmosphere, and lessening the evaporation of the water of the lake, etc. Prof. Paul A. 
 Chadbourne gives the following respecting this change : — 
 
118 THK AMEliK AN FAriMER. 
 
 •' "We find now the valley through this entire territory, instead of being a dry, barren 
 plain, over which the wind used to pass so rapidly, a country covered with vegetation, 
 vdth grass, corn, grain of various kinds, and with groves of trees, so that the wind, in the 
 first place, mo\-ing up through the valley, is checked by the trees, and when near the surface 
 of the earth, probably does not move up the valley with" half the rapidity that it formerly did. 
 On the surface, instead of passing over hot. barren sand, it passes over fresh herbage, so that 
 we have all through that valley a layer of air that moves comparatively slow, and at the same 
 time is charged with moistui-e, and when it strikes the great Salt Lake, instead of being a 
 rapidly mo\Tng current of air, hot and thirsty, it is moving comparatively slow, is nearly 
 saturated with water, and has no longer the ability to take up the waters of the lake as it 
 formerly did. Therefore the watei-s accumulate, and so over the whole surface (and this is 
 true of all these places) evaporation is prevented by the introduction of trees to prevent the 
 rapid movement of the currents of air, and also by covering the whole surface of the earth 
 with this vegetation.'' 
 
 The moist atmo.?phere of the British Islands and the German provinces, and the generally 
 plentiful summer rains of the Atlantic States, have thus far obviated the necessity of resorting 
 to any extent to artificial watering in these regions, except in market-gardening, but it 
 would be well for many farmers if, during certain dry seasons especially, they possessed 
 the means of irrigating some of their crops, and thus obviate the great loss often sustained 
 by drought. This can often be accomplished with slight expense where the lands are suited to 
 it and the means of inigation convenient. 
 
 All waters are beneficial for irrigating purposes, except those that contain an excess of 
 certain mineral substances that are injurious to vegetation, such as peat-swamp drainage, 
 water from saline and mineral springs, and from ore-beds of vaiious kinds, these often con- 
 taining a solution of iron, "Waters that have washed other soils often contain a vast amount 
 of fertilizing si;bstances. which they wUl deposit in the gradual process of iiTigation ; conse- 
 quently after heavy rains and floods, the brooks and rivers are usually heavily charged with 
 fertilizing materials, Dr, Dana estimated the quantity of humus and other fertiHzing sub- 
 stances which were borne to the ocean, past Lowell, on the Merrimac river, during a year of 
 unusual freshets, to be about 840,000 tons, or enough to have sufficiently enriched 100,000 
 acres of land. We have already referred to the fertilizing properties of the sewage of cities 
 in previous pages, and a repetition is consequently unnecessary here; suffice it to say, that 
 when such water can be utiUzed for irrigating pui-poses, the results on vegetation are often 
 almost incredible. In any case, water should never be permitted to remain stagnant on the 
 surface of lands, both for sanitary reasons and on account of its injurious effects upon the 
 land and vegetation : saturating the soil with an excess of water being equally injirrious to a 
 drought. These injurious results are often seen in charging the sub-soil with water, and 
 rendering it cold and "souj." as it is often termed, to the roots of plants which pierce it; it 
 also facilitates the decomposition of both organic and inorganic soluble matter contained in 
 soils, and carries off such matter fi'om it, leaching it of its fertilizing properties to a cei-tain 
 extent. This is sometimes disputed, but it is proven by the fact that constituents of vegetable 
 growth are found in water drained from cultivated fields, and also that grounds impregnated 
 with salts to such a degree as to be incapable of vegetable production, have been made fertile 
 by washing with fresh water. "We quote the following on the advantages of irrigation from 
 a treatise on that subject by Hon. George P. ilarsh: — 
 
 '• In elevated and mountainous districts, water is usually abundant, and its sources so 
 numerous that almost any land-holder may secure one or more of them for his own sole use, 
 without clashing with the rights and interests of his neighbor. Hence the division of the soil 
 into comparatively small estates is promoted ; for though, in new countries like ours, moun- 
 tain-lands are thinly inhabited and held in large tracts, yet well-watered hill-pastures gradually 
 rise in value, and these at last become the homes of a comparatively dense population, each 
 
lintlGATION. 119 
 
 oi whom is the lord — not of sijuare miles, indeed, but — of acres of productive soil. 
 
 In such territories, irrigation does not injuriously affect the health of the population. 
 Malarious influences are exerted not by flowing, or even by freely-percolating water. It is 
 only when the fluid stagnates on the surface, or in the soil, that it becomes pernicious. In 
 the hills, the inclination promotes the swift flow of water over the ground, or along the 
 canals, and its descent by infiltration is also too rapid to admit it to become a cause of vege- 
 table putrescence. In Central and Southern Europe, almost all the surface of the mountains 
 which has not been swept away by torrents is irrigated through the summer; but fevers and 
 other malarious diseases do not occur in those regions, and they are regarded by many Euro- 
 pean physicians as especially salubrious, even for persons affected with pulmonary complaints. 
 
 The beneficial effects of irrigation in mountainous countries are not confined solely to 
 the watering of the crops. It checks the too rapid flow of the waters of precipitation, and 
 thus exerts an important geographical, if not climatic, influence. A large proportion of the 
 water permitted to spread over the surface, and meander along the canals in the upland 
 meadows and pastures, is absorbed by the earth and slowly filtered down, refreshing the roots 
 of the plants it encounters in its passage, until at a somewhat lower level it bm'sts out in the 
 form of springs. It is a familiar observation in all the older American States, that the hills 
 are growing constantly drier and the herbage less abundant, and that the springs which for- 
 merly supplied this stock are disappearing. The principal cause of this disastrous change is 
 undoubtedly the destruction of the forests which once clothed the crest of every mountain, 
 and which, it is earnestly to be hoped, will soon be at least partially restored. The replanting 
 of the woods is a slow process, and the continued drying-up of the soil is every day rendering 
 it more and more difficult. In the meantime, the introduction of a general system of irrigation 
 at the highest levels where water can still be found, aided by the excavation of simple reser- 
 voirs on the hilltops, and at other higher points for retaining the water of rains and melting 
 snows until it can be applied to the surface by canals, or absorbed by the earth, would do 
 very much to retard the unfavorable change which is now taking place in the water-supply of 
 our mountain farms, and would, at the same time, greatly augment the product of our grass- 
 grounds, and often of our plow-lands. 
 
 It has been observed in Europe, that draining the soil, either by surface or by under- 
 ground conduit, tends to increase the suddenness and violence of inundations by promoting 
 a too rapid discharge of the waters into river-channels. Irrigation in the mountains, or even 
 on the plains, has the contrary effect by retaining much of the water until it can be returned 
 to the atmosphere in the form of vapor. Draining, then, deranges the harmony of nature by 
 interfering with her methods of maintaining a regular interchange and circulation of humidity 
 between the atmosphere, the earth, and the sea. Irrigation is in effect a partial return to the 
 economy of our great material parent, by regulating that circulation in a manner analogous 
 to her primitive processes. 
 
 Where springs are numerous, as they usually are in hilly countries, only small and cheap 
 canals, easily accommodated to the accidents of surface, are needed for the diversion of 
 water from its natural channel", to fl.ow over the surface of the ground or to moisten the 
 roots of the grass by infiltration from the artificial water-courses. But the moderate extent 
 and capacity of the necessary canals is not the only advantage of an inclined and undulating 
 surface in the supply of water for the crops. Hilly and winding slopes admit of a simple 
 and efficient mode of irrigation, or rather of a substitute for the practice which is not available 
 on level soils. The method in question has been practiced with success in many parts of the 
 United States, where it is known by the name of circling, and it is very highly recommended 
 by all European writers. 
 
 It consists in horizontally terracing the slopes, or even simply furrowing them with 
 the side-hill plow, and leaving the surface permanently in this condition. The rains and 
 
120 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 melting snow are arrested by the little platforms and diiches thus produced, and gradually 
 sink into the ground instead of running off the surface, and thus supply sufiBcient moisture 
 for vegetation. It has been found that even in the parched provinces of Southern France, 
 soils thus treated produce a vastly increased amount of herbage, or of other small crops, and 
 this system, as has been observed in regard to ordinary methods of irrigation, has a collateral 
 advantage of serious importance in countries subject to inundation. The water of precipita- 
 tion, which soaks into the ground, instead of rushing swiftly into the tributaries of great 
 rivers, and suddenly swelling them into raging floods, is retained long in the soil, and finally 
 carried off by slow subterranean conduction, or restored to the atmosphere through absorption 
 and exhalations by vegetables, or by direct evaporation from the surface, and thus equilibrium 
 is restored In a large part of our territory, then, and especially in that best suited to the 
 important branch of dairy husbandry, irrigation would not only he unattended with many of 
 the evils which are in some degree inseparable from it on soils of a champaign-configuration, 
 but might be introduced at a very moderate cost, and probably with very beneficial results, 
 to our agricultural and other social interests." 
 
 Methods of Irrigation. — Various means are employed for irrigating lands, 
 depending upon the surface to be irrigated and the water-supply, the usual source being from 
 springs or streams from an elevation. Sometimes reservoirs are made where the water from 
 rains or inundations is collected and utilized. There are many localities where an adequate 
 supply of water can be obtained without resorting to streams or reservoirs. Prof. Marsh 
 states that in Italy, Spain, and many other countries, much of the land is irrigated with water 
 drawn from common weUs by cheap machinery worked by horse-power. Artesian and 
 tubular wells are also largely employed for the same purpose, and copious springs are often 
 reached by driving short tunnels into hill-sides. 
 
 In Persia, tunnels for this purpose, of incredible length and very simple construction, are 
 frequently excavated. Chardin describes these tunnels in the fourth volume of the Paris 
 edition of his travels, 1811, and states that they are carried to a distance of twenty or thirty 
 miles, and sometimes much more. Tliis would be almost beyond belief, were not Chardin's 
 accounts confirmed by the recent testimony of Colonel Chesney. On sloping grounds in 
 Lombard}"^, which receive a subterranean supply by infiltration from mountain lakes and 
 streams, water is cheaply obtained by what are called fontanili. These are small reservoirs, 
 excavated to a moderate depth, and connected by open ditches extending up the slope to 
 small springs, whose water is collected in barrels sunk in the groimd to receive it, and if the 
 supply is insufBcient, the water from several small sources, aided, perhaps, by an artesian well 
 of little depth, is united, and the whole conducted to a common receptacle. 
 
 Another excellent method, practiced with much success in France, is that of conducting 
 the rain and snow water from hollow slopes of grass-ground of a considerable surface into 
 cisterns, or into filtering-receptacles, consisting merely of a relatively small extent of sand or 
 porous earth laid over a pavement or bed of clay some four or five feet below the surface. 
 In this way, a large proportion of the precipitation received by the slope is retained, and 
 perennial springs are formed at a less expense than is very frequently incurred in conducting 
 water from only a moderate distance. Contributions of this sort deserve encouragement, 
 because they render the farmer independent, both of his neighbor and of the public; and even 
 if the first cost of the works is somewhat greater than that of a canal from some source not 
 his own, he will generally be, on the whole, a gainer by procuring a supply absolutely at his 
 control. 
 
 In the irrigation of the Salt Lake valley by the Mormons, the mountain streams were 
 utilized; canals being dug all along towards the base of the mountains, which prevented the 
 water from going into the lake until it had first permeated the soil. These canals are kept 
 lull of water, and have small canals connecting them with the lands to be irrigated below, 
 
IRRIGATION. 121 
 
 and which convey the water to them. Each man's land must have a supply in order that it 
 be perfectly irrigated ; consequently, by a system of cooperation, one man has the use of the 
 canal so many hours on a certain day, and another man the length of time allotted him when 
 his turn comes, and so on. Prof. Chadbourne says, respecting their system of irrigation: — 
 
 "Every man knows the time when he can turn the water on his land, and when it must 
 be turned off; and no matter whether it is midnight, or cock-crowing, or any other time, 
 when that moment comes, he must be ready to turn the water on his land. And not only 
 that, but before that time comes, the ditches must be cleared out, and everything arranged, 
 so that, when the water is turned on, it |^ill go where it is needed. There is no time to lose. 
 The whole system makes men wary and watchful, makes them look out beforehand. A man 
 knows, for instance, that tonight, at twelve o'clock, he may turn the water on to his garden 
 for three hours, and that when it has run for three hours, his neighbor can turn it on to his 
 garden, and if he oversleeps, his garden must go dry; there is no heljj for him. Or if his 
 ditches are not prepared, so that the water can run along readily, his crops must suffer. You 
 see, the man must have everything in readiness, the ditches all ai ranged properly, and when 
 the time comes, he takes the water from the large canal, and it passes along through the 
 smaller canals in his grounds the length of time that is allowed him, and then the next man 
 takes it. It is so arranged that each man shall have enough for the particvdar crop that he 
 raises. Nothing but the most perfect cooperation, under a rigid sj'Stem, could possibly con- 
 trol that thing, among so many people, and with so many interests." 
 
 In California, artesian wells are largely used for ii-righting purposes during the dry sea- 
 son. Hon. Marshall P, Wilder, in a visit to the valley of Santa Clara, in that State, saw on 
 the premises of one gentleman, three artesian wells, varying from 320 to 340 feet, which gave 
 a constant flow of water. The strawberry grounds there, when irrigated, produce fruit dur- 
 ing the entire year; the irrigation being accomplished by carrying the water along the head- 
 lands in wooden flumes about eigliteen inches square, stoppers being inserted opposite the 
 spaces between the rows of strawberry plants, so that the water can be turned on or shut off 
 at pleasure. Tliese grounds were supplied with a mile and a half of such flumes. 
 
 Dr. A. L. Kennedy gives the following statement relative to irrigation in California: 
 " The lessons on the art of irrigation, taught by the experience of California, have a value far 
 beyond her boundaries, and should be carefully studied by the farmers in not a few of her 
 sister States. Having the lofty Sierra Nevada just inside her eastern line, and the ridge of 
 hills called the Coast Range, parallel with and near to the Pacific, most of her territory is 
 constituted of a vast interior valley. The northern half of this great hydrographic basin is 
 drained by the Sacramento; the southern by the San Joaquin, its lakes and branches. These 
 rivers mingle their waters in the bays tributary to that of San Francisco, and reach the 
 ocean through the Golden Gate. During the summer, drought prevails throughout the great 
 valley, and in its southern third, south of the Merced River, which receives the waters of the 
 Yosemite, crops, with rare exceptions, cannot be raised without irrigation. Passing south- 
 erly over the low rirn of the San Joaquin valley, another irrigated region is reached, watered 
 by the Los Angeles, the Santa Ana, and the San Gabriel Rivers. These rise in the spurs of 
 the Sierra Nevada, — here called Sierra Madre and San Bernardino, — and run westerly to the 
 sea, cutting through the Coast Range. Each of them may therefore be said to drain two val- 
 leys — an upper and a lower one; the former lying between the Sierra Madre and the Coast 
 Range, the ktter between the Coast Range and the Pacific. 
 
 The number of acres under irrigation in these upper and lower valleys at the close of 
 1879 was 82,485; in the San Joaquin, 188,000; in that of the Sacramento, and in the foot- 
 hills east of it and the San Joaquin. 22,400, As the streams in all these districts descend 
 from hills not very remote, the fall is sufficient to admit of the water being diverted from 
 them for irrigating purposes without resorting to the mechanical apphances for raising water 
 
122 TUE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 employed in Egypt, and in Southern Europe. In the San Joaquin valley, wing-dams extend- 
 ing obliquely from one shore towards the opposite, at an acute angle up stream, generally 
 afford siifficient head. These are numerous in Kern River, at the head of the valley, one of 
 the most thoroughly iiTigated sections, which, being crossed by the Southern Pacific Rail- 
 road, is readily accessible. Stone being scarce here, and the river not navigable, the head- 
 works at the entrances of the canals are built entirely of wood, on pile foundations well driven 
 down, and sheathed on both sides with two-inch plank. The wings, which are similarly pUed 
 and sheathed, extend fifteen or twenty feet into the bank on either side of the canal, and at 
 right angles with it. Gates are not used, but posts#,re set four feet apart, either vertically or 
 inclining backwards at an angle of forty-five degrees. The four feet bays are divided and 
 fitted to receive the weir -boards, which are six to eight inches wide, and shde in grooves. 
 Over the tops of those boards the water flows, and the height is regulated according to that 
 of the river and the volume desired in the canal. Wliere necessary, a side sluice is con- 
 structed, by opening which, sand accumulated in front of the head-works may be scoured or 
 flushed out. The natural slope of the ground being too great to admit of the diverted water 
 following it, at intervals, say, of a mile on the canal, weirs or " drops " are introduced. These 
 are similar in construction to the head-works, and by means of sliding weir-boards the water 
 in the canal is kept at the proper height to supply the distributing ditches. Of course the 
 utilization of the water power afTorded by these weirs is not neglected. 
 
 One of the most important irrigation woi-ks, near the Southern Pacific Railroad bridge 
 over Kem River, is the Kern Island Canal, eighteen miles long. It takes its water from the 
 left bank of the stream, where the head-works have a clear width of forty -eight feet and a 
 depth of four. There are two main branches, one of which is ten miles long, width at bot- 
 tom 20 feet, depth 3 feet, slopes 3 to 1. The other branch, two miles long, supplies the vil- 
 lage of Bakersfield and vicinity, and at the village is a fall of nearly twenty feet perpendicu- 
 lar, the power of which runs a large flour-mill. The canal and its branches supply thirty-one 
 lateral ditches, owned and controlled by individual land-owners, and ha-\'ing a total length of 
 eighty miles. Besides the Kern Island, four other canals, the Old South Fork, the Farmers', 
 the Castro, and the Stine, divert water from the river in this vicinity. Their total length is 
 1 10 miles, with ditches extending an additional 140 miles. These five canals are capable of 
 supplying 895 cubic feet of water per second, and the area irrigated in 1879 was 22,750 
 acres. In 1873, six years previously, but 5,000 acres were under irrigation. 
 
 Water is applied to all crops, but not at the same time. Some farmers prefer to irrigate 
 in November before sowing their wheat, in order to give it an early start, while others, more 
 hopeful, wait for winter rains, and, if disappointed, irrigate during the last of January. 
 
 Fields of Lucerne are watered about the middle of that month; and in ilarch or April 
 wheat receives one, or, at most, two additional waterings. In May the application to Lucerne 
 is again made; Indian com receives a share, and the process is repeated, if foimd necessary, 
 during June and July. After that month, irrigation is not practiced except for Lucerne, late 
 potatoes, and garden vegetables. Twenty pounds of Lucerne seed are sown to the acre, and 
 the average yield during the first year is, from three cuttings, four tons, second year six tons; 
 in subsequent years, before putting again under the plow, ten to twelve tons. An acre is 
 capable of supporting five head of horses or cattle, or twenty head of sheep, during the nine 
 or ten months of the grazing season. The average yield of wheat is 27i bushels, and of bar- 
 ley 32 bushels to the acre, but in exceptional instances as high as 50 of the forrner and 90 of 
 the latter have been raised. The quantity of water required, which depends not only upon 
 the kind of crop, but also upon the nature of the soil and subsoil, is supplied to consumers at 
 fixed rates by the Kern Island Irrigating Canal Company above referred to, and by other com- 
 panies in the valley. Sometimes the irrigators own the canals themselves, as shareholders in 
 a cooperative company, the water supply being divided into as many parts as there are shares. 
 
IRRIGATION. 123 
 
 Tlio gates through which the water passes from the canal into the ditches are so constructed 
 as to allow eacli shareholder his due proportion. Again, large landed proprietors have con- 
 structed canals, erected buildings, planted orchards, and leased the fai-ms to tenants, the lat- 
 ter having rent and water free, the owner receiving one-fourth of the crops. The leases run 
 for five years, and if the land requires cleaning the tenant has all he can make the first year. 
 At the expiration of the lease he has the privilege of purchasing in installments at an agreed 
 price. 
 
 Methods of applying water to crops vary. A simple one is, to surround the fields with 
 ditches, which are kept full of water; another is to run numerous furrows, called carriers, 
 with the plow, these by percolation to distribute the water to crops growing between them on 
 narrow "lands." The flooding of the fields is sometimes effected by ditches, which foUow 
 the higher ground. From these the waters flow in a thin sheet over the surface, but fihe 
 uniform appKcation of the water is difficult. If there be inequalities in the surface it collects 
 in the low spots. If the soil or subsoil be unequally retentive, some portions will be too dry, 
 others surcharged. The favorite plan is to divide t!)e land by flat embankments or levees, 
 into a series of temporary ponds, the size of which is larger .as the surface is more level. In 
 laying out the ground, contour lines are run, each level being t^ken eight to twelve inches 
 below the next preceding, and as far apart horizontally as the slope of the land will allow. 
 Along the contour lines are thrown up flat embankments eighteen inch'^s high, and from 
 fifteen to twenty feet broad at the base. Over these, farm machines can be driven in any 
 direction, crops grow on them, and the long lines of gentle swells, winding, it mav be, and 
 more or less parallel, are no deformity. Each space between these embankments is Called a 
 check; the levees are therefore check-levees, and the system the check-levee system. Trunks 
 with gates are laid from check to check through the levees, and the water from canal or lat- 
 eral is first let into the highest check until it covers it, reaching nearly to the top of its lower 
 levee, and but slightly higher than the base of the upper. The water is allowed to stand 
 until suflSciently absorbed, when what remains is let into the check next below; this, through 
 its own connection with a lateral, is filled, and the process is repeated throughout the series. 
 James D. Schuyler, assistant State engineer, to whose able report we are mainly indebted for 
 our facts, gives the cost per acre of check-levees on one-foot contours with about twenty feet 
 base, as follows: Earthworks, $1.64; 'water or drainage gates, $0.51; total, $2.15; average 
 cost of lateral canals, including necessary regulators and side-gates to supply the lands, $4 
 per acre — making the total cost of preparing ground $6.15 per acre. 
 
 In the counties of San Bernardino and Los Angele.s, the orchards and vineyards are irri- 
 gated by ridging the land into small compartments by means of the plow. The water is first 
 admitted into the highest compartment and retained until the ground is sufficiently soaked. 
 The ridge between it and the compartment below is then broken down and the water 
 admitted, and so on though the series. The supply of water is obtained in the upper valleys 
 of San Gabriel, Santa Ana, and Los Angeles directly from streams, although the country is 
 well adapted to the construction of storage reservoirs, but in the lower valleys, near the sea, 
 artesian wells are the source of supply. These three valleys c6nstitute what is called the 
 Artesian Well Belt, a strip of land about 40 miles long, and from 2 to 12 wide, lying between 
 the Coast Range and the Pacific. There are about 600 wells in this belt, the general depth 
 being from 150 to 200 feet, and the yield 0.2 to 0.3 cubic feet per second. Some of the wells 
 irrigate from 100 to 200 acres each, but a weU which will irrigate 40 acres is considei'ed a 
 very good one. As land without water is worth litile or nothing, and as the annual yield of 
 an irrigated vineyard is considered worth $250 per acre when the grapes are grown for 
 wine, and much more when they are grown for raisins, the value of a goo'l well assumes large 
 proportions. Great as are the profits from irrigated vineyards, they are exceeded by thost> 
 of irrigated orange orchards, each tree of which, when in full bearing, should yield from 
 
124 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 1,000 to 1,500 oranges annually, worth from $15 to §50 per thousand, according to size and 
 quantity." 
 
 Windmills are sometimes used for pumping water from common wells for the artificial 
 watering of lands. Hydraulic force, in the form of the common hydraulic ram, can also be 
 easily utilized for the same purjDose. A recent writer in one of the leading agricultural jour- 
 nals, gives the following simple method of irrigating meadows by means of a hillside spring: 
 
 "A t}'pical instance may be given: A hillside field is flooded with water, which either 
 flows from springs above it, or bursts out from springs upon it. The water lies there; the 
 land has been poached by cattle, turned on to feed down the coarse grass of early grois-th, 
 when other pastures were stiU bare, and the surface has grown up into bogs, tussocks, and 
 bunches of reeds, interspersed with muddy pools. Below this lies a meadow which produces 
 only a hght crop of hay or scanty pasture for the cows when they are tired of trampling mud 
 up above. Such a piece of land it was once my lot to own, and my business to renovate. The 
 process was as follows: As I could not control the land above the wet part of my field, I dug 
 a drain 3 feet deep along my fence and laid 3-inch tile in it. This gathered a large quantity 
 of waiier from the land above, and partly dried the land below. But here there were several 
 strong springs, which melted the snow in the winter, and which were always surrounded with 
 luxuriant green grass. From the upper drain, one-inch tUes were laid, cutting through these 
 springs and the wettest spots. This effectually drained the wet ground. The flow from these 
 tiles discharged into an open sodded ditch or furrow sis inches deep, and about eighteen 
 inches wide. The water from this ditch was directed, in small zigzag channels, over the dry 
 ground below; and here and there it was forced to overflow by placing stones in the water- 
 way to arrest part of the water. In this way the water could be distributed wherever it was 
 needed, and it furnished a steady supply until late in the summer. The effect the first year 
 was to give two heavy crops of hay from each piece of ground, neither of which had given 
 anything of any value whatever before. 
 
 Since that time, I have improved many similar pieces of ground at a yery small expense, 
 as compared with the beneficial results; and I have seen a much larger number that could be 
 improved and made valuable, if the owners could be induced to do the work for themselves. 
 The full reclamation of the tussocky ground gives the most trouble. This is best done by 
 cutting off the bunches of roots with a heavy grub-hoe, ^d then running over the surface 
 when dry with a disc-harrow, by which the sod is cut up and fresh earth thrown over it, and 
 the surface smoothed. Some fresh grass-seed, and a dressing of ten bushels of lime or two 
 bushels of plaster per acre, is a great help to the growth of the better kinds of grass. I do 
 not advise such ground to be plowed; generally it breaks up very rough, and gives much 
 trouble to reduce to a fine surface again. After a few years the herbage is totally changed, 
 and timothy, red-top, and fescue grass come thickly into both the drained and the irrigated 
 parts of the ground." 
 
 Secretary Gold, in one of his Agricultural Reports of Connecticut, gives, as an example 
 of the value of irrigation, the farm of Albert G. Ayres of Preston, Xew London County, 
 Connecticut. It consists of about two hundred and fifty acres of land, of average quahty, 
 when compared with the other farms of that vicinity, and has been the homestead of the 
 Ayres family for at least three generations. " The beginning of the system of irrigation that 
 prevails upon the farm dates back to the time of his grandfather, a hundred years ago or 
 more. Any good farmer in passing by would notice the exceptional greenness and fer- 
 tility of the southern slope of this farm. This is owing entirely to the free use of water for 
 a hundred years or more upon about forty acres of the farm. The system of irrigation is of 
 the simplest and most inexpensive kind, just such as any enterprising farmer could make for 
 himself without the aid of stone-mason or engineer. Near the north end of the farm a small 
 trout -brook comes in, never big enough for a mill-stream, and in summer often dwindUng 
 
IRRIGATION. 125 
 
 away to a mere rill. It is fed by springs, and in these springs the trout survive, through 
 the heats of summer. This brook is dammed, near the spot where it enters the farm, with a 
 sligh' bank of earth and stone. No effort has been made to accumulate water in a reservoir 
 against a dry time, though it could be done at small expense. Only a part of the natural flow 
 of the water has been turned out of its channel. 
 
 The irrigating ditches, of which there are several taken from the main stream, are small 
 and narrow, and have a very slight fall. They could be made very rapidly with a plow and 
 ox-shovel. The forty acres put under water, slope gently to the south and east. The water 
 i? taken out of these irrigating ditches in slight rills, and passed over the meadow. Any surplus 
 water falls into the ditch below, or is returned to the brook. The distance for which the 
 water is diverted from its natural channel is less than a quarter of mile. The water is kept 
 (lowing summer and winter, and the winter flowage carries quite as much fertilizing matter 
 as that of summer, and perhaps more. The refuse vegetable matter gathered in the swamp 
 above, floating leaves, wash of roads and cultivated fields and brook channel, is carried down 
 to the.se meadows. 
 
 The water is often discolored in lieavy rains, and even that which seems to be pure car- 
 ries more or less sediment with it. The liquid manure may be veiy thin, but the fact is well 
 established that wherever water runs over well-drained soil, grass springs up in greatest luxu- 
 riance. The purest spring water makes grass wherever it flows. Summer and winter, while 
 Mr. Ayres sleeps, this brook is making money for him, as it did for his ancestors. The 
 only expense to him is the slight labor of keeping the ditches clear, and of regulating the 
 flow of the water. The soil is a gravelly loam, and slopes so much that there is no chance 
 for stagnant water. In the opinion of Mr. Ayres the crop of hay is nearly doubled by the 
 irrigation alone." 
 
 The advantages of this system of irrigation are summed up as follows: — 
 
 " Besides the large increase of the grass crop, all these forty acres of meadow can be kept 
 perpetually in grass, which is probably the most profitable crop upon Connecticut farms. 
 There need be no more plowing, no more tillage-crops. The turf may thicken from genera- 
 tion to generation, and produce that best of all forage, a thick, fine hay made from a mixture 
 of grasses growing upon an old sod. Then top-dressing, when applied to increase the year's 
 crop, can be used to the best advantage. The manure is carried down immediately to the 
 roots of grasses, by the large supply of water upon the surface. There is no loss from evap- 
 oration. The soil is kept to the production of nearly two tons of hay to the acre, without 
 top-dressing. 
 
 Upon this the calculation is based of the value of irrigation upon this farm. We 
 suppose the natural production of the land to be not over a ton to the acre. A ton to the 
 acre then would be a fair estimate of the hay made by the irrigation. Hay sells in the 
 neighboring city markets at from $15 to $20 a ton, according to season and quality. If we 
 call the hay $10 a ton standing, it would give $400, as the annual dividend declared by the 
 brook. The investment is about as secure as government bonds, which pay four per cent, 
 nearly; the income is about the same as $10,000 in United States stocks. Not every farm 
 has the facilities of this for irrigation, but some could irrigate on a much larger scale. 
 Almost every farm that has a brook running through it, or upon its borders, could have 
 some portion of its acres subject to irrigation." 
 
 The growth of large forests may also be promoted by irrigation. Damont states in 
 Des Travaux Publics, that in order to hasten the growth of wood on the flanks of a mountain, 
 M. Eugene Chevandier divided the slope into zones forty or fifty feet wide, by horizontal 
 ditches closed at both ends, and thereby obtained from firs of different ages, shoots double 
 the dimensions of those which grew on a dry soil of the same character, where the water 
 was allowed to run oil without obstruction. 
 
126 ■ THE AMERICAN FAllMEU. 
 
 Irrigation is often accomplished by flooding or inundating the lands for a few dfiys, 
 when they are so situated that this is practicable A good illustration of this means is seen 
 in the Grand Pre Marsh in Nova Scotia, which contain the most fertile lands in the province, 
 and is often called the garden of Nova Scotia. These marsh lands are enclosed by dikes, 
 and whenever it is found necessary to enrich the soil, that may become exhausted by constant 
 copping, the sluice gates are opened and the tide is allowed to overflow the meadows, 
 which leaves a rich deposit of alluvial matter to the depth of one or more inches on the 
 surface, by which means they are kept in constant fertility. 
 
 Any field of a moderate descent can he irrigated by open ditches with but slight expense, 
 where the water is available on an elevation. In Europe, the quantity of water supplied to 
 crops ordinarily cultivated on tilled lands, is from twenty to forty inches during the season; 
 though the rice-fields of Lombardy require a considerably larger amount than this. Expe- 
 rience alone can best determine the proper quantity for certain soils and crops. Much, also, 
 depends upon the season and the amount of rain-fall, etc. 
 
 When to Irrigate. — Evening, as a general rule, is the best time for irrigating all 
 crops. Constant watering under a hot sun is not only unnatural to all vegetation, but will 
 often prove very injurious to many plants. All plants require more water in the early part 
 of their growth than when nearly mature. Many crops, such as grasses, and some gt the 
 grains, for instance, would be injured by an excess of irrigation when approaching the 
 ripening process, and it should be at this time carefully avoided. Light, porous soils, accord- 
 ing to best authority, are most benefited by artificial watering; sandy and gravelly soils re- 
 quiring it most. Clays, being naturally moist and heavy, are less benefited by it, though are 
 said to be iujproved by this means when made porous by under-draining. Irrigation often 
 greatly increases the quantity of grass for cattle in pastures that would otherwise, from the 
 condition of the soil, be almost worthless. After a crop of grass has been cut, irrigation 
 will greatly improve the quantity and quality of the aftermath, besides preventing the drying 
 up of the grass-roots by evaporation in the hot sun. The process of irrigating should begin on 
 grass lands very early in the spring, in order to give the herbage a good start. The quantity 
 of water thus supplied to any crop should be adapted to the kind of soil and the crop pro- 
 duced, which can only be determined by experiment, since soils vary so greatly that only 
 general rules can be given in this respect. 
 
DRAINAGE. 127 
 
 DRAINAGE. 
 
 DRAINAGE, or the removal of the surplus water from the soil by artificial means, 
 may be accomplished by the use of open ditches, covered trenches, plank or stone 
 drains, tiles, etc., the best and most popular method being tile draining. 
 
 Perhaps no part of farm husbandry pays a larger per cent, of profit on the money 
 invested than proper and judicious drainage, where the conditions are such that lands will 
 be benefited by this system, since it not only removes stagnant water from lands, but reheves 
 them of their excess of moisture, rendering them productive, and more healthful to both 
 vegetable and animal life. It also deepens the soil, makes it more friable, and by drawing 
 the water from the surface, not only adapts it to earlier cultivation in the spring, thereby 
 insuring an earlier and more abundant crop, and also prepares it to be worked advantageously 
 in the autumn, but the surface rain-water, being warmer than the soil, such drainage increases 
 the temperature of the earth as it smks downward. 
 
 Mr. Parks, the English Agricultural Engineer, found by making simultaneous obser- 
 vations on a drained portion of a field, that from a mean of thirty-five observations, during 
 the spring and early summer, the drained soil, at seven inches depth, was ten degrees 
 warmer than the undrained, at the same depth. The highest temperature of the undrained 
 soil was forty-seven degrees, while that of the drained went up to sixty-six degrees at seven 
 inches, and forty-eight degrees at thirty-one inches, after a thunder storm. A wet soil can 
 never be properly pulverized, hence, cannot be well tilled; it is also always cold; and as drain- 
 age renders the land warmer, the roots of plants which will never go below the water-line, 
 always strike deeper in under-drained soils, which explains the fact, often surprisingly maiii- 
 fest. why lands well under-drained should endure the evil effects of a drouth better than those 
 not drained at all. This mystery is solved when we consider that roots in such soils strike 
 so much deeper than in lands not drained, that they are constantly in a moist soil, however 
 dry the surface may be; besides such lands are more porous and permeable to the dews and 
 showers. Under-draining also prevents surface washing, by allowing the water to percolate 
 through the soil, and thus whatever fertilizing material it contains is retained. It renders 
 winter killing of crops less liable, and preserves a more uniform degree of moisture in the 
 soil, since it not only causes its saturation with water to lie impossible, but keeps it in such a 
 pulverized and porous condition, that in times of drouth it absorbs moisture from the air and 
 never becomes baked and hard, thus the evil effects of extremes of wet and dry seasons are 
 avoidable. Much land otherwise almost worthless for cultivation has become by this means 
 very valuable. Lands well under-drained can also be used with safety in hauling loads and 
 are less liable to injury from the treading df cattle, &c. 
 
 Thornton, an eminent English authority, sums iip the benefits of drainage as follows: 
 "An earlier seed-time and harvest, better crops, a healthier live stock and an improved style 
 of husbandry, are the usual and well-known sequence of judiciously-conducted drainage 
 operations. In short, the most experienced and skillful agriculturists now declare with one 
 consent, that good drainage is an indispensable preliminary to good cultivation." 
 
 In England and Scotland the impi'ovement of lands by drainage has long been practiced, 
 and it is by no means a modern improvement, though it has comparatively but recently been 
 reduced to a system based upon scientific principles. The Romans were careful to keep their 
 arable lands dry by means of open trenches, and there are some indications of their having 
 used covered drains for the same pui-pose. English literature shows that it is at least more 
 than two centuries ago that Captain Walter Blithe wrote the following: 
 
 " Superfluous and venomous water which lyeth in the earth and much occasioneth boggi- 
 
 nesse, mirinesse, rushes, fl.ags, and other filth, is indeed the chief cause of barrenesse in any 
 
 land of this nature. . . Drayning is an excellent and chief est means for their reducement; 
 
 and for the depth of suchdraynes, I cannot possibly bound, because I have not time and oppor- 
 
 10 
 
128 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 tunity to take in all circumstances. . . . And for thy drayning trench, it must be made so 
 deepc that it goe to the bottome of the cold, spewing moyst water, that feeds the flagg and the 
 rush; for the widenesse of it, use thine owne liberty, but be sure to make it so wide as thou 
 may est goe to the bottom of it, which must be so low as any moysture lyeth which moj'sture 
 usually lyeth under the over and second swarth of the earth, in some gravel or sand, or else, 
 where some greater stones are mixt with clay, under which thou must goe halfe one spades 
 graft doepe at least; yea, suppose this corruption that feeds and nourisheth the rush or flagg 
 should lie a yard or foure foot deepe, to the bottome of it thou must goe, if thou wilt drayne 
 it to purpose. . . . And for the dreyning trench be sure thou endeavour to carry it as 
 neare upon a straight line as possible 
 
 " To the bottome where the spewing spring lyeth thou must goe, and one spades depth or 
 graft beneath, how deep so ever it be, if thou wilt drayne thy land to purpose. 1 am forced 
 to use repetitions of some things, because of the quitableness of the things to which they are 
 applyed; as also because of the slownesse of people's apprehensions of them, as appears by 
 the non-practice of them, the which whenever you see drayning and trenching you shall rarely 
 find few or none of them wrought to the bottome 
 
 " Go to the bottome of the bogg, and there make a trench in the sound ground, or else in 
 some old ditch, so low as thou verily conceivest thy selfe assuredly under the level of the 
 spring or spewing water, and then carry up thy trench into thy bogg straight through the 
 
 middle of it, one foot under that spring; but for these common and many 
 
 trenches, oft times crooked too, that men usually make in their boggy grounds, some one 
 foot, some two, never having respect to the cause or matter that maketli the bogg to take 
 
 that way, I say away with them as a great piece of folly, lost labour and spoyle 
 
 After thou hast brought a trench to the bottome of the bogg, then cut a good substantial 
 trench about thy bogg; and when thou hast so done make one work or two just over- thwart 
 it, upiuards and downwards all under the matter of the bogg. Then thou must take good 
 green faggots, willow, alder, elme or thorne, and lay in the bottome of thy works, and then 
 take thy turfe thou tookest up in the top of thy trench, and plant upon them with the green 
 sward downwards; or take great pebbles, stones, or Jiint stones, and so Jill up the bottome of thy 
 trench about fifteen inches hi(jh, and take thy turfe and plant it as aforesaid, being cut very fit 
 for the trench, as it may join close as it is layed downe, and then having covered it all over 
 with earth, and made it even as thy other ground, waite and expect a wonderful effect through 
 the blessing of God." The instructions of Blithe do not seem to have been extensively heeded 
 by his contemporaries, though they probably were to a ceitain extent. Since that time, 
 various systems have been practiced in Great Britain and other portions of Europe, the moist 
 climate of the former rendering drainage more essential to successful agriculture than in some 
 other countries. In our own country, the general adoption of a complete system of drainage 
 is comparatively of recent date, but enough has been accomplished in this direction to prove 
 its great value to the agricultural interests of every section, and the time is not far distant 
 when it will doubtless be practiced on a larger and more extensive scale, and many of the 
 vast tracts, now utterly worthless, will be converted into some of the most fertile and valuable 
 of its agricultural lands, besides rendering such localities more healthful. 
 
 What Lands Require Drainilia;. — All lands containing an excess of water are 
 greatly benefited by draining, and these are usually heavy, tenacious clays, those soils having 
 a hard clayey subsoil that will not admit of the water passing through them, and peaty or 
 swampy lands. A large proportion of the lands in cultivation are sufficiently drained by 
 nature. No land with a subsoil so porous as never to retain a surplus of water requires an 
 extensive drainage. Sometimes a farm that requires no thorough draining may be benefited 
 by a partial one; for instance, many farms contain small swamps or swales, so located in a 
 field as to greatly hinder cultivation, and retard the growth of crops; these have probably 
 been formed by t^.e water that has passed through the porous soil, meeting with an obstruction 
 
■DRAINAGE. 129 
 
 in the form of an impervious stratum. This stratum may be horizontal, or nearly so, and 
 the water may follow it out to the surface of a lower level, and thus the swale is formed, a 
 permanent nuisance in an otherwise valuable tract of land. In such cases a partial drainage 
 of the lands will entirely remedy this evil. In the United States, the average amount of 
 rain-fall is about three inches per month, and frequently an inch of rain, — which is equal to 
 a little more than three hundred and sixty hogsheads of water, — falls upon an acre of land 
 in a single shower. The question arises, What becomes of all this water? It m_ust either 
 be disposed of by sinking into the soil, by evaporation, or it remains upon the surface. 
 Moist land conduces to good cultivation, but not vjet lands; therefore, if the soil or subsoil is 
 of such a nature that this water does not percolate through it readily, and leave it in good 
 condition, drainage is the only remedy for the evil. When the land is very level, admitting 
 of no surface draining, and the soU retentive and clayey, drainage will be required for any 
 improvement in the conditions. 
 
 Swamps and peat-beds frequently occur in a hilly country. Sometimes their origin is 
 in numerous springs from adjoining hills; when this is the case, often a ditch dug around 
 the entire outer edge of it, where it meets the ascending land, will cut off the water supply, 
 and generally remedy the evil; but open ditches are very objectionable for many reasons, 
 and tiles are preferred. It is stated that Mr. John Johnston, of Geneva, New York, who was 
 the first farmer to use tiles for draining in this country, once drained a quagmire so that it 
 produced eighty bushels of corn per acre, and in that case the cost of draining was paid by 
 the increase of one crop. The draining of lakes and marshes requires great capital, and 
 engineering skill, and is sure to become a very important branch of agricultural improve- 
 ment in our Southern and Western States. 
 
 The reclaiming of the Everglades of Florida by draining Lake Okeechobee suflBciently to 
 prevent its overflow, is an instance of what may be accomplished by this means. This may be 
 done by a canal ten miles long, connecting Lake Okeechobee with the headwaters of the Caloo- 
 sahatchie River, which flows into the Gulf of Mexico, the mouth of which is twenty-three and 
 a half feet lower than the lake. It is the overflow of the lake which causes the Everglades 
 to be submerged in water, the lake having no natural outlet, while the Everglades are sur- 
 rounded by a limestone ridge which acts as a dam to the water, and after the overflow of the 
 lake, it can only be reduced by evaporation, which, being so slow a process, keeps the ground 
 almost constantly under water. Should the above drainage not prove sufficient to prevent the 
 over-flow and render the lands reclaimed suited to agricultural purposes, another canal to the 
 eastward, cut to the St. Lucie River, twelve miles long, which will carry the water into the 
 Atlantic Ocean, will remedy the evil, the mouth of the St. Lucie River being twenty- 
 five feet lower than the basin of Lake Okeechobee. In Holland, steam-pumps, wind-mills, 
 and tide-gates are used extensively in drainage, the great Haarlemer-meer being not only 
 drained, but is kept so, by steam-power. Prof. Pendleton states that much of the hilly land 
 in some of the best farming portions of the Southern States has become impoverished by 
 unskillful culture and by continual washings of soil and fertilizing materials which have been 
 swept into the valleys, that are now so saturated with water as to be unfit for proper tillage, 
 and that in this way many valuable lands have been lost to cultivation, and rendered 
 unhealthy by engendering malarial fevers, etc. 
 
 By a judicious system of drainage, these lands may become among the most productive, 
 as well as profitable, of any in that section of the country. Prof. Cleveland, of Chicago, 
 says: — ''The necessity of drainage is not to be determined by the quantity of water which 
 falls or flows upon the surface, nor upon the power of the sun to carry it off by evaporation, 
 but upon the character of the subsoil. If that is of sand or gravel, the water will pass off 
 below by natural drainage, but if the subsoil is clay or other impervious substances, the 
 water is checked in its downward course, and remains stagnant or bursts out upon the 
 
laO THE AMERICAN FAKMEK. 
 
 surface in the form of springs. Most of the prairie lands are of the latter character, and 
 wherever such subsoil exists, the land will not only be improved by tile drainage, but it may 
 be said that such drainage is absolutely essential to its proper development and culture. To 
 question the necessity of tlie piocess is little less absurd than it would be to ask whether it 
 would be improved by plowing, instead of making hills for corn in the prairic-grass with a 
 hoe or spade. All lands require drainage which al any scison contain too much water, — 
 that is, which hold at any time of the year more moisture than is good for the crops, and 
 causes them to suffer, either by freezing out in winter, or having their roots in water during 
 the growing season." 
 
 Drainage has been appropriately defined as " the art of rendering land not only so free 
 from moisture that no superfluous water shall remain on it, but that no water shall remain 
 long enough to injure or retard the healthy growth of such plants as are required for the 
 sustenance of man or beast." There are some plants, such as rice and cranberries, which 
 require a wet soil, but most of those which are useful to man are drowned by being over- 
 flowed for a short time, and are injured by any stagnant water about their roots. 
 
 We would recommend that in all cases of drainage, it be well done, as the most care- 
 ful and permanent work of this kind will be the cheapest in the end. and the best-paying in 
 return for the capital invested, while work of this kind carelessly and indiferently performed 
 will prove very expensive eventually, as it wiU probably fail to accomplish the end sought, 
 and will have to be done over in a short time to be of any practical benefit. The best 
 method is to establish a plan for complete system of drainage for the farm, and when this is once 
 done, the work can be accomplished from time to time as opportunity affords, with but little 
 or no interruption to the regular routine of farm labor. It can often be accomplished in 
 those seasons when there is little else to do upon the farm, hence at less expense than other- 
 wise. There is no part of farm labor where previous calculation and careful, systematic 
 work pays better than in under-draining. Many farmers have but little to occupy them 
 during the late autumn and winter months, and could devote the time to such work then 
 with no interruption to the other farm work, and with less expense. 
 
 Tile Draining. — This is the best method of draining known, being the most effectual 
 and satisfactory in all respects. No person should undertake the task of draining with the 
 expectation of success without first fully informing himself with respect to all the important 
 details, as it is a work which requires much scientific skill and careful planning in order to 
 reach the best results. And, as we have previously recommended, we would advise that the 
 plan be a complete one for the farm, which plan can be gradually carried out from time to 
 time as the farmer feels able to accomplish, either in expense of money or labor. 
 
 Determining the Ontlct. — One of the most important steps in drainage is to decide 
 upon a place, or the places of outlet. This must, of course, be enough lower than any portion 
 of the lands that are to be drained by it, to admit of suflBcient fall for the passage of water 
 from the heads of the most distant tributaries; yet it must at the same time be high enough 
 above the level of whatever it empties into to prevent the danger of its being overflowed, 
 and the drainage-water dammed back in the pipes. In all cases where the inequalities of the 
 surface are not sufficient to render it obvious that every field on the farm that it is desirable 
 to drain can be drained into the mains without dilBculty, the most important point to deter- 
 mine is the lowest level at which the outlet can be located so as to secure a free and constant 
 outflow. For instance, the level of every other point must be high enough above the outlet 
 to secure a grade in the tiles of at least 2i to 3 inches per 100 feet, though from 6 inches to 
 12 is better, if practicable. Some writers claim that they have known drainage to prove a 
 complete success where the grade is from one to one and a half inches per 100 feet, but we 
 should fear to risk the cost and labor of constructing drains on that principle. The grade 
 
DRAINAGE. 131 
 
 should be sufficient to carry off any silt, sand, or other obstructions that may get into the 
 pipes. On very level farms — the prairies, for instance — it may often be difficult to secure the 
 necessary grade, without bringing the upper portions of the drains too near the surface. It 
 is better, therefore, to have the levels all taken before the work is begun (which can be done 
 at slight expense and labor), than to incur the cost of correcting, afterwards, mistakes that 
 may be made at the commencement. We therefore advise that the services of a competent 
 civil engineer be secured, and that these levels be taken on cross hues about fifty feet apart, 
 and marked on a map of the farm, or land to be drained; and when this is done, there is a 
 map for guidance marked in fifty-feet squares, where the relative heigJit of each square is 
 marked at the intersection of these lines, so that, having the lines for drains previously 
 marked, when the farmer digs his drains for laying the tiles, he knows precisely the depth he 
 must go at each point to give a uniform fall, and thus the sa\'ing of labor and the avoiding 
 of mistakes will well repay the slight expense required to secure this knowledge. By this 
 means the farmer can have a map to refer to, showing the exact location and depth of every 
 main and side-drain on the premises; and he can go on from year to year doing as much or 
 as little an amount of labor as he chooses, but always working with the assurance that he is 
 on the correct principle and knows what he is about, and that he is working out one definite 
 plan. This same plan will afterwards enable him to find, without any difficulty, any point he 
 may wish to obtain access to for repairs, etc. 
 
 In England there is an accredited profession of farm-engineering, regulated and encour- 
 aged by the English agricultural laws. It would be a great aid to the agricultural interests 
 of this country if the farmers of every state could have the benefit of just such competent 
 assistance, based upon accurate mathematical knowledge and experience. The members of 
 this profession in England are required to pass a severe and critical examination, proving 
 themselves to be thoroughly competent, both theoretically and practically, for the position, 
 before admission. 
 
 Locating the Main Drains and Tributaries. — Having determined where the 
 outlet will be, which, as has been previously stated, is a very important question to decide, 
 the next step will be to locate the main drains; and this can be properly accomplished only 
 by taking into consideration the surface of the land. If the surface is uneven or undulating 
 the main receiving-drains should be carried along the lowest part of the land, in the hollows, 
 while the branches or parallel drains, running in the line of the greatest ascent of the ground, 
 flow into them, often at nearly right angles. Where the land is nearly level, and a fall is 
 obtained only by increasing the depth of the drains at the lower ends, the tiles may run in 
 any direction convenient. The conformation of the land may often be such that a single 
 field may require several distinct sets of drains, lying at different angles, suited to the various 
 slopes of the surface; but in all cases where slopes occur, the pipes should be laid directly up 
 and down the slope, so that the water once entering at the joints o^ the tiles will not run out 
 again at other joints, but will follow the course of the pipes to the end. In an irregular 
 field, where the slopes are in different directions, of course it will be impossible to have the 
 ■drains run directly up and down the slope, and at the same time parallel to each other, which 
 would be the most economical. 
 
 In varying from parallel directions, there is danger of getting the pipes too far apart, and 
 making the drainage incomplete, or of crowding them so near together as to be quite expen- 
 sive; hence, there must be the exercise of careful judgment in laying out the system of 
 drains, in order to arrange the slope correctly, and yet accomplish the desired end in drainage 
 without incurring unnecessary expense. 
 
 When part of the field is flat, and other portions have a considerable slope, the best 
 authorities advise placing a receiving drain near the bottom of the slopes, and giving the 
 level ground an independent set of drains. The surface of the ground, convenience of 
 11 
 
132 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 outlet, and character of tlie soil, all have to be taken into account, consequently the plan of no 
 two fields will scarcely ever be the same. The roots of trees and shrubs sometimes obstruct 
 drains, therefore it is well in laying out their course to avoid them as far as practicable. 
 When a drain must of necessity pass near trees, the use of coal-tar is sometimes found beneficial 
 in excluding the roots. Mixing coal-tar and sawdust to the consistency of mortar, and placing 
 a layer of this in the bottom of the trench at such places, and then laying the drain-pipe 
 upon it, and covering it with this mixture to the thickness of an inch, before covering with 
 earth, all trouble from roots will be obviated. Some writers recommend that soft and porous 
 tiles (though not as durable) be used at such places as are liable to trouble from roots, with 
 the joints laid in cement, the hai'd tiles being ordinarily used for drains, as they are more 
 durable. All tiles having small holes, called "pin-holes," should be carefully avoided, and 
 all aquatic trees near the line of the drain should be killed before the drain is laid. Mr. W. 
 I. Chamberlain, of Summit County, Ohio, gives the following statement relative to the 
 wandering nature of roots, and their tendency to obstruct drains: — 
 
 "The roots of aquatic or water-loving trees, like the willow and some kinds of elm, 
 seem to have almost no limit to their growth, either horizontally or vertically; and they seem 
 to go in search of moisture or richness, as if by instinct, and to know just where to find it. 
 I have traced the roots of a smallish elm some twenty-five feet horizontally, and six feet ver- 
 tically, to their feeding-place in a grave in an old cemetery; and I have, in plowing, 
 traced the roots of a large elm one hundred feet horizontally by measurement. These roots 
 will enter even a 'pin-hole' in tiles, if they can find running water. Mr. H. B. Camp, of 
 Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, told me a few days since, that he once helped take up an obstructed drain, 
 whose joints were laid in cement, I think he said. At all events, a willow root had entered 
 at a pin-hole not larger than a small darning-needle, and spread into a fibrous mass and 
 packed the tile fidl of roots for several feet — the only connection with the upper world and 
 their lungs (the tree-leaves) being this small, thread-like root, that entered at the pin-hole. 
 It is better to cut such trees down when they are near a damp drain, and see that they are dead. 
 Prof. Townshend, of the Columbus (Ohio) Agricultural College, exhibited in one of his. 
 lectures recently a dark, stiff, fibrous, sponge-like, solid cylinder, some three feet long and 
 three inches in diameter. When the class had done guessing, he gave its history. It was 
 the luiUow-ruot core of his cellar-drain. Knowing the nature of these roots, he cut the willow 
 down before he laid the drain, and burned the stump all lie could ; but in spite of that, its 
 roots stopped his cellar-drain at a depth of five or six feet I ' 
 
 When a main drain has parallel drains flowing into it on both sides, these openings into 
 the main drain should not be exactly opposite each other. The evil effects of such a f)laii 
 are at once perceptible. Some prefer to have two main drains parallel to each other, each to 
 receive the subordinate drains from its side only. If these main drains are located as far 
 apart as the other tiles in the field, but little additional expense will be incurred by having- 
 two instead of one, as thesd receiving-drains, besides taking the water from the others, also 
 perform the same office as the other drains for the lands through which they pass. One of 
 the best English authorities on this subject says: — 
 
 " Much of the success of draining depends on the skillful planning of these main drains, 
 and in making them large enough to discharge the greatest flow of water to which they are 
 exposed. Very long main drains are to be avoided. '' 
 
 " In the whole process of draining," says an experienced engineer, " there is nothing 
 more important than permanent and substantial work at the outlet." It is a place where 
 obstructions are most liable to occur, being most exposed to the effects of frost, while reptiles, 
 cattle and mischievous boys often do great damage, unless it is sufficiently protected. The 
 earth everywhere else is a protection to the tiles. It is, therefore, well to have as few outlets 
 as possible, and these should be secured by a heavy frame-work of timber or stone, and an 
 
DRAINAGE. 133 
 
 iron grating, or heavy wire netting, fine enough to prevent the entrance of reptiles or other 
 animals. One outlet to an area of from ten to fifteen acres is usually considered a good 
 arrangement. 
 
 A uniform grade is very desirable, for if any portion of the main be lower than the 
 outlet, there will, of course, be a permanent stoppage, as the water will stand there until 
 there is a deposit of mud, and it will not be forced out by the action of the water. All 
 curves and angles should be avoided, if possible, as they are the places where obstructions 
 will be liable to occur. 
 
 Deptll of DrainSi — The best English authorities advise that the drains should not be 
 less than four feet in depth, and that even a greater depth may be desirable; it depends mainly 
 upon the subsoil; but they are often made very serviceable at a less depth. Sometimes a 
 seam of gravel or other porous material, charged with water, may be found underlying a con- 
 siderable portion of the ground at a greater depth than four feet, and this may render it 
 necessary to dig the drain sufficiently deep to reach that seam. When such, or similar cases 
 occur, it is desirable to have the drains quite deep, as they will perform more efficient service 
 in draining the whole area under which this strata extends, than shallow ones placed nearer 
 together. It has been proved by experiment that drains three feet deep, at forty feet apart, 
 are not so effective as those at five feet deep and fifty feet apart. The depth necessary to lay 
 the tiles will depend much upon tlie character of the soil and subsoil. As a general rule, it will 
 cost as much to dig the fourth foot as the other three, and if the conditions are such that the 
 benefits arising from the greater depth will more than counterbalance the increased expense, 
 it will be advisable to increase to the fourth or even fifth foot in depth. The farmer must 
 take into consideration the various conditions of soil, and be his own judge in this 
 respect. Many writers advocate three feet, and some even two and a half feet, as sufficient 
 for all practical purposes in most soils; but we prefer, as a general rule, that the depth be four 
 feet. Prof. Shattuck expresses the following opinion in the Drainage Journal: — 
 
 "They must be deep enough to be out of the way of frost; they must give sufficient 
 room for the roots of plants above the water-table, because of the evil effects of stagnant 
 water and the intrusion of roots; deep enough to prevent evaporation of the water arising in 
 the soil from the force of attraction, or at least to reduce it to a small amount. Experiments 
 show that capillary attraction operates with considerable power at eighteen inches. They 
 have also shown that water coming from a thii'ty-inch drain is two or three degrees colder 
 than that taken from a depth of four feet, and that this is a little cooler than that from a 
 greater depth. We must draw the conclusion that evaporation has considerable effect at 
 thirty inches. Four feet, then, seems to be the standard minimum depth; it cannot always 
 be had, but better go deeper than not so deep, when possible. 
 
 The above statement is mainly in reference to the requirements of the crop to be grown. 
 I admit that depth and distance between drains should bear a relation to each other, that the 
 character of the soil and subsoil is an important factor in the question. I give the above 
 as a general guide. There is a feeling with many that thirty inches, or three feet in depth, 
 is sufficient. I know that drains at those depths will do good service, but I believe one at 
 four feet will, as a rule, do better. Theory indicates this and practice confirms it. 
 
 Of two drains at diiierent depths, the deeper one acts first, and with far more effect; but 
 the greater expense is objected to, though without sufficient reason in many cases, it seems to 
 me. The tiles cost the same in either case, and, from my standpoint, the additional labor of 
 the deeper one is of little account to the general farmer. I venture to say that the 
 majority of Western farmers are rmemployed one-half of the time during three or more 
 months of the year, and at that season when the work of drainage could go on with the 
 least interruption to farm culture. 
 
 The labor of the farmer is an important part of his capital, and with proper management 
 
134 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 it will not grow less by use. The improvement of the farm by drainage should be a part of 
 the regular work of each season ; when thus carried out, .it is not the burden that many make 
 it, in order that the work of years may be put into one. In case of so-called partkl drainage, 
 the depth of four feet is even more strongly recommended, as such is usually made with 
 large-sized tiles, and it should be, with the view of making in the future the drain's main, or of 
 'd system, at least, of getting the greatest benefit from them." 
 
 Scarcely any person whose experience and judgment are of value in successful agricul- 
 ture, would think of laying tiles at a less depth than three feet, while, comparatively speaking, 
 those soils of clay or loam having a clay subsoil will receive so much additional benefit from 
 a greater depth than this, that we might almost say, no man can afford to place his tiles at a 
 less depth than /our feet. As draining is generally an expensive operation, it should be done 
 with care, and with a view to permanency. If this is done, the work will remain as long as 
 the tiles will last, which, if they are of the proper kind, will be a very long time. "Waring, 
 as well as many others of our best writers on the system of drainage, states that tiles are 
 much cheaper than stone drains, and by far more durable, being less liable to fill up with 
 sand, mud, or other obstructions. In constructing the drain, it is important that the bottom 
 of the trench be cut out just wide enough to admit the pipe, and no more, as tiles fitted in 
 that way are less Liable to become displaced than if it were cut too large and again filled up 
 with loose earth. Various kinds of draining-tools have been invented for this purpose, such 
 as trench-plows, long, tapering spades for digging out the middle and bottom of the trenches, 
 recurved scoops for remo\ang the earth, and pipe-layers, by means of which a workman can 
 hook up a pipe and collar and put them in place in the trench while standing on the margin 
 of the drain. When the bottom of the trench is clay or hard gravel, with a desirable grade, 
 there is no trouble in placing the tile; but when the bottom is sandy, peaty, or soft, it will be 
 found advantageous to put strips of rough boards at the bottom to place the tiles on, and 
 prevent Ihem from settUng beyond the common depth and becoming displaced. 
 
 Size and Kind of Tile for Drainage, etc. — In the selection of tiles for the 
 mains as well as the tributaries, it is important that they be of sufficient size to take the water 
 as fast as the soil can furnish it in heavy rains. The mains had better be too large than too 
 small, as economy here will prove poor economy in the end. It is often surprising to see how 
 soon, in a shower, the water will percolate through the soil, be collected by the laterals, and 
 reach the mains, and how perfectly the system of drainage works, when everything is con- 
 structed properly. Considerable expense may be saved by having the upper portion of the 
 mains smaller, and the size increased as the surface from which it receives the water is 
 increased. It is estimated that a three-inch main will answer a good purpose until it has 
 received the water from the laterals of two acres, then add a four inch to receive the water 
 until four acres are drained, a five inch up to six acres, and so on. 
 
 The rule to find how many acres a given main will drain, by squaring its diameter, thus, 
 — a 3-inch main will drain 9 acres ; a 4-inch, 16 acres, a 5-inch 25 acres, etc., may do very 
 well for some purposes, like a limited range of sizes of tiles, and variations in grade ; but to 
 make allowance for variable and heavy rain storms, this would give too many acres for the 
 size of main. Mr. Chamberlain, of Ohio, gives, we think, a better and safer rule to follow, in 
 what we subjoin : — 
 
 For sizes from 3 to 6 inches, and grades less than three feet to the 100, square the diam- 
 eter and divide by 4, Thus 
 
 A 3-inch main will drain 2^ acres. A 5-inch main will drain 6^ acres. 
 
 4 do. do. 4 do. 6 do. do. 9 do. 
 
 For heavier grades it may do to divide by 3. Thus 
 
 A 3-inch main will drain 3 acres. A 5-inch main will drain 8^ acres. 
 
 4 do. do. 5^ do. 6 do. do. 12 do. 
 
DRAINAGE. 135 
 
 But it must be borne in mind tliat the steeper the grade the greater the danger of sur- 
 face wash, which often causes great loss of manure, and even of soil itself. 
 
 As to the proper size of tiles to use, it is difficult to give a rule that will apply to all cases, 
 so many considerations having to be taken into account ; but, as we have previously stated, 
 it is safer to have the mains and laterals larger than necessary, rather than too small. For 
 this reason we should feel more inclined to follow JVlr. Chamberlain's rule than the one pre- 
 viously given, and commonly applied, but which will not meet the requirements of all cases. 
 A two-inch pipe tile is largely used for laterals. By using such small tiles they can be placed 
 nearer together than more remote larger ones, at no greater expense, hence better drainage 
 can be secured at the same expense, by their use. 
 
 Among the various kinds of tile manufactured and in use, the round tile seems to be 
 most in favor. In many sections tiles round inside and octagonal externally are quite popu- 
 lar, while others still prefer the sole tUe and other varieties. Cylindrical pipes with collars 
 are considered the best by English authorities ; the collars being simply short pieces of pipe 
 just wide enough in diameter to admit freely the smaller pipes that form the drain ; hence, 
 in use. one of these collars is so placed as to receive and hold the end of each tube where 
 they join, keeping them in position to form a continuous canal for the free passage of water, 
 and guarding against the entrance of mud, sand, vermin, or other oVistructions. , These joints, 
 which are frequent, also admit the water furnished by the soil. It may seem almost impossible 
 that lands could be drained by the water entering only at these joints in the tiles thus laid, but 
 it is proven to be a fact ; water will find its way to such places in the drains and make them 
 the permanent places for reaching eventually the mains, and it is surprising to see how soon 
 after a rain commences these mains will begin to discharge their contents received from the 
 laterals, and often to their fullest capacity. 
 
 Hard-burnt tiles should be selected for the purpose ; those having any defect whatever 
 should be discarded. They should be carefully examined before being laid, and whenever 
 there is found one with a lump of unslacked lime, or lime pebbles, or any small hole, it should 
 not be used. To determine whether there is unslacked lime in the tile, immerse it in water 
 and allow it to remain until thoroughly soaked through ; if it contains lime it will break. The 
 breakage of such a tile when placed and covered by the soil might make an obstruction that 
 would cause days of labor and expense to find and repair. Waring advises that each tUe be 
 examined by a stroke from a hammer, and every one be rejected that does not give a clear 
 metallic ring. Mr. Chamberlain, previously referred to, recommends the glazed tiles as most 
 desirable, and describes them as follows : — 
 
 " They are made of fire clay or second quality potter's clay, like that used for sewer pipes, 
 burnt hard and glazed. They are about as dark colored and smooth as a 'little brown jug,' 
 and seem likely to be as durable. They are the only kind I shall use hereafter. 
 
 I think tiles made of ordinary brick clay are hable to soften and crumble and decay, cer- 
 tainly if exposed to frost. After the first job of draining I did, I had a few of these red 
 brick tiles left. They lay on the ground through one of our changeable winters, and the com- 
 bined action of moisture and frost crumbled most of them to pieces. And unless burnt very 
 hard indeed, I should fear the same result in time, even when laid below frost, for we have 
 noticed that in a mass of brick, even buried in the ground, all the soft ones will crumble in 
 time, even without the action of frost. But with the hard, glazed tiles I now use, with their 
 clear metalhc ring, and their glazed surface inside and out, impervious to water, crumbling 
 and dissolution seem impossible. I have tested them very thoroughly in moisture and frost 
 two winters, in small heaps above ground ; and I do not see but that they are likely to last as 
 long as a broken bit of a glazed jug, or some of the broken tiles or bricks of ancient cities, 
 unearthed after centuries of oblivion. 
 
 Now this seems to me an important matter. Drainage, if properly executed, is a perma- 
 
136 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 nent improvement. It is so regarded by the English laws autliorizing government loans in 
 aid of drainage, and permitting drainan:e to be charged tor gi'adual payment to estates which 
 could not otherwise be burdened with debt under the laws of the entail. If every tile is perfect 
 and the work done thoroughly and well, and the outlets properly constructed and kept clear, 
 I see no reason why drains should not remain perfect for generations and centuries." 
 
 It is a common practice to place tiles from 25 to 40 feet aj)art, according to the conditions 
 of the soil to be drained. If very wet, and the amount of water to be discharged be great, it 
 might be necessary to place them nearer than 25 feet. It is not a good plan to have the 
 trenches dug long before the tiles are laid, as they are apt to cave in, especially in cold, frosty 
 weather. If the work is done in winter, it may be facihtated by removing the sod in the fall 
 and plowing frequently the bottom of the ditches to keep them from freezing; as fast as the 
 trenches are dug to the proper grade, the tile should be laid and covered, remembering that 
 it is very important that the grade be such as to give the drains a continuous fall to prevent 
 the accumulation of obstructions in the pipe, or the water standing. Where collars are not 
 used, the pipes are often secured against displacement by two small flat stones placed like an 
 inverted letter V (in this form A) against the joints. 
 
 Where there is a good fall, sand or mud will not be as liable to obstruct the drain, as it 
 is more readily washed out by the swifter current of water, but where the land is nearly level, 
 with but slight fall, obstructions will more readily accumulate, hence in such cases it is often 
 necessary that great care be taken to pack the joints well with clay to prevent the 
 sand entering and forming an obstruction. This is done by putting directly upon the joints 
 of the tiles the finest, most compact and clayey soil that can be found, and which does not 
 contain any perceptible vegetable matter whatever, such as leaves, grass, straw, or humus, — 
 nothing but the hard, clayey soil. This should be put in to the depth of seven or eight inches 
 and then carefully beaten down around the tiles to hold them perfectly in place. Mr. Waring 
 says, that he believes this one operation has more to do with the permanence of a well- 
 laid tile drain than any other one part of the work. As fast as the tiles are laid and joints 
 properly secured in place, the ditch can be filled up with a plow or scraper, or in any other 
 way, as is found most convenient and economical. 
 
 StoiiP Drains come next to tile in value for drainage purposes, but are more expensive 
 in the end than tiles, even where there is a supply of stone on the farm to be disposed of. The 
 labor of making a stone drain is much greater than laying tiles, and the process a slow one, 
 while they are very apt to fill up with sand and mud or other obstructions, and do not dis- 
 charge the water as readily as tile drains. With great care they can be made serviceable for 
 years, and it may sometimes prove a good way to dispose of the surplus stones on the farm, 
 where tiles are not easily procurable, but as a general rule, we would advise that tiles be used 
 by all means and the work be well done, with a view to permanency. Mr. Waring says that 
 providing the stones were delivered free of cost on the bank of a ditch, the stone drain would 
 be more expensive than tile, and that where plenty of stones are on the ground for making 
 the drain, it will be easier and cheaper to cart them off and put them by the side of the rofid, 
 or dig a wide deep ditch and throw them into it to dispose of them and use tile, rather than 
 to utilize the stones for drainage purposes, he having tried both methods. Dr. Loring, Com- 
 missioner of Agriculture, states that he has both tile and stone drains on his farm ; that the 
 tile drains were laid in 1857 and the stone drains in 1861, and that there is not a stone drain 
 open to-day, while there is not a tile drain that is obstructed, all being in good order. Farmers 
 who have had practical experience with both stone and tiles almost invariably prefer tiles. 
 The labor of getting together and selecting suitable stones for the purpose involves much time 
 and expense, while with the greatest care they cannot be made as close and free from obstruc- 
 tions or as ser\-iceable as tiles, and the current is never strong enough in them to remove 
 obstruction as it does in tile drains. The labor and expense of digging the trench for stone is 
 
DRAINAGE. 137 
 
 also much greater than tlie former ; hence tiles are not only better for the purpose, but cheaper. 
 Where the soil is very wet, a complete system of drainage could not well be estabhshed by 
 tlir use of stone drains ; but where a partial drainage only is required, and the farmer may be 
 so circumstanced that he cannot well procure the tiles, stone may be utilized for the purpose. 
 There are various methods of making stone drains. Formerly drains were often made by dig- 
 ging a trench about three or four feet deep and then filling it to within twelve or fifteen inches 
 of the surface with stones, covering the whole with flat stones to keep out the earth, before 
 fiUing in the soil, thus furnishing a means for the water to escape by working its way between 
 the stones; but this method is rarely employed at present. Another method is to put small 
 stones in the bottom of the trench to the depth of four or five inches ; line one side of the 
 trench with flat stones, and by placing long, flat stones against the opposite side on the pebbles 
 or small stones forming the bottom of the drain, and leaning the top of them against the top 
 of the stones forming the lining, an opening or throat will be formed through which the water 
 will find a passage ; the top will, of course, be covered with flat stones, followed by coarse 
 gravel before covering with soil, — in order to prevent the earth falling or washing in between 
 the chinks of the stones and obstructing the passage. Some care will be necessary in 
 making any stone drain, to fill up all the little openings with smaller stones, as far as possible, 
 as the earth will be very liable to wash in and obstruct the water if this is not done. The 
 best form of stone drain is to make the sides of the ditch slanting and place the stones at the 
 sides for a lining so as to form an acute angle at the bottom, in the shape of a letter ^', and 
 cover the top with flat stones, the opening thus formed to be triangular. Special attention 
 should be given to filling up the trench above in such a manner that the sand cannot find its way 
 into it. It is also important that the water have as much fall as practicable, which will facili- 
 tate the drainage. As we have previously stated, such drains are much more expensive, owing 
 to the labor and expense of constructing, and also less effective than tile, but are the best sub- 
 stitute for tile drains that are known. In all kinds of drains, a free outlet should be furnished 
 for the water to escape. Open ditches closed at the end with standing water in them are not a 
 very effectual means of draining lands; the water should always have some means of escape 
 by a proper outlet. 
 
 Plank Drains. — Planks or heavy boards are sometimes used for making drains, and if 
 properly laid will last many years, especially where they are kept constantly wet ; but we 
 would not recommend tliem for this purpose; since the labor and cost of draining is so great, 
 more durable material should be used. 
 
 Tnrf Drains. — The same could be said of turf drains with respect to their durability. 
 They are constructed by making the sides of the trench very slanting, and fitting in a piece of 
 turf for a covering of sufficient size to go within a few inches of the bottom of the drain, with- 
 out settling into it. This forms a drain that is not at all durable, being very liable to fill up 
 by the falling in of the turf covering, or caving in at the sides. Brush and rails used in the 
 construction of drains have so long been in disuse that they have become among the obsolete 
 things and scarcely require comment here. They were first made use of in the progressive 
 steps towards improvement in drainage, from the open ditches, which are such a nuisance on 
 the farm, — and have long since given place, among our best farmers, to the more complete and 
 perfect system of tile drainage. 
 
 The Mole Plow was for a time deemed a great convenience in drainage, but experi- 
 ence proved that it would not work except in a subsoil quite uniform and entirely free from 
 stones, and that it would only do good work in the strong clay soils, while even then the 
 trenches soon filled up with earth, so that no permanent results could be accomplished by it. 
 It can only be used as a temporary means of drainage, and to do service until a more complete 
 system can be adopted. 
 
138 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 Open Ditches for draining are very objectionable, since they are so liable to cave in 
 at the sides and fill up with the mud that is washed into them, and by the treading of cattle 
 over them, that they prove only a temporary means of drainage. They also require consid- 
 erable land, as teams cannot be driven near their sides, in plowing or harrowing, while with 
 the use of tiles no land whatever is rendered useless. 
 
 In crossing them with teams, bridges are required, causing considerable trouble and 
 expense in constructing, or subjecting the farmer to great inconvenience without them. 
 Besides these objections, open ditches with standing water are unhealthy, and are often the 
 cause of disease in those sections where used. The digging of such trenches is also attended 
 with considerable labor and expense. • The soil removed from them is, however, often valu- 
 able for mixing with manure, and when dried, for bedding for stables and hog pens, since it con- 
 tains more or less of the fertilizing properties, and forms a good compost with both the liquid 
 and solid substances from these sources. 
 
 Furrow Draining, which consists of cultivating the land in ridges or furrows, by 
 plowing in such a manner as to leave open furrows for drainage purposes between the ridges 
 of earth, and planting on the top of each ridge, was formerly practiced in England and other 
 portions of Europe to a considerable extent, but has generally been superseded for the most 
 part by under-draining. 
 
 It requires considerable labor to prepare the land in this manner, and also a large 
 area of surface to make it practicable, besides not being a very efficient method, is conse- 
 quently not to be recommended when other and better means can be employed. 
 
 Hon. C. C. Andrews, in referring to the peculiar ridged appearance of the wheat fields in 
 some portions of Italy, says that this formation comes from plowing witli a view to drain- 
 ing. The furrows are turned so that with the subsequent harrowing, and use of a wooden 
 smoother, the ground is left in oval ridges or beds a foot high, and from 2 to 3 feet wide. 
 The ditch between is scarcely wide enough to place the foot. "What is striking about the 
 ridges, is their remarkable regularity and precision. Occasionally, however, and apparently 
 on the better-cultivated farms, the drains are in some cases 10 feet, in others 30 feet, apart — 
 the plowing in such case being done as in the countiy north of the Alps. 
 
 These ridges are usually formed by turning two furrows together from opposite direc- 
 tions, which gives the field a very uniform appearance. As we have previously stated, the 
 most effectual method of draining lands is by the use of tiles, and wOl be found, all things 
 considered, the most permanent, economical, and satisfactory means that can be employed for 
 this purpose. 
 
 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 GRASSES, or plants constituting the order Gramineae, are distributed over the entire 
 earth and constitute one of the largest orders of the vegetable kingdom. This order 
 includes all the cereals of temperate climates, together with the grains of the warmer 
 zones, and the bamboos of India and America — many of which have columnar stems reach- 
 ing to the height of forest trees — yet are all formed on a common t3rpe, and therefore belong 
 to the same botanical order as the tiniest spear of grass beneath our feet. 
 
 The seeds of many of the varieties and the nutrition of the herbage, form the chief por- 
 tion of the sustenance of mankind, and the more valuable of the domestic animals. Among 
 these are wheat, rye, maize or Indian corn, barley, oats, rice, sugar-cane, sorghum, broom- 
 corn, millet, etc., while the bamboo is indispensable to the natives of India in the construction 
 of their dwellings, the making of mats, cordage, boats, sails, masts, rafts, and even musical 
 
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 
 
 '(Poa pratensis.) 
 
VdfCC Aiv. 
 
 FOWL MEADOW GRASS. 
 
 (Poa Serotina.) 
 
TEXAS MILLET. 
 (Panicum Texanum.) 
 
 141 
 
MOUNTAIN RED TOP-NORTHERN RED TOP. 
 
 (Agrostis exarata.) 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 143 
 
 instruments and weapons. A large number of grasses, however, seem to have httle or no 
 agricultural value, and, to all appearance, are but Httle better than weeds on a farm, causing 
 the farmer considerable labor and annoyance in keeping his lands clear of them. There are 
 also probably many valuable species of native grasses growing wild in different sections of 
 our country, now regarded as little better than worthless weeds, which when fully tested may 
 be found to be of great agricultural value. The Department of Agriculture has within a few 
 years past made special efforts in ascertaining the real value of some of these wild 
 grasses, the results of which investigations have been, in a measure, successful; but thus far 
 these experiments have been carried on in this country to only a limited extent. The 
 English are far in advance of us in this respect, the most careful experiments there being 
 made with reference to the value of the various grasses for different soils, situations, and ch- 
 mate, as well. as in relation to their value as to the season, etc. 
 
 There are over two hundred varieties of grasses cultivated in England for the use of 
 domestic animals, while in our own country the number of cultivated grasses is very much 
 less, although there is probably no coimtry on the entire globe that possesses so many varie- 
 ties of native grasses. A few years in advance of the present will doubtless show great 
 improvement in this department of our agriculture, and the proper tests afforded by science 
 and experience, will acquaint us with the true value of many varieties, now almost unknown. 
 
 What render grasses so peculiarly nutritious, and hence valuable to agriculture, are the 
 large proportions of sugar, starch, fatty matter, albumen, and fibrine contained, not only in 
 the seeds, but also in the stems, leaves, and joints of grass before the seeds are fully 
 matured. 
 
 The importance of grasses, in all systems of agriculture, can scarely be over-estimated. In 
 fact, the proportion of meadow and pasture lands in any region is regarded as a good crite- 
 rion of the agricultural wealth of that region. 
 
 Wherever the importance of the grass crop has been overlooked in the desire to realize 
 immediate results from special crops, the consequence has generally been an impoverished 
 soil, and an impoverished people; while the farmer with an abundance of pasturage and 
 meadow lands, has in his own hands and under his own control, the very elements of wealth, 
 which, if judiciously employed, cannot fail of good in the result. 
 
 It is not to any one species of grass, or a few species only, that we should depend upon 
 lor the sustenance of our stock, but the many species intermingled, each doing its part in the 
 great economy of nature, — some starting and maturing early, others late; some preferring 
 low, wet localities, others only dry soils; some seeking the shaded situations for growth, 
 others the most exposed localities, such as the broad open prauies of the West, or the 
 savannas of the South. Some will grow only in the water, others only along the margin of 
 lakes and rivers; some only in fresh water, others only in salt water. Thus we have grasses 
 suited to every section and condition, every soil and climate, from one portion of the conti- 
 nent to the other, and no creation in the vegetable world, or any other department of nature's 
 vast laboratory, will be found in vain or useless, however man may regard it. 
 
 The great error in New England farming has formerly been the practice of stinting or 
 robbing the grass lands to feed the hoed crops and the arable lands. Although there is at 
 present a great improvement in this respect over the old-time method, still the practice is not 
 wholly discarded, and more attention should be given to the cultivation of the grass crop than 
 is common in many sections. 
 
 A considerable portion of the department, embracing the description, cultivation, and 
 relative value of the difierent grasses, is taken from "Grasses and Forage Plants," of which 
 the editor of this volume is the author. 
 
 As the general appearance of plants is often greatly modified by climate, soil, and modes 
 of cultivation, it is important to fix upon certain characteristics which are permanent and 
 
144 THE AMERICAN FAK.MEH. 
 
 unaltered by circumstances, by means of which the particular genus and species may be iden'ified 
 with ease and certainty. It is evident that these characteristics could not be simplv in the 
 leaves, or the stems, or the size of the plant, because there will be a great difference between 
 plants growing in a poor, thin, sandy soil, and others of the same species on a deep, rich 
 loam. Botanists have, therefore, been compelled to resort to other peculiarities to distin- 
 guish between dillerent species; and the terms used to express these, like the tenns used in 
 other departments of natural history, are technical; and hence, in detailing the natural histoiy 
 of the grasses, the use of technical language to a greater or less extent, cannot be avoided. 
 
 The flowers of the grasses are arranged on the stem in spikes, as where they are set on 
 a common stalk without small stalks or branches for each separate flower, as in herds-grass 
 {Phleum pratensc), or in panicles, or loose subdivided clusters, as in orchard grass (Dadylis 
 glomeraia). A panicle is said to be loose or spreading, as in redtop Uigrusfis ridgari'i), when 
 the small branches on which the flowers are set, are open, or extended out freely in different 
 directions; it is said to be dense, or crowded or compressed, when the branches are so short 
 as to give it more or less of the spike form. 
 
 ■ In differsnt parts of the country a great variety of grasses are known by different com- 
 mon names, — the same name being frequently applied to grasses entirely different from each 
 other; or, a single plant may be known by several different names, which occasions no little 
 confusion where the common or local name is wholly depended upon to distinguish one vari- 
 ety from the other; for instance, the grass that is commonly called 'cat's tail" in England, 
 is known as timothy in some sections of this country, and herds-grass in others; and that 
 which is called red-top in one locality, is known as herds-grass in another, and by the various 
 terms of Burdin's grass, red bent grass, summer dew grass, small red-top, fine red-top, and 
 fowl meadow grass in others. What is commonly called blue grass in one locality, is known 
 as green grass in another, etc. ; so that it is evident that were the common name to be 
 depended upon alone, in distinguishing one variety from another, considerable difficulty would 
 be involved in arriving at a correct understanding as to which species is meant. And when 
 we take into further consideration the fact of the close resemblance of many of the different 
 species of grasses, especially to a person inexperienced in distinguishing one from another, 
 the subject becomes a more puzzling one still, and it could hardly be expected that a correct 
 understanding could be arrived at, when depending entirely upon the common or local name. 
 We therefore see the necessity of the use of the Latin name of the species, and when this is 
 once known, there is no further difficulty in this respect, since the same Latin or scientific 
 name is never applied to but one of a species. 
 
 The description of the obnoxious or worthless grasses here given, will also be of use to 
 the farmer in enabling him to recognize them when found, and hence, to take measures for 
 their extermination. 
 
 Timothy, or Herds-Grass (PJikum pratenw). Generic characters; Panicle spiked, 
 spikelets compressed, palea shorter than the awned glumes, the lower one truncate, usually awn- 
 less; styles distinct, filaments hairy, spike dense, rough, or harsh. So called from an ancient 
 Greek term signifying cat's tail, the name by which it is still most frequently known in Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Specific characteristics: Spikes cylindrical or elongated: glumes hairy on the back, 
 tipped with a bristle less than half their length; leaves long, flat, rough, with long sheaths; 
 root fibrous, often bulbou;: — perennial. Grows best on moist, peaty soils. This grass is uni- 
 versally known and highly valued. It is. in fact, generally considered in this country as the 
 best grass for hay that can be produced. It is commonly grown throughout the entire North, 
 and flo^irishes well on the drained lowlands of the South. It is said to have received its 
 name more than a century and a half ago from one Herd, of Piscataqua, who found it grow- 
 ing in a swamp there. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 145 
 
 The name of timothy, by which it is more generally known over this country and abroad, 
 was obtained from Timothy Hanson, who cultivated it extensively, and, according to some 
 accounts, introduced it into England, from whence it is supposed to have been originally 
 brought to this country. It forms a large proportion of what is called English hay. 
 
 For land that is adapted to it, there is, all things considered, no better grass than timothy, 
 and it is probably unsurpassed for hay by any kind now cultivated. If allowed to stand too 
 long, however, it will, as almost every farmer knows, become hard and 
 woody, and its nutritive value greatly lessened, yet if cut when in bloom, 
 it is relished by all kinds of stock, — especially so by horses, — while it 
 possesses a large percentage of nutritive matter in comparison with 
 other agricultural grasses. It was formerly often sown with clover, 
 but the best practical farmers have discontinued this custom on account 
 of the different times of blossoming of the two crops; since timothy 
 being invariably later than clover, the former must be cut too green, 
 before blossoming, when the loss is great by shrinkage, and when the 
 nutritive matter is considerably less than at a little later period, or 
 the clover must stand too long, when there is an equally serious loss of 
 nutritious matter in that. It grows very readily and yields very large 
 crops on favorable soils. We have known instances where its yield 
 was four tons to the acre of the best quality of hay, the timothy con- 
 stituting the bulk of the grass. It is cultivated with ease, and yields 
 a large quantity of seed to the acre, varying from ten to thirty 
 bushels on rich soils. This grass has long roots which extend deep 
 into the soil, and when once well established, it will withstand drouth 
 better than many other varieties. When a good growth is once well 
 started on a mellow surface-soil overlaying a moist subsoil, this crop 
 is quite safe against any ordinary drouth. It only requires a good 
 start in the spring, so as to occupy and protect the ground. May is 
 the best month for the grass crop, and if it be unusually dry, or 
 cold winds prevail then, the product wiU be liable to be affected 
 accordingly; but such grasses as have a good soil, and deeply penetrat- 
 ing roots, will endure without permanent injury, the effects of un- 
 favorable weather better than those varieties with roots lying near 
 the surface, as they can draw moisture from the subsoil, and also 
 passes the basis for a good crop the following year. 
 
 In one respect, perhaps, it must be admitted that this grass is in- 
 ferior to meadow foxtail, and that is, in the quantity of its aftermatli ; 
 for while that of the latter is very great, the aftergrowth of timothv 
 is but slight, and if allowed to stand too long and then mown in ;i 
 dry time, it starts so slowly as to leave the ground exposed to the timothy. 
 
 scorching rays of the sun, unless there happens to be a rapid growth of clover to protect it. 
 It is frequently attacked by an insect, apparently just before the time of blossoming, which 
 causes the stalk to die. 
 
 When pastured, it yields abundantly during the season, starting very early in the spring, 
 and is greatly relished by stock of all kinds. It may be sown on wheat or rye in August, or 
 later, or in the spring. The quantity of seed required per acre depends largely on the soil 
 and its condition. From ten to fourteen quarts is sufficient, where the soil is fine and mellow, 
 while from eighteen to twenty might be required in heavy clay, when sown alone. It is stated 
 by good authority, that a crop of pure timothy produced three tons to the acre, on the farm of 
 Mr. George Geddes, near Syracuse, N. Y., and also that Mr. John Fisher, of Carroll Co., Md., 
 
146 
 
 THE AjVIERICAN PARMER 
 
 cut from one acre five tons and one thousand six hundred and twenty-two pounds of dry hay. 
 The proper time for mowing Timothy, is when the first dry appearance is seen above the first 
 joint; if mowed earlier than this, the plant is injured; if left to a later period, the starch and 
 sugar are converted into indigestible woody fibre, and the nitrogenous compounds, on which 
 its value chiefly depends, are transferred from the leaves and culm to the seed, which mostly 
 drop out before they reach the manger. Timothy is not well adapted to hot sands, gravels, 
 chalks, nor hard, sterile clays; but thrives on peaty, damp soils, and especially on most 
 calcareous loams, where it exhibits its fullest perfection. 
 
 Meadow FoxtaiL {Ahpecurus Pretensis.) — Generic characteristics: Spikelets, one 
 flowered, glumes compressed and keeled, united at the base," lower palea awned on the back, 
 upper palea wanting, stamens three, styles generally united, stigmas long, panicle compressed 
 into a cylindrical spike like the tail of a fox, from which it derives its 
 name. Native of Great Britain. 
 
 The specific characters are, an erect/ smooth stem, two or three feet 
 high, with swelling sheaths, spikes cylindrical, obtuse, equaling the sharp 
 cone-like glumes, awn twisted and twice the length of the blossom. The 
 spike not so long as that of Timothy. Flowers in May, in fields and 
 pastures. Perennial — -introduced. 
 
 The meadow foxtail closely resembles Herds-grass, but may be distin- 
 guished from it as having one palea only. The spike or head of meadow 
 foxtail is soft, while that of Timothy or Herds-grass is rough. It flowers 
 earlier than Timothy, and thrives on all soils except the dryest sands and 
 gravels. 
 
 It is valuable grass for pastures, on account of its early and rapid 
 growth, and of its being greatly relished by stock of all kinds. The stems 
 and leaves are too few and light to make it so desirable as a field crop. It 
 thrives best on a rich, moist, strong soil, and the quantity of its nutritive 
 matter when raised on such soils is considerably greater than on sandy 
 soils. As a pasture grass, its luxuriant aftermath, being in value nearly 
 one fourth greater than its first spring growth, recommends it still more 
 highly. In this respect it is superior to Timothy, the aftermath of which 
 is generally but slight. For lands designed to be laid down to permanent 
 pasture it will make a prominent part of the seed. "Where it occurs in 
 fields it loses largely its nutritive value if cut in the blossom. It is 
 regarded in England as one of the most valuable of the native pasture 
 grasses, forming there a very considerable portion of the sward, vegetating 
 with great luxuriance, and starting up vigorously when eaten oS by stock, 
 producing seed in abundance, and enduring any amount of forcing and 
 irrigation. It does not acquire its full perfection and hold of the soil 
 imtil three or four years after being sown. The aftermath exceeds the 
 flowering crop in quantity as well as in nutritive matter. The grass loses 
 seventy per cent, of its weight in drying, and the hay contains about sixty- 
 seven hundredths per cent, of nitrogen. 
 
 The seed of meadow foxtail is covered with the husks of the flower. 
 Meadow J? oxtail, g^^j. ^^^ woolly, while the larger valve is furnished with an awn. There 
 are five pounds of seed in a bushel, and 76,000 seeds in an ounce. An insect attacks the 
 seed while it is forming, and it is also subject to blight, and hence the seed is somewhat diffi- 
 cult to procure and is held at a high price. We have many grasses superior to it for cultiva- 
 tion, but for permanent pastiu-es it is superior to Timothy, which is not a suitable pasture grass. 
 It is found abundantly in our best pastures, is one of the earhest to start in the spring, 
 and the first to mature its seeds. 
 
GRASSES A.ND FORAGE PLANTS. 147 
 
 Orchard Grass, Rough Cocks Foot, (Dacti/Us ghmerata.) — Spikelets several flow- 
 ered, crowded in clusters, one-sided, panicle dense at the top, branching, glumes two, herba- 
 ceous, keeled, long-pointed. Stamens three, seed oblong, acute, free. Named from dadylus 
 a finger. 
 
 Orchard grass flowers in dense tufts. Its stem is erect, about three feet high. Leaves 
 linear, flat, dark green, rough on both surfaces, which, with the fancied resemblance of its 
 loose tufts to the foot of a barnyard fowl, have given it the common name in England of 
 rough cocksfoot. Eoot perennial. Flowers in June and July. Not uncommon in fields and 
 pastures. 
 
 This is one of the most valuable and widely known oi all the pasture grasses. It is com- 
 mon to every country in Europe, to the north of Africa, and to Asia as well as America. 
 Its culture was introduced into England from A^irginia, where it had been cultivated some 
 years previously, in 1 7 64. It forms one of the most common grasses of English natural pastures, 
 on rich, deep, moist soils. It became, soon after its introduction into England, an object of 
 special agricultiu'al interest among cattle feeders, having been found to be exceedingly pala- 
 table to stock of all kinds. Its rapidity of growth, the luxuriance of its aftermath, and its 
 power of enduring the cropping of cattle, commend it highly to the farmer's care, especially 
 as a pasture grass. As it blossoms earlier than timothy, and about the time of red clover, 
 it makes an admirable mixture with that plant, to cut in the blossom and cure for hay. As 
 a pasture grass, it should be fed close, both to prevent its forming thick tufts and to prevent 
 its running to seed, when it loses a large proportion of its nutritive matter, and becomes hard 
 and wiry. All kinds of stock eat it greedily when green. 
 
 It is a grass well adapted to sow with clover and other seeds for permanent pastures or 
 hay. but is not generally sown alone except for seed. It exhausts soil less than timothy or 
 rye grass, and will endure considerable drouth. It has been known to grow more than five 
 feet in height, and has produced five and a half tons per acre. It contains nearly as much 
 of the fat and flesh-forming material as timothy, but much less of heat-forming matter. It 
 flourishes well in shady places, and receives its name from its being, for this reason, adapted 
 to orchards. Its disposition to grow in tufts or tussocks may be prevented by good cultiva- 
 tion of the land, and thick sowing. Harrowing and rolling in the spring will also remedy 
 this evil. 
 
 It flourishes well in almost all soils and climates, but best in sandy loam. It is known 
 in England as cocksfoot. In this country it is most common in New England, New York, 
 Pennsylvania, and Ohio. It is good for both orchards and pastures, especially for the latter, 
 as it produces good milk, beef, mutton, or wool, and every kind of stock eat it freely and 
 thrive well upon it. After being mowed, or closely grazed, it throws up a new growth more 
 readily than most of the other grasses, and it is not inclined to run out in situations where 
 it once gets a good root and the soil is adapted to it, although as easily subdued as timothy 
 by plowing. It is, however, better than the latter to mix with clover, and it ripens more 
 Dearly at the same time. If sown too thin it is apt to be rather coarse; hence, to secure the 
 best results, it should be thickly sown, — from two to three bushels per acre being a liberal 
 quantity, — if sown alone. It is, however, not usually sown alone, except for seed, but with 
 a variety of other grasses blossoming about the same time, when designed for hay, and with 
 both early and late grasses for pasturage. Being an early grass, it requires early cutting, or 
 much of its nutritive value will be lost; the time for emitting being when it comes into blossom. 
 
 Green Meadow Grass, June Grass, Common Spear Grass, Kentucky 
 Blue Grass, etc., {Poa pnttensis.) — The characteristics of the genus Poa, are, ovate spike- 
 lets, compressed, flowers two to ten in an open panicle, glumes shorter than the flowers, lower 
 palea compressed, keeled, pointless, five-nerved, stamens two or three, seed oblong, free, 
 
 stems tufted, leaves smooth, flat, and soft. 
 12 
 
148 THE AJIEKICAN FARMER. 
 
 Specific characters: Lower florets connected at the base by a web of long, silk)' fila- 
 ments, holding the calyx; outer palea, five-ribbed, marginal ribs hairy, upper sheath longer 
 than its leaf; height from ten to fifteen inches, root perennial, creepinr/, stem erect, smooth, 
 and round, leaves linear, flat, acute, roughish on the edges and inner surface; panicle difl'use, 
 spreading, erect. The plant is of a light green color, the spikelets frequently variegated 
 with brownish purple. Introduced. Flowers in June. 
 
 This is an early grass, very common on the soils of New England in pastures and fields, 
 constituting a considerable portion of the turf. It varies much in size and appearance 
 according to the soil on which it grows. In Kentucky it is universally known as Blue grass, 
 and elsewhere frequently called Kentucky blue grass, and still more frequently, June grass. 
 It must be regarded as one of the best pasture grasses known. It is common all over the 
 northern part of the country, growing indigenously in all limestone countries lying between 
 the thirty-fourth and forty-fifth parallels, and coming to its highest perfection upon the rich, 
 marly blue limestone soils of some of the central counties of Kentucky. It is said to have 
 been found growing there when the region was first discovered, constituting a natural 
 pasturage that attracted vast numbers of grazing wild animals, countless herds of buffalo, 
 elk, deer, antelopes, etc. 
 
 This grass is not so well adapted to a short rotation, and is, therefore, less suited to our 
 mowing-lots, from the fact that it requires three or four years to become well set so as to 
 form a close sward. This habit of growth is less objectionable as a permanent pasture. 
 When a soil is once well sodded with this grass, it will endure the vicissitudes of the seasons — 
 heat and cold, sunshine and shade, droughts and floods — with wonderful persistency. It is 
 the source of wealth in sections adapted to it ; and there are pastures of it fifty years of age, 
 still luxuriant and profitable. It throws up flower-stalks but once in the season; but it starts 
 quickly after grazing or cutting, and forms a thick green growth. 
 
 On this account, it is highly recommended for lawns. It thrives equally well on high or 
 low lands, but is not adapted to a thin, poor soil. In some sections not adapted to its growth, 
 it is regarded as a troublesome weed. Its flower-stalk is short and matures early. It is not 
 to be judged in value by this, but by its long leaves, abundantly produced throughout the 
 season, which form a rich, sweet herbage; in fact, one of the best for milch cows, the dairy 
 product from such milk being of the best quality. On rich soil, the leaves will frequently 
 attain the length of two feet when allowed to grow. 
 
 It grows well in rather a dry soil, but will grow on a variety of soils, from the dryest 
 knolls to a wet meadow. It does not withstand severe droughts as well as some other 
 grasses. It endures the frosts of winter better, perhaps, than most other grasses; and in 
 Kentucky, where it attains the highest perfection as a pasture grass, it sometimes continues 
 luxuriant through their mild winters. As it requires at least two or three years to become 
 well set, and does not arrive at its perfection as a pasture grass till the sward is older than 
 that, it is not suited to alternate husbandry, or where the land is to remain in grass only 
 two or three years and then be plowed up. In Kentucky, the best blue grass is found in 
 partially shaded pastures. 
 
 Meadow Spear Grass, Nerved Manna Grass, {Poa nermta,) is the fowl meadow of 
 some farmers, while the grass most commonh' called fowl meadow, (Poa serotina.) goes with 
 them under the name of "bastard fowl meadow." It has a broad, open panicle, six inches in 
 length, with slender branches; spikelets small, ovate, oblong, green; leaves in two rows like a 
 fan, a little rough ; stem a little compressed, one to three feet high. It is a native American 
 grass, flowering late in June. It is a hardy grass, grows best on wet or moist grounds, and 
 is said also to succeed on light upland soils. It is somewhat coarse, and not particularly 
 relished by cattle, though readily eaten in winter. It would be a valuable ingredient in a 
 mixture for moist pastures. It is not very common. Native of North America. 
 
GRASSES AND FOKAGE PLANTS. 149 
 
 Blue Grass, or Wire Grass, {Poa compressa.) — Stems ascending, flattened, the 
 uppermost joint near the middle, leaves short, bluish green, panicle dense and contracted, 
 expanding more at flowering; short branches often in pairs, covered with four to nine 
 flowered, flat spikelets; flowers rather obtuse, linear, hairy below on the keel; ligule short 
 and blunt; height about a foot. It is very common on dry, sandy, thin soils and banks, so 
 hardy as to grow on the tliin, hard soils covering the surface of rocks, along trodden walks, 
 or gravelly knolls. It shoots its leaves early, but the amount of its foliage is not large, 
 otherwise it would be one of our most valuable grasses, since it possesses a large per cent, of 
 nutritive matter Flowers in July. Most grazing animals eat it greedily, and it is especially 
 reUshed by sheep. Its bluis^h green stems retain their color after the seed is ripe. It shrinks 
 less in drying than most other grasses, and consequently makes a hay very heavy in propor- 
 tion to its bulk. It is an exceedingly valuable pasture grass on dry, rocky knolls and should 
 form a portion of a mixture for such soils. This should not be confounded with Kentucky 
 blue grass alluded to above. 
 
 AllllUill Spear Grass, {Poa annua,) is, perhaps, the most common of all our grasses. 
 Its stems are spreading, flattened, panicle often one-sided, spikelets crowded, three to seven 
 flowered, lower palea more or less hairy on the nerves below; leaves of a light green, sword- 
 sliaped, flat, often crumpled at the margins, smooth on both surfaces, rough at the edges. 
 Florets not webbed, and this distinguishes it from the June grass, (^Poa pratensis,) and its vari- 
 eties. The outer or lower palea of this grass has no hairs on the lateral ribs as the Poa 
 pratensis has. This modest and beautiful grass flowers throughout the whole summer, and 
 forms a very large part of the sward of New England pastures, producing an early and sweet 
 feed, exceedingly relished by cattle. It does not resist the drought very well, but becomes 
 parched up in our pastures. 
 
 The Rough Stalked Meadow Grass, {Poa trivialis,) though not so common as the 
 June grass, {Poa pratends,) is still often met with, and is found to have webbed florets; outer 
 palea five-ribbed, marginal ribs not hairy, ligule long and pointed, stems two to three feet 
 high. Distinguished from June grass by having rough sheaths, while in the latter the sheaths 
 are smooth, the ligule obtuse, and the marginal ribs of outer palea furnished with hairs. The 
 rough-stalked meadow grass has a fibrous root, that of the June grass is creeping. It 
 flourishes in moist meadows, where it flowers in July. Introduced. 
 
 This is a valuable grass to cultivate in moist, sheltered soils, possessing very considerable 
 nutritive qualities, coming to perfection at a desirable time, and being exceedingly relished 
 by cattle, horses, and sheep. For such soils it should form a portion of a mixture of seeds, 
 producing, in mixture with other grasses which serve to shelter it, a large yield of hay, far 
 above the average of grass usually grown on a similar soil. It should be cut when in seed 
 and not in the flower. Seven pounds of seed to the acre will produce a good sward. The 
 grass loses about seventy per cent, of its weight in drying. Its hay contains about one and 
 sixty hundredths per cent, of azote, and the nutritive qualities of the aftermath exceed very 
 considerably those of the crop cut in the flower or in the seed. 
 
 Wood Meadow Grass, {Poa nemoralis.) — This grows from eighteen inches to 
 two feet high, has a perennial, creeping root, an erect stem, slender, smooth, the upper sheath 
 no longer than its leaf, with a very short ligule, the base of the floret having a silky web 
 suspending the calyx, leaves light green. It is common in moist, shady places, and appears 
 as a tall, rank grass, with a long, finely arched panicle. It flowers in June and ripens its seed 
 in July. 
 
 It is certainly to be classed among the best of shaded pasture grasses, furnishmg a fine, 
 succulent, and very nutritive herbage, which stock of all kinds are very fond of. Hay con- 
 tains one and sixty-four one-hundredths per cent, of azote. The grass loses about fifty-five 
 per cent, of its weight in dr3ring. 
 
150 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 The Creeping Sea Meadow Grass, or Sea Spear Grass, {Poa maritima,) referred 
 by Gray to ijlyceria, is a beautiful grass which appears in and around salt marshes, growing 
 from six to twelve inches high, and having a perennial, creeping root. Stem erect, round, 
 smooth, leaves mostly folded and compressed, roughish on the inner surface, spikelets linear, 
 with from six to ten florets not webbed, the outer palea or lower floret terminating in an acute 
 point. Flowers in July. Grows naturally near the sea. 
 
 The Water Spear Grass, or Reed Meadow Grass, {Poa aquatka,) grows in wet 
 soils, is a tall, reedy grass, four or five feet high with a panicle nearly a foot long, diffuse, with 
 smooth, flexuous branches. From its large size and broad leaves it can hardly be mistaken 
 for any of the other species of Poa. Its root is perennial, creeping, stem erect, stout, smooth, 
 joints seven, smooth, spikelets numerous, florets not webbed. Flowers in August. This 
 grass is referred by Gray and others, to glycerin. It is very common in wet meadows and 
 wiU be easily recognized. More nutritive when in flower than when the seed is ripe. It 
 contains a comparatively large per cent, of sugar. Makes a valuable fodder, and cattle are 
 very fond of it. 
 
 Several other species belonging to this genus are frequently met with, as the Branching 
 Spear Grass, on dry, sandy soils, a very elegant species, with a large panicle of sea-green 
 spikelets; the Hair Spear Grass, also an elegant grass growing on similar soils, with a hairy 
 branching panicle over a foot long, leaves linear, nerved. But the most important of all is 
 the Fowl Meadow, or False Redtop. 
 
 Fowl Meadow, or False Redtop, (-Pocs seroHna.) — The specific characteristics of 
 this species are two to four, sometimes five, flowered spikelets. oval, spear-shaped, ligules 
 elongated, flowers acutish, green, often tinged with purple, roots slightly creeping; wet 
 meadows and banks of streams, very common. Flowers in July and August. In long- 
 continued moist weather the lower joints send up flowering stems. The panicle is erect and 
 spreading when in flower, but more contracted and drooping when ripe. It is perennial. 
 Native of Germany. 
 
 It early commended itself to the attention of farmers, for Jared Eliot, writing in 1749, 
 says of it: "There are two sorts of grass which are natives of the country, which I would 
 recommend, — these are Herds-grass, (known in Pennsylvania by the name of Timothy- 
 grass,) the other is Fowl Meadow, sometimes called Duck-grass, and sometimes Su'amp-icire 
 grass. It is said that Herds-grass was first found in a swamp in Piscataqua, by one Herd, who 
 propagated the same; that Fowl Meadow-grass was brought into a poor piece of meadow in 
 Dedham, by ducks and other wild water-fowl, and therefore called by such an odd name. 
 It is supposed to be brought into the meadows at Hartford by the annual floods, and called 
 there Swamp-wire grass. Of these two sorts of natural grass, the fowl-grass is much the 
 best; it grows tall and thick, makes a more soft and pliable hay than Herds-grass, and conse- 
 quently will be more fit for pressing, in order to ship off with our horses; besides it is a good 
 grass, not in abundance inferior to English grass. It yields a good burden, three loads to 
 the acre. It must be sowed in low, moist land. This grass has another good quality, which 
 renders it very valuable in a country where help is so much wanting; it will not spoU 
 or suffer, although it stand beyond the common times for mowing. Clover will be lost, in 
 a great measure, if it be not cut in the proper season. Spear-grass, commonly called English 
 grass, if it stands too long, will be little better than rye straw ; if this outstand the time, it is 
 best to let it stand till there comes up a second growth, and then it will do tolerably well; 
 but this fowl-grass maybe mowed anytime from July to October. * * * This I wondered at, 
 but viewing some of it attentively, I think I have found the reason of it. "When it is grown 
 about three foot high it then falls down, but doth not rot like other grass when lodged; in a 
 little time after it is thus fallen down, at every joint it puts forth a new branch; now to 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 151 
 
 maintain this young brood of suckers there must be a plentiful course of sap conveyed up 
 through the main stem or straw; by this means the grass is kept green and fit for mowing 
 all this long period." 
 
 This grass grows abundantly in almost every part of Xew England, especially where it 
 has been introduced and cultivated in suitable ground, such as the borders of rivers and 
 intervals occasionally overflowed. It will not endure to be long covered with water, especially in 
 warm weather. It is well to let a piece go to seed, save the seed and scatter it over low lands. 
 
 It makes an excellent grass for oxen, 
 
 cows, and sheep, but is thought to be 
 
 rather fine for horses. It never grows 
 
 so coarse or hard but that the stalk is 
 
 sweet and tender, and eaten withoiit 
 
 waste. It is very easily made into hay, 
 
 and is more nutritive, according to 
 
 Sinclair, than either foxtail, orchard 
 
 grass, or tall meadow oat grass. Owing 
 
 to its constantly sending forth flower- 
 ing stems, the grass of the lattermath 
 
 contains more nutritive matter than 
 
 tlie first crop at the time of flowering, 
 
 hence the names fertilis and serotina, 
 
 fertile and late flowering meadow 
 
 grass. It thrives best when mixed 
 
 with other grasses, and deserves a 
 
 place in all mixtures for rich, moist 
 
 pastures. 
 
 This species is most common in 
 
 the Xorthem States, paiticularly north 
 
 of Pennsylvania. It is a good grass 
 
 for moist meadows. In Wisconsin 
 
 and some of the other Western States, 
 
 where many natural meadows of this 
 
 grass occui', it is highly esteemed. 
 
 The Creeping Meadow Grass, 
 
 [Era'jrosHs rej3tam,')is frequently found 
 on the sandy banks of rivers, and is a 
 beautiful and delicate grass. Flower- 
 ing in July and August. Its leaves 
 are short, nearly awl-shaped, spikelets 
 smooth, long and lance-shaped, flowers 
 acute, sheaths loose, striate and a little 
 hairy on the margin, panicles from one to two inches long. Not a cultivated grass. 
 
 Sheep's Fescue, [Fesluca ovma.) is known by its narrow panicle, short, tufted, 
 bristle-sbaped leaves, of a grayish color, somewhat tinged with red, its two to six flowered 
 spikelets. awn often nearly wanting. It grows from six to ten inches higli in dense perennial 
 rooted tufts. It forms an excellent pasturage for sheep. It flowers in June and July, in dry 
 pastures. 
 
 Meadow Fescue, (Frs.'nca pratenxix.'j is one of the most common of the fesCTJe 
 grasses. It is said to be tlie Randall grass of Virginia. Its panicle is nearly erect, branched. 
 
 SHEEr S FESCUE. 
 
 MEADOW FESCUE. 
 
152 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 close, somewliat inclined to one side; spikelets linear, with from five to ten cylindrical flow- 
 ers; leaves linear, of a glossy green, pointed, striated, rough on the edges; stems round, 
 smooth, from two to three feet high, roots creeping, perennial. Its radical or root leaves 
 are broader than those of the stem, while in most other species of fescue the radical leaf is 
 generally narrower than those of the stem. Flowers in June and July, in moist pastures and 
 near farm houses. 
 
 This is an excellent pasture grass, forming a very considerable portion of the turf of old 
 pastures and fields, and is more extensively propagated and diffused by the fact that it ripens 
 its seed before most other grasses are cut, and sheds them to spring up and cover the ground. 
 Its long and tender leaves are much relished by cattle. 
 
 It is generally sown in mixture with other grasses, as orchard grass, rye grass, or com- 
 mon spear grass. It is of much greater value at the time of flowering than when the seed is 
 ripe. It is said to lose a little over fifty per cent, of its weight in drying for hay. 
 
 Tall Fescue Grass, {Festuca datior,) is also found pretty commonly in moist mead- 
 ows and around farm houses. Its panicle is contracted, erect, or somewhat drooping, with 
 short branches, spreading in all directions; spikelets crowded, with five to ten flowers, rather 
 remote, oblong, lanceolate; leaves flatish, linear, acute; stems two to four feet high, root 
 perennial, fibrous, somewhat creeping and forming large tufts. Flowers in June and July. 
 
 It is a nutritive and productive grass, growing naturally in shady woods and moist, stifi 
 soils. Cattle are very fond of it. Said by some to be identical with the meadow fescue. 
 
 Hard Fescue Grass, {Festuca duriuscula,) is also found to some extent, though not 
 so commonly as the meadow fescue. It is by some regarded as a variety of the sheep's fescue, 
 taller, and with a panicle more open, leaves flat, and spikelets four to eight flowered. It 
 grows from one to two feet high. Flowers in June, in pastures and waste grounds. 
 
 Red Fescue, {Festuca rubra,) by some regarded as only a Variety of the preceding, is 
 one of the largest of the varieties of fescue. Its leaves are broadish, flat, root extensively 
 creeping, and throwing out lateral shoots. Found in dry pastures near the sea shore, in sandy 
 soils. It is a grass of better quality than some of the other varieties, but never cultivated 
 here as an agricultural product. The color of its leaves is somewhat more grayish than the 
 preceding and often tinged with red. 
 
 iSleuder Spiked Fescue, {Festuca Miacea,) is a species nearly allied to the tall fescue 
 and possesses much the same qualities. It grows naturally in moist, rich meadows, forming 
 a good permanent pasture grass, but as it is met with only very rarely among American 
 grasses, and is of no value for cultivation, it scarcely deserves a more extended notice. 
 
 Rice Grass, Cut Grass, False Rice, {Leersia oryzoidcs,) grows very common in 
 wet swampy places. Stems from two to three feet high, panicle erect, spreading with rough, 
 slender branches, leaves narrow or long, sheaths exceedingly rough and sharp to the hand, 
 drawn from the end backward. Florets oval and white, spikelets flat. Flowers m August. 
 Native of the Levant. Name froin Leers, a German botanist. 
 
 It is a beautiful grass, said to be useful at the South, where it is cultivated to some 
 extent, and may be cut several times in a season. It is said there to make a valuable hay. 
 At the North it is regarded as a weed, and thorough draining will destroy it. 
 
 Redtop, Finetop, Burden's Grass, Dew Grass, Herds-Grass of Pennsylvania 
 and Southern States {Agrostis indgaris). Plants of this genus have one flowered spikelets in a 
 loose open panicle; glumes nearly equal, the lower longer than the paleae, which are thin and 
 naked: stamens three — perennial. 
 
 The specific characters are, stems erect, slender, round, smooth and polished; roots 
 creeping, panicle oblong, leaves linear, ligule ver}^ short, lower palea mostly awnless and three 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 153 
 
 nerved. Flowers in July. Pastures and moist meadows very common — introduced. The 
 term Agrostis was the ancient Greek word for field, and was appUed to all varieties of grass 
 that grew there. 
 
 This valuable grass, so common in all our cultivated fields, has been an inhabitant of our 
 soils for more than a century. It was called simply English grass by Eliot, Deane, and other 
 ■early writers, and by the English, Fine Bent. Indeed, the 
 whole genus agrostis is commonly known in England as " Bent 
 ■Grass." This grass is often sown with timothy and clover, in 
 "which case the clover, of course, soon disappears, being biennial, 
 when timothy follows, after which redtop usually takes its 
 place, and with some wild grasses fonns a close sward. In 
 Pennsylvania and States further south, it is universally known 
 as Herds-grass — a name applied in New England and New 
 York to Phleum pralense alone. It is of somewhat slow growth, 
 but of good or medimn quality. It is suited to moist soils, 
 tliough common to all. This grass is probably rather overrated. 
 It makes profitable crop for spending, though not so large a 
 crop is obtained as from Herds-grass. It is a good permanent 
 grass, and consequently well-suited to Northern pastures, as it 
 endures that climate as well as any other grass. It should be 
 fed close in pastures, for if allowed to grow up to seed the 
 cattle refuse it; and this fact seems to show that it is not so 
 much relished by stock as some of the other pasture grasses. 
 The fact that cattle eat any grass greedily in the spring, is no 
 proof of its excellence or nutritious qualities, since, then, all 
 grasses are tender and full of juice, and many varieties of both 
 grasses and shrubs are readily eaten, which at a more advanced 
 stage of growth are refused. 
 
 This grass goes by various names, and is greatly modified 
 by soil and cultivation. On a moist, rich soil it grows larger 
 than on a poor, thin soil, and not only larger but has a darker 
 purplish color, with a stem varying from eighteen inches to 
 two feet or two and a half feet high; while on thin, poor, 
 gravelly soils, it seldom grows over twelve inches, and often not 
 over five or six inches high, while it has a lighter color. In the 
 latter situations it goes by the name of Finetop, and is univers- 
 ally seen in dry pastures. In some sections of Massachusetts, 
 as in Bristol County, it goes by the name of Burden's or Bor- 
 den's grass, or Rhode Island Bent, and is highly esteemed. 
 
 Finetop may be regarded as a variety of redtop, produced 
 by the character of the soil. 
 
 Dew Grass, White Top, White Bent, English Bent, Bonnet Grass, {Ayrostis 
 alhci.) Generic characters same as those of redtop. Specific characters: Stem erect, round, 
 smooth, polisted, having four or five leaves with somewhat rough sheaths, striated, upper 
 sheath longer than its leaf, crowned with a long, acute, ragged ligule; joints smooth, 
 branches numerous, recumbent, rooting at the lower joints where they come in contact with 
 the ground; panicle somewhat narrower than in redtop, lightish green, or with a slight tinge 
 of purple; lower or inner palea one-half the length of the upper, and shorter than the 
 glumes; five nerved, awnless — perennial. Native of Europe. 
 
151 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARRIER. 
 
 Whitetop may be known from redtop l;iy the sheaths being rough to the touch from 
 above downwards, and the Hgule being long and acute, and the keel of tlie large glume of 
 the calyx toothed nearly to the base. In Ar/rostis vuhjaris the sheaths are smooth, ligule 
 short and obtuse, and the keel of the large glume toothed only on the upper part. 
 
 It may be known from Brown Bent, {Agrostis canina,\ by having an inner palea in its 
 floret, while in brown bent the inner palea is wanting. This grass is very common on the 
 Connecticut River meadows where it appears to be indigenous, and is there called the English 
 bent. Fiorin, (^Ajroslis stolonifera,) is only a variety of the white top, or Agrostis a/ha, which 
 
 gained great notoriety some years ago in Ireland and 
 England, volumes having been written in its praise, 
 while it received the execrations of those who found it 
 troublesome to ei adicate on account of its creeping and 
 stoloniferous roots. It belongs peculiarly to moist places 
 which are occasionally overflowed. This grass has often 
 been used in the manufacture of bonnets, and is called 
 Dew grass in some sections. 
 
 Hair Grass, or Fly Away Grass, Tickle 
 
 Grass, (Agrostis scabra,) is another species belonging to 
 this genus, with a panicle very loose and spreading, 
 piirplisli. Flowers in June and July. Mainly remark- 
 able for the long hairy branches of its extremely loose 
 panicle. Common in old fields and drained swamps. 
 It is of no particular agricultural value. A'ery common 
 at the West, in Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, and about Lake 
 Superior. The large, loose panicles are exceedingly 
 delicate and brittle when the plant is ripe and dry, and 
 easily break away from the stalk when they are blown 
 about by the wind, scattering their seeds far and wide; 
 and hence it is frequently called " Fly Away Grass." 
 This illustrates one of the admirable contrivances of 
 nature for the distribution of the seeds of grasses and 
 other plants; sometimes by means of birds, sometimes 
 by a sort of wing attached to the light seed, and some- 
 times by the . force of the wind alone, as in this case, 
 when plants start up where no seed had been sown by 
 the hand cf man, and often to our astonishment. 
 
 Alpine Brown Bent, Upright FloAvered 
 
 Bent, and many other species of Agrostis might be 
 mentioned. Of all the species of this genus, the redtop 
 and white top are the most common as agricultural 
 grasses among uf. 
 
 The Fiorin, (Agrostis alba, var. Stolonifera lati- 
 folia,) or Broad-leaved Creepins: Bent, has been more highly commended in Europe 
 than either of these. In experiments this last has been found to be inferior in nutritive value 
 to orchard grass and meadow fescue, (Ffslnra pratensis.") and superior to meadow foxtail 
 (Alopecurus pratensis). 
 
 The Sonthern Bent, (Agrostis dispar.) has been highly extolled in France. It is a 
 native of the United States; was at one time highly commended in England, but was very 
 soon discarded. It furnishes a hay of rather coarse quality, yields a large produce on 
 
 SOUTHEEN BENT. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLA>«TS. 
 
 155 
 
 DROP SEED-NIMBLE "WILL. 
 
 (^luhlfulK.T-ia diffusa) 
 
156 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 good, deep sands and calcareous soils. It tiUers very much, and, when once rooted, is very 
 vigorous and lasting, and consequently makes a good pasture grass. It is very similar in 
 appearance to some of the broad-leaved varieties of Agrostis vulgari'i, and is said to yield a 
 larger produce than that commonly known as redtop. It has stronger and more numerous 
 creeping roots, broader leaves, and more upright leafy stems. It is most frequently met 
 with in the southern states and in the south of France. 
 
 Mountain or Northern Sedtop. {Agrostis exarata.) This variety is a native of the 
 Rocky Mountain region, and is also found in many of the Western States, particularly in the 
 low grounds of Wisconsin. It is more slender in its growth than the common cultivated 
 redtop, (^Agroslia vidgaris,) and varies much with different soils and climates. It is said to 
 present so many variations in form and size on the Pacific slope that it has received several 
 specific names, being mistaken for different varieties of grass. The analysis of this plant 
 proves that it possesses considerable value, and we doubt not that it would prove a 
 desirable agricultural product if cultivated on moist meadows and bottom-lands. 
 
 Brown Bent, or Dog's Bent Grass, (AgrosHs cam'va,) another variety of agrostis, 
 has for its specific characters a floret of one palea, sheaths smooth, ligule long, and grows 
 from one to two feet high, awnless. The root is perennial and creeping. Tlie stem is erect, 
 slender, leaves flat and linear. The palea shorter than the glume and furnished with a long 
 awn on the back, bent; spikelets at first greenish, afterwards brown or slightly purple. 
 Meadows and pastures, and wet, peaty places. Introduced. Flowei-s in June and July. 
 It is of no special agricultural value. 
 
 Drop Seed Grass, {Muhknhergia diffusa,) is a grass which derives its generic name 
 from Dr. Henry Muhlenberg, a distinguished American botanist, pupil of the great Linnaeus. 
 It is commonly known in Kentucky and Tennessee by the name of " Nimble-will," and there 
 forms a pasture grass of some value. Its stems are diffusely branched, from ten to eighteen 
 inches high ; panicles slender, contracted, glumes minute, awn nearly twice as long as the 
 palea. It is sometimes found on dry hills and in woods. Flowers in August and September. 
 Perennial. Cattle eat it very readily. Not very common. 
 
 There is another species of this grass, the Muhlenhergia glomerata, from one to two feet 
 high, much more common than the pi'eceding, with stems upi'ight, somewhat branched; 
 panicle oblong, linear, contracted into an interrupted glomerate spike, with long peduncles or 
 flower stalks and awned glumes. Perennial. Flowers in August and September. Common 
 in swamps and low grounds. Of no agricultural value. 
 
 The Mexican Muhlenhergia, (Muhlenhergia l/eroana.) another species of this genus, 
 has been mistaken by some for our fowl-meadow. It has an erect stem, two to three feet high, 
 much branched ; panicles lateral and contracted, branches densely spiked and clustered, green 
 or purplish; glumes pointed, awnless, and unequal. It is perennial. Flowers in August. 
 Frequently regarded as a troublesome weed in low grounds; somewhat common at the West, 
 and frequent here in low grounds, the borders of fields, and even in gardens, where its 
 spreading roots are difficult to eradicate. Cattle eat it very readily, and, as it blossoms late 
 in the season, it is of some value. 
 
 The Sylvan Muhlenhergia, {J^fuhlenhergia sylvntica,) \s &\&o r&thev common in low, 
 rocky woods. Its stem is ascending, branched, spreading diffusely; panicles contracted, 
 densely fiiowei-ed; glumes nearly equal, bristle pointed, lower palea one-awned, twice or three 
 times the length of the spikelets. Flowers in August and September. 
 
 The Awnless Muhlenhersria. (Muhlrnheniin sololifera,) is sometimes found in open, 
 rocky woods, from New England to ilichigan, and farther south. It grows from one to two 
 feet high, with a simple contracted panicle, very slender; glumes long, pointed, nearly equal. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 157 
 
 root perennial, creeping, woody, leaves pale green, sheaths open, ligule wanting. Flowers in 
 August and September. 
 
 Still another species, sometimes called hair grass, (^Aluhlenbergia capillaris,) is sometimes, 
 thougli not often, found on sandy soils. 
 
 Willdeuow's Mulllenbergia, {MtMenheryia WUldenovii,) is also not uncommon in 
 rocky woods, growing about three feet high, with a slender, simple stem, contracted panicle, 
 loosely flowered, glumes sharp-pointed, half as long as lower palea, which has an awn from 
 three to four times the length of the spikelet. 
 
 None of the grasses of this American genus are of great value as agricultural grasses, 
 except as they add considerably to the mass of living verdure which clothes our low lands. 
 
 Blue Joint Grass, {Calamaijrostis canadensis.) The general characteristics are, one- 
 flowered spikelets, open panicle, contracted or spiked; glumes keeled, about equal to the 
 palese, around which, at the base, is a thick tuft of white bristly hairs; lower palea generally 
 with a slender awn on the back. 
 
 Specific description: Stems three to five feet high, grayish, leaves flat, panicle often 
 purplish, the glumes acute, lanceolate, lower palea not longer than the very fine hairs bearing 
 an extremely delicate awn below the middle, nearly equal to the hairs. Flowers in July. 
 The blue joint grass is very common on low grounds. It is generally considered a valuable 
 grass. It is eaten greedily by stock in the winter, and is thought by some to be as nutritious 
 as timothy. 
 
 The Glaucous Small Yi&^di , {Calamagrostis coarclala,) is also somewhat common in 
 our wet meadows, open swamps, and along low river banks. Its stems are from three to five 
 feet high, seed hairy, crowned with a bearded tuft ; lower palea shorter than the taper-pointed 
 •tips of the lanceolate glumes, almost twice the length of the hairs, with a rigid, short awn 
 above the middle. 
 
 Beach Grass, Sea-Sand Beed, Mat Grass, (Ammophila arundinacea,) grows 
 to a height of two or three feet, with a rigid culm, from stout roots running often to the dis- 
 tance of twenty or thirty feet ; leaves wide, rather short, of a sea-green color ; panicle con- 
 tracted into a close dense spike, from six to twelve inches long, nearly white. It is found in 
 the sands of the sea-shore, where its thick, strong, creeping, perennial roots, with many tubers 
 the size of a pea, prevent the drifting of the sand from the action of the winds and waves, 
 thus forming a barrier against the encroachments of the sea. 
 
 This grass is very generally diffused on sea-coasts over the world, and is found inland on 
 the shores of Lake Superior. It has also been cultivated by way of experiment, and with 
 success, on the sands at Lowell, and still farther up on the banks of the Merrimack River. 
 Though not cultivated for agricultural purposes, it is of great value in protecting sandy 
 beaches. It is preserved in England and Scotland by act of Parliament. Flowers in 
 August. 
 
 The town of Provincetown, once called Cape Cod, and its harbor, still called the harbor 
 of Cape Cod, — one of the best and most important in the United States, — sufficient in depth 
 for ships of the largest size, and in extent, to anchor tin-ee thousand vessels at once, — owe 
 their preservation to this grass. To an inhabitant of an inland country it is difficult to con- 
 ceive the extent and the violence with which the sands at the extremity of Cape Cod are 
 thrown up from the depths of the sea, and left on the beach in thousands of tons by every 
 driving storm. These sand-hills, when dried by the sun, are hurled by the winds into the 
 harbor and upon the town. A correspondent at Provincetown says : " Beach grass is said 
 to have been cultivated here as early as 1812. Befoi-e that time, when the sand drifted down 
 upon dwelling-houses, — as it did whenever the beach was broken, — to save them from burial, 
 ihe only resort was to wheeling it off with barrows. Thus tons were removed every year 
 
158 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 from places that are now perfectly secure from the drifting of sand. Indeed, were it not for 
 the window-glass in some of the oldest houses in these localities, you wouLd be ready to deny 
 this statement; but the sand has been blown with such force and so long against this glass as 
 to make it perftclly ground. I know of some windows through which you cannot see an 
 object, except to remind you of that passage where men were seen 'as trees walking.' " 
 
 Congress appropriated, between the years 1826 and 1839, about twenty-eight thousand 
 dollars, which were expended in setting out beach grass back of the village, for the protection 
 of the harbor. From the seed of this grass it is estimated that nearly as much ground has 
 become planted with it as was covered by the general government. In 1854, five thousand 
 dollars were expended most wisely by the general government in adding to the work so nobly 
 begun; and the experience of former years was of great value to the efficiency of this latter 
 effort. 
 
 '' It may be proper to state," says the same writer, " that this town does much in the way 
 of ' leach-grassing ' by its ' leach-grass committee,'' whose duty it is to enter any man's enclosure, 
 summer or winter, and set out grass, if the sand is uncovered and movable. By this means 
 we are now rid of sand-storms, which were once the terror of the place, being something like 
 snow-storms, for drifts which were to be removed. Our streets are now hardened with clay 
 which has been imported, and instead of its being buried, as it would once have been in a few 
 days, 1 notice that the surveyors have to resort to sprinkling it with sand in wet weather, so 
 effectually has the culture of beach grass answered its end. 
 
 " The mode of culture is very simple. The grass is pulled up by hand and placed in a 
 hole about a foot deep, and the sand pressed down about it. These holes are dug about one 
 foot and a half apart. The spring is the usual time of planting, though many do this work in 
 the fall or winter. The roots of the grass, from which it soon covers the ground, are very' 
 long. I have noticed them ten feet, and I suppose upon high hills they extend down into 
 wet sand." 
 
 Beach grass seems to require the assistance of some disturbing causes to enable it to 
 attain its full perfection. The driving winds in some localities, are sufficient, while in other 
 places, where it does not thrive so well, it is probable that an iron tooth harrow would greatly 
 improve and aid its growth. It has be^n extensively cultivated or propagated from the seed 
 on many parts of Cape Cod, on Nantucket, and in fact to a considerable extent all along our 
 coast. It comes in of itself along Nantasket Beach from seed borne by the tides, probably 
 from the Cape. 
 
 The Bristly Foxtail, {Setaria rcrticiUata,) is a grass sometimes, though rarely, 
 found about farm-houses. It has cyhndrical spikes two or three inches long, pale green, 
 somewhat interrupted with whorled, short clusters, bristles single or in pairs, roughened or 
 barbed downwards, short. Not cultivated. 
 
 Bottle Grass, sometimes called Foxtail {Osetaria glaiica). This is an annual with a 
 stem from one to three feet high, leaves broad, hairy at the base, sheaths smooth, ligule 
 bearded, spike two to three inches long, dense, cylindrical, bristles six to eleven in a cluster, 
 rough upwards, perfect flower wrinkled. The spike is of a tawny or dull orange yellow when 
 old. Flowers in July. It is common in cultivated grounds and barnyards. Introduced. 
 
 The Green Foxtail, sometimes also called Bottle Grass, (Setaria viridis,) has a 
 spike cylindrical, more or less compound, green, bristles few in a cluster, longer than the 
 spikelets, flower perfect, striate lengthwise and dotted. It is common in cultivated grounds 
 
 The Bengal Grass, sometimes called Millet, (Setaria ilalica,) also belongs to this 
 genus. It has a compound spike, thick, noddin."-, six to nine inches long, yellowish or pur- 
 plish, "bristles two or three in a cluster. ' Introduced from Europe. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 159 
 
 PIGEON GRASS— BRISTLE GRASS. 
 
 (Setaria Setosa.) 
 
160 
 
 THE AMERICAN PARMER. 
 
 BERMUDA GRASS-WIRE GRASS. 
 
 (Cynodon Dactylon.) 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 161 
 
 Pigeon Grass, Bristle Grass [Setaria setosa). There are two species of Setaria which 
 are common in cultivated fields in the Northern States, usually springing up after the cutting 
 of grain, and often yielding a fair crop for mowing. In some of the Southern States, and 
 particularly in Texas, there is another species that is of longer and stronger growth. Its habit 
 is much like that of the Italian millet [Sc/ciria italica,), and its value is also much the same as 
 that species. 
 
 Quaking Grass, [Driza media,) is sometimes met with in pastures, especially in some 
 portions of New England. Panicle erect, with very slender spreading branches, and large, 
 purplish, tremulous spikelets from five to nine flowered, inner glume finely fringed, entire at 
 the end. It is a very beautiful, light, slender grass, about a foot high, perennial. Flowering 
 in June and July. There is an annual, the Large Quaking Grass, {Briza maxima,) with 
 large many-flowered spikes, cultivated in gardens for ornament. 
 
 Perennial R.ve Grass common Darnel {LoUum perenne). Generic characters — 
 spikelets many-flowered, solitary on each joint of the continuous ra<^is, placed edgewise. 
 Specific characters — stem erect, smooth, fifteen inches to two feet high, root perennial, fibrous, 
 joints four or five, smooth, often purplish, leaves dark green, lanceolate, acute, flat, smooth 
 on the outer surface and roughish on the inner, glume much shorter than the spikelet, flowers 
 six to nine, awnless. Flowers in June. 
 
 This grass has had the reputation in Great Britain, for many years, of being one of the 
 most important and valuable of the cultivated grasses. It is probably much better adapted ta 
 a wet and uncertain climate than to one subject almost annually to droughts, which often 
 continue many weeks, parching up every green tiling. There is, perhaps, no grass, the char- 
 acteristics of which vary so much from the influences of soil, climate and culture, as perennial 
 rye grass. Certain it is that this grass has been cultivated in England since 1674, and in. 
 the south of France from time immemorial. It is admitted to be inferior in nutritive value 
 to orchard grass, (Dactylic glomerata,) when green. 
 
 "Whenever it is cut for hay, it is necessary to take it in the blossom, or very soon after, 
 since otherwise it becomes hard and wiry, and is not relished by stock of any kind ; and it- 
 changes very rapidly after blossoming, from a state in which it contains the greatest amount 
 of water, sugar, etc., and the least amount of woody fiber, — into the state in which it possesses 
 the least amount of water, sugar, etc., and the greatest amount of woody fiber and other 
 insoluble solid matter. A specimen analyzed about the 20th of June, and found to contain 
 81^ per cent, of water and 18| per cent, of solid matter, was found only three weeks later 
 to contain only 69 per cent, water, and 31 per cent, solid matter. It is undoubtedly a valu- 
 able grass, and worthy of attention; but it is not to be compared, for the purposes of New- 
 England agriculture, to Timothy or to orchard grass. It produces abundance of seed, soon 
 arrives at maturity, is relished by stock, likes a variety of soils, all of which it exhausts j 
 lasts six or seven years and then dies out. 
 
 Italian Kye Grass {LoNum italicum) differs from perennial rye grass in the florets 
 having long, slender awns, and from bearded darnel, (Lolivm temidentum ) in the glumes being 
 shorter than the spikelets. It turfs less than the perennial rye grass, its stems are higher, its 
 leaves are larger and of a lighter green, it gives an early, quick and successive growth till 
 late in the fall. 
 
 It has the credit abroad of being equally suited to all the climates of Europe, giving 
 more abundant crops, of a better quality, and better relished by animals than the perennial 
 rye grass. It is one of the greatest gluttons of all the grasses, either cultivated or wild, and 
 •will endure any amount of forcing by irrigation or otherwise, while it is said to stand a 
 drought remarkably well. The soils best adapted to it seem to be moist, fertile and tenacious. 
 or of a medium consistency ; and on such soils it is said to be one of the best grasses known 
 to cut green for soiling, affording repeated luxuriant and nutritive crops. 
 
162 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 It is sometimes sown in autumn, but those who have had the fullest experience in its 
 cultivation give a preference to spring sowing. As a proof of the fondness of sheep for this 
 grass, it has been observed that when mixed with red clover, and sheep have been turned 
 into the field after it is mowed, they will eat down the Italian rye grass in preference to the 
 clover. 
 
 Its comparative value is well known from the thorough and reliable analyses of Prof. 
 Way. By tliese, it appears that 100 parts of timothy grass, as taken from the field, contain 
 57.21 percent, of water, 4.86 percent, of albuminous or flesh-forming principles, 1.50 per 
 cent, of fatty matters, 22.85 per cent, of heat-producing principles, such as starch, gum, 
 sugar, etc., 1 1.32 per cent, of woody fiber, and 2.26 of mineral matter or ash. while 100 parts 
 of Italian rye grass taken from the same kind of soil, and in the same condition, green, con- 
 tained 75.61 per cent, of water, 2.45 of albuminous or flesh-forming principles, .80 of fatty 
 matters, 14.11 of heat-producing principles, starch, gum, and sugar, 4.82 of woody fiber, and 
 2.21 of mineral matter or ash. Of these, the flesh-forming principles, fatty matters, and 
 heat-producing prinpples, are, of course, by far the most important; and in all these our 
 favorite timothy very far excels the Italian rye grass, showing a nutritive value nearly 
 double. Nor has the Italian rye grass any advantage over timothy or herds-grass in the dried 
 state, though the difference is by no means so marked, the former, dried at 212° Fahrenheit, 
 containing 10.10 per cent, of flesh-forming principles, the latter 11.36; the former containing 
 3.27 per cent, of fatty matter, the latter 3.55; the former containing 57.82 per cent, of heat- 
 forming principles, the latter 53 35. 
 
 There are 432,000 seeds in a pound of Italian rye grass, and from thirteen to eighteen 
 pounds in a bushel. 
 
 Couch Grass, Quitch Grass, Twitch Grass, Dog Grass, Chandler Grass, etc. 
 
 ( Triticum repens) . The chief generic marks of this grass are, three or several flowered spikelets, 
 compressed, with the flat side towards the rachis; glumes nearly equal and opposite, nerved, 
 lower palea like the glumes convex on the back, awned from the tip, upper flattened, stamens 
 three; mostly annuals, but others are perennials, to which the couch grass belongs. The spe- 
 • cific characters of couch grass are, roots creeping extensively, stem erect, round, smooth, 
 from one to two or two and a half feet high, striated, having five or six flat leaves with 
 smooth, striated sheaths ; the joints are smooth, the two uppermost very remote, leaves dark 
 green, acute, upper one broader than the lower ones, roughish, sometimes hairy on the inner 
 surface, smooth on the lower half. Inflorescence in spikes. Flowers in June and July. 
 Introduced from Europe. 
 
 This plant is generally regarded by farmers as a troublesome weed, and efforts are made 
 to get rid of it. Its long, creeping roots, branching in every direction, take complete posses- 
 sion of the soil and impoverish it. When green, however, it is very much relished by cattle, 
 and if cut in the blossom it makes a nutritious hay. I have seen acres of it on the Connecti- 
 cut River meadows, where it had taken possession and grew luxuriantly, and is called wheat 
 grass, from its resemblance to wheat. It goes in different sections by a great variety of names, 
 as quake gi'ass, quack grass, squitch grass. It is important to destroy it if possible. 
 
 The Downy Oat Grass ( Trixetum j^uhescens) is a very hardy perennial grass, naturalized 
 on chalky soils, and on such soils its leaves are covered with a coating of downy hairs, which 
 it loses when cultivated on better lands. It is regarded as a good permanent pasture grass 
 on account of its hardiness and its being but a slight impoverisher of the soil, and yielding a 
 larger per cent, of bitter extractive than other grasses grown on poor, light soils. It is there- 
 fore recommended abroad as a prominent ingredient of mixtures for pastures. It flowers 
 early in July. Formerly classed as Avena pubescens. 
 
GLASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 163 
 
 Meadow Oat Grass (Avena pratensis) is a perennial grass, native of the pastures of 
 Great Britain, growing to the height of about eighteen inches. It furnishes a hay of medium 
 quaHty. Flourishes best on dry soils. Flowers in July. 
 
 The Yellow Oat Grass (-■i!'e«a./?a'yescen5, now generally classified as Trisetum flavescens) 
 can scarcely, perhaps, be regarded as naturaUzed here. It is a perennial plant of slow growth 
 and medium quality, furnishing a hay containing about 1.79 per cent, of azote or nitrogen; 
 suitable for dry meadows and pastures. It is sometimes regarded as a weed, growing about 
 eighteen inches high. It fails if cultivated alone, but succeeds with other grasses, and is said 
 to be the most useful for fodder, of the oat grasses. It grows best with the crested dog's 
 tail and sweet scented vernal. It contains a larger proportion of bitter extractive than most 
 other grasses, and for that reason is recommended by some English writers as a valuable 
 pasture grass. It flowers in July. 
 
 Tall Meadow Oat Grass, or Tall Oat Grass (Arrenatherum avenaceum) is the avena 
 elatior of Linnaeus. Specific characters: Spikelets open panicled, two-flowered, lower flower 
 staminate, bearing a long bent awn below the middle of the back; leaves flat, acute, roughish 
 on both sides, most on the inner ; panicle leaning slightly on one side, glumes very unequal ; 
 stems from two to three feet high, root perennial, fibrous, sometimes bulbous. It is readily 
 distinguished from other grasses by its having two florets, the lower one having a long awn 
 rising from a little above the base of the outer palea. Introduced. Flowers in June and 
 July. 
 
 This is the Ray grass of France. It produces an abundant supply of foliage, and is val- 
 uable either for hay or for pasture, and has been especially recommended for soiling purposes, 
 on account of its early and luxuriant growth. It is often found on the borders of fields and 
 hedges, woods, and pastures, and sometimes very plenty in mowing-lands. After being 
 mown, it shoots up a very thick aftermath, and on this account, partly, is regarded as nearly 
 equal for excellence to the common foxtail {^Alopecurus pratensis). 
 
 It grows spontaneously on deep, sandy soils, when once naturalized. It has been culti- 
 vated to some extent in New England, and is esteemed by those who know it, mainly for its 
 early, rapid, and late growth, making it very well calculated as a permanent pasture grass. 
 It will succeed on tenacious clover soils. 
 
 Bermuda Grass, Wire Grass {Cynodon dactylon). — A low, creeping perennial grass, 
 with abundant short leaves at the base, sparingly sending up slender, nearly leafless flower, 
 stalks, with 3 to 5 slender, diverging spikes at the summit. The flowers are arranged in a 
 close row along one side of these spikes. The spikelets are one-flowered, with a short pedi- 
 celled rudiment of a second flower. The glumes are pointed, but without awns; the lower 
 palet boat-shaped. 
 
 This grass is a native of Europe, and is abundantly naturalized in many other countries. 
 It is said to be a common pasture grass in the West Indies. In the Southern States it has 
 long been the chief reliance for pasture, and has been extravagantly praised by some, and 
 cursed by others, who find it difficult to eradicate it when once established. Mr. C. Mohr 
 speaks of it thus:— 
 
 " It thrives in the arid, barren drift-sands of the sea-shore, covering them by its long, 
 creeping stems, whose deeply-penetrating roots impart firmness to a soil, which else would 
 remain devoid of vegetation. It is esteemed one of the most valuable of our grasses, either 
 in the pasture or cured as hay." 
 
 Col. T. C. Howard, of Georgia, says: "The desideratum to the South is a grass that is 
 
 perennial, nutritious, and adapted to the climate. "While we have grasses and forage plants 
 
 that do well when nursed, we have few that live and thrive here as in their native habitat. 
 
 The Bermuda and crab grasses are at home in the South. They not only hve, but live in 
 
 13 
 
164 THE A>rERICAX FARilER. 
 
 spite of neglect, and when petted and encouraged they make such grateful returns as astonish 
 the benefactor." 
 
 It seems that it rarely ripens any seed, and the usual method of reproducing it is to chop 
 up the roots with a cutting-knife, sow them broadcast, and plow under shallow. Col. Lane 
 states: — 
 
 " Upon our ordinary uplands I have found no difficulty in destroying it by close cultiva- 
 tion in cotton for two years. It requires a few extra plowings to get the sod thoroughly 
 broken to pieces." 
 
 Professor Killebrew, of Tennessee, states that — '• In Louisiana. Texas, and the South gen- 
 erally, it is, and has been, the chief reliance for pasture for a long time, and the immense 
 herds of cattle on the Southern prairies subsist principally on this food. It revels on sandy 
 soils, and has been grown extensively on the sandy hills of Virginia and North and South 
 Carolina. It is used extensively on the southern rivers to hold the levees and the embank- 
 ments of the roads. It wiU throw its runners over a rock sis feet across, and soon hide it 
 from view, or it will run down the sides of the deepest gully and stop its washing. Hogs 
 thrive upon its succulent roots, and horses and cattle upon its fohage. It has the capacity 
 to withstand any amount of heat and drought, and months that are so dry as to check the 
 growth of blue grass will only make the Bermuda greener and more thrifty.'' 
 
 Mr. Wall, of Mississippi, says of it: '-It is a most valuable grass, and is destined to be the 
 salvation of the hill land in ^lississippi. With us it has no seed, but can be easily propagated 
 by dropping the cuttings in a furrow, two or three feet apart. It does not endure shade, and 
 can be destroyed by sowing the land with oats, followed by peas. It throws out rvmners 
 down the sides of the deepest guUy, and stops its washing. Hogs thrive upon it and its 
 succulent roots, and horses and cattle upon its foKage." 
 
 Crow-foot, Tard-graSS, Dog's-tail {Ekusine indica). — This is an annual grass belong- 
 ing to tropical countries, but now naturalized in most temperate climates. In the Southern 
 States it is found in every door-yard, and in all waste places. The cukns or flowering stems 
 rise from 6 to 18 inches high, and are usually coarse and thick; the summit is crowned with 
 from 2 to 6 spikes, resembling those of common crab grass, Panicum sanguinah, but much 
 thicker and heavier. It makes a thick bed of rather coarse but rather long and wide leaves, 
 and takes such a firm hold on the soil that it is difficult to pull up a clump by hand. The 
 spikelets are crowded on one side of the flattened spikes, 2 to 6 flowered, and with pointless 
 glumes. 
 
 It is said to form a good and lasting pasturage for stock at the South, although it does 
 not appear to be very highly recommended for cultivation in that section. 
 
 Gama Grass {Tripsacum dactyloides). A tall perennial grass, with soKd culms, broad, 
 flat leaves, and with flower-spikes from 4 to 8 inches long, produced from the side joints 
 or from the top, either singly or two or three together. The upper portion of these spikes 
 is staminate or male, and the lower portion pistillate and producing the seeds. It grows from 
 three to six feet high, with large broad leaves resembling those of Indian corn. The upper or 
 male portion of the flower-spikes drops off after flowering, and the fertile portion easily breaks 
 up into short joints. These joints are thick and polished, and the flowers and seeds are 
 deeply imbedded in them. 
 
 Mr. Howard, in his "Manual of Grasses," says: "This is a native of the South, from the 
 moxmtains to the coast. The seed stem nms up to the height of five to seven feet. The seeds 
 break off from the stem as if in a joint, a single seed at a time. The leaves resemble those of 
 corn. When cut before the seed stems shoot up they make a coarse but nutritious hay. 
 It may be cut three or four times during the season. The quantity of forage which can be 
 made from it is enormous. Both cattle and horses are fond of the hay. The roots are 
 
"VstCDfX iiX, 
 
 YARD GRASS-CROW FOOT-DOG'S TAIL. 
 
 (Eleusine Indica.) 
 
 S165 
 
U'm,^iv, 
 
 GAMA GRASS. 
 (Tripsacum dactyloides ) 
 
 166 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 167 
 
 almost as large and strong as cane roots. It would require a team of four to fix oxen to 
 plow it up. It can, however, be easily killed by close grazing, and the mass of dead roots 
 would certainly greatly enrich the land. As the seeds of this grass vegetate with uncertainty, 
 it is usually propagated by setting out slips of the roots about two feet apart each way. On 
 rich land the tussocks will soon meet. In the absence of the finer hay grasses this grass will 
 be found an abundant and excellent substitute. The hay made from it is very like corn 
 fodder, is quite equal to it in value, and may be saved at a tithe of the expense." 
 
 Rattlesnake Grass, ( Glycma canadensis.') The generic characteristics of glyceria are, 
 many-flowered spikes; mostly flatfish; glumes two-pointed, nearly equal, awnless, the lower 
 one obtuse, seven-nerved; roots creeping. Perennial. Wet places and standing water. The 
 name of the genus is from a Greek word signifying sweet. 
 
 Rattlesnake grass has an oblong, pyramidal, spreading panicle, wUh beautifully-drooping 
 spikelets, six or eight flowered, and long, roughish leaves, which together make it an object 
 •of interest and search for bouquets and vases. It is very common in wet, boggy places, grow- 
 ing from two to three feet high, but possesses little or no agricultural value. Flowers 
 in July. 
 
 The Obtuse Spear Crrass, (Glyceria oUusa,) has a dense, narrowly-oblong panicle; 
 spikelets six or seven flowered, erect, swelling; lower palea obtuse, leaves smooth, as long as 
 the stem. This is an aquatic grass, found occasionally on the borders of ponds. Flowers in 
 August. Of no agricultural value. 
 
 Long Panicled Manna Grass, (Glyceria elongata,) is a very distinct species; stems 
 one to three feet high, panicle branching, narrowly-elongated, recurving, the branches 
 appressed, spikelets pale, erect, three to four flowered, lower palea obtuse, rather longer than 
 the upper; stamens two, stigmas compound, leaves very long and rough. Flourishes in wet 
 woods and swamps. Flowers in June and July. Perennial. Of no special agricultural 
 value. 
 
 Mountain Rice, (Or^y^opsts ^ne^anocarpa,) is a grass common in rocky woods; the large 
 white-grained mountain rice, ( Oryzopsis asperifolia,) common on steep and rocky hill-sides and 
 dry woods, and the Smallest Oryzopsis, (Oryzopsis canadensis,) are sometimes found. These 
 grasses are easily distinguished from each other. The first has an awn thrice the length of 
 the blackish palea; the second, an awn two or three times the length of the whitish palea; the 
 third, an awn short, deciduous or wanting. The first grows from two to three feet high, the 
 second from ten to eighteen inches. 
 
 Feather Grass, or Black Oat Grass, (Stipa avenacea,) is sometimes met with in 
 dry, sandy woods, and is collected for vases and ornaments, but is of no agricultural value. 
 It rises from one to two feet ; its panicle is open, leaves almost bristle form, palea blackish, 
 nearly as long as the almost equal glumes, awn bent above, twisted below. Flowers in July. 
 
 Poverty Grass, or Three Awned Grass, (Aristida dichoioma,) and Slender Three 
 Awned Grass, (Aristida gracilis,) are found in old, sandy fields, dry, sterile hill-sides and 
 pine barrens, but are of no value for cultivation. One or two other species of three-awned 
 plants also occur on similar soils, as the Aristida purpurascens and the Aristida tuberculosa. 
 None of these species are of importance in agriculture. 
 
 Fresh water Cord Grass, (Spartina cynosuroides.) This is found on the banks of 
 streams and lakes, rising to the height of from two to four feet, with slender culm narrow 
 leaves two to four feet long, tapering to a point, and spikes of a straw color. Flowers in 
 August. 
 
 The Salt Reed Grass, (Spartina polystachya,) has a stout culm from four to nine feet 
 high, broad leaves, roughish underneath and on the margins; spikes 20 to 50 in number, 
 forming a dense, oblong, purphsh cluster. It is found on the salt marshes. 
 
168 THE AJIERICAN FARMER. 
 
 Rush Salt Grass, {Sjjartina juncea,) grows from one to two feet high, stems slender, 
 leaves narrow, rush-like, and very smooth. It is common on salt marshes and sandy sea- 
 beaches, and flowers in August. 
 
 Salt Marsh Grass, {Spartina stricta, var. glabra,) grows from two to four feet high, has 
 from five to twelve spikes from two to three inches long; spikelets crowded and lapping over 
 each other. It is common on the coast. 
 
 Saud Grass, {Tricuspis purpurea,) is also found on dry, sandy soils, along the coast; 
 flowering in August and September. It is acid to the taste, grows from six inches to a foot 
 high, and has numerous bearded joints. 
 
 Tall Redtop, {Trimspis sesleroides.) This grass grows from 3 to 5 feet high. It is very 
 smooth; the leaves are long and flat, the lower sheaths hairy or smoothish. The panicle is 
 large and loose, at first erect, but finally spreading widely; the branches in pairs or single, 
 naked below, flowering toward the extremities and becoming drooping. The spikelets are 5 
 to 6 flowered, 3 to 4 hnes long, purple, on short pedicels. The glumes are shorter than the 
 flowers, unequal, and pointed; the lower palet is hairy toward the base, having 3 strong nerves 
 which are extended into short cusps or teeth at the summit. It is a large and showy grass 
 when fully matured, the panicles being large, spreading, and of a handsome purplish color. 
 Instead of being called Tall Red-top it would be much more properly called Purple-top. 
 
 It grows in sandy fields and on dry, sterile banks, from New York to South Carolina, 
 westward to the prairies, and southwestward to Texas, where several other species also occur. 
 
 It is not considered very valuable, but is however cut for hay and eaten by cattle and 
 other stock in those localities where it grows without cultivation, as in the mountain meadows 
 of Pennsylvania. It is said to be very harsh and wiry, and j)robably would not be eaten by 
 stock if they could have access to hay of a better quality. 
 
 Meadow Soft Grass, Yelyet Grass, {Holcus lanatus,) has its spikelets crowded in a 
 somewhat open panicle, and an awn with the lower part perfectly smooth. The generic char- 
 acters are, two-flowered spikelets jointed with the pedicels, glumes boat-shaped, membran- 
 aceous, inclosing and exceeding the flowers; lower flower perfect, its lower palea awnless and 
 pointless, upper flower staminate only, bearing a stout bent awn below the apex. Stamens 
 three; grain free, slightly grooved. 
 
 This species grows from one to two feet high, stem erect, round, root perennial, fibrous, 
 leaves four or five, with soft, downy sheaths, upper sheath much longer than its leaf, inflated, 
 ligule obtuse, joints usually four, generally covered with soft, downy hairs, the points of which 
 are turned downwards; leaves pale green, flat, broad, acute, soft on both sides, covered with 
 delicate slender hairs. Inflorescence compound panicled, of a greenish, reddish, or pinkish 
 tinge; hairy glumes, oblong, tipped wdth a minute bristle. Florets of two paleae. Flowers 
 in June. Introduced. 
 
 This beautiful grass grows in moist fields and peaty soils, but I have found it on dry, 
 sandy soils on Nantucket, and specimens have been sent me from Boxford and other places 
 where it grew on upland fields, and was cultivated with other grasses. It is productive and 
 easy of cultivation. It is of but Little value either for pasture or hay, cattle not being fond of 
 it. When once introduced it will readily spread from its light seeds which are easily dis- 
 persed by the wind. It does not merit cultivation except on poor, peaty lands, where better 
 grasses will not succeed. This grass loses about .63 of its weight in drying, and the hay 
 contains about 1.92 per cent, of nitrogen. 
 
 Sweet Scented Yernal Grass, {Anthoxanihum odomtum.) Specific characteiistics: 
 Spikelets spreading, three-flowered, lateral flowers neutral, with one palea, hairy on the out- 
 side and awned on the back ; glumes thin, acute, keeled, the upper twice as long as the lower; 
 
TaMxiSi. 
 
 TALL. RED TOP. 
 
 [(Tricuspis sesleroides. ) 
 
 169 
 
BROOM SEDGE. 
 
 (Andropogon f urcatus.) 
 
 170 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 171 
 
 seed ovate, adhering to the palea which incloses it; root perennial. Flowers in May and 
 Jime. Stems from one and a half to two feet high. Introduced from Europe. 
 
 This is one of the earliest spring grasses, as well as one of the latest in the autumn. It 
 is almost the only grass that is fragrant. It possesses a property peculiar to this species, or 
 possessed by only a few others, known as benzoic acid. It is said to be this which not only 
 gives it its own aromatic odor, but imparts it to other grasses with which it is cured. The 
 green leaves when bruised give out this perfume to the fingers, and the plant may thus be 
 known. It possesses but little value of itself, its nutritive properties being slight; nor is it 
 much relished by stock of any kind, but as a pasture grass on almost all soils, and with a 
 large mixture of other grasses, it is very valuable for its early growth, and this gives it the 
 character of a permanent pasture grass. 
 
 It is not uncommon in New England pastures and road-sides, growing as if it were indi- 
 genoiis. I have found fine specimens of it on dry soils at Nantucket and elsewhere. 
 
 The aftermath or fall growth of this beautiful grass is said to be richer in nutritive qual- 
 ities than the growth of the spring. Though it is pretty generally diffused over the country, 
 it is only on certain soils. that it takes complete possession of the surface and forms the pre- 
 dominant gi-ass in a permanent turf, as it is said to do in some sections ai-ound Philadelphia. 
 The flavor of the spring butter sold in that city is ascribed by some to the prevalence of this 
 grass. There seems to be nothing inconsistent in this supposition, since it is well known that 
 disagreeable flavors are often imparted to the milk and the butter by the substances taken as 
 food by the cow, as turnips, for instance, or cabbages, or cauliflowers; and if an objectionable 
 flavor may be imparted by one substance, it is reasonable to suppose an opposite flavor may 
 be given by another. 
 
 Dr. Emerson, of Philadelphia, found by experiments in flavoring other grasses with a 
 slight addition of benzoic acid in the form of an essence, previous to feeding them out to 
 milch cows, that the 'flavor of the best Philadelphia spring butter was thus imparted to the 
 butter made from them. 
 
 A curious and beautiful peculiarity is exhibited in the seeds of this grass, by which they 
 are prevented from germinating in wet weather after approaching maturity, and thus becom- 
 ing abortive. The husks of the blossom adhering to the seed when ripe, and the jointed awn by 
 its spiral contortions, when affected by the alternate moisture and dryness of the atmosphere, 
 acts like levers to separate and lift it out from the calyx even before the grass is bent or lodged 
 and while the spike is still erect. If the hand is moistened and the seeds placed in it, they 
 will appear to move like insects, from the uncoiling of the spiral twist of the awns attached 
 to them. 
 
 There are 923,200 seeds in a pound, and eight pounds in a bushel. It cannot be said to 
 belong to the grasses useful for general cultivation. 
 
 Reed Canary Grass. [Phalaris amndinacea.) Generic characteristics: Spikelets 
 crowded in a dense or spiked panicle, perfect flower, flatfish, with two neutral rudiments of 
 flowers, one on each side at its base, awnless, two shining paleae, closely inclosing the smooth 
 flattened grain; stamens three. Specific description: Panicle very slightly branched, clus- 
 tered, somewhat spreading when old, glumes wingless, rudimentary florets hairy, stem round, 
 smooth, erect, from two to seven feet high, leaves five or six in number, broad, lightish 
 green, acute, harsh, flat, ribbed, central rib the most prominent, roughish on both surfaces, 
 edges minutely toothed, smooth, striated sheaths. Flowers in July. Grows on wet grounds 
 by the sides of- rivers and standing pools, best suited to somewhat tenacious soils. 
 
 A beautiful variety of this species is the Ribbon or Striped grass of the gardens, familiar 
 to every one. It will bear cutting two or three times in a season, but if not cut early the foli- 
 age is coarse. Cattle are not fond of it at any stage of its growth, but if cut early and well 
 cured, they will eat it in the winter if they can get nothing better. 
 
172 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 This grass is common in low, rich soils where the water is either standing or sluggish, 
 and is not unfrequently produced by transplanting the roots of the striped grass into suitable 
 Boils. In one instance within my knowledge, it came in and produced an exceedingly heavy 
 crop, simply from roots of ribbon grass which had been dug up from a garden and thrown 
 into the brook to get them out of the way. Several other instances of a similar nature have 
 also come to my notice. One farmer has propagated it extensively in his wet meadows by 
 forcing the ripe seed panicles into the mud with his feet. As the stripe of the ribbon grass is 
 only accidental, dependent on location and soil, it constitutes only a variety of the reed canary 
 grass, and loses the stripe when transferred to a wet and muddy soil. 
 
 The panicles of this grass, if allowed to stand after the time of flowering, become filled 
 with ergot, or long, black spurs, issuing from between the glumes, and occupying the place 
 of grain. This, if there were no other reason, would be sufficient to determine that it should 
 be cut at or before the time of flowering. I have never seen rye worse affected than my 
 Bpecimens of this grass are. The effects of this mysterious disease are well known. The 
 noxious power it exerts on the system of animals which receive even a small portion of it, is 
 oftentimes dreadful, producing most horrible gangrenes, rotting of the extremities, internal 
 tortures and agonizing death; it has been known to slough and kill not a few human beings 
 who have accidentally or inadvertently eaten grain or flour infected with it. 
 
 The variety called striped grass, (colorata,) is exceedingly hardy, and may be propagated 
 to any extent by dividing and transplanting the roots. In moist soil it spreads rapidly and 
 forms a thick mass of fodder which might be repeatedly cut without injury, though it is of 
 little value for feeding stock. 
 
 The Common Canary Grass, {Phalaris canariensis,) is cultivated in gardens, and to 
 some extent in fields and waste places, for the sake of the seed for the canary bird. It 
 has a spiked, oval panicle, glumes wing-keeled; rudimentary flowers smooth and half the 
 length of the perfect one. Flowers in July and August. 
 
 Millet Grass, (MUUum effusum,) is found growing commonly in moist, shady woods, 
 mountain meadows, and on the borders of streams. Panicle widely diffuse, compound, 
 glumes ovate, very obtuse, leaves broad and flat, thin, root perennial, flower oblong. Flow- 
 ers in June. Introduced. Of no value for cultivation, the foliage possessing but slight nutri- 
 tive qualities. The seeds are sought by birds. It will thrive transplanted to open places. 
 
 Feather Grass, {LeptocMoa mucronafa,) is an annual grass growing in many of 
 the Southern States. It reaches the height of from two to three feet, the flowers being 
 arranged on numerous slender spikes in a long-panicled raceme. They are very minute, from 
 three to four in a spikelet, the uppermost one usually imperfect ; the glumes pointed. When 
 full grown it is a beautiful grass, the panicles on thrifty specimens sometimes becoming two 
 feet long, the slender branches arranged along the main stem in a feathery-like manner, from 
 whence it takes its name. It grows in fields and pastures, and as it is less affected with 
 drought than some other varieties, affords a small amount of grazing during the hot months, 
 when the regular pasture grasses are parched and dry. It is not considered of much agri- 
 cultural value. 
 
 Water Grass. {Pasixdum laeir.) There are a large number of species of this genus 
 which are to all appearance so nearly alike as to be scarcely distinguishable. They resemble 
 In their flower structure the Panicum, from which they chiefly differ in the want of a lower 
 glume. The flowers are spiked or racemed in two or more rows on onf side of a flattened 
 stalk, while the spikelets are one-flowered, or with the rudiment of a second. The flowers 
 are ovate or roundish. 
 
 Mr. Phares, of Mississippi, says of this: ''It is not called water grass because it grows 
 in and about water, for it does not, but probably because it is very succulent. It is trouble- 
 
FEATHER GRASS. 
 
 (Leptochloa mucronata.) 
 
 173 
 
"Vasssm 
 
 WATER GRASS, 
 
 (Paspalum Iseve.) 
 
 174 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 175 
 
 Bome in crops; livestock are very fond of it in all stages of growth and as dry hay. A 
 neighbor has a meadow of it from which he mows every summer about two tons of hay per 
 acre. It is very easy to set land with it." 
 
 Smut Grass. [Sparobolus indicus.) This grass is a native of India, but is now 
 spread over many countries, and is found more or less abundantly in all the Southern States. 
 It is called ''Smut grass," on account of its heads becoming affected with a blackish smut 
 after flowering. It is said to grow luxuriantly on uncultivated lands, and is eaten by cattle 
 and horses with evident rehsh, and seems a valuable plant. Dr. Gattinger, of Tennessee, 
 says of it: — 
 
 " All parts of the plant are equally pliant and succulent. It sprouts again after being 
 pastured down, with numerous new culms, and its growing season lasts from May till frost. 
 The culms stand about two feet high, and, as far as I have observed, I found it always grow- 
 ing in patches. It grows in low and small tufts, and sticks firmly to the soil. I would very 
 earnestly recommend to try it under cultivation." The flowers are borne in a long, narrow, 
 spike-like panicle. The spikelets are single flowered, with unequal glumes. 
 
 Wild Fescue. [Uniola latifoUa.) — This is a beautiful grass with very large spikelets; 
 in form they are somewhat like those of the Bromus unioloides, and, like them, are very flat 
 and compressed. Mr. Charles Mohr, of Alabama, says of it: — 
 
 " A fine vernal grass, with a rich foliage, blooming early in May, two to three feet high; 
 frequent in damp, sandy loam, forming large tufts. This perennial grass is certainly valuable, 
 affording an abundant range early in the season ; if cultivated it would yield large crops 
 ready for cutting from the 1st of May. It is called, by some, wild fescue or oat grass. It is 
 not found near the coast, consequently I had no chance to observe its growth during the 
 latter part of the summer and in the winter season, and therefore am not able to judge of its 
 value as a pasture grass." It grows as far north as Pennsylvania, but it is less vigorous in 
 growth as it advances northward. 
 
 Smooth Brome Grass, or Upright Chess, (Bromus racemosus,) has a panicle erect, 
 simple, rather narrow, contracted when in fruit. Flowers closer than in the preceding 
 lower palea exceeding the upper, bearing an awn of its own length. Stem erect, round, 
 more slender than in chess, sheaths slightly hairy. In other respects it is very much like 
 Willard's bromus, but may always be distinguished from it as weU as from Bromus arvensis, 
 in the summit of the large glume being half-way between its base and the summit of the 
 third floret, on the same side; whereas in Willard's bromus the summit of the large glume is 
 half-way between its base and summit of the second floret. This character is constant, and 
 offers the surest mark of distinction. It is common in grain fields. Flowers in June. It 
 is worthless for cultivation. 
 
 Soft Chess, or Soft Brome Grass, {Bromus mollis,) is sometimes found. I pro- 
 cured beautiful specimens of it at Nantucket, where it was growing in the turf with other 
 grasses on a sandy soil near the shore. Its panicle is erect, closely contracted in fruit, spike- 
 lets conical, ovate, stems erect, more or less hairy, with the hairs pointing downwards from 
 twelve to eighteen inches high, joints four or five, slightly hairy, leaves flat, striated, hairy 
 on both sides, rough at the edges and points; summit of the large glume midway between 
 its base and the apex of the third floret, by which it is always distinguished from Willard'? 
 bromus. Flowers in June. Birds are fond of the seed, which are large and ripen early. 
 Of no value for cultivation. 
 
 The Wild Chess, {Bromus l-almH,) is another species, found often in dry, open 
 wood-lands. It has a small, simple panicle, with the spikelets drooping on hairy peduncles, 
 seven to twelve flowered and silky; awn only one-third the length of the lance-shaped flower, 
 
176 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 SMUT GRASS. 
 
 (SpOVdlHlhlS Ili(lic\lS.) 
 
WILD FESCUE. 
 
 (Uniola latifolia.) 
 
SCHRADER'S GRASS.-RESCUE GRASS. 
 
 (Bromus unioloides.) 178 
 
VANILLA GRASS. 
 
 (Hierocbloa borealis.) 
 
 179 
 
BROOM GRASS.-BROOM SEDGE, 
 
 (Andropogon Scoparius.) 
 
 180' 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 181 
 
 stem slender, eighteen inches to three feet high, leaves and sheaths hairy. Flowers in June 
 and July. Of no value for cultivation. 
 
 Schrader's Grass, Rescue Grass {Bromus unioloides). The description of this grass 
 is taken from a recent report of the Department of Agriculture: 
 
 "This is one of the so-called winter grasses; that is, it makes a large share of its growth 
 during the winter months. It belongs to the Chess or Cheat family. In its early growth it 
 spreads and produces a large amount of leaves. Early in the spring it sends up its flower 
 stalks, which grow about 3 feet high, with a rather large, open, spreading panicle, the ends 
 of the branchlets bearing the large flattened spikelets, which, when mature, hang gracefully 
 upon their stems, giving them quite an ornamental appearance. These spikelets are from an 
 inch to an inch and a half in length, and composed of two acute lanceolate glumes at the 
 base, and from 7 to 1 flowers, arranged in two rows alternate on each side of the axis. The 
 flowers are lanceolate, or ovate lanceolate, the lower palet extending into a fine point or short 
 awn. 
 
 During several years past this grass has been sent to this department, chiefly from Loui- 
 siana and Texas, and has been much commended. Many years since the same grass was dis- 
 tributed and experimented with under the name of Australian oats, or Bromus schraderi. It 
 is not adapted to use in a country with severe winters, and hence did not give satisfaction in 
 aU places. Mr. C. Mohr, of Mobile, says of it : 
 
 " Only of late years found spreading in different parts of this state ; makes its appearance 
 in February, grows in tufts, its numerous leafy stems growing from 2 to 3 feet high ; it ripens 
 the seed in May ; affords in the earlier months of spring a much-relished nutritious food, as 
 well as a good hay." 
 
 Mr. Williams writes from San Antonio, Texas, describing the introduction and spreading 
 of a patch of this grass. He says : " Inasmuch as Western Texas is the great stock-producing 
 section of the Southwest, and considering the fact that pasturage is scanty, particularly in 
 February, stunting the growth of young cattle, this seems wonderfully adapted to supply just 
 what is greatly wanted, both for milch cows, calves, colts, and ewes just dropping lambs ; and 
 besides, this grass grows well on the thinnest soil and crowds out weeds, maturing in March 
 and early A pril, while not interfering with the native niesquite. I therefore regard this grass 
 as a wonderful and most important discovery." 
 
 This grass is said to have been introduced into Georgia by General Iverson, of Columbus, 
 and by him called Eescue grass. The favorable opinion which it at first received does not 
 seem to have been well sustained in that state. 
 
 Fringed Brome Grass, {Bromus dliatus,) is often found in woods, and on rocky hills 
 and river banks. It has a compound panicle, very loose, nodding, spikelets seven to twelve 
 flowered, flowers tipped with an awn half to three-fourths their length, stem three to four 
 feet high, with large leaves. Flowers in July and August. Of no value for cultivation. 
 
 The Meadow Brome Grass, (Bromus pratensis,) is a perennial weed in the corn-fields 
 of England, and is only recommended in any part of Europe for dry, arid soils, where nothing 
 better will grow. 
 
 The brome grasses generally have not been found worthy of much attention as cultivated 
 agricultural grasses, and the cleaner the farmer keeps his fields of them, as a general rule, the 
 better. 
 
 Yanilla or Seneca Grass {Hierochha lorealis). This is a grass growing in the northern 
 latitudes, in moist meadows near the coast, also in low, marshy ground in some parts of Illinois 
 and other Western states, bordering on the great lakes, and in the mountains of Colorado and 
 further north. It derives its generic name Hierochloa, from two Greek words, which signify 
 sacred grass, so called because it was customary to strew it before the doors of the churches 
 
182 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 on festive and saints' days in the north of Europe. It is said to be sold in Sweden to be hung 
 up over beds, where it is supposed to possess some mysterious properties of inducing sleep. 
 
 The culms grow from one to two feet high, with short lanceolate leaves and an open pyra- 
 midal panicle from two to five inches long. The spikelets are three-flowered ; the flowers all 
 with two palets. The spikelets are chestnut-colored and rather ornamental. It is very fra- 
 grant and flowers in May. It has not much practical value for cultivation on account of its 
 powerful creeping roots, and slight spring foliage. 
 
 Broom Grass, Broom Sedge {Andropogon scoparius). This is a perennial grass, 
 with tough, wiry stems, growing from two to three feet high, with narrow flower-spikes com- 
 ing out from the side joints and also at the top. The spikelets are in pairs on each joint of 
 the slender axis; one of the flowers is sterile and fringed with soft spreading hairs, the other 
 perfect and with a small twisted awn. 
 
 It grows mostly in dry, sterile soil, and is considered a great pest if it takes possession of 
 meadows ; but it is also considerably valued as a pasture grass before it shoots up its culm, or 
 stem, after which stock will touch it no more. It is said to be very common at the South, 
 especially in Georgia, Alabama, and other of the Gulf States, where it covers old fields and 
 fence rows, and grows extensively in the dry sandy soil of the pine woods. Though much 
 despised by many as an unsightly, troublesome weed, it is nevertheless valuable, while green 
 and tender, as sustenance for stock, of which it affords, in its season, a considerable share. It 
 blossoms in August. 
 
 Andropogon Furcatus, Andropogon Yirginicus, Andropogon Macrourus 
 
 (sometimes called Indian Grass), (A. nutans,) and other species of this genus, which have sim- 
 ilar chai-acters with the preceding, form an important quantity of the native grasses of the 
 great prairie region of the West. They are useful as a resource for stock having an exten- 
 sive range over uncultivated fields, but their places should be filled with more valuable grasses, 
 as early as practicable. 
 
 Means, Johnson, or Egyptian Grass (Sorghum halpense). This is a perennial 
 grass, with strong, vigorous roots and rather broad leaves. The flowers and seeds closely 
 resemble those of broom-corn, but the panicle is finer and more spreading. Its stems attain 
 the height of five or six feet, with a very broad spreading panicle. It is much cultivated in 
 the Southern States, where it is valued both for forage and hay. It is difBcult to extenninate 
 when once the ground is occupied by it, and this seems to be the only objection to it. It has 
 been found that plowing the field and leaving the roots exposed to the frost will eradicate it. 
 It is quite nutritious, will grow on ordinary land and yield abundantly. The following history 
 of its introduction into the Southern States is given by Mr. Wall, of Mississippi, in his recent 
 o£Scial report as Commissioner of Agriculture : 
 
 "A few years before the war. Captain Means, of South Carolina, who commanded a 
 trading vessel to the Mediterranean Sea brought from Egypt a lot of seeds, from which he 
 obtained a spoonful of seeds of an unknown kind. He handed them to a friend with the 
 request that they be sown in his garden. They came up and proved to be the grass named 
 above ; but little attention was paid to it until it nearly took his garden. He had the plants 
 dug up by the roots and thrown into a neighboring gully, where they soon began to grow, 
 stopping the wash and spreading all around. It was now seen for the first time that it was 
 greedily eaten by stock. This was suggestive in a country where all the hay had to be 
 imported, and so the seeds were gathered and sown. Thus the Means grass derived its name." 
 
 In 1860 Captain Johnson of Marion Station, Alabama, paid a visit to some relatives in 
 South Carolina and heard of this grass, that had in the meantime acquired a great reputation, 
 and on his return, carried home with him a bushel of seeds and sowed them on his plantation. 
 Soon after this he went into the Confederate service and was killed, leaving two Httle girls. 
 
MEANS, JOHNSON, OR EGYPTIAN GRASS. 
 
 (Sorghum halapense.) 183 
 
Wx. 
 
 INDIAN GRASS— "WOOD GRASS. 
 
 (Sorglmm nutans.) 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 185 
 
 These gii-Is were sent to school at Tuscaloosa, but having no guardian and no means, the Pres- 
 ident of the college had a gentlemen appointed guardian wlio went to Marion Station to see if 
 his wards had anjrthing. In the meantime the plantation was left alone, no one oaring for it, 
 and it was unrented. He found it a large place and almost covered with the ■' Means grass," 
 the winds and stock having set it everywhere. Being a shrewd man, he saw its capabihty and 
 at once advertised it as a stock farm, and soon rented it to Messrs. E. C. Gardner and J. C. 
 Copeland, of Nashville, Tennessee. They saw their opportunity at once, and securing a 
 nmnber of baling presses, set to work cutting and baling hay for the Southern market. 
 
 The hay proved popular and sold wherever tried, stock delighted in it, leaving all other 
 kinds to eat it. Applications naturally poured in for some of the grass, and so they sold 
 immense quantities of the seed, and also of the roots, getting large prices for both. So great 
 was its popularity that at the end of their five years' lease a company of Northern men out- 
 bid them, and have resorted to steam to assist in baling hay for the market. 
 
 Egyptian sugar-cane (is its proper name) is a native of the Nile, where it grows fifteen 
 to twenty feet high. So great is its luxuriance there, that it has filled all the upper Nile so 
 that a boat can not be driven through it. Great numbers of cattle and wild animals resort to 
 it, and. in fact, it is the chief food of ruminants in that country. 
 
 When young, it is very tender and sweet, the sap being full of sugary juice. It is a peren- 
 nial plant and so vigorous that when once planted, it is a difficult matter to eradicate it, so 
 care must be taken to plant it where it can be kept in bounds. The roots are creeping and 
 throw out shoots from every joint. It is a fine fertilizer, and sown on a piece of poor washed 
 land, wOl in a few years restore it to fertility. But there is really not much difference where 
 it is sown, for a farmer once getting a good stand will not want to destroy it. It will bear 
 cutting three or four times a year, and in fact, this has to be done, for when it matures seed, 
 the stem and leaves are too coarse and woody for use. 
 
 The ground must be prepared as for other grasses, and in September, the earlier the bet- 
 ter ; it should be sown at the rate of one bushel of seed per acre. It can be propagated also 
 by the roots, by laying off the rows each way and dropping a joint of the root two feet apart 
 and covering with a harrow. 
 
 It gives the earliest pastures we have, preceding blue grass, or clover, a month. Hogs 
 are fond of the roots, and any amount of rooting will not injure it. In fact, it is a stick 
 tight. 
 
 For soUing purposes it is not equaled by any grass in our knowledge, as it can be cut 
 every two or three weeks. There is a vast amount of land in Mississippi now devoted to 
 gullies, that do not now pay their taxes, which would richly remunerate the owner, if set in 
 this grass. It is not necessary that the land should be broken up to start it; a few sprigs set 
 out here and there in the richest spots, will soon secure a stand. 
 
 Many farmers object to it on account of its great tenacity of life, matting the soil in 
 every direction with its cane-like roots, and the rapidity with which it will spread over a 
 field, and the difficulty of eradicating it; but these very objections should be its recommenda- 
 tion to the owners of worn-out fields. To destroy it and keep it down, it is only necessary to 
 pasture it closely one year, and then in the faU, turn the roots up with a big plow to the 
 freezes of winter, renewing the plowing once or twice during the winter, and then cultivating 
 the land in a hoed crop the next spring. There certainly would be no risk in sowing it upon 
 those worn-out hillsides, so many of which form unsightly scars upon the face of nature in 
 Mississippi." The illustration which is given is a very correct representation of this grass. 
 
 ludiail Grass, Wood Grass {Sorghum nutans). This is a perennial grass, having a 
 wide range over all the country east of the Rocky Mountains. The stalks are smooth, hoi- 
 low, and straight, and grown from three to five feet high, having at the top a narrow pani- 
 cle of handsome straw-colored or brownish flowers, drooping when mature. It flowers in 
 August. 
 
186 THE AilERICAN FARMER. 
 
 This grass, though not usually considered of much agricultural value, forms an import- 
 ant part of the native grass of the Western prairies, and, if cut early, makes a good and nutri- 
 tious hay. In the Southern States there are two additional species, or varieties, which are 
 not materially different. These varieties are very common in Texas. 
 
 Indiau Millet, {Svrghum vulgare,) is a cultivated species, which has many varieties, one 
 of which is the broom-corn. It is sometimes used as a forage plant, and when raised on good 
 soil, and under favorable circumstances, is said to yield abundantly. It is called guinea-corn 
 in the West Indies, dourah in Arabia, and Nagara in the north of China. When raised on 
 good soil, it is said to yield a larger quantity of seed to the acre than any other cereal grass 
 known, its nutritive quality being nearly equal to that of wheat. 
 
 Texas Millet {Paniaim Texannm). — The branches of the panicle of this variety are rough, 
 spikelets oblong, somewhat pointed, lower glume half or two-thirds the length of the upper; 
 sterile flower with two palets, the lower five to seven, curved, much like the upper glume, 
 and the upper palet thin and transparent. It is an annual grass growing from two to four 
 feet high, sparingly branched, at first erect and becoming widely branched ; margin of leaves 
 rough; leaf blades from six to eight inches long and a half to an inch wide, the upper leaves 
 reaching nearly to the base of the panicle, which is from six to eight inches long. The leaves 
 are broad, and rather thin. It is a grass of \'igorous, rapid growth, and is capable of yield- 
 ing a large amount of food. Mr. Pryor Lea of Texas, who has cultivated it for several years, 
 says of it: — 
 
 "I consider it far superior to any grass that I ever saw for hay. It is a much more 
 certain crop than millet, and cultivated with less labor, and all kinds of stock prefer it. I 
 expect to report a good second crop on the same ground this year. In this region this gra.ss, 
 in the condition of well-cultivated hay, is regarded as more nutritious than any other grass. 
 It grows only in cultivated land; it prospers best in the warmest fourth of the year; its luxu- 
 rious growth subdues other grasses and some weeds, with the result of lea%'ing the ground in 
 an amehorated condition." (See illustration, Page 140). 
 
 Barnyard Grass, Cock's- Foot Grass {Pankum crusgalU). — This is an annual grass, 
 with thick, stout culms branching from the base two to four feet high. It varies greatly, 
 sometimes being awnless or nearly so, and sometimes with long awns, especially in some of 
 the coarser varieties. It is very common in all parts of the country in waste places. It is, 
 however, cultivated in many sections, especially in some of the Southern States, A writer 
 in Northern Mississippi states that the hay from this grass is very highly esteemed by many 
 farmers, and large fields of it are often mowed. It should, however, be cut early, while it is 
 most juicy and nutritious, which will be when the flowers first make their appearance. In 
 the latter stages of growth, or about the time of ripening its seed. The long and stifi awns of 
 its spikes tend to make it undesirable for stock food. 
 
 Crab Grass {Panicum sanguinah). — This is a native of Europe, but has become natu- 
 ralized in all parts of the country. It springs up quickly in both cultivated and waste 
 grounds, and sends out roots from the lower joints, which take firm hold of the soil and 
 spread rapidly in all directions. In the Northern States it is very troublesome in corn-fields, 
 it being difficult to keep them clear of it. In the Southern States it is used for hay crops, 
 giving a large yield of hay of excellent quality if cut in proper time, which is before the 
 ripening of its seeds. It also furnishes very desu-able pasturage during August and Septem- 
 ber, when the spring grasses are old and dry. Prof. Killebrew of Tennessee says of it: — 
 
 " It is a fine pasture grass, although it has but few base leaves and forms no sward, yet 
 it sends out numerous stems, branching freely at the base. It serves a most useful purpose 
 in stock husbandry, and the Northern farmers would congratulate themselves very much if 
 they had it to turn their cattle on while the clover fields and meadows are parched up with 
 
BARNYARD G-RASS.-COCKS FOOT GRASS. 
 
 (Panicum crus.salli.) 
 
 187 
 
CRAB GRASS. 
 
 (Panicutn <;inguinale.) 
 
 188 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 189 
 
 summer heat. It fills all our coru fields, and many persons pull it out, which is a tedious 
 process. It makes a sweet hay, and horses are exceeding fond of it, leaving the best hay ' 
 to eat it." 
 
 Tall Panic Grass, HwitchGr&HS {Panicumvirgaium}. — A tall perennial grass growing 
 mostly in clumps in wet or damp soil, especially near the sea-coast. It grows from three to 
 five feet high, and furnishes very good feed for stock if cut when juicy and tender. If cut 
 when ripe, it is very harsh and unpalatable. It forms a considerable portion of the native 
 grasses of the prairies, especially in those localities where the soil is unusually moist. 
 
 Slender Crab Grass [Panicum fiUforme). — A native species of crab grass. It is an 
 annual, growing with erect slender culms, which terminate with from three to five slender 
 spikes of flowers; leaves from one to two inches long. The stems are thin and wiry, the 
 leaves small and scanty, furnishing but little herbage, and for this reason it has httle or no 
 agricultural value. It grows mostly in dry sandy soil. 
 
 Obtuse — Flowered Panic Grass {Panicum oUusom). — This is similar to the Panicum 
 Texanum, or Texas millet, although it does not grow as high as the latter, and is less vigor- 
 ous. It is found in many of the Southern States, but has never been used very extensively 
 for agricultural purposes. 
 
 Guinea Grass [Panicum jumentorum). — This grass is a native of Africa, and is exten- 
 sively cultivated in tropic sections. Mr. C. Mohr of Mobile says of it: "It is planted with us 
 in the beginning of April; admits the first cutting during the last week of May; it makes 
 very large bunches, and is to be cut before extending to the height of about eighteen inches. 
 In that stage it is very sweet, tender, and as easily cured as hay. In moderately fertilized land 
 and favorable seasons, it can be cut every five or six weeks, yielding, by its throwing out 
 numerous stolons, increased crops until killed down by frost. The roots are easily protected 
 during the winter by a good covering with ground, like the rattoons of sugar-cane, and 
 allowing of a manifold division, afford-the best means of propagation. These root-cuttings 
 are set out in March or the beginning of April." This grass must not be confounded with 
 the Sorghum halapense or Johnson grass, which is often improperly called Guinea grass, from 
 its similar habit and appearance." 
 
 Agrostis-like Panic Grass [Panicum agrostoides). — This grass has its stems flattened, 
 upright, two feet high, leaves long, sheaths smooth, spikelets on the spreading branches 
 crowded and one-sided, ovate, oblong, acute, purplish. It is common on wet meadows and bor- 
 ders of rivers. Flowers in July and August. 
 
 Prolific Panic Grass [Panicum pnliferum) grows on brackish marshes and meadows, 
 and is common along the coast. It sometimes appears on dry places. Cattle are fond of it. 
 It differs from the preceding in having culms thickened, succulent, branched and bent, 
 ascending from a procumbent base, and spikelets appressed, lance-oval, of a pale green 
 color. 
 
 Hair Stalked Panic Grass [Panicum capillare) grows in sandy soils and cultivated 
 fields everywliere. Its culm is upright, often branched at the base, and forming a tuft, 
 sheaths flattened, very* hairy, panicle pyramidal, hairy, compound .and very loose, spikelets 
 scattered on long pedicels, oblong, pointed. Flowers in August and September. 
 
 Broad-Leaved Panic Grass [Panicum latifolium). — This is a grass with a perennial, 
 fibrous root, and stem from one to two feet high, and leaves broad, long, taper-pointed, 
 smooth or slightly downy, branches of panicle spreading, spikelets long, obovate, downy. 
 Flowers in June and July. It is common in moist thickets and woods. Of no value for 
 cultivation. 
 
190 
 
 THE AMERICAN FAR5IER. 
 
 Hnngarian Grass or Huugarian Millet, {Panicum (?e>7nanicum), is an annual grass 
 cultivated as a forage plant, and is a variety of Setoria Germanica, the common millet. It 
 was introduced into France in 1815, where it has been considerably cultivated. It germinates 
 readily, has a quick luxuriant growth, and is remarkable in withstanding drought, remaining 
 green, even when other vegetation is parched and dry, wlule if its growth is arrested, in a 
 measure, by dry weather, tlie least rain will restore its vigor. It is much relished by horses 
 and cattle, as well as all other kinds of stock; when fed in too large quantities, it will act as a 
 diuretic, and hence, in such cases, injurious; but if fed in moderate quantity is very nutritious 
 and harmless. It makes most excellent hay, of good weight, flourishing on light and dry soils, 
 though it attains its greatest luxuriance in soils of medium consistency, well manured, and may 
 be sown broadcast and cultivated precisely like 
 other varieties of millet. When blown down by 
 storms and violent winds, it readily recovers its i 
 upright growth. A farmer recently mentions the 
 fact of his field having been blown down three 
 times in succession by storms, and each time it 
 recovered its upright position very readily. It 
 
 has been known to attain the height of three and a half feet on rich soil. 
 This grass does well on the rich lands of the West, though it will exhaust 
 soil quicker than some other products. It is sown about the time of 
 planting com, at from two to three pecks per acre, and should be cured 
 the same as Timothy grass. The editor of the Country Gentleman 
 expresses the following opinion relative to this grass 
 
 " Hungarian grass will grow on any soil of sufficient richness and 
 condition to raise good corn and potatoes, the richer the better, provided 
 the manure has been applied to previous crops. Sow when the ground 
 is warm and dry, or immediately after corn planting. If portions of 
 the field are sown with a few days' interval between, it will not be ready 
 to cut all at once, which may prove a convenience in a large field. The 
 ground before sowing should be thoroughly pulverized by harrowing, and 
 made smooth and level, so that the small seed may not be buried too deep. 
 Three pecks broadcast are enough for an acre. Cahoon's sower is well 
 adapted to doing the work evenly. Cover the seed with a fine or smooth- 
 ing harrow, and then roU the surface. In two months the heads will 
 appear, at which time, if intended for hay, it should be cut with a mowing 
 machine. Two or three days may be required for thorough curing, 
 including turning or shaking up before raking, and opening the cocks. 
 Good land, well managed, will give two or three tons of good hay per 
 acre. It is best as a fodder for cows. The crop is too dense in growth 
 to sow clover or grass seed with it. 
 
 CoiliniOll Millet. {Panicum Mtlh'aceian.)— In growth and manner 
 
 of bearing seeds, the common millet resembles broom-corn. Its foliage 
 
 is broad and abundant; heads open; branching panicles. It grows to the 
 
 height of from two and a half to three and a half feet, according to the „ 
 
 .,.,-,, ,, ^ , , , , , Hungarian- Millet, 
 
 nature of the soil, and makes excellent forage for cattle, though not equal 
 
 to the German, Golden, or the Pearl millet. Allen states that from eighty to a hundred 
 
 bushels of seed per acre have been raised, with straw equivalent to one and a half or two 
 
 tons of hay, but an average crop may be estimated at about one-third this quantity. Birds 
 
 are usually troublesome in destroying the seed when ripened, as they are very fond of it, 
 
 consequently it is more profitable to cut it for the seed before all the heads have matured. It 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 191 
 
 is cured the same as hay, and yields from two and a half to four tons per acre. AH kinds of 
 grazing stock are fond of it. The seeds are glossy, oval, and somewhat flattened. When 
 cut in the seed it is a very rich food, consequently should be mixed with other hay in feeding. 
 
 Cultivation. — A rich, dry soil, well pulverized, is the most desirable for the best 
 results, although it will grow on thin soils. It can be sown broadcast or in drills. From the 
 first of May to the firet of July is the usual time for sowing at the North, the best time being 
 generally conceded to be in June, when the soU is warm. At the South, it can of course be 
 sown much earlier. From a bushel to a bushel and a half of seed per acre is considered a 
 fair quantity, if sown broadcast; if sown in drills, from eight to ten quarts per acre wiU 
 suffice. It will ripen in from sixty to seventy-five days after sowing. It should be cut, if for 
 fodder, while the seed is in the milky state, which will be in about six weeks after sowing. 
 It can be cut with a mowing machine, and cured the same as hay. 
 
 For green food, it can be cut during its various stages of growth, and will produce a 
 quick after-growth when cut at any stage, and is not liable to be easily affected by dry 
 weather. 
 
 It is especially valuable to supplement the hay crop, as a farmer can wait untU he can 
 determine the yield of his hay or ensilage crop before sowing, consequently can calculate the 
 amount of millet required to be cultivated to insure his usual amount of feed for his stock for 
 the year, while nearly all other crops require an earlier planting or sowing. 
 
 Golden Millet, called in some sections German millet, is considered by many as greatly 
 superior to common millet, both as a forage plant and for hay. It grows to the height of 
 from three to five feet; the heads are closely condensed; the spikes very numerous. The 
 seeds grow in rough, bristly sheaths, and are round and golden yellow. It requires a rich, 
 fertilized soil, which should be well pulverized and mellow. It may be sown broadcast or in 
 drills, and is cultivated the same as the common millet, previously described. It requires a 
 warm soil to thrive well, and should, therefore, not be sown at the North until the middle or 
 last of June. When used for hay, it is cut and cured the same as common millet. It is 
 greedily eaten by all kinds of stock, that thrive well upon it. 
 
 Pearl Millet (Penicillaria spicata). This, as a forage plant, has been cultivated for 
 several years with success in many of the Southern States, where it is known as " African 
 Cane," •'Eg\'ptian Millet," "Japan Millet," "Cat-tail," " East Indian Millet," and in some 
 localities as " Horse Millet." 
 
 But Uttle has been known of it at the North until recently. It closely resembles Setaria 
 in appearance, and the genus is allied to Pennisetum. 
 
 Mr. P. Henderson of New Jersey thus gives his experience in experimenting with this 
 plant: •■ A piece of good strong loamy ground was prepared, as if for a beet or turnip crop, 
 by manuring with stable manure at the rate of ten tons to the acre, plowing ten inches deep, 
 and thoroughly harrowing. The millet was then sown in drills, eighteen inches apart, at the 
 rate of eight quarts to the acre. We sowed on the 15th of May, about the date we plant 
 corn; in twelve days the plants were up so that a cultivator could be run between the rows, 
 after which no fiuther culture was necessary, for the growth became so rapid and luxuriant 
 as to crowd down every weed that attempted to get a foothold. The first cutting was made 
 July 1st, forty-sis days after sowing; it was then seven feet high, covering the whole ground, 
 and the crop, cut three inches above the ground, weighed, green, at the rate of thirty tons 
 per acre; this, when dried, gave six and a half tons per acre as hay. After cutting, a second 
 growth started, and was cut August 15th — forty-five days from the time of first cutting. Its 
 height was nine feet ; it weighed this time at the rate of fifty-five tons to the acre, green, and 
 eight tons dried. The third crop started as rapidly as the second, but the cool September 
 nights lessened its tropical luxuriance, so that this crop, which was cut on October 1st, only 
 
192 
 
 THK AMEPJCAX FARMER 
 
 TALL PANIC OR SWlTcli: 
 
 (Panicum virgatum. 
 
 G-RASS. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 193 
 
 weighed ten tons green, and one and a half tons dried. The growth was simply enormous, 
 thus: First crop, in forty-five days, gave thirty tons green, or six and a half tons dry; second 
 crop, in forty -five days, gave fifty-five tons green, or eight tons dry; third crop in forty-five 
 days gave ten tons green, or one and a half tons dry, — the aggregate weight being ninety- 
 five tons of green fodder in 135 days from date of sowing, and sixteen tons when dried to 
 hay. This exceeds the clover meadows of Mid-Lothian, which, irrigated by the sewage from 
 the city of Edinburgh, and cut every four weeks, gave an aggregate of seventy-five tons of 
 green clover per acre. 
 
 " There is little doubt that pearl millet is equally as nutritious as corn fodder, which it 
 resembles even more than it does any of the other millets. We found that all our horses 
 and cattle ate it greedily, whetlier green or dry. If sowing in drills is not practicable, it may 
 be sown broadcast, using double the quantity of seed — say sixteen quarts per acre. The 
 ground should be smoothed by the harrow, and again lightly harrowed after sowing; if 
 rolled alter harrowing, all the better. I know of no farm crop that will better repay high 
 manuring, but so great is its luxuriance that it will produce a better crop without manure 
 than any other plant I know of. In those parts of the Southern States where hay cannot be 
 raised this is a substitute of the easiest culture, and, being of tropical origin, it will luxuriate 
 in their long, hot summers. Even though our Northern seasons may be too short to mature 
 the seeds, our experiments in New Jersey this summer show what abundant crops may be 
 expected if the similar conditions are secured. Pearl millet as a fodder plant presents a new 
 feature in our agriculture, and I feel sure that within ten years we shall wonder how we ever 
 got along without it. Besides our own testimony given above, we have received the most 
 satisfactory letters from experienced men in different parts of the country to whom we sent 
 seeds of pearl millet for trial, and all are unanimous as to its enormous productiveness and 
 great value. From all we have seen and can learn, we are fully convinced that pearl millet 
 is to be one of the great fodder plants of the future." 
 
 Farmers should bear in mind that it is a tender annual, and must not be planted until 
 the weather is settled loarm. Wherever and whenever corn flourishes, it will yield bountiful 
 crops of fodder, which cows, horses, and other farm stock are exceedingly fond of. It is 
 equal in nutritive value to corn fodder, while its yield is greater. The fodder is in the best 
 condition for cutting and curing when the stalks are five or six feet high; but, if used for 
 soiling, it may be cut earlier or later, at the convenience of the cultivator; the stumps, sprout- 
 ing and throwing up a new growth, continue to grow until killed by frosts. The seed should 
 be sown at the time of sowing corn (and not earlier), in drills four feet apart. Sown in this 
 way, two pounds of the seed will plant an acre. 
 
 From all we have been able to learn concerning pearl millet, we judge it to be a desir- 
 able acquisition to our forage plants, and that with suitable soil and proper cultivation it 
 will abundantly repay the farmer for the care bestowed upon it, in those sections where the 
 climate is well adapted to its luxuriant and rapid growth, and even as far north as some por- 
 tions of New England will prove a profitable crop for cultivation. 
 
 Favorable reports of experiments in its cultivation have reached us from portions of the 
 country farther north than New England even, and from the vicinity of Montreal, Canada; 
 but we doubt whether in the latter latitude it will prove a generally profitable crop to the 
 farmer, owing to the shortness of the season, and the cooler temperature. 
 
 Indian Corn or Maize as a Forage Plant {Zea mats.) Though one of the most impor- 
 tant and abundant of the cereals, this plant belongs to the order Gramineae, or grasses ; and 
 while we shall speak of it elsewhere as a cereal, we refe;* to it in this connection merely as a 
 forage plant, which, when cultivated as such, is extremely valuable, being very nutritious, 
 and an almost indispensable crop, not only in summer when the drought may greatly reduce 
 the supply from the pastures, but also to be cut and cured for winter use. Cattle, and in 
 
194 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 fact all kinds of stock, are very fond of it, while at the same time they thrive well on such 
 fodder. 
 
 The varieties recommended for this purpose are those with the largest and most succulent 
 leaves. Some farmers prefer some of the varieties of sweet corn for sowing in this way. 
 The early varieties of dent corn, as well as Stowell's evergreen sweet corn, are excellent for this 
 purpose, sowing from one to two bushels per acre, according to strength of the soil, etc. 
 
 There is a diversity of opinions among farmers relative to the comparative value of com 
 fodder thickly and thinly sown, some preferring as much as three bushels per acre, others 
 less than a bushel. The thickly-seeded fodder does not grow as tall as the thin, and to first 
 appearance the latter, to a superficial observer, would be pronounced the heavier product of 
 the two. The more numerous stalks of the thick seeding, however, more than make up the 
 deficiency in height, and when the product of an equal area of each is weighed, the thick 
 seeding is always found to be the heavier of the two. On the other hand, the thick sowing 
 bears no ears, and the stalks are more difficult to cure than those of the thin sowing, which 
 bear small ears. The advocates of thin sowing claim that the quality thus produced more 
 than compensates for the lack in weight when compared with the thick seeding. However, 
 it is always admissible that the fine hay from thickly-seeded mowing lands is superior to the 
 coarse hay from poorly-seeded lands. 
 
 We should recommend rather thick seeding, the quantity to be regulated by the charac- 
 ter of the soil, and to be from one to two bushels per acre, as previously given; poor soils 
 requiring more seed than rich. 
 
 We believe it is conceded by the majority of farmers, that it is preferable to cut the com 
 for fodder before the ears get to any considerable size, and as a • general practice, it is most 
 valuable as a forage plant, when sown so thickly that the ears are not liable to form at all. 
 
 As a general rule, the earlier the corn is sown, the better; depending, of course, some- 
 what upon the season. In latitude as far south as Maryland, its growth is more rapid and 
 luxuriant in May and June than in July and August. Sowing in drills, from twelve to fifteen 
 inches apart, will admit of after-culture. The crop should be worked twice with a cultivator 
 to remove weeds and loosen the soil, and when in tassel, should be cut with a mowing- 
 machine. It requires from forty-five to sixty days to ripen it into tassel, therefore can safely 
 be sown up to the 1 5th of July. If the land is in good condition, it will yield twenty tons 
 to the acre; and by the use of superphosphates, the crop can be doubled; but this is a matter 
 subject to the will of the farmer. It should be well cured before stacking or storing in 
 barns, as the thickly-sown stalks contain more juice, proportionately, than those cultivated in 
 hills, and require considerable time for drying, so as to be perfectly preserved in large masses; 
 otherwise it wUl mould and ferment, and, of course, become useless as animal food. By the 
 ensilage process, so commonly practiced in France and other European countries, and which 
 is now being practiced to a considerable extent in this country, the curing process of corn- 
 fodder would be entirely obviated, and thus an entire change be instituted in this department 
 of agriculture, which experiments thus far have shown would be of immense advantage to 
 the agricultural interests of the country. 
 
 Japan Clover, {Le.spedeza striata) This is a low, perennial plant, not rising much 
 above the ground, but spreading widely on the surface. It belongs to the leguminous family 
 of plants, which includes the common clover, bean, pea, etc. It has small trifoliate leaves 
 growing numerously upon the stems. The flowers are small, and are produced in the axils 
 between the leaf and stem; the fruit a kind of flat pod. It seems to be peculiarly adapted 
 to the Southern States, and proves a_very valuable plant there for grazing. Sheep are very 
 fond of it. It will grow on soils that are almost unfit for anything else, furnishing good 
 pasture, and also supplies a good green crop for turning under and improving the land. Mr. 
 Wall saj's, it should be sown in January or February, in the proportion of one bushel of seed 
 
15 
 
 JAPAN CLOVER. 
 (Lespe deza striata.) 
 
 195 
 
MEXICAN CLOVER. 
 
 (Richardsonia scabra.) 
 
 196 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 197 
 
 to ten acres, to secure a good start the first year. It is said to be an excellent renovator of 
 old fields, and restores fertility in an incredibly short time. 
 
 Prof. Killebrew says concerning it: "About the year 1849 it was noticed in the vicinity 
 of Charleston, S. C, the seeds having probably been brought from China or Japan in tea 
 boxes. A short time afterwards it was discovered at a distance of forty miles from Char- 
 leston, and still later near Macon, Ga. It seems especially adapted to the Southern States, 
 not flourishing above 36°, growing with great luxuriance on the poorest soils, and retaining 
 vitahty in its roots in the severest droughts. It is said to be a fine plant for grazing, and, 
 being perennial, needs no resowing and' but little attention. On soils unfit for anything else 
 it furnishes good pasturage, and supplies a heavy green crop for turning under and improv- 
 ing the land." 
 
 Mr. Samuel McRamsey, of "Warren County, Tennessee, says: '-This clover made its 
 appearance in that locality in 1870. It is fast covering the whole country; it supplies much 
 grazing from the first of August until frost. It is short, but very hard. Sheep are veiy 
 fond of it, and cattle will eat it." 
 
 It is said to supply grazing from the first of July until frost, and to root out any other 
 plant growing among it. It is found in the South from the Atlantic slope to the banks of 
 the Mississippi. (See illustration.) 
 
 Mexican Clover, (RicJmrdsonia scahra.) This is a native of Mexico and South America, 
 and has only within a few years been naturalized in some parts of the South. It is an annual 
 plant of the order Kubiacea, which includes coffee, cinchona, and ipecacuanha plants. It 
 grows rapidly, under favorable circumstances, has succulent, spreading stems, wliich have small 
 flowers in heads or clusters. The flowers are white and about half an inch long. The leaves 
 are oblong, or elliptical, and from one to two inches long. In some parts of the South it is 
 called Florida clover, in others, water parsley, Spanish clover, and bell fountain. It contains 
 considerable water, and therefore is as difficult to cure as hay. It was formerly regarded as a 
 troublesome weed by farmers, but is now valued for the purpose of green soiling. 
 
 Mr. Coleman, of Florida, says of it: "It is called in this locality Spanish clover. Thft 
 tradition is that when the Spaniards evacuated Pensacola, this plant was discovered there by 
 the cavalry horses feeding upon it eagerly. Five years ago, hearing of it, I procured some 
 of the seed, and have been planting or cultivating it in my orange-grove from that time to 
 the present, as a forage plant and vegetable fertilizer. I find it ample and sufficient. It, 
 grows on thin pine land, from four to six feet, branches and spreads in every direction, form- 
 ing a thick matting and shade to the earth, and afEords all the mulching my trees require. 
 One hand can mow as much in a day as a horse will eat in a year; two days' sun will cure it 
 ready for housing or stacking, and it makes a sweet, pleasant-flavored hay ; horses and cattle 
 both rehsh it. The bloom is white, always open in the morning and closed in the evening. 
 Bees and all kinds of butterflies suck the bloom." 
 
 Dr. Rohmer, of Spring Hill College, Mobile, gives the following account of its medicinal 
 value: " I was the first discoverer of the plant in Blakely, Baldwin County, Alabama, in 1858. 
 "When the war broke out 1 was appointed by the Confederate government botanist for the 
 department of the gulf, for the purpose of having such medicinal plants collected as in my 
 judgment might be rendered useful in the treatment of disease, and subsequently I received 
 the appointment of superintendent of a laboratory established at Mobile for the manufacture 
 of medicinal preparations for the use of the army. The idea suggested itself to me that the 
 Richardsonia might be made to supersede the commercial ipecac, instead of using the 
 Euphorhia corollata, as had been suggested. In the fall of 1863 I had the roots collected, 
 dried, and powdered, and then delivered to the medical purveyor. From the testimony of 
 surgeons, the Richardsonia answered every purpose when given in increased doses." 
 
 It is quite nutritious, and cattle, horses, and sheep are very fond of it. It is also valuable 
 
198 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 as a fertilizer when plowed under while green, and a great benefit to the farmers of the 
 lower pine regions. The illustration which we give is a very correct representation of the 
 plant, and the best we have seen. 
 
 Red Cloy&r, (TrifoUum pratense.) — Although not properly included in the family of 
 grasses, red clover is one of the most valuable, economical, and nutritious of forage plants. 
 It belongs to the family Leguminosae, which includes the larger portion of forage plants, 
 commonly called artificial grasses, in distinction from the Gramineae, the true, and usually 
 called natural grasses. The common red clover is the most valuable of all the varieti^ of 
 clover, and is a native of some portions of Europe, growing in meadows and pastures. It 
 was introduced into England about the year 1 633, and has since that time been extensively 
 cultivated in that country, where it forms the staple crop for soiling. We read of the natural 
 grasses having been cultivated in this country some time previous to the year 1750, especially 
 the timothy, although clover was not cultivated to any extent until the early part of the 
 eighteenth century, when, as is the common fate of all new departures under the sun, it 
 met with great prejudice at first, which time alone could overcome. 
 
 The great value of the different clovers, as forage, was well known to the ancients. They 
 were extensively cultivated by the early Romans. Although the nutritive quality of clover 
 is relatively less than that of some of the grasses, yet in the average amount to the acre it is 
 fully equal to that of any other forage crop produced at the same expense, and, when 
 properly cured, is a most valuable food for milch cows, calves, and sheep. It matures early, 
 is raised cheaply, and is generally, in this country, a sure crop under proper treatment, pro- 
 ducing two crops during the year, and is liable to few casualties or injury by destructive 
 insects. 
 
 Although the common red clover, [Trifolium jiratense.) i& a biennial plant, and conse- 
 quently two years' growth is all that should be expected of one seeding, yet Mr. J. S. Gould 
 states, in his extended and valuable treatise on Forage Crops, that there is a variety of it, 
 [TrifoUum pratense peremie,) that is truly perennial, though he never saw a whole field of this 
 variety ; that it is, however, frequently met with in permanent pastures, on soils naturally 
 adapted to the growth of clover. It may be distinguished, in general, at a glance, by its deeper 
 bluish-green color, the greater narrowness of the leaves, its more straggling growth, and the 
 greater number, greater length, and greater stiffness of its hairs. The root of this variety differs 
 considerably from the biennial kind; being somewhat creeping and very fibrous; whereas the 
 perennial has an almost fusiform root. [Fusiform, spindle-shaped, as in the radish, ha\'ing 
 comparatively few fibers.) Yet, after all, these characters are sometimes interchangeable. He 
 has seen undoubted perennial clover with a light green color, and very sparsely furnished 
 with hairs, and has occasionally found equally undoubted biennial clover that was of a very 
 dark color and quite abnormally hairy. In doubtful cases, the root is the best test. 
 
 The color of the flower varies very much in the species and in the variety; in general, 
 the perennial has much the deepest red, but both kinds are met with, in which the color of 
 the flower is of a pale pink, and rarely of a pure white. The heads of the perennial are gener- 
 ally less crowded with flowers, the flower stalks more slender, and with a greater tendency 
 to curve. When young, the flower head presents a much more woolly appearance than the 
 biennial. 
 
 In the present condition of our seed markets, he thinks that the seeds of this variety 
 could not be obtained with any certainty ; but when farmers become well acquainted with 
 the distinction between them, an imperative demand for reliable seeds will arise, which will 
 then be met by seedsmen. Mr. Sinclair says that this variety is found in the greatest abund- 
 ance in Lincolnshire, and recommends that the seeds should be first selected from thence, and 
 then be ciiltivated until the demand is fully supplied. It flourishes better on clayey or peaty 
 soils than the common red clover, or Trifolium praiense proper. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 199 
 
 There are two varieties of red clover, known among farmers as "the large" and "small 
 clover." The large is considered less valuable for hay or pastures, and is little cultivated, as 
 it yields but a single crop of hay in a season ; but where wanted for manure only it is often 
 preferred to the smaller, on account of its heavy growth. 
 
 Clover has been used as human food for generations by some tribes of Indians. The 
 Digger Indians of California eat it raw, and also cook it by placing a thick layer of green 
 clover between stones that had been previously heated. When young onions or chives and 
 grasshoppers are mingled with the clover, the dish is considered a great luxury I The 
 Apaches make what to them is a very savory and palatable dish, by mixing together clover, 
 pigweed, and dandelions in a vessel, which is afterward filled with water. Heated stones are 
 then put into the vessel, and taken out as soon as their surplus heat is imparted to the 
 water; this process being repeated until the mass is sufficiently cooked. 
 
 Cultivation of Clover. — Red clover wUl grow on almost all soils, except those 
 that are too wet. It will, however, not prove a very profitable crop on very light, sandy soils. 
 When it is desirable to enrich such soils by green manuring, it is well to sow some other 
 crop for the purpose. Clover is a lime plant, and the soils best adapted to its production are 
 tenacious or stiff loams. 
 
 The analysis of Prof. Way found 35.39 per cent, of lime in the inorganic constituents 
 of red clover, that of Boussingault 32.80 per cent., while the term "clover soils" is now 
 almost universally employed to denote a tenacious loam containing more or less lime in its 
 composition. 
 
 A great advantage in its cultivation, aside from its superior nutritive properties, consists 
 in its rapid and luxuriant growth, but a compai'atively short time being required from the 
 time of sowing the seed before it yields an abundant crop, that is greatly relished by stock 
 of all kinds. 
 
 Mr. Gould says; — "The best soils for red clover are the best wheat soils; where the one 
 will grow luxuriantly, there will the other grow luxuriantly also. There are loams and 
 friable clays with some admixtures of calcareous matters to which it is well adapted, though 
 it wiU grow in tolerably stiff clays, if they are not too wet. In thin, sandy soils it is much 
 more liable to freeze out than in stifEer ones, and there seems also to be less of its natural 
 specific food." 
 
 The growth of clover is known to differ very widely upon soils of the same geologic 
 formation, and to be equally luxuriant upon soils of very different geologic characters. The 
 richest clover region of Ohio is in a belt running east and west near the latitude 41.° 
 
 The best portion of this belt is in Monroe County, upon the Hamilton shales, but it grows 
 in equal perfection further west, on the cliff and carniferous limestone of Marion and Han- 
 cock Counties. 
 
 One of the finest clover regions of New York is on the Onondaga limestone, which is 
 precisely the same as the Helderberg limestone, being the same deposit ; yet the clover grow- 
 ing on the same rock around the Helderberg mountains is much less luxuriant. Some of the 
 finest clover that can be grown is found on the Moscow shales in the town of Romulus. 
 
 Clover grows better when it is sown in connection with some other cultivated plant 
 which will give it shade during the early period of its growth; hence, it is generally sown on 
 winter wheat or rye in the spring. The best way of doing this is to sow it on a freshly fallen 
 snow in the latter part of March, which soon melts, and thus leaves the seed to sink into the 
 ground as deep as is desirable without any other care or attention. If it is not convenient to 
 sow it on winter grain, it is put in with oats or barley in the spring, the latter being decidedly 
 preferable. 
 
 In the latter case care must be taken not to bury the seeds too deeply, as they will be 
 assuredly lost, if such is the case. !Mr. Stirling, of Glenbervie, in Scotland, experimented 
 
200 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 very carefully upon tliis point with the following results, which are embraced in a report to 
 the Highland Society: — 
 
 '' The seeds weighed sixty-four pounds to the bushel. There were 1 6,000 seeds in an ounce 
 (the number of seeds in a pound may of course be found by multiplying this number by sixteen, 
 and if the number of seeds in a bushel is required it may be found by multiplying the latter 
 product by sixty-four). From to 4 inch in depth the greatest number of seeds sprouted. 
 When covered from an inch and a quarter to one inch and a half only half of the seeds came 
 up; and when they were covered two inches deep none of them came through the surface. 
 When the seeds cannot be sown on a snow on winter wheat or rye, as above recommended, 
 it will be advisable to stir up the wheat with a light harrow before sowing it, as it germi- 
 nates so much more freely in fresh-stirred soil. All that will then be necessary for this, or 
 in case of sowing with spring crops, is to go over the seeds with a light roller. 
 
 " In nothing is there a greater difference of opinion and of practice among farmers than 
 with regard to the amount of seed required for an acre. Some sow only four pounds, and 
 some go as high as sixteen pounds. I have seen crops of clover sufficiently large to satisfy 
 any farmer grown from four pounds of seed ; but in this case the circumstances were all 
 favorable; the seeds were all full of vitality; the soil was exactly adapted to the growth of 
 clover; the temperature, at the time of sowing, and the succession of showers after it, were 
 exactly adapted to promote its growth, and it was not infested with injurious insects. 
 
 " But such a combination of favorable circumstances is very rare, and to provide for con- 
 tingencies it will always be safe, even on good soils, to sow eight pounds to the acre, and in 
 proportion to the poverty of the soil we may go up to sixteen pounds. In all cases the 
 greatest amount of seed must be sown on the poorest soils." 
 
 The best time to sow clover seed in New England, is in the spring. It is frequently < 
 sown upon the late snows in March or April, by the gradual melting of which it finds its way 
 to the soil, where the moisture soon causes it to germinate and take root. 
 
 Clcjver is sometimes sown broadcast in August or September, but the best results are 
 usually attained, other conditions being favorable, when sown in the early spring. It may 
 be sown with grains, cultivated grasses, or by itself. The quantity of seed requii-ed per acre 
 varies according to the kind of soil. Clay soils require more than loams. The usual amount 
 for well-prepared loams is from eight to ten pounds per acre; for heavy clays, from fourteen 
 to sixteen pounds. When sown with grasses, the proportionate quantity of clover-seed is 
 from a third to one-half of the amount sown. The larger the amount of seed, as a general 
 rule, with any of the grasses or forage plants, the greater the number of stalks; consequently 
 the finer the quality of the product. 
 
 The sowing should be liberal, but not so large a.s to cause the crowding of plants, which 
 will prevent as heavy and strong growth as would otherwise be secured. The covering, as 
 has been previously stated, should be very slight. When sown early in the spring on well- 
 pulverized soil, it will germinate freely without the use of the harrow. Rolling the field will. 
 however, press the seed into the soil, and cause it to germinate quicker than without this pro- 
 cess. G3q3sum, sown broadcast at the rate of from one to three or four bushels per acre, is 
 very beneficial to the crop, when the soil on which it is grown is suited to its use. This 
 should be done in the spring, just as the leaves are developed. 
 
 When grown too frecjuently on the same soil, land will sometimes become incapable of 
 producing a good crop, and will become what is commonly termed by farmers, "clover-sick." 
 In such cases other crops should follow for four or five years, for the benefit of a change. 
 
 It is stated by good authority that little interest had been taken in the cultivation of 
 clover in this c luntry until the wonderful effects of gypsum in stimulating its growth was 
 discovered. 
 
 Dr. Iienjamin Franklin seems to liave been among the first to recognize in this country 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 201 
 
 tliis wonderful power in gypsum, which had been first discovered as a fertilizing agent by a 
 Protestant pastor by the name of Mayer, in the principal city of Hohenlohe, and was the first 
 to call the attention of farmers here to its fertilizing power. Franklin simply traced the letters 
 of his name in powdered gy^jsum upon a patch of clover, and in a short time his name could be 
 easily read by all the passers-by. It stood up three times as high as the surrounding plants, 
 and was equally distinguished by the dark-green stems and leaves, and the vivid red blos- 
 soms, from the unplastered portion, which was much smaller and less luxuriant, the stems 
 and leaves of a yellowish green, while the blossoms were of a pale pink hue, some of them 
 degenerating to an almost white color. Great multitudes flocked to see the miraculous hand- 
 writing on the field, and sometimes the roads around it resembled a county fair from the 
 number of vehicles and horses that were collected. The doctor soon afterwards published 
 an account of the experiment, written in his most attractive manner, that was read by almost 
 every one, and thus it was diffused over the whole country. Every one was talking about it, 
 and a few tried the experiment, and from that time the culture of clover has been extending 
 even to the present day. 
 
 Time of Cuttiug, and Method of Curing CloTer. — Of course the time of cutting 
 
 clovers, as well as grass, differs with different latitudes, and can only be determined by the 
 condition of the crop. The opinion formerly prevailed that this crop should be cut after hav- 
 ing fully blossomed and assimied a brownish hue, or as soon as the earliest heads showed 
 signs of ripening; but it has been ascertained, by many and repeated experiments, that the 
 proper time for cutting it is just as it is coming into full bloom, as it then has the maximum 
 amount of nutritive matter in a condition best fitted for assimilation. 
 
 The amount of loss sustained by cutting clover at improper times was detennined by Dr. 
 Voelcker in his admirable experiments made at the agricultural college at Cirencester. 
 
 The plot upon which the experiments were tried was a good calcareous clay soil, and was 
 subdivided into plots, each of which was sixteen and a half feet square. Plot No. I was cut 
 six times, at intervals of a fortnight. The total amount yielded per acre was five tons, eight 
 cwt. and sixty-four pounds of gi'een clover, and one ton, four cwt. and seventy-six pounds 
 of hay dried, and contained 388.8 pounds of nitrogenous, and 1,646.4 of non-nitrogenous 
 matters. Plot No. 2 was cut a fortnight later, and so each successive plot was cut a fortnight 
 after the preceding ona. The clover began to blossom on the twentieth of May. Plot No. 7 
 was cut June sixteenth, and again on the second of July. These two cuttings yielded 
 eleven tons, seventeen cwt. and sixteen pounds of fresh grass, and three tons, thirteen cwt. 
 and ten pounds of dry hay, 780 pounds of nitrogenous, and 5,680 pounds of non-nitrogenous 
 matters. This was the maximum yield; each successive plot had given a richer yield up to 
 this point. After this, the amount steadily receded, until the last cutting, which was on the 
 twenty -eighth of July, when the fresh produce was four tons, ten cwt.; the dry hay, two tons, 
 four cwt. and ninety pounds. The loss between the cutting of June sixteenth and that of 
 July twenty-eighth was, of dry hay, one ton nine cwt. and ten pounds; of nitrogenous mat- 
 ters, of 480.8 pounds, and of non-nitrogenous matters, 1,315.2 pounds. The steady decrease 
 of nitrogen is shown in the following table: — 
 
 June 16, 
 June 23, 
 June 30, 
 July 7, 
 July 18, 
 July 38, 
 
 1.81 
 1.49 
 1.83 
 1.37 
 1.06 
 .97 
 
 The above figures speak for themselves, and require no comment. When farmers gen- 
 erally understand better what the real losses in nutriment are which are occasioned by cut- 
 
202 THE AMEIUCAN FARMER. 
 
 ting grass or any of the forage crops at improper seasons, they will be less carelsss and indif- 
 ferent with respect to it. 
 
 In actual practice, the evil effects of rain upon clover, and of too early or too late cutting, 
 are more apparent than would appear from the results of a chemical analysis. When prop- 
 erly cured, animals eat the hay with avidity, increase in flesh, are healthy, and give milk in 
 abundance, but when fed on hay cut too late, or imperfectly cured, they cease to make fat 
 and diminish in their milk. It is conceded by the best authority that in order to secure the 
 perfect curing of clover hay, two things must necessarily be kept in view : first, the clover 
 must be cut when it contains the greatest amount of nutriment, and second, it must have tlie 
 water that is contained in its stalks and leaves evaporated as rapidly as possible. The first 
 will be accomplished by cutting it when in full bloom; the second, by not cutting it u:itil 
 every vestige of dew and rain has been dried off from it. After it has been wilted by two 
 or three hours sunshine, it should be tedded with great care, or the leaves -ndll be almost 
 entirely whipped oil, and the stalks bruised, which would be a great injury to the hay; those 
 tedders being the best that do not strike with great violence, but lift it from the ground and 
 toss it into the air. It must be raked and cocked so as to shed rain before the dew begins 
 to fall, and if there is a prospect of rain, it should be capped. The next day the cocks must 
 be opened as soon as the sun becomes warm, and be deposited in the barn before night. 
 
 Well made clover hay furnishes one of the most nutritious articles of food for stock, 
 while that which is badly cured is about as poor diet for animals as could well be found. 
 
 When clover is simply dried in the sun without bruising the tissues or beating off the 
 waxy covering that envelopes it, it is as nutritious as it is when green, since in such a process 
 it loses nothing in curing, but simply water. 
 
 When clover is cut, it contains a considerable amount of sugar, gum, mucilage, albumi- 
 nous and some other soluble compounds, all of which are liable to bo washed awaj' by rains 
 or dews when exposed to tlieir action. 
 
 All feeders of stock have invariably found, that while domestic animals will fatten on 
 well-made, bright clover hay, they remain stationary or go backwards on clover hay that has 
 been injured by exposure to dews and rains. 
 
 Dr. Voelcker ascertained the composition of clover hay that produced such unsatisfac- 
 tory results in feeding, by analysis, and found that it contained : — ^ 
 
 Of moisture, . 
 
 Nitrogenous organic matter, 
 Non-nitrogenous substances, 
 Mineral matter (ash), 
 
 Containincr nilroffen. 
 
 20.45 
 8.50 
 
 64.37 
 6.78 
 
 1.36 
 
 The composition of well-made clover hay, as ascertained by Professor Way, is as- 
 follows: — 
 
 Moisture, .......... 16.60 
 
 Fatty Matters, ........ 3.18 
 
 Albumen and similar nitrogenous compounds (flesh-forming matters), . 15.81 
 
 Gum, sugar, mucilage, and carbon hydrates readily convertible into sugar, . 34.43 
 
 Indigestible woody fiber (cellulose), ...... 32.47 
 
 Mineral matter (ash), . . . . . . . . T.53 
 
 100.00 
 
 Containing nitrogen, ........ 3.03 
 
 On comparing the above figures, it will be seen that exposure to rain caused, in this 
 experiment, a loss of 7.31 per cent, of nitrogenous siiltstance, or, we may s.iy, that nearly 
 one-half of the nitrogenous matters are wholly lost. Clover hay that is badly cured in the 
 
GRASSES AND FORAaE PLANTS. 203 
 
 field will also lose more weight in the stack than well-cured hay, as well as more of its nutri- 
 tive qualities, the loss being occasioned by the conversion of the sugar and other nutritive 
 compounds into those which are innutritions. 
 
 Conditions Favorable to Fermentation in Clover Hay. — Air is always essen- 
 tial at the beginning of the process of fermentation, but after it has been once commenced, 
 this process may be continued even after the air has been subsequently excluded. To illus- 
 trate this principle, the reason why grapes will not ferment until the juice has been expressed, 
 or the skin broken, is because the air is excluded by the close, tight covering or skin which 
 envelops the pulp. 
 
 Fermentation, which is that decomposition or decay which acts to all appearance sponta- 
 neously, upon animal and vegetable substances, generating heat and throwing off gas in the pro- 
 cess, is caused by microscopic fungi ; hence ferments always contain the germs of fungi 
 which are more and more fully developed during the process. Moisture and heat will cause 
 any organic body, not living, to ferment. From sixty-five to eighty degrees Fahrenheit is a 
 temperature most favorable to rapid fei'mentation. When reduced much below this, it is slow 
 in its operation. 
 
 Fermentation is also largely affected by the amount of water present. In the process of 
 fermentation, the elements of sugar and other carbonaceous compounds are re-arranged ; the 
 carbon uniting with the hydrogen to form alcohol, and with oxygen to form cai'bonic acid. 
 It is a fact well known to chemists, that if one part of sugar is dissolved in three or four 
 parts of water, with the addition of yeast, fermentation will not occur even in a warm room ; 
 but if an equal weight of water be added to the solution, fermentation will soon commence ; 
 and that if the water is increased to the extent that the proportionate quantities are as one of 
 sugar to sixteen or twenty of water, it will either ferment very slowly or turn acid. This 
 proves that too large or too small a proportion of water is unfavorable to fermentation. 
 Applying this principle to the curing of hay, and we can readily understand the reason why 
 grass or clover freshly cut does not ferment as readily as that which is partially cured. When 
 grass is freshly cut, its vitaHty has not wholly left it, consequently fermentation is deferred. 
 It also contains too large a proportion of water compared with that of the sugar and gum of 
 its composition, and the albuminoids have not at this period begun to change into ferments. 
 
 But after the evaporation of the water contained in the leaves and stallcs of the clover or 
 grass has continued for a time, the relations of the different combinations become such as to 
 favor fermentation, and if at this stage the drying process is arrested by any means, such as 
 cloudy or rainy weather, the hay will undergo a process of fermentation in the field which 
 destroys its nutritive properties, and leaves httle else than the indigestible woody fibre. 
 
 If the former condition (that of drying) be continued without arrest, long enough to 
 exhaust the amount of water contained in the clover, beyond the point where fermentation 
 can take place, the hay remains exempt from fermentation and is nutritious. 
 
 The bruising of hay during the curing process has a tendency to produce fermentation, 
 therefore the less it is stirred or tedded beyond the point of sufficient exposm-e to air and sun- 
 shine, the better. 
 
 How Fermentation May be Prevented in the Mow.— Fermentation and mold 
 are often prevented in the mow by mixing, as evenly as possible, from ten to twenty quarts of 
 salt per ton with the hay when storing it, which can be done by alternate layers of hay and 
 salt. Although salt has a tendency to make hay moist, it is a preserving agent, and also ren- 
 ders it more palatable to stock. Another method employed by farmers with success, is that 
 of mixing alternate layers of dry grass, hay or straw with the clover, which absorbs the mois- 
 ture of the clover and thus prevents fermentation, while the juices of the clover, permeating 
 the straw or hay thus placed in layers l.ietween, improve the flavor of the latter for fodder. 
 
204 
 
 THE AMERICAN PAKMER 
 
 Hay that is packed compactly in the mow, excluding the air as far as possible, is less liable 
 to ferment than where this precaution is not observed. 
 
 ('ultivatillg Clover Seed. — Some farmers pasture the clover-field till June, and then 
 leave it to mature a full crop of seed ; others mow it early, and leave the second crop to ma- 
 ture the seed; but when this is done, the first cutting shoidd be done before blossoming and 
 seed-forming, as the plant will become too much exhausted to produce a second crop of seed, 
 the seed-forming substance having been used up, in a measure, in the first crop. It is of more 
 importance to place more value upon the seed to be raised, than the hay first secured, as 
 this will prove most profitable in the end. The early mowing has the benefit of removing the 
 weeds, while the second growth of clover will be so rapid that the weeds will be smothered 
 and the clover is then saved comparatively free from other seeds. 
 
 An application of plaster to the clover-field in the spring will secure a better crop of seed 
 when matured, while its application to the field freshly mowed, after its first crop, will make 
 the second growth very luxuriant and rank in hay, to the detriment of the seed-crop. 
 
 Harvesting Clover Seed. — The best time for cutting clover for seed is when about 
 
 three-fourths of the heads are brown ; at this time there is less liability to loss from shelling 
 while handling; besides, clover heads will ripen considerably after cutting, and those heads not 
 
 CLOVEK HULLER AND CLEANER. 
 
 WHEELER S CLOVER HULLER. 
 
 sufficiently advanced, at this period of ripening process, would be of but little value for seed 
 production if allowed to stand till dead-ripe. The hay is also of greater value for fodder if 
 cut at this period than later. It can be mowed with a scythe or mowing-machine, but what 
 is better still is a reaper, arranged as for reaping grain, with a board at the back to retain a 
 large amount of the clover, which can be pitched off in heaps. 
 
 Some recommend cutting quite high, as it saves time in curing and labor in handling, 
 and leaves the dryer and coarser portions of the stalk upon the field. It should be well-cured 
 and handled with care to prevent loss of heads; still, it is less liable to injury from lack of 
 curing than either hay or grain. When thoroughly dried, the seed can be threshed out with 
 a threshing-machine, or light flails, which can best be done in extreme cold weather, when 
 there is no dampness in the seed or air. The calyx of the clovers is very firmly attached to 
 the seed, often rendering the separation difBcult. A clover-huller, of which there are several 
 kinds, is a good machine for this purpose, in rubbing the seeds out from the chaff, by passing 
 through it several times, until the separation is complete. The first two cuts of clover 
 machines represent implements manufactured by the "Wheeler & Melick Company, Albany, 
 N. Y. The first is somewhat similar to a grain thresher and cleaner, except that it is under 
 instead of overshot, and fed from a hopper over the cylinder, instead of in front of the cylin- 
 
GRASSES AND FUUAUE PLAISTS. 
 
 205 
 
 der. Over tlie cylinder, in the hopper, is a revolving shaft, with arms, to prevent clogging 
 and to stir up the seed and chall:'. The cleaned seed is discharged in a large drawer under- 
 neath the machine to he put into bags or barrels. The unthreshed seed -bolls fall at the back 
 end of the machine, and are to be put into the hopper to pass through the machine again. It 
 can be run with a two-horse i-ailway, or three or four horses to a sweep-power, and is said to 
 clean from ten to twenty bushels of clover-seed per day. 
 
 The second represents a compact and simple machine which can be used with one horse. 
 A fan-mill will be required with this machine, as it does not separate the seed from the chaff. 
 
 VICTOR CLOVER MACHINE. 
 
 The Victor Clover Machine, manufactured by the Hagerstown Agricultural Implement 
 Manufacturing Company, of Hagerstown, Maryland, has an under-shot six-beater open cylinder, 
 which has important advantages over the closed or drum cylinder, and over the over-shot cyl- 
 inder. This cylinder, being open, the dust is taken through into the separator, where it is 
 confined and carried out at the rear end of the machinery. 
 
 The seed is rubbed out by the diminishing of the space between the front edges of the 
 rubbers and the comer of their backs as they pass each other with their fluted sides by the 
 revolution of the cylinder. The process is one, as is readily seen, that will rub out the seed 
 very effectually. It is said by those who have used them to thresh very rapidly, and to do 
 the work very .satisfactorily, and can be run with either horse or steam power. 
 
 Clover as a Fertilizer. — Clover is not only extremely valuable as a forage plant, but 
 also as a fertilizer of any soil on which it grows. It is often stated that the introduction of 
 clover into England produced an entire revolution in her agriculture; we know its import- 
 ance to the agricultural interests of our own country are beyond estimation, and we wonder 
 how our ancestors could have gotten on in farming without it. 
 
206 THE AMERICAN PARMER. 
 
 Clover acts as a fertilizer in various ways. Its long roots not only penetrate the soil, 
 
 loosening it and admitting the air, thus improving its mechanical condition, but also serve to 
 fix in the soil those elements important to enrich it. When these roots decay, they contribute 
 their substance to further increase the fertilizing properties of the land. The heavy foliage of 
 clover also serves to choke out the weeds that would be liable to spring up on newly seeded 
 land. It also heavily shades the surface, which tends to increase the fertility of the soil by 
 this means. It has been found that while clover takes out of a soil probably as much of some 
 of the elements of fertility as many of the farm crops, even more than wheat or other cereals, 
 it leaves in it a much larger portion of nitrogen and nitrogenous elements than any other 
 crop. And it is a fact worthy of note, that a crop of grain will grow better after a crop of 
 clover than it will after any other crop. The amount ot nitrogen left in the soil by a crop of 
 clover was found (as we have previously stated), by the careful investigations of Prof. 
 Voelcker, — who is one of the best authorities on agricultural chemisty the world has ever known, 
 — to be equal to two and a half to three tons per acre. He also found, that on soils where clover 
 had been grown, not only is all that nitrogen collected and stored up in the soil by the clover, 
 but it is left when spring returns in a much better condition to produce a grain crop than any 
 other fertilizer that could be applied. TTiese investigations wei-e made at different depths of 
 the soil, taking six inches at a time until the depth of eighteen inches was reached. From 
 the thorough investigations thus made. Prof. Voelcker arrived at the following conclusions: 
 
 1. That a good crop of clover removes from the soil more potash, more phosphoric acid, 
 more lime, and other mineral matters which enter into the composition of the ashes of our 
 cultivated crops, than any other crop usually grown in the country. 
 
 2. There is fully three times as much nitrogen in a crop of clover as in the average pro- 
 duce of the grain and straw of wheat per acre. 
 
 3. Notwithstanding the large amount of nitrogenous matter, and of the ash constituents 
 of plants in the produce of an acre, clover is an excellent preparatory crop for wheat. 
 
 4. During the growth of clover, a large amount ot nitrogenous matter accumulates in 
 the soil. 
 
 5. This accumulation, which is greatest in the surface-soil, is due to decaying leaves 
 dropped during the growth of clover, and to an abundance of roots, containing, when dry, 
 from one and three-quarters to two per cent, of nitrogen. 
 
 6. The clover-roots are stronger and more numerous, and more leaves fall on the 
 ground, when clover is grown for seed, than when it is mown for hay. In consequence, more 
 nitrogen is left after clover-seed than after hay, which accounts for wheat yielding a better 
 crop after clover-seed than after hay. 
 
 7. The development of roots being checked when the produce in a green condition is 
 fed off by sheep, in all probability leaves still less nitrogenous matter in the soil than when 
 clover is allowed to get riper, and is mown for hay. Notwithstanding the retujTi of the pro- 
 duce in the iheep-excrements, wheat is generally stronger, and yields better, after clover 
 mown for hay, than when the clover is fed off green by sheep. 
 
 8. The nitrogenous matters in the clover-remains, on their gradual decay, are finally 
 transformed into nitrates, thus affording a continuous source of food, on which cereal crops 
 specially delight to grow. 
 
 It is thus seen that clover is one of the best fertilizers known for preceding almost any 
 crop. Clover is also a most valuable agent in restoring the fertility of exhausted lands by 
 being plowed under when green. The leaves gather food from the atmosphere, and this 
 food it stores up in its roots and stems, which by their decomposition afford a peculiar 
 nitrogenous element to crops. The texture of many soils is also greatly improved by the use 
 of clover as a green manure. This subject of manuring with green crops will be found more 
 fully treated in connection with Fertilizers, and hence does not require a further considera- 
 ation here. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 207 
 
 "Clover Sickness." — When soils have for a series of years borne luxuriant crops 
 of clover, it sometimes happens that they seem suddenly to be unable to continue its produc- 
 tion longer, which is evinced by the plant being found stunted in growth and scattered here 
 and there in small patches, surrounded by the bare soil. Sometimes the plant has a yellowish 
 tinge and is covered with brown spots, which are found to be a minute cryptogamic parasite. 
 "When these indications occur, the land is said to be "clover sick." 
 
 The cause of this disease is not fully understood, various opinions being entertained re- 
 specting it. It is the general opinion, however, that one of the chief causes of the evil is the 
 exhaustion from the soil, by the continual growth of the clover crop, of some of the elements 
 which are essential to its growth. 
 
 Dr. Grouven, after a careful study of this subject in Germany, arrived at the conclusion 
 that the chief cause of the clover disease is attributable to a change in the chemical composi- 
 tion of the plant, which change is caused by an altered condition of the soil. The difference 
 between the composition of the ash of healthy and diseased clover is seen by the following 
 analysis, which shows in the latter a remarkable deficiency of potash and phosphoric acid: 
 
 Healthy clover. Diseased clover. 
 
 Potash 
 Soda 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia . 
 Chlorine . 
 Sulphuric acid 
 Phosphoric acid 
 Silicic acid 
 
 Wolff. 
 
 Grouven. 
 
 35.5 
 
 3.23 
 
 0.7 
 
 087 
 
 32.8 
 
 55.71 
 
 8.4 
 
 13.08 
 
 3.5 
 
 2.76 
 
 3.3 
 
 13.46 
 
 8.4 
 
 5.99 
 
 7.0 
 
 4.88 
 
 Prof. Buckman refers, in connection with this subject, to the fact that our clover is a 
 derivative plant that has been forced in growth until it is now many times lai'ger than the 
 wild plant from which it sprung, and that this growth demands the continuance of those ele- 
 ments from the soil which were originally the cause of its enlarged growth ; hence the lack of 
 a sufficient supply of those elements may be one of the causes of the disease. Insects injurious 
 to clover are constantly increasing, and this may be one of the causes of the evil. It has been 
 found that one of the best remedies in this disease yet discovered is paring and burning the 
 surface of the soil, which destroy the eggs and larvae of insects injurious to it, and also all 
 the undecomposed vegetable matter that it may contain. A rotation with other crops, for a 
 sufficient length of time to change the properties of some of the constituents of the soil, will 
 also prove highly beneficial. 
 
 Alsike Clover, (Trifolium hyh-idum.) — This plant is a native of Sweden, and is often 
 known by the name of " Swedish clover." It is said to have been brought from Sweden 
 to Scotland by a professional land-drainer of Edinburgh, Mr. George Stephens, and sown in 
 the Meadowbank nursery on the 17th of April. It blossomed on the ■25th of August, and 
 the seeds ripened in the early part of the following October, when the plant was twenty-two 
 inches high. In the year 1835, the plants were in full flower on the 18th of June and ripened 
 their seed in the early part of August, when the plant was about two feet high. From 
 thence it spread gradually into England and was introduced into the United States about the 
 year 1855, where in some portions it became quite popular. It is a perennial, and endures 
 for a longer or shorter time, according to the character of the soil; on good soils it will do 
 well for four or five years. It is more like the white clover than the red, in its growth and 
 blossom, and is considered a valuable addition to the forage crops. The color of the flower 
 IS white with pink markings when fresh blossomed, but which fade out to white before drop- 
 ping. The general appearance of the stem is more smooth than that of the red clover. The 
 
208 iilE AMEKICAX FARMER. 
 
 lower part of tlie leaf is sharph' serrate, the serrations diminishing in running upward., u;:d 
 the upper portion is almost entire. The leaf is of unifoiTn light color, having no pale spots 
 like the red clover, and grows a darker green with age. It will do well in many soils where 
 the red clover will not grow luxuriantly, and makes a good substitute for it. 
 
 A stiff, clayey soil is best adapted to its growth, particularly a marly clay that is <;uite 
 moist, and it is thought that it thrives best in such soils as the red-top grass most prefers. It 
 will also do moderately well on cultivated fens and marshes, where the red clover would scarcely 
 grow at all. It is more slender than red clover, as well as finer in its growth, also more 
 nutritious and sweet. Cattle and other stock are exceedingly fond of it. It is more hardy 
 than any of the other varieties of clover, and is rarely winter-killed. On such soils as heave 
 in frosty weather, so that red clover would be entirely killed, the Alsike will do very well. 
 It yields only one crop in a season, and of less weight per acre than red clover, although 
 growing about the same height, but the hay is of better quality, hence what it falls short in 
 weight, w^hen compared with red clover, it seems to make up in nutrition When sown on a 
 dry or exposed knoll, and cattle are allowed to graze it too closely, it will be liable to be in- 
 jured and doubtless will not make its appearance the next year; biit when sown on soils 
 fairly suited to its grownh, it will bring good returns for at least four or five years. 
 
 As it throws out many stalks from one root, it should be sown thin in order that the roots 
 and branches may have sufficient room for growth, and the roots to strike deep into the sub- 
 soil. It bears cropping well, and is admirably adapted to pasturage. 
 
 It continues longer in condition to be cut than any other forage plant, and throws a large 
 number of heads from one stalk, coming into bloom successively for four or five weeks. 
 Even when the heads are nearly ripe, the stalks and leaves are stiU in condition to make very 
 good hay. The seed crop will make very excellent fodder when the seed has been threshed 
 out. The seed is about half the size of that of the red clover, consequently from five to 
 seven pounds of seed to the acre is sufficient in sowing. The seed is somewhat oval in form, 
 and of a dark color, nearly violet when ripe; when of a yellow green they are not ripe, and 
 will not germinate. It is one of the best plants known for bees, as the blossoms are peculiarly 
 sweet. Mr. Gould says of it: — 
 
 '■ I believe it to be the best honey-plant in the world, iluch attention has b.'en given 
 to the habits of the honey-bee in regard to its choice of flowers, and the quantity and quality 
 of the honey stored in different portions of the season. We often see a new plant recom- 
 mended for cultivation specially for the bees. I think now that bee-keepers generally agree 
 that the surplus honey is all, or very nearly all, stored duiing the bloom of the white clover. 
 From all other flowers, including buctwheat, but little more is gathered than is consumed 
 daily. I have for several years had on my place a plat of Alsike clover, besides one of the 
 white. I have often called the attention of people to the working bees on the plats, and it 
 was always easy to see that the Alsike had the greater attraction. Equal areas usually show 
 twice the number of bees on the Alsike. The blooming season is longer on the Alsike; the 
 her.ds are also more numerous. A field of Alsike clover is the best patronized bee-pasture 
 that I have ever seen, exceeding that of an orchard in full bloom. I am sure that in a neighbor- 
 hood of Alsike clover-fields, bee-keepers wotild not be searching for other plants for their use. 
 
 The Alsike resembles the white clover in its creeping habits, hence it is better to sow it 
 with some stiff grass, such as orchard grass, when intended to cut it for hay, as it will tlien 
 grow upright, and is ready to be cut at the same time with the orchard grass. 
 
 In comparing Alsike with red clover, we must not forget that the former grows very 
 little after mowing, and that it never yields a second crop. 
 
 Alsike clover-seed is more easily threshed than red clover. "WTien threshed together, 
 the Alsike always comes out first from the pod,-^, and, therefore, when it can be avoided, it is 
 better not to thresh them together, as the mor? threshing it receives the more is the straw 
 
In natural 
 state. 
 
 76.67 
 
 Dried at 212 
 (leg. P. 
 
 31.37 
 
 91.18 
 
 3.06 
 
 8.32 
 
 .77 
 
 3.31 
 
 4.83 
 
 20.69 
 
 GK.VSSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 209: 
 
 injured for fodder. The heads of the Alsike are, moreover, much more likely to drop off 
 than those of red clover; hence, when it is gathered for seed, still greater care should be 
 taken to avoid the loss of the seed. When ripe, it should always be mowed either early in 
 the morning or late in the evening, when wet with dew. A canvas lining should be used in 
 the carts, so that the seed-pods may not be lost. 
 
 The heads are sometimes threshed in the ordinary machines, but the seeds are so small 
 that very many of them are blown away and lost. It is, therefore, better to thresh them with 
 a. flaU, and farmers who raise their own seed almost invariably do so." 
 
 The following is Dr. Voelcker's analysis of Alsike clover: — 
 
 Water, . 
 
 Organic matters, 
 
 Ash, 
 
 Percentage of nitrogen, 
 
 Equal to protein compounds, 
 
 As compared with red clover, it has 3.31 pounds more of solid matter to the hundred 
 pounds in the green state, 1.95 pounds more of protein substances, and 0.31 pounds more of 
 nitrogen. 
 
 IVllite Clover, (TrifoUum rejoe?!^,) which is well known in some localities as Dutch 
 clover, honeysuckle, trefoil, and white creeping clover, is said to be also the shamrock of the 
 modern Irish. It is indigenous to both Europe and America, and is widely diffused over 
 both countries. It is so natural to our soil that it is rarely sown, except on lawns, to which 
 it is admirably adapted. Its principal value is as a pasture grass, as its dwarf character ren- 
 ders it less adapted to mowing than the clovers of higher growth. Sometimes it is seen fully 
 two feet high, though this is very rare, its usual growth not being over ten inches; while its 
 creeping branches will often lie so flat upon the ground as to be scarcely recognized without 
 particular attention. It is very hardy, nutritious, and self-propagating, springing up almost 
 everywhere, in all kinds of soils and climates. It grows very rapidly after being grazed 
 by the cattle, and overcomes weeds to the extent that it usually gains the mastery; while it is 
 highly valued by both butter and cheese makers for imparting a peculiarly rich and sweet 
 flavor. Some dairymen go so far in their assertions as to say that good butter cannot be 
 made where this plant is not present in the pastures. 
 
 It is said that where it is sown, the length of time that it will remain in the soil will 
 vary from three to thirty years, depending mainly upon the nature of the soil. Close feeding 
 by sheep, as they gnaw the stems down to the root, is said to exterminate it sooner than any- 
 thing else. In loose soils, they often tear the roots out of the ground in feeding. Bees are 
 very fond of it in procuring honey, of which it makes the whitest and best quality. 
 
 When sown for seed, one and a half or two pounds per acre will be sufficient when the 
 soil is adapted to it. In this case the land should be very rich, otherwise it will not grow 
 sufficiently high to secure the heads well in mowing. It is said that in Germany the women 
 and children are employed to cut off the heads with scissors in securing seed. 
 
 Crimson Clover, {TrifoUum incamalum,) is a native of Italy, and has long been culti- 
 vated in France and other portions of Soutliern Europe witli success. It was cultivated in 
 Great Britain for many years by horticulturists as an ornamental flower, often as a border 
 annual, until it began to be cultivated in fields, its long head of bright scarlet flowers making 
 it very attractive for this purpose. Its efflorescence being centrifugal, it begins blossoming 
 at the base of the head, and requires about a week to reach the top. and remain.^ in blossom 
 longer than any other kind of clover. It blossoms about two months after sowing. The 
 seeds are of a salmon color. It began to be cultivated as a forage plant about the year 1821. 
 Though cultivated with success in Southern Europe, it has never received nmch attention in 
 
210 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 this country. Several years ago some attempts were made to introduce it here, but were not 
 attended with such success as to commend it to agriculturists generally. In England it is culti- 
 vated by sowing either broadcast or in drills. If broadcast, usually eighteen or twenty 
 pounds are required per acre; if in drills, from eight to twelve inches apart, twelve or fifteen 
 pounds per acre is sufBcient. It is usually sown on improved stubble-land as soon as a grain 
 crop is removed, and harrowed just enough to slightly cover the seed with fresh earth. It 
 grows rapidly in the spring, and is much valued for food for young lambs, and later in the 
 season for horses and cattle. It can be cut for hay on the first of June, thus leaving the land 
 clear for wheat. It is not equal to the common red clover, either in quantity and quality of 
 hay, or as a fertilizer. 
 
 Zigzag Clover, (TrifoUum medium.) — This plant is often called by farmers, in some 
 localities, "cow grass." The peculiar bending of the stem from the left hand to the right 
 has given it the name of zigzag clover. It much resembles the common red clover, and 
 would easily be mistaken for it, though the head is less globular and more oblong, and the 
 blossoms of a deeper purple in color and less compact in the head. The leaves are of a 
 darker green, and without the light spot seen in the common red clover. The roots are 
 creeping, and it is always found growing in patches; often on very dry banks and on the 
 top of old stone-walls, and it always excludes all other plants when once it has taken good 
 root. It wiU flourish in long droughts, and is especially adapted to dry, sandy soils. It is 
 sometimes found on cold, clayey soils, where it grows much smaller and darker in color. The 
 stems are also more woody. It is a pest to the farmer, being almost worthless, as horses, 
 cattle, and sheep will not eat it unless compelled to from hunger. Farmers are therefore 
 warned against it, and advised to destroy it on the farm, as far as practicable. 
 
 Buffalo Clover, (TrifoUum replexum.) — This is a species of clover growing wild on the 
 prairies and meadows of the Western and Southern States. It has large, handsome heads of 
 a rose-red color, and grows luxuriantly. It is thought by many to be worthy the attention of 
 agriculturists, as a cultivated forage-plant. 
 
 Hare's Foot Clover, [TrifoUum arvense.) — This variety of clover is often called 
 rabbit-foot, stone clover, pussy clover, etc.; it is found on gravelly banks and old fields, and 
 is of little value, in an agricultural point of view. The heads are cylindrical in form, long, 
 very soft and downy, and seem like a mass of whitish silky hairs. It grows from five to 
 twelve inches high, and flowers in July and August. 
 
 Hop, or Yellow Clover, (TrifoUum procumhens.) — This is a small species of clover 
 growing usually on dry, sandy, and rocky soil. It has flowers, which at first are a bright 
 yellow, then fade to a light buff color, and finally take a dark brown when dry. It is called 
 "hop clover" from the fact that its heads, when in blossom, resemble in form small bunches 
 of hops. Tlie seeds ripen toward the latter part of July, when the blossoms look dry and 
 withered, presenting a striking and unpleasant contrast to plants in full verdure. Cattle and 
 sheep will eat it, though it is not considered of much value as a forage-plant. As it is an 
 annual, farmers can easily eradicate it, if desired, by close mowing before the seed is allowed 
 to ripen. 
 
 Bokhara Clover, (MeUhtus luencantha,) is valuable for soiling or mowing, and affords 
 excellent food for bees throughout its season. 
 
 Alfalfa, Lucerne, (Medicarjo saUva.) — There are many varieties of this species of 
 Medicago, but this is the only one that has been cultivated in this country to any extent. 
 Though generally known by the name of Lucerne, the more modern name. Alfalfa, comes 
 from South America, where, according to best authority, it grows wild in the utmost luxuri- 
 ance on the pampas of Buenos Ayres; it is, however, slightly modified in the United States 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 211 
 
 by the change in soil and climate. We find, by consulting the most authentic sources, that 
 this particular plant has been known and cultivated from time immemorial, and that it was 
 brought from Media to Greece in the time of Darius, about five hundred years before Christ; 
 its cultivation afterwards extending to the Romans and through them to the south of France, 
 where it has ever since continued to be cultivated as a forage-plant. It is a plant allied to 
 the clover family. Loudon describes it as "a deep-rooting perennial plant, sending up numerous 
 small and clover-like shoots, with blue or violet spikes of flowers." He speaks of it also as a 
 native of the south of Europe, of unknown antiquity in Spain, France, and Italy, but exten- 
 sively grown also in Asia, and the province of Lima, South America. Columella also speaks 
 of it as the choicest of all fodder-plants, because it continues to yield for many years without 
 being renewed, and affords from four to six crops during the year. Pliny writes of it with 
 the utmost enthusiasm; he says: "So superior are its qualities that a single sowing will last 
 for more than thirty years. It resembles trefoil in appearance, l)ut the stalk and leaves are 
 articulated. The longer it grows in the stalk the narrower is the leaf.'' His directions for 
 sowing and cultivating it are precisely the same as are laid down and practiced at the present 
 day, in every essential respect. 
 
 Botanists describe it as having an erect, smooth, branching stem; the leaflets in threes; 
 obovate, oblong, and toothed. The roots are long, and have been traced to the depth of 
 thirteen feet by the side of a sand-pit. They grow large, like those of the carrot, having 
 rootlets shooting off from the main root. A plant sending up numerous tall and slender, 
 clover-like shoots, with spikes of blue or violet-colored flowers; flowering in July. It is 
 extensively cultivated in Chili, and was introduced from thence into California; large supplies 
 of seed are also still obtained from that source. It is now being considerably cultivated in 
 California, as well as other Western and Southern States. 
 
 Taliie of Lucerne or Alfalfa as a Forage-Plant. — The true value of alfalfa has 
 been already pretty well tested in this country, although it has not received much attention until 
 within a few years past. It was, however, introduced here about the year 1800. It is said by 
 those who have experimented and tested its real worth, that it is one of the best forage-plants 
 known. Its age is certainly in its favor, for it a plant can outlive the centuries in popularity 
 and fame, it certainly must possess considerable merit ! 
 
 Mr. Loudon says of its use in Europe: — ''The principal and most advantageous practice 
 is that of soiling horses, neat-cattle, and hogs; but as a dry fodder it is also capable of afford- 
 ing much assistance; and as an early food for ewes and lambs, may be of great value in parti- 
 cular cases. All agree in extolling it as food for cows, whether in a green or dried state. It 
 is said to be much superior to clover, both in increasing the milk and butter, and in improving 
 its flavor. In its use in a green state care is necessary not to give the animal too much at a 
 time, especially when it is moist, as they may be hoven or blown with it, in the same way as 
 with clover and other green food of luxuriant growth." 
 
 Mr. Wycoff says : For milch cows it is superior to any other hay. It excites the secre- 
 tions." He thinks that to make good hay for this purpose, it should not be cut before it has 
 been in bloom ten days. He states that when grazed by cattle and sheep in the spring, 
 while it is growing rapidly and is so abundant that they can gorge themselves quickly, it 
 sometimes gives them the "hoven or colic," with fatal consequences. When grazed closely, 
 no such evil occurs. He represents that it is benefited by being grazed moderately, as soon 
 as the growth is sufficient and dry enough, and that cows are the best with which to graze it 
 the first year. Mr. C. Reed, former President of the California State Board of Agriculture, 
 says, that if cut when it is in full bloom it makes hay of good quality for stock of all kinds, 
 but especially for milch cows; and that, according to the testimony of experienced dairymen, 
 cows that are taken from the native grasses and pastured on it will increase the milk, butter, 
 and cheese product from 60 to 70 per cent.; and that, according to the opinion of the best 
 IG 
 
212 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 sheep -growers, sheep grazed on it in a constant green condition -n-ill be entirely free from the 
 diseases of the skin so prevalent in California. 
 
 One writer speaks of a fai-mer keeping four horses on an acre of it from the first of ilay 
 till the first of October. The result of its cultivation in England is thus described : — 
 
 A field of eleven acres, sown with twenty pounds of seed to the acre, was first mowed, 
 having attained proper growth; it was then sown with thirty bushels of soot per acre, after 
 which it produced two other mowings. In the following year a part of the field was again 
 manured, and the first mowing was made on the twenty-third of May. This supported thirty 
 horses for seven weeks, with a small addition of oats; the second mowing supported twenty 
 horses entirely for seven weeks; the third mowing supported twenty horses for six weeks 
 with the addition of a small amount of oats. The next year the first mowing supported thirty- 
 five horses eight weeks with a small addition of oats; the second mowing supported nearly 
 the same numbar for the same length of time. Again: — A field of eight acres of sandy soil, 
 with dry, sandy loam for a sub-soil, after three years' growth (mowing beginning May 24th), 
 gave entire support to thirty horses for six weeks, keeping them in good condition and 
 health, with constant employment; the second mowing, which was commenced July 3d, fed 
 twenty horses for six weeks; the third mowing, beginning September 15th, supported thirty 
 horses fourteen days, after which the autumnal feeding with sheep was equivalent in value to 
 the expense of cleaning, etc. ; in the previous spring. Mr. Reed, of California, states that a 
 farm in Bakers\nlle, in that State, containing one hundred and thirty-five acres, was let on 
 shares; sixty acres were in aKalfa, five in vineyard or orchard, and the remaining seventy in 
 timber or uncultivated. A part of the alfalfa was cut for hay, a part pastured by twenty 
 cows, from which the milk was sold for fifty cents per gallon, and a part let for pasturage at 
 $2.50 per month per head. The proprietor reports that the net profits of the farm 
 amounted to $3,500, or nearly 26 per cent, of its value at §100 per acre, with less than half 
 in cultivation. 
 
 Maimer of Cultivating Lucerne or Alfalfa. — In cultivating this plant it must 
 be remembered that it is a native of a warm climate; hence, in northern climates it will be 
 well to select those' localities for sowing that ar& sheltered and warm. A southerly or south- 
 easterly slope is desirable for the purpose. Cold, clayey sub-soils, that retain water, will utterly 
 exterminate it. It has a long root, hence the sub-soil must be of such a nature that it can be 
 penetrated by it. It must have a deep, loamy soil, rich and free from weeds. The soil must 
 be well pulverized and mellow, deep plowing being very essential. A want of such tillage 
 has caused many a failure in the crop. Having prepared the ground properly, the seed is 
 sown in drills of from fifteen to eighteen inches apart, in quantity of from sixteen to eighteen 
 pounds to the acre, according to the nature of the soil. Frequently a much larger quantity 
 is sown, but on a good soil well prepared the above quantity will be sufficient. 
 
 It is sometimes sown broadcast, but drills are preferred, as it admits of better cultivation 
 in keeping down the weeds, which are apt to be, at first, very troublesome. 
 
 The soil to which alfalfa is adapted must contain a sufficient supply of lime, as will be 
 seen by the following analysis of the ash of this plant by Sprengel: — 
 
 Potasli, l-t-OS 
 
 Soda 6.44 
 
 Lime, 50.57 
 
 Magnesia, . . . . . . • • • o.6i 
 
 Oxide of iron, alumina, etc., . . . . • • 0.63 
 
 Phosplioric acid, . . . . . • • 13.68 
 
 Sulphuric acid, ....... 4.83 
 
 Chlorine, ........ 3.23 
 
 Silica, 3.46 
 
 100.00 
 Perccntaare of tlie entire ash, ...... 9.55 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 213 
 
 It will not, however, grow well in limestone lands where the Hme lies in layers. It is a 
 strong feeder, adapted only to rich soils, which must have their fertility kept up. It will 
 soon run out all other plants in lands where it is sown. It wiU not thrive in regions where 
 there are frequent rain-storms, clouds, and fogs, but will do best, other conditions being 
 equal, in those localities that have the greatest number of cloudless days. 
 
 Some sow it with oats, barley, or peas, or, on light lands, with buckwheat; but it is better 
 to sow it alone and in drills, that it may be cultivated frequently during the first year. It is 
 sometimes sown broadcast, but this method is not generally recommended. "When sown in 
 this manner, however, from twenty to twenty- five pounds per acre will be required. 
 
 One of the ablest authorities on the cultivation of this plant says: — " If seeds are more 
 than a year old, they germinate very imperfectly. They should be kidney-form, the plumper 
 the better, and of a yellowish drab color; the browner they are, the less likely they are to 
 germinate. I counted 10,432 seeds in an ounce, of which 544 seeds were defective; though 
 this was from a very excellent sample, yet one seed in twenty was defective. 
 
 As soon as the plants are half an inch above the groiind, the rows should be run 
 through with a cultivator. All that now remains to be done is to keep the weeds down. It 
 can be mowed four times a year, taking care to cut it always before it flowers, otherwise it 
 becomes too woody. The next spring it should be sown with a coat of plaster, which 
 answers quite as well for lucerne as it does for clover. It should receive a top-dressing of 
 some kind every year, but it is better to change each year. Guano mixed with plaster is 
 excellent; after three or four years a dressing of stable manure is desirable. A mulch of any 
 kind of straw, late in the fall, will add much to the luxuriance of the crop. It will pay well 
 to harrow it thoroughly in the spring; the deeper the harrow goes down tlie better, as there 
 is no danger of injury to tlie roots. After the first year the plants will not require any other 
 attention than vigorous harrowing and top-dressing in the spring. If this is done, it will 
 last from ten to fifteen years, and be cut from three to five times per year, according to the 
 quality of the soil. 
 
 An acre of it will furnish sufficient food for three or four cows during the soiling season, 
 always, as before stated, taking care to cut it before it comes into bloom. Sheep should 
 never be allowed to graze on lucerne, as they gnaw it off below the crown, and thus speedily 
 kill it. 
 
 There is no known plant that will yield as much nutriment from a given acre, as can be 
 furnished by lucerne. The seed is more easily threshed than that of clover, but the yield is 
 less abundant." 
 
 Professor S. W. Johnson (in How Crops Grow) gives the following analysis of green 
 lucerne : — 
 
 Wlifii 
 vei 
 Water, 
 
 Organic matter, 
 Ash, . 
 
 Albuminoids, 
 Carbohydrates, 
 Crude liber, . 
 Fat, . 
 
 He gives the composition of the hay of lucerne as follows, from Professor Wolff's analy- 
 sis, in 100 parts: — 
 
 Water, 
 
 Organic matter, 
 Ash, . 
 Albuminoids, 
 Carbohj'drates, 
 Crude tiber, . 
 Fat, . 
 
 very yoimg. 
 
 In blossom 
 
 . '81.0^ 
 
 74.0 
 
 17.3 
 
 24.0 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.0 
 
 4.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 7.8 
 
 7.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 12.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 s, from Professor Wol 
 
 When yontiir. 
 
 In blossom. 
 
 "Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 16.7 
 
 16.7 
 
 74.6 
 
 76.9 
 
 8.7 
 
 6.4 
 
 19.7 
 
 14.4 
 
 32.9 
 
 23.5 
 
 23.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 3.3 
 
 2.5 
 
214 THE A3IERICAX FAR3IER 
 
 It lias been found that alfaKa is well adapted to the soil and climate of the Southern 
 States. Reports from Texas state that it is admirably adapted to the black prairie-soil of 
 that region. It vrithstands weU the drought of summer and cold of winter, keeping green 
 the year round. Hon. E. G. Wall, Commissioner of State Board of Agriculture in Mississ- 
 ippi, gives the following respecting its culture in that section: — "In well-prepared, rich, 
 sandy loam, it succeeds remarkably, sending down its long roots many feet into the sub-soil, 
 drawing up moisture fi'om below; and thus wiU thrive where other plants are drooping from 
 drought. In this respect it is far superior to clover; for the latter, a suitable surface soil is 
 of equal importance with the sub-soU. but for lucerne, a suitable sub soU is absolutely neces- 
 sary, as the roots are not fibrous. The enormous quantity of roots, penetrating the groimd 
 to the depth of several feet, prepares the land for increased production. It derives the larger 
 portion of its sustenance from the atmosphere, and stores it up in its roots, so that as a fertil- 
 izer it ranks high. 
 
 The soil is not only fertilized to the amoimt of several tons of roots, but it is meUowed 
 from the mechanical displacement of the soil and the admixture of decayed vegetable matter. 
 
 The seeds of lucerne are yellow, when good ; if brown they have received too much 
 heat, and if light, it indicates they were saved too green. The time of sowing is the same 
 with the other species of clover, in the spring time. It should be sown in drills and culti 
 vated the first year, so as to keep down the weeds. It is easUy smothered out by weeds, when 
 it first comes up. 
 
 When properly managed, the number of cattle which can be kept in good condition on an 
 acre of lucerne, during the whole season, exceeds belief. It is no sooner mown than it pushes 
 out fresh shoots, and wonderful a^ the growth of clover sometimes is, that of lucerne is much 
 more rapid. In the dryest and most sultry weather, when every blade of grass droops for 
 want of moisture, lucerne holds out its stem fresh and green as in the genial spring. Thi» 
 first year it is apt to be troubled by the presence of weeds, as it is slow in making a start : let 
 the weeds be exterminated for that time, and afterwards no fears need be entertained on that 
 subject, as it will take full possession of the ground."' 
 
 Mr. Read, of California, also says that alfalfa has two characteristics which especially 
 adapt it to regions subject to long-continued hot weather. These are its very prolific and 
 rapid growth, by which, after being cut, it very quickly shields the stu-face by a thick, green 
 coat, and the astonishing depth to which it sends down its long carrot-shaped root. In the 
 Kern Yalley, Cal., the roots go down to the water-line, which is from twelve to twenty feel 
 below the surface. It was found that where a freshet had exposed a perpvendicular section of 
 an alfaKa field, the roots extended down to the water-line, which was from twelve to twenty 
 feet below the surface. In this country, the climate is generally favorable to its production 
 from the extreme south to the latitude of Washington. It presents a remarkably luxuriant 
 growth in the grounds of the Depart7ne~* of Agriculture. Farther north it thrives well only 
 in favorable localities. It is reported as doing well in Xevada and Nebraska, also in Utali 
 and Colorado Territories. It will not thrive in a compact clay soil, or any shallow soil with 
 a hard-pan subsoO. It prefers a rich sandy loam, well drained, with a permeable subsoil. 
 The seed requires a shallow covering, after deep and thorough pulverization of the soil. 
 Broadcasting and drilling are both practiced, but if the land is foul, the latter mode is decid- 
 edly preferable, as it admits of careful culture until the crop is able to displace the weeds. 
 
 Although experiments havj been rep-^atedly tried, with considerable success, to cultivate 
 alfalfa in New England, yet we scarcely believe it will prove an entire success, as the winter^ 
 are too severe. It being a native of a warm climate, it thrives best in a somewhat warmer 
 temperature than New England could give it. The Southern and Southwestern states have in 
 it an exceedingly valuable forage-plant, owing to its nutrition, its luxuriant and rapid growth, 
 as well as the ease with which it may be cultivated when once started. And we are of the 
 opinion that it will continue to be more highly valued the longer it is cultivated. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 215 
 
 Sainfoin (Onohrychis satu-a'j is a native of England, and was doubtless introduced as 
 an agricultural plant from France, having been long cultivated there as such before it was in 
 England. It grows best on chalky soils and calcareous sands ; it also luxuriantly grows on 
 lime soils, even where lime rock is within four feet of the surface, and will not grow where 
 there is no lime in the soil, hence its cultiwe is chiefly confined to such localities. It occupies 
 accordingly a very important position in agriculture in the rotation of crops, in all the chalk 
 districts of England. It blossoms in spikes on long stalks, two or three feet high, the flowers 
 being of a beautiful pink or flesh color. The blossoms appear in June and July. It is a val- 
 uable forage plant in localities with soils suited to its culture, and although it has not as yet 
 been much cultivated in America, except in a small way, for the purpose of experiment, there 
 are probably many of our soils in which it would thrive and prove a profitable crop. 
 
 "When young and tender, sainfoin will not endure a severe winter, being sensitive to the 
 cold, but after the second or third year it becomes more hardy. We know of no reason why, 
 in some of the Southern states possessing soils suited to it, it should not prove a very valuable 
 addition to our forage-plants. 
 
 Manner of Cnltivatiug Sainfoin. — As has been previously stated, it is a plant only 
 suited to chalky soils and calcareous sands, where it thrives luxuriantly with proper cultiva- 
 tion. Referring to the chalky downs around Ilsley in Berks, England, Mr. Caird says that 
 about a tenth part of the land is kept under sainfoin, in which it i-emains for four years, being 
 each year cut for hay, of which it gives an excellent crop. A farmer having forty acres of 
 sainfoin sows ten acres and breaks up ten acres annually, thus going regularly over the whole 
 farm, the sainfoin not returning on the same field until a period of four years of rest from 
 that crop. It is then plowed in the spring and sown with oats, the crop of which is gener- 
 ally excellent. The sainfoin is then sown at the rate of four bushels per acre, and is drilled 
 in immediately after the oats have been sown, working the drill at right angles to its course 
 when it deposited the grain. It is frequently pastured one or more years before being mowed. 
 It is sometimes allowed to stand eight or ten years, but four years is considered better. 
 
 On soils suited to its cultivation, sainfoin will grow well for six or eight years; weeds 
 and other plants will eventually drive it out, when it becomes necessary to plow the land. 
 The roots are large and tough, which makes this a laborious process. The first year's growth 
 is generally small, as the roots are then being formed, but after this period a fine crop will be 
 secured, which well repays the trouble of its culture. 
 
 It is sown both broadcast and in drills, about four bushels of seed being required per 
 acre for the former method, and three for the latter. A liberal supply of seed is thus 
 allowed, as many, even new seeds, will fail to germinate. The soil should first be well pulver- 
 ized and free from weeds. 
 
 It should be cut just as it comes into blossom, and is used both for soiling and for hay, 
 chiefly for the latter. It is liable to be injured by rains during the curing process, as its 
 stems are hollow. The aftermath is relished by horses, sheep, and cattle. The seed ripens in 
 July, but as the lower part of the head matures so much earlier than the upper, and these 
 seeds are larger and more plump, it is best to harvest them when the lower ones are fully 
 ripe, as they will be liable to become shaken out and lost if the heads stand until the upper 
 portion is ready to harvest. 
 
 Giant Sainfoin {Onobrychis saliia hifcra). — There is little difference between this 
 variety and the preceding, except this is darker in color and grows more rapidly, besides 
 being somewhat larger and taller in the stalk, and the roots penetrate more deeply into the 
 soil. Though it matures more rapidly than the common sainfoin, during the first growth, 
 still the second crop of the giant variety is usually poor and straggling in most soils, with but 
 little leaf, while the other throws up a thick growth of leaves, abounding in nutriment after 
 
21;; THE AMERICAX FARMER. 
 
 being cut, consequently this is regarded with less favor by agriculturists than the common 
 
 variety. 
 
 Kidney Tetch (Anlhylh's vulneraria). — This plant is said to grow in the poorest soil, 
 and is found in various parts of Europe and Asia. It is much relished by cattle and sheep. 
 It is grown as a forage-plant in France, Germany, and some parts of England, being culti- 
 vated very much as clover is in some sections, that is, well harrowed into the oat or wheat 
 stubble soon after the harvest, to be ready for feeding in the following spring. It is quite 
 hardy and not easily exterminated by weeds, while as a forage-plant it possesses considerable 
 value. It should be cut just as it comes into bloom. This plant has not been cultivated in 
 the United States except by way of experiment,— and the results have not been sufficiently 
 satisfactory to warrant its general cultivation for agricultural purposes. 
 
 Tetell or Tare ( Vina satira). — Vetches of various kinds are cultivated as forage- 
 crops quite extensively, in many parts of Euroi^e. This variety is considered the most valu- 
 able by many. They are used green and much valued as food for horses, cattle, sheep, and 
 even hogs. An acre of good vetches fed in a yard or stable to avoid waste, will, according 
 to good authority, keep more horses than sis acres of good pasturage. They also are valuable 
 for milch-cows, both in increasing the flow of milk and enriching it. They can be sown in 
 autumn or spring. The " winter vetches " should be sown in August if possible, in order to 
 obtain a supply of good green food by the first of May, and so fill up the gap between the 
 root-crops of the previous autumn and the summer food ; whether for grazing or soiling, it 
 is important, according to British agriculture, to have the crop ready for use at about that 
 time. The later sowing in autumn will, of course, render the crop Inter the following spring. 
 The land should be dry, well-sheltered, and enriched by deep plowing, and from twelve to fif- 
 teen loads of barn-yard manure to the acre plowed in. It should then be well harrowed. 
 The seeds should be sown in drills, about a foot apart, about three and a half bushels per acre, 
 and covered rather deep to admit of the roots developing before the top-growth takes place. 
 As early in the spring as the state of the soil will admit, the crop should be hoed between the 
 drills, and a top-dressing of soot or guano applied at the rate of forty bushels of the former per 
 acre, or two hundred weight of the latter. The roller should then be used for the purpose of 
 smoothing the sm-face and pressing down the plants that have been loosened by the frost. 
 
 By combining the winter and spring vetches, and making several sowings of each in its 
 season at intervals of two or three weeks, it is practicable to have them fit for use from !May 
 to October and thus carry out a system of soiling by vetches alone, if desired. Some farmers 
 mix a half bushel of wheat or rye to the seed per acre, but this is not considered by some as 
 an advantage. Though cultivated to some extent in Canada, still, the dryer atmosphere of 
 our coimtry renders the growth less luxuriant and profitable than in England, 
 
 Spiirry {Spergula amensis). — This plant is sometimes used for forage to advantage on 
 thin soils. It is cultivated extensively in Germany and some other portions of Europe for 
 this purpose, also for the valuable oil and oil-cake its seeds produce. 
 
 It has been called '• the clover of poor soils," and it is stated of it, that if sown in March, 
 May, and July, and the throe crops plowed in, it fits the poorest soil for clover production. It 
 is a native of both America and Europe, and is found growing spontaneously in the ^iliddle 
 States, It is quite a hardy plant, and may be sown in the fall after a grain or early root 
 crop has been harvested, and plowed in the following spring. 
 
 Three crops can be easily cultivated in a single season. Van Voght says, that by alter- 
 nating these crops with rye, it will reclaim the worst sands, and yield nearly the same bene- 
 fits if pastured off by cattle ; while it adds materially to the advantages of other manui-es, if 
 apphed to the soil at the same time. It will grow on soils too poor for clover, but its roots 
 do not descend as deep into the soil as clover or lupine. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 217 
 
 The Cow, or Field Pea. — This is much cultivated in the Southern States, and is 
 more hke a bean in appearance tlian a pea, and belongs to the leguminous or pulse family. 
 The ease with which it can be cultivated, and its value as a forage-plant, as well as fertilizer 
 of the soil, have given it a prominence in Southern agriculture. Two crops from two succes- 
 sive plantings can be produced in one season, as it grows very rapidly. Hon. H. M. Polk of 
 Tennessee, in making a comparison between the field -pea and red clover, says: — 
 
 " The pea will thrive upon land too poor to grow clover. 
 
 It will produce a heavy and rich crop to be returned to the soil in a shorter period than 
 any vegetable fertilizer known. 
 
 Two crops can be produced on the same ground in one year; whereas it requires two 
 years for clover to give a hay crop, and good aftermath for turning under. In this time four 
 crops of peas can be made. 
 
 The pea feeds but lightly upon, and hence leaves largely in the soil, those particular ele- 
 ments necessary to a succeeding grain crop, and the pea lay, in its decay, puts back largely 
 into the soil those very elements required for a vigorous growth of the cereals. 
 
 There is no crop which is its equal for leaving the soil in the very best condition for a 
 succeeding wheat crop. 
 
 It is the only crop raised in the South so rapid in its growth and perfection as to be made 
 an intervening manurial crop between grain cut in the spring, and grain sowed in the faU, 
 upon the same ground. And this alone makes the pea invaluable to Southern agriculture. 
 
 In our particular latitude, it flourishes equally with clover; and with two such renqjpators 
 of the soil (aside from their value as food crops), no portion of the eai-th is equally blessed. 
 North of us, the pea does not succeed. 
 
 It is admirably adapted to other crops, producing in the space between our corn-rows 
 both a provision and a fertilizing crop, with positive benefit to the growing corn. 
 
 It aids in producing cheap beef, pork, milk, and butter. Without the pea, pork could 
 not be produced cheaply, where it costs so much to make corn. 
 
 It furnishes a double capacity for wintering stock, and with this a doubly-enlarged 
 manure heap. 
 
 The large plantations of the South can only be restored by green crops turned under, 
 iinited to a judicious system of rotation, looking to feeding the soil. This must be aided by 
 all the manure manufactured on the plantation. 
 
 By its use, large addition is made to humus, upon which the tilth, as well as capacity of 
 the soil for retaining moisture, so greatly depends. 
 
 As for the cultivation of the pea, one can scarcely go amiss. When two crops are 
 intended for renovating, break the land, sow broadcast, and harrow in. Or drill in rows 
 three feet apart, and plow out when a few inches high. When pods begin to ripen, if the 
 crop is intended for manurial purposes, plow under with large two-horse plow, with a well- 
 sharpened rolling coulter attached, or with chain passing from double-tree to beam of the 
 blow to hold the vines down for facilitating covering. A roller passed over the vines before 
 plowing under will assist the operation. Caustic lime should be sown upon the vines before 
 plowing under to promote decay, and neutralize the large amount of vegetable acid covered 
 into the soil. Select the pea which runs least. The vines are easiest covered into the soil. 
 They are the black bunch-pea, and the speckle, or whippoorwill-pea. 
 
 When planted in corn as a food crop, the bunch-pea ripens soonest; but the Carolina 
 cow-pea, the clay-pea, or the black stock-pea are preferable, as they do not readily rot from 
 wet weather, and will remain sound most of the winter. For early feeding of stock, plant 
 whipporwill-pea by itself in separate enclosure from corn, where stock can be turned upon 
 whenever desired. 
 
 Peas are often sowed upon the stubble after small grain is harvested. Flush up thv. 
 
■21S THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 ground, and sow either broadcast, or drill in furrow opened with shovel-plow, covering with 
 scooter furrow on each side. Block off or run over lightly with harrow and board attached. 
 Again, they are drilled in every fourth furrow, when turning over the stubble, the succeed- 
 ing furrow covering the peas. When either of these last modes of planting is adopted, the 
 peas sliould receive one good plowing out when they are from four to six inches high. 
 
 When planted in corn (the corn should have been drilled in rows five feet apart), they 
 should be step-dropped in a furrow equally distant from each corn-row, and covered with 
 scooter, with harrow or with block. This sliould be last of May or in the first ten days of June. 
 The only work they receive when planted in corn, is a shovel or sweep furrow run around them 
 when the corn is being " laid by," unless there is much grass, when it becomes necessary to give 
 them light hoeing. The crop might be said to be made almost without work when planted 
 with corn; in fact, it is often so made by those planters who sow peas broadcast in their corn, 
 and cover them with the last plowing given the corn. 
 
 There is much diversity of opinion as to the proper treatment of the vines in curing 
 them for winter hay. And as much has been written upon the subject, the writer feels 
 some diffidence in giving his own views. Suffice it to say, the great end to be attained is to 
 cure the vines to the extent only of getting rid of a part of the succulent moisture in the vine, 
 without burning up the leaves. When exposed to too much heat, the leaves fall very readily 
 from the stems, and are lost. 
 
 When put up too green and too compactly, they heat, and when fermentation of the 
 juices in the vine and unripe pods occurs, the hay is seriously damaged, if not completely 
 spoiled. Mildewed hay of any kind is but poor food for stock, and when eaten is only taken 
 from necessity to ward off starvation. Some planters house their pea-hay in open sheds, or 
 loosely in barns, with rails so fixed as to prevent compacting. Others stack in the open air 
 around poles having limbs from two to four feet long, to keep the mass of vines open to the 
 air, and cover the top with gi-ass. 
 
 There is a diversity of opinions as to the proper manner of curing and preserving this 
 hay, but there is none as to the value of this rich food for all stock, and especially for the 
 milch-cow in increasing the quality and quantity of her milk." 
 
 Lupine {Lupinus). — This is the name given to plants constituting the large genus Lupi- 
 nus, of the order Leguminosse. Its generic name is derived from the Latin lupus, a wolf, in 
 allusion to its ravenous appetite for certain alkaline constituents of soils, which it possesses to 
 the extent that, if cultivated and carried off the land for several years in succession, it will 
 exhaust the soil of alkaline properties; but where it is plowed under, or fed to cattle or sheep 
 upon the land, its effect is beneficial in enriching it. 
 
 The lupines are distinguished from other cultivated leguminous plants by their strong 
 branching habit of growth, and their handsome palmate leaves. One of the principal advan- 
 tages of cultivating lupines is that they will thrive on very poor sandy gravels, and tliin clays, 
 greatly benefiting the latter. They also make excellent green manure, while the seeds, which 
 are large when well soaked in water, make very good food for cattle. Sheep will thrive well 
 on the green plants, which they eat with great relish. 
 
 The plants are easily injured by the frost. The lupine has been cultivated in Italy and 
 France, and some other portions of Europe for ages. The yellow variety has there nearly 
 superseded the white, on account of its being more hardy and better able to endure frost. 
 Attempts have been made at different times to introduce the cultivation of this plant into tl.e 
 Southern States, which have not been very successful. We see no reason why it should not 
 prove beneficial as a rotation crop in that section, on lands that are too exhausted to bear 
 clover well. The seeds should not be planted until the season is sufficiently advanced for the 
 grass to be quite green. From forty to sixty quarts of seed per acre are required, sowed 
 broadcast, and harrowed in lightly. Care must be taken not to cover the seeds too deep, or 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 219 
 
 they will fail to germinate. If the weather is showery and warm after sowing, they will soon 
 make their appearance from the soil, but dry weather after sowing will necessitate a longer 
 time for starting. The plant at first seems to expend most of its energies in root formation, 
 and does not grow very fast, but, after the roots are well-formed, the growth of leaves and 
 branches is more rapid. 
 
 It is very important that the seeds be perfectly ripe when sowed, imperfectly ripened 
 seeds either failing to sprout, or producing sickly plants. The wild lupine of this country is 
 found growing in many sections in sandy soil. The most numerous species of this plant in 
 the United States are found west of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The cultivated lupine will grow well in all except calcareous soils, but seems to thrive 
 best m a sandy soil. 
 
 Prickly Conifrey {Symjihi/tum asperrimum). — This variety of comfrey was first intro- 
 duced into England from Caucasus, as an ornamental plant. It grows luxuriantly, and is 
 very hardy; so much so that it is difBcult to eradicate it when once it has possession of 
 the soil. 
 
 A few years since it engaged the attention of agriculturists as a forage plant, and much 
 was said and written pro and con on the subject. Its cultivation has not, however, grown 
 into general practice among farmers, although it is cultivated to a limited extent in some 
 localities. It produces an immense amount of fodder per acre, while, being a deeply-rooted 
 plant, it is not easily affected by drought or excessive moisture, and roots out effectually other 
 plants when once established in the soil. It starts early in the spring and remains late. It is 
 a large, coarse-leaved p)lant, remarkable for the prickly bristles with which it is covered. One 
 farmer who favors its cultivation, says that he has cut 24 pounds of green fodder from one 
 hill at the third cutting in the season, which would be an average of 53 tons per acre, the 
 hills being three feet apart each way. 
 
 The advocates of its culture claim that it is especially adapted for the fattening of stock, 
 and increasing the milk of cows; while the objectors claim that it is difiicult to make stock 
 eat it at all, as long as they can find anything else to eat. Hogs will eat it more readily than 
 other stock. 
 
 Its culture is very simple. It cannot be grown from seed, and is propagated from cut- 
 tings. The best way to cultivate it, is to sprout the cuttings of the roots in a hot-bed, or by 
 covering them with an inch of moist earth, and two or three inches of horse-manure. When 
 sprouted, they may be planted in the field (which should be of rich, mellow soil, well plowed 
 and harrowed), three feet apart each way, with plenty of well-pulverized manure under them. 
 It should be kept well-cultivated at first to keep out the weeds, and will do better not to make 
 any cuttings during the first year. After that, three cuttings per season can be made. In 
 winter the roots ought to be well-dressed with manure. When once established, it is culti- 
 vated with little labor. It should not be allowed to flower. It requires about 3,000 sets of 
 plants per acre, one pound of the roots making about 175 cuttings. 
 
 Having had no experience in its cultivation, we cannot speak from that knowledge, but 
 from information gained from various sources, we doubt whether it will ever be a general 
 favorite, as a forage plant, with the majority of farm^ri. 
 
220 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER 
 
 LIST OF GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 THE following table, giving the list of grasses and forage plants, with their common 
 and botanical names, their time of blossoming, whether wild or cultivated, and their 
 place of growth, may be of interest as well as practical benefit to many farmers. In 
 n-iving the scientific names, the first word that occurs in parenthesis is the name of the genus; 
 the second, that of the species; as, for instance, in herds-grass (Phleum pratense), Phleum 
 is the generic name, pratense the specific. A genus often contains many species. 
 
 List of Grasses and Forace Plants. 
 
 Common Name. 
 
 Botanical Name. 
 
 Time of 
 Blossoming. 
 
 Wild or 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Place of Growth. 
 
 Rice Grass, 
 
 Leersia oryzoides, 
 
 August, 
 
 Wild, . . 
 
 Low wet places. 
 
 White Grass, 
 
 Leersia Virgiuica, 
 
 August, 
 
 
 Damp woods 
 
 Indian Rice, 
 
 Zizania aquatica. 
 
 August, 
 
 " 
 
 Borders of streams. 
 
 Meadow Foxtail, 
 
 Alopecurus pratensis. 
 
 May, . 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Floating Foxtail, 
 
 Alopecurus geniculatus, . 
 
 Julv. Aug. . 
 
 Wild, . . . 
 
 Wet meadows, ditches. 
 
 Slender Foxtail, 
 
 Alopecurus agrestis, . 
 
 Jul'y, . . 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 In wet meadows. 
 
 Wild Water Foxtail, . 
 
 Alopecunis aristulatus, . 
 
 June to Aug. 
 
 " 
 
 Timothy, or Herds-grass, . 
 
 Phleum pratense. 
 
 June, July, 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Rush Grass, 
 
 Vilfa aspera, 
 Sporobolus serotinus. 
 
 September, 
 
 Wild, 
 
 Dry sandy soils. • 
 
 Late Drop-seed, . 
 
 September, 
 July, . 
 
 
 Wet sands. 
 
 Redtop, .... 
 
 Agrostis vulgaris. 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 English Bent, 
 
 Agrostis alba, 
 
 July. . 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 Moist meadows. 
 
 
 Agrostis stolonifera, . 
 
 July, . . 
 
 
 Brown' Bent, 
 
 Agrostis cauina, 
 
 June, July, 
 
 — — 
 
 Fields and pasturet. 
 
 Tickle Grass, 
 
 Agrostis scabra. 
 
 June, July, 
 
 Wild, 
 
 Old fields. 
 
 Southern Bent, . 
 
 Agrostis dispar, . 
 
 July, . . 
 
 Cultivated, . 
 
 Fields, pastures. 
 
 Annual Beard Grass, 
 
 Polypogon monspeliensie, 
 
 June, July, 
 
 Wild, 
 
 Near the coast. 
 
 Wood-reed Grass, 
 
 Cinna arundinacea. . 
 
 July, Ang. . 
 
 
 Shadv swamps. 
 
 Nimble Will, 
 
 MuhlenhiTda diffusa. 
 
 Aug. Sept. . 
 
 " 
 
 Dry liills, woods. 
 
 Mexican Muhlenbergia, . 
 
 Miililriil»i-i:i Mexicana, . 
 
 August, 
 
 " 
 
 Low grounds. 
 
 Sylvan Muhlenbergia, 
 
 Muhlnibcru'ia sylvatica, . 
 
 Aug. Sept. . 
 
 *' 
 
 Rocky woods. 
 
 AwnlesB Muhlenbergia, . 
 
 Mnliienhrisria sobolifera, . 
 
 Aug. Sei)t. . 
 
 " 
 
 Open rocky woods. 
 
 Willdenow's Muhlenbergia, 
 
 Muhlenbergia Willdenovii, 
 
 Aug. Sept. . 
 
 
 Open rocky woods. 
 
 Awned Brachyelytrum, . 
 
 Brachyelytrum aristatum. 
 
 June, . 
 
 " 
 
 Rocky woods. 
 
 Blue Joint Grass, 
 
 Calamagrostis Canadensis, 
 
 July. . . 
 
 
 Wet grounds. 
 
 Glaucous Small Reed, 
 
 CalanuiL'rostis coarctata, . 
 
 August, 
 
 
 Wet grounds. 
 
 Beach Grass, Sea Reed, 
 
 Aiiiiii i'l'liil 1 :ntindinacea. 
 
 August, 
 
 Wild & cultiv'd, 
 
 Drifting sands. 
 
 Upright Sea Lyme Grass, . 
 
 r m: - ' '.'ii ins, 
 
 July, . . 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 Drifting sands. 
 
 Mountain Rice, . 
 
 M - . :;inoearpa, . 
 
 August, 
 
 Wild, 
 
 Rocky woods. 
 
 Feather Grass, . 
 
 ^! 111 J 1 - I'll, II r:i. . 
 
 July. . 
 
 
 Drv sandy woods. 
 
 Poverty Grrss, . 
 
 Aiistida dichotoma, . 
 
 September, 
 
 
 Sandy fields, pine barrens. 
 
 Fresh Water Cord Grass, . 
 
 Spartina cynosuroides. 
 
 August, 
 
 *' 
 
 Banks of streams. 
 
 Salt Reed Grass, 
 
 SiKirtina polystachya. 
 
 — — 
 
 " 
 
 Braclcish marshes. 
 
 Rush Salt Grass, 
 
 Spartina juncea. 
 
 August, 
 
 
 Salt marshes, beaches. 
 
 Salt Marsh Grass, 
 
 Spartina strictJl, 
 Tricuspis purpurea, . 
 Dactylis glomerata, . 
 
 — — 
 
 
 Sea-coast. 
 
 Sand Grass, 
 
 Aug. Sept. . 
 
 
 Dry sands on the coast. 
 
 Orchard Grass, . 
 
 June, 
 
 Cultivated, '. 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 Moist wood^. 
 
 Pennsylvanian Etonia, 
 
 Eat(ini;i Pennsylvanica, . 
 
 June, . . 
 
 Wild, 
 
 E ittlcsnake Grass, . 
 
 C,]'. 1 1 ; 1 1 i'',iii,i(icnsis, 
 
 July. . 
 
 
 Wet bogs. 
 
 Obtuse Spear Grass, . 
 
 'i' '■' .-.'I, 
 
 August, 
 
 " 
 
 Borders of ponds. 
 
 Long Panicled Manna Grass, 
 
 1 1 11.1 jata. 
 
 June, July, 
 
 
 Woods and swamps. 
 
 Meadow Spear Grass, 
 
 ( ;i\ 1 1 1 !,i III |-\ :lta. 
 
 June. July, 
 
 Wild & ciiltiVd, 
 
 Moist and wet meadows. 
 
 Pale Manna Grass, . 
 
 Glyiaria pallula,' 
 
 July, . . 
 
 Wild, 
 
 Shallow water. 
 
 Spike Grass, 
 
 lirizopyrum spicatum, 
 
 August, 
 
 
 Salt marshes. 
 
 June Grass, 
 
 Poa pratensis, . 
 
 June, July, 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Blue Grass, 
 
 Poa compressa, . 
 
 Julv. Aug. . 
 
 
 Drv road-sides and pastures. 
 
 Annual Spear Grass, . 
 
 Poa annua 
 
 April to Oct. 
 
 Wild, '. '. 
 
 Fi.'ia. and pastures. 
 
 Rough Stalked Meadow, . 
 
 Poa trivialis. 
 
 July, . . 
 
 Cultivated, . 
 
 Fiilds and |la^tures. 
 
 Wood Meadow Grass, 
 
 Poa niemoralis, . 
 
 June, . 
 
 WUd, 
 
 Fii-l.ls and i.a>liires. 
 
 Sea Spear Grass, 
 
 Poa maritima, . 
 
 Julv, . 
 
 
 Bv the sea sidr. 
 
 Common Manna Grass, . 
 
 Poa fluitans, 
 
 Juiie, . 
 
 
 Moist and muddy ditches. 
 
 Wavy Meadow Grass, 
 
 Poa la.™ 
 
 July, . . 
 
 
 High rockv hills. 
 
 Water Spear Grass, . 
 
 Poa aquatica. 
 
 August, 
 
 
 In wet soils. 
 
 Fowl Meadow, . 
 
 Poa serotina. 
 
 July & Aug. 
 
 Cidtivated, '. 
 
 In wet soils. 
 
 Creeping Meadow, 
 
 Eragroslis reptans. . 
 
 July & Aug. 
 
 Wild, 
 
 Sandy river-banks. 
 
 Strong-scented Meadow, . 
 
 Eragrostis powoides. 
 
 Aug. * Sept. 
 
 
 Sandy fields, road-sides. 
 
 Slender Meadow, 
 
 Eragrostis pilosa. 
 
 ,\us:ust, 
 
 
 Sandy and gravelly places. 
 
 Quaking Grass, . 
 
 Briza media, 
 
 June, . 
 
 
 Pastures. 
 
 Small Fescue Grass, . 
 
 Festuca tenella, . 
 
 Julv. . 
 
 
 Drv sterile soils. 
 
 Sheep's Fescue, . 
 Meadow Fescue, 
 
 Festuca ovina, . 
 
 Juil". . 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 High pastures and hills. 
 
 Festuca pratensis, 
 
 June, . 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Tall Fescue Grass, . 
 
 Festuca elatior. . 
 
 June, July, 
 
 " 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Hard Fescue Grass, . 
 
 Festuca duriuscula, . 
 
 June, . 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Red Fescue Grass, . 
 
 Festuca rubra, . 
 
 — — 
 
 Wild. '. '. 
 
 Sandy places by the sea. 
 
 Slender Fescue, . 
 
 Festuca lohacea. 
 
 — — 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 Moist meadows, pastures. 
 
 Nodding Fescue, 
 
 Festuca Nutans, 
 
 Julv, . 
 
 Wild, 
 
 Rocky woods 
 
 Crested Dog's Tail, . 
 
 Cvnosurus crislatus, . 
 
 July. , 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Willard's Bromus, 
 
 Bromus sccaliuus. . 
 
 June, July, 
 
 
 Fields, and in grain crops. 
 
 Smooth Brome Grass, 
 
 Brouuis raceiuo.sus, . 
 
 June, . 
 
 Wild, '. 
 
 Grain fields. 
 
 Soft Chess, .... 
 
 Bromus mollis, . 
 
 June, . 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN DESCRIBIXG GRASSES. 
 
 list of Grasses and Forage Plants. — I'ontinned. 
 
 221 
 
 Common Xamc. 
 
 Botanical Name. 
 
 Time of 
 Blossoming. 
 
 ci![tiva?ed. Place of Growth. 
 
 Wild Chess. 
 
 Bromns Kalmit, 
 
 June, July, 
 
 Wild, . . : Dry, ojien woods 
 
 Fringed Brome Grass, 
 
 LVomus ciliatus. 
 
 July, Aug. . 
 
 
 Rocky hills, woods. 
 
 MeaiTow Brome, 
 
 Bromns pratensis. 
 
 July, . . 
 
 
 Dry. arid pastures. 
 
 Common Reed Grass, 
 
 Phragmites communis, 
 
 September, 
 
 
 Swamps and edges of ponds. 
 
 Perennial Rve Grass, 
 
 Lolium perenne, 
 Lolium Italicum, 
 
 June, . . 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Italian Rve Grass, . 
 
 June, . 
 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Bearded Darnel,. 
 
 Loliimi temulentum, . 
 
 July, . . 
 
 
 
 
 Grain fields. 
 
 M.iny-flowered Darnel, 
 
 Lolium mnltitlorum, 
 
 June, July, 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Couch, or Tivitch Grass, . 
 
 Triticum repens. 
 
 June, July, 
 
 Wild, 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Sqnirrel-tail Grass, . 
 
 Hordeum jubatimi, . 
 
 June. . 
 
 
 
 Salt marshes. 
 
 Lvme Grass, 
 
 Elymus Virginicus, . 
 
 Julv & Aug. 
 
 
 
 Banks of rivers. 
 
 Canadian Lj-me Grass, 
 
 Eiymus Canadensis. . 
 
 August, . 
 
 
 
 River banks. 
 
 Slender Hairy Lime, . 
 
 Elymus striatus. 
 
 July, . 
 
 
 
 River banks. 
 
 Bottle-briish Grass, . 
 
 Gymnostichum Hystrix, . 
 
 July, . . 
 
 
 
 Moist, rocky woods. 
 Dry, rocky hills. 
 
 Wood Hair Grass, 
 
 Aira flexuosa, 
 
 June, . 
 
 
 
 Hassock Grass, . 
 
 Aira c;uspitosa, . 
 
 June, Julv, 
 
 
 
 Marshy, wet bottoms. 
 
 Wild Oat Grass, 
 
 Danthonia, spicta. 
 
 June, . ■ . 
 
 
 
 Dry pastures. 
 
 Djwny Persoon, 
 
 Trisetiim mollis. 
 
 Julv, . 
 
 
 
 Rocky river banks. 
 
 Downy Oat Grass, 
 
 Ti-isetum pubescens, 
 
 July, . . 
 
 " 
 
 
 Poor, dry pastures. 
 
 Meadow Oat Grass, . 
 
 Avena pratLii!^i.s. 
 
 Julv, . 
 
 '* 
 
 
 Pastures. 
 
 Yellow Oat Grass, 
 
 Avena flavcsceus. 
 
 July. . 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Tall Meadow Oat Grass, . 
 
 Arrhenathcruni avenacenm, 
 
 Jlav, June, 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Meadow Soft Grass, . 
 
 Holcus lanatus, . 
 
 June, . 
 
 
 1 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Creeping Soft Grass, . 
 
 Holcus mollis, . 
 
 — — 
 
 Wild, ! 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Seneca Grass. 
 
 Hierochloa horealis. • 
 
 May. . 
 
 
 Wet meadows. 
 
 Sweet-scented Vernal, 
 
 Anthoxaiithnm odoratnm. 
 
 May. June, 
 
 
 i Fields and pastures. 
 
 Reed Canary Grass, . 
 
 Phalaris orundinacea. 
 
 JulV, . . 
 
 
 \ By running streams. 
 
 Common Canary Grass, , 
 
 Phalaris Canariensis, 
 
 Julv. Aug. . 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 
 Gardens. 
 
 Millet Grass. 
 
 Millium efEusum. 
 
 June. . . 
 
 Wild, 
 
 
 Damp, cold woods. 
 
 Hairy Slender Paspalum, . 
 
 Paspalum setaceum, . 
 
 August, 
 
 
 
 Sandy fields by the sea. 
 
 Slender Crab Grass, . 
 
 Panicum filiforme, . 
 
 August, 
 
 '• 
 
 
 Dry sands on the coast. 
 
 Smooth Crab Grass, . 
 
 Panicum glabrum, . 
 
 Aug. Sept. . 
 
 *' 
 
 
 Fields and waste places. 
 
 Fineter Grass, 
 
 Panicum sangiiinale. 
 
 Aug. to Oct. 
 
 
 
 Neglected fields and gardens. 
 
 Agfostis-like Panic, . 
 
 Panicum agrostoides. 
 
 July. Aug. . 
 
 '* 
 
 
 Wet meadows and river banks. 
 
 Prolific Panic Grass, . 
 
 Panicum prolifernm. 
 
 July, Aug. . 
 
 
 
 Brackish marshes. 
 
 Hair-Stalked Panic, . 
 
 Panicum capillare, . 
 
 Aug. Sept. . 
 
 *' 
 
 
 Drv sandy fields. 
 
 Tall Smooth Panic, . 
 
 Panicum virgatnm, . 
 
 August. 
 
 
 
 Mo"ist sandy fields. 
 
 Broad-leaved Panic, . 
 
 Panicum latffolium, . 
 
 June, July, 
 
 
 
 Damp thickets. 
 
 Barn Grass, 
 
 Panicum crus-^alii, . 
 
 Aug- Sept. . 
 
 
 
 Rich cultivated grounds. 
 
 Bristly Foxtail, . 
 
 Setaria verticiUata, . 
 
 — — 
 
 
 
 About farm-houses. 
 
 Bottle Grass, 
 
 Setaria glauca, . 
 
 July, . . 
 
 
 
 Fields and barn-yards. 
 
 Green Foxtail, . 
 
 Setaria viridis, . 
 
 
 
 
 Cultivated fields. 
 
 Bengal Grass, 
 
 Setaria Italica, . 
 
 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 
 Fields. 
 
 Bur Grass, .... 
 
 Cenchrns tribuloides, 
 
 Au^iet, 
 
 Wild, 
 
 
 Sands near the coast. 
 
 G:ima Grass, 
 
 Tripsaenm dactyloides, . 
 Anoropogon furcatns, 
 
 August. 
 
 
 
 Moist places on the coast. 
 
 Finger-spiked Wood, 
 
 September, 
 July to Sept. 
 
 '* 
 
 
 Sterile, rocky hills. 
 
 Purple-wood Grass, . 
 
 Andropogon scoparius. 
 
 
 
 Sterile, sandy plains. 
 
 Indian Grass, 
 
 Sorghum nutans, 
 
 August, 
 
 
 
 Dry soils. 
 
 Indian Millet, . 
 
 Sorghum vulgare. 
 
 — — 
 
 Cultivated, 
 
 
 Cultivated fields. 
 
 Hungarian Millet, 
 
 Panicum germanicum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cultivated grounds. 
 
 Chinese Suffar Cane, 
 
 Sorghum saccharatum, 
 
 July, . . 
 
 
 
 Fields and gardens. 
 
 Red Clover, 
 
 Trifolium pratense, . 
 
 June. July, 
 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 White Clover, . 
 
 Trifolium repens. 
 
 May to Sept. 
 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Lucern, .... 
 
 Medicago sativa, 
 
 June. Julv. 
 
 
 
 Fields and pastures. 
 
 Sainfoin 
 
 Hedysarnm onobr5chis. . 
 
 June. July. 
 
 
 
 Cultivated fields. 
 
 Glossary of Terms used in Pescribing Grasses. 
 
 Acuminate — Extending into a long, tapering point. 
 
 Acute — Sharp-pointed. 
 
 Annual — Li\ing tlirougli one season only. 
 
 Anther — The upper part of the stamen containing the pollen or fertilizing powder. 
 
 Awn — A bristle-like process proceeding from or attached to the glumes or palets of some 
 grasses. 
 
 Biennial — Living through two seasons. 
 
 Boat-shaped — Concave within and convex without, as the glumes and palets of some 
 flowers. 
 
 Bristles — Short, stiff hairs. 
 
 Bulbous — The base of the stem thickened so as to make a hard, roundish mass, as in tim- 
 othy grass (^Phletan pratense). 
 
 despitose — Growing in bunches or tufts. 
 
 Cauline — Relating to or growing from the stem or culm. 
 
 Ciliate — Having the margin fringed with hairs. 
 
222 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 Culm — The stem or straw of a grass ; when the stem creeps upon or under the ground it 
 is called a rhizoma. 
 
 Decumbent — Leaning on the ground at the lower part but rising at the top. 
 
 Dirjilale — Branching finger-like from a common center, as the spikes of Crab-grass (Pan- 
 icum sanguinalej. 
 
 Dioecious — The two sexes separated and growing on different plants, as in Buffalo-grass 
 [Buchloe dactyloides). 
 
 Entire — ^Yithout notches on the margin. 
 
 Exserted — Protruded beyond the flower, as the stamens of grasses usually are when in 
 bloom. 
 
 Fertile — Producing friiit. 
 
 Fibrous — Composed of thread-like fibers, as the roots of most grasses. 
 
 Floret — A little flower ; a pair of palets with the iaclosed stamens and pistil. There may 
 be many of these in a spikelet. 
 
 Glabrous — Smooth ; destitute of hairs or roughness. 
 
 Glumes — The outer or lower pair of bracts or scales in a spikelet, and inclosing one or 
 more, sometimes many, flowers or florets. 
 
 Hirsute — Rough-haired, bearded. 
 
 Indigenous — Growing naturally in a country. 
 
 Internode — The space between the nodes or joints. 
 
 Keel — A sharp ridge along the middle of a glume or palet resembling the keel of a boat. 
 
 Lamina or Blade — The extended part of a leaf, generally open and fiat, but sometimes 
 rolled inward longitudinally, when it is said to be involute. 
 
 Ligule — A small leaf -Like appendage, usually thin and semi-transparent (membranaceous), 
 found at the lower part of the leaf or at the top of the sheath. It is said to be entire when 
 there are no divisions in its outline ; bifid, when it is divided at the apex into two parts ; lacer- 
 ated, when it is cut or divided on the margin ; truncated, when the upper part terminates 
 abruptly in a transverse line, as if cut off. 
 
 Membranaceous — Thin and translucent, like a membrane. 
 
 Nerves — Rib-like elevations on the leaves, glumes, and palets. 
 
 Neutral Floiver — One ha\"ing neither stamens nor pistil. 
 
 Nodes — Knots in the culm where the leaves are given off. 
 
 Oblong — Longer than wide, with the sides nearly parallel. 
 
 Obtuse — Blunt-pointed. 
 
 Ovary — The portion of a flower containing the o\Tiles or seeds. 
 
 Palet or Paha — The inner scales or bracts inclosing the stamens and pistil. 
 
 Panicle — The flowering part of the stem or culm of grasses, usually composed of a num- 
 ber of series or whorls of branches or rays, which are again divided into secondaiy branches. 
 These may be short and close to the stem, or they may be long and spreading. 
 
 Perennial — Living for more than two years ; indefinitely. 
 
 Pistil — The central organ of a fertile flower, usually consisting of an ovary, style, and 
 stigma. 
 
 Pollen — The fertilizing powder contained in the anthers. 
 
 Pubescent — Covered with soft hairs. 
 
 Bachis — ,The name given to that kind of flowering branch where the flowers are arranged 
 closely together on its sides without stalks or pedicUs, as in Paspalum, and in the ultimate 
 branches of the panicle. 
 
 Radical leaves — Those growing from the root. 
 
 Spikelet — The ultimate di\nsions of the panicles or flower-heads ; they may be one-flow- 
 ered, that is, a pair of glumes enveloping a single flower of a pair of palets (or sometimes one 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 223 
 
 palet) with the inclosed stamens and pistil ; or they may be two or more flowered, there being 
 but one pair of glumes to each spikelet, whether it be one or many-flowered. 
 
 Sheath — That part of the leaf which clasps the stem ; it answers to the petiole or leaf- 
 stalk. 
 
 Spike — When the flowers are sessile or without branches, as in Timothy grass (^Phkum 
 pra(ense'). 
 
 Stamens — The organs of the flower which contain the pollen, consisting of the filament 
 and the anthers. 
 
 Stigma — The extremity of the pistil which receives the pollen. 
 
 WhorJ — A number of leaves or branches starting from one line on the stem. 
 
 Grouping of Grasses. — Grasses may be separated into five distinct groups, according 
 to their marked peculiarities of growth: — 
 
 First, we find the bush or jungle grasses, or such as are not inclined to grow with other 
 species and form a close, matted turf or sward, such for example as the Tufted Plair Grass, 
 (Aira coespitosa,) Meadow Oat Grass, [Avena jjratensis,) Tall Fescue Grass, (Festuca elaiior,) 
 etc. 
 
 A few other grasses, if sown alone, will assume somewhat the same form in tufts or 
 cushions, as Sheep's Fescure, {Festuca ovina,) Hard Fescue, {Festuca duriuscula.) and Orchard 
 Grass, (Dactylis rjlomerala.) This pecuharity in the growth of the last three grasses is pre- 
 vented by close pasturing, rolUng, and proper cultivation. These operations improve their 
 natural tendencies, since, if left to themselves, they would be liable to assume the Jungle 
 growth, such as is often seen in poor, thin pasture soils, a close, fine, matted sward being at- 
 tained only by careful cultivation. 
 
 Second in order, the aquatic or water grasses form another distinct group, among which 
 may be found the Reed Canary Grass, (Phalaris arundinacea,) Common Reed Grass, [Arundo 
 Phrarjmiies,) Water Spear Grass (Poa aqualica,) Common Manna Grass [Poa fluitans,) Rice Grass, 
 {Leersia oryzoides,) Floating Foxtail, (Ahpecurus geniculatus,) Wild Rice, {Zizania aquatica.) 
 These grasses grow mostly in water and are not cultivated generally as agricultural grasses 
 with the exception perhaps of the first. 
 
 Wild rice grass is sometimes cultivated at the South, where it yields often very large 
 crops. Floating Foxtail is also cultivated in Europe. 
 
 Third, Marsh or Salt Grasses, among which we find the Salt Reed Grass (Spartina 
 poli/slachya,) Rush Salt Grass, [Spartina juncea.) Salt Marsh Grass, (Spartina siricia,) Black 
 Grass, [Juncus bulbosus,) Beach Grass, (Atnmophila arundinacea.) Goose Grass, (Poa marilima.) 
 , Fourth in order, we have the field or pasture grasses. Under this head may be in- 
 cluded a very large number of species. These grasses might be subdivided according to the soils 
 and situations which they naturally affect; for though a grass may sometimes be found or 
 placed in a soil which is not naturally fitted for it, yet no species will arrive at its most per- 
 fect development on a soil not well adapted to it. Among these might Ijc mentioned as es.- 
 amples Timothy, (P/iZewTO pra/e«se,) Meadow 'S'os.t&il, (Ahpecurus pratensis,) Common Spear 
 Grass, (Poa pratensis,) Orchard Grass, (Dactylis glomerata,) Terennial Rye Grass, (Lolium 
 perenne,) Italian Rye Grass, (Lolium italicum,) Redtop, (Agrostis vulgaris,) Whitetop, (Agrostis 
 alba,) Downy Oat Grass, (Avena pubescens,) Meadow Soft Giitsi, (Holcus lanatus,) Meadow 
 Fescue, (Festuca pratensis,) Field Barley Grass, (Hordeum pratense,) Tall Oat Grass, (Arrhena- 
 theruni avenaceum,) etc. 
 
 Fifth in order may be classed the annual weeds, which, though proper grasses, are often 
 very troublesome in cultivated grounds, either on account of their creeping, underground 
 stems, or their rapid and luxuriant growth. Thrifty farming is a ceaseless struggle against 
 these pests, and the farmer is generally careful to keep as clear as possible of them. Among 
 
224 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 these may be named Willard's Bromus. (^Bromus sccahniis,) Soft Brome Grass, (^Bromiis mollis,) 
 Slender Foxtail, [Alopecurus agrestis,) Creeping Bent Grass, (Agrostis stolonifera,) Cuuch or 
 Twitch Grass, (Trtticum repens,) Rough Stalked Meadow Grass, {Poa irivialis,) Annual Meadow 
 Grass, (^Poa annua.) 
 
 Of these, the last three are not always considered as weeds, since they are sometimes sown 
 as pasture grasses; but when they appear in cultivated grounds, in gravel walks and avenues, 
 they are exceedingly troublesome and difficult to eradicate. Each of the groups previously 
 indicated may be considerably enlarged by a consideration of the natural habits of grasses. 
 
 Many of the grasses which have been described possess but little value for the purposes 
 of cultivation, it is true, but it should not be forgotten that they all liave their uses, and 
 these uses in the grand economy of nature are exceedingly important, however they may 
 appear to our short-sighted vision. No plant comes up to the sunlight, or expands its beauti- 
 ful leaves, that does not derive its support in part from the atmosphere, and even tliough its 
 life be short, it adds materially in its decay to the vast mass of vegetable mould which covers 
 the surface of the globe and forms the richness of the soO. This surface mould has been 
 accumulating for ages in many localities; every plant that grew in ages past bringing dov>"n 
 to us in a tangible form the riches with which the air that surrounded it was stored. v,-hich 
 now lie waiting the farmers' use in meadows of exhaustless fertility, in swamps and bogs of 
 vast, increasing utility in oiy agriculture, and in beds of peat, the value of which we have 
 scarcely begun to appreciate. Thus, the grasses which are not cultivated for their direct 
 nutritive qualities, are not without their value, and they deserve our careful study and 
 sttention. 
 
 Nutritive Talue of Grasses. — DifEerent species of grass differ very materially in 
 nutritive value, habits of growth, etc., as we have already considered, some being exceedingly 
 nutritious, others possessing but little nutritive value; some yielding a luxuriant aftermatli, 
 while others can scarcely be said to produce any at all; some flourishing in elevated situa- 
 tions are best suited to the grazing of sheep, while others grow most luxuriantly on the low 
 lands in marshes, and sustain the richest dairies, no soil being so sterile, no plain so barren, 
 but that a grass can be found adapted to it. 
 
 Some varieties, indeed, will not endure a soU even of medium fertility, nor the applica- 
 tion of any stimulating manure, but chng with astonishing tenacity to the drifting sands, 
 while others prefer the heavdest clays or revel in the hot beds of ammonia. Some are grega- 
 rious in their habits, requiring to be sown with other species, and if sown alone will linger 
 along till the wild grasses spring up to their support; others are solitary, and if mixed with 
 different species wUl either extirpate them, usurping to themselves the entire soil, or die and 
 disappear. Nearly every species is distinguished for some peculiar quality, and most, are 
 deficient in some, comparatively few combining all the qualities desired by us in alternate 
 field-crops, for pastures or permanent mowing, to such an extent as to justify a general cul- 
 tivation. It is important, therefore, to learn the comparative nutritive value of each species 
 thought to be worth cultivating. 
 
 This study is naturally attended with great difficulties, but sufficiently accurate researches 
 have been made with a ^-iew of arriving at such positive results as would be entitled to full 
 confidence. It is now very well established that the nutritive value of the food of an animal 
 depends chiefly upon the proportion of nitrogenous substances contained in it. Without doubt, 
 the sugar which is found to be an ingredient of most vegetable substances at some periods of 
 their growth, in some degree contributes to it also. The nitrogenous coustitutents of any sub- 
 stance, as grass or hay, for instance, may be determined with Httle difiiculty and with great 
 exactness, since it has been found by abundant research, that, when present, they are of nearly 
 the same constitution, and do not vary in their combinations. The determination of the sugar 
 is somewhat more difficult. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 225 
 
 The constituents of plants may be divided into two classes, one class embracing all those 
 substances of which nitrogen or azote forms a part, and the other consisting of non-nitroge- 
 nous bodies. Gluten, albumen, gelatine, casein, legumen, and fibrin, b.-long to the former 
 class, being nitrogenous substances, while starch, gum, sugar, woody fiber, mucilage, etc., are 
 destitute of nitrogen, or non-nitrogenous. 
 
 Only a small quantity of nitrogen is found in vegetable substances, and it is derived, in 
 part, at least, from the atmosphere, in the form of ammonia. On the other hand, nitrogenous 
 substances form a large proportion of the constituents of the blood of animals, and appear in 
 th?ir whole system. As there is a constant wa'-te in the animd, and a continual formation of 
 new tissues, — as the whole body is constantly renewed through the agency of the blood 
 which is converted into flesh and muscle, — there must be a never-failing supply of nourish- 
 ment, and this nourishment for the higher animals is found, as already intimated, in the nitro- 
 genous elements of plants. 
 
 For every ounce of nitrogen which the animal requires to sustain life and health, he 
 must take into the stomach, in the shape of food, such a quantity of vegetable subs: ances as 
 will furnish him with an ounce of nitrogen. If we siippose one kind of hay to contain one 
 ounce of nitrogen to the pound, and another to have only half as much, or only an oimce in 
 two pounds, the pound which contains the ounce of nitrogen would go as far to nourish the 
 animal — other things being equal — as the two pounds which contain only the same quantity 
 of nitrogen. The importance of wbody fiber to act mechanically in giving bulk to the food, 
 is not, of course, to be overlooked. 
 
 Nor is this a mere deduction of theory. The ej^eriment has frequently been made, and 
 it is now fully established both by science and experience, that the greater the proportion of 
 nitrogen which any vegetable contains, the smaller will be the quantity of that vegetable 
 required to nourish the animal body, and the less nitrogen any vegetable contains, the greater 
 will be the quantity of it required, iluscle and flesh are composed of nitrogenous principles, 
 while fat is made up of non-nitrogenous matter. Every keeper of stock knows that to feed 
 an animal on oil-cake alone, for instance, which is but slightly nitrogenous, might fatten him, 
 but it would not give him strength of muscle or size; while if the same animal be kept on the 
 cereal grains, as wheat or Indian corn, alone, his size rapidly increases, his muscular system 
 develops, and he gains flesh without increasing his fat in proportion. 
 
 The non-nitrogenous substances are necessary for the production of fat to supply the ani- 
 mal body with heat, and thus they meet a want m the animal economy, although they do not 
 contribute so directly to nourish and sustain the system. They are, therefore, important in 
 the analyses of articles of food, though not so essential in determining merely their nutritive 
 values. 
 
 From what has been said, the reader will very readily understand the following tables 
 containing the results of the investigation of Prof. Way. The specimens of the various 
 grasses on which his researches were made, were analyzed both in their green state as taken 
 from the field, and after being dried at a temperature of 212° Fahr., a point at which the 
 moisiure is foimd to he entirely expelled and evaporation ceases, and the importance of both 
 determinations must be obvious on a moment's reflection. 
 
 The inquiries of Prof. Way were directel to ascertain 
 
 1. The joroportion of water in each grass as taken from the field. 
 
 2. The proportion of albuminous or flesh-fo:m:ng substances, including, without dis- 
 tinction, all the nitrogenous principles. 
 
 3. The proportion of oily or fatty matters which may be called /ht-forming principles. 
 
 ■1. The proportion of elements of respiration, or heat-producing principles, among which 
 are included starch, gum. sugar, pectic acid, etc.; all the non-nitrogenous substances, indeed, 
 except fatty matters and woody fiber. 
 
226 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 5. The proportion of woody fiber. 
 
 6. The amount of mineral matter or ash. 
 
 The specimens were picked out, plant by plant, each specimen by itself, from fields in 
 which they were growmg naturally, or mixed in the ordinary mode of cultivation, and 
 were not raised expressly for analysis. 
 
 The results of the analysis of the natural grasses in the green state, are arranged in the 
 following table: — 
 
 Table I. — Analysis of Natural Grasses. {100 parls, as taken green from the field.) 
 
 
 
 sis 
 
 S 
 
 I'i- 
 
 tZ 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 Name of Grass. 
 
 g 
 
 ^<s!§* 
 
 S 
 >> 
 
 ■?■= fc g. 
 
 
 •^ ja 
 
 
 fe 
 
 
 £ 
 
 |5.gs 
 
 Es 
 
 S° 
 
 Sweet-scented Vernal, . 
 
 80.35 
 
 3.05 
 
 .67 
 
 8.54 
 
 7.15 
 
 1.24 
 
 Meadow Foxtail, . 
 
 
 
 80.20 
 
 2.44 
 
 .52 
 
 8.59 
 
 6.70 
 
 1.55 
 
 Tall Oat Gra.ss, . 
 
 
 
 73.65 
 
 3.54 
 
 .87 
 
 11.21 
 
 9.37 
 
 2.36 
 
 Yellow Oat Grass, 
 
 
 
 60,40 
 
 2.96 
 
 1.04 
 
 18.66 
 
 14.23 
 
 2.73 
 
 Downy Oat Grass, 
 
 
 
 61.. 50 
 
 3.07 
 
 .93 
 
 19.16 
 
 13.34 
 
 2.01 
 
 Qiiakina; Grass, . 
 
 
 
 51.85 
 
 2.93 
 
 1.45 
 
 23.60 
 
 17.00 
 
 4.1T 
 
 I'pritflit Brome Grass, 
 
 
 
 59.57 
 
 3.78 
 
 1.35 
 
 33.19 
 
 2.11 
 
 Soft Brome Grass, 
 
 
 
 76.63 
 
 4.05 
 
 .47 
 
 9.04 
 
 8.46 
 
 1.36 
 
 Crested Dog's-tail, 
 
 
 
 62.73 
 
 4.13 
 
 1.33 
 
 19.64 
 
 9.80 
 
 3.38 
 
 Orcliard Grass, . 
 
 
 
 70.00- 
 
 4.06 
 
 .94 
 
 13.30 
 
 10.11 
 
 1.59 
 
 Orchard Grass, seeds ripe, 
 
 
 
 53.57 
 
 10.93 
 
 .74 
 
 12.61 
 
 20.54 
 
 2.61 
 
 Hard Fescue Grass, 
 
 
 
 69.33 
 
 3.70 
 
 1.03 
 
 13.46 
 
 11.83 
 
 1.66 
 
 Meadow Soft Grass, . 
 
 
 
 69.70 
 
 3.49 
 
 1.03 
 
 11.92 
 
 11.94 
 
 1.93 
 
 Barley Grass, 
 
 
 
 58.85 
 
 4. .59 
 
 .94 
 
 20.05 
 
 13.03 
 
 ■3.54 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass,. 
 
 
 
 71.43 
 
 3.37 
 
 .91 
 
 13.08 
 
 10.06 
 
 3.15 
 
 Italian Rye "Grass, 
 
 
 
 75.61 
 
 2.45 
 
 .80 
 
 14.11 
 
 4.82 
 
 2.21 
 
 Tiniothv Grass, . 
 
 
 
 57.21 
 
 4.86 
 
 1.50 
 
 22.85 
 
 11.32 
 
 3.36 
 
 Annual Spear Grass, . 
 
 
 
 79.14 
 
 2.47 
 
 .71 
 
 10.79 
 
 6.30 
 
 .59 
 
 June Grass. . 
 
 
 
 67.14 
 
 3.41 
 
 .86 
 
 14.15 
 
 12.49 
 
 1.95 
 
 Rouijh-stalked Meadow Grass, 
 
 
 73.60 
 
 2.58 
 
 .97 
 
 10.54 
 
 10.11 
 
 2.30 
 
 Grass from Irrigated Meadow, 
 
 
 87.58 
 
 3.23 
 
 .81 
 
 3.98 
 
 3.13 
 
 1.38 
 
 Grass from IrV'd Meadow, 2d crop. 
 
 74.53 
 
 2.78 
 
 .53 
 
 11.17 
 
 8.76 
 
 
 Annual Rye Grass, 
 
 69.00 
 
 2.96 
 
 .69 
 
 13.89 
 
 13.47 
 
 1.99 
 
 Table II. — Analysis of Artificial Grasses. {100 parts, as taken from the field.) 
 
 
 
 O M 
 
 Hi 
 
 t 
 
 lii. 
 
 S 
 
 B . 
 
 Name of Plant. 
 
 fe" 
 
 aig 
 
 >, 
 
 °BU 
 
 >> 
 
 P 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 .^^ 
 
 S 
 
 „ 
 
 & 
 
 i 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 81.01 
 
 4.27 
 
 .69 
 
 8.45 
 
 3.76 
 
 1.83 
 
 Perennial Clover, 
 
 
 
 81.05 
 
 3.64 
 
 .78 
 
 8.04 
 
 4.91 
 
 1.58 
 
 (h-imson Clover, . 
 
 
 
 82.14 
 
 2.96 
 
 .67 
 
 6.70 
 
 5.78 
 
 1.75 
 
 Cow Grass, . 
 
 
 
 74.10 
 
 6.30 
 
 .92 
 
 9.43 
 
 6.25 
 
 3.01 
 
 Cow Grass, 3d specimen, 
 
 
 
 77.57 
 
 4.22 
 
 1.07 
 
 11.14 
 
 4.33 
 
 1.77 
 
 Hop Trefoil, 
 
 
 
 83.48 
 
 3.39 
 
 77 
 
 7.35 
 
 3.74 
 
 1.37 
 
 "White Clover, . 
 
 
 
 79.71 
 
 3.80 
 
 .89 
 
 8.14 
 
 5.38 
 
 2.08 
 
 Common Vetch, . 
 
 
 
 83.90 
 
 4.04 
 
 .52 
 
 6.75 
 
 4.68 
 
 1.11 
 
 Sainfoin, 
 
 
 
 76.64 
 
 4.33 
 
 .70 
 
 10.73 
 
 5.77 
 
 1.84 
 
 Lucern, or Alfalfa, 
 
 
 
 69.93 
 
 3.83 
 
 .82 
 
 13.62 
 
 8.74 
 
 3.04 
 
 Black Medick, or Nonsuch, 
 
 
 76.80 
 
 5.70 
 
 .94 
 
 7.73 
 
 6.33 
 
 2.51 
 
ANALYSIS OF GRASSES -227 
 
 Table III. — Analysts of Natural Grasses. (lOQ parts of the grass dried at 212° Fahr.) 
 
 
 =3 a S 
 
 I 
 
 111 
 
 .a 
 
 B . 
 
 Name of Grass. 
 
 11 '1 
 
 
 S'.sss 
 
 ■g 
 
 11 
 
 
 .^ii'5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ o. 
 
 
 V D,a. be 
 
 
 
 
 <i 
 
 bt 
 
 63 
 
 & 
 
 i° 
 
 Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, 
 
 10.43 
 
 3.41 
 
 48.48 
 
 36.36 
 
 6.32 
 
 lleadow Foxtail, 
 
 13.33 
 
 2.93 
 
 43.13 
 
 33.83 
 
 7 81 
 
 Tall Oat Grass, . 
 
 
 
 13.95 
 
 8.19 
 
 38.03 
 
 34.24 
 
 11.59 
 
 Yellow Oat Grass, 
 
 
 
 7.48 
 
 2.61 
 
 47.08 
 
 35.95 
 
 6.88 
 
 Downy Oat Grass, 
 
 
 
 7.97 
 
 2.39 
 
 49.78 
 
 34.64 
 
 5.23 
 
 Quaking Grass, . 
 
 
 
 6.08 
 
 3.01 
 
 46.95 
 
 35.30 
 
 8.66 
 
 Upright Brome Grass, . 
 
 
 
 9.44 
 
 3.33 
 
 82-02 
 
 5.31 
 
 Soft Brorae Grass, 
 
 
 
 17.29 
 
 2.11 
 
 38.66 
 
 36.12 
 
 5.82 
 
 Crested Dog's-tail, 
 
 
 
 11.08 
 
 3.54 
 
 52.64 
 
 36.36 
 
 6.38 
 
 Orchard Grass, . 
 
 
 
 13.53 
 
 3.14 
 
 44.33 
 
 33.70 
 
 5.31 
 
 Orcliaixl Grass, seeds ripe, 
 
 
 
 23.08 
 
 1.56 
 
 36 53 
 
 43.33 
 
 5.51 
 
 Hard Fescue Grass, 
 
 
 
 13.10 
 
 3.34 
 
 40.43 
 
 38.71 
 
 5.42 
 
 jMeadow Soft Grass, 
 
 
 
 11.52 
 
 3.56 
 
 39.25 
 
 39.30 
 
 6.37 
 
 Meadow Barley Grass, 
 
 
 
 11.17 
 
 3.30 
 
 46.68 
 
 31.07 
 
 6.18 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass, . 
 
 
 
 11.85 
 
 3.17 
 
 42.24 
 
 85.20 
 
 7.54 
 
 Italian Rye Grass, 
 
 
 
 10.10 
 
 3.37 
 
 57.82 
 
 19.76 
 
 9.05 
 
 Timothy." . 
 
 
 
 11.36 
 
 3.55 
 
 53.35 
 
 2(i.4(i 
 
 5.28 
 
 Annual Spear Grass, . 
 
 
 
 11.83 
 
 3.43 
 
 51.70 
 
 80.22 
 
 2.83 
 
 June Grass. . 
 
 
 
 10.35 
 
 2.63 
 
 43.06 
 
 38,02 
 
 5.94 
 
 Rough-stalked Meadow Gra 
 
 ss. 
 
 
 9.80 
 
 3.67 
 
 40.17 
 
 38.03 
 
 8.33 
 
 Grass from Irrigated Meadow, 
 
 
 35.91 
 
 6.53 
 
 32.05 
 
 25.14 
 
 10.37 
 
 Grass from Irrig'd Meadow, 2d crop. 
 
 10.93 
 
 2.06 
 
 43.90 
 
 84.30 
 
 8.82 
 
 It will be seen that a great difference exists in the valuable constituents of the grasses 
 analyzed in the previous table, ranging as follows : — 
 
 Flesh-forming principles. 
 Fat-producing principles, 
 Heat-giving principles, 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Average 
 
 6.08 
 
 17.29 
 
 11.68 
 
 2.11 
 
 3.67 
 
 2.89 
 
 38.03 
 
 57.82 
 
 47.93 
 
 Table I\'. — Analysis of Artificial Grasses. (In 100 parts of the grass dried at 212° Fahr.) 
 
 
 O M 
 
 S 
 
 l!^ 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Name of Plant. 
 
 Wl 
 
 S 
 >* 
 
 
 
 S . 
 II 
 
 
 ScB. 
 
 ■g 
 
 SaSS, 
 
 ts 
 
 
 
 
 
 tB 
 
 i° 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 23.55 
 
 3.67 
 
 44.47 
 
 19.75 
 
 9.56 
 
 Perennial Clover, 
 
 
 
 19.18 
 
 4.09 
 
 42.43 
 
 25.96 
 
 8.35 
 
 Crimson Clover, . 
 
 
 
 16.60 
 
 3.73 
 
 87. .50 
 
 82.89 
 
 9.78 
 
 Cow Grass, . 
 
 
 
 24.33 
 
 3.57 
 
 86.36 
 
 34.14 
 
 11.60 
 
 Cow Grass, 2d specimen. 
 
 
 
 18.77 
 
 4.77 
 
 49.65 
 
 18.84 
 
 7.97 
 
 Hop Trefoil, 
 
 
 
 20.48 
 
 4.67 
 
 43.86 
 
 33.66 
 
 8.33 
 
 White Clover, 
 
 
 
 18.76 
 
 4.38 
 
 40.04 
 
 26.53 
 
 10.29 
 
 Common Vetch, . 
 
 
 
 23.61 
 
 3.06 
 
 39.45 
 
 27.38 
 
 6.50 
 
 Sainfoin, 
 
 
 
 18.45 
 
 3.01 
 
 45.96 
 
 24.71 
 
 7.87 
 
 Lucern, or Alfalfa, 
 
 
 
 12.76 
 
 2.76 
 
 40.16 
 
 34.31 
 
 10.11 
 
 Black Medick, . 
 
 
 
 24.60 
 
 4.06 
 
 33.31 
 
 37.19 
 
 . 10.84 
 
 A glance at the above table will show that the different principles in the artificial grasses 
 vary to a great extent, as follows : 
 
 Lowest. Highest. Average 
 
 Flesh-forming principles. 
 
 Fat-producing principles, 
 
 Ilcat-giving principles, . 
 
 17 
 
 13.76 
 
 24.60 
 
 18.68 
 
 2.76 
 
 4.77 
 
 3.76 
 
 83.31 
 
 49.65 
 
 41.48 
 
228 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 Tlie difference in composition exhibited in the natural grasses of table III. are verj' 
 marked, and, of course, the value of the grasses as compared with each other, must var\' 
 greatly. Still, the practical value of a grass depends somewhat upon circumstances which 
 cannot be analyzed, such as the period at which it arrives at maturity, and the particular soil 
 and location of the farmer. It might happen that a grass not in itself so rich in nutritive 
 qualities as another, would be preferred on accoimt of its coming to maturity just at the time 
 when the farmer most needed it. But the particular value of this table is, that it shows the 
 comparative nutritive qualities of tlie grasses, since all the specimens were collected and 
 investigated in the same manner, at the same period of growth, — or as nearly as possible, — 
 when in the flower, so that whatever sources of error might axist to modify the results, they 
 would naturally apply to all alike. 
 
 The grasses from the irrigated meadow consisted principally of June or Kentucky blue 
 grass, rough-stalked meadow grass, perennial rye grass, meadow soft grass, barley grass, 
 meadow oat grass, and a few other species, and it will be noticed that in combination they 
 abound in flesh and fat-forming principles to a greater extent than we should be led to sup- 
 pose from the composition of any one of them alone. 
 
 Our favorite timothy compares very favorably with the other grasses, containing a less 
 percentage of useless matter as woody fiber than any other, except Italian rye grass and 
 crested dog's-tail, a grass not common with us, and the irrigated grasses. In point of solu- 
 ble, heat-producing principles, sugar, gum, and starch, it is surpassed by the Italian rye grass, 
 but by no others. The analyses of this grass in its green and dry states in tables I. and III., 
 fully justify the preference which we have long shown for the use of timotliy; for, as taken 
 from the field at the time of blossoming, it will be found to contain less water (table I.), a 
 greater percentage of flesh and fat-forming principles, and less useless matter in the shape of 
 woody fiber, than most of the other grasses. The deductions of science certainly correspond, 
 in this case, with the results of practice. 
 
 A comparison of tables I. and III. with tables II. and IV., will show the comparative 
 advantages of the use of the artificial grasses, in point of albuminous or flesh -forming princi- 
 ples and fatty matters. The carbonaceous or heat-producing principles remain nearly the 
 same throughout, while the percentage of waste matter or woody fiber is less than in the 
 natural grasses. This is an important fact, worthy of the careful consideration of the 
 farmer. 
 
 In the sixth column of table III. will be found the percentage of ash of each of the 
 grasses analyzed. Table V. contains a still further analysis of this ash, which gives all the 
 inorganic constituents which the plant derives from the soil and the manures furnished to it. 
 It is important and suggestive to one who will examine it carefully, as indicating the kind of 
 manure which in many cases it may be desirable to apply. 
 
 The first peculiarity which plainly appears from a glance at the ash analyses, is the very 
 large percentage of silicates and potash contained in the natural grasses, and the very small 
 comparative percentage of silica in the artificial grasses, the red and white clovers. The large 
 percentage of lime and carbonic acid attract our attention in the latter. This table is exceed- 
 ingly valuable, as suggesting the proper course of manuring for the most successful cultiva- 
 tion of the various crops contained in it. 
 
 If now we look at the analysis of some of our common weeds (table VI.), we shall see 
 how far superior the cultivated grasses are in nitrogenous or nutritive principles. 
 
 The albuminous principles are very much less than in either the natural or the artificial 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 229 
 
 Table V. — Analysis of the Ash of some of the Natural and Artificial Grasses. 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 *i 
 
 4 
 
 Common Name. 
 
 If 
 
 
 3 
 < 
 
 2 
 < 
 
 3 
 < 
 
 
 'i 
 
 TS 
 
 
 
 
 «*-. 
 
 
 '2t 
 
 
 o 
 
 D. 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 & 
 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 ■o 
 
 o-S 
 
 ~ c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tc 
 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 ►^ 
 
 a 
 
 Bh 
 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 Meadow Foxtail, 
 
 7.81 
 
 38.75 
 
 6.25 
 
 2.16 
 
 .65 
 
 3.90 
 
 1.28 
 
 .4737.03 
 
 _ 
 
 9.50 
 
 _ 
 
 Sweet-scented Vernal, 
 
 6.32 
 
 28. 36110.09 
 
 3.39 
 
 1.26 
 
 9.21 
 
 2.53 
 
 1.18'32.03 
 
 — 
 
 7.03 
 
 4.90 
 
 Downv Oat Grass, . 
 
 5.22 
 
 36.28;10.83 
 
 3.37 
 
 — 
 
 4.72 
 
 3.17 
 
 .7231.21 
 
 — 
 
 4.05 
 
 5.66 
 
 Upright Brome Grass, 
 
 5.21 
 
 38.48 
 
 7.. 53 
 
 5.46 
 
 .55 
 
 10.38 
 
 4.99 
 
 .20 20.33 
 
 — 
 
 10.63 
 
 1.38 
 
 Soft Brome Grass, . 
 
 5.82 
 
 33.34 
 
 9.63 
 
 4.91 
 
 9.07 
 
 6.64 
 
 2.60 
 
 .2830.09 
 
 .33 
 
 — 
 
 3.11 
 
 Crested Dog's-tail, . 
 
 H.8H 
 
 40.11 
 
 7.24 
 
 3.20 
 
 — 
 
 10.16 
 
 2.43 
 
 .18 24.99 
 
 — 
 
 11.60 
 
 — 
 
 Orchard Grass, 
 
 5.31 
 
 26.65 
 
 8.60 
 
 3.52 
 
 2.09 
 
 5.82 
 
 2.22 
 
 .59129.52 
 
 — 
 
 17.86 
 
 3.09 
 
 Orchard Grass, with seeds ripe, 
 
 5.51 
 
 32. IH 
 
 6.41 
 
 3.96 
 
 3.88 
 
 8.14 
 
 3.47 
 
 .23 33.06 
 
 — 
 
 4.87 
 
 4.76 
 
 Hard Fescue Grass, . 
 
 5.42 
 
 28.53 
 
 12.07 
 
 3.45 
 
 1.38 
 
 10.31 
 
 2.83 
 
 .7831.84 
 
 — 
 
 8.17 
 
 .62 
 
 Meadow Soft Grass, 
 
 6.37 
 
 28.31 
 
 8.02 
 
 4.41 
 
 1.83 
 
 8.31 
 
 3.41 
 
 .31 
 
 34.83 
 
 — 
 
 3.91 
 
 6.66 
 
 Meadow Barley Grass, 
 
 5.67 
 
 56.23 
 
 6.04 
 
 4.29 
 
 — 
 
 5.04 
 
 3.42 
 
 .66 
 
 20.26 
 
 3.40 
 
 — 
 
 1.66 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass, 
 
 7.54 
 
 37.13 
 
 8.73 
 
 5.20 
 
 .49 
 
 9.64 
 
 2.85 
 
 .21 
 
 24.67 
 
 — 
 
 13.80 
 
 7.25 
 
 Annual Spear Grass, 
 
 3.83 
 
 16.03 
 
 9.11 
 
 10.18 
 
 3.29 
 
 11.69 
 
 2.44 
 
 1.57 
 
 41.86 
 
 — 
 
 .47 
 
 3.35 
 
 June Grass, .... 
 
 5.94 
 
 33.93 
 
 10.02 
 
 4.26 
 
 .40 
 
 5.63 
 
 3.71 
 
 .28 
 
 31.17 
 
 — 
 
 11.35 
 
 1.31 
 
 Roughed-stalked Meadow Griss, 
 
 8.33 
 
 37.50 
 
 9.13 
 
 4.47 
 
 .39 
 
 8.80 
 
 3.23 
 
 .2929.40 
 
 — 
 
 6.90 
 
 — 
 
 Timothy. .... 
 
 5.29 
 
 31.09 
 
 11.29 
 
 4.86 
 
 4.02 
 
 14.94 
 
 5.30 
 
 .27 24.25 
 
 
 
 .70 
 
 3.24 
 
 Annual Rye Grass, . 
 
 6.45 
 
 41.79 
 
 10.07 
 
 3.45 
 
 — 
 
 6.82 
 
 3.59 
 
 .28|28.99 
 
 .87 
 
 — 
 
 5.11 
 
 Yellow Oat Grass, . 
 
 5.28 
 
 35.30 
 
 9.31 
 
 4.00 
 
 — 
 
 7.98 
 
 3.07 
 
 2.4030.06 
 
 .73 
 
 — 
 
 1.25 
 
 Red Clover, .... 
 
 9.56 
 
 .59 
 
 6.71 
 
 1.85 
 
 23.47 
 
 23.62 
 
 4.08 
 
 .2635.45 
 
 
 
 3.39 
 
 1..53 
 
 White Clover, 
 
 — 
 
 3.68 
 
 11.53 
 
 7.21 
 
 18.03 
 
 36.41 
 
 8.15 
 
 1. 96:14.33 
 
 3.72 
 
 — 
 
 4.95 
 
 Sainfoin in flower, . 
 
 6.37 
 
 3.22 
 
 9.35 
 
 3.28 
 
 15.20 
 
 24.30 
 
 5.03 
 
 .6131.90 
 
 — 
 
 6.34 
 
 .78 
 
 Sainfoin in seed, 
 
 6.50 
 
 3.49 
 
 7.97 
 
 2.33 
 
 17.36 
 
 29.67 
 
 4.59 
 
 .58.29.61 
 
 1.25 
 
 _ 
 
 3.12 
 
 Italian Rye Grass in flower, 
 
 6.97 
 
 59.18 
 
 6.34 
 
 2.82 
 
 — 
 
 9.95 
 
 3.23 
 
 .7812.45 
 
 3.98 
 
 — 
 
 3.27 
 
 Italian Rye Grass in seed, 
 
 6.40 
 
 60.62 
 
 6.32 
 
 1.31 
 
 — 
 
 12.29 
 
 2.64 
 
 .3010.77 
 
 1 
 
 .13 
 
 — 
 
 5.58 
 
 Table VI. — Analysis of Specimens of Weeds, as taken from the field, and ivhen dried. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «, 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 so 
 
 fcj 
 
 "S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Name of Plant. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 .5 k' 
 
 ca 
 
 £"0, 
 
 .o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. o 
 
 B, 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 J3 
 
 
 O" 
 
 ^ 
 
 5=^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 1-^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 < 
 
 Ox-eye Daisy, (Crymnthemum leucanthemum,) 
 
 June 23, 
 
 71.85 
 
 2.12 
 
 .999 
 
 13.64 
 
 10.51 
 
 1.86 
 
 Yellow Buttercup, (Rammculus acHs,) 
 
 June 13, 
 
 88.15 
 
 1.18 
 
 .507 
 
 6.26 
 
 3.00 
 
 .91 
 
 Sorrel, {Rumex acetosa,) .... 
 
 July 4, 
 
 75.37 
 
 1.90 
 
 .545 
 
 7.62 
 
 13.04 
 
 1.51 
 
 Dried Specimens of the same. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ox-eye Daisy, ...... 
 
 
 
 
 
 7.53 
 
 3.49 
 
 45.02 
 
 37.33 
 
 6.63 
 
 Buttercup, 
 
 
 
 
 
 9.98 
 
 4.28 
 
 52.69 
 
 25.34 
 
 7.71 
 
 Sorrel 
 
 — — 
 
 — 
 
 7.71 
 
 2.19 
 
 46.8? 
 
 37.16 
 
 6.12 
 
 Time to Sow Grass Seed. — The universal practice in time of sowing grass seed was 
 formerly in the spring; sometimes sowing it on the late snow, which, when melting, aided in 
 settling the seed into the soil, thus obviating the necessity of harrowing. The action of the 
 frost in leaving the ground, aided by the spring rains, also accomplished the same result when 
 sown upon the soil after the snow had disappeared. But a change has taken place in the prac- 
 tice of this department of agriculture, within the last quarter of a century. It is now generally 
 conceded by those best acquainted with the most desirable methods of practice in this respect, 
 that the best time for sowing most varieties of grass seed, is from the middle of August to the 
 middle of September, the precise time depending on the condition of the soil. This gives the 
 grass a good start, and being early well-rooted in the soil, obviates the effect of drought, 
 which spring sowing would not do, as there is more danger from summer drought than win- 
 ter-killing. If for any reason it cannot be sown until the latter part of September, it would 
 
230 THE AMERICAN FAUMEIl. 
 
 1)0 better to defer it still later, even until the middle of Xoveniber, as in that case the seed 
 will not germinate so as to be injured by the severe winter cold, and will start earlier in the 
 spring than it possibly could by an early spring sowing. 
 
 Clover and orchard grass may be considered exceptions to this rule generally, the best 
 time for sowing these seeds being usually early in the spring. 
 
 Should the soil m August be very dry, it is better to wait till early September before 
 sowing, but when tlie soil is favorable at the middle of August, that is the better time, as 
 before stated What we have said relative to August as the proper time for sowmg, applies 
 more particularly to the North. In the extreme South, a month later would be a more 
 desirable time. There can be no definite I'ule given relative to the precise time of seeding 
 down grass land, since it will depend upon various considerations, such as the latitude, the 
 season, nature of soil, etc. The rule we have given will be the best general rule, conditions 
 being favorable. Sometimes it will be more convenient for a farmer to sow in the spring; 
 in such a case, the soil should be very rich, moist, and mellow; or, if not particularly rich, it 
 should have a generous supply of manure, that the seed may have a quick start, and luxu- 
 riant growth; otherwise, the weeds will be liable to choke it, and it will not be sufBciently 
 advanced to withstand the effect of the drouth in summer ; the object being to enable it to 
 obtain a strong hold upon life, and become well established in the soil before the hot, dry sea- 
 son sets in. If sown when the ground is very dry, the seed will be likely to be burned, or 
 dried up and lost; for this reason the sowing should be delayed imtil the soil, — which had pre- 
 viously been prepared, — was well moistened by the early fall rains. 
 
 Selection of Seed. — It is of the utmo.st importance in the production of the grass 
 crop, that not only the suitable varieties of seed should be selected, but that the seed should 
 be fresh. Old seed that has been left over from year to year may be, and doubtless is, fre- 
 quently mixed with the new, and put upon the market. This mixture is not easily detected, 
 but the results will usually be seen m the failure m germination of the old seed. There is a 
 great difference in the different varieties of plants with respect to the length of time the seeds 
 will retain their vitality, some retaining it for several 3'^ears, others only one or two years. 
 The seeds of most of the grasses have been found to be of but very little value when they 
 have been kept two or three years, hence the importance of procuring new, fresh seeds, and 
 guarding against any mixture of the old and worthless with the new, as carefully as possible. 
 
 It is easy to tell whether the gerrainative power of grass or any other seed still remains, 
 by the following simple method; and, if the buyer should be willing to try it, he might pur- 
 chase only a small quantity at first, and afterwards obtain his full supply with more conli- 
 dence, if the trial showed it to be good. Take two pieces of tliick cloth, moisten them with 
 water, and place them one upon the other in the bottom of a saucer. Place any number of 
 seeds which it is desired to try, upon the cloth, spreading thin, so as not to allow them to 
 cover or touch each other. Cover them over with a third piece of cloth similar to the others 
 and moi.stened in the same manner. Then place the saucer in a moderately warm place. 
 Sufficient water must be turned on from time to time to keep the three thicknesses of cloth 
 moist, but great care must be taken not to use too much water, as this would destroy the seed. 
 There should be only enough to moisten the cloths, and not enough to allow any to stand in 
 the saucer. Danger from this source may be avoided in a great measure, however, by tip- 
 ping up the saucer so as to permit any superfluous water in it to drain of[. The cloth 
 used for covering may be gently raised each day to watch the progress of the swelling or 
 the moulding of the seeds. The good seed will be found to swell gradually, while the old or 
 poor seed, which has lost its germinating power, will become mouldy in a very few days. In this 
 Y,-ay, also, any one can judge whether old seed is mixed with new. The latter will germinate 
 much more quickly than the former. lie can judge, besides, of the quantity which he must 
 sow, since he can tell whether a half, or three-fourths, or the whole will be likely to gcrmi 
 
GRASSES AKD FORAGE PLANTS. • ^jgl 
 
 nate, and can regulate his sowing accordingly. The seeds of the clovers, if they are new 
 and fresh, will show their germs on the third or fourth day; other seeds will take a httle 
 longer, but till they become coated with mould there is hope of their germinating. As soon 
 as the mould appears it is decisive, and the seed that moulds is worthless. 
 
 Some farmers may think it too much trouble to test seeds in this manner. It will 
 always, however, be well to save a sample of the seed sown, and if there is any difficidty in 
 its germinating, it can be tested, and the real difficulty ascertained. Often the seed fails to 
 start on account of its being covered too deep in the soil; in such a case, the fault is m the 
 farmer, and not in the seed. 
 
 Mixture of Grass Seed. — In the mi.xture of seed for mowing lots, it is desirable to 
 have a large variety, as it is a well-established fact in agriculture that a larger crop of hay 
 will be produced from a given amount of land, other things being equal, than where but a 
 single or few varieties are grown. It is also important that the varieties should be the best 
 for the purpose, in order to secure hay of the best quality and quantity, and that they should 
 be such as will be ready for mowing about the same time, — which is when they are in blos- 
 som, — otherwise, if the earlier and later varieties are sown together, the early ripened may 
 become dry, woody, and useless by being over-ripe, before the later varieties are ready to be 
 cut. By this method, also, the fields of earlier grasses can be first mowed, and the hay prop- 
 erly cared for, before the later fields are matured, obviating the hurry and anxiety of the 
 farmer respecting the loss or injury of certain crops of hay for lack of opportunity to secure 
 it at the proper time. 
 
 For feeding to horses, at least a half of the time, many farmers prefer timothy which 
 has been grown without the admixture of other varieties of grass; but for cows and sheep, 
 a large variety is greatly to be preferred. 
 
 For permanent pastures, both early and late varieties are desirable in order to secure a con- 
 tinuous growth throughout the season, the largest number of varieties, other things being 
 equal, giving the best results. The following tables for mixtures have been obtained from 
 various reliable agricultural authorities. Of course, the quantity of each variety can be 
 varied, or the entire amount increased, as may appear judicious in view of the soil, cUmate, 
 etc. 
 
 Light seeding will produce a larger and coarser growth of stalks with a tendency to 
 weeds, while heavy seeding will produce finer stalks and nicer hay for cattle and sheep. 
 Perhaps a medium in this, as well as in most other things, thus avoiding either extreme, is 
 the better method and the one to be adopted in the majority of cases. Each mixture is in- 
 tended for one acre of land. 
 
 For Mowing Lauds. 
 
 Red clover, 
 Orchard grass, 
 Timothy, . 
 Red-Top, . 
 
 
 
 
 10 lbs. 
 6 " 
 6 " 
 4 " 
 
 
 
 For Permauent Pastures. 
 
 
 
 Orchard grass, 
 White clover. 
 Meadow foxtail. 
 Red clover. 
 Rough-stalked meadow , 
 
 grass. 
 
 6 lbs. 
 5 " 
 
 3 " 
 
 4 " 
 4 " 
 
 Rye grass. 
 Red-top, 
 Timothy, 
 Blue grass. 
 Meadow fescue. 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
232 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 The following is also a good mixture for pastures, for both immediate and permanent 
 use: — 
 
 Red clover, ...... 6 lbs. 
 
 Timothy, . . . . . . 5 " 
 
 Red-top, . . . . . . 5 " 
 
 Orchard grass, . . . . . 7 " 
 
 Alsike clover, . . . . . 3 " 
 
 White clover, . . . . . 3 " 
 
 Hay and Pasture Combined. 
 
 Timothy, . . 6 lbs. Wood meadow grass, , 4 lbs. 
 
 Orchard grass, . . 6 " White clover, . . 4 " 
 
 June grass, . . 4 " Rough-stalked meadow grass, 2 " 
 
 Rye grass, . . 4 " Perennial clover, . . 2 " 
 
 Sweet-scented vernal, . 2 " 
 
 For the Southern States Mr. Howard recommends the following mixture : 
 
 For Rotation and Improving the Soil. 
 
 Red Clover, .... 4 qts. Orchard Grass, . . . 1 bu. 
 
 Meadow Oat Grass, ... 1 bu. 
 
 For Meadow Land. 
 
 Timothy, 1 pk. Herd's Grass, .... 4 qts. 
 
 White Clover, .... 4 qts. 
 
 4 quarts of Red Clover to be added to the above if immediate results are desired. 
 
 For Summer Pastures. 
 
 Bermuda Grass, Red Clover, 
 
 Herd's Grass, Natural Grasses, 
 
 Crab Grass. 
 
 For Winter Pastures. 
 
 Meadow Oat Grass, ... 1 bu. Blue Grass, .... 4 qts. 
 
 Orchard Grass, .... 1 " Red Clover 4 " 
 
 Wild Rye Grass, . . . 1 " White Clover 4 " 
 
 Not to be grazed later than June or earlier than Christmas. 
 
 In order to learn the best and most recent English methods of seeding down for pas- 
 tures, a circular for this purpose, sent to the best grass-growers of the kingdom to ascertain 
 their opinion and methods, resulted in some of the following returns. 
 From Durham — soil, a loam ; portions of it light, with some clay. 
 
 For Permanent Pastures, Per Acre. 
 
 3 pks. perennial rye-grass. 1 lb. crested dog's-tail. 
 
 13 lbs. white clover. 1 " cock's-foot (orchard grass). 
 
 10 '' trefoil. 1 " sweet-scented vernal. 
 
 4 " alsike. 1 " meadow foxtail. 
 6 " cow-grass. 1 " hard fescue. 
 
 3 " red clover. 1 " smooth - stalked meadow grass ( June 
 
 grass). 
 In Cheshire the following mixture is used per acre: — 
 i bush, cock's-foot (orchard grass). 4 lbs. June grass. 
 
 I " meadow foxtail. 3 " white clover. 
 
 ^ " perennial rye-grass. 2 " trefoil. 
 
 J " meadow-fescue. 2 " Timothy. 
 
 2 1- lbs. sweet vernal. 1^ " cow-grass. 
 
GKASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 233 
 
 The practice on tlie estates of the Earl of Powis, on stiff soils, is to sow- 
 4 lbs. crested dog's-tail.» 2 lbs. meadow foxtail. 
 
 sweet vernal, 
 cock's-foot. 
 tall fescue, 
 meadow-fescue, 
 rough-stalked meadow. 
 
 4 " Timothy. 
 2 " alsike clover. 
 2 " white clover. ^ 
 6 " perennial i-ye-grass. 
 
 5 " Italian rye-grass. 
 
 It will be seen by the three tables previously given that the English farmers are far 
 ahead of us in respect to the varieties of grasses used in seeding down land for pastures, and 
 we might gain from them hints, in this respect, to our own agricultural advantage. There 
 are, in the Northern States, varieties that are maturing in succession for six months, of which 
 we will mention a few of the most important. Beginning in April with the blossoming of 
 spear-grass, we have in May the meadow fox-tail, sweet-scented vernal, and white clover 
 (which latter we class among the grasses for convenience, though strictly it is not such, but 
 a leguminous plant). The number of June blossoming grasses is legion ; this month being 
 the graminivorous season for all grazing stock, as more varieties of grasses blossom during 
 this month than any other, at the North. A few of the more important are, Timothy, the 
 various species of fescues, orchard grass. June grass, rye-grass, and red clover. July brings 
 the flowering of redtop, foul-meadow and English-bent, while in August we have blue- 
 grass, creeping-meadow and floating fox-tail, and in September hairy-panic, poverty grass 
 and red grass, with many of those already mentioned, which continue blossoming from month 
 to month. 
 
 The following are some of the tables of mixture reconmiended by noted agriculturists 
 in Scotland: 
 
 For Permanent Pastures (Per Acre.) 
 
 Meadow Foxtail, 
 
 2 
 
 Orchard Grass, . 
 Hard Fescue, 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 Tall Fescue, 
 
 2 
 
 Meadow Fescue, 
 
 2 
 
 Eedtop, 
 June Grass, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 For Pe 
 
 Meadow Foxtail, 
 
 1 
 
 Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, 
 
 1 
 
 Redtop, . . . . 
 Hard Fescue. 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 Sheep's Fescue, . 
 Meadow Fescue, 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Red Fescue, 
 
 2 
 
 Italian Rye Grass, 
 
 6 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Italian Rye Grass, ... 6 lbs. 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass, 
 
 Timothy, 
 
 Wood Meadow Grass, 
 
 Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 
 
 Perennial Clover, 
 
 White Clover, . from 5 to 15 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass, 
 
 Timothy, 
 
 June, or Common Spear Grass, 
 
 Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 
 
 Yellow Oat Gras.s, 
 
 Perennial Clover, 
 
 Red Clover. 
 
 White Clover, 
 
 8 lbs. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 — 44 
 
 If the object is to make a permanent lawn, such as is frequently desirable around or near 
 a farm-house, the above table will be found one of the best. It wUl resist the effects of our 
 severe droughts better than those varieties commonly used for lawns. If it is desirable to 
 omit anything from it, the red and perennial clovers, the yellow grass, and a part of the rye- < 
 grass could best be spared. 
 
 If a fine lawn is wanted where extra attention will be paid to rolling and mowing, the 
 following mixtui'e will do well: 
 
234 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 Fine Lawns Frequently 3Iowii. 
 
 Crested Dog's-tail, 
 Hard Fescue, 
 
 Slender-leaf Sheep's Fescue, 
 Perenniad Rye Grass, 
 Wood Meadow Grass, 
 
 10 lbs. 
 4 " 
 
 10 
 
 Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 
 Yellow Oat Grass, 
 June Grass, 
 White Clover, 
 
 1 lbs. 
 1 '• 
 
 Hay and Pasture in Orchards and Shaded Places. 
 
 Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, 
 
 1 lbs. 
 
 Timothy, . 
 
 
 
 6 lbs. 
 
 Orchard Grass, .... 
 
 6 " 
 
 Wood Meadow Grass, 
 
 
 
 4 " 
 
 Hard Fescue, .... 
 
 2 " 
 
 Rough-stalked Meadow 
 
 Grass, 
 
 2 " 
 
 Tall Fescue, .... 
 
 2 " 
 
 June Grass, 
 
 
 
 4 " 
 
 Italian Rye Grass, 
 
 4 " 
 
 Perennial Red Clover, 
 
 
 
 3 " 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass, 
 
 4 " 
 
 Wliite Clover, . 
 
 
 
 4 — 12 
 
 Mixture 
 
 for Mowing on Light Sands. 
 
 
 
 
 Tall Meadow Oat Grass, 
 
 3 lbs. 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass, 
 
 
 
 10 lbs. 
 
 Orchard Grass, .... 
 
 4 " 
 
 Timothy, 
 
 
 
 3 •' 
 
 Hard Fescue, 
 
 6 '• 
 
 Perennial Red Clover, 
 
 
 
 3 " 
 
 Meadow Soft Grass, 
 
 3 •' 
 
 White Clover, 
 
 
 
 4—40 
 
 Italian Rye Grass, 
 
 4 •• 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mixture 
 
 for Reclaimed Peaty Lands. 
 
 
 
 
 Whitetop, variety called Fiorin, . 
 
 2 lbs. 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass, 
 
 
 
 • 5 lbs. 
 
 Redtop, . .... 
 
 2 " 
 
 Reed Canary Grass, 
 
 
 
 4 •' 
 
 Meadow FoxtaU, 
 
 2 " 
 
 Timothy, 
 
 
 
 10 " 
 
 Fowl Meadow, .... 
 
 4 '■ 
 
 Rough-stalked Meadow 
 
 Grass. 
 
 3 •• 
 
 Italian Rye Grass, 
 
 4 " 
 
 White Clover, 
 
 
 
 4—40 
 
 Marshy Grounds, Liable to he Occasionally Overflowed with Fresh Water. 
 
 NAME OF GRASS. Peaty SoUs. 
 
 Alluvial Soils. 
 
 NAME OF GRASS. 
 
 Peaty Soils. 
 
 Allnvial SoUs. 
 
 Fiorin, 4 lbs. 
 
 3 lbs. 
 
 Timothy, 
 
 4 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 4 lbs. 
 
 Tall Fescue 3 " 
 
 3 " 
 
 Rough-stalked Meadow, 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 3 •' 
 
 Manna Grass. . . . 5 '• 
 
 5 " 
 
 Fowl Meadow Grass, 
 
 6 
 
 " 
 
 5 '• 
 
 Reed Canary Grass, 3 " 
 
 4 " 
 
 White Clover, . . . 
 
 3- 
 
 -32 
 
 4—32 
 
 The following wiU be found to be a valuable mixture when it is desired to cover rocky 
 hills and poor soils with grass. 
 
 Mixture for Rocky Hills. 
 
 Redtop 
 
 2 lbs. 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass. 
 
 6 lbs. 
 
 Tall Oat 
 
 2 " 
 
 Timothy, 
 
 6 ■' 
 
 Crested Dog's-tail, 
 
 3 " 
 
 Wood Meadow Grass, 
 
 3 •' 
 
 Orchard Grass, . 
 
 3 " 
 
 Common Spear Grass, 
 
 2 " 
 
 Red Fescue, 
 
 4 " 
 
 Rough Stallced Meadow, . 
 
 2 ■' 
 
 Meadow Soft Grass, . 
 
 2 " 
 
 White Clover, 
 
 8 — 13 
 
 Sowing Grass Seed. — It has been the general practice with farmers of this country to 
 sow grass seed with some kind of grain, preparing the land especially for the grain crop, and 
 with the exception of covering it in the process of covering the grain, to make no provision 
 for the crops of grass the land is expected to produce, .\lthough by this means the land 
 may be utilized to produce two crops at the same time, and labor saved, yet we think it far bet- 
 ter and more economical in the end, to sow the grass seeil separately, thus giving it a fair start 
 and insuring a good crop : besides the practice of sowing together results in injury to both crops. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 235 
 
 By the usual method of sowing witli grain, the grass crop suffers a groat injury, by the grain 
 taking possession of the fertilizing elements of the soil, and choking the growth of the grass, and 
 also by shading it too much, and when the grain is cut, the grass is not only trampled and 
 injured by the process of cutting, but is often dried up by the hot sun, being too tender to 
 boar its scorching rays. 
 
 We do not therefore believe it a good policy, as a general rule, to sow grass seed with 
 any grain crops. By so doing we rob the grass crop for the sake of grain, and the grass 
 must in tarn deprive the grain of some of the nutritive elements of the soil, to a limited ex- 
 tent; however, the grass crop is the one to suffer most by the practice. 
 
 "Whenever grass is to be sown with any kind of grain, barley is the one to be preferred, 
 but even this is very objectionable. Grass is an important product, and should be regarded as 
 such in its cultivation. If we take a grain crop from our grass lands, the grass must of 
 necessity be injured by it, although it may not be entirely killed by such treatment. In pre- 
 paring the lands, it should be plowed, and given a good supply of manure or fertilizer of 
 some kind, the quantity suited to the character of the soil ; sometimes guano or grass fertilizer 
 is sown upon the surface broadcast. The soil should then be pulverized with a harrow until 
 it is mellow and fine, and the seed sown either by hand (as is stiU the old time practice on 
 small farms in many sections) or by a machine, which is much better, since it will distribute 
 the seed much more evenly over the surface than hand-sowing, besides greatly facilitating 
 the labor. So many seeds fail to germinate, or are destroyed by birds and insects, that 
 we favor a hberal quantity of seed sown, as well as a large variety, in order to secure not only a 
 heavy growth, but hay of superior quality, for every fariher knows that hay is superior and 
 finer in quality where the grass grows thick and compact in the sod. It is a common fault 
 to cover grass seed too deeply. Most of our grass seeds germinate most surely when only 
 covered one-fourth of an inch, and by actual experiment it has been ascertained that when 
 covered an inch half the seeds fail. 
 
 Grass seed, being so very small, shou.ld be slightly covered ; hence, if a common tooth 
 harrow is used for the purpose of covering, as has frequently been the custom, the seed is 
 buried too deeply in the soil. A common brush harrow is better for this purpose, to be fol- 
 lowed by a good roller to press the soil down, which hastens the germination of the seed. 
 Many farmers who are not in possession of a good roller use a simple wooden drag for this pur- 
 pose, which is made similar to what is commonly called a " .stone boat," the front being beveled 
 up so as to avoid the uneven surface. From eight to ten feet long, and three and a half feet wide, 
 are very good dimensions for such a constructed harrow. The inclined portion can be about 
 a foot wide; this answers the purpose of a brush harrow and roller combined. It is a good 
 practice in reclaiming old wornout meadows to give them a good coating of unfermented man- 
 ure, and then turn the sod over. On this surface thus ploughed, a dressing of well-rotted 
 manure or compost with ashes is spread, and thoroughly harrowed lengthwise the furrows. 
 The seed is then sown and slightly harrowed in. followed with rolling; the decomposing manure, 
 with the added fertilizing properties of the stubble and roots of the sod, will give a quick and 
 luxuriant growth. Many farmers greatly improve their lands for mowing, when they do not 
 wish to plough up and seed down, by furnishing a good top-dressing of manure in the fall or 
 in early spring (fall is better) and then scattering grass or clover seed over the field. The 
 seed thus sown will catch quickly and greatly improves the crop, if sown when the soil is 
 moist, or just before a heavy rain. 
 
 Pasture lands are often improved by running a harrow over them in a manner to cut 
 the turf slightly into small squares, an inch square being the mo,st desirable size marked by 
 the harrow lines. This should be done when the soil is rather moist. Upon the ground 
 thus prepared, sow a mixture of grass and clover seed of various kinds suited to both early 
 and late growth, in order to insure a fresh, permanent pasturage through the season. Upon 
 
236 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 237 
 
 tliis put a little top-dressing, and the seed thus sown will quickly germinate and greatly im- 
 prove the grazing; though it should not be fed upon until it has had an opportunity to be- 
 come deeply-rooted and well-established in the turf. It is very important, — and we would 
 repeat it here to impress it more forcibly upon the minds of farmers, — that both mowing 
 lands and pastures should occasionally have a dressing of manure or some other fertilizer. 
 It will be economy in the end for farmers to put more manure on their grass lands, instead 
 of putting it all upon their other crops to the neglect of the gras^. If it is not profitable to 
 cultivate corn or wheat without manure, neither is it profitable, nor should it be expected, to 
 cultivate grass well without some assistance from fertilizers. The best time for applying the 
 manure is in the fall, as it serves to protect the roots and give the grass an early start in 
 the spring. 
 
 Time of Cutting and Method of Curing Hay. — As to the time of cutting grass 
 for hay, there is still a diversity of opinions among the farmers of our country, although in 
 the main, -there has been quite a change in favor of early cutting within the last twenty-five 
 years. Some recommend cutting just before it comes into bloom, some when in perfect 
 bloom, others when the blossoms have just fallen, others when the seed is in a milky state, 
 and others still when the seeds are nearly ripe. 
 
 Two very important considerations are involved with respect to this subject The first is, 
 to cut it at the time it contains the greatest amount of nutriment; the second, to do it 
 when it will involve the least injury to the aftergrowth. The question to be considered i?, 
 When is that time? With regard to the first, the opinion and practice of farmers have greatly 
 changed within the last quarter of a century. It was formerly the general opinion, that the best 
 time for cutting most kinds of grasses, Timothy, and Orchard grass, for instance, was when 
 the seed was nearly ripe and ready to shell ; but experience and scientific analysis have proved 
 that the time when grass contains the greatest amount of nutritive matter, such as starch, 
 gum, and sugar, is not at this period, but at the period before the seed is formed, since most 
 of these nutritive properties of the plant go to form the seed, leaving the woody fiber in the 
 stalk, which serves to give bulk food, but not nourishment; hence, if not cut early, a great 
 part of the nutriment of the stems and leaves is wasted. Experience and observation, together 
 with the information afforded us by analysis, prove that the proper time for cutting nearly 
 all kinds of grasses, is when they are in fuU bloom, or just as they are coming into bloom; 
 opinions vary somewhat with respect to these stages of growth, but we believe the majority 
 are in favor of the time of full bloom. Even a casual observer must have noticed that when 
 cattle are grazing, they do not select the-stalks of grass with ripened seed or withering blos- 
 soms. No, they pass these by and take the more tender grasses that have not arrived at this 
 stage, and we think they must be better judges than we, as to which is the most desirable for 
 food. Now, in making hay, our object is to have as little change as possible in the grass, and 
 to preserve, as nearly as we can, the solid constituents, in the same state as when the grass 
 was young and green, and if cut at the period of blossoming, there will be little of the woody 
 fiber in its composition. If left until the seed is ripened, we find the seeds the storehouse of 
 the starch, gum and sugar, as before stated, while the stalk becomes hard, wiry and about as 
 nutritious as straw. Swale hay is almost worthless, if cut when the seeds are ripening. Glover 
 should be cut also when in full bloom, and not when the head has become brown. It has been 
 found by careful experiment that herds-grass, red-top and clover cut at the time as we have 
 indicated, will produce more milk and butter than the same quantity of late-cut hay, even 
 when fed with a certain quantity of grain daily, and that the same relative value will be found 
 in making beef or feeding any farm stock ; besides, no one can deny that the early -cut grass 
 is most like green grass. 
 
 With respect to our second consideration, viz., the time of cutting that will best con- 
 duce to the aftergrowth, the same rule applies equally well. 
 
238 
 
 TTIK AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 Any plant that is cropped at a certain time, before arriving at a state of maturity, will 
 throw up a second growth more readily and be more vigorous than if cropped after it has 
 matured. This is a law of nature that cannot escape the notice of any person, even the most 
 unobserving. Now, if we apply this rule to grass-cutting, we shall not only have better hay, 
 as we have already seen, but the aftergrowth will start more vigorously and grow more rapidly, 
 which will not only protect the young and tender grass roots from the hot sun, but will furnish 
 an aftermath or "rowen," — as it is often called, — which will be quite an addition to the 
 hay crop already gathered, while a third crop will soon start and grow sufficient, before the 
 frost comes, to secure the roots a protection tlu-ough the winter; this protection aiding in an 
 early growth in the spring. It is a fact that all experience corroborates, that grass will not 
 only start earlier in ^he spring, after a protection, — whether of top-dressing or its own after- 
 math, — but will produce a greater amount of hay the following season than where no pro- 
 tection is thus given. Cutting grass after the seeds have matured, leaves a dry stubble that 
 is slow in starting again, and will look brown during the remaining part of the season, 
 unless the soil is particularly rich or damp, while it will not produce as much hay in quantity 
 or as good in quality in the following season, as the fields that are early cut. Thus we see 
 that the present practice of early cutting is an improvement upon the old-time method, in 
 securing not only a larger amoimt 'jf hay, but hay of a better quality, and also leaves the 
 land in a condition to furnish a larger crop of grass the following season. 
 
 NEW BUCKEYE MOWER. 
 
 Respecting the cutting of grass, we believe the universal opinion among our leading 
 farmers is, that it should not be cut until the dew is well dried off, as it will then cure much 
 more readily. We think the practice of many farmers of overdrying their hay is as great an 
 injury to its quality, as that of insufficient curing; in fact, we might safely say that farmers, 
 as a general thing, lose more by drying theu- hay too much than by not drying it enough. 
 
 Even under the most favorable conditions with respect to the time of cutting, there must 
 of necessity be considerable loss of the nutritive qualities of the grass in drying ; the .action 
 of heat and moisture causing a loss of sugar and starch. This loss is dependent in a great 
 measure upon the length of time it is exposed to the air and hght; hence, grass cured with 
 the least exposure to wind and sunlight, other conditions being equal, will be more nutritious, 
 and contain less of woody fiber, than that wliich is overcured by long exposure to air and 
 sun; and such hay is also more palatable to cattle, as is evidenced by their eating it more 
 
GRASSES AND FDliAGE PLANTS. 2o9 
 
 roadily and sliowing a preference for it when given a cLoice of the two kinds. '■ Never dry 
 ]iay so as to make it brittle when twisted in the hand," is a rule by which many of our best 
 fanners are governed. 
 
 Hay should be housed on the day of cutting, if possible. Our experience in this respect 
 goes to show that one good hay-day is sufficient for drying any kind of grass, unless it be, 
 perhaps, wet meadow or swale hay, which requires more curing to keep well than most other 
 varieties; however, many farmers have good success in keeping the latter in fine condition 
 when put in the barn the same day of mowing. Of course much depends upon the kind of 
 temperature, state of the atmosphere, etc., in curing any grass, even on a bright, sunny day. It 
 is, therefore, very difficult to lay out any definite rule with respect to the time required to cure 
 hay, as any farmer knows that on some days twenty-five minutes of sun will dry it more 
 effectually than sixty minutes will at other times with a full sunshine. The wind has much 
 to do with the drying process. 1 n New England, the north or east wind will not assist the 
 drying of hay much, while a west or southwest wind hastens it very perceptibly. Grass 
 should never be dried any more than just to have it keep well in the mow, the greener and 
 have it keep well the better, as it contains by far more nutrition and hence more value for 
 stock food than that which is dried longer. Some experience in testing and experimenting 
 will be necessary to determine just when this point of curing is reached. The extensive 
 use of mowing-machines, and the degree of perfection that has been attained in their con- 
 struction is such, that much of the hard labor attending haying in former times is obviated, 
 besides facihtating the process of curing and getting it housed before the dew begins to fall. 
 Of coiu'se, no good farmer will expose his hay to either dew or rain when it can be avoided, 
 as the nutritive properties of grass are all soluble in eittier, and will be wasted by such 
 exposure. Hay exposed to a long rain is almost as worthless as straw, since a large portion 
 of its nutritive elements will have thus been extracted, leaving only the woody fiber. 
 
 Among the many fine mowing-machines at present in the market, that are so admirablj^ 
 adapted to the purpose of their construction, it is difficult to determine which should take the 
 precedence in favor with farmers. The McCormick Iron Mower, manufactured in Chicago 
 by the firm that bears its name, and the New Buckeye Mower by the Aultman & Miller Co., 
 Akron, Ohio, of both of which we give illustrations, may be named among the first-class imple- 
 ments of this kind, as they do most excellent work, and are strong and durable. 
 
 With aU the modern faciUties, the old adage, " Make hay while the sun shines," is as true 
 now, and as important to be observed, as it was in the days of our forefathers. We do not 
 advocate the practice of many farmers of cutting grass on cloudy days, thus running the risk 
 of rain to follow. The time thus gained in the haying process, although it may seem economy 
 in that respect, is generally more than offset by damage or loss to the hay crop. One of our 
 leading New England farmers, in eastern Massachusetts, gives his method of curing hay 
 thus: — 
 
 " I am convinced that in most parts of New England our English hay should be cut and 
 stored, if the weather allow, before the seed has set; commencing to cut with the mowing- 
 machine as soon certainly as the dew is off. One man should be occupied trimming around 
 the walls, trees, etc. At eleven o'clock commence turning with forks or tedder, and lose no 
 time until mid-day, when by this process it will become wilted. In this way we can begin, 
 if the grass has been properly tedded, to cart into the barn as soon as one o'clock, always 
 taking care to have help enough to finish carting as early as half-past four or five o'clock, 
 after which the dew has fallen and renders hay unfit to be packed. By this process we allow 
 from three to four hours for the out-door curing of our crop. 
 
 We are always careful not to put hay into our bam that has any water in it, but 
 never fear the sap if properly packed. When hay is taken from the cart or wagon it 
 should not be rolled off, and then over and over on to the diiierent parts of the 
 mow, but it shoii'.d be pitched on to the hay-mow, and evenly distributed over the 
 mow in even forkfuls, and each forkful packed and trodden upon. In this way the 
 
240 
 
 THE AMERICAX i- ARMER. 
 
 mow becomes solid and closely packed, which is absolutely necessary for the preservation of 
 the hay, always remembering that the greener the hay is put in the closer it must be 
 packed. In rainy weather let the hay be trodden upon by the men. Remember to keep the 
 barn closed as much as possible afterwards. 
 
 In order to secure rapid drying and facilitate the process, as well as to improve the 
 quality of hay — since the quicker it is cured, the better the quality — a good hay tedder is 
 indispensable, of which there are several varieties. 
 
 The following cuts represent valuable implements of this kind manufactured respectively 
 by the Ames Plow Co., Joseph Breck and Sous, and the Whittemore Brothers. aU of Boston, 
 Mass.: 
 
 The A.mericax Garfield Hay Teddek. 
 
 The first two represented have been known to the farmers of the coimtry generally for 
 some time and their merits fully tested. The Mudgett tedder has been more recently intro- 
 duced, but is very popular with those familiar with its working. Having never used the 
 latter we are not able to express an opinion as to which is the best of these valuable imple- 
 ments, but from witnessing its operations we judge it not to be at all inferior to its 
 predecessors. 
 
 A good tedder will toss the grass lightly, exposing it to the air and sun. and leave it in 
 a loose mass upon the ground, under which circumstances it will dry' rapidly, thus conducing 
 to improvement in the quality of the hay, and consequently its increased value, since the 
 sooner the curing process can be completed, the better the quality of the product. The im- 
 proved agricultural implements of the present time, including mowing machines, tedders, 
 horse-rakes, the pitching apparatus for loading and unloading hay, etc.. not only facihtate 
 the hay-curing process, and thus obviate loss or deterioration in quality by the grass becoming 
 over-rpe before cutting, orexposure to rains after being cut. hut also are a great sa\-ing of labor. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 241 
 
 time and expense, and the best of such machines are not only exceedingly useful, but are a 
 necessity in the economy of every well-managed farm. 
 
 BULLARD S IMPROVED UAY TEDDER. 
 
 With respect to the 
 height from the 
 ground at which it is 
 desirable to cut hay 
 there is a diversity of 
 opinions among far- 
 mers; some believing 
 it is best to cut it as 
 close as practicable, 
 others varying from 
 one and a half to four 
 inches. Our experi- 
 ence and observation 
 convince us that it 
 depends much upon 
 the soil, the season, 
 and the kind of grass. 
 Tlipt where the soil is 
 
 dry and liable to be affected by the hot summer weather, as in upLuul n. owing-lands, it 
 should not be cut close, in order that the roots of the grass may have some protection against 
 the scorching rays of the sun, but in low, wet lands close cutting could be practiced with less 
 injury to the roots. As a general rule, the finer and more compact the grass, the closer it 
 may be cut; while the heavier grass, timothy for instance, might be greatly injured by close 
 cutting in hot. dry weather. 
 
 The Horse rake has become a necessary acquisition to the agricultural implements of almost 
 evervfarm however small The Thomas Sulky Rake, manufactured liv J. H. Thomas & Sons, 
 
 THE MUD FTT TEDDER 
 
242 THE AMEHICAX FAU.MEK 
 
 of Springfield, Ohio, and the Gleaner Hay and Grain Rake, manufactured by the Vermont 
 Farm Machine Co., of Bellows Falls, Vt,, are fine illustrations of this kind of machine. It 
 is important that all mowing lands should be clean and free from everything objectionable lo 
 a mixture with the hay, such as dead stalks, fragments of brush, small sticks, kc. since 
 rakes of this kind collect everything from the surface : and the best time to secui-e this is iu 
 the spring before the grass has attained much growth. 
 
 A good hor.se hay-fork or loader, for loading hay on the cart, is a very desirable acquisi- 
 tion to the farm implements, and a great saring of labor and time. 
 
 Hay Caps. — As to the utUity of hay caps there can be no question, since by them the 
 farmer is enabled to protect his hay against the storms that frequently cause so much loss to 
 this crop. Those who have been accustomed to their use value them highly. They can be 
 easily made in the following manner: Procure common brown sheeting from fifty-four to 
 sixty inches wide. This is torn into squares and the edges are turned down all around and 
 sewed over a stout cord. Make a loop of the cord in each comer about six inches long, in 
 which to insert skewers or hooks for fastening them to tlie ground. The cocks of hay should 
 be made from five to six feet liigh, about four feet wide at the base and rather narrow at the 
 top, and containing from 250 to 300 pounds of hay. If the sides are raked down so as to 
 give the form described, the caps will shed the rain no matter how heavy or long-contiuued 
 the shower. It is a good plan to give the cloth a good coating of boiled Linseed oil, which 
 will aid in throwing off the water. The caps are thrown over the tops of the hay-cocks and 
 fastened to the ground at each corner by the loops, through which wire or wooden pins are 
 inserted and forced into the groimd. We know a farmer who has had caps of this kind for 
 his Injang outfit for fourteen years, and they are still in use and in good condition. 
 
 Storage of Hay is a very important subject, and one in which many of our practical 
 farmers take too little interest. The question arises, shaU we put it into large, tight mows or 
 on loose scaffolds, where the air is permitted to act upon it ? If cuiing and keeping hay is 
 in any respect analogous to the Chinese method of curing and storing the tea-plant, then the 
 quicker it can be cu^ed. and the tighter it can be stored, the better the quality of the hay. 
 We believe that the less air there is permitted to enter the haymow, when properly cured, 
 the better for the hay: in other words, hay that is compactly stored in large mows, other 
 things being equal, is far superior to that having a free exposure to air. Though air is es- 
 sential to curing hay, it is not essential to its storage. Every one knows that decay is a pro- 
 cess of combustion, and combustion cannot occur where there is no air; hence, if the air is 
 entirely excluded, no combustion or fermentation can take place, as is instanced in canned 
 fruit, where the cans are hermetically sealed. Where imperfectly cured hay is stored, it will 
 generally be found that it is only those portions of the mow where air can circulate that 
 heating and fermentation take place, and not down in the closely-packed portions where the 
 air is excluded. 
 
 In feeding hay it is better to cut down the mow in sections, rather than feed from the en- 
 tire surface, as in this way the exposure to air is less. The practice of many farmers of 
 pitching the hay upon the barn-floor at night to remain there for the next morning's feeding 
 to stock is not a good one, as much of the aroma of the hay is lost by exposure to air during 
 the long interval of the night. It is the practice in some localities where the barn capacity 
 is insufficient for hay storage, to stack the hay in the field. Though this may be a necessity 
 sometimes, yet it should be avoided if possible, as hay that is housed is more nutritious and 
 valuable than that exposed to the air and storms, as it must of necessity be in stacks. 
 
 Rather than stack his hay. it would be more economical for the farmer to procure a hay ' 
 press, thus pressing it into bales, and by this method provide room for his hay in barns. 
 Great sa\'ing of labor and time may be accomplished by the use of a Hay Carrier in the 
 imloading, storage, and stacking of hay. The illustration of Clark's Hay Elevator and 
 
THE THOMAS SULKY RAKE. 
 
 THE GLEANER HAY AND G-RAIN RAKE. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 245 
 
 Carrier, manufactured by Clark & Scott of Bridgewater, New York, represents a most 
 admirable machine for this purpose. Any fork can be used with this carrier, which adjusts 
 itself to any position, so that it makes no difference whether 
 the load stands under the track or twenty feet away. It has 
 been known to unload nineteen loads of hay, weighing over a 
 ton each, in three hours, each load being pitched off at four 
 forkfuls in from two to four minutes. An accurate and 
 special test of its merits in point of time, was the unloading 
 of 2, .500 pounds of hay in a little less than two minutes. 
 
 There are so many valuable hay-forks in common use that 
 it is difficult to tell which is best. 
 
 The following is an illustration of the Nellis Harpoon 
 Horse Hay-Fork, from the firm of Joseph Breck & Son, 
 Boston, Mass. This hay-fork is simple and readily adjusted, 
 durable and easily handled. It can be used for hay or straw> 
 whether damp or dry, coarse or fine, and is a desirable 
 adjunct to the haying machines. The figure at the right 
 shows the fork with the blade closed for penetrating the 
 hay; that at the left represents the same with blade open 
 for hfting the hay. Grapple hay-forks are also extensively 
 used. 
 
 Stacking Hay. — When necessary to stack hay (which 
 should be avoided if possible), it should be done with the 
 greatest care. The hay can remain in the cocks until quite a 
 quantity is ready for the purpose. Before stacking, it should 
 be turned over and that which has lain on the ground be ex- 
 posed to the sun to dry out the accumulated moisture, and after 
 ward taken to the place for stacking. For small stacks, poles 
 are used at the center for support. The pole should be secured 
 in the ground and be made to stand perpendicular. The hay 
 is then packed as compactly around it as possible. 
 When finished, the top of the stack should be well covered with straw, carefully 
 arranged to shed the rain. The Noyes Field Pitching Apparatus, manufactured by the 
 Wind Engine & Pump Company, Batavia, Illinois, is an admirable arrangement for stacking 
 large quantities of hay in a single stack, which can be done with great facility. Where this 
 
 apparatus is used, 
 stacks are frequently 
 made so large that 
 they do not require 
 the pole in the center 
 for support, the hay 
 being packed hard in 
 the middle of the 
 stack, which together 
 with its immense 
 size, prevents its lean- 
 ing. As has been 
 jireviously stated, 
 baling hay is preferable to stacking, since it prevents waste and injury to the hay from 
 exposure to the weather. 
 
 THE NOYES GRAPPLE HAY FORK. 
 
246 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
GUA! SES A^•D FUKAGE PLANTS. 
 
 247 
 
 The cut at the left shows tlie carrier just after the pulley, to wluch the fork is attached, 
 has run up on to the crooked arm, on which it rides. Tlie carrier is now detached from the 
 lug on the track, and has commenced to move off. On returning, the catch strikes the lug, 
 the crooked arm is released, and the fork returns to the I6ad. 
 
 The cut at the right shows the carrier in position on the track over the load. It rerhains 
 stationary until the pulley to which the fork is attached runs up on the arm, when it assumes 
 the shape shown in the adjoining figtu-e, and is released ready to move off. The continued 
 pulling of the horse moves it along the track to its destination. 
 
 LE^ER BiLI^G PRESS 
 
 Baling; Hay. — There is great advantage, in an economical point of view, ?'.n baling hay. 
 "Where the farmer has insufBcient room for storage, by baling his hay, and thus rendering it 
 
248 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 more compact, it may save liim the necessity of building larger barns to make room for liis 
 crop, or stacking in the field, which latter would injure the quality of the hay more or less, 
 however well it miglit be stacked. 
 
 The quality of the hay is also improved b}- baling, or rather by this means much, of the 
 aroma and consequent nutritive element of the hay is preserved which would otherwise be lost 
 by contact with the air. By this process the bales are in a great measure rendered almost 
 air-tight, except, of course, the external portions; besides, whenever hay is to be sent to a 
 distant market, baling becomes a necessity to fit it for transportation. 
 
 The accompanying illustrations represent baling presses, manufactured by P. K. Ded- 
 erick & Co., Albany, N. Y. The first may be used with a one or two-horse power, requiring 
 one man to pitch 
 in the hay and an- 
 other to tie the 
 bales and assist the 
 machine in storing 
 them. This press 
 also makes two pos 
 itive strokes, or 
 presses two sec- 
 tions to each round 
 of the horse, and " 
 the power is also 
 doubled at the time baling press by stea.m lu.^ti,. 
 
 the work is done. The second is a press driven by a portable agricultural steam-engine, such 
 as is ordinarily used for threshing grain, although the power of such an engine is sufficient 
 for two or three presses of this kind. 
 
 Afteriliatll or Roweil, although not as nutritious as hay made from mature grass, 
 and as it does not furnish that fibrin which mature grass furnishes, is consequently not 
 desirable as food for horses and oxen, upon whose muscular system the great tax of lalior is 
 laid, still, for calves, sheep, and milch-cows, there is no forage crop that will surpass it. It 
 approaches the nearest of anything to the green food produced by our pastures in summer 
 for these animals, and for winter use furnishes a very desirable substitute. 
 
 By cutting the grass crop early, before the plant has become exhausted in seed produc- 
 tion, the aftermath will liave a longer time for growth before being cut, and thus a better 
 crop secured, the great difficulty with rowen having formerly been that it came so late in the 
 season as to render its harvesting difficult, and hence it was often secured in an uncured con- 
 dition. But with an early hay harvest, the second crop can be secured earlier, and can be 
 cured mostly in cocks, which requires but little extra labor, and the former difficulty 
 obviated. 
 
 Cultiv.ating Grass Seed. — The first sowing of grass seed in this country, by our fore- 
 fathers, was made from seeds of grasses collected from the barn-floor, and from under hay- 
 stacks. This was sown with the chaff, they having no available means of separating such 
 small seeds from the chaff. This method was practiced for a long time. Their next stop 
 towards progress in this branch of agriculture, we are told, was to sow a small quantity of 
 seeds of those grasses they thought mast desirable, upon the ground in which tliey had culti- 
 vated their hoed crops. We of the present age have improved upon their method, but we 
 are far behind the English in the variety of grasses cultivated: we should not only sow a 
 greater variety than we now do, but more abundantly also. To secure the best results, the 
 land should be well plowed and manured, the soil well pulverized, and pains taken to keep 
 the land free from other grasses than the variety desired for producing the seed. When the 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 249 
 
 seed is ripe, it will be known by the changed appearance of the heads of the grass. Care 
 should be taken to cut it before it is so ripe that it will easily shell out from the heads, as 
 much will thus be wasted. It should be cut when the dew is on, to prevent the loss of seed. 
 After partially drying, it can be arranged in the small sheaves which should be placed where 
 the.t can become perfectly cured, as it can remain unbound until wholly dry, but it will need 
 to be handled with the greatest care to prevent the seed shelling out, as it falls very easily. 
 It can be threshed with any implement used for threshing grain, and cleaned with a seed- 
 cleaner, or common fanning-mill with a fine screen. If the stalks are too green while in the 
 stack, the hay will heat or ferment, and the vitality of the seed will be liable to be thus 
 destroyed. This injury to the seed is not always apparent by a change in its color, conse- 
 quently stale and worthless seed is often put into the market and sold for good. There is no 
 certainty in this respect, except to test a sample before sowing the whole, and if these germi- 
 nate well, there is a probability that the seed is good. The stalks producing the seed are 
 woody and tough, yet by mixing with other food, and cutting, they may be utilized, but have 
 not sufficient nutriment to be fed alone. Horses will eat them in this manner better than 
 other stock. 
 
 After sowing the seed, and exercising care to prevent the introduction of other varieties 
 not desired, it is a very easy matter to harvest a good crop of grass seed for several seasons, 
 by simply a liberal supply of top-dressing. Many farmers are indifferent to extra pains in 
 raising this product, and give it no more attention than the care necessary in harvesting it, 
 but it will well repay any farmer to take special pains to produce the best crop of grass pos- 
 sible for this purpose, as the crop produced from such seed will be greatly superior to that 
 where no such pains are taken to secure the best results. The more luxuriant the crop, the 
 better the seed produced from it, being the general rule. 
 
 Fall Grazing of Mowing Lands.— Tlie practice of turning the cattle on the mowing 
 lands to graze after the aftermath has been cut, and the grass given a little time for subse- 
 quent growth, is very common, and although the testimony of nine farmers out of ten would 
 probably be, that this practice is injurious to the grsss crop of the following year, yet they 
 continue to do so, justifying the custom on the plea of necessity. This is especially true in 
 New England, and we believe it to be one of the main causes of the deterioration of the grass 
 crop there, the grass being often grazed so closely as to leave the roots exposed to the ex- 
 treme cold of winter, which are thus frozen and killed ; besides, where the soil is moist the roots 
 are often pulled up by the grazing and an equal injury done in this way. while the tramp- 
 ing hoofs of cattle upon the turf is an evU nearly as great. The roots need the protection of 
 the grass for warmth through the winter in order to secure an early and vigorous start in the 
 spring. Mowing lands are unquestionably better where never grazed, but when practiced, it 
 should be early in the autumn, to provide for an after-growth for root protection during the 
 winter, and to store up the elements of a thrifty growth in the following spring. Too close 
 feeding is injurious at any time and should never be permitted, as it will cause the lands to 
 deteriorate and the grass to run out in time. An experienced farmer in Massachusetts says: 
 " It is now more than twenty years since I have allowed any kind of domestic animal to feed 
 upon our mown land, and my opinion previously has been fully confirmed by my experience. 
 It is a decided benefit to let the after-growth remain upon the land; it is a protection from 
 summer's drought and winter's cold. Some of my neighbor's are following my example. ' 
 And another: " I sometimes feed off my after-grass. When I do feed it off, I take good 
 care to feed it early and leave a good growth to protect the roots of the grass from frost in 
 winter. I think it an injury to feed; mowings will last longer not to be fed at all, and the 
 land when broken up will produce a better crop of com or potatoes than if fed." 
 
 Mowing lands should never be pastured in the spring, as the soil is so damp then that 
 the roots of the grass are easily pulled up by the cattle, while their tramping hoofs are also 
 
250 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 very injurious to them at that season. Sheep are less injurious in grazing mowing lands than 
 cattle, but we believe the farmers generally would find it more profitable, in the end, to keep 
 such lands entirely free from all grazing stock. The grass crop is one of great importance, 
 since it lies at the very foundation of all prosperity and success in agriculture. 
 
 Grass is said to be " king among the crops of the earth," and more land devoted to* its 
 cultivation and more money value realized from it than any other product, not excepting even 
 cotton, which has been called, at the South, king. The human race existed for ages without 
 cotton, but never without grass. The statistics of nations prove that grass is the most essen- 
 tial and remunerative of all crops. In view of its great importance, anything that will improve 
 this crop and prevent its deterioration ought to receive the thoughtful attention and consider- 
 ation of all farmers. 
 
 Rolling Mowing Lands and Pastnres. — It is a very good practice to go over the 
 
 mowing lands with a roller in the spring after the frost has left the ground, as by this means 
 the roots that have been thrown out of the soil, by the action of the frost, are pressed into 
 the soil again, where they will soon become firmly settled, and thus their drying up is 
 prevented, as they otherwise would be liable to do. Experienced farmers have found this 
 practice extremely valuable to their grass crop, and to amply repay for the labor attending 
 it; some even value the result so highly, that they treat their pastures in the same way, 
 whenever the surface is sufficiently even, and unobstructed by stones to admit of the use of 
 the roller. 
 
 MANURING MOWING LANDS. 
 
 IT is said that New England farmers are in the habit of robbing their grass lands to feed 
 their hoed crops and arable lands; which has been in a great measure, we think, true 
 until a few years past, since which time more attention has been given to fertilizing, 
 in various ways, lands designed for mowing. The improvement in this respect is however 
 gradual, and even now there are many farmers who adhere to the old-time system of farm- 
 ing, and consider the grass crop of secondary importance, letting it take care of itself, year 
 after year, with little or nothing given the land to meet the constant drain made upon it in 
 producing its annual crop, while the manure made from it all goes toward the improvement 
 of the other crops. Grass depends much upon the air in its material for growth, but also 
 much upon the soil, and the elements it extracts from the soil in its growth should be re- 
 turned to it, or exhaustion of soil will follow, and a consequent loss to the grass crop. No 
 good farmer would think for a moment of cultivating his corn, or other hoed crops, without 
 a liberal supply of manure, yet grass crops require the use of fertilizers just as much as any 
 other, both for mowing lands and pasture, and unless such fertilizers are given the soil pro- 
 ducing them as will restore the elements taken, there is no reason for expecting anything but 
 a, failure in grass crops, the same as that of corn or any other cultivated crop, treated in the 
 same manner. The analysis of hay shows over five per cent, of earthy matter, while dried 
 clover yields from seven to nine per cent., yet wo will readily see that where land produces at 
 the rate of three tons per acre, this element is taken off to the amount of 300 poimds per acre 
 per anniun; what soil could long endure such a drainage without injury? The potash, soda 
 and other salts requisite to the growth of the grass are thus taken from the soil. Grass land 
 must he renewed with suitable fertilizers, or exhaustion must of necessity foUoir; there can be no 
 other result, in the natural course of things. Commercial manures, such as ashes, lime, 
 crushed bones, gypsum, and guano, are all good for the grass crop, gypsum being especially 
 
MANURING MOWING LANDS. 251 
 
 valuable to clover. To these should be added animal or vegetable manures. Some farmers 
 apply thesi^ fertilizers in the fall, some in the early spring when the grass just begins to start, 
 others apply them just before the first rains fall after the grass has been mowed, that the ram 
 may wash the soluble matters into the roots; in such a case, the portions that remain un- 
 dissolved are soon covered by the growing vegetation, and are absorbed more gradually. 
 The best time for applying barn-yard manure is in the fall, since the frost will crumble the 
 lumps and render them partially pulverized by the spring, while the majiure serves to protect 
 the roots through the winter, and its warmth aids in securing an early and vigorous start 
 in the spring. The snow, in dissohring, aids in carrying the fertilizing elements down to the 
 roots, which is a very great advantage that cannot be secured by applying it m the spring, 
 while the soft soil will also cause the turf to be badly cut and injured by the wheels of manure 
 spreaders or other implements for carting, if applied m the spring. The following is the opin- 
 ion of Mr. Alex. Hyde, of Massachusetts, respecting the top-dressing of mowing lands: — ''We 
 have found a compost made of muck and leaclied ashes, in proportion of six or eight bushels 
 of muck to one of ashes, an excellent fertilizer for grass. The wood ashes furnish the in- 
 organic food in great variety, while the muck supplies the vegetable matter, and renders the 
 soil light and porous, ready to absorb the gases of the air, and furnish them to the grasses as 
 they may be demanded. In case the meadows are naturally cold and wet, abounding already 
 in clay or peat, we should substitute, for the basis of the compost heap, sand instead of muck. 
 Sand alone, scattered upon a peaty meadow, has a wonderful effect m warming the land and 
 inducing the growth of sweet, nutritious herbage. Indeed, we have foynd that meadows, 
 well drained, after they have been mucked for a series of years, are greatly benefited by a 
 top-dressing of sand, or better still by a coating of alluvial soil which is to be found on the 
 river-bank. This alluvium contains not only sand, but the disintegrated granules of the 
 various rocks and soils that the river has brought down from miles above. We have used 
 this alluvium lately in the compost designed for top-dressing, and have been much pleased 
 with the result. When it cannot be obtained easily, the wash of the highway, or leaf-mold 
 from the forest, answers a good purpose. The latter is particularly rich in all the elements of 
 vegetable nutrition, and our forests can well spare some of it for the benefit of the meadows. 
 
 On a clover lay plaster operates most favorablv. Spread broadcast early in the spring, 
 at the rate of one hundred pounds to the acre, it increases this leguminous crop greatly. 
 This great result from so small a quantity cannot be attributed solely to the increase of plant- 
 food furnished by the two main elements of plaster, sulphur and lime, although, as clover 
 contains both these elements, they doubtless contribute directly to its nourishment. But 
 plaster is also a great absorbent, and its efficiency must in a measure be attributed to its 
 power of retaining the ammonia of the air, and furnishing it to the clover and other plants 
 as they may demand. Plaster alone cannot be rehed upon to keep our meadows in heart for 
 a series of years. Those who have seen its magical effects for a year or two, and have sup- 
 posed that they could sell their hay and still keep up their meadows by spreading a Htt'o 
 plaster upon them, have found themselves mistaken, and have complained that their fieW.i 
 became plaster-sick. The sickness was simply starvation for the want of a greater variety 
 of food. Plaster, from its own elements, and by absorption from the air, can furnish only 
 two of the many inorganic elements wliich enter into the composition of all our grasses. 
 Clover is doubtless more benefited by its action than the other grasses, as the ash of clover 
 shows over thirty per cent, of limfe. Plaster is found to act with great efBciency in connec- 
 tion with wood-ashes, as they supply the inorganic elements in which plaster is deficient. 
 
 Farmers may differ about the action of plaster, but in the efBciencyof barn-yard manure 
 they are all agreed, and in the production of this, hay is the main reliance. Why should 
 not more of this manure be applied to the reproduction of hay, and thus the law of action and 
 leaction be carried out? The more hay. the more manure, and the more manure, tlie more 
 hay." 
 
252 THE AMERICAN FAKilER. 
 
 Many farmers of experience consider that liquid manure is the best application for grass 
 lands, and recommend it where its application is not attended with too much expei: o and 
 trouble. 
 
 Salt IS a valuable fertilizer. One farmer of la; ge experience says : " Salt is the only top- 
 dressing I have ever used on grass-land. 1 have bought a car-load of it in a year ; but some 
 years I do not use more than fifty bushels ; this is refusi3 salt.' The quantity used per acre 
 depends much upon tl»e nature of the soil ; from three to sixteen bushels being often used. 
 
 Before applying any kind of fertilizer it is always well to determine, if possible, by obser- 
 vation or experiment, what particular element of plant-food the soil is deficient in, before 
 deciding which is the proper fertilizer for a given crop. The farmer must learn it for himself, 
 and be governed accordingly. Barn-yard manure is supposed to contain all the elements of 
 plant-food, and hence is one of the most valuable of fertilizers. 
 
 The use of manure frequently, in moderate quantities, is attended with better results than 
 larger quantities at longer periods. J\^hen good results are not attained with repeated appli- 
 cations, it is often better to plough up the turf, and seed down. 
 
 Lands that are enriched by the overflow of water, such as the lands along a river-bank, 
 require but little or no extra fertilizing, as the matter deposited in this manner is sufficient 
 for that purpose. 
 
 RENOVATING GRASS LANDS. 
 
 WE have previously alluded to the great importance of feeding or top-dressing grass- 
 lands, both the mowing lands and pastures, that we may restore the fertilizing 
 elements abstracted from the soil in producing the annual crop of hay, or by con- 
 stant grazing, and thus not only improve them yearly, but prevent them from degenerating 
 and becoming exhausted, — or, as farmers often express it, '-run out" or "worn out." These 
 top-dressings may be ashes, lime, guano, plaster, crushed bones, salt, or manure, etc. ; but it 
 occasionally happens that all top-dressing seems to fail of the desired efiect, especially in mow- 
 ing lands, which may be the result of grubs eating off the roots, or of having become turf -bound. 
 In siich cases, it is usually best to plow up the turf and re-seed with grass, after well pidver- 
 izing the soil, and giving it an abundant supply of manure. Many farmers resoi-t to a rotation 
 of crops with good results. 
 
 Drainage is of the utmost importance to wet lands, and where this has been neglected, 
 should be attended to at once. Many almost valueless lands, as far as grass production is 
 concerned, will, with proper drainage, become the most valuable and productive. Clover is a 
 wonderful recuperator of the soil, and when lands have become exhausted, will often restore 
 the elements of fertility to the extent of entirely transforming it into the richest and most pro- 
 ductive of land. "We take the following extract from Dr. Harlan's work on " Farming with 
 Green Manures," which may prove a benefit to many farmers who wish to renovate theii 
 grass-lands without plowing • 
 
 " It is a very common practice among agricultural writers to advise all persons having 
 large farms which are in a very poor condition to sell one-half or two-thirds of their land, and 
 apply all the money they receive in manuring, and improving the balance of their property. 
 
 In some cases this may be the most prudent course to follow, but, as a general rule, I an; 
 opposed to this ad\'ice for two very good reasons : 
 
 First, j'ou can get but very little per acre for your poor fields ; and, secondly, if yov 
 improve your property with judgment, you can enhance its value so rapidly, that in seven oi 
 eight years it will be worth double or treble its former valuation. 
 
RENOVATING GRASS LANDS. 253 
 
 To begin your improvement, take tlie old field, about half a mile from the house, and 
 which is now covered with thin 3'ellow grass, and a mellow soil about one or two inches deep, 
 produced by many years of exposure to the weather. 
 
 It has never been plowed since you knew it. And, I beg you, do not plow it now at the 
 beginning of your efforts to make it better. Let me show you what a coating of fine mellow 
 earth is worth upon the surface. 
 
 In Egypt the annual overflow of the Nile deposits on the land a thin stratum of very 
 fine soil, which amounts to only four or five inches in a century. This yearly settling, which 
 is only the twentieth of an inch in thickness, of almost impalpable dust, keejjs the fanns for- 
 ever rich and productive. The Egyptians do not plow this precious coat under, but sow the 
 seed on the moist ground as the waters subside, and then, if possible, they drive sheep and 
 hogs or goats over it, to press the seed into the soil. 
 
 We should all learn a useful lesson from their example and experience. "We should not 
 plow down the only part which the air has enriched, by mingling and uniting with it for so 
 many years, but early in the spring we should harrow as many acres of the old field as we can 
 sow with clover seed, at one peck to the acre. After the seed is sown, we should roll the 
 ground and sow one or two bushels of plaster per acre. 
 
 Tlie principal roots of all plants must be near the surface, that they may feel the life-giv- 
 ing influence of air and moisture, or the soil must be loosened By nature or by tillage, that 
 the atmosphere may penetrate even to the deepest fibers of vegetation. Hence the reason that 
 plant-food acts so well upon the surface, and that all seeds germinate more quickly, more nat- 
 urally, when covered by only one or two inches of soil. But these great truths must not be 
 misunderstood. Though the soil must be loose, the finer the seed, the greater the necessity 
 when planting or sowing of pressing, with the hand or foot or roller, the earth into close con- 
 tact with the grain. 
 
 I remember a Little incident which will illustrate this subject and fix it in the mind. An 
 old-sea captain who lived in our neighborhood tried every year to raise for himself a little 
 tobacco. He prepared a little patch of ground with the greatest care. The surface was as 
 fine and rich and mellow as he could make it. Then he sowed the seed and raked it over 
 once more very gently. 
 
 Yet, much to his surprise and vexation, only a few stalks grew each year. But, one 
 spring, after the Little bed had been sown with all the usual care, some fellow, to worry the 
 old captain, went secretly on it and tramped and tramped, and danced and tramped it, till it 
 was, to all appearance, as hard and solid as the most frequented public road. The poor old 
 man gave him a seaman's blessing, whoever he might be, and left it to its fate. But on his 
 next visit to it he was astounded to seethe whole bed covered with vigorous plants of tobacco. 
 It seemed that every seed had grown. He had a grand crop. After that he could always 
 raise tobacco. He tramped the ground himself after the seed was sown. 
 
 Well, to return to our old field. If the clover should grow five or six inches high by the 
 middle of August, give it a half or a whole bushel more of plaster per acre. The second year 
 you mtist treat it in the same way, and if the clover is thin on the ground, sow more seed, 
 and again roll it well. Do all this the third and fourth year, if necessary. After this, it will 
 re-seed itself, provided you continue the plaster each year. 
 
 Here is a practical illustration of this plan, which 1 know to be a fact. 
 
 A person bought a very poor farm near the southern boundary of Pennsylvania, and 
 tried to raise grain upon it in the usual way. But nothing grew large or strong enough to 
 produce seed. Fortunately, he did not sacrifice the property by selling it at a very low figure, 
 as many would have done. He sowed every acre of it with clover seed, and plastered it every 
 year. For a living he followed the profession of an auctioneer. 
 
 About seven or eight, or more years, the clover grew upon his farm, undisturbed by 
 
254 THE AlIERICAN FARMER. 
 
 plow or hoof of any kind. Then he concluded to try his hand again at farming. Many of his 
 neighbors gathered to see the first plowing after so long a rest from tillage. 
 
 An old farmer who was present assured me that the soil turned over eight or uiii<j inches 
 deep, as black as your hat, and as mellow as an ash-heap. 
 
 More tlian fifty years have now passed since that occurrence, and the fann has the repu- 
 tation of being rich and productive to the present day." 
 
 Many pasture-lands, especially in New England, have been so constantly grazed for 3'ears 
 without renovating, — the general theory having been, that pastiu'e-lands were manured sufiB- 
 ciently by the animals feeding upon them, — that they have become worn out, the finer and 
 nutritive gi-asses having gradually disappeared and the thin soil on which they subsisted cov- 
 ered with moss or worthless weeds, while many are overgrown with briars and bushes. 
 Where a pasture is bound out and mossy, and the grass-roots unhealthy, it is a good practice 
 to run a harrow over the surface, first in one direction and again in another, cutting it up into 
 little squares. This process will loosen the soil, after which sow a mixture of grass-seed 
 suited to pastures, with a little white or alsike clover, and then give it a light top-dressing of 
 plaster or some other kind of fertilizer. Sheep are great renovators of the soil, and it is to 
 be regretted that sheep hiisbandry is not more generally pi-acticed in some portions of the 
 country, especially in New England. 
 
 The editor of this work had an old pasture several years ago, which had been worn out 
 by being fed by dairy cows, year after year for time out of mind. Bushes and briers had 
 come in; huckleberry bushes, alders, mosses, and every sort of botanical specimen abounded, 
 abundant enough to delight the heart of a botanist. It was the worst pasture, in that respect, 
 that could be found. It was so rough and rocky that it coidd not be plowed, and the ques- 
 tion was, what should be done with it? It contained about thirteen acres. The bushes were 
 cut down, and then more than a hundred sheep were put in, which was a larger number, of 
 course, than the pasture could possibly carry. But they were not expected to live entirely 
 on what the pasture furnished, and could not, if it had been expected of them. Cotton-seed 
 meal was bought, at the rate of tliirty-five or forty doUars per ton, and the sheep had their 
 rations of this, — about a pint for each sheep at each feeding, — every morning and night, 
 which they greatly relished, and which seemed to agree with them remai-kably. In fact, they 
 liked it so well that the moment the dispenser of their rations was seen by them in the 
 pasture, they would come bounding to him from all directions, no matter how far away, call- 
 ing in sheep language for their breakfast or supper, as the case might be. 
 
 The result was that they cleaned out absolutely every brier, and every sumac-bush in that 
 pasture, besides many other shrubs, but not the huckleberry bushes. They could not be 
 induced to eat these. They covered the pasture with manure. It was a delight to see the dress- 
 ing they gave it. They went through the following winter in good condition, and the next 
 spring twenty or thirty less sheep were put in the same pasture, and they went through the 
 second year doing exceedingly well. The original plan was to run them three years in 
 this pasture, which, if it had been carried out, would, without doubt, have entirely changed 
 its character by that time, judging by the very great improvement made during the two 
 
 Mr. C. E. Hcwes, of the State of New York, gives his experience in renovating 
 his pasture lands, as follows: — 
 
 ''My first experience with salt on grass was accidental, but it worked so well, I made it 
 a practice. It so happened that after sowing on my plowed ground all I desired, I had 
 several barrels of salt left, and quite a quantity of unleached ashes, and as my pasture, which 
 had never been plowed, and which I was quite averse to disturbing for many reasons, was 
 badly "run out," producing little grass, but many weeds, and covered with moss, I deter- 
 mined to mix the salt and ashes. an<l spn-ad tli <m plentifully as far as they would go. Com- 
 
RENOVATING GRASS LANDS. 255 
 
 mencing on the farther side, I spread it over about half the lot. The result surprised me. 
 The entire field was fully in \-ie\v from my house, being on a gentle slope pitching towards 
 the house. The great difference between the dark green color of the grass, abundant upon 
 the ashed and salted part, and the color of the weeds and scanty supply of sickly grass upon 
 the other, was as marked as between piftk and scarlet, and when the vegetation upon the 
 imdressed part was burned up by the summer drouth, that upon the other retained its color, 
 and grew liiximantly until the hard frosts came. Upon close inspection, I found few traces 
 of moss, all of which at last disappeared. I was so well pleased with the result, that the next 
 spring I gave the other part the same kind of dressing, and so continued to dress (as far as I 
 had ashes to do it with) every year, until the pasture was completely rejuvenated — "as good 
 as new." 
 
 Due credit must, of course, be given to the ashes — one of the best fertilizers for that 
 kind of soil (yellow loam) — but to the salt belongs the chief credit of resisting the drouth, 
 exterminating the soil vermin, and '•' making latent fertility available." 
 
 Another farmer who has liad experieuce and observation in England, says: — " Some 
 farmers say, 'plough the field,' but in England, where old pastures are seldom broken up 
 I have known extraordinary results from top-dressing with crashed bones, more particularly 
 on the large dairy farms in Cheshire. I am sorry I cannot give you the quantities. A 
 neighbor of mine has harrowed an old, worn-out pasture, dressed with a Uberal coating of 
 barilla ashes, from six to seven cords per acre, and sowed white clover and rolled it. It 
 came out a beautiful pasture. The brush harrow and roller applied to all grass land in the 
 spring, will amply repay for the labor." 
 
 It is a well-known fact, that the permanent clay-soil pastures of Cheshire, in England, 
 have been impoverished to the extent that it became necessary to renovate them with crushed 
 bones. The application of this fertilizer in a very short time so improved the lands, that it 
 brought up their value, in many cases, more than a hundred per cent. Milk contains con- 
 siderable phosphate of lime, and bones, which are mostly of the same material, impart this 
 element to the soil and consequently to the grass it produces. Ashes and salt are also of 
 great value in improving pasture land, the results of which have been stated, the latter being 
 especially adapted to soils in localities that are not supplied, from a nearness to the sea. 
 Liquid manure is highly valuable to grass lands, bixt should be applied just after a rain, or , 
 just before the rain cormnences, that it may penetrate to the roots and not be lost by evap)ora- 
 tion. [t is better to apply a moderate quantity of fertilizer of any kind frequently, than a 
 large quantity at long intervals. When applied at the time of being grazed by cattle, care 
 should be taken to use only those that will not have an injurious effect if eaten. Very fine 
 cattle have sometimes been poisoned in this manner. On lands that are not easily washed, this 
 might be avoided by applying fertiUzers late in the fall, or early in the spring, before the 
 pastures are ready for grazing; or just before a heavy rain, would also answer the purpose as 
 well. The rain would soon dissolve and carry the fertilizers down to the roots of the plants 
 and into the soil. 
 
 The following table gives a summary of some of the results obtained by Mr. J. B. Lawes, 
 at his noted Experiment Station, in Rothamstead, England, and extending over a period of 
 twenty years, showing the produce per acre of hay on an average of the first ten years, of the 
 second ten years, and the total period of twenty years. 
 
256 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 Experiments M'ith Different Mannres on Permanent Meadow Land. 
 
 The land has probably been laid down witli grass for some centuries. No fresh seed has been arti 
 ficially sown within the last forty years certainly; nor is there record of any having been sown since 
 (he grass was first laid down. The experiments commenced in 1856, at which time the character of the 
 herbage appeared uniform over all the plots. Excepting as explained in the table and in the foot-notes, 
 tlie same desciiption of manure has been applied, year after year, to the same plot. (Area under experi- 
 ment, about seven acres.) 
 
 Ill 2 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 .Produce of Hay per Acre, 20 Teare, 1S56-181S. 
 
 Manure, per Acre, per Anuum. 
 
 11856-6.3. 8 yearB, 14 toDB Farmyard Manure, and 200 lbs. Am- ] 
 monia-ealte* 
 1864 and since, 200 lbs. Ammonia-salts alone \ 
 
 J 1856-63, S years, 14 tons Farmyard Manure I 
 
 . 1861 and since, unmanured 
 
 Unmanured, continuously 
 
 3i^cwt,s. Superphosphate of Lime t 
 
 ^3H cwts. Superphosphate of Lime, and 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts 
 
 400 lbs. Ammonia-sails 
 
 1856-08, 13 years. 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts 
 
 1869 and since, 300 Ibs^ Sulph. Potass, 100 lbs. Sulph. Soda, 100 Ibi 
 
 Sulphate Magnesia, and 3)4 cwts. Supherphospliate . . - 
 
 300 lbs. Sulphate Potass, 100 lbs. § Sulphate Soda, 100 lbs. Sulphate 
 
 Magnesia, and 3>^ cwts. Superphosphate 
 
 ri856-61, 6 years, 300 lbs. Sulphate Potass, 300 lbs. Pulphatel 
 I Soda, JOO lbs. Sulphate Magnesia, and 3J^ cntB. Superphos- | 
 
 .{ phate } 
 
 1 1862 and since, 250 lbs. II Sulphate Soda, 100 lbs. Sulphate Magne- 1 
 
 [ sia.and 3)^ cwt. Superphosphate J 
 
 300 lbs. Sulphate Potass, 100 lbs. § Sulphate Soda. 100 lbs. Sulphate 
 Magnesia, 3X cwt Superphosphate, and 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts.. . 
 f 1856-61. 6 rears, 300 lbs. Sulphate Potass, 200 '.bs Sulphate, 1 
 I 100 lbs. Sulphate Magnesia, 3% cwt. Superphosphate, 400 lbs. | 
 
 -( Ammonia-salts } 
 
 1862 and since, 250 lbs. 1 Sulphate Soda. 100 lbs. Sulphate Magne- | 
 
 [ sia, 3)4 cwts. Superphosphate, 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts J 
 
 f 300 lbs. Sulphate Potass, 100 lbs. § Sulphate Soda, 100 lbs. Sul 
 I phate Magnesia. 3>4 cwts. Superphosphate, 800 lbs. •* Am 
 
 Iraonia-salts 
 300 lbs. Sulphate Potass. 100 lbs. § Sulphate Soda. 100 lbs. Sulphate 
 Magnesia, 3^ cwts. Superphosphate, 800 lbs. ** Ammonia-salts, 
 an(r400 lbs. Silicate Soda + t 
 nnianured continuously 
 
 '10 lbs. Sulphate Potass, 100 lbs. § Sulphate Soda. 100 lbs. Sulphate 
 Magnesia. 3^ cwts. Superphosphate, 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts, " 
 
 lbs. cut Wheat-straw 
 
 550 lbs. Nitrate of Soda tj, 300 lbs. Sulphate Potass., 100 lbs. § Sul- 
 phate of Soda, 100 lbs. Siilphate Magnesia, and 3J< cwts. Superphos 
 phate . 
 
 550 lbs. Nitrate of Soda 
 
 275 lbs. Nitrate of Soda, 300 lbs. Sulphate Potass, 100 lbs. § Sulphate 
 
 Soda, 100 lbs. Sulphate Magnesia, and 3X cwts. Superphosphate... 
 
 275 lbs. Nitrate of Soda 
 
 Mixture supplying the quantity of Potass, Soda, Lime, Magnesia 
 
 Phosphoric Acid, Silica and Nitrogen contained in 1 ton of Hay 
 
 (commencing 1865) 
 
 275 lbs. Nitrate of Soda. 290 lbs. Sulphate of Potass, and 3X cwts. Su 
 
 perphoephate {commencing 1872) 
 
 ;^27 lbs. Nitrate of Potass and 3>^ cwts. Superphosphate (commencing 
 1872) 
 
 Firft 
 
 Period. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 2.531 
 2.732 
 4.440 
 3,420 
 
 6.002 
 6,222 
 
 6,913 
 
 7,077 
 2,808 
 
 6.185 
 
 5,944 
 
 Second 
 
 Period. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 2.236 
 2,3S4 
 3,414 
 
 2.471 
 
 3,602 
 4,118 
 
 5.421 
 4,725 
 
 Total 
 
 Periods. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Duration of 
 Periods. 
 Tears. 
 
 4,824 8 12 20 
 
 4,131 
 2.383 
 2..527 
 3.8.37 
 2.946 
 
 3.452 
 :3,958 
 
 5.711 10 10 SO 
 
 j 
 
 5,647 6 14 20 
 
 10 10 20 
 
 10 10 20 
 
 10 10 20 
 
 10 10 20 
 
 * " Ammonia salts" in all cases equal parts Sulphate and Muriate of Ammonia of Commerce. +The "Superphosptiate 
 
 of Lime " is, in all cases, made from 200 lbs. Bone-ash 150 lbs. Sulphuric Acid Sp. gr. 1.7 (and water). } Plots 6. 8 and 10 had 
 
 besides the Manures specified, 2,00il lbs. Sawdust per acre per annum for the first seven years. 1856-1862, but without effect.— 
 
 § 200 lbs. 1856-1863 inclusive. 1 500 lbs. iu 1862 and 1863. ** Only 400 lbs. in 1859-60^1. 1+ The application of Silicates 
 
 did not commence until 1862. Jt 550 lbs. Nitrate of Soda is reckoned to coutain the same amount of Nitrogen as 400 lbs. of 
 
 ** Ammonia-salts." 
 
 With regard to these experiments, Mr. Lawes says: — 
 
 ■' It will be observed that of the two unmanured acres, No. 3 and No. 12, one always 
 gives rather more produce than the other, the average produce of one over the whole period 
 of twenty years being 2,383 pounds, and of the other 2,686 pounds; for reasons wliich 
 we have fully gone into in the original paper, we have considered it advisable to adopt the 
 produce of Pint 3 instead of the mean nf 3 and 12 as our standard of unmanured produce: 
 
RENOVATING GRASS LANDS. 257 
 
 but both show a decline in the second ten years as compared with the first. Experiment 2 
 received U tons of ordinary yard manure annually for the first eight years of the period, in 
 all 112 tons per acre; but since the first eight years it has received no manure. During the 
 eight years of the application of the dung, the increase of hay obtained on Plot 2 over the 
 unmanured land was 2,139 pounds of hay per acre, and for the next six years after the 
 application of the dung had ceased, the increase was much the same, being 2,147 pounds per 
 acre; since then the produce has gradually declined, but even at the present time — seventeen 
 years after the last application of dung— the produce is still several hundred pounds more than 
 that of the unmanured land; and compared with the constituents contained in the dung, 
 there is still a very large amount to be accounted for which has not been taken off by the 
 increased produce. 
 
 In the two experiments 5 and 15 we have -equal quantities of nitrogen supplied to the 
 grass every year; in one, the nitrogen is in the form of ammonia combined with sulphuric 
 and hydrochloric acid; in the other, it is in the form of nitric acid combined with soda. 
 The ammonia experiment commenced two years earlier than tlie other, but in 1 858 — when 
 the first apphcation of the nitrate took place— the hay produced in the two experiments was 
 nearly equal; since then the produce under the ammonia salts has rapidly declined, until it 
 is now very little above that of the unmanured produce, while upon the experiment receiving 
 the nitrate, the produce of the last ten years, as compared with the first eight years, has been 
 the same. 
 
 This great superiority of the hay-producing properties of the nitrate over the ammonia 
 — equal to about 1,000 pounds of hay per acre annually over the whole period — is due partly 
 to the superior power of the nitrate to liberate and render available the stores of the soil, and 
 partly to the supply of soda which it yields to the plant. 
 
 The property possessed by growing vegetation of using soda where there is a deficiency 
 of potash in the soil, is very clearly established in several of these experiments. 
 
 The superiority of nitrate over ammonia is equally apparent when all the necessary 
 minerals are employed in conjunction with these two substances, as is the case in Experi- 
 ments 9 and 14. During the first period, which includes ten years with ammonia and only 
 eight years with nitrate, the average produce is almost exactly even in the two experiments, 
 being 6,000 pounds of liay per acre annually. In the same period of ten years, the produce 
 of the ammonia plot had fallen from 6,000 pounds to 5,421 pounds; while the nitrate 
 had risen to 6,77" pounds, thus again showing the superiority of the nitrate over the 
 ammonia. 
 
 In experiments 1 1' and 12', where much larger quantities of ammonia are used with the 
 minerals, we have the largest growth of hay produced on any of the plots — the average in 
 one case is close upon 7,000 pounds of hay per acre; and even this does not show the full 
 effect of the manure, for since 1874 we have been taking two crops of hay annually, and 
 the prodilce has amounted on the average to 10,000 pounds; and in 1877 it reached the 
 amount of 12,344 pounds of hay per acre. Of this great weight of produce the soil has 
 contributed about 8 or 9 per cent., and the remainder comes from the atmosphere. 
 
 In Plot 7 we have an experiment in which, from the commencement, no manure con- 
 taining nitrogen has been placed upon the land; a very liberal supply of potash, soda, mag- 
 nesia and phosphate of lime has been applied every year, and the average produce of the 
 twenty years has been close upon 4,000 lbs. of hay per acre. It may be noticed also that the 
 produce of the last ten years is rather the highest. Compared with the unmanured land, the 
 produce upon Plot 7 is a little over 1,500 lbs., but it is nearly 1,800 lbs. below the increase 
 given by the minerals combined with ammonia, and 2,448 lbs. below the minerals combined 
 with the nitrate, annually. 
 
 In experiment 18, which has only been carried on eleven years, up to 1875, wc supply 
 
25cS THE AMEIJICAN FAUMER . 
 
 the exact quantity of minerals and nitrogen, which we estimate to be taken out of the soil 
 by one ton of hay. It is not easy to find any basis for comparison in this case, as the fertility 
 of the unmanured land had already been reduced by the removal of nine crops. If, however, 
 we take the produce of the last ten years of the unmanured land for compari;!on, we find that 
 we have only obtained 1,453 lbs. by materials vvliicli wei"e competent to furnish 2,240 lbs. of 
 hay; this is about two-thirds of what we should have obtained if all the manure had been taken 
 up. The nitrogen contained in the increased produce amounts to 1 5 lbs., which is nearlv one-half 
 of that suppHed in the manure. It may be mentioned also that there was a considerable de- 
 cline in produce in the last ten years of the unmanured land, which we took for the basis of 
 comparison. 
 
 I have now pointed out some of the most prominent of the experiments, and will con" 
 elude this part of the subject with a few remarks on the practical knowledge which may be 
 derived from them. 
 
 In the remarks which I have made up to this point. I have purposely abstained from 
 saying anything about the difference of the quality of the herbage produced by the different 
 manures; as this point will be more appropriately treated when I have done with hay as an 
 article of sale. 
 
 ^Vhatever may be the case in New York, in Great Britain the value of hay depends 
 upon its being of good color, and got in without injury from rain, than from any difference 
 in its feeding qualities. Hay is sold in the London market by the load of eighteen trusses, 
 weighing 56 pounds each ; this is as nearly as possible the United States ton of 2.000 
 pounds. The price of a load of meadow hay is fro:n $20 to $25, which does not differ much 
 from the New Yoi-k quotation of from $1 to $1.25 per 100 pounds. 
 
 The price of the most important ingredients in manures would not, I conclude, differ 
 very much in the two localities. With regard to the effect produced by manures here and 
 in the state of New York, possibly we may lose more of the soluble portion cf our manures 
 by drainage, while in New York, want of sufficient rain, combined with a higher tempera- 
 ture, may prevent the crop from making use of all the elements of plant-food which are 
 readily available. 
 
 Let us now endeavor to estimate the cost of the hay grown by the manure appHed. In 
 Plot 1 H the exact ingredients contained in one ton of hay are applied as a manure. And as 
 these ingredients are not specified in the table of manui-es, I wiU give them here: 
 
 I 38 Ib.^i. Potash. 
 
 Chloride of Potash 76 lbs. ^ T 11)S. Soda. 
 
 f 36.7 lbs. Clilorinc. 
 
 Sulphate Mn^nosia ^ ^^^- \ A^t.^:^c .M. 
 
 Bo- Ash • . 26n,s. ji>:Jt^-^,.^,^,^., 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 26 lbs. 
 
 Silicate Soda 50 lbs. ( .,, ,, «..,. 
 
 Silicate Lime 50 lbs. ( "^ ""• ^'"^'^ 
 
 Salts of Ammonia 164 lbs. -j ^^ ''t ^A'."","--'"- h c; , , • » -^ 
 
 ( 90.6 lbs. ( lilorine and bulphunc Acid. 
 
 It is somewhat difficult to estimate the cost of this manures, but I do not think it could 
 be bought and sown upon the land for much less than $16: with a produce of 1,453 pounds 
 of hay there wotild be little or no profit. 
 
 Plot 7. — ^The manures used in this experiment could be probably bought and spread upon 
 the land at a cost of from $12 to $13; the increased produce amounts to 1,500 potmds of 
 hay; there would, therefore, be a small profit upon this transaction. But it must be remem- 
 bered that the success of a purely mineral manure depends upon the amount of nitrogen 
 liberated from the store in the soU: and in the course of time this store will be reduced by 
 the process of exhaustion to the same level as that which we now. have in our arable land. 
 
RENOVATING GRASS LANDS. 259 
 
 Plot 14 received the same minerals as Plot 7, but with the addition of 550 pounds of 
 nitrate of soda, which, when placed upon the land, would probably cost about $20; this, 
 added to the cost of the manure of Plot 7, would amount to $32 or $33 per acre. The in- 
 crease of hay obtained by these manures was 4,000 pounds. It must, however, be observed 
 that I have made no charge for the cost of labor attending the cutting and converting this 
 increased produce into hay; I might also add that I have taken, as the basis for comparison, 
 the lowest in produce of the two unmanured acres. 
 
 During the whole period of twenty years the 112 English or 125i United States tons of 
 dung had produced 35,000 pounds of increased produce of hay, which is equivalent to a pro- 
 duce of about 280 pounds of hay to each ton of dung of 2,000 lbs.; but the crops of the last 
 six years prove that the efScacy of the dung is by no means yet exhausted. It is not in my 
 power to place a value upon dung, as the cost turns entirely upon the carriage. I live 25 
 miles from London, and my farm is one mile from a station. The cost of dung by rail is 60 
 cents per English ton; delivery on my land costs an additional 42 cents — making altogether 
 $1.02. 
 
 The result of these experiments makes it somewhat doubtful whether hay can be grown 
 profitably by means of artificial manures applied to permanent pasture. With us hay is gen- 
 erally grown near large towns, and the same conveyance which takes it to market brings 
 back the manure at httle or no cost. 
 
 Compared with its selling price, hay removes more of the soil constituents from the land 
 than most of our other salable products. One hundred pounds of hay will remove nearly as 
 much nitrogen and much more mineral matter than one hundred pounds of wheat. These 
 considerations must all be studied when the question comes as to the profitable application of 
 expensive manures. While, therefore, the evidence is somewhat against the use of artificial 
 manures when hay is grown for sale, it by no means forbids their employment when grass 
 land is used for tlie production of meat, milk, butter or cheese; and to illustrate this I will 
 merely allude to one manure ingredient, viz. : potash. In the large crop of hay which we 
 take from Plot 11, we carry off annually 140 pounds of potash per acre; 1,000 pounds live 
 weight of an ox or sheep contains about 1-^ to If pounds of potash. There are very few 
 acres of land in the state of New York which will fatten one bullock per acre, and even if 
 there were, the potash carried off would not amount to more than one pound. Of milk, 1 00 
 pounds weight contains a little over i a pound of mineral matter, or about one-thirteenth 
 part of what would be contained in 100 pounds of hay, while butter robs the land of notli- 
 ing. 
 
 If land has been impoverished by the sale of hay, and hay is to be sold, dung is the 
 cheapest manure to apply; but if land so impoverished is intended for the future to produce 
 milk, meat, or other animal products, potash is sure to be wanting, and the best manure to 
 apply will be either 200 pounds of sulphate or muriate of potash, or three times that quanti- 
 ty of kainit salts, and, in addition to whichever of these substances is selected, 200 pounds of 
 superphosphate of lime and from 60 to 80 pounds of nitrate of soda. 
 
 If, however, the land has been impoverished merely by feeding stock, then the exhaus- 
 tion will be more likely due to the absence of nitrogen and phosphate, and fertility must be 
 restored by an application of these substances as manures. 
 
 Quantity rather than quality is the object to be attained when hay is the crop grown ; but 
 when animal products are produced from grass, the quality of the grass is of very great im- 
 portance. Quality of pasture is dependent upon the food in the soil: in land under grass 
 there is a constant struggle going on between the various plants which constitute what we 
 call a pasture. Upon my experimental ground, the pasture contained about fifty different 
 species of plants when the experiments were commenced, and upon the unmanured ground 
 these have been subject to but little change; but it is far otherwise upon the variously man- 
 19 
 
260 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 ured portions; if the food is abundant and good, the good grasses drive away all the weeds 
 and bad grasses, and the ultimate result is a very simple herbage, consisting of not more 
 than from fifteen to eighteen of the best species. The constant mowing, although it enables 
 us to establish a great deal of valuable infonnation respecting growth, is, at the same time, 
 most destructive to the finer sorts of herbage; it cannot be expected, for instance, that much 
 white clover will be found amongst grasses standing three feet high, and yielding 7,000 
 pounds of hay to the acre; with liberal manuring, therefore, there must be close feeding, and 
 the coarse but highly nutritious cocksfoot and foxtail must not be allowed to smother the 
 clover and trefoil. 
 
 Having once started a permanent pasture by means of a judicious mixture of artificial 
 manures, the question arises whether it is more economical to keep up the fertility by a 
 fresh appHcation of artificial manures, or by the manure obtained by feeding stock upon the 
 land with food grown in other locaUties ? It is not easy to decide this point. I am myself 
 inclined to think that the latter process is the most economical, and, in the conversion of ara- 
 ble into pasture land — upon wliich operation I have been engaged for the last ten years — I 
 have trusted to the fertilizing properties of the manure from cotton-cake to enable me to ac- 
 cumulate the stock of fertility which, being exhausted by ages of arable culture, had to be 
 replaced before the land could again become a pasture. 
 
 When hay, which is the product of arable land, is grown for sale, it is by no means 
 certain that the increase, obtained by the application of artificial manures, would repay the 
 cost of the operation. Nitrate of soda, at the rate of 100 pounds per acre, applied in the 
 spring, about a month before the crop began to grow actively, would probably give a consid- 
 erable increase to a crop of timothy, but I cannot venture to give an opinion as to what 
 would be the pecuniary result of the transaction. 
 
 Sunlight is cheaper than all artificial sources cvf light, and natural fertility is cheaper 
 than any artificial compound; in the absence of sunlight we have recourse to purchased 
 light; and as the natural fertility is exhausted from our soils we are driven to use fertility 
 derived from other sources. 
 
 It is the object of science to investigate and explain the laws which regulate the growth of 
 plants, rather than to enter upon the question of economy. In the present paper I have en- 
 deavored to unite, to a certain extent, science with practice, in the hope that the farmers of 
 the United States, who take the trouble to read what I have said, may add something to their 
 present stock of knowledge." 
 
 Old pastures that were formerly arable are often excellent lands on which to cultivate po- 
 tatoes or corn, but the expense in many localities of fencing such plats is an item to be taken 
 into account as to whether this would be a remunerative practice. In many sections where 
 land is cheap and the soil poor, it may be best to let certain pasture-lands produce a growth 
 of timber. By plowing with a strong plow, furrows can be turned from six to ten feet apart, 
 and in these trenches may be sown the seeds of such varieties of trees as are desired, and 
 also that are best adapted to the soil. As has been previously stated, sheep are excellent 
 renovators of pasture-lands, and will destroy to an almost incredible degree the weeds and 
 bushes. Hogs, when kept in large numbers, will also answer the same purpose by being 
 penned in limited sections. For this purpose movable fences are necessary, and when they 
 have rooted and exterminated the noxious vegetables in one part, remove them to another, 
 and so on until the work is accomplished; but this is a rather slow method of clearing up a 
 pasture. 
 
 Clearing land of worthless bushes and shrubs by hand is a laborious and expensive task. 
 Hardback can be killed by mowing off the shrubs annually for three years in succession, late 
 in the summer. Alders are more difficult to exterminate, especially where the growth is 
 large and dense, but they may be conquered by cutting and burning. Juniper can be 
 
uirr-f V 
 
CEKKALS. 2b3 
 
 destroyed in the spring also, by fire, taking care to burn all the trailing branches This 
 destroys all the seeds, and is therefore a more effectual means of extermination than grubbing. 
 Birches require several cuttings in August, each year, before they can be conquered. 
 
 In all cases, the surrounding circumstances will have to be taken into account in deciding 
 ■what shall be done with such pastures, such as the nature of the soil, locahty, etc. Some 
 lands will not pay for the labor of renovating, and where this is the case, it will, of course, 
 be the best way to let them alone; others will well repay the labor bestowed in vastly increas- 
 ing the productive capacity and value of the land. 
 
 The soiling system is well worthy the attention of farmers having remote pastures or 
 those of poor quality, and which would not repay the expense of renovating. The same 
 might be said of the ensilage system in connection with a winter supply of green food for 
 stock. 
 
 CEREALS. 
 
 WITH the exception of buckwheat, cereal plants belong to the order Graminacese 
 (true grasses), but differ widely in their structure, character, and method of cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 It is gratifying to note that during the years 1870 and 1880, there was the unprecedented 
 advance in the cereal production of the United States of about a hundred per cent, for all 
 kinds taken together, while the increase of the previous decade, or between 1860 and 1870, 
 was but twelve per cent. 
 
 The increase in the cereal product between 1850 and 1860, which was a period of noted 
 agricultural growth, was forty-three per cent. The total number of acres under wheat cul- 
 tivation in the United States in 1880, was 35,487,065, which yielded a crop of 459,591,093 
 bushels. In 1870 the wheat crop of the country amounted to 287,745,626 bushels. The 
 increase of wheat-growing in the last decade is shown by a comparison with former enumera- 
 tions, to be seventy-three per cent. ; that between 1860 and 1870, to be sixty-six per cent, 
 and between 1850 and 1860, sixty per cent. 
 
 We also find that Illinois shows the largest area under wheat, aggregating 3,218,963 
 acres; next Iowa, with 3,049,347 acres; Minnesota, with 3,046,821; Indiana, 2,619,807; 
 Ohio, 2,556,134; Missouri, 2,074,314; Wisconsin, 1,948,036; Kansas, 1,861,342; California, 
 1,837,322; Michigan, 1,822,752, and that the si.x States of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, 
 Minnesota, and Iowa, produce more than half the wheat of the whole nation. 
 
 The increase in the product of corn between 1870 and 1880 was one hundred and thirty- 
 three per cent., the amount produced in 1870 being 760,844,549 bushels, while that of 1*880 
 reached 1,772,909,846 bushels. In 1880 the number of acres in the United States devoted 
 to the cultivation of corn was 62,326,932, the State of Illinois leading in this product. 
 
 The increase in the production of oats during the last ten years has been about forty- 
 five per cent.; that of barley, nearly fifty per cent.; that of rye only about seventeen per 
 cent., while the minor cereal — buckwheat — has not increased in proportion to the advance in 
 population — the total crop in 1870 being 9,821,721 bushels, while that of 1880 was 11,851,- 
 738 bushels. 
 
 It is also gratifying to note the increased interest in the cultivation of the cereals in the 
 cotton-growing States since 1870 — the increase in the corn product alone in that section being 
 about forty per cent. From present indications the report of the next decade, or that of 
 1890, may be expected to show a surprising advance on the above-mentioned rates of increase, 
 while that which marks the close of the present century will doubtless exceed the most san 
 guine expectations, so immeasurably great are the resources and facilities of the country for 
 the extension and development of this branch of agriculture. 
 
264 THE AMERICAN' FARMEH. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 THIS is one of the most important and extensively-cultivated of the cereals, and next to 
 maize, or Indian corn, is the most productive of all the grasses belonging to the genus 
 Tritieum. It has been cultivated for the food of man from the earliest ages, the Bible, 
 as well as the Egyptian and Chinese records, substantiating this fact; and although it is not 
 known in a wild state, most tiotanists incline to the belief that it had its origin in the central 
 portions of Asia. Rice forms the principal sustenance of the vast population of India and 
 China; com and the various other grains also contribute to the support of multitudes of the 
 human family; but wheat forms one of the principal articles of food of the most powerful 
 and civilized nations of the world. It may be cultivated in a variety of soils, and will adapt 
 itself to either cold or warm climates, but thrives best in the temperate zones, and in soils 
 that are rich and rather heavy. The lowest mean temperature in which wheat will ripen is 
 about 57.2°. 
 
 While the increased consumption of wheat in a country is an indication of an improved 
 style of living among the general population, its extended culture is also an index of an 
 improved agriculture, since it is only on soils naturally fertile, or that have been rendered so 
 by careful cultivation, that it can be successfully grown. 
 
 Varieties. — There are already many varieties and sub-varieties of wheat, and the niun- 
 ber is constantly being augmented by either the accidental discovery of new ones, or by 
 cross-fertilization artiOcially brought about for this purpose. Some of these varieties are 
 more hardy than others; but among the most popular kinds cultivated, some may be found 
 that can be successfully grown in almost any section of the United States and the southern por- 
 tion of British America. 
 
 The most common classification of wheat is that made by the time of its sowing, it being 
 sown both in autumn and spring; hence the terms, "winter wheat" and '-spring wheat.'" This 
 distinction, however, often misleads, for while it is true that there are certain varieties best 
 adapted for autumn and spring sowing respectively, it is also true that many kinds will admit 
 of being sown at either season. The spring wheat has been obtained by means of a gradual 
 change in the time of sowing. As a general mle, winter wheat, in localities adapted to its 
 cultivation, gives a stronger growth of straw and larger yield of grain than the spring wheat, 
 a,nd the heads grow more erect and fuU, with heavier grains. Many of the varieties that 
 give the most favorable results in cultivation at the South are not hardy enougb for the cli- 
 mate of the Northern States, while many of the winter varieties are not sufficiently hardy for 
 the extreme North. The selection of seed should always be adapted to the climate, and the 
 more hardy varieties sown in the colder temperatures. 
 
 Spring varieties may bring a surer crop, and involve less risk of loss to the farmer, in 
 localities where the winters are so long and severe that the crop sometimes •' winter kills," 
 though this may frequently be due to improper preparation of the land through lack of under- 
 draining, or other causes; but is often due to want of hardiness in the wheat plant. The 
 wheat-growers are constantly forced to seek new varieties to keep up the average peld. 
 
 Some writers attribute tliis frequent tendency to deterioration in quantity and quality to 
 be a natural inchnation to return to the original unimproved, uncultivated condition; but we 
 believe, if the real cause were known, it would be found to be more m the deterioration and 
 exhaustion of the soil, together with a lack of judicious care in selecting the very best seed 
 of the crop for sowing, and that if farmers would restore those elements extracted from the 
 soil, in the proiluction of the harvested crop, in the form of proper fertilizers, before sowing 
 the succeeding one, and select only the choicest and most perfect seeds for that sowing, the 
 deterioration, so often the complaint of the farmers, would not be known. 
 
WHEAT. 265 
 
 Among the many varieties of both winter and spring wheat, which have been most pop- 
 ular, may be mentioned the White Mediterranean, Red Mediterranean, Diehl, Fife, Silver 
 Chaff, Treadwell, Fultz, German Amber, Clawson, "White Russian, Champlain, Defiance, etc. 
 Among the later spring varieties above mentioned, are the Champlain, Defiance, and White 
 Russian; those of the winter varieties are the Fultz and Clawson, although neither of the 
 previously-mentioned are of so late an origin but that they have been tested for several years 
 by cultivation. Besides these, the ■' Golden Grains " is a very hardy and productive variety, 
 suited to either spring or fall sowing, and is one of the largest-grained wheats known. It 
 grows with a beard until it begins to ripen, after which the beard falls off. It can be suc- 
 cessfully cultivated as either winter or spring wheat in the Western States, but does best as 
 a winter wheat in the Eastern section of the country. 
 
 Some kinds will do best in one section, and others in another, and we doubt whether any 
 variety will ever be produced that will thrive equally well in all localities. 
 
 The soft, plump-berried varieties are frequently found the most ^ productive, and for this 
 reason are much in favor with those farmers who would naturally think more of quantity than 
 quality. The flinty and glutmous varieties make the best flour, especially where that which 
 is called the " new process " milling is employed, and consequently flinty varieties are niore 
 popular with the millers. 
 
 Wheat that is cut early makes not only whiter flour, but flour that contains more starch 
 in proportion to the gluten than that made from wheat which is harvested after becoming 
 fully ripe. The microscope reveals the fact that the starch and gluten are not formed in the 
 grain at precisely the same period, the starch-cells in the interior of the grain-kernel being 
 filled with starch-granules several days before the gluten-cells (which are next to the bran) 
 are quite filled. For this reason, wheat that is allowed to get as rip j as po jsible, to avoid 
 waste, makes better flour, because it contains more gluten, although it is not quite as white as 
 from wheat that is early cut. The quality of the grain is somewhat modified by the soil ; if 
 the soil be a moist clay and other conditions favorable, the berry will be plump and soft, while 
 a dry sandy soil will produce a smaller but harder kernel, a better quality, but less in quantity. 
 
 The Defiance, Champlain, Silver Chaff, Treadwell, and White Russian are hardy varie- 
 ties, and will thrive well at the North, while the Clawson, Fultz, as well as the German 
 Amber, and several others, have proved varieties for successful cultivation at the South. 
 
 The Fife is very successfully cultivated in some portions of Canada; it has a hard, plump 
 kernel of a reddish color, and is very prodiictive and hardy. 
 
 The White Mediterranean is a spring variety; it is bearded, with large kernels, and 
 yields well. 
 
 The Red Mediterranean is a winter variety, with heads bearded, ripening early. It is 
 very glutinous and is quite popular in the Middle States, but it has one objectionable feature, 
 and that is, in the straw not being stiff enough to bear up under a very heavy crop, and in 
 consequence this grain is liable to become lodged in the field. 
 
 The Diehl is a winter variety, grain white ; it is a bald wheat, prolific and hardy. 
 
 The Fultz is classed among winter wheats, and is beardless, of an amber color, and yields 
 largely. The German Amber is also of a similar tint, and is quite a favorite in some of the 
 Southern States. 
 
 The Clawson (sometimes known as Seneca) is a winter wheat; it is smooth and white, 
 with red chaff, and is early and hardy, bearing a stiff straw and large crops, and' is adapted to 
 either the North or South. 
 
 The White Russian, as its name indicates, was imported from Russia. It is not exactly 
 a white wheat, but of much lighter color than most of the other spring varieties. It is bald, 
 with white chaff, the kernels being quite plump. 
 
 The Champlain is a bearded wheat with white chaff, and is quite free from rust or smut; 
 the straw is strong and vigorous, and gi-ows higher than most other varieties, with very large, 
 full heads. 
 
266 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 / 
 
 The Defiance is also a vigorous, hardy wlieat, with heavy straw and large, full heads. It is 
 beardless, with white chaff and large kernels. The Silver Chaff and Treadwell are both 
 hardy winter wheats. 
 
 To illustrate the manner 
 in which different varieties 
 are often produced, we will 
 give the history of the ori- 
 gin of a few of the favorite 
 wheats. In 1866, Mr. Ger- 
 ret Clawson, living in Sen- 
 eca County, N. Y., harvest- 
 ed a crop of wheat from \ 
 mixed seed. Among the 
 stubble of this crop he 
 chanced to find a head of 
 wheat that appeared to him 
 to possess uncommon ex- 
 cellence, and he decided to 
 sow it separately and note 
 the result. He did so, and 
 thus gave to the agricul- 
 tural world the popular 
 "Clawson" variety. 
 
 Mr. C. G. Pringle, of 
 Charlotte, Vt., who is a 
 practical hybridizer, has not 
 only produced new and val- 
 uable varieties of potatoes, 
 but in a non-wheat produc- 
 ing State has also origin- 
 ated two very valuable va- 
 rieties of that kind of grain. 
 This gentleman commenced 
 the work in 1870, by the 
 cross-fertilization of a few 
 ovules in a head of the Black 
 Sea variety with pollen 
 from the Gold Drop, some- 
 times known as Siberian. 
 He selected the former be- 
 cause it was one of the most 
 hardy varieties then in cul- 
 tivation, and the latter on 
 account of the superior 
 quality of its flour, hoping 
 
 to unite the hardiness of The Champlain. 
 
 the one with the excellent qualities of the other in the product. Tlie fruit 
 of this cross was about a half dozen grains, which were sown the following spring, and 
 cultured with great care; the result was several plants showing uniformity of character, 
 intermediate between the Black Sep and Gold Drop. This product was nearly beardless, like 
 
 t/ 
 
 The Defiance. 
 
WHEAT. 267 
 
 the Gold Drop, with chaff of a reddish tinge like the Black Sea, while the kernels were larger, 
 plumper, and of a lighter color than the latter, and resembling the Gold Drop, the plant 
 being very vigorous and the heads of superior length, supposed to be due in part to the cross- 
 ing and part to superior cultivation. This seed was sown the second spring in drills apart 
 from otlier varieties, and, to the surprise of the careful hybridizer, the plants appeared of every 
 grade between the two parent varieties, but, by selecting a few of the most promising heads 
 of smiilar characteristics, and continuing these experiments for four years, he succeeded in 
 producing several varieties of a fixed character, the most n>srked and valuable of which was 
 the "Champlain." 
 
 In 1871, jMr. Pringle began another cross between the common Club wheat and one of the 
 varieties from the Pacific coast, which, after similar experiments and selection, resulted in the 
 fine type of the Defiance. These two varieties, hybridized by Mr. Pringle, were brought out 
 through the energetic firm of B. K Bliss & Sons of New York city, and their merits soon 
 made known to the fanners generally We learn from Rees that several of the formerly pop- 
 ular English wheats were produced by a gentleman at Bradfield, who, walkmgone day in his 
 wheat-field, was impressed with the variety of colors which the different blossoms of the grain 
 assumed, and, after careful examination, concluded that these different hues were signs of 
 certain specific dilfercnces in the character of the wheat, and accordingly selected the heads 
 of colors unlike, and marked eleven distinct varieties. When these were ripe, he gathered 
 them, and planted them sepai'ately the following year. The same characteristic differences 
 continued to be seen in the product, and after another year's effort in experimenting, three 
 new and valuable varieties were the result, which were more productive and earlier to ripen 
 than any knowft previous to that time. 
 
 It is stated by good authority, that American wheat contains more gluten than EngUsh, 
 and that produced in the Southern States, more than that in the Northern; and as gluten is an 
 element which imparts to flour the quality that is termed by bakers " stretir/th," and which 
 enables it to absorb a large quantity of water when made into bread, consequently in an equal 
 number of pounds of flour possessing a greater and less per cent, of gluten, the quantity pos- 
 sessing the largest per cent, of this material will make proportionally the largest quantity of 
 bread ; hence, it has been asserted that while fourteen pounds of American flour will make 
 twenty-one and a half pounds of bread, the same quantity of English flour will make only 
 eighteen and a half pounds. Of course, different varieties of wheat will differ in the pro- 
 portion of gluten furnished, but, as a general rule, other considerations being equal, the dryer 
 or wanner the climate in which the grain is raised, the greater is the evaporation, and the 
 more condensed is the flour of the grain, and consequently the more moisture it is capable of 
 absorbing. There is conssiderable dift'erence in the productive, as well as other qualities of 
 the many varieties of wheat, and it is, of course, well for the farmer to endeavor to select the 
 best that is adapted to his soil and climate; but the kind to be sown is not more essential than 
 the thorougn preparation of the land to receive it, since no variety, however good, would 
 thrive except the soil be first well prepared. The important question as to how may the 
 inci-ease of wheat per acre be accomplished may therefore be answered in the following 
 manner: by better tillage, by improving the soil, and by sowing better seed. 
 
 Preparation of Soil for Wheat. — There is scarcely any crop that requires more 
 thorough and careful preparation of soil for successful results than wheat, yet having once 
 obtained a \'igorous start, it grows very rapidly under favoring circumstances, although it is 
 not as hardy as some other of the cultivated grains. It is partial to a very fertile soil, its 
 cultivation usually being most successful in rich clays or heavy loams, although many light 
 soils, when in proper condition, will produce a good yield. Lands for wheat should never be 
 too wet, and when an excess of moisture exists it should be obviated by a good system of 
 drainage, for unless this is done, the crop suffers by being heaved out by the frosts in win- 
 
-2l58 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 ter, and " winter-killed," or chilled, or dwarfed, in the spring and early summer, clay lands 
 being especially liable to this diflBculty. The beneficial effects of the best tillage on lands of 
 the most superior quality will be counteracted by a surplus of water; hence, the proper 
 amount of moisture in the soil should receive the first attention. The land should be so wfill 
 drained that no water will stand in the furrows. The field to be appropriated to wheat cul- 
 ture should be well plowed, at least twice, and afterward thoroughly harrowed to reduce it to 
 as mellow and pulverized a condition as possible, as this will serve to imlock the fertility of 
 the soil, and put it in a state to best sustain the growing plant; it should then be well rolled 
 to be as firm as possible before putting in the seed. The old adage, that "Tillage is manure," 
 is a very true one, and one especially adapted to the culture of wheat. If. after being thus well 
 prepared, a rain happens to fall in sufficient quantity to form a crust upon the surface, it 
 should be harrowed and rolled again in the same manner before drilling or sowing the grain. 
 By the thorough use of the harrow and roller, the best pulverization of the soil can be 
 secured, and a sufficient density given it without packing it too closely, and also leaving it 
 sufficiently porous for the access of air and water. Many of our most successful wheat- 
 growers plow the land, letting it lie for several weeks or even months, thus giving the heat 
 and air an opportunity to act upon the soil, working it occasionally with the harrow and rol- 
 ler, until a complete pulverization is secured. The summer fallow is regarded with much 
 favor in some localities. A good depth of soU is indispensable to a large crop, as the wheat 
 plant has two sets of roots, the fii-st set springing from the seed and extending downward ; 
 the second extending laterally from the first joint and lying near the surface of the ground. 
 A difference of opinion exists respecting the depth of plowing for wheat, some advocating 
 only three or four inches, others a considerably greater depth ; we are of ^he opinion that 
 for most soils, from four to five inches is the proper depth, where the land has previously 
 been deeply cultivated for other crops; much, however, depends upon the nature of the soil. 
 In clearing up new lands, such as those previously occupied bj' a forest, where the trees 
 have been chopped and the soil been burned over, as is the practice in some of the unsettled 
 portions of the country, a fair wheat crop can often be obtained with but slight labor in pre- 
 paring the soil, since the proper plant-food for the seed is found in the decajing vegetable 
 matter of the soil, and the ashes of the debris burned in clearing: hence, a good crop of wheat 
 is often grown upon the inverted sod with but little further preparation; but for old lands, the 
 most thorough preparation is necessary. Early plowing is always desirable for wheat crops. 
 If wheat is sown upon oat-stubble, it is best to plow the stubble as soon as the crop is off, 
 and before the ground becomes too hard to plow well. The scattered oats will sprout, but 
 may be destroyed by haiTowing thoroughly and repeatedly 
 
 Fertilization of Soil for Wheat. — Some soils are so rich naturally, that they will 
 require but little or no addition to their fertility to secure a large ^ield of wheat but these 
 are the exceptions rather than the rule, and even most of these will, after a few years' crop- 
 ping, become sufficiently exhausted to necessitate the use of fertilizers in the form of plant- 
 food. This sustenance should always be in a condition for immediate use; hence, coarse 
 manures, that cannot be readily taken up by the delicate- feeding wlieat-plant, will not meet the 
 demand, or be of any assistance in sustaining its life until sufficient time has passed for them 
 to become assimilated to its use tlu'ough atmosplieric and other agencies, which often requires 
 two or three years. 
 
 A crop of wheat, if fertilized by coarse bam-yard manure, for instance, might starve 
 before the plant-food that lay within the soU would be in a condition to nourish it. Wherever 
 barn-yard manure is used, therefore, in the culture of wheat, it is essential that it be pulver- 
 ized very fine ; when applied in this condition, it is highlv valuable. 
 
 A heavv crop of clover, which has received a good dressing of lime, is sometimes plowed 
 under with very good results: but this should be done several weeks before sowing tlie 
 
WHEAT. 269 
 
 wheat, that it may have sufficient time to decay and be in condition to stimulate the growth 
 of the crop. Lime has long been regarded as an important aid in the growth of wheat, and 
 in preventing rust, also in obviating an undue growth of straw and assisting in filling out the 
 grain. 
 
 For some very old lands which show a tendency to exhaustion, lime and salt are often 
 ussd with good effect. Mr. J. B. Lawes of Rothamsted, England, recommends Peruvian 
 guano as the best manui-e for the wheat crop in English soil, to be sown broadcast and har- 
 rowed in before sowing the seed ; he also mentions that if mixed with twice its weight of 
 common salt or ashes, a more equal distribution through the soil is attained. Whatever the 
 fertilizer used, the soil should be made very rich, and the material for making it so should 
 ba put near the surface, for if buried too deep in the soil, it will be beyond the reach of the 
 delicate roots of the wheat-plant, and hence of no material aid in its sustenance. It is a com- 
 mon complaint with farmers in many sections, that the lands that formerly produced large 
 crops of wheat now yield only about half that quantity. This is due to the exhaustion of 
 soil, attending constant cropping without the use of fertilizers to return to the lands, thus 
 drained of their fertility, an equivalent; hence, their former fertility cannot be restored with- 
 out the application of an alnmdance of plant-food. 
 
 In England, the problem of wheat production seems to have approached a very satisfac- 
 tory solution, the average product of this grain sixty years ago having been only sixteen 
 bushels per acre; now the average is tliirty bushels, and many farmers harvest regularly an 
 average of from forty-eight to sixty bushels per acre. 
 
 Mr. George Ccfvan of England states, that when on a visit to Mr. Mackenzie's noted 
 farm in Manitoba, that gentleman informed him that his average yield of wheat the previous 
 year was forty-one bushels per acre, and, the year preceding, thirty-six bushels, and that his 
 oat crop the previous year yielded an average of eighty-eight bushels per acre. When the 
 farmers of the United States can attain an equal average in the production of these grains, 
 tlie pursuit of agriculture will be attended with more satisfaction and profit than at present- 
 We believe this can be accomplished by proper tillage, and a liberal supply of the right kind 
 of fertilizing element. 
 
 Mr. Fust of Quebec says, in relation to this subject: "It is my firm belief that the real 
 reason why our wheat crops only yield half as much as the English crops is that in England 
 they utilize sheep as grain-growers, while we only consider them as wool and mutton makers." 
 
 The great value of sheep as fertilizers is elsewhere treated in this work, and therefore 
 does not require repetition here, but we fully concur in the above-expressed opinion, and 
 believe, if our farmers would utilize sheep for enriching the soil, they would realize a decided 
 increase in their yearly crops of wheat. 
 
 In the experiments of Lawes and Gilbert, of England, a repeated cropping of the same 
 lands yearly, for thirty years, gave an average of 1 6| bushels of wheat per acre, with mineral 
 manures alone, while the immanured gave 14 bushels per acre during that time. The addi- 
 tion of sulphate of ammonia, with the same repeated cropping of the same land, brought the 
 average up to 36 bushels per acre. With the leguminous crops it was the reverse, the exper- 
 iments proving them to be most benefited by mineral manures. They also found, by repeated 
 experiments, that cereals were most helped by nitrogen, next by phosphates, and very little 
 by potash. 
 
 For wheat, we would advocate the use of artificial fertilizer.?, in preference to farm 
 manure, for the reason that farm manure is rarely applied in a mechanical condition to be 
 readily assimilated by the wheat-plant, while the former responds very quickly, and is in a 
 condition to be readily taken up by the growing plants. This will, of course, involve some 
 outlay, but the increase of the crop will well repay for the expenditure, experiments 
 frequently proving that the judicious application of ten dollars' worth of the proper fertilizers 
 
::70 THE AMERICAN FAKMEH. 
 
 often brings a return of from twenty to thirty dollars' worth of grain. Too great importance 
 cannot be placed upon finely pulverizing the soil, and haNnng the fertilizing element near the 
 surface, where it can, be within the reach of the plant when it first gets started. Some 
 farmers apply the fertilizers with the drill at the time of sowing the grain ; when this is done, 
 it is better to mix the fertilizers with about twice the quantity of earth, or to apply it broad- 
 cast and harrow it in, taking care that it is not covered too deeply; either of these methods 
 prevents injury to the seed that might result by having the strong chemical fertilizers coming 
 in direct contact with it, which would have a tendency to injure the germ. 
 
 Ground bone or superphosphate of lime is a very valuable and available fertilizer for 
 wheat; it also hastens its maturity from one to two weeks in many soils. It should be hghtly 
 harrowed in, and never mixed deeply with the soil. From two hundred and fifty to four 
 hundred pounds or more per acre should be applied, according to the nature of the soil. It 
 is estimated by good authority that twenty-five bushels of wheat, with straw, takes from an 
 acre of ground 51.85 pounds of ammonia, 33. TO of potash, and 26.10 of phosphoric acid, 
 which is equal to about 57 pounds of bone phosphate Ume. 
 
 Selection of Seed. — In order to secure the best results in the culture of wheat, it is 
 not only important that the soil be sufBciently fertile and thoroughly prepared for the reception 
 of the seed, but that the seed upon which the future crop is dependent should be of the very 
 best quality, perfectly sound, fully developed in kernel, well ripened, and entii-ely free from 
 any imperfections of any kind. The natural law of " like producing like " is as arbitrary in 
 the culture of grains as in the propagation of animals, or any other department of nature, 
 and the deterioration of the wheat crop so common in some sections is largely due to care- 
 lessness or indifference in the selection of seed. The best soil, and most careful cultivation 
 will not produce a good crop from inferior seed. Tlie difSculty and time required for sepa- 
 rating the largest and most perfect kernels for sowing, is probably the reason why so much 
 inferior seed is sown. Many years ago, before the grading fanning-mills and separators were 
 invented, fai'mers were obliged to resort to various de'snces for separating the best kernels 
 for this purpose. One method was to dip up from the pile at one end of the barn-floor a 
 small quantity of wheat in a saucer, and throw it upon the floor at the other end as far as 
 possible; by this means the heaviest grains would go farther than the light ones, and when a 
 sufficient quantity had accumulated at the farthest end of the whole mass, the best seed was 
 secured. 
 
 Another method was to put up a wire sieve several feet long, giving it a sufiicient slant to 
 have the grain, when poured in at the highest end, pass over its surface; by gently shaking 
 this sieve, the small grains would drop through, and the large ones go on over the opposite 
 end. Others selected the perfect fieads from the bundles of wheat and shelled them by hand, 
 which was a long and labored process to obtain a quantity of seed. The grading-mill saves 
 much of this labor and time, but it is by no means withfiut objection, since many imperfect 
 seeds find their way among the selected ones, though it is perhaps the best practicable method 
 where very large quantities are required for sowing. Wliere practicable, the selection of the 
 best heads, with a further grading by sifting out all the smaller seeds, will give a better 
 selection, and by carefully cultivating these, and permitting no weeds to gi'ow among the 
 wheat, yearly repeating this process, combined with the best cultivation, will not only prevent 
 deterioration in the quality and quantity of the crop, but improve it in all respects. 
 
 One of the best means of securing the choicest grains for seed is to take only those growing 
 in the lower half of the head, these being invariably larger and more plump than those of the 
 upper half. This process of selection, of course, involves much labor and time, but it might 
 be accomplished easily where only a small amount of seed were required, for a choice plot 
 or for experiment in growing for seed. Some very successful wheat-growers save all the grain 
 for seed that shells out itself in handling the sheaves, since the largest and heaviest kernels 
 
WHEAT. 271 
 
 wiU shell out the most readily. A recent writer on this subject says that by this means of 
 selection he has not only largely increased his average crop of wheat, but the heads are much 
 longer and heavier, and the kernels larger. Mr. H. Stewart says, in tliis connection: — 
 
 " The question occurs how the habit of growing long full ears is to be fixed on a variety. 
 I answer, by selection and constant cultivation, and producing a pedigreed variety. Every 
 farmer might do this for himself, but few will; therefore there is a large and profitable 
 business for farmers, to grow seed and make a special thing of it; not only by producing 
 new varieties by crossing, but by cultivating the best of what we now have and improving 
 them in prolificness. If by enriching the soil we can produce only half the standard number 
 of ears, and by selection of seed gain an average length of five inches of ear, we have fi^fty 
 bushels of wheat per acre, and can then afford to snap our fingers at bonanza farming." 
 
 As to the varieties of seed, upon the selection of which so much depends, no definite 
 rule can be given, since some kinds are best adapted to one locality, and others to another; 
 careful and repeated experiments will alone determine their adaption to certain soils and 
 temperatures. The mention of some of the most popular and leading varieties, with their 
 characteristics and general adaptation already given, will aid the farmer somewhat in making 
 his choice for experiment on his own particular lands. 
 
 Time of Sowing Spring Wheat. — This will, of course, depend on the latitude and 
 season; but, as a general rule for any climate, we find that the earlier in the season spring 
 wheat can be safely sown, the better for the crop. The best way is to partially prepare the 
 soil in the autumn by plowing and reducing it as far as practicable, to be followed by another 
 plowing and harrowing in the spring, as early in the season as possible, without having the 
 soil too wet; and if properly drained, as all wheat-fields should be, either naturally or artific- 
 ially, this can usually be accomplished in time to give the wheat-plants an early start. Spring 
 wheat should always be sown in any locality as early as the weather and condition of the soil 
 ■win admit, which in different latitudes will differ with the season, some seasons in the same 
 latitudes "being much earher than others. 
 
 Time of Sowing Winter Wheat. — "Winter wheat should be sown in time to give it 
 a good start before the ground freezes, which will, of course, be modified by the latitude. 
 The usual time at the North is from the the 1 0th to nearly the last of September, although 
 many farmers consider it expedient to have it sown at or before the 15th of September, in 
 order to give it time to root well before the frost makes its appearance. The time of sowing 
 at the South is from the middle of October to the middle of November, although in some 
 sections it is sometimes delayed until the early part of December; but this, we think, rather 
 late for any wheat-growing section, and involves some risk to the crop. The appearance of 
 the Hessian-fly sometimes modifies the time of sowing winter wheat, it generally making its 
 appearance about the first of September, and if sown at this time may be liable to its attack. 
 If it is sown sufficiently early in any section to secure a good, strong root to the wheat-plant 
 before the ground freezes in the fall, an earlier growth in the spring is secured, and, conse- 
 quently, an earlier ripened crop for harvest. 
 
 (Jnautity of Wheat Sown to the Acre. — There has been much discussion upon 
 the subject of thick and thin sowing of wheat, many of the advocates of both methods, as is 
 usually the case on all subjects, being extravagant in praise of their own favorite method, 
 and often erring in carrying out theii- ideas to the extreme, some insisting that but a few 
 quarts per acre is all that is essential for producing a good crop, and that all seed sowed in 
 excess of that quantity is mere waste. Others would sow so thick that the growth of the 
 plant would be well nigh impossible, for want of room. We believe the medium is generally 
 the safer ground on most subjects, and this especially. 
 
 When the largest and most perfect kernels are separated from all others for sowing, as 
 
272 THE AMERICAN FARMEK. 
 
 they always should be. a less quantity will be required than where many of the grains are 
 imperfect and will fail of germination; hence, a difterence should be observed in the kmd of 
 wheat to be sown. A heavy sowing will generally produce lighter straw and heads, as all 
 plants when crowded thickly are more slender in growth. There is also a tendency in wheat 
 and most of the other cereals to tiUer, or throw out new shoots for future growth, which 
 seems to be an effort in nature to cover the entire ground occupied. Thick sowing will gen- 
 erally prevent this in a great measure ; however, if sown too thick, there is not sufficient 
 room for the growth of the plants, and not only is lighter straw the result, but, we think, it 
 also modifies in a measure the size of the kernel, as well as that of the heads, and this 
 manner of sowing will soon deteriorate the quality of the wheat. Light sowing produces a 
 strong, vigorous growth, with large, well-filled heads. We would, therefore, advise a medium 
 in quantity sown, and avoid either extreme. Mr. H. Stewart says, in giving the result of his 
 experience and observation. — 
 
 " It is a fact that a field of good wheat, whatever may be its yield, bears a pretty con- 
 stant number of ears per acre, and this standard number is about 1,250,000, or 250 to the 
 square yard, or 28 to the square foot. This would bring the ears over the field to within 2i- 
 inches of each other. Now, every farmer may know that this is possible, for it is easy to 
 grow one plant on a square foot with 28 ears on it. The 1,250,000 grains are equal to two 
 bushels, so that the amount of crop depends upon the number of grains to each ear. This 
 number varies greatly, both from the length of the ear and its contents in grains. If the ears 
 average 20 grains, the product should be 40 bushels. I have found that good wheat generally 
 carries about ten grains to the inch of ear, but that ears vary in regard to the compactness 
 with which the grain is packed in them. I have found only 50 grains in an ear of Clawson 
 wheat 7 inches long, and 40 grains in an ear of Tread well 4 inches long, and the same in an 
 ear of Eed Mediterranean, and several others. The desirable point to be reached, then, is to 
 produce long, well-filled ears. I do not think this is possible, except with thinner sowing 
 than is usual. Two bushels of plump seed will contain 1,250,000 grains, but in not one case 
 in a hundred or in a thousand will the crop produce one ear for each grain sown, or one ear 
 for every 2^ inches each way. I once sowed a field of 13 acres with Treadwell wheat, in 
 strips, from one bushel of seed to the acre up to two bushels; there being 5 strips, increasing 
 by a peck of seed from one side, crossing these strips with others that were dressed with 
 superphosphate of lime at the rate of 100 to 300 pounds per acre, there being 5 strips also, 
 increasing by 50 pounds of fertilizers. It was all manured with 20 loads of good manure 
 and of even character. The whole field when threshed averaged 25 bushels per acre. 
 
 The strip with 4 pecks of seed was the best of all; the ears on this averaged 7 inches in 
 length, and one ear was picked out that was nearly 9 inches long, and had 92 grains in it. 
 On this corner of the field the seed was much thinned out by a neighbor's pigeons, and 
 several stools had each 30 ears. The opposite plat produced ears not much over 2 inches 
 long, and the straw was quite thin; the ears were smaller and thinner all along this strip of 
 the field. The best were on the strip most thinly seeded. At a careful estimate, taking the 
 grains in average ears, the best of the field produced over 40 bushels per acre, and the poorest 
 not more than 15. The length of ears was so conspicuous on the thin-seeded portion, which 
 was next a public road, that many neighbors stopped and gathered liberal bunches for their 
 own use without the formality of asking for them. 
 
 I consider this to have been a proper and useful experiment from which one could gatlicr 
 definite knowledge, and better than those made on small plats, because it was made in regular 
 farm-work. It would liave been more certain had the crop from each square of about half 
 an acre been kept separate and measured, but my object was attained as well by noting the 
 size of the ears and their contents in grains. It proved tvi^o things, one being the advantage 
 of one bushel of seed per acre, and the other was, the usefulness of 300 pounds per acre of 
 superphosphate against the other quantities." * 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 273 
 
 8 . 
 
 73 
 
 13 . 
 
 108 
 
 16 . 
 
 144 
 
 32 . 
 
 288 
 
 48 . 
 
 433 
 
 64 . 
 
 576 
 
 80 . 
 
 720 
 
 The quantity of seed to be sown to the acre is a question of great importance to the 
 farmer, since it influences to so great an extent the quantity and quality of the product; there 
 are, however, two important considerations in connection with it, as has previously been inti- 
 mated, the first being the anticipated productiveness or quality of the soil, and the second the 
 yield of the variety to be sown. 
 
 The following table shows the number of grains upon a square foot, yard, and acre at 
 certain quantities : 
 
 Grains per sq. foot. Grains per sq. yard. Grains per acre. 
 
 4 . . . . . 36 . . . . 174,240—1 peck. 
 
 348,480—3 pecks. 
 532.720—3 pecks. 
 696,960—1 bushel. 
 1,393,920—3 bushels. 
 2,090,880—3 bushels. 
 2,787,840—4 bushels. 
 3,428,800—5 bushels. 
 
 By marking a square foot of space upon a board or paper, and then dividing it into four 
 equal squares, and placing a grain of wheat in the center of each square, it will readily be 
 seen how much space will be appropriated to each grain of wheat when sown at the rate of 
 one peck to the acre. By placing two grains in each square, twice this quantity, or a half 
 bushel per acre, would be indicated ; four grains, ons bushel per acre, and so on. Some grains 
 may fail to germinate, therefore due allowance should be made for this in deciding upon the 
 quantity to be sown. ''Divide a square foot of surface into sixteen squares, each of which 
 contains nine superficial inches, and place a grain in the center of each square, and it will give 
 one bushel of wheat to the acre. If any person wOl examine his winter wheat, he will find that 
 if the plant have a vigorous growth, each seed fully stooled covers more space than it would 
 find in the area of nine inches. Put two grains of oats to each square, and it will give two 
 bushels to the acre. Make three to each square, and there will be three bushels of seed to 
 the acre. 
 
 English wheat-growers seed more heavily than those of this country, as a general practice. 
 Such a crowding of the land with the plants as will have a tendency to prevent a proper 
 development of the heads should of course be avoided, but the ground should be well occu- 
 pied when active growth commences. In sowing winter wheat, a noted English authority 
 says : " The best results are secured by using two bushels per acre for the sowing made early 
 in October, and by increasing this quantity at the rate of half a peck per week, until three 
 bushels is reached, which may be held as a maximum. Less than this should not be used 
 from the middle of November to the end of the season." This quantity would be quite in 
 excess of that used by American farmers generally. 
 
 As a general rule, the quantity to be sown will be from one to one and a half bushels per 
 acre if drilled, and from one and three- fourths to two bushels if broadcast; this to be modi- 
 fied according to circumstances, such as quality of soil, productiveness of variety sown, etc. 
 
 Sowing. — This may be done either broadcast or in drills, the latter being by far the 
 better and improved method, and will, in all^ probability, soon supersede broadcast sowing, 
 where it has not already, wherever the land is in suitable condition to admit of it. Its 
 advantage over broadcast sowing consists in distributing and covering the seed more 
 evenly, and putting it in at proper distances; this method also requires less seed, and 
 admits of after-cultivation, insuring a stronger and heavier growth of grain, besides the 
 grain grows more uniformly, the heads being all about of a height, and ripening about 
 the same time. It is comparatively of recent date that farmers have learned that after-cultiva- 
 tion will pay in the wheat-field, and tha,t there is nothing of greater promise to grain- 
 growers in this direction than the stirring of the soil between the rows of wheat and 
 killing the weeds that obstruct and retard its growth. Cultivation is, of course, only 
 possible wbere the grain is in regular rows, and regularity of sowing is only 
 
274 
 
 THE ASIICIIICAN FARMER. 
 
 attained liy tlic use of the drill, hence, the invention of tlie wheat hoc or wheat cultivator 
 follows, as almost a necessity, that of the drill, which is merely a seed sower upon a large 
 scale. A box contains the seed which is delivered by tubes, generally eight in number, at 
 the desired distance aj)art for the drills, and which can be arranged to distribute a larger or 
 less number of seeds in a given place. The difference in the various stylos consists mainly 
 in the .irrangements for opening the soil, the covering of the drills, and the regular supply of 
 
 IMPROVED HOOSIER GRAIN DRILL. 
 
 THE r\RMER!3 FAVORITE 
 
 the seed. They also have an attachment for sowing concentrated fertilizers with the grain, 
 when desired, and can be used for sowing corn, grass and clover seed, and all other kinds of 
 grains and similar seeds, by means of an adjustable feeder. The first illustration of these 
 machines represents the improved Hoosier Grain Drill, manufactured by Deere, Mansur & Co., 
 St. Louis, Mo. This machine will sow all kinds of small seed in any quantity desired w ithout 
 
WHEAT. 275 
 
 any change of gear wheels, and may be adjusted to deposit the grains either twelve, sixteen, 
 or twenty inches apart, to suit the requirements of various soils and varieties of seed. It has 
 a land measurer or surveyor attached, that measures and registers the number of acres gone 
 over in drilling. The second represents a similar implement of great excellence, manufactured 
 by Bickford & Huffman, Macedon, New York, which will plant from fifteen to twenty-five 
 acres per day. In whatever manner the seed is sown, the soil must be rich, mellow, and 
 finely pulverized. When sown broadcast, it is either harrowed into the soil or worked in 
 with a cultivator. After being covered, the earth should always be well pressed down upon 
 the seed with the roller, as this facilitates germination. Wheat that is drilled, comes up as 
 soon as that sown broadcast and harrowed, and grows more vigorously, yielding larger crops, 
 besides being less liable to winter-kill; it also withstands drouth better, and the roots having 
 a firmer hold, the grain is not so liable to be blown down and lodged in the field. It is 
 stated by good authority, that the Hessian fly is less liable to injure wheat that is in drills 
 than that sown broadcast. Thaer, in his " English Agriculture," refers to the benefits derived 
 from drill culture, but overlooks in a great measure the influence of the tillage which it 
 introduces. He writes thus : — 
 
 " Besides, the advantages from drill-sowing do not, as some imagine, consist solely in 
 the saving of seed which is thus effected, but in the increased amount of produce, which, 
 under this system, the land may be made to bear. The fact of this increase is demonstrated 
 by a thousand experiments, and no doubt can longer be entertained on the subject, even by 
 the most virulent opponents of the system. No general estimate as to the average amount of 
 this increase can be given, as most of the comparative exjseriments made for the purpose of 
 determining it have been attended with different results. In many of them the wheat thus 
 sown yielded one-third more than that which was sown broadcast. According to another 
 experiment, it only yielded one-fifth more, and another only one tenth. The variation in 
 these results was, in a great measure, created by the nature and condition of the soil. The 
 richer, deeper, and more free from stones and weeds the soil is, the greater will be the 
 advantages arising from drill-sowing; while on poor, shallow land, the benefit will be but 
 trifling." 
 
 Where soil is not naturally very fertile, it should be made so artificially before appropri- 
 ating it to the culture of wheat, as this crop will never be abundant on a poor or shallow soil. 
 Some fanners whose land is exposed to cold, sweeping winds make a practice of sowing from 
 two to three pecks of oats per acre with their winter wheat as a protection, since the oats will 
 grow up much more rapidly than the wheat, and will help to shade and protect it from winds 
 and the cold. When frosts come, the oats die, but in falling they cover and shield the 
 wheat, a protection to the roots and leaves which remains through the winter, while the little 
 that is extracted from the soil by their growth, is returned to it by their decay. By this 
 means the wheat crop is less liable to winter-kill, and, being kept warm through the cold 
 weather, has an earlier start and more vigorous growth in the spring. The different varieties 
 of wheat will be sure to mix if planted near each other, and tliis mixture will, almost with- 
 out exception, be deleterious to the grain; hence, if different varieties ai'e to be sown on the 
 same or contiguous farms, they should be in distant fields, that the different kinds may be 
 kept pure and unmixed. An occasional change of seed should be practiced, as this will 
 increase the vigor and productiveness of the plants, deterioration being sure to follow the 
 use of the same seed for several successive years on the same soil. 
 
 The Depth of CoA'eriiig Wheat will depend somewhat upon the nature of the 
 soil ; a heavy, moist soil requiring less depth generally than one that is light and dry. From 
 two to two and a half inches is the usual depth, although some very dry soils may require 
 three inches, and some that are very moist and mellow may not require more than one and a 
 ialf, but this would be the exception: we should say that about two and a half inches would b» 
 20. 
 
276 
 
 THE AMERICAN FAR5IER. 
 
the average depth for most soils. A recent experiment, by a well known agriculturist, on the 
 depth at which wheat should be covered, resulted as follows . of fifty grains deposited at the 
 depth of eight inches, only two came up and these formed no heads; at a depth of seven 
 inches, one-fourth came up. but formed no heads Ten out of fifty came up when covered 
 five inches deep, but had defective heads. At four inches covering there were a few perfect 
 heads, but the majority were objectionable. Of those covered three inches, all came up, but 
 the best yield was from those covered only two inches deep. We regret to state that in these 
 experiments the conditions of the soil, or its quality, was not stated, nor the state of the sea- 
 son, but from the results obtained, we infer that the soil was moist, and that the season 
 afforded the average amount of rain. 
 
 After-Culture of WllCat. — It has been found by repeated experiments that 
 loosening the soil about the roots of the growing wheat-plants adds materially to the crops, 
 when done at the proper time and in the proper manner; hence, when wheat is sown broad- 
 cast, harrowing in the spring is often resorted to, and although it may result in the loss of 
 some of the plants, this process is thought to produce such an increased and rapid growth- 
 combined with the 'tillering which it produces, that the benefits derived more than compensate 
 for the loss, tillering being desired when it occurs so that the heads will ripen about the 
 same time. In England the practice of drilling wheat and hoeing between the rows or drills 
 has been generally followed for several years, and the increase in the amount thus produced 
 seems to well repay for the additional labor. The practice of cultivating the growing crop 
 has been adopted only to a limited extent in this country, but will probably become in a few 
 years the common method, especially where wheat is sown in drills. Some of the wheat hoes 
 and cultivators that have recently been invented have proved very efficient and valuable 
 implements for this purpose. These should be employed to loosen the soil and exterminate 
 the weeds, but care should be used not to break or disturb the roots of the growing plants. 
 The former practice in England of hoeing drilled wheat by hand, involved much time and 
 labor. This process would not, of course, be practicable in this country on farms where its 
 extensive culture is carried on. It is' a good plan to go over a field of winter wheat with the 
 roller in the spring, in order to press back those roots of the plant that have been thrown 
 out by the action of the frost. This should not be done, however, until the frost is entirely 
 out of the ground. 
 
 Harvesting. — The time for harvesting wheat is when the part of the stalks near the 
 ground has turned yellow, and the interior of the kernel has passed from a milk state into a 
 harder consistency, sometimes denominated the "dough state," which is when it is easily 
 compressed between the thumb and finger. If cut before this time, repeated experiments 
 have proven that the kernels of grain will shrink and give light weight and reduced measure, 
 although the straw will be more valuable for fodder, as a portion of the nutriment that goes 
 to perfect the formation of the kernel at that time still remains in the stalk. If the wheat 
 stands later than this period before harvesting, the grain will be liable to waste from shelling 
 out in the field, and the straw will become quite hard and less valuable for use as fodder. 
 Where only a few acres of wheat are raised, it can be cut by hand, but large fields require 
 the use of the reaper. Cutting by hand is a slow and laborious process, and where the field 
 is large, much of the grain will become over-ripe and shell out with a consequent loss ; there- 
 fore, it is always best to hire a reaping machine where one is not owned on the premises. 
 
 The improved reapers and binders of the present time, that will reap and bind from six- 
 teen to eighteen acres of any kind of grain per day, with the aid of only one man and a pair 
 of horses, show the advancement made in agriculture since the period, comparatively but a 
 few years remote, when all the grain harvested was cut by hand. The McCormick reaper 
 and twine-binder of which we have previously given an illustration rcpre.sents one of these 
 
278 
 
 THE A3IEBICAX PARMER. 
 
 improved macliines at work in the field, showing the facility and ease with which the grain 
 is cut and bound. The dropper, which is a machine that combines both mower and reaper, 
 is adapted to the wants of those farmers who raise considerable grass, and small crops of 
 grain, and who do not need separate machines for each kind of cutting. These machines are 
 manufactured by the McCormick Haive'Jtiug jMachme Company, Chicago, Ilhnois. 
 
 The self-binding liar- 
 vester and New Buckeye 
 table rake represent ma- 
 chines manufactured Ijy 
 Aultman, Miller & Co., 
 Akron, Ohio. The small 
 surface of straw covered 
 by the twine in binding 
 does not prevent the air 
 from passing through 
 the sheaf readily, hence 
 it will dry much sooner 
 than the straw-bound 
 bundle. 
 
 Twine is preferred to 
 wire in binding, since 
 the wire in the thresh- 
 ing-machine is injurious 
 to the straw, and only 
 straw that is to be 
 burned should have 
 pieces of wire scattered 
 through it ; besides it 
 requires considerable 
 time and labor to re- 
 move the wire bands 
 fast enough for the 
 thresher, difficulties 
 which are all obviated 
 by the use of t'wdne. 
 
 The Table Rake does 
 valuable service as a 
 harvester, both in stand- 
 ing and in lodged or 
 tangled grain. 
 
 In California a ma- 
 chine called the header 
 is used m harvesting 
 wheat, which cuts ofl 
 merely the heads of the 
 grain, leaving the straw 
 standing in the field. 
 It is admirably adapted 
 to that locality as will 
 be seen by the follow- 
 ing from the pen of 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 279 
 
 Col. Marshall P. Wilder: "In favorable seasons tlie yield of wheat in California is about twenty- 
 five busl.els to the acre. Instances, are nrt uncommon where in new and very fertile loca- 
 
 I tions it has reached 
 
 fifty and even sixty, 
 and seventy bushels 
 per acre. The seed 
 is large, plump, 
 white, anil so well 
 ripened by the high 
 temperature, that it 
 may be stored in 
 bulk for months 
 without danger of 
 sweating or injury, 
 and in fact often 
 requires moistening 
 before it is ground. 
 The quality of the 
 California wheat is 
 world-wide re- 
 nowned for its 
 weight, strength 
 and whiteness. 
 Some of the dis- 
 tricts, such as Ala- 
 meda, Santa Clara 
 and San Mateo, pro- 
 duce the finest 
 wheat iu the world ; 
 and the quality of 
 the whole state av- 
 erages better than 
 that of the states 
 this side of the Ne- 
 vadas. As there is 
 no rain in the sum- 
 mer, the grain crops 
 are left standing in 
 the fields for weeks 
 after tliey are ripe. 
 Much of the grain 
 is harvested by a 
 machine called the 
 header, which pass- 
 es through the field 
 cutting a swath fif- 
 teen feet wide, taking off the heads eight inches long, throwing them into a wagon by its 
 side, at the rate of an acre in less than an hour. The crops are generally threshed by a 
 steam machine brought into the field. This machine requires two horses, two men, and two 
 
280 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 horse-forks to feed it, 
 and we were told, 
 threshed 800 to 1,000 
 bushels of wheat and 
 put in bags per day. 
 These bags remain in 
 the open field piled up 
 in rows until taken away 
 by teams to the railroad 
 stations. We saw acres 
 of bags piled up five 
 bags high awaiting ship- 
 ment. On many of the 
 large farms, the plow- 
 ing is done by gang- 
 plows, six abreast, and 
 drawn by ten or twelve 
 horses. A sower is at- 
 tached to the plow, and 
 in this way nine or ten 
 acres of grain may be 
 put in the ground in a 
 day. And have you 
 ever thought of the 
 importance of labor 
 saving machines, as 
 applied to the arts of 
 husbandry ? Without 
 the modern inventions, 
 the crops of our coun- 
 try could not be har- 
 vested, its prosperity 
 would be paralyzed, 
 and a partial famine 
 would soon ensue. How 
 wonderful the improve- 
 ments in our own day ' 
 Some of us remember 
 the old wooden plow of 
 our boyhood, for which 
 we often drove the team 
 afield, and which with 
 much hard labor could 
 be made to 
 turn the f ur- 
 rows for 
 only about 
 one acre per 
 day. Com- 
 p a r e this 
 with the 
 
CEREALS. 
 
 281 
 
 modem iron plough suited to all soils and situations, and stiU more marvelous, the steam 
 plough, walking like a thing of bfe across the broad prairie, turning up its numerous furrows, 
 at once, and leaving behind it a broad wake like that of a majestic ship 1 Compare the old 
 scythe and sickle of our fathers, slowly and tediously gathering up their crops, with our 
 mowing and reaping machines, cutting down their ten to twenty acres per day !" In climates 
 less favorable than California, where wheat cannot be immediately threshed in the field, the 
 bound sheaves are usually stacked until ready for threshing, or, where only small crops are 
 grown, the grain is put in a barn or shed. In some localities it is customary to put it in small 
 stacks or small collections of sheaves, which gives the grain a better opportunity of drying 
 where it is not fully ripened. 
 
 When the season has been quite dry, it is common for om- large grain growers to thresh 
 the wheat without stacking it, but when it has ripened in very warm and rainy weather, the 
 grain is usually stacked and goes through the ''sweating" process, which is a dampness 
 accompanied with considerable heat to the straw and grain, but which passes off after a few 
 
 FARyUHARS IHRE.SHER AND CLEANER. 
 
 days when the grain and straw become dry and ready for threshing, which could not be done 
 when the grain was damp, as the kernels would adhere to the straw. The color of the 
 kernel is somewhat changed, being brightened by this process, and it is thought to improve 
 the quahty of the ilour. Grain should be sufBciently dry when stacked to prevent moulding. 
 
 Tlireshing. — The common practice with extensive grain growers at present, is to 
 thresh the grain in the field with machines driven by either steam or horse power. Before 
 the use of machines, all the grain was threshed by hand, which was a laborious practice, but 
 since the introduction of the various agricultural implements in present use, the amount of 
 labor requisite for the cultivation of agricultural products has not only been greatly lessened, 
 but the amount of crops produced vastly increased, resulting in a proportionate increase of 
 wealth and prosperity to the country. 
 
 By the use of the thresher the farmer is enabled to prepare his grain for market in a 
 short time if desirable, when prices favor an early sale, thus saving the expense and labor of 
 storing it, and the possible consequent loss, besides the trouble of insuring it, to say nothing 
 of the loss of interest and annoyance of vermin that often attend its storage. 
 
282 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 The preceding cuts represent machines manufactured by A. B. Farquhar, York, Pa. The 
 first shows the thresher at work. The second represents the same machine geared, with 
 power ready for work, and with the elevator and straw-stacker attached. These machines 
 thresh the grain, separate it from the straw, and clean and bag it ready for market. 
 
 WHEELER S THRESHER AXD CLEAXER. 
 
 The above cut represents a very good thresher, manufactured by the Wheeler and 
 Meelick Co , Albany, N. Y. It is a two horse power machine and is a thresher and cleaner 
 combined. 
 
 Diseases and Insects of AVlieat. — The diseases and enemies of wheat are more 
 numerous than those of any other cereal, and have sometimes, in certain localities, nearly or 
 wholly cut off the entire crop. The most destructive diseases of wheat, and the ones which 
 the farmer has most frequently to contend with, are smut and rust. The destructive insect.s 
 are numerous, the principal being the chinch bug and Hessian fly. 
 
 Snmt is a disease of grains in which the kernels assume a dark brown or black appear- 
 ance, or are converted into masses of blackish powder. It is caused by parasitic fungi which 
 are propagated by spores, and which absorb the nutritive juices of the stalks or heads to 
 which they are attached. There are many varieties of this minute plant growth or fungus, 
 hence, that which attacks wheat (Tilletia caries), is of a different species from that of oats, 
 rye, or that which produces distortions of the ears of corn. It usually first attacks the 
 weaker grains, hence, it is essential that only the largest and most perfectly-developed 
 seed should be sown, and also those obtained from a field unaffected by the disease. The 
 usual remedy is to soak the seed in very strong and quite hot brine before sowing, stirring it 
 well, and skimming off all the imperfect kernels that rise to the top, afterwards mixing it 
 thoroughly with slaked lime, and sow as quickly as possible. This process seems to destroy 
 the germ of the fungi, and is one of the best remedies known. Another method to cleanse 
 the seed is to soak it in a tub for two or three hours in a solution made of four oimces of 
 sulphate of copper to a gallon of water, or the grain may be put in a basket on an elevation, 
 Tinder which a board may be placed in a sloping condition with a tub under the end to catch 
 the solution as it is poured over the grain and filters through. A flannel cloth should be 
 placed over the tub to strain out the smut that washes from the grain. When it ceases to 
 drip, the contents of the tub can again be turned into the basket over the grain, and the pro- 
 cess repeated until it is thoroughly cleansed, after which it should be spread on the barn-floor 
 and dried by being mixed with a little lime. 
 
 Rust is also produced by the growth of microscopic vegetation, and is most common in 
 wet, hot weather. Winter wheat is more liable to be attacked by it than spring wheat, and 
 
WHEAT. 283 
 
 some varieties are more readily affected than otliers. Like smut, it is more liable to attack 
 the weaker plants, which is an added argument in favor of always sowing the best seed, 
 since these will produce the most hardy plants, and consequently crops less liable to disease of 
 any kind. It affects the stalks of wheat while the grain is forming, the minute plants making 
 horizontal ridges along the stalks of the wheat, which are of a russet orange tint. It is sup- 
 posed that the spores, or seeds of the fungus, are constantly in the air, and when they fall 
 iipon the stalks and leaves of some plants, quickly germinate, and subsist upon their sap. 
 Rusts of different species affect the leaves of many plants; wheat, oats, the bean, strawber- 
 ry, raspberry, pear, apple, quince, hawthorn, mountain- ash, oak, beet, cabbage, clover, fern, 
 flax, barberry, rose, sorrel, thistle, and many others, both wild and cultivated. It is a ques- 
 tion if one kind will not affect a plant of another variety; it is known that some nists infect 
 other plants than their own native sort. 
 
 There seems to be no remedy for this disease when it once makes its appearance in the 
 field, and the grain should be harvested as soon as admissible. The only remedy is in pre- 
 vention, by selecting the most hardy varieties, and sowing the most perfectly-formed and ri- 
 pened seed of such varieties. Sowing on elevated lands where the air has a free circulation, 
 and the abundant use of fertilizers that contain salt, lime, or gypsum is thought by some to 
 be in a great measure a preventive. The evil may be largely remedied by treating the seed 
 before sowing as directed for smut. This process has a tendency to destroy the germ of the 
 disease. The use of a solution of bluestone in the proportion of one-fourth of a pound to a 
 bushel of wheat, is recommended by Prof. Pendleton for both rust and smut. 
 
 Chinch Bug. — The insects that are destructive to wheat are very numerous and for- 
 midable, embracing many varieties of flies, weevils, bugs, worms, caterpillars, &c., the most 
 destructive of which are the Chinch-bug and the Hessian-fly. The Chinch-bug, {^BUssus cu- 
 copterus Say) is one of the most formidable and destructive pests with which the farmer 
 has to contend, as it attacks not only the wheat crop, but also Indian corn and the various 
 kinds of other grams, besides grass, garden vegetables, &c. This bug is about three-twenti- 
 eths of an inch in length and has white fore-wings, each having a black spot in the middle of 
 its edge; the body being usually black. The wingless young are at first red, with a white 
 band on the back, and, aside from this latter characteristic, somewhat resemble the bed-bug. 
 It is slow in motion, and possesses no other weapon of destruction than its tiny beak, with 
 which it attacks the tender parts of the plants, sucking the juices, apparently poisoning the 
 part that is bitten ; yet although small, it makes up by numbers for the lack of individual de- 
 structive capacity, being very prolific. This insect is not uncommon in New England and 
 other parts of the eastern portion of the United States, but there its ravages are not as con- 
 spicuous as in the extensive grain-growing sections, the valley of the Mississippi having suf- 
 fered extensively from its ravages. The female lays her eggs in the ground, about five 
 hundred in number, and there are often two broods of the larv8B in a single year. The first 
 brood begins its attack upon the wheat crop generally about the middle of June, and does 
 not always disappear before the middle of August. The second brood appears in Autumn. 
 In the year 1864 about one-half of the corn and three-fourths of the wheat crops in many sec- 
 tions were destroyed by this pest, the estimate in loss to the country being about a hundred 
 millions of dollars. After that they seemed to nearly disappear for a time. They are now 
 quite common again, and very troublesome in certain sections. Prof. Cyrus Tliomas states 
 that two successive dry years are necessary to the development of them in large and injurious 
 numbers, and that wet weather has a tendency to destroy both eggs and larvae. Various 
 remedies are resorted to in order to accomplish the destruction of these insects. As they seek 
 hiding places in the stubble, weeds, corn-stalks, and all the rubbish that can accumulate in a 
 field, many are destroyed by clearing the field of everything, including weeds and grass of 
 the fence corners, by burning, as soon as the grain is taken from it. Another practice is to 
 
284 
 
 THE AMERICAN FArJilS^L 
 
 
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WHEAT. 285 
 
 plow under very deep all the stubble of the small gram as soon as cleared of other rubbish 
 by burning. Rolling the field as soon as the gram is sown, and again when it is four or five 
 inches high, destroys many of the eggs. 
 
 There seems to be no effectual remedy for exterminating these pests, and the best method 
 is to make the land very fertile and give the crop an early and \'igorous growth before they 
 make their appearance, that it may be able to better withstand the attacks, and be less injured 
 by it. Prof. C. V. Riley says: — 
 
 "Not to mention the different means to be employed in counteracting the ravages of 
 this insect, a diversified agriculture is undoubtedly one of the most effectual. It must neces- 
 sarily follow that the more extensive any given crop is cultivated to the exclusion of other 
 crops, the more ^411 the peculiar insects which depredate upon it become unduly and inju- 
 j-iously abundant. The chinch bug is confined in its depredations to the grasses and cereals. 
 Alternate your timothy, wheat, barley, corn, etc., upon which it flourishes, with any of the 
 numerous crops on which it cannot flourish, and jou very materially affect its power for 
 harm. A crop of corn or wheat grown on a piece of land entirely free from chinch bugs 
 will not suffer to the same extent as a crop grown on land where the insects have been breed- 
 ing and harboring. This fact is becoming partially recognized, and already hemp, flax, and 
 castor beans are to some extent cultivated in localities where they have not hitherto received 
 much attention. But there are many other valuable root and forage plants that may yet be 
 introduced and grown as field crops; and if the late calamities only awaken the farmers of 
 this country to a f uU realization of the importance of greater diversification in their culture, 
 the lesson will not be too dearly bought. 
 
 Of root crops that would escape the ravages of the winged insects, and which would 
 grow in ordinary seasons, and furnish excellent food for stock, may be mentioned turnips, 
 ruta bagas, mangel wurzel, carrots (especially the large Belgian), parenips and beets. Of 
 tubers that are not as profitable but of which it wotdd be well to plant small quantities in 
 locust districts, for the reason that they grow with such ease, and are less likely to be injured 
 by the insects, the Chinese Yam, Jerusalem Artichoke [Helianthus iuberosus), and the Chufa 
 (Cyperous esculentus), are worthy of trial." 
 
 Hessiau Fly. — This insect is so called because it is supposed to have been introduced 
 into this country from Germany, by the Hessian troops, in their straw, during the year 1776, 
 at which time the British army, then occupying Staten Island, received large re-enforcements 
 of Hessians under General De Heister. It is very destructive to wheat, and produces two or 
 three broods each year. It is found in the winter wheat from late in the autumn through 
 the winter, until about the middle of April, the larvae of this brood being found between the 
 stalk and sheathing-base of the leaf of the young grain near the root, and slightly beneath 
 the ground. The second brood attacks the wheat m the late spring and summer, and are 
 an inch or two above the surface of the ground at the lower joints of the stalk. 
 
 " In the ordinary course of nature, therefore," says Fitch, "our crops of winter wheat 
 are liable to two attacks of tlie Hessian fly, one generation reared at its roots producing 
 another, which occupies the lower joints of the stalks. Thus the larvae and pupae are present 
 in it almost continually, from the time the tender young blades appear above the ground in 
 autumn till the grain ripens and is harvested the next summer Our spring wheat, on the 
 other hand, can rear but one brood of these insects; they consequently resort to it but little, 
 if at all. Nor can the Hessian fly sustain itself except in districts where winter wheat is 
 cultivated, in which for it to nestle during the autumn and winter." 
 
 The first brood usually appears in April and May, the second in August and the early 
 part of September, while a third sometimes appears m October. There is no doubt that, as 
 is the case with all other insects, the varying degrees of heat and cold will accelerate or 
 retard the various transformations of the Hessian fly. In from four to eight days after the 
 
286 THE AMERICAN FARMEi;. 
 
 Hy has deposited her eggs upon tlie leaves of the growing plant, they hatch and the niaggots 
 or larvfe work down the leaf between the sheath and stem to a joint in the stalk, and attach 
 themselves, feeding upon the juices of the plant, which soon shows unmistakable signs of 
 their presence by turning yellow, and a swelling of the stalk. Sometimes the joint of the 
 plant becomes so weakened, that it breaks olf at the point of their depredations. In five or 
 six weeks they enter a semi-pupa, or what is termed the "flaxseed state," from which they 
 change into the pupa, and then become perfect insects. 
 
 The remedies are those suggested for the chinch bug, burning all the stubble and refuse 
 of the field in the autumn, being the most effectual; however, this necessitates also the 
 destruction of the parasites of the fly, which destroy large numbers of them. Some recom- 
 mend late sowing as a remedy to avoid the evil, since if deferred until the fly has laid its eggs, 
 the wheat escapes the first brood ; but this is objectionaljle in respect to the crop not being 
 thus able to obtain a good start before the frost comes, and will consequently be liable to 
 winter kill. Pasturing the crop with sheep for a day or two, or mowing off the tops of the 
 plants and feeding to stock in order to destroy the eggs, together with the use of the roller, 
 are means often employed, but, as we have recommended as a remedy for the chinch bug, 
 and as has previously been stated, we consider burning the stubble the most effectual remedy 
 aside from that of giving the best chance to the crop to obtain a vigorous growth before these 
 p4sts make their appearance. 
 
 Prof. Cook, of the Michigan Agricultural College, states that when the season approaches, 
 the flies will lay their eggs upon the first suitable plant they can find, and recommends 
 sowing a narrow strip of wheat around each field in August or early in September, and defer 
 as long as the season will permit, sowing the wheat from which the crop is to be obtained. 
 By this means, the wheat sown in the strip will make its appearance first, and most of the 
 eggs of the fly will be laid upon it, after which period it should be plowed under very deeply, 
 that the eggs may be destroyed, and the later wheat then sowed. The outer strip may then 
 be included also. This method, if successfully carried out, will destroy the fly and protect 
 the wheat at the same time. These insect pests come and go in occasional and consecutive 
 year?, and will sometimes disappear altogether for a longer or shorter period, when they will 
 again suddenly make their appearance. There are several kinds of destructive jiarasites of 
 the Hessian fly, the combined attacks of which are supposed by entomologists to destroy 
 about nine-tenths of all that are hatched. The most important of these is the Chalcid four- 
 winged fly (Semwtelliis destructor), which destroys what is termed the •' flaxseed "; there is also 
 another important parasite that does much injury to the eggs. An application of unleached 
 ashes in damp weather is somethnes beneficial in destroying the larvae, and lime and soot are 
 used with the same effect, but lime should be applied with care, as it is liable to injure the 
 plant. The sowing of hardy varieties is advisable as a protection against most of the dis- 
 eases or insect enemies to which the wheat crop is subject. Grasshoppers or locusts are often 
 very destructive to the cereal crops of the "West, coming as they do in such swarms as to destroy 
 every green thing, and leaving no appearance of vegetation in their track. We know of no 
 better remedy for this evil than the prevention of the wanton destruction of birds, which 
 feed upon such insects. 
 
287 
 
 RYE. 
 
 THIS crop is more extensively grown in the Eastern and Middle States than in any 
 other section of the country. It is very hardy and more easily cultivated than any 
 of the other smaller grains, unless it be oats; however, it will thrive where oats will 
 not, requiring less fertility, a sandy soil and cold climate being best adapted to it. It is often 
 produced in the Western States on fields that have become partially exhausted from the con- 
 stant cropping of wheat, large crops being obtained on lands "that would utterly fail in the 
 wheat crop in time of harvest. When we take into consideration the cheapness with which 
 rye can be produced, and its various uses, we shall find that there is scarcely any grain that 
 yields so large a return for what is expended. Besides its various uses as grain,- the straw is 
 valuable for many purposes, such as for cut-feed for either horses, cows, or any other stock, 
 which are all fond of it, and it is often raised for this purpose principally, and cut while in 
 the blossom. It is soft, clean, and free from dust, and quite nutritious when cut in the blos- 
 soming period of its growth, is rarely injured by extreme cold winters, and grows so quickly 
 in the spring that drouth rarely afEects it; it is valuable to supplement the hay crop in case 
 the latter is for any reason short. There is nothing so cheap and convenient for use on the 
 farm, such as for bands to tie corn-shocks and bind fodder, etc., and will bring as high a 
 price in many markets as the grain or the best timothy hay. It is also used in the manufac- 
 ture of paper. 
 
 Eye is valuable for soUing, producing forage late in autumn and early in the spring; for 
 this purpose it should be sown at the rate of from three to four bushels per acre, to produce 
 a heavy growth ; when not too closely fed, and on good soil, it will often produce a crop of 
 grain also. Such feed is very valuable in the spring for cows and other stock, as it comes on 
 early when they need such a change after the long winter with its attendant dry fodder. A 
 small field of rye for this purpose, located at a convenient distance from the barn, will bo 
 found a profitable investment to most farmers. When clover fails to catch, as it sometimes 
 will, a field of rye will be found a good substitute, since it will grow so rapidly that it will be 
 ready for pasturing stock at least two weeks earlier than clover. Some farmers sow timothy 
 seed with the rye in the fall, which will come on and produce good feed when the rye has 
 become too old for the purpose, and thus good pasturage will be secured all summer. Rye is 
 a valuable manure when plowed under lightly in the fall. 
 
 It is also a well-known preventive of washing on rolling lands, where the soil is easily 
 gullied out by water, as its roots grow very firmly and compact, and will hold and protect the 
 young grass until a sward is formed. We have omitted to state anything concerning its 
 bread-making properties. In this respect it is second only to wheat, and when grown continu- 
 ously on sandy soil especially adapted to it, will produce flour nearly as white as some brands 
 of wheat; hence, such grain has gained the name of " White Rye," which is only the result 
 of culture, and not a difference in variety, for if this same seed be sown on a rich, loamy 
 soil, the flour produced will be of a darker color, and when repeated crops are produced on 
 the same soil, will finally become as dark in color as that of the original grain first used upon 
 the sandy soil. The unbolted flour has a peculiar flavor not found in that finely bolted, and 
 is much used in connection with corn-meal, in making the brown bread so commonly found 
 in New England cooking, as well as many of the other States in the eastern section of the 
 country. Many farmers use the rye-field for fall pasturage of stock, especially sheep, young 
 calves, and cows, and claim that a benefit to the crop is attained through the trampling of 
 their hoofs and the grazing of the flocks, a more luxuriant growth in the spring being the 
 result. As we have never practiced this method of treatment, we cannot speak from expe- 
 rience as to results, but would not think it safe to pasture rye except the soil were quite dry 
 and the growth unusually luxuriant and heavy, and even then only by such animals as sheep 
 
2^8 THE AilERICAN FAUMER. 
 
 or calves, and not allow it to be grazed very closely, as there should be a sufficient growth of 
 the leaves of the plant to afEord a protection to the roots during the winter. 
 
 Varieties of Rye. — These consist of the spring and winter grain, the former being 
 only a modification of the latter, produced, — as in tho case of wheat, — by continuous late 
 sowing in the fall for several years until the result is a grain that can be successfully sown 
 in the spring. The spring variety can be easily transformed into the winter by reversing the 
 process, and sowing continuously earlier each year, until the usual time of sowing winter rye 
 is reached. » 
 
 Soil for Rye. — Although rye can be successfully grown on a great variety of soils, 
 yet it is of the finest and best quality when produced on a dry, sandy one, where few, if any, 
 other grains' can be cultivated with equal advantage. By this, we do not mean the poorest 
 soil that can be found, and which contains but little of the elements of plant-food, or that rye 
 can be successfully grown with but slight preparation of the land, and the constant cropping 
 of the same fields with it, and no manure supplied to return the nutritive properties extracted 
 by the successive crops. A rotation is better for any kind of crops, since the same, repeated 
 year by year, without any equivalent return to the soil of the plant-food extracted, will drain 
 it more surely and quickly than different crops succeeding each other, as different plants 
 require different proportions of the elements of plant nutrition that the soil furnishes. 
 
 The better the soil is adapted to anj' plant, the better its preparation for the seed and 
 the after cultivation, tlie better the crop, as a general rule, and while we do not think those 
 farmers do wisely who make a practice of giving their rye the poorest soil, with little or no 
 manure, and the least preparation and care of any crop, still they will secure a better harvest 
 of this grain under such unfavorable circumstances than almost any other. 
 
 The most profitable agriciilture is that where the soil and cultivation are especially adapted 
 to what is intended to be produced, and no farmer has a right even to expect a good harvest 
 without giving the crop to be cultivated a fair chance of realizing his expectations. 
 
 We have seen a good growth of rye on a sandy soil that would produce scarcely any- 
 thing else, but the soil was fairly enriched before the seed was sown. Clay is not favorable 
 to its cultivation, especially a heavy, undrained clay, and it will never do well in a wet soil 
 of any kind. A clay loam will produce a fine growth of straw, but the grain will not be as 
 good as that grown on a sandy soil, the latter producing a more plump kernel of better qual- 
 ity than the former. A rich loam will produce a larger quantity of grain than sandy soil, 
 but of less value. Rye is a strong feeder, and will extract about the last element of soluble 
 plant growth from the soil; hence, land that has become so exhausted that it cannot yield rye, 
 is very poor indeed, and will require a long period of rest, or a large amount of manure of 
 some kind to cause it to produce anything. It is more hardy than wheat and not as liable to 
 lodge with heavy growth. Almost any kind of fertilizer is beneficial, — finely-pulverized 
 farm manure, that from a well-prepared compost heap, ashes, or chemical fertilizers having 
 been found valuable in its cultivation. Green manures are also beneficial. Rye frequently 
 follows corn in cultivation with little or no additional fertilizers. 
 
 The color of the grain, as well as its quality for making flour, is greatly modified by the 
 character of the soil that produces it. 
 
 Sowing and Harvesting Rye. — The land should be plowed for rye to a moderate 
 depth, and pulverized with the harrow, the manure to be lightly harrowed in before the seed 
 is sown. When winter rye is grown, the best time for sowing it is between the middle of 
 August and the last of September, although many farmers delay it until the last of October. 
 When sown early it has a better chance to tiller out and cover the ground before cold weather 
 than that sown later, also a better start in the spring: consequently late sowing is not desira- 
 ble. The poorer the soil, the earlier the seed should be sown, and, as a general rule, when 
 
RYE. 
 
 289 
 
 sown early, a less quantity of seed will be required. "Winter rye is to be preferred to the 
 spring variety, but, when the latter is sown, it should be put into the ground as early as prac- 
 ticable, that is, as soon as the ground is in a suitable condition to receive it, in order to give 
 
 it an early growth. The quantity of seed to be sown 
 
 ,; depends upon the character of the soil and the time 
 
 ■'- of sowing. On light lands, and if sown early, from 
 
 three pecks to a bushel per acre is the usual quantity 
 
 when sown broadcast. On good soil, and when sown 
 
 rather late, from one and a half to two bushels per acre 
 
 may be required. When sown principally for green 
 
 soihng fodder, or pasturage, where a luxuriant and 
 
 ; ;■ heavy growth is desirable, from three to four bushels 
 
 „?5t^/C..,-^f;-v^; per acre may be sown, according to the nature of the 
 
 e soil. "When drilled in, only about a bushel per acre 
 
 will be required for ordinary land. 
 
 CAii 1 \ ^ I I -o\\EH. Small fields of rye are still sometimes sown by 
 
 the old tnne method, — by hand, — but the broadcast seed-sowers and driUs have, in a great 
 
 measure, superseded that practice, since they facilitate labor and distribute the seed so much 
 
 PHILADELPHIA BROADCAST SEED-SOWER. 
 
 more evenly than can be done by hand. Where largely cultivated, and the surface of the 
 ground will admit, it is usually drilled in the same as wheat. In the use of the seed-sowers, 
 the quantity of seed per acre can be regulated the same as with drills, the heavier the seed 
 the farther it can be thrown by the sower. A hand machine will sow from four to six acres 
 per hour; a horse machine, from twelve to fifteen. 
 
 The two preceding cuts represent machines of this kind for sowing broadcast sll kinds 
 of small seeds and grains, as weU as the various chemical fertilizers, such as bone- lust, plan- 
 ter, pulverized poultry manure, phosphates, etc. The former is manufactured by the Good- 
 ell Co., Antrim, N. H., the latter by Benson, Maule & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 The following figure shows a machine of different kind for the same purpose, which is 
 attached to a horse-rake by removing the teeth from the latter, as shown in the cut, thus com- 
 bining two farm machines in one. It is manufactured bv Wheeler & Melick Co., Albany, 
 K Y. 
 
290 
 
 THE AMEKICAX FARMER. 
 
 Rye should be covered with about the same depth of soil as wheat, and should also be 
 pressed in with the roller. This crop is sometimes sown among ihe standing corn before the 
 latter ripens, and is covered by the use of a cultivator or boe, wliich gives the corn a late 
 hoeing and the rye an early sowing, as well as a moist and sheltered locality at a period in the 
 
 BROAnCAST GRAIN-SOWER, PLASTER AND GUANO DISTRIBUTOR 
 
 season when drought or the heat of the sun might be a check to its growth. This practice 
 involves extra labor in carrying the corn to a considerable distance in harvesting it, or the 
 necessity of stacking it upon the rye, and we are inclined to the opinion that the derived 
 advantage from it is not sufficient to compensate for the extra amount of labor it requires, 
 
 ,&'i^ 
 
 
 
 MEI lOK & RYt THRlibULR 
 
 and that liarvesting the com as early as it is ready to be cut, and stacking in another field 
 and sowing the rye as soon as possible when the field is cleared, is a better one. 
 
 No after cultivation is needed for rye, except perhaps the use of the roller after it is well 
 started, which is thought by many to be very beneficial. 
 
RYE. . 291 
 
 When the color of the straw changes, and the kernel passes out of the milk state, as is 
 the case with wheat, it is ready to be cut, which may be done with the reaper and self-binder, 
 or it may he cradled by hand, though, of course, the latter is a very slow and laborious pro- 
 cess, and can only be practicable where there is a small quantity to be harvesteij. When 
 quite free from weeds, the grain will usually be sufBciently dry, in a day or two of clear 
 weather, to be put under shelter; but if the weather be wet and many weeds have been har- 
 vested with it, it is better to set the bundles up in stacks of from ten to twelve each, until 
 dry. The practice of some farmers of leaving it in the field until they are ready to thresh 
 it, is not one to be recommended, as it is far better to have it securely under cover free from 
 exposure to rains, being often seriously injured in this manner. It is threshed the same as 
 wheat, although in some localities a special rye-thresher is used, which separates the grain 
 from the straw, without injury to the latter, and which is considered an advantage in sec- 
 tions where the straw is used for making paper, or where it is put up in bales for shipment. 
 
 The previous cut represents such a thresher, manufactiured by the Wheeler & Melick 
 Co., Albany, N. Y., and is said to be an excellent machine for the purpose. 
 
 Diseases of Bye. — The diseases and casualties to which rye is subject are fewer than 
 those of wheat, the principal being ergot, or what is sometimes termed cockspur. Like rust 
 and smut, this is a fungoid growth or parasitic plant, most common in a hot, wet season. 
 It grows in tlie heads of rye, causing them to turn black and send out long spurs, which are con- 
 sidered quite poisonous for man or beast, when eaten in sufficient quantity, and are also supposed 
 to be the cause of serious disease, several fatal epidemics in Europe having been traceable to 
 the use of rye when thus affected. 
 
 The sloughing of the hoofs and horns of cattle has been attributed to ergot eaten with 
 grass and grain. Emaciation and debility, sometimes resulting in the death of animals, is 
 often occasioned by it. It also has a tendency to produce miscarriage in pregnant animals. 
 The oil extracted from these spurs or fungoid growths is sometimes used in medical practice. 
 When this condition of the grain exists, it is commonly called "spurred rye," and was long 
 supposed to be occasioned by diseased kernels of the grain; but microscopic examination has 
 caused the present prevalent opinion, that it grows originally from the ovary of the grain, 
 that the spores of the plant are taken up by the roots of the rye, and that they germinate 
 there, having been deposited in that part of the grain by the sap. 
 
 The spurs grown on the rye-heads are generally of a violet black or dark pui-ple exter- 
 nally, and are whitish, with a pink tinge within. They grow from a third of an inch to one 
 and a half inches in length, and have an unpleasant rancid taste. The mUls for grinding are 
 so arranged that most of this poisonous substance is separated from the grain by the grinding 
 process, and largely prevented from mixing with the flour; still, there is risk in using rye that 
 is affected by ergot. There is no remedy known, when it attacks the grain, hence prevention 
 is the only means to be used in avoiding it. If possible, the seed sown shoidd be from a field 
 unaffected by it, and only the largest and most perfect grains selected for the purpose. Before 
 sowing, it is a good plan to put the seed into hot brine, stirring thoroughly and skimming off 
 all that rise to the surface, and afterward to spread it and dust with lime. This is the best 
 preventive of the evil known. Rust, like that which attacks wheat, is also known to rye, and 
 when thus affected it should be harvested as soon as possible. 
 
292 THE 'AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 OATS. 
 
 THE oat plant is one of the most hardy and thrifty of grains, and is a native of 
 cold climates, although it will adapt itself to a wide range of latitude and a great 
 variety of soils. It, however, succeeds best in the northern part of the temperate 
 zone, being decidedly a plant of that section, but does not reach as far north as barley. It 
 can be grown in a southern latitude where the summers are long and the temperature very 
 warm, but it does not flourish as well in such localities, and is apt to degenerate under such 
 conditions very rapidly. 
 
 As with most of the other cereals, there are many varieties and sub-varieties of oats, the 
 difference in the latter being due mainly to difference in the soil and climate. While new 
 kinds are being frequently introduced, some of whicli prove very valuable and fully merit the 
 praises they receive from the extensive advertisements given them, others are found by 
 repeated experiments and considerable expense to the farmer, to be failures, as far as their 
 adaptation to general cultivation is concerned. Oats that are imported from Norway and 
 Scotland and a similar latitude, are quite heavy and have a plump kernel, also those from 
 Canada, but if sown in a latitude considerably farther south, the product, with the cultivation 
 they at present receive, soon degenerates to the common local standard in quality. We be- 
 lieve this deterioration is mainly due to the indifferent treatment the oat receives in cultiva- 
 tion almost everywhere in this country, and that if proper care were exercised in the selection 
 of the seed, and preparations of the soil to receive it, it might be prevented. The grain sown 
 should be the most plump and perfect kernels from a crop cultivated on good soil and unaf- 
 fected by disease of any kind, such as rust or smut. We see no reason why oats may not be 
 cultivated here and kept up to their original standard of excellence, or even improved upon, 
 as well as any other crop, when properly treated. The general idea prevalent among farmers 
 is, that oats can grow on almost any soil, and with but little preparation, the poorest land and 
 most indifferent culture being accordingly given them. Were it not a very hardy plant, it would 
 utterly fail under such treatment. With some pains taken in the preparation of the soil, and 
 a suitable supply of manure given, a profitable crop is almost always a certainty. 
 
 This grain has obtained the reputation of being very exhaustive to soils upon which it is 
 grown, which we are inclined to think is unmerited, and that if the soil before sowing received 
 the same amount of fertilizing properties given to many other crops, it would be found to 
 leave that soil after the harvest more fertile than many crops that have not this reputation. 
 It is a strong and vigorous plant, and being such will sometimes smother and too heavily 
 shade smaller and weaker plants that may be grown with it, — grass, for instance. 
 
 It is, as has been previously stated, a very good practice, and one adopted by many farm- 
 ers, to sow oats with winter wheat where the field lies in an exposed and cold locality. By 
 this means, the oats soon spring up and grow sufficient to give protection to the wheat during 
 the winter, their leaves, when killed by the frost, forming a good covering for the wheat crop, 
 and " winter-killing" is prevented, while an earlier start is also secured in the spring. The 
 amount of fertility extracted from the soil by the growth of the oats is returned by furnishing, 
 in this way, a slight dressing to the surface by the decay of their leaves and staiKS. 
 
 Oats are cultivated principally in England as provender for horses. In Scotland they are 
 extensively produced, more than half the grain crop of that country consisting of this product. 
 
 Tlie cultivated oat (Avena salii'a) is an annual, although the genus contains several peren- 
 nial species. It is supposed to be a development of the wild oat (-4 vena fatua) that is found 
 in Europe, and is regarded as a weed also in California, where it grows wild over extensive 
 tracts of land, and yields a good quality of hay. The wild oat differs from the cultivated 
 variety by having the inner palet and the grain covered with hair, and the outer palet provided 
 with a long awn. Experiments made at the Royal Agricultural College, England, by Prof. 
 
OATS. 293 
 
 J. Buckman, prove tliat this seed when gathered ripe and sown the following spring will pro- 
 duce a grain differing very materially from the original, and when subjected to further culti- 
 vation, a grain is produced bearing a very strong resemblance to many of the varieties now 
 cultivated. Oats vary in weight per bushel according to the variety, some of the large and 
 hea\-y -grained variety weighing from forty to fifty pounds per bushel. American oats vary 
 generally from thirty to thirty-five pounds per bushel. The average peld of oats per acre in the 
 United States is from thirty to thirty-five bushels. "When the soil is of good quality and well-pre- 
 pared and the season favorable, the crop may be made to be largely in excess of that amount. 
 
 As a proof of what may be accomplished with this crop on thin soil, a thin, rocky drift 
 soil at the Massachusetts Agricultural College was sown, and produced without manure, fifteen 
 bushels per acre. With a suitable supply of manure, the yield was sixty-two bushels per 
 acre. The same principle holds true respecting sowing seed that is free from smaller and 
 blighted grains, and that which has not been thus separated. At the Agricultural College at 
 the Wisconsin University the experiment was tried by Prof. Daniels which resulted in giving 
 a 3rield of 48^ bushels per acre to the cleaned seed, and 435 bushels per acre to the 
 uncleaned. As a general result, we think the difference would be considerably greater than 
 these figures show. 
 
 Oats are one of the very best crops cultivated for feeding working animals, and especially 
 as provender for the horse, they are superior to all other grains. In Scotland, oatmeal forms 
 a very important item in the diet of the peasantry, as well as that of the more wealthy classes 
 also, to a certain extent, to which fact has been attributed the robust health, strength and well- 
 developed forms and muscles characteristic of that nationality. More than half the annual 
 grain crop of Scotland consists of oats. In this country the use of oatmeal as an article of 
 diet has been more common for a few years past, and if the taste of the American people 
 could be cultivated more generally in the direction of regarding it a dish to tolerate, (if not as 
 a palatable one.) — there is no doubt that it would do much towards increasing their strength 
 and vigor of constitution. 
 
 We once heard a gentleman remark, while ordering a dish of oatmeal at a hotel, that he 
 did not hke the food, — on the contrary it was distasteful to him, but he ate it from prin- 
 ciple, — out of a sense of duty, or "as a sort of penance for his sins," hoping to receive 
 good to the body thereby, — which is certainly a novel theory on diet. For invalids and 
 young children, it is very nutritious and strengthening when properly prepared. Oat straw 
 makes quite good feed for farm animals when cut fine and mixed with other materials. When 
 cut while in -blossom and cured like hay, it makes excellent fodder for cows that are gi^ang 
 milk, or for sheep ; especially, pregnant ewes or those with young lambs. When stirred into 
 water oatmeal makes a ver\' healthful beverage for laborers in hot weather, and obviates the 
 e^•il effects of drinking too much water under such circumstances. 
 
 Varieties of Oats. — .'\mong the numeroiis varieties of this grain, we shall mention 
 some of the long-established and leading ones, together with a few of those of more recent 
 origin that have become established in agricultttre, or that give promise of success. The 
 White or common oat is quite extensively cultivated in England and Scotland, as well as in 
 this country, and is known by its white husk and kernel, the latter of which is of medium 
 size, the grain weighing from thirty-two to thirty-five pounds per bushel. 
 
 The Black oat is characterized by a black husk and its adaptabihty to poor soils, doing 
 better on such lands than many of the other varieties. The Red oat has a brownish red 
 husk, ripens early and is suited to a late cUmate ; the grains are quite firmly attached. The 
 Potato oat has quite large and plump grains, which are rather thick-skinned and white, and 
 are double and sometimes treble, the straw being quite long. EngUsh authorities state that 
 this oat is more extensively cultivated in the south of Scotland, and north of England 
 than any other, and that this, with the Hopetown, Sandy, and Early-Angus are chiefly 
 cultivated on the best class of soils, in those sections, these commanding the highest 
 
294 
 
 THE AMEKICAN FARMER. 
 
 prices in tbe Englisli market, the weight per bushel being from forty-two to forty-six pounds, 
 and yielding generally from fifty to sixty bushels per acre. 
 
 Prisgle's Excelsior. 
 
 The Poland oat has 
 a thick, white husk, 
 short, white kernels, 
 and short, stiff straw. 
 It is very prolific and 
 does best in waim, 
 dry soils. The Black 
 Poland has a large, 
 black kernel, and will 
 sometimes weigh 
 from forty-five to fif- 
 ty pounds per bushel. 
 The Friezland or. 
 Dtitch oat has a 
 plump, white grain, 
 mostly double, and 
 thin skinned, resemb- 
 ling the Poland some- 
 what, but with longer 
 straw. The "White 
 Norway and New 
 Brunswick "White arc 
 old and popular vari- 
 eties. The Black Tat 
 tarcan is esteemed in 
 England for its largo 
 produce and adapta- 
 tion to inferior soils, 
 but is ratter coarse 
 in quality. The 
 "White Tartarean is 
 late and' prolific, and 
 said to do well in 
 southern latitudes. 
 Many of the above 
 mentioned are more 
 extensively cultivatr 
 ed in England and 
 Scotland than this 
 country, some of the 
 heavier varieties 
 showing considerable 
 deterioration when 
 grown in our drier 
 climate, and requir- 
 ing a frequent im- 
 portation of seed to 
 
 keep up the standard. The White Russian is comparatively a late variety, that in some 
 locaUties gives very satisfactory results. 
 
OATS. 295 
 
 Among others of the somewhat recent kinds that have proven very successful, are the Prob- 
 steir, Excelsior, Challenge and Pringle's Excelsior, a comparatively new variety hybridized 
 from the common Chinese Hulless and the Excelsior, which is a variety of the common oat of 
 great vigor. Tie grains of this variety are nearly twice the size of the Chinese, and Hulless. 
 It is very hardy and prolific, and the straw quite strong in growth. The inserted cut of this 
 variety, copied by permission from the catalogue of B. K. Bliss & Sons of New York city, is a 
 very correct representation. The Surprise is an oat of very good qu.ality, and gives general 
 satisfaction to those famihar with it. As to which variety is best for general use, is yet an 
 undecided question, some preferring one and others another. With this crop, as most others, 
 much depends upon the soil, climate and the cultivation given it. We are of the opinion that 
 of the two classes, the white varieties are generally preferable to the black. 
 
 A hardy kind, known as Winter Oats, is now being cultivated to a considerable extent, 
 and has proven very successful in certain localities ; but we doubt whether it will bear the 
 rigors of the New England winters, or those of a latitude much above 37° or 38°, although a 
 valuable kind for a more genial climate. We believe it has thus far proven a decided success 
 in the South, where spring oats frequently fail on account of rust. A rather deep sowing 
 will make the plants more vigorous, and serve to keep the roots warmer during tlio cold sea- 
 son. Time and pains-taking may eventually result in producing a winter variety sufficiently 
 hardy for even northern New England and the Canadas. 
 
 Winter oats are said to be larger and the grain heavier and more suited to milUng pur- 
 poses than most of the spring varieties. The common White oat has been more extensively 
 cultivated in the United States than any other, but new varieties have for a few years past 
 been introduced, and many of them proven, for certain sections, far superior to the old in 
 quality and productiveness. By testing new varieties, or depending upon rehable expeiiments 
 of others in tliis respect, the farmer can soon ascertain which are the most desirable kinds 
 and best adapted to his own soil and climate, as some wiU thrive best in one locality and oth- 
 ers in another, the soil, climate and kind of cultivation affecting materially the product, both 
 in quality and quantity. 
 
 Cultivation. — Oats will thrive well on almost any land that is well drained or natural- 
 ly dry, a wet soil being very injurious to the plant.<, and almost sure to result in killing them. 
 Of course, the better the soil, as a general rule, the better the crop, but oats -will give a fair 
 remuneration for their culture on quite poor soil and with but little care in preparation, al- 
 though we should not advise any farmer to practice this style of agriculture for any crop, 
 for we believe it most profitable and the best economy to endeavor to obtain the best results 
 always, aud adapt the cultivation to that end. They are sometimes sown on inverted turf, 
 but this practice is not to be recommended, as they do best on pulverized soil. They will 
 generally thrive well to follow potatoes, corn, or any of the well-manured, hoed crops. Un- 
 less the soil is naturally quite fertile it should be enriched by some kind of manure, which 
 may be a well-prepared compost harrowed in, guano, or any of the concentrated fertilizers in 
 use at the present time, but no green barn-yard manure should be used. Many of the special 
 fertilizers are valuable. Salt, sown broadcast over the land at the rate of from two to six 
 bushels per acre, is highly recommended by some as a fertilizer, and as also useful in destroy- 
 ing insects injurious to the oat crop. Tt is useful on lands upon which grain would be liable 
 to lodge, and should always be used when sown on the sod. 
 
 The soil for oats should be plowed to a medium depth and well pulverized; we believe it 
 a general rule, with but few exceptions, that all small seeds and grain require a good seed- 
 bed and their " food cut fine." In a moist season, oats will do well on a sandy soil, but we 
 believe that the best yields are made on a fine clay loam, with good drainage and the seed 
 sown early. We believe in sowing as early as practicable, as in most sections a better harvest 
 is the result, but not until the soil is dry and mellow. In some localities mildew is quite sure 
 
296 THE AMERICAN FARMEU. 
 
 to affect the stalks and grain if put into the ground late in the season. "Wliile bright straw 
 and a heavy berry -will usually result from early sowing, those sown late are almost always 
 light and of poor quality. 
 
 Oats may be sown broadcast or with a drill, some preferring one method and others the 
 other, each having their respective advantages, but we beheve the drill is more generally pre- 
 ferred on lai'ge farms where this crop is extensively cultivated. "VThere the sowing is broadcast 
 a seed-sower should be used, as it distributes the grain more uniformly and much more rapidly 
 than the old laborious practice of hand-sowing. Seed sown with a drill are covered at a 
 more uniform depth, which can be regulated at will, and where they will come in contact 
 with the moist earth, which will cause a quicker germination; consequently they will come up 
 sooner and much more evenly than when sown broadcast, and there is no danger of any ir- 
 regularity from skipping or lapping spaces, if the wind blows during the operation of getting 
 the seed into the ground ; therefore, a heavier crop per acre is generally the result of the 
 use of the drill. There is also more opportimity for the circulation of air among the plants, 
 besides less liability of lodging. When sown broadcast, the seed should be lightly harrowed 
 in, and whatever the method of sowing, the field should be rolled, unless the land is quite 
 wet and inclined to bake or harden; this presses the soil upon the seed and causes it to germ- 
 inate more quickly. 
 
 In some portions of the South, oats are sown in the faU. like winter wheat, which 
 gives them an early start in the spring. There is also a winter variety that is cultivated 
 quite successfully in latitudes as high as the mountainous portions of Tennessee, and by 
 repeated efforts in acclimatizing and hybridizing, we doubt not that a winter variety 
 will yet be produced that can be successfully jcultivated considerably farther north. The 
 quantity of seed so-mi varies from one to four bushels per acre. "VThen the sowing is early, 
 about two bushels per acre, for most soils, is a fair quantity. If the sowing be rather late or 
 the soil poor, three or four bushels may be required. The richer the soil and the more early 
 the sowing, the less the quantity of seed, as a general rule. English authorities speak of some- 
 times sowing six or more bushels per acre, but this is quite beyond the average rate. As we 
 have previously stated, for most soils, we believe two bushels wiU produce a larger crop, with 
 the grain of better quality, than filling the soil with a surplus of seed, which must result in 
 crowded stalks and small heads of grain, with inferior sized kernels. 
 
 The seed should always be well cleansed by running it through a fanning-miU, or, what 
 is better, a sieve of such size as to sift out all the inferior and small kernels, as well as all 
 seeds of weeds, &c.. leaving only tlie largest and best grain for the sowing. Oats and all 
 other kinds of small grain are benefited by after cultivation. TThen sown in drills, a wheat 
 hoe is very beneficial for this purpose, or, if such a machine is not available, a Light harrowing 
 when the plants are from four to six inches high is generally followed with good i-esults. 
 Upon smooth land, the Thomas Harrow is very good for this purpose, but if the land be 
 rough and full of corn stubble or other similar obstructions, there would be danger of tear- 
 ing out and destroying many of the plants by this process. 
 
 Greater \ngor and productiveness is secured to oats, as to wheat and most other crops, by 
 occasionally changing the seed, although we do not think it necessary to make such a change 
 very often. Many of the best agricultural writers in England assert that in making this 
 change it should always, if possible, be from an earUer climate and better soil; others assert 
 with equal confidence, that while this is true respecting high-lying lands which represent 
 poorer soil and a colder cUmate, yet with a good soil and fair chmate the best results are 
 obtained with seed from a later locality. We are inclined to the latter opinion, from our 
 own experience and observation, and believe that new seed-oats should always be brought 
 from a northerly locality, as they are heavier and larger grained than those of a southerly 
 climate. Many farmers carefully cultivate their grain for seed on a small field apart from 
 
BARLEY. 297 
 
 the main crop, giving it the best soil and fertilizers in order to keep up the highest quality of 
 the variety unimpaired, or to improve upon it, if possible. This method is almost invariably 
 attended with good results. 
 
 Harvesting. — Oats should be harvested when the lower part of the stalk has turned 
 yellow; the plant then ceases to draw nutriment from the soil, and the grain has passed from 
 the milk state and may be easily compressed between the thumb and iinger. If cut at this 
 period the straw is better for fodder and other purposes, and the grain more plump than 
 later; but if the cutting be delayed, the kernels will be liable to shell out, and considerable 
 loss to the crop may be sustained, besides the quality of the straw impaired. 
 
 Small fields of oats may be cut with a cradle, and when badly lodged a scythe is often 
 used for the purpose, but for large fields a reaper seems to be a necessity; those that both 
 reap and bind are of course the best, since they economize labor most. It is very important 
 that the oats should be well dried before being put away, if not threshed in the field, as they 
 wiU be veiy liable to heat badly and the grain become discolored. Exposure to rain and dev.'' 
 will also have a tendency to discolor the grain, and lessen its value for market purposes. 
 
 It is very important that oats be cut in dry weather, and the bundles put in small stacks 
 for a day or two, and exposed to the sun, that they may become entirely free from moisture. 
 When cut by a cradle or a reaper that is not self-binding, they may dry in the swath before 
 being bound. Mitch of the labor of handling bundles and stacking them away is obviated by 
 threshing the grain in the field \vith a machine that also cleanses and bags it ready for market. 
 When rain chances to fall upon the crop, it should be thoroughly dried as soon as possible. 
 
 Diseases of Oats. — There are fewer diseases and insects that affect oats than most 
 grains, it being seldom injured by rust or smut. Whenever it is attacked by either, it is 
 usually in very warm, damp weather. The wire-worm has at times been very destructive in 
 some localities, and is most liable to be troublesome when fresh sod is used for sowing. We 
 would not advise the use of fresh sod for this crop, but whenever such a course is pursued it 
 would be well to turn it over late in the fall just before the ground freezes, which leaves 
 these insect pests without a retreat from the frost. The use of salt as a fertilizer, and also 
 lime, has a tendency to extirpate them from the soil. When rust or smut are seen in a field, 
 it is best to have the crop cut as soon as possible. The brine-wash for the seed does not seem 
 to have the same effect in destroying the germ of the fungus in oats as with wheat and rye, 
 owing to the hard, thick covering of the grain. 
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 T'llS is one of the most widely distriljuted of grains. It was an important article 
 of food in remote antiquity, and commonly cultivated by the Hebrews, Greeks, and 
 Romans. In Europe it is at present a very important crop, ranking in Great Britain 
 next to wheat both in an agricultural and commercial point of view. It is used for bread in 
 many portions of Northern Europe, and especially in the lowlands of Scotland, where 
 unleavened cakes or "bannocks o' barley meal" constitute an important item in the diet of 
 the peasantry. It is also used in preparing the " barley broth, " so much esteemed by the 
 Scotch nationality. It is appropriated, however, both in this country and Europe quite as 
 much to the manufacture of m.alt liquors as any other purpose, although to a certain extent 
 for fattening live-stock, especially swine. It were better for both countries if its cultivation 
 were entirely discarded, rather than it should be perverted to the former use, to the incalcu- 
 lable injury it does to multitudes of human baings, and we hope no honest farmer who wishes 
 
298 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 well to his fellow-man will ever raise this grain for such a purpose, however remunerative 
 such a course may be. 
 
 There are three leading varieties of this grain, viz., the two, four, and six-rowed barley, 
 besides several sub- varieties, which are the result of modifications of the soil, climate, and 
 cultivation. Those most commonly cultivated in this country are the two-rowed and 
 six-rowed ; the former can be raised in laud less rich than the latter, and is thought to 
 be the most reliable for a moderate yield ; but if the soil is just suited to it, the season 
 and other conditions favorable, the six-rowed barley wUl yield the most, while a failure 
 of the latter crop is usually more complete a failure than the two-rowed. The six- 
 rowed ripens a few days earUer than the other variety, and requires harvesting in many 
 localities at the time wheat does, which is thought to be something of a disadvantage to 
 extensive wheat-growers, as no crop suffers more from neglect in harvesting just at the 
 time it is ready for cutting than barley. The two-rowed has the largest grains, the six-rowed 
 next, and the four-rowed the smallest. 
 
 The early ripening of barley renders it a good fallow crop to precede wheat, as it enables 
 the farmer to plow two or three weeks earlier than he could after oats, and get the land in 
 much better condition than would be possible where the plowing was late. Like some other 
 cereals, certain kinds of this grain have been so modified that they are regarded as winter 
 and spring varieties. The winter varieties are not as hardy as winter wheat, consequently we 
 would not advise their cultivation north of 38° or 39°. New varieties may be produced by 
 crossing, as with wheat and other grains. A species sometimes known as " German rice " is 
 much valued and cultivated in Germany. The straw of barley is very hard and coarse, and 
 of little value as food for stock. 
 
 Cultivation. — Barley thrives best in a warm, friable soil, rather rich, but less so than 
 for wheat, and neither too light nor too heavy. It is important that the land be quite 
 uniform in fertility, or the grain. wiU ripen unevenly, to the deterioration of the crop. 
 It should never be sown on a cold or wet soil of any kind, a well-drained loam being jthe best. 
 This will admit of early preparation — as it is very essential that it should be sown early — 
 and such land will perfect a good crop, if the season is at aU favorable. It should by no 
 means ever be sown on a very sandy soO, or any that is easily affected by drouth, for if the 
 land becomes quite dry at the critical period of forming the head, both the quality and 
 quantity will be greatly diminished. It will, however, endure more heat and drouth at this 
 period than either wheat or oats. The soil should be one that is free from weeds, or what is 
 termed a " clean soil," and the tilth both fine and deep. 
 
 "Weeds are a great detriment to this crop; consequently no green farm manure should 
 be used for the land, and all vegetable or animal matter of any kind should first be well 
 decomposed and of the nature of humus before being applied. 
 
 Commercial fertilizers are of special value to barley, and salt is frequently used with 
 good results. The latter is thought to promote the growth of the plant and hasten the full 
 development of the grain. It is well to put in the seed when the land is rather dry, and to 
 be deposited quite deep; if covered to the depth of four or five inches, or twice the ordinary 
 depth of sowing wheat, so much the better, in most soils. Good crops are often obtained 
 from an inverted sod, a clover sod being the best. 
 
 It may follow in rotation corn, potatoes, turnips, or any of the hoed crops, but should 
 never follow wheat, rye, or oats, nor should two crops succeed each other, except the land be 
 very rich, and even then the practice is objectionable, as the quality of the grain is liable to 
 deteriorate, an evil to which barley is more subject than any other of the cereals, hence, it 
 will not bear careless or indifferent cultivation, and a frequent change of seed is desirable. 
 With spring varieties, early sowing and a finely-pulverized soil are very essential to success 
 with barley, while the winter grain will require a good start before cold weather. The seed 
 
BUCKWHEAT. :J99 
 
 may be distributed broadcast or sown in drills, but in either case should be covered deeper 
 than wheat, rye, or any of the other cereals. It should be followed with the roller, a process 
 which some farmers repeat when the plants are four or five inches high, if the ground is dry 
 and not very compact. This is thought to give support to the roots and increase the vigor of 
 the stalks, as well as to destroy insects. 
 
 The quantity of seed requisite will vary according to the nature of the soil, from two to 
 three bushels per acre being the usual allowance when sown broadcast; when drilled, about 
 a third less. When sown early, or on Hght and mellow soils, a less quantity is generally used 
 than for rich land or late sowing, yet many of our most successful farmers use only from 
 one and a half to two bushels per acre, according to the natm-e of the soil. A less quantity 
 than formerly is at -present sown in the cultivation of most grains. The Hessian fly, smut> 
 and rust are sometimes liable to attack this crop, but not as frequently or to the extent that 
 they do wheat. 
 
 Hai'TCStillg. — The harvesting of barley should be done seasonably, or as soon as the 
 grain is fully ripe, since it is more liable to shell out in the field and waste than any other 
 grain ; but, on the contrary, if cut too early, and before being fully matured, the kernel will 
 shrivel. The thin-skinned grain, which is considered the best, will sometimes have this 
 slightly shriveled appearance when ftdly matured, owing to the thin coating of the kernel, 
 but the distinction between this and the immature seed can easily be seen. The husk or 
 coating of some varieties of barley is too stiil and harsh to shrink, and will often look smooth 
 when the contents of the berry are considerably shrunken, and can only be detected by care- 
 fully cutting open and examining a few gi-ains. When harvested at the right time, it is much 
 brighter than when allowed to stand longer in the field, as it will then assume a dull, brown 
 color, which will often affect the market price of the grain. It should be well dried in order 
 to prevent heating after being stacked or packed away in the barn. It is a good plan to put 
 the bundles in small stacks for a day or two to be exposed to the sun, the same as wheat, but 
 they will require careful handling not to shell out the grain, and all exposure to rain should 
 be avoided. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT. 
 
 THIS cereal is a native of Central Asia and the basin of the Volga, and has been 
 known and cidtivated for ages in different portions of the civilized world. In this 
 country and Europe the flour is used as an article of food for human consumption, 
 being employed mostly in making cakes, for which it seems especially adapted, and which are 
 considered quite a luxury in many portions of the country, where "buckwheat cakes " with 
 maple syrup have attained considerable celebrity as a supplementary breakfast-dish, to be 
 enjoyed during the coolest season of the year. When properly ground, the flour is as white 
 as that of the best quality of rye. In grinding, the outer covering of the grain is entirely 
 removed. Buckwheat is a valuable food for poultry, and when mixed with corn is much 
 used in fattening swine. It will also fit up a horse quickly with a fine sleek coat. When 
 well cured, the straw makes good fodder for sheep and cattle, and when spread upon land 
 will rapidly decay, and make a valuable fertilizer. Corn should never succeed this crop in 
 rotation, as it rarely does well when this plan is followed. It is often employed as a fertilizer, 
 its rapid growth admitting of turning under two crops in a single season. 
 
 It is of Jess value than clover for this purpose, but will grow on soils that will not pro- 
 duce clovsT; therefore is employed in renovating very poor lands. It will thrive on the hard- 
 
300 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 est and toughest soil, and -or this reason is often used in subduing wild lands, being sown on 
 the inverted turf, with but slight ]ireparation, which it will penetrate and pulverize, leaving 
 it in a mellow and fine mechanical condition. 
 
 Asa green manure for rye, it is considered by most farmers quite valuable. If sown 
 during the second week in July, it will be ready to turn under in the early part of Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 Buckwheat is considered by many farmers a very exhaustive crop, and yet the land that 
 will not produce a single crop of corn without manure, will yield several crops of buckwheat. 
 It will also grow and thrive on poor soil that will scarcely give any yield of either corn, 
 wheat, or barley, and do this for several yeai's in succession without seeming to diminish in 
 any large degree the productive capacity of the land ; on the contrary, we have seen rich soil 
 that seemed to be much injured by a single crop of this grain. It is in these respects a very 
 peculiar plant. The theory that it " poisons the soil," as we have heard some farmers assert, is 
 absurd. It is proven by chemical analysis that it requires, as the elements of plant-food, con- 
 siderable potash and a moderate amount of nitrogen and phosphoric acid. "We do not think 
 this crojj, when compared with others, is really an exhaustive one to soils generally. A good 
 crop yields about forty bushels, and often more, per acre. 
 
 Cultivation.- — Although buckwheat will grow and produce a fair crop on poor soil, 
 with little or no manure, and often with the most careless preparation, yet it yields the most 
 remunerative crop only on those that are fertile and properly prepared. Sandy loams are 
 quite a favorite with this grain, especially such as liave long been kept in pastui-e, or in mow- 
 ing lands, but require plowing, although it will do well on a great variety of soils. Wet 
 lands are unfavorable to its cultivation. Chemical ferlilizeis are admirably suited to it, also 
 barn-yard manure, when well composted. Fresh manure is injurious, and fills the crop with 
 weeds. Wood ashes are also valuable in its cultivation. If too large a quantity of manure 
 is used, the straw is liable to lodge. 
 
 Beside the common variety, or dark-colored grain, there is another of a light gray color, 
 known as the "silver-hulled buckwheat," which in many respects is considered superior to 
 the former. The corners of this grain are less prominent than in the ordinary variety ; it is 
 more plump and heavy, the husks thinner, involving less waste in grinding, while the flour is 
 thouglit to be whiter and more nutritious. It is said to be more proliBc than the common 
 variety in soils suited to it. but more tender, and to thrive best on high, rolling lands in good 
 condition, and to require better soil than the common kind generally, or, rather, that it will 
 not produce a good crop on certain poor soils that result favorably to the common variety. 
 
 The period of sowing this grain will vary according to the latitude, as it is necessary to 
 give the crop an opportunity to ripen before the time of frost. In some of the extreme 
 Northern States, it will be necessary to sow it as* early as the middle of May; in others of a 
 warmer climate, it may be delajod until the first of July; in some of the Southern States, it 
 is sown in August. It is generally sown broadcast and harrowed in, but sometimes in drills. 
 When the soil is well-pulverized, it is banefited by the use of the roller. As the plant branches 
 out and covers considerable ground, many farmers sow comparatively but a small quantity of 
 seed, and we have known some, who make a specialty of it, to use even but a peck per acre 
 with good results; it is sown in quantities varying from this to two pecks and a biishel and 
 a quarter per acre. It ripens very unevenly, and, if allowed to remain without harvesting, 
 will continue to blossom during the entire season, but the largest crop will be from the first 
 blossoms, and it should be cut when these, the earliest seeds, are perfectly ripe. 
 
 Many farmers are particular to cut it while the dew is on, to prevent the grain shelling 
 out. W^c subjoin a few items on the culture of this grain from the pen of an intelligent and 
 practical farmer of Wostei'n New York: — 
 
 '• Neglect too often attends the cultivation of the land intended for buckwheat, and the 
 
BUCKWHEAT. 301 
 
 poorest and worst-conditioned land is usually given this crop. Besides, from the lateness of 
 putting it in, the land becomes grassy, and it cannot be plowed well without the grass mak- 
 ing its appearance to the detriment of the crop, with no benefit to the land. Now, instead of 
 this treatment, the buckwheat field, worked after the spring's sowing, affords a chance to im- 
 prove the land and insure a good crop — decidedly a paying one, if the season is favorable. 
 Buckwheat is somewhat peculiar, as with a favoring season and a heavy growth, the income 
 is someiimes surprising. I have known a single crop pay for the purchase of the land at §40 
 per acre. The land was plowed early enough to rot the sod, and re-plowed just before sow- 
 ing If put in good condition, it does not need to be very rich. "What it needs is ripe and 
 uniform fertility; it does not want wet soil turned up and exposed to the hot sun, as I have 
 often seen, thus injuring rather than benefiting the land. Instead, buckwheat should be 
 made the means (as there is a chance for it) to reclaim or improve the soil. It can be made 
 to equal, if not exceed, the effect of summer fallow, and with less expense — the crop so 
 densely shading the ground, and from the start, that not a weed or a grass-blade can survive; 
 all is smothered by the exclusion of air and light, the ground kept comparatively moist and 
 mellow, and the texture thus improved. The farmer who, therefore, does not avail himself 
 of advantages here offered, misses his opportunity, unless he is among the fortunate ones who 
 have their land all improved. Even then buckwheat is a benfit to the soil, as there is less 
 expense of cultivation, and the weeds are effectually kept at bay. It also adds to the variety 
 of crops. 
 
 The time for sowing buckwheat here is from the 26th of June to the 4th of July. Half 
 a bushel per acre is seed enough, as on rich ground it stools out well. This is better than 
 to have it closer and denser. It should be branching, giving thus more room for blossoms, 
 and affording protection against the direct rays of the sun, the plant thus being in a measure 
 self-protecting, favoring the lower or partially hidden seeds, which sometimes are to be 
 depended upon for the crop, the more exposed or outside being blasted. Instead, therefore, 
 of giving it careless treatment, buckwheat requires careful management. The selection of 
 soil is also of some importance, a sandy loam being better than clay. A stiff clay must be 
 brought into a friable condition before it is fit to grow this crop successfully. Sod or green 
 crops turned under, or coarse manure worked in, rotting and mixing the soil and manure well, 
 will do it. Avoid all wet soil for buckwheat, unless first drained. We have here a real ren- 
 ovator of the soil, and get a good crop besides. Sometimes, however, the crop gets blasted. 
 "When this is the case, turn it down. Instead of being a misfortune, it will be found to be a 
 benefit, affording a large quantity of good material, decaying readily, and having a good 
 effec*: upon the soil." 
 
 It should be thoroughly dried before being put away under cover, as it will be liable to 
 heat; it is, therefore, customary to set it up in the field in small stooks for this purpose. It 
 should always be harvested before a frost, and it is well to thresh it as soon as dry, as this 
 practice obviates the liability of its shelling. 
 
 In localities where both the common and silver-hulled buckwheat are cultivated, it is 
 very difficult to retain the latter seed pure and unmixed, as the buckwheat field is such a 
 favorite pasture with the honey-bees that cross-fertilization with the common variety will 
 constantly occur from the pollen carried by these little workers from one field to another. 
 
;}02 THE AMERICAN FAKMEK. 
 
 CORN. 
 
 THIS is the most abimdant of the cereals, as well as one of the most important agri- 
 cultural products cultivated in the United States. The corn-plant belongs to the natural 
 order — GramincB or grasses — and is indigenous to America, where it formed the 
 principal food of the Indians, and for which reason it received the name of Indian com. 
 
 History states that Columbus found it cultivated quite extensively by the natives of 
 Hispaniola, while it was found in the possession of all the native tribes in portions of the con- 
 tinent subsequently \-isited by explorers. 
 
 Their implements of agriculture were, of course, of the rudest kind, the hoe often being 
 constructed from the scapula of the moose, a thin, sharp stone, or a crooked stick ; still with 
 these imperfect utensils, and although they had but a few varieties of the grain, compared 
 with those of the present time, we learn from imdoubted sources that they cultivated 
 several distinct varieties that answer in description to those with which we are familiar, such 
 as the Mandan, King Philip, Sioux, Squaw, Tuscarora, and probably sweet com. 
 
 In Nov. 25, 1 620, some of the Pilgrims found com that had been buried in the earth, 
 which, according to the description given, consisted of "some yellow, and some red, and 
 others mist with blue." "We also read of the '-white and yellow," and those of which "the 
 graine be big." 
 
 Cartier, in 1.555, describes the maize at Hochelaga — the Indian name for Montreal — as 
 great, and somewhat bigger than small peason." Thus, numerous instances might be men- 
 tioned to show that several varieties were in cultivation at that period. Corn is stUl found 
 growing in a wild state in many portions of the continent, and with each grain of the ear 
 covered with glumes or busks, that long cultivation has eradicated. It is supposed to be a 
 native of the table-lands of Mexico or Peru. Its cultivation was introduced from this con- 
 tinent to Southern Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa, where it thrived and spread rapidly; 
 it is not, however, grown in England to any extent, as the summer heat of that climate is 
 not sufficient to favor its succecsful production. 
 
 It will grow in any portion of the United States, and readily adapts itself to different 
 soils and climates, but thi-ives test between the thirty-sixth and forty-second degrees of lati- 
 tude, as it attains its most perfect development under a hot summer sun, growing rapidly and 
 ripening early, which renders it peculiarly adapted for this portion of the northern latitudes, 
 where the summers are short and warm, however severe the winters may be. In high nortii- 
 ern latitudes, close attention to its culture is necessary, on account of the difficulty of ripen- 
 ing it. The value of the corn crops annually produced in this country may, perhaps, be 
 justly estimated in a financial point of view as amounting to a certain number of millions of 
 dollars, but, in another sense, its value to this coimti-y is inestimable, when we consider the 
 effect of its cultivation in hastening its settlement and the continuance of its prosperity, en- 
 tering, as it does, into the food of all classes of people, and also greatly cheapening and in- 
 creasing the product of beef, pork, and mutton, besides the many other uses to which it i« 
 appropriated, and the increai^ed wealth of the nation resulting from the annual exportatinns 
 of this product. 
 
 Immense as is the production of this staple, the average yield of com in this country at 
 the present time is far below what it might, and ought to be. and what with a httle more cai-e 
 in cultivation might easily be attained. The average yield in the United States for the en- 
 tire number of acres cultivated does not at present exceed thirty bushels per acre, while with 
 good culture it might be made to reach from sixty to a hundred bushels or more, and thus 
 the amount now produced be more than doubled, with its attendant benefits to the nation and 
 to the farmer individually. The farmers of this country are gradually learning more of the 
 
CORN. 303 
 
 possibilities of this crop, and that there is more in its careful cultivation than was formerly 
 supposed. There is no doubt that exaggerated statements have, often been made relative to 
 the amount harvested, and which have caused farmers to look upon reports of unusually- 
 large yields with distrust; yet we know from authentic sources, that under favoring circum- 
 stances of soil, climate, skillful cultivation, and a season suited to its perfect development, 
 immense and almost incredible yields liave been produced, which prove the possibilities of 
 the crop when properly managed, and which should lead corn-growers to consider the ques- 
 tion as to whether their present method of culture is the most profitable one that can be 
 adopted, and whether more care in enriching the soil and tilling it would not in the end be 
 more economic and profitable. 
 
 Dr. E. L. Sturtevant of Massachusetts, states that he has obtained, from one acre, one 
 hundred and twenty -three bushels of shelled corn; Mr. Henry Stewart of New Jersey says; 
 '•I have grown a crop equal to one hundred and fifty^bushels and forty-eight pounds jjer acre 
 of shelled com on a potato-stubble, and one hundred and eighty-nine bushels of shelled corn 
 on two acres of oat-stubble." 
 
 Mr. E. S. Carman, editor of " The Rural New-Yorker," recently raised upon his Long 
 Island farm one hundred and thirty-four bushels and a half of shelled corn on seven-eighths 
 of an acre, and one himi.lred and fifty-nine bushels and one-third on another whole acre. 
 Other reports equally reliable give the yield a hundred and thirty-eight and a hundred and 
 forty-six bushels per acre, while we know of frequent yields from eighty to a hundred bush- 
 els. We have seen the published assertion, that in one of the extensively corn-growing 
 States, the immense yield of two hundred bushels of shelled corn have been grown per acre, 
 with exceptionally good cultivation, which may or may not be correct, as the statement has 
 never been authentically verified. We do not give it as a fact; however, it would be well 
 for our farmers, if more of them would aim to attain that result, and thus approach nearer to 
 it than they now do. The majority of our best farmers have found it difficult to reach a 
 yield of ninety or a hundred bushels per acre, but by making the standard of jield high, 
 those whose lands are suited to the cultivation of com will find tliat higher results can be 
 reached than is commonly supposed. 
 
 The kind and quality of seed will largely affect the yield, while other conditions, such 
 as soil, culture, &c., will modify it still further. The lieight to which the full-grown plant 
 attains varies with diHerent varieties and soils, sometimes reaching the luxuriant growth of 
 eighteen feet on the rich soil of some of the Western prairies, and those of a similar charac- 
 ter. The color of the kernel depends upon that of the hull- and. the oil it contains. In the 
 white varieties they are both transparent; in yellow corn the hull is transparent and the oil 
 yellow; the red and blue kinds owe their color to the hue of the hull or covering. In some 
 varieties of corn there is a larger amount of oil than in others, some being nearly destitute of 
 it. Oil is useful in protecting the grain, when germinating in the soil, from being too rapidly de- 
 composed in long-continued wet weather, and in imparting nourishment to the young plants. 
 It also has a tendency to keep meal from souring as readily as it otherwise would, that ground 
 from corn having the least oil becoming musty, or sour, soonest. The Tuscarora corn con- 
 tains very little, if any, oil, and the meal made from it will keep sweet but a short time. In 
 the manufacturing of whisky, during the process of fermentation, the oil separates from the 
 corn and rises to the surface, and is taken off and used for various purposes. According to 
 good a\ithority, rice-corn contains the most oil, pop-corn next, Canada corn ranks third, and 
 broom-corn fourth; and as the lowest varient types are the small rice-corn and pop-corn, and 
 the highest some of the most valuable improved varieties, it would soem that the effect of 
 careful cultivation is to increase the starchy properties of the grain to the lessening of the 
 fatty contents. 
 
 As an article of food for man, it is a very healthful and nutritive diet, containing, as it 
 
30-4 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 does, the elements reqiured for the development and support of the animal system, 
 analysis of corn, as given by Palson, is as follows: — 
 
 Gluti-n, etc., .... 
 
 Starch, . ..... 
 
 Gum and sugar, .... 
 
 Oil, 
 
 Bran, etc., ..... 
 
 Ash, 
 
 Water, ..... 
 
 The 
 
 Although there is a slight difference in the proportionate ingredients that enter into the 
 grains of different varieties, yet the above analysis would represent a fair average of the dif- 
 ferent kinds cultivated. 
 
 To show the difference in some of these varieties, as well as the difference in the proper- 
 ties of water contained in the meal or kernel of that thoroughly or imperfectly cured, we in- 
 sert the following analyses recently made at the Connecticut Experiment Station, by Prof. S. 
 W. Johnson: — 
 
 Analyses of Maize. 
 
 
 Maize Meal. 
 
 Kernel as sold in 
 market. 
 
 Unshellcd corn raised in 
 Connecticut. 
 
 
 
 >< 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 7, 
 
 .a 
 
 e: 
 
 V 
 
 c. 
 
 
 2 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 1? 
 
 Sg 
 
 s 
 
 $ 
 
 al 
 
 
 c 
 
 i 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 S" 
 
 
 w 
 
 "A 
 
 E^ 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 
 if 
 
 Water, 
 
 14.56 
 
 15.33 
 
 30.68 
 
 20.23 
 
 16.41 
 
 15.97 
 
 15.57 
 
 15.24 
 
 16.82 
 
 Ash 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.47 
 
 1.19 
 
 1.16 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.19 
 
 Albuminoids, ..... 
 
 9.13 
 
 8.63 
 
 7.83 
 
 8.54 
 
 8.57 
 
 10.31 
 
 10.00 
 
 8.31 
 
 8.94 
 
 Fiber 
 
 3.16 
 
 1.83 
 
 1.65 
 
 1.67 
 
 1.76 
 
 1.37 
 
 1.47 
 
 1.59 
 
 1.32 
 
 Carbhydrates, 
 
 68.89 
 
 68.77 
 
 64.95 
 
 64.86 
 
 08.16 
 
 66.50 
 
 67.06 
 
 69.78 
 
 67.84 
 
 Fat, 
 
 4.05 
 
 3.98 
 
 3.70 
 
 3.55 
 
 3.85 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.44 
 
 3.80 
 
 3.89 
 
 Composition reckoned on dry substance. 
 
 Ash, 
 
 Albuminoids, 
 
 Fiber, 
 
 Carbhydrates, 
 
 Fat, 
 
 1.43 
 10.6; 
 3.53 
 
 1.74 
 10.19 
 2.16 
 
 1.50 
 9.88 
 3.08 
 
 1.45 
 10.70 
 2.09 
 
 1.50 
 10.25 
 3.10 
 
 80.63 81.31 81.88 81.31 81.55 79.15 79.63 83.24 81.57 
 
 1.60 
 
 12.27 
 
 1.62 
 
 4.45 
 
 Digestible Nuteiexts in air-dry substance. 
 
 1.49: 1.51 
 11.88 9.80 
 1.74 1 
 
 5.36 5.27 
 
 1.43 
 10.74 
 1.58 
 
 Albuminoids, . 
 Carbhydrates, . 
 Fat, 
 Nutritive ratio. 
 
 7.66 
 
 7.35 
 
 6.58 
 
 7.17 7.20 
 
 8.66 
 
 8.401 6.98 
 
 65.56 
 
 65.33 
 
 61.66 
 
 61.59 64.73 
 
 63.02 
 
 63.58' 66.18 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.14 
 
 2.92 
 
 2.80 3.04 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.5l| 3.00 
 
 1:9.6 
 
 1:10.0 
 
 1:10.4 
 
 1:9.51:10.0 
 
 1:8.3 
 
 1:8.61:10.5 
 
 7.51 
 64.36 
 
 3.07 
 1:8.7 
 
 These analyses were made upon the different specimens as they reached the Experiment 
 Station and before any of the moisture was lost by subsequent drying. Dr. Jenkins found, in 
 summing up the results of sixty-three analyses of corn, that the amount of water ranged 
 from six to fifteen per cent., the average being ten and a half per cent. Dr. Goessman found, 
 in eleven analyses, the average per cent, of water to be ten. Other analyses, by Prof. John- 
 son, from meal offered in the market, resulted in a quantity of water from twelve to over 
 twenty-one per cent., and he concludes that all together prove that the quantity of water in 
 corn kernel or meal, as found in the markets generally, may range from thirteen to nearly 
 twenty-two per cent, of the entire weight; that well-cured corn and meal may contain from 
 
CORN. 305 
 
 fifteen to seventeen per cent., and that new corn or meal are quite likely to contain as much 
 as twenty or twenty-one per cent, of water. It will be readily seen, therefore, that it is a 
 matter of some importance to the farmer, in large transactions, whether corn and corn-meal 
 be bought in a slightly, or thoroughly cured state. There is quite a difference between new 
 and old corn in the amount of moisture contained, as will be seen by the analyses previously 
 given, and which, if known, is not always appreciated. 
 
 A'^ aridities. — There is no other of the cereals which presents so many varieties as com 
 or maize, although there are comparatively but few which are distinct in general cultivation. 
 But little efEort was formerly made to keep the different kinds pure; more care, is, however, 
 being exercised within a few years in this respect than formerly, and as new varieties are 
 constantly being introduced and tested, the merits of the leading ones will doubtless soon be 
 more extensively appreciated, resulting in the more general practice of pure-bred varieties 
 of this grain. The height attained by the plant varies, according to soil and kind, from that 
 of the little shrubby stalk of three feet, to the beautiful and luxuriant growth of eighteen, 
 w'-iile in color and form, we have white, yellow, red, striated, brown, black, purple, blue, etc., 
 either in tiny compact ears witli small, flat grains, or with rounded little kernels closely 
 wedged and resembling grains of rice, and very appropriately called rice-corn, or all the inter- 
 mediate varieties between tliese and the magnificently-formed proportions of ear and kernel 
 which characterize that produced by some of the Western States, where it attains, in size, 
 its most perfect development. Some of the cobs are red, others white, irrespective of the 
 color of the grain, while the ears vary in length from one inch to fifteen inclies or more, with 
 proportionate variance in diameter and size of grain. 
 
 In many of the corn-growing sections, the only recognized distinction is in the color of 
 the grain, "white corn " or ''yellow corn," according to the color of the kernel, being the 
 only distinguishing terms in use to designate tlie kinds generally cultivated. Although the 
 lower types hybridize more readily than the more valuable, improved varieties, still the latter 
 are so liable to mix with different kinds grown in their vicinity, and also adapt tliemselves 
 to different soils and climates, varying to a certain extent with almost every degree of lati- 
 tude and longitude, that it is somewhat difficult to retain the original type unmixed and 
 unclianged. 
 
 As an instance of the changes produced by climate, — when some of the small varieties 
 which ripen early in the extreme Northern States are cultivated a few years in the Southern, 
 where the summers are so much longer than at the North, they wUl gradually change, by 
 ripening later, and with a much larger growth of ear and kernel. This change goes on 
 from year to year, until the plant has perfectly adapted itself to its new location, where it 
 remains a fixed variety, unless it should be moved again North, when it will gradually 
 assume its former ty|De. 
 
 The small " flint " corn which has from eight to twelve rows is, as a general rule, found 
 cultivated mostly in the New England States, and the northern portion of New York, as well 
 as that of one or two of the most northern of the Western States, these being sections where 
 It is necessarj'' to cidtivate the early-ripening kinds, while in the South and most southerly 
 of the Western States the "dent" or "gourd seed" varieties are at present more extensively 
 grown than any other. 
 
 Among the varieties of the " flint " that are very popular and generally considered among 
 the best are the "Holden," which is a small eight-rowed soit, and quite productive, the 
 Yellow Canada, of similar type, Kingsbury's Excelsior, an early twelve-rowed kind of larger 
 growth than either of the preceding, and tlie Early Compton, a fine and prolific variety, 
 which is a seedling from the Button, and resembles it somewhat in appearance. The kernels 
 are of medium size and bright yellow; ears eight -rowed and quite long; ripens early. 
 Be.5ides these, we liave the well-known New England Golden, the White Flint, Early Button, 
 
30b THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 and Early Scioto, all of which are long-established and valuable varieties. Tliere are many 
 kinds of the large Southern and Western corn, among which are the White Gourd Seed. 
 Early Galena, Southern Big Yellow, Illinois Yellow, Long John, Queen of the Prairie, Ches- 
 ter County Mammoth, Evans and Proctor, all of which are largely cultivated. The last three 
 varieties are of extremely large growth, both in stalks and grain, and thrive best on very rich 
 soil. There are many sub-varieties intermediate between the larger and smaller kinds, which 
 are known and valued in certain localities, and which seem especially adapted to those 
 sections, intermediate between which the early-ripening and the larger and later vai'ieties are 
 grown. These are considerably larger than the early sorts, but smaller than the large gourd- 
 seed varieties. The "Connecticut ^'alley corn" and its numerous variations are examples of 
 this species, and are much more extensively grown in Connecticut and Massachiisetts than 
 any other. It is very prolific, ripens in about four months from the time the seed is planed, 
 while its quality is superior to the gourd-seed kinds. The Improved King Philip or Rhode 
 Island is of a similar type, and has long been one of the leading kinds. The White Prolific 
 and Waushakum Thoroughbred are recent varieties of great promise. The Sweet corn, with 
 its many types, forms a very palatable and nutritious article of diet, when properly prepared, 
 and one which in this country is very popular. 
 
 It is almost needless to particularize the valuable and popular varieties, as new ones are 
 constantly being introduced, and the farmer will find no difficulty in selecting such as, with 
 proper ciiltivation, will give good results. At a recent meeting of the Massachusetts Board 
 of Agriculture, the following description of the model or ideal ear of corn was given by tha 
 committee: 
 
 " It has an ear medium in size as regards the diameter; the kernels are deep; the cob is 
 small at the butt ; and the ear holds its bigness towards the point until very near the tapering- 
 off. It should be capped over; and the kernels should hold their bigness towards the point 
 and at the butt run out straight, and not crinkle." 
 
 In the selection of ears for planting purposes, it will be well for the farmer to have an 
 "ideal ear" in mind as far as the main points are concerned. Whatever the kind cultivated, 
 it should be adapted to the soil and climate. Only the early-ripening varieties should be 
 grown in the extreme northern section of the country, as the later ones will not have time to 
 fully mature and ripen during the short summer. Many of the early kinds will ripen in 
 ninety days after planting. 
 
 Selection of Seed. — The quality and quantity of the crop is largely modified by the 
 quality of seed sown, and whatever the variety, only the most perfectly developed and ripened 
 seed should be selected for this purpose. Corn taken from the bin at random for planting, 
 as is the custom, with many farmers can never give in result that of careful selection. 
 Some of our choicest kinds have been brought to their present high standard by selecting 
 only the earliest and largest ears from the most prolific and thrifty stalks, and by careful 
 cultivation for several years in succession. The selection can best be made in the field before 
 the crop is gathered, as it affords a better opportunity of comparison. By careful selection 
 and cultivation of seed for a few years, astonishing results will be produced in the improve- 
 ment of the crop. Dr. Sturtevant says: — 
 
 " To the seed must we look first, in order to secure improvement, in order to gain the 
 maximum crop at the least expense. It is not enough to select the ear; this process has done 
 something; but alone, this is not sufficient. We must pay attention to the past history of 
 our seed; we must breed our corn; we must secure prolific ancestry, and use the seeds from 
 fecund parents. 
 
 My attention was forcibly called to the importance of the seed in 1S75, the seed used 
 appearing to the eye of equally good quality, but from different sources. The field was of 
 like history, was manured alike with lja:u yard manure, and was i':;lti%'ated as one field. 
 
CORN. 307 
 
 BuBhels 
 Shelled corn. 
 Seed-corn A yielded with manure, ..... 110 
 
 Seed-corn A yielded without manure, ..... 68 
 
 Seed-corn B j-ieldcd with manure, ..... 55 
 
 Here tlie better seed yielded, without manure, more than the inferior seed with manure ; 
 and under equivalent circumstances the better seed yielded just double the crop of the 
 inferior. 
 
 After thinking over this result, which seemed to me surprising, I concluded to attempt 
 the forming of a seed-corn of prolific habit. I became aware that the appearance of the ear 
 was but a secondary consideration, the past cropping of the seed being the primary. The 
 summary of my procedure is this: as corn has an hereditary character, I secured prolific 
 male parentage by carefully castrating the tassels from the barren stalks in my seed-growing 
 field, and then selected the best ears of the crop for next year's seeding. The results have 
 been marked. I tjave secured prolificacy, uniformity of ear, and a heavy corn-grain." 
 
 Thoroughbred types are as essential in the production of plants of a high order and the 
 consequent improvement of crops as in breeding live-stock, and a carefully cultivated, pure-bred 
 variety of corn is as much superior to an indifferently cultivated mixed kind, in transmitting 
 its good qualities to its proditct, as a thoroughbred animal is in this respect superior to a 
 p:i-ade. 
 
 Some farmers cultivate a special small field or plot for seed with great care, and then 
 select only the best of this crop for planting. This is a practice to be commended. The plot 
 should always be planted at a distance from any other in the field, whether of the same variety 
 Lir otherwise, as if near and of the same kind, even, there will be a liability of some of the 
 cars being fertilized by the pollen of inferior plants or of the suckers, the product of which 
 will result in inferior or infertile plants. Imperfect or barren corn-plants, — those bearing no 
 ears, — are as injurious in their effect in a seed-plot as an inferior male among choice, thor- 
 ough-bred live-stock ; they perpetuate their kind. Consequently the corn-grower should not 
 permit a barren corn-plant to cast its pollen in his field. The perfect corn -plant bears a stam- 
 inate (the tassel) called the male flower, and a pistillate or female flower called "the silk"; 
 the imperfect plant has therefore the tassel or blossom, but no silk, and will produce no grain ; 
 but if permitted to stand in the field with the other plants, it will cast its pollen upon some of 
 those plants and fertilize them, and the crop produced from the seed thus fertilized would be 
 liable to be barren plants, and the yield of the crop greatly deteriorated. By going through 
 the field and cutting off the blossoms or tassels of all plants that have no ears formed or silk, 
 the ditficulty is obviated, for such blossoms will not then be left to fertilize other plants. 
 Many planters go so far as to cut* down every such stalk entire. This should be done before 
 the tassels are fully out or able to shed their pollen. In this manner the imperfect seed will 
 soon be bred out, and the prolific qualities of the crop be largely increased. By selecting 
 for seed ears from a stalk bearing two or more, the yield of the product of such seed will be 
 greater than from stalks bearing only one ear, as the prolific tendency will become in a short 
 time fixed, and a characteristic of the variety. From such ears should be selected those that 
 are uniform in every way as compared with each other, having small cobs, the kernels com- 
 pactly placed on the cob in straight rows, and uniform in shape and size throughout. If a 
 different variety be grown near a seed-plot it mil be impossible to maintain the seed pure, as 
 the pollen will be carried even quite a distance in the air, or by insects that collect on tlie 
 blossoms, and this explains why sometimes an occasional ear or a few kernels of an ear of 
 another kind will be found mixed in the product of the pure seed. 
 
 It is not uncommon to find occasionally a few kernels of red, blue, or sweet corn mixed 
 in this way with an entirely different variety. Mr. J. E. Read says respecting the distance to 
 which pollen may be carried and its affecting adjacent or distant fields : 
 
308 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 . '• The habit of planting several different kinds of corn upon one farm is not at all to be 
 commended. It is injurious to the farmer's own interest, and makes it still more diflicult than 
 it otherwise would be for his neighbors to grow the kind which they desire to produce. The 
 distance to which pollen is carried is not certainly known, but it is probably greater than 
 farmers generally suppose. We once found a bright red ear in a field of yellow corn, and 
 there was not another red ear on the farm, and but few red kernels could be found on other 
 ears. There was no red corn grown on the adjoining farm, but beyond that was a farm upon 
 which there was a field of this colored variety. The red ear must have been fertilized by pol- 
 len from this distant field. Tliere have been other strongly marked cases, and they prove that 
 it is unsafe to rely upon the purity of seed-corn which is grown without being separated from 
 any other kind bj' a much longer distance than is usually thought necessaiy." 
 
 Some farmers put a strip of broom-corn or sorghum a few rods wide close to a field of 
 corn to prevent the pollen of its blossoms from reaching the plot of seed-corn that may not be 
 sufiiciently far away to be otherwise protected. 
 
 When a sejiarate plot is cultivated for seed, great care should be used in the preparation 
 of the soil and after cultivation, and all the feeble and inferior plants be thinned out when 
 grown sufficiently high to be detected. In sa\'ing the seed for planting, the small and imper- 
 fectly-developed kernels at the small end of the ear should always be discarded. Prof. P. A. 
 Chadbourne says : "In order to raise good, prolific seed-com it will be necessary to plant 
 the best seed that can be procured, and, before the corn tassels out or produces pollen, to go 
 along the rows and cut out every mean, miserable stalk, so that every ear shall stand on a 
 proper stalk, and shall be fertilized by pollen that has come from a strong, healthy, corn-pro- 
 ducing stalk." 
 
 Preparation of Seed. — In order to hasten the germination of seed and the 
 growth of the young plants, many farmers soak the corn in wai-m water a day or two before 
 planting. A solution of saltpetre or copperas is sometimes recommended and said to accom- 
 plish the same result, as weU as to protect the corn against the attacks of birds, squirrels, 
 mice, and worms for a time; but there is a hability of the germinating power of the seed 
 being destroyed or injured in this way, by getting the solution a little too strong of these sub- 
 stances, while, unless rather strong, it has no effect in keeping these little mischievous depre- 
 dators at bay. 
 
 Coating the kernels with coal-tar, or common tar, ■will generally prevent birds from pull- 
 ing up the plants, or attacks from any other of the common enemies of this crop that are such 
 an annoyance to the farmer. When coal-tar is used the seed should first be soaked a few 
 hours m warm water ; after this is drained off, a very little tar stirred into it will be sufficient 
 to cover the kernels, a pint of tar being sufBcient for two or three bushels of seed-corn. 
 
 When common tar is used, a pint of boiling tar will be required for a haK-bushel of seed, 
 stirring the corn briskly as it is turned in, until every kernel is coated with it. Wliether coal 
 or common tar be used, rolUng the seed in plaster, bone-dust, ashes or fine soil-dust will pre- 
 vent either kind from being troublesome in planting when a drill or corn-planter is used, and 
 it can be done with these machines the same as before it was thus treated, except they must 
 be regulated to give the seed a little more room for outlet, otherwise the grain will not drop 
 freely. Before the tar is appUed, care should be taken to soak the seed thoroughly, as the 
 coating will have a tendency to keep moisture from the seed and prevent germination. 
 
 Various other preventives are often recommended, but we know of nothing as sure in its 
 results as that above recommended. 
 
 Most birds are a help to the farmer in destroying insects and worms that are injurious 
 to his crops, and the few that sometimes pull up the corn-plants will generally do more good 
 than harm in exterminating these pests; hence it is far better to make the seed distasteful to 
 them by the use of tar or other means, rather than kill them, as they are really the farmer's 
 friends in the protection of his products. 
 
CORN. 300 
 
 Soil for Corn and its Preparation. — Corn thrives best in a rich, mellow soil, 
 one that is warm and rather drj', although it will grow in almost any kind, being a plant of 
 extraordinary aptitudes. It should, however, be sufficiently moist to make rapid growth, but 
 not wet. A rich loam is best, and if it be of a dark color so as to absorb the heat of the sun, 
 it will be so much the warmer and better adapted to the purpose. Corn will not do as well 
 on wet lands or those that are very cold, like some of the strong clays, hence soils that are wet 
 should be well drained for this crop, and cold soils should be cultivated in ridges and be planted 
 with an early-ripening kind, in order to mature well. Although it thrives best on soils espe- 
 cially adapted to it, yet land that will produce almost any cultivated crop can be so carefully 
 j&tteJ that, with a selection of the variety suited to it and the climate, a good crop of corn 
 can be produced. An old sod plowed under, and especially a clover lay, when properly pre- 
 pared, makes an excellent seed-bed for this crop, but it should always have a good supply of 
 manure in addition, either farm manure or chemical fertilizers, for soil can scarcely be made 
 too rich with the proper kind of fertilizers for this crop. " Breeding first, and then feeding," 
 is the old maxim of the stockman, which, when applied to cultivated crops, means quite as 
 much as in its application to animals, for the selection of the seed is the breeding, and the 
 choice of soil, the fertilizers and the cultivation are the feeding. With the corn crop gener 
 ally the largest yields have always been where the feeding has been of the right kinds of 
 plant food, and the most liberally supplied. 
 
 A well-balanced and uniform fertility, such as is found in sod that has all the elements 
 of plant-growth, in the best available proportions, or lands inundated by rivers, are what give 
 su -cessf ul results. 
 
 The corn-plant is vigorous in growth, and like all animals that are such, is a strong feeder, 
 and will appropriate almost any kind of available food. It is said to take the place among 
 vegetable products that the hog does among domestic animals respecting the food it con- 
 sumes, — requiring a large amount, yet not over-particular as to the kind, or quality. 
 
 Manure from the barn-yard (well decomposed), the hog-pen, sheep-yard, poultry-yard, or 
 privy-vault, are all used with good effect on this crop, but they should be spread broadcast 
 and well mixed with the soil. The wide-spreading roots of the p>lant will be sure to find it if 
 it is in the soil, and not so deeply buried as to be beyond their reach. When manure is applied 
 simply in the hill or drill, the plant makes an early and rapid growth, producing an e.^tension 
 of the roots, which soon go beyond the fertilized portion in search of food, and find but little 
 support, hence its growth is retarded at this important period, preparatory to the formation 
 and maturition of the grain. Sometimes an early growth of stalks and leaves is made at the 
 expense of the grain in this way. 
 
 When scattered broadcast and well-mixed with the soil, this difficulty is obviated. The 
 danger of over-manuring with strong fertilizers generally, especially those rich in free ammo- 
 nia, is that they have their effect mainly in the early part of the season, when a large supply 
 is also needed in the latter part, to aid in the formation and growth of the grain. There is how- 
 ever little danger of the crop having a surplus of fertility, the common error with farmers 
 being in not suplying a sufficient amount. Sod, by its gradual decomposition, is admirably 
 adapted to this crop, as it furnishes a constant supply of plant-growth, and a rich element late 
 in the season, when it is required for the perfection of the kernel and ear. It has been j)roven 
 beyond a doubt by numerous careful experiments that the corn-plant requires ammonia in its 
 early stages and nitrates m later growth. Stable-manure should be well pulverized before 
 being applied, and the soil be made mellow in preparation for the seed, as it cannot be readily 
 assimilated by the plants unless in proper condition to be taken up l>y the tender roots. An 
 animal might starve with an abundance of food attainable, unless that food were first masti- 
 cated and reduced to a condition to be taken into and digested by the stomach ; on the same 
 principle, plants may starve when the food to be appropriated l^y them is not in a digestible 
 and available condition to give them the necessary nourishment. 
 
310 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 Plaster, for soils deQcient in limo, is beneficial to corn, and wood-ashes are also excellent. 
 Ch ?mical fertilizers are especially valuable for this crop, and are very reliable in sectiring 
 successful results, some of the largest crops having been grown by their application. They 
 are always soluble and available, lience, are a good substitute for barn-yard manure. They 
 should always be near the surface, consequently should be lightly harrowed in, in order to be 
 within reach of the roots of the young plants. It may be taken for granted, as a general 
 principle in raising corn, that unless the soil is exceptionally rich, like that in some sections 
 of Manitoba, for instance, where fertilizers are unnecessary, a large crop cannot be produced 
 without a liberal application of well-balanced manures or specially-prepared fertilizers suited 
 to the soil and crop; old soils require it. It should also be borne in mind that richly- 
 manm-ed soil is more cheaply and easily worked, and large crops are more cheaply produced 
 from it than from lands that are less liberally fertilized; in brief, that it pays the farmer 
 better to work one acre of good rich soil, than two or more of poor soil. The quantity of 
 fertilizers to be applied will, of course, vary with different soils, some requiring more than 
 others. The quality of the seed used should also largely modify the quantity applied. Where 
 the seed to be planted is very prolific, and capable of producing from eighty to a hundred 
 bushels per acre, a larger application of fertilizers will be required than where the seed used 
 is able to produce about half that amount. 
 
 Where the soil is thoroughly cultivated, a larger amount can also be profitably used than 
 where only an indifferent cultivation is practiced. Dr. Stiirtevant states that in his own 
 practice he finds five cords per acre of manure that has not been diluted with other substances 
 to be sufficient; but that the larger portion of his fields are enriched. with artificial fertilizers, 
 which are applied according to the past history of the field, the quantity to be used being 
 varied according to circumstances. Mr. Stewart says that in producing a crop equal to one 
 hundred and fifty bushels and forty-eight pounds of shelled corn per acre, he used artificial 
 fertilizers alone (Mapes' Complete Corn Manure) at the rate of six hundred pounds per acre. 
 The quantity of artificial fertilizers applied when used without other manure varies from 
 three hundred to six or seven hundred potmds per acre, according to the condition of the 
 soil and the crop to be grown. 
 
 When barn-yard manure is used in considerable quantity, it is noticeable that its effects 
 are seen for three or four years afterward, and each succeeding crop that follows in rotation 
 receives benefit from the fertility that remains in the soil. This is not because there was 
 more manure in the land than the com crop could appropriate to its own use, but because 
 much of the manure that was applied was not in a suitable condition to be taken up by the 
 crop during the first year, and it required considerable time for it to become reduced to that 
 condition. The corn crop probably took all of the nourishment from the soil that was ready 
 for it to receive during the first year, and would have taken much more if it had been placed 
 there for its use. It being, then, a fact, that only a portion of barn-yard manure applied to 
 land will be in a condition for the crop to appropriate to its growth during the first year, a 
 liberal supply of it should always be given on this account, or some commercial fertilizer that 
 is quickly taken up by plants should be used in connection with it. 
 
 Some farmers feed their soils as they do their animals, in a stinted manner, thinkmg 
 they are thereby practicing economy, and receive corresponding results; others feed liberally 
 and receive in return a liberal compensation. Some of our most successful farmers use forty 
 or more common cart-loads of manure or compost per acre;- other consider from eight to 
 twelve sufficient; hence, the one obtains a fine crop, while the other only a moderate yield. 
 We know of no crop that responds more freely to liberal feeding than corn, although it is a 
 patient plant, and will often give very fair results with the most indifferent treatment. 
 
 The manner in which manure is applied affects in a measure its efficiency. When placed 
 only in the hill, as was formerly the custom, the roots soon grow beyond it, and are not 
 
COHN. 311 
 
 unifoniily nourished, as we have pre\aously stated; when appUed broadcast, a more uniform 
 fertihty is secured with greater benefit to the crops. Many farmers apply the manure broad- 
 cast and harrow it in well, afterward using commercial fertilizers of some kind in the hills 
 or drills, according to the method of planting; this secures an early start to the plants and 
 increases the formation of root-fibers. Most of the corn-planters and drills have the means 
 of distributing commercial fertilizers near the seed at the time of sowing. It is customary 
 in some localities to spread the manure broadcast upon the sod before plowing, and then turn 
 it under with the plow. We do not recommend this practice, as it buries the manure too 
 deeply in the soil, and under the sod where it will remain too far away from the reach of the 
 young plants at the time they require its nourishment to secure a vigorous start; besides, 
 much of it might be lost altogether by leaching into the subsoil. The most successful results 
 will attend the application nearer the surface, by plowing first, and harrowing in the manure 
 afterward. Even with shallow plowing, the manure should lie above the sod in the soil. 
 
 When the soil has been previously cultivated for other crops, a shallow plowing in of 
 manure is not, of course, objectionable. Chemical fertilizers, except those made especially for 
 use in hills and drills, are generally sowed broadcast and lightly harrowed in. It is not well 
 for the seed to come in direct contact with the manure or strong chemical fertilizers of any 
 kind, as the germ of the seed is hable to be injured by them; to avoid this difficulty it should 
 always be slightly covered or mixed with a little soil when applied in hills or drills. Shallow 
 plowing for most soils is best for corn, as the most fertile portion is that which has been 
 exposed to atmospheric influences, and where the rains and sun can exert the most power; 
 consequently, as a general rule, the richest soil is near the surface. For most soils, unless 
 they are very deep and permeable, plowing to the depth of five or sis inches is suflBcient 
 for lands that have been cultivated, shallow plowing with deep pulverization being the most 
 desirable. 
 
 Planting. — The time for planting differs according to the latitude and character of 
 the season. It is said that the old Indian rule was, " When the oak-leaves are grown to 
 tlie size of a squirrel's foot, it is time to plant com." When the season is ordinarily early, and 
 not too rainy, the time of planting this grain in the extreme Northern States, or in Canada, is 
 in the early part of June; in Massachusetts and States of a similar climate, from the 10th to the 
 20th of May; in the Middle States and those of the same latitude, from the first to the middle 
 of May; in the Southern States of a latitude and climate similar to that of Virginia, from 
 tlie middle to the last of April; in sections farther South it is done in March. In some 
 seasons the planting can be done a week or two earlier than the usual time, while in others, 
 when unusually cold or wet, it will of necessity be delayed as much later or longer. It can 
 also be done considerably earlier on high than on low lands. It is always best to delay 
 planting until the weather is favorable, as corn will not grow until the ground is dry and 
 warm, and if planted when cold and wet the seed will be liable to decay in the ground before 
 germinating; still, all farmers realize the necessity of getting corn started as early as practi- 
 cable, and it should not be delayed later than necessary for the welfare of the crop. Early 
 planting, when the season will admit, will give better results than that which is late; besides, 
 it can be cultivated earlier, at a period when the farmer has more time to attend to it than 
 when planted later, and is less liable to be disturbed by birds and insects, or injured by 
 diseases of any kind when planted early. Early planting is especially desirable in those 
 sections subject to early frosts in autumn, as both the grain and fodder are injured by it; 
 hence, the earhest ])lanting that the season will allow is always to be preferred. 
 
 Hill and Drill Planting. — Corn-planting may be done by planting-machines or 
 drills, and the seed may be deposited either in hills or drills, some preferring the old method 
 of hill -planting, while othere the newer and more recently adopted one of drilling. When 
 liill-planting is in squares, the corn may be cultivated both ways, which stirs the soil more 
 
512 
 
 THE AMERICAX FARMEK. 
 
 than wlien it can be done only in one direction. "When the corn is planted in drills, the 
 plants can be more uniformly distributed over the ground. gi\"ing the sun and air free access 
 to them, wliile there is less crowding. The advocates of drill planting claim that these 
 benefits more than offset those of hill-culture. The advocates of hill-culture, on the other 
 hand, claim that an increased yield is obtained by their favorite method. Both methods have 
 their especial advantages, and by experimenting for himself the farmer can determine which 
 he prefers; we are inclined to favor drilling. The best jjlanting-machines can be so adjusted 
 as to drop the seed either in hills or drills, as desired, as well as a common drilling-machine. 
 They will open the furrow, drop the seed at regular intervals, and in proper quantity, in 
 siraight rows or drills, which admits of after cultivation by machinery, cover the seed at the 
 proper depth as well as could be done by hand, roll it down, and measure and mark off at 
 the same time the distance for the next row or drill to be planted. In this manner a single- 
 rowed machine, with one man and a horse, will plant from seven to ten acres of corn per 
 day. With a double-rowed machine, pilanting two rows at a time, about twice this amount 
 can be planted, or from fifteen to eighteen acres a day; these machines doing the work as 
 rapidly as a horse can walk. Some of the smaller ones can be worked by hand, if desired. 
 
 ROTARY CHECK-ROVTIxr, CORX-rLAXTER. 
 
 The Check-Rowing Planter, manufactured by the New Yoi-k Plow Co , New York City, is an 
 excellent machine for tliis purpose. 
 
 Whether the corn be planted in hills or drills, it is well to give it sufficient room for 
 growth, that the plants may not be crowded and the air and sun excluded. The rows should 
 also be far enough apart to admit of the movements of the horse in the use of the cultivator 
 or horse-hoe. Such culture results in larger ears, that are better filled out, and consequently 
 a larger crop. The smaller varieties will admit of closer planting than those of a larger 
 growth. Corn is planted in drills from eighteen inches to three feet apart, with drills from 
 three to four feet apart, according to the fertility of the soil, its moisture, and the variety to 
 be grown. When planted in hills, opinions and practice vary with respect to the distance 
 between and the numljer of stalks to be grown in a hill. The distance between the plantings 
 should depend upon the number of stalks to be grown together, the kind of soil, and the 
 variety to be cultivated. Where only one stalk is grown in a hill, such cultivation will admit 
 of closer planting than where three or four stalks occupy a similar space; besides, a rich soil 
 will admit of more plants to a given surface than a light one, while a variety of corn of large 
 growth will require more room to thrive well than a smaller variety. We think the general 
 fault with farmers is in limiting the space too much and crowding the plants too closely 
 
CORN. 313 
 
 together, and that the largest varietie^should never have more than three or four stalks to 
 the hill, and, in such a case, the distance between the rows Should never be less than four 
 feet. Where only one or two stalks are grown in a hill, the distance could, of course, be 
 lessened. 
 
 Dr. Sturtevant of Massachusetts, gives his opinion as follows: ''Distance for planting 
 must be governed by the necessities of the culture, and also regulated by the fertility and 
 other agricultural conditions of the field. In a droughty field it is well to plant sparingly, 
 as the corn-plant is a great evaporator of water, and many plants call for more water than do 
 few plants. Water which may not be sufficient to supply 3,500 hills to the acre may be 
 ample to supply 2,700 hills. It also requires more fertility in the land to carry a thick 
 planting through to maturity than woiUd be used in a thin planting. The character of the 
 plant must also be considered, as a large, strong-growing variety will require greater space 
 for development than will a small-growing variety. 
 
 The same principles which led me, on Waushakum Farm, to plant 6,223 hills (in drills) 
 per acre, might lead the farmer in the South or West to plant 2,722 hills. The like reason- 
 ing and experience which leads me to use four kernels in a place might lead other farmers to 
 use one kernel, or five; in a word, there can be no unvarying rule. We should plant in the 
 way best fitted to meet the circumstances of our position. 
 
 I plant in drills three feet and a half, hills in drills two feet apart, four kernels in a 
 place. This gives G,223 hills, or 24,892 kernels, per acre. In careful experiment I have 
 found increase of crop to follow increased thickness of planting up to 45,000 kernels per 
 acre; but the necessities of farm culture and profit confine me to the number used, viz., 
 25,000. 
 
 The depth of planting must necessarily vary with conditions. In the extreme southwest 
 the Indians punch a hole eighteen inches deep with a stick hardened in the fire, and, enclosing 
 the kernel of corn in a ball of moist mud, they drop it to the bottom and punch it down with 
 a stick. They do this in order to get moisture, and in that climate the temperature is suffi- 
 ciently high at that depth of earth; they also secure apjjosition of the earth with the seed. 
 We must secure the like conditions; we must have moisture, heat, and contact of earth with 
 the seed. In this region about an inch and a -half to two inches fulfills these conditions in 
 part, and pressure with the hoe or the machine completes. This statement illustrates how 
 the same principles may be secured in difterent ways, and brings out the facts of the essen- 
 tials which are to be secured. 
 
 The summary of rules for securing large and profitable crops of corn seems to be: — 
 
 1. Seed of a prolific variety. 
 
 2. Shallow plowing and deep pulverization. 
 
 3. Surface-manuring, and sufficient, but not overmuch, manure. 
 
 4. Thick planting; early planting. 
 
 5. Thorough and judicious cultivation, carried out with horse labor. 
 To be avoided: — 
 
 1. Poor or unknown seed. 
 
 2. Insufficient or overmuch manure. 
 
 3. Hand labor. 
 
 The seed should be well covered, about two inches being a depth suited to a moderately 
 moist, mellow soil; a sandy soil requiring more depth than clay. It is always well to drop one 
 or two more kernels in a hill than would be necessary for growth, in order to provide for the 
 kernels that may not germinate or produce healthy stalks, and when the plants are sufficiently 
 high, to make a selection of the feeblest, to pull up the latter, and leave only the thrifty and 
 healthy plants to mature. 
 
314 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER 
 
 Cultiyation. — Frequent and careful culture .are essential to the highest success with 
 the com crop. Air and water are necessary to the growth of plants by not only contributing 
 to tlieh- sustenance, but also bj' aiding in reducing organic matter to its mineral elements and 
 a soluble condition, and by effecting a disintegrating and solvent action on the mineral particles 
 that the soil contains; consequently the more the surface of the soil is broken and stirred, the 
 more moisture is absorbed by it, and the more the circulation of air is effected within it. 
 Among some of the large crops of corn that we have had authentic proof of having been 
 harvested from one acre, was one of a hundred and fifty-one bushels, when shelled, and this 
 was cultivated once a week up to the time when the ears were forming, and after the silk had 
 been fertilized ; we are also credibly informed that at this advanced period a dressing of 
 special corn fertilizer was worked into the soil; this latter being done to promote the growth 
 of the ears and grain, and as an experiment, on the piinciple that these should be encouraged 
 in growth, rather than the stalks and leaves, after the latter had attained a certain desirable 
 size. A requisite amoiint of leaf -growth is essential to the perfect growth and maturity of the 
 grain, but, beyond this requirement, an excessive amount of leaf-growth is not of importance 
 or desirable. 
 
 THE KOBBIXP CrT.TTVATOl!. AO.IUPTED FUR CORN. 
 
 If we can, by frequent stirring of the soil, aid the plant in the production of more grain, 
 by promoting the growth of larger and more perfect eai-s, and preventing abortive or false 
 ears, or vacant spaces in the ears, we shall achieve in this department of agriculture what will 
 prove of immense value and profit in the production of this crop, and the labor expended will 
 prove a paying investment. Frequent stirring of the soil also hastens maturity Mr. Stewart 
 says, that in the cultivation of sweet corn for market he has hastened the maturity of the crop 
 several days by weekly cultivation. It is not necessary to wait for weeds, but do it for the 
 
COUN. 
 
 315 
 
 benefit resulting to the crop. It too often happens that corn receives but little cultivation, 
 the most of it being required in the most busy season with the farmer, when other farm-work 
 demands attention, hence the corn-field is liable to be neglected. 
 
 With only the two or three workings of the soil that the corn crop usually receives,' of- 
 ten hastily performed, there will be but little Ijenefit to the crop, while the weeds will soon 
 be rivals for the occupancy of the field. We think every farmer will find it more profitable 
 and better economy to cultivate his corn crop more thoroughly and frequently than is the 
 usual practice. And here I would say a word with respect to the use of improved agricultu- 
 ral machines in the performance of farm labor. The "Western farmer, as a general rule, has 
 a more fertile soil to cultivate than the Eastern farmer; it is consequently more easily tilled, 
 and he resorts more commonly to the use of labor-saving machines than the latter does, — such 
 as the sulky plow, drill, corn-planter, reaper and binder, corn-harvester, etc., — his larger farm 
 and more extensive crops requiring it; but his lands are not as thoroughly cultivated as those 
 of the Eastern farmer. On the other hand, the Eastern farmer is still too often seen labo- 
 riously making his cross furrows with a plow, dropping the seed by hand, making the hills 
 with a hoe, and performing much of the after-cultivation with the plow and hand-hoe. If 
 you ask him why he does not resort to labor-saving machines, lie will probably answer that 
 his farm is small and does not necessitate such implements, or that much of his land would 
 require considerable labor and expense in removing stones and other obstructions to admit of 
 the use of such machines. Now, we would say to the Western farmer, a more thorough cul- 
 tivation of your lands would insure to you a proportionately larger profit in the increase of 
 your crops, with less exhaustion to your soil. To the Eastern farmer we would say, if the 
 labor, time, and expense involved in your present method of agriculture were expended in 
 preparing your lands for and the use of labor-saving machines, you would find it a more 
 profitable and economical method of agriculture in every respect, involving less severe labor, 
 less time, less expense, and better crops; for hand- work is not only laborious, and compara- 
 tively slow in execution, but expensive. By the use of machines for plowing, planting and 
 cultivating, all crops can not only be more easily, quickly, and consequently more frequently 
 cultivated, but with less labor and expense. 
 
 Hilling and Level Culture. — Whether the culture should be level or hilled, will 
 depend much on the character of the soil. Where the la'id is dry, it is better to keep the 
 surface as level as pos- 
 sible. This admits of 
 more uniform warmth i 
 and moisture, conse- 
 quently hastens matur- 
 ity, and leaves the sur- 
 face in the best condi- 
 tion after the crop is 
 harvested, and may be 
 seeded down more 
 easily to grass or clov- 
 er, if desired; besides, 
 hilling does not save 
 the plants from being- 
 blown over by a severe 
 storm, for the small "'^-^'^ ' "^ ^« 
 
 support thus given is of little effect when compared with the force of the wind upon the 
 broad leaves. On wet lands, or when coarse manure is used in the hills, it may be necessary 
 to make the liills higher, but in all other cases, level cultivation is to be preferred. Shallow 
 
316 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 ^^^^rr:^ir=5?€:.^S 
 
 THE PLANET, 
 
 HORSE-HOE. 
 
 cultivation is always beneficial to corn; deep cultivation is always attended with some risk, on 
 account of breaking or disturbing tlie roots of the plant, which extend to a greater distance than 
 is commonly supposed ; theiefore we would not recommend the plow for corn-culture; it goes 
 
 too deep and breaks 
 the roots. Farmers 
 frequently have a 
 mistaken idea with re- 
 spect to the character 
 of the roots of the com- 
 plant. It was a com- 
 monly-received opinion 
 many years ago, that 
 the roots of trees and 
 plants extended from 
 the base of the stems, 
 only as far as the bran- 
 ches extende d each 
 way from the trunk or 
 stems above. It re- 
 quires but a little observation to become acquainted with the fact that all trees throw out 
 roots on each side as long as the entire height of the tree, and frequently to a much greater 
 distance; the same is true of many plants. Says a recent authentic writer on this sub- 
 ject: — 
 
 "We have made some recent examinations of the roots of beans, potatoes, and of corn. 
 Roots of beans within four weeks of the time of planting the seeds, and when the plants were 
 only five inches high, were found which had extended a foot and a half from the stem ; and 
 potatoes planted the first of May, in rows three feet apart, were found to have pushed their 
 fibrous roots by the middle of June so as to occupy the entire space between the rows. Very 
 careful examination was of course required to ascertain these facts, and careless observers 
 would be likely to overlook them entirely. 
 
 The roots of corn do not extend so far as those of beans and potatoes during the early 
 weeks of their growth ; but early in summer, before the corn plants were six inches high, 
 
 they were found to have horizontal roots in some 
 instances a foot in length, making a circle of fibers 
 j two feet in diameter, or four times the height of the 
 > plants. When tlie corn had reached twelve or fifteen 
 finches, the roots had met between the three-feet rows, 
 i and while yet the plants had not attained more than 
 , one-tenth their final weight or bulk. Long before the 
 jears form, the entire groimd between the rows is 
 occupied with their long and slender fibers. 
 
 Observing farmers have long since discovered that 
 much hilling of the corn crop is injurious to its growth, and lessens its product. But they 
 generally assign wrong reasons. One of our best practical writers lately stated that hilling 
 does harm by throwing the water of falling rains away from the roots of the plant — evidently 
 supposing that tliey are crowded in a little mass a few inches in length at the foot of the 
 stalks, instead of actually spreading far and wide. As heavy rains soak the ground alike 
 over the field, the hilling would make little difference; or if it did, the water would be as 
 fi'eely thrown on tlie roots between the rows as in them." 
 
 The writer then refers lo other erroneous methods of reasoning and practice sometimes 
 
 THE ''DEEKE SPHING CL'LTIVATOR. 
 
317 
 
 followed, wliicli consist of throwing the soil away from the plants for a time to admit the 
 rays of the sun to the roots, and further says; — 
 
 " This mode is just the reverse of hilling, and if performed to any depth would iDe as 
 likely to cause injury by uncovering or breaking the roots, as burying them unnaturally deep 
 in high hilling would occasion harm. Both modes are founded on the supposition of short 
 roots, aud both deprive the plants of the benefit of the broad, even, mellow bed of eartli for 
 the roots to extend in at all distances from the plants, where there is little or no hilling." 
 
 Shallow culture, is, therefore, to be preferred for corn, stirring the soil only on the surface, 
 but very frequently. This is of the greatest importance to the crop in dry weather, and after 
 rains, when the surface has become hardened and dry. Some farmers go over the field with 
 the harrow before the corn makes its appearance from the ground, in order to destroy the 
 young weeds when in the germ and before they have taken hold of the soil ; this may be 
 well if the field has been plowed a week or two before planting, and has the effect of cleaning 
 the soil of weeds. After the corn is well up and has taken root, it should be cultivated fre- 
 quently for the purpose of checking the weeds and promoting the growth of the crop. If it 
 could be cultivated as often as once a week until after it has tasseled out, it would be of great 
 benefit to the crop. The old-time custom of hand-hoeing, still practiced to a considerable extent 
 in some sections, especially New England, is unprofitable and expensive, and should be super- 
 seded by the use of the horse-hoe or cultivator, which will be of more effectual benefit to the 
 crop, with less labor, time, and expense. There are various kinds of these implements: The 
 Robins Cultivator, manufactured by Luther & Sumner, Grand Rapids, Michigan, is an excel- 
 lent implement. Also the Hilling Cultivator, made by the New York Plow Company, New 
 York City; the Planet Jr. Horse-Hoe, by Joseph Breck & Son?, Boston, JIass , and the Deere 
 Spnng Cultivator, Deere & Co., Moline, Illinois, all of which are valuable in the cultivation 
 of corn and other farm crops that require shallow cultivation. Corn requires a large amount 
 of heat, and frequent showers; still, it will endure quite an extended drouth with less injury 
 than most crops. Cold and heavy rains are injurious in the early stages of its growth. The 
 necessity of having good, prolific seed for the corn crop, a soil highly enriched and thoroughly 
 prepared, absence of weeds among the plants, with frequent and careful cultivation, are 
 important items in this department of agriculture that are being more fully appreciated and 
 observed by the most successful farmers of the present time than formerly, and which, when 
 observed by farmers generally, will in a few years result in an astonishing increase in the pro- 
 duction of this crop. The old custom of ''topping" the corn, which consisted of ciitting off 
 the tassel and leaf-growth above the ear, is now nearly obsolete, it having been ascertained 
 that a valuable amount of nutriment is evaporated by the atmosphere and lost by this means, 
 while the grain is not benefited by the process, which is a laborious and expensive one ; but 
 if the plants are cut at the roots before 
 the grain is fully ripened, the sap remain- 
 ing in the stalks will continue for a time 
 to nourish the grain, and, to a certain 
 extent, carry on the ripening process. 
 The culture of corn for soiling and en- 
 silage will be considft:ed in another 
 department of this work. 
 
 Harvesting. — This should be done fl 
 before frost makes its appearance, as the 
 grain and fodder will both be seriously 
 injured from exposure to it, if standing. 
 In New England, early frosts are trouble- '- R^^ 
 
 some, and generally necessitate securing the crop as soon as it is ready, which is when the 
 
318 
 
 THE AMERICAN FAKMEK. 
 
 Kernels are well glazed. 
 
 In sections where tliis danger does not exist, it may stand in the 
 field untU fully ripe, if desired. When the stalks and 
 leaves are desired for fodder, the crop should be har- 
 vested as soon as the grain is fully ripe, as it will con- 
 tain more nutriment, and the gi-ain be just as valuable, 
 as when left standing in the field longer. 
 
 Various methods are employed in harvesting corn. 
 The common custom in the Eastern States is to cut the 
 stalks near the roots, and bind them in bundles, setting 
 them up in stacks of from eight to ten bundles each, 
 where they remain until well dried. When well cured, 
 the bundles are taken to the barn, or husked in the 
 
 EUREKA DODBLE-ROW STALK-CUITEK. ggj^ . ^J^g gj^jj-g ^^^ Jgj^^gg ^jj ^^^^^ g^^^g^ f^^ fodder. 
 
 It was formerly the custom among Western farmers, and is at present to a certain extent, 
 
 of gathering the ears of corn 
 in the field and lea\'ing the 
 stalks to be trampled by cat- 
 tle, or to be plowed in. They 
 were also sometimes biuned. 
 Sometimes the grain and 
 stalks were permitted to 
 stand m the field tiU required 
 for feeding cattle or other 
 stock, when they were fed in 
 an adjoining enclosure as 
 wanted. Many of the West- 
 ern farmers are, however, 
 beginning to make use of the 
 ••■■ leaves and stalks for fodder, 
 
 and reahze its value for this purpose. It is better to 
 cut and plow them into the land than to burn them, 
 when not wanted for fodder, as when decomposed 
 they furnish something towards the nutnment of the 
 futm-e crop. Small fields of corn in many sections 
 are still cut by hand, a good average day's work in 
 cutting and stacking from drills, being about half 
 an acre a day per man; but where the grain is raised 
 extensively, a cornstalk-cutter is necessary. These 
 machines cut the stalks within a few inches of the 
 root, which can readily be plowed under. The 
 double-rowed cutters are said to cut from sixteen to 
 eighteen acres of corn in a day. The Urie and 
 Eureka stalk-cutters are m^ufactured by the Eureka 
 Manufacturing Company, Rock Falls, Illinois. The 
 latter has a roller attachment for cutting up the 
 stalks and getting them out of the way of the plow, 
 as is seen in the cut. 
 
 The Advance Cultivator, manufactured by Deere, 
 Mansur & Co., St. Louis, Mo., has also a stalk-cutter, 
 which can be readily attached to that implement 
 
 MOLINE STALK-CUTTER. 
 
 when desired, thus combining two machines in one. 
 
CORN. 
 
 319 
 
 Machines for botli cvUtiiig and husking the corn at the same time liave been invented, 
 but are not yet in general use. As soon as the stalks are thoroughly dry, the corn should be 
 husked and stored in dry bins or cribs, that are proof against rats and other vermin, and the 
 fodder put under cover or stacked at a convenient distance from the feeding- yards. Machines 
 for husking are a great saving of time and labor. 
 
 Corn should not be shelled until perfectly dry. It will shrink in weight and measure 
 for several months after husking, this shrinkage being generally more in the cob than the 
 grain in proportion to the weight of the two, still there will be considerable loss in the weight 
 of the grain from the time of harvesting until spring, even when comparatively ripe when 
 harvested. 
 
 In order to have some rehable data in regard to the comparative weight of corn in the 
 fall and in the spring, which is an item of no little importance to the farmer and dealer in 
 corn, we give the following result of e.xpariments made at the chemical laboratory of the Illin- 
 ois Industrial University, under the supervision of M. A. Scovill, Professor of Agricultural 
 Chemistry. 
 
 The experiments were made with the following six varieties of corn grown on the Uni- 
 versity farm: Mammouth, Thomas, Muvdock, Geneseo, Wright's Gold, and Cameron. 
 
 In order to secure an average result ten ears of corn of each variety were employed. 
 The corn was gathered on October 6th, and carefully weighed. It was then properly labeled. 
 and the whole plac* in a room, which was entirely cut off from any artificial souixe of heat. 
 On November 6tli the corn was weighed, with the following results: — 
 
 Loss of lueight of corn from Oct. 6th to Nov. (\th, in 100 parts. 
 
 Camerou. Wright's Gold. 
 
 GeneSfO. 
 
 Murdock. 
 
 Thomas. ' Mammouth. 
 
 10.7 17.5 
 
 8.3 
 
 13.3 
 
 17.5 35.5 
 
 After weighing the corn, it was put back into the room as before, and allowed to remain 
 until Nov. 29th, when it was weighed again. 
 
 Loss of toeiijht of corn from Oct. Gth to Xot-. 29lh. in 100 parts. 
 
 Cameron. 
 
 Wrights Gold. 
 
 GcntsL'O. 
 
 Murdock. 
 
 Themes. 
 
 Jliimniduth. 
 
 14.7 
 
 31 
 
 10.7 
 
 14.3 
 
 31.3 
 
 30.8 
 
 Finally the corn was allowed to remain in the room until February 28th, when it was 
 again weighed, with the following results : — 
 
 Imss of loeirjhl of corn from Oct. Cyth to Feb. 2Sfh, in \00 part-''. 
 
 Cameron. 
 
 Wright** Gold. 
 
 GenL'Sco. 
 
 Murdock. 
 
 Thomiis. 
 
 Mammouth. 
 
 16.1 
 
 33.5 
 
 17.4 
 
 16.8 
 
 33.8 
 
 ■in 
 
 By the last figures, it will be seen that the loss in weight from October 6th to Feb- 
 ruary 28th by drying, was, on the average, a little more than twenty-one per cent., and that 
 the shrinkage was less during the last month of the experiment than the preceding. A simi- 
 lar experiment in determining the amount of loss in bulk by shrinkage, and which extended 
 
320 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 from November until the following July, indicated a loss in tliat respect of aLout eighteen 
 per cent. 
 
 The farmer who makes an early sale of his corn will consequently have larger weight 
 and bulk of this grain at that time than at a later period, while those who store their grain 
 for later sale should govern their prices accordingly. 
 
 The influence of moist and dry weather is also very great in determining the weight of 
 corn. During those seasons when severe drouths are experienced, the corn in the ear will 
 frequently be found more drj' by the middle or last of September than it is in moist seasons by 
 the early part of winter. It was found by careful experiment after a certain moist autumn, 
 that corn which was weighed in the ear on the first of January had lost twenty per cent., or 
 one-fifth of its weight, by the following October. Under such circumstances, old corn at a 
 dollar per bushel would have been cheaper to the purchaser than the new at the rate of 
 eighty cents per bushel. 
 
 The proportion of weight that the cob beai's to the grain will generally average about 
 one-eighth. Corn stover, or the corn-plant after the ripening and removal of the grain, 
 should be put under cover as early as possible, for if allowed to stand in the field exposed to 
 the rains, much of the nutriment will be washed out. Its value for feeding stock is estimated 
 to be about half that of good hay. 
 
 When corn is husked by hand, much time and labor may be saved by providing the 
 best facilities for performing the work. A husking-bench or rack will bft found a great con- 
 venience, and is easily and cheaply constructed. This may be done by the use of two small 
 benches, or horses, for supports at either end of the rack, which are connected by means of 
 two pieces of wood about two by three inches, and ten or twelve feet long. Small cross- 
 boards laid across at the ends will serve as seats for the buskers, which can be moved up or 
 back as desired. The boards for seats should have cleats on the under side, so as to admit of 
 their being moved forward or backward without dropping. 
 
 When enough stalks are husked to form a bundle, they may be bound without the 
 buskers leaving their seats, and thrown one side. The long pieces that form the sides of the 
 rack should be two feet or a little more apart, and fully two feet high, or rather the benches 
 at the ends should be this height; if lower than this, they are not as easy to rise from. This 
 rack may be used in the field, and may be easily carried from one shock to another by two 
 men, one at each end to take hold of the projecting ends, and for this reason it should be 
 made as light as consistent with the strength necessary for the support required of it. It is 
 stated by those using a husking-rack of this kind, that its convenience is such that an 
 ordinary workman will husk one-fourth more in a day than when he is compelled to reach 
 down, while standing, for every ear of corn that he husks, or if he is compelled to take any 
 position on the ground to get at his work. 
 
 Shelling and Grinding Corn. — Corn should not be shelled until well dried. 
 Machines for performing this work are needed on all farms where corn is cultivated to any 
 extent. For small farms the hand-machine will answer all purposes, but for large farms, 
 where great quantities of grain are used, either steam, wind, or horse-power may be utilized; 
 this can be easily done where a farm-engine or wind-mill are in requisition for farm use, 
 while every farmer has horse-power at his command. With these machines, the farmer can 
 shell his corn at such times as is most convenient for him without extra expense or assistance, 
 as this can be performed when other work is not pressing. 
 
 There are various shellers in common use ; the best not only separate the cobs from the 
 shelled grain, but are supplied with a fan that blows all the dust and chaff out of the corn, 
 making it perfectly clean. 
 
 There are also machines that will shell the corn clean, either with the husks on or after 
 they have been taken off, which save the labor of husking, and prove quite valuable in lai-ge 
 corn-growin'j; sections. 
 
CORN. 
 
 321 
 
 The first two illustrations of corn- 
 shellers represent excellent machines, 
 made by the Sandwich Manufacturing 
 Co., Sandwich, Illinois — the first being 
 a small hand-machine, adapted to small 
 farms; the latter larger, and better 
 adapted to farms where a large amount 
 of grain is utilized, and can be used as 
 a hand-sheller or with other power, as 
 desired. The third sheller represented 
 shows a machine mounted and ready 
 for use that will save the labor of husk- 
 ing, as it shells, equally clean, either 
 husked or unhusked corn. It is 
 manufactured by Kingsland, Ferguson 
 & Co., St. Louis, Mo., and proves very 
 valuable as a labor-saving implement 
 where large quantities of corn are raised. 
 
 It is a much more economical meth- 
 od of feeding, to first have the corn 
 ground, rather than give it to stock in 
 the ear; this has not only been proved 
 by man_y careful experiments, but by 
 the experience of the majority of our 
 best farmers. Mr. Brown, Professor of 
 Agriculture at the Guelph Farm, Prov- eight-hand comet. 
 
 ince of Ontario, has recently been making a variety of valuable experiments; among others 
 he has ascertained that apparently about one-fifth of the ground corn passes through the 
 stomach and alimentary canal of cattle undigested. If this be true, a much larger propor- 
 tion of unground corn must pass undigested and be lost. Besides, when fed in the ear, much 
 of the corn is wasted by being trampled under the feet of the animals while eating. 
 
 LOR\IX Q-Ut 
 
 THE FARMEK S SHELLER. 
 
 Many farmers grind both corn and cob together, as it saves shelling, and the cob is sup- 
 posed to contain some nutriment. It is also sometimes ground before being husked, the thin 
 dry husk being easily reduced by the grinding process. It contains the elements of animal 
 food to a limited extent, and saves husking, where the cob is to be ground. A difference of 
 
322 
 
 THE A.MKKILAN FAKMER. 
 
 opinion, however, exists respecting the benoHcial or injurious effects of the groimd coh on the 
 animal system ; some regarding it as possessing sufEcient nutriment to make it pruCtable for 
 grinding, others regarding it of no value as food, and as injurious to young stock, it having 
 a tendency to cause irritation of the digestive organs; while for fattening animals so large a 
 quantity is needed that the stomach will be unduly distended by it. In order to fatten 
 animals rapidly very nutritious food is required, and not simply bulk. As we have never 
 made use of cob-meal, we cannot speak from experience, but should consider cobs as mora 
 valuable for manure than food, since they contain quite a proportion of potash, provided they 
 could be reduced to a suitable manure to be returned to the land. 
 
 SHELLER FOR EITHER HUSKED OK UNHUSKED CORN. 
 
 In order that the farmer may be able to grind his own grain, and have it done at his 
 own convenience, farm mills for grinding corn and other kinds of grain are not only very 
 desirable, but in many sections of the country where farming is conducted on a large 
 scale, they are regarded as an indispensable farm implement : especially are they so on those 
 extensive farms devoted mainly to grain-growing and live-stock, and under such conditions 
 it is not only a necessity and convenience, but the practice of economy as well, and in most 
 
 cases, although attended with some 
 expense at first, such a mill will 
 pay for itself in a short time. The 
 power used for grinding may be 
 the same as for other farm work 
 of a similar kind, viz., the farm 
 engine, windmill, or horse-power. 
 The two accompanying illus- 
 f^^J tratdons of farm mills, from the 
 manufactory of Deere, ilansur & 
 Co., .St. Louis. Mo , represent im- 
 lements that will grind all kinds 
 of grain, coarse or fine; corn can 
 be ground either shelled or in the 
 car, husked or unhusked. The 
 firet represented is provided with 
 large feed-boxes, tubes for the un- 
 husked corn, and a seat for the 
 FARM MILL. LITTLE GIANT. driver, who does the feeding. In 
 
CORN. 
 
 823 
 
 grinding shell corn, wheat, or other grain, it is only necessary to remove the tulies ar.d 
 nil the feed-box, which will hold from eight to ten bushels. A one-horse mill of this kind 
 
 will grind from twelve to fif- 
 teen bushels per hour; where 
 two horses are used, from fif- 
 teen to eighteen bushels can 
 be ground in that time. The 
 'Large Giant" has u grind- 
 ing capacity for about twenty- 
 five bushels per hour. Such 
 mills are very durable, and 
 nut liable to get out of repair. 
 
 Diseases of torn, etc. 
 
 ' — The diseases of corn are 
 neither very numerous nor ex- 
 tensive in their results. In 
 some seasons, especially those 
 that are warm and wet, smut 
 will sometimes make its ap- 
 pearance and destroy a con- 
 siderable number of the ears. 
 Almost ever}' farmer is famil- 
 iar with its appearance to a 
 certain extent, and its results 
 ' upon the crop. It does not 
 LAiiGE GIANT. always attack the grain, as it 
 
 appears on the tassel, stalk, and even upon the leaves. Wherever it makes its appearance, 
 there is an unnatural growth of a spongy nature, an increased size or swelling of the part 
 affected, which at a later period is broken open, showing the smut, which consists of micros- 
 copically small grains — the spores or reproductive bodies of the corn-smut fungus. These 
 grain smuts are minute parasitic plants, the portion of which corresponding to the root of 
 other plants lives in the tissues of the corn, causing the abnormal growth. 
 
 How or when the smut-plant begins its work upon the corn is not known, various 
 theories being entertained respecting it, some supposing that the spores are planted with the 
 grain, and germinate and grow as the plant increases in size; others, that these spores float 
 in the air, and, coming in contact with the corn, germinate and grow upon the surface, send- 
 ing their roots through the tissues of the corn-stems and leaves. Whatever may be its mode 
 of growtli or origin, it is apparent that wherever it makes its appearance, it robs the plant 
 upon which it grows of nourishment for its own support, and produces, after a time, a num- 
 ber of spores by means of which the smut-plant is perpetuated. This disease, or abnormal 
 growth, is most frequently confined to tlie grains, but may affect other parts of the plant. 
 When the grains are afF.-cted, they become at first of an unusual size, and graduall}' turn 
 dark in color, and soft; finally, the covering breaks, and a dark, dry, dusty powder is seen. 
 
 The results of eating such grain are often very serious, sometimes producing abortion, 
 and even death, among cows, the medicinal effect being the same as that of ergot, or ''spurred 
 rye." Its efiect is otherwise deleterious upon the animal system, and such grain should 
 never be fed to live-stock of any kind. It is more apt to app(>ar upon broken stalks and 
 leaves than otli.ers, and to be most prevalent when the weather is warm and moist, or what 
 i^ termed "muggy." Salt sown upon the soil before planting is suggested by some as a pre- 
 ventive of this disease, which is nut yet fully understood by the best scientific agriculturists. 
 
324 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 The quickest and best metliod of ridding a field of smutted corn that we have ever tried, is to 
 paso through it as soon as this disease first makes its appearance, and gather all the parts 
 affected and burn them. By this means, countless milhons of spores that would otherwise 
 ripen to spread the disease, are destroyed, and the means of its perpetuation prevented. 
 
 Corn should not be planted upon the same field more than two years in succession, and 
 if a judicious rotation of crops is observed, together with careful cultivation and a fertile soil, 
 a good crop will generally be secured in spite of insects or disease of any kind. It is always 
 best to avoid the spreading of disease as far as possible, and this is one way to accomplish it. 
 If the soil is too wet, producing a surplus of water about the roots, corn will not have a 
 healthy growth ; the leaves will turn yellow and have an unthrifty appearance, and the growth 
 will be slow. Such land should be drained, if devoted to corn culture. 
 
 The chinch-bug, wire-worm, cut-worm, corn or ball-worm, and various other insects, are 
 sometimes very troublesome and destructive to the corn crop in certain localities. The wire- 
 worm attacks the corn before it comes up, by eating into the kernel before it has germinated; 
 it also eats the roots and penetrates that portion of the stem of the young plant that is 
 covered by the earth. The failure of seed to come up is often due to the attacks of this pest, 
 several of them often being found at work upon a single kernel. The cut-worms, called in 
 Europe surface-grubs, attack both roots and stalks, often cutting the stalks entirely off, and 
 are frequently found as high as the ear on the stalk, sometimes continuing their depredations 
 until the corn is nearly ripe. They are generally most troublesome on sod-land. 
 
 There are various means resorted to by farmers for the purpose of getting rid of these 
 pests, such as burning all the stalks and stubble left in the field after harvest, fall plowing, 
 etc. Prof. Cyrus Thomas, State Entomologist of Illinois, in referring to the wire-worms, says: 
 
 •• I am decidedly of the opinion that starving them out by refraining from planting for 
 a year, and repeatedly stirring the ground, is the only sure remedy. One great advantage of 
 this plan is that it not only tends to destroy these worms, but also the white-grubs, cut-worms, 
 and numerous other species that reside in the ground in the larva state, and are not easily 
 reached by topical applications or other means. It is not difficult for farmers to test this 
 remedy on a small scale where these insects are troublesome, and it is certainly worthy of a 
 trial. Where they are very numerous, and the nature of the soil will justify it, it would be 
 well to spread unslaked hme over the surface and turn it under as deeply as possible Isefore 
 rain falls upon it. If this could be done consistently with the nature of the crop to be 
 grown, very eariy in the spring, this would probably be the best time ; otherwise it should be 
 done late in the faU. I am not aware that this remedy has been tried — lime has again and 
 again been used, and generally without favorable results — but the use of unslaked lime in 
 the manner indicated, and in as large quantities as the land will bear, has not, so far as I can 
 learn, been tried. To be of any value it must be applied freely, and well turned under. 
 
 According to Curtis, when the wire-worm reaches its full size it descends a considerable 
 depth in the earth, where it forms an oval cell of the surrounding particles of soil, not lining 
 it with silk; it then casts its skin again and becomes a pupa or chrysalis, generaDy, in Eng- 
 land, at the end of July or beginning of August; the time here is probably a few weeks 
 earlier. The chrysalis is long and narrow, bearing a strong resemblance to the perfect insect, 
 but is of a paler color, usually yellowish or yellowish white. They remain in the pupa state, so 
 far as observed, from two to three weeks, but it is probable some species remain in this state 
 over the following winter. 
 
 The same author, in the summary with which he closes his article on these worms in his 
 ' Farm Insects,' makes the following statements in reference to their habits and the remedies 
 used to counteract them : — 
 
 ' Very hazardous to re-sow where they have destroyed a crop unless the soil be plowed 
 repeatedly. 
 
CORN. 325 
 
 They are most to be dreaded in dry seasons, yet they cannot exist without some moisture. 
 
 Affected jilants are known by the dying oil of the outer leaves. 
 
 They cut into tlie stem above the roots and sometimes separate the stalk. 
 
 Gardens suffer exceedingly; lettuce often falls a sacrifice to them. 
 
 On light lands they do most mischief from the beginning of March to June. 
 
 Lower parts of fields bordering on marshes most infested. 
 
 Rye-grass most dangerous with clover, for encouraging wire-worms. 
 
 Gravelly and sandy soils most infested ; strong loam and clay most free from them. 
 
 Wheat sown in dry weather most likely to suffer. 
 , By constantly disturbing the insects it is probable they may be driven from a locality. 
 
 A summer fallow and burning the rubbish is recommended after clover and grasses; it 
 iills the eggs and starves the worms; but fallows must be kept very clear from grasses and 
 weeds. Nothing more dangerous than to leave strips and patches of grass or lays in plowed 
 Selds. 
 
 Feeding land close with sheep will prevent the eggs from being laid. Folding oxen and 
 sheep in the spring may also keep the beetles from coming out of the earth. Harrowing and 
 hard rolling in March and April strongly recommended. Top-dressings of lime useful before 
 rolling. 
 
 Domestic fowls and numerous small birds eat a large number of them.' 
 
 Fall plowing has been found to be very beneficial ; this exposes them to the frost, which 
 will have a tendency to destroy vast numbers of them. A Western farmer gives his expe- 
 rience as follows: — 
 
 'Last fall I commenced to plow a stubble-field of twelve acres; I had it about half done 
 when winter set in, consequently the other half was not plowed till spring. The part broken 
 in the spring was at least one-fourth destroyed by the wire and grub-worms while the other 
 part was scarcely touched.' " 
 
 Coating the seed with tar, as has previously been suggested under " Preparation of 
 Seed," has also a very good effect in checking the evil. 
 
 The corn-worm or ball-worm does considerable damage to the ears of corn in the latitude 
 of southern Illinois, also to both cotton and corn in the cotton-growing sections. It attacks 
 corn in the ear, eating first the silk, and as it increases in size afterwards, the kernels, some- 
 times ruining whole fields of corn. Fields that are early planted are less liable to be attacked 
 by it than the late. Fall plowing is also a good remedy, and in fact the most effectual means 
 of destroying these insects, as the larvse are brought to the surface and frozen. Many 
 farmers build bonfires near the corn-fields in the evening in summer at the time the insects 
 that lay the eggs producing these various pests are most active, and by which means many 
 are attracted to the fire by the light, and destroyed. 
 
 Birds are sometimes troublesome, especially crows and blackbirds, which will frequently 
 pull up the young corn-plants in order to obtain the kernels. Blackbirds and birds of several 
 kinds will also sometimes do injury to the grain in the ear. Notwithstanding these facts, we 
 woiild say to the farmer, xjiare the birds I The vast numbers of insects they destroy daily is 
 a great benefit to the farmer, and, if the birds are diminished in numbers, the insects will 
 increase. It is better to frighten the birds away from the corn-fields at the time they may do 
 the most mischief, and permit them to live to aid the farmer in exterminating these minute 
 pests — worms and insects — that cannot be frightened or driven away so easily. Millions of 
 dollars' worth in products are annually destroyed in this country through insects, and birds 
 are the only enemies able to contend against them vigorously. They are the noted caterpillar- 
 killers and insect-destroyers generally. Crows will destroy not only insects, but mice, young 
 rats, lizards, small snakes, caterpillars, and other vermin, and are valuable scavengers on the 
 farm. Coating the seed with tar, as has been previously suggested, is a good remedy. 
 
326 THE AMERICAN FARMEU. 
 
 Newspapers opened and spread about a field liere and there, and kept in place by a stone, 
 will sometimes keep them away, or a rattling windmill erected in the field. Twine put up 
 about the field on elevated sticks at the time of planting will usually frighten crows, although 
 blackbirds are more courageous and saucy, and not as easily intimidated. Small pieces of 
 polished tin or looking-glass suspended from a bent pole by a string in a manner to reflect 
 light from the sun, are usually effectual in frightening most birds; also a piece of cloth that 
 will flutter in the wind like a flag. A blackbii-d or crow might be sacrificed for the purpose 
 of frightening his companions; by being hung in the field suspended from a pole where it 
 can be readily seen it usually produces the desired effect. We hope no farmer will be so 
 cruel and inhuman as to hang the poor bird up alive, and leave it to suffer and die in tlmt 
 condition. We have seen this cruelty practiced, and are of the opinion that a man that 
 would do so mean and cruel an act to any helpless creature deserves to have all of his corn 
 pulled up, and we think the whole race of birds would be entirely justified in avenging in 
 this manner such an atrocity perpetrated upon their species ! All remedies for keeping the 
 birds away should be resorted to as soon as the corn is planted, if not before, for if they once 
 get a taste of it, it will be difficult to frighten them afterwards. New devices will have to be 
 resorted to occasionally, as what will prove effectual one season may not another. Early- 
 planted fields are less liable to be attacked by birds ' than late, a fact that is well worth the 
 farmer's attention. 
 
 RICE. 
 
 THE cultivation of rice in this country has not been one of its flourishing or permanently 
 prosperous interests, being limited, as it is, and always has been, to a comparatively 
 small area. Its culture was formerly confined principally to the sea islands and low- 
 Iving shores of South Carolina and Georgia, where it is now quite extensively produced, as well 
 as in Louisiana, Mississippi, and several of the other Southern States. According to some 
 authorities, there are two principal species of this grain, of which there are many varieties; one, 
 commonly known as the lowland rice, ( Oryza salira,) which grows on wet land, and is cultivated 
 with excessive irrigation; the other, [Oryza mutica,) a species adapted to a dry or mountainous 
 region, of which the product of Ceylon and Java furnish an example, and which will not 
 flourish with long inundation, thriving best in a dry soil. Other authorities regard the two 
 mentioned as different varieties of one species, somewhat modified by a difference of soil, 
 climate, and mode of culture. 
 
 Rice forms one of the principal articles of diet of the inhabitants of China and nearly 
 the entire i-outhern portion of Asia, as well as the numerous islands of the Pacific and Indian 
 oceans, and a large portion of Africa. It is extensively cultivated, also, in Southern Europe, 
 and, in fact, to a certain extent in most of the tropical and semi-tropical countries. A species 
 of this grain, called "cargo" or "Bengal rice," is a favorite with the Orientals. The kernel 
 is large and sweet, but ratlier coarse and of a red color. The East India rice is white, but 
 small-grained. The variety known as the "Carolina rice," which combines the merits of the 
 others, being large-grained, sweet, and white, is considered superior to all others. 
 
 According to Ramsay's History of South Carolina, rice was introduced into that state in 
 1694, by a vessel from Madagascar, which, in distress, sought refuge in Chai'leston harbor. 
 The captain of this vessel, having subsequently formed the acquaintance of a resident of 
 Charleston,^ — Mr. Landgrave Smith, — presented him with a small sack of rough rice. This 
 gentleman had it planted in his garden, and the plants yielding abundantly soon attracted the 
 attention of his neighboring planters, among whom he distributed the seed, who in turn 
 
RICE. 327 
 
 extended its dissemination along the rivers farther towards the interior, until, in a few years it 
 became, by careful culture, one of the principal cultivated crops of the colony. 
 
 In some of the southern localities the cultivation of rice is regarded as more profitable 
 than that of the sugar-cane. In the swamps of South Carolina and Louisiana and the rice 
 lands of lower Mississippi it yields very largs crops, and is cultivated with comparatively little 
 labor; but the great difficulty, in its production is that the localities in which it thrives best are 
 generally very damp, inducing malarial fevers, and is detrimental to health generally. 
 
 Considerable difficulty is also experienced by planters in selecting seed free from the 
 " volunteer " or red rice, which is the product of the self-sown grain left in the soil after har- 
 vest, and which springs up the following year, and grows with the cultivated crop, the plants 
 being indistinguishable from them. The grain of this self-sown product will after a few years 
 become loose in its attachment to the stalk, and consequently easily shells out, so that it is 
 almost impossible to eradicate it from a soil when it once gains a position there. Its seed is 
 also red and coarse, requiring considerable care in milling to clear the harvested crop from it. 
 To show the effect of climate and soil on rice, a few years since several samples of seed were 
 selected from the South Carolina crops, and sent to India to be sown in the rice fields of that 
 country. Specimens of the product of that seed were sviusequently sent to the planters who 
 furnished it, who were surprised to find the grain so changed that it could scarcely be recog- 
 nized as the same variety. The heaviest grain is usually grown in the most northerly of the 
 rice-growing sections. Rice, as an article of food, contains but very little oil, and a large 
 proportion of starch. 
 
 Cultiviltioil.^The lands best adapted to rice-culture, or that produce the la.rgest grain, 
 are those swamps and rush-lands lying adjacent to tide- water rivers between 29° and 30° north 
 latitude. The plantations for this purpose should be located above the junction of salt and 
 fresh water, because rice, being a fresh-water plant, is fatally injured by salt water in any stage 
 of its growth. These lands are of rich alluvial soil, and by being easily irrigated are admir- 
 ably adapted to the culture of this grain. Inland swamps are also valuable for this purpose; 
 they are reclaimed by means of drainage, and the water reserved for irrigating purpiises, in 
 such a manner that it may be turned on or off at will. Tide-river plantations are protected by 
 means of embankments or levees, which have been described by Mr. Augustus Favean 
 of South Carolina, as follows : " These levees are made high and strong enough to effectually 
 bar out the water of the river. Smaller embankments, called check-banks, subdivide that 
 portion of the plantation lying between the main river embankment and the highland into 
 squares or fields, generally from fifteen to twenty acres in area. These squares are all suli- 
 divided again into beds or lands, of twenty-five or thirty feet width, by a system of main 
 ditches and quarter drains. Canals, from twelve to thirty feet wide and four or five ie"t 
 deep, are sometimes cut from the river embankment, through the centre of the plantation, to 
 the high land, for the purpose of introducing or draining off the water to or from those fields sit- 
 uated far back from the rivei'. These canals also form a very conspicuous feature in the harvest 
 scene, as they serve as a medium of navigation for the large flat-boats which convey the rico 
 to the stack-yard in quantities of eight or ten acre's yield at a load ; and as rice usually yields 
 from two to three tons of straw per acre, the value of this immense water-carriage can bo 
 easily conceived. 
 
 Flood-gates or trunks having doors at both ends are buried in the embankments on tlio 
 river, as well as in the canal embankments and the check-banks, those at the outlet of canals 
 being so constructed as to permit the flat-boats to pass into the river. By means of these flood- 
 gates or trunks the whole system of inigation is carried on under the complete control of the 
 planter, and the lands are flooded or drained at will." 
 
 These lands, being oirichcd by annual alluvial deposits from the river, do not require 
 deep plowing, four or five inches being generally sufficient, after which it is thoroughly har- 
 
328 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 rowed in order to pulverize it as finely as possible for the reception of the seed; thorough 
 harrowing also breaks up the sod and exposes the roots and seeds of grasses and weeds to the 
 action of the sun, which will be a great benefit in the after-cultivation of the crop. The seed 
 is sown either broadcast or in drills, usually the latter, at the rate of from two to three bushels 
 per acre. Two methods are employed, some preferring covering the grain in the soil two or 
 three inches, others regarding the open-trench system as preferable, where the grain is left 
 uncovered and the water immediately turned on very gradually until the rice adheres to the 
 soil, after which it is slowly flooded to the depth of twelve or eighteen inche.s. When the 
 grain is covered by the soil in sowing, the water is immediately turned on to the above depth, 
 and remains until the rice is well germinated, after which the water is drawn off and kept out 
 until the plant has two leaves. When the land is well flooded, all the rubbish and drift that 
 rises to the surface is taken out with rakes in order that it may not settle upon the field when 
 the water is drawn off. The sowing is generally performed in March, although it is some- 
 times done as late as the fifteenth of May and even later. Germination of the seed is hastened 
 by soaking the grain in water a few hours before sownng. 
 
 When the rice has two leaves of growth the water is again let on to the same depth as 
 before, entirely submerging the plants, and remains at this depth from a week to ten days; 
 this gives a vigorous growth to the grain, and has a tendency to destroy the gi-ass and weeds. 
 Mr. Flavean further says that "the planter should be governed b}^ the weather in regard to 
 the length of time the plants remain thus submerged; if warm, seven days, if cool, ten; after 
 which the water is drawn gradually off, until a general -'verdure" is seen floating all over 
 the field. At this point the water is stopped and a mark set upon the gate as a "gauge- 
 mark." To this gauge the water is rigidly held for sixty or sixty-five days from the day it 
 first came on the field. It sometimes happens that, during this flow, the crop takes a check 
 and stops growing. In this event to take off the water is fatal, as it will produce " foxed 
 rice ; " but it must be held firmly to the gauge, and in a few days the plant will throw out new 
 roots and recommence growing. If the maggot attack it in this flow, the water is drawn off 
 for a day or two and replaced. And where water is abundant and easily handled, the maggot 
 can generally be avoided by beginning, about the thirtieth day, to change the water once a 
 week. To do so skillfully, both gates must be simultaneously opened at the " young flood." 
 The stale water will thus rush out and fresh water come immediately back with the rising 
 tide to float the rice leaves and prevent them sticking to the ground in their fall. If the 
 maggot gets serious, the field has to be dried nolens volens. The maggot is a tiny white worm, 
 which is generated by stale water, and attacks the roots of the plant, causing serious injury to 
 the crop. The presence of the maggot may always be suspected by the stiff and unthrifty 
 appearance of the field. 
 
 If the land is fertile, at the end of the sixty-day flow it will be found, on drawing off 
 the water, that the rice has attained a vigorous growth of about three feet, and is well stocked 
 with tillers, while also, if the field is level, and the harrowing and pulverizing was thoroughly 
 attended to before planting, no grass will be seen, nothing but rice and the clean soil be- 
 neath. The field is kept dry now for about fifteen or twenty days, or until the land dries off 
 ricolyand the rice takes its second growth. And if there be no 'grass' it ought not to be dis- 
 turbed with the hoe, as the laborers, at this stage, often do more harm than good. This, how- 
 ever, does not apply to 'cat-tails' and 'volunteers,' which should, of course, be carefully 
 pulled up by the roots, and sheafed and carried to the banks, to be disposed of by the hot 
 sun. 
 
 At the end of fifteen or twenty days, as above mentioned, the water is returned to the 
 field as deep as the rice and banks can bear, never, however, topping the fork of the for- 
 mer. This water, where circumstances permit, is changed every week or two, by letting it 
 off on one tide and taking it back on the next, and increasing the gauge with the growth 
 
RICE. 329 
 
 of the rice, "WTien the heatls of the rice are well fllled and the last few grains at the bottom 
 are in the doisgh, it is fit to cut, and as little delay is permitted as possible, as the rice now 
 ' over-ripens ' very rapidly, and shatters in proportion during the harvest. The water may 
 lie drawn ofi the field from three to five days before cutting the grain, and the land will be 
 in better condition for harvesting." 
 
 The methods of culture difl:er somewhat with diilerent localities; some planters harrow 
 in the grain and inundate it until it germinates, after which the water is withdrawn, and is 
 not let on again until the plants are about four inches high. The water is then let on again 
 until all but the top leaves are covered. The crop is then kept inundated until about two 
 weeks before liarvest, when it is again withdrawn in order that the stalks may harden prepar- 
 atory to harvest. 
 
 The method practiced in Northern Italy is to sow the seed in April, previous to which 
 it is soaked a day or two in water to hasten germination. After sowing, the ground is irri- 
 gated to the depth of about two inches. The rice comes up through the water, which is then 
 drawn ofi to give the plant strength, and after several days it is let on again. This mode is 
 said to be more Uable to mildew the rice than the methods practiced in this country. Aquatic 
 grasses and weeds are apt to be troublesome in some soils, and should be destroyed as fast as 
 they make their appearance. The chief business of the cultivator is to do this, and to keep 
 the water from stagnating and as fresh as possible, which may easily be done by turning it 
 on at one point and drawing it ofi at another at the same time. "When grown on dry land 
 in the upland sections, its culture is similar to that of other small grain. It should be 
 planted in shallow drills two and a half or three feet apart, and the soil kept free from weeds 
 l)y the use of the cultivator or horse-hoe. "When cultivated m this manner the crop is infe- 
 rior to that grown by means of irrigation, both in quantity and quality. In the latitude of 
 (J-eorgia it is sometimes planted as late as June; its straw makes good forage. 
 
 Unlike other grain, rice can be kept several years in a warm climate without its quality 
 deteriorating, by simply winnowing it semi-annually, to prevent the weevil and other insects 
 from injuring it. Rice does not impoverish land upon which it is grown, like many crops, 
 and is often used in upland sections to precede corn in rotation. It adapts itself to the soil, 
 cUmate, and mode of cultivation, but, like most other grains, the seed will degenerate if not 
 frequently changed and the best specimens always selected for sowing. 
 
 After the land has been propsrly prepared for growing rice, by ditching, embankments, 
 leveling, etc., a single individual can cultivate an immense crop, and with comparatively little 
 labor. The desideratum in this product is to have the grains as nearl}' of a uniform size as 
 possible. 
 
 Harvesting. — The proper stage of maturity for cutting rice is indicated not only by 
 the grain being well filled out in the heads, and a few kernels at the bottom of the head being 
 in a dough state, but also by the straws turning yellow. The method of harvesting is similar 
 to that of other grain, such as wheat or oats, except it is generally cut from twelve to eighteen 
 inches from the ground, according to its growth, which is usually from four to six feet high. 
 It is laid upon the stubble for a day or two to dry, which is generally accomphshed in twenty- 
 four hours in good weather, after which it is bound into bundles and placed in small stacks. 
 It is never well to bind it when the dew is on the straw. As soon as sufficiently dry it may 
 be threshed in the field, or stacked to await a convenient time for doing it. In order to pre- 
 vent the germination of the " volunteer " rice, as soon as the crop harvested is taken from 
 the land, the field should be flooded quite shallow, so as to promote fermentation; it should 
 be dried again every ten or twelve days for a day or two at a time. By continuing this pro- 
 cess until the ground freeze:-, most of this foul seed will be destroyed. 
 
 Threshing and Milling, — Rice has a much larger and more harsh beard than wheat, 
 which is a prolongation of the outer hull of the grain; but, unlike wheat, the threshmg pro- 
 
330 THE AMKRICAN FARMKI!. 
 
 cess does not separate the inner hull or covering from the grain, consequently special treat- 
 ment is required for this purpose. It may be threshed and winnowed by steam, horse, or 
 any of the powers used on a farm. At this stage the grain is called "rough rice," and is 
 thus shipped to market from the plantation in cargoes, or first subjected to the milling pro- 
 cess that removes the inner hull. The machinery for this purpose is too expensive to be 
 adjusted to plantations generally, hence it becomes in a great measure the business of large 
 manufactories. This hulling process cleanses the grain of the inner covering, and usually 
 separates it into three grades; the first grade or whole kernels, the second grade or broken 
 rice, and the thii'd grade or flour of rice, or as sometimes graded, "whole," -'middling," and 
 "small rice." It is estimated that a little more than half comes out from this process in first 
 grade or prime rice, the remainder being broken or small rice, flour of rice, and chaff. With 
 good land, properly irrigated and cultivated, reliable authorities estimate the average produce 
 of this crop to be from forty to fifty bushels of clean rice per acre, and often the yield has 
 far exceeded this estimate. With suitable conditions, rice is one of the most profitable crops 
 that can be cultivated. 
 
 ROOTS AND ESCULENT TUBERS. 
 
 ROOT crops, which form so large a proportion of the agricultural products of the 
 English fai-mer, have not received that attention in this country, generally, that 
 their real value would seem to warrant, but are gradually gaining favor, being cul 
 tivated more extensively at present as food for stock than formerly. There are reasons why 
 the English farmer cultivates roots so extensively, aside from the real value of the crops. 
 The climate of the country is especially adapted to the cultivation of roots, while it is not 
 adapted to the successful cidtivation of corn. On the contrary, the climate of the United 
 States is not as well adapted as that of England to the cultivation of roots, while it is most 
 admirably adapted to that of corn. Yet, notwithstanding these considerations, there are 
 many reasons why the farmers of our country should devote more attention to the cultivation 
 of roots than has formerly been the custom. 
 
 Various experiments have proved the fact that, although roots are not desirable as an 
 exclusive or principal article of food for animals, yet when used in connection with grain, 
 meal, hay, or other substances, animals will thrive better, fatten more readily, and keep in a 
 more healthy condition than when roots are entirely discarded from their food. It is also a 
 fact, well known to all dairymen, that more milk of a better quality can be obtained from 
 cows fed with a liberal supply of roots during the winter, than when hay, meal, and bran 
 only are used, and that butter made from such milk will not only be of better flavor and 
 color, but more in quantity. Stock should have some Idud of green food during the long 
 winters, and roots are admirably adapted to this purpose, taking the place of grass in a 
 measure, where ensilage is not used on the farm. Eoots are easily cultivated, and large 
 quantities can be grown on comparatively small areas of land. In England, turnips form the 
 most important root crop in cultivation, being used for feeding stock, and also as a clearing 
 and fallow crop in the regular rotation for the soil. 
 
 Potatoes are the most important root crop in the United States. Green manure should 
 never be applied to any kind of root crop, as it not only injures the quality, but will cause 
 potatoes to grow irregular and deep-eyed, turnips, beets, parsnips, etc., to have forked and ill- 
 shaped roots, and onions to be coarse in texture and thick-necked. 
 
 Indian corn is a good crop to precede any root crop, and by heavily manuring the land for 
 it, and supplying a good dressing of composted manure to the land the fall previous to culti- 
 vating the roots, or eomniercial fertilizers well harrowed in about the time of sowing the 
 latter, good results will generally be secured. 
 
POTATOES. 331 
 
 POTATOES. 
 
 THE [)ututo has become the most extensively cultivated and valuable of esculent tubers, 
 both in this and foreign countries, although when first introduced as an article 
 of food it was regarded with disfavor or indifference by the majority, and won its way 
 gradually into popular esteem, until it has become an important article of diet with all classes, 
 from the opulent to the very poor, and is one of the leading crops cultivated. 
 
 It is a native of this continent, being found in a wild state in the elevated tropical valleys 
 of Jlexico, Peru. Chili, the Argentine Republic, and the island of Chiloe, where it closely 
 resembles the cultivated product, except that the tubers of the former are much smaller, tiiey 
 rarely being more than an inch in diameter, and the flavor very unpalatable; careful cultiva- 
 tion having not only greatly increased the size, but the edible properties in a proportionate 
 degree. It is supposed to have been introduced into Virginia from Florida by the Spanish 
 explorers, and was carried to Spain and Italy from Peru early in the sixteenth centuiy. Its 
 introduction into Great Britain from Virginia was, according to some authorities, in the year 
 1565, by Sir John Hawkins, and according to others, about the year 1586, by Sir Walter 
 Raleigh. Houghton, in his "Collections on Husbandry and Trade," gives the somewhat 
 amusing description and history of this product: — 
 
 " The potato is a liciferoiis herb with e^cahnt roots, bearing winged leaves and a bell 
 flower. This I have been informed was brought first out of Virginia by Sir Walter Raleigh: 
 and he stopped at Ireland, some was planted there, where it thrived very well, and to good 
 purpose; for in their succeeding wars, when all the corn about the ground was destroved, 
 this supported them; for the soldiers, unless they had dug up all the ground where they 
 grew, and almost sifted it, could not extirpate them; from whence they were brought 
 to Lancashire, where they are very numerous, and now they begin to spread all the kingdom 
 over. They are a pleasant food, boiled or roasted and eaten with butter and sugar. There is 
 a sort brought from Spain that are of a longer form, and are more luscious than ours; they 
 are much set by, and sold for sixpence or eightpence the pound." 
 
 The potato was at first regarded in Europe as a delicacy, but ii was not until near the 
 middle of the eighteenth century that it acquired any real importance there outside of Ire- 
 land. It was also unknown in New England until the early part of the eighteenth centurv, 
 when it is supposed to have been introduced there from Ireland. It is sometimes called a 
 root, which is an erroneous term, as the roots are entirely distinct from these tubers, or under- 
 ground stems. It is allied to several powerful narcotics, such as tobacco, henbane, and bella- 
 donna, and other common esculents, viz., the tomato and egg-plant. Accoi'ding to the best 
 authority, the strong, bitter principle of the potato is more or less poisonous, and is aggravated 
 by the light, such as exposure to the sun by having the soil long removed from it in the hill, 
 and which causes the portions of the tubers thus exposed to turn green. All such parts 
 should be removed before cooking. The potato consists (aside from water) almost entirely 
 of starch, the analysis of it giving about seventy-five per cent, of water and twenty-five per 
 cent, of dry nutritive matter; it is, therefore, deficient in nitrogen, and not adapted for an 
 exclusive article of diet. Its composition shows it to be designed as an accompaniment of 
 meat, instead of a substitute for it, and all nations now using it appropriate it to this purpose. 
 
 The proportions of its constituents vary according to the different stages of ripeness and 
 different varieties. The more mature, the less the quantity of water, some of the richer vari- 
 eties furnishing as high as thirty-two per cent, of dry nutritive matter, the latter consisting 
 mostly of starch, with a small proportion of sugar, gum. cellular fiber, fatty matter, mineral 
 matter, etc. 
 
 Aside from its use as food for the human family and all domestic animals, it is largely 
 employed in the manufacture of staich, as well as alcohol. Sugar has even been made from 
 
332 THE AMERICA>' FARMER. 
 
 it, but not very extensively, owing to its being more cheaply made from other products. 
 Previous to the appearance of the disease known as the potato-rot, which occurred in 1845, 
 and destroyed nearly the entire product, this was a very productive crop and was cultivated 
 with little expense, and extensively used in fattening all kinds of stock; but since that 
 period, the varieties then most esteemed have been replaced by others, and the yield has 
 largely decreased. The cost of production has also proportionately advanced. 
 
 About the time of this dechne in the crop, Rev. Chauncy E. Goodrich, of Utica, N. Y., 
 imported a number of wild varieties directly from South America, and proceeded to raise 
 seedlings by crossing them with various kinds then in use, and from which a vast number of 
 varieties were produced, some of which were very popular, one oX the principal being the 
 Garnet Chili, from which many of our most valuable kinds have descended. This gentleman 
 devoted more time, zeal, and skill in propagating the potato than any other man. He care- 
 fully studied and experimented with regard to it for sixteen years. In 184S he imported 
 from South America, the home of this plant, some of the native tubers, and from these 
 commenced his experiments in producing new varieties. He succeeded in originating in all 
 about fifteen thousand seedlings, which he divided into seventy-four distinct families. After 
 testing these seedlings for four or five years, he selected the best, rejecting such as did not 
 reach his expectations in yield, habits of growth, health, edible qualities, etc. Mr. Goodrich 
 died in the midst of his useful experiments, but not until he had been successful in establish- 
 ing in public favor several varieties, among which were the Garnet Chili, Early Goodrich, 
 Cuzco, Gleason, and Harrison varieties, which for a long time were the leading ones in culti- 
 vation in the country, being of fine quality, very productive, and healthy. 
 
 While American varieties often succeed fairly well in England, the English varieties, as 
 a genera! rule, are not adapted to our soil and climate. Frequent experiments have resulted 
 in a large proportion of the tubei-s being affected with rot at the time of digging. The 
 climate of the British Isles seems more favorable to the development of the potato-rot than 
 our own, which makes it a matter of great importance there, as well as with us, that such 
 varieties as will resist this destructive malady be procured, as far as practicable, for planting. 
 The potato crop is one for which there is always a demand in the mai-ket, and in which an 
 increasing interest is being taken at present by agriculturists in producing constantly new and 
 improved varieties. 
 
 "Varieties. — In the early period of the cultivation of the potato, it was regarded as a 
 species of vegetable having no distinct varieties. For the introduction of different varieties 
 we are indebted to the market-gardeners near Manchester, England, who, being encouraged 
 by the demand for this product, ^aed with each other in endeavoring to produce the best and 
 earliest kinds for market. They did this by marking the plants that blossomed earliest, 
 saving and sowing their seeds, and again securing the earhest from their product, until they 
 finally obtained varieties which were two months earlier than those previously cultivated. 
 They also preserved the seed of the most farinaceous and best flavored, most productive and 
 best shaped tubers, and in this manner improved both edible and productive quahties, as 
 well as early maturity. 
 
 The varieties at the present time are almost innumerable, differing in foi-m, size, color, 
 texture, smoothness of surface, flavor, time of ripening, productiveness, hardiness, etc., 
 those being most preferred that are the most farinaceous, fine textured, delicate flavored, and 
 have a smooth surface, combined with the other desirable qualities, such as vigor of growth, 
 hardiness, productiveness, and freedom from disease. A potato that is termed -'soggy," that 
 is. watery and deficient in farinaceous properties, is one of the most undesirable articles of 
 food, and however productive or hardy such a variety may be, it is unprofitable as far as the 
 market value is concerned, except as food for live stock, and even then such kinds are not as 
 nutritious for this purpose as those that are light and flaky when cooked. A deep eyed 
 potato is also objectionable. 
 
POTATOES. 
 
 S33 
 
 S I Vr ".". I "» I. A'-' .v' 
 
 Snowflake. 
 
 Some varieties 
 thrive best in one 
 locality and k'ind 
 of soil, and others 
 ia another, there 
 Leing nearly as 
 much difference in 
 this resiDect in the 
 several kinds, as 
 in those of apples, 
 pears, or any of the 
 varieties of fruit. 
 The early kinds 
 are distinguished 
 from the late by 
 early blossoming 
 and decay of the 
 tops. 
 
 Among the many valuable kinds at present cultivated, it is difficult to particularize those 
 of especial and superior merit; besides, new and choice varieties are constantly being intro- 
 duced, and it often happens, as has been previously stated, that certain varieties will be most 
 
 . popular and produce the 
 best results in certain 
 localities, the soil being 
 especially adapted to their 
 perfect development, 
 fhile others will produce 
 imilar results in a locality 
 nd character cf soil in 
 ?hich the former might 
 not prove as satisfactory; 
 however, different varie- 
 ties have their special 
 qualities and character- 
 istics by which they are 
 distinguished, and which 
 re in a measure unaf- 
 fected by soil or climate, 
 Ithough in a general 
 ense largely modified ^y 
 oth. Many of the old 
 lavorites are still culti- 
 vated in some sections. 
 Some of the varieties 
 that are quite poprdar in 
 many localities are the 
 Early Peach Blow, Early 
 Eose, Late Eose, Euby, 
 Snowflake. Improved Peacli Blow, Late Beauty of Hebron, Late Snowflake, Early Ohio, 
 Mammoth Pearl, Silver Skin, White Star, The American Giant, Extra Early Vermont, 
 Manhattan, Alpha, Magnum Bonum, and Compton's Surprise, all of which possess fine 
 
 Improved Peachblow. 
 
334 
 
 THE AMERICAI^ FARMER 
 
 qualities, and are quite prolific, the two latter being especially productive. Our illustrations 
 representing some of the different varieties of potatoes and the diagram for cutting to a 
 
 LaTK liKAlTY OK HeBKON. 
 
 single eye, were obtained through the courtesy of the well known firm of B. K. Bliss k Sons, 
 New York city, being copied by permission from their catalogue. 
 
 Soil and its 
 preparation. 
 
 Although good 
 crops of potatoes 
 may be grown on 
 a great variety of 
 soils, that best 
 I adapted to this 
 product is a rich, 
 I sandy loam, neith- 
 i er too wet nor too 
 'dry; should there 
 be a clay subsoil, it 
 will require drain- 
 ing to make it suf- 
 ficiently dry. Clay 
 soils are unfavor- 
 able to the health 
 of the potato in a 
 wet season, since 
 
 they closely envelop the tubers and bury them so compactly that they prevent the access of 
 air, Ught, and heat, so essential to their perfect development. Should the surface of the 
 ■unnpe potato be kept constantly wet, as it would be in a clay soil in a wet season, this alone 
 will be sufficient to induce decay, although the ^■ines might be perfectly healthy. A wet soil 
 of anv kind is injurious to the quality of the product, it being generally coarse, watery, and 
 
 Silver Skin. 
 
POTATOES. 335 
 
 deficient in farinaceous quality. A cool, moiat soil will produce larger potatoes, but in a 
 northerly climate a warmer soil is to be pruievred, as being le.s.s liable to injure the quality. 
 
 A calcareous soil yields a potato of fine quality, and can generally be depended upon for 
 the production of a good crop, and when such soil contains but little lime or plaster, this 
 should be used in fertilizing. Early potatoes will mature much quicker in a warm, Ught soil 
 than a heavy one, and also present a brighter and cleaner appearance when dug. Old sod- 
 land, especially clover sod, is excellent for this crop. It should be turned under in the fall 
 (August or September being the best time), and lightly plowed and harrowed in the spring. 
 Lands should never be plowed while wet and heavy, as it is an injury to the soil, and is labor 
 lost. Mr. A. Hyde, of Massachusetts, says: — 
 
 " The inverted sod of an old pasture is one of the best for potatoes. With a little well- 
 rotted compost harrowed in thoroughly upon such a sod, to give the plants a good" start, we 
 have raised good crops upon comparatively poor soil. An old pasture contains much vege- 
 table matter, and the tubers delight in the mellow bed which such a soil affords, and come 
 out in the fall clean and healthy. We have also raised good potatoes in a mucky soil appar- 
 ently having little but vegetable matter in it. This can only be done in a dry season. In a 
 wet summer the muck retains too much water, and has the same influence on the tubers as 
 compact clay. Leached ashes should also be put in the hill with potatoes, when planted on 
 muck, to furnish the inorganic matter in which muck is deficient. A compost made of muck 
 and leached ashes is one of the best possible manures for the potato. The muck makes the 
 soil porous, and furnishes a bed in which the potato delights as much as our mothers formerly 
 did in a featherbed. Sufficient potash is left in the leached ashes to furnish this essential 
 ingredient of the potato. 
 ■^' Sand soils ai'e often as much too open to atmospheric influences as clay soils are closed 
 against them. Sand both cools and heats too rapidly, and feels the sudden changes of tem- 
 perature which are so trying to the potato. Still, on poor, sanrly soils good crops of potatoes 
 can be raised by the aid of muck and ashes. The perfect di-ainago and slow growth secure 
 this result. The seed should be planted deeply and cultivated on a level, so that the tubers 
 may be less affected by the sudden changes of temperature. We have known potatoes to rot 
 as badly on sand as on clay when planted superficially and hilled up in contracted hills." 
 
 One of the leading agricultural writers of the "Country Gentleman " expresses the fol- 
 lowing facts and opinions respecting potato culture : — 
 
 " From such facts as have come to my notice, I am led to the conclusion that when pota- 
 toes, and, indeed, all, or nearly all vegetables, and perhaps the cereals, which have originated 
 in cool climfites, are grown \mder a warmer latitude than where they make the strongest and 
 best development, they require a soil very much stronger in the inorganic elements of plant- 
 food, such as potash, lime, magnesia, and phosphoric acid, and demand also to be grown 
 wider apart, one from the other, because, perhaps, the extra stimulating forces of a hot ch- 
 mate shorten the period of growth, and there must not only be room enough for the feeding 
 roots, but the soil must be full of plant-food. Going South, one notices that nearly all com- 
 mon northern vegetables h^ve a tendency to grow above ground, and I was told that unless 
 the soil is heavily manured with stable manure, it is nearly impossible to get cabbages to 
 head, turnips to bottom, or potatoes to come to full growth. In the truck patches about 
 Mobile, where cabbages are planted out in November and potatoes in February, an experi- 
 enced grower informed me that his success with cabbages and potatoes was just in proportion 
 to the amount of stable manure and cotton-seed meal he used in the case of the cabbages, and 
 potash in the form of the ash of cotton-seed hull;;, in an incredible quantity, was absolutely 
 essential to success with the potato crop. Perliaps the absence of vegetable gardens in the 
 South, which so forcibly strikes the nortliern observer, is quite as much due to the want of 
 manure (on account of the limited quantity of stock of all kinds, which is seldom yarded and 
 rarely stabled) as to any indisposition to do the work of successful truck patcliing. 
 
;-J36 THE AMKRICAX FARMER. 
 
 Potash in the soil is not only essential to the vine growth of the potato, but to its quality, 
 since the meaUness so much sought after results from the presence of starch in the tuber, 
 not a grain of which can be formed in the absence of this salt. In cool climates, the growth 
 and ripening of the potato extend over some months, and the processes of the elaboration of 
 starch occupy many weeks; lience it will be found that a poor soil, in a high northern lati- 
 tude, will grow better potatoes and more of them than a richer one farther south. When 
 potatoes are grown on the worn, sandy first and second bottoms of the Mississippi River, 
 north of Cairo and as far north as St. Louis, the crops are not unfrequently tolerably large 
 ones; but the tubers are apt to be soft, watery, and waxy, showing that while there is still 
 enough potash present in the soil to answer the purpose of vine and tuber gro-wth, there is 
 not enough to admit of the changing of the cellulose into starch, in the brief space of the 
 intenselv hot summer season allowed for this process. But the growers for the St. Louis 
 market manure highly with material obtained in the city stables, and the crop, though never 
 comparable to northern-grown tubers in quality, is a fairh' good one. Probably the extraor- 
 dinary One quality of Peerless potatoes 1 have eaten, grown for the northern spring market in 
 the winter vegetable gardens in the vicinity of New Orleans, owed that excellence to the very 
 liberal use of cotton-seed meal and ash. in connection with stable manure, as in the case of 
 those in the suburbs of Mobile. 
 
 Probably the best form of potash for potatoes is in that of wood-ashes, leached or 
 unleached, — the former being of more than half the value of the latter, — while soft coal-ashes 
 are by no means to be despised, especially in tlie western country, where more or less wood 
 is burned iu connection with coal. Indeed, for vegetables of any kind, coal-ashes, whether 
 hard or soft, are to be sought after, since they are always valuable as an amendment to the 
 soil, and possibly though they may contain no plant -food, they do contain ingredients whi(^p| 
 render certain forms of insoluble plant-food soluble. 
 
 The lesson to be learned is that potash, and an abundance of it, is essential to successful 
 potato-growing; that its best form is wood-ashes, not forgetting soft coal-ashes and well- 
 rotted stable manure, and that as one goes south he must increase the quantity of potash and 
 other inorganic elements of plant-food, in order that the starch in the tuljer may be quickly 
 elaborated." 
 
 Virgin soil with little or no manure will produce the b3St quality of potatoes, as a gen- 
 eral rule. 
 
 Whatever the character of the soil, it should be plowed deeply, and thoroughly pulver- 
 ized with the harrow before planting. A deep, mellow soil is, according to the best author- 
 ity, better adapted to resist the extremes of moisture and drought than any other. 
 
 When barn-yard manure is used, it should be well decomposed, or composted, fresh 
 manure being objectionable for potatoes, as it causes them to grow ill-shaped, with deep eyes, 
 and gives them a strong, unpleasant flavor. 
 
 Poultry manure, wood-ashes, and plaster, mixed in equal proportions, make an excellent 
 fertilizer for this crop. Superphosphate of lime also gives very good results, as well as marl, 
 bone-dust, guano, and similar fertilizers, and on wet soils are very beneficial in rendering 
 them more dry, as they are of an absorbent nature. 
 
 As lias been previously stated, potash is highly beneficial to this crop, and may be applied 
 in the form of wood-ashes, which should bs placed in the hill in planting. 
 
 As a general rule, fall plowing is to be preferred, imless the soil is very friable. Wlien 
 sod is used for the crop, or heavy land with a hard-pan or clayey subsoil, it should be plowed 
 rather deep in the fall, and harrowed and plowed again in the spring as soon as it is dry 
 enough to be friable. 
 
 If the manure is of a fine texture, it should be spread on and harrowed in, but if coarse 
 manure is used, it can be spread on before the spring plowing or put in the hill or furrow. 
 
POTATOES. 337 
 
 Some prefer to spread a part broadcast, and the remainder to be applied either in the hill or 
 drill, according to the method of planting. Chemical fertilizers are often used in this manner 
 in connection with yard manure, the former deposited near the seed, and the latter spread 
 broadcast and harrowed in. Chemical fertilizers should, however, be mixed with the soil, for 
 if applied directly to the seed, they will be liable to destroy the eyes or young sprouts. 
 
 New land is commonly considered the best for producing large crops that are free from 
 disease. This may be due to the fact that new land contains more potash than that long cul- 
 tivated, which is an element ntfcessary to the perfect development of the potato. 
 
 Many of the chemical fertilizers made especially for this crop, of which superphosphates 
 are the principal basis, often prove highly beneficial in producing large yields of the best 
 quality. 
 
 Potatoes do not require as much fertility as corn, but still thrive best with an abundance 
 of it, and in as nearly a mineralized condition as may be, — well composted, ready to be easily 
 taken up as plant-food. 
 
 The quantity should be suited to the nature of the soil, new lands requiring less manure 
 than those that have been long in cultivation. 
 
 If the soil is manured too heavily, and the growth over rapid, many of tlie varieties will 
 be hollow in the center of the tuber, or, as is commonly termed, " hollow-hearted." A long, 
 slow growth is better than a forced, hasty maturity, giving a better quality as well as a larger 
 crop that can be better preserved, being less liable to disease. 
 
 Some farmers use from eighteen to twenty two-horse loads of good yard-manure per acre, 
 spread broadcast, and from seven to eight hundred pounds of chemical fertilizers in the hills 
 in addition, and consider this the most desirable amount for this crop; others use twice this 
 quantity of manure with the artificial fertilizers. The quantity of fertility supplied to this 
 crop should be modified in a great measure by the character of the soil. 
 
 Selecting and Cutting Potatoes for Planting. — The varieties chosen for cultiva- 
 tion, should be those possessing fine, edible, and productive qualities, and also those best 
 adapted to the soil. The most perfect specimens of tubers should be selected for planting, 
 that is, those of medium size, not too large or too small, and which are as nearly perfect in 
 size and condition as possible, carefully avoiding any that have the least appearance of dis- 
 ease. Since it is the law of nature that "like produces Hke," if diseased potatoes be planted, 
 the crop will be very liable to be not only a small one, but an unsound, diseased one as well; 
 or, if disease docs not make its appearance with the maturity of the crop, it will be liable to 
 at a later period, and necessitate quite a loss before the following spring. 
 
 There is still quite a diversity of opinions among farmers as to whether it is better to 
 plant pieces of the largest potatoes, or whole small ones; also if pieces be used, which is the 
 best end of the tuber for planting, and the best size. There has also been quite a variety of 
 opinions as to whether the perfectly ripe tuber should be used, or those not fully ripened, 
 some claiming that the latter are more vigorous and early in sending out shoots. 
 
 Repeated and careful experiments, by some of our most successful agriculturists, as well 
 as long practice, go far in establishing the opinion, that potatoes of a medium size aie best 
 for planting, and that pieces are better than the whole tuber for this purpose, although good 
 crops are often obtained from small whole ones; that those perfectly ripe are to be preferred 
 to those not fully ripened, and that the eyes from one part of the potato are as prolific as 
 those of another part. 
 
 Some, however, according to the old custom, siill make a practice of planting whole 
 potatoes, one large or two small ones to a hill; on the other hand, Mr. M. J. Wheeler of 
 Massachusetts, says that the best crop of potatoes he ever produced came from sprouts taken 
 off the potato. Cutting to a single eye is at present quite extensively practiced, and is a 
 method highly recomniended liy some of our best authorities on this subject. Mr. B. K. 
 
338 POTATOES. 
 
 Bliss says: — " Cutting is one of the most important subjects to he considered in the propaga- 
 tion of potatoes, and there is sucli a diversity of opinions regarding the manner and method 
 of doing it. that many pages could be fillod in giving the dilJerent experiences of the pro- 
 fessoi-s in this art. While we do not attempt lo decide tliis question to the satisfaction of 
 every one, we shall give our own views, and claim that iu oui- method an enormous quantity 
 of the tubers now annually planted may be thrown into the market, causing a reduction in 
 the prices charged for this common and necessary crop. 
 
 Without discussing the respective merits of planting whole potatoes, or half a dozen 
 pieces in a hill, each piece containing three or four eyes, we shall state what has been proven 
 by so many cultivators, that two good eyes are ample for one hill, and the yield of large, 
 marketable potatoes is larger than when more are planted." 
 
 This practice will seem a small allowance for a field crop bv those who have been accus- 
 tomed to use a larger quantity; still, we know it has many advocates, and that too much seed 
 is usually planted, which results in crowding in the hills, and producing a large number of 
 veiy small tubers, which are nearly worthless, except as food for farm animals, too much 
 seed being as detrimental to the crop as too little. 
 
 Mr. Terry, of Summit county, Ohio, gives the i-esult of his method of planting a single 
 eye, as follows: — " For seed I use only the very choicest specimens, of perfect shape, in size 
 varying from medium to large, ha^-ing large, strong eyes. 
 
 These potatoes are cut to one eye. At the seed end one eye is left on, and the others 
 cut oS and thrown away. The most expert and careful hands are set at this job. One piece 
 is dropped every 12 to 14 inches in the drill, and the drills are made 32 inches apart, for such 
 virieties as Clark's No. 1, Early Rose. Beauty of Hebron, and Snowflake. The cutting and 
 d .opping are done the same day, and, if the sun shines, the coverer follows the droppers 
 c'osely. Such seed, cut to one eye and put in as I have described, will produce fewer 
 p itatoes to the hill usually, but, with moderately favorable weather and good care, they will 
 be large and fine, and of No. 1 quality. On this point I will give a httle of my experience, 
 to show whether it pays to take all this trouble or not. 
 
 A few years ago potatoes were very low in the market to- which I go. Early in July I 
 took a sample of large, fine ones, and spent all day in trying to get an order for a load at 40 
 cents. At last A decided to buy a load, they were ' such beauties.' The market was full of 
 ordinary potatoes, and at no time did they sell for more than 25 cents. After this I had to 
 work night and day to supply the demand, and made a fair profit, whereas at 25 cents I 
 should have lost monev. 
 
 Two years ago the season was favorable, and my potatoes were very large and fine. I 
 took my first load (,^0 bushels from 16 square rods) to a very particular customer. There 
 were bushels of potatoes in it that would weigh one pound each. I had nearly 2,000 bushels 
 of those potatoes, and within three days they were all spoken for at my price. I have passed 
 men drawing their potatoes home (small, dirty-looking things), unable to get a bid, at a time 
 when I was over-working men and teams to supply the demand, and they would say: 'Terry, 
 you are the luckiest man I ever knew.' There was no luck about it; I simply did the best 1 
 could to raise a choice article and get it to the market in nice shape. The way is open to all. 
 Luck rarely comes to those who do not strive for it. It pays on the farm, as well as else- 
 where, to do everything the very best we know how, and in such a manner as to secure the 
 very best possible results." 
 
 The quantity of seed will vary somewhat with the soil and variety, and we would advise 
 each farmer to experiment for himself, which can be very easily done by marking oflf some 
 small portion of his potato-field for this purpose, first preparing it so that it will be of 
 uniform fertility. By planting one row of hills with a single eye, another with two eyes, 
 another with tla-ee, then with four, etc., on the same field, giving each the same cultivation 
 
ROOTS AND ESCULENT TUBERS. 
 
 339 
 
 and carefully measiiring tlie product of each separate row, each fanner could easily settle this 
 question to his own individual satisfaction, providing the soil of each of the difierent plant- 
 ings were of aboiit equal fertility. Some of the old works on agriculture recommend 
 from six to eight eyes to a hill, but repeated and careful experiments have proven this to be 
 altogether too large a quantity. 
 
 The following cut will show how a potato can readily be cut to a single eye and each eye 
 be supported by an equal amount of flesh, which will be suf&cient to start it into a healthy 
 and vigorous growth. Many may consider this method of cutting too troublesome where the 
 common varieties are used, but by it 
 only about half the usual amount of 
 tubers need be used for planting ; and 
 to those who wish to obtain a large crop 
 from a small quantity of choice potatoes 
 this method will prove quite valuable. 
 
 This is done by holding the stem-end 
 down, keeping it in a perpendictilar po- 
 sition throughout the cutting. With a 
 thin-bladed shai-p knife the first eye 
 nearest the stem-end can be removed by 
 placing the knife equally distant between 
 it and the eye next above it in the rota- 
 tion, sloping the cut towards the inden- 
 ture at the stem-end, and taking the 
 flesh of the tuber with it ; then turn the 
 potato around until the next eye appears 
 — which wUl be in a line a little above 
 the former — and remove it in the same 
 manner ; and thus continue until aU the 
 eyes have been removed. It will be no- 
 ticed that after three or four eyes have 
 thus been removed the bottom part of 
 the tuber will have sometliing of a pyr- 
 amidal form, also that each piece will be 
 similar in form, the eye near the central 
 portion of the flesh of the tuber which 
 is to start it into growth and give it sup. 
 port. The cut on the right shows what 
 remains of the potato after all but the 
 small eyes, sometimes called the " seed 
 end," have been removed, and the dot- 
 ted lines represent how to separate these 
 in a similar manner. Cutting to a Single Eyk. 
 
 Planting. — A fertile soil, ploughed rather deep, and finely pulverized, in order to render 
 it as mellow as possible, gives the most successful results in growing potatoes. Deep tillage, 
 fine pulverization, with good drainage, wiU give a hght friable soil, and allow the excessive 
 moisture of an unusually wet season to pass readily through it, leaving an increased fertihty 
 for the benefit of the crop ; while if the season be an unusually dry one, abundant facts sub- 
 stantiate the truth of the statement, that such conditions render the soil better able to with- 
 stand drought, however contradictory and paradoxical it may seem. Potatoes may be planted 
 either in hills or drills, some preferring the former method and others the latter. Hill-planting 
 admits of a more thorough stirring of the soil in after cultivation, as it permits the cultivator 
 24 
 
3-40 
 
 THE AMERICAX FARMER. 
 
 or horse-hoe to run in both directions, while experiments prove that the yield of both methods 
 is about the same, the dtills, perhaps, giving slightly the larger crop. If planted in drills 
 and the land is sloping, the drills should be made to run in the direction of the slope, so as to 
 admit of partial drainage, and prevent washing in hea\'y showers. If drill planting is 
 decided upon, and the planting is to be done by hand, the rows should be marked with a 
 plow suited to the purpose, making small furrows about four inches deep, the furrows about 
 three feet apart. If planted in hills, the furrows should be marked across the field at the 
 same distance, so that the marking will be in squares. 
 
 When chemical fertilizers are used, tbej' should not come in direct contact with the seed, 
 but should be mixed with four or five times their bulk of soil before being put in the hills or 
 drills, or should be slightly covered with soil before dropping the seed. The seed should then 
 be dropped, two or three pieces to the hill, or if in drills, a single piece every ten or twelve 
 inches, after which the covering can be done by a plow or hand hoe. Planting is done to a 
 considerable extent in many localities by a potato planter. 
 
 These machines mark the rows, cut the potatoes for dropping, drop and cover the seed 
 at one operation. The following cut represents one of these implements, — manufactured by 
 Nash & Brother, New York City. The hopper will hold about a bushel of potatoes, and the 
 knife is so arranged that it will be almost impossible to cut pieces without one or more eyes 
 in them. As 
 
 rule, the planting should 
 be done early in the sea- 
 son. Farmers frequently 
 delay this imtil so late that 
 the crop does not have suf- 
 ficient time to mature. It 
 was formerly the custom 
 to plant potatoes after the 
 com planting was com- 
 pleted, but our best farm- 
 ers now have the planting 
 of this crop precede that 
 of corn. Even the late- 
 ripening varieties should be 
 planted as early as the 
 ground wiU admit. Mr. 
 H. Stewart, of New Jereey, says, as the result of his experience: — " I presume that the precise 
 meaning of the word late, as applied to any soil product, is that it has a longer period of 
 growth than the early kinds. Thus early peas, potatoes, or com may mature in forty or fifty, 
 seventy or eighty days respectively, while late sorts may take fifteen or twenty days longer 
 to mature. But practice does not conform to this natural characteristic, and it seems to be 
 based rather on a supposition that these later maturing kinds require to be planted late. 
 
 A neighbor expressed surprise to see me planting Evergreen sweet corn on the same day 
 with Early Concord, and that Early Vermont and Late Rose potatoes should go into the 
 ground the same week, and each kind be treated precisely alike as regards planting. But 
 that is my way, and I think I am right. Last year I had an excellent crop of Peachblows, 
 a kind which I plant for my own use, on accoimt of their superior quality, and the seed was 
 put in the ground the day after Early Rose and Snowflake. The Peachblow was green in 
 November after having been in the ground more than six months, and in yield surpassed 
 greatly the Early Rose. 
 
 Do we give the late varieties, when we plant them so late as is usually done, sufiBcient 
 
 TRUE S POTATO PLANTER. 
 
POTATOES. 341 
 
 time for their full growth? I think not, and I have the impression that it is to this imma- 
 turity of growth that the failure of some excellent varieties to yield may be due. I have also 
 found that a long season of growth with moderate manuring will produce sounder potatoes 
 than when the maturity of growth has been forced by more copious use of manures. Heavily 
 manured late potatoes — and early ones too, of some kinds — are apt to be hollow-hearted; 
 plainly an effect of over-rapid growth. These grow to a great size, but like overgrown root?, 
 are imsound and of poor quality. Slow, sound growth is consistent with excellence of 
 quality and moderate size. With a long season of growth, there will be a full production of 
 moderate-sized tubers, with no small ones, and this long season can only be secured by early 
 planting. Therefore, I would plant late potatoes as soon as the early ones were in the 
 ground, and I would plant them deep. Deep planting encourages a large growth of roots, 
 and this produces a strong, aerial vegetation, which gives great vigor to the plants, and 
 greatly assists the formation of tubers. Eight inches is not too deep planting for late potatoes, 
 or for early ones either, but especially for late ones, which have then an opportunity for 
 making a substantial growth, and a large space of soil to forage in." 
 
 The above accords with our own experience, and we believe that if those farmers who 
 are accustomed to plant their potatoes late would plant as early as the season and condition 
 of the soil would admit, they would not only have a larger crop of more uniform-sized tubers, 
 but of better quality, also. 
 
 It is the custom with many farmers to put a good-sized forkful of manure on each hill 
 after the seed is well covered, or, if in drills, cover the tops of the drills with manure. This 
 economizes the use of manure, and tends to keep the moisture about the roots and young 
 potatoes, which greatly facilitates their growth before drouth can affect the plants. Their 
 progress is in this way further facilitated by the leaching of the manure by the rains, which 
 sends the plant nutriment directly to the rootlets. The manure will become covered with 
 soil in the after cultivation. Deep planting is also desirable, since it affords protection to tho 
 roots in time of drouth, furnishes them a cool, moist bed, and promotes a stronger and more 
 vigorous growth of plants as well as that of tubers. Besides, the potatoes are less liable 
 to become washed or uncovered by rains and ruined in this way. It will be noticed by a 
 little attention to the subject, that diseased potatoes are frequently found near the surface of 
 the soil, and that those planted rather deep are less liable to disease. Deep planting also 
 admits of a more thorough use of the harrow in destroying weeds, and thus facilitates the 
 after-culture, as the field can be harrowed two or three times without disturbing the seed or 
 the young shoots, and the weeds at first kept easily in check. We should prefer a depth of 
 six or more inches to that of any less. By planting as early as the soil and season will admit, 
 and to a suitable depth,. the many evils resulting from late and shallow planting will be avoided. 
 
 An intelligent farmer in Fort Plain, N. Y., gives the result of his test in planting 
 potatoes at difierent depths thus: — "Selecting the soundest seed I could find, I planted 
 some in the usual way, covering 2 or 3 inches deep ; others 6 and 8 inches. The first were a 
 failure — a few small potatoes in a hill and of poor quality. This agreed with the general 
 crop of the neighboi'hood. It was a matter of gratification — and to the neighbors a surprise 
 — to see the fine, bright tubers that came up when the deep-planted were dug — which was 
 the middle of June ; those covered six inches ripening earlier, as they also came up earlier 
 after planting. They were clean and sound, and when cooked were white, mealy, and sweet, 
 with no rank, unhealthy odor." 
 
 Deep planting necessitates working the soU correspondingly deep, with the manure well 
 and deeply mixed with it. If the seed lies on a cold, hard subsoil, failure will be the result, 
 since the roots cannot penetrate it, or subsist upon it There should be a few inches of rich, 
 mellow soil beloiv the seed for the roots to feed upon. The objection to planting too much seed 
 is. as we have previously stated, an over-crowding in the hill, and the crop will in consequence 
 
VA2 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 be a large supply of very small tubers tliut will be nearly worthless, and but very few large 
 ones. The same objection holds true in planting whole potatoes, there will be too many 
 <tems for the space occupied, and therefore not room for the proper development of the 
 'tubers. The objection to selecting the largest potatoes for seed is, that when such a course is 
 ■practised there is a tendency to reproduce large, overgrown tubers of a coarse texture and 
 less delicate flavor than those of a medium size; besides they are liable to be hollow-hearted. 
 The following cut shows the product of a single eye to the hill of the Compton's Sm-prise, 
 a very prolific vai'iety. If each farmer would experiment for liimself, as we have previously 
 suggested, planting different rows with a quantity of seed varying from one, two, and three 
 or more eyes, and carefully noting the product of each row, this question could easily be 
 settled individually in one season. As far as our own practice is concerned, we should never 
 plant over two or three eyes to the hill. A diversity of opinion also exists respecting hilling 
 and level culture, each method having zealous advocates. Hilling would be the most desir- 
 able on clay lands or those with a tendency to retain undue moistiu-e, as the soU would thus 
 
 CoMPTON s Surprise Potatoes. 
 
 Sliowing the growih from a single eye in the grounds of F Beiter, Verona, New Jersey, 
 
 who raised 384 lbs from one lb of the tubers, tcith ordinary culture. 
 
 be better drained. Level culture usually gives good results on rather dry soils, and is gener- 
 ally less affected by drought or changes of temperature. Where hilling is practiced, it must 
 not be done alter the roots have been well established, or there is any appearance of blossoms, 
 as it will then leave the fine roots exposed to the sun, and cause a new set of tubers to start, 
 thus proving a great injury to the crop. We believe hilling is the more general practice with 
 this crop; whether this be from a choice of tlie two methods resulting from careful experi- 
 ment, or from long habit principally, we are not able to positively state, but it is to be pre- 
 sumed that, as but few farmers make any distinction in the culture of wet and dry soils, the 
 practice is due mainly to established habit. 
 
 It is said that the natural life of a variety of the potato will average from fourteen to 
 twenty years, under the most favorable circumstances, hence the necessity of getting new 
 Becdlings from the best, most vigorous, and prolific varieties. When propagated from the 
 tubers in the usual manner the potato is quite liable to deteriorate or revert to its original 
 condition, and one of the fruitful causes of this deterioration is a continual planting upon the 
 same soil, without a change of seed ; therefore a rotation of crops and change of seed is as 
 necessary with this product as others. It has also been found that a dry season will not have 
 the effect to produce a dry and mealy quality of the tubers, but generally the reverse. 
 
ROOTS AND ESCULENT TUBERS. 
 
 843 
 
 In order to produce an early crop, the seed should be planted just as soon in the spring as 
 the ground can be put in proper condition; the earliest kinds can be marketed in from siityi- 
 five to seventy days from the time of planting, if the season be as favorable as the average, 
 Seed potatoes should not be exposed to the cold before planting, as they will not produce 
 healthy vines under such circumstances, even if the cold is not sufficient to change their 
 outward appearance. The severe cold seems to lessen the vitality and vigor of the embryo 
 sprouts, or buds of the tubers. Whenever there is a prospect of frost, after the shoots make 
 their appearance from the soil, a little light earth thrown hastily over them will furnish ampls 
 protection from injury, and will not be detrimental to the crop, as they will in a few days push 
 
 themselves out of it. Some 
 varieties require more space 
 for growth than others, not 
 only on account of difference 
 in size, but in root extension, 
 having rootlets that vander in 
 the soil much farther than 
 others. 
 
 The two preceding figures 
 show the habit of growth of 
 the Compton's Surprise, and 
 the Alpha — one of the ear- 
 liest varieties known — which 
 illustrate this point. Wlien 
 the seed is changed, as it should 
 be occasionally, it is better to 
 obtain it trom a northern local- 
 ity rather than a southern, as 
 a product from the former, 
 ha\nng a shorter season in 
 which to mature, will have 
 Alpha. estaolished this habit, and ripen 
 
 earlier than from the latter source, which would mature more slowly. Prof. Goodale says that 
 his observations and e.Yperimeuts le.nd him to believe that an important advantage results from 
 Buch change of seed, and as an instance, he gives it his opinion that farmers in New 
 Jersey would add one-third to their product by planting tor seed, potatoes that were grown 
 in Maine. Different varieties should be planted separately, otherwise they will become 
 mixed and the value of the crop greatly deteriorated. 
 
 Forcing Potatoes. — When an unusually early start is desirable for a crop, the growth of 
 the young plants can be greatly facilitated by selecting whole and perfectly sound tubers, of 
 medium size, of some early variety, and placing them quite close together in a moderately 
 heated bed esijecially prepared for them, and composed of either light loam or partially decayed 
 leaves, or both combined. Mr. Bliss recommends this to be done three or four weeks previous 
 to the time of planting. The tubers will, by this time, have become sufficiently well sprouted 
 to be set out in the field, which should have a warm soil, well fartiUzed and pulverized. The 
 potatoes should then be carefully cut for planting, especial pains being required not to injure 
 or break the young shoots, and also to give each sprout a proper amount of the tuber for 
 support, according to previous directions. Plant the pieces thus started from three to four 
 inches deep, having first placed a little horse-manure in the bottom of each hiU to secure- 
 warmth and furnish fertility to the young plants. By this process a much earlier crop can 
 be produced than the ordinary method of planting, and although attended with a little extra 
 trouble, will be valuable to the farmer who wishes to raise an unusually early crop for market 
 or family use. Another way of accomplishing tlie same result with comparatively little 
 
 
 ^SM^m^^^ 
 
344 THE AMERICAN FARMEH. 
 
 trouble, is to put a few well-selected, smooth tubers of medium size in a warm room in the 
 latter part of winter or early in the spring, and placed where they can have the light of the 
 sun and artificial heat of the room. This should be done long before there are any indications 
 of the soil being ready to work. The sprouts will soon b'egin to start and will continue to 
 expand and grow vigorously, though slowly, producing vpry desirable plants for the 
 future crop. As soon as the soil is dry and warm enough for planting, these tubers should 
 be carefully cut the same as for ordmary planting, taking care not to break off the sprouts. 
 The pieces should be set out with care as above directed, and if properly managed will sur- 
 prise the grower by the early maturity of the crop. 
 
 Cultivation. — Frequent stirring of the soil and freedom from weeds are indispensable to 
 a large yield of potatoes. It is a good plan to plant rather deep, and give the soil one or two 
 good harrowings before the young plants make their appearance from the ground, in order to 
 check the weeds. Even after they are well started and are from two to three inches high, 
 many farmers use the harrow with little or no injury to the plants, as they are then well- 
 rooted and have a firm hold upon the soil, and if a few become broken off, the new shoots 
 will grow very rapidly to take their places. By these repeated harrowings in the early stages 
 of growth, the after cultivation is made much more easy, as it effectually checks the weeds at 
 this period and prevents their getting a hold upon the soil. 
 
 When the plants are well up, the cultivator or horse-hoe can be used to good advantage. 
 If the planting is in hills, the ground should be stirred between them by running the cultivator 
 in both directions, which can be brought quite close to the plants without injury ; if planted 
 in drills it can be used only in one direction, between the rows. This stirring of the soil 
 should be frequent, in order to check the weeds and keep the ground mellow and open to 
 atmospheric influences. 
 
 After the plants have made their appearance, some farmers make a practice of top-dress- 
 ing with compost, chip manure, or a little plaster and ashes in which a small proportion of salt 
 has been mixed; this stimulates the growth of the plants, and the latter has also a tendency to 
 keep off for a time injurious insects. The hilling hoi-se-hoe is often used for this purpose. 
 Some farmers follow the practice of harrowing the whole surface, as has previously been sug- 
 gested, regardless of rows, a week or more before the shoots come up, and then drag with a 
 smoothing harrow just before they break the ground, which will kill all the weeds that are 
 then up, using it once or twice after they are above ground. After this, the cultivator is run 
 between the rows two or three times before the plants blossom,- after which they wUl require 
 no further cultivation, providing the weeds have pre\dously been properly kept down. 
 
 No culture should be given after the blossoms begin to appear, as it will cause the set- 
 ting of a new lot of tubers and thus prove a great injury to the crop. Tlie use of the hand- 
 hoe may be necessary in potato culture, in order to destroy a few weeds that are nearest the 
 plants and may be so located as not to be accessible to the cultivator or horse-hoe. It was 
 formerly a custom among some farmers to pick off all the buds before tliey oj)ened in blossoms, 
 in order to improve the crop, but the slight gain thus obtained does not repay the labor, and 
 the practice is now obsolete. 
 
 How to Raise from Cuttings. — An ordinary hot-bed is usually employed for the 
 purpose of starting the tubers. These should be cut lengthwise in halves and planted with 
 the flat or cut side down upon the soil. They are to be kept dry until the cut part has become 
 healed and the sprouts begin to start. "When the sprouts are grown about four inches they 
 may be cut off from half to three-fourths of an inch above the eye, and set in the soil of the 
 hot-bed an inch or more in depth. They should be kept shaded from the sim, and the soil 
 moistened imtil they are well rooted and the leaves begin to develop, when they can be trans- 
 planted to a well-prepared field, taking care not to injure the roots in so doing, and to press 
 
POTATOES. 345 
 
 the soil around the bottom of the stem to retain moisture about the roots until they have 
 become established in their new home. A cloudy day, or near evening, is the best time for 
 domg this, as the hot sun will otherwise be liable to wither and destroy many of the young 
 plants. They can be set in drills or hills the same as tubers are planted. These plants are 
 o-enerally quite vigorous, after getting well started, and will grow rapidly. The pieces of potato 
 from which these cuttings or slips are taken will continue to send out shoots to an almost 
 incredible extent, which can be removed in the same manner as the first as soon as they are 
 long enough for the purpose. In order to increase the crop still more, the first cuttings may 
 themselves furnish slips when they are eight or ten inches high, by having their tops removed 
 about four inches, and planted in the same manner as the first. Sprouts will soon start from 
 the base of the lower leaves of the first set, when this method is practiced. This is a laborious 
 mode of propagating, but may be employed with advantage and profit where new and high- 
 priced varieties are being introduced. No cuttings should be planted after the middle of 
 July in a northerly climate, as they will not have sufficient time to mature before cold weather. 
 It is stated that a pound of tubers, — which will contain about four of medium size, — will fur- 
 nish by three cuttings a total of about two thousand slips or plants to be set out. 
 
 Two Crops of Potatoes a Year. — The following method of producing two crops 
 of potatoes in one season is recommended by B. K. Bliss & Sons, of New York, and will 
 prove of advantage to those who may wish to increase their potato product in this manner, 
 which, whether regiilarly practiced or not, may be desirable in certain circumstances, such as 
 for the propagation of a sufficient supply of seed potatoes of some choice kinds for the 
 succeeding year. 
 
 " Take good, sound, early potatoes and cut into single eyes (as shown in the cut previously 
 described). Allow these pieces to dry for a day or two, and then plant as early as the ground 
 can be worked (a slight frost will not injure the potato after being well planted). With ordi- 
 narily favorable weather the new crop of tubers will mature in from eight to ten weeks. As 
 soon as they are ripe, dig them, and after remaining a day or two in some dry and warm 
 place proceed to cut them to a single eye as before. Place the pieces thus obtained in pans 
 or boxes containing dry plaster or gypsum. This absorbs the moisture, which would other- 
 wise greatly check the growth if it did not destroy the sets entirely. Allow them to remain 
 in the plaster for ten or twelve days, or until the eyes commence to start, when they are to be 
 taken out and planted as before. In the latitude of New York this is only applicable to early 
 varieties, like the famous Early Rose, or Extra Early Vermont, which are of quick growth, 
 and early maturity ; but in many parts of the South, where the growing season is long, it may 
 be practiced indiscriminately upon all varieties. A gentleman raised tuo crops of Early 
 Rose, a short time since, in this vicinity, the two crops yielding an aggregate weight of twenty- 
 five hundred pounds. He planted his pound, cut into single eyes, early in March, and dug 
 his first crop about the middle of May. These were then treated as above described and 
 planted the 10th of June, and the second crop dug the 1st of September. The yield from the 
 one pound at the first digging was fifty pounds, and the second crop of this increase was twen- 
 ty-five hundred poimds, or over forty bushels. This method is within the reach of all, and 
 there is no extra expense incurred for hot-bed sashes or any other forcing requisites." 
 
 Hybridizing Potatoes. — Many of our best varieties of potatoes were produced by 
 hybridization, which usually results in a larger number of good kinds than by planting the 
 seed of the seed-balls at random. It is accomplished by selecting for this purpose a few of 
 the most perfect flowers from the most thrifty and vigorous stalks, and removing all the other 
 flowers except those to be hybridized ; the anthers (or those parts of the stamens containing 
 the pollen or fertilizing dust,) of the blossoms to be impregnated are carefullj' cut out with a 
 pair of sharp scissors. This should be done just before they commence to cast their pollen. 
 
346 THE AMERICAS FARMER . 
 
 Then when the flowers are free from dew ur moistm-e of any kind, shake the blossom contain- 
 ing the pollen of the variety that is selected for crossing with the latter over it, being partic- 
 ular to do this when the anthers of the flower used in crossing are ready to discharge their 
 pollen freely. The blossom will thus be impregnated, after which a piece of thin muslin or 
 fine lace should be carefully tied over the flower to prevent bees or other insects fi-om intro- 
 ducing pollen from other flowers. When the seed-ball matures, its seeds will contain the 
 germ of varieties partaking in a greater or less degree of the characteristics of both parents. 
 Blossoms of aU plants can be hybridized in this manner. 
 
 The covering of the flower can be removed after a few days. It should be left to ripen 
 undisturbed, and when fully ripe can be removed from the stalk. This seed should be planted 
 and the product carefully saved. The tubers will be about the size of walnuts the first year, 
 though sometimes of considerably larger size. When perfected in size and other qualities, 
 which requires three seasons, their real value as varieties can be ascertained, and if any are 
 found of sufficient worth to be propagated they should be planted apart from others to 
 prevent mixing. 
 
 How to Kilise Se(*dlingS. — It is generally known that all new varieties of potatoes 
 are produced by hybridizing or crossing difl'erent varieties as previously described, or by 
 planting the seed-balls at random and selecting from the product. It may rarely happen that 
 seed thus sown will produce the same variety of that which produced it: we have known such 
 instances, but they are veri/ rare indeed ; the general rule being that there will be nearly as 
 many different varieties resulting from the product of one siich seed-ball as thei-e are seeds 
 within it. 
 
 A good way for starting the seedlings is to save the well-ripened seed of some good 
 variety, and plant it m the early spring, in boxes that may be well drained in order to pre- 
 vent an excess of moisture. The soil best adapted is a sandy loam. Sow the seed on the sur- 
 face rather sparingly, and sift fine soil over it to the depth of one-third of an inch; water but 
 little, but Just enough to keep the seed a little moist, and hasten germination. Set the boxes 
 in a place where the soil will receive warmth and Ught from the sun. When the young plants 
 are three or four inches high they can be transplanted directly to the field, taking pains not 
 to disturb the roots in removing. It is always best to take up a little of the soil with each 
 root. These should be set in a soil well pulverized, and properly prepared for a seed-bed, in 
 order to thrive well. They may be set in drills, one plant in a place about a foot apart, the 
 drills about three and a half feet apart, or in hills the same as in planting pieces of tubers. 
 Instead of sowing the seed in boxes, some very successful growers sow in beds prepared in 
 the open ground, generally selecting a partially shaded place. 
 
 If sown in rows, they should be about ten inches apart. When sown in the open groiuid 
 a little more depth will be required in covering, a half-inch of soil not being too much. When 
 the tubers are harvested, they will not usually be much larger than walnuts. They should 
 be carefully stored in a cool place until the nest spring, when they may be planted the same 
 as any mature variety. Tliree years are generally required to fuUy matui'e the seedlings or 
 to ascertain their true value, and not more than one or two varieties will be commonly found 
 among the product that will be considered worth propagating: sometimes none; however, if 
 only one valuable kind can thus be produced, it amply repays for all the trouble. 
 
 HarTCStiufir. — The decay of the potato vines indicates the maturity of the tubers; and 
 the crop should be harvested soon after. The tops should, however, be mainly dead before 
 this is done, as the ripening process goes on until this period, and if dug before they ai'e per- 
 fectly mature, it will greatly deteriorate the good qualities of the product, while, if they are 
 allowed to remain a long time in the soil after ripening, they will be liable to decay. Very 
 late harvesting in some localities might result in a loss of the crop through freezing. 
 
POTATOES. 
 
 347 
 
 roTATd-nii 
 
 Potatoes may be thrown out of the ground by various implements — the horse potato- 
 diggers being the best. The plow, liand-hoe, and potato-hook are also used; but the former 
 often injures nuiny of the tubers, and buries others in the soil, while digging by hand is a 
 slow and laborious process. Where large crops are raised, a potato-digger is almost a 
 necessity. 
 
 The following cuts represent different kinds of these implements, the former manufac- 
 tured by A. Speer & Sons. Pittsburg, Pa., the latter, Joseph Breck & Sons, Boston, Mass. 
 
 When properly worked, 
 a good potato-digger will pay 
 for itself several times over 
 in a single season, where a 
 farmer has a large crop to 
 harvest. Their use is a great 
 saving of labor. Tlie digging- 
 should always be performed 
 when the soil is dry. Mr. A. 
 Hyde of Massachusetts, of 
 whom we have made previous 
 reference in connection with this crop, gives the following sensible advice on harvesting 
 potatoes: — 
 
 The time of digging must depend upon circumstauces. If the crop is designed for 
 winter and spring use, and the soil is 
 dry, we should prefer to let the pota- 
 toes lie in the ground till the weather 
 is cool enough to allow them to be 
 immediately stored in the cellar. But 
 if the soil is moist and the crop sliows 
 a tendency to rot, it should be dug as 
 soon as mature, and placed on some 
 dry knoll, scattering with every half 
 dozen bushels a quart of fresh-slacked 
 lime. Over the pile the potato vines 
 may be thrown, and over the whole a 
 few inches of dry soil in a conical form, making a pit much like the charcoal-pit. Tlie lime 
 checks the tendency to rot, and we have never known potatoes thus treated to fail of keep- 
 ing well. Some recommend charcoal dust instead of lime, and we presume it is useful, as it 
 is an antiseptic ; but we cannot recommend it from personal experience. When the weather 
 becomes cool the potatoes can be removed to the cellar or taken to market. 
 
 By all means dig in dry weather, and store the potatoes away as dry as possible, with 
 but little e.xposure to the sun. The skin of the potato is of a corky nature, impervious to 
 water, and designed to keep external moisture from the potato and the internal moisture from 
 evaporation, and, if too long exposed to wet, will sometimes rot, when the tuber must perish. 
 A well-ripened potato, put up dry in the fall, will lose little weight during the winter, its skin 
 preventing evaporation as effectually as does the tight cork of a bottle. In the warm weather 
 of summer, the starch is converted into sugar, and slowly evaporates through the pores of 
 the skin. 
 
 All cutting and bruising of potatoes must be carefully avoided. They must be treated as 
 things of life, and not like the stones which can l)e tossed about without sensation. Every 
 cut and every bruise increases the tendency to decay. The potato may not be quite as sensi 
 tive as the apple, may stand more hard whacks; but still, every bruise breaks the cellular 
 
 NEW YOKK 
 
 roTATO-DlGHEK. 
 
348 THE AMERICAN FARJIER. 
 
 tissue and puts the vitality of the tuber to a hard tost. The digging must not be entrusted 
 to careless boys, or the potatoes will look sadly hacked." 
 
 The practice, coinmon in some localities, of leaving the crop exposed, for several hours 
 after digging, to the injurious effects of the strong light and heat of the sun, is very detri- 
 mental, and should be avoided. It injures the quality of the tubers; therefore, if the harvesting 
 is not performed on a cloudy day so that they may lie exposed on the ground without harm, 
 it is better to gather them into small heaps, with some of the tops spread over them, until 
 the moisture of the surface be dry, when they are ready to be stored. 
 
 Storing. — Tiie usual method of storing potatoes is to put them in large bins in a cel- 
 lar. It is important that the cellar be not too damp or too warm, a cool, dry one being the 
 best for keeping them in a healthy condition until spring. It is a good plan to keep the 
 windows of the cellar open until late in the autumn, and thus maintain as cool a temperature 
 as possible without freezing the tubers. The potatoes should always be dry when put into 
 the bins. It is a well-known fact that a washed potato never keeps in as good a condition as 
 one that is simply dried, just as it is dug from the soil. When they are wet from a sudden 
 shower, or anj' other cause, before being put under cover, many farmers put a little air- 
 slacked lime over them in storing them away. This has a tendency to keep them dry and 
 prevent decay. It is common in some sections to bury potatoes in the ground in large pits 
 or trenches prepared for the purpose. 
 
 A dry hill-side with a northern exposure, or under a shade, is to be preferred, as it will 
 preserve them from the effects of the sun as spring approaches. "When a trench is dug for 
 the purpose, it should be cut up and down the hill to prevent any trouble from water getting 
 to them, thus securing good drainage. It is better to make several pits rather than have 
 too large a quantity stored together, as they will in this way keep better; about fifteen or 
 eighteen bushels to a pit being sufBcient. A trench is usually filled in sections, beginning at 
 the bottom or lower end of the trench ; from fifteen to twenty bushels may be put in to the 
 required depth; at the upper end of the pile a few bundles of straw and some dirt are placed, 
 and another section made in the same manner until the trench is filled. Straw should be 
 placed over them in covering to the depth of five or six inches, followed with a sufiBcient 
 depth of soil to prevent them from freezing. It is best to cover with the straw and boards 
 simply for a few days, to prevent injury from rain, until they are well dried, after which the 
 soil may be added, and the covering complete. 
 
 If not covered sufficient to prevent injury from frost, the tubers will be ruined, while if 
 covered too deep they will be hable to decay; consequently, more or less loss is usually sus- 
 tained with this method oi storage. A narrow ditch, or a tew fuiTows plowed on each side 
 of the trench, will aid in drainage to prevent a surplus of water. This is especially necessary 
 on clayey soils, and is a safer practice for those of any kind. . 
 
 A large cellar or pit, constructed similar to a silo for ensilage, with walls of concrete, 
 brick, or stone, a cover of jjlanks and earth or other material, and a door at one side or end, 
 would be very valuable, and much better than the above-mentioned pits for keeping potatoes, 
 as well as all kinds of roots and even fruit; and where large farms are cultivated, requiring 
 storage-room for immense crops, it will well repay any farmer for constructing such a cellar 
 near his farm-buildings for this purpose. 
 
 Such potatoes as are designed for seed should be put in dry bins or barrels in a cool 
 place, where they will be kept dry and at a low temperature, but will not be in danger of 
 being frozen. A covering of dry sand will have a tendency to keep them better than an 
 exposure to the atmosphere. 
 
 Diseases, etc. — The most destructive disease to which the potato is subject is the rot, 
 while the insect that effects the greatest injury to the crop is the Colorado Beetle, commonly 
 
POTATOES. 349 
 
 designated the potato-bug. Other difficulties are occasionally met by the farmer in raising 
 this crop, such as the scab, and attacks from the grub, but these are slight when compared 
 with the effects of the former. 
 
 Potato Rot. — In 1845 the potato rot was very destructive to the crops in the United 
 States and a large portion of Europe. In Ireland especially, where the potato constitutes 
 the principal article of food, great distress was experienced at this time. This disease was 
 so violent in its attacks, in many sections, that whole fields often turned black and rotten in 
 the course of a few hours. In other localities its progress was more gradual, but none the 
 loss effective. This disease has made its appearance several times since 1845, but never with 
 as much severity and the occasion of such extensive loss as at that period ; in fact, it is liable 
 to occur to a limited extent in almost any damp season, being caused by a parasitic fungus 
 which attacks the plant, and to which a damp and rather warm season, or such a condition of 
 the atmosphere as is commonly termed "muggy," is best adapted. 
 
 This disease is still but imperfectly understood, and there is no effectual remedy known 
 when it once makes its appearance. The stems and leaves of all diseased plants sliould 
 always be destroyed, to prevent its spreading. By the use of lime in the hills and dusting 
 the growing plants occasionally with it. as well as a similar use of either salt, charcoal dust 
 or gypsum, crops have been known to escape its attacks in localities where other fields were 
 destroyed by it. Avoiding the use of fresh stable manure is also advised as a preventive. 
 It has long been known that a fresh sod that has remained untilled for several years is also 
 less liable to its attacks, and that early-planted fields are not as apt to be infected as those 
 later planted. When a field is slightly attacked, sometimes the preventive measure of mow- 
 ing off the tops of the plants will prove effectual in cheeking it. It has also been found that 
 those crops cultivated by the use of commercial fertilizers are less liable to this disease than 
 where farm manures and composts of various kinds are applied to enrich the soil. 
 
 Potato Bug, or Colorado Beetle. — This insect has become the scourge of the 
 potato crop, and the greatest pest known to the farmer in the cultivation of this product, 
 which is one of such vast importance in the agriculture of our own and foreign countries. Its 
 destructive powers are so great, and its dissemination has been so extensive since 1860, that 
 few insects have attracted more attention during that period. In the year 1819 the noted 
 entomologist, Mr. Thomas Say of Philadelphia, accompanied the United States government 
 exploring expedition to the Northwest Territories, he being at that time the zoologist of the 
 expsdition. While on this tour of exploration numerous species of beetles were found on the 
 upper Missouri near the base of the Rocky Mountains, among them the Dorypliora lO-Iineata, 
 which has since become commonly known as the Colorado Beetle, and which was first described 
 by him in 1S24. It gradually extended its course eastward, and in 1859 we first learn of its 
 invading the potato fields in Nebraska. In 18G1 it becomes known in Iowa, being assisted in 
 its course by railroads, doubtless, as they were often found in and on the cars of the trains 
 that had passed an infested district. They traveled eastward in a direct line over fifteen 
 hundred miles in sixteen yeai-s, and became spread over an area of about 1,500,000 square 
 miles during that time, until now their ravages are extended throughout the entire country, 
 and tliere seems to be no method known of wholly exterminating them, Paris green being 
 the most effectual remedy thus far tried for checking their increase. With this insect, as 
 with many others, it is the larva that is the most destructive to plants. 
 
 Prof. C. V. Riley says of it: " This insect hibernates in the perfect or beetle state under old 
 Tubbish or in sheltered situations of whatever kind, but normally in the ground, generally but a 
 few inches beneath the surface, but exceptionally at a depth of three feet. A s vegetation starts in 
 the spring, it issues forth from the ground, and long before potatoes are up. or even planted, it 
 may be seen flying on genial days in search of food and company, the rose-rod underwings 
 
850 THE AMERICAN FAUAIEU. 
 
 contrasting prettily with the yellow and Ijlack of the elytra. It will frequently work into a 
 sprouting hill of potatoes, as these are raising the soil, and feed upon the tender sprouts and 
 tubers; and as soon as the plant shows itself the female begins to lay her oval orange eggs 
 in clusters of from ten to forty, each attached by one end to the under side of a leaf, or to a 
 stem. With favorable weather, there hatches in the course of a week from each egg a small, 
 dark, Venetian-red hunch-backed larva, which becomes paler and acquires a double row of 
 lateral black spots as it advances towards full growth. This period arrives in about three 
 weeks from hatching, and the larva finally burrows into the ground, where, within a simple 
 earthen cavity, it becomes a pupa, and finally a beetle in from seven to ten days; the whole 
 cycle of its transformation from the egg to the beetle requiring rarely more than a month." 
 Mr. J. C. Tache, in his pamphlet entitled •' La MoucJie, ou la Chrysomeh ties Palates," says 
 respecting the number of eggs deposited : 
 
 "The eggs are deposited in rows and by groups, of which the number most frequently 
 ranges from ten to forty; but groups have often been observed of all degrees of numerical 
 value. In the course of numerous experiments which I have made with insects kept separate, 
 I have seen groups of^all numbers, from a deposit composed of a single egg, up to one of 122 
 eggs, laid without quitting the spot, by a female kept in close seclusion." 
 
 Prom two to four broods are hatched and perfected during the season, according to the 
 locality and length of the season, the last brood going into the ground in a perfect beetle 
 state, to lie doi-mant during the winter, reappearing as soon as the ground becomes warm 
 enough in the spring to revive tliem. Each female is said to lay from five to ten hundred 
 eggs during the season; therefore, if in the spring, when they first make their appearance 
 from the ground, some practical method of destroying them could be effected, large numbers 
 prospective could be disposed of in every female bug that should be killed. Destroying by 
 hand the first beetles and eggs that make their appearance on the young plants is often 
 resorted to, but this is a slow and laborious process; it will well repay, however, in the check it 
 may give early in the season. Machines for horse and hand power have been used to a con- 
 siderable extent in some sections after the plants have attained considerable growth, but it is 
 better to prevent their depredations upon the crop before this period, if possible, as much 
 injury may be done the tender plants when they first make their appearance from the ground. 
 
 Paris gi-een, (arsenite of copper,) is the most effectual remedy yet known in exterminating 
 these pests, but it must be used with the utmost caution, being a deadly poison. Nothing in 
 which it has been placed should ever be used for any other purpose, and it should be kept 
 from all animals, as when mixed with water and carelessly left where horses or other animals 
 could have access to it, it has often been diai k by them, and valuable stock lost in this 
 manner. When used in the powder or in water, animals gaining access to the field would bi^ 
 very liable to be poisoned by cropping the vines or other herbage containing it. 
 
 Paris green may be applied either in a dry or liquid state; each method has its peculiar 
 advantages as well as disadvantages. When used in the powder, it is usually applied when 
 the dew is on the vines, or after a shower. The advantage of this method over the liquid is 
 in its adhering better to the leaves and stalks; in the absence of heavy rains it retains its 
 power longer than when applied in a liquid form. The advantage of the liquid application 
 consists in the facility with which it is applied, and the less danger attending its use. Like 
 many other substances of general commerce, Paris green is frequently adulterated and its 
 effects proportionately diminished; hence, there are many grades of the poison, the pure 
 article being of course more effective than any of its adulterated forms and requiring a less 
 quantity to accomplish the results intended. When the pure article is used, a tablespoonful 
 of the powder- to three gallons of water is the usual quantity. Some also mix a little molasses 
 in the solution to render it sticky and cause it to adhere to the plants. This poison is not 
 readily soluble in water, and will sink to the bottom ; therefore it must be frequently stirred 
 
POTATOES. 351 
 
 to secure a uniform distribution over the field. It may be applied with a common watering- 
 pot, if performed by hand, or a small brush-broom with a handle sufBciently long to keep the 
 hands protected from the water. By passing down the rows with a pail of the solution, and 
 frequently inserting the broom and sprinkling the plants and insects, taking both rows right 
 and left in passing, the labor will be made more easy than when only one row is sprinkled at 
 a time, as this process reduces the labor of traversing over the whole field, by one half. 
 
 Several machines for sprinkling with horse-power have been devised and are in use in 
 some sections. The fields should be sprinkled as often as the larvae make their appear- 
 ance in order to hold them in check. When the powder is used, it is generally mixed with 
 thii'ty-five or forty parts of some dilutant, like lime, ashes, or flour; the latter is considered the 
 best by many, as causing it to adhere to the leaves and stalks best, while lime is highly 
 recommended by others as being an aid in exterminating the insect as well as a fertilizer and 
 invigorator to the vines. Many farmers use a considerably less proportionate quantity of the 
 poison, and consider one pound of Paris green sufficient for seventy-five pounds of the lime 
 or other mixture ; much depends upon the quantity sifted upon each plant. We prefer the 
 liquid form as being most safe and more easily accomplished. 
 
 There is great danger of inhaling the powder, when appHed dry. Various dusters have 
 been invented and are employed when this method is practiced. Some farmers make a 
 duster for their fields by puncturing a tin box in the bottom and attaching it to a long 
 handle, and with this sift the powder over the plants. Applying it in this manner would be 
 dangerous when there was a breeze, unless the operator kept carefully to windward, as there 
 would be a liability of inhaling the poison or getting it into the eyes, either of which would 
 produce serious results. 
 
 We would recommend the liquid form of application as preferable to the latter. A 
 heavy shower will wash off much of the poison when either methods are practiced. It 
 requires, but a very small quantity to kill these insects. Mr. Tachi!', the French author, to 
 whom previous reference has been made, recommends even a smaller quantity than American 
 writers ; he says : — 
 
 " In the application by the liquid method, which I think should be generally adopted to 
 the exclusion of any other, a teaspoonful (level, not heaped), is sufficient, that is, about a 
 himdred and ten grains (quarter of an ounce) of Paris green, of superior quality, to an ordi- 
 nary pail, holding from two to two and a half gallons of water. A pound of Paris green is 
 sufficient, therefore, for sixty-four pails of water, or about one hundred and forty gallons. 
 Should the Paris green be of inferior quality, or adulterated, a greater quantity, proportioned 
 to the reduced value, would be necessary." 
 
 We are reluctant to recommend the use of any poison so dangerous in its results if acci- 
 dentally or carelessly used, and we hope the time is not far distant when some equally 
 effective but harmless substance may be found to take its place for this purpose. Many of 
 the harmless insect-powders have been tested with unsatisfactory results. London purple 
 is cheaper than Paris green, and may be used as a substitute, but its effects are not as speedy 
 as the Paris green; therefore the latter is to be preferred. 
 
 A fiSld that has been once attacked by this insect will be liable to continue to be so, as 
 they have a habit of remaining where they once obtain a foothold. Concert of action in 
 exterminating them is also necessary among fai'mers, as they will spread rapidly to contigu- 
 ous fields or those in the same vicinity. This insect, like all others, has its natural enemies 
 that aid in checking its increase, and if the farmer would befriend and encourage these, they 
 would be of great benefit to him in largely reducing, if not wholly exterminating the pest. 
 Among these enemies of the potato beetle, Prof. Pdley mentions the various species of birds, 
 and states that the rose-breasted grosbeck often entirely clears a potato field of these insects. 
 The quail is also useful in this du-ection, as well as the crow, and many other birds. Chick- 
 
352 THE AMERICAN FARMEH. 
 
 ens can also be taught to acquire a taste for them, although they will not always eat them at 
 first, and in many sections have proved very valuable to the farmer in this way. Mr. Ware, 
 of Massachusetts, says: — 
 
 '■ One way of protecting the potato-vines from potato-bugs is to train a flock of Light 
 Brahma fowls to eat them. The fowls can easily be trained to work down the rows by 
 siattoring a little corn in them. Twenty fowls will usually protect an acre of potatoes." 
 
 An Iowa farmer gives his method of raising potatoes, as follows: — 
 
 •'Plant them in good, rich soil, close to the house or barnyard where the chickens run, 
 the more chickens the better; hoe them as soon as they are out of the ground, then plow 
 them at least once a week till they are in bloom. The chickens will keep the bugs oil if the 
 latter are not too numerous. If there are more bugs than the chickens can consume, knock 
 them off the vines just before the plow and plow them under every day till they disappear. 
 In this way I have raised plenty, while my neighbor's crops were all destroyed." 
 
 Among the reptiles, the toad is a valuable assistant, while of quadrupeds the skunk is 
 known to feed upon these bugs. Some species of spiders make prey of them, bxit still larger 
 numbers are destroyed by insects of a similar class to its own. These are very numerous, 
 and our limits will admit of a mention of only a few of the more important specified by Prof. 
 Riley, among which are the fiery ground beetle (^Calossoma calidum) &nd those of its order, 
 the convergent ladybird [Htppodamia convergens). the fifteen-spotted ladybird [Mysta fifteen 
 punctata) — a larger variety than the former — the spined soldier bug [Arma spinosa), the many- 
 banded robber (Harpedor cincfas), and the ring-banded soldier bug {PeriUiis circumcinctus). 
 Besides these a trichina-fly, which resembles the common house fly, destroys vast numbers by 
 laying its eggs on the larvse, which, when hatched, enter the body and feeding upon it, thus 
 destroy it. 
 
 When the potato beetles are collected in large quantities, precaution should be used in 
 burning or scalding them, as the oil of their bodies is very poisonous, and the inhaling of 
 steam or vapor from them has been known not only to severely poison, but to cause death. 
 Early planted fields are not as liable to be injured by the beetle as those planted later. 
 
 Scabby Potatoes. — It is supposed that the scab on potatoes is produced by mites or 
 minute animals which burrow in the skin of the young tubers, causing blisters and subse- 
 quently leaving holes or pits which give them that peculiar rough appearance when fully 
 matured. The use of lime or ashes in the hill is thought by some to be a preventive, but 
 these will prove ineffectual in some soils. Land on which potatoes have not been raised for 
 several years is less liable to this evil, than where a less period has intervened, while new soils 
 will generally prove an entire exemption from it. The exclusive use of commercial fertilizers 
 is also said to be an infallible remedy. 
 
 How to Tell a Good Potato. — But few persons are able to judge of the quality of 
 potatoes without cooking them, as it is often the case that the external appearance may be 
 deceptive and cannot be wholly relied upon; hence, a few reliable hints for testing may 
 prove valuable to such as are not already familiar with them. 
 
 Take a sound potato, and, pajdng no attention to its outward appearance, divide it into 
 two pieces with your knife and examine the exposed surfaces. If there is so much water or 
 "j\iice" that seemingly a slight pressure would cause it to fall off in drops, you may be sure 
 it will be "soggy " after it is boiled. 
 
 The following are the requisite qualities for a good potato which must appear when one 
 is cut in two: For color, a yellowish white is desirable; if it is a deep yellow the potato will 
 not cook well; there must be a considerable amount of moisture, but not too much; rub the 
 two pieces together and a white froth will appear around the edges and upon the two 
 surfaces; this signifies the presence of starch, and the more starch, and consequently froth. 
 
POTATOES. 353 
 
 the better the potato, while the less there is, the poorer it will cook. The strength of the 
 starchy element can be tested by releasing the hold upon one piece of the potato, and if it 
 still clings to the other, this in itself is a very good sign. These are the tests generally made 
 by experts, and which are usually reliable, a failure being the exception rather than the 
 rule. 
 
 Sweet Potatoes. — The sweet potato is a native of Southern Asia, and was formerly 
 considered an exclusively Southern product; but repeated experiments demonstrated to 
 Northern farmers a few years since that it might be grown in almost any of the Northern 
 States with very fair success. It is now quite commonly cultivated in many sections North, 
 although the quality of this product is not generally considered quite equal to that of some 
 of the Southern or Middle States, and Northern growers are obliged to take better care of 
 the crop than those of a southern latitude in order- to insure success, and to have the tubers 
 mature before the frost makes its appearance. 
 
 With the exception of precautionary measures against frost, the general methods of 
 cultivation for both North and South are essentially the same. This crop is an article of 
 food as common in every Southern household, white or black, rich or poor, as the Irish potato 
 is at the North, or rice is in China, while throughout the entire country it is regarded as a 
 very delicious and valuable vegetable. It was stated some time since on the authority of 
 Dr. Voelcker, who analyzed this potato sent him by Colonel Ott, of Virginia, that the starch 
 obtained from it was proven to be more valuable than that from the Irish potato. It seems 
 surprising that a product of so much value as the sweet potato should be so little known in 
 Europe. In some localities the yield is surprisingly large, it having been known to reach as 
 high as four hundred bushels per acre, varying, of course, according to the soil, climate, 
 season, and cultivation; the average yield, with fair culture, being about a hundred and 
 twenty-five or fifty bushels per acre. 
 
 Varieties. — There are comparatively but few varieties of the sweet potato. A yellow 
 variety, known as the Nansemond, is generally preferred and the most extensively cultivated 
 at the South. A large light-yellow variety, called in some sections the " yam," is more pro- 
 ductive and early, and also keeps well, but does not equal the former in quality. For 
 Northern culture, the Early Peabody is generally regarded as the best, being of good quality, 
 large size, hardy, and quite productive. Those raised North, though fair in quality, do not 
 equal those of Southern cultivation in this respect. 
 
 Cultivation. — Like the Irish potato, the sweet variety may be propagated from either 
 tubers or sprouts, but the latter is the more common and better method. They may be 
 grown upon a variety of soils, but one that is dry, warm, and sandy will give a product of 
 the best quality. A sandy loam will give very good results both in quality and quantity. 
 The ground should be plowed to a moderate depth, about six or seven inches being sufficient, 
 and well pulverized with the harrow. In the Northern States this may be done about the 
 first of May, although the plants should not be set out in that latitude until the last of May 
 or first of June, as they are quite tender and might be injured by the cold, being easily 
 chilled, which will stunt their growth. In a latitude farther South an earlier transplanting 
 would be admissible. The fertilizers used are horse manure, or any other from the farm- 
 yard. Lime is also valuable as a fertilizer, and likewise aids in decomposing the vegetable 
 matter in the soil, and rendering it available for plant-food. 
 
 After the soil has been well pulverized, the field should be marked out with a plow for 
 drills or hills, according to the method of culture. If for hills, the furrows should run each 
 way across the field, from three and a half to four feet apart, marking it off in squares, 
 running the plow twice in each furrow to make high hills or ridges. If for drills, the furrows 
 will run only in one direction, which should be north and south, to secure the most warmth. 
 
354 THK AMERICAN FARMEH. 
 
 Manure should be well pulverized and liberally applied in the hill or furrows, which should 
 be covered in the drill with a plow by turning the furrow on each side so that it will fall 
 upon and cover the manure. Where hills are used, the manure can be covered by hand with 
 a hoe. The drill culture is preferable, as it does not necessitate hand labor in covering the 
 manure. Both hills and drills should be made high and their tops smooth and compact by 
 spatting down with a hand-hoe, in order to be in a good condition to receive the plants. The 
 ridges should be a foot or more high, and not less than a foot mde at the base; the top may 
 be five or six inches wide. Some planters think a close, hai'd bottom to the ridge induces 
 the tubers to grow more plump, or less long and slim, and for this pui-pose sometimes put 
 strips of sod in the bottom of the ridges, where only a few are grown, as in the garden, for 
 instance. 
 
 Plants for setting out may be obtained of those who ha.ve them for sale, or they may be 
 grown for that purpose. The usual method of securing sprouts or slips for planting is to 
 grow them in a hot-bed or cold-frame, and, when four or five inches high, separate them from 
 the tuber and set them out in the field. , Stable manure, to the depth of two or three inches, 
 should be placed at the bottom of the bed, covered with two or three inches of sandy loam 
 or sand. The seed potatoes should be cut lengthwise, and placed in the soil with the cut side 
 down. They may be placed quite near each other, without touching, and covered to the 
 depth of two or three inches. They should be kept rather warm and moist, but great care 
 will be required in order to secure the proper degree of both heat and moisture, as an excess 
 of either will rot the tubers, while if there is not a sufficiency of either they will be liable to 
 be affected with the black-rot. 
 
 Excessive heat or dryness will also prevent a healthy growth of sprouts. In cool lati- 
 tudes they should be protected at night by a covering of boards or straw, where not otherwise 
 covered by glass, but they should have an abundance of air and sunshine during the day. 
 
 When the sprouts are four or five inches high, they may be separated carefully from the 
 tubers, one at a time, with the thumb and finger, so as not to disturb the potato, which, if 
 uninjured, wiU send up other shoots in a short time. These sprouts or shoots may then be 
 set out in the field, the preparation of which we have already given. The sprouts are placed 
 from twenty inches to two feet apart, and should be set out on a cloudy day, or towards 
 evening. The hot-bed should be started from the first to the last of April, depending much 
 upon the locality, the last week of May or first week of June being a good time for setting 
 out the slips in the latitude of Massachusetts, while an earlier period may be suited to a more 
 southerly section; the latitude, climate, and season always being taken into consideration with 
 respect to the time of starting the growth of the crop. In the latitude of Florida, they aie 
 set out from April to August, and mature from July to November. A bushel of good sound 
 potatoes, when properly managed, will yield from twelve to fifteen hundred sprouts at the 
 first drawing, and about three-fourths of that number at the second. 
 
 The tubers selected for plautiog should be of medium size and rather smooth, all diseased 
 or injured ones to be carefully excluded in making the selection, as they will be liable to 
 propagate a diseased crop. If thrifty slips are secured they will grow very rapidly, and the 
 high hills or ridges should not be leveled in after-cultivation. It is better to pull the weeds 
 quite near the plants by hand, as the use of the ho3 may injure the tubers that lie near the 
 surface. The cultivator or horse-hoe should be run between the rows to exterminate the 
 weeds, which should be kept out of the field, as they will greatly injure the crop. After the 
 vines have attained a length of two or three feet, they will take root at many of the joints, 
 and wherever they do so, a new set of tubers will start, which will not attain any size, and 
 will greatly injure tlie crop, especially at the North, as they will not have time to mature, and 
 will exhaust the productive power of the plants to such an extent that those in the hills will 
 not be perfected in growth. These vines should therefore be loosened from the soil and pi'o. 
 
POTATOES. 356 
 
 vented from rooting. This may be done by hand or with a wide fork, which should be used 
 witli care in order not to injure tlie vines. This should be done several times during the 
 season. When the tubers are sufficiently matured, or when the frost has killed the vines, 
 the crop may be harvested. They should never be left in the soil when it is sufBciently cold 
 to freeze the ground, as it will ruin the crop. Cold, wet weather has a tendency also to 
 deteriorate the quality. The principal essentials to the successful culture of this crop at the 
 North are generally conceded to be liberal manuring, ridge culture, freedom from weeds, and 
 frequent loosening of the vines to prevent them from taking root. 
 
 The following, from the pen of Mr. James G. Tinsley, of Virginia, an experienced and 
 successful sweet-potato grower, will give the method of cultivating this crop in that section 
 of the country, which differs in some minor respects from that already described: — 
 
 " Sprouting the sweet potatoes in the bed is the first step to be taken. In this latitude 
 the best time to put the beds down is the 1st of April, as the slips cannot, with safety, be put 
 out before the 10th of May; this gives ample time to get them large enough. 
 
 First, dig out a pit nine inches deep, five feet broad, and as long as you may desire it, 
 .say fifteen feet, as that is a convenient-sized bed; then, to keep moles and ground-rats out, 
 plank up the sides by nailing the plank to stakes driven in the ground, raising the plank on 
 the north side, say one foot above the ground, and, on the south side, six inches above ground ; 
 then slant the short sides of the bed that run from north to south, so that the cover, that is 
 usually of plank or slabs, will make a tight fit; now throw the dirt that you have thrown out 
 ^ of the pit back against the plank that is above ground. The object in having the lower side 
 to the south is to have a better exposure to the sun. The next step is to fill this bed so as to 
 generate a moderate heat to sprout the potatoes. There is as much danger of too much, as 
 too little heat. 
 
 I will now try to describe the simplest and cheapest way, and one that is used almost 
 universally in this section. First put oak leaves, in the bed, watering and trampling them 
 well, and continue to do it until there are six inches of leaves well moistened and trampled. 
 Now, upon these leaves, put three inches of fresh stable manure, after it has been well packed 
 in the bed — not putting as much as three inches in the middle of the bed, as the heat is 
 always greater in the center than on the sides; upon this manure put three inches of mold 
 from the woods, or light dirt if you cannot procure the mold ; on this put the potatoes as 
 thick as you can without letting them touch each other; after you have completed the layer 
 of potatoes then cover with mold or dirt two inches. 
 
 Now you have finished the business of putting down the potatoes to get sprouts. Examine 
 your bed every day to see whether you have too much or too little heat; if you want to 
 increase the heat, it is a very good plan to cover the dirt on the top of the bed with three or 
 four inches of pine tags, as that helps to keep in the heat. Raise the covers every warm, 
 clear day about nine o'clock, remove the pine tags and put them in the sun, and let the beds 
 be exposed to the sun until about four o'clock in the evening, when the tags must be again 
 put on them and the covers let down. Continue to use the pine tags until sprouts are about 
 to come through the ground, then dispense with them altogether. When you find you have 
 too much heat on your bed, the best tiling you can do will be to drive a short stake in the 
 center of the bed through to the bottom and shake around sufiiciently to make a vent for the 
 heat to escape. After the plants come up, continue to cover them as long as there is danger 
 of frost; then remove the covers, as it is necessary to harden them before setting out. hi 
 drawing the plants, be very particular not to mash or trample the bed, and draw the slips one 
 at a time, drawing them sideways to keep from pulling up the potato. After the plants have 
 been drawn, water the bed well and continue to keep the ground moist as long as you wish 
 t I raise plants, as nothing makes them grow faster than for them to be well watered. 
 
 We usually try to set out all we can in the month of May — set out after that time the 
 
3:)(3 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 crop is not generally remunerative. The proper soil is a light sandy one, or any land that is 
 well impregnated with sand. Stable manure is the best fertilizer, and after that cow-pen 
 manure. In this section mold from the woods and pine tags are used in large quantities, the 
 same land being often put in potatoes. I never have been able to make good sweet potatoes 
 with guano or artificial fertilizers alone; but it is necessary to supply coarse maniu-e of some 
 kind to mix with it. My plan is, to drill all the stable and cow-pen manure I can spare for 
 my potatoes, and by that means it goes much farther. Three feet is the best distance for the 
 rows to be apart, and I am accustomed to list on the manure that I have drilled in the rows, 
 throwing up the list as high as I can with a single plow, putting two furrows together. I 
 make it a rule never to list in a day more than [ can set that day, as the plants live better in 
 a. fresh soil. 
 
 The distance apart for the plants in the row is twenty inches, and it is best to set them 
 deep in the ground, as, if they should be cut off by cut-worms or anything else, they will be 
 more apt to come out again. The evening is the best time for setting out, and after a good 
 rain in May, you can set usually for four or five evenings. In June the sun is so hot it is 
 very difficult to get plants to live without a good season. In the cultivation of potatoes the 
 secret of success is never to let them get grassy, but work them as soon as a crust forms on 
 the ground. If they get grassy, it is impossible to remove the grass without injuring the 
 potato roots; and it is easier to work them three times when there is no grass, tlian once 
 when they are grassy. You must always see that the hoes do not cut into the hill, but 
 merely scrape the ground around the plant and then pull up a little dirt to it. 
 
 Now, by my plan of horse cultivation, I save a great deal of hoe work. First, throw 
 out in about ten days after setting out the plants the little balk that was left in throwing up 
 the list, and try to get the dirt as high as you can on the list, so as to smother out any grass 
 that might start to grow on the list where the potato-plant is. Before this dirt that I have 
 thrown up by this plowing commences to put up grass, I run a cotton-scraper, (which is 
 attached to Watt's A and B plow,) as close as I can to the potato-plants, throwing the dirt 
 from them — trying not to let it cut more than half an inch deep. A good plowman can run 
 the point of the scraper in less than an inch of the potatoes. 
 
 If the vines have run any, of course I have to send a man ahead to throw the vines in 
 every alternate balk, and the scraper has to first run all through tlie patch on one side of the 
 list, and then have the vines tlirown back on tliat side that has been worked and run to the 
 other side. The last working with the plow is to throw all this dirt the scraper has pulled 
 away from the list back to it, moving the vines out of the way just as you did for the 
 scraper, and plowing one side of the list all through the patch, and then come back and plow 
 the other side in the same way, trying to make this fresh dirt meet in the middle of the Ust. 
 Let your hands come on behind and see that no vines are covered up, as nothing lessens the 
 size of the potatoes in the hill more than to have the vines covered with dirt." 
 
 Harvestill!?. — A sUght frost will kill the vines of sweet potatoes. When ready for 
 harvesting, — which should be before the cold is sufficient to affect the tubers, — the vines 
 should be cut off' quite near the ground ; this may be done with a scythe or a sharp corn- 
 knife, the former being the easier method. In some sections a sharp hoe is used for this pur- 
 pose, but it is very objectionable, since the tubers lie so near the surface that they will be 
 liable to be injured by being cut during the process. If a few potatoes are desiifed for house- 
 hold purposes before the crop is fully matured, they can be obtained by carefully detaching 
 them and replacing the soil. This can be done by running the finger down beside tlie vine 
 until a large tuber is met, when it can be taken out, leaving the smaller ones to grow. Sweet 
 potatoes should always be dug when the soil is dry, and in a clear day. It is better to dig 
 them in the forenoon that they may have a warm sun in which to drj'. After the vines have 
 been cut, they should be taken out of the way so as not to interfere with the digging, which 
 
POTATOES. 357 
 
 may be performed in various ways. A plow is frequently used fortlirowing the potatoes out 
 of the ground, but they are liable to be cut or bruised in this way; besides, many will be buried 
 in the soil. A good potato-digger is the best implement we know of for this purpose, wliere 
 large quantities are to be harvested, as the crop is less injured by its use than by the plow, 
 and the labor is greatly facilitated. Where extreme care is observed, and only a small crop 
 is to be harvested, a six-tined fork is often used for liftmg them out of the soil. 
 
 The tubers should be handled very carefully, as even slight bruises or cuts will cause 
 them to decay very quickly. When first taken from the soil, they should be left on the ground 
 two or three hours fully exposed to the sun and air to dry. They are then sometimes sorted 
 in the field, when desired for ready market, and put into barrels or boxes for that purpose, 
 taking care not to injure them by bruising or otherwise. 
 
 Storing. — \Mien intended for winter storage, sweet potatoes are usually spread in a 
 warm, dry, sheltered, and airy place for a week or two, that the moisture from the surface ot 
 the tubers may be absorbed, after which it is a good plan to pack them carefully in dry sand, 
 in boxes or barrels, rejecting all that are not perfectly sound, or that have been cut or bruised 
 in the least. They will keep best when packed like eggs, or so placed that each tuber will be 
 separated from others and entirely surrounded by the sand, which must always be very dry. 
 After being well packed they should be put away in a rather warm, dry place, as they are 
 very easily chilled and are entirely worthless if once touched by the frost ; but if put in to a 
 place where the temperature is too warm, the dry rot will be liable to attack them. Moisture 
 or cold are equally detrimental, and the principal things to be avoided in storage. 
 
 Some care will be required to have the temperature kept unifonn and other conditions 
 just suited to their perfect preservation. It is always best to pack them without transferring 
 from one place to another more than necessary, as tlie more they are moved about the more 
 liable they are to get bruised, and consequently the less liable to keep well. 
 
 W'here sand suited to the purpose is not convenient of access, chaff, fine-cut straw, or 
 fine shavings are frequently used for packing instead, but dry sand is the best material W6 
 know of for this purpose. In some section^ where this crop is largely produced, store-houses 
 are built especially for this crop, the walls sometimes being made double and filled with saw- 
 dust or earth, where they are stored in shallow bins or boxes without being packed in any- 
 thing ; but with this method careful attention is always necessary in order to maintain a j roper 
 degree of temperature and suSicient ventilation, as well as to also remove any unsound ones 
 as soon as they begin to decay. 
 
 The Yam. — This is an esculent tuber cultivated to a certain extent in this country, but 
 is not as highly esteemed as the sweet potato. It is extensively grown in the East and West 
 Indies, as well as other tropical countries. There are a number of different varieties, which 
 vary in quality, size, productiveness, and hardiness. The yam can be propagated by small 
 tubers produced by covering the vines with earth and severing them near the angles of each 
 pair of leaves after they have taken root, or by planting small pieces of the root. 
 
 The Cllinese Yam was introduced into this country from France in 1855, in 
 the form of small tubers about the size of peas, which had been obtained by covering vines 
 with earth as above described. It is similar in appearance, though smaller than the yam of 
 the Indies, and thrives in both the Northern and Southern States. It has a chmbing vine 
 with lieart-shaped leaves, and clusters of small white flowers. 
 
 The Chinese yam requires two seasons to mature when produced from the small bulbs, 
 but a crop suitable for cooking purposes can be obtained the first season when the propaga- 
 tion is from the roots, which are club-shaped. When fully matured and cooked, it is dry and 
 farinaceous, and much resembles in taste the common potato. The flesh is also veiy white 
 when cooked. The land in which it thrives best is that of a deep, rich soil, which should bo 
 
358 I'HE AMEUICAN FARMEH. 
 
 well pulverized and plowed very deep, as tlie roots have a tendency to penetrate perpendictt 
 larly into the ground, growing from two to three feet or more in length, the larger end always' 
 being deepest in the soil. This is the great olijection to its culture, as considerable digging is 
 required to obtain them. 
 
 The vines may either be made to climb poles like some kinds of beans, or may creep on 
 the ground. They may be planted in the spring as soon as the season is sufficiently advanced 
 to preclude the danger of frost, placing them from eight to twelve inches apart, and may be 
 cultivated in a manner similar to that of the sweet potato or yam of the Southern States, 
 except it should be left undisturbed in the ground from one year to another until desired for 
 use. The principal growth of the roots takes place in the autumn ; therefore, when used tbo 
 first season, they should not be dug until November. They will not be injured by frosts, eve>\ 
 in New England, but will live through the winter, and when once started, will continue to 
 girow and spread with as much rapidity as artiehoke.s, requiring very little care. They will 
 not, however, be injured in quality and become strong and woody like the roots of the pars- 
 nip, and some other plants, after the first year's growth. It is well to give them a covering 
 of straw, leaves, or spruce boughs for the winter, in those sections where the climate is very 
 severe, which covering should be removed eai'ly in the spring. It is a very nutritious and 
 healthful article of food, but will never be valued as highly in this country as the sweet or 
 common potato, although it might prove quite a good substitute for either, in case there 
 were a necessity for a substitute, by a failure of the former crops. They may be roasted or 
 boiled, possessing something of the rice flavor ,is well as that of the Irish potato. The vines 
 of the Chinese yam make a very pretty climbing plant, and suitable for screens, arbors, or 
 coverings for unsightly places. They will not blossom until the roots are two years old, after 
 that the flowering is very abundant, the blossoms having a fragrnnce similar to that of cinna- 
 mon. A few tubers ]:ilanted near a door or window, with tlie vines trained over or about it, 
 make a very desirable ornament. 
 
 TURNIPS. 
 
 THE value of the turnip product of this country is not to be compared with that of Eng- 
 land, where it forms one of the most important of field crops, as food for stock, and 
 where they are also commonly fed to sheep from the fields, which are enclosed with hur- 
 dles or movable fences. There is, however, scarcely a farmer in this country but tbat has his 
 turnip-field, although usually hmited when compared with the extent of land appropriated to 
 many other crops. The nutritive properties of the turnip, when compared with some other 
 root crops, are not great, on account of the large proportion of water in their composition, 
 which is about ninety per cent. ; but they are valuable when fed with other substances. The 
 turnip is found growing wild in Europe and Northern Asia, but cultivation has improved 
 it almost beyond recognition as the same species of plant. 
 
 The common flat turnip was introduced into the United States by our English ancestors, 
 and has ever since that time been regarded as a palatable vegetable for the table. In this 
 country, turnips are used for feeding sheep, more than otlier stock, carrots and mangel-wurtzels 
 being generally considered more valuable food for cows and horses. Tiu'nips are a crop that 
 can be raised with comparatively little labor and in large bulk, the average yield of many sec- 
 tions being from 800 to 1.000 bushels per acre, and hence in this respect are an economical 
 crop for those farmers having lands and stock suited to their cultivation and use. 
 Tliey are, however, considered rather cold food for severe winter weather, and when given to 
 pregnant ewes in this season, should be mixed or fed in connection with something having a 
 tendency to prnduce warmtli, such as corn or meal. 
 
TURNIPS. 359 
 
 To give an idea of the comparative nutritive value of some of the leading root-crops, we 
 append the following table of analyses from the work of Drs. Voelcker and Lankester : — 
 
 TABLE OP NUTRITIVE VALUE OP ROOTS. 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Flesh Formers. 
 
 Fat Formers. 
 
 Woody Fiber. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Sugar Beets, 
 
 81.0.5 
 
 1.00 
 
 15.40 
 
 1.03 
 
 .80 
 
 Mangel-Wurtzela, . 
 
 87.78 
 
 1.54 
 
 8.G0 
 
 1.12 
 
 .96 
 
 Ruta-bagas, 
 
 89.40 
 
 1.44 
 
 5.93 
 
 2.54 
 
 .62 
 
 Yellow Aberdeen Turnip, 
 
 90.57 
 
 1.80 
 
 4.64 
 
 2.34 
 
 .66 
 
 Large Globe Turnip, 
 
 90.43 
 
 1.14 
 
 2.96 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.02 
 
 Carrot. 
 
 85.00 
 
 1.50 
 
 10.80 
 
 1.70 
 
 1.00 
 
 Varieties. — There are many varieties of both the white and yellow turnip, while the 
 ruta-baga, Swedish or Russian turnip. — also known as the " French turnip," — form a distinct 
 class. The following are some of the best white-flesh varieties : Early Flat Dutch, Early 
 Snow-Ball, White-Top Strap-leaved, Red-Top Strap-leaved, Purple-Top Globe, White Globe, 
 Long White Jersey, Large White Norfolk, Long White Tankard, and Long White or Cow 
 Horn. The first two ai-e of medium size, quick growth, tender and juicy when young, but if 
 overgrown or long kept, will become spongy and inferior in quality. Both the strap-leaved 
 varieties are early, of medium size, and nearly round in form ; they ha\ie but few leaves, 
 which somewhat resemble the horse-radish in shape. They are essentially alike, except the 
 Red-Top is either red or purple above ground, while the other is pure white. They are now 
 taking the place of the old Early Dutch varieties. The Purple-Top Globe is a fine market 
 variety and keeps well. 
 
 The White Globe attains a large size and is better adapted to stock-feeding than table 
 purposes, being too coarse in texture for the latter. The same might be said of the Norfolk, 
 which is a large English variety, and valuable for field culture and feeding stock. The Long 
 White Jersey and Long Wliite Tankard are both good early varieties. The Long 
 White or Cow Horn, attains a large size, and is in shape similar to the carrot ; it grows half 
 out of the ground with tops small and spreading, is sweet and tender and valuable for general 
 cultivation. It should be harvested before severe frosts, or its quality will be hable to be 
 injured, being exposed to frost more than those covered wholly by the soil. Some of the 
 leading yellow varieties are the Yellow Malta, Early Yellow Dutch, Early Yellow Finland, 
 Aberdeen Purple-Top, Robertson's Golden Ball, and Large Yellow Globe. The first three are 
 early, with small or medium-sized globular roots, and are excellent garden varieties for sum- 
 mer and autumn use. The Yellow Aberdeen is globular, hardy, and solid, and valuable for 
 general cultivation. Robertson's Golden Ball is globular, of rich flavor, and has unrivalled 
 keeping qualities ; it is valuable for both culinary and stock purposes. The Large Yellow 
 Globe lias a large globular root of pale yellow, and is one of the best for general use ; it will 
 keep hard and brittle until late in the spring. The Ruta-baga is close-grained, very hard, 
 and will endure considerable cold without injury, but is not in perfection for table use until 
 nearly spring. It is much richer and sweeter than the common turnip, and will keep much 
 longer in good condition. 
 
 Among the choice varieties of the ruta-baga are the Skirving's Purple-Top, Laing's 
 Improved, the Bloomsdale, Carter's Imperial Swede, Sutton's Champion Swede, Improved 
 American, Sweet German, and Long White French. The first, by its quick vegetation, gen- 
 erally escapes the ravages of the enemy of the turnip, the fly, and is of strong growth and 
 well adapted to field culture^ Laing's Improved is a very handsome variety, of globe shape 
 and fine quality. Carter's Imperial Swede is a new English variety, highly recommended fw- 
 both its quality and for producing extraordinarily large crops. The Bloomsdale is an improved 
 purple-top variety and is regarded with much favor. Sutton's Champion Swede is also an 
 English variety, and is said to be the hardiest, heaviest cropping, and one of the most nutri- 
 23 
 
3G0 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 tious kinds known. The Improved American is largely grown in this country both for table 
 and stock-feeding purposes, and is of fine quality and keeps well until summer. The Sweet 
 German and liong White French are both sweet -flavored and fine-grained and valuable for 
 table purposes ; they are quite similar in all respects, the latter being a variety of the former. 
 In good soil and under favorable circumstances, the Sweet German will grow veiy smooth 
 and regular in form, but under unfavorable conditions it often grows very uneven ; they both 
 require earlier so\<'ing than other varieties of turnips. 
 
 Cultivation. — Turnips can be grown on ahnost any kind of soil, from sand down to 
 lieavy clay and muck, but the common English turnip does best on a light sandy, or gravelly 
 loam, well-manured with superphosphates, bone-dust, or guano, and ashes applied at the time 
 of sowing the seed. Ruta-bagas thrive best on a heavy soil made very rich. Land thai has 
 been newly cleared and burnt over, and old pasture ground plowed two or three times during 
 the summer, and enriched with superphosphates, bone dust, or guano and ashes, as above 
 recommended, will produce the smoothest and sweetest turnips. When farm manure is 
 applied, it must be thoroughly decomposed, and made very fine, besides being well-mixed 
 with the soil. Fresh stable manaire should never be used for turnips, as it injures the quality 
 of the crop for table use, giving theni a strong, unpleasant flavor; besides, they are more lia- 
 ble to be eaten by worms when farm manure is used than when commercial fertilizers are 
 applied; neither will the bulbs grow as regular in form, or as smooth. 
 
 Land for turnips should be plowed to a moderate depth in the spring, about the time 
 of plowing for corn, and kept free from weeds by an occasional harrowing. Just before sow- 
 ing the seed, it should be plowed again and thoroughly liarrowed, that the soil may be well- 
 pulverized and moist, to induce an early germination of the seed, and rapid growth. 
 
 The fertilizers used should be applied broadcast, and well-mixed with the harrow. A 
 rapid growth is of importance in order to get the plants beyond the danger of injury by 
 insects as soon as possible. The sowing may be broadcast or in drills, though the largest 
 crops are obtained by the latter method, which admits of after-culture, and which is a great 
 Ljnefit to the crop, while the former does not. 
 
 From one and a half to two pounds of seed will be required per acre for broadcast sow- 
 ing, and at least two pounds when sowed in drills. This is a larger quantity than would 
 be required providing all the seeds should gerjninate, and the plants thrive; but as some will 
 not, and many plants will be destroyed by the turnip-fly, or other insects, it is safe to sow 
 liberally. One-half inch is a sufficient covering for the seed. 
 
 It is best to put in the seed just before a rain, as this will afford a better escape from 
 the fiy, and induce a quick germination and growth. 
 
 For the fall and principal crop of the English or common turnip, the sowing at the 
 North may be from tlie middle of July to the last of August; at the South, it may be delayed 
 until later, according to the latitude. If in drills, the rows should be fi'om sixteen to eigh- 
 teen inches apart. When the plants are well started, or when the rough leaf is fairly devel- 
 oped, they should be thinned out to about six or eight inches apart. This may be done with 
 a small hoe the first time, cutting out rows so as to leave small tufts of four or five plants at 
 i-egular intervals. After the plants rally from this operation, the surplus ones may be 
 removed, leaving the strongest and most vigorous plant of each tuft for growth. This ma_y 
 be done by hand, but it involves considerable labor in a stooping posture, which, to say the 
 least, is very uncomfortable. This labor can, with little practice, be very easily performed 
 with a hand-hoe; it is accomplished by an alternate thrusting and drawing motion of the hoe, 
 a little practice of which will enable the operator to perform so successfully that double plants 
 or vacant spaces will be very rare in the rows. The single plants should be from eight to ten 
 inches apart after the last thinning process. 
 
 The weeds should be kept down with a cultivator or horse-hoe, and the soil stirred in 
 
TURNIPS 
 
 361 
 
 this manner several times during the 
 the leaves attain a very large growth. 
 Shortly after the plants are out of the 
 early in the morning, when wet with 
 application, repeated a few times with 
 safeguard. After putting out the rou 
 farmers give the soil a top-dressing of 
 seed. 
 
 season, which cultivation should be completed before 
 A hand-hoe will be required for use between the plants, 
 ground, they should receive a sprinkling of lime-dust 
 dew, to prevent the attacks of the turnip-fly. This 
 three or four days intei^vening, will prove an efficient 
 gh leaf, they are safe from the attack of the fiy. Many 
 plaster and wood-ashes immediately after sowing the 
 
 THE BOSTON HORSE-HOE. 
 
 The above cut represents the Boston horse-hoe, which is extensively used in the cultiva- 
 tion ol corn and all kinds of roots. The rear plows or moulds are reversible, so as to throw 
 the earth to or from the plants, as desired. It can also be contracted to fifteen inches in 
 width, or expanded to thirty-six inches, and is gauged to work any depth from three to 
 seven inches. 
 
 Cultivation of Spring Turnips, — For an early crop, the seed should be sown as 
 soon in the spring as the ground will admit of preparation, and should be well-pulverized and 
 enriched, as previously recommended. 
 
 The Early Wliite Dutch, or Strap-leaved varieties, are very good for this purpose. They 
 should be sown in drills, and kept perfectly free from weeds, the culture given to be the same 
 as that for the fall crop. 
 
 Mr. B. K. Bliss advises that, when the roots begin to enlarge, the earth should be brushed 
 away about them to the depth of a half-inch or more, and a light dressing of wood-ashes 
 given them. He says this is the surest mode of obtaining fair and smooth spring turnips in 
 old gardens, where they are almost certain to grow wormy, if the earth is allowed to remain 
 in contact with the rojts. It is important to get them started very early, so that they may 
 have time to grow of sufficient size before the very hot weather, when they will soon become 
 tough and strong. 
 
 They may be started much earlier by sowing in a hot-bed, or cold-frame, and trans- 
 planting in a wet day, when they have attain ?d to five or six leaves. They should have the 
 earth pi-essed close about the roots in setting out, and be watered well for a few days after. 
 A fine crop of spring turnips may be raised by the ordinary method on fresh land, or land 
 that has not been subjected to cultivation for several j^ears. 
 
 Cultivation of Ruta-Bagas, or Swedish Turnips. — Heavy soils are best adapted 
 to this crop, and the land should be rather dry and rich. It frequently follows com or wheat 
 in rotation, but roots of the best quaUty are obtained from fresh soils, being less liable to 
 worms or insect enemies. Very good crops are obtained from freslily-turned sod. The 
 quality of fertihzing material to be applied will depend upon the nature of the soil, but they 
 
?,(32 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 will require a richer soil than the common turnip, although the same kind of fertiUzers. The 
 Beed should be sown from the 20th of June to the 1st July. Drill-culture is the usual mode, 
 although some set them in hills. The drills should be at a distance of two feet, and the 
 plants either thinned out or transplanted ten inches apart. It is customary in many sections 
 to sow the seed in a bed and transplant afterward. The after-culture is similar to that of the 
 common turniji previously given. 
 
 The following method of cultivating the Swede turnip is given by a gentlemen of 
 Ontario: '• This crop is one which only a few farmers can raise to perfection; but for these few, it 
 is not a difficult matter. When once its requirements and manner of cultivating the soil are 
 understood, it is an easy mattei' to raise a crop of turnips. Neither does the land chosen for 
 the crop need to be free from weeds, or in a high state of fertility. In this township — Pick- 
 ering, Ont., noted for its large number of stock-breeders, and the excellent quality of its 
 stock — every farmer has his turnip-field (I know of only one exception) sowed generally at 
 the rate of 5 acres on a 100-acre farm. The field chosen is next to the fallow, the weediest 
 on the farm. It is first plowed, well-harrowed and rolled; then between fifteen and twenty 
 loads of manure to the acre are drawn on. By loads, I mean as much as two good farm- 
 horses can, without straining, draw on a wagon. Then it is plowed twice more, at intervals 
 of a week between each plowing, giving at least three harrowings, and a rolling between each 
 plowing. This may be thought to be a great deal of work, but as the destruction of weeds 
 is one of the objects, this object is, as regards thistles, thoroughly reached by the repeated 
 plowings and harrowings, especially if it be a dry season. This large quantity of work, also, 
 both pulverizes and mixes well the manures with the soil, and renders available all the fer- 
 tility, a great part of which would otherwise lie dormant. 
 
 The field is then ridged up, either with a double mould-board plow made for the purpose, 
 or with a common plow, and the seed is sowed as fast as ridged, so that it is sure to be placed 
 in the yet moist earth. The sowing is done by a drill, sowing two rows at once. Generally 
 two pounds to the acre are put in, as the young plants do better when a little 'crowded. The 
 seed must not be sowed until after the 15th of June, as the fly will eat the young plants as 
 ■fast as they appear if sown earlier than that date. After the plants are large enough to hoe, 
 a hoe about ten inches long and two wide, made for the purpose, is used, and the soil, 
 together with the supernumerary plants, is pushed away from the plant left. The plants, 
 after thinning, are from ten to twelve inches apart, and lying on their sides. The rows must 
 first be scuffled as closely as possible. After this, one or two scufflings and another hoeing 
 are all that are required. 
 
 The last week in October and first week in November is the harvesting season. Two 
 rows are pulled at once. The knife being held in the right hand, the turnip is pulled with 
 the left, cleaned and topped, then thrown into the furrow at the right, while the tops are 
 thrown to the left; thus four rows are thrown into one, leaving, after pulling, just room for 
 a wagon or cart to be driven between the rows. September and October is the growing 
 season. Frosts that do not freeze the ground solid have no effect on the Swede turnip. By 
 this manner of cultivation crops averaging from three to nine hundred bushels per acre are 
 grown, often yielding as high as a thousand bushels, while the land is left in the best condi- 
 tion, rich and free from weeds." 
 
 Harvesting. — Turnips should be gathered before severe frosts set in, although on those 
 sections of the country not affected to any extent by frost they are often, when on dry soils, 
 left on the field during the winter ; the quality is, however, improved by gathering, as they 
 are liable to grow rank in flavor and wormy by remaining in the ground so long. The tops 
 are most easily cut with a sharp hoe before pulling the turnips, a common hoe ground sharp 
 being used for the purpose. It is better to cut off the tops about an inch from the bulb if 
 possible, as they will keep better than when cut close. The roots may afterwards be pulled 
 
TUKXIPS. 3g3 
 
 with a chain harrow, a hoe, or by hand. The following method of harvesting turnips is 
 given by a leading farmer in the State of New York: — 
 
 •' The one thing that makes labor in the root-field so unpalatable to Americans is the con- 
 stant stooping that it nearly always involves. I obviate this almost entirely in harvesting 
 by using the hoe, ground sharp. With this in your hands, begin at the outside row, and 
 as you follow it down, cut the top clean from each turnip with the blade, striking right or 
 left, as is most convenient. The impetus given to the top will carry it about half way to the 
 adjoining row. Returning in this, you strike in the same direction, and so proceed. After 
 a few minutes practice, two or three tops may be cut with one blow, and almost any one can 
 "top" as fast as he ordinarily walks. After the field has been thus "topped," it will present 
 this appearance: Two rows of turnips will alternate with each row of tops. In pulling the 
 roots, strike the blade of the hoe back of the turnip, and with a quick jerk, pull it toward the 
 adjoining row, pulled or unpuUed. The blade of the hoe cut;! many of the lateral roots, thus 
 rendering the task of pulling comparatively easy. After topping and pulling, a row of 
 turnips will alternate with a row of tops; and in hauling, the wagon should be driven between 
 these rows of turnips. I have myself topped and puiled by this method four hundred and 
 five hundred bushels in ten hours." The tops are worth gathering as food for stock. 
 
 KOOT CUTTER. 
 
 storing. — Turnips require a cool, dark place for storage. When raised only in small 
 quantities they may be stored in a cellar, either in bins or upon the ground. They will keep 
 better to have but a few bushels in a place, and cover slightly with earth or sand. Heat 
 is detrimental, but they will bear considerable cold without injury. 
 
 They may be preserved in very good condition in trenches; in fact, all root crops will 
 keep better in trenches than in a common cellar, and come out in the spring almost as fresh 
 as when put in, providing the trenches are properly managed. They should not, however, 
 be piled deep in such pits. Trenches from two to two and a half feet wide and two and a 
 half feet deep, and as long as required for the quantity to be stored, are the best for this 
 purpose. The turnips should be put in to the depth of only a foot and then covered with the 
 earth that was thrown out in digging. It is better to have the soil for the pits quite dry, and 
 the land a little sloping, to admit of drainage. Should the weather be very severe, a covering 
 of stable manure thrown upon the tops of the trenches will prevent freezing. A root-cellar, 
 made similar to a silo, and which has been previously recommended for the storage of potatoes. 
 
3G4 THE A:\rEKICAN FAKMKI!. 
 
 is one of the best means of storage for turnips; they are, however, somewhat expensive in con- 
 struction, but when once made, are serviceable for many years. It is customary in some sections 
 to lay them upon the dry ground, in a locality slightly sloping to the south, in long piles like 
 hay-windrows, the piles about three feet through; they are then covered with straw about 
 six or eight inches, and earth eight or ten inches, leaving a straw ventilator every ten or 
 twelve feet. Another method is to put them in large round piles of from thirty to forty 
 bushels each, and cover in the same manner. These methods involve considerable labor and 
 some risk in freezing in extreme cold weather, which are obviated in a propei-ly-constructed 
 root-cellar. 
 
 Turnips and ruta-bagas are best fed to cattle and sheep in an uncooked state; they should 
 always be first properly cut before being fed to stock of any kind. They should also never 
 be fed to cattle on the ground in a yard or field, but always in the manger, where they can 
 eat them more quietly without danger of getting choked or hooked by others, and where they 
 can also get their proper share, as a few in every herd are the "master spirits," and will 
 drive and fight all others when they have the opportunity. 
 
 Raising Turnip Seed. — For growing seed, the best turnips should be selected from 
 the crop in the fall, and placed apart from the others where they will be well preserved, 
 leaving an inch or so of the tops on the bulbs. As soon as the ground will admit in the spring, 
 these should be set out in land that has been plowed and pulverized, setting in rows that are 
 three or four feet apart, and from eighteen to twenty inches apart in the rows. The setting 
 should be carefully done, making provision for the end root, and covering the bulb entirely 
 with the soil, leaving only the sprouts at the top out of the ground. The plants should be 
 kept free from weeds, which will involve the use of the hand-hoe; or if a large quantity of 
 seed is to be grown, the cultivator or horse-hoe may be serviceable for this purpose. When the 
 plants arc about blossoming, it is a good plan to bring the earth up around the stalks in order 
 to give them support and keep them in an upright position. When a majority of the pods 
 have become dry, the stalks should be cut and put in some safe place to dry. It is well to 
 ■cut them when the dew is on them or just after a shower, as the pods will open very easily, 
 and the seed shell out; careful handling will be necessary, even with this precaution, to 
 prevent the loss of seed. Different kinds should never be set near each other, as they will be 
 liable to become mixed, and the distinct varieties thus lost. "When the pods have become 
 dry, the seed may be easily shelled out and cleaned, the same as clover or grass seed. 
 
 BEETS. 
 
 THE beet may be used as an esculent in all stages of its growth, and is universally culti- 
 vated in some of its varieties, of which there are many. There are also a few varieties 
 grown specially for stock-feeding purposes. 
 Beside these uses, large quantities are annually utilized in Europe, and to a limited extent 
 in this country, in the manufacture of sugar, but whether beet sugar will ever become a 
 profitable product in America has not yet been sufficiently demonstrated to place the question 
 beyond a doubt, jn the minds of many of our leading agriculturists. The different varieties 
 vary in size, form, and color, but more especially in the latter respect, although the color 
 does not seem to affect their quality. They are deep red, purple, pink, yellow, white, or 
 mottled with varieties of shades. The culture of all varieties is similar. It is estimated 
 that an acre of this crop can be grown as cheaply as the same area appropriated to potato 
 culture, but that the yield will be four or five times that of the latter, in bushels. 
 
 The abundance of the crop will, however, depend much upon the soil and method of 
 
BEETS. 365 
 
 culture. Beets are one of tlie cheapest, most productive, and nutritious roots that can be 
 raised for cattle, sheep, and swine, and are especially valuable as food for milch-cows, and 
 breeding-ewes. 
 
 Varieties. — There are so many varieties of the beet, some of which are of a local 
 character, that it is almost useless to attempt to enumerate them. The following, however, 
 are some of the most popular among the leading varieties generally cultivated. The Early 
 Bassano, originally from Italy, is one of the earhest varieties known. The root is flat and 
 light red in color, the flesh being white, encircled with rose color. It is tender and juicy. "When 
 designed for winter use, it should be sown late, as early-grown varieties will not keep through 
 the winter. Other standard varieties are Bastian's Extra Early Red, Bastian's Half-long 
 Blood Beet, the Egyptian Blood Turnip, Early Blood Turnip, Early Yellow Turnip, or 
 Orange, Long Blood Red, Lamb's Lnproved Imperial Sugar, and the French Sugar-Beet. 
 The last two mentioned are especially valuable as containing a larger percentage of sugar 
 than the ordinary varieties, and may be used for table purposes, feeding stock, or sugar man- 
 ufacture. The French variety is cultivated extensively in France for the latter purpose. 
 The Swiss Chard, sometimes called ''Sea-Kale Beet," is cultivated for its leaves, which are 
 used as spinach. 
 
 Cultivation. — A fair crop of beets may be grown from a variety of soils; very fine 
 yields being generally obtained from one of a rich, strong, and partially clayey nature, but 
 that upon which it thrives best, and which is most suited to its successful culture, is a rich 
 but rather light loam, which has been well manured the previous season. 
 
 Where this cannot be had conveniently, manure that has been ihoroughlu composted may 
 be used, as fresh yard -manure injures the quality of the crop and causes the roots to grow 
 tough and forked, while smooth, straight and medium-sized roots are the most desirable. Unless 
 ■well-fermented farm manure can be had for the purpose, guano may be successfully used 
 instead; bone-dust or superphosphate will also answer the same purpose. Some farmers 
 apply a light dressing of guano after the plants are up, in addition to previous application of 
 fertilizers to the land. 
 
 The soil should always be well pulverized for this crop, and is best rendered so by a fall 
 plowing, to be followed by another plowing and harrowing in the spring; the manure to be 
 well harrowed in. For an early crop, the seed should be sown as soon as the ground can be 
 worked in the spring; but for winter use, the sowing should be delayed until June or the 
 early part of July. The sowing should be in drills from fifteen to eighteen inches apart, and 
 covered about an inch deep with friable soil. A dry day is best for this purpose, and if the 
 seed has been soaked in tepid water for twenty-four hours previous, it will germinate much 
 sooner. 
 
 Sowing in a hot-bed or cold-frame, and transplanting, is sometimes resorted to by those 
 desiring an extra early small crop. An ounce of seed will sow a drill of one hundred feet 
 in length, and from four to five pounds is sufficient for an acre. When the plants are from 
 two to three inches in height, they should be thinned out from seven to nine inches apart with 
 a hoe, the same as turnips, taking care not to injure or cut the leaves of those left for growth, 
 leaving the plants in little tufts of two or three. When these have rallied from the thinning 
 process, another thinning should be given, leaving only one plant in a place. All vacant 
 spaces should also be filled by transplanting. The wheel-hoe, or a similar implement, should 
 be frequently used to keep down the weeds, and the surface be well stirred about the roots 
 of the young plants, which, when last thinned, should be from two to twelve inches apart. 
 Cultivation should be continued until the leaves nearly cover the ground. When the extra 
 long varieties are grown, the manure may be covered to a depth of four or five inches at the 
 second plowing, and the drills made a little farther apart than for the smaller kinds. In all 
 after-culture, care should be exercised to prevent breaking the leaves of the plants. 
 
360 
 
 
 1 «v\iss Crasd Belt 
 i BA■tTlA^ s E\TR» t>EiT Red Beet. 
 3 BiSTiAN 6 II 11 F I \G BLoon Beet. 
 4. £OTPTlAi> Blold TiRMp Beet. 
 
 6. Improved Loso Bioon Red Beit 
 
 6. YtLt/lW nLOBE Mt.NGEt-WlRztl BmI 
 V. I>REr.R's iMPEflVEI. LlMA BeaS. 
 8. OivaxTr:'.; TaLOSSAL .Asparaqcs. 
 
 9. LiBGE Gbeen Globe Abtichoee. 
 Copied by permission from Catalogue of H. A. Dreer, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
BEETS. 367 
 
 The winter crop should be harvested before severe frosts, the last of October being the 
 usual time in the Nortliern States. Beets are subject to but few diseases and but slight 
 injuries from insects. 
 
 Mangel Wurzels. — This is a large, coarse-textured variety of beet, which is exten- 
 sively cultivated for feeding stock. The roots grow to a very large size, but are similar in 
 their constituent properties to the common beet, — although of coarser texture. There are 
 several varieties of the Mangel Wurzel, among the most desirable of which are the Long 
 Red Mangel, which is sometimes, when young, used for table purposes; the Mammoth Long 
 Red, which, as its name indicates, grows to a very large size, a single lOot weighing fifty 
 pounds having been exhibited not long since at the Smithfield Club Cattle-Show; it is also of 
 very good quality. The Yellow Cxiobe, Red Globe, and the Ovoid, Ijoth Yellow and Red, are 
 also good varieties. 
 
 In the feeding of Mangel Wurzels, only a small quantity should be given at first, as they 
 will have a tendency to irritate the bowels if fed too libeially, until the stock is accus- 
 tomed to the food, or if fed in the early part of the winter, before the ripening process is com- 
 pleted, and the starch they contain is converted into sugar. Where turnips are used for 
 stock food, it is better to feed those first, and reseive the mangolds until the middle or latter 
 part of the winter, when they are more nutritious, and will not be as liable to have an irritat- 
 ing or diuretic effect upon the system of animals. From twenty-five to thirty tons per acre 
 is the average yield, although under favoring circumstances as many as eighty tons to the 
 acre have been produced, the yield depending much upon the variety, soil, etc. They will 
 keep well until the middle of the summer, if properly stored. 
 
 Culture. — The soil and its preparation for Mangel Wurzel should be similar to that for 
 tlie ordinary beet, except that land intended for the former crop should be plowed and finely 
 pulverized long enough before sowing the seed to admit of its settling (^own a little firmly 
 before the seed is deposited, which should be from the middle of April to the middle of May, 
 the quantity required being four or five pounds per acre. The seed should be sown about 
 two inches apart, in drills that are from two to two and a half feet apart, in order to admit 
 of the use of horse-power in the cultivation of the crop. If the soil be light and the weather 
 dry, the roller should be used to press the earth down upon the seed and hasten its germina- 
 tion. When the plants are up about two and a half inches, they should be thinned out to twelve 
 or fifteen inches apart, and the after-culture be similar to that of the common beet. In cul- 
 tivating, as much care as possible should be used to prevent breaking the leaves. Two or 
 three hundred weight of salt per acre mixed with the manure, is thought by many growers 
 to be of great advantage to the crop. 
 
 Harvestiug and Storage. — Beets should be harvested b2fore there is danger of 
 injury from frosts. The tops should be cut to within one inch of the bulb, and the small 
 roots remain on such as are intended for late keeping. In pulling and cleaning the roots, 
 care should be used not to wound or cut off any of the large fibers, as it injures the quality 
 and induces a tendency to decay; neither should they ever be allowed to wilt, for having 
 once become wilted or shriveled, they will never I'ecover their firm and brittle texture. In 
 stacking them, they will keep better if the crowns are placed outward. They may be stored 
 in a cool cellar and slightly covered with dry earth, or in piles of from twenty to thirty 
 bushels each, and covered with sufiicient straw and earth to keep out the frost, as recom- 
 mended for ruta bagas. 
 
368 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 CARROTS. 
 
 THE carrot is one of the most valuable roots for feeding stock, besides being quite 
 hard)' and easy of cultivation. It is of especial value for feeding borses and cattle. 
 Milch-cows will give an increased flow of milk, with rich, yellow cream, when fed upon it. 
 While hoi-ses can be kept in good condition with a considerably less quantity of oats than 
 the usual allowance when about twenty pounds of carrots are given them daily; they also 
 promote a healthy condition of animals and give a sleek appearance to the coat. Larger 
 crops can be obtained on light soil than of turnips, and with less exhaustion; in fact, if the 
 land is well manured, carrots can be grown upon the same soil for several successive years 
 without deterioration to the crop or soil. They can be kept to an advanced period in the spring 
 when properly stored. Care should be exercised in saving the seed from only the best 
 selected routs, as there is a tendency in this crop to degener-ate, if the seed is not of the best 
 quality. 
 
 The plant is a native of the East, and in its wild state is a small root, sticky and strong- 
 flavored, which cultivation has changed almost beyond recognition. 
 
 The leaves of the carrot were considered so beautiful dui-ing the reign of Charles 1, that 
 they were worn for ornaments, in place of feathers, by the ladies of England. They are 
 eaten by stock, either green or dry. 
 
 Tarieties. — There are several varieties of the carrot, which diSer wdth respect to size, 
 form, color, qualities, and period of ripening. The following are considered the best for field 
 culture and stock feeding: the Improved Long Orange. Long Red Altringham, Half -long 
 Scarlet, Danvers (an intermediate variety), Orange Belgian, and the Large TThite Belgian. 
 The last two are a large variety, grown in this country exclusively for stock; they are less 
 fine in texture than the other varieties, although the yield is larger. The roots grow high 
 out of the ground, which renders the harvesting of the crop quite easy. The Large White 
 Belgian is much cultivated in France for soups and seasonings as weU as for stock. 
 
 Among the varieties for garden culture are many of the above mentioned, together with 
 the Earliest French Farcing, a small root prized for its earliness and superior flavor; the 
 Early Scarlet Horn, an early variety of deep orange color and abrupt termination of root; 
 Early Short Horn, and Early Half-long Carentan. The carrot is said to be next to the potato 
 in nutritive value. 
 
 Cultivation. — The soU best suited to the cultivation of carrots is a light, deep, sand}' 
 loam, or one of a peaty character, although very fair crops can be obtained from almost any 
 that is neither too wet nor too dry, and that is made very rich. Farm-yard manure should 
 not be applied until after it has been well fermented, as it will, if fresh, induce the growth of 
 forked and ill-shaped roots of inferior quality; therefore it is best to select land that has been 
 heavily manured the previous season, or if that is not practicable, most of the manure should 
 be applied in the fall. The plowing should be very deep, and the soil finely pulverized and 
 free from stones, but most of the manure should be near the surface, within reach of the 
 young plants in the early stages of their growth. The manure, as well as the soil, should be 
 made very fine. Bone-dust, gixano, or supei-phosphate may be used as a substitute, or to sup- 
 plement farm manure for this purpose. Artificial manures are often applied after the plants 
 are out of the groimd. It is well to plow the land for this crop earh' in the spring, and again 
 just before sowing the seed, in order to seciu-e a thorough pulverization of the soil and the 
 destruction of the weeds. The best crops are generally secured where the soil is deeplv 
 trenched and ridged, as long before sowing as possible. 
 
 The early varieties may be sown as soon as the ground is in a working condition in the 
 spring, but the main crop should be sown in the early part of May. The seed should bo 
 
CARROTS. 
 
 ;j(i9 
 
 sown ill drills from fifteen to twenty inches apart, the larger varieties requiring more space 
 than the smaller. If the seed of the early varieties is put in early in the spring, the crop 
 will be liable to ripen too soon and not keep as well dm-ing the winter as those sown later in 
 the season ; but if the sowing be delayed too late, the young plants, being rather weak when 
 they first come up, will be liable to be dried and withered in the hot sun. The seed should 
 be covered evenly to the depth of about an inch. If soaked a day or two in tepid water 
 before sowing, and mixed immediately after in dry plaster or ashes, the plants will come up 
 much sooner, and the tirst weeding will thus be much easier. As soon as the plants are 
 suiEciently strong, they should be thinned out so as to leave about six inches between each 
 plant, if of the smaller kinds, or eight inches of the larger varieties. The ground should be 
 kept clear of weeds, but deep stirring of the soil should be avoided, as it would have a ten- 
 dency to injure the roots and cause them to grow forked and irregular. There are various 
 weeders, and both 
 horse and hand hoes 
 admirably adapted to 
 this pui-pose. 
 
 CuItiTatiiis; 
 Seed. — It is very im- 
 portant to secure see 1 
 of the previous year's 
 growth, for if older, 
 their germination 
 cannot be depended 
 upon with any de- 
 gree of certainty. 
 An ounce of seed 
 
 will sow a hundred and fifty feet of driU, and from two to three pounds will be sufBcient for 
 an acre. In securing seed for c:rrots, it is important that the best roots be selected for the 
 purpose — those of good size, form, and color. These should be set out as early as the ground 
 will admit, without d mger from fiost, in land deeply plowed and properly fertilized. The roots 
 should be well covered, and if they are very long, holes should be made for them in the soil 
 with an iron bar. The rows should be from three to four feet apart, and the roots from one 
 and a half to two feet apart in the row. They should have an occasional hoeing and be kept 
 free from weeds. When the branches become dry and yellow and the seed turns brown, the 
 heads may be cut and put in a dry place. The heads will ripen unevenly, and will require 
 cutting at different times. 
 
 Harvesting and Storing. — The crop should be gathered before being injured by 
 the frost, and in dry weather when the roots will come out of the ground dry and clean. 
 They may be harvested with facility by running a plow on one side of the rows, after which 
 they can be easily removed by hand; hut care should be taken not to injure or bruise them 
 in any way, as it will cause them to decay. The tops should be cut close to the crown to 
 prevent sprouting in winter. They should lie a day in the sun, and become well dried and a 
 little wilted before storing. They may be deposited in small heaps in a cool cellar and 
 covered with dry sand, or stored in trenches, the same as other roots. Carrots are apt to 
 sweat and heat when packed away in large quantities. They will keep best in a dry place 
 and one that is sufficiently cool to avoid freezing, dampness and heat being detrimental to 
 their good preservation. 
 
 KNOX S CARHOT AND COTTON WEEDER. 
 
370 
 
 THE AMERICAN FAUMEH. 
 
 1. Improved Long Oeanob C4rrot. 
 
 2. Early IIai.f-Lonq Scarllt Carrot. 
 
 8. Early Very Short Horn Scarlet Carrot. 
 
 4. Early Scarlft Horn Carrot. 
 
 6. Eably Half-Long Caeentan Carrot. 
 
 6. Laroe Whiti BiLOlA,* Carrot. 
 
 7. Small Gherkin, or Burr CtictiMBBR. 
 
 8. Improved Imperial Suoae Beet. 
 
 9. LoNo Red Manoei.-Wurzel Bkrt. 
 10. Lenoruand's Short-Stiim CAULirion 
 
 Copied by permi^uioD from Catalogue of U. A. Drecr, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
371 
 
 PARSNIPS. 
 
 THE parsnip is a delicious table vegetable, especially in the early spring; besides, it is 
 excellent for feeding stock, being nearly equal to the carrot in nutritive value. It is 
 relished by cattle, sheep, and swine, but is thought to be not as good for horses as 
 carrots. The leaves furnish fodder for cattle whether green or dry. In its wild state the 
 roots are fibrous, small, and strong flavored, but cultivation has changed it into a root of fine 
 texture, good size, and most delicate flavor. 
 
 Varieties. — There are but few varieties of the parsnip; the principal are the Early 
 Eound French, an early variety of delicate flavor, the Long Smooth, or Hollow Crown, with 
 long, smooth roots, tender and sweet, the tops of which ai-e small with a red tinge at the 
 crown, wliich rises from the center surrounded by a slight depression. It is very hardy and 
 keeps through the winter well without any protection. The Student is a new variety of fine 
 quality, improved from the wild parsnip by Prof. Buckmau of the Royal Agricultural College, 
 Cirencester, England, which has met with much favor. 
 
 Cultivation. — The soil for parsnips should be heavier than that for carrots, this crop 
 thriving best in a deep, rich soil, and, unlike the latter, favors that in which clay predomi- 
 nates. The soil for all root crops should be deeply tilled, and finely pulverized. The culture 
 given should be similar to that for carrots. All fresh manure for fertilizing should be 
 avoided, being injurious to the crop, and, as is recommended for carrots, the best lands are 
 those that have been heavily manured the previous season. When farm manure well fer- 
 mented is used, it should be made very fine. The seed should be sown in drills from fifteen 
 to eighteen inche.s apart, scattered sparingly, and covered from half an inch to an inch with 
 finely pulverized soil. Soaking the seed a day or two in tepid water before planting will 
 cause them to germinate more quickly. The sowing should be early in the season, as they 
 require considerable time to mature, and will bear the frost well. When the plants are about 
 two or three inches high, they should be thinned out, leaving them from six to eight inches 
 apart. The soil should be kept free from weeds, and frequently stirred. Keeping them in 
 the ground during the winter improves them. If the roots are small in the autumn, and a 
 light snow falls before the ground freezes, they will frequently continue to grow, and some- 
 times nearly double their size before spring. They should be taken out of the ground before 
 commencing a spring growth, for if not, the quality of the crop will be greatly injured. A 
 few may be harvested and stored like other roots in the fall, for use during cold weather. 
 An ounce of seed will sow about two hundred feet in drills, and from four to five pounds 
 ■will be required to the acre. The seed is cultivated the same as for carrots. 
 
 ARTICHOKES. 
 
 THIS is a crop that produces an immense yield with comparatively little culture, and, 
 when once established in the soil, will continue to grow abundantly for successive years, 
 with little care. The quality of the tubers is inferior to that of the potato, ^'liich 
 they resemble, but as this crop yields so abundantly, growing freely on poor soils and with 
 but little attention, it is a profitable one for culture. The tubers are used for feeding stock, 
 especially swine, which will fatten upon them when freely fed, or allowed to do their own 
 harvesting by being turned into a field, and thus considerable labor in gathering the crop 
 saved. In such cases, enough will be left in the ground to reproduce for successive seasons. 
 Thev are much in favor with the pork-producers of the West. Milch cows, sheep, and in 
 26 
 
372 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 fact all kinds of stock, seem to thrive when fed upon them, which proves that they contain 
 considerable nutritive matter, as well as the following analysis of it by WoME and Knop, com- 
 paring its nutritive value with the Irish potato, from which it will be seen that the artichoke 
 has as much flesh-forming material as the potato, and nearly as much heat and fat -producing 
 material. 
 
 „. . Organic ,„,, Albamin- Carbo- Crude „„, ,_ 
 
 ^'""- matter. -'^"''- oids. hydrates. fiber. Fat, etc. 
 
 Potato 75.0 34.1 0.9 2.0 21.0 1.1 0.3 
 
 Artichoke, . . . 80.0 18.9 1.1 2.0 15.6 1.3 0.5 
 
 The tubers are sometimes used for the table, when pickled, or for sHcing in vinegar 
 like the cucumber. They are usually fed to stock raw, but are said to be more nutritious 
 when boiled. The tops, when cut and cured as hay, furnish a fodder that is relished by 
 cattle and sheep. It is rather a difficult crop to exterminate from the soil when once established 
 in a locahty. This can be done, however, by plowing the land when it is about a foot high, 
 or by mowing them in the latter part of August. 
 
 Tarieties. — There are but few varieties of the artichoke. The Jerusalem is qizite 
 extensively grown, and one of the oldest, although some of the newer ones, such as the 
 Improved White French and the Red Brazilian, are generally considered more productive 
 and superior in quality. The yield varies with the soil and variety, but it is always large, 
 even on inferior land, while the reports from some sections give the astonishing product of 
 from eighteen hundred to two thousand bushels per acre. On good land, from a thousand to 
 twelve hundred bushels per acre are not uncommon. Dr. Pollard, former Commissioner of 
 Agriculture of Virginia, refers to this crop as follows: - — 
 
 " Iklr. A. C. Williams, of Ohio, says: — ' The keep of my hogs in warm weather is blue 
 grass and Brazilian artichokes. Forty head of hogs and their pigs may be kept without 
 other food on an acre of artichokes from the time the frost is out of the ground until firet 
 of June (about two months), and from September to October, tmtil the ground is again 
 frozen.' "We suppose this means that the hogs are to be taken off first of June and the 
 artichokes permitted to grow and form fresh tubers until the fall. They fill the groimd so 
 thickly with their tubers that it would be almost impossible for the hogs to get them all in 
 the two months, and thus bear seed enough for the summer's growth. I am prepared to 
 believe this statement of Mr. Williams from an experiment I made with them this year. 
 The variety I planted was the -White French;' procured from the United States Agri- 
 cultural Department. I could not procure the ' Red Brazilian,' which is preferred in the 
 West. In spite of the drought, I think each hill would average half a peck. They are not 
 all yet taken up. Two hills selected as having large stalks yielded one and a half pecks. At 
 half a peck to the hill, and planted three feet by one foot, the usual distance, the yield would 
 be upwards of 1,800 bushels. A neighbor of mine, from one hill of the common artichoke 
 hea\41y manured, produced a measured peck — upward of 3,600 bushels to the acre." 
 
 There is an entirely different plant, known as artichoke, [Cynara scolymits.) a native of 
 Bai-bary and Southern Europe, which is cultivated for its flower heads, which, in their imma- 
 ture state, are boiled and eaten as food. The bottom of the heads are very fleshy, which is 
 the edible part. There are two principal varieties of this plant, the Large Globe, producing 
 large globular heads of a dusky purple color, and which is considered the best for general 
 culture, and the Large Paris, with large oval heads, a kind much cultivated and esteemed by 
 the French. 
 
 Plantiilij, Cultivatioii, etc. — The artichoke will grow on almost any kind of land, 
 and in shady localities, but does best on a hght, rich soil, with open exposure. It is very hardy, 
 and will endure severe cold without injury, living through the wintci-s in the ground in any 
 part of the L^nited States. 
 
ROOTS AND ESCULENT TUBERS. 373 
 
 To grow them with the best success, the soil should be rich, and plowed rather deeply, 
 followed by harrowing. They are usually planted in hills, though sometimes in drills, but as 
 they grow and spread so rapidly, the former is the better mode. The ground should be pre- 
 pared as for potatoes, although, if moderately fertile, a good crop can be produced without 
 any manure. The hills should be about tliree feet apart. About three bushels of the tubers 
 will be required per acre, planting the small ones whole, and the larger ones in pieces con- 
 taining one or two eyes, with only about two of such pieces to a hill. A potato-planter may 
 be used for this piu-pose, or they may be dropped by hand and covered with a light plow or 
 hand-hoe, the covering to be about as deep as that for potatoes. The planting should be done 
 as early as the ground will admit. They should be kept free from weeds by the use of the 
 cultivator or hoe. 
 
 Soon after blossoming, which is in August, the tubers begin to form, and continue to 
 grow rapidly until the frost kills Ihe stalks, or they are cut down. 
 
 It is said that the tubers can be largely increased in size by pinching off the tops just 
 previous to flowering. If the crop is harvested, instead of being left in the ground during 
 the winter, it wiU be ready for gathering as soon as the tops have withered. They may be 
 stored the same as potatoes or turnips. 
 
 Chufas. — This crop is cultivated mostly in the Southern States for its tubers, which are 
 used principally as food for swine and poultry. They have a sweet, nut-like flavor, and pos- 
 sess considerable nutrition. They are difficult to eradicate from the soil, very productive, 
 and easily cultivated. 
 
 Cllltivatiou. — This crop is propagated by means of the tubers. It will thrive on 
 almost any soil, a sandy loam being the best. The land should be plowed to a moderate 
 depth, and harrowed. On rich land, good crops can be produced without much manure 
 being applied, but where the soil is not naturally fertile, a good supply of manure should be 
 given it. The planting should be done about the time of corn planting, in drills from two 
 to two and a half feet apart, the tubers being about a foot apart in the row. 
 
 The tubers should be dropped singly and covered with about two inches of soil. The 
 weeds should be kept down, and the soil occasionally stirred with a horse-hoe or cultivator, 
 the same as for potatoes. It is a plant that is best adapted to a Southern climate, although it 
 will grow in much cooler temperatures, and as far north as Massachusetts. 
 
 Ridge Culture for Root Crops. — Ridge culture has some special advantages in 
 growing root crops, especially where the soil is heavy and rather wet; but it will fail if the 
 manure is coarse, and not well mingled with the soil. It is often resorted to when lands are 
 insufficiently drained, thus securing the advantage of drainage. 
 
 The use of coarse manure in a wet season will not affect the crop, however, to the extent 
 that it will if the season is unusually dry, as plants will always suffer in time of drought, if 
 large pieces of manure are left under them. In sections possessing Ught soil and subject to 
 severe drought, ridging would not be advisable, providing the whole surface be well manured, 
 and the soil deeply pulverized before planting. 
 
 The usual method of ridging is to first get the soil in a fine, mellow condition, and then 
 plow the land into furrows, the distance apart varying according to the kind of crop to be 
 grown. The common practice is to turn two fui'rows together from opposite directions, and 
 plant upon the top of the ridges. The manure in such cases is sometimes applied broadcast, 
 and harrowed into the soil before ridging, and sometimes placed in the furrows and covered 
 with the soil. The former method requires more manure, but less labor in preparing; the 
 latter economizes manure, but involves extra plowing to throw the soil over the manure, and 
 change the furrow where it was deposited into a ridge. This method is as follows: After 
 pulverizing the soil and throwing it into ridges with the plow, finely-pulverized manure is 
 
374 THE AlIERICAN FARMER. 
 
 thrown into each furrow, partially filling it. The plow is then run through the center of each 
 ridge, throwing the soil over the manure, and forming ridges over it. A light roller or 
 drag-plank drawn over the field will smooth down the ridges, and fit them for the seed, which 
 may be put iu with a drill. 
 
 The ridge method of culture, as well as all other modes for root crops, requires a deep, 
 clean soil, finely-pulverized, and after-culture sufiBcient to exterminate the weeds. A cultiva- 
 tor can be set sufficiently narrow for this purpose, or the wheel-hoe may be used. 
 
 The ridge system of cultivation requires more labor in preparing the field for seed, and, 
 usually, a larger area of land than the common method. 
 
 How to Construct Tentilators for Root-Pits.— In storing vegetables in pits, it 
 is necessary to pro\ade some means of permitting the vapor and moisture from them to 
 escape without admitting the rain or frost, as either would cause a speedy decay of the roots. 
 The America?! Cultiiator recommends the following simple and sensible methods of ventilating 
 root-pits, which may pi'ove of value to many farmers who make use of such modes of storage 
 for these crops: 
 
 " In pitting roots, abundant openings should be provided for the escape of the heated 
 air and moisture, produced by the ripening and fermentation of the roots. All moist veg- 
 etable matter, when jjacked closely in a heap or mass, will begin to heat and ferment in the 
 course of a few hours. The heat produces considerable vapor, which must pass off, and in 
 its escape carry off the heat with it, else the temperature will increase, and, before long, 
 decomposition will begin, and the mass will rot. Danger of this is averted, both by having 
 the roots free from outside moisture when pitted, and by facihtating the escape of that which 
 they give off". This is usually done by leaving open spaces every few feet at the top of the 
 pits, into which bundles of straw, or drain-tiles, are placed, to serve as flues. But it is well 
 to open a ventilator from the bottom of the heap, into which the hot and moist air may 
 escape from all sides. This may be done by tying a number of rails together (the more 
 crooked the rails, the better, as they will provide more spaces), and placing a btmdle in the 
 pits at about every sis feet of their length. The top of each bundle projects a few inches, 
 and this may be protected by a cap of straw. This cap should be tied firmly to the top of 
 the rails, to secure it from winds, and to shed rain. If small bunches of straw were fixed in 
 the bottom of the pit. half-way between the ventilators, so long as the weather is not too cold, 
 they would greatly facihtate the cooling and drying of the roots. "When frosts are looked 
 for, these bottom air-holes should be securely closed, and then the roots can take care of 
 themselves." 
 
 ONIONS. 
 
 THE onion is an important culinary vegetable. It was cultivated in Egypt and Asia 
 ages ago, and has been introduced from thence into nearly all civilized countries. As 
 an article of food, it is healthful, nutritious, and also often used for its medicinal 
 properties. There are numerous varieties which may be largely modified by the influence of 
 SOU and climate. 
 
 Some localities are especially noted for the culture of this crop, such as Wethersfield, 
 Conn,, Danvers, Mass,, and the Bermuda Islands, where the soil seems especially adapted to 
 its most successful production, 
 
 Tlie supply of onions foimd in om* city markets is produced, to a large extent, by market 
 gardeners, although many farmers make this crop a specialty, and find it a very profitable 
 one. Onions may be grown from sets or bulbs, or from seed. 
 
ONIONS. 375 
 
 In the southern latitude, onions cannot be grown from native seed in one season, as the 
 hot weather prematurely checks the growth of the plant, when southern-grown seed is sown, 
 and the tops die down before the bulbs have matured, or attained a sufficient size for use; 
 consequently, these small bulbs, or " sets," as they are called, require another season's growth 
 in order to become of desirable size and good quality. They are gathered in the usual man- 
 ner the first season, and set out tlie following spring to complete their growth. It is stated 
 from good authority, that northern-grown seed, with favorable conditions, will mature good- 
 sized bulbs at the South during the first season. We have never tested this assertion, but 
 know that such a result cannot be attained with seed ripened in a southern climate. 
 
 The most favorable region for raising onions, is that north of 40°. South of this paral- 
 lel, the summers are too dry and hot for their successful culture; hence, as previously stated, 
 a second season's growth is required where native seed is sown. The method of culture by 
 setting out bulbs is practiced at the North when an early crop is desired, which will be ready 
 for the market in June. 
 
 Varieties. — The varieties of the onion are quite numerous, some of which are much 
 more productive and desirable in quality than others. 
 
 Among those raised from seed are as follows: the Early Ked, which is of medium size, 
 quite productive, and mild in flavor; the Early Cracker, which is much earher than the Large 
 Yellow, and of good quality; the White Portugal, delicate-flavored, of medium size, but not 
 as productive as some varieties, and not as good to keep, being liable to gather moisture and 
 decay early unless spread very thin in storing; the Dan vers Yellow, a fine variety, which 
 originated in Danvers, Mass. ; it is a favorite in the Boston markets, and is considered one of 
 the best for general cultivation at the North, being very vigorous and productive; ripens 
 early and keeps well. It is rather large, straw-colored, and mild in flavor. Another very 
 popular variety, and which is the staple for the New York market, is the Large Eed 
 Wethersfield, which is fine-grained, proiiuctive, of large size, and keeps well. It requires a 
 long season for growth, and ripens in September. 
 
 There are many other kinds that are favorites in certain localities, but the above-men- 
 tioned are the most extensively -cultivated and popular varieties. 
 
 Among the Italian varieties which are of very fine size and quality, and which are said 
 to be particularly adapted for cultivation in the Southern States, are the following: the Mar- 
 zagole, which grows to a large size, and matures early; if sown in the autumn in warm cli- 
 mates it will be ready for use in March; the Large Italian Eed Tripoli, of fine flavor, and 
 grows very large ; the Giant Rocca of Naples, a variety of large globular form, light brown skin, 
 and delicate flavor ; the Giant White Tripoli, a large white Italian variety of quick growth, 
 and nearly flat. Another variety remarkable for its keeping qualities, as well as the rapidity 
 of its growth, is the New Queen. If sown in March, it will, under favoring conditions, pro- 
 duce bulbs from one to two inches in diameter early in the siimmer, which will keep sound 
 until the following summer; or, if sown in July, the crop will be ready to harvest late in the 
 autumn, and remain sound until the following autumn. 
 
 Top or Button onions are a variety that is propagated from little bulljs which grow on 
 the top of the flower stalk, sometimes to the number of ten or a dozen, growing in the 
 same manner and place on the stalk, as the ordinary seeds, but are small, distinct bulbs, 
 which are transplanted the following spring. They are coarse in quality, and do not keep as 
 well as some of the varieties raised from seed, but are quite early, of mild flavor, and easily 
 cultivated, which constitutes their principal merit, instead of fine quality. 
 
 The Potato Onion is a marked variety, producing bulbs in the soil, which are offsets 
 growing near the root in a manner similar to the growth of top onions at the top of the 
 flower-stalk. It is easily cultivated, but of inferior quality. 
 
 The Shallot is similar to the Potato Onion, growing in clusters something like the garlic. 
 
376 THE AMERICAN FARJIEH. 
 
 The tops and bulbs are sometimes both eaten. It never attains a very large size, but when 
 the little, irregular bulbs are set out early in the spring, will be ready for market several 
 weeks before seed-sown onions are matured. In quaUty they are superior to the Potato 
 Onion, and also keep weU. 
 
 The Rareripe is another form of this product differing from the sets, from the fact of their 
 being mature onions which have been kept through the winter, and which, if set out in 
 the spring and prevented from going to seed, will increase in size and be ready for market 
 early. It is customary with farmers to sometimes select the small mature onions of the crop 
 and set them out early in the spring for a larger growth, which is secured by keeping the 
 stalks cut down to where they begin to enlarge. They will be ready for market early, but 
 wUl not be of very fine quality. 
 
 Sets, are immature onions set out for larger growth and maturity. 
 
 Cultivation from Seed. — A deep, rich, loamy soil is best adapted to the culture 
 of onions; it should, however, be neither too heavy nor too light, and of medium moisture, 
 the extremes of either wet or dry being ecjually objectionable. Land with a slight declivity, 
 well drained, should be selected, and it should be neither stony or poor in any respect. A 
 sandy or gravelly loam well manured will yield fine crops; some other soils will also yield 
 fairly well. "Where very large bulbs are desired, a deep, rich loam, rather strong, is neces- 
 sary; the growth in such a soil will also be more rapid, and there will be less liability to 
 the attacks of the onion-fly or maggot than on a light, dry, sandy soil. Unlike most crops, 
 onions can be cultivated for several years in succession on the same field, and seem to do 
 better by this method of culture, while it is much less labor than to follow a rotation and 
 change every year or two, they being one of the rare exceptions to the theory of rotation of 
 crops. "Weeds are detrimental to this crop, consequently their successful production necessi- 
 tates a clean soil. For this reason, carrots or celery are very good preparatory crops to 
 grow on land previous to its being occupied by onions. Near large cities, it is quite a com- 
 mon practice to have every sixth row in the onion field occupied with celery. After remov- 
 ing the onions, the celery is banked up with the soil for blanching, thus giving a second 
 crop from the same land, which is generally about as profitable as the first. Land designed 
 for onions should, be plowed late in the fall, just before winter sets in; this will insure 
 the destruction of the wire-worms, and a more thorough pulverization of soil by the aid of 
 the frosts. The plowing should not be very deep, four or five inches being suiBcient, and 
 if the land is a slight declivity, the plowing should be across in such a manner as to 
 prevent the rains washing the soil by running down the furrows. Stable manure, hog 
 manure, and night soil are beneficial to this crop, also wood ashes, the sulphate of potash, 
 land plaster, and many of the other commercial fertilizers. Stable manure should always 
 be well rotted or fermented for onions, and very finely pulverized. A heavy dressing of 
 manure is essential to a good crop, from twelve to fifteen cords per acre being none too 
 much; in addition to this, from forty to fifty bushels of unleached wood ashes, and about 
 four hundred pounds of plaster are desirable. Where the manure is not to be had for this 
 purpose, about six hundred pounds of superphosphates will answer as a substitute, to which 
 the ashes and plaster should be a,dded. 
 
 As a general practice, those interested in the cultivation of onions do not enrich the 
 soil sufficiently to make it a profitable crop, or rather, by enriching it more, the profits would 
 be much larger. "We believe this is why so many in their first attempts in growing onions 
 fail, as with proper fertility and care they are one of the surest of crops. We have known of 
 several who have cultivated onions from eight to fifteen years in succession, and have never 
 experienced a single failure during all that period, which is more than can be said of many 
 crops. 
 
 Some farmers spread the manure in the fall immediately after plowing, and harrow it 
 
ONIONS. 377 
 
 in, or where this is not conveniently done, they work it over during the winter occasionally, 
 to make it very fine, and plow it under in the spring about three inches, after which the 
 ground is rolled with a heavy roller. Others prefer to apply the manure very fine, only two 
 or three days before sowing the seed. Commercial fertilizers, wood ashes, and plaster should 
 always be applied about that time, or within a short time of sowing. If the manure is 
 spread in the fall, the land should be plowed to the depth of three inches and harrowed 
 thoroughly in the spring just before sowing, — a disc harrow being best for this pui-pose, — 
 after which the ground should be rolled. Rolling crushes the clods and lumps and thus 
 aids in pulverizing the soil. When land is plowed in the fall, this process should be repeated 
 in the spring. 
 
 All stones should be removed, and the finer the soil can be made, the better. After the 
 soil is made as fine as possible with the harrow and roller, the surface should be carefully 
 raked with a fine-toothed hand-rake to further remove all the small lumps of earth and 
 stones that may yet remain. It requires considerable labor and pains-taking to prepare a 
 field for onion culture, but it is of the utmost importance that it be done well, as the yield of 
 the crop will depend in a great measm-e upon the manner in which it is prepared ; besides, if 
 thoroughly done the first season, much labor will be saved in the growing of subsequent 
 crops of the same kind which may follow in succession for several years with advantage, if 
 the land continues to be heavily manured each year. 
 
 It is very important that the seed sown should be of the very best quality and that 
 grown the preceding year. It cannot be of the best quality unless the best and largest bulbs 
 are selected for producing it, and it is fully matured before being gathered, besides being well 
 dried and cleaned. 
 
 Some farmers are indiflierent in this respect, and often raise seed from inferior, ill- 
 formed bulbs, but such seed will not only produce a crop of inferior quality, but will make 
 a difference in many bushels of the product, in quantity per acre. It is also equally essen- 
 tial that the seed be fresh and of the preceding year's growth, as old seed will not germi- 
 nate well, and is very unreliable. It is stated by good authority that of seed two years old 
 less than half will ordinarily germinate, while that three years old wUl scarcely germinate 
 at all; consequently it is always safer and the best economy to secure fresh seed for planting, 
 and never to risk the old, as planting over is an injury to the crop, besides involving a 
 great deal of extra labor, all of which may be obviated by the use of fresh seed of the best 
 quality. 
 
 The sowing for large crops should always be done by a machine, as hand-sowing is not 
 only slow and very laborious, but results in the loss of considerable of the seed, and cannot 
 be done as uniformly as by a small machine that wiU drill it in uniformly and cover it evenly. 
 There are several garden seed -sowers for this purpose in the market that can be procured at 
 slight expense, and will do the work much better and easier than can be done by hand. A 
 seed-sower, hand-cultivator, and weeder combined will be the best implement of the kind for 
 the purpose, as it includes three machines in one. 
 
 The main crop should be sown as early in the spring as the ground is in working condi- 
 tion, since it is best to secure as large a growth as possible, before the usual drouths of 
 August. The seed should be deposited in drills from twelve to sixteen inches apart, the 
 latter width being the most desirable for large or medium-sized bulbs. It should be sown 
 evenly and rather sparingly, and covered a half inch in depth. About four seeds an inch 
 is considered the desirable distance in sowing. Most of the seed-drills cover the seed and 
 press the soil down upon it, but where this is not done by the machine, it is well to go over 
 the ground with a Hght roller after the seed is covered, which has a tendency to quicken the 
 germination of the seed. Four pounds of seed are sufiicient for an acre, where the drills 
 are about sixteen inches apart. Should the drills be nearer, a little more may be required. 
 
378 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 An ounce of seed will sow a bed foui- auJ a half feet by ttirty feet. It is important that the 
 seed be sown early, as the bulbs mU all be more liable to mature well and there will be no 
 "scullions," as they are called, which are merely unripe onions. 
 
 It is customary to weed this crop three or four times during the season. As soon as 
 the plants make their appearance, a wheel-hoe or cultivator should be used between the rows 
 to check the weeds which will always start vigorously in any soil newly worked over, and 
 which will ruin the crop, if not kept down. If this cultivation is delayed until the weeds get 
 well started, it will require a great amount of labor to exterminate them, and which more 
 prompt attention might obviate. If this cultivation be done once a week or oftener for the 
 first few weeks, the weeding in the drills by hand will not be very laborious; besides, as 
 onions do not shade the ground much, and the soil must of necessity be very rich, weeds in 
 an onion field will grow veiy fast and be sure to ruin the crop unless prompt and vigorous 
 attention be given to keep them constantly in check. They must be exterminated as soon as 
 they make their appearance in the rows. This is commonly done by hand, and is hard work, 
 as it involves the getting down of the operator upon his hands and knees. If a good weeder 
 or cultivator is used between the rows, and so operated as to work close to the drills, there 
 will be but few weeds between the plants to be pulled out. There are various little weeding 
 hoes invented for this purpose, to take the place of hand-weeding, but many farmers prefer 
 the latter as being more effectual in results. 
 
 An experienced farmer, who has cultivated onions for over ten years successfully, says 
 that a useful tool to weed with, where tlie ground is hard, can be made from an old hoe, by 
 cutting off the sides of the blade until there is a strip left an inch and a half in width; after- 
 wards grind the sides and edge of this miniature hoe, sharp, and put in a handle ten inchea 
 long. This may be used very successfully where the soil is rather hard, but where it is soft, 
 fingers can do more rapid and efficient work. If the fingers get tender and sore, rubber 
 finger-stalls, or fingers cut fi-om an old kid glove, are a great protection. 
 
 After the first weeding, many consider it beneficial to give the crop a light dressing of 
 wood-ashes. Two or three other hand-weedings with frequent use of cultivator or weeder 
 between the rows, will be required before the crop will be ready for harvesting. All sickly and 
 diseased-looking plants should be pulled up and thrown off the field from time to time. It is 
 a crop that cannot be neglected and fair results follow ; the work must all be thoroughly and 
 promptly performed, if a good crop is to be obtained. When the bulbs begin to ripen, the 
 tops wiU fall over to the ground ; for a short time after this period the bulbs will grow very 
 fast, therefore they should not be harvested too early. 
 
 When the tops are nearly all fallen over to the ground, and are dry where they Join the 
 bulb, they are ready for pulhng. Sometimes it happens that the crop ripens uneveuly. When 
 this is the case, the usual practice is to roll something light, such as an empty flour barrel, 
 over the rows in order to bend down the tops of the green upright stalks, which will hasten 
 the ripening process. If onions remain in the ground too long after being ready to be pulled, 
 they will commence a second growth by sprouting again, which will ruin the crop. Should 
 the maggot make its appearance, as it often does, to the great injury of the crop, a little plas- 
 ter, guano, or unleached wood ashes scattered along the rows of plants will be an aid in its 
 extermination. 
 
 Cultivation of Sets. — It is quite common in the Southern States to grow onions 
 from sets, also in the Northern, when a very early crop is desired ; but the main product is 
 produced in the latter section by seed-sowing. Southern -grown sets are to be preferred to 
 those of a northern latitude. 
 
 To produce sets, the land should be made moderately fertile, be very finely pulverized, 
 and made smooth and even, the same as for the reception of seed for the seed-crop. The 
 seed should be drilled in rows nine or ten inches apart, the drills to be broad, to secure a large 
 
ONIONS. 379 
 
 number of Lulbs to the drill, sowing the seed thickly, which will require five or six times the 
 amount for the mature crop from seed. They should be kept free from weeds, and when the 
 tops indicate that they are ready for gathering, should be pulled and stored through the win- 
 ter in a cool, dry place, well ventilated. To insure their keeping well, they should be spread 
 very thinly, otherwise they will gather moisture and be liable to decay. In the following 
 spring these little bulbs may be set out as early as the weather will admit in rich land, finely 
 pulverized and mellow. They should be placed in drills from ten to twelve inches apart, the 
 bulbs being about six inches apart and lightly covered with the soil. Sufficient cultivation 
 should be given them to keep out the weeds. When they are well ripened they should be 
 pulled, dried, and stored. 
 
 Tlie Cultivation of Top Onions is similar to that from sets. The tops, containing 
 the small bulbs, are gathered when ripe and stored in a cool, dry place. In the spring they 
 are set out and the culture given similar to that recommended for onion -'sets." 
 
 Cultivation of the Potato Onion and Shallot. — The bulbs should be planted 
 in rich soil in drills about fourteen inches apart, the bulbs to be ten or twelve inches apart in 
 the rows. The planting should be as early in the season as the soil can be worked, the largest 
 bulbs to be selected, the crowns of which should be set just below the surface of the ground. 
 They should be kept clear from weeds, and a little earth gathered about them from time to 
 time in the process of aftei- cultivation. The harvesting should be as soon as the tops are dead. 
 
 The Culture of Rareripes is not to be reconmiended very highly, as they are of 
 poor quality generally, but as small onions can be economically used for the purpose of a 
 larger growth, many farmers resort to this expedient to find an early and ready market for 
 them. As we have previously stated, this is a form of the onion that differs from the sets for 
 which they are often mistaken, by being small mature onions. These are generally selected 
 from the crop, and set out the following spring for a larger growth, as early as the condition 
 of the ground will admit. Sometimes large onions that are badly sprouted are treated in the 
 same way. They will soon begin to send up seed-stalks, which should be cut off Just below 
 where the stalk begins to enlarge, and as soon as the swelled appearance of the stalk is noticed. 
 By this method, and keeping the soil free from weeds, the bulbs will grow quite fast and will 
 be ready for an early market. They requii-e a little more room than sets, when the bulbs are 
 larger than the former. 
 
 Cultivating" Onion Seed. — As the weight of the onion crop depends largely upon 
 the quality of the seed used to produce it, it is very important that the utmost care should be 
 exercised in the selection of bulbs and the subsequent attention given them in growing the 
 seed. Many prefer to buy this seed of a reliable dealer or some one who raises it, in whom 
 they have confidence. To the latter we would say — unless you are able to grow that of the 
 very best quality, it will be better to buy seed of such quality than to depend upon your own 
 skill in this respect, for it is only the first-class seed that will give a first-class 
 crop, and it is not every farmer that can raise seed of that quality without consid- 
 erable experience. It is of great importance that a careful selection of bulbs be 
 made, that is, a selection of the form and size that it is desired to produce in the 
 future crops. These bulbs should be set out very early in the season, in riqh land and 
 be well cultivated. They should be hoed repeatedly, with all weeds kept in check, and 
 the earth kept heaped up about the stalks for protection. A frame-work of slats or a stake 
 and strings should be used for the support of the stalks and heavy seed-heads, otherwise they 
 will be liable to break or so bend over that the seed will either be injured or entirely ruined. 
 
 When the seed-stalks indicate maturity by turning yellow near the ground, and the seed- 
 cells begin to open, the tops or heads should be cut, leaving about six or eight inches of tlie 
 
380 THE AMERICAN FARJIER. 
 
 stalks attached to them to aid in perfecting the ripening process. These should be spread 
 thinly in a warm, dry pla<;e, and frequently stirred, that the drpng may be uniform, and 
 moulding prevented. When thoroughly dried, the seed should be shelled and cleaned 
 through a fine seive. It is well to afterwards winnow it in order to get out as many of the 
 imperfect seeds as possible. It is customary for some seed-growers to separate the imperfect 
 from the sound seed by putting the whole in water, and after stirring it thoroughly, skim ofE 
 all that rise to the surface, after which all the seed that sinks to the bottom is taken out and 
 carefully dried. If this practice is to be followed, we would not recommend it in the autumn, 
 hut rather in the spring, just before sowing; then there would be no danger of loss of seed 
 from molding, through excess of moisture, and imperfect drying. The drying should be in 
 a warm place, but not near a fire. After the seed is thoroughly dried, it should be stored in 
 a dry place, where it will not be liable to gather moisture. The seed used should be fresh 
 every year, it being of little value the second year. 
 
 Harvesting and Storing. — When most 'Of the tops are fallen over and look dead, 
 the onions are ready to be harvested. The usual method is to pull them by hand, throwing 
 the product of six or eight rows together into a windrow to dry, but this is a laborious pro- 
 cess. Wlien very ripe they may be raked out with a common hand rake. It would be well if 
 some machine were invented for cutting the tops first, after which they could easily be raked 
 out. An implement of some kind for running under the rows to cut the roots aids materially 
 in the harvesting process, as the bulbs can then be very readily raked out. They should be 
 left on the ground until the tops are all dead and the bulbs feel hard and solid ; this sometimes 
 requires two weeks or more ; during the time they should be raked over with a hay rake every 
 two or three days, especially after every rain, in order to hasten the drying process. When 
 the tops are well cured and the bulbs hard and solid, they may be taken off the field in a dry 
 day, and stored on the floor in a dry shed or barn, tops and all, if not spread over three feet 
 deep. Careless handling, causing cuts or bruises, will result in a loss, as such bulbs will decay 
 in a short time. 
 
 Where the crop is not to be sold for use at once, care must be taken that the tops are dry 
 close to the bulbs, as nearly the whole top will sometimes seem to be dry when the neck is green, 
 and if xut in this state the bulb will soon decay. In order to keep well, therefore, the tops 
 must be entirely dry and dead before cutting. When not convenient to cut at this stage, and 
 they are not intended for immediate sale, the cutting is often delayed until winter. This may 
 he done with a sharp knife, but the best implement for doing it is an old pair of sheep-shears, 
 or a pair of common shears with the blade cut off nearly half-way down. The larger ones 
 may then be separated from the small ones, and are ready for market, or storage until spring. 
 The smallest, or those about the size of a small walnut, will sometimes bring a fair price for 
 use as pickles. 
 
 Whether it will pay the grower best to sell the crop in the fall, or to store them for sale 
 in the spring, will depend upon a combination of circumstances, such as the state of the mar- 
 ket, the locahty, etc. This crop sometimes brings a very high price in the spring when they 
 are scarce in the market; still there is considerable risk in keeping them, as tliey are liable to 
 decay badly during some seasons. When they are very plenty, and the prices are low in the 
 sprina;, they will not prove as profitable to the grower to be kept over as a fall sale. 
 
 When designed for winter sales, they are generally kept in a cold, dark cellar in barrels 
 or bins, after the cold weather sets in. If the barrels in which they are stored have pieces 
 cut out of their sides with a hatchet, thus giving better ventilation, they will be liable to 
 keep better. The barrels should be covered at the heads to exclude the light, in order to 
 prevent sprouting, and all bins used for storage should have the light excluded by some kind 
 of covering that will not keep out the air, and cause them to gather moisture and become 
 heated. Good ventilation and a cool, dry temperature are essential to their keeping well. 
 
ONIONS. 381 
 
 They will bear about as mucli frost as apples, without injury; in fact, when intended for 
 spring sales it is quite a common practice to freeze them, and then cover with hay or other 
 material to prevent their thawing, keeping them well covered and frozen until a few days 
 before selling. Once freezing them does no injury, but repeated freezing and thawing is 
 ruinous. 
 
 Some farmers who cultivate this crop extensively, have a cold, airy building constructed, 
 especially adapted to the purpose of storage, with bins of lattice work where they are stored, 
 about three feet deep, and covered well to keep them from thawing until spring, or where 
 they are spread in piles and covered with hay and other material for the same purpose. 
 When wanted for sale, they should be imcovered and allowed to thaw, and then spread a few 
 days to dry; they are then ready for market. Much labor could be saved in the spring, if, 
 as soon as the crop is taken off the field in the fall, all the decayed onions and tops, as well as 
 weeds, are cleared off, and the ground be well harrowed. The harrowing should be repeated 
 in a few weeks. This will cause the germination and subsequent destruction of any weed 
 seeds that may remain in the soil. Just before winter sets in, the field should be plowed, in 
 order that the frost may assist in mellowing and pulverizing the soil for the next year's crop, 
 which plowing also causes the destruction of worms and insect eggs by freezing. From four 
 to six hundred bushels per acre is considered a fair crop of onions, but we have known of 
 authenticated cases where a thousand and even twelve hundred bushels per acre have, in rare 
 instances of pecuharly favorable soil, season, and culture, been grown from an acre. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTUML PRODUCTS. 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 COTTON is one of the most valuable agricultural products of the country, and has for 
 many years been one of its principal exports; in fact, the plant which will supply the 
 material for one of our leading mdustries, as well as for the clothing of all nations of 
 the globe, should claim a rank second to none in the vegetable kingdom, except it be that which 
 supplies the necessary sustenance of life to the human family in the form of food. It is a plant 
 indigenous to all inter-tropical regions, and can be cultivated with success in no other. Its culture 
 antedates the commencement of the Christian era, the first mention of it of which we have any 
 record being by Herodotus, about 450 B. C. He says of it, •' There is a plant in India which 
 produces wool finer and better than that of sheep, of which the Indians make their clothes." 
 Pliny, late in the first century, says, " There grows a shrub called Gossypium or Sylon, in 
 Upper Egypt, producing a stuff from which the white garments of the priests are made." In 
 the Chinese records, no mention is made of cotton until about two hundred years before the 
 Christian era, from which time to the sixth century cotton cloth was regarded as something 
 exceedingly rare and precious, and was paid in tribute, or offered in presents to the emperors; 
 it is also recorded, as an incident of importance of the Emperor Ou-ti, who ascended the 
 throne in 502, that he had a robe of cotton. 
 
 Columbus found cotton in the possession of the natives of Hispaniola, and the plant was 
 found growing wild in the Alississippi valley and Texas by the early explorers of the coimtry. 
 It was first cultivated by the early settlers as an ornamental garden plant, and it was not until 
 1739, according to reliable authority, that it was first exported, this exportation consisting 
 of but one bag of the product, from Savannah, Ga. It is an incident of record, that in the 
 year 1784, an American ship having on board eight bags of cotton, bound for Liverpool, was 
 seized on the ground that so much cotton could not have been produced in the United States! 
 In the conquest of Mexico, in 1519, it is stated that Cortes received garments of cotton as 
 presents from the natives of Yucatan, as well as cotton cloths for coverings to his huts. 
 Specimens of cotton fabrics have also been taken from the ancient Peruvian tombs. In the 
 year 1785 the cultivation of the short-staple cotton was commenced in the United States, and 
 in ten years from that period one million pounds were exported from Charleston, South 
 Carolina. Since that time the immense increase in this product in the Southern States, and 
 the revenue brought to that section from its exportation (the latter amounting to a hundred 
 and fifty millions of dollars annually), has been mainly due to inventions of improved 
 machinery, the principal of which was the saw cotton gin, a machine for separating the cotton 
 from the seeds, which adhere to the fiber quite tenaciously, and which was invented by Mr. 
 Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts, in 1793. Although it brought the inventor but small profit, 
 and a vast amount of troublesome litigation, this invention resulted in great benefit to the 
 human race, by immensely increasing the cotton industry of the whole world. Previous to- 
 this invention, the separating of the cottqn seed from the fiber was mainly performed by 
 hand, being a slow and expensive process, ilr. "Whitney's machine cleaned a thousand 
 pounds in the same time that one pound could be cleaned by hand, and consequently very soon 
 caused a revolution in the cultivation and manufacture of the cotton product. 
 
 The United States stands first among the countries of the world in the amount and value 
 of its cotton products, British India ranking next, but the fiber is inferior to that of this 
 
 (382) 
 
COTTON". 
 
 383 
 
 coantry. American seed and American plants have been introduced from time to time into 
 India, but without the desired result, as the fiber after a little while deteriorates, loses its elas- 
 ticity, and becomes short, dry, and harsh, with a low rate of yield. Egypt is quite prominent 
 in cotton production, both in quaUty and amount, the best from that source taking a high 
 rank, and second only to the famous Sea Island product, which is universally considered the best- 
 
 QUEEN OF THE SOUTH COTTON PLANTER. 
 
 DEDERIOK COTTON PRESS. 
 
384 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 The constant cropping which the cotton fields of the Southern States formerly received, 
 with little or no fertility restored, together with poor cultivation, have caused the soil in 
 many parts of that section to become nearly exhausted, and large ai-eas that were once rich 
 cotton lands, are now regarded as unproductive, but with improved methods of agriculture, 
 and an intelligent use of fertilizers suited to the necessities of the soil and crops, this evil may 
 in the future be remedied and avoided. The adoption of a more thorough system of agricul- 
 ture at the South within the past few years, together with the estabhshing of cotton mills and 
 other industries, have been the means of increasing and improving the cotton product of the 
 countiy, with at present a still brighter outlook for the future in this respect. 
 
 The poems and romances of the Chinese literature of the seventh century are much given 
 to the description and celebration of the beauty of the cotton flower. The blossoms are 
 indeed very attractive, and a field of cotton in fuU bloom is a beautiful sight. Though 
 varying slightly with different varieties, the flower of the cotton plant resembles that of the 
 aithea in size and shape. The color of the variety most commonly cultivated in this country 
 is, on first opening, a creamy white, changing to a light yellow the second day, and a purplish 
 red on the third, when it drops. The bolls are egg-shaped, varying in size, one the size of a 
 goose-egg being considered extraordinarily large. As they ripen or mature, the outer 
 covering turns brown and opens generally into four parts, the white fiber bursting out of its 
 enclosure, so that a cotton-field divested of its leaves resembles a field of white roses. The 
 leaves are a deep glossy green. By planting the seed in boxes, in order to secure an early 
 start, and transplanting as soon as the weather will admit, cotton plants could easily be 
 grown in Northern gardens as an ornament, their beauty exceeding many of the popular 
 varieties of cultivated flowers. Besides the extensive use of the cotton fiber in the manufac- 
 ture of fabrics, and afterwards of paper, the seed is used largely in the manufacture of 
 oil, that which remains after expressing the oil being valuable as food for stock, and also as a 
 fertilizer of the soil. In Brazil and some other cotton-growing countries, the leaves of the 
 cotton plant are thought to have important medicinal qualities. The root is used to a limited 
 extent in medicine. 
 
 ■ Varieties of Cottoili — There are several v.nrieties of the cotton plant, although botanists 
 differ with respect to the exact number of species. Without going into a discussion of the 
 subject, as to whether there are five, seven, ten or more species of this plant, but leaving that 
 question for the botanists to settle among themselves, we shall mention only the most exten- 
 sively cultivated kinds that furnish the great cotton product of the world. The two principal 
 divisions of the cotton product are those of the Old and New World, or what are known as 
 the Indian and American cottons, the difference in the botanical characteristics being slight, 
 but sufficiently marked to distinguish the one from the other, the seed of the eastern plant, or 
 that of India, never being black or divested of lint, while the curvature at the base of the 
 leaf lobes is composed of two opposite curves, instead of being heart-shaped like that of the 
 Western Continent. Tlie cottons most in demand are those of the United States, as we have 
 previously stated, while British India is second in this respect. The principal cotton crop, or 
 that most extensively grown, is of the short-staple variety, as the best quality of the long- 
 siapled or Sea Island cotton can be grown successfully only in certain localities, hence its 
 cultivation is necessarily limited to a comparatively small territory. The cottons most in 
 demand are the Sea Island and the New Orleans or Upland varieties. The former receives 
 its name from its being grown mainly upon the low-ljnng islands near the coast of Georgia, 
 Florida, and South Carolina, where the soil, climate, and peculiarly favoring conditions render 
 them especially adapted to the production of this variety, which surpasses all others in the 
 length, strength, and beauty of its staple, its fiber being very long and silky. It is used for 
 making the best quality of sewing thread, for mixing with silk, etc., and brings the highest 
 price in the market. The seed of the Sea Island or long-stapled variety is black and smooth, 
 with a little of the cotton fiber adhering to the small end. The variety known as the Georgian 
 Upland cotton is the result of cultivating the Sea Island cotton on the uplands of Georgia; it 
 is also sometimes known as "Boweds." 
 
COTTON. 385 
 
 Of the New Orleans or Upland cotton, there are two principal varieties, each of which have 
 s.'veral sub- varieties. One of these has green seeds and is quite hardy, the other has grayish 
 seeds and a more flexible, silky staple, but is slightly less hardy than the former. Both are 
 quite prolific. 
 
 The New Orleans and Boweds cottons constitute the great bulk of the production of the 
 country, and are known in European markets as '-American cottons." There are a number 
 of forms of the Hirsute or Orleans type, one of which is the Cuba Vine, "a large and showy 
 plant," as it is described by one writer; another is a plant bearing yellow or brown-stapled 
 cotton, known as the "Nankeen," from which nankeen cloths are made, and still another 
 type known as " Bourbon " cotton, but they are neither of them considered as profitable for 
 culture as most of the other varieties. Some of the long-stapled cottons of the Sea Island 
 type have been so widely scattered over the cotton zone of the world, and in consequence 
 have become so modified and diversified in characteristics, that they have been classed as 
 different and distinct species, among whicli are the Peruvian and Brazilian cottons; the latter 
 bsing remarkable for its peculiar arrangement of seeds, eight or ten of which adhere closely 
 together in a compact, slightly oval form, which has given it the name in some localities of 
 "kidney cotton." 
 
 In some portions of India the cotton plant becomes a tree (Gossypium arhoreum), and 
 bears dark green leaves and reddish purple blossoms, tlie product being a silky fil)re. It is there 
 regarded as sacred, and grown about the temples. Attempts made to improve its cultivation 
 by hybridizing have thus far been unsuccessful. Though there are many varieties and sub- 
 varieties of the cotton plant grown in this country, some of which seem best adapted to one 
 locality and soil, and others to another, — thus giving rise to a local popularity more or less 
 extensive, yet doubtless not a few of these could be traced to the same source, the difference 
 being mainly changes produced by climate and cultivation, which have caused them to 
 bscome fixed in certain characteristics, until they differ so widely from the original plant, 
 that they seem new types or distinct varieties. 
 
 Among the long-established varieties of the widest popularity are the Dixon, which has 
 a fibre of medium length and is quite hardy and prohfic; the Peeler, producing a fibre of 
 unusual length and fineness, but not quite as prolific as the former; Boyd's Prohfic, of medium 
 length of staple and quite productive. Other varieties that have been much in favor in cer- 
 tain sections are the Early Simpson, McClenden Prolific, Boyd's Prolific, Petit Gulf, Johnston, 
 and Hurlong's Improved. Of the last two, the former has been cultivated more extensively 
 west, than east of the Mississippi, while the latter is more frequently found in the region 
 from Alabama to Texas. The Mammoth Prolific has also been quite popular in some sections. 
 Beside those already mentioned, various other kinds of greater or less popularity are grown 
 in certain sections, and new varieties are being introduced from time to time, and their 
 respective merits tested. 
 
 New and improved varieties will doubtless be obtained by careful and })atient experi- 
 ments in hybridizing, the same as from other cultivated crops, while the older sorts may 
 have their quality of staple and productive capacity more nearly perfected by improving the 
 fertility of the soil, as well as the general method of cultivation and the adoption of a judi- 
 cious system of rotation, which will prevent the exhaustion of soil that has formerly charac- 
 terized the production of this crop at the South. 
 
 The Cotton Growing Belt. — Although the extremes of the cotton belt, or the sec- 
 tion where, according to the most authentic sources of information, cotton can be grown with 
 profit, are included between the twenty-eighth and thirty-eighth degrees north latitude; yet it 
 ii possible, with favoring conditions of season and locality, to cultivate it considerably farther 
 north of this limit, the crop having been fairly successful as far north as Missouri and Dela- 
 ware in favorable seasons. 
 
386 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 In the period of the early settlement of Central Illinois, or between the years ISIS and 
 1828, cotton was in that locality a common crop, not for exportation, but simply for homo 
 consumption, to be used in connection with wool in manufacturing clothing for the settlers. 
 But since that period, the experiments made to cultivate it in that section have generally 
 proved a failure. This difference is probably not so much due to a change in climate or in 
 the length of the seasons as from the fact that the early settlers of Illinois confined their 
 corn and cotton culture to the timber fields, which were sheltered and warm; therefore the 
 crops would mature earlier than in unsheltered localities in the same climate. Cotton requires 
 a warm climate to be successfully grown, and in such a temperature can be cultivated with 
 less expense and no danger of failure from causes which render its culture beyond its natural 
 habitat attended with considerable risk — an early frost or backward season often resulting in 
 a partial or complete failure of the crop in such sections. 
 
 We doubt if its culture nor^th o€ North Carolina and Tennessee will be attended with as 
 much profit as that of other crops better adapted to the latitude. It can, it is true, be grown 
 considerably beyond this limit, but the question to be settled in the mind of the planter is. 
 Will it be as profitable a crop to cultivate as some others better adapted to that locality ? 
 
 Prof. Pendleton, of Georgia, gives as his opinion, that north of the thirty-fourth degree 
 of latitude the seasons are not sufficiently long to give uniform success with the cotton plant, 
 while south of the thirty-first degree the seasons are so wet, and insects so abundant, that 
 results will be quite uncertain, and the cost of its culture be also greatly increased. While 
 there may be some few exceptions, such as in warm and sheltered localities, where an earlier 
 growth and quicker maturity of the crop can be secured, yet, in the main, the belt between 
 the two above-mentioned degrees of latitude will be found to be the most favorable region 
 for the successful cultivation of the cotton plant. 
 
 The following table from the Census Report for 1880 shows the total cotton production 
 in each of the cotton-growing States during the previous year (1879), the average product per 
 acre, etc., the names of the States being arranged in accordance with the order of their rank 
 in the amount produced. 
 
 Table I. — Shoiving Total Cotton Production and Average Product Per Acre. 
 
 
 
 
 
 COTTON 
 
 g 
 
 AVERAGE PRODUCT 
 
 
 
 States in order of 
 production. 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 W^hite. 
 
 Colored. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 bale 
 lbs), 
 eed- 
 ton. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ii 
 
 Lint. 
 
 Cotton- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 s^g-^s 
 
 
 6» 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 
 Totiil 
 
 ♦Mississippi 
 
 10,808,604 
 
 11,034,123 
 
 5,784,541 
 
 14,441,993 
 
 5,737,257 
 
 
 0.40 667 
 
 189 
 
 378 
 
 1,362,599 
 
 2,726,197 
 
 
 1,1.31,693 
 
 479,.371 
 
 652,231 
 
 2.093.330 
 
 955,808 
 
 8 
 
 0.46 
 
 651 
 
 217 
 
 434 
 
 227,004 
 
 464,009 
 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 1,543,180 
 
 816,906 
 
 725,374 
 
 2,617,138 
 
 814,441 
 
 12 
 
 0.31 
 
 444 ! 148 
 
 2% 
 
 193.430 
 
 386,8,59 
 
 
 
 1,503,574 
 
 1,197,499 
 
 395,076 
 
 2,173,732 
 
 803.042 
 
 11 
 
 0.37 
 
 52S 1 17(; 
 
 :i,S2 
 
 190,806 
 
 .381,730 
 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 1,263,505 
 
 663.185 
 
 600,320 
 
 2..330,0S6 
 
 699.654 
 
 13 
 
 0.30 
 
 429 
 
 143 
 
 2S6 
 
 160,108 
 
 3.32.336 
 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 802.525 
 
 591, .531 
 
 310,994 
 
 1,043,970 
 
 608,256 
 
 3 
 
 0..58 
 
 831 
 
 277 
 
 5.54 
 
 144.461 
 
 288,932 
 
 
 South Carolina,.. 
 
 995,577 
 
 391,105 
 
 604,472 
 
 1,364,249 
 
 523,548 
 
 10 
 
 0,.3S 
 
 ,546 
 
 tx-i 
 
 304 
 
 124,105 
 
 248,310 
 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 939,946 
 
 454,954 
 
 484,992 
 
 864,787 
 
 508,569 
 
 o 
 
 0..59 
 
 837 
 
 279 
 
 S.^^ 
 
 120.785 
 
 341.570 
 
 
 North Carolina,.. 
 
 l,399,7.i0 
 
 867,242 
 
 6.32,508 
 
 893,153 
 
 389.598 
 
 9 
 
 0.44 
 
 621 
 
 307 
 
 414 
 
 92.530 
 
 185.0.i9 
 
 
 ♦Tennessee, 
 
 1,543.463 
 
 1,139,130 
 
 403,343 
 
 723,569 
 
 3311,644 
 
 7 
 
 0.46 
 
 651 
 
 217 
 
 4;<4 
 
 78,528 
 
 157.0.50 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 369.493 
 
 142,605 
 
 126,888 
 
 345.595 
 
 54.997 
 
 14 
 
 0.22 
 
 318 
 
 100 
 
 213 
 
 13,062 
 
 26,124 
 
 
 ♦Missouri 
 
 3,168,804 
 
 2,023,568 
 
 145,236 
 
 33,711 
 
 19.733 
 
 1 
 
 0.60 
 
 H61 
 
 287 674 
 
 4.6«7 
 
 9,373 
 
 
 Indian Territory, 
 
 
 
 
 36,000 
 
 17,000 
 
 5 
 
 0.49 
 
 693 
 
 3:il 462 
 
 4,037 
 
 
 
 
 l,512,.5fi5 
 1,648,090 
 
 880,858 
 1,377,179 
 
 031,707 
 371,511 
 
 24,000 
 2,067 
 
 11,000 
 1,367 
 
 6 
 4 
 
 0.40 
 0.61 
 
 654 
 729 
 
 218 4.36 
 
 2,612 
 325 
 
 6.225 
 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 243 
 
 486 
 
 649 
 
 ♦The population figures are still subject to possible correction. 
 
 The first three columns give the population of the several States, divided according to 
 color. The acreage and total production are given in the next two columns. Column 6 gives 
 the ratio between the figures of columns 4 and 5 in decimal fractions of a bale produced per acre. 
 
COTTOX. 387 
 
 The average weight of a bale of cotton is estimated at 475 pounds. Upon this basis, 
 and upon the commonly-accepted average proportion of one part of lint to two of seed in the 
 "seed-cotton" as it comes from the field, are based the data given in columns 7 to 11. Of 
 these, the first three give the weight in pounds, severally, of seed-cotton, of lint or fiber, and 
 of cotton seed produced per acre, on the average, in each State, while columns 10 and 1 1 give 
 the weight in tons of the total product of each of the States, in lint and cotton-seed. 
 
 It will be seen by a comparison of the total population of the States of the cotton-belt 
 proper, from North and South Carolina to Texas, that in all but two cases there is an approx- 
 imation to the proportion of one bale to every two persons, or rather one-half a bale to each 
 inhabitant. These exceptional States are Mississippi and Arkansas, in which the ratio is from 
 two-thirds to more than three-fourths of a bale per head. As will be seen, Mississippi stands 
 first in the total production of cotton, while sixth in population among the cotton States, 
 making its product to .84, or more than eight-tenths of a bale per head. It appears that the 
 high production of this State is due to the great fertility of the soil together with the circum- 
 stance that the culture of this product is the leading pursuit of the population. In Wash- 
 ington County, Miss., the product per acre averaged .87 of a bale or 413 pounds of lint, 
 which is equal to 1,239 pounds of seed-cotton per acre. E. W. Hilgard, Professor of Agri- 
 culture of the University of California, says, with respect to the above table: — • 
 
 . " Even with the imperfect tillage and incomplete picking of the cotton crop now pre- 
 vailing in the Yazoo bottom, Miss., the present average product per acre is over three-fourths 
 of a bale; and estimating the lands reclaimable by simple exclusion of the Mississippi over- 
 flow at three million acres, the annual production could thus readily be raised to 2,250,000 
 bales, without any change in the methods of culture, in the Yazoo bottom alone. "With 
 improved cultivation the production could easily be brought up to 5,000,000 bales, and thus, 
 with a similar improvement in the culture of the uplands, it is evident that the State of 
 Mississippi alone could produce the entire crop now grown in the United States. So far from 
 this being an over-estimate, this statement does not adequately state the possibilities within 
 reach of careful culture. Fully 1,000 pounds of lint have repeatedly been picked from an 
 acre of the 'buckshot' soil of the Yazoo bottom. 
 
 Georgia stands second in total production ; but examination shows the causes that place 
 the State so near to the highest in position to be widely different from those in Mississippi. 
 With half a million more inhabitants than Jlississippi, the cotton product of Georgia is a 
 little over half a bale (.53) per head, and the average product per acre is but two-thirds of 
 that of Mississippi. A detailed examination of the soils of Georgia shows that her area of 
 what in Mississippi are considered first and second-class soils, is very limited ; far more so tlian 
 is the case in the neighboring State of Alabama. Yet Georgia stands ahead of Alabama in 
 the average cotton pi'oduct per acre, and is only a trifle behind in production per capita. In 
 other words, the high position of Georgia is due, not to natural advantages, but to better 
 cultivation of the soil, the use of fertilizers, and the thrift of an industrious population. 
 
 The geographical position of Alabama between the States standing at the head of the 
 list gives double interest to the question regarding the cause of her position in the same, 
 which would be the third place, but for the enormous area of Texas, where the sparse popu- 
 lation has thus far picked the best lands. Alabama is a newer State than Georgia, and 
 there reach into it from Mississippi tlie two belts of rich prairie lands, which terminate short 
 of the Chattahoochie. Northern Alabama is almost identical in its agricultural features with 
 Northern Georgia; and we should therefore expect to find a much more marked difference 
 in favor of Alabama than is shown in the figures above quoted. The inference seems irre- 
 sistible, that while Mississippi is still partly within the period of the first flush of fertility, and 
 Georgia has reached the stage when the use of fertilizers is renovating her fields, the soils of 
 Alabama have passed the first stage, and her population has not yet realized the necessity ^f 
 sustaining the soil's powers by fertilization. 
 
388 THE AMERICAN FARMEIJ. 
 
 Cotton culture in Florida is chiefly confined to the northern part of the State, lying 
 adjacent to Georgia. Tliis is mostly pine land, and is cultivated without manure; hence the 
 low product of less than a quarter of a bale per acre. Notwithstanding this, there has been 
 a respectable increase in production since 1S70, though not so large as that of the population ; 
 a circumstance doubtless due to the prominent position which the culture of tropical fruits 
 has assumed during the past decade, and to which most of the new-comers have given their 
 attention. No cotton is returned from the portion of the State lying south of Tampa Bay, 
 and but little from the coasts, as well as from the extreme western part. The cotton-growing 
 counties show an average product of 0.26, or a little over a quarter of a bale per inhabitant. 
 
 Tennessee presents the striking fact of a total production less than half of that of Ala- 
 bama, but with an average product per acre one-half greater ; equal even to that of Missis- 
 sippi. The cause of this state of things becomes apparent when we circumscribe the regions 
 of production in accordance with the natural divisions of the State. It then appears that the 
 portion of Tennessee lying east of the " central basin," * from the eastern highland rim to 
 the line of North Carolina, and comprising about one-third of the area of the State, produces 
 only about one per cent, of the total amount of cotton; while eighty- four per cent, of this 
 total is produced in the country lying between the Tennessee and Mississippi rivers. More 
 than this, within this region, the average production per inhabitant is 0.52 of a bale, and a 
 little less (0.49 of a bale) per acre ; while the average for the entire State, per inhabitant, i.s 
 only 0.21 of a bale. Again, of the above 84 per cent., 70 belongs to the two tiers of coun- 
 ties lying nearest to the Missis.sippi river. (;)f these, only a small portion is bottom-land of 
 the Mississippi river; the greater part by far being gently rolling uplands ("table-lands "). 
 such as form a large body in Northwestern Mississippi, also, and extend, gradually narrow- 
 ing, as far south as Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 
 
 It thus appears that the cotton groduction of Tennessee is concentrated upon a compar- 
 atively small area of highly-productive land, the rest being devoted preferably to grain, 
 tobacco, grasses, and other industries, to which the soils and climates are more specially 
 adiiiitod; while in the other cotton-growing States, cotton is very generally grown, as a matter 
 of course, regardless of other cultures, of which the partial pursuit, at least, w-ould in the end 
 be more profitable than exclusive cotton-planting. 
 
 Ai-kansas produces its 608,256 bales on somewhat over a million of acres; making the 
 average product per acre slightly higher than that of Louisiana, viz,, 0.58. and 0.76 of a bale 
 per inhabitant. A cursory examination shows that by far the greater portion of the cotton 
 produced comes from the eastern and southern portions of the State, which contains a large 
 proportion of bottom lands; while in the extreme northern and northwestern counties but lit- 
 tle cotton is grown. The form of the returns makes it difficult to segregate the production of 
 the uplands and lowlands in this case; but the product, per acre, of Chicot county stands 
 second to the highest on the list, and it is safe to assume that, on detailed discussion,- the 
 average production of uplands and lowlands will be found to be, respectively, about the same 
 as in Louisiana. In both States, alike, the use of fertilizers in the large-scale production of cot- 
 ton, may be regarded as wholly insignificant in its influence on the general result. 
 
 In the case of Louisiana, as in that of Tennessee, a considerable portion (about one- 
 fourth) of the State is devoted mamly to other cultures than that of cotton ; the sugar-cane 
 gaining precedence in the lowland country lying south of the mouth of Red River, in wliich 
 only about 6 per cent, of the total amount of cotton is produced, but at the average rate of 
 0.80 bale per acre. Nearly the same, or a slightly higher average per acre, is obtained in the 
 alluvial lands north and west of the mouth of Red River, and in the Red River valley itself. 
 The small parish of East Carroll, in the northeast comer of the State, has the highest aver- 
 
 *Tlie " central basin " includes the valleys of the Cumberlaud, Duck, and Elk rivers, with tribu- 
 taries. 
 
COTTOK. 3«y 
 
 age product per acre of any county in tlie cotton States (0.95 of a bale), and stands second in 
 total production within the State. It will be noted that East Carroll corners upon Washing- 
 ton county, Mississippi, and adjoins Chicot county, Arkansas; both representing maxima of 
 production in their respective States. We have here, apparently, the center of maximum 
 cotton production on natural soils in the United States, and probably in the world. 
 
 The average product per acre in the uplands of Louisiana is approximately half of that 
 of the lowlands (0.41); and as the average for the State is 0.59, it follows that somewhat 
 more than half the acreage in cotton belongs to the uplands, while the lowlands yield nearly 
 two-thirds of the entire amount. This predominance of lowland cotton explains the higher 
 average product per aci'e in Louisiana, as compared with Mississippi, where less than one- 
 third of the cotton production comes from the Yazoo bottom-lands. Within the cotton-grow- 
 ing region proper, the average production is approximately 0.95 of a bale per inhabitant; 
 but as this figure excludes the entire population of the city of New Orleans, so largely inter- 
 ested in cotton, it is not fairly comparable with the proportion existing in other States. If 
 one-half of the population of the city be taken as mainly interested in cotton, the per capita 
 proportion would stand 0.80 bale. 
 
 The great State of Texas stands third in the list of total production, while first in popu- 
 lation, among the cotton States. The fact shown by the figures of acreage and total produc- 
 tion, viz., that in the average product per acre it stands eleventh in rank (0.37), will be a 
 surprise to most persons, and is doubtless in part to be accounted for as an accident of the 
 season, the year 1879 having been an unusually dry one, and therefore especially unfavorable 
 to a country in which so large a proportion of the staple is grown on upland soils. Among 
 these, the heavy black prairie soils, so highly productive in favorable seasons, are notoriously 
 the first to suffer from drought. It is probable that in ordir:ary seasons the average product 
 per acre in Texas would approach more nearly that of Mississippi or South Carob'na. 
 
 A dis.cussion of the returns shows that 52 per cent, of the cotton product of Texas is 
 grown in the northeastern portion of the State, north of the thirty-second parallel and east of 
 the ninety-eighth meridian, and that within this region the production is highest in the coun- 
 ties adjoining Red river, the product averaging 0.54 bale per acre. Southward of the thirty- 
 second parallel the average yield is 0.34 bale per acre. The coast counties produce but little 
 cotton; inland, between Red river and S.an Antonio, about 35 per cent, of the total product 
 is grown on black prairie land, the average product per acre on such land being (in 1879) 
 0.34 bale per acre. A comparison of the returns of the present census with tho.se of the pre- 
 ceding one shows that within the last decade the region of cotton production has extended 75 
 miles to westward. On the south but very little cotton is grown south and west of the Nueces 
 river. 
 
 Compared to the area of fertile lands susceptilile of cotton culture, the present cotton 
 acreage of Texas is almost insignificant. 
 
 The cases of the two Carolinas, with respect to cotton production, are nearly alike, and 
 may as well be considered together. In both States the average cotton product per acre is 
 high as compared with that of Georgia and Alabama, and, in the case of North Carolina, 
 approaches that of Mississippi itself. Without entering into details on the subject of the 
 distribution of cotton production in these States, it may be broadly stated that the culture of 
 cotton is reported to have greatly extended of late, even up the slopes of the -Blue Ridge 
 itself. Among the causes leading to this gratifying result, reports received show that the 
 use of fertilizers, and, with it, better methods of culture, are foremost. 
 
 In other words, these two members of the original union of thirteen States have been first 
 to place cotton culture upon a permanent foundation, by adopting a system of regular returns 
 to the soil; and the high product per acre, as compared with Georgia and Alabama on tho 
 one hand, and with Mississippi on the other, exhibits telUngly the tide- wave advancing westward. 
 
•JM THE AMERICAN FARMEK. 
 
 tlie ebb of the first native fertility in Alabama and Florida, the rising tide of restored produc- 
 tiveness in the Carolinas, with Georgia on the westward slope of the wave, on which it is 
 rising and showing distinctly a higher product per acre in its eastern than in its western por- 
 tion, where the use of fertilizers is much less extended. 
 
 The concentration of cotton culture upon the most fertile lands, already so apparent in 
 Tennessee, becomes even more so in Missouri, the most northerly region of large-scale cotton 
 production. 
 
 It appears that Missouri stands at the head of the list for cotton-product per acre culti- 
 vated in that crop, and it seems singular that this should be the case at the extreme northern 
 limit of cotton culture. But the anomaly disappears when we locate the area of production : 
 when it becomes apparent that it embraces almost exclusively the highly-fertilized lowlands 
 lying at the head of the great St. Francis' bottom in the southeast corner of the State. Their 
 product per acre must, therefore, be compared with that of others of a similar character, that 
 of the Yazoo bottom, for example. Here the average product ranges between .80 and .86 of 
 a bale per acre, to offset the .67 shown by the Missouri cotton area. 
 
 Assuming the soils to be similar in average fertihty in either region, the difference is 
 manifestly due to the comparatively short season for the development of the cotton plant in 
 the latitude of the Missouri cotton region ; and for the same reason cotton is there grown 
 only on those lands where high fertility insures the most rapid development. 
 
 The cotton production of Kentucky pertains, in the main, to what has been appropriately 
 styled the "penumbral" region of that industry. The bulk is produced in the counties 
 lying adjacent to Western Tennessee and to the Mississippi river, the latter embracing por- 
 tions of the rich bottom, with an average product per acre of from .48 to .56 of a bale. 
 Eastward the cotton is grown in small patches, mostly for home consumption. Such small 
 tracts being well cultivated, the product per acre is comparatively high, even so as to reach 
 the average of the counties bordering on the Mississippi river, doubtless through the use of 
 manure. Data, regarding the production of cotton in Virginia, are at this time too scanty to 
 warrant a discussion. It appears, however, that there also cotton production has increased 
 materially during the last decade, owing, doubtless, to the use of fertilizers. 
 
 SelPCtioil of Sped. — In the production of cotton, whatever the variety of seed planted, 
 it makes a vast difference with the quality and yield of the crop, whether the seed was the 
 product of a succession of carefully-cultivated products, or from those of slovenly and indif- 
 ferent cultivation. 
 
 This is a well-known principle in vegetable physiology. It is also equally true that 
 favorable conditions, such as good soil and proper cultivation, will secure a marked improve- 
 ment in the quality of the seed of any plant — principles which the most intelligent and suc- 
 cessful cultivators of the soU have strictly regarded. If any are indifferent in this respect, 
 and have been accustomed to regard "one seed as good as another." we feel sure they would 
 change that opinion by trying the experiment of planting only the very best seed produced 
 l)y the most careful cultivation for a short time, and noting the result. 
 
 We are well aware that impositions have been practiced in this respect, and exorbitant 
 prices have been obtained for what were claimed to be new and valuable varieties of cotton. 
 which, when planted and matured, proved to be a product of either very ordinary or inferior 
 quality. 
 
 Experience of this kind would have a tendency to produce skepticism with respect to 
 new varieties highly recommended, — the natural result of frau:lulent practice ; but it must 
 be borne in mind that the spurious and worthless are to be often found in almost every pro- 
 duct of agricultural art, capable of being adulterated — a fact to lie greatly deplored: but this 
 doe? not prove the non-existence of that which is truly valuable. 
 
 When not grown on the same plantation, seeil should be oljtained only from the most 
 
COTTON. 39J 
 
 loliable sources, since quite as mucli depends upon the quality of the seed, in the result of the 
 future crop, as the soil and cultivation afterwards received. 
 
 Not only will the unfavorable conditions of soil, cultivation, etc., cause a deterioration in 
 the quality of cotton-seed — the same as with other plants — but there is also an equal necessity 
 of an occasional change of seed ; the constant use of the same seed year after year produced 
 from the same soil having a tendency to deteriorate the quality of the crop, even with the best 
 cultivation. 
 
 Careless and indifferent cultivation is, however, one of the surest causes of deterioration; 
 hence, it is of the utmost importance that not only the best variety of seed be secured for the 
 crop, but that it be such as *as produced on good soil, and under the most favorable condi- 
 tions of cultivation. 
 
 It is a principle in nature that "like produces hke," and with the cotton, as well as with 
 all crops, the best seed of the variety most adapted to the condition of culture in which the 
 crop is to be grown vsill produce the most remunerative results. By cai-eful and improved 
 systematic culture, the cotton crop of the South will doubtless in a few years be double that 
 of its present or former average yield on a given area. An improved agricultural system, 
 the proper amount and kind of fertilizers, together with the use of modern agricultural 
 implements which have been and are being introduced, will develop the agricultural resources 
 of this section of our country, and the possibilities of the cotton crop, to almost an incredible 
 extent. There is no portion of the civilized world, and no equal extent in the cotton-growing 
 zone, so peculiarly adapted to the culture of cotton as some portions of the Southern States, 
 especially those of the Gulf coast; there being found the rare combinations of large areas, 
 with soil of requisite quaUty, the temperature required, together with the degree of humidity 
 necessary; all of which are so essential to its perfect development and most successful 
 culture. 
 
 Soil, and its Preparation. — The cotton plant is less exacting than most crops with 
 respect to soil. If properly managed, it will thrive well on a variety of soils and on those of 
 a widely different character. 
 
 It will also admit of being re-planted on the same lands for a greater number of succes- 
 sive years than almost any other crop, although a judicious rotation produces the best 
 results. For upland cottons, the best soils are generally conceded to be a rich loam, a clayey 
 loam, and silicious soil with a clay subsoil. 
 
 This crop, with good culture, is also very productive on sandy soils underlaid by sand- 
 stone or limestone rocks, and the rich alluvial deposits of bottom lands. With respect to the 
 wide range of soils suited to its successful cultivation, we quote the following, translated from 
 an eminent French authority, Guide Pratique de ta Culture du Colon, par le Dr. Adrien Sicard, 
 Secretaire General de la Societe d' Horticulture, etc., of Paris. 
 
 " If we exclude lands composed of compact clays, with a soil of no depth and an imper- 
 meable subsoil, we shall have eliminated from the vast variety of them, all soils which will 
 not produce cotton. Indeed, recent studies and investigations have proved that, with the 
 use of an appropriate fertilizer and proper cultivation, where the climate admits of the 
 maturity of the bolls, cotton can be more or less profitably grown on all kinds and qualities 
 of land. Thus, on the rocky sides of the mountains of Hindostan, in Africa, and on the dry 
 hills of the West India islands, in soils which are too light and thin to produce any other 
 crop, cultivators grow and make good crops of cotton. Further, cotton is so indifferent to 
 the quality of land producing it that it grows almost equally as well on the rich loams of 
 Egypt, in the pure clays of Syria, in the sands of Arabia, and on the volcanic fields of Sicily; 
 while on the sandy second beaches of Georgia and the Carolinas the best cotton in the world 
 is produced " 
 
 Soils deficient in the mineral element are not suited to the successful production of this 
 
392 'i'HE AMERICAN FARMER 
 
 crop, neither those in which there is a large amount of undecomposed vegetable material. 
 Cotton has a long tapering root, which runs perpendicularly and deeply into the soil in the 
 early stages of its growth, and afterward sends out laterals, which furnish the small feeding 
 roots of the plant. It is thought by some that the crop is increased in regions that are 
 subject to frost, by decreasing the length of the root and thus increasing the laterals which 
 furnish the necessary plant-food, for hastening the growth and maturity of the crop. A good 
 authority says with reference to this subject: — 
 
 •' We have reason to think that the radical system of the annual cotton plant gains more 
 if we diminish the length of the tap root than if we increase it, and PS evidence of this we 
 offer the enormous crop produced on lands where the soil is very thin, but of excellent 
 quality. Such are tliose about Sierra Leone, where cotton is grown on a soil of a few inches 
 in tliickness only, all beneath being solid, level rock. Here the tap root exists, as elsewhere, 
 but the moment it encounters the rock its growth is arrested, and thereafter the laterals push 
 out prodigiously, and gather nourishment enough to produce great yields of the staple." 
 
 This peculiar structure of the plant explains the reason for its early maturity and enor- 
 mous yield, on certain very thin soils, overl3ring a rocky or impenetrable subsoil; it also 
 shows the necessity of underdraining soils with a stiff clay subsoil that may be penetrated by 
 the root, as a surplus of moisture about the roots is very injurious to the crop. When this 
 cannot be conveniently done, open ditches may be the best remedy to avoid the evil. Where 
 neither can be accomplished, ridge culture with furrows for draining between the rows, 
 though not a very efficient mode, will prove to a certain extent beneficial. A proper system 
 of underdraining is to be recommended as preferable to all other means of removing surplus 
 water fi-om landfs, wliatever the crop to be cultivated. 
 
 Underdraining has not only a tendency to carry off the surplus water from the soil, but 
 permits it to remain sufficiently moist by the retention of the heavy dews, so common in the 
 cotton-growing section, and also renders the subsoil better fitted for the long roots to pene- 
 trate it, thus obviating the evil effects of drought; hence, the cotton crop is greatly benefited 
 by it in both wet and dry seasons, having a tendency to promote a greater uniformity of 
 moisture, so essential to the perfect development of the plants. 
 
 In upland sections, which may be badly washed by heavy rains, thus removing much of 
 the fertilizing elements of the manure that has been applied, planters often resort to what is 
 termed circle-ditching, or circle plowing, for the cotton crop. 
 
 By this method, the lowest point is found for an outlet of the water. From this point 
 a ditch is made with a bank of earth firmly laid on the lower side to prevent washing. The 
 ditch is then made to gradually wind around the hill, maintaining a slightly uniform and 
 gradual descent. This ditch is usually made by plowing two or three furrows so as to lap 
 over each other, and then cleaning out the last one with a hoe or trench-plow. In plowing 
 such a field, the furrows should follow the curves of the ridge thus formed, never disturbing 
 it, and the cotton should also be planted in rows following the same direction. By this means, 
 many of the upland sections that would otherwise be injured by the heavy rains, are made to 
 produce fine crops, and all evils from wasliing prevented. 
 
 A rotation with other crops is essential to the most successful results in cotton produc- 
 tion. Cotton for two years is often followed by corn, sweet potatoes, and wheat or oats. 
 Cotton followed by oats in January, where the climate will admit of it, — followed by cow-peas 
 immediately after, a part of which may be cut for hay, and the remainder plowed under for 
 green manure, — followed the next season with corn, and this crop again by cotton, is a very 
 good rotation for most soils. Corn, oats, potatoes, and cow-peas are generally considered by 
 planters to be the best crops for a rotation with cotton. The plowing should be rather deep, 
 and the soil well pulverized, since the cotton-plant has a long root that penetrates down into 
 the earth quite a distance, sometimes into the subsoil. Care should, however, be observed n 
 
COTTON, 393 
 
 plowing not to throw up tlie subsoil to the surface, and bury the surface soil beneath, as it is 
 only in very rare instances that the subsoil is of such a nature as to benefit the surface or 
 agricultural soil by being mixed with it; the soil on the surface that has been exposed to the 
 atmospheric influences and mixed with decomposed vegetable material generally being the 
 richest, and hence possessing the largest amount of plant- food. 
 
 The stalks of the previous crop are usually disposed of l.iy being cleared off the field and 
 burned before plowing, but sometimes they are broken down and plowed under for fer- 
 tility to the soil, which tliey will furnish to a certain extent by their decay. 
 
 The best method is to plow in the fall, thus giving the soil all the benefits resulting from 
 the action of the frost, while many of the eggs and larvs of noxious insects will also be lia- 
 ble to be destroyed by this means. This sliould be followed by plowing again in the spring 
 and thoroughly harrowing before planting. • 
 
 The land for cotton is generally plowed in ridges, these ridges being made two or three 
 weeks before the time of planting, in order to give the soil time to settle well before the seed 
 is deposited. Just before planting, they are thoroughly harrowed to loosen the upper por- 
 tion of the soil, after which the middle of the ridge is opened for the seed by the cotton- 
 planter, drill, or other Implement for the purpose. The ridges are so arranged that the rows 
 of plants shall be from three to six feet apart, according to the nature of the soil, and each 
 row stand upon a narrow elevation with a furrow between for the water. The richer the 
 land, as a general rule, the farther apart should the rows be planted. On very poor soils, this 
 distance is sometimes not more than two and a half feet; on very rich soils it sometimes 
 exceeds six feet. 
 
 When stable manure or compost is used for fertilizing, it is generally placed in a fur- 
 row, and the plow used to throw the soil over it, thus leaving it covered in the middle of the 
 ridge, where the roots of the plant can soon reach it. Where commercial fertilizers are used, 
 they may be mixed with four or five times their bulk of dry soil, and be deposited in the 
 hill at the time of planting, or placed in the hill and slightly covered with soil before plant- 
 ing. Chemical fertilizers should never come in direct contact with the seed, as they are very 
 liable to injure tlic germ, being very strong and penetrating. 
 
 Various kinds of fertilizers are used for the cotton crop. It has been the practice in 
 many sections of the South to produce this crop with little or no fertility added to the land, 
 and hence exhaustion of soil has followed, with its attendant evil consequences. The pro- 
 duction of the lint alone would not cause so very great an amount of drainage of the fertiliz- 
 ing elements of the land, but when we add to this the elements necessary for the 
 prodxiction of the roots, stalks, leaves, and seed of the plants, it is not surprising that soils 
 thus treated should become exhausted ; the only surprise is, that they do not fail in this 
 respect sooner than they do. It has been found by experiment that, when the seed is 
 removed from the soil, the exhaustion is about twenty-five times as rapid as when the lint 
 alone is taken, and fully equal to that caused by the production of corn or wheat. Hence the 
 necessity of returning to the cotton-growing lands a substitute in the form of fertilizers of 
 some kind, for what has been removed by the crop. Cotton-seed composted with other mate- 
 rials makes a valuable fertilizer for this purpose. Common stable manure is also a complete 
 fertilizer, and is especially valuable to this crop. A compost of cotton-seed and stable manure, 
 mixed with lime or plaster, is a very effective fertilizer. Commercial fertilizers are also very 
 beneficial. 
 
 The most important mineral element removed from the soil by the cotton crop, and 
 which must be supplied by the cultivator, is claimed by agricultural chemists to be phos- 
 phoric acid. Potash and lime are also removed to a certain extent, but in smaller quantities. 
 Phosphate of lime is also highly recommended for this crop. 
 
 GN'psum. bone-dust, and guano, as well as wood-ashes, have also Ijeen found very bene- 
 
39-1: THE AMERICAX FARMEK. 
 
 ficial. There is probably nothing better than barn-yard manure made from grain-fed ani- 
 mals, since this contains all the elements of fertility, and is to be recommended where it can 
 be obtained in sufEciently large quantities for the purpose. 
 
 Tlie local resources of the cotton-growing 1 o't lor the fertilization of the soil for this 
 crop have been pointed out by a former Commissioner of Agriculture as follows, and shown 
 to be abundant, accessible, and inexpensive: — 
 
 "Every farmer should rely mainly upon his stock for manures; hogs should be fattened 
 upon field-peas; cattle and horses should be penned at night in deeply-littered yards. Accre- 
 tions to the manure-pile may be made from a great variety of sources, including all decaying 
 vegetable and animal matter, waste and wash from the kitchen, muck from the swamps, and 
 pine straw or leaves from the forest. 
 
 « There are many special fertihzers in this section ample for a perpetual supply of all pos- 
 sible drain upon the resources of the soil. The coast line from Virginia to Texas, including 
 all the sounds, inlets, bays, and estuaries, has an aggregate extent of thousands of miles, and 
 every mile can furnish abundant stores of fish and sea-weed for manuring adjacent fields. 
 Oyster-shell lime is also plentv and cheap in the tide-water regions. 
 
 No mineral manure is more abundant than marl, which is found in the whole tide-water 
 section of the Atlantic coa.st, in the Mississippi Valley, and in Texas. It underUes wide belts 
 at various depths, often very near the surface; it is in many localities easily obtained in large 
 quantities; and its value, though variable is undoubted for application for soils needing lime. 
 Ciypsum can be obtained from native beds at no great di.-^tance from any locality in the 
 South. Lime is abimdant in the mountain valleys from Virginia to Northern Alabama; and 
 the ' rotten-limestone ' formations of Alaliama and Mississippi are unsiu'passed for fertility. 
 
 All these home i-esoiirces should be used in bringing up the average cotton yield per 
 acre, and obtaining from half of the present acreage all of the fiber needed, leaving free a 
 sufficient area to produce the bread, the fimits. the vegetables, the beef and mutton necessary 
 for the home population, and a surplus of the lighter products for exportation." 
 
 Green manuring with cow-peas. oats, or clovei- will also be found valuable in restoring 
 the fertility of partially exhausted lands, and a good fertilizer for the cotton crop, when per- 
 mitted to lie long enough after being turned under to become thoroughly decomposed. 
 
 The quantity of fertilizers to be applied will depend upon various conditions, such as the 
 nature of the soil and its productive capacity, and whether the seed is removed or not. 
 Where the seed is returned to the soil, a less quantity of other fertilizers will be necessary. 
 
 The difiiculty is generally in using too small an amount of fertilizers rather than too 
 large, although, of course, a sufficient amount might be used to be deleterious to the crop. 
 Asa general rule, however, the richer the soil, the better the crop. 
 
 Cultivation. — "When the soil has been well prepared to receive the seed, by ridging 
 and then harrowing, the planting may be done with a drill or cotton-planter that opens the 
 furrow, deposits the seed, and covers it at a uniform depth. This method is much to be pre- 
 ferred to hand-planting, since it is a saving of time and labor, and the work is done better 
 than could be performed by hand, the seed being dropped more evenl}-^ and covered at a moro 
 uniform depth, while the rows will be made more regularly, admitting of a better use of the 
 cultivator, horse-hoe, or other suitable implements, in the after-culture of the crop. 
 
 When hand-planting is practiced, the ridges are opened with a light plow, or some im- 
 plement that makes a small drill into which the seed is dropped, being afterwards covered by 
 harrowing. Soaking the seed a day or two in tepid water, and rolling it in gypsum or wood- 
 ashes before planting, will hasten germination, and cause it to come up sooner than when 
 planted dry. 
 
 The quantity of seed necessary will depend upon the quality of the land, poor lanti 
 I'equiring a larger amount than rich soils. From two to four bushels per acre are used. It 
 
COTTON. 
 
 395 
 
 is well to have an abundance of seed planted, since the enemies of the cotton-plant are so 
 numerous and destructive that many of the young plants will be liable to be destroyed. If 
 all the seed germinates, there will, of course, be a large surplus of plants, which must be 
 removed by thinning. The drills should be straight, in order to facilitate after-culture. The 
 distance apart of the hills varies from ten inches to three feet. The larger the distance apart, 
 the larger the number of plants in a hill, as a general rule. The quality of the soil must 
 also be taken into account, since the richer the soil, the larger and more thrifty the growth 
 of the plants, and consequently the more room they will require. 
 
 Care must also be used not to cover the seed too deeply in the soil, as the crop will be 
 injured by this means. In such cases, some of the seed vv^ill fail to germinate; others will 
 produce but feeble and sickly plants. It should be well covered, however, from an inch to 
 an inch and a half being the usual depth, sandy soil requiring a greater depth than rich, 
 heavy loams or clays. The soil should be pressed down upon the seed to hasten germination, 
 and the work thoroughly done. The time of planting will vary in different localities. In 
 some sections, the planting is done as early as the middle of March, in others it is delayed 
 
 DEtKL SPRING CULTIVAToK WITH I\I1I0\ED COTION S( 1 Vlll{ BLADt^ 
 
 until the middle or 20th of May. While, with favoring conditions, an early planting insures 
 an early harvest, yet there is danger of injury to the crop if planted before the land is 
 sufficiently warm. The seed will not germinate if the soil is too cold and wet; they will, on 
 the contrary, be Liable to rot in the ground, while with a proper temperature, oven with 
 rather late planting, they will soon start and become well established in the soil. 
 
 Poor soils, however, necessitate an earlier planting than rich lands that are naturally 
 rich, or have been made so by being heavily manured. One of the advantages of late plant- 
 ing on rich soil consists in the saving of labor, since if such lands are planted early, large 
 quantities of grass and weeds will spring up and feed upon the soil, extracting much of its 
 fertilizing properties, consequently injuring the cotton crop, and also requiring considerable 
 labor to exterminate them. As the plant grows slowly on poor soil, a late planting, on such 
 lands would not be advisable, as it would not have time to fully mature. The time before 
 the young shoots make their appearance varies according to the time of planting, and the 
 weather. Late-planted seed will start sooner than the extremely early, in consequence of the 
 greater warmth of the soil, the time varying from five to fourteen days or more. With 
 favorable temperature they will usually come up in from five to seven days. If the weather 
 
396 THE AMEUICAN FARAIEH. 
 
 is unusually dry at the time of late planting, the seed will sometimes remain in the ground 
 three or four weeks before starting, and when a rain conies will soon make a good stand. 
 
 The first cultivation should be given when the plants are well out of the ground, in 
 order to check the growth of grass and weeds. The soil should also be kept light and 
 mellow, which greatly facilitates the growth of the plants. The implements formerly used 
 for this purpose, and at present to a certain extent, are the hand-hoe, sweep, harrow, plow, 
 etc. In many sections, better implements, such as the horse-hoe and different varirties of 
 cultivators, are being used quite extensively. 
 
 The Deere Spring Cultivator with cotton-scraper blades, manufactured by Deere, Mansur 
 & Co., St. Louis, Mo., is said to be a valuable implement in the saving of labor and the 
 thoroughness with which it does the work. Many of the cotton-plows are also very valuable 
 for this i^urpose. 
 
 When the plant has attained its third or fourth leaf, the thinning process is performed, 
 together with the use of the hoe or cultivator. This should be done with care, the finest 
 plants to be saved and the surplus ones removed. The distance apart at which the plants are 
 thinned varies with the nature of the soil; rich lands requiring that the distance be greater 
 than those of less fertility. In soils of medium fertility, the distance is from eighteen to 
 twenty-four inches apart, three or four plants being left in a hill at the first thinning, which 
 number is generally reduced, in after cultivation, to one or two. After the thinning process, 
 the fresh earth should be drawn around the roots of the young plants for support, and all 
 weeds and grass kept carefully excluded from the liills. The after-culture should always be 
 shallow, to prevent injury to the roots, especially in the use of the plow. The hand-hoe may 
 be necessary in removing weeds growing quite near the plants or between the hills, but much 
 of the laljor of after-culture may be performed by other farm implements suited to the pur- 
 pose, and involving less labor. 
 
 Plowing is frequently beneficial in hastening the growth and maturity of the plants. 
 Care should be used, however, not to bruise or cut them, as they are very tender, and any 
 such injury will affect their productiveness. The after-cultivation should be sufficiently 
 frequent to exclude the grass and weeds, and keep the surface light and porous. Good 
 culture is one of the great essentials in the cultivation of cotton, and a frequent stirring of 
 the soil is necessary in order to keep out the weeds and permit the entrance of a .sufficient 
 amount of air and moisture. 
 
 The use of the sulky plows and cultivators, together with other improved agricultural 
 implements, wherever introduced, have been of immense advantage to the planter in the 
 cultivation of this product, not only in the saving of lal:ior, but in securing better cultivation, 
 and consequently larger crops and profits. 
 
 Harvesting. — Cotton generally grows in this country to the height of from two to 
 four feet, different varieties varying somewhat in this respect. The height it attains is also 
 largely modified Ijy the qualify of the soil, the richest soils producing the most luxuriant 
 growths. Unlike corn and other farm crops, cotton, being a perennial, which in some parts 
 of the tropics becomes a small tree, continues to bud and blossom continuously, thus producing 
 new flowers and fruit until the plant is killed by frost. In this country it is killed by the 
 frost each winter, and its cultivation for a long period has fixed a tendency in the plant to 
 produce lint and seeds, rather than wood. This habit of continued blossoming and ripening 
 of its bolls until the black frost comes, necessitates several pickings or gatherings of the crop 
 during the season. The plant generally opens its first blossoms from the middle of May to 
 the first of June, according to the time of planting, the season, etc. The bolls turn brown 
 and open in from four to six weeks after the flowers appear. Some planters have their fields 
 picked regularly four or five times during the season, others but once or twice. The most 
 energetic and system.itic growei«s usually have the crop gathered as often as a sufficient 
 
odi 
 
 amount is open and ready to lie harvested, the rule being witli niimy, tu fonunence picking as 
 soon as one laborer can pici< a hundred pounds per dr.y. 
 
 The ripening of the bolls is indicated by their lurning a dark brown, and expanding, 
 which causes the cotton to protrude. The picking is performed by hand. Heavy rains at 
 this season sometimes cause considerable loss in the crop. It may be ginned as the picking- 
 progresses, or be first dried, and afterwards ginned. One of the most successful planters at 
 the South says that it should first be dried until the seed will crack when pressed between the 
 teeth, being frequently turned over and stirred so as to facilitate thci drying process; after 
 which it should be packed away to remain until ready for the ginning process, or it may be 
 ginned as soon as dried. The same authority also says: — 
 
 " Having all things ready for picking cotton, I commence as usual, early, as soon as the 
 hands can gather even twenty pounds each. This is ailvisable, not only in saving a portion 
 of tliat from being destroyed, if rains should fall, which often do at this season (about the 
 middle of August), but for another reason; passing through the cotton has a tendency to open 
 out TO sun and air the limbs that have interlocked across the rows, and hastens the early 
 opening. On low grounds, especially, much loss is incurred in some seasons from the want 
 of the sun to pro luce an expansion of the fiber within the boll, so as to cause it to open. 
 
 If the cotton seed is not wanted, pack the seed-cotton away into the house, to remain 
 imtil a gentle heat is discovered, or until sufficient for ginning ; after it has heated until it has 
 a feeling of warmth to the hand, and looks as if pressed together, open out and scatter it to 
 cool. The cotton will gin faster, have a softer feel, is not so brittle, therefore not so liable to 
 break by rapidity of gin, and has a creamy color. The wool has imbibed a part of the oil 
 that has e.vuded by warmth of seed, and is in fact restored to the original color; for the oil. 
 being vegetable, is dissipated by sun and air, and the color liy moisture (of riiin and dews) 
 and light. I have known of 
 a number of sales made of 
 this description of cotton, and 
 even those who are most stren- 
 uous against the heating, ad- 
 mit it bore a better price." 
 
 The cotton should never 
 be left on the field after being 
 picked, and thus exposed to 
 the weather, as is the practice 
 in some sections. Such a 
 course not only involves loss 
 by an injury to the quality of 
 the cotton, but large quanti- 
 ties of the product often rot the " moline " elliptic spring stalk-cftter. 
 
 and become entirely worth- For cutting Com and cotton stalks in tlie field. 
 
 less by such exposure. When not ginned at once, it should be housed, and thus protected 
 from the heavy dews and rains. After cotton is all harvested the stalks are usually left 
 standing in the field until the time of plowing for the succeeding crop, when they are either 
 pulled up and burned, or broken down and plowed under. 
 
 An easier method of clearing the field is to cut them with a stalk-cutter, when they can 
 quickly be disposed of by burning, or other methods, as the judgment and circumstances of 
 the planter may dictate. Various implements of this kind are in vise for both corn and cotton 
 fields, and are a great saving of labor. The aliove illustration represents an implement 
 manufactured by Deere, Mansur & Co., St. Louis, Mo. It may be used with one or two 
 horses, as d(«irod. 
 
S98 
 
 THE AMERICAN FAKJlJilt. 
 
COTTON. 399 
 
 Ginning. — it is very important to the cotton planter's interest tliat this valuable product 
 be well prepared for the market, as great loss has often been sustained by sending the cotton 
 off in an imperfectly-cleaned condition, owing to a defect in the ginning process, either by 
 the incompetency of those' who performed this labor, or the use of poor machines for the 
 purpose. In order to have it well ginned, good implements must be used, with competent 
 supervision, and the cotton be in proper condition for the process. It should never be ginned 
 when damp, neither should the process be unduly hurried. The gin must always be kept in 
 good order, and used only under the direction of one who thoroughly understands the 
 business. When used by a careless, indifferent person, or one ignorant of its mechanical 
 construction, the work will probably not only be very poorly done by forcing the gin, and 
 feeding in large compact masses, but the machine will also be liable to be greatly injured by 
 such a course. In some sections of the ^outh, we beheve, it is the practice of a few planters 
 to combine in the ownership of a gin-house. By this means the preparation of the cotton 
 product for market is attended with less expense per individual; the best machines may be 
 brought into requisition at a comparatively small cost to each, while the building could bo 
 centrally located with reference to the situations of the plantations of the several owners, so 
 that there need be but little inconvenience in conveying the cotton to it for the purpose. 
 Such an arrangement, to be generally adopted, would doubtless be attended with great benefit 
 in the cultivation of this crop, since it enables many who are not able to build expensive gin- 
 houses and supply them with first-class machines to cultivate this crop with greater profit. 
 
 COTTON' HAND OIN IMPROVED EAGLE. 
 
 The original apparatus for freeing the cotton fiber from the seeds consisted of two rollers 
 revolving in opposite directions, between which the cotton was passed. The gin invented by 
 Ur. Eh Whitney, in 1793, consisted of a hopper, one side of which was constructed of parallel 
 wires, between which circular saws were made to revolve, the teeth of which drew the fiber 
 of the cotton through the wires, leaving the seeds behind. Great improvements in gins have 
 of course been effected since that time, and at present the best of these implements seem 
 almost perfect in their work. Many excellent machines of this kind are in the market, as 
 well as some very inferior ones. The foregoing cuts represent the Eagle gin, manufactured 
 
400 
 
 TUE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 by the Eagle Cotton Giu Co., Bridgewater, Mass., and is an implement the value of which is 
 too well known to require comment. The power gins are similar in construction, though 
 7uatle much larger than the hand gin, and can be used with either steam or horse-power, 
 stoam being generally preferred. The machine should always be set firm and level, and kept 
 well oiled. Before using it, the operator should see that all the belts and bolts are tight, and 
 that every part is in proper working order, being particular to notice that the screen cylinder 
 and compression roller turn freely. The machine should always be started before putting in 
 tlie cotton; the quantity of cotton from the feeder to the gin to he regulated by arrangements 
 for that purpose. It will be some minutes after putting in the cotton before any machine ■will 
 do its best work. 
 
 EAGLE COTTON GIN, WITH KEEDEK AND CONDENSER ATTACHED. 
 
 After the ginning process, the cotton should be pressed into bales ready for market. 
 TUs may be done by either steam or horse-power, and requires comparatively but little time 
 and labor. The press of Dederick & Co., of Albany, N. Y., represented on a previous page, 
 illustrates this process. When the bales are ready for market, there still remains for the 
 planter to decide whether to make an immediate sale, or hold the product for an advance 
 in the market-price. This question must be settled according to his knowledge of the state of 
 the market at home and abroad, the prospect for the future, and his own judgment, guided 
 by expei'ience and observation in the past, together with his financial condition at the time. 
 If confident that the price will be no lower, and that it will advance sufficient to repay for 
 withholding it from the market for a time, it may be well to delay the sale. But, as a general 
 rule in the disposal of crops, where a fair price can be obtained, and there are no positive 
 indications of an advance, it is better to sell, than to depend upon uncertainty, and run the 
 risk of the price being still lower. It would be very poor policy for any man to borrow 
 
COTTON. 401 
 
 ■money and pay the interest, rather than sell a product for a fair consideration, unless he had 
 very good reasons for supposing that he could safely depend upon a sufficiently large increase 
 in its market price to make such a course profitable. 
 
 The bales are usually made to weigh from 450 to 500 pounds. The lint, after the 
 ginning process, is less than a third of the gross weight of the seed-cotton; the amount of 
 seed in the cotton being about seventy per cent, of the entire crop gathered, or the gross 
 weight. 
 
 Uses of Cotton Seed. — A few years ago cotton seed was considered almost worth- 
 less, no particular use being made of the surplus quantity that remained after planting. At 
 present it is regarded as a valuable fertilizer, particularly when used in composts. Cotton- 
 seed meal is also one of the most useful kinds of food for farm stock, when judiciously fed 
 to them. It is regarded by some as possessing twice the nutritive properties of corn-meal, 
 and, being so rich, must be fed in small quantities. 
 
 About two pounds per day, with othel" fodder, are generally considered sufficient for a 
 milch-cow, and from two to four ounces for a calf. It should always be given mixed with 
 other food, or in connection with it. It should never be fed to swine, except with bran or 
 roots. It is stated by good authority that when used in the proportion of one pound to half 
 a peck of boiled potatoes, it makes a good food for fattening pig.s. 
 
 Horses do well on it if not given more than two pounds per day with meal or oats; but 
 if fed too generously with it, it will have an injurious effect upon the system, inducing 
 inflammation of the bowels and kidneys. Sheep will also thrive on it, \yhen fed in connection 
 ■with hay or roots. Analysis proves that a ton of cotton-seed meal contains 38 pounds of 
 potash, 56 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 78 pounds of nitrogen, which shows its value as a 
 fertilizer, and as an element in manure when fed to stock. 
 
 During 1 9 years of continuous cropping from the same land, Mr. Lawes of Rothamsted 
 applied on adjoining plots, annually — 
 
 1000 lbs. rape cake (with 300 lbs. mineral suptrphosphate), with 50 lbs. nitrogen. 
 
 200 lbs. ammonia salts (with 300 lbs. superphosphate), with 41 lbs. nitrogen. 
 
 275 lbs. nitrate of soda (with 300 lbs. superphosphate), with 41 lbs. nitrogen. 
 And in each instance harvested annually about 48 bushels of barley and 28 cwts. of straw, 
 -containing together 56 pounds of nitrogen. 
 
 The oil expressed from the seed of cotton is also valuable for various purposes. The 
 .seed is very rich in oil, and will usually yield from fifteen to twenty per cent, of its own 
 ■weight. After expressing the oil, the cake is used for food for cattle and other farm stock. 
 The seed should never be fed whole or raw to animals, as this practice will frequently be 
 attended with fatal results, besides much waste will be occasioned by it. It should either 
 be ground into meal, or boiled before being fed. The former is the better and easier method 
 of disposing of it. In order to utilize cotton seed to the fullest extent for food, since the 
 harsh hulls are injurious to the stomach and intestines of animals, and also retard the de. 
 composition of the seed when used as a fertilizer, a huller of some kind is found very ser- 
 viceable in removing the hulls or outer covering of the seeds. These machines may be used 
 by hand, horse, or steam power; also to advantage in grinding and cracking corn or peas. 
 The illustration represents a hand-machine of this kind manufactured by David Kahnweiler, 
 New York city, and is said to hull from three to four bushels per hour; the power hullers 
 for larger plantations hulling a much larger amount, according to the size. 
 
 Rank of American Cotton, etc. — As has i)reviously been stated, the United States 
 stands first among the countries of the world in the amount and quality of its cotton products, 
 the famous Sea-Island cotton taking first rank, since it surpasses all other varieties in the 
 length, strength, and beauty of its fiber, it being very long and exceedingly soft and silky. 
 The fact of the superiority of our cotton product was signally demonstrated at the Cotton 
 38 
 
402 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 Exposition at Atlanta in 1S81, where specimens from different sections of the cotton-growing 
 belt of the whole globe were exhibited, the best that Egypt, Persia, India, Russia, Mexico, and 
 other cotton-growing countries could produce, being brought in close comparison with our own. 
 which comparison substantiated the fact beyond question, that, whether taken in part or as a 
 whole, the cotton produced in the United States is so superior to all others, that it gives to 
 our country a practical monopoly of tlie cotton markets of the world. The superior excel- 
 lence of the quality of the product, together with the extent of the cotton belt and the 
 facilities for cultivating cotton that the Southern States afford, give to tliat section of our 
 country opportunities of no small import, and augur well for the future development of its 
 
 resources, which liave 
 never yet been fully 
 tested. 
 
 When we remem- 
 ber that, in the year 
 1830, the crop of cotton 
 produced in this coun- 
 try reached only 1,000,- 
 000 bales, tliat the larg- 
 est amount ever pro- 
 duced prior to 1860 was 
 only a little over 4,500,- 
 000 bales, and that the 
 crop of 1881 was about 
 2,000,000 bales in ex- 
 cess of the latter num- 
 ber, we can easily see 
 that the possibilities of 
 the cotton production of 
 the United States have 
 not yet been reached, 
 and that the future out- 
 look is indeed promis- 
 ing The heavy increase 
 in the cotton crop dur- 
 ing the last few years is 
 mainly attributable to 
 the increase of the cot- 
 ton acreage by the use 
 of suitable fertilizers; 
 thousands of acres of 
 land formerly supposed 
 to be beyond the possible limit of the cotton belt having been made into the best of cotton 
 lands by being artificially enriched, thus hastening the maturity of the crop, as well as the 
 increased product, while partially exhausted lands have been restored by the same means. 
 
 Prof. Morehead, President of the Mississippi \' alley Cotton-Planters' Association, states that 
 the entire cotton crop of the year 1881 might have been easily raised in fourteen counties bor- 
 dering along the Mississippi river. The capacity of the South for cotton production seems 
 almost limitless, and when we consider the enormous demand for cotton goods from all the 
 different parts of the world, and that this is the principal quarter of the globe best adapted 
 to furnish the supply and meet the demand, there is truly a great inducement to Southern 
 
 HAND COTTON-SEED HULLER. 
 
COTTON. 403 
 
 planters to avail themselves of every improvement and facility within their power for the 
 cultivation of this valuable product. 
 
 Enemies and Diseases of the Cotton Plant. — The enemies of the cotton plant are 
 numerous and often very destructive. The cut-worm is generally the first to make an attack, 
 sometimes eating off the tender shoots just after making their appearance from the soil. A 
 top-dressing of wood ashes, or plaster mixed with the earth around the roots, will sometimes 
 check the evil. It is noticeable that where commercial fertilizers are used in the soil, this 
 pest is less common. 
 
 Aphides, or Cotton-Lice, are sometimes very damaging to the crop, as they attack the 
 plant in the early stages of its growth, sucking the juices from the tender stalks and 
 leaves, causing them to turn yellow and drop off. These insects are very small, but at the 
 same time are very prolific, and when numerous are quite damaging to the crop. They are 
 generally most troublesome when the spring has been wet and cold. 
 
 They have many enemies that prey upon them, among which the most important are the 
 ants and birds. Paris green is often used with good effect, both in powder and dissolved in 
 water, as recommended in a previous part of this work for the potato-beetle. Great care 
 should be exercised in its use, as it is a deadly poison. It is a fact worthy of notice that all 
 insect pests are less troublesome in localities where birds are numerous, and their presence 
 should always be encouraged. 
 
 The Caterpillar, or Cotton- Worm. — This pest is sometimes called the "cotton- 
 caterpillar," but is more generally termed the ''cotton- worm," in contradistinction to the 
 "boll-worm." It is one of the most destructive enemies of the cotton crop with which the 
 planter has to contend. It is stated that in the year 1873, this caterpillar, or worm, caused 
 by its depredations an estimated damage of about twenty millions of dollars, in the course of 
 two weeks. According to the best authority, it is indigenous to South America, and is an 
 introduced insect in the United States. The first appearance of it in this country, now on 
 record, was in 1793. This period was followed by an extremely disastrous invasion in 1804, 
 and from that time untO the present, there has never been a season in which the cotton worm 
 has not done more or less damage to the cotton product in some portions of the Southern 
 States. 
 
 The worm is hatched from an egg deposited by the female moth. The four states or 
 stages of its development are given as follows by Prof. C. V. Riley, and will enable any one 
 unacquainted with any or all of them to recognize the species in any phase of its growth, and 
 to distinguish it from other insects; besides, a correct knowledge of its habits will enable the 
 planter to better defend his crop against its depredations. 
 
 " The Egg. — In this stage of its existence, the cotton-worm is known to but few people, 
 both its color and size shielding it from observation. Every planter should, however, not 
 only become familiar with its appearance, but know just where to look for it. "With this 
 knowledge, time may be gained, the loss of which in the application of remedies may result 
 disastrously. 
 
 The egg is 0.6 mm. wide, circular, much flattened and ribbed. Of bright bluish-green 
 or sea-green when first laid, it contrasts sufficiently with the warmer green of the leaf to be 
 easily detected, even by the naked eye, when practiced. It is laid singly, and fastened with 
 such firmness as not to be easily removed without injury. It is laid by preference during 
 early summer on the imder side of the larger and lower leaves, and seldom more than three 
 or four are found on one leaf. 
 
 In confinement, and exceptionally in nature, it will be laid on the upper surface of the 
 leaf, or on any other exposed part of the plant. In autumn, more particularly, the upper 
 leaves receive a due share of the eggs, and I have counted as many as forty-nine eggs and 
 
404 THE AMERICAN FAHiIEK, 
 
 egg-shells on a single leaf. "Witli development the color becomes more dingy, or pale yellow- 
 ish, frequently with brownish borders or a green curve, due to the coiled embryo, which may 
 be seen through the transparent shell. The young worm or larva eats its way out through 
 an irregular hole on one side, usually during the morning, ere the dew is dissipated, and 
 from three to four days after oviposition. This is the average time elapsing between the 
 laying of the egg and the hatching of the worm therefrom in ordinary midsummer weather, 
 but the time varies with the temperature, and a much longer period is required in spring 
 and late autumn. 
 
 All eggs perish that are unhatched when overtaken by frost, as is not infrequently the 
 case. Tiie vacated and glistening shell is more readily noticed upon the green background 
 than the unhatched egg. 
 
 Humidity seems to favor hatching. Aphides or plant-lice are quite often mistaken for 
 the eggs of this insect, while the " Mealy bug" [Dadylopius adonidum), a species of Aleurodes, 
 the eggs of the lady-birds (Coccmellidw), those of the lace-wings [Chrysopa), and even a 
 minute snail, not uncommon on the cotton plant, are likewise so mistaken. 
 
 The Worm or Laria. — This is familiar to every planter. Varying greatly in ground- 
 color, it is characterized by the particular position of the black piliferous spots upon the 
 head and upon the body; by the white ring which surrounds each of the latter; by its pure 
 white subdorsal lines and by its elongate and slender form. It is semi-looper, the first pair 
 of prolegs being very much reduced in size and seldom used, and the second pair, though 
 longer, only about half as long as the succeeding pair. 
 
 The worm molts five times during growth and changes appearance but little after the 
 first molt. Exceptionally only four molts are suffered. 
 
 The newly -hatched worm measures 1.6 mm., is of a uniform pale dingy yellow, with 
 polished black, slightly elevated spots, each bearing a short pale hair. Before the skin is 
 shed, the color often becomes sHghtly greenish, and sometimes inclined to orange. After 
 the first molt the piliferous spots are more conspicuous, the hairs from them longer and 
 black, and the characteristic markings appear, though less distinctly than after the second; 
 but from this time on, the prevailing color is exceedingly variable, being either of various 
 shades of pale or pea-green, or more or less intensely black along the back. 
 
 The normal number of larval molts is five. This is the number which I have observed 
 during the autumn months, while in the midsummer, when the development is more rapid, 
 I have on several occasions traced but four. The term of larval existence varies from 
 one to three weeks. There is a very general belief among planters that the first worms of 
 the season are pale and the later ones dark, and while hght and dark worms may always be 
 found too-ether in spring, summer, or fall, it is true that the green ones predominate earlier 
 in the season and the dark ones later. 
 
 Immediately after molting, the body is pale and without marking, — a rule with all 
 moltina; animals. After the earlier molts, the cast-ofE skin, which remains more or less fully 
 stretched, is sometimes eaten. Some of the peculiarities of the habits of the worm deserve 
 mention here because of their practical bearing. 
 
 Until after the second molt, it always remains on the under side of the leaf, feeding upon 
 the parenchyma, and leaving untouched the coarser veins, stomata and upper skin or 
 epidermis. The leaves where they are thus feeding present a blotched appearance, the semi- 
 transparent epidermis becoming pale yellowish, and these blotches are, as a rule, at once 
 distinguishable from other somewhat similar ones made by a few other insects. 
 
 After the worm begins to eat entirely through the leaf, which is usually before the 
 third molt, but sometimes later, it instinctively ascends toward the top of the plant and feeds 
 on the more tender foliage, '• ragging " it, to use the expressive language of the planter. 
 
 It can let itself down by a web from the moment of birth, but can also fling itself from 
 
COTTON. 405 
 
 one part of the plant to another in a manner quite characteristic. The fling or jump is made 
 by bending the fore and raised part of the body to one side and then suddenly jerking it to 
 the opposite side, relaxing meanwhile the three hind pairs of legs by which it held to the 
 plant. This is a quite common mode of motion when disturbed, and the normal way of 
 getting from one plant to another. The maximum distance which a worm can thus jump 
 in a hoi'izontal direction is about two feet, and it almost invariably alights on its legs. During 
 chilly weather in autumn this motion is feeble and can be easily watched. When not feed- 
 ing, the worm either rests stretched straight on some part of the plant, or may be seen sway- 
 ing its fore-body from side to side, holding the while by the hind prolegs. 
 
 Though preferring the foliage, it will, when hard pushed, eat every exposed part of the 
 plant, even barking and girdling the stems. In feeding on the bolls, however, it does not 
 bore like the boll-worm (Heliotliis armigera), but eats the external parts as well as their 
 contents. It cannot thrive on any other plant than cotton, and is evidently confined in its 
 diet to the different species of the particular genus Gossypium. At all events, there is yet 
 no satisfactory evidence to the contrary, all experiments made confirming the belief. 
 
 As one correspondent naively puts it, " the worms feed only on cotton and one another," 
 the cannibalistic propensity being freely indulged, when the occasion presents. It is a com- 
 mon remark that the presence of the worm is easier detected by smell than by sight. The 
 planter says that he can '-smell the worm." There is a peculiar ordor arising from the 
 excrement, but particularly from the gnawed and mutilated leaves, that gives rise to this 
 sapng; but where the worms are numerous and large enough to render it obvious, there they 
 have already existed several days, perhaps weeks, in smaller numbers. 
 
 When numerous enough to utterly defoliate a field before they have attained full growth, 
 the worms will travel in all directions on the ground, and they have been exceptionally 
 known to collect together and travel in vast bodies in their search for fresh food. 
 
 The Chrysah's. — Having obtained full growth, the worm, in the language of the planter, 
 "webs up," forming for protection a more or less perfect cocoon, usually within the fold or 
 roll of a leaf, sparsely lined with silken meshes. Here it contracts and thickens, the distinc- 
 tive marks are nearly obliterated, and the green color acquires a verdigris hue. Within 
 twenty-four hours in midsummer, the skin spHts just back of the head and is gradually 
 worked to the end of the forming chrysalis, now soft and green, but acquiring in the course 
 of an hour or more a brown color and firmer consistence. This chrysalis state lasts, on an 
 average, about a week in hot weather, but may extend to thrice that time, with lower temper- 
 a,ture. Where necessity obliges, the worm will spin upon any other plant, or in any situation 
 that offers shelter. 
 
 In confinement, it will make a cocoon on the ground, covering and disguising the same 
 with particles of earth, or it will even transform on the ground without silk or shelter. Such 
 cases rarely, if ever, occur in a state of nature, but when the worms are very numerous in a 
 field, the chrysalides frequently have their leafy protection eaten away, so that many of them 
 either hang by the few hooks at the extremity, or fall to the ground. 
 
 In no case, however, does the worm burrow in the ground as does the boll worm, or 
 could the moth issue from the chrysalis were the latter accidentally buried even an inch 
 beneath the surface. 
 
 Tlie Moth, or Imago. — The moth measures from 1^ to 1^^ inches from tip to tip of wings 
 when these are expanded. Its general color, above, is olivaceous, more or less effectually 
 subdued by lilaceous or purple hues, and often having a clay yellow or faintly golden cast. 
 The under side is more gray with nacreous reflections. 
 
 ^ The markings that more particularly characterize and distinguish it from other North 
 American moths are certain undulating vinous or carmine lines across the front wings, a 
 dark oval spot near their disc containing pale scales which usually form a double pupil (the 
 
406 THE AMERICAN FARMEH. 
 
 basal or inner one the smallest and whitest), and three while sjjecks dtruling the space letween 
 this dark spot and the shoulder in about three equal parts. 
 
 The habits of this moth can only be studied at night, as, like almost all the rest of its 
 family, it is nocturnal. During the day it simply starts up when disturbed, and darts by 
 swift and low flight to some other sheltered spot a few yards, or perhaps rods, away. After 
 sunset, however, it may be seen leisurely hovering about, either bent on the perpetuation of 
 its kind, or feeding upon whatever sweets it can get, whether from the cotton or from other 
 sources. It is very strong and swift of wing, and capable, when the necessity arises, of fly- 
 ing long distances. In alighting upon the plant, it generally turns its head downward, and 
 when it rests, the wings are but shallowly roofed, the front ones closed along the back and 
 fully hiding the hind ones. In this respect it may always be distinguished from the parent 
 of the boll worm, which rests with the front wings partly open and not entirely covering 
 the hind ones. 
 
 The female begins to lay her eggs in from two to four days after issuing from the chry- 
 salis, the time varying with the different generations and according to temperatui-e. In 
 experiments which I have made with moths confined in vivaria, eggs have sometimes been 
 laid thirty-six hours after issuing, and the moths have continued laying for twenty-one 
 nights, the number laid each night ranging from 4 to 45. 
 
 Examination of the ovaries of females at different seasons shows a much greater prolifi- 
 cacy than belongs to most moths, as the number of well-developed ova may reach 500- 
 and of potential ova half as many more. In confinement, it is difficult to obtain from one 
 female more than 300 eggs, but that fully double tliis number are produced in the field dur- 
 ing the height of the season there can be little doubt, while the average number may be esti- 
 mated at about 400. 
 
 The natural food of the moth is the sweet exudation from the glands upon the mid-rib 
 of the leaf and at the base of each lobe of the involucre of the cotton plant. Nevertheless 
 it is attracted to all kinds of sweets, and in most parts of the South it finds a bountiful sup- 
 ply in the exudation from the spikes of Paspalum Iceve, a tolerably common grass, but parti- 
 cularly in that copiously secreted by glands at the apex of the peduncle, just above the pods 
 of the cow-pea (Dolichos). In the spring of the year, as Judge Bailey, of JIarion, Ala., has 
 observed, it may often be seen in the evening feeding in numbers, first from the blossoms of 
 the Chicasaw plum, and subsequently from those of the peach, Chinese quince, mock orange 
 {^Cerasus Carohnensis), the early apples, and blackthorn. Later in the season, when the glands 
 above mentioned begin to exude and the tree blossoms are no more, the moths do not seem 
 to be attracted by other nectar-storing flowers, since observations during the past two years 
 by myself and assistants have resulted in finding but one species of verbena ( Verbena 
 aubletia L.) frequented, even where both moths and all sorts of flowers were abundant. But 
 fruits of all kinds, as they ripen, are resorted to, and figs, apples, peaches, plums, apricots, 
 grapes, persimmons, and even melons are often greatly injured. 
 
 Carefully examined, the tongue is seen to be armed along its terminal half with stout 
 and sharp spines projecting forward from the upper surface and increasing in density toward 
 the tip, which is beset with them on all sides. It is by means of this spinous tip of the 
 tongue that the moth works a hole in these fruits, and is thus enabled to absorb the more 
 liquid portions. Apple pomace is especially attractive to them. 
 
 Tlie time elapsing from one generation to another varies according to temperature, and 
 therefore according to season. There is increasing activity and acceleration in development 
 from the first appearance till July, and thenceforth decreasing activity, and retardation in 
 development till frost. Thus in midsummer the whole cycle of individual life, from tha 
 hatching to procreation, may occupy less than three weeks; while in spring and late autumn 
 it may occupy twice that time. Taking the whole season through, however, the time from 
 the eggs of one generation to that of another will average about a month. 
 
COTTON. 407 
 
 Wet weather favors the development of the worms. These pests have many natural 
 enemies to assist in reducing their numbers, foremost among which are the birds and ants. 
 Bats devour large numbers of the moths, while all domestic birds, chickens, turkeys, guinea- 
 fowls, and geese will feed upon them. 
 
 Reptiles, such as the tree-frog, will eat them, while the skunk, opossum, and raccoon are 
 said to devour them. The former, however, will break down the plants in so doing, and 
 neither of these animals, or hogs, can be of much assistance in their extermination, except 
 where the worms are in such large numbers as to travel the ground from field to field. 
 
 Various insects, such as certain species of spiders, wasps, beetles, bugs, flies, crickets, 
 etc., prey upon the cotton worm, while several parasites are known to be quite effectual in 
 their destruction. 
 
 Some of the means of obviating the evil may be found in the mode of cultivation, 
 among which are the planting of the most thi'ifty and vigorous varieties, those that will pro- 
 duce the strongest plants, also mature soonest, such as seed from the more northerly sections. 
 Early planting is also advised, together with frequent cultivation, in order to hasten the 
 maturity of the plant and secure a portion of the crop beyond the reach of harm from the 
 more destructive broods that make their appearance in July and August. Frequent cultiva- 
 tion also has a tendency to knock ofp and distribute the worms. It is also thought that 
 some varieties of cotton are more subject to attacks than others, the long staple being found 
 to be more injured than the short staple, when planted side by side. Topping the cotton is 
 sometimes resorted to in hastening the maturity, and also to destroy the worms that feed 
 upon the tender part of the plant, but tins practice occasions considerable labor and often 
 with very little good resulting from it. 
 
 Various implements for brushing or knocking the worms from oil the plants to the 
 ground and crushing and killing them have been devised, but the most effectual mechanical 
 means for their extermination has lieen found in the use of Paris green, although arsenic, 
 London purple, pyrethrum powder, etc., have been employed with greater or less benefit. 
 More or less danger attends the use of all poisons, by inhalation, or getting them upon the 
 lands, while these applications possess the further disadvantage of killing the enemies of the 
 worm, as well as the worm itself. Birds that eat the worms thus poisoned will be poisoned 
 by them; also the various insects which destroy the worm. 
 
 But Paris green is the best remedy thus far tested, although attended with disadvan- 
 tages, and we hope the time is not far distant when some better method will be devised. It 
 may be applied either dissolved in water or in powder. "When used in powder it is usually 
 mixed with flour, plaster, or wood ashes, as this is a more convenient and economical practice; 
 besides, the pure powder is liable to injure the cotton plant. For the proportions of such a 
 mixture, quantity to be applied, methods of application, etc., in order to avoid repetition, we 
 refer the reader to directions previously given in the use of Paris green in connection with 
 the destruction of the Colorado beetle, or potato-bug, in the cultivation of the Irish potato. 
 
 The Boll- Worm. — This is also a very destructive enemy of the cotton plant, which 
 works upon the small bolls or buds, causing them to fall oS, and thus seriously diminishing 
 their rate of production. 
 
 It feeds upon many plants beside cotton, and is known by many different names in dif- 
 ferent countries and sections of a country, according to the plant upon which it feeds most. 
 For instance, throughout the cotton-growing States it is known by the name of the "boll- 
 worm"; in the Western States, and other localities where it infests the corn crop, it is called 
 the "corn-worm." In many of the Southern States it is said to be known in the early part 
 of the season as the " corn-bud worm." When found upon tomato plants it is termed the 
 "tomato- worm," etc., it being the same species-wlierever found. It was not known for many 
 years that the cotton-boll worm and the corn-worm were the same, but the fact has now 
 
408 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 become fully established. They eat into the stalks and ears of corn, tlie same as into the- 
 cotton bolls; also into the green as woll as ripe tomatoes, causing them to rot. They will 
 also eat the leaves of plants when they can find nothing better. It will bore into the pods of 
 the garden pea, devouring the entire contents of one pod before leaving for another. The 
 heads of hemp are not exempt from its depredations, but often suffer from its attacks. 
 
 The eggs are laid upon all parts of the plant, but, according to authentic sources, usually 
 in cotton upon the outside of the outer calyx, or young boll. One authority says respecting 
 the place in which the moth deposits her eggs: — "On one cotton plant I found eleven eggs, 
 which were distributed in the following manner: one on the outer calyx of the boll, two on 
 the stalks, and eight on the leaves." 
 
 The duration of the egg before hatching varies with the season, as it does with the 
 cotton-worm. The young larvse feed upon the part of the plant upon which they are hatched, 
 for a longer or shorter time, but eventually make their way to the flower bud or boll, into 
 which they eat. They are sometimes seen in the full flower. A description of these worms 
 is given in the Report of the Department of Agriculture, as follows: — 
 
 " As the boll-worms increase in size, a most wonderful diversity of color and marking 
 becomes apparent. In color, different individuals will vary from a brilliant green to a deep 
 pink or a dark brown, exhibiting almost every conceivable intermediate stage, and from an 
 immaculate, unstriped specimen to one with regular spots and many stripes. The green 
 worms are more common than those of any other color; but those of varying shades of pink 
 or brown are so abundant as to make it impossible to fix upon a type. Early in the season 
 the prevailing color is green. A common variety is light green in color. Running from the 
 first ring back of the head to the posterior end of the body on each side is a broad whitish 
 line; just above is a broad dusky line; down the center of the back is another dusky line, or 
 stripe, as it should preferably be called; this dorsal stripe has a narrow white line down its 
 center, and it is bordered on each side by a narrow white line. Between the du.sky dorsal 
 and lateral stripes run four or five very faint, wavy, longitudinal, white lines, so faint as not 
 to interfere with the general color of the body. Each body-ring has eight black spots, which, 
 upon being examined with a lens, are seen to be tubercles, each with a stiff hair upon its tip. 
 These spots are arranged in two transverse rows of four, the spots in the front row being 
 slightly closer together than those in the back row; the outer spot of the back row is small 
 and placed nearer the front row. 
 
 Of these features the most constant seems to be the whitish stripe on each side. "When 
 the boll-worm is brown, these stripes assume a yellowish hue. Another pretty constant 
 feature is the relative position of the tubercles just described. They are not always of a 
 contrasting color to the rest of the back, and hence cannot always be spoken of as spots. 
 When they are not discernible as spots, however, an examination with the lens shows them 
 still present as tubercles, each surmounted by a hair. This point affords apparently a good 
 and reliable means of distinguishing the young boll-worm from the young cotton-worm, 
 which otherwise might prove a matter of difficulty during the earlier stages and in the early 
 part of the year, before black cotton-worms are to be found. In the cotton-worm the two 
 middle spots of each of the two rows of four are of the same distance apart, so as to form the 
 four corners of a rectangle. In the boll-worm, however, the two middle s^jots of the hind 
 row are more widely separated than the corresponding spots of the front row. This dis- 
 tinction may be recognized at a glance when the eye has become accustomed to it. The 
 dusky dor.sal stripe is often wanting, as also are the dusky lateral stripes, and, as just stated, 
 the spots are often indiscernible." 
 
 The general color of the body and upper wings of the moth that lays the eggs varies 
 from a light gray, tinged with olive green, to a rich yellow gray or tawny color. The most 
 prominent feature in the marking of the boll-worm moth is a broad 1 lack band on the back _ 
 
COTTON. 409 
 
 wings. Wlien at rest this inotli does not fold its wings like the Aletia or cotton-worm moth, 
 but keeps them partly open and slightly raised. It is diflicult to determine the number of 
 broods of this worm, in a single season ; but, from careful observations recently made, there 
 are supposed to be at least five. They, however, retire from the field sooner than the cotton- 
 worm, that usually sends out another brood after the boll worm progenitors have left for 
 winter quarters. The same remedies with respect to the destruction of the cotton-worm are 
 applicable to the boll-worm, their natural enemies of birds and insects being the same, while 
 the use of Paris green is also available to a certain extent. As the worms enter the bolls, 
 however, they are more difficult to reach by applications of this kind; yet those hatched upon 
 the stalks and leaves that have not migrated to that portion of the plant may be destroyed 
 by this means. Planting rows of corn occasionally through the field, late in the season, is 
 highly recommended by some, as the moth tliat lays the eggs prefers corn, and will be liable 
 to choose it instead of cotton. 
 
 Fires built in the early evening at the edge of the cotton-field will attract many of tlie 
 moths, and large numbers are frequently destroyed in this way. Too much cannot be said, 
 however, in favor of the protection of birds of all kinds that feed upon insects, for they are 
 the best friends and aids of the farmer in destroying injurious insects of all kinds. 
 
 There are other insects, besides those already mentioned, that attack the cotton-plant, but 
 their injuries are sliglit in comparison witli the former, and the same remedies for their 
 extermination are equally applicable. 
 
 Diseases of the Cotton- Plant. — These are not numerous, though often resulting 
 in considerable injury to the crop. There is a species of rust that sometimes proves very 
 disastrous in certain seasons, which is quite similar in its cause and effects to that which 
 proves so destructive to the wheat crop at the North. This disease is occasioned by para- 
 sitical plants which attach themselves to the stalk, from wliich they absorb the sap and thus 
 weaken its vitality and productive power. 
 
 Weak plants are more liable to be attacked by this disease than those that are strong 
 and thrifty, and it is also more liable to occur on coarse, sandy, or ill-drained soils than 
 others. Potash is considered a good remedy; consequently the use of those fertilizers that 
 contain the element of potash is highly beneficial. A proper system of drainage is also 
 highly essential on wet lands. Liberal manuring, careful and frequent culture, together with 
 the planting of the most vigorous and hardy varieties, combined with what has been pre- 
 viously suggested, will prove an efficient remedy in most cases. 
 
 Blight and other kindred diseases are supposed to be traced to the same general cause, 
 which is a lack of some essential element of plant-food in the soil. By supplying a liberal 
 amount of plant-food through fertilizers of some kind, removing the surplus water by 
 a proper system of drainage, and giving the growing plants frequent cultivation, these evils 
 may be largely, if not wholly, avoided. 
 
 Eotting of the bolls is generally attributed to long-continued wet weather. When the 
 plants are crowded so as to form a very dense foUage, excluding the air and sunlight, the 
 boUs will also rot and much of the crop will be lost by this means. Planting farther apart 
 would remedy the evil when the latter is the cause. Breaking off some of the limbs, causing 
 a better circulatiion of air and admitting the sunlight, will generally also prove effectual. 
 Sometimes a mule is driven between the rows for this purpose. Shedding is a;ttributed to 
 very dry weather being followed by wet; hence, in seasons ratlier wet, this evil does not 
 appear, but they are the periods when the aphides, boll, and cotton-worm are the most 
 destructive. 
 
410 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
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411 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 THE sugar product of the country is one of immense and growing importance, as well as 
 the various industries connected with its production. With the increase of this staple 
 and also of population, there has been for several years an increased proportionate 
 consumption of sugar per individual. In addition to the consumption of the home product, the 
 fact of there being over a hundred and seventy-five millions of dollars annually paid for 
 imported sugar and molasses by the people of this country, proves that the cultivation of the 
 sugar cane is not as extensive here as it might and should be. The one State of Louisiana, 
 with its resources well developed, might easily be made to furnish this supply, and the amount 
 <of money thus expended on the importations be retained at home to benefit our own nation. 
 The largest importations of sugar into this country have for several years been made from the 
 island of Cuba, which produces about six hundred and fifty thousand tons of sugar per year, 
 a greater part of which is taken by the United States, where it is refined and then put upon 
 the market. The importations from other countries, although in the aggregate amounting to 
 considerable, are each small in comparison with those from Cuba. The introduction of 
 sugar-cane into this country is said to have been in the year 1751 by some French Jesuits, 
 ■who brought it from San Domingo, and planted it on the present site of New Orleans. 
 The accounts of the progress of the manufacture of sugar under Spanish rule are somewhat 
 conflicting. It was first manufactured in this country about the year 1764, but it was not 
 until between 1794 and 1800, at a period when the revolution in San Domingo sent many 
 planters to Louisiana, that the cultivation of this product became of marked importance. 
 Sugar-cane belongs to the family of Gramineae or grasses, and is supposed to be a native of 
 Southeastern Asia. Its growth is from eight to twenty feet in height, according to variety 
 and conditions of soil, climate, etc., having a solid stem from an inch to an inch and a half in 
 thickness, which is jointed from every three to six inches. The leaves are from three to 
 four feet long, and about two inches in breadth, and fall off with the ripening of the plant. 
 Louisiana is the great sugar-producing state, although Florida, and all the other Gulf coast 
 states, yield it in considerable quantities. The coast counties of Te.xas are especially adapted 
 to this product, where its cultivation is being rapidly e.xtended. Sugar may be made from a 
 variety of substances, but the principal sources of supply are the sugar-cane, the sorgo-plant. 
 the beet-root, and the maple tree; although efforts have recently been made to utilize maize 
 for this purpose, the enterprise has not, thus far, proved sufficiently profitable to be recom- 
 mended. 
 
 Tarieties of Sll^ar-Cane. — There are manj' varieties of sugar-cane, some of which 
 differ so widely from others, — «ucli as the Chinese for instance, — as to be thought by many to 
 be distinct species. The Otaheite or Tahiti cane is extensively cultivated, and is taller, more 
 hardy, larger jointed, quicker in growth, and more productive in sugar than the Creole 
 variety, while its juice, being more easily crystallized than the latter, together with its large 
 yield and quick maturity, render it very popular. The Eibbon cane, thought by many to be 
 the best kind cultivated, and the Bourbon belong to this variety. The Creole, also known as 
 Madeira or common sugar-cane, grows to the greatest height, and has thin stems closely 
 jointed. It will grow on moist soil at the altitude of 5,000 feet above the sea. Another 
 variety, known as the Batavia or purple violet, is covered with purple stripes, grows from 
 eight to ten feet high, and is characterized by a resinous or waxy substance about the joints. 
 The Chinese cane. Sorgo or Sorghum, also known as Northern cane, is a very hardy variety, 
 and can be grown in nearly all parts of the country. Its cultivation will be treated separately, 
 and following that of the southern sugar-cane or tropical product. There are various other 
 varieties cultivated to a limited extent, but the above-mentioned are the principal or leading 
 ones known generallv in this branch of agriculture. 
 
412 THE AAIEUICAN FAKJIER. 
 
 The Batavia, or purple-violet cane, is a native of Java, and is often used in some locali- 
 ties as a border for other canes, to defend them from cattle. New varieties of the cane may 
 be produced in the same manner as varieties of other agricultural products, and, although 
 the kinds most cultivated are many of them very fine, there is no doubt that great improve- 
 ments will be made, from time to time, in this direction, by the careful experiments of those 
 skilled in this department of agriculture. 
 
 The Ribbon cane {^Saccharam ojjkiimrum') is a genuine tropical plant, of which there are 
 many varieties. It is regarded with great favor, and is the most extensively cultivated in 
 this country. It will not thrive in a cool climate, and is easily injured by ^lie frost. It is a 
 perennial plant, but the stalks will die down each year from the effects of the frost, if not cut 
 before it makes its appearance. 
 
 In Northern Louisiana the plant will not flower, and in the southern part of tlie State it 
 will not mature its seed. Even in the West Indies the seed ripens but indifferently well. 
 Consequently, the production of the tropical sugar-cane in the United States is restricted 
 to a comparatively narrow belt of country, mostly bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. The 
 northern limit of its profitable production in this country is estimated by those who have 
 given the subject considerable attention, to be the thirty-second degree of latitude. Like 
 corn and sorghum, sugar-cane belongs to the family of Graminese, or grasses. 
 
 Analysis of Sugar-("ane. — The analysis of the Otaheite cane, by Payen, gives the fol- 
 lowing result: Water, 71.04 percent.; cane sugar, 18 per cent.; cellulose, lignine, pectine, 
 and pectic acid, 9.56 per cent.; cerosine wax, fats, resins, etc, 0.37 per cent.; soluble salts, 
 0. IG per cent.; insoluble salts, 0.12 per cent.; silica, 0.2 per cent. Other analyses give glu- 
 cose from two to three per cent. The smallest quantity of glucose is usually found m the 
 lower and more perfectly-ripened portion of the stalk, while the larger proportion is found in 
 the upper and green end, which is protected from the rays of the sun by the leaves. 
 
 The analysis of the ashes of the cane is as follows: Silica, 46.46 per cent.; phosphoric 
 acid, 8.23 per cent.; sulphuric acid, 4.65 per cent.; lime, 8.91 per cent.; magnesia, 4.5 per 
 cent.; potassa, 10.63 per cent.; chloride of potassium, 7.41 per cent.; chloride of sodium, 
 9.21 per cent. 
 
 Cnltivatioil. — An exceedingly warm climate, and a soil of deep, rich, moist loam, are 
 the best conditions suited to the production of sugar-cane. A surplus of water is very detri- 
 mental to tlie crop, therefore the land should be well drained, either naturally or artificially. 
 The system of culture, as previously followed in this country, has not been of that character 
 which would jiroduce the best results; hence, great losses have been sustained by the planter, 
 both on account of the agricultural methods practiced in its production, and the mechanical 
 appliances employed in extracting the saccharine matter from the cane. 
 
 The successive planting of the same cane, together with a lack of proper cultivation and 
 sufficient manure, have resulted in greatly deteriorating the quality and yield of the sugar 
 product. The establishing of an improved system of cultivation, — of wliich there are at 
 present strong indications, — and improvement in the quality of the seed, through importations 
 from other latitudes, will result in larger profits and a surer test of the possibilities of this 
 crop than have ever yet been attained. 
 
 A proper system of drainage is too often overlooked in the cultivation of the sugarcane. 
 There are many low, marshy tracts, at present entirely unoccupied for any agi-icultural pur- 
 poses, that by a proper system of drainage would make rich and highly-productive sugar- 
 lands; while there are sugar-plantations in cultivation which, with improved drainage, could 
 be made to produce nearly twice the present amount. 
 
 The soil for cane should be deeply plowed, and well pulverized. It should also be kept 
 well fertilized to prevent exhaustion, by supplying those elements of plant-food that are essen- 
 
SUGAR. 413 
 
 tial to the growth of the crop. Chemical fertilizers — such as lime, gypsum, and the super- 
 phosphates — are used with good effect, but animal manures, or those containing a large pro- 
 portion of nitrogen, when too liberally applied, are thought to produce plants, the juices of 
 which are less rich in sugar, and contain more impurities than the former. When stable 
 manure is used, it should be well fermented, either before its application, or by being plowed 
 in a sufficiently long time before planting the cuttings, in order to admit of its becoming per- 
 fectly decomposed in the soil. All fertilizers used should be well worked into the soil with 
 the harrow or Cultivator. 
 
 The propagation of the cane is effected by cuttings; the cuttings for the purpose being 
 produced by planting the seed. The seed is of necessity imported, since it does not become 
 perfectly ripe in the sugar-producing belt of this country. It is obtained principally from 
 Otaheite. It is of the utmost importance that the propagation, either by cuttings or seed, 
 should be from the very best cane. Such cane should be not only the best varieties that can 
 be obtained, but the strongest and most healthy plants of such varieties. Any neglect or 
 carelessness in this respect will affect very materially the quality and yield of the crop, and 
 may thus cause a serious loss to the planter. 
 
 The cuttings for planting are taken from the main stalks, and are generally from fifteen 
 to twenty inches in length. They are planted in trenches or drills, and so placed that the 
 eyes, which are on the opposite sides of alternate joints, should be on the sides. These stalks 
 are placed quite near each other in the row, so as to furnish plants when grown that will be 
 from six to eight inches apart. Sometimes a double row of stalks are planted, but, unless the 
 trenches be sufficiently far apart, the plants will be liable to be crowded. The stalks are cov- 
 ered to the depth of from two to three inches of soil. Agricultural implements for covering 
 and pressing the soil upon the cuttings are a great saving of time and labor. 
 
 The planting may be either in the spring or fall. Different varieties should not be 
 planted together or near each other, as there is a great tendency to mix in this species of 
 plants, which is an injury to the product, pure varieties being the most desirable. The shoots 
 which the cuttings send up will be large enough to cut in from ten to fourteen months after 
 planting. After cutting, a new growth of shoots will spring up from the roots called •' rat- 
 toons," which produce the next crop, and so on ; this process being repeated to the extent 
 that a single planting will supply cane for several yeai's. In Louisiana, on account of con- 
 stant deterioration, it is necessary to re-plant from cuttings every third or fourth year, one- 
 fourth of the land devoted to sugar-culture being employed for the propagation of the cuttings 
 from which the cane on the other three-fourths is grown. 
 
 In the West Indies, one planting will last from five to ten years, while in some sections 
 it has been known to supply cane for nearly twenty years before the old roots died out. Such 
 cases are, however, rare. The cane will flower in from twelve to twenty months after plant- 
 ing. The cuttings should always be planted in rows at a sufficient distance apart to admit of 
 space for growth and cultivation. The cultivator should be used frequently in order to keep 
 out the weeds and grass, and to promote the growth of the cane by keeping the surface 
 mellow. The last cultivation given before harvesting is generally in the early part of June. 
 At this time, the soil is brought up around the roots and stalks of the plants, to the depth of 
 from three to four inches. It is then left to ripen. 
 
 The sugar-cane beetle is the most destructive enemy of this product known. The borer 
 is also quite destructive in some sections. Various methods have been employed to extermi- 
 nate these pests, but none have proved very effectual. 
 
 Harvesting. — The cane commences to ripen at the bottom of the stalk, the ripening 
 process extending upwards at the rate of about one inch per day. When sufficiently ripe for 
 harvesting, which will be indicated by its appearance, the tops of the plants are first cut down 
 as far as the leaves are dry. The leaves are then all pulled off' from the stalk while standing 
 in the field, the stalks cut close to the ground, and taken at once to the sugar-mill. 
 
414 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 The cutting of the cane should be as close to the ground as possible, since the lowest, 
 joints of the stalks are richest in saccharine or sugar-producing matter; besides, the sj^routs. 
 or rattoons will grow more vigorously when the old stalks are cut close than when left stand- 
 ing above the surface of the ground. The best results are obtained from cane wlien it is 
 worked up within twenty-four hours after being cut in the field. It has sometimes been the 
 practice, when not convenient to do this, to leave the tops on the stalks, and cut and pile them 
 in the field in long rows, to the height of three or four feet, the tops of the cane from one 
 hill being thrown over the ends of another, and so on, putting the stalks from three or four 
 rows together. It has frequently been kept three or four weeks in this way before taking it 
 to the mill, and without any apparent injury from frost, unless it be unusually severe. This 
 practice, however, is not to be recommended, as it has been found that the product is in this 
 way injured. In such cases, the tops should be cut off just before expressing the juice. It 
 is better to have the cane taken to the mill as soon as cut, if practicable. 
 
 Implements for cutting the crop have been invented which greatly facilitate the metliod 
 of hand-labor. It should always be harvested before the frost makes its appearance. The 
 tops and leaves may be used for feeding stock, utilized in the compost-heap, or left on the 
 ground for manure. The tops should never be planted, as this will result in deterioration of 
 the crop. Only the best part of the stalks of thrifty plants should ever be used for cuttings. 
 Manufacturing Sugar. — The inefficiency of machinery for expressing the juice of 
 
 the sugar-cane has been the 
 source of great loss to the 
 planter, and a serious detriment, 
 to the profitable production of 
 this crop. The object of the 
 mill is to extract the juice from 
 the cane. This is done by crush- 
 ing it, which requires a machine 
 of great power, and afterwards 
 expressing the juice by heavy 
 pressure. It has been estimtead 
 by those who have investigated 
 the subject, that about forty per 
 cent, of the sugar which has 
 been cultivated during the past 
 few years in this country has 
 been wasted on account of a lack 
 of sufficiently strong mills for 
 extracting the juice of the cane. 
 Mills that will perform the best 
 service must of necessity be 
 made heavy and strong, a power- 
 ful pressure being required, 
 and are consequently quite 
 expensive. However, the quantity of sugar saved by the use of a good mill will soon be 
 sufficient to repay the extra expense of procuring it. It is a good plan for a few planters to 
 purchase, in company, a complete set of the best machinery for the manufacturing of their 
 sugar. By this means, — a practice highly recommended by some of the most able agricul- 
 tural writers of the South, — the use of the best implement can be secured to each member 
 of the company at a comparatively slight expense. The sugar product is a remunerative one 
 when properly managed, and the necessary implements for its cultivation and manufacture 
 are employed. There are many valuable mills in the market, for both steam and horse-power. 
 
 VICTOR CAMi Mil 1 
 
SUGAR. 
 
 417 
 
 The illustrations of sugar-manufacturing implements which we insert were made from 
 photographs of those made by the Blymyer Manufacturing Co., of Cincinnati, Oliio, and are 
 good representations of this class of machines. 
 
 Extracting tlie Juice. — The preparation for the mill consists in cutting off the tops 
 of the stalks, and removing the leaves. It is always best to have the juice of the cane 
 expressed from the stalks as soon as possible after harvesting it, as it has been found tliat a 
 change commences at the base of the stalk very soon after cutting, and gradually progresses 
 upward. The juice freshly -expressed from the cane should not remain in contact with the 
 air for more than an hour; even twenty minutes will sometimes be sufficient to produce a 
 change. In crushing the cane, care should be used not to have the mills work at too high a 
 rate of speed. A high authority on tliis subject says, that very good results may be obtained 
 by the use of rollers which develop a surface of four or five yards in length per minute, so 
 that a roller of two feet in diameter should only make from two to two and a half revolu- 
 tions per minute, in order to extract generally the largest amount of juice from a given 
 weight of cane, an increase in the capacity of the mill being obtained by increasing the 
 length of the rollers, rather than the velocity. It is estimated that the fresh cane contains 
 
 COOK S SUGAR EVAPORATOR. FURNACE AND PAN. 
 
 from eighty-two to eighty-five per cent of its weight of saccharine juice. RIost of the ordinary 
 mills extract from fifty to sixty per cent, of the weight of the stalk, hence there is the loss of 
 about forty-one per cent, of the juice where only fifty per cent, of the weight is extracted. 
 It will sometimes repay the labor of expressing the crushed cane, by the increased yield of 
 the juice thus obtained. 
 
 Defecation or Clarification of the Juice. — Owing to albumen and other nitro- 
 genous substances contained in the juice of the cane, the process of fermentation soon com- 
 mences if it is left exposed to the air after being expressed from the stalks. The mill should 
 be placed upon an elevation in such a manner that the juice, as it is received from it by the 
 pipe that conducts it into the defecating tank, may pass from thence into the evaporator. A 
 strainer of wire gauze, or coarse cloth, is placed at the outlet of the receiving-tank, to separate 
 the juice from any fragments of cane, etc., that it may contain. As it leaves the mill, it is 
 of a yellowish-green color, opaque, and frothy. 
 
 The more quickly this juice of the cane can be converted into sugar, after being 
 expressed from the stalks, the better the result. As soon, therefore, as it comes from the 
 mOl, it must be freed from all impurities. The quality of the sugar will depend largely upon 
 39 
 
418 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 the skill with which this is accomplished. On account of the acids and other matter 
 contained in it, as has been previously stated, cane-juice will commence to deteriorate as soon 
 as exposed to the air. The result of this deterioration is to destroy crystallization, and convert 
 true cane-sugar into grape-sugar, or glucose. It should, therefore, not be retained in the 
 reservoir, but be carried at once from the mill to the boiling-apparatus. The tendency of the 
 juice to fermentation by contact with the air may be arrested by sulphur fumigation. Syrup 
 and sugar thus treated are lighter in color and usually superior in quality. This is not, 
 however, a necessary practice in the process of sugar-making. 
 
 The first important treatment of the juice as it leaves the mill, is defecation, or the sepa- 
 ration of it from all the impurities which it may contain. The strainer removes only the 
 coarse foreign substances, but the acids and other impurities, which it holds in solution, can 
 be freed from it only by chemical action and heat. The most common method of accom- 
 plishing this is by the use of lime. It must, however, be used with care and skill. It must 
 be pure and fresh, and never used in its caustic state, but carefully slaked and washed in 
 boiling water to i-emove the potash it may contain, lime itself being but slightly soluble in 
 hot water. When properly prepared, it will be of the consistency of thin cream, or milk of 
 lime. The exact quantity to be used will depend upon the amount of acid in the juice, and 
 can only be determined by a person experienced in the business, or tests with litmus paper. 
 From one to four pounds of lime are generally used to five hundred gallons of the juice, 
 according to the quality of the latter. It must be remembered that the use of Hme is to 
 separate those substances in the liquid that are held in solution in it, which prevent crystalli- 
 zation, but unless judiciously employed, the aim will be defeated, and the crystallization will 
 be impaired or prevented. Mistakes of this kind made in the early stages of the process 
 cannot be successfully remedied by subsequent treatment. 
 
 Next to lime, heat is an essential agent in the process of defecation, and this should also 
 be employed judiciously, both being used in connection, the juice of the cane running 
 directly from the mill into the defecator. On account of the rapidity with which the juice 
 changes on exposure to air, it is important that this process should progress as rapidly as 
 possible. As soon as the juice runs into the tank, the heat should be applied. When the 
 entire quantity of liquid to be defecated has risen to the temperature of about 180°, or a 
 degree of heat just endurable by the hand when immersed in it, the preparation of lime may 
 be added, and stirred in thoroughly to become well mixed. The heat should then be brought 
 up to the boiling-point, but not permitted to boil. When this point is reached, the heat 
 should be shut off at once, and with a large skimmer or other appliances for the pui-pose, the 
 thick, dark-colored scum that has formed should be quickly removed. The liquid may then 
 be drawn off into another tank, and the sediment at the bottom strained to remove the 
 impurities. Various methods are employed in clarifying the juice; sometimes a portion only 
 of the quantity of lime is added to the liquid at first, and the contents heated and skimmed, 
 after which the process is repeated before evaporating. After the removal of the scum, the 
 liquid will be clear, and of a lighter color than before. 
 
 Evaporation. — This is conducted in various ways. The three principal methods of 
 concentrating or evaporating the juice of the cane are, first-, by a direct application of fire 
 only, as in the use of kettles, common pans, and some kinds of evaporators. The second is 
 by the use of both fire and steam, where fire evaporating-pans and steam defecating and 
 finishing-pans are employed. The third is by the use of steam alone, as in the ordinary steam 
 trains, or the steam trains with vacuum-pans. While the steam train is considered complete 
 in itself, vacuum-pans are to be preferred, especially on the larger plantations. 
 
 The oldest method of evaporating the juice of cane consists of a series of open kettles, 
 four or five in number, varying in size and arranged in a row in an arch over a fire. This 
 was called a "kettle train." The kettles were made of iron or copper, and varied in size, in 
 
SUGAR. 
 
 419 
 
 order that, as the juice became reduced in quantity, it would still be sufficient to fill the 
 kettles, and prevent any portion of the metal from becoming overheated. By this means the 
 defecation is very imperfect, owing to the scum being constantly mingled with the juice, and 
 prevented from separating 
 by the constant boiling, 
 while the dipjjing from 
 the first kettle to the 
 second, then from the 
 second to the third, and 
 so on to the last, hinders 
 the crystallization of the 
 syrup, also darkens both 
 syrup and sugar by the 
 prolonged boiling and im- 
 perfect separation of it 
 from the impurities it con- 
 tained. It also required 
 considerable fuel in pro- 
 portion to the amount of 
 labor performed A great 
 improvement on the " ket- 
 tle train is the use of flat- 
 bottom pins arranged 
 with compartments, and 
 an apparatus for skim- 
 ming automatically, also a 
 strike-pan. 
 
 The use of steam for 
 evaporating is preferable 
 to fire, as it admits of a 
 more uniform heat, or 
 heat that can be betl 
 controlled, and is at t 
 same time more expedi 
 ous. There is, also, no 
 danger from burning, the 
 heating surface being im- 
 mersed in the liquid, 
 through pipes, while it 
 economizes fuel and labor. 
 One of the most reliable 
 authorities on sugar-mak- 
 ing states as follows, re- 
 specting the use of steam 
 in this connection: — 
 
 " The most perfect 
 method of sugar-making 
 is found in the connected steam train. This consists of a series of vessels of different sizes, 
 arranged in order, and all supplied within with steam-heating pipes, connected by branches 
 with a main pipe from the boiler. 
 
420 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 This places the successive operations of defecating, concentrating, and finishing bj 
 steam under the immediate and convenient control of the sugar-maker. The heat is readily 
 increased or diminished or withdrawn from either vessel at pleasure. 
 
 As sugar-making by a connected steam train is a continuous as well as rapid process, it 
 is important that proper arrangement and proportion of all the parts be provided, including, 
 also, the even and reliable working of the mill, so that the continuity of the operations may 
 be harmoniously and effectively preserved to the end. 
 
 Whilst beyond question steam is the best agent used in boiling canejuice, and the con- 
 nected steam train the most perfect and simple apparatus, the effectiveness of the latter may 
 be seriously impaired or totally destroyed by ignorant management, or improper proportions 
 of vessels and pipes. In these, experience and skill are absolutely necessary. 
 
 If the planter has an engine and boiler of sufficient capacity to run his mill, and plenty 
 of steam to spare, he can use steam profitably for working up even a small crop, either with 
 steam pans entire, or with steam pans for defecating and finishing, and a fire evaporator for 
 concentrating." 
 
 The chief objection to the open pans in the evaporating process is in the high tempera- 
 ture required to boil sugar solutions in the open air, which converts much of it into glucose. 
 Vacuum pans, therefore, are greatly to be preferred. 
 
 Crystallization. — After a perfect cleansing or defecation of the juice, and its rapid 
 evaporation to the sugar point, the next step in the process is to secure crystallization. When 
 this condition is reached is a somewhat nice point to determine, for one not experienced in 
 the business. The common test is, that when the liquid has reached that degree of concentra- 
 tion that a drop of it, placed between the thumb and fore-finger and pressed, may be drawn 
 into a thread which has a granular appearance, it is an indication that the evaporation is 
 complete, and it is ready to be transferred to the cooler. This should be large and shallow. 
 As the sugar gradually cools and crystallizes, it should be occasionally stirred to make the 
 granulation as uniform as possible. A small quantity of granulated sugar, mixed into the 
 syrup as it cools, will hasten the crystallization; hence, by putting a little into the first that 
 is drawn off into the coolers, and permitting some of the sugar to remain attached to the 
 bottom and sides, as they are emptied each time, to be again refilled, will materially aid in 
 this process. 
 
 After the sugar has crystallized in the coolers, it must be separated from the molasses, 
 or" syrup, that does not granulate. This is done by various methods of draining. Large 
 tanks, tubs, or boxes, perforated at the bottom, and provided with movable plugs, or false 
 bottoms of slats covered with coarse sacking, for straining out the liquid portion, are some- 
 times used; but the best method is the centrifugal machine, which rapidly expels the 
 molasses from the sugar by force, leaving the latter quite dry. This is a great improvement 
 in sugar making and refining. 
 
 There are various kinds of centrifugal machines. They are constructed with a cylinder, 
 the walls of which are formed of finely perforated metal. This is supported, and with 
 proper appliances, is made to revolve with great rapidity, from a thousand to eighteen 
 hundred times a minute. The sugar is placed inside the cylinder, and the machine set in 
 motion, which causes the sugar to form a lining of uniform thickness on the interior, while 
 the molasses is driven through the perforated metal and caught in the drum that surrounds 
 it. The machine is then stopped, and the sugar scraped out. By this means the separation 
 of the sugar and molasses may be easily accomplished in a few minutes, while it might 
 require days by the former draining process. The yield of sugar varies from half a ton 
 to two and a half or three tons per acre, according to the variety of the cane, methods of 
 culture, soil, season, and the efBciency of the machinery employed in its manufacture. The 
 
SUGAR. 
 
 421 
 
 loss estimated through the imperfect manner of extracting the juice and the inversion of the 
 sugar into glucose is enormous. 
 
 In the manufacture of sugar, it is highly important that the mill, tanks, and everything 
 used in connection with it should be kept perfectly clean. The bagasse or crushed cane, 
 after the juice has been expressed, furnishes a nutritious fodder for stock. It is also used in 
 the manufacture of paper. 
 
 Sorgo ami Imphee Sugar-Cane. — Sorgo or Sorghum is commonly known as the 
 Chinese sugarcane, also Northern cane; the former name having reference to its origin, the 
 latter to its adaptation to the Northern States, in contradistinction from the tropical or 
 Southern cane. It is a native of China, where it has been cultivated from time immemorial. 
 Its first appearance in Europe was in 1851, when it was introduced into France. In 1854 
 some of the seed was sent to the United States, which was disseminated, and the culture of 
 sorghum soon became general. 
 
 OOMSEEANA. 
 
 EARLY AMBEB. 
 
 Imphee, or African cane, was introduced into France from the southeastern coast of 
 Africa in 1851. Thus the sorghum and imphee reached France about the same time from 
 different quarters of the globe, and from thence were introduced into this coimtry. 
 
 Though resembling sorgo, the African cane is not generally considered quite as hardy 
 and therefore not as well adapted to cultivation in the higher latitudes as the former. It is, 
 however, valuable in those sections suited to its culture, while it has been employed in the 
 production of a large number of hybrids between that and the Chinese cane, some of which 
 are quite popular, and seem to unite the leading characteristics of both species. 
 
 The seed heads of the imphees are generally more compact than the sorgo. The prin- 
 cipal varieties of imphees known in this country are the Liberian, Neeazana, and Oomseeana. 
 Of these, the Liberian has thus far been most successfully cultivated. The natives from 
 whence it was introduced, — the Zulu-KafErs, — are said to regard the Neeazana with most 
 favor, as being the sweetest of all their varieties. The Liberian is a heavy producer, and 
 quite free from disease, it being almost unknown to smut, mUdew, or blight of any kind. The 
 
422 THE AMERICAN FAR5IER. 
 
 Neeazana yields a good quality of syrup of light color, but is said to have deteriorated in the 
 extreme South. The Oomseeana is a fine varietj'^, and in some sections is given the pref- 
 erence. It produces more sugar in proportion than syrup, while the varieties previously 
 mentioned produce a larger proportion of syrup than sugar. The sorgo matures about two 
 weeks earlier than the imphees, but the latter require cutting when in a greener state than 
 the former, so that the harvesting season is about the same for each. 
 
 The color of the Oomseeana seed when fully matured is a dark brown; that of the Libe- 
 rian a deep red, while the Xeeazana is of a light cream or wood color. The seed of the 
 Chinese cane or sorgo, when fully ripe, is of a dark pui-ple, or black color: that of the Early 
 Amber is also dark. 
 
 The Chinese cane grows to the height of from twelve to sixteen feet or more. The 
 stalks are more slender than those of corn, and not so thick as those of the imphee. The 
 time required for the perfect development of the plant varies with the climate, soil, and sea- 
 son, but averages generally, with favoring conditions, about five months. The Early Amber 
 presents, in general appearance, some of the characteristics of both the sorghum and imphee. 
 This variety receives its name from the early ripening of its seeds and the bright amber color 
 of the syrup made from it. This is one of the most popular kinds cultivated. It grows 
 to the height of the Chinese variety, but is thought to be richer in sugar production than the 
 latter. 
 
 There are many varieties of sorghum which are cultivated to a certain extent, all more 
 or less valuable. The chemical di^nsion of the Agricultural Department has recently made 
 numerous analyses of sorghum, embracing nearly forty varieties, with a \aew of determining 
 the period at which the juice of each particular variety contained the most crystallizable 
 sugar that could profitably be separated. For this pui-pose, the analyses were begun at an 
 early stage of the growth of the plant, and were repeated from time to time tUl later in the 
 autumn, which afforded the best possible opportunity of ascertaining the comparative value 
 of each variety, the practicability of sugar production from sorghum, aside from the actual 
 separation of the crystallized sugar itself in manufacturing it, and also the time when the 
 plant jdelds the greatest amount of cane-sugar. 
 
 These analyses extended over a period of time from July to November, showing the 
 amount, not only of sugar contained in each variety, but of glucose at the same time. It was 
 found that after the middle of August, the Early Amber, when properly managed, will make 
 as much crystallizable sugar as any of the tropical cane. The full amount of sucrose was 
 reached early in August, and continued without much variation iintU the middle of October. 
 The glucose in this variety was found to be greatest early in July, diminishing rapidly until 
 the first of August, and slightly after this period, the amount of glucose diminishing as that 
 of sucrose increased. The Wliite Liberian variety reached its fiiU amount of sugar-produc- 
 tion by the middle of August, and continued until November. Among the later varieties, 
 some produced only about one-half or two-thirds of their full amount of sucrose by the middle 
 of August, their full development not being reached until the middle of October. 
 
 From the above facts, it is apparent that in the Northern section adapted to the culture 
 of sorghum, the advantages gained in growing the Early Amber are in its early maturity, 
 and the long period during which the manufacture of the sugar and sjnrup may be continued. 
 These analyses proved that tlie amount of sugar afforded by the different varieties did not 
 vary largely, being from twelve to fifteen per cent, of the juice. The superior value of the 
 different kinds consists, therefore, mainly in the amount or weight of cane that can be pro- 
 duced on an acre, and their adaptation, with respect to the period of ripening, to the latitude , 
 in which they are to be grown. Some of the late varieties may be admirably suited to the 
 South, but the earlier ones are to be recommended for Northern cultivation. 
 
 With respect, then, to the value of the different canes, other conditions being equal. 
 
SUGAR. 423 
 
 that variety is best for any locality which matures earliest and remains longest in a working 
 condition. An improved Early Amber, known as the Minnesota Early Amber, is much cul- 
 tivated in the Western States. The improvement of this variety was secured by selecting 
 seed from the finest crops of Northern growth, and sending it to a Southern latitude to be 
 grown, on the principle that when cultivated in a high latitude for several consecutive years, 
 canes will naturally degenerate. The result was an improved variety with respect to tlie 
 weight of cane per acre, and the amount of saccharine matter produced. 
 
 As an agricultural product, sorgh^i has become within the past few years one of con. 
 tinually increased importance in this country, especially in the Western States, owing to the 
 improved facilities for manufacturing sugar which are at present attainable, a lack of which 
 caused so many farmers to abandon its culture shortly after its introduction into the 
 United States. 
 
 A large proportion of the sorgo grown in this country has formerly been manufactured 
 into syrup, but at present sugar is being made to a considerable extent. When the most 
 approved methods of crystallization are better understood, and the use of better mechanical 
 appliances in the various processes of sugar-making are more generally employed, we see no 
 reason why the cultivation of sorghum in this country may not prove very profitable to the 
 farmers, and highly beneficial to the nation generally, since sugar is an article of food in 
 gi-eat demand; and if the home product could be largely increased, the necessity of sending 
 nnllions of dollars annually abroad for the imported article would be obviated, and the enor- 
 mous sums thus e.xpended be retained at home. Besides, if farmers produced this crop only 
 in sufBcient quantities for home consumption, it would prove an economical and profitable 
 enterprise in a small way, and they would also be sure of being provided with a pure, unadul- 
 terated article, which they cannot be assured of in purchasing the vast quantities of glucose 
 sugar and other vile compounds with which the markets are crowded. 
 
 As with the tropical sugar-cane, the leaves and tops of the stalks of sorghum, as well as 
 the bagasse, or refuse cane from the mill, furnish excellent fodder, while the seed is valuable 
 as food for domestic animals, its nutritive value being but little less than that of corn. 
 
 Soil and its Preparation. — Sorgo may be cultivated on any soil suited to the suc- 
 cessful production of wheat or corn. The best for the purpose, however, is a light sandy 
 loam. It has been fovmd that the quality of the juice of the plant is largely affected by the 
 soil upon which the crop is grown; for instance, while black, heavy soil will produce a vigor- 
 ous growth of the cane, the juice of such plants will not be as rich in saccharine matter as 
 those grown upon a light sandy loam. Sandy uplands fertilized with well-composted farm- 
 manure, chemical fertilizers, lime, plaster, or wood-ashes, will give exceedingly good results. 
 Wet lands are not adapted to this crop, and should first be thoroughly drained before 
 attempting its culture. Clay soil will produce a product of good quality, but the yield wUl 
 not be large. New lands, if of the proper quality, will produce well, but fresh manure will 
 give unsatisfactory results; hence, when yard-manure is used, it should always be first well 
 fermented. A compost from the pig-sty is e.xceedingly valuable in the cultivation of sorghum. 
 
 The soil should be made rich in order to produce a rapid growth, that the crop may 
 mature before there is any danger from frost. Vegetable or yard-manure plowed in, in the 
 fall, will greatly improve clay lands for this crop. 
 
 The tillage for sorgo should be deep, and the soil well pulverized. When the land is 
 plowed and thrown into ridges in the fall, it will be in a better condition for working early 
 in the spring. As a general rule, the land for sorghum should be prepared in the same 
 manner as for com. In some sections, where the land is inclined to be too wet, ridge-culture 
 is practiced; but in such cases draining will give better results. 
 
 Planting. — It is of the highest importance that the seed for planting should be of the 
 best quality. That produced by the most thrifty plants of the most desirable variety should 
 
424 THE AMERICAN FARMEK. 
 
 be obtained. Seed that has been grown in a somewhat wanner climate than that in which it is 
 to be planted is best for the Northern States. It should also be from a pure variety and 
 unmixed with other plants. It is a well-known fact that sugar-canes' and similar plants, such 
 as corn, millet, broom-corn, etc., will readily mix when planted with or near each other, 
 greatly to the deterioration of the product; hence the importance of obtaining good seed. It 
 is the only safe way to procure it from some well-known and reliable source. 
 
 Soaking the seed in tepid water from twelve to twenty-four hours before planting will 
 cause it to germinate sooner. It may also be tested 'by putting a little of the seed in some 
 earth and keeping it in a warm place, or by putting it between two layers of thin muslin 
 saturated with water, and placing it in damp soil for a few days, watering slightly occasion- 
 ally. If it germinates readily by either of these methods, it is quite probable that it will do 
 so when planted in the field. The planting should be done as early as the ground is suffic- 
 iently warm, ami there is no danger from frost. The planting is generally in hills, drill-culture 
 not usually being considered so satisfactory in results as hills, since the latter admits of culti- 
 vation in both directions. The rows should be about three feet apart, and the hills two feet 
 apart in the rows. It is well to put plenty of seed in each hill to make allowance for such 
 as may not germinate, and afterwards thin out the plants, leaving from si.x to eight of the 
 most vigorous ones to grow. From twenty to twenty-five seeds to the hill would be sufficient. 
 Care should be used not to cover the seed too deep, as it would be liable to rot in the ground, 
 if the weather should be cool and wet. For early planting, a half inch of covering will be 
 sufficient. When the planting is late in the season, and the ground warm and dry, it will be 
 well to cover to the depth of an inch. 
 
 rultivatiou. — When sorghum -plants first make their appearance from the ground 
 they much resemble broom-corn, or a species of very coarse grass. The growth in the first 
 stages is very slow, the plants being feeble, but in a little time, with a suitable soil, it will be 
 quite rapid. As soon as the plants are up, the cultivator should be used in destroying the 
 weeds. It is very essential for the welfare of the crop that the soil be kept clean of grass 
 and weeds during the early period of its growth, for as its progress in growth is then slow, 
 it will soon be choked with the fast-growing weeds, if neglected. This is the period when 
 the crop is said to be " made," and the culture it then receives has more influence in deter- 
 mining the yield than that subsequently given. When the stalks are five or six inches high, 
 the plants should be thinned out in the hills, leaving from six to eight of the best. Careful 
 culture is essential until the plants are about three feet high, after which it will in a great 
 measure take care of itself. If the cultivator is used afterwards, it should be run very near 
 the surface, as deep tillage would be liable to injure the roots, and thus injure the stalks. The 
 culture throughout is similar to that of corn, except it does not extend as late in the season. 
 
 Harvesting. — The time for harvesting sorghum is when it has reached that degree of 
 maturity that the seed cannot be crushed between the thumb and finger. At this period the 
 saccharine matter is in the greatest quantity in the stalks, and the glucose in the least. If 
 cut before this period, there will be much waste, and the juice will be of inferior quality. 
 The cane should never be touched by the frost. The time for cutting imphees,. or African 
 cane, is earlier than that of sorghum, and may be when the seed is in the milk state. Some 
 planters claim that it may be worked up at any time from the period of the falhng of the 
 flowers until the seed is ripe. 
 
 It is better to have the cane ground at once as soon as harvested. When this is done, 
 it may be topped in the field, cutting off one or two joints, and the leaves stripped off, after 
 which it may be cut and taken to the mill. When not worked up at once, the tops and 
 leaves should remain on until ready for grinding, and the stalks stacked in tlie field like corn. 
 By leaving the tops and leaves on the stalks in such cases, cane can be kept three or four 
 weeks without much injury. It should not, when stacked, be expose<l to rain or frost. The 
 
SUGAR. 426 
 
 tops should be laid in small piles to dry. The seed should be shelled and used as food for 
 stock. It may be threshed hke wheat, or treated the same as broom-corn seed. Sheep wiU 
 eat it on the heads without shelling, but for other stock it is best when shelled and ground. 
 The sorgo-plant ratoons or tillers the same as the tropical cane, and at the South will thus 
 produce two crops in a year, but at the North only one crop will have time during the season 
 to mature. 
 
 Maimfactiiriiig Syrup and Sugar from Sorgliuui. — In preparing the cane for 
 the miU, the stalks are tied into bundles about eight inches in diameter. When not intended 
 for immediate use, the bundles should be piled across each other in such a manner as to 
 admit a free circulation of air, being placed where they will be kept perfectly clean. It is 
 best, however, as previously stated, to grind it at once, if practicable, as soon as harvested. 
 Where the leaves are left on the stalks in grinding, there will be a greater waste of juice, 
 since they will absorb it more than would be at first supposed. In grinding, the mill should 
 be fed by the butt end of the cane entering first. The largest portion of the sorgo product 
 in this country is converted into syrup, but sugar is made to a certain extent, more being 
 made at present than formerly. 
 
 The different processes of manufacturing syrup from sorgo, consisting of the expressing 
 of the juice, the defecation or cleansing it from impurities, and the concentration, are essen- 
 tially the same as those already given in the manufacture of sugar from the tropical sugar- 
 cane; the processes for syrup being complete before the period of ci-ystaUization is reached. 
 
 Sugar may also be manufactured from soi-go, the same as from the tropical cane. The 
 principal diflBculty attending this process has been in the crystallization. In order to better 
 secure granulation or crystallization, the chemical division of the Department of Agriculture, 
 after numerous experunents, recommended the following special treatment: — 
 
 " Sorghum syrups should be reduced to a density that, after a lapse of from twenty-four \ 
 to forty-eight hours, when kept in a warm room, it will become an almost solid mass of sugar. \ 
 It requires then a special mode of treatment, the crystals being fine and held together by only 
 a small quantity of molasses. When in this condition, the mass is to be thrown into, a large i 
 tub or mixing-vessel, and a small quantity (about one-tenth of its volume) of a fair, thin / 
 syrup, prepared from sorghum-juice of a density of about 30° Baume; when cold, it is to be/ 
 poured upon it and thoroughly incorporated in it by means of a wooden stirrer. 
 
 An iron mixing-mill constructed somewhat like the feed-hopper of a centrifugal sugar- 
 drainer, with a revolving shaft in its center, set with long projecting teeth, may be employed 
 in regular work. This will bring it to the semi-fluid state, if the room in which the opera- 
 tion has been performed has been kept heated. Tlie syrup dilutes the uncrystallized sugar 
 sufiBciently to render it mobile, and does not dissolve the cane-sugar. The mass may then be 
 drained in a centrifugal, the inner drum of which is very clearly but minutely perforated, 
 and running at the highest rate of speed. 
 
 Another method which may be followed is similar to that employed in some sugar 
 factories to extract the juice from the pulp of the beet and also to separate the saccharine 
 matter left in the scum. 
 
 A number of linen and coarse muslin sacks are provided, of any convenient size, but 
 their length should be about two and one-half times their width, say twenty by fifty inches ; 
 each sack is to be about one-third filled with this sugary mixture, folded once on itself in the 
 middle, and flattened by placing it upon a table upon a sheet-iron plate with rounded corners, 
 a Uttle larger on every side than the partially-flattened half of the sack and its contents, the 
 loose half being folded under. The open end of the sack may be folded twice, if necessary. 
 The plate and sack are then to be placed within a frame on the bed of a powerful screw- 
 press, and a series of such sacks and interleaved plates laid neatly one upon another, being 
 turned in opposite directions, and subjected to pressure, gradually applied at first, to avoid 
 
426 THE AMERICAN FAUMEK. 
 
 rupture of the sacks, and afterwards with sufficient power to remove all the syrup and leave 
 the sugar nearly dry. This fine dry sugar is then to be transferred without further drying to 
 a heating-vessel, and about one-tenth of its weight of pure water mixed with it. Here it is 
 to be heated very gradually, with frequent stirring, to diffuse the heat through the mass, and 
 when it has partially re-melted, and it is in the liquefied state, it is to be poured finally into 
 the ci-ystallizing-boxes in a room heated to about 90° P., where it will form a solid mass of 
 crystals as soon as it becomes cool. The result is a very coarse-grained, beautiful sugar of a 
 high grade. If properly prepared, it will be almost white, and the immediate yield is almost 
 double that which may be secured in any other way without re-boiling. 
 
 The sugar prepared from sorghum in this way has the additional advantage of not being 
 contaminated with the secondary products usually formed by re-boiling. The final crystalliza- 
 tion is attended with no risk, is easily and cheaply done, and in quality, with due care, should 
 rank nearly or quite equal to vacuum sugar. The very small quantity of syrup left in con- 
 tact with the crystals will drain off from the crystallizers, and, being almost free from glucose, 
 will crystallize gradually if exposed in broad trays at the temperature of the room. If the 
 production of sugar of a softer and more open grain is desired, it can readily be accom- 
 plished by a mode of treatment almost identical with the "stirring off " process adopted by 
 maple-sugar producers, but with better results. As soon as the half-liquefied sugary mass, 
 produced as already mentioned, has been poured in the crystallizing-boxes, it should be 
 stirred with a broad oar-shaped wooden instrument, without interruption, until it is cool and 
 the sugar has become dry." 
 
 For the successful manufacture of syrup or sugar, the best appliances, in the form of 
 good mills and evaporators, are highly essential. Where sorgo is commonly grown, it would 
 be well for a few farmers, living in the same vicinity, to own machinery for this purpose in 
 company, thus securing the use of first-class implements at a comparatively small expense. 
 Or a single party, having sufficient capital, and other favoring conditions, might manufacture 
 the product for the farmers of the neighborhood, for a specified remuneration. 
 
 Sugar-Beet. — Various efforts have been made in this country within the last fifteen 
 or twenty years to establish the beet-sugar industry, which enterprise has not thus far proved 
 as successful as was anticipated. The general reason for the want of success in this direction 
 is in the cost of the production. Sugar of the best quality has been made in these experi- 
 ments, but the high price of labor has failed to render its manufacture profitable. The lack 
 of proper appliances and skillful knowledge of the business have also been obstacles in the 
 way of its success. That the manufacture of beet sugar will eventually prove a successful 
 enterprise in this country there is no reason to doubt, when a better knowledge of the art, 
 combined with improved machinery, and other methods employed, shall so reduce the expense 
 as to render it a source of profit to both the grower and manufacturer of the product. 
 
 In Europe, large quantities of sugar are made from the beet-root. More than forty per 
 cent, of the estimated sugar product of the world is derived from this source. The beet can 
 be grown both North and South, but in the latter section it is not as well adapted for culture 
 as the tropical cane, since it will deteriorate in saccharine matter in a warm climate. About 
 the thirty -eighth degree of latitude seems to be the southern limit of its successful culture for 
 sugar production. It is, however, a very hardy plant, and can be successfully grown, even 
 in the extreme North. 
 
 There are many varieties of beet used in the manufacture of sugar. Only the white- 
 fleshed kinds are employed for this purpose; those that are firm, brittle, perfectly solid, and 
 emit a cracking sound when cut, are generally the best in quality. The beet for sugar man- 
 ufacture should also be smooth, rather long, with tapering roots, or pear-shaped, and fine- 
 grained ; not growing above the surface of the ground. 
 
 The variety known as the White Silesian seems to be most in favor with manufacturers 
 
SUGAE. 427 
 
 generally, and the best adapted to sugar production. The French, Siberian, Imperial, and 
 many other varieties are used to a greater or less extent for this purpose; but the Silesian, 
 although not as rich in saccharine matter as some others, being a vigorous grower, will pro- 
 duce more sugar to the acre, and is therefore more extensively cultivated in France and Ger- 
 many, than any other kind. 
 
 Cultivation, Harvesting, Storing, etc. — The most approved methods of cultivat- 
 ing, liarvesting, and storing beets have been previously given in the department treating of 
 Roots and Esculent Tubers, and as the cultivation of the crop used for sugar production is 
 very much the same as that for other varieties of beets, a repetition will be unnecessaiy in 
 this connection. The soil should not contain a large proportion of mineral salts, neither be 
 too wet, or of a clayey nature. An excess in nitrogen, as well as the general effect of soil 
 and manure on this crop, will be seen by the following, which is an abstract of experiments 
 made at the Paris Academy of Sciences, with a view of examining the influences of soil and 
 manures on the size and saccharine quality of sugar-beet: 
 
 Holes were bored in the sides and bottoms of a large number of tubs, and in each was 
 placed a layer of gravel, to allow water of irrigation to drain off. The tubs then received 
 various kinds of artificial soils — pure sand, limestone, and clay, exempt from potash. Beet- 
 seed was sown in May, procured from the Aisne, where it produces roots containing 11 to 1 3 
 per cent, of sugar. The manui-es employed, either separately or mixed, were sulphate of 
 ammonia, nitrate of potash, nitrate of soda, chlorides of potash and soda, supei-phosphate of 
 lime, guano, rasped horn, and stable-manure. Irrigation was generally with the ordinary 
 water of Paris, but sometimes with distilled water, in order to avoid the salts of the common 
 water, and sometimes with water containing chemical manures. The leading points in the 
 results were as foUows: Roots are capable of attaining a weight of 1.4 pounds to 1.6 pounds 
 in artificial soils wholly devoid of humus, provided they are regularly watered and supplied 
 with chemical manures; while, in the absence of such manure, if the artificial soil be merely 
 watered with distilled water, the roots will hardly attain an ounce in weight. Nitrogen, in 
 the form of nitrate of soda or of potash, or of sulphate of ammonia, etc., favors increase of 
 size of root, but is liable to injure the saccharine quality of the crop. Beets growing in a 
 well-manured soil, and having combined nitrogen within reach, tend to form albuminous sub- 
 stance at the expense of the sugar. Beet-roots containing less than 10 per cent, of sugar are 
 often found to contain twice as much nitrogen as those which have a saccharine richness of 
 15 to 16 per cent. On the same principle, in certain soils, beet-roots will exhibit but little 
 sugar, not because the soil has become impoverished, but because, on the contrary, it is too 
 rich in nitrogen. Beet-roots grown in artificial soils, and watered with chemical manures, 
 are found to reach as high as 18 per cent. 
 
 In order to obtain mature roots, which is a matter of great importance, — since the full 
 amount of saccharine matter is only obtained when perfectly matured, — the best cultivators 
 of the sugar-beet plant early, and avoid stimulating manures, which would have a tendency 
 to produce roots of undue size and late maturity. 
 
 Deep plowing is essential for this crop, in urder to give the large roots room to develop 
 entirely beneath the surface of the soil. Shallow plowing will cause them to grow partly 
 above ground, which injures the quality for sugar production. The portion grown in this 
 manner not only contains no sugar, but furnishes acids which wiU lessen the quantity of sugar 
 contained in the other portion of the root. The harvesting should always be done before 
 the appearance of the frost. 
 
 The leaves should also be cut close to the crown, when grown for the manufacture of 
 sugar, while if any portion of the beet grows above ground, that should also be cut off with 
 the leaves. This being done, the roots may be taken at once to the factory. Bruises and 
 wounds by careless handling should be avoided, as this induces fermentation, and deteriorates 
 
428 THE AJIEKICAN FARMER. 
 
 the quantity and quality of the sugar. When roots are to be kept awhile before being 
 worked up, it will also cause them to decay. Beets for this purpose may also be preserved 
 in pits, or stored in various ways, the same as other root crops, but it is generally better for 
 the farmer to dispose of them at once to the manufacturer, thus avoiding the labor and loss 
 that may attend the storage. They are sometimes frozen and kept in that condition until 
 wanted for use, but this practice is not to be recommended, since there is a liability of loss 
 occasioned by their thawing out by a change of weather before being used ; besides, the 
 freezing process lias a tendency to deteriorate the sugar product. 
 
 The Mainifacture of Sugar from Beets is a complicated process, a detailed 
 description of which would require more space than the limits of this work — devoted as it is 
 to such a variety of subjects — will admit; we shall, therefore, in this connection, be ablfe to 
 give, as it were, only an outline of the process, while we would refer those of our readers ^^-ho 
 desire more specific directions and information with regard to it to some treatise of standard 
 authority, devoted e.xclusively to this subject. 
 
 The first operation in sugar-making from beets is to cleanse the roots thoroughly from 
 all particles of soU that may adhere to them. This is effected by various means, the most 
 common being a revolving drum of open iron or wood-work submerged in water. The next 
 step in the process is to extract the juice. 
 
 This may be done also by various methods. Sometimes the cleansed roots are reduced 
 to a pulp by a rotary rasping-machine, which revolves with great velocity, after which the 
 pulp is then put in bags or sacks, and subjected to a powerful pressure, thus expressing the 
 juice, or it may be macerated in water, thus extracting the saccharine matter. 
 
 Another method is in exhausting the pulp by means of a centrifugal machine, the largest 
 portion of the juice being thrown out by its rapid revolutions, after which water is applied 
 and the remainder of the juice washed out in the same manner. 
 
 Difiusion is another process, and one which has been e.xtensively practiced in many of 
 the beet-sugar manufactories of Europe. The beets are by this method cut into thin, narrow 
 strips by a cutting-machine which revolves with great rapidity. Water is then used, in con- 
 nection with a diffusion battery, in extracting the juice. 
 
 In some batteries for this purpose, the cylinders are so connected by tubes that the 
 liquids can be passed from any one of them to another, the same liquid being used repeatedly 
 for different quantities of the beet, thus increasing its richness, and economizing in the evap- 
 oration. In others, the ribbons, or thin slices of the beet-root, are made to pass through a 
 current of water which is moving in an oppo.site direction, and which will have a tendency to 
 wash out a large portion of the sugar element of the juice. Various appUances have been 
 employed on this principle, differing in their methods of construction and operation. 
 
 The advantage of diffusion over other methods consists mainly in obtaining a purer 
 quality of juice than by other processes, since the cells of the beet or cane are not fractured, 
 and the albuminoids and other substances, injurious to the sugar product, are not extracted. 
 
 The next process after extracting the juice, is to clarify or cleanse it of all impurities 
 contained within it, and which would injure the quality of the product, and prevent crystal- 
 lization. This is accomplished by heat and the use of lime, a process similar to that of defec- 
 ating the juice of cane ; after which the excess of lime and other substances contained in it 
 are precipitated, and the caustic alkalies carbonated by the use of carbonic acid gas. Various 
 other means, some of them of a complicated nature, may also be employed to accomplish this 
 purpose. Filtration is the next step in the process of sugar manufacturing. This is accom- 
 plished by the use of bone-black, which is the charcoal of the bones of animals. 
 
 The hot juice of the beets is made to pass through a long column of pulverized bone- 
 black, which removes the coloring matter contained in it; also, purifies it from other sub- 
 stances contained in it which are injurious to the sugar. It is next evaporated to a thin 
 
SUGAR 429 
 
 syrup in vacuum pans, and subjected to a second process of filtering through bone-black, 
 when it is again evaporated to the crystallization point and cooled. The sugar is next sepa- 
 rated from the liquid by different processes. The centrifugal machine — the same as that 
 used for cane sugar — is the best for this purpose. This liquid is again boiled, and a second- 
 class quality of sugar is obtained in the same manner, and so on, a fourth, and even fifth, 
 grade of sugar being produced in successive order. 
 
 The molasses that remains is so charged with salts and other impurities that it cannot be 
 used for food. It is distilled for making alcohol, that which remains being converted into 
 crude potash. The pulp furnishes a rich and sweet food for stock. It is good for mUch 
 cows, cattle and pigs, and is a valuable auxihary for fattening animals. 
 
 Maple Sugar. — Large quantities of sugar are made in this country from the sap of 
 the maple tree. It is naturally of a light-brown color, and has a peculiar moisture and deli- 
 cious aromatic flavor that is not possessed by the sugar produced from any other source. 
 Wben it has been subjected to the refining process, it loses much of this flavor, and resem- 
 bles more that of the cane product; in fact, when refined, there is scarcely any difference 
 between the sugar of the maple, tropical cane, sorgo, or beet. 
 
 The maple-sugar industry is one that is constantly improving, not so much in the quan- 
 tity, as the quality of the product. It will probably never compete with cane sugar for the 
 general purposes to which the sugar product is applied, but for special use it is the most deli, 
 cious of all the manufactured sweets. 
 
 The syrup, when properly made, is, in the opinion of many, much to be preferred to the 
 finest quality of honey, while it is more healthful as an article of food, and does not cloy the 
 taste as honey does. There is, however, as much difference in the different grades of maple 
 sugar, as found in the market, as in those of butter, owing to the different management it 
 receives from the makers, care and judicious handling being essential to the production of a 
 first-class article. Two varieties of the maple tree are principally used for the manufacture 
 of sugar, — the rock or sugar maple, and the black maple. 
 
 The sugar maple grows abundantly in the Northern States, especially in Northern New 
 England, and in New York, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Canada. 
 
 It is a beautiful tree, and, aside from its value in sugar production, should be planted 
 more frequently in some localities than it is. As an ornamental shade tree, we know of none 
 to be preferred. Its dark-green foliage is changed into gorgeous tints in autumn, presenting 
 a striking contrast with that of other forest trees, while the stateliness and uniformity of its 
 growth are not among the least of its attractions. 
 
 It is also very hardy and will grow in a diversity of soils and climates. In the more 
 southerly latitudes it will not, however, yield as much sugar as at the North, a sufiicient 
 degree of frost being required for this purpose. 
 
 As the business of sugar-making comes at a season when there is little other farm work 
 that could be done, farmers having maple trees on their lands will find it an advantage to 
 appropriate them to this use, as the sugar thus obtained will amply repay the labor of manu- 
 facturing it, and the proportionately small quantity of sap extracted does no harm to the 
 trees, not even those about the house for shade and ornamental purposes. 
 
 Obtaining Sap. — The season for making maple sugar and syrup is early in the spring, 
 or as soon as the frost begins to leave the ground, the bright sunny days and frosty nights 
 causing a free and rapid circulation of the sap. This may be from the latter part of Febru- 
 ary to the early part of April, according to the latitude and season. The tapping of the trees 
 should be done promptly as early as the season will admit, since the first sap is the richest in 
 saccharine matter, and the most free from other substances that deteriorate the quality of the 
 sugar. It should never be done, however, before the sap runs freely, and when so cold that it 
 
430 THE AMERICAN KARMER. 
 
 will freeze in the buckets before being gathered. Freezing injures the quality of the syrup 
 or sugar; besides, the trees, buckets, spouts, etc., are also liable to be injured. 
 
 The largest trees are the best for sugar production, those from twenty-five to thirty years 
 old giving the best yield. Trees a foot in diameter may be made to yield something, but 
 they should never have their sap extracted before attaining that size. 
 
 The usual method of tapping trees is to bore holes a half or tliree-quarters of an inch in 
 diameter on tlie sunny side of the tree, fifteen or eighteen inches from the ground and about 
 five or six inches apart. These holes should never be more than three at a time, and fre- 
 quently but two in number, according to the size of the tree. Care should be used not to 
 bore' too far into the alburnum, or white bark, and never through it, the entire depth of the 
 hole not often much exceeding an inch. The boring should incline downward slightly, in 
 order to permit the sap to pass ofi readily. Wooden spouts are sometimes inserted in these 
 holes to conduct the sap into buckets placed to receive it. These may be placed tipon the 
 ground or hung upon the spouts. These spouts are usually made of elder or sumach, and 
 are eight or ten inches in length. Another method is to drive galvanized-iron or tin spouts 
 into the bark below the hole to collect and conduct the sap to the buckets. 
 
 What is called "boxing" the trees is practiced in some localities, which consists of cut- 
 ting a narrow channel three or four inches in length, slanting upward, and about an inch 
 deep, and inserting an iron spout into the bark below to collect the sap. This method is, 
 however, not to be recommended, as it injures the tree. Whatever the method of extracting 
 the sap, care should be used not to make the incision too deep, or the opening large. Taking 
 out large pieces of the bark and wood with an axe is, as has been justly termed, a barbarous 
 and slovenly practice, and will soon result in killing the trees. Mr. W. J. Chamberlain 
 recommends the galvanized-iron spout for obtaining s&'p. His suggestions on maple-sugar- 
 making are liighly valuable, which we quote, as follows: 
 
 "By repeated and continued trial of the galvanized-iron spout, side by side with various 
 wooden and tin spouts, I am fully convinced that it sours the sap least of any, and gives the 
 largest yield. The first merit is more important than the other, for sour sap will never 
 make good syrup. Tlie buckets should always be tin, soldered inside and out at every seam. 
 They will not rust inside in many years, and should never be painted there, as that makes 
 them more rough and more liable to sour. Painting the outside, however, will help preserve 
 the bucket. For our Ohio climate (and I am inclined to think it true as a rule everywhere), 
 the buckets should invariably be covered tight. A hole just below the wire rim slips over 
 the notch of the spout, and a board a foot square is laid on top, and excludes rain, snow, dirt, 
 and insects, and prevents the sap freezing except in extreme cold, or souring by the sun's 
 heat, except in very warm weatlier. I know of no one thing more essential to the production 
 of the best grade of syrup than covers. They should be planed and painted, and it is a 
 great help in gathering to have one side painted, say, red and the other white. All are 
 placed red side up, for instance, in tapping, and then all are reversed at each gathering. If 
 a tree is missed, the color of the cover shows it at a long distance. So none need be missed, 
 and two trips need never be taken to the same tree in doubt whether its sap has been gath- 
 ered. 
 
 The gathering should begin as soon as the tapping is done. The former should be fin- 
 ished by noon if possible. Otherwise one force of hands should continue this, and another 
 force should begin soon enough to overtake before dark the force that is tapping. Sap 
 should never stand over night in the buckets, if it can be avoided, but should be gathered as 
 late as possible before dark, and boiled as soon and as rapidly as possible. It begins to 
 deteriorate almost as soon as it leaves the tree, especially if it is very warm, or, on the other 
 hand, if it freezes and thaws. 
 
 The following gathering-cask seems best adapted of anything for the work to be done. It 
 
SUGAR. 
 
 431 
 
 is simply a cask five feet long and about two feet in diameter, fastened firmly to a " boat 
 sled," large end behind, the front end a little the highest, so that when the sled stands level 
 the sap will all flow from a faucet in the rear, through a tin conductor with funnel-shaped 
 "head," down the slope into the store-trough below. 
 
 The sap need never be lifted but once, or dipped or rolled up skids in barrels at all. It 
 is poured down into the gathering-pail from the bucket, which hangs at the tree and is not 
 removed from the spout in emptying. It must be Ufted a little and poured into the tunnel 
 of the gathering cask, and that is all. After that, by taking advantage of a slope, it will 
 run into store-trough and thence into boiler without further labor. 
 
 Location of Sllgai'-House. — The sugar maple seldom grows spontaneously, except 
 on ground that is somewhat rolling, and in almost every sugar-camp, can be found side-hill 
 advantages in a sufficiently central location. If the slope is not as steep as that represented 
 in the cut, a longer conducting tube must of course be used, so that the gathering cask can 
 stand far enough off up the slope to bring it to the required level. In hilly New England, 
 there is usually no trouble on this point, but even there I have seen sugar-houses on level 
 ground near a fine slope, of which they took no advantage. And in Ohio, until within a few 
 years ago, such was the common custom. The store-trough stood on a level with the "arch," 
 
 MAPLE-SUGAR-MAKING VIEW OF SUGAB-HOUSE. 
 
 the barrels were laboriously rolled up two skids and emptied into the trough, and then the 
 sap was lifted, pailful after pailful, and poured into the kettles or pans. Men are strangely 
 slow in learning to take advantage of gravitation and the other forces of nature, even when 
 she seems daily to thrust them before our very eyes." 
 
 The accompanying illustration represents the method of collecting the sap and conducting 
 it to the sugar-house, as previously described. 
 
 Respecting the circumstances which affect the flow of sap from the sugar maple, — care- 
 ful experiment and observation, by daily weighing the sap from several trees, and a compari- 
 son with the meteorological observations of the same period, have furnished sufficient proof 
 to estabhsh the fact that while the genei'al flow corresponds with the season, yet the daily and 
 hourly flow will vary with the weather; that the most favorable weather is that which is 
 either steadily or severely cold, or uniformly warm and foggy; while the best weather for 
 procuring sap are those days that are warm and bright at noon, but are preceded by freezing 
 nights. The variations of temperature most likely to affect the flow of maple sap are sup- 
 posed to occur when the ground is covered with snow, since the heat of the sun during the 
 day cannot then moderate the cool temperature of the night. The explanation of the effect 
 of these alternations seems to be that the outer tissues of the tree are partially emptied of the 
 sap contained within them by the contracting influence of the cold, it being forced by this 
 
432 THK A.MEl'.KAN FARMER. 
 
 means into the heart of the trunk and large roots. During this time absorption continues 
 to go on under ground the same as before, and thus, when the outer layers of the wood are 
 separated by the heat of the sun, the sap rushes back into the cells and tissues, and flows in 
 abundance. The observations of Biot in France on the poplars, and Nevins, in Ireland, on 
 the eim, would seem to prove the above theory correct. 
 
 Maple-Sugar-Makillg. — In making sugar one of the first essentials is, in keeping the 
 sap and everj'thing used in connection with it perfectly clean. Exposure to the air will readilj 
 deteriorate the quality of the sap, hence it must be evaporated as soon as possible after leav- 
 ing the tree. This is necessary to secure the best quality of sugar and syrup, even when 
 everything is kept perfectly clean; but where there is negligence an 1 carelessness in keeping 
 the vessels and tanks clean, the sap will of course sour much sooner, and an inferior grade of 
 the product be the result. 
 
 Mr. Chamberlain, the above authority quoted, recommends scalding all the buckets used in 
 collecting sap once a week, while the casks for storing, evaporatore, etc., require it much 
 often er. He says: — 
 
 •Perfect cleanliness and sweetness of vessels and sap, is another essential. The Ver- 
 mont climate is better, but in Ohio, as a rule, I find I must scald all buckets about once a 
 week, and store-troughs, evaporators, etc., much oftener. It costs a good deal, but pays in 
 the product. With a cask of hot water and a team, two men will scald well 1200 buckets 
 at the trees in a day, and there is almost always a rest between ' runs ' as long as that each 
 week. Our climate, too, requires that the sap be stored out doors. The trough runs into 
 the house just far enough to feed the sap into the heaters, but not to sour that in the store- 
 trough by the heat of the fire. The store-trough, or troughs, should have close-fitting covers, 
 to protect from rain, sun, and freezing by night. In Vermont the cold is so great at night 
 that it is common to store the sap in the sugar-house." 
 
 Where the maple sugar is made in large quantities, the evaporatore used in making 
 sorghum and other cane-sugar may be used to best advantage. These are constructed on the 
 principle of a rapid evaporation, secured by a shallow depth of sap moving slowly over hot 
 and cool spaces alternating with each other, the cool spaces being secured by the projection 
 of the pan beyond the fire on each side. The best work with these evaporators will be 
 secured by keeping the sap as shallow in the pans as will be safe to prevent burning. The 
 pans of course must be shallow, with a large heating surface. This will require constant 
 watchfulness on the purt of the person having charge. Where small quantities of sugar are 
 made, kettles are used for boihng, but the evaporators require less labor, and are much more 
 easily managed. 
 
 The sap should be kept boiling over a steady fire, and replenished with a fresh supply as 
 it is evaporated. As soon as it reaches the boiling point, scum and other impurities wiU rise 
 to the surface, and must be removed at once; all that arises during the boiling process must 
 also be carefully removed. If a large quantity of the fresh sap is added at irregular inter- 
 vals, the boiling is checked for a time, and irregularity is the result. WTiere evaporators 
 having every arrangement for receiving a constant aud steady supply of sap are not used, 
 some arrangement should be made to have a reservoir of sap placed in such a manner that it 
 can supply the boiling-pan or kettle with a small, steady flow of sap from a faucet. A little 
 observation and experiment wiU enable the operator to regulate the supply in accordance 
 with the degree of evaporation. After boiling from eight to twelve hours, keeping the 
 quantity in the evaporator or kettle about the same, by a regular supply of fresh sap, the 
 contents will be reduced to about the consistency of honey or thin sp'up. It should then be 
 strained while hot into a clean tube or other vessel, in order to remove as much of the sedi- 
 ment as possible. A piece of clean white flannel is better for this purpose than cotton or 
 linen. It should then stand long enough to become well settled. When the sediment 
 
SUGAR. 433 
 
 remaining is well settled, the syrup should be boiled again — after first separating it from 
 the sediment at the bottom — until it is sufficiently evaporated for granulating. During this 
 process great care is necessary to secure a steady and constant boiling, and at the same time 
 prevent the boiling-over. The sugar is sometimes clarified by the use of milk or the whites 
 of eggs, or both combined, it being mixed with the syrup after it has been strained, and when 
 it is just hot enough to endure the hand for a moment, or before it is scalding hot, before 
 boiling. As soon as it reaches the boiling point, a scum rises to the surface, which must be 
 immediately skimmed off, and never allowed to boil into the syrup and thus mix with it. 
 For this purpose, to a hundred pounds of sugar, five or six eggs beaten to a froth and added 
 to a quart of new milk, and the whole mixed with the syrup, is the usual proportion. Some 
 sugar-makers object to the use of clarifiers, as useless. If everything is kept perfectly 
 clean in the whole process of sugar-making, it will not be necessary to clarify it in any way. 
 Everything having a tendency to stain or discolor the syiiip should be avoided. Rusty iron 
 should on no account ever be permitted to come in contact with it. Even an iron spoon, 
 used in stirring off the sugar, will often give it a dark color. 
 
 To determine when the syrup has become reduced to the granulating point, it may be 
 tested by putting a small quantity on snow. If it cools to a waxy consistency, it is not 
 sufficiently boiled to produce sugar hard enough for cakes, but it may do for tubs. For 
 making hard sugar, the syrup must be evaporated until, when tested in this manner, it will 
 be brittle when cold. Another test is to stir a small quantity of the syrup in a dish, and if 
 it' granulates with a moderate amount of stirring, it will make soft sugar, suitable for putting 
 in tubs; but if, when applying a drop between the thumb and finger, and pressing, a granu- 
 lated thread is formed, it will be hard and may be put into cakes. Rapid stirring a few 
 moments before turning into the molds will make the sugar finer grained. 
 
 If the molds are first dampened with water before putting in the sugar, the cakes can 
 be taken out more easily. Sugar may be made in a small way, where only a few trees are 
 had for the purpose, by boiling the sap over the kitchen range in vessels of tin, or porcelain- 
 lined iron kettles; but a sugar-house is a necessity where sap is obtained in considerable 
 quantities. 
 
 Maple sugar retains its peculiar flavor best when kept from exposure to the air. The 
 flavor of the syrup is best retained by canning or putting in jugs while hot, and sealing, the 
 same as canning fruit. The cans or jugs should always be put in a cool, dry place, and never 
 in a damp part of the cellar, or on the damp cellar-bottom, as this will cause it to mold. 
 Before canning the syrup, the vessels in which it is placed should be made perfectly clean 
 and sweet. If kept in too warm a temperature, or exposed to the air for some time, maple 
 syrup will readily ferment, unless boiled down very thick. The sap will continue to run as 
 long as the nights are frosty, the sugar season lasting only a few weeks; but that obtained 
 towards the last will not be of as good quality as that which is first produced. 
 
 Yield of Maple Trees. — The amount of sugar which can be produced from maple 
 trees varies, some sap being richer in saccharine matter than others, while the amount of sap 
 produced from trees of apparently the same size will vary somewhat. The amount of sap 
 produced from the same trees also varies according to the season. The avei-age amount of 
 sugar contained in the sap is estimated to be from two to two and a half per cent., although 
 some trees will produce more and others less than this estimate. A recent report from 
 several large sugar orchards in Vermont gives the average amount of sugar per tree at two 
 and nine-thirteenths pounds, the best average being three and two-thirds pounds; the lowest, 
 one and three-fifths pounds. Eleven hundred and fifty trees in Canterbury, Vermont, yielded 
 in one season 61 S barrels of sap, or 19,776 gallons, from which 4,000 pounds of sugar were 
 obtained. This is about one pound of sugar to five gallons of sap, or three and a half ounces 
 of sugar per gallon, which is equivalent to three and a half pounds per tree. There are 
 3(1 
 
434 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 instances of extraordinary yield that might be cited; for example, it is stated upon good 
 authority, that a tree in Leverett, Massachusetts, produced in one season the almost incredible 
 amount of 1,400 pounds of sap, which probably contained fully forty pounds of sugar. A 
 sugar orchard in Eaton county, Michigan, is said to have yielded 950 pounds of sugar, or on 
 the average of nine and a half pounds per tree. Another orchard in Vermont is said to 
 have yielded at the rate of six pounds per tree in one season. But these are the rare excep- 
 tions; as a general rule, the average yield will be found to be about two and a half or three 
 pounds per tree, during the season. 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 TOBACCO has become one of the leading products in many parts of the coim- 
 try, while it is cultivated to a greater or less extent in nearly all sections. And 
 not only this, but there is a continued increase in its production, as shown by the 
 Census Report of 1880, which was eighty per cent, in excess of that of 1870. The above- 
 mentioned report contains the following summary respecting this preduct in the different 
 States: — 
 
 '•Fifteen States produce, now as in 1870. more than ninety-nine per cent, of the tobacco 
 of the United States, though it is reported in twenty-two other States and six Territories. 
 Of these fifteen, only Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Massachusetts produce less than in 1870. 
 Kentucky occupies the first position, producing thirty-six per cent, of the total product of the 
 country. Virginia holds the second place; Pennsylvania has advanced from the twelfth to 
 the third; 'Wisconsin from the fifteenth to the tenth; and North Carolina, Connecticut, and 
 New York have each gained one point in the rank of tobacco States. Ttose that have 
 retrograded in relative production are Massachusetts, Maryland, West Virginia, Indiana, 
 Illinois, Missouri, and Tennessee." 
 
 We do not propose, in this connection, to treat much of the evil effects of the use of 
 tobacco upon the mind or physical system, or the principle involved in its culture, but rather 
 to give the best methods in its cultivation, as practiced by the most successful agriculturists 
 at the present time. 
 
 Tobacco is a native of America, and was introduced to the ci\-ilJzed world soon after the 
 discovery of this continent. Columbus found it cultivated by the Indians in 1492, they 
 using it as a means of producing intoxication by smoking it in clay pipes. Its culture 
 was undertaken by the settlers of Virginia from the very settlement of the colony, where it 
 soon became not only an important staple, but the principal currency of the colony. It is 
 recorded that in the year 1615 the gardens, fields, and even streets of Jamestown were 
 planted with tobacco. During the first century of communication between the New World 
 and the Old, there seems to have been but little demand for this product by the latter, but 
 after this period we find it entering quite extensively into the trade of the colonies with the 
 mother country, which proves that its consumption was becoming more general. 
 
 History states that James I of England wrote a "Counterblast to Tobacco," which was 
 intended to do away with this evil altogether, and that Pope Urban VIII issued an edict, 
 excommunicating those who should use tobacco in churches, while Amurath IV of Turkey, 
 the Grand Duke of Muscovy, and the Emperor of Persia, all prohibited the use of tobacco 
 in their several dominions during the seventeenth century. Although thus violently opposed 
 and denounced as useless and injurious, its use continued to make rapid progress, until at the 
 present time it is known to almost the whole world. 
 
TOBACCO. 435 
 
 The price it commanded was a great inducement to the early settlers in favor of its 
 cultivation, the market value in 1617 being from thirty-seven to seventy-five cents per pound, 
 according to quality. The amount of tobacco produced by the colonists in 1622 was 60,01)0 
 pounds, which was more than doubled during the next twenty years. The total product in 
 the United States in 1880 was nearly 500,000,000 pounds, being the yield of 638,841 acres. 
 
 The evil effects of its use are attributed mainly to nicotine, a deadly poison which it 
 contains, and which, when taken in suflBcient quantities, will produce convulsions, followed by 
 paralysis and death, as has been proved by numerous experiments on animals, it being one of 
 the most powerful nerve-poisons known. The word " nicotine," as applied to this plant, is 
 said by Torrey to have been derived from John Nicot, embassador from France to Portugal 
 in 1560, who introduced this weed into Europe. The word "tobacco" is supposed to have 
 been derived from a place in Yucatan called by that name. The quantity of nicotine con- 
 tained in tobacco varies greatly with different varieties and modes of culture, according to 
 the best authority, as has been found by careful analysis of the plant; that produced on 
 heavily-manured lands, as a general rule, containing a larger per cent, than that cultivated 
 with a less quantity. The highest per cent, of nicotine found in about forty different speci- 
 mens of the cm-ed product, representing different varieties, different types of the same 
 variety, with different methods of cultivation and curing, was 5.81; lowest, 0.63; only two 
 specimens of the whole number being found below one per cent., and more than one- third 
 above four per cent. By the analyses of Posselt and Riemann, 10,000 parts of fresh leaves 
 contained six of nicotine, one of nicotianine, 287 of bitter extractive, 174 of gum, 26.7 of 
 green resin, 26 of albumen, 104.8 of a substance analogous to gluten, 51 of malic acid, 12 of 
 malate of ammonia, 20.6 of potash salts, 40.6 of lime salts, 8.8 of silica, 496.9 of lignine, 
 and 88.28 parts of water. The odorous or volatile principle of tobacco is supposed to be due 
 to the nicotainine it contains. The ash element is exceedingly large, as will be seen by 
 burning the leaves. One hundred parts of the ash of tobacco, according to the analyses of 
 Fresenius and Will, contains 30.67 of potash, 33.36 of lime (together with a little magnesia), 
 5.95 common salt, 6.03 phosphates, 18.39 silica, and 5.60 gypsum. The superior kinds con- 
 tain the largest amount of potash, that of inferior quality the largest amount of lime. 
 
 Much labor is involved in the culture of tobacco, and it is also liable to many injuries, 
 either from insect enemies, severe storms, or early frosts. A fine field of tobacco is often 
 utterly ruined when nearly ready to cut, by a hail-storm of only a few moments' duration, 
 while a strong wind will frequently do great damage by breaking off the leaves and blowing 
 over the plants. An untimely frost, just at the period of harvesting, has been known to not 
 only nip the leaves of the entire crop, but with them the " bud of hope " in many a farmer's 
 heart, respecting a field which perhaps during the entire season had been his pride, and upon 
 which he had bestowed much careful labor. It is a very exhausting crop, and requires fre- 
 quent and large applications of manure in order to cultivate it without impoverishing the soil. 
 Some of the most fertile lands of the country have been in this manner injured by its growth ; 
 some of the exhausted lands of Virginia, and many of the New England tobacco farms, for 
 instance, being examples. 
 
 Farmers are too apt to rob other farm crops of the manure which should be appropriated 
 to them, for the purpose of supplying their tobacco-fields, while, if sufficient manure is pur- 
 chased to supply all the crops, considerable expense would be involved which might not be 
 warranted by the profits of the farm. Sometimes the market is overstocked with tobacco, 
 and the farmer cannot find a ready sale at a fair price, and is obliged to keep it over 
 another year or two before disposing of it — the capital invested in it thus lying idle and 
 bringing no return. In many sections, however, notwithstanding the risk of its culture, it 
 has thus far, in the main, averaged one of the best-paying crops produced, when regarded 
 simply from a business point of view, and the exhaustion of soil either prevented by Uberal 
 manuring, or not being taken into the account. 
 
436 THE AJIERICAN FARMER. 
 
 Varieties. — There are numerous varieties and sub-varieties of tobacco, the latter of 
 which have been produced principally by the dilierences in soil, climate, and cultivation. The 
 varieties most cultivated in the United States are the Connecticut seed-leaf, Havana, and 
 Virginia. The Connecticut seed-leaf is considered best adapted to the Northern section, that 
 with its varieties being grown most extensively there, although the Havana and other 
 varieties are cultivated to a certain extent. It is also well suited to the Middle States. It is 
 usuaUy known in the different Northern States mider some local name, which has given rise 
 to so many types of the seed-leaf varieties. Tlie kinds most general!}' preferred in the 
 Southern States are the Havana and Virginia, although a number of other varieties are also 
 grown. The White Burley is a variety that is qtiite popular in the Ohio river counties, and 
 some other sections. 
 
 In all the various types of the seed-leaf varieties, the form of the leaf has much to do 
 respecting its value as a cigar-wrapper, these varieties and the Havana being used mainly for 
 this purpose. The leaf that is designed for fine-cut, chewing tobacco, or fillers, may be either 
 broad or narrow, long or short, the form of the leaf making no difference with regard to its 
 use. Formerly the broadest leaves were preferred by most buyers for cigar-wrapjiers, but 
 recently the long narrow leaf is preferred by many, the preference being about equally 
 divided between the two. The latter is thought to cut more wrappers to the leaf and case. 
 and yields mere leaves per plant than the broad, while the former usuaUy gives a somewhat 
 heavier product per acre. The texture of the two varieties is about the same. The broad, 
 spreading leaves are very brittle, and are apt to break easily in working among them. Whether 
 the broad or narrow leaf be cultivated, there will be quite a distinction between the same 
 variety grown in different locahties; the nature of the soil, method of culture, etc., making a 
 great difference in the quality and texture of the leaf. Some years ago a number of farmers 
 in the Connecticut valley obtained seed from Ohio, known as the -'Ohio broad-leaf," and 
 tested it in various localities in that section. The result was a broad-leaved type much 
 superior in texture and quaUty than the original plant, and which was known in many sections 
 as the Connecticut broad-leaf. The variety known as the White Burley is said to have origi- 
 nated in the following manner: — 
 
 A farmer by the name of Marshall Slack, li\ing in Higginsport, Ohio, was engaged in 
 the culture of what is known as the Red Burley tobacco, and noticed one day in his seed-bed 
 three or four plants differing from the others. The leaves were much Ughter colored, in 
 fact almost white. Tliinking that they looked sickly, and that some insect was working at 
 the roots, thus producing the pecuUar appearance, he pulled one of the plants up and exam- 
 ined it carefully. Finding nothing the matter, but rather that it seemed perfectly healthy, 
 he permitted the others to grow, and in due time set them out, giving them the same culture 
 as the rest of the crop. These plants throughout all the stages of their growth and cultivation 
 maintained their pecuHar color of stalk and leaf, and through curiosity one of the plants was 
 allowed to ripen its seed. This seed was planted the following year, and all the plants came 
 up white. Its cultivation extended until it became quite popular, and thus a different type 
 was originated. It is a vigorous grower, and seems admirably adapted to limestone sections. 
 
 By such accidental means, hybridizing, better culture, together with a perfect adaptation 
 of soU, new varieties may be produced and the old kinds improved, forming new types, the 
 same as with all other plants. There is no crop that has a wider diversity of quality than 
 tobacco, and none that will respond more quickly to extra skill, labor, and management in its 
 cultivation. 
 
 Soil. — Tobacco is an exhausting crop, and requires a rich, warm soil. In fact, we know 
 of no plant that is so largely influenced by the character of the soil as tobacco. A deep, 
 mellow soil will :'lways secure the best results; one that is naturally rich or made so by the 
 application of the proper kind of fertilizers. A light, loamy sand is one of the very best 
 
TOBACCO. 437 
 
 adapted to it; alluvial lands that are well drained and fertile are also good. It will not thrive on 
 soils containing a surplus of water, however rich or whatever their character, and such lands 
 should never be devoted to this crop until they have been thoroughly under-drained. Soils 
 containing a large amount of potash and lime, either naturally or by application, are the best 
 suited to it. It wiU not thrive upon such lands as are denominated by farmers generally as 
 "sour," unless the quality be first remedied by the application of salt or lime, and previous 
 cultivation. On such lands it will generally attain about one-lourth of its growth, and then 
 seem to remain stationary for a time, the leaves assuming meanwhile a yellowish tinge. The 
 crop in such cases will prove almost worthless — what there is of it — the stalks being hard and 
 the quality of the leaf veiy poor. 
 
 On certain clays that are heavy and strong, it will be difficult at first to get the plants to 
 live when transplanted from the seed-bed; but after getting well started, or in common 
 farmer-phrase getting a "stand," such soils will often produce the very best crops, the growth 
 being strong, heavy, and of fine quality. A Virginia farmer of many years' experience says: 
 
 •'On very stiff, strong, red-clay land, the trouble is to get the plants to live. After being 
 well set and started, however, such soils will make the strongest and heaviest sort, rich and 
 weighty; but I have planted and re-planted such soils seven or eight times, and then only 
 obtained a poor stand of irregular gi-owth, and a large proportion of green tobacco was the 
 result. Let your soil be of a loamy nature, with clay foundation, rich, and in 'good heart,' if 
 old land. A good natural body ls absolutely necessary for heavy, dark tobacco. Neither 
 chemical manures, or even any other kind, will make the genuine, first-class article, unless the 
 land already possesses • body.' Guano alone wiE give it size and push its growth; but when 
 that is said, all is said. 
 
 If the land is fresh, just cleared, or is being cleared for tobacco, white oak, hickory, 
 beech, and walnut growth ai'e sure indications of soil well suited to the growth of tobacco, 
 in regions adapted to its cultivation." 
 
 It is not weU to cultivate tobacco on sod land, but it should rather follow a crop that has 
 been heavily manured, and kept free from weeds. The Connecticut River valley product, so 
 noted for its fine quahty, especially of cigar tobaccos, is grown on a rich, deep, clayey loam, 
 with a sufficient amount of sand to make it permanently arable. This is overlying, for the 
 most part, the new I'ed sandstone. And we might add, that there is scarcely any section of 
 the Middle States which yields regularly, year after year, such abundant crops of various 
 kinds of farm products as this locality. 
 
 Preparation of Plant-Beds. — An abundance of strong, healthy plants is one of the 
 essentials for a good crop of tobacco, and in order that such plants may be obtained, it is 
 necessary that the seed-bed be properly prepared, and suitable attention given it until the 
 young plants have attained a sufficient growth for transplanting. In the cultivation of 
 tobacco, he who fails to secure an early and abundant supply of strong, healthy plants will 
 find it very difficult to repair the loss at a later period, if it be not utterly impossible. On 
 the contrary, the farmer who, at the proper time for setting out the plants, finds himself sup- 
 plied with an abundance of them, of suitable size and vigor, may consider one important step 
 taken towards a successful crop. Many are accustomed to take their risk, and depend upon 
 their neighbors in this respect, but this is very poor policy, unless the order for the supply 
 be previously arranged, since no one would be willing to limit the amount required for his 
 own crop, and would take for such use the largest and strongest plants, leaving the smaller 
 and weaker ones of the bed, while the best opportunities for setting are also often lost by 
 the delay in obtaining them. The soil of the bed for sowing must be very rich, and pul- 
 veiized extremely fine; the finer, the better. 
 
 It is a good practice, and one followed by some of the most successful cultivators of 
 tobacco, to burn a pile of brush and leaves on the bed before sowing. This will have a 
 
438 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 tendency to kill the seed of weeds in the soil, while the ashes will prove beneficial as a fertil- 
 izer, potash being one of the best known for this crop. In such cases, however, the soil 
 should not become charred by the burning. 
 
 The locality of the bed should be in some warm, sheltered spot, protected fronj cold 
 winds, with a southeasterly exposure, in order to secure the warmth of the sun. The land 
 should be neither too wet nor too dry. It is well to partially prepare the bad in the fall, 
 reducing the surface to a fine tilth, and applying lime, ashes, and well-fermented barn-yard 
 manure very finely pulverized. In the spring, the bed should be forked over or hoed, and 
 raked off, in order to remove any of the coarser lumps. Where a hot-bed is used, the soil 
 will, of course, be warmer, causing the seed to germinate quicker. In some sections of the 
 South, the ground selected for the seed-bed is in the woods, where the soil is rich with 
 decomposed leaves and other vegetable matter. A planter in Virginia says: — 
 
 " The ground selected should be in the woods (original growth), and in the thickest part 
 of them, with a gentle slope (sufficient to drain well) to the south or east; soil of a dark allu- 
 vial nature, such as would be used in filling flower-pots; not wet or sour, but with sufficient 
 moisture to endure the midday sun. Cut away all growth of every kind that will draw or 
 shade the land, and nearly all that is near enough to shade the plants; a little shade is bene- 
 ficial. It is best to have gathered the wood to be used in burning some time before, in 
 order to have it seasoned ; it burns much better when it has been stacked up and dried a 
 little, and you can get along much faster, and will not have any trouble in keeping up the 
 fire when it is moved. From a half hour, to one hour, is sufficient for the fire to remain in 
 one place, when it should be moved, which is done by the use of a common wood-hook or 
 sapling which has a prong, and the prong cut off eight or ten inches from the trunk. The 
 long row of wood should be laid on ' skids ' before the fire is started. Under no circum- 
 stances must the earth be parched, or charred. 
 
 The object in burning is simply to kUl the vitality of small seeds of grass, weeds, etc., 
 and to secure a nice preparation, with the benefit, too, of the ashes as a manure. When the 
 fire is moved, the coals should be pushed along with the fire; leave nothing on the bed but 
 ashes; then hoe the ground over six or eight inches deep, but be very careful not to turn up 
 the soil. Continue to chop the ground over until the soil is pulverized as fine as you would 
 prepare a hot-bed for cabbages, or tomatoes. Rake it over nicely and sow, as a fertilizer. 
 Peruvian guano, and rake it in with a fine hand-rake. I like it much better than any of the 
 home-made manures, which are filled with all kinds of seeds that come up earlier than the 
 tobacco, and guano is not so forcing as stable manure, which is so generally used, and causes 
 the seed to sprout, and be killed by the cold frosts of February or March. One is certainly 
 saved a good deal of hand-weeding by the use of guano. Half a bushel is sufficient for four 
 hundred yards." ■ 
 
 The seed-bed should be well drained. This may be accomplished by having the bed 
 raised above the surrounding level, or by making ditches along each side, for, while moisture 
 is necessary, an excess is as injuiious as a lack of water. 
 
 Poultry manure, and that from the pig-sty and barn-yard are good for this purpose, 
 either used alone, or "in connection with commercial fertilizers, but their use involves more or 
 less trouble with weeds, especially the latter two. We have found but little trouble with 
 weeds when commercial fertilizers were used exclusively for fertilizing, and the beds had 
 been previously prepared by burning brush and leaves over them, as above recommended. 
 
 Sowing aud Weeding. — The time of sowing tobacco differs in different localities. 
 As the seed does not germinate quickly, and the plants at first are also of slow growth, 
 tobacco should be sown as early as the soil will admit of being thoroughly worked, and 
 warm enough for the seed to germinate. It is customary with many farmers, especially at 
 the North, to sprout the seed before sowing in the bed, as the plants will thus be started 
 
TOBACCO. 439 
 
 earlier, and considerable labor in weeding will be obviated. In the Northern States this is gen- 
 erally done about the last of March, or the first of April. At the South it is done from the 
 first of January to the fifteenth of March, according to locality, the warmer climate admitting, 
 o' course, of the earliest sowing. 
 
 The best material for sprouting is well-rotted wood. Apple-tree wood is the best for 
 the purpose, although anything that will keep the seed damp will answer the purpose. The 
 s >L' J is mixed through the rotten pulverized wood, and put in a pan or box and set in a 
 warm place near the stove until sprouted. It should be occasionally stirred, to insure sprout- 
 ing evenly. After it has become well sprouted, it is scattered over the bed, usually being 
 left on the surface. Sometimes boards put on the bed for a few days after sowing will hasten 
 germination by keeping the soil damp, and pressing it upon the seed. 
 
 When seed is not sprouted before sowing, it is generally mi-xed with fine earth, sand, or 
 wood-ashes, as it is so very small that it will not otherwise be as liable to be sown evenly, and 
 the plants come up uniformly. Great care should be used to scatter it as -evenly as possible. 
 Scattering it both ways secures the best distribution. "Where the seed is good, but little is 
 required. One tablespoonful, that will germinate readily, will be sufficient for setting five 
 or six acres of land, providing the plants should thrive well. 
 
 However, as considerable of the seed may not come up, and as many of the young plants 
 are liable to be destroyed, it will be well to allow a larger proportion of seed, as it is always 
 well to sow enough to make allowance for such contingencies, and have a liberal supply of 
 good-sized, healthy plants at the time of setting. 
 
 The rule with some farmers is, to sow in the proportion of a tablespoonful of seed to 
 sixteen feet square of surface. If the spoon is heaped a little, this will give about four 
 hundred seeds to the square inch, and if one mature, healthy plant is produced from every 
 three seeds, a bed sixteen feet square will supply thirty thousand plants, which is sufficient to 
 plant about seven acres at the ordinary distance. 
 
 Some scatter the seed over the bed, and rake it in very lightly, but there is danger of 
 covering it too deep in the soil by this process unless great care is used. It is a good plan 
 to scatter it on the surface of the bed and roll it very lightly with a hand-roller, thus pressing 
 it into the soil ; but the soil must not be made too compact by this process. 
 
 During the first two or three weeks after sowing, the seed-bed should receive daily atten- 
 tion. The soil must be kept constantly moist (not ivet) on the surface, or the newly-germi- 
 nated seed Ijring on or near the surface of the ground will be desti'oyed. Even an hour of 
 hot Sim, when the seed-bed is dry, will sometimes kill the young and tender sprouts or 
 plants, and, if left to careless or indifferent care, there would be danger of loss in this 
 respect, or from the other extreme of keeping the soil too wet. When glass is used, there is 
 still greater danger of sun-burning. It is a good plan to cover the bed with fine brush to 
 protect it from frost and the hot sun. Sometimes straw or chaff, free from grain, is used for 
 a covering, but there is always more or less danger of injuring the plants by removing it in 
 such cases. At the South, pine tags are much used for this purpose, which are not removed, 
 since they aid in maintaining a sufficient amount of moisture. The tags are generally used 
 in connection with a covering of light brush, the latter being removed when the leaves are 
 about an inch long. 
 
 After the plants are up, a good top-dressing may be made of well-fermented, pulverized 
 horse manure, or a mixture of equal parts of stable manure and wood-ashes, plaster and 
 vegetable mold, to which four pounds of soot and sulphur are added to four bushels of the 
 mixture. This mixture will be a sufficient quantity for any ordinary bed, and, if applied in 
 judicious quantity every ten days, it will not only secure a rapid growth of plants, but 
 prevent the attacks of insects. When late sowing is practiced, the plants will require stimu- 
 lating to be sufficiently grown at the time of transplanting. A narrow bed is more conven- 
 
440 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 ient to manage than a wide one, and several small beds are more easily cultivated than one 
 large one. Dr. Thomas Pollard, recent Commissioner of Agriculture in Virginia, recommends 
 the following method in the care of seed-beds: — 
 
 •' The sowing of the beds should rather be too thick than too thin, at least a tablespoon- 
 ful for every fifty square yards, sowing both ways to insure regularity, and then later sow a 
 teaspoonful over the same surface. After the plants get four leaves, the}' should be forced 
 by application once or twice a week (some say even three times a week) of some good fertil- 
 izer, or better, dry pulverized stable manure from horses fed on fodder and grain, to avoid 
 grass seed, to which may be added some gypsum. The ' fly,' or flea bug, must be looked for 
 and combated by liberal applications of manures, to force the plants out of its way, and by 
 plaster, in which rags saturated with kerosene oil have lain for some hours, and by every 
 means which have been found to be available. Plenty of plants is the foundation for a good 
 crop. Better have a hundred thousand too many, than ten thousand too few. And it is 
 important to have them early. A forward crop is generally best, even if the late heavy dews 
 are not secured to the plant." 
 
 To obviate the danger of cooling the soil of the seed-bed, tepid water shoidd be used for 
 sprinkling the surface. Light and frequent waterings are preferable to a more thorough 
 wetting, as would be the case when applied but once or twice a day. The aim is to keep the 
 soil warm and moist, but not to saturate it with water. Liquid manure is very good for 
 stimulating the growth of plants after they have become well started. This can be made by 
 placing a sack of hen manure or guano in the barrel containing the water for sprinkling the 
 bed. Sprouting the seeds before sowing will hasten the plants from a week to ten days; 
 but where they are not first sprouted, the plants will not generally appear until about three 
 weeks after sowing. 
 
 The seed-bed should be kept free from weeds, the weeding beginning as soon as the 
 weeds are large enough to pull. This is a laborious process, especially where the seed-bed 
 has not previously received the attention requisite for destroying the seed of weeds in the 
 soil. The weeding shovdd not be slighted, but attended to thoroughly, as often as necessary. 
 The use of commercial fertilizers, and burning over the bed previously, will save much of the 
 labor of weeding. "When glass is used for beds, a portion of the sash should be raised each 
 day when the sun shines hot, in order to give ventilation and prevent the plants from being 
 burned. The glass should also be entirely removed a few days before the plants are large 
 enough to set, in order to toughen them suflBciently before transplanting them in the field. 
 On very cool nights, when there is danger from frost, or the plants being chilled, the bed 
 should be protected by a covering of some kind, such as boards, old blankets, or pieces of 
 carpeting. 
 
 The usual rule is to sow two hundred square yards for every ten thousand plants 
 wanted. It must always be remembered, also, that unless the soil has been made previously 
 very rich, the plants will not have sufBcient to feed upon, consequently will not grow, but 
 will assume a yellow, sickly appearance. A board frame suiTounding the bed, fitting it 
 closely, answers a very good purpose for keeping off intruders, where glass is not used. It 
 also is very convenient for supporting and holding a cloth covering, that may be necessary to 
 protect against the frost or insects. This covering may be cheap, thin, unbleached cotton, 
 and costs much less than glass, and many consider it equally good. This is very efiBcacious 
 in keeping out the tobacco fly. Some other plant-seed, such as radish, could be sown outside 
 for the fly to work upon, in connection with the covering, thus securing a double protection. 
 
 A recent writer gives his method of covering the beds with cloth, as follows: — 
 
 "When your bed is rolled, put up, edgewise, eight to ten-inch plank all around the edges 
 of the bed, and on the end planks put gable ends cut from planks a foot wide, then a ridge- 
 
TOBACCO. • 441 
 
 pole like that for any roof. Tliis gives a frame for a covering of muslin of the thinnest and 
 cheapest kind, and in convenient shape to remove and replace, as you choose, for watering, 
 manuring, etc. But if you have liquid manure, you may water and manure at once by 
 sprinkling the cover well with a common sprinkling-pot with the nozzle-holes enlarged. 
 After the plants are well started, if there are no flies, or if the plants are big enough to defy 
 them, in good weather the cover ought to be removed at 3 to 4 o'clock p. m., and replaced at 
 10 A. M. for several days, to gradually harden the plants to the exposure, and then removed 
 altogether, to harden them for transplanting. Plants may be brought to maturity in this 
 way much sooner than the usual time in open beds." 
 
 In ordinary open beds, with proper care, the plants will be ready for transplanting in 
 from six to eight weeks after sowing. 
 
 Preparation of Soil, Fertilizers, etc.— Lands for tobacco should bo plowed in 
 the fall, that the frost may aid in pulverizing the soil, also in the destruction of the worms, 
 insect eggs, and larvs that it may contain. 
 
 It should also have two plowings. or their equivalents, in the spring. The first plowing 
 should be early in the spring, which should be to a shallow depth. When the manure to be 
 applied is not well pulverized, it will be well to spread it over the land before the plowing. 
 When it is well decomposed and pulverized, it can be appHed just before the second plowing, 
 which is about the time the plants are to be set. It is best to spread fertilizers broadcast for 
 tobacco. After the second spring plowing, a thorough haiTOwing will greatly aid in reducing 
 the pulverization of the soil. The roller may also be very useful in aiding the pulverization 
 by crushing the lumps. Very much depends upon reducing the soil to a fine condition, and 
 the labor bestowed here will be amply repaid in the results of the crop, the aim being to 
 i-ender the surface as fine as possible. 
 
 Any well-decomposed manure will do for tobacco, but of course the better the quahty of 
 the manure, the better will be the crop. Manure finely pulverized is much the best, since it 
 can be more readily taken up by the roots of the young plants than that of a coarser texture. 
 Commercial fertilizers can be used in connection with farm manure with good effect. Many 
 of the special fertilizers can also be used in the same manner. In the use of commercial 
 fertilizers, however, much depends upon the season, a moderate amount ot rain giving often 
 remarkably good results, while during a dry season their effect seems almost entirely lost. 
 There is probably nothing better for tobacco than farm manure of the best quality, where it 
 can bo obtained in sufficient quantities. Where a sufficient supply cannot be obtained, it may 
 be used in part, and commercial fertilizers be appUed in connection to make up the deficiency. 
 
 We have never seen better crops grown than those produced by a liberal application of 
 barn-yard manure, well rotted and finely pulverized. For heavy clay soils there seems to be 
 no substitute for it, since it not only supplies the requisite fertility, but renders the otherwise 
 compact soil loose and pliable. 
 
 A good clover crop plowed under green, and allowed to become thoroughly decomposed 
 before setting the plants, together with a liberal application of manure, is thought by some 
 to be the best preparation for tobacco that a soil can have. Next in value to clover, for 
 green manure, a heavy growth of common peas might be chosen. 
 
 Poultry manure, pulverized and mixed with plaster, is excellent for tobacco. A farmer 
 in Central New York, who has cultivated tobacco for many years, and has. tried many 
 experiments with different kinds of fertilizers, recommends this as superior to anything with 
 which he is acquainted. Fertilizers containing the elements of lime and potash will always 
 be found of value to this crop, since they enter largely into the composition of the plant. 
 Wood-ashes are always adapted to tobacco, since they supply a large proportion of potash. 
 Manure containing an abundance of ammonia, in connection with lime, will always be found 
 highly beneficial also. 
 
442 
 
 THE AMERICAN FAKMEK. 
 
 Wheu level culture is practiced, the land should be marked both ways with a small plow 
 adapted to the purpose. The rows should be at least three feet apart, and the marks for the 
 hills from two to two and a half feet. Much depends upon the nature of the soil and the 
 variety to be grown. A rich soil will require a grt'ater distance than one moderately fertile, 
 while a variety of large, spreading growth will also require more room than one of smaller 
 growth. Many farmers make the rows the distance of three and a half feet by two and a 
 half, while on very rich soil the practice in some sections is to extend the distance to even 
 four feet by three and a half. There should only be sufficient distance for the plants to 
 spread well and secure a vigorous growth, any waste of space being a waste of manure used 
 to enrich the soil, as well as the labor in preparing it; besides, if the plants are too far apart, 
 they are more liable to be blown over or broken by the wind. On the other hand, if crowded, 
 the growth will be more slender and the plants will not mature as perfectly, or produce as 
 heavy a crop. "Where the furrows made by the plow cross each other, small hills should be 
 made with a hoe, and the top patted down, indicating the place where the plants are to be 
 
 set. Where ridge-cul- 
 ture is practiced, the 
 ridges may be thrown 
 up by lapping the fur- 
 rows of the plow, or, 
 what is much better, 
 a tobacco-ridger may 
 be used for making 
 ^^ the ridges and mark- 
 :ig the place for the 
 'ants. The wings of 
 
 __ le machine gather the 
 
 ^ninWP*' '^^'at^,^;^..,^^,^^, earth into a ridge, to- 
 
 i gether with the fertil- 
 izers that are spread 
 broadcast. The 
 
 smoothing-plate that the machine rides on smooths the ridges, and the wheels with the points 
 partly make the holes for the plants, and space them off. The accompanying illustration 
 represents a tobacco-ridger manufactured by Belcher & Taylor, Chicopee Falls, Mass., and 
 may be also used in the cotton and potato fields with good effect. A corn-marker is some- 
 times used for marking off the ground. In these marks a cultivator having reversible shares is 
 run, with the shares turned inward and the front one removed, which forms the ridge. A 
 light roller follows, having cleats nailed across at equal and sufficient distances apart to mark 
 the distances for setting the plants. This preparation for setting tobacco shoidd be made just 
 before the plants are ready for transplanting. 
 
 Transplailtiiis;. — The tobacco crop requires between four and five months' growth, 
 from the time the see;l is sown until the time of cutting, and nearly half of this time is 
 confined to the seed-bed; hence the necessity of much care to secure the best possible 
 condition of the plants at the time of transplanting. 
 
 The best size for setting is when the leaves are from an inch and a half to two inches in 
 length, or, as one planter expresses it, "about the size of a dessert-spoon." The time for 
 setting, in the latitude of New York, is in the month of June, although some set them about 
 the 24th of May. This is, however, quite early. From the 1st to the 20th of June is gener- 
 ally considered the best time, when the season will admit. In a warmer latitude the 
 transplanting will be comparatively earlier, according to the climate. If set too early, the 
 plants will be liable to become chilled, and will not thrive as well; while if delayed too late, 
 
 GOSLEE S TOBACCO riDUEE AND POTATO C0\ ERER 
 
TOBACCO. 443 
 
 the crop will not have sufficient time to mature. The medium time is best, which is that 
 already given. If transplanted at the proper time, rapid growth and quick maturity — other 
 conditions being favorable — will be the natural result, which saves labor and expense in 
 cultivation, while such crops will be larger and of better quality th.an those of slower growth. 
 
 The usual time for transplanting is just after a rain, when the soil is moist; otherwise 
 the plants require watering, which involves considerable extra labor. If at such a time, 
 however, the sun comes out hot immediately after, a large percentage of the plants will be 
 liable to wither beyond recovery. A cloudy day and damp soil are to be preferred, but it is 
 better to set the plants at the proper time rather than delay too late for desired conditions. 
 If plants are set when the soil is saturated with water, followed by a hot sun, the earth will 
 harden and bake around the roots and prevent their growth; hence a damp soil is to be pre- 
 ferred to one containing a surplus of water. Never set plants when the soil is of the 
 consistency of mud. Great care should be observed in removing the plants from the seed- 
 bed, that the roots may not be broken. To avoid this, the bed should be saturated with 
 water. It is well to loosen the earth with a trowel and pick up the plants separately. 
 
 No careless person should be allowed to perform this work, for much injury to the crop 
 might result from mutilating the plants in any way. The practice of crowding a large number 
 of plants into a basket to be taken to the field is a very poor one, resulting in the bruising and 
 breaking of the roots and leaves. The young plants should be kept straight after being taken 
 from the seed-bed, with their roots together, and placed in shallow boxes or pans to be taken 
 to the field, and not a sufficient number placed together to admit of crushing, keeping what 
 little soil adheres to their roots from being loosened. They should also be protected from 
 the hot sun on the way to the field. Many plants will sometimes become wilted before 
 setting, through carelessness in this respect. One person should drop the plants ahead in the 
 row, one plant to each hill, and the setter follow. In setting, the plant should be taken in 
 the right hand, and a hole made in the center of the lull with the left forefinger for the roots, 
 which should be deep enough to take them in without bending to the same level they occupied 
 in the seed-bed. The earth should then be pressed firmly around the roots with both hands. 
 The pressure should be sufficient to close the hole in the soil at the bottom, as well as at the 
 top. Care should be used not to set the plant too deep, or press the bud of unopened leaves 
 in making the soil compact. The roots should, however, be well covered, and have a suf- 
 ficient depth of soil. It is also a good plan to set an extra plant every rod or two, which 
 may be used to fill vacancies that will be found in the after cultivation. Such plants may be 
 taken up with a small quantity of soil attached to the roots, and reset without injury. 
 
 As the cut-worm will destroy some of the young plants, and others will wither, the 
 ground should be carefully examined and reset every few days, until a good stand is secured. 
 It is important that the setting of the plants be well done. When a hot sun succeeds the 
 transplanting, shading the plants with a handful of grass, a large leaf, or a piece of paper, for 
 a day or two, will generally prevent them wilting as badly as they otherwise might. 
 
 If the ground is quite dry at the time of setting, water must be turned upon the hills 
 before putting in the plants. In such cases, it is well to press the soil around the plant in a 
 shghtly concave or basin-shaped form, in order to hold the water that it may be necessary to 
 afterwards apply. Such plants should be watered rather liberally just at night, and may 
 require this repeated for three or four days. Such extra cai-e requires considerable labor, 
 but it pays well in the end. Negligence at this period can never be wholly made up in the 
 after culture. The best time for transplanting, when the weather is warm, is on a cloudy 
 day, or just at night, accompanied with watering. 
 
 Cultivation. — A few days after setting, or when the plants have secured a good 
 stand, the first cultivation should be given. This generally consists of a very light stirring 
 of the soil with a hand-hoe, simply breaking the crust that has formed, and killing the weeds. 
 
444 THE AMERICAN FAHMEK. 
 
 It is very important that the soil at all stages be kept free from weeds. Tobacco Is a 
 sensitive plant, and will not grow well in connection with anything else. Weeds or grass 
 near the roots, though of small size, will affect the weight and growth to an almost incredible 
 degree. Neither will it attain perfection if crowded or shaded in any way. It must have 
 tlie soil all to itself, and a hot sun. As quick growtli is essential in order to produce a good 
 quality of l(>af, the aim of the cultivator should be to piish the growth of the young plants as 
 much as possible, after they have been started in the field. Next to extremely fertile soil, 
 nothing will secure this result so effectually as frequent cultivation, not only to keep the field 
 free from weeds, but to stir the surface and prevent the soil from becoming hard and com- 
 pact, and thus lessen the danger of injury by drouth. It is a well-known fact that the best 
 preventive of injury from drouth is to keep the surface of the soil mellow around the 
 growing plants. The cultivator or horse-hoe should be used frequently, to keep the soil clean 
 and mellow, hand-hoeing being required three or four times during the season, in order to 
 loosen the soil near the plants and bring the earth up around the roots. The extra plants 
 not required to reset should be taken out when there is no further demand for them. When 
 the leaves are large, they become easily broken, and all such culture must then be abandoned ; 
 but, until this period arrives, the cultivation should be thorough and frequent. 
 
 Eueiiiies of the Tobacco Plant. — Although there are several enemies of the 
 tobacco plant, more or less injurious, the principal ones are the cut-worm, and the large green 
 worm called the "tobacco- worm." The first commits its depredations on the young plants 
 soon after they are set out, by eating off the stalks. Their presence can easily be determined 
 by going among the plants early in the morning, and noting whether there are any small 
 heaps of fresh earth, or small, round holes near the hills. If these are found, they are a sure 
 indication of the enemy. 
 
 Where plants are found with a portion or all of their leaves gone, this is another sure 
 indication of the cut-worm's presence. Ashes in the hill will sometimes destroy these pests, 
 but they are difBcult to eradicate. It will pay to search for them in the hiU and kill them, 
 where they are very troublesome. All hills that have had the plants destroyed in this man- 
 ner should be supplied by re-setting, but the worm should firet be dug out and killed, or each 
 plant that occupies the spot will be destroyed in turn. 
 
 Tlie tobacco-worm is hatched from an egg deposited by a moth. The egg is laid gener- 
 ally upon the under side of the leaf, and, when first hatched, — which is in about six days, — 
 the worm is so small that it would scarcely be noticed by one unfamiliar with its habits. It 
 grows very rapidly, and proves one of the most destructive of enemies. 
 
 It begins to eat the leaf on the under side; hence, is not at first easily detected. A 
 small hole through the leaf is the first indication of its depredations. They increase in size 
 so rapidly, and are so destructive, that if left unmolested for a few days the entire leaf would 
 be destroyed. Wlien full grown, the worm will eat nearly an entire leaf of large size in a 
 single day. Their size and length at this period is nearly that of the forefinger of a meditim- 
 sized man. 
 
 There are two sets or broods of these worms during the season — the first appearing 
 when the plants are about half grown, and the others when the tobacco is almost ripe. It is 
 particularly important that the first brood be destroyed, for if they are nqt they become 
 transformed into the moth, which lays the eggs for the second brood, each moth lapng about 
 two hundred eggs. 
 
 The '-yellow-jacket'' is said to be a valuable aid in destroj'ing these worms. The "ich- 
 neumon-fly " is a parasite of this worm, and destroys many. Dr. Thomas Pollard of Virginia, 
 says that, in worming, care must be used not to destroy the worms covered with a white fihn 
 or net-hke substance, as it is the cocoon of this parasite, and that in sections where this fly is 
 met, tobacco-worms may be found filled with the larvae of the fly, looking like little bits of 
 
TOBACCO. 445 
 
 cotton, half of their bodies being inserted in the worm and the other half projecting, hav- 
 ing eaten their way out thus far. The worm in such cases will be found in a half torpid 
 state, undergoing a slow but certain death. 
 
 The flea-beetle has made its appearance from time to time in some sections, to the detri- 
 ment of this crop, but only to a limited extent,' and in certain sections. 
 
 Worilling. — Unless the worms that feed upon the leaves of tobacco are destroyed, the 
 crop will be liable to be, or, at least, rendered so worthless as not to pay for the labor 
 bestowed in its cultivation. The surest remedy is hand-picking, and this must be sufBciently 
 frequent to prevent injury to the leaves. The field should be gone over every few days, if 
 possible, during the period of worming, as many will escape notice, and the eggs will con- 
 tinue to hatch. By a careful examination of the under side of the leaves, the eggs may often 
 be seen and destroyed before the worms are hatched. They are about the size of a mustard 
 seed, of a light greenish cast, and semi-transparent. 
 
 Flocks of turkeys are said to be valuable in destroying the worms. Bonfires built near 
 the field at the edge of evening, at the time of the appearance of the moth that lays the eggs, 
 wiU be the means of destroying large numbers, since they will be attracted to the fire by its 
 light. 
 
 Major Rayland, of Virginia, says: " Dissolve an ounce of the cobalt of the shops in a 
 jiint and a half of water and mix it with molasses or other syrup, bottle it and drop it 
 through a quill into the heart of the blossom of the jimson-weed. It should be done about 
 sundown, and the poisoned flowers pulled off next day, otherwise the plants will be destroyed. 
 It has been authentically stated that this weed, so treated, planted around the edge of the 
 tobacco-lot, and here and there through the patch, will prevent, to a great extent, the rav- 
 ages of the worm." 
 
 Topping. — This consists in breaking off the tops of the stalks of tobacco, and is done 
 m order to increase the size and value of the lower leaves : also, to prevent the plant from 
 seeding, and to hasten its maturity. The best time for doing this is generally considered to 
 be just before the flower-buds open, or, rather, just as soon as the blossom-bud at the top of 
 the stalk is formed. When there has been a partial failure of the first setting of plants, 
 rendering the growth uneven, it will sometimes be necessary to go over the field twice for this 
 purpose, topping at first only the earliest plants, and the remainder a few days later. It is, 
 however, desirable to top all the plants at the same time, if possible, in order to secure uni- 
 formity in the maturity of the crop. 
 
 The condition of the plant will indicate how great a length of the stalk is to be removed 
 in this process. The general rule is, to take off all the leaves that are less than six inches in 
 length, or just above the last well-developed leaf. When quite late in the season, it may be 
 necessary to go a little lower than this, and take oS a few of the larger leaves m order to 
 have the crop mature before the appearance of frosts. 
 
 In some of the Southern States, priming is practiced, which consists of removing the 
 first or lower leaves of the stalk. The arguments in favor of priming, as given, are — that 
 the lower leaves harbor worms, making the worming process more laborious, requiring so 
 much of the stooping posture, while the saving of those leaves is often a sufiicient temptation to 
 the producer to prepare them for sale, where they add to the worthless product which is cum- 
 bering the market. Other advantages of priming that are presented are — ^that the removal of 
 the lowest leaves permits additional nourishment to be supphed to the other leaves, and 
 admits of a better circulation of air, with additional light and heat, which are so essential to 
 plant Ufe. The old adage with many of the Southern planters is, " Prime liigh and top low," 
 while some do not prime at all It is not practiced to any extent at the North. Of course, 
 all plants intended for producing seed for a future crop should never be topped, but be 
 permitted to l)lossoni, and ripen their seed. 
 
446 THE AMEHIt AX FARMER. 
 
 Suekering. — A few days after topping, the suckers, or young shoots, will start from 
 the axils of the upper leaves. These should be broken off close to the stalk as soon as they 
 are at least three or four inches long, li a short end is left in breaking, it wUl be liable to 
 tear the leaves in subsequent handling; besides, the water from rain or dew will produce 
 decay of the portion left, causing the leaf to look sickly and sometimes fall. If the suckers 
 are permitted to grow, they wiU greatly injure the crop, as they wUl take just so much 
 groi^'th and nutriment from the leaves, which constitute the product. 
 
 In about ten or twelve dsivs after suekering, the crop will generally be ready to cut. 
 Just before cutting, however, the suckers should all be broken from the stalk again, as they 
 wUl grow fast. The worms should also all be removed, none being allowed to remain on 
 the plants when harvested, "forking among the growing plants when they are wet from 
 rain or dew vioU sometimes cause rust upon the leaves, and should be avoided. Some varie- 
 ties of toba<?co will send out suckers faster than others. 
 
 Cutting. — Tobacco should be cut when fully mature. If left to stand beyond this 
 period and over-ripen, the leaf will not, when cured, be as soft and sUky, and hence not as 
 well adapted for wrappers. Longer standing will, however, give a somewhat heavier pro- 
 duct, but the weight will be gained at the expense of the quality. 
 
 The time for cutting is determined by the appearance of the leaf, which changes its 
 color to a somewhat yellowdsh cast, and becomes slightly spotted or marbled, especially when * 
 looked at towards the Hght. Sometimes this appearance seems a faint motthng of the leaves 
 with spots of a Lighter gi-een. As a general rule, it -will be ready to cut m about ten or 
 twelve days after toppmg, according to the weather. When the weather is hot and dry, the 
 ripening will proceed more rapidly than when cool or wet. Another indication of ripeness 
 is in the feeUng of the leaves, which will seem thicker than they did a few days before, and 
 will crack when folded and lightly pressed between the thumb and finger. The leaves will 
 also become rustling and stiff. It is somewhat difficult for an inexperienced person to deter- 
 mine when tobacco is fully ripe, the experienced eye being the only sure gtiide: but the above 
 rules can be rehed upon as the most definite that can be given. Over-ripening deteriorates 
 the quality of the crop; therefore it is best to commence harvesting as soon as the signs of 
 ripeness appear, as the last of the crop that is cut will be Liable to become too ripe when left 
 later, if a large crop is to be gathered, since it ripens very fast. The juices in the stems of 
 that first cut will perfect the ripening process. 
 
 It is very important that the crop be gathered before cold weather, as the least appear- 
 ance of frost will ruin every leaf that it touches; hence, while it is well to have the crop suf- 
 ficientl}- ripe before cutting, it had better be harvested before it is quite ripe, rather than run 
 the risk of losing the entire crop by frost. 
 
 Various implements are used for cutting tobacco. A tobacco-hatchet is one of the best 
 we have ever used for this purpose. -•V cornstalk-cutter is also very good, while a butcher- 
 knife may be used to good advantage. Some prefer a small hand-saw. In cutting, the plant 
 should be bent over with the left hand, and the stalk cut close to the ground with a blow 
 from the hatchet, or a drawing cut with a knife. 
 
 Very heavy tobacco is left for a time to wilt before being carried from the field, as the 
 leaves will be less liable to become bruised or torn by subsequent handling, but light varie- 
 ties may be carried directly from the field with less liabUity of being injured. 
 
 Tobacco should not be cut when wet with dew or rain, or in the middle of a very hot 
 day. Care must be taken not to let it remain in the field long enough after cutting to 
 become sunburnt. Rain should also be guarded against. If any is left cut in the field during 
 the night, it should be laid in heaps of a dozen or more plants in a place. If tobacco is thus 
 left in piles more than twelve or fourteen hours, there is danger from heating. 
 
 As soon as the plants are sufficiently wilted after Ijeing cut. so that the leaves will not be 
 
TOBACCO. 447 
 
 easily broken by the handling, they should be taken to a tobacco house or barn and bung up 
 to cure. The best method is to put it on laths or poles in the field ready for hanging, as 
 this requires less handling. It is customary with some tobacco growers to load the plants, 
 after they have become sufficiently wilted, into a cart and put them on laths afterwards in the 
 shed or barn, but the best method is to do this part of the labor in the field, if practicable. 
 
 Curing. — The usual method of curing tobacco is to hang the plants on lath, on which 
 they are put by means of a large steel needle made with a socket at one end. in order 
 to fit the end of the lath. The needle, after being fastened to the end of the lath, is pushed 
 through the lower part of the stalk, and thus the lath is forced through. From six to ten 
 plants can be put upon a common lath in this manner, according to the size. The laths on 
 which the plants have been strung are put into a cart or wagon arranged for the purpose. 
 Some are particular to have each end of the lath supported, that the plants may hang 
 down without being broken or crushed. This requires more labor, as a less quantity can be 
 carried at a time, but the plants are less liable to injury by this means. 
 
 The laths are placed upon slats or crossbeams arranged for the purpose in the tobacco- 
 house or barn, where the plants are suspended for drying. Where large quantities of tobacco 
 are produced, a tobacco-house is indispensable. Such a building has beams and joints in sev- 
 eral tiers, arranged to support the laths or poles on which the plants are hung. About one- 
 half of the boards of such a building are hung on hinges, so that they can be opened like a 
 door, in order to better admit the air and light. Where the air and light are thus admitted, 
 the laths can be placed nearer together than where the circulation of air is less free. About 
 ten or twelve inches apart is the usual distance of placing the laths from which the plants are 
 suspended. In a common barn or close shed, considerable more room will be required. Very 
 large plants will also require more room than smaller ones. 
 
 After hanging the plants for curing, the doors should be kept open in pleasant weather to 
 admit the air and light, which are so essential to perfect the process. During damp or rainy 
 weather the building should be kept closed to exclude the dampness, and after the curing 
 process is completed the building should be kept closed constantly. 
 
 When tobacco dries rapidly, the tendency will be to produce a light color. When it 
 dries slowly, the tendency will be in the opposite direction. The great difficulty in curing 
 tobacco is to so govern the ventilation as to secure slow drying, and obviate what is termed 
 "pole-burning," or pole-sweating- This latter difficulty is most liable to occur in hot, muggy 
 weather, when there is little air stirring, and during the first three weeks of the curing 
 process. 
 
 In very dry, windy weather the plants might dry too rapidly if the means of ventilating 
 were all employed, and it may sometimes be found desirable in such weather to keep the 
 doors closed entirely for whole days together. The judgment of the person having charge of 
 the crop at this stage will bo called into requisition, the treatment given depending upon the 
 condition of the tobacco at the time. Pole-burning may be largely avoided by hanging the 
 plants further apart. 
 
 It is the nature of the plant, irrespective of weather, to begin to sweat a little a few days 
 after hanging, the moisture standing in drops on the stems and leaves. When this moisture 
 dries off well, there is little danger from pole-burning. At this period there should be a free 
 circulation of drjang air through the plants. Pole-burning is most liable to occur during th6 
 first three weeks after the tobacco is cut If the air is then damp and heavy with moisture, 
 the plants will not dry off well, but will ferment or "burn." The best method is to e-xclude 
 the dampness in wet weather, and admit the dry air in clear weather, taking care not to 
 crowd the plants in hanging. The leaves should also be well shaken out so as not to cling to 
 the stem. Fully ripe tobacco is less liable to pole-burn than that which is cut greener, but 
 i3uch tobacco' is considered less desirable for wrappers. In all the process of curing, great care 
 
448 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 should be observed not to bruise or tear tbe leaves, or break them o£E the stalk. Where poles 
 are used for hanging tobacco, the plants are generally tied to them with twine, which is 
 wound around the plant stalks securely, and then around the pole in successive order; the 
 use of latlis is considered the better metliod, as it is attended with less labor. 
 
 There are various other methods of curing practiced in some sections, such as '■ sun- 
 curing," "open-fire-curing," "flue curing," etc., but we consider the process already described 
 to be very much superior to any otlier. 
 
 Stripping and Assorting Tobacco. — Tobacco should never be taken down until 
 properly cured. This period is when the leaf stem will yield no juice by wringing, although 
 still pliable and damp. There may be an occasional green or '■ fat " leaf, which will never 
 cure, but these should be very rare exceptions. 
 
 The time for stripping is in the late fall or winter, during warm, wet weather, which 
 will render the leaves pliable, and easily handled without being torn or broken. In order to 
 keep the plants moist, they are taken from the laths and laid in small piles upon the floor. 
 The leaves are then stripped from the stalk one at a time, taking care not to tear them, and 
 keeping each one straight. The leaves are assorted according to quality, a crop often making 
 six or eight difierent grades, the grade differing in numbers according to the custom of the 
 locality, or demand of the market. The leaves of the same quality and size ai'e kept separate 
 from others. All torn or worm-eaten leaves, and those otherwise injured, should be kept by 
 themselves. The manner of assorting tobacco differs in different localities. The following 
 method is given by a tobacco-grower of large experience in central New York : 
 
 " Taking tobacco from the poles, stripping the leaves from the stalks, assorting them in- 
 to the respective grades, and packing the 'hands' or 'hanks' into boxes, constitute the 
 chief occupation of the tobacco-grower during winter. The plants should not be taken from 
 the poles until the leaves have become soft and pliable so that they may be readily pressed 
 together in the hand without breaking them, when brought into this condition by warm, damp 
 weather. After being taken from the poles, the stalks should be stripped of thfir leaves and 
 the latter tied in bundles weighing from six to ten pounds, and then carefully packed in 
 'ranks,' with the butts of the leaves extending outward and their tips lapping together in 
 the center. In order to preserve the moisture in the leaves, the ranks must be kept covered 
 upon the top and ends, but the butts of the leaves or the sides of the ranks should remain 
 open, and exposed to the air so as to give the greenness at the butts an oppoi'tuuity to become 
 thoroughly cured. 
 
 Next comes the work of 'assorting.' For this a tight, warm room is required, such as 
 may be made comfortable by an ordinary stove in the most inclement weather. This assort- 
 ing room should be roomy, well lighted, and provided with tables suitable for the work. 
 A skylight is preferable to side windows, as from the former the light coming from above 
 shines directly upon the leaves of the tobacco, and not in the eyes of the assorter, thus 
 enabling him to better judge of the qualities of tobacco. Every year the dealei-s and manu- 
 facturers of seed-leaf tobacco demand of growers more care in the manipulation of their 
 crops. Formerly it was customary to assort the leaves into two grades; now we are fre- 
 quently requested to assort into six or more qualities, which requii-es no small amount of 
 labor and care to perform the work correctly. 
 
 But it is unquestionably for the grower's interest to put his crop in the best possible 
 shape, and to handle it in the most systematic and painstaking manner. For this reason I 
 advise making at least five grades or qualities of leaf; namely, first or A A wrappers, second 
 or A wrappers, scrub or rough wrappers, binders and fillers. Some buyers demand that the 
 leaves of wrappers shall be assorted as regards lengtli as well as quaUty. Then first or 
 A A wrappers are divided into two lengths, making long A A and short A A, etc. 
 
 It is a difHcult matter to describe the exact methods of assorting tobacco in a short arti- 
 
TOBACCO. 449 
 
 cle like this. I can simply state that the best leaves, as regards general quality, are placed in 
 the first grade of wrappers, those not quite so good in the second grade, and those still poorer 
 in the third grade or rough wrapper class, and so on down until the ' trash ' or poorer part 
 of the crop is reached, which grade is called fillers. To perform the work of assorting cor- 
 rectly requires some experience. No article can be written upon the subject which will 
 enable a person who never performed the work to do it properly. The leaves, when assorted 
 into respective grades, are tied in small hands or ' hanks,' containing from twelve to eigh- 
 teen leaves each, according to the quality. We usually place twelve or fourteen leaves in a 
 hand of wrappers, about sixteen in those of binders, and twenty in fillers The tying should 
 be done neatly, so that the hand, when finished, will present a neat and workmanlike appear- 
 ance. Small, pliable leaves should be used for this purpose, which should be selected by 
 the assorters. "We usually employ small boys for tying the hand. A small boy can tie 
 for two to assort. 
 
 Great care needs to be exercised while handling the tobacco, to keep it from drying out. 
 The ranks should be kept covered at all times, and the room wherein the assorting is done 
 should be kept in a damp condition by placing a vessel of water upon the heating-stove, the 
 steam from which will impregnate the air and keep it moist. Ordinarily, tol;)acco, when 
 assorted, should be re-ranked to give the butts of the leaves opportunity to become thoroughly 
 cured before the tobacco is cased. Ciuide-boards should be placed at the proper distance 
 apart to admit of ranking between, the butts of the hands being placed against the boards. 
 When the rank is completed the guide-boards should be removed, and the top and ends of 
 the rank carefully protected with boards or a like material to prevent drying of the tobacco. 
 In this shape tobacco should remain until ready for casing." 
 
 In assorting, all the green or " fat " leaves should be thrown out, as they are worthless 
 for anything except as a fertilizer. The casing or packing is done either by the buyer or 
 producer, but generally by the latter. 
 
 Packing. — Tobacco is generally packed in boxes, the usual size Ijeing from three 
 and a half to four feet long, two and a half wide, and two and a half deep. It should be 
 packed quite closely, the man who does it being in the box and pressing it down with his 
 knees. When the box is even full, the contents can be crowded still more compactly by 
 means of a lever, and follower that will just fit the inside of the box, after which more 
 tobacco can be put in. Close packing prevents undue drying, thus maintaining the desirable 
 degree of moisture for handling. When packed as full as the box will admit, the top should 
 be nailed on firmly. About three hundred pounds can be packed in a box of the above 
 -description. In some parts of the South and West, hogsheads are used for packing tobacco, 
 which will hold, when closely pressed, from fifteen to twenty hundred pounds. Major Ray- 
 land, of Virginia, recommends the half-hogshead for the purpose of packing, the grades to 
 be kept apart, or when necessary to pack two or more grades together, a layer of paper may 
 be placed between. The smaller boxes are much more convenient for handling in transferring 
 from one place to another. Boxes for this purpose can be much more cheaply obtained from 
 the manufacturer than can be made by the farmer. 
 
 Cultivating Tobacco Seed. — When seed is to be raised, the best and most thrifty 
 plants should be selected. These should be carefully cultivated, and left to grow naturally 
 without topping. From four to six good plants will produce, on the average, a full half pint 
 of seed. The worms should be kept from these plants, and the suckers removed as they make 
 their appearance, the soil frequently stirred, and all weeds carefully excluded. At the time 
 of cutting the crop, from one-third to a half of the leaves should be taken off. This will 
 have a tendency to hasten the maturity of the seeds. 
 
 When the pods have turned dark brown, the heads should be cut off and hung in a dry 
 
450 THE .OIERICAN FARMER. 
 
 place to become cured. "WTien thoroughly diy. it is a good plan to look the heads over care- 
 fully, and with a pair of scissors clip oS all the smaller or imperfect pods, lea^^ng only the 
 largest and best-looking ones, which are found at the crowns and ends of the best shoots. 
 Those cut off should be thrown away, being unfit for seed. The others may be shelled and 
 cleaned with a fine sieve, and put away in a tin box in a dry place until needed for sowing 
 the next season. Before shelling, the heads should be handled with care, as they sift out 
 easily, and the contents of the best pods might thus be lost. 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 COFFEE is a tropical product, a native of Western Africa and Abyssinia, and has 
 become naturalized in many other countries. In its natural or wild state, the coffee- 
 tree attains a height of from twelve to twenty feet, and bears but few branches. In 
 cultivation, the tree is topped to from six to ten feet from the ground, the branches beginning 
 quite near the root, which, after being topped, gives it the general form of a pj'ramid. The 
 leaves are oblong-ovate, from four to five inches in length, are opposite on the branch, ever- 
 green, of a rich dark -green hue, thick and glossy. 
 
 The flowers are clustered in the axils of the leaves. They are small, white, and very 
 fragrant. When ripe, the pod or seed-vessel is of a dark -red color, and contains two cells, 
 in each of which is a seed, called the coffee-bean, or berry. 
 
 Coffee is an important plant in the agriculture of those inter-tropical countries suited to 
 its cultivation, as its use is almost universal, and the demand for the product great, while the 
 section of the globe to which its successful culture is restricted is limited, when compared 
 with that of many other products. It is stated by reliable authority, that the annual con- 
 sumption of coffee in the United States is greater than that of any other country, being six 
 times the amount of that consumed by some of the Em'opean countries. Germany and 
 France rank second, or next to the United States in this respect. 
 
 Brazil, at present, is the largest coffee-producing country in the world. The product is, 
 however, inferior to the Java and Mocha, but is often sold in the market under the name of 
 these varieties, which are thus counterfeited. The regions in which the latter are cultivated 
 are so very limited that it would be impossible for them to supply but a comparatively small 
 fractional part of the quantity that is sold imder those names. Brazil and other South Amer- 
 ican countries producing quite a large proportion of this product. The leaves of the coffee- 
 tree are said to be used by the inhabitants of Sumatra, instead of the berry, and are prepared 
 for use by drying. Chicory root, dandelion root, carrots, Indian corn, rye, peas, etc., are 
 often used as substitutes for coffee after being roasted. 
 
 Yai'ieties. — Tlie varieties of coffee are quite numerous. The Mocha, which comes from 
 Arabia, is considered by many to be superior to all othei-s. There is so much of the counterfeit in 
 market under that name at firesent that it is difficult to find the real article. It is known by 
 the beans or seeds being of a small size, and of a greenish-gray color. Java, or East India 
 coffee, has beans of a large size and yellow hue. Jamaica has beans somewhat smaller than 
 the Java, and greenish in color. Bourbon coffee has yellow beans of a light shade. Surinam 
 coffee has the largest beans. The Rio, Ceylon. Maracaibo, etc.. are varieties slightly differing, 
 and though good, are not generally considered equal to the Moclia or Java. The product 
 known as the Male Berry differs from others in the form and size of the bean, it being quite 
 round and small, instead of flat Hke most other coffees. These round beans will be found in 
 the product of any kind of coffee in the proportion of about one to every twenty or twenty- 
 
COFFEE. 451 
 
 five, and are said to be the product of the new shoots or wood of the previous year's growth. 
 They are found singly in the pod, the old wood producing flat berries with two in each pod. 
 The Male Berries are selected from the flat beans and sold in market as a separate product. 
 There are many other varieties and sub-varieties besides those already mentioned, produced 
 by a difference in climate, soil, and cultivation. 
 
 Cultivation. — The climate suited to the successful cultivation of coffee is tropical. 
 It should be so warm as to be secure against frosts in winter. Hence, in this country it can 
 be profitably grown only in the extreme South. That it can be grown in Manatee county, in 
 Florida, has been fully proved by experiment extending over a period of several years, and 
 we believe there are other localities of about the same latitude in which it will thrive equally 
 well, and that planters in such sections will do well to try the experiment. At Togartyville, 
 Florida, coffee-seed from Cardova, Mexico, was planted, which, after four years' cultivation, 
 resulted in trees that were full of berries of different sizes, and in all stages of growth, some 
 of which were ripe, others half-grown, together with the blossoms and buds. At this age, 
 one of the trees was six feet high, contained eighty branches, and measured sixteen feet 
 aroimd the tips of the branches, and three inches around the trunk. The berries hung in 
 clusters of five and six, from one and a half to two inches apart. Trees will also bear when 
 three years old, under good cidtivation, and continue to be productive for twenty years. In 
 regions subject to occasional slight frosts it is well to protect the trees in winter with pine 
 branches. Setting the coffee-plants among banana-trees is sometimes practiced, as a protection 
 against cold winds. There is at present a small coffee-plantation at the previously-mentioned 
 town in Florida, located near the mouth of the Manatee river, which is in a thriving condition, 
 and has been pronounced by experts in coffee-culture in Mexico and India, a decided success. 
 
 Coffee, hke tobacco, owes much of its difference in quality to the climate and soil upon 
 which it is grown. It requires a very rich soil and warm climate. It thrives best in a soil 
 that is rather moist, but not wet. In very dry sections artificial irrigation is practiced before 
 the fruit begins to ripen, the supply being cut off at the ripening period to improve the 
 quality of the product. Coffee plantations are generally laid out in quadrangles, the trees 
 being from eight to ten feet apart each way in rows. The ground should be kept free from 
 grass and weeds, and the trees pruned or topped so that they will not exceed the height of 
 from six to ten feet. The trees will continue to bloom for eight months in the year, which 
 results in the fruit ripening very irregularly. In the West Indies and Brazil there are three 
 annual gatherings of the crop. 
 
 Gathering. — The fruit is picked by hand from the branches of the plant, and spread 
 on the floor or large mats in the sun to dry. It is' frequently raked over or turned, in order 
 to dry evenly. When thoroughly dried, the outer pulp of the fruit, together with the case 
 that encloses the seeds, are removed by being crushed between heavy rollers, which causes 
 the seed to shell out. This seed, or the coffee-bean, is then separated from the refuse by 
 winnowing. It is then ready to be packed for market. 
 
 The care with which it is cultivated and prepared for market, makes a great difference 
 in the price of the product. 
 
452 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 TEA. 
 
 MANY and repeated experiments in this country have fully demonstrated the fact 
 that tea can be successfully produced in the southern portion of the United States. 
 These experiments have extended over a period of more than twenty years — those 
 of the past few years resulting so satisfactorily as to warrant the belief that the time is not 
 far distant when American soil, and American industry, will supply the demand of our peo- 
 ple for this product. 
 
 It may be some time before tea will be cultivated here on a very large scale, but we are 
 
 confident that it can be pro- 
 duced by the farmer and 
 gardener, on a small scale, 
 at a much less cost than the 
 imported article involves, 
 while there will be the addi- 
 tional advantage of having a 
 pure, unadulterated article for 
 use. Many of the imported 
 teas are, when placed upon 
 the family table, a decoction 
 of various poisonous materi- 
 als used in their manufacture, 
 special dyes and chemical 
 substances being applied to 
 change their appearance, and 
 give them the desired color. 
 In Liberty Co., Georgia, 
 there is. according to the 
 best authority, a tea-planta- 
 tion owned by Mr. John 
 Jackson, which embraces 
 nearly forty acres, and is 
 occupied by a hundred and 
 sixty thousand tea-plants. 
 Tea has been cultivated in 
 various portions of the South 
 in a small way, for many 
 years. The tea-plant has 
 been found growing wild in 
 the mountainous regions of 
 Assam and Yunnan, and this 
 has led to the opinion that it 
 is a native of this section. 
 
 In its wild state, it grows 
 in the form of a tree, some- 
 times attaining the height of 
 thirty feet or more, and its 
 SCENES IN A BLACK-TEA DISTRICT IN BOHEA. truuk measuring ten inches 
 
 in diameter. In this country, however, it grows as a shrul>. It bears at the age of two or 
 three years, and continues to be productive about twelve years. 
 
"\ 
 
 LEAF OF TEA. 
 
::^ 
 
 TEA LEAVES. 
 
TEA. 455 
 
 The average product of a single plant is about six ounces, which is gathered at three 
 •diiferent times during the season. Sometimes there is a fourth gleaning, but the quality is 
 inferior to that previously obtained. The flowers open early in the spring, are rather small, 
 pure white, and slightly odorous. They appear at the axils of the branches, on short stalks, 
 usually solitary, but sometimes two or three together. The flowers are described as having 
 five or six sepals supporting the blossoms, which fall off after the flower has expanded, and 
 leave from six to nine petals surrounding a large number of yellow stamens that are joined 
 together at their bases, forming a kind of floral coronal. The seeds are enclosed in a hard, 
 smooth capsule, somewhat triangular in form, which is divided in the interior into from two 
 to five cells, each containing a firm, white, and shghtly oily seed, of a peculiarly bitter flavor. 
 These seeds vary in size from that of a pea to a good-sized hazel-nut. The seed ripens, 
 accordimg to the climate, from October to January. The stem is bushy, with many branches. 
 The foliage is dense, and the wood of a light color, hard, and close grained. It is an ever- 
 green, and quite an ornamental plant. The leaves are rather large when full-grown, and of a 
 somewhat elliptic form, — as will be seen by the illustration, — glossy and smooth, serrated 
 except at the base, and of a dark green color. 
 
 Varieties. — The difference in the various brands of tea, as they appear in the market, 
 is due more to the artificial manipulation of the product, and the condition of the leaves 
 wiien gathered, than the difference in variety. 
 
 Many of the names appHed to teas are descriptive of the locality or country that produce 
 them, such as the Java tea, Japan tea, etc., while according to the condition of the leaf when 
 gathered, we have the Bohea tea from leaves fully grown, and gathered after the regular har- 
 vest, which is of the coarsest quality ; the gunpowder tea, made from the small, curled leaves 
 that are young and tender, while the black and green teas are produced frOm the same plant, 
 their difference in color being due to the different process in curing and manufacturing. 
 
 Cultivation. — Tea is quite a hardy plant, and capable of adapting itself to a great 
 variety of soils and climates. In Japan it is cultivated successfully as far north as forty-three 
 degrees, where, during the winter, the ground is sometimes frozen six inches deep for weeks. 
 The plant will also bear an ordinary drought well in summer. In Java, the conditions are 
 the reverse, the temperature being very warm, while in China it thrives equally well under a 
 tropical sun, and in higher latitudes where snow and ice often cover the leaves. Tea is culti- 
 vated most extensively in China and Japan, and, next to these countries, in East Bengal in 
 the provinces of Assam and Cochar. 
 
 The tea-plant will thrive well on a variety of soils, but those that contain much water 
 are injurious; consequently the land selected for tea cidture should be well drained, either 
 naturally or artificially, and not liable to overflow. Almost any kind of soil, not too wet, and 
 of medium fertility, will answer the purpose, that which is very rich not being absolutely 
 essential to its successfid culture. Any soil must, however, be kept well cultivated, and free 
 from weeds, A rich, sandy loam in the vicinity of small streams is generally regarded as 
 the best. 
 
 The plants are grown from seed which somewhat resemble hazel-nuts, as previously 
 described. The good seed can be separated from those that are worthless by soaking them 
 in warm water about twelve hours. Those which sink to the bottom should be planted, and 
 those that rise to the surface should be discarded. They require some time to germinate, 
 and start soonest if put in a cool, moist place, well shaded. They are sometimes sown where 
 the plant is intended to grow, three or four being dropped near together, and covered to the 
 depth of two or three inches; but the more common practice is to plant the seed, one in a 
 place, in a nursery, and transplant afterward. 
 
 They can be transplanted without injury when from six months to a year old, if care is 
 
456 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 taken not to break the long roots, and a small portion of earth is permitted to adhere to them 
 in taking them up. The land should be well tilled, and thoroughly pulverized before sowing 
 the seed or transplanting. 
 
 The roots of the young plants are quite sensitive to the hot sun. consequently the)"- 
 require considerable shading during the firet year. This may be done by boughs of pine, or 
 other foliage furnishing a good shade. Mr. Jackson, previously referred to, states that plants 
 under shade give the liighest yield, but those that have been mulched are not far behind in 
 this respect. The mulched plants probably produce the most shoots, but the sun hardens 
 them quicker than those grown in the shade. The best time for transplanting is in April or 
 May, the plants being set at a distance of about four feet each way. 
 
 When they are about two years old, they are cut down to about eighteen inches. This 
 pruning is usually done in January. The plants soon throw out new shoots, whicli are per- 
 mitted to grow until they attain considerable size before the picking commences. When two 
 or three feet high, the shrubs produce flowers and seeds. 
 
 Picking. — Plants thrive best if the picking is delayed until they are nearly three years 
 old, when they will be from four to five feet high. In the following December, after pruning, — 
 which is when the plant is three years old, — a second pruning is given, which is more carefully 
 performed than the first, since it gives form to the bush that is to furnish the future crops. 
 
 In picking, care is necessary in order that only about two-thirds of the leaf be taken, the 
 other third being left to protect the new-forming buds from injury. The tea that is made 
 from the young and tender leaves first gathered is of the best quality. 
 
 The usual number of tea-pickings during the year is three, but sometimes a fourth is 
 given; this, however, will be of inferior quality. The yield varies with the size of the plants. 
 From six to eight good plants, witli proper care, would be sufBcient, with the average yield, 
 to supply an ordinary family with tea for a year. 
 
 The method and time of picking varies in different countries. In Japan it generally 
 commences in April after the heavy rains, and continues through May and June, the first 
 three leaves of every stalk or stem being picked, while in India the first six leaves are 
 taken. 
 
 Curing. — The most difficult process in the management of the tea product is the curing, 
 involving much time and labor, combined with skillful practice. The methods adopted in 
 old tea-growing countries, have not yet been closely followed in the United States, but when 
 their art is more perfectly understood, and the best machinery for the purpose has been 
 devised and employed, we have no doubt that the product of this country will fully equal, if 
 not surpass, that of the best, pure, imported teas. 
 
 Some who have cultivated tea to a considerable extent for home consumption, simply 
 heat the leaves slightly in an oven, and spread them in a dry place to perfect the cuT'ing 
 process. Others practice a much more elaborate method, which consists of carefully assort- 
 ing the leaves, spreading them on a table as soon as gathered, where they remain about twelve 
 or fourteen hours, or until they are sufficiently wilted. Tliey are then rubbed with the hands 
 until they are soft and pliable, and left in small heaps for two or three hours, when they are 
 put into a Dutch-oven, and, with a moderate fire, carefully roasted. During the roasting 
 process, whicli lasts four or five minutes, the leaves are constantly stirred to prevent their 
 being burned, or unevenly cured. They are then taken out and rubbed and rolled on a 
 table as before. Then they are spread in the sun for a short time to dry, being frequently 
 stirred, after which they are again roasted and rolled. This process is followed by putting 
 them about an inch thick in a wire sieve, and holdmg them over the hot coals, being con- 
 stantly stirred, when they are taken out and again subjected to the rubbing and rolling. 
 This is repeated until the leaves are of a dark color. They are then put in a basket and 
 
YOUNG- TEA PLANT AND ROOT. 
 
TEA. 459 
 
 hung over the coals and stirred until the leaves are quite dry and black, when they are ready 
 to be packed in tight boxes or jars. 
 
 The thorough manipulation tlius given is said to greatly improve the quality, and pro- 
 duces a fine flavor that could not otherwise be obtained. This metliod of curing produces 
 the black tea. The process described, combined with squeezing the leaves when they are 
 moist and hot, gives them the peculiar twist that characterizes them when dry. 
 
 When the leaves become sufficiently crisp to be easily broken by the thumb and finger, 
 the tea is considered ready for packing. It is generally packed while warm, care being used 
 that the box be perfectly dry. 
 
 It was formerly supposed that green and black teas were produced by different varieties 
 of the plant, but it is now generally admitted that the color is due to the different manner 
 in which the leaf is cured. 
 
 Green tea, instead of being first exposed to the air for several hours, is put over the fire 
 almost as soon as picked, and heated a few moments, after which it is cured the same as 
 black tea. This process imparts a greenish hue to the leaves. The black color being the 
 result of longer exposure to the air and heat, green tea can be changed into black, but the 
 black tea cannot be turned into green, without adulterating it by coloring. 
 
 The method of curing tea differs, somewhat, in different countries, and in different sec- 
 tions of the same country. The following is translated from a Japanese work, showing the 
 method practiced in that country : — 
 
 " The leaves are carried in from the field, and by means of sieves the two small bracts 
 attached to every stem and broken or fragmental leaves, must be separated from the good and 
 whole leaves. The old leaves, sticks, etc., should also be carefully separated from the good 
 leaves. It is always the best way to prepare the leaves on the same day they are picked ; for 
 if kept through the night, their quality is somewhat impaired; if two nights be allowed, they 
 will lose much of their flavor; therefore, the quantity to be picked must be calculated accord- 
 ing to the number of hands and heaters (or hoiro, a utensil made of thick paper, with frames, 
 for the purpose of heating the leaves). The fire-place must be built large enough for a boiler 
 about two feet in diameter; fill this boiler with eight-tenths of water, and boil it until it reaches 
 two hundred and twelve degrees. When the steam rises, a square piece of cedar board with a 
 large hole in the center is fixed on the boiler. On this board, and around the outer edge of 
 the circle, is placed a circular mat, made of rice straw, to prevent the steam from escaping, 
 and on this mat is placed the steamer. 
 
 Then about half a pound of the green leaves are put in the steamer and covered. After 
 thirty seconds the cover is taken off and the leaves are stirred up by means of small wooden 
 sticks, made of Pauloionia imperialis. The same process is repeated thirty seconds after- 
 ward. The leaves soon become adhesive, and have a tendency somewhat to cling to the 
 sticks, and this is a sign that the steaming is done. This is the time to take them aside and 
 put them in a cooler place, and this is done by turning the box upside down, as the steamer, 
 which is on the bottom of the box, will come out at the upper part. Then spread the leaves, 
 cooling them with fans, and after they become cool enough, put them into baskets, and get 
 them ready to be sent to the heating department. 
 
 In heating, a place must be arranged three feet wide, six feet long, and about three feet 
 high, plastered inside and out with mud. Burn in the furnace about twenty pounds of 
 oak-wood charcoal. When the fire becomes hot, put in two or three bundles of straw in 
 order to make the heat softer; then put iron bars across the furnace and the copper-wire nets 
 over the bars, and spread the heater (of thick paper) which is made to fit the place. Four 
 pounds of the steamed leaves may then be scattered on the paper; rub them very softly with 
 both hands; winnow or throw them very lightly, and stir them. This ought to be skillfully 
 performed, so that the proper color and flavor may be secured. Then they must be taken 
 
460 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 aside at the moment when they are ahnost dry. When the day's work is over, take the lire 
 out from the furnace, and prepare as was done before; then scatter the leaves which were 
 heated during the day, drying them in this way during the night. At this time about 
 twenty-four pounds may be spread over, but it requires great experience to heat them in this 
 way. The softer heat is preferred to the greater heat. The quantity of the best tea which 
 may be prepared by one laborer per day is about thirty poimds on an average; and the 
 quantity of the inferior quality, from twenty-eight to thirty-seven pounds. About one pound 
 and three-fourths of tea is generally made out of eight pounds and five ounces of the green 
 leaves. 
 
 For the finishing process a sieve should be used, in which the dried tea is to be softly 
 rubbed by the palms of the hands, separating the tea from the stems. The next process is to 
 separate the tea from dust, sticks, stems, etc., by winnowing; and if this is difficult to do, 
 put them on a stand and sort them into two or three classes, and then use a finer sieve. 
 After this has been done five or six times, separate the larger leaves from the others, and so 
 on with the finer leaves." 
 
 Adulteration of Tea. — Pure Japan tea, in its natural state, has a long twisted leaf, 
 and is of a brownish green color. Much of the imported teas are adulterated in order to 
 increase their weight, and improve their color, gloss, etc., inferior grades of tea often being 
 made to have the appearance of those of the best quality. These adulterations consist of 
 leaves of other plants being mixed with the tea; the mixing of exhausted tea-leaves; silica, 
 metallic iron, prussian blue, indigo, turmeric, kaolin, etc., many of the adulterations used 
 being very poisonous. It is a significant fact, that the " Celestials " themselves will never use 
 these colored teas, but prepare them for the palates and stomachs of their American and 
 European neighbors; those for their own use being always of the purest and finest quality. 
 
 PEANUTS. 
 
 THE peanut, knovra also in different sections as the ground-nut, ground-pea, goober, 
 pinda, etc., is a leguminous plant, and a native of Africa. In this country its cul- 
 ture is, therefore, best adapted to the Southern States, although it may be successfully 
 cultivated much farther north than was formerly supposed. It has been grown as far north 
 as Massachusetts, in a small way, but we doubt whether for market purposes it would prove a 
 profitable crop in a much higher latitude than that of Vii-ginia. 
 
 In the United States, the peanut is most extensively cultivated in Virginia, Tennessee, 
 and North Carolina, although it is grown to a certain extent in many other sections. This 
 product, in the State of Virginia alone, in one year recently amounted to about one million 
 and three hundred thousand bushels. 
 
 The blossoms and vine of this plant resemble somewhat the common pea — the latter 
 growing quite rapidly and thickly overspreading the surface of the soil in which they are 
 planted. After flowering, the pods form and penetrate into the ground to a sufiBcient depth 
 to be well covered, where they remain and ripen. 
 
 In Africa and South America, the peanut has long been cultivated as an article of food. 
 In this country it has become a product of considerable market value, and is also largely 
 employed in the manufacture of oil. of which the kernel yields over twenty per cent. They 
 were formerly cultivated largely at the South for the purpose of fattening swine, but at 
 present are used in this manner only to a hmited extent. The oil expressed from the 
 kernel is valuable for many purposes, but mainly for mixing with olive oil. When not 
 earthed up, it is said that the vines will yield a fodder scarcely inferior to the best clover. 
 
PEANUTS. 461 
 
 Cultivation. — This crop is easily cultivated in a climate favorable to its growth, while, 
 when well-manured, the yield is geueially large in proportion to that of many other products. 
 The peanut is a plant not very exacting with respect to soil, if it be sufficiently dry, although 
 a rich soil is to be preferred. It thrives best in a sandy loam, which should be kept well 
 stirred, in order to be in a condition to permit the pods to enter it. A light-colored soil is 
 desirable where the crop is designed for market, as the color of the soil affects very materially 
 the color of the pods, and consequently the market price, although there may be no real 
 difference in the quality of the nut produced by such soils and those of a darker color. 
 
 The stain of red clays and other dark soils cannot be removed from the pods even by 
 washing, while nuts with clean, light pods will bring considerably more per bushel than those 
 of a darker hue. Lime is one of the best fertilizers for this crop, but it should be used in 
 oomieotion with compost or stable-manure. The soil should be plowed to the depth of about 
 four or five inohes, and thoroughly harrowed, in order to render it as mellow as possible. A 
 practical cultivator of this crop in Virginia gives the following method: — 
 
 " In choosing a site for planting, reference should be had to the crop of the previous 
 year. Peanuts require a clean soil. They will follow any hoed crop to advantage, with the 
 exception, perhaps, of sweet potatoes. Corn land is generally preferred. In tide-water 
 Virginia, much of the land was heavily marled in former years, and when this is the case, 
 an important, and perhaps the chief, requisite to success has been already provided. 
 
 The peanut will not fruit well except in a calcareous soil. The vines may grow with the 
 greatest luxuriance, covering the whole ground, but, in the absence of lime or marl, the poda 
 do not fill; they turn out to be nothing more than what is popularly called pops. If, then, 
 the land has not been previously marled or limed, it will be necessary to apply, say, a hundred 
 and fifty bushels of marl, or fifty bushels of lime, to the acre. It is applied in either of 
 several ways, according to the convenience of the planter, and with about equally good effect. 
 If there is any choice, spreading bi-oadcast is perhaps the best, to be done before the land is 
 _plowed, in which case the quantity should be about fifty bushels per acre. A favorite mode, 
 where a large surface is to be planted, is to strew the lime in the furrow over which the bed 
 is to be raised for planting. In this case, a less quantity will answer by reason of its being 
 more concentrated — say twenty bushels. Other planters, again, who are hurried in their 
 work, spread the lime over the beds after the crop is planted, at the rate of about thirty 
 bushels per acre. Either mode is attended with good success, but wherever it is practicable 
 to have a choice of land that has been sufficiently marled or limed in former years, and pre- 
 served by judicious culture, the best results are found to follow. In such cases the yield not 
 unfrequently reaches a hundred bushels to the acre. The product ranges from the quantity 
 stated down to twenty-five or thirty bushels to the acre, according to the skill, or want of 
 skill, in the planter, a fair average of the whole being estimated at fifty bushels. 
 
 Few persons make peanuts part of a system of rotation, but the preeminent success of a 
 gentleman who has followed the plan is worthy of special reference. The lot intended for 
 peanuts the following year is seeded to stock peas, and the vines plowed in some time in Sep- 
 tember. The vines contain a great deal of vegetable matter that becomes thoroughly decom- 
 posed by the time of planting the crop. When the season for planting is at hand, the ground 
 is re-plowed and laid off, and ten bushels of lime and a hundred and fifty to a hundred and 
 seventy-five pounds of superphosphate strewn in the furrows to be ridged over. The year 
 following peanuts, the land is planted in sweet-potatoes, with a liberal dressing of stable- 
 manure. The third year it is laid down in stock peas again, to be followed by peanuts, as 
 before, always repeating the lime and superphosphate. 
 
 Having selected the ground, it is plowed in March or April to a depth not exceeding 
 four or five inches. The advantages of shallow culture will be apparent from the fact that 
 the peduncles continue to penetrate the earth until a firm bed is reached on which to deposit 
 
462 THE AMERICAN PARMER. 
 
 the nut; and the still further fact of increased facility afforded in harvesting, as will appear 
 when we come to treat of that branch of the subject. From the 10th to the 20th of May is 
 the time for plantuig. If the land is thin and needs manuring, open the furrows three feet 
 apart and strew in a hundred to a hundred and twenty-five pounds of Peruvian guano, or 
 from a hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds of superphosphate of lime. The former is 
 generally u.sed because of the greater certainty of getting a pure article, but nothing can be 
 better than the latter when well prepared. 
 
 The furrow is then to be ridged over, and the whole surface thrown into three-feet beds, 
 which should be reduced to within two or three inches of the general level of the field. Then 
 mark off the rows, and at distances of eighteen inches plant two seeds, covering them from 
 an inch to an inch and a half deep — not more. 
 
 A matter of primary importance is to provide seeds of a good •quality for planting, and. 
 in order to be assured of their excellence, the planter should either raise them himself, or 
 buy them of a person on whose fidelity he can rely. If, after the vines are dry and are hing 
 in tlie field, they should be exposed to frosty weather, the germinating principle would be 
 destroyed or impaired. As a merchantable article, however, their value is not affected. 
 Neither should the nuts become the least heated or mouldy, nor should they be picked off the 
 vines while wet, or before they are thoroughly cured. It is obvious, therefore, that the most 
 careful attention is requisite in this matter. Previous to planting, the pods should be care- 
 fully shelled, and every faulty bean thrown out; not even the membrane enclosing the seed 
 should be ruptured. It takes about two bushels of peanuts in the pod to plant an acre. 
 
 In ten days or two weeks, according to the weather, the young plants begin to come up. 
 As it is very important to get a good start, the missing hills should be re-planted at the 
 earliest moment. It is the custom of some planters to put an extra quantity of seed in every 
 fourth or fifth row, to furnish plants for transplanting, if needed ; if not needed, they can be 
 thinned out. A s soon as the grass makes its appearance, give a light plowing, throwing the 
 earth from the vines, and following -with the hoe, thoroughly removing all the grass and 
 weeds from the row. Plow again as soon as the grass reappears, this time using a double 
 shovel or cultivator, and the hoe as before directed. 
 
 If the season should prove to be very wet, a third working may be necessary, making 
 use of the cultivator and hoe again. Next comes the time for laying by, the vines having 
 by this time extended nearly half way across the space between the rows. This is done by run- 
 ning a mould-board once in the middle between the rows and drawing the earth up to the 
 rows with a hoe, care being taken not to cover the vines and to disturb their position as little 
 as possible, as the fruit will now be forming. It wiU be necessary, also, to guard against 
 making the bed too high. When there is grass in the row, it must be pulled up by hand. 
 Soon after this the vines will cover the whole ground and repress every other growth, unless 
 it may be a chance weed that escaped notice at the former working. 
 
 In some sections it is customar)', as soon as the vines show blossoms, to cover them with 
 about an inch of soil taken from between the rows, this covering to extend over the entire 
 plant, except the tips of the runners, which are left peeping out of the ground. It is, how- 
 ever, more common to leave them uncovered, according to the method previousl)' ]'ecom- 
 mended. 
 
 Hai'Testing Peanuts. — The time for harvesting the crop is from the 15th to the 
 30th of October, immediately after the first- frost. When the crop is forward, or when it is 
 an object to get a portion of it earh' in market, the operation may be commenced in the latter 
 part of September, but the longer the vines continue to grow, the greater will be the number 
 of sound pods. Select a time when the weather is settled and favorable, and with three- 
 pronged hoes loosen the vines along the rows. Hands follow the digger, pull up the vines, 
 shake the dirt from them, and leave them in the same place. In dry weather they will be 
 sufficiently cured in two days to be shocked. 
 
PEANUTS. 46S 
 
 Sliowery weather, though it may somewhat delay the curing, does no injury. One of 
 the advantages of shallow culture becomes apparent in harvesting. When the fruit is depos- 
 ited only a few inches below the surface, the vine is detached from its position with little or 
 no loss; when the depth is greater, the stems are liable to be broken off. In shocking, pro- 
 vide stakes seven feet long, made sharp at both ends; then lay two fence-rails on the ground 
 as a foundation, but with supports underneath to afford free access to the air. The stakes 
 are stuck in the ground at convenient intervals between the rails, the stacks built up around 
 them and finished off by a cap of straw to shed the rain. The diameter of the stack is made 
 to conform to the spread of a single vine. After remaining about two weeks in the stack, 
 the picking should be begun, taking off none but the matured pods. These are to be carried 
 to the barn, and prepared for market by finishing the drying process and then fanning and 
 cleaning. The most tedious part of the work is the picking. 
 
 An expert discriminates at a glance between the mature and immature pods, but cannot 
 pick more than two and a half or three bushels per day. A machine to perform the operation 
 would be a most valuable invention. Unless the management in the barn is carefully con- 
 ducted, there is great danger where there is much of a bulk that the peas will become heated 
 and mouldy. The condition in which the early deUveries are often received at market renders 
 this caution quite necessary. In fact, there is as much slovenliness in the handling of this 
 crop as there is in regard to any other, perhaps more, for the reason that so many inexperi- 
 enced persons engage in the culture every year. Tlutil the pods are thoroughly seasoned, the 
 bulk should be frequently stirred and turned over. A certain classification in respect to 
 quality is as applicable to peanuts as any other agricultural product. The descriptive terms 
 in general use are '-fancy," "prime," "ordinary," "inferior"; but these are not so definite as 
 to admit of no intermediate grades. Assuming prime to be the standard, and that the prime 
 are two dollars and seventy-five cents per bushel, then the inferior would be worth a dollar or a 
 dollar and a half, the ordinary two dollars or two dollars and a half, and the fancy three dollai's. 
 
 There are two very distinct varieties of peanuts, known respectively by the names of 
 Virginia and the Carolina or African. The diversity between them, however, does not 
 amount to a specific difference, the chief characteristic being that the one has a large pod and 
 bean, and the other a small one. The Virginia is cultivated almost exclusively for eating, 
 while the Carolina is principally used for the manufacture of oil, which cannot be distin- 
 guished from olive oil, and is accordingly sold as such. 
 
 After the crop has been harvested, the swine should be turned on to the ground and 
 allowed to eat what remain in the soil. Some planters prefer flat culture, but the ridge 
 method is generally regarded as the best. 
 
 Preparing for Market. — Assorting and preparing this crop for market is often done 
 in establishments for this purpose, as follows: The peanuts are placed in a large cylinder, from 
 which they enter another with revolving brushes, where each nut receives fifteen feet of a 
 bru-shing before it becomes free. Then they are dropped on an endless belt passing along at 
 the rate of four miles an hour. On each side of this belt are stationed girls whose duty is to 
 pick out, with a quick motion of the hand, all the inferior-looking nuts, allowing only the best 
 to pass the crucible, those that do pass dropping into bags placed for their reception. As 
 fast as the bags are filled, they are sewed up and branded as first quality. Those that are 
 selected out from these are again assorted and the best of them branded as second quality. 
 These are generally as good in quality as the first, but do not compare with them in shape 
 and color. 
 
 Those that remain are again assorted, and constitute the third grade, and so on. The 
 last that remain from the various cullings are shelled by a machine for the purpose, and win- 
 nowed, after which they are bagged and supplied to confectioners for the purpose of making 
 taffy, or peanut candy. Even the shells are utilized, as they furnish excellent bedding for 
 horses. 
 
464 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 INDIGO. 
 
 THE indigo plant was formerly cultivated in the Southern States to a considerable 
 extent. The decline in its cultivation in this country was probably due to the intro- 
 duction of the cotton-gin, and the consequent greater profits arising from the cultiva- 
 tion of cotton. 
 
 It is easily cultivated, and one of the most profitable crops of agriculture in Hindoostan. 
 Whether it will ever again be grown to any extent in the United States is a question yet to 
 be determined. The market demand for the product, and the price it commands, are such 
 as to warrant the opinion that, with sufficient capital and judicious management, its cultiva- 
 tion might be made a profitable industry in those sections to which it is adapted, and 
 especially in many of the Gulf States. 
 
 There are several varieties of the indigo plant growing wild in the United States. The East 
 and West Indies, India and Central America supply, at present, most of the indigo of 
 commerce. 
 
 There are several varieties in cultivation, differing in the quality and quantity of the 
 product they supply. The coloring matter is furnished by the leaves of the plant. 
 
 Cultivation, etc. — Indigo requires a rich, but dry soil, and a warm cKmate. After 
 being once fairly started, the plants will sprout annually from the roots for fom- or five years; 
 consequently its cultivation is much less difficult than that of many other crops. 
 
 The soils generally regarded as the best for this product, are rich, sandy loams, although 
 it will grow on those of moderate fertility, if not too wet, a sui-plus of moisture being very 
 objectionable. Hence, it thrives best in a climate naturally dry, and in sections where there 
 is not a large amount of rain during the season. 
 
 The soil should be made friable by the thorough use of the plow and harrow. The fer- 
 tihzers used are supposed to exert a considerable influence on the amount and quantity of the 
 coloring element of the plant. Lime, ashes, poudrette, and barn-yard manure are all valua- 
 ble, but the latter should always be well fermented or composted before being applied, or 
 used abundantly in connection with a previous crop of some other kind. Barn-yard manure 
 and lime combined make a good fertilizer. Weeds and grass are very injurious to the crop, 
 and should be exterminated as fast as they make their appearance. 
 
 Tiie seed should not be sown until the ground is quite warm. In the latitude of Central 
 Georgia, from the first to the tenth of April would be sufficiently early. The seed wUl ger- 
 minate best when the soil is moist; thei-efore it is a good time to sow it just after a rain. If 
 sown when the soil is very dry, it heats, and the germ is destroyed. 
 
 The seed is generally mixed with ashes or sand, and sown in shallow drills from twelve 
 to fourteen inches apart. About four quarts of seed is the average allowance for an acre. 
 It should be kept free from gi-ass and weeds, in all stages of its growth ; this is especially 
 important when it first comes up. The weeding may be done with cultivator, horse-hoe, or 
 weeders suited to the pui-pose, a little hand -weeding sometimes being necessary in the rows. 
 
 When the plants are an inch or two high, the soil should be loosened about the roots. 
 The first cutting should be when the plant first puts out the flower buds. If permitted to 
 blossom, the leaves are more hard and dry, and the indigo produced wiQ be of inferior qual- 
 ity. The cuttings should always be in wet weather, for, if harvested in dry weather, the 
 plants will not send up another growth. When necessary to cut it in dry weather, it should 
 be done late in the afternoon, that the roots may have the benefit of shade and dew before 
 being exposed to the sun. It is a plant that is very sensitive to the hot sun immediately 
 after bemg cut. The first crop is ready for cutting in two or three months, and, with favora- 
 ble weather, a subsequent cutting may occur in six or seven weeks. 
 
INDIGO. 4(35 
 
 It is stated that in Gsorgia, two cuttings have b^en known to yield an average of sixty- 
 pounds of indigo per acre. In some countries the seed is sown only once in seven or eight 
 years, and two crops usually obtained per year. 
 
 Preparing Indigo for Market. — The process of extracting the coloring matter from 
 the plant differs somewhat in different countries, although similar. In Bengal, the plant is 
 used both in a green and dry Siate, but, as a general rule, the green leaves are preferred. 
 Three vats are so arranged at different levels that the contents of the first can be drawn into 
 the second, and that of the second again transferred to the third. 
 
 The plants are placed in the upper vat in sufficient quantity to well cover the bottom, and 
 su-Qcient water added to cover them to the deptli of three or four inches, where they are 
 left to ferment. The fermenting process usually commences soon after, and is completed Ln 
 about eighteen or twenty hours. During this time, the plants swell and give out a coloring 
 matter that changes the water at first to a yellow, then dark green, with a blue scum. After 
 all the coloring matter — sometimes called the "grain " — is thus extracted, the liquid is drawn 
 off into the second vat, where it is beaten or churned for about an hour and a half. This is 
 done to expose it to the action of the air, or, rather, to introduce oxygen, which changes the 
 color from a green to a dark blue. During this process, a large number of air bubbles or gas 
 escape from the liquid. 
 
 In India, from eight to ten men are sometimes employed to perform the beating with 
 oars or paddles. Dashers and paddle-wheels are a better substitute for hand labor. After 
 being sufficiently beaten, the indigo separates from the water and settles at the bottom of the 
 tank. A little lime-water added will sometimes hasten the process, but it is apt to injure 
 the quality of the indigo. When the grains are settled, the water is drawn off, and the con- 
 tents remaining, strained and boiled. The surplus moisture is evaporated by drying, and when 
 of the proper consistency for cutting, it is cut into little cubes, and drieil, proparat^uy to 
 [lacking for market. 
 
 Small quantities of indigo are often manufactured for domestic puiposes by putting the 
 plants, when fresh cut, in a barrel or other large receptacle for water, and then fill up with 
 soft water, sufficient to have all the plants well covered to the depth of three or four inches. 
 It might be well to put weights on to keep the plants well covered, and prevent their rising 
 to the surface. 
 
 "When the water assumes a dark green, and a bluish scum rises on the surface, the plants 
 may be taken out and squeezed or wrung with the hands, in order to extract all the coloring 
 matter that may remain in them. The water must then be churned for some time. A basket 
 with a suitable handle for raising it up and down is very good for this purpose. To test the 
 liquid, in order to ascertain whether it has been churned enough, take out a spoonful and add 
 to it a few drops of very strong lye. If it then curdles, or the grains separate, it is churned 
 sufficiently. At this stage, the process is hastened by adding a little strong lye or lime-water 
 to the contents of the barrel, but care must be useil not to put in too much, as it will injure 
 the indigo. It may then be left to settle. In churning, the foam that rises must not be 
 wasted, as it contains some of the best elements of the coloring matter. A little oil sprinkled 
 over the surface of the water will make the foam subside. 
 
 When the indigo is well settled in the bottom of the barrel, the water may be drawn off 
 by boring holes in the side, as far from the bottom as the quantity of the coloring matter will 
 admit. What remains should then be strained, to take out the impurities, and again per- 
 mitted to settle, draining off the clear water as before. It can then be put in a shallow pan 
 or dish, and the water evaporated in the sun. 
 
466 TUE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 FLAX. 
 
 FLAX has been known and cultivated from time immemorial, being one of the oldest 
 agricultural plants of which history furnishes us any record. It was one of the lead- 
 ing crops in this country, until cotton supplanted it by the introduction of tlie cot- 
 ton-gin, which made the cultivation of that product so much more profitable, and 
 attended with less labor. But it is somewhat surprising that the culture of flax should decline 
 in this country as rapidly as it has during the last twenty years, while other nations find it so 
 profitable. About a century ago, flax and wool were the principal materials from which the 
 common fabrics of the American people were made, and large quantities of flax were spun 
 and woven by American women for the bedding and clothing of their fannlies. IMuch labor 
 was involved under the old system, both in its cultivation and manufacture, but under the 
 new system, with improved machinery, its culture is comparatively easy. 
 
 An increased interest in the cultivation and manufacture of this product in the United 
 States, would not only largely extend our mechanical industries, but result in retaining at 
 home vast sums of money that are now annually sent to foreign countries for the linen which 
 can, at present, be obtained nowhere else. 
 
 In addition to the great importance of its fiber, the seed of flax is of much value for tlie 
 oil it supplies, and the food it furnishes to farm stock — especially cattle. What is termed 
 " oil-cake," consists of the seeds after the oil has been expressed, and is an excellent article of 
 food for young calves and lambs, as well as other farm stock. 
 
 The plant is an annual of quick growth, and attains the height of from one to three feet. 
 The leaves grow alternate upon the stems and branches, which are straight and slender. The 
 flowers are blue, about an inch in diameter, and contain five petals. The petals drop within 
 a few hours after the flowers open, and the seed-vessels gi'ow rapidly, being nearly round in 
 form. The fiber is long and silky. In this country, flax is at present grown principally for 
 the seed, but little attention being paid to the quality of the fiber. 
 
 The varieties of flax are not sufEciently marked to require special notice. 
 
 Cultivation for Fiber. — Flax will grow in almost every variety of climate from the 
 torrid to the frigid zone. Its successful culture requires a good soil, well tilled. A dry, 
 deep, loamy soil is one of the best for this pi-oduct, although any other of sufiScicnt fertility 
 that is not too wet will an,3wer the purpose. Lands intended for the culture of flax and con- 
 taining a surplus of moisture should therefore be first thoroughly underdrained. The under- 
 draining should be done a year or two before the flax crop is grown, in order to render it 
 suflBciently dry It is a somewhat exhausting crop, and should not be grown on the same 
 soil oftener than once in five or six years. A good wheat soil is generally considered a good 
 one for flax. The land should also be well enriched for previous crops before this is repeated. 
 Fresh manure is very objectionable as a fertilizer, owing to the quantity of weed and grass 
 seeds it contains. Wlien stable manure is used, it should be either applied liberally to the 
 crop that precedes it, or should first be well composted. Salt, guano, ashes, and plaster are 
 also valuable. Lime is thought to be injurious to the quality of the fibre. Salt and ashes 
 are generally applied at the time of sowing the seed. When the plants have nearly attained 
 their growth, a sprinkling of plaster is often highly beneficial, not only as a fertilizer, but 
 it also destroys worms and insects that feed upon the tender plants. 
 
 The best rotation for the fiber is thought to be after wheat, where the soil is quite fertile; 
 but where the soil is of moderate fertility, potatoes are considered a good crop to precede 
 flax. A corn crop that has been heavily manured also leaves the soil in a good condition for 
 it. Clean culture should always precede it, in order to obviate the danger of trouble with 
 weeds. 
 
FLAX. ' 4CT 
 
 The plowing preparatory to receiving the seed should be rather deep, as the roots arc 
 long, often penetrating the soil to a distance equaling one-half the length of the stalk. A 
 thorougli hai-rowing should follow, to reduce the soil to a fine tilth. The ground, after har- 
 rowing, should be left finely pulverized and level. This tillage should be early in the season, 
 and the ground left a week or two before sowing, in order to give the weed seeds that are in 
 the soil time to germinate. At the end of this period, the land should be again thoroughly 
 harrowed, in order to destroy the weeds and fit it for the reception of the seed for the crop. 
 
 One of the great essentials in the culture of flax is to keep the soil free from weeds and 
 grass, a clean soil being more necessary for this crop than most others. The general rule for 
 flax-growing is, a rich, dry soil, finely and deeply pulverized, and free from weeds, and a 
 rotation that shall not repeat its growth on the same land oftener than once in five or six 
 years. 
 
 Some roll the ground to consolidate and level the soil, and then lightly harrow again 
 before sowing the seed. This renders the surface of the land more level. The seed that is 
 plump, shining, and heavy should be selected for sowing. 
 
 It should be thoroughly cleansed from all seeds of weeds, as this will save mucli trouble 
 in the after-culture. This may be done with a sieve or a seed-cleaning machine. Seed that 
 has not been produced on the soil is better, as a general rule. The quantity of seed to be 
 sown depends upon the purpose for which the crop is cultivated. 
 
 When fiber is the object of the crop, a thick sowing is required. With thick sowing, 
 the stalks will be long and slender, with only one or two seed capsules at the top; hence the 
 fiber will be long and of a fine quality, and there will be but a comparatively small quantity 
 of seed; consequently it is better to sow too thick than too thm. "With thin sowing the 
 plants have large branches of coarse growth, which produce many seed bolls that will be well 
 filled with seed, but the fiber will be of a coarse, inferior quality. Therefore when fiber is 
 the object to be attained in the crop, and the soil is rich, from one and a half to two bushels 
 or more per acre may be sown. Some farmers use three bushels per acre. Where the soil 
 is very rich, and the seed of the best quality, a less quantity will be required than where the 
 soil is of moderate fertility, or rather light, and the seed of second or third rate quality. 
 There is a great diiierence in seed. Where inferior seed is used, there will be many that will 
 not germinate at all, consequently a larger quantity will be required, to make allowance for 
 those that fail in this respect. 
 
 The seed is sown broadcast. It was formerly the custom to sow the seed by hand ; but 
 this practice generally resulted in uneven sowing ; the seed is of such a nature that it slips 
 through the fingers easily, hence the quantity is not so well regulated ; besides, this is a slow 
 process where large crops are to be grown. 
 
 A broadcast seed-sower is the bestifor this purpose, after which it should be highly ha-- 
 rowed or brushed in. and rolled, in order to press the soil upon the seed, causing it to germin- 
 ate more quickly. The time for sowing the seed is when the soil is warm. The usual timo 
 in the Middle States is from the 15th of April to the 1st of May. In harrowing in the seed, 
 it is well to go over the field twice, once up and down, and then across at right angles, as 
 this mixes it more evenly in the soil, obviates the little drills made by the teeth of the harrow, 
 and prevents uneven growth and ripening. If properly harrowed and rolled, the seed will Ijo 
 covered to the depth of about an inch. Seed should always be sown when the soil is rather 
 warm, and not too wet. Care must be taken not to roll when the land is so wet that the 
 earth will adhere to the roller. If the soil has been properly prepared and made clean of 
 weed seeds, there will be little trouble with weeds after sowing the crop. 
 
 When weeds make their appearance, however, they must be carefully pulled by hand so 
 as not to injure the young plants. The first weeding should be when the plants are three or 
 four inches high. Boys are often employed to perform this wi-'rk, and either go barefoot or 
 
4G8 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 wear shoes with thin soles and without nails, in order to prevent the plants from being 
 cnished and broken, as they are quite tender at this period. It is well for tlie weeders to 
 face the wind during the process, so that the plants that become bent in the operation may 
 be blown upright again. When plants are bent only one way they usually recover their 
 position again ; but if crushed or twisted by the carelessness of the weeders, they scarcely 
 ever rise. Once weeding is sufficient, and it should always be done when the soil is moist. 
 When the weeding has been delayed until the plants are seven or eight inches high, it is 
 better to let this process be omitted, as the injury to the plants wLU be greater than that to 
 the weeds. It is important that the weeds be taken out at the right time, that the crop may 
 get the advantage of them in the occupancy of the land. Some farmers are particular not 
 to have a team upon the land after sowing, hence perform the after-labor of harrowing or 
 brushing in the seed by hand. This crop has few insect enemies, and with careful culture, 
 and a favorable season, will almost invariably bring good results. 
 
 Cultivation for Seed. — When the object of the crop is mainly the production of 
 flax seed, although the preparation of the soil should be the same as when grown for the 
 fiber, the quantity of seed sown should be much less than that tor the fiber product, for rea- 
 sons which have previously been_ given, — namely, that thick sowing produces plants with tall, 
 straight stalks, fine fiber, and but a small quantity of seed, while thin sowing results in plants 
 of coarser growth, with spreading branches and a larger product of seed bolls. Tlie bolls 
 will also be better filled, and the seed more plump and of a larger size. 
 
 The principal difference in the cultivation for the two objects for which flax is grown is, 
 therefore, in the quantity of seed sown, and the time of harvesting ; the methods of treat- 
 ment aside from these, being essentially the same. 
 
 When the crop is grown for the seed principally, from half a bushel to a bushel of seed 
 per acre will be sufficient ; the quantity depending somewhat upon the natui-e and condition 
 of the soil, and the quality of the seed. Only the best quality of seed should be sown, for 
 tliat of a poor quality will invariably give unsatisfactory results, however good the soil or 
 cultivation given. 
 
 Harvesting. — The time when flax is ready to be harvested is one of the important 
 considerations in connection with its cultivation. If harvested too soon, the fiber will be very 
 fine ; but there will be great waste in the after-preparation for the market. If the harvesting 
 be delayed too late, there will be a larger quantity of fiber, but it wiU be of a coarse quality. 
 The proper time to gather the crop for fiber is when the seed is beginning to turn sMghtly 
 brown, and the lower half of the stalks are turned yellow. If harvested when flowering, 
 the fiber will be exceedingly fine, but the waste will be so great as to render it unprofitable. 
 
 When grown for seed, it should not be harvested until the seeds are quite brow^l and 
 ripe. If cut before they are sufficiently ripened, the unripe seed will not afterward mature. 
 
 In order to obtain a good weight, and seed of the best quality, the crop should not bo 
 gathered until the seeds are full and plump, as well as brown. The former method of harvest- 
 ing flax was to pull it by hand, which was a very laborious process, besides requiring a great 
 deal of time. At present, reapers and binders are employed for this purpose where it is culti- 
 vated on a large scale. Machines for pulling have also been used to a limited extent, but the 
 reapers are preferred for general use. The common grain cradle and scythe are also used, while 
 some still confoi-m to the old-time practice of pulling liy hand. When the fiber is the important 
 part of the crop, and reapers and binders are employed, it should be cut as close to the ground 
 as possible, care being taken to have the knives of the reaper in good condition. It will 
 then cut as easily as wheat. If bound by the reaper, it should be put in small stacks to dry. 
 When properly dried, it may be put in a large stack, or stored under cover, which latter is 
 best. It IS very important that it be thoroughly cured before storing. When cradled or 
 
FLAX. 4G9 
 
 pulled by hand, it may be either dried in the sun before binding, or bound at once. If cut 
 with a scythe, the swath should be thrown towards the standing flax : in this way the stalks 
 are all left leaning against the flax, and may be gathered and laid in gavels to dry or be 
 bound into sheaves. 
 
 When the ground has been tlioroughly drained, and is uniformly level, and the sowing 
 even, the stalks will generally all be of about the same length. Where pulhng is practiced 
 in harvesting, considerable care is taken to shake off the soil that adheres to the roots, and to 
 keep them even at the root end. 
 
 When the seed is the mam object, it is not necessary to cut the stalks lower than to 
 secure the seed-bolls, the stalks that are left being plowed under to enrich the soil. It should 
 be bound at once and put in small stacks to dry. Care should be taken to have the seed- 
 bolls well cured before stacking or storing. If stacked in the field, the stack should be made 
 solid, with the heads in and the stalks' ends out, keeping the center filled and a little crowded. 
 The stack should be cos'ered with hay or straw and allowed to remain until it has gone 
 through the usual sweating process, which will generally be in about two weeks. Sometimes 
 the sweating process is omitted, and the bundles are loosely stored until the seed is threshed. 
 
 Preparing the Fil)er. — There ai-e various methods of preparing the fiber of flax for 
 use. The object to be attained is the separation of the bark containing the fiber from the 
 woody stem. This is accomplished by a rotting process, which dissolves or destroys the 
 gluey or mucilaginous substance which holds the fibers together and to the stalk, and renders 
 them easily separated. 
 
 The usual practice, after the heads have been removed, is to submerge the bundles of 
 stalks in soft water, being weighted with stones or other heavy material to keep them well 
 covered. The length of time required to complete this process varies, according to the 
 temperature, from four to fourteen days or more. Water containing iron, or other mineral 
 matter, would be liable to stain the fiber, as well as hinder the process of rotting. 
 
 It is important to know just when the process is completed, for if left remaining too long 
 in the water, the fiber will become weakened, and will break and tangle in the after-manage- 
 ment. If not sufficiently rotted, it will break up with the stalk. When it has been continued 
 just long enough, the woody part of the stalk may be easily separated from the fibrous 
 portion, and the fibers themselves from each other. 
 
 Sometimes this process is accomplished by dew-rotting, which consists of spreading the 
 stalks upon the grass and exposing them to the dew, turning them occasionally to render 
 the process uniform; but the method previously described is greatly to be preferred. Fol- 
 lowing this, is the process of "breaking," which consists of freeing the fiber from the woody 
 portion of the stalk; this is f olio we 1 by scutching or swingling, which is that of getting out 
 the small particles of bark and stalk adhering; and this again by hatch eling or combing, 
 which strengthens the fibers, separates the fine from the coarse, and frees them from all 
 tangled or broken pieces. 
 
 These various methods of preparing flax for use were once all performed on the farm, 
 but at present a large portion of the product is sold after the bolls or heads have been 
 removed, and these various processes are performed by the manufacturers of linen goods. 
 
 Preparation of Seed for Market. — In preparing flax-seed for market, the bolls 
 are first thoroughly dried and threshed, after which the seed is cleaned by a. winnowing or 
 seed-cleaning machine. The threshing is generally performed with a machine where large 
 crops are produced, as hand-threshing, or any other means of opening the bolls would be a 
 very slow and laborious process. 
 
 Where small quantities are grown, the seed is sometimes shelled by drawing the heads 
 of flax through a comb for the purpose, containing sharp iron teeth; also, by breaking them 
 
-;70 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 over a large stone or block, or by the use of the flail. Tlie latter is the best method of hand- 
 shelling, but a good thresliing-machine is necessary where large crops are cultivated. The 
 process of removing the heads with the comb, as previously described, is called rippling. 
 After being threshed from the heads, the seed should be winnowed or otherwise cleaned, to 
 separate it from the seeds of weeds and other foreign material. Flax is at present cultivated 
 in this country principally for the seed. 
 
 HEMP. 
 
 THE cultivation of hemp for its fiber was formerly practiced to a certain extent in some 
 of the "Western States, where it proved a profitable crop; but as the labor of har- 
 vesting it is much greater than that of most products, and it is also very exhausting 
 to the soil, especially when the seed is ripened, it has never been a favorite crop with farmers. 
 It can be more profitably cultivated in other countries, where labor is cheaper than it is in our 
 own. The fiber of hemp is similar to that of flax, although it is much stronger and coarser. 
 Like flax, hemp is cultivated both for its fiber and seed, the latter of which is used for feed- 
 ing stock, and also for the oil which it furnishes. It is generally considered more wholesome 
 and nutritious when cooked, before being fed to animals. The ripening of the seed causes 
 more exhaustion to the soU than the production of the fiber. 
 
 Hemp belongs to the nettle family, having the fruit-bearing and sterile flowers upon 
 different plants. The stalk is rough and angular, and, like flax, branches considerably when 
 growing alone, or with thin sowing, yet is quite straight when crowded. Hemp will grow 
 almost as rapidly as Indian corn, and will attain the height of ten or twelve feet in a rich 
 soil, but the average height is from six to seven feet. It generally blossoms in June, if sown 
 sufficiently early, and ripens its seed in August. 
 
 The demand for hemp in this country exceeds, at present, the supply of the home 
 product, and we doubt if it ever becomes a leading staple in the United States. The culture 
 of hemp, like that of flax, while drawing largely from the soil, imparts nothing to it; hence, 
 large quantities of plant- food are extracted, which require that a rotation of other crops shall 
 intervene before its cultivation shall be repeated on the same soil. 
 
 Cultivatiou. — A deep, mellow soil of more than moderate fertility is required for 
 hemp. Well-prepared sward land of a clayey nature is excellent for the production of a 
 good quality of fiber. "When such soil is used, the ground should be plowed in the autumn 
 and again in the spring, before sowing the seed. The soil for hemp should be moist, but not 
 wet. It is necessary that the land be carefully prepared, and the soil well pulverized. 
 
 The seed should not be sown imtil the ground is warm and rather dry; still, it is well to 
 get it started as early as practicable. The sowing is sometimes delayed until the middle of 
 .Time, but this is rather late to obtain the best results from the crop. From the middle of 
 April to the middle of May is better. It is necessary that the seed be fresh, that which is 
 old not usually germinating satisfactorily. In England, from two to thr*e busliels of seed 
 per acre is frequently used; but in that country it does not generally attain the height that it 
 does in our own. In this country it is the practice to sow from five to six pecks per acre, 
 scattered broadcast over the field, and harrowed in. "When drilKng is practical, a less quan- 
 tity wUl be required, from three pecks to a bushel being sufficient. 
 
 The ground should always be rolled after sowing the seed, to hasten its germination. 
 It is covered to about the same depth as flax. "When the soil is moist at the time of sowing, 
 it will not be necessary to cover as deeply as when it is quite dry. In the latter case, it \vi\\ 
 
HEMP. 471 
 
 be well to soak the seed about twenty-four hours in tepid water before sowing, to hasten 
 germination. After the seed is in the ground, the crop requires but little or no attention 
 until harvested. Being a strong, thrifty plant, of rapid growth, it will generally soon 
 smother the weeds and take care of itself, unless the land is very weedy, and the seed does 
 not start well. 
 
 Cut-worms are often troublesome, but if the blackbirds and crows are encouraged on the 
 hemp-field, they will do valuable service for the farmer in exterminating them. When hemp 
 is cultivated for seed, it requires a richer soil than when grown for the fiber alone. It is 
 frequently cultivated on good corn ground, well manured, [n England the culture for seed 
 and fiber is the same, but in this country, when seed is the object, the culture is similar to 
 that of corn, the hills being from three and a half to four feet apart, according to the fertility 
 of the land. In planting, a dozen or more seeds are deposited in each hill. When the crop 
 is first hoed, the plants are thinned out to five or six in a hill. During the subsequent culti- 
 vation given, this number should he reduced to three or four to the hill. The cultivation 
 should be sufficient to keep down the weeds. 
 
 Hemp belongs to that peculiar class of vegetable growths having the fruit- bearing, or 
 what is termed female blossoms, on one plant, and the sterile, or male plants, on another. 
 The difference between the two is determined when they are sufficiently developed to make 
 preparation to blossom. The latter, which are known by their getting ready for blossoming, 
 are tben generally nearly all cut out, a few only being left to furnish pollen for the fertiliza- 
 tion for the seed crop. The rule is to leave one of the best male plants for this purpose in 
 every other hill, of every other row. When these male plants have blossomed, and shed 
 their pollen (the yellow dust that falls from them when shaken), they are then cut out to 
 leave more room for the other plants to grow. 
 
 Harvesting. — The time of harvesting hemp that is grown for the fiber principally, is 
 when the blossoms begin to turn yellow and drop. This will be in about three or three and 
 a half months after sowing, according to the soil, season, and other conditions. If it should 
 stand a week or more later than this period, no serious detriment will result to the crop, the 
 only objection being that the process of rotting will not be as uniform, and the breaking will 
 be a little more difficult, the stalks being more woody and hard. 
 
 Formerly, this crop was pulled by hand, but cutting is now almost universally practiced. 
 The harvesting of this crop is the most difficult part in its management and the chief objec- 
 tion to its culture, being a slow, laborious task. When the hemp does not grow more than 
 seven feet high, it may be cut with a heavy scythe, or a strong cradle, such as that used for 
 grain, except it must be much stronger, as the stalks are hard and tough. 
 
 By this method of harvesting, it is estimated that one man may cat an acre per day. A 
 good mschine, sufficiently strong for cutting, would greatly lessen the labor and encourage 
 its more general cultivation. When it attains the height of more than seven feet, a stronger 
 implement is required, which is generally a kind of hook, similar to a bush-scythe, or sickle. 
 Only about half an acre per day is considered a good day's work for one man with one of 
 these implements. After two or three days' drying, it is bound and stacked. 
 
 The seed-hemp is cut before the heads are sufficiently dry for the seed to shell out of itself 
 and be wasted. It is stacked in the field until dry, and then threshed out, after which it is 
 carefully winnowed, and spread in thin layers in a warm, airy place to dry. Unless 
 thoroughly dried before being stored, it will heat badly, and the quality thus become greatly 
 injured. 
 
 After-Management. — When the weather becomes sufficiently cool in the autumn, the 
 hemp is either spread out on the ground to be rotted by the dew, or it may be put in vats or 
 pools of water for this purpose. When dew-rotting is practiced, it must be occasionally 
 
472 THE AJIERICAN FARMEIJ. 
 
 turned. When put in water, it should be kept constantly subiiiorged with weights of some 
 kind. It will require from ten to twenty days to perfect the process, according to the tem- 
 perature. 
 
 "Wlien the fiber separates readily from the stalk, the process of rotting is completed. It 
 is then dried and stacked, after which it is broken and freed from the boon and waste 
 material, and packed in bales ready for market. 
 
 JUTE. 
 
 THAT jute can Lie profitably cultivated in this country, has been abundantly proved by 
 the numerous experiments that have been made during the last ten years, and which 
 have given most satisfactory results when the climate and soil selected for the pur- 
 pose ■were those to which it is naturally adapted. 
 
 The plant is a native of the East Indies, and will prove a most valuable addition to the 
 agricultural products of the extreme Southern States. The great demand for jute in this 
 country, as well as the price it commands, and the ease with which it may be grown, are strong 
 inducements in favor of its cultivation in those sections to which it is adapted. If its 
 cultivation could become sufficiently extensive to meet the demands of the American market 
 for this ijroduct. millions of dollars would be annually retained at home, that are now sent 
 abroad. At present, India is the main source of supply, and ha.s been for a long time. 
 
 A recent estimate of the annual value of the jute importation, was nearly ten millions of 
 dollars, while the demand is constantly increasing. Jute is an annual plant of the genus 
 Corchorus capsularis. It grows to the height of from ten to fifteen feet, the stalks being from 
 a half inch to an inch in diameter. They are very straight, and branch only at the top. The 
 leaves are about six inches long, two inches wide, and sharj ly serrated. The bark, 'like 
 that of the flax and hemp, is fibrous, the fiber being moi e soft and silky than that of either 
 of these products, also more fine in quality and of greater length. It is sometimes woven 
 with silk and cotton in the manufacture of certain kinds of dress goods. It is also used ia 
 the mauufactuie of cheap carpets and almost every form of coarse textile fabrics, such as 
 gimny, a kind of cloth used in baling cotton, bagging, cofi'ee-sacks, rice bags, etc. It wi s 
 formerly used in making ropes, but has been found too easily affected by water to be desirable 
 for this purpose, hemp being preferred. 
 
 The ends of the stems of the jute-plant are used in making paper of a coaise quality, as 
 well as the old sacks and bags made from the coai-ser jute fiber. The stems are used in the 
 manufacture of coarse baskets, etc., almost every part of the plant being appropriated to some 
 useful purpose, but, of course, the fiber is the object sought in its cultivation. It is said 
 that cotton fields surrounded by jute-plants are exempt from the ravages of the cotton-worm. 
 
 Cultivation. — Jute requires a warm climate, and a fertile soil. A moist, alluvial 
 soU, — not too wet, — or a sandy clay seems best adapted to it. Many of the Southern States, 
 especially the Gulf States, are admirably suited to its cultivation. California has also pro- 
 duced jute successfully for several years. The land should be well prepared for the seed by 
 being thorouglily plowed and harrowed, and the soil, if not sufficiently rich, should be mad& 
 so by the application of manure or other fertilizers. The seed may be sown broadcast, or in 
 drills. When the former method is practiced, from thirty to thirty-five pounds per acre are 
 required; the latter from fifteen to twenty pounds. When sown broadcast, the seed should 
 be harrowed in. In either case, the field should be rolled after the seed is deposited. The 
 plant is of strong and vigorous growth, and will require but little cultivation. 
 
PEAS. 473 
 
 Plants for the proil notion of seed should be grown in a separate field, and only the best 
 seed sown. These should be sown in drills, and receive careful cultivation. Drilling, for 
 the preduction of fiber, is preferred to broadcast sowing, as it admits of after cultivation. 
 On rich soil, and with other favoring conditions, the amount of yield in fiber is enormous. 
 
 The seeds will generally be ripened in four or five weeks after the blossoms have 
 become fully developed. Whether for the production of the fiber or seed, it may be sown 
 in March or April, and the blossoms will make their appearance in July or August. 
 
 Harvesting. — 'J'he best time for harvesting jute is when it begins to blossom, as the 
 fiber is then of a belter quality than when the plant is older. It is cut with a mower or 
 reaper. The albumen in the plant is said to render it easier to cut than dry wheat. 
 
 The fiber is separated from the stalk by submerging in water until it separates readily. 
 It is then prepared for use in a manner similar to that in which flax is prepared, except the 
 stalks are not afterward dried and broken. The seed should be harvested when well 
 ripened, and be thoroughly dried before being stored. 
 
 PEAS. 
 
 THE cultivation of peas, as a field crop, is practiced to a considerable extent in some 
 sections of the United States, but more especially in Canada and England, where 
 they ire regarded as an important product, and are much used as food for domestic 
 animals. Next to the bean, the pea is ranked as one of the most important of the pulse 
 family. 
 
 Sheep and swine are fond of them; also poultry. Thoir nutritive value is considerably 
 greater than that of corn, and as food for swine, seven bushels of peas are said to be equal 
 to ten bushels of corn. A meal of ground peas is considered better for swine than feeding 
 them whole. Tliis should be mixed with milk or water, and used in connection with other 
 food. A mixture of peas and corn-meal is thought by some farmers to be Ijetter than the 
 pea-meal alone. 
 
 When cut and cured as hay, the vines make a good fodder for cattle and sheep, or they 
 make an excellent crop for soiling during the summer, and may be cut from the time they 
 are half-grown, until they are fully ripe. The pea-weavil is very destructive to this crop in 
 many portions of the Southern States, but is not troublesome in Canada and the Northern 
 States, except in a few localities. 
 
 There are numerous varieties suited to both garden and field culture. The earliest 
 kinds are generally not of as heavy growth in vines, or as productive in peas, as those that 
 mature a little later. The varieties most cultivated as field-crops at the north, are the Marrow- 
 fat and the small yellow-pea, which is largely grown in Canada. The former is a rather late 
 variety of large growth, and requires a rich soil. The latter can bo successfully grown on 
 light land. 
 
 The cow-pea is much cultivated at the South, where it is greatly valued for fodder and 
 the ripe seeds, which furnish food for .«tock; also as a fertilizer when turned under green, 
 being considered next in value to red clover for this purpose. It will grow on soil too poor 
 to produce clover, and hence may be used to advantage where clover cannot. This pL'.nt, 
 however, much more closely resembles the bean than the common pea. 
 
 The cultivation of the " Pindar " or ground-pea, has been given under the heading of 
 Peanuts, and does not require repetition in this connection. 
 
474 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 Cultivation and Harvesting. — Peas will grow on almost any soil, but will produce 
 the largest crops on lands that are rich. No stable manure should ever be used for this crop 
 except it has been previously fermented or rotted, either by being composted or plowed 
 under for a previous crop. When well-rotted, it is one of the very best fertilizers for peas, 
 but when used before the fermenting process has taken place, it has a tendency to increase 
 the growth of the vines, and diminish the quantity and quality of the product. 
 
 The ground should be well pulverized by plowing and harrowing before sowing the 
 seed. The peas are sown both broadcast and in drills. "When the former method is prac- 
 ticed, from two to three bushels are required per acre; for dr 11-planting, from five to six 
 pecks per acre are generally used. They should be covered to the depth of three or four 
 inches; consequently a light plow or cultivator is better for this purpose than a harrow. In 
 either case, the ground should be afterwards rolled to press the soil upon the seed and make 
 the surface even. An even surface renders the process'of harvesting much easier than where 
 the giound is left in ridges. 
 
 Peas are not easily injured by the frost, consequently may be sown early in the spring 
 and as soon as the ground is dry. When sown later, or in dry weather, they should be 
 covered deeper than when it is done early in the season. Some farmers cover to the depth 
 of five inches. A deep covering enables the crop to better withstand a drouth. Early sowing 
 admits of harvesting the crop in time to plow the land for wheat. Soaking the seed for 
 twenty-four hours in tepid water before sowing, hastens germination. 
 
 It was formerly the practice with farmers to sow peas with oats; but this is not to 
 be recommended, as the two crops do not ripen at the same time, and the oat stalks are not 
 sufficiently strong to support the vines. They are sometimes sown in corn-fields, by being 
 drilled in between the rows of corn. They are by this method liable to be unduly shaded by 
 the heavier growth of corn. 
 
 When a succession of crops for soiling are wanted through the season, peas may be sown 
 in April as soon as the ground is dry, and at intervals every three or four weeks. At the 
 North, the earliest varieties are sown in April or May, and the later in June, the latter being 
 the more general practice, unless more than one crop is desired. When sown in drills, the 
 soil may be worked with the horse-hoe or cultivator soon after they are out of the ground. 
 
 When cultivated for green fodder, they can be cut at any time after being half-grown 
 until the pods are ripe. When peas are the object of cultivation, they should not be 
 harvested until nearly ripe. They may then be cut with a scythe, dried in the field, and 
 afterwards threshed. The haulm or straw furnishes excellent fodder for sheep and cattle. 
 When fully ripe so that their roots may be easily pulled, they are sometimes harvested with 
 a horse-rake, and left in heaps to dry. The cow-pea may be harvested in the same manner; 
 but when the growth is very heavy, an iron-tooth harrow is sometimes used. Swine and 
 cattle are frequently turned into the field to eat the crop, Imt this practice is not to be 
 recommended unless it is designed to turn it under as a fertilizer, as quite as much would be 
 wasted as eaten, by being trampled into the ground. 
 
BEANS. 475 
 
 BEANS. 
 
 BEANS, as a field crop, are cultivated considerably in tins countr_v, Init not to the 
 extent that they are in Europe. They are an important product, and should be 
 more generally grown by farmers than they are at present. As an article of food 
 fc- man and farm stock, they are very nutritious. Sheep are very fond of them, and will 
 also eat the straw or the dried vines and pods. It should never be fed to them, however, 
 when mouldy or must3^ Beans are also one of the best known substitutes for a meat diet. 
 They are easily cultivated, are not comparatively an exhaustive crop, and may be grown on 
 very poor land. On soils of less than medium fertility, and with but little cultivation, large 
 crops may be produced, and they are a product which will always bring a fair price in the 
 market. As has previously been stated, beans will grow and produce crops on very poor 
 soil, but will prove more remunerative when grown on one of moderate fertility, and to 
 which they are best adapted. 
 
 The two general varieties of beans are the dwarf or bush bean, requiring no support for 
 their vines, and the pole-bean or climbing varieties, requiring support. Between these are 
 intermediate varieties. The pole-bean is never cultivated as a field crop. The varieties of 
 the field-bean are not large, and there is probably not much difference in their profit, except 
 it be from local circumstances, where certain varieties may be more in demand in the market 
 than others. As a general rule, the large seeded varieties are less reliable and require a 
 longer season to mature than the small. As the cultivation of the garden varieties will be 
 given in anotlier department, they will not be mentioned here. 
 
 The kinds most generally grown as a field crop are the small white, the kidney, and the 
 maiTow. The first-mentioned is an early variety, very small, and yields well. The second 
 is of medium size anil somewhat better quality, but not as early or productive. The marrow 
 is a large, round bean of quite good quality, rather late in maturing, and of fair yield. The 
 small white bean is most generally cultivated as a field crop. There are other varieties of 
 local popularity. In the vicinity of Boston, an early kind, known as the "yellow-eyed bean," 
 is extensively cultivated. It is of medium size and white, except a slight yellow ring about 
 the eye. The plant branches out quite high, is a strong and vigorous grower, and the pods 
 are kept at a greater distance from the soil than most of the other bush varieties. They are, 
 therefore, less liable to be injured by the wet. The English field-bean, called also the "horse- 
 bean," is rarely cultivated in the United States, as the climate here is too dry and warm, but 
 is grown to a considerable extent in Canada. 
 
 Cultivation. — A light, warm, dry soil, or that of a sandy nature is best adapted to the 
 cultivation of beans. On soils that are heavy or highly manured the tendency is to produce 
 a heavy growth of vines and foliage, rather than the seed, whereas a comparatively light soil 
 of the proper quality will promote greater productiveness and earlier maturity. Stable- 
 manure is objectionable as a fertilizer for this reason. Superphosphate of lime is highly 
 recommended for this crop. 
 
 The land should be plowed .?ome weeks in advance of planting, in order to give the seed 
 of weeds an oppoitunity to make their appearance, when they can be destroyed by the use of 
 the harrow or cultivator, and be afterwards kept in subjection with much less labor. Tlie 
 soil should be finely pulverized before the seed is deposited. Wet lands are objectionable 
 for this crop, but if necessary to use soil containing a surplus of moisture for this purpose, 
 the surface should be ridged in order to secure better drainage. The best results are to be 
 obtained on a warm, dry soil. 
 
 The proper time for planting depends upon the season. "While peas will bear consider- 
 ble frost, beans, being of inter-tropical origin, are very tender and are easily killed by the 
 
476 THE AMERICAN FAKJIEH. 
 
 slightest frost; therefore it is never safe to plant them until all danger in bis respect is past. 
 As they grow very rapidly, the planting may be delayed beyond the point of danger, and 
 they will then have sufficient time to mature before the frost makes its appearance in the fall. 
 About the first week in June, at the North, is the common time of planting, unless the season 
 is imusually early. If planted when the soil is cold and wet, the seed will be liable to rot ; it 
 should therefore be done when the ground is warm. If the ground be very dry at the time 
 of planting, germination will be greatly hastened by soaking the seed in tepid water from 
 twelve to twenty-four hours beforehand. They may be planted either in hills or drills. The 
 distance apart in the hills and drills should be regulated by the variety cultivated, since some 
 kinds require more room for growth than others, the plants being larger and the branches 
 wider-spreading. For plants of moderate growth, the distance between the rows should not 
 be less than two and a half or three feet, and that of the hills not less than from one to two 
 feet. Drills should be the same distance apart as the rows, and care taken not to sow the 
 seed too thickly. From six to eight plants to a hill is sufficient. The covering should be to 
 the depth of two inches, and the soil pressed down upon the seed. On soil free from weeds, 
 they have been known to produce largely, when sown broadcast, but this method is not to be 
 recommended, as it will not admit of after-cultivation. The crop should be kept free from 
 weeds with the horse-hoe or cultivator. 
 
 Early ripening is desirable when other crops are to succeed field-beans during the same 
 season. When there is a tendency to produce a luxuriant growth of ^^nes to the detriment 
 of the seed-product, it is well to cut off the ends of the vines once or twice during the 
 season. Tliis has the effect of hastening the maturity of the crop and increasing the product. 
 Like all other crops, the use of good seed is of the greatest importance. Late-grown seed 
 usually gives the best results, and it should be from a crop which grew more to seed than 
 vines. Beans are sometimes planted in connection with corn, but it is a practice that cannot 
 be generally recommended. 
 
 Cnltivatioii of Horse-Beans. — The culture for the variety of field-bean known as 
 the English field or " horse-bean,'' differs somewhat from the common field-bean. The 
 •method practiced in Canada, is giveii by a farmer in that province as follows: — 
 
 " The horse-bean thrives weU in this section, the yield on my farm generally being from 
 forty to fifty bushels per acre. It requires good, heavy land, prepared the same as for 
 potatoes, either well manured in the fall and plowed in, or else the manure is put into the 
 drills in the spring. We spread the manure well in the bottom of the drills and then sow 
 the beans on the top of the manure, two and a half bushels to the acre, and cover six or 
 eight inches deep with the plow. I make the drills twenty-eight inches apart so that there is 
 room to work them and keep them clean like potatoes. A few days before they come up I 
 take the saddle-harrow and harrow down the top of the drills, and when they are about ten 
 inches high a furrow is thrown away from the drills. With a drill-harrow, I then level the 
 piece down, and then hoe and weed them. They are then moulded up like potatoes. They 
 will usually grow from four to five feet high and quite thick and bushy. They completely 
 kill Canada thistles. I think the reason is that the beans are so thick that they smother the 
 thistles." 
 
 Harvesting. — Beans should always be harvested before the appearance of frost. It is 
 better to gather the crop before fully ripe than to permit it to be injured in this manner. 
 When there is no danger from frost, and the land is not wanted for other piu-poses, it will 
 not be necessary to harvest them until the pods are turned yellow. In some sections the 
 plants are pulled by hand, the dirt shaken from the roots, and the vines thrown into small 
 heaps or spread on the ground to dry. In other localities, a small iron rake is used for the 
 purpose, or if the vines are partially green at the time of harvesting, they are sometimes 
 
BEANS. . 477 
 
 mown. The harvesting shoulil be done in dry weather, as exposure to wet will cause many of 
 the pods to mould and rot. 
 
 If the vines are nearly dry at the time of gathering, two or three days' exposure to the 
 warm sun will dry them sufficiently for storing in the barn. When drying, it is a good plan 
 to turn them over occasionally, that the curing process may be uniform. As beans heat and 
 mould very readily, it is important that they be thoroughly dried before storing. When the 
 vines are rather green, they are sometimes stacked in the field, around stakes, with the roots 
 in the center, and secured at the top with a cord or a wisp of straw. In two or three weeks 
 of good weather, they will be sufficiently dry to take to the barn, after being spread out 
 with a few hours' exposure to the sun. 
 
 If not thj-eshed at once, it is well to spread the vines on the floor or scaffolds as thinly 
 as the storage room will admit, to avoid all danger of moulding. They should be threshed 
 out from the pods, and winnowed by a fanning-mill, after which they should be spread thinly 
 in a cool, dry place until thoroughly dry. It is well to cull out imperfect specimens, as a 
 few discolored beans will injure the appearance of the whole quantity, liowever good it may 
 be, and will be liable to reduce the selling-price. 
 
 Castor Beans. — The castor bean is a tropical plant, hence, cannot be successfully cul- 
 tivated at the Nortli. It is frequently seen growing there, however, as an ornamental plant, 
 its stately appearance and large, broad leaves of a purplish hue rendering it very attractive. 
 It is a perennial in warm climates, and sometimes attains the height of thirty feet, and will 
 live for several years. In regions subject to a frost it becomes an annual, and grows to the 
 height of from three to ten feet. It is a native of Southern Asia and Northern Africa, and 
 has been naturalized in Southern Europe and other warm climates. In the West Indies it 
 grows with great luxuriance. It has been cultivated to a limited extent as a field crop as far 
 north as 40°; but the climate of the Southern States is best adapted to it. 
 
 In Texas and Southern Florida it strongly shows its perennial tendency. A castor- 
 plant is said to have been grown in a garden in Galveston, the stem of which attained seven 
 inches in diameter. This plant continued to yield seven or eight years. A hundred bushels 
 of beans have been T'aised per acre in locaUties adapted to its culture in Texas. In the 
 southern portion of the Middle States, and States bordering on the Ohio river, it grows to the 
 height of five or six feet, and yields from twenty to thirty bushels per acre. The seeds or 
 beans are oval and quite large. Their value consists in the oil which they yield. When 
 bruised and subjected to a great pressure, the yield will be nearly a gallon per bushel of cold- 
 pressed oil, which is much superior to-that obtained by boiling, the latter being of dark color. 
 
 When pure, the oil is of a light yellow color, but when inferior in quality it has a 
 greenish and sometimes a dark yellowish tinge. Exposure to the sun's rays bleaches it to a 
 certain extent. It is used in medicine as a cathartic. It is also much used in lubricating 
 machinery, carriage wheels, leather, etc. In Hindoostan, it is quite extensively employed for 
 burning in lamps. 
 
 Cultivation. — The cultivation of the castor bean can only be made profitable where 
 tlie climate and soil are adapted to it, and also in localities near a mill for extracting the oil. 
 
 The very best seed should always be obtained for the crop. That of the large variety 
 grown in the West Indies, should be planted, and not the small, light-colored bean that has 
 been grown in some of the Northern sections. The soil best adapted to the castor-plant is a 
 rich, sandy loam, although any dry, fertile soil will answer the purpose. The surface should 
 be well-pulverized, and the seed planted in hills, in rows five or six feet apart. Three or 
 four seeds are deposited in a hill, to make allowance for those that may not germinate, and 
 for such of the young plants as may be destroyed by the cut- worm, which is sometimes very 
 troviblesome. When the plants are six or seven inches high, they are thinned to one plant. 
 The cultivation afterward given should be similar to that for Indian corn. 
 
478 THE AMERICAN FARMER 
 
 The seeds will begin to ripen generally in August, according to the latitude, and con 
 tinue to do so until frost makes its appearance. A place for spreading the seeds should be 
 prepared about the time of their ripening. This is sometimes a spot of dry ground, cleared 
 and beaten hard, and sometimes a low scaffold for spreading the pods. When the pods on 
 the spikes begin to crack, tliey should be cut, and spread in the sun to dry, in the place pre- 
 viously prepared. They should be spread thinly, in order to dry well. There will be several 
 gatherings of the crop, as the pods mature and ripen. The heat of the sun causes the pods 
 to open, and the beans to shell out. In warm weather, two or three days will generally be 
 sufficient to dry them. 
 
 When all the beans are out of the pods, the latter are raked off and the beans gathered 
 and cleaned by a fanning-mJll, or seed-cleaner, with a suitable screen. They are then spread 
 in a cool, dry place to become thoroughly dried before being stored. It is well to occasion- 
 ally turn them during the drying process. 
 
 BROOM CORN. 
 
 THIS plant is a variety of the sorghum, and a native of the East Indies. It is culti- 
 vated for its branching panicles principally, which are used in the manufacture of 
 brooms, etc., although it is grown to a limited extent as a forage plant. This family 
 of plants are all more or less rich in saccharine matter, but as this variety has been cultivated 
 for a long period with direct reference to the production of the brush or seed-bearing stems, 
 and their improvement in length and fineness, without regard to its sugar-producing proper- 
 ties, its appearance is very different from that of the common sorghum or Northern sugar- 
 cane. 
 
 Tlie introduction of broom-corn into this country, as a cultivated plant, is attributed to 
 Dr. Franklin, who, finding a seed on a whisk broom that had been imported, planted it, and 
 produced seed from the plant that was the result of the experiment. From this, originated 
 its culture in the United States. 
 
 The production of broom-corn was formerly quite limited, being confined almost exclu- 
 sively to New England, b-it it has now become an extensive industry in some of the Western 
 States, where the climate and soil seem admirably adapted to it, and where it proves, in many 
 localities, a very valuable crop. 
 
 At the extreme North, the season is rather too short to admit of the perfect maturity 
 and ripening of the seed. In many of the Western States the seed is not permitted to ripen, 
 the crop being harvested before this period, in order to produce a finer quality of the brush 
 product. In such cases, a more southerly latitude must be depended upon for seed in 
 sowing. 
 
 The average product of brush per acre is about five hundred pounds, although with the 
 best soil and cultivation, rare instances are known of the crop amounting to nine hundred or 
 a thousand pounds per acre. As there seems to be no substitute for the brush, and there is 
 always a demand for it, and it is a crop that can be easily cultivated, it is a desirable and 
 profitable one for the farmer to raise, in those sections to which it is well suited. 
 
 When mixed with oats, the seed makes very good food for horses. It is also valuable 
 for poultry, especially chickens after they are a week or two old, and when fed in connection 
 with other food. It is much more nutritious when ground sufBciently fine to break up the 
 tough husk. When ground with corn, in the proportion of three bushels of broom-corn to 
 one of corn, it makes very good fattening food for cattle, sheep, or swine. This proportion 
 also makes a good ration for milk-production in winter. 
 
BHUOM CORN. 479 
 
 It is always well to mix it witli some of the common grains. When mixed with corn, 
 it is said to be as nutritious as an equal quantity of oats. Sheep will masticate the whole 
 seeds better than cattle, because they will grind it liner. Still, when not ground, it is always 
 best to cook the seed, as it is thus rendered soft and more digestible. 
 
 Soil and its Preparation. — The best soil for the cultivation of broom-corn is that 
 to which Indian corn is best adapted. It should be rich and mellow, free from weeds, and 
 not subject to early or late frosts. Lands for this crop should never contain a surplus of 
 water. Such as have a subsoil retentive of water, should be under-drained. The best river 
 bottoms are well adapted to it, providing the situation gives them a good natural drainage. 
 Its culture is not, however, confined to any particular kind of soil. Any soil that is dry and 
 of average fertility, will yield a fair crop. 
 
 Unless the land is naturally quite rich, fei'tilizers of some kind are essential. Well-fer- 
 mented manure of any kind is good, that from the barn-yard, pig-sty, or sheep-pen being 
 valuable for this crop. Guano, plaster, wood-ashes, and lime, also give good results, but 
 generally not quite equal to the former. 
 
 Soil should be made as clean and free from weeds as possible, as the young plants seem 
 weak and feeble at first, and are consequently easily choked by the weeds. A clean soil also 
 admits of less labor in the after-culture. 
 
 As with common corn, different cultivators adopt different methods of preparing the 
 land. Whatever the method of preparing the soil, the surface should be finely pulverized by 
 plowing and harrowing before planting. The manure is generally applied Ijroadcast; in 
 addition to this, a small quantity of manure applied to the hUls or drills before planting would 
 serve to give the young plants a vigorous start. The preparation of the soil should in all 
 respects be similar to that made for corn. 
 
 Planting. — Broom-corn may be planted either in hills or drills. Hills are generally 
 prefei-red as a matter of convenience in the after-culture, as they admit of running the culti- 
 vator both ways. 
 
 The I'ows may be from three and a half to four feet apart, according to the variety to be 
 grown. Dwarf varieties are sometimes planted three feet apart, but four feet is sufficiently 
 near for the large kinds. The hills may be about two and a half or three feet apart, accord- 
 ing to the variety grown, although some prefer to have them the same distance as the rows. 
 In the cultivation of this crop, it is very essential that the seed be of the best quality and 
 thoroughly ripened. Seed of inferior quality, or that imperfectly ripened, will either fail to 
 germinate or produce weak, sickly plants. 
 
 As many of the seeds often fail to germinate, even when of average good quality, the 
 iisual practice is to plant a liberal quantity to the hill, and afterwards thin out -the plants to 
 five or six, leaving only the strongest and most thrifty looking ones. From fifteen to twenty 
 seeds to the hill ai'e sufficient. If too large a quantity is planted, the young plants will be 
 crowded, and as they are naturally at first very weak, overcrowding at this period would ren- 
 der them more so, and prove injurious to the crop. 
 
 WTien the seed is sound and well-ripened, two quarts will be sufficient for an acre, this 
 being the usual allowance. If much of it is imperfect, a much larger quantity will be 
 required. For drill planting, a somewhat larger amount will be required than for hills. The 
 planting should be done when the soil is warm and dry, and all danger of frost is passed; 
 about the time of planting corn, or a little later. 
 
 When the seed has been thoroughly cleaned of the stems or pedicles adhering to them, 
 it can be planted by any of the common seed-drills that will plant seed of' small size. Corn 
 planting machines and wheat-drills are used for this purpose. When only a few acres are to 
 be planted, dropping the seed by hand — although a slow process — is often practiced in some 
 localities. A small garden seed-planter is much to be preferred to planting by hand. 
 
480 TIIK -VMEUICAN FARiMEH. 
 
 The seed should not l>e covered much more than about an inch deep, unless the soil is 
 light and dry. In such a case, the covering should be a little dreper. If the seed is put in 
 as soon as the ground is prepared, the moisture of the soil will serve to liasten germination. 
 
 Thick planting produces the finest and toughest brush. Old soil long in cultivation is 
 also thought to give a better quality of brush than new, fresh soil. 
 
 Cultivation. — As soon as the plants make their appearance, the cultivator should be 
 run between the rows to loosen the soU and check the growth of weeds. This should be fre- 
 quently done during the early stages of growth, as stirring the soil promotes the growth of 
 the plants, and holds the weeds in check, which are exceedingly injurious to the young 
 plants. If the weeds are allowed to once get the start of the crop, it will prove very detri- 
 mental, and require the plants a long time to recover the effect, if they ever do. 
 
 It is well to begin the stirring of the soil before the plants are up, and consequently 
 before the weeds appear, and when they are germinating in the earth; but in such cases it 
 will be necessary to use considerable care, or the seed of the crop may be disturbed. The 
 practice of some farmers of allowing the weeds to grow several inches before they are exter- 
 minated, is not only very injurious to the crop, but more than quadruples the labor of their 
 destruction afterwards. Those farmers who have learned the great economy of the practice 
 of killing weeds before they come up. with respect to corn, will appreciate the importance of 
 this practice as applied to broom coi-n. 
 
 This constant stirring of the surface will make a great difference in the yield of the crop. 
 Tlie various horse hoes and cultivators in agricultural use may be employed for the purpose. 
 
 The thinning should be done when the plants are 'three or four inches high, leaving five 
 or six of the most thrifty ones in a hill ; or, if drill-culture is practiced, the stalks should be 
 left three or four inches apart. The thinning is a very laborious job, and the most to be 
 dreaded of any part of the labor attending the cviltivation of this crop. The general rule 
 witli the best cultivators is to keep the whole surface of the soil clean of weeds from the very 
 beginning, and use the cultivator for this purpose once a week, as long as the size of the 
 plants will permit. Different varieties of broom-corn are very liable to mix when planted 
 near together; consequently, when growing seed for future crops, they should be planted 
 entirely separate and in fields remote from other varieties, that the seed may be kept pure. 
 The same is true if it is planted near any of the varieties cf the sorghum or Chinese sugar- 
 cane, with which it will readily mix. 
 
 Harvesting. — The period of harvesting will depend somewhat upon the use to be 
 made of the crop. When the brush only is desired, broom-corn can be c .t much earlier than 
 when the seed is one of the objects sought. In the former case, the harvesting may be per- 
 formed as soon as the blossoms begin to faU. The quality of the brush is better at this 
 period than if the cutting be deL^.yed till later. The brush then will be of a green tint, and 
 fine and tough in quality. 
 
 A few days later, when the seed is in a milk state, or is approaching matui'ity, the lirush 
 will assmne a reddish shade, and lose somewhat of its weight, being in quality inferior to the 
 green-tinted product, and accordingly commanding a less price in the market. 
 
 When the grower wishes to secure a good quality of seed and does not care for a very 
 fine quaUty of brush, the harvesting should not be done until after the seeds are fully 
 matured. The quality of the seed that is planted influences largely the character of the crop; 
 consequently, care should be taken that all seed designed for planting should be perfectly 
 matiu-e before harvesting. Broom-corn should always be harvested before frost makes its 
 appearance. 
 
 Before harvesting the larger or tall-growing vai-ieties, it is customary to break down the 
 stalks, turning the tops of the stalks "f two rows towards each other, thus leaving a vacant 
 
4> 
 
 BKOOJI CORN. 481 
 
 snifit'e for the harvester to work in cutting. This is done for the sake of convenience, as, if 
 left standing, the beight of the stalk at the place of cutting would make it a very laborious 
 practice, some of the large varieties on rich soil attaining a height of from fifteen to eighteen 
 feet. From ten to twelve feet is, however, a good heiglit. The stalks are generally broken 
 at tlie lieight of two and a lialf or three feet from the ground, those of two rows being 
 tuiiuid towards each other diagonally in such a way that the stalks of one row will crois:; 
 tho.-i; of the other witli tlie tops projecting about a foot on each side. The crop is then said 
 to be '■ tabled." Each two rows of tlie field are thu.5 broken over, leaving a vacant space for 
 passing b.'tween the rows and cutting tlie brush, which is usually done immediately after the 
 crop is broken. 
 
 Dwarf varieties do not require this process, btit are usually harvested by the stalk con- 
 taining the bru.sh being pulled out from the sheath by which it is surrounded. This is a 
 more difficult operation than cutting. 
 
 After being " tabled " as previously described, the brush should be cut so as to leave 
 only eight or ten inches of the stalk below it, and no leaves. These should he laid in small 
 bundles upon the tables as cut, and then gathered and put under shelter. It is the practice 
 in some sections to leave the brush exposed to the snn two or three days to cure; but this is 
 not to be recommended, as this will have a tendency to give it a reddish tinge, even though 
 cut when qtiite green. It also injures the quality, rendering it less tough and more easily 
 broken. Exposure to rain is also injurious. Therefore it should be gathered and put under 
 shelter as soon as a sufficient quantity is cut. 
 
 Curing, etc. — When only small quantities of brcom-corn are producod. it maybe 
 cured in any sheltered place, such as in a shed-loft or on a barn-scaffold, where it will be 
 exempt from exposure to sun and rain. But where extensive ciops are grown, a house 
 especially adapted for curing the crop becomes a necessity. The interior of such buildings 
 have a large number of racks prepared, upon which the brush is spread very thinly to dry. 
 The racks are made with narrow strips of boards alternating with open spaces, in order to 
 admit the air and hasten the curing process. These rack-shelves should be from eight to ten 
 inches apart, so as to permit a free circulation of air. The building should have every con- 
 venience for ventilation, but the ventilators should always bo closed in storiny or damp 
 weather. 
 
 When the brush is harvested green, the seed is generally separated from it before 
 curing. This may be done in various ways. Machines made for this purpose, with revolving 
 cylinder, or similar to a threshing machine, are much used where large crops are cultivated. 
 They can be worked by hand, foot, horse, or steam power, according to the size. It can also 
 bo done by holding the heads to the cylinder of a threshing-machine, and not permitting the 
 brush to be drawn in. Where small quantities arc cultivated, a hetchel made for the pur- 
 pose, or a long-toothed curry-comb are frequently used. 
 
 When seed is immature, it is of little value as food for stock, and may be best utiUlized 
 in the compost heap. Broom-corn seed is very liable to heat, and should be spread thinly on 
 a scaffold or floor to become perfectly dry before being stored. Rats and mice should be 
 kept from the brush when curing, as they will destroy and waste large quantities. 
 
482 THE AilKlUCAX FARMER. 
 
 HOPS. 
 
 HOPS grow wild in the northern portion of the United States and Europe. There 
 seems to bo Lut one botanical species of this plant, but numerous varieties have 
 been produced from this by long cultivation. The root is perennial, but the vines 
 are killed by the frost every autumn, new shoots starting up from the roots in the spring. 
 It is a climbing vine, with rough leaves and stems, grows rapidly, and,always twines around 
 its support from left to right, or following the course of the sun. In its wild state, it often 
 cUmbs high up among the branches of tall trees, and when cultivated requires tall poles or 
 other substitutes for this purpose. Different varieties, however, differ in this respect, some 
 requii-ing longer supports than others. 
 
 Hops have become an agricultural product of considerable importance in many countries. 
 They are chiefly used in the manufactui'e of beer, although to a certain extent for domestic 
 pu'-^os"s, such as the making of yeast, and for their medicinal properties, etc. The portions 
 of the hop-flower which enters into the composition ci beer are the seeds and the yellow 
 matter which surrounds t!ie outer covering of the seeds, and the base of the petals. This 
 yellow glutinous material emits a very pleasant aroma, and has an exceedingly bitter taste. 
 It is ;ilso quite volatile, and unless packed very closely as soon as the hops are dried, this 
 principle is in a great measure lost. For this reason, hops that have been kept more than a 
 year are of considerable less value than new. The new product is essential to the manufac- 
 ture of bee^Jbf the best quahty. This bitter principle is of more dehcate flavor in some 
 varieties thffli others, and in proportion as the seed is developed. lu selecting varieties to 
 plant, three considerations should be taken into account; these are the delicacy of fla^ or 
 yield of the ci'op. and time of maturing. As a general rule, the strongest growers are the 
 largest yielders. but have not that dehcacy of flavor that characterizes the smaller and less 
 prolific varieties. Early maturity is desirable in localities subject to early frosts. On farms 
 where hops are extensively cultivated, it is well to plant varieties matui-ing at different times, 
 as the picking season vdW be long. By this means the early varieties may be harvested first, 
 and the later varieties will not become over-ripe before being gathered. 
 
 Tarieties. — In England the Farnham, Canterbury whitebines, and Goldings are most 
 extensively cultivated. These are sti-ong-growing, prolific vines, that require poles from 
 fourteen to twenty feet long. The grape varieties, of which there are several, are smaller, 
 and arc so called because their blossoms, or the hops, grow in clusters. These require poles 
 of from ten to foiu-teen feet in len!:;tli. In this country some of the grape varieties are quite 
 extensively grown, although many of the large varieties, embracing those of greater or less 
 local popularity, are also cultivated. 
 
 The hop is not only grown as a field crop, but it may be made to subserve the double 
 purpose of utiUty and ornament, by bemg trained on supports for ornamental purposes. 
 There ai-e few plants that have a better foUage, or that cling more tenaciously to any support 
 provided for them. "When in full blossom, it is certainly a graceful plant, while its pleasant 
 aroma also renders it attractive. "When grown for ornamental purposes, there are many 
 ways in which it may be trained that are suited to render it graceful and truly beautiful, the 
 use of the straight, upright pole for this purpose being anything but graceful or artistic. For 
 the country home, they make a verj' pretty arch when trained to span the walks in the 
 kitchen garden, and may be mixed with other vines, such as the clematis or woodbine. A 
 rustic trellis, with arch made for their support, will thus be transformed into a beautiful 
 ornament for tlie li<'mc surroundings, and. if desired, may be utilized to supply the family 
 with all the hops ncce.ss rv for domestic use. They also add a beautiful feature to gardens, 
 by planting them whore t!v y can run wild over old fruit-troo?, trunks of dead trees, or even 
 
HOPS. 483 
 
 summer-housps or otter outbuildings, since, when once planted, they last for many years, 
 i-eqiiiring no care except to train the \-incs a little to their supports when first starting in the 
 spring. They will also grow in almost any ordinary garden soil. Hops cannot be profitably 
 grown south of latitude 40. 
 
 Cultivation. — Where thfrs is sufficient depth of good soil, not too rich or too wet, 
 hops, with proper cultivation, may be continued almost indefinitely. If, however, the soil bo 
 shallow, with a hard, impenetrable sub-soil, or is cold and wet, the roots will soon die out, 
 and the enterprise prove a failure. If the land be too rich, the product will be vines, rather 
 than fruit, a small, pale-green hop being the result, rather than the large, fully-matured, 
 yellow bur, which is the product of a less growth of vine, and consequently grown with less 
 shade and more air and sun. Hops have long roots, whose nature is to penetrate deeply into 
 the earth; therefore it is quite as necessary that the sub-soil be of the proper quality to be 
 thus penetrated on the surface-soil. If the sub-soil be saturated with water, or of a hard, 
 compact nature, the roots cannot enter it, and the plants cannot therefore thrive. All soils 
 intended for hop-culture should be either naturally or. artificially drained. The former is 
 bettei'. but when the latter is employed, tile-draining is essential. 
 
 Hops, like corn, require a warm, mellow, and aerated soil. Any soil that will produce 
 a good crop of cqfn, will also produce hops successfully. They are an exhausting crop, and 
 lands on which they are grown require to have manures rich in nitrogen applied from time 
 to time, in order to maintain their fertility. A deep, rich, well-drained, alluvial soil, in a 
 locality well protected from sweeping winds, is generally considered the best for hops. A 
 sufficient quantity of air is essential, but strong winds are very injurious. Wet soils, hot 
 suns, and strong winds, in conjunction, are fatal to the hop product. 
 
 High land, if the soil be good, is to be preferred to low land, especially if protected by 
 hills or trees, and not so exposed to the winds that they will be bare in winter. The soil 
 should be deep and friable, containing a sufficient amount of humus but not a surplus of 
 moisture, and yet one that will withstand drouth. If tenacious clay soils are used for this 
 product, they should be well drained. 
 
 When the land designed for planting hops has been long in use for other crops, it should 
 be well dressed with compost or an abundant supply of fresh manure, previously plowed in 
 for other crops and largely retained in the soil. Fresh farm manure should be avoided, as it 
 has a tendency to produce a heavy growth of vines to the detriment of the crop. Light 
 loams or gravelly soils, when made sufficiently rich with fertilizers, will produce good results, 
 but a naturally fertile soil is much better. A gentle slope to the south is desirable, but this 
 should also be where there is a free circulation of air, yet protected from injurious winds. 
 When land is strong, it should be cleared before planting. The plowing should be quite 
 deep. The best time for doing it is in the fall. Well-composted farm manure fe used to 
 advantage for this crop; also lime and phosphates, on some soils. 
 
 The surface of the land should be well pulverized, and rendered as mellow as possible. 
 It should then be marked off in squares at a distance of about eight feet, the rows to be in a 
 straight line. The distance between the hills varies, according to the nature of the soil ai;d 
 the variety to be cultivated, some kinds growing much more luxuriant than others. It ij 
 well to avoid crowding, for if planted too closely together, it will have the same effect upon 
 the product that close planting has upon the yield of corn. There should be a sufficient 
 amount of space between the hills for sun and air. A lack of these essentials will result in 
 more vines than blossoms, and there will be a deficiency not only in weight, but in the 
 quality of the bur. A soil that is too rich, as well as an unusually wet season, will al8o givo 
 the same result. A light growth of vine will often produce a surprisingly large growth of 
 burs of good qxiality in proportion to the growth of the vine; hence, it is not advisable !o 
 f'jrco the growth of the plants too much. 
 
4S4 THK AMERICAN FAKMKU. 
 
 W'lien the liop-seeds are planted, the result will be a variety of kinds, the same as with 
 potato or fruit-seed; therefore the plants should be multiplied by planting slips from a well- 
 known and desirable variety. The underground vines, or sprouts fro?n the old plants, are used 
 in planting. Each piece should be from six to ten inches long and contain, at least, two or 
 three eyes, one for root formation and one or two for the vine. About two bv^hels of these 
 sets will be required for planting an acre. The hops, like many other j)lants, produce the 
 male and female blossoms on different plants. The blossom of the former grows in a loose 
 panicle, while the latter is compact in form, like the cone of some varieties of the pine tree. 
 
 In obtaining slips for setting a hop-field, those from the male and female plants should 
 be kept separate. Only about eight or ten of the male plants will be required for an acre. 
 These should be planted in separate hills, and evenly distributed over the field. In setting a 
 field, it vras formerly the custom to put six plants in a hill, but four are now considered a 
 more desirable number, as it involves less crowding with all the attendant evil results. Four 
 good slips should be put in a hill, and covered with two or three inches of finely-pul- 
 verized soil. 
 
 Some growers put a fork-full of well-composted manure in each hill before planting the 
 slip. Others make the land sufficiently rich without it. Whether this practice will be advis- 
 able or not, will depend upon the nature of the soil and the preparation it has previously 
 received. If the land is quite dry, hill-manuring may be omitted, if the soil is sufficiently 
 fertile to warrant it. If it is inclined to be too wet, manuring in the hill will remedy the 
 evil in a measure. Level culture is considei'ed best in this country, as a general rule, as the 
 drouths to which the soil is subjected are detrimental .to the hop-plants, but in the moist ch- 
 mate of England, hilling is more generally practiced. In planting, theiefore, the land should 
 be left as nearly level as possible. During the first season of growth, j^otatoes or corn are 
 sometimes planted between the rows of hops, and the cultivation given is sufficient to keep 
 down the weeds. With some growers the poles are not sot, and no effort is made to obtain 
 a crop until the second season. Others set the poles the first season, and secure a 
 small crop. 
 
 No fresh manure should ever be used for hops. In place of manuring the hills, many 
 growers put a quantity of richer soil in each hill before planting, in order to secure a good 
 start. In planting, the sets should be spread out carefully, and the fine, damp soil be 
 pressed down upon them. W^here poles are set the firSt season, they may be only from eight 
 to ten feet long, and one pole will be sufficient for each hill. The poles should be sharpened 
 at the end, and set one foot in the ground. They may be made of various kinds of wood. 
 Cedar is generally considered the best for the purpose. The land should then be kept free 
 from weeds. The length of the permanent poles will depend upon the soil and growth of the 
 variety planted. Where the soil is fertile and the strong-growing varieties are planted, poles 
 from twenty to thirty feet long may be necessary: but where plants of smaller growth are 
 cultivated, shorter poles may be set. Two poles are required for each hill, to give sufficient 
 sun and air to the plants. 
 
 They should be set firmly in the ground, in order not to Ijo blown down by the wind. 
 As they are often thus blown down or broken off, to the injury of the crop, horizontal yards 
 are preferred by many hop growers. This method renders the labor of harvesting much 
 easier. It is also much more economical than the use of long poles, and the plants generally 
 grow better. With this method, one stake is set to each hill. These stakes should be sawed 
 from eight to ten feet long, an inch and a quarter square, and be covered with coal tar. 
 
 A row of stakes are also set around the field at a distance of eight feet from each , 
 hill. The tops of all the stakes are thus connected with strong twine that has been well 
 tarred. In those hills of the field occupied liy male plants, long poles should be set. This is 
 for the purpose of facilitating the distribution of the pollen from their blossoms over the 
 whole field. 
 
HOI'S. 485 
 
 When the vines attain the length of two or three feet, they should be tied to tlie poles 
 to prevent being blown and injured by the wind; also to assist them in clinging to the sup- 
 ports, care being taken to twine them the natural way, which is in the course of the sun 
 They will need such assistance occasionally, in the progress of their growth, and when the 
 horizontal method of culture is practiced, the vines, after growing bejond the length of the 
 stakes, will need to be assisted in turning and twining around the strings. 
 
 In order to attain the best success in hop-growing, the culture should be similar to that 
 of corn. Frequent stirring of the soil, and the extermination of all weeds are essential. The 
 best growers of hops cultivate the crop about once a week during the season, when the 
 weather will admit. The essentials for the best success with this crop are, a deep mellow 
 soil, perfect drainage, continued cultivation of the crop from spring to fall, a sufficient supply 
 of the fertilizing element, and a plenty of space between the hills for sun and air. Tlie hop 
 is a tender plant and cannot thrive under neglect or hard treatment of any kind. 
 
 When early harvested, it will bleed equal to thft gj-ape vine, and with as much injury to 
 the plants. Exposure to cold in winter will frequently kill it. If forced too much in 
 growth, its vitality will be exhausted and mildew be the result. If the weeds and grass are 
 kept out of the field, the moisture and shade which are so injiu'ious will be obviated to a 
 great extent, unless the plants are set too closely together. A uniform, healthy growth, with 
 light and air, are the requisites nece.ssary to perfect the development of the vine and bur. 
 
 Deep culture of the soil after the plants are set should be avoided, as it tears the roots. 
 Shallow and frequent working of the surface is the better practice, and the finer and more 
 mellow the soil is kept, the better for the crop. 
 
 In the autumn, a shovelful of well-fermented manure should be thrown upon each hill. 
 This serves to keep the roots warm during the winter, and the rains and melting snows will 
 carry the fertilizing elements from it to the soil and roots. This is carefully removed in the 
 spring, and the roots, stalks, and vines trimmed off, after which the cultivation should be 
 frequent, as previously directed, in order to keep down the weeds, and maintain a mellow 
 surface. The ordinary corn cultivators are generally used for this purpose. 
 
 Hai'vestiliu;. — The season for picking hops generally commences the last week in 
 August, and continues several weeks. Some varieties mature earlier than others. The time 
 of picking is denoted by the seed turning hard and purple. If the picking commences 
 before the hop is ripe, the plant bleeds profusely and may be either greatly injured or killed 
 by this means. When the horizontal method is practiced, the picking may be done from the 
 vines while they are supported by the cords, or the cords may be loosened from the stakes to 
 bring them within easy reach of the pickers. 
 
 When poles are used for support, the vines are cut from one to three feet from the 
 ground, and the poles pulled up and laid over large bins or boxes around which the pickers 
 gather, dropping the hops into the bin as they are picked. Care is necessary not to permit 
 leaves^ stems, or other waste material to fall into the bin during the process. When the bins 
 are full, the hops are put into large boxes and taken to the kiln for curing. 
 
 Drying. — When small quantities of hops are cultivated, they can be dried by being 
 spread in a store room, or other suitable place, and stirred often enough to prevent heating; 
 but when extensively grown, a kiln for this purpose will be necessary. A kiln is a building 
 constructed for the purpose of drying the hops by a quicker process than can be secured 
 without artificial heat. There are numerous patent methods of constructing kilns and curing. 
 The hops are generally spread to a depth of from twelve to fourteen inches, where they are 
 subjected to a heat of suiEcient temperature to become thoroughly cured in from twelve to 
 twenty hours. 
 
 The hops are sufficiently cured when they will crumble two-thirds to pieces when han- 
 
486 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 died and the stems are dry. It is very important that hops be well dried. They should not 
 be left exposed to the air after being cured, as the volatile principle will thus be lost. "\Yhen 
 properly dried, they should be packed closely and put in a diy place. 
 
 MUSTARD. 
 
 THE mustard family includes many valuable plants, such as the cabbage, turnip, rad- 
 ish, horse-radish, water-cress, nasturtium, etc. The varieties of mustard cultivated 
 as a field crop and garden plant for the seed are two, — the white and the black or 
 brown. The black or brown mustai'd has a small globular seed of a dark brown color, ami 
 light yellow within. The white variety has large seed of a light color. The flour mustard 
 of commerce consists of the mixed ground seed of both varieties. The black variety is the 
 strongest. The ground niu.=;tard is a jiopular condiment for table use, and was known to the 
 ancients. It is also of gi-eat value for medicinal purposes, and is used in cases of poisoning. 
 A heaped teaspoonful or more of the ground mustard, mixed with a tumbler of water 
 and drank, acts as a prompt non-nauseating emetic, and may be used with the greatest suc- 
 cess and safety in cases of poisoning. This is a fact that every adult member of the liouse- 
 hold should know, as cases of accidental poL-^oning are liable to occur in any family, and it is 
 8^mething that is always at handj and may be used promptly in time to save life in such cases, 
 when waiting for a physician might prove fatal. We once witnessed its wonderful eflBcacy 
 in saving life when a pci-son was apparently in a dying condition from the effects of an over- 
 dose of vcratram viride. It cannot be too highly recommended in such cases. When 
 moistened with vinegar or water (the former is best), and applied to the skin, it is a most 
 powerful counter-irritant, and will relieve internal pains and sprains. 
 
 The mustard plant furnishes a valuable crop for green food for cattle or sheep. It is 
 also used for plowing under as a green manure. In England from twenty to thirty bushels 
 of seed per acre are frequently gi'own. The principal objection to its growth is, that it is 
 difficult to eradicate from a soil where it has once been cultivated, the seed that is self-sown 
 1 ! harvesting, producing troublesome weeds for future crops. The wild mustard is an 
 c xeedingly no.^ious weed in some portions of the West. The best means of ridding a soU 
 f om raiistard v,'hcre it has been pre\'iously cultivated, is to permit the plants to grow until 
 they are in blossom, and then plow them under. 
 
 Cultivation. — A rich, loamy, moist soU, reduced to a fine tilth, is the most desirable 
 1 r mustard, although it will grow weU on any sod of medium fertihty, if it is not too wtt 
 or cold. A warm soil is essential. It may be sown either broadcast or in drills. The latter 
 method admits of after-culture, which is an advantage over the former. When the latter is 
 practiced, tlie driUs should be about two feet apart, for convenience in cultivation. Care 
 s'vuld be taken not to sow the seed too thickly A peck to the acre is required for broad- 
 xiast sowing; for driUs, about six quarts is sufficient. The ground should be kept free from 
 weeds and frequently stirred. When a majority of the plants have ripened their seed, — 
 which may be indicated h-y the pods turning brown or yellow, — the crop should be carefully 
 i.rut with a reaper or scythe. It may be set in small stacks for a day or two in the field to 
 dry, or, if so ripe when cut that the seeds shell out in handling, it should be taken at once to 
 the store-house. It should always, when taken from the field, be carefully laid in a cart 
 with a light covering of cloth over the bottom and sides to prevent the seed from wasting. 
 It should be taken to a store-room, where it mivy remain until ready to be threshed. It 
 eiiould be handled -with the greatest care, as it is very liable to shell out and a good share of 
 the crop will thus be wasted. 
 
 The quality of the seed is liable to be injured by wet weather about the time of hars'est- 
 in ' As soon as it is perfectly dry, it may be threshed and cleaned ready for market. 
 
489 
 
 ENSILAGE. 
 
 THE system of ensilage, which has attracted so much attention for a few years past both 
 in this country and Europe, is one of vast importance in the agricuUural world, and of 
 practical interest to every farmer, since it bids fair to supplant in part, if not wholly, 
 the present system of hay-making, or preserving fodder by drying. — a process not only laborious, 
 but expensive, while it involves at the same time considerable loss of valuable nutriment by 
 desiccation, or the drying process. One lias but to enter a meadow or mowing field where 
 the new mown hay is being thus cured, and inhale the fragrant odors that are so invigor- 
 ating and pleasant, to be convinced of the fact that some of the best elements of the grass are 
 by this process being wasted by passing into the atmosphere. Thus much is lost by the curing 
 process, even under the most favorable circumstances, while great loss is often sustained 
 through rains, heavy dews, and unfavorable weather at the time of gathering this crop, — 
 so important to the farmer. Now, any improvement in the method of preserving vegetation, 
 which not only involves less labor, time, and expense, but furnishes better and more nutri- 
 tious food for the stock, — keeping cattle in as good condition through the winter, and causing 
 milch cows to produce as much milk and of as good quality as when supplied with the best 
 pasturage in summer, — is well worthy the attention and interest of all lovers of improvement 
 and laudable prosperity. The advocates of the ensilage system who have experimented most, 
 and consequently have had the most experience with regard to it, make this claim in behalf 
 of its adoption into common practice. And riot only this, but that it furnishes the opportunity 
 in time of an abundance to lay by a supply for the time of drought or other failure of the 
 forage crops. By this process, also, a much larger number of cattle can be supported upon a 
 given extent of land, and thus the land of any farm utilized to better advantage, since the 
 yield of the nutritive matter in the stalks of cereals is much greater per acre than that of any 
 of the grasses. By maintaining a larger number of cattle, the quantity of manure produced 
 on the farm is proportionately greater, which affords the farmer a better opportunity of 
 enriching his lands and keeping them in a h.iglier state of cultivation, obviously resulting 
 in larger crops, with consequent larger profits for his labor. Ensilage is a French word 
 which means " the act of compressing into pits, trenches, or compartments called silos." It 
 is also used to denote the green crops thus preserved in silos. Silo is a word used to denote 
 a ■■compartment used for storing green fodder in an air-tight manner." A Silo maybe 
 wholly above the ground, an excavation, or partly below and partly above the surface of the 
 ground. Great credit is due Monsieur Auguste Goffart for not only discovering, or invent- 
 ing, the system of ensilage, but for his patient and persevering efforts in bringing it so nearly 
 to perfection as it is at present, having labored assiduously for over twenty-five years before 
 arriving at desired results. The following from M. Goffart's writings, as translated by Mr. 
 J. B. Brown, gives a brief history of that gentleman's experiments: — 
 
 " Tn 1S50 I made some experiments in the ensilage of wheat at Versailles, since which time 
 the preservation of fodder has become my favorite occupation. In 1852 I constructed four 
 underground silos, with masonry, and connected them, each having a capacity of two cubic 
 metres; these silos I have filled and emptied several thousand times. Maize, Jerusalem arti- 
 chokes, beets, sorgho, turnips, potatoes, and straw I have experimented upon with more or 
 less success. Some years ago I had in the autumn more than eighty horned cattle, and my 
 hay crop would not have permitted me to support ten. One should be an agriculturist of 
 Sologue to know what such a tfouble means. In rich countries, when the hay crop fails, it 
 means that instead of harvesting 5,000 or 6,000 kilogrammes to the hectare, there are only 
 3,000 or 4,000, but in Sologne it means that there is no crop at all. In sucn difficulties the 
 enterprising cultivator must use more intelligence and more industry. 'What the man is 
 
 NoTK. — A iK-cUirc is about '2J acres. A kilt)jxramme is about 2} lbs. Avoirdiipoise. 
 
490 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 V, orth, the land is worth,' is an old provoib, but 1 -svill improve upon it by saj'ing that the 
 
 man should be worth more, as the land is worth loss. 
 
 I got safely through that year by having 50,000 bundles of wheat, rye. and oat straw. 
 I cut them up, and with 3 J kilogrammes of rye flour, which I fermented each day in large 
 tubs, and in which I soaked the straw, I obtained food that was softened by fermentation, 
 which my cattle ate freely and digested easily. Thus 1 reached the following spring without 
 being obliged to sell my cattle at a low price. I must acknowledge, however, that at the end 
 of the winter they were in a sorry condition, but the first grass quickly restored them, and I 
 was not compelled to replace them at a high price m tbe spring; and now the two years of 
 scarcity which my fellow-agriculturists have passed through have been for me — owing to my 
 silos — years of unprecedented plenty. What 1 have done can be done by thousands of 
 others, and my earnest desire, my sole ambition, is to enable them to imitate me as soon as 
 possible. Until 1872 I only expected from my Hmited ensilages the means of prolonging 
 for three weeks, or at most a month, the use of maize, so desirable a food for my cattle. To 
 that end I made many experiments. I have mixed my cut maize with various proportions of 
 straw, in order to find which would give the best result. I have made silos without cover, 
 burying the ensilage under bundles of straw, then with earth (never sand). I have filled my 
 four silos with every possible mixture, which would sooner have put me upon the road to a 
 positive success, if I had not been too easily alarmed by slight alterations on the surface, and 
 which I caused to extend all through by too frequent examinations 
 
 In 1873 I had a real success, due mainly to accident; and it is to be recognized that 
 chance nearly always plays an important part in the happiest discoveries. 
 
 Until this time I had hardly believed that the preservation of green maize for a long 
 time was possible, and I had very little confidence. 1 hesitated a while, and should have 
 jirobably hesitated a good while longer if I had not been in a measure compelled to do some- 
 thing. The year 1873 had been exceptionally favorable for the cidture of maize. At Bur- 
 tin the crop was enormous. After having fed my cattle abundantly until October, besides 
 having all that they could eat while green till December, I found that I had more than 
 170,000 kilogrammes that would be lost if I could not keep it, at least till the following 
 March. I went resolutely to work, and I have described elsewhere the means that I used 
 and the result that I obtained. The difficulties were greater than one would believe, on 
 account of the lack of faith of my employees. One day 1 had to leave my workmen for a 
 while, but my return was sooner than they expected. The work had ceased, of course. 
 They were talking together, and I overheard my foreman say to the workmen, ' This work 
 that we are doing is all foalishness, M. Goffart had better throw his maize into the dung-heap 
 at once, because that is where it will go to at last.' I said nothing, but redoubled my 
 watchfulness, knowing how little zeal I could expect from people so convinced of the use- 
 lessness of their labor." 
 
 In his earlier experiments, M. Goffart, after making his silos air and water tight at the 
 bottom and sides with cement, put in the maize, cut in pieces of three or four centimeters 
 long, with a mixture of cut straw, and pressing it down, placed on the top a layer of straw, 
 cut in length about ten centimetres; over this a layer of loam beaten with care to prevent all 
 contact with the air outside. When fissures appeared in the earth, they were immediately 
 closed with care; but on opening the silo, a vacuum was always found between the fodder 
 and earth covering, showing that the mass had settled and fermentation had set in; conse- 
 quently the ensilage could be preserved but a short time. After many experiments he found 
 that by cutting the fodder into very short lengths (about on^entimetre),* and mixing but 
 about one-tenth part straw, or leaving the straw out entirely, and placing upon the mass a 
 continuous pressure, that would settle with the fodder (which will always settle in any silo to a 
 
 * A oc'iitiiiu'tro is about 4-lOlh inch. 
 
ENSILAGE. 491 
 
 certain extent), thus entirely excluding the air, the preservation of the fodder \v;is ii com- 
 plete success, and it could be thus preserved for any length of time. 
 
 This continued pressure is a heavily weighted plank covering, which will follow ihe 
 material as it settles, and thus maintain a uniform pressure. M. Goll'art says: •' I pile on the 
 cover of my silo when it is filled, four or five hundred kilogrammes of stones or blocks of 
 wood per square metre of surface.* By my first processes (covering without much weight) I 
 obtained only a temporar}' and incomplete preservation ; with my last, I obtained a preserva- 
 tion indefinite and absolute." Thus, after many failui-es, and partial successes, and years of 
 study and experiment, was the problem at length solved, and it is now no longer a theory, 
 but a demonstrated fact, that green crops can be preserved in this manner with their valu- 
 able nutritive elements unimpaired, which is the real object of the ensilage system. 
 
 Mr. Brown says respecting M. GoSart's achievement: -'No doubt many farmers in this 
 country have an idea, especially since the canning process has become so popular, that vegeta- 
 tion might be preserved in a similar way. Some have gone so far as to pack some green 
 stuff in barrels by way of experiment; some have piled stalks in heaps and covered with dirt. 
 When the heat and moisture of the season have favored vegetation and produced larger 
 crop.5 than could be consumed before frost destroys it, many a farmer has doubtless revolved 
 the problem in his mind. 
 
 Apple pomace, turnips, cabbage, and different kinds of leaves seasoned with celery, 
 grape leaves, leaves of beets, beets themselves, pulp of beets, beets from sugar-factories, 
 some of these have been preserved in pits from time immemorial in Europe for feeding cows 
 and goats. Necessity has so long compelled the efforts of human beings, that we may find 
 precedents in almost every hue of improvement. But all experienced men who know the 
 great difference that separates a happy suggestion, or even a successful attempt, from a prac- 
 tice well enough confirmed to become the base of a regular business, will admit that these 
 proceedings do not destroy the merit of any man who, like Monsieur Auguste Goffart, has 
 accomplished a continued success. In 187G the French Government rewarded him with the 
 prize so dear to every Frenchman, the Decoration of the Legion of Honor." 
 
 How to Build a Silo. — Various methods of j^reserving different crops in a green 
 state in such a manner that their nutritive value will remain unimpaired have been resorted 
 to, some of which have proved exceedingly satisfactory,' while others have resulted either 
 wholly or partially in failure. Although the system of ensilage is stiD in a comparatively 
 experimental stage, and the experience and experiments of the future will suggest and 
 develop improvements upon the present standard at ained, enough has already been demon- 
 strated by this system to show that its success is no longer a subject of doubt or conjecture, 
 liut an established fact. The methods thusiar that have resulted most satisfactorily are by 
 the use of the silo and trenches, the former being most generally preferred. In g'ving 
 dii-ections respecting the manner of .building a silo, it may be of special interest to the 
 farmer to receive this instruction directly from some of the pioneers in the ensilage system, 
 wlio have thoroughly tested silos of different construction, and are therefore prej^arod to 
 speak from experience. "We have, therefore, adopted this method, in the main, in connection 
 with the subject, as well as in giving the experiments which have led to successful results. 
 
 Mr. Potter's Method of Constructing Brick Silos.— Mr, O, B, Potter, of New 
 York, the first person to try the ensilage system on a large scale in this country, furnishes us 
 for this work the following description of his manner of constructing silos: — 
 
 " The process of preserving fodder in pits is exceedingly si miile and easily practiced. 
 The conditions of success are these: — 
 
 First. — The preserving-pits must ?je wholly air-tight, so tliat when sealed, the air cannot 
 come in contact with the food preserved. 
 
 *A metre is about tlirec feet ;ind Ht inehes. 
 
4y2 I'lIK AMERICAN FAHMICK. 
 
 Second. — The [jits should be of such form and dinuT.sions as will best facilitate the set- 
 tling and compacting of the food into a solid mass, and when opened for feeding will expose 
 as small a part of the surface to the atmosph'Te as practicable. 
 
 Third. — The fodder must be cut green when in the best condition or in bloom, passed 
 immediately through the cutting-machine to reduce it to uniform short lengths of not more 
 than one inch, and at once be deposited and trod. firmly into the pit, sufficient salt being used 
 to render it palatable, but no more. As fermentation, which will commence at once, proceeds 
 and the mass settles, the cutting and treading in of fresh fodder must be continued at inter- 
 vals of thirty-six to forty-eight hours (depending upon the rapidity with which fermentation 
 and settling proceeds) until settling has ceased, and no more can be trod into the pit. 
 
 Fourth. — The pit, as soon as completely filled and settling has ceased, must be securely 
 sealed to exclude the air wholly and arrest fermentation, and musi be kept so sealed until 
 opened for use. My own practice is as follows: — 
 
 T make my pits of hard brick, with twelve-inch perpendicular walls, well laid in cement 
 with smooth joints. If the groimd is sandy or gravelly, the outside of the wall next the 
 earth is covered with a coat of cement, or the walls are filled in behind with clay or clayey 
 earth to prevent the passage of th : air through them. The bottoms are also laid with 
 brick upon the flat in cement. The pits are made from eiglit to ten feet wide, from six- 
 teen to twenty feet long, and about fifteen fest deep. The deeper the pits, the more they will 
 contain in proportion to measurement, owing to greater density of the contents from the 
 weight of the nuiss above. In all cases where practicable, pits should be made at least twenty 
 feet deep. The wails are made so smooth upon their inner sides as to offer no obstacle to the 
 settling or compacting of the food by friction of the sides. Tiiese pits are made either open 
 at the top and covered with a roof, or arched over, and covered underground, with two necks 
 to each coming up to within one foot of the surface of the ground, through which Ihey are 
 filled, and the necks then sealed with earth. This last construction I have found most con- 
 venient in connection with basen'.ent stables, to which the food is carried or wheeled by a 
 passage from the pits through the foundation walls of the stable. In this construction I 
 make one pit parallel with this foundation wall, and from the side of this pit most distant 
 from the stable, other rows of pits are made at right angles with and connecting witli this, 
 and with each other by doorways. 
 
 It will be seen from this construction, that as many tiers of pits may be made, end to 
 end, at right angles to the first or entrance pit, as may be required and space allow, and 
 that after the contents of this first or entrance pit are fed out, each of the other rows of pits 
 may be opened and fed out, one pit at a time, and that only the surface of the food at the 
 end of the one pit which is being fed will at any time be exposed to the air until the whole 
 are fed out — and this without opening or disturbing the necks of the pits above, which 
 remain sealed. Any other form of construction of pits, which answers the conditions may 
 be used. Pits or wells open only at the top, either round, elliptical, or rectangular, may be 
 used, the food being put in and taken out through the top only. Such pits would have one 
 advantage, that successive croppings might be put in the same pit, one above the other, each 
 being sealed with a layer of earth when put in. Where sufficient depth cannot be got above 
 water, pits may be made partly above and partly below the surface, the earth excavated being 
 used to make a broad and firm embankment around them to their tops. 
 
 It is important that the pits be so constructed and located, that the fodder as drawn from 
 (he field may be deposited conveniently at or over the top of the pits, and the cutting-machine 
 m-,y be so placed that the fodder when cut will fall as readily as jjossible into the pits. The 
 fodder when green, being very heavy, it is quite important to avoid handling it unnecessarily." 
 
 Mr. Potter objects to silos built above gi-ound, having tested those built partly above and 
 partly below ground, and those constructed entirely below ground thoroughly, and gives the 
 
ENSILAGE. 493 
 
 latter a decided preference. He states that that portion of the ensilage contained in th(! part 
 of the silo above ground was found spoiled on several occasions, while he has experienced no 
 such difficulty with the silos constructed entirely under ground. 
 
 Mr. Stewart's Method of Constructing Concrete Silos.— Mr. E. W. Stewart, 
 of Lake View, N. Y., gives his method of bailing a concrete silo as follows: — 
 
 " For a silo twelve feet by twenty feet (or longer) and fourteen feet deep, — which would 
 hold seventy-two tons, or sufSeient for ten cows six months with full rations, — the concrete 
 wall should be fourteen inches thick at the bottom and ten inches thick at the top of the side 
 walls, with the bevel on the outside of the wall, and the end walls twelve inches thick top 
 and bottom, the inside being perpendicidar and smooth, so that the plank covering may settle 
 with the ensilage. The concrete wall is stronger than ordinary stone wall, and for this short 
 silo fourteen inches at bottom is thick enough. It is not best to go any deeper in the earth 
 than can be well drained, and a trench should be cut on the outside of the wall, six to ten 
 inches deep all around, to carry off all water that may reach this depth. If the land around 
 the silo is nearly level, it is best to go only so deep that the bottom of the wall will be below 
 the frost. 
 
 Having excavated the earth as deep as the wall is to go, fifteen feet wide and twenty- 
 three feet long, then set the standards for the boxes to form the concrete walls in. It will 
 require twenty standards three by six inches, fifteen feet long (if the walls aie to be fourteen 
 feet high), of straight-grained timber. Those standards intended for the inside of the wall 
 should be joined straight on one edge, so that the wall may be made very straight and plumb 
 on the inside. There will be three standards upon each long side — one at each corner and 
 one in the middle. 
 
 The outer edges of these inside standards will be 1 1 feet 9 inches apart, and as the box- 
 ing plank are 1^ inches thick, this will bring the walls just 12 feet apart. The outside stand- 
 ards will be opposite the inside ones, and just three inches farther apart than the wall is thick, 
 so that when the planks are placed inside, it forms a box 14 inches wide at the bottom, and 
 the bevel, or slant, on the outside of the wall is made by bringing the outside standard 4 
 inches nearer the inside standard at the top. 
 
 The end standards will be parallel with each other and Li inches apart. These stand- 
 ards are held together by nailing a lath under the bottom end, and a bracket across the top 
 end, holding the side standards 17 inches apart at the bottom, and 13 inches at the top. Then 
 when the standards are set up, and the inside standard plumbed very carefully, and both 
 stay-lathed to hold them firmly in position, and the standards placed all around the proposed 
 silo, it is all ready for fitting in the boxing-planks. 
 
 Tho3;e boxing-planks should be straight-grained hemlock or pine, 14 inches wide, 1^ 
 inches thick, and may be the whole length of each side and end. or, if more convenient, the 
 sides may be two planks long, and the outside end plank will require to be \-ik feet long, but 
 they may run by the ends of the side planks. 
 
 The outside of the ends musl^be [ilujnb, so that the outside plank of the long sides can 
 be raised, but for the end walls being shorter, 1 2 inches thick is enough for strength, and 
 has the same material per foot of surface. When these boxing-planks are placed, there wiU 
 be a continuous box, 14 inches on the sides and 12 inches on the ends, around the silo. 
 
 Water-lime concrete is the only concrete suitable for silos, as it requires a strong, air- 
 tight, smooth wall, and one that can .stand moisture to some extent. This kind of wall is 
 easily made air-tight, and is built clipaijer than an ordinary stone-wall. It is only necessary 
 to use water-lime or cement enough to completely coat the particles of sand, so as to cement 
 them together, and this becomes a cement to fill in spaces among large gravel or between 
 stones. The cement is made by mixing one part of water-lime with four of fine sand, while 
 dry, so that the lime and sand can be evenly mixetl. Then work it into mortar, and if you 
 
494 THE AMEKICAN FARMER. 
 
 have co.arse gravel and no stone, you may put in five or sis parts of gravel, and this will be 
 sufficient to cement all together. The gravel is best mixed in the moitar-bed, but it miist bo 
 used at once, as such mortar sets in a few minutes after wetting. But if you have rou£!;h 
 stones of any kind, cobble or flat stones, they can be worked into the wall to good advantage, 
 and save cement. When stones are to be worked in, put one or two inches of thin mortar 
 in the wall box, then bed into this mortar a layer of stone, keeping the stone back a half inch 
 from the boxing-plank, so that the cement may be tamped all around the stone, leaving a 
 smooth surface on both sides of the wall. This cement is a poorer conductor of heat, cold, 
 and moisture than stone. A properly built concrete wall never shows frost on the inside. In 
 many parts of the country, thin, fiat, irregular stones a: e found in abundance, and these are 
 well adapted to concrete walls, it requiring only a thin layer of concrete mortar between 
 them, and the wall becomes solid in a few days. But with these fiat stones, it is better not 
 to bring them quite to the boxing-plank, but to let the concrete come over the edges so as to 
 form a smooth surface. 
 
 'When this concrete wall is laid with stone, sand, and lime, as stated, so large a propor- 
 tion of stone may be worked in, that the water-lime will be only one-tenth of the wall, and the 
 same when the wall is made of sand and coarse gravel ; so that, to find the amoimt of water- 
 lime required, count one barrel to 40 cubic feet of wall to be built. If water-lime is very 
 expensive, and you have flat stones, no matter how irregular, you may use quicklime after 
 you get one foot higher than the earth will come against it. One of quicklime to five of 
 sand will make an excellent mortar to lay these stones in, doing the work in all respects as 
 above stated. The concrete should be well tamped into the boxes, filling all crevices between 
 the stones, and solid against the planks. Water-lime will set hard enough so that these box- 
 ing-planks can be raised 1 2 inches every day. That is, if you fill the box all around the silo 
 in one day, the next morning you may raise the boxing-planks where you began the day 
 before; and as you fill, raise section after section of planks till you get around again. This 
 you may repeat each day till the wall is completed, provided the mortar sets in the usurd 
 time. But if quicklime is used, this sets slower, and will take two or three days to become 
 strong enough to raise the plank. It will be noted that the planks are 1 4 inches wide, but 
 are raised only 1 '2 inches, which leaves a lap of 2' inches on the wall below, keeping the sides 
 of the wall smooth and even. The proposed silo wall will have 952 cubic feet in it, and 
 requires 22 barrels of waterJime, of the Akron or Rosendale brand. This lime in many 
 places will cost from §1 to Sl-25 per barrel, or §22 to $27.50. The only other cost of the 
 wall is the labor, wlaich can be done by common laborers. The standards can be set by any 
 one who can use a level and plumb. When the walls are completed, take a seasoned board 
 as wide as the wall is thick, tar one side and tui-n the tarred side down upon the wall. Tins 
 will prevent the moisture from rotting tlie plate rim placed on top of the wall. 
 
 The roof placed over this silo must be elevated some 3 feet above the plates, so as to 
 give head-room for fiUing the silo full. This may be done by frammg short posts into the 
 timber on toj# of the wall, and placing light plates on the^, upon which the roof is to stand. 
 It will be seen that this silo can be built, by many farmers, with only a small expenditure for 
 watcr-lime, shingles, and nails, all the rest of the materials being from their own farms. The 
 bottom of the silo is cemented to prevent moisture from rising from below. 
 
 I be! .eve the silo is to be generally used in the future for storing green food for winter 
 feeding." 
 
 Dr. Bailey's Silo. — Dr. J. M. Bailey of Billerica, Mass, say?: "Having resolved to 
 try the experiment thoroughly, I broke ground on the 17th of July, selecting a side-hill, antl 
 locating the silo so that the corner joined the northeast corner of my barn. I excavated on 
 the west side and south end. seven feet deep, and put in a solid stone-wall on the west side, 
 44 feet long and 12 feet high. This v/as built of vcrv heavy stone, and in the most substan- 
 
ENSILAGE. 495 
 
 tial manner. I afterwards graded up on this side to the top of the wall, making a level spot 
 to set an engine and ensilage-cutter upon; also to drive upon to deposit the corn-fodder as it 
 came from the fields on dump-carts. It took 13 days' work of a stone-mason, 43| days' work 
 of laborers, and 28^ days' work for one horse, to excavate and build tiic stone wall and foun- 
 dations for the silo. 
 
 On the tenth day of August I commenced building the silo walls. These are 1 j inches 
 thick, built of concrete in the following manner: 
 
 First, 8X4- joists are set up at each of the angles, and also at intervals of about eight 
 feet on each side of the walls. These scantling are placed eight inches apart, spruce plank 
 12 inches wide and 1^ inches thick, are set up on the inside of the scantling, which leaves 15 
 inches between the planks as the thickness of the walls. 
 
 We are now ready to commence building the silo walls. The concrete is made by niix- 
 ing one, barrel of Newark, Eosendale, or Akron cement, with three barrels of plastering sand 
 and four barrels of clean gravel. This is thoroughly mixed together while dry. It is then 
 wet and thoroughly mixed again, making a very thin mortar. 
 
 About three inches in depth of this mixture is put in between the planks; then stone of 
 all sizes and shapes are packed and bedded in this layer of concrete, after which another 
 layer of concrete is poured in on top of this layer of stones, and the operation is repeated 
 until the space between the planks all round each silo is filled; then the planks are raised 
 about ten inches, and the space filled with concrete and stones as before, until the walls are 
 at the desired height. The best way is to have a sufficient number of hands to just raise the 
 wall the width of the plank each day. Time was pressing with me, however, and I some- 
 times raised the plank two and three times in one day, the concrete ' setting ' so that I was 
 able to do so safely. But I do not recommend this haste, as the walls will not be as smooth 
 as they would be if the cement had all night to ' set ' in before the planks were raised. A 
 4x12 sill was bedded on the wall in the last layer of concrete. This sill was made of 2 x 12 
 inch spruce plank nailed together. Upon these sills a building was placed with posts five 
 feet high, the beams on the top of these posts being thoroughly braced to the posts, thus 
 firmly tying the whole structure together. 
 
 In sections of the country where clean sand, gravel, or stone is not easily obtained, silo 
 walls may be constructed of brick in the usual manner of brick buildings. To put up the 
 concrete walls and bed the sills, together with grading the upper side, where the cutting of 
 the fodder is done, took of the foreman 28|- days; work of laborers, 149 days, and 34 days' 
 work of one horse. Putting up the frame to hold the plank, took two carpenters two days. 
 It required 124 barrels of cement, costing $1.25 per barrel at Lowell. 
 
 The teaming of the cement and lumber is included in the above account of horses and 
 laborers. My silos (capacity about 800,000 poimds) cost me about $500. In other words, 
 silos will cost about a dollar and a quarter for each ton's capacity. Large ones will cost less, 
 small ones more. Silos may be built of stone pointed with cement mortar, and plastered on 
 the inside, or of brick, or concrete. "Whichever material is the cheapest and most conven- 
 ient in any locality is the best to use there. Brick will cost more than the concrete. Con- 
 crete walls cost about ten cents per cubic foot. As a general rule, silos should be built rect- 
 angular in form, the width being about one-third the length, and the height about two-fifths 
 of the length, and, if possible, should be sunk about one-half below the surface of the 
 ground. 
 
 If there is a side-hiU near the stables, so that the surface c.f the earth will come nearly 
 to the top of the walls at one end of the silos, it will be found very convenient in filling the 
 silos, in weighing the ensilage, and in removing the weights as it is fed out. 
 
 These walls must be built sufficiently strong to withstand, when empty, the pressure of 
 the earth inward, as well as the pressure outward, caused by the settling of the ensilage under 
 
4913 Tl"' A-\li:i!l( AN FAIOIKK. 
 
 !lie woiglits placed upon it. Whore it is not convenient to got stone for weights, heavy logs 
 ui wood may be used, sawed in pieces about three feet in bngth, and placed on end all over 
 the planks which cover the ensilage — three feet of wood being about equal in weight to one 
 foot of stone. Bags or boxes of earth may be used as weights. M. Goll'art recommends that 
 the corners be rounded; I find that cutting them oft" answers the purpose as well, and is less 
 expei'sive. I find upon opening the silo, that the ensilage is preserved as well, and settled as 
 evenly in these corners as elsewhere; also, that the preservation is just as perfect close to the 
 walls, as in the center, showing that a concrete wall is more impervious to air than a brick 
 one." 
 
 Monsieur Goffart's Silos. — The description of Moijsieur Goffart's silos, as given 
 by hiinself, is translated as follows: — -'With my new stables at Burton finished, I shall be 
 able to house one hundred horned cattle. I have just finished three united silos, which form 
 a part of the plan of my new stable. The form of the silo exercises a great influence on the 
 i-esults. It should avoid all angles, and should offer the least possible resistance to the pack- 
 nig down of the ensilage. The elliptic silo with vertical walls is the best form, both for use 
 and durability. It is important to have them as large as possible compatible with the con- 
 ditions of easy and economical use. The preservation of the ensilage in small silos is always 
 lo.ss perfect than in large ones. No matter how much care is used, and how much weight is 
 applied, I have always found the portion which is farthest from the walls to be the best pre- 
 served, and that close to the walls there is always some alteration, not serious, but which it 
 i.; important to reduce as much as possible. Small receptacles offer proportionately much 
 more surface for contact. A rectangular silo, for example, of one metre each way, containing 
 one cubic metre, presents five square metres of contact surface, while one of ten cubic 
 metres, with 1000 cubic metres of contents, presents only 500 square metres of contact sur- 
 face, diminishing nine-tenths the evil indicated. 
 
 But I do not advise silos of such dimensions as this. At the commencement of my 
 experiments I recommended small silos, in order that when opened they might be quickly 
 cyusumed before the)^ became a prey to the slow combustion which the contact with the air 
 produced, with as small an entrance as possible for tlie air, of which the first eilect was to 
 raise the temperature, and then pj-oduce fermentation — first alcoholic, next acetic, and then 
 putrid. 
 
 But the day that I discovered the new process of a movable, weighted covering, so that 
 I was able to maintain in the mass a continuous density whereby the penetration of air 
 became impossible, I abandoned the small silos. Since then I have made them as large as 
 possible, and they are only limited by the economy of the different operations of ensilage 
 JI y new stables are a square of twenty-four metres on each side, divided into two compartments, 
 each of which has a central passage between two rows of stalls. These passages are con- 
 nected with the silos by a small railway, which makes it convenient to bring the feed before 
 each animal. The maize and the other ensilaged fodder is carried in willow baskets, all of 
 the same size, which are frequently weighed, in order to keep account of the weight of the 
 rations given to each lot of cattle. My silos are elliptic in form, with jjerpendicular walls as 
 smooth as possible inside, five metres wide and the same in height. Should I modify them 
 ill any way in future, it would be only to increase the height. My farm at Buitin presents 
 exceptional difficulties for building silos. Everywhere the water is met at one metre below 
 the surface, and as I want to sink my silos nearly two metres, because the part below the 
 ground preserves in summer more moisture than that part above the ground, I am obliged to 
 fir.?t dig a ditch lower than the excavation all around it, and then to cement the lower part, 
 wliich causes a considerable expense. 
 
 I put concrete on the bottom, and upon this I build the vertical walls of the thickness of 
 two bricks (45 centimetres) to the top of the ground. Above the ground I reduce tlx' 
 thickness to one brick and a half (about 34 centimetres). 
 
ENSILAGE, 
 
 497 
 
 PLAN OF UNITED SILOS. 
 
 I coat the walls with Portland cement sufBcient to insure their perfect imperme- 
 ability. My triple silos have cost me 4176 francs, and their total capacity 812.45 cubic 
 metres, about 5 francs 14 centimes per cubic metre. 
 I intend next year to raise the walls of my silos 
 another metre, so that their capacity will be about 
 a thousand cubic metres. I postpone till that time 
 my decision as to a special cover for them. 
 
 Most agricultui'ists are more favored in the 
 profile of their soil; many of them have a hillside in 
 the neighborhood of their barn, in which they can 
 open silos that will always be dry. and in some 
 places can dispense with masonry by having solid 
 rock. Those who wish to imitate me will have less 
 hesitation when they know that Burtin is a particu- 
 larly bad place for building silos, and that they can 
 obtain the same results with much less otitlay. 
 
 In making use of such large silos as these, it is 
 necessary, of course to have a cutting-machine with 
 a six horse power engine at least, and an elevator to 
 raise the cut fodder over the walls of the silos. I 
 estimate that with these instruments one silo can be filled in three days, at most, without 
 difficulty. This rapidity is necessary in order to assure the success of the ensilage. When 
 the elevator and cutter are combined in the same machine, the process will be simplified." 
 
 Earth Silos. — The practice of depositing the ensilage in ti-enches dug in the ground, 
 with a sUght covering of some material that will keep the earth from coming in direct 
 contact with the cut fodder, followed by a covering of earth, or earth and other weights 
 combined, is preferred by some to a well-constructed silo. The arguments offered by the 
 adherents of this system of preserving ensilage are that it obviates the expense and labor of 
 building silos, while the preservation of the ensUage is as complete as that stored in silos. 
 
 At the recent ensilage congress assembled in New York city, in which several hundred 
 farmers and others prominently interested in the subject of ensilage participated, Mr. Francis 
 Morris of Maryland — one of the ensilage pioneers of this country — stated that ensilage was 
 a very simple thing, but farmers generally seemed to think there was something mysterious 
 about it, because the words "ensilage" and '-silo" were new to them; but it was, in fact, a 
 very simple thing. He dug his trenches in the ground and did not line them with brick or 
 cement at all, but used, when filling, a covering of felt, with the earth above for a weight. 
 Mr. C W. Mills of New Jersey, also well known in his connection with the S3'stem of ensilage, 
 spoke on the same occasion in favor of trenches, and claimed that all that was essential in 
 lining such trenches was that there should be a slight wooden frame — not necessarily air- 
 tight — which would prevent the spread of the ensilage crop when the weight was placed on 
 the top, the pressure being about three himdred pounds to the square foot; and that the 
 expensive sUos of concrete, brick, and stone, the cost of which had frightened so many fann- 
 ers, were unnecessary. Thus we see that the practice of those who have adopted the ensilage 
 system, varies very materially in the manner of storing the fodder, as well as the expense 
 attending it. We should suppose that one of the chief objections to the earth silo would be 
 the difficulty of keeping the ensilage unmixed with water and earth, which are obviated in 
 properly constructed silos. 
 
 Mr. Morris' System of Ensilage. — The following description of tiie earth sUos 
 used by Mr. Francis Morris is given by Mr. J. B. Brown, to whose courtesy we are also 
 
498 THE AMERICAN FARJIER. 
 
 indebted for the illustration of M. Goffart's silos: — "The earth silo has been used by Mr. 
 Francis Morris more than by anyone else in thu country. His soil in Maryland consists of 
 clay for a foot or two and a kind of rotten rock beneath. He uses oxen and a scraper, and 
 makes a trench or pit 5i- feet deep. 7-i feet \\ide on the bottom, and 11 feet wide on the top, 
 and any length desired. A width of 11 feet on top prevents danger of arching. At this 
 slope the sides remain firm, and he does not plaster the face. The surface water is drained 
 from it. In filling it, the sides are lined with straw standing, so that the ensilage will slip 
 down well. The bottom is floored with plank, the top rounded up and covered with a thin 
 layer of long straw, the thinner the better; above that a sheet of tarred roofing felt, and 
 above that the earth is piled on two feet deep. The cut stalks are pounded in, and rolled 
 with a heavy roller frequently at first. Vigilance is the price of safety with an earth silo. 
 He has recently built more of them, all radiating from a center where the cutter stands, so 
 that he can fill all without moving his machinery. He can cut ten tons per hour with a six- 
 horse engine. The stalks are hauled from the field in advance in the morning, in order to 
 keep the macliine going. He still uses two masoniy silos in the stone barn, which were the 
 first pits built for the purpose in this country; those, however, are also covered with dirt and 
 compressed until they have ceased to settle. Mr. Morris thinks very much of ensilage as a 
 forerunner of great wheat crops. He says: — '-Clover, with its long roots, drawing susten- 
 ance from the sub-soil, when plowed under, and barnyard manure in abundance, will keep 
 land strong for wheat and other exhaustive crops, such as cannot now be raised profitably in 
 the Eastern States. 
 
 I made use of Indian corn as winter food for stock as long ago as the winter of 1876, 
 and I have used it in each succeeding winter with great success. The earlier it is sown the 
 better; its growth is more rapid and luxuriant in May and June than in July and August — 
 a bushel of corn to the acre, in drills twelve to fifteen inches apart. The ci'op should lie 
 worked twice, and, when in tassel, should be cut by a mowing machine, carried from tho 
 field in wagons to the feed-cutter, cut up in pieces of about three-quarters of an inch, and put 
 into the silo prepared for it. The trench should have a shed over it, or a shed thatched 
 with straw. Water should be kept from the cut-up maize, as it would doubtless injure the 
 quahty, if not destroy it. 
 
 Maize or Indian com requires from forty-five to sixty days to ripen it into tassel, and 
 therefore it can be safely sown up to the 15th of July. If the land is in good condition, it 
 will yield twenty tons to the acre; it requires a ton a month for each cow, and all animals 
 will improve and do well upon it. By the use of superphosphates the crop can be doubled, 
 but this is a matter subject to the will of the farmer. Ten acres of maize wiU feed thirty 
 cows during the season that they cannot feed out of doors, and will furnish a quantity uf 
 manure to give a wheat or corn crop. The advantage of this crop is so great that it mu.t 
 change the agricultiu'e of every corn-growing country. 
 
 Cattle and sheep wiU be raised on every farm to an extent heretofore not thought of. 
 "Wheat, today, by all our best farmers, is followed by clover, the clover is cut and made into 
 hay, and this is fed to the stock. Maize will take the place of clover-hay, and the clover will 
 be grazed off the land, and the animals will return it to the land better prepared to act as a 
 manui-e than if the clover was cut, made into hay, carried to the barn, and then fed to the 
 stock. The advantage of grazing clover off the land is very great, as it at once returns to it 
 all that the clover takes from the sod. 
 
 We recommend every farmer who reads these suggestions to sow an acre of land with 
 corn or maize — if you have no drill, sow it broadcast, and when in tassel, use any old mowing 
 machine you may have to cut it down, and then if you have no feed-cutter, buy or borrow 
 one and cut up the fodder, as ordered — bviry it in the ground, and when winter comes feed 
 your stock upon it, and when you try it once you will never be without it again. I have 
 
ENSILAGE. 499 
 
 used it for four seasons, every time -witli complete success, and I know that it multiplied the 
 value of our land three or four times over." 
 
 Mr. Mills' System of Ensilage. — At the first meeting of the Ensilage Congress in 
 January, 1882, Mr. C. W. Mills stated as follows: "In 1876 I tried an experiment, but failed 
 from lack of knowledge. I tried to mix the southern corn with our species of corn indigen- 
 ous to the State of New Jersey, but I made a mistake. When one kind was ripe enough to 
 cut, the other had only just begun to tassel. Some of the Southern corn grew higher than 
 this room. My neighbors would say, ' Is that the two-year-old corn? ' ' Is it going to come 
 out next year?' 'There is another city farmer come down to show us how to do things.' I 
 got pretty well nettled, and I determined to put it out of sight, any way. I came to the con- 
 clusion that if I could exclude the air, I could keep it. To produce fermentation, three 
 things are required, air, warmth, and moisture. Take away any one of these and there is no 
 fermentation, consequently no decomposition. 
 
 I placed it in pits whole, and covered it over with boards and straw. I then covered 
 the top with dirt. It settled u^itil the top was a little below the surface of the ground. My 
 neighbors would say, ' What are you doing?' I would reply, 'I- am making manure.' 
 
 When I opened one of the pits and commenced to take it out it seemed to be packed 
 and glued together. The color was richer than any samples I have seen here, and I do not 
 think I have ever seen a sample of ensilage to compare with it. To get it out, I had to rig 
 up a derrick, put on a double purchase, and pull it out with a team of powerful horses by the 
 use of grappling irons. The cattle would smell the stuff from quite a distance, and were wild 
 for it. It was eaten up very clean. Then I found I had a good thing, and I doubled my 
 stock to eat up this ensilage. 
 
 Now about the matter of preservation. If you do not exclude the air. but keep it down 
 to a low temperature, it will keep quite well. Though incipient fermentation may have set 
 in, it does not seriously injure it, but I prefer the exclusion of the air, as far as possible. 1 
 think I can keep the air out by pressure. Let us have the matter as simple as possible, 
 whether we exclude the air by pressure, or by hermetically sealing, which is more particularly 
 Mr. Potter's plan. I maintain that pressure excludes the air the most effectually. 
 
 I Tiave two large masonry silos each 40 feet in length, 20 feet deep, and 12^ feet wide. 
 There is a wooden extension above each silo of 15 feet, making the whole depth 35 feet. I 
 shall never build another such silo. If I should wish to increase my capacity, I should build 
 on the surface, notwithstanding I have fine facilities for putting in silos. I am satisfied that 
 the less contact there is with the ensilage, the better it will keep. Last winter both of my 
 silos were full. My west wall was exposed for about eight feet deep. I had taken out part 
 of the otlier end, and left it standing -s^-ith nothing intervening; I had a pressure of about 300 
 poimds to the square foot. The part left standing with nothing intervening between it and 
 the weatner, kept perfectly, say for two or three weeks, in the coldest and bitterest weather 
 we had last winter, while the ensilage on the other end was spoiled for some three or four 
 feet, next the waU. 
 
 If I should build another receptacle for my fodder I should build it of wood, entirely 
 above ground. My system is unique and different from that of M. Goffart. I depend 
 entirely upon a sufficient, uniform, and continuous pressure with no let up from the time it is 
 put on until the fodder is taken out for use. 
 
 The principle of ensilage is nothing more nor less than the preservation of green fodder 
 from the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere. I cut it up no shorter than is necessary to 
 have it pack well in the silo; I allow no tramping. If you bruise the succulent stalk, the juice 
 will exude, and air will take its place in the cellular tissue, the very thing to be avoided. 
 
 I would not use rye for the silo at all, on account of the ergot. I prefer oats to com, 
 but give me perennial grasses above them all. When I get my farm rich enough, I propose 
 
600 
 
 THE A.MERICAN FARMER. 
 
 to raise notiiing but the perennial grasses. I cut my corn after tasselling, wlien it is full of 
 saccharine matter. I use the Southern horse-tooth corn, getting my seed from one section, 
 from one particular State. I plant about eight bushels to the acre, and I plant by hand." 
 
 It will be seen by extracts previously given that, while the methods of preser\antr ensi- 
 lage differ somewhat with adherents of the system, they all agree with respect to the value of 
 the fodder thus preserved. 
 
 The Most Profitable Crops to Ensilage. — As has been pre\-iously stated, all 
 kmds of forage crops may be preserved in accordance with the system of ensOage; still some 
 
 kinds are better suited and more profitable to be pre- 
 served in this manner than others. Mr. 0. B. Potter 
 states as the result of his experience in preserving corn, 
 rye, grasses, clover, sorghum, etc., that in many re- 
 spects red clover is most admirably adapted for ensilage, 
 since it settles in the most compact mass, and thus meets 
 the principal requisite of the process, which is to ex- 
 clude the air and retain the moisture, and that he pro- 
 fers sorghum to corn for this purpose. That sorghum 
 will produce more milk and flesh to the acre than corn, 
 but will also exhaust the soil more in its production 
 than the latter, and also requires longer to mature. 
 
 Corn has been used thus far more extensively for 
 ensilage than any other crop, while perhaps clover, and 
 sorghum or millet would rank next in this respect. 
 
 The varieties of corn generally used for this purpose 
 are those of the largest and most thrifty growth, such as 
 the Southern Seed Corn, or some of the large varieties 
 of sweet com. 
 
 The Southern Seed Corn has an abundance of foli- 
 age, heavy stalks, and is veiy sweet and nutritious. 
 It does not mature in the Northern States, but reaches 
 full height and tassels in that climate. 
 
 The cow-pea is a very valuable food for ensilage, 
 but cannot be raised as easily as fodder-corn in all parts 
 of the country. 
 
 Broom-corn, sorghum, millet of various kinds, oats, 
 rye, clover, the various kinds of grasses, etc., can also 
 be preserved in this manner, but as has been previously 
 mentioned, corn has thus far been given the preference 
 generally. 
 
 Method of Cultivating Maize for Ensilage. 
 
 — Maize or corn for ensilage may be sown either broad- 
 cast or in drills, but the drill method is to be preferred, 
 since it admits of after-culture, produces a heavier 
 growth, and is less liable to be blown down by the wind. 
 The soil should be rich and well pulverized. It is a fact well known to all farmers that the 
 richest soil will produce but a partial crop where this necessary part of agriculture is 
 neglected. The usual method is to plant in drills three or three and a half feet apart, the 
 seed from four to six inches apart in the drills. 
 
 Different methods are preferred by different farmers, some of which differ very 
 
 SOUTHERN SEED CORN. 
 
ENSILAGE. 
 
 501 
 
 materially from otliers. Mr. J B. Brown claims that the best method of planting corn for 
 ensilage, whereby the largest crop can be secured with the least labor, is to make two di-ills 
 four inches apart, with spaces of twenty-eight inches, cultivating while small with a lio-ht 
 smoothing-harrow. and afterwards with the plow and cultivator; the grains in the drills to 
 be from three to four inches apart, and the drills to be made North and South. By this 
 means the sun and air strike both sides. The varieties of largest growth will, of course, 
 requi.'-e more space than the smaller kinds. The planting can be done with any kind of 
 grain-drill or corn-planter. The cut below represents the Ensilage Corn-planter, manufactured 
 by the New York Plow Co. ;[t is a one-horse machine, which opens the drills, drops the seed 
 and covors it. 
 
 After planting, tlie ground should bo rolled ti) press the soil upon il, in order to insure 
 quick germination. Care 
 should be used not to drill 
 the seed in too thick, as the 
 growth will not then be as 
 heavy. About three pecks 
 per acre of the Southern 
 Horse-tooth corn is suffici- 
 ent, and gives more nutri- 
 tive stalks than thicker sow- 
 ing. As a general rule, 
 the richer the soil, the less 
 seed is required. The seed 
 should be planted the last 
 of May or first of June, ac- 
 cording to the season. It 
 should be kept free from 
 weeds and grass, and the surface frequently stirred to promote rapid growth; the after- 
 culture being the same as that for the ordinary corn crop. 
 
 Time for Harvesting Maize for Ensilage.' — The best time for cutting maize for 
 ensilage is when the stalks are fully matured, being then full of saccharine matter and conse- 
 quently containing the gi-eatest amount of nutriment. This stage is indicated by full 
 blossoming. If the harvesting is delayed beyond the proper point of maturity, the crop is 
 deteriorated, since the plant does not remain Juicy and tender more than ten days or two 
 wjeks after blossoming. If cut later than this, it is also not as liable to be preserved as well 
 in the silo. Whenever a change takes place in the leaves, like fading or tui'ning yellow, it 
 shows that the air has en=tered the cells and fennentation has begmi, and when cut in this 
 condition the ensilage will invariably become sour. This practice of leaving the maize stand- 
 ing too long before cutting for the silo, will be the common en'or of beginners in the 
 system of ensilage, and much loss will in consequence be the result. But by proper attention 
 and care in what may seem at first to be minor matters and of little importance, there is no 
 reason why the first experiments in this method of preserving green fodder may not be 
 attended with the most satisfactory results. 
 
 The corn-cutter is the best machine for cutting the corn fodder in the field preparatory 
 to ensilaging it. Some use an old mowing-machine, others corn-knives. Dr. Bailey recom- 
 mends corn-knives for this purpose, on the ground that the labor can be performed cheaper 
 than by a mowing-machine, since when thus harvested it can be laid in bunches, rendering it 
 easy to load, the extra cost of cutting being thus more than made up by the facihty with 
 which the crop can be loaded, and taken to the silo for cutting. 
 
 11 \ 1 1 WTJ-K 
 
502 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 How to Cut the Maize for the Silo. — Various and repeated experiments have 
 proven the fact that tlie finer the ensilage is cut, the better the preservation in tlie silo, other 
 conditions being eqUal. Since it is essential to the perfect preservation of green fodder 
 that all fermentation must be prevented, and this cannot 1 e prevented without entirely 
 excluding the air (as air furnishes the means of combustion or fermentation) this can best be 
 accomplished by having the maize cut in very short pieces, as it requires less room and packs 
 more densely in the silo, leaving less space for the air to occupy. 
 
 More time and labor will, of course, be required to cut the fodder four or five-tenths of 
 an inch in length, than to cut it three or four inches, but its good pieservation when thus 
 cut fully compensates for all the labor required. 
 
 Many of the large ensilage cutters, when run by steam power, will make from twenty- 
 five liundred to three thousand cuts per minute, thus cutting as fast as two men can spread it 
 in the silo. The great secret of success in ensilage, as thus far indicated by experience, is in 
 the exclusion of air, which, as previously specified, is secured by short cutting, and dense 
 packing. M. Goflfart says on this subject: — 
 
 "The fineness to which the maize is cut at the moment of ensilation, is extremely impoi'- 
 tant in view of good preservation. Cut in disks of only one centimetre thick, the maize 
 packs better in the silo, it occupies less space, and takes the form and consistency of a species 
 of pulp, leaving in its mass the least possible amount of air. In proportion as the length is 
 increased, the preservation becomes less perfect, and finishes by being entirely defective. 
 Last year a ctiltivator of the valley of the Loire took from me the dimensions of my elliptic 
 silo, and reproduced it exactly on his own farm. He filled it in the autumn, and when he 
 opened it during the winter, he took out a poorly-preserved product, whicli his beasts only 
 eat with repugnance. Greatly disappointed, he brought to me a sample of his maize that he had 
 cut in lengths of five to six centimetres, instead of one or two at most, as I had advised him. 
 I recognized at once the cause of his failure, and asked him why, contrary to my advice, he 
 had cut it so long. He replied, ' I was not able to procure a steam engine which I expected 
 to use, and I had to use a horse-power; the work did not get along fast enough, and in order 
 to hasten it, I decided to cut it in such long pieces.' He was sui-prised at the excellent pres- 
 ervation of the maize at Burtin, and he carried home a hundred kilogrammes; his cattle 
 were thus enabled to appreciate the difference. I cite this fact because it contains a valuable 
 lesson. 
 
 At the beginning of my ensilages I had as principal resource for the sustenance of my 
 stock a great quantity of wheat, oat, and rye straw, etc. In order to induce my cattle to eat 
 it, I mixed all that I could with my maize and my green cut rye, but I was not slow to notice 
 that this mixture kept much less time, as the proportion of straw was greater. A fiftieth in 
 volume, or a tenth in weight, was the maximum of what the maize could carry without being 
 exposed to an earljf alteration; when I increased this quantity, the time that it kept always 
 diminished, and at last did not exceed forty-eight hours. I attribute this to the fact that the 
 straw, being very dry, absorbs from the maize too much of its water. The moist condition 
 of the ensilages, instead of being a cause of deterioration, is, on the contrary, to a certain 
 extent, indispensable to the good preservation of the whole matter. 
 
 Maize in its normal condition contains about eighty-five per cent, of water; when the 
 addition of dry straw has caused the mixture to decline to an average holding less than 
 seventy-five per cent., the good preservation is much compromised, and quickly becomes 
 impossible if we try to go below it. Besides the too great dehydratation that the 
 presence of the straw may cause, it also offers another serious inconvenience, especially 
 rye straw. This straw when cut forms a great quantity of Httle tubes, the envelopes 
 of which resist decomposition for a long time; these tubes inclose an appreciable 
 
ENSILAGE. 
 
 503 
 
 quantity of air which is the most dangerous enemy of ensilage. Oat straw, or others of 
 softer texture, are less objectionable in this respect than rye straw. While I used at first 
 the short straw from my threshing, always troublesome on account of tjje room that it occu. 
 pied, henceforth I shall bury my fodder almost without any mixture. When maize has been 
 cut before the frost, and arrives in good condition at the cutting machine and then at the 
 silo, it will not yield water easily, even when it is submitted to a considerable pressure. But 
 it IS not the same when the fodder is too old, and has been exposed to the rams and frosts at 
 the end of autumn." 
 
 Crops designed for ensilage should be cut and packed into the silo as soon as possible 
 after gathering, as any wilting or drying by exposure to air or sun, even for a short time after 
 being gathered, is very injurious, and liable to produce fermentation in the silo. The Cycle 
 Ensilage Cutter, manufactured by the New York Plow Co., and of which we give an illus- 
 
 CYCLE ENSILAGE CUTTEK. 
 
 tration, can be run by cither horse or steam power. It combines three knives with a long draw- 
 ing cut, so leading each other that the cut is continuous and steady without jar. There is an 
 aperture for dropping out stones before reaching the rollers, and another after passing tlie 
 rollers, so that there is very little danger of any reaching the knives. It is well liowcver to 
 keep the stalks as free from stones as possible, as breaking a cutter while filling a silo is a 
 serious accident. 
 
 Tlie system of ensilage requires a large cutter to make it profitable and safe where the 
 silos are of large capacity, in order that they may be filled sufficiently fast to prevent heating. 
 
 The cost of cutting fodder four-tenths of an inch, with a large machine and sufBcient 
 power, is estimated by reliable authority to be not more than twenty-five cents per ton. The 
 following cut represents a somewhat smaller machine than the former, manufactured by the 
 Whittemore Brothers, Boston, Mass. It cuts from one-eighth to two and a half inches long. 
 The length of the knives is from fifteen to twentj' inclies. It cuts rapidly, and requires but a 
 small amount of powei'. 
 
504 
 
 THE AMERICAN FAHMEK. 
 
 It will be seen by what lias been previously stated that it is of the highest importance to 
 cut the fodder for ensilage very fine. Some cut to the length of one inch, but a half or four- 
 tenths of an inch is greatly to be preferred, and although it requires more time and labor, it 
 is a safer practice, insuring a better preservation. 
 
 How to Fill a Silo. — The following directions for filling a silo are given by Monsieur 
 Goifart: "It is necessary to procure, either by purchase or rental, a motive-power and a pow- 
 erful feed-cutter. Large farms are generally provided with these machines, but the average 
 farmer will have to hire. It may be that the traveling contractors for threshing will become 
 contractors for cutting maize for ensilage, with a machine that possesses sufficient weight to 
 be solid, and is also portable. Filling the silo should be done as rapidly as possible, and the 
 layer of maize should be kept level all the time. The greater the compression, the better 
 will be the preservation. The packing along the walls (which should be as smooth as possi- 
 ble,) should be attended to carefully. 
 
 SILVER k DEMING ENSILAGE CUTTER. 
 
 When the silo is filled to the top and carefully leveled, spread along the surface short 
 straw four or five centimeters thick, then place on top of this boards fitting close together. 
 These should be put across the silo in order that when it is being fed out they may be taken 
 off one by one, as the silo is cut down vertically. Upon this flooring there should be piled 
 abundance of weight, such as stones, bricks, logs of wood, or old bags filled with dirt, etc. 
 At Burtin I have aliandoned using loose earth as a means of compression, as it infiltrates into 
 the ensilage, and adhering to the walls, a vacuum forms as the maize settles away, which is 
 destructive. 
 
 Any ridge on the silos is objectionable, as the ensilage cannot be sufficiently compressed, 
 and the dry rot soon attacks it and communicates to the material below. As to using salt in 
 the silos, it is not very important, and I often omit it without any bad result; but I believe 
 the moderate use of salt is favorable to the health of animals, and I sometimes mix in my 
 ensilage one kilogramme to a cubic metre of maize, the average weight of which, after 
 being packed, is 812 kilogrammes. 
 
ENSILAGE. 505 
 
 When the ensilage is fed out, it should be exposed to the air fifteen or twenty hours, in 
 order tliat the alcoholic fermentation may commence. The proper time depends upon the 
 temperature, but if kept longer than this, the fermentation becomes excessive and injurious. 
 The spontaneous heat which is produced in the feed should never exceed 35 or 40 degrees 
 (R.). Two years ago I had no silos at my farm at Gouillon, and I carried eveiy other day 
 from Burtin what was necessary. From the second day the heat exceeded these hmits, and 
 the alcoholic vapor abundantly emitted indicated the serious loss that was going on. The 
 acetic acid was not slow to join the party. In the north of France tlio best pulp that is fed 
 in winter is nearly always quite sour. It is to this circumstance that I attribute the poor 
 quality of milk and butter obtained from the animals kept on this food. 
 
 It is indispensable to superimpose four or five hundred kilogrammes per square metre of 
 heavy materials upon the covering or movable planks of the filled silos. I meet here the 
 most important question — that which I have had the most trouble to solve, and which I have 
 only really solved quite recently. When a silo has been filled, it does not answer only to 
 prevent the external air from penetrating it ; it is necessary at once to seek means for expel- 
 ling the mass of air that it encloses between its disks and in its cells. It is here that the 
 heavy matei-ials with which I load my silos become important ; it is necessary that the air 
 inclosed in the silo should find between the joints of the covering planks an outlet ; it is 
 necessary that a strong compression should compel this air to pass 'out quickly and to quit 
 the place where it would cause most serious damage if it remained. It is necessary that this 
 powerful compression should con- r^ '"^ r ^^^^i - -,,-.'^^--^, 
 
 Ml- - - __ 
 
 tinue during several months, be- 
 cause the tramping of the work- 
 men is insufficient, for the follow- 
 ing reasons : At the moment 
 when the green maize is cut, it " 
 is all alive, and is so elastic that 
 it reacts forcibly against the 
 momentary pressure of the feet 
 of the workmen. It is not the 
 same several days or weeks there- 
 after, but its elasticity diminishes, or, in other words, its compressibility increases in consider- 
 able proportions; it is then tliat the heavy superimposed materials follow the maize down in 
 its softened condition, continuing to press it in proportion as its compactness increases, and 
 brings it to that state of density that is necessary in order to put it out of reach of all 
 alteration.'' 
 
 Some farmers who have had experience in the ensilage system advise mixing clover, and 
 grass in which clover predominates in the same silo with fodder corn, millet, or sorghum; the 
 clover becoming, after slight fermentation, a putty-like mass which renders the whole amount 
 more compact and weighty, excluding the air, while at the same time it improves the quality 
 of fodder. Farther experiments will doubtless greatly improve this system, the greater 
 number of experiments made thus far having been with fodder corn. 
 
 As has been previously stated, great care is necessary in order to exclude as much of 
 the air as possible, and to distribute the fodder evenly in the silo. Some object to tramping 
 down the mass in order to compress it, for the reason that any portion of the stalk subjected 
 to pressure will cause the juice to exude, and when this pressm-e is removed the au- immedi- 
 ately rushes into the cells of the plant taking its place, which results in fermentation. A little 
 salt, sufficient to render the food palatable, is sometimes sprinkled into the silo during tin- 
 process of filling ; this is not, however, necessary for preserving it. 
 
 After being filled sufficiently full, the plank covering siiould be put on across the silo so 
 
 A FILLED SILO BEING EMPTIED BY VERTICAL SLICING. 
 
506 THE AMEHIC'AN FAKMEH. 
 
 that a small portion can Le uncovered at one time in opening, tlius exposing to the atmosphere 
 only wliat is taken out, wliich should be cut down vertically. A little space is usually left 
 between these planks for the escape of air from the silo as the mass settles. Every facility 
 should also be made for the covering to move so freely that it will meet with no obstacles on 
 the sides of the silo, but follow the whole mass as it settles, thus excluding all air, by a uni- 
 form pressure. The weights for compressing the ensilage should be evenly distributed on the 
 covering in order that the pressui'e may be equal in all parts of the silo. This will gradually 
 settle until the average shrinkage in the silo will equal about one-third the original bulk. 
 
 Mr. Francis Moiilton thus describes Mr. Mills' method of filling a silo : " The com is 
 harvested in the latter part of September, when the stalks are fully matured — not dead, but 
 whilst still green in color — and filled with saccharine matter. This stage of growth is 
 indicated by full tasseling and the beginning to ear. The harvesting is done in the ordinary 
 old-fashioned way, b}' hand, with a stalk knife, and a sufficient labor force is employed to fill 
 a pit of 300 tons capacity within three days, because it is essential to gather and cut the com 
 and put it into the silo, and get it under uniform and continuous pressure within the shortest 
 possible time, in order to save all the food properties. Mr. Mills uses two corn-cutters, one 
 cutting one-half inch, and the other an inch length, of a combined capacity of 100 tons per 
 day, using steam-power for the purpose. 
 
 He has two silos or pits, each 40 feet long, 13 feet wide, and 20 feet deep, located in the 
 center of his barn, the walls of which are constructed of a concrete of stone and cement two 
 feet thick, the sides and ends parallel, and the bottom well cemented. Upon the walls, flush 
 with the inside of them, a structure of ordinary boards is built, fifteen feet high, which serves 
 as a feeder to the pit, and which, when both are filled, will compensate for the shrinkage of 
 the mass by compression. When the pit and feeder are filled, the surface is leveled, and sec- 
 tional covers four feet in width, and in length one inch shorter than the width of the pit, are 
 placed upon it, upon which are placed 50 tons of grain in bags (making five tons to each sec- 
 tion) evenly distributed. Mr. Mills uses grain for weight because it is convenient. Any- 
 thing else that can be uniformly distributed would answer. It takes about ten days for the 
 whole mass to compress sufficiently for the covers to be on a level with the top of the pit, and 
 then the feeder can be taken down. Mr. Mills allows no tramping or mussing of the mass, 
 for the reason that he finds that any portion of the succulent stalks subjected to pressure will 
 cause the juice to exude, and immediately iipon relieving the pi-essure the air takes its place 
 in the cellular tissue of the plant, and fermentation results in the body of the mass. The one 
 inch of space between the cover and the sides of the pit is left for the escape of air and 
 ambient moisture; the uniform and continuous pressure forces out the atmosphere and gases 
 — which may have accumulated while preparing the mass for pressure — through tlifi half -inch 
 opening between the cover and the sides, and keeping them out until the pressure is 
 removed. 
 
 "When this fodder is to be used for the cattle, the bags of grain from the first section of 
 the cover are removed and their contents ground for use, while the fodder lying immediately 
 underneath them is being fed. The fodder is taken down perpendicularly to the bottom of 
 the pit. Thus one section after another is fed until the whole is exhausted." 
 
 Removing Fodder from Silos. — When the fodder in the silo is needed for use, the 
 weight and cover from the first section should be removed, exposing as little of the contents 
 of the silo as possible to the action of the air. The fodder is then taken out perpendicularly 
 to the bottom of the pit. 
 
 While one section is being used, the pressure on the remaining ones should continue to 
 be the same, which practice will exclude the air as effectually, and thus fermentation be as 
 completely obviated as though each section were in a separate pit. One section after another 
 is thus fed out until the silo is empty. 
 
ENSILAGE. 507 
 
 How to Feed Ensilage. — The quantity of ensilage fed to stock will, of course, vary 
 ■p.-itli ilifferent individuuls, the same as with other kinds of food; hence, in determining this 
 question by comparing the results of experiments made by leading ensilagists of the country, 
 an approximate estimate only can be obtained. Ensilage is generally fed in connection with 
 bran, meal, shorts, or some other article of nitrogenous food. While some feed all the ensi- 
 lage that the stock will eat, aside from other food given in connection with it, others practice 
 the better method of allowing a certain amount per day to each animal. The amount of ensi- 
 lage estimated as a full ration, is one and a half cubic feet, or about seventy jjounds per day 
 for an ox, cow, or other large animal, or one cubic foot per week for a sheep; the amount of 
 food required for a sheep being, as a general rule, about one-sixth of that required for a cow. 
 Others use from twenty-five to a hundred pounds of ensilage per day, according to the quan- 
 tity of other food used in connection with it. Mr. Mills formerly fed sixty pounds of ensilage 
 per day with three quarts of grain, but has recently reduced the amount of ensilage to about 
 one-half that quantity, with the same amount of grain. Dr. Bailey states that from his expe- 
 rience he considers ensilage to be worth one-half as much as the same weight ol the best 
 timothy hay ; but that he would not, however, exchange ensilage for hay and give two tons 
 of it for one of hay. He says: — 
 
 " My method of feeding is as follows: I remove from the silo 50 pounds of ensilage 
 (about one cubic foot) for each grown animal daily, mixing one pound of oil-meal and wheat 
 bran to every 10 pounds of ensilage. 1 have a large box standing upon the barn floor, in 
 which I mix it and let it stand about twenty-four hours before feeding. By that time it is 
 quite warm; the grain addition has had time to become soft, and its digestibility is undoubt- 
 edly increased to a greater degree. There is in every 50 pounds of ensilage about 40 pounds 
 of water, — nearly all the animal requires. It is a great advantage to have this amount of 
 water warm when taken into the stomach. There has been no labor or fuel expended in 
 warming it, which is quite an item. When animals are allowed to drink ice-cold water in 
 winter, there is quite a large percentage of the food which would produce fat consumed in 
 raising the temperature of the water they drink, from freezing cold to lilood heat." 
 
 In experimenting on the value of ensilage when fed alone, the same writer says: — 
 
 '•On the 29th day of April I weighed two thoroughbred two-year-old Jersey bulls. Ross- 
 more weighed 960 pounds; from then until the second day of June, I fed him 40 pounds of 
 ensilage daily, and nothing else. The other, Hero, weighed at the same time 890 pounds; he 
 was fed 40 pounds of ensilage and 3 pounds of wheat bran daily, and nothing more. On the 
 second day of June I weighed them both again. Rossmore weighed 900 pounds, having 
 neither gained nor lost. Hero weighed 943 pounds, having gained in the 34 days 53 
 pounds. Both times they were weighed in the morning after eating their breakfast, and 
 before drinking. 
 
 I do not pretend that 50 to 60 pounds of ensUage is suflBcient to keep a cow in full flow 
 of miik. She should have in addition to the ensilage, four to six pounds of wheat bran or 
 its equivalent in some other nitrogenous food. But I do say that the 50 or 60 pounds of 
 ensilage will keep her better than all the timothy hay she will eat." 
 
 Mr. Potter expresses as his opinion, that where clover is properly preserved by ensilage, 
 a piece about six inches cube — owing to its compactness — is sufficient for a good ration for a 
 cow. 
 
 Mr. E. M. Washburn, of Massachusetts, feeds about 70 pounds of ensilage, 5 pounds of 
 hay, and 3 of grain to each animal per day. It might be well for each farmer who adopts 
 the system to experiment for himself as to the amount of ensilage necessary for a fair ration. 
 Bv this means he can establish his own method, and adapt it to the requirements of his herd, 
 and other conditions. 
 
508 TIIK AMERICAN FARMEH. 
 
 Ensilage Adapted to the Southern States.— There seems to be no reason why 
 the agricultural interests of the South may not be particularly benefited by this system, which 
 has been proven to be as practicable in that climate as at the North. If any doubts arise with 
 reference to tliis subject, it may be well to remember the fact, that the climate of that part of 
 France where Monsieur Gofl'art has been so very successful in preserving ensilage in silos, is 
 about the temperature of Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, etc., and if cut at the proper time 
 and ensilaged with care, there is no reason to doubt that this system will prove a success 
 throughout the entire Southern section. By means of this new departure in Southern agri- 
 cultiire, one of the great needs in the culture of the soil in nearly all the Southern States — 
 fann manure — may be obtained at a low cost. This may be accomplished by providing an 
 inexpensive food in abundance for stock, whereby a large nimiber of farm animals can be 
 kept, where now there are but few. 
 
 Stock-raising and profitable farming cannot well be separated in any country, or section 
 of a country, where the soil will not produce spontaneously, and where a good supply of 
 either commercial fertilizers or farm manures are required to produce a moderate crop. Corn- 
 fodder, sorghum, millet, and other crops used in ensilaging can be grown to perfection in the 
 Southern States. The varieties of corn used for fodder at the South are of heavy growth, 
 with leaves long and broad, the stalks when in full bloom being peculiarly sweet and nutri- 
 tious, and are also the kinds most used for this purpose at the North, while the cow-pea, 
 growing as it does in the greatest luxuriance at the South, would be admirably adapted for 
 the silo, if cut while in full bloom, with the pods just forming. Being fully equal in nutritive 
 value to clover, an acre of rich land will produce about twice the amount that it would of 
 clover. 
 
 If the silo is a desideratum at the North, where grasses of the best quality, and clover 
 glow in abundance, how much more essential is it at the South, where the best grasses do 
 not thrive w-ell, or reqiure frequent renewing. With ensilage as a new departure in Southern 
 agriculture, the South may become a stock-producing section, with all the attendant benefi- 
 cial results, and the resources of this part of the country, as well as those of the North, thus 
 more perfectly developed. 
 
 Analysis of Corn when Cut in a Green State. — By summarizing various anal- 
 yses made of the different parts of the corn-plants, as given in Mr. Brown's translation of 
 M. Goffart's work on Ensilage, it is found that the ear with cob and stem, forms about one- 
 fifth of the whole plant, either green or dry. That the leaves contain over forty per cent, of 
 the solid material of the whole plant, also three-fourths of the mineral element of the plant. 
 That the stalk, leaves, and tassel contain nearly three times as much nutritive value as the 
 ear, taken when the ear is in the milk. That the ear and cob contain but httle more than 
 two-thirds as much sugar as the leaves, and less than one-sixth as much as the entire plant; 
 also a little more than one-fourth as much as the stalk. That the leaves contain one-fourth 
 more phosphoric acid than the ear, and that the latter contains but thirty-two per cent, of the 
 entire amount of this element in the whole plant. That the ears contain only six per cent, of 
 the entire sulphuric acid of the plant, and but eighteen per cent, of the chlorine. That the 
 leaves contain more than half as much potash as the ears, the stalks nearly as much as the 
 ears, and that the ear, cob, and stem contain but about forty-two per cent, of the potash in 
 the entire plant. Iron was not found in the ears, while but a small amount of silica was 
 present there. When corn is preserved by the ensilage process, all these nutritive elements 
 are retained as food, and the waste that attends the drying, storing, and feeding of the dried 
 product is entirely avoided. 
 
ENSILAGE. 
 
 509 
 
 Analysis of Ensilage. — The following is an analysis of ensilaged corn fodder, by 
 Prof. C. A. Goessmann, the sample analyzed being taken from the silo of Dr. J. W. Bailey, 
 
 of Massachusetts: — 
 
 Moisture at 212°-220° Falirenlu-il. 
 Dry matter left, 
 This dry matter consists of : — 
 
 I'ER CENT, 
 
 80.70 
 
 19.30 100.00 
 
 PARTS. 
 
 6.43 
 0.62 
 1.56 
 8.92 
 1.77 19.30 
 
 Crude cellulose, 
 Fat ether abstract. 
 
 Albuminoids, .... 
 Non-nitrogenous extract matter, 
 Ash (with traces of sand). 
 By way of comparison, we also give an average analysis of the corn-plant in the milk 
 by the same authority: — 
 
 PER I EXT. 
 
 85.04 
 
 14.96 100.00 
 
 Moisture at 212°-220° Fahrenheit. 
 Dry matter. 
 
 Ash, .... 
 
 Albuminoids, . 
 
 Fat, .... 
 
 Crude cellulose, 
 
 Non-nitrogenous extractive matter, 
 
 PARTS. 
 
 0.82 
 0.86 
 0.26 
 4.53 
 8.49 
 
 14.96 
 
 Advantages of the Ensilage System. — In summing up the benefits to be derived 
 
 from the ensilage system, some of which have been alluded to in previous pages, we will 
 place first (since farmers generally are such an incessantly laborious class) economy in time 
 and labor, although this, in a monetary point of view, may not appropriately take the first 
 rank. When once a farmer has his silo well built, it will last for years with little or no 
 expense in repairs, while the labor and expense attending the preservation of his forage 
 crojis by ensilage are but slight when compared with that of cutting, drying, and securely 
 housing tlie hay crop, to say nothing of the anxiety in successfully accomplishing this result 
 on account of unfavorable weather, or the loss often sustained by rains and cloudy weather. 
 
 Another important advantage of tliis system, is in preventing the loss of nutritive matter 
 necessarily sustained by the drying process in converting the green forage into hay, all the 
 succulent and nutritious juices of the food being preserved by the ensilage process. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that hay-fed cows always produce milk and butter of an inferior 
 quality and light color, and that cows fed upon the same kind of grass before it has been 
 converted into hay, produce milk and butter of excellent quality, the butter being of a golden 
 tint and delicious flavor. The question naturally arises as to what causes this difference. If 
 tbo only difference consists in drying out the water contained in the green grass by changing 
 it into hay, or in other words, simply concentrating the nutritive juices of the grasses, there 
 would be no loss of nutriment. Consequently rations of hay and water in quantity propor- 
 tionate to that of the rations of grass before it was dried, would give the same results as 
 grass in producing butter. The fact that dry hay and water when fed to cows do not pro- 
 duce the same results as are secured by feeding green grass, is but one of the many proofs 
 that there is great loss of nutritive matter in the drying process. 
 
 Now if this same grass, or an equivalent fodder, can be preserved in a' green state as 
 nearly as possible to that which is grazed in summer, without the loss of nutriment, it follows 
 that, asid3 from the labor and expense attending the drying process, there is not only an 
 economy in preventing any loss of the nutritive element by drying, but better milk and 
 butter &7e also furnished by the cows feeding upon the ensilaged fodder. Again, as fodder- 
 corn cir. be cultivated so much easier, and in such larger crops per acre than grass, the ensil- 
 
510 TIIIC AMEKK'AX FAH.MKK. 
 
 age of that food will prove more economical, since a much larger number of cattle can be 
 kept on the same farm than before, while with the increased supply of manure thus obtained, 
 the farmer can enrich his soil to the extent of making it much more available, and conse- 
 quently profitable, than it has ever previously been. With less labor, and a consequent 
 saving of time, there follows, as a natural consequence, more time for reading and self- 
 improvement to the farmer, taking from his life much of the toil and drudgery that has so 
 long characterized it, with a like benefit to the farmer's wife, whose lot is often the harder of 
 the two, she working early and late to accomplish each day's duties, with the added burden 
 of more liircd help upon the farm to care for dxiriug the haying-season. 
 
 This new departure, then, means to the farmer less labor, less expense, better stock, an 
 increased capacity on the farm for keeping stock, a larger supply of yard-manure, better 
 crops, increased fertility and productiveness of the land, preserving the nutritive quality of 
 the forage that has previously been wasted in the drying process, a better income from the 
 farm, more home comforts, more time for reading, and the means of intellectual improvement. 
 These are some of the advantages that experience and experiment in this new departure of 
 agriculture seem to promise, and which we trust will be secured to the farmers of our country 
 after the test of a few years, which will be neces-sary to secure its general adoption. 
 
 Opinions and Experiments from Various Authentic Sources Respecting 
 tlie Ensilage System. — Among the many favorable opinions current respecting tha 
 ensilage sj'stem, we have space to insert but a few, and these are from sources that would 
 seem to be a sufficient guarantee for their reliability. It is often a fact that the advocates of 
 a new and favorite system are too enthusiastic in theii' praise of the same, and place an exag- 
 gerated estimate upon its merits. Although this may or may not be true with reference to 
 some of the advocates of the ensilage system, we know that there are those among them, and 
 by far the larger number, who are strictly practical men, and whose judgment and conclu- 
 sions, as derived from actual experience, can be accepted without discount. In a letter to 
 Mr. J. B. Brown, Monsieur Gofi'art writes that the cost of the maize he was then feeding was 
 ten cents per 225 pounds, and the crop was 36 tons per acre. He says: — 
 
 " The longer experience I have, the more I am convinced that this method of feeding 
 cattle is destined to render the greatest service to the agricultural interest. From October, 
 1878, to October, 1879, I fed the one hundred animals in my stable exclusively upon ensil- 
 aged maize during winter, and concurrently with fresh maize during the season when 1 had 
 it. The animals have always enjoyed the most excellent health, and I can testify that they 
 had more appetite for ensilaged maize than for fresh food, whatever kind it might be. The 
 cows fed with fresh maize give milk of excellent quality, and the butter is of exquisite taste; 
 fed upon ensilaged maize, the milk is still very good, and its quantity undiminished, but the 
 butter, while being still of excellent quality, is not quite so fine. But it should be remem- 
 bered that, whatever is the food of the cows in winter, butter is never quite so good as that 
 which is made during the fine weather {la belle saisony 
 
 In regard to the cost of this fodder, he says:— 
 
 " Taking six per cent, of the weight of the animal for its daily ration, I arrive at an 
 expense of 3.6 cents per day to feed an animal of 1,400 pounds. I do not know any kind of 
 food that costs so little as my ensilaged maize, and it was a bad year for raising it, owing to 
 the wet, and labor was unusually expensive, on account of the high price of wine." 
 
 Mr. C. W. Mills claims that the system of ensilage wiU revolutionize the present system 
 of farming. He says : " Last summer my pasturage run short, and being out of ensilage, I 
 cut oats when in blossom from five acres and put that in the silo, and subjected it to pressure. 
 It sustained my milch cows (about 80 in number) for a space of six weeks. I had no trouble 
 except in contact with the stone wall. I kept last year one hundred and twenty head of 
 honied cattle and twelve horses, from October loth to May 15th upon the product of twelve 
 
ENSILAGE. 511 
 
 acres, without any hay or straw. I fed three quarts of grain per day. I gave about sixty 
 pounds of ensilage per day, and it was a great mistake; I am now feeding but thirty, and 
 two or three quarts of grain per tlay, 
 
 I planted my corn in hedges about thirty-two inches apart, and altout si.x inches wide, 
 planting forty or fifty kernels to the running foot, and I got a wonderful growth. My land 
 is not rich. It has been abused for the last hundred years.'" 
 
 Mr. O. B. Potter's statement respecting ensilage is as follows: •'! have been feeding out 
 of silos for five years, and I never have any trouble. I commence and cut it dovvn from 
 the top with a hay-knife, and usually cut oft' enough at one cutting to sustain the animals 
 one day ahead. The cattle eat it up very clean. 
 
 I had one result which may interest farmers. Last spring I was milking fifty-six cows, 
 and sending fifteen cans of milk to the city every day. They were being fed upon ensilage 
 entirely, with two quarts of barley meal. About the middle of June 1 turned them out 
 where the grass was from six to twelve inches high, with the best of water and shade. The 
 result was that the yield decreased from fifteen cans to eleven, and they did not begin to gain 
 until I put them back on ensilage again in the fall. 
 
 I think a great gain will Ije found in feeding different kinds of ensilage at the same 
 time. Jly cattle do not do as well on com alone as when it is varied, with clover or mixed 
 grass." 
 
 Mr. Hood, of Dutchess County, New York, says: " My silos, of which I have four, are 
 about sixteen feet square and twenty-one feet deep. We opened one on December 1st, and 
 found it was perfectly green and sweet. We were then feeding hay, and six quarts of feed 
 to each cow. We stopped the hay and commenced on ensilage, and fed four quarts of feed 
 and twenty-five pounds of ensilage to each cow. The milk gained rapidly, and is still gaining. 
 The top portion of the ensilage is slightly moulded, but so slightly that the cattle did not 
 seem to object to it." 
 
 Colonel J. W. Wolcott gives the result of his experiments in the dairy as follows : — 
 
 " The result of my experience is that the heavier the weight, the better the ensilage 
 will keep. As to the quaHty of the cream I can say that by feeding fifty pounds of ensilaged 
 maize, and one quart of cotton-seed meal, the increase over the amount when feeding English 
 hay, and six quarts of corn meal averaged twenty-five per cent, in milk, and ten per cent, in 
 butter from the milk, which is a total gain in butter of thirty-seven and a half per cent. 
 The butter brings the highest market price in Boston markets." 
 
 Mr. E. M. Washburn, of Lenox, Mass., thus gives the result of his experience with 
 ensilage: '-Our crops the present season consisted of 192 tons of corn and 91 of millet, 
 counting 40 cubic feet of compressed ensilage one ton. Tlie whole cost of the corn in the 
 silo, aside from manure, $1.33 per ton. Tlie corn was raised in drills 3i feet apart, three 
 stalks to the foot. Variety, Southern white. The whole cost per ton for millet in the silo, 
 aside from fertilizer, was $1.03. The com was cut by hand in the field, and the millet with 
 a reaper. Wages for men $1.50, for team and man, S-t-00 per day. 
 
 In one silo was put 135 tons of corn, in the other 50 of corn and 90 of millet. Tlie silo 
 that was filled with corn has been all fed, and the preservation was found perfect throughout 
 the entire mass. 
 
 Our herd, to which we have fed this ensilage, consists of 40 Holsteins, and have been 
 fed an average of 70 pounds of ensilage, 5 pounds of hay and 3 of grain, to each animal per 
 day. This has fed them 87 days, or 135 tons of ensilage, 8i tons of hay, 5^ tons of grain 
 has fed one animal 3,480 days or 116 months, at a cost for ensilage of $178.45, for hay 
 $127.50, for grain $157.50, total $463.45, or 13^ cents per day for each animal. Upon 
 this feed my stock have steadily gained in flesh, and the younger ones have made a satis- 
 factory growth, the returns in milk have been greater than ever before in the winter. The 
 
512 THE AMERICAN FAKMEIi. 
 
 quality of the milk has improved from that made while the cows were in pasture, showing an 
 improvement of over ten degrees by the lactometer. The butter is fully equal in color, flavor, 
 and in every way to that made from the same cows in September, while at pasture. 
 
 In feeding our ensilage last season, we found a decided superiority in the millet over 
 the corn, though it was so mixed that we could make no accurate trial. Analysis shows that 
 the feeding value of millet compares to that of corn as 30 to 17, when both are cut at the 
 most suitable state, and clover and rye vary but little in value from millet, so that should the 
 millet cost to raise and ensilage twice as much as corn, it still would be about as profitable in 
 the end. There is much said at present by scientists and others about the great loss in ensi- 
 lage by fermentation, the sugar, glucose, and starch, almost wholly disappearing, leaving all 
 the water and fiber and a small amount of alcohol, with some other nearly valueless constitu- 
 ent, making, in their estimation, a food of about the value of fine sawdust. Now, when I go 
 into my neighbor's stables, and see the amount of dried com fodder that it requires to feed 
 his cattle and see the amount that is wasted and refused by the stock, when I see their condi- 
 tion and amount of milk they jaeld, and compare it all with our experience with ensilage. 
 I think it would not take a very wise man to decide which is the better method. 
 
 Another great point made by many farmers, is the great cost to build silos. Now, my 
 silos that will hold about 375 tons, have cost me less than S460, and I certainly would like 
 to see the barn that will hold the equivalent of this three hundred and seventy -five tons of 
 ensilage, in hay or dried corn fodder, that was built for the same money. I have yet to 
 learn of the first man that has built a silo and not proved it a success. With me ensilage 
 has proved a success, in its relative first cost as compared with hay or dried com fodder, in 
 its comparative value in feeding, and in its results in the production of milk, butter, and 
 beef." 
 
 Numerous other authorities might be cited in favor of this system if necessary, but 
 enough has been given to prove the presersong of fodder by ensilage a success thus far in 
 practice, and to render it safe to predict for it a general adoption by the farmers of the 
 country before many yeai-s shall have passed away. Although a long time may elapse before 
 it -nail entirely supersede the curing of hay by the long-practiced method, yet the present indi- 
 cations are that it is destined to do so eventually. 
 
 GOOD SEED. 
 
 IF there is any one thing that will cause the agricultural products of the soil to deteriorate 
 more than another, it is in the use of inferior seed. The custom of some farmers, of 
 selecting seed at random, and of using successively, j'ear after year, seed grown upon 
 the same soil, or that produced by chance, or with little or no cultivation, or perhaps seed 
 that has lost its vitality from being kept over for several seasons, is, to say the least, not an 
 economic one. 
 
 The poor quality of seed and light yield of crops may often be justh^ attributed to the care 
 lessness or indifference of farmers and gai-deners with respect to that which they plant. ^Vith 
 the best soil and the most skilled cultivation, poor seed cannot, in the nature of things, give 
 good results ; hence, tmless the seed planted be of proper quality, the kbor and fertilizei-s 
 bestowed upon the crop are in a great measure lost. 
 
 The average yield of ordinar_y crops is much below what it ought to be, or would be, pro- 
 viding more pains were taken in the selection and cultivation of the seed that produced 
 them. Plants for seed raising should not only have the best possible culture, but they should 
 
GOOD SEED. 5X3 
 
 be the most vigorous plants selected from tlie best variety for this purpose. Even then, only 
 the most perfectly developed and matured seed of such plants should be preserved for 
 planting. 
 
 The effect of cultivation and careful selection of seed may be seen by comparing any one of 
 our agricultural products with the original plant in its wild state, such as the potato, for instance, 
 which, when growing wild, has scarcely any tubers at all, they being very small and of an 
 exceedingly strong, unpleasant flavor , its product being principally the balls growing at the 
 top of the vines for the production of the seed. The long period of cultivation given this 
 plant, the constant aim being to develop the size and quality of the tubers, has resulted in 
 changing its appearance almost beyond recognition, when compared with its original progen- 
 itor. We shall find it thus with respect to all cultivated plants. Our many and choice vari- 
 eties of fruit are the result of long and patient labor in improving upon the wild types, the 
 flavor, size, color, period of ripening, adaptation to climate and soil, etc., all being taken into 
 -account in the process of development towards the ideal standard which the grower has in 
 mind, and at which he is constantly aiming, the time required to reach the desired results 
 sometimes requiring many years, or even a hfe-time. « 
 
 Choice of Plants for Producing Seed.— In no department of agriculture is more 
 skill and good judgment essential than in the raising or selection of seed. It is well known, 
 as has been previously stated, that all variations of agricultural products have been produced 
 by a long course of cultivation and reproduction from the seed, in many cases changing a 
 seemingly worthless, bitoer weed into a valuable, edible plant In this cultured state, which 
 has a tendency to develop the highest possibihties of the plant, it is in an artificial condition, 
 as it were, and there is a constant tendency to revert or return to its original wild state ; 
 therefore there is required, on the part of the cultivator, much care in the selection and grow, 
 ing of the seed, in order to counteract this tendency. 
 
 In the production of seed, the choice of plants is of the highest importance. All plants 
 of the most approved varieties will not produce the same quality of seed. Other conditions 
 being equal, the general rule of nature, that " like produces like," is as true when applied to 
 the vegetable as the animal kingdom ; and the principles of reproduction that apply to the 
 one, will also apply equally well to the other. No farmer would expect to obtain a pure-bred 
 animal from a mongrel and inferior herd, or a healthy progeny from a weak and diseased 
 animal of a pure breed. Such a result would of necessity be an anomaly in nature. It is 
 equally true that seed of the best quality cannot be produced from inferior plants, whether 
 they be of an inferior kind, or the weak and sickly plants of a choice variety. The process 
 of forming or establishing a distinct breed of animals that will transmit fixed characteristics, 
 is a slow and difficult one. However fine the individual animal may be, there is that tendency, 
 which is everywhere seen in nature, to revert to the original type, and the hopes of the 
 breeder will often be blighted by the occasional sports and reversions of this kind, that will 
 prove serious obstacles in his way. Hence it is necessary to select the most perfect types of ani- 
 mals, those having those qualities that are desirable for transmission, for perfecting or maintain- 
 ing the distinctive characteristics of the breed. The same skill is essential in producing and im- 
 proving varieties of plants, and since the larger portion of the profits of the general farmer 
 are obtained from the quality and yield of his plant growths, the labor and expense in- 
 volved in the raising or purchasing of the very best seed will be amply repaid in the results of 
 the crop. In the first place, then, farmers should take pains to raise only the best varieties 
 of crops. It costs no more labor, time, or money to produce a good variety of vegetable 
 growth, than a poor one, unless it be at first in the purchase of choice and rare varieties of 
 seed when making a change in this respect. A tree, grape vine, crop of potatoes, or grain, 
 yielding an inferior product, will extract as much nutriment from the soil, and require as 
 much care and attention from the grower, as those that yield the choicest products of their 
 35 
 
514 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 kind. There is, therefore, economy in always selecting the best varieties for cultivation 
 those yielding the best in quality, and the largest amount in quantity, since this course is the 
 most profitable and satisfactory. Farmers should, therefore, take pains to keep themselves 
 informed with respect to the most desirable and improved varieties, and not be left in tha 
 background with the cultivators of a past age. We do not mean by this that farmers 
 should discard a good and reliable variety for a new and untried one, simply because some 
 speculative seed-seller loudly trumpets its merits through their special agents, or the medium 
 of exaggerated advertisements. Too many impositions have already been perpetrated upon 
 the farmers of this country in palming off a worthless or inferior article at an exorbitant price; 
 but when the merits of a really valuable product have been thoroughly tested, and proven to 
 be superior in all respects to the old, it will then be found more profitable to discard the old 
 and adopt the new. We do not intend by this to cast any reflections upon seed-men and 
 gardeners in general. We believe the majority of those engaged in this business to be 
 strictly reliable and honorable in all their business relations. But in this business, as well as 
 all others under the sun, there are impostors, and they have, by their false dealings, shaken 
 the faith of many previously unsuspecting victims, and created a prejudice against adopting 
 the new and untried that is not easily overcome. 
 
 There are those in this business who know nothing whatever of producing or improving^ 
 what they offer to the public, but buy up, at a low price, old and worthless or inferior stock 
 that can be found in the market, and then offer it for sale at an exorbitant price, under the 
 claim of rare and special merit. All such impostors should be classed with counterfeiters of 
 all kinds, including the manufacturers of oleomargarine and other food adulterers, and swin- 
 dlers generally, and be dealt with according to the penalties of the law. Buying only of 
 well known and reliable parties, will be a safeguard against such frauds. 
 
 Planting a little seed for one or two seasons in a small plot by itself, sufficiently far from 
 all others to prevent mixing, and giving it good cultivation, will be a safe way to test a new 
 variety before planting a large crop, where a knowledge of the experience of reliable parties 
 in planting it cannot be readily obtained. 
 
 Next in importance to obtaining the best variety for seed-pi-oduction, is that of selecting 
 the most healthy and vigorous plants for this purpose, and these should be grown apart from 
 all others. 
 
 All plants will mix more or less readily with others, when planted with, or sufficiently 
 near other varieties to permit of fertilization from the pollen of their blossoms. Maize or 
 common corn, broom corn, sorghum, millet, will all readily mix with each other, as well as 
 with different varieties of the same species. This mixing or hybridizing will, of course, 
 greatly deteriorate the quality of a choice variety, and should be carefully avoided. The 
 distance to which the pollen may be conveyed by the wind, or by bees or other insects, is 
 almost incredible. It will often happen that in a field of corn, an occasional red, mottled, or 
 blue ear will occur among those of a choice variety of the yellow or white type, the origin 
 of which can be accounted for only in this way. When such cases occur, it will usually be 
 found that in an adjoining field or farm, or at a distance even more remote, the variety tliat 
 is represented by this mixture will be found to have been grown during the season. The 
 dust of the pollen of blossoms, being exceedingly fine, can be carried quite a distance by the 
 wind. This is seen in the culture of hops, where five or six hills of male plants, being dis- 
 tributed at equal distances over an acre in a hop field, and supplied with tall poles for climb- 
 ing, by which the fertilizing process may be facilitated, will have a sufficient amount of pol- 
 len conveyed over the blossoms of the field by the wind to fertilize the entire acre of plants. 
 Bees are another fruitful cause of the mixing of varieties, their influence extending even 
 beyond that of the wind, by carrying the pollen that adheres to their wings and bodies to dis- 
 tant fields while going from one flower to another in prr^'-.it of hnrcy. Wo therefore see 
 
GOOD SEED. 515 
 
 the necessity of growing all plants designed for seed-productions apart from all others, that 
 it may be kept as piu-e as possible. It would be well for farmers living in the same neigh- 
 borhood, or adjoining farms, to agree to plant the same varieties for this reason. "When 
 different varieties are grown on the same farm, sucli as pop corn, sweet corn, and the kind 
 constituting the regular corn product, these should be planted as far apart as practiable. 
 
 Special Cultivation Essential. — Plants for producing seed should not only be 
 planted apart from all others, but should receive special cultivation, in order to maintain 
 their high standard and prevent deteriorating; also, to improve, if possible, upon the variety. 
 The benefits of cultivation have already been referred to in regard to all agricultural pro- 
 ducts, in comparing the improved and long-cultivated plants with the wild typos from which 
 they originated. This difference is equally striking in horticulture. No one but a botanist 
 would recognize the small and single blossom of the wild rose, or the coarse flower of the 
 wild dahlia from the tablelands of Mexico, with its single row of petals, as kindred to the 
 beautiful and rare products of the skillful gardener's art; and yet this great difference is all 
 due to cultivation, combined with careful selection. When a better class of plants is to be 
 developed, as those possessing special characteristics in a more marked degree tliau has been 
 attained, care nmst always be exercised in selecting those that possess the desired qualities 
 most prominently, whether it be for special color, fragrance, beauty of form, size, or other 
 qualities. It is only by this means that certain characteristics can be perpetuated and more 
 fully established. In the cultivation of seed, the locality selected should not only be apart 
 from all other plants with which it may become mixed, but the locality chosen should be that 
 to which it is well adapted, whether with regard to the soil, degree of heat and cold, sunhght 
 and shade, shelter from winds or other influences adverse to its proper development. 
 
 The soil should be well tilled, and of the degree of fertility adapted to the plant that is 
 grown, while frequent and careful culture should be given of such a nature as is also suited 
 to its most perfect growth and maturity. During the progress of the growth of the plants, 
 all injurious insects should be kept from them, and the weak and sickly plants carefully 
 thinned out, leaving only the most healthy and vigorous ones to mature and ripen their seed. 
 All foreign growths, such as weeds and grass, should be kept down, and the surface of the 
 soil frequently stirred to increase the growth and productions of the plants. Those plants 
 that produce suckers, such as corn, for instance, .should have these inferior growths removed 
 as they make their appearance, for if allowed to blossom and shed their pollen, they will 
 thus fertilize the fine ears of corn as readily as the blossoms of the most perfectly developed 
 stalks. This will be sure to deteriorate the quality of the product; too much importance 
 cannot therefore be placed upon their removal before blossoming. It often happens that 
 when planting even the largest and finest looking ears, where this precaution has not been 
 taken, the farmer will be greatly disappointed in the result, the crop produced being in every 
 respect an inferior one. This is caused by the kernels of the fine, large ears having been 
 fertilized by the blossoms of one of these inferior growths, and deterioration naturally 
 follows. If every farmer would take such precautions, the average corn crop of the country 
 would be greatly increased. 
 
 Harvesting and Storing. — It is very essential that seed should be harvested before 
 the appearance of the frost, and if possible, when sufiBciently ripe, before a long rain storm. 
 If allowed to remain exposed several days to a rain, some kinds of seed might be seriously 
 injured by sprouting, while others might become shelled out and wasted. All seed should 
 be well ripened before gathering. It should not, however, be allowed to remain in the field 
 after becoming sufficiently ripe for harvesting. A slight neglect in this respect wiU, with 
 some kinds of seed, often cause the loss of nearly the entire crop. 
 
 Some plants ripen their seed very unevenly. With such, the time for harvesting will be 
 
516 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 wben the largest portion of the best seed is ripened. In harvesting, care will be necessary 
 in handling certain varieties, to prevent shelling out and loss. Aiter gathering, it should, as 
 a general rule, be well dried before shelling: this is usually done in a cool, dry. airy room. 
 In shelling, the most perfectly developed seed fi'om the most vigorotis and proiluetive plants 
 only should be saved for planting. Partially ripened or imperfect seed may germinate, but 
 it will invariably produce inferior plants. All seed should be thoroughly dried before being 
 stored : othei-wise it will be liable to mould, and its quality be greatly impaired or rendered 
 entirely worthies.?. In storing, a perfectly dry place should he selected. If allowed to gather 
 dampness while being stored, even though perfectly cured, its vitality wiU be mined. Oc 
 casional dampness and drying are equally injurious. It should also never be exposed to 
 extreme heat, or greatly varving degrees of heat and cold, but wiO best be preserved by 
 being kept perfectly dry. and at a uniformly cool temperature. 
 
 QiiHlities Desiral)Ie in Seed. — In order to attain the most satisfactory results, the 
 seed which is to produce the crop should possess certain essential qualities. These are 
 vitalit}'. \-igor. and productiveness. In order to possess vitahty. the seed should be grown 
 from vigorous, healthy plants, and properly matured tefore being harvested. It is equally 
 essential that it be well dried and protected, in storing, from dampness and other adverse 
 influences. It is also' very essential that it be fresh. The length of time that seed wiU 
 retain its vitality varies with different varieties, but. as a general rule, most seed will deteri- 
 orate after the first year, some kinds, such as onion seed, and some of the varieties of grasses, 
 being almost worthless if kept over to the second or third year. The seed of melons, 
 cucumljers, wheat, corn, etc., will usually retain their vitality for several years; but although 
 such old SL'eil may be made to germinate and grow, fresh seed of any kind is always the best, 
 and possesses the greatest amount of vitality and \ngor. It is always well to test seed before 
 planting by planting a small quantity or otherwise germinating it, the length of time required 
 to produce germination being a good test gf its vitality and vigor. 
 
 Seed that will produce a \agorotis growth is also highly essential. Some seed may have 
 sufficient vitality to germinate, but not sufBcient to produce vigorous, healthy plants. Pro- 
 ductiveness in a plant is also as fully essential as ^'igor, and these qualities should always be 
 combined in the plant that is to be instrumental in perpetuating its kind. There are some 
 plants that in certain soils will grow rank and thrifty, but yield little else than stalks, or vines, 
 and foliage. Seed from sucB growths will never give good results. It is only the vigorous, 
 and at the same time the most productive plants which will produce a satisfactory crop. In 
 using old seed, many will fail to germinate at all, but such as do germinate will produce 
 plants having less vitality than those from the new, consequently are liable to be feeble and 
 less productive, and their use will be attended with serious loss to the farmer. For all crops, 
 without exception, whether for the farm or garden, we would recommend the planting of 
 fresh seed of the purest and best quality. 
 
 TIMBER CULTURE. 
 
 THE preservation and extension of our forests is a subject of vast importance to the 
 interests of the country. The great value of timber for the various purposes to which 
 its use is applied — for many of which no substitute could be foimd — and the yearly 
 diminishing of the timber resources of our continent, are the cause of grave apprehensions 
 among the leading minds of the present age, lest the needless and reckless waste that has so 
 rapidly increased the scarcity of timber within the past few years, will cause the utter ruin 
 
TIM15ER CULTURE. 517 
 
 and annihilation of our noble forests, unless some means are taken to check this waste and 
 restore them by planting trees. The European governments long ago recognized the de- 
 struction of their forests as an evil, and took active measures to counteract it by planting 
 and cultivating trees, having special officers appointed to supervise the work. The care of 
 forests receives so much attention by most of the governments in Europe that schools liave 
 been established where young men are educated with special reference to this branch of pub- 
 lic service. 
 
 In this country an increased interest is being taken in forestry, and we hope the time is 
 not far distant when more active measures than have yet been adopted will be taken in 
 regard to this subject. There are, in all sections of the country, tracts of waste or poor land 
 that might be devoted to timber culture most successfully and profitably. If each farmer, 
 even, would take measures to plant trees upon his own lands, that could most profitably be 
 devoted to the purpose, and encourage others to do so by example, much could be done in 
 this direction for future generations, as well as the present; for while some trees are of slow 
 growth and require a long time to reach maturity, others grow very rapidly, and will in a 
 few years attain a considerable size. 
 
 Various Influences Exerted by Forests. — The ruthless and wanton destruction 
 of the magnificent forests which once characterized our land, is to be greatly deplored, not 
 only on account of the reckless waste of valuable timber, and the barbarous practice that 
 depletes the face of the country of one of its most beautiful and attractive features, but also 
 on account of the deleterious effects of their removal upon the climate, vegetation, and health- 
 fulness of the country. The climatic influence exerted by trees, and the results that follow 
 their removal are subjects of great interest; and while there does not seem to be a perfect 
 unanimity of opinion among scientists in this respect, there is no doubt that not only the dis- 
 tribution of the amount of rain-fall is greatly influenced by the removal of the forests, but 
 also the climate and healthfulness of a country, as well as the soil, and consequently its agri- 
 cultural interests. 
 
 We believe it was Humboldt who said that, in felling trees which cover the crowns and 
 slopes of mountains, man in all climates is evidently bringing upon future generations two 
 calamities at once — a want of fuel and a scarcity of water. He might also have added, that 
 he who plants trees and protects them from destruction confers blessings upon future genera- 
 tions, and for his philanthropy is worthy their gratitude. A certain poet has said, with much 
 truth, as well as considerable sarcasm : — 
 
 Give fools their gold, and knaves their power, 
 Let fortune's bubbles rise and fall ; 
 
 Who sows a field or trains a flower, 
 Or plants a tree, is more than all." 
 
 For our own part, aside from all practical and utilitarian views of the subject, we never 
 
 could see the ax of the woodman on its mission of destruction, cutting into the very heart 
 
 and life of a noble tree, without a pang of pain penetrating our own soul, and an impulsive 
 
 desire to implore — 
 
 " Oh. woodman, spare that tree! " 
 
 It may be a foolish sitperstition, but we have never been able to qtiite banish tlie impres- 
 sion, that almost took the form of a certainty and belief in our childhood days, that every 
 noble tree possessed an indwelling spirit, and it was this that made them so companionable 
 and sympathetic; that whenever the ax penetrated into its life, a shudder of pain ran through 
 that noble trunk with each cruel blow, and when at last it fell, we could almost in imagination 
 hear the groan that accompanied the severing of that spirit from its loved habitation. 
 
 Trees have a double mission — utility and ornament; and while we would not underrate 
 the former, we would not ignore the latter; for whatever is beautiful in this world should be 
 
r,l,S THE AiMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 cherished and appreciated on account of its ennobling influence, and the happiness it impart? 
 and is consequently, in one sense, quite as important as that which is only useful. He who 
 sees only with practical eyes, fails of much of the happiness in living, hence his life is 
 incomplete and imperfect. 
 
 Influence of Forests on Rain-fall. — While it is doubtless true that the average 
 amount of rain-fall in a country during a period of several years will not largely vary, 
 whether the land be diversified with extensive forests or not, yet the uniformity of the distri- 
 bution of the rain is largely influenced by this feature. Where a considerable portion of the 
 land is covered with timber, the trees are instrumental in intercepting the clouds, and the rain 
 falls frequently and in refreshing showers, thus favoring the growth of vegetation and puri- 
 fying the air; but in regions where thei-e is a scarcity of trees, the rain-storms are less fre- 
 quent and more heavy, being often accompanied with violent winds. A large portion of the 
 water that thus falls upon the earth runs into the rivers and seas without proving of much 
 benefit to tlie land, and frequently doing considerable damage. Hence, in sections subject to 
 such violent storms, the soil becomes dry and parched in summer during the long and unequal 
 intervals of rain-falls, while there is not that benefit received from them generally that is 
 derived in forest regions. 
 
 In this manner forests are instrumental in preventing both floods and drouths, and are 
 consequently of great benefit in an agricultural point of view. Even the rivers owe 
 their origin to the streams that liave their birth in the forest-covered mountains and hills. 
 We know it to be a fact, that where the forests have been cut down, the brooks and rivulets 
 that for years had been a marked feature of the region, either become nearly exhausted or 
 disappear altogether. 
 
 Extensive regions entirely destitute of forests have but little or no rain, and often 
 become deserts, with scarcely a vestige of vegetation. This is due, not so much on account 
 of the lack of fertihzing elements in the soil, as the absence of water. Many previously 
 desert sections have by the means of artificial irrigation been transformed into some of the 
 most fertile lands with luxuriant growth of vegetation of all kinds. In regions thus trans- 
 formed, there is always this noticeable peculiarity, namely, that as soon as the growth of trees 
 and vegetation is secured by artificial irrigation, tiien the rain becomes frequent and falls in 
 gentle showers, enriching the soil and refreshing vegetation. Utah, previously referred to in 
 connection with the subject of irrigation, furnishes a remarkable instance of this kind. 
 
 Influence of Forests on Climate, etc. — Forests are a protection against the force 
 of bleak winds in winter, and therefore render the climate warmer in cold weather, and 
 modify in a measure the sudden changes of temperature. They also render it more cool in 
 summer by preventing the rapid evaporation from soil thus shaded, that would otherwise be 
 caused by the hot rays of the sun, while their power for retaining moisture enables them to 
 become the source of springs and small streams which are always found there. The more 
 extensive our forests, the more uniform our temperature, and the more we are exempt from the 
 extremes of both heat and cold. The modifying influences of forests will readily explain the 
 reason why, in sections that were formerly protected by chem, but which are now denuded of 
 them, the climate is more severe, the springs later, and it is impossible to cultivate certain deli- 
 cate plants and trees that before this period could be grown with ease. Thirty years ago or more 
 peaches were a profitable crop in many of the Northern States where now they can scarcely 
 be grown at all, owing to the tendency of the trees to winter-kill. Trees are also healthful 
 in their influence, and act as purifiers of the atmosphere. We quote the following from 
 Hon. George B. Emerson on this subject: — 
 
 " By planting your fields with trees, you not only make your homes more pleasant, but 
 you make them healthier, and you make your own domain more valuable. Here is a fact 
 
TIMBER CULTURE. 5I9 
 
 ■which every indiv-idual ought to know. It is a most important fact in the relations of the 
 vegetable world to mankind. Every tree is a purifier of the atmosphere. There are on the 
 leaves of every tree literally millions of little openings, large enough for the particles of air 
 to enter, and into which they do enter. When a breeze passes over a forest, or over a single 
 tree, the particles of air enter these little openings in the leaves, and there the leaves part 
 with their carbonic acid, which is so unwholesome to breathe; they part with their nitrogen, 
 and with ever}'thing else, really, which is not perfectly wholesome, and they pour into the air 
 pure oxygen. The forest thus completely purifies the air that blows through it; it takes from 
 it everything that is poisonous or even injurious to man, and throws out to us pure oxygen, 
 or that mixture of oxygen which is best for us to breathe. 
 
 There are re^ons in Italy which anciently were very wholesome and pleasant places to 
 live in, but which, for the last one or two hundred years, have been growing more and more 
 unhealthy, until, a few years ago, they were considered pestiferous and unsafe for anybody 
 to live in, and those who dwelt there took care to go away at certain seasons of the year. 
 This was in a part of Italy nearest the sea, which is thence called Maremma. Within a few 
 years trees have been planted in various places in that region, and the effect has been to 
 restore the original purity of the atmosphere. Large forests have been planted in some 
 places, and the region has in consequence become perfectly healthy, so that the ancient towns 
 and villages which had been deserted are again repeopled. The same thing has been found 
 in various other parts of Europe, and also in this country. In Washington, a gentleman 
 who hTad paid some attention to this subject, said : ' Here is a region which the soldiery have 
 occupied, and found very unhealthy. If you will give me leave, I will plant it with sun- 
 flowers.' He planted a great numbei-, several rows, and the effect was immediate. The very 
 next season that region, protected by the sunflowers, became healthy. The sunflowers have 
 been continued, or something else put in their places — trees and plants of various kinds; and 
 that region is now one of the most healthy in Washington. The hves of hundreds of our 
 soldiers and others who are obliged to live in Washington, have undoubtedly been saved by 
 that device of the sunflowers. So. I say, you may render every farm more healthy, as well 
 as more pleasant, by planting trees.' 
 
 Although trees planted near a house beautify it and render it more healthful, yet they 
 should not be planted so near as to intercept the sun's rays, and thus shade it. A house from 
 which the sunshine is excluded will soon become unhealthful. They should be planted near, 
 yet always sufficiently removed to prevent shading. 
 
 Varieties of Trees for Planting. — Great benefit may be derived to the timber 
 resources of the country by not only planting trees, but in preventing the needless destruction 
 of those that remain, especially young and immature trees. When necessary to cut timber, 
 there should be selected for this purpose only the mature trees, leaving the young and 
 vigorous ones for future giowth. 
 
 Tree-planting has, however, become a necessity, as a means of restoring the forests, and 
 the sooner and more thoroughly this is done, the better. 
 
 The questions naturally arise with regard to the varieties best adapted for the purpose, 
 when, where, and how to plant them. With respect to the first, much will of course depend 
 upon the locality and climate. As a general rule, the most valuable timber trees adapted to the 
 climate should be planted. Most of the forest trees thrive best when they are mixed with 
 others that differ \sndely from them in character. 
 
 A natural forest is always mixed, and Nature's rule in this respect is the safe one to 
 foUow. Different varieties probably extract different elements from the soil, the same as 
 different kinds of agricultural plants, and this is doubtless the reason for it. That a tree may 
 be useful for general planting, it is necessary that it should grow without culture over a 
 large belt of country, thus possessing the power to thrive and adapt itself to variou.s condi- 
 
520 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 tions of climate; also that it should grow rapidly', and thac its timber may be used for either 
 general or special purposes. 
 
 In making a selection, therefore, for forest-planting, the timber value, rapidity of growth, 
 and adaptation to climate should be considered. Some timber is, of course, much more 
 valuable than others, but nearly all kinds may be applied to some useful purpose. 
 
 There is no tree more beautiful than the sugar-maple, and it is a very valuable one as 
 well. It is adapted to a wide extent of territory, will thrive in a variety of soils, and should 
 be planted extensively in regions suited to its growth. The ash, beech, elm, and walnut are 
 all valuable trees, as well as the European larch, the oak, locust, chestnut, cedar, and pine of 
 their several varieties, many of which will thrive both North and South. 
 
 For the Western States, the hardy variety of the catalpa tree is very desirable, as it 
 grows rapidly and furnishes a very durable wood. The yellow cottonwood is also valu- 
 able for that section, and is said to make a saw-log or rail-cut sooner than almost any other 
 tree, while the osage orange, white elm, black walnut, maple, locust, willow, silver and 
 Lombardy poplars, are all suited to the soil and climate, besides several of those previously 
 mentioned. 
 
 The Kentucky coffee-tree is also highly recommended for forest-planting. It grows quite 
 as rapidly as many other choice varieties of trees, and its timber is also valuable. With regard 
 to the locality to which it is adapted, Prof. C. S. Sargent, Director of the Arboretum of 
 Harvard University, says: — 
 
 ■'Of its power of adapting itself to very different climatic conditions, there can be no 
 question. Few trees range over a wider area of the United States. It grows from Canada 
 and Western New York, to Wisconsin, and south to Kentucky and Tennessee. It extends 
 across the Missouri into Nebraska ; is common in Missouri and Arkansas, and not rare in 
 Kansas and the Indian Territory. It is not often found in New England, where, however, 
 it is perfectly hardy, nor in the Atlantic or Gulf States. The Kentucky Coffee Tree grows 
 always in rich, strong soil, generally along river valleys, and reaches, probably, its largest 
 size in that of the Lower Ohio. It is not a particularly fast-growing tree, nor does it increase 
 more slowly than other North American trees, while it produces a wood equally strong 
 and heavy." 
 
 At the South, the many varieties of pine, cedar, and oak flourish and make valuable 
 timber; also the maple, ash, hickory, persimmon, linden, magnolia, cjrpress, bay, etc. 
 
 We have a great variety of beautiful and valuable timber trees, many of which are 
 adapted to a wide range of climate and soil. Some increase in size very rapidly, while others 
 are of a slower growth. Hon. G. B. Emerson states that in his opinion, we have the most beauti- 
 ful trees in the world ; that in visiting Europe for the purpose of studying the forests there, 
 he was convinced that there were more valuable trees growing naturally in our forests, than 
 can be found in any portion of Middle or Northern Europe. 
 
 Age and Size of Trees. — The age to which trees live, differs greatly with different 
 species. While many are short-lived, and decay in a few years, others will maintain their 
 vigor for thousands of years. The elm has been known to live three hundred and fifty 
 years; the chestnut nearly twice as long; the cedar from seven to eight hundred years; the 
 oak from a thousand to fifteen hundred, while some of the California giant trees have been 
 estimated to be at least five thousand years old. The old Charter Oak, at Hartford, Conn., 
 was estimated to be about nine hundred and fifty years old, and measured nine feet in 
 diameter, at a distance of four feet from the ground. 
 
 Some of the gigantic tree? of California, (the S(<iuiia gigantea), a species of mammoth 
 cedar, have attained the height of four hundred and fifty feet, with a circumference of one 
 hundred and twenty feet or more near the ground. The largest of these trees now standing 
 is said to be three hundred se\''ent_v-six feet in height, and about one hundred and si.x feet in 
 circumference. 
 
521 
 
 SEqUOIA. GIGATSTTEA. (GIANT REDWOOD). 
 
 (iilOfei-t liijiU. and 'Jli in tiriiimt'ercnce. See jiavc .V^O i 
 
522 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 The tree of this species, of which we give an illustration, stands two hundred and ninety 
 feet in height, and ninety-six feet in circumference. It has been broken oS at a consideral I'e 
 distance from the top, as will be seen by the size at the point broken. By an accurate esti- 
 mate the tree before being broken must have been about four hundred and fifty feet from 
 the base, and liigher than any now standing. The tree represented at the left in the illus- 
 tration, is a gigantic English oak that measured forty-eight feet in circumference. The one 
 at the right, the old Boston Elm. They are both drawn on the same scale as the redwood, 
 and show by comparison, the immense size of the latter. 
 
 Where to Plant Trees. — Trees for shade should be planted almost everywhere, or 
 rather, anywhei-e that they may be either ornamental or useful; on the lawn around dwell- 
 ing-houses, about other farm-buildings, by the road-side, in groups in the pastures to serve as 
 shade for stock during the sultry summer weather, in fact, in any place that can be rendered 
 more attractive, comfortable, or healthful by their presence. 
 
 Where to plant for timber-culture is also an important question. As a general rule, we 
 would say, plant on land not well suited to cultivation. There are tracts of what are now 
 almost useless lands, in almost every section, both North and South, that the planting of trees 
 would not only render more healthful, but would greatly improve the soil, besides producing 
 valuable timber. ' On every farm there are lands which are not as desirable for the cultiva- 
 tion of the common agricultural crops as others, and which would be admirably adapted to 
 this purpose. A hillside is a good location. Tliere are many such lands that if cultivated, 
 would soon be washed to the extent that they would become nearly barren, which if planted 
 with trees and sown with grass suited to the purpose, would become both a source of profit 
 and ornament to the farm. 
 
 It is well to plant a belt of trees for shelter on the north and west sides of orchards, or 
 exposed fields, for the cultivation of crops. It has been stated by good authority, that if one- 
 fifth of the prairie land in the Western States were covered with forests, they would produce 
 as much wheat as when the entire land was sown, or rather, the warmth and protection 
 secured by the forest would increase the wheat crop to such an extent, that its present yield 
 would be produced on four-fifths of the land now devoted to it. 
 
 Tree-Plauting from Seeds. — Trees may be planted from the seed, in the place they 
 are intended to grow, or may be planted in a nursery or garden, and transplanted when three 
 or four years old. Transplanting is the better method, since it secures more uniformity, 
 and obviates the evils attending the too common practice of sowing the seed too thickly. 
 
 The following are some of the most common causes of failure in producing timber 
 trees from seed: the use of poor seed, or that which has become too old or dry to germinate; 
 insufficient preparation of the soil; covering the seed too deep, and lack of sufficient shade for 
 the young plants. It is important that the seed be gathered at the right time, that is, when 
 it is fully ripe 
 
 The following directions on tree-planting from seed, taken from the columns of the 
 Country Gentleman, will be found valuable and interesting: — 
 
 " In planting such large fleshy seeds as chestnuts, acorns, horse-chestnuts, and beechnuts, 
 the most common cause of want of success, is allowing them to get too dry. As soon as 
 they ripen and fall, therefore, which is usually about the middle of autumn or soon after, they 
 should be gathered and kept slightly moist and fresh till they germinate. They might be 
 planted at once, and the surface of the ground protected from drying winds by moss or ever- 
 green branches were it not for mice, which show much skill in finding everything of the 
 kind. A light covering of straw is still more certain to attract them. The safest way, there- 
 fore, is to pack them in damp sand or slightly damp moss, and place them in a cold cellar or 
 other cool place till early spring planting. As they sprout very early they need not be planted 
 
TIiMBEK CULTURE. 523 
 
 deep, they will have moisture enough until they have thrown down their roots into the 
 soil, if buried witli only an inch of earth. The hickory and walnut are to be treated similarly 
 except that somewhat more care is necessary to prevent drying, as the thick shells serve as 
 partial protection. But after the exterior covering of either chestnuts or walnuts have dried 
 so long that they become hard and impervious to moisture from without, it will be useless to 
 plant them. 
 
 The maples are of two classes — those which ripen their seed the first of summer, like the 
 red and the silver maples, and those which do not ripen till October, as the black and the 
 sugar maple. The former will supply well matured seeds three weeks after the leaves have 
 expanded, and as they soon lose the power of germinating, they should be planted at once in 
 finely pulverized soil, not over an inch deep — if moist enough, half an inch would be better — 
 and if hot, dry weather follows, they should be partially shaded from the sun's rays. But 
 seeds of the sugar maple, maturing in October, may be kept in damp sand in a cool place and 
 planted early in spring; or if properly protected, as above mentioned for nuts, they may be 
 planted in autumn. 
 
 All the elms ripen seeds quite early in the season, and if sown shallow at once in fine 
 mellow soil, they will make a good growth, and be a foot high in autumn. White ash seeds, 
 which mature early in October, may be treated like the seeds of the sugar maple. The same 
 treatment may be given to the tulip tree and the basswood. The catalpa ripens plenty of 
 seeds in its long pods, and these are easily kept, and planted the next spring; they grow 
 freely. The birches have small seeds ripening in summer or autumn, and when sown the 
 following spring require good care, as the fine earth must be thinly sifted over them, and 
 kept sufficiently moist to insure germination; and the young plants may need the protection 
 of shade under a hot sun. It may be cheapest for the inexperienced to buy the young plants 
 by the thousand of nurserymen. 
 
 Seeds of ihe common locust and the honey-locust will keep several years if quite dry. 
 The common locust seeds require scalding to make them germinate. Put a quantity in a pint 
 or quart basin; pour on boiling water and let it cool. In a few hours a part will be found 
 swollen to double size. Pick these out and plant them at once an inch deep and they will 
 grow. Repeat the process successively on the remainder until all are swollen and planted. 
 Without this scalding process, the seeds will remain for years unchanged in the soO. The 
 honey-locust does not require this treatment. The poplars and willows grow freely from 
 cuttings, and are rarely raised from seed. 
 
 Conifers require more skillful management than deciduous trees, and it is commonly 
 cheaper to buy the young trees, or seedlings, of nurserymen. A few suggestions are, how- 
 ever, offered to those who would attempt the experiment. The larch is perhaps the easiest 
 to raise, but the seeds should be fresh and good, as they will not keep a year. The cones of 
 the white pine drop their seeds about the first of October, and they must be gathered in time 
 to secure them. The Norway spruce (now so largely grown of bearing size) matures its cones 
 late in November, and they must be saved before the seeds fall out. The same may be said 
 of the native black spruce. The seeds of conifers often require a month to germinate and 
 come up. They must have the soil finely and thinly sifted over them, and the young plants 
 always require more or less shading. 
 
 The berries of the red cedar are to be gathered late in autumn, mixed with an equal 
 bulk of moist sand, and planted at once, or early the next spring. Most of them will grow 
 thd second year. We have always found them to succeed best by washing the pulp from the 
 berries, although it is usually not regarded necessary by nurserymen. 
 
 The seeds of most evergreens being quite small, a great number of plants may be raised 
 from a small quantity, if the seeds are good and fresh, and most of them grow. A pound 
 of seed of the white pine contains 20,000; of the Scotch pine, 69,000; of the Norway spruce, 
 
.524 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 58,000; of the hemlock. 100,000; of the European larch, 60.000 to "5,000, and of the Amer- 
 lean arbor vitse, 320,000. It will usually be much cheaper to buy evergreen seeds than to 
 collect them, but the latter mode will be sure to secure them fresh. !Many other seeds of 
 trees may be gathered advantageously by those who desire to make plantations, and in this 
 way fine collections of yoimg trees are obtained at small expenditure." 
 
 For maple, birch, and seeds of a similar kind, it will be well to delay planting until 
 spring, in very cold latitudes. The soil should not be too retentive of moisture, for any 
 variety. The planting should not be done in wet weather on naturally wet soils, as the seed- 
 would be Uable to rot before germinating. 
 
 All trees require considerable shade in the early stages of growth. Tlie natural protec- 
 tion of the mother tree and tlie forest are best suited to their growth. A hot sun will often 
 kill many young trees, especially the evergreen species, while all varieties require more or 
 less protection by shade when young. When planting in a nursery, a high hedge of thick 
 growth, or a high, tight board-fence will be necessary, if no other shade is afforded for their 
 protection. 
 
 Several years since, a gentleman in Massachusetts experimented in tree-planting, select- 
 ing for his location a very high hill containing, in all, abcjjit twenty-five acres. This section 
 was bare, without a single tree. At the top where it was bleak and cold, and the soil 
 extremely poor, he planted as elsewhere, at first, trees of many kinds, but they did not thrive. 
 He then obtained, at considerable expense and trouble, some of the hardiest varieties of the 
 pine, spruce, and hemlock, from a more northei'ly latitude, and from abroad, and planted 
 these. Being varieties that would thrive almost anj-where, they grew and flourished. When 
 they had made a good growth, he planted close by the side of each, that shelter might be 
 thus afforded, some other variety such as the oak, maple, or hickorj', that had preNnously 
 failed to grow there. This experiment proved a perfect success, and to-day, owing to the 
 efforts of this man, that whole liill is covered from summit to base with a fine growth of a 
 variety of forest trees. Many forests have been grown in this manner, and it would be well 
 if more would follow examples of this kind. 
 
 Hon. Geo. B. Emerson, previouslj^ referred to, expresses as his opinion, that every one 
 of our native trees may be propagated by seed. He says: " I have tried so many of them 
 that I have no hesitation in saying that every one of our native trees may be propagated with 
 perfect certainty, if you only know how to take care of them. A tree speaks for itself, 
 generally, as to the time the seed should be planted. When a seed falls to the ground, it 
 falls to produce another tree. When, therefore, the seeds are ripe and fall to the ground, 
 that is the time to sow them As to the mode of sowing them, you can sow them in the 
 field, just as you do a crop of com, taking care not to cover them too deep, and taking care 
 to have them protected. I have heard of a man (and I was very sorry not to go and see 
 him) who had sown a quantity of seeds in a field of rye, and the rye protected those little 
 trees that sprang up perfectly, and the owner let the rj^e stay till the next spring, to protect 
 them. Here is a hint that the trees give us of how they ought to be planted. The oak tree 
 lets its acorns fall on the ground, and there they take root. The same thing is true of almost 
 all our trees; not all; they grow best under their mother's care, under her protection. In^ 
 Germany I went to a great forest school, thirty miles from Berlin, and the superintendent 
 escorted me about and showed me how they planted their oaks. I found a magniHc nt for- 
 est of several hundred acres that has been given up to this forest school, that the young men 
 may have an opportunity to study the tree in every position and in every condition. I found 
 the place that he had selected to plant oaks was a httle opening among oak trees, — a noble 
 forest, with high trees on every side. The seed is planted in this spot, where the trees pro- 
 tect them from the sun, except for half an hour or an hour in the hottest part of the day; 
 they are partialh^ protected almost the whole time. That is a matter of very great import- 
 
WATER SUPPLY FOR THE FARM. 527 
 
 ance, very much greater than it is commonly considered. If you are going to plant seeds, 
 the fruit of trees, in a place which is not protected, it will be always advisable to have a 
 hedge or a fence built up between them and the sun, so that they shall not be exposed to the 
 full heat of summer." 
 
 Transplanting Trees. — At the North, trees are transplanted, both in the autuimi 
 and spring. Both practices have their advocates, who use strong arguments in favor of their 
 respective theories. As a general rule, we should recommend that it be done in the spring, 
 just before the leaf buds begin to swell. When performed in the autumn, it should be late 
 in the season, after all the leaves have fallen. At the South, an intermediate time is most 
 favorable, which is in mid-winter. 
 
 The soil for the reception of the roots should be finely pulverized, and the opening in the 
 earth be made sufficiently large to accommodate the size and extension of the roots. If the 
 work be carelessly performed, the growth of the tree will be liable to be checked considera- 
 bly, or it may die altogether. Many valuable trees are annually lost by indifference or care- 
 lessness in transplanting. A cloudy day, or towards night, is the best time; or, better still, 
 just preceding a rain. Wetting the soil freely about the roots is a good plan while setting, 
 if there is no immediate prospect of rain. 
 
 All mutilated portions of the roots should be trimmed o£E, the tree set to the same depth 
 in the soil that it was before being taken up, and the soil carefully pressed upon the roots. 
 Tender trees may require some shading for a few days after transplanting, until the roots 
 become well established in the soil. 
 
 If the tree transplanted has attained a considerable size, it wiU be well to protect it from 
 being blown about by the wind, by driving a stake near the trunk, to which the latter may 
 be tied. 
 
 The bark of the tree should be protected from rubbing by a piece of cloth or other sub- 
 stance being wrapped around before tying. In transplanting young trees for a forest, a suffi- 
 cient allowance of space should be made for the size of the tree when grown, if it is not 
 intended to thin out at different stages of their growth. Where the latter is the object, the 
 planting can be much closer, and, when partially grown, a portion of the timber can be 
 removed, leaving the remainder to fuUy mature. By this means, a larger product can be 
 secured from an equal area of land. 
 
 WATER SUPPLY FOR THE FARM. 
 
 EQUALLY important as the proper amount of pure air for the health and comfort of 
 both man and the lower animals, is an adequate supply of pure water; yet how fre- 
 quently do we find the farm supply not only limited in quantity or inconvenient of 
 access, but also often poor in quality, and •containing the elements of poison and disease, 
 which, though they may not be apparent for a time, will eventually be the cause of most dis- 
 astrous results. This is not only true of country farms, but in many, and we might say most 
 of our large cities the water supplied for drinking purposes and cooking is not as pure as it 
 should be for the health and welfare of the inhabitants, and too little interest and concern is 
 manifested by the majority of the consumers in remedying this evil. A city frequently 
 depends for water upon a river, which a few miles above receives the sewage of another 
 rity, or town, or the refuse of tanneries, paper manufactories, woolen mills, chemical works, 
 or other manufacturing establishments, which deposit in it substances which render it foul 
 and unwholesome Even some of the cleanest spring waters are nften frequently impure. 
 
528 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 since they contain, in a soluble form, more or less of the elements of the soil, and are fre- 
 quently largely charged with mineral and other substances. The character of all spring 
 water, therefore, depends upon the character of the soil through which it has passed before 
 it issues from the ground in the form of a spring, the impurities often not being perceptible, 
 either to sight, taste, or smell. It should, therefore, as a general rule, be filtered before using. 
 As ordinary wells are supplied partly by springs, and partly by surface drainage, it is highly 
 important that they be located where they will not be contaminated by cesspools, privy vaults, 
 barn-yards, kitchen refuse of any kind, or anj-thing that shall have a tendency to render the 
 water fouL In many instances of the most malignant types of diphtheria, fevers, and kin- 
 dred diseases of blood poisoning, often resulting in death, the real cause of the disease has 
 been traceable to the contamination of water through some of the above-mentioned or simi- 
 lar sources, from which the deadly poison has emanated. And yet the usual custom is to 
 ignore all such causes of the evil, and regard such afflictions in families as inscrutable dispen- 
 sations of an All- Wise Providence, when, if a little more intelligent supervision of the sani- 
 tary conditions of the premises had been exercised, the e\al might have been avoided. We 
 believe there is more attributed to the Supreme Being, in the suffering and sorrow of this 
 world, than we have any right to suppose that source responsible for, and that if we traced 
 the responsibility of it more frequently to its proper source, we should find it in our own 
 ignorance and neglect. 
 
 Doubtless the Supreme Being could avert the evil effects of all ill that we bring upon 
 ourselves, if He chose thus to do: but He does not generally do it; and if we take poison 
 into our stomachs, either through ignorance or design, nature is generally permitted to take 
 its course, and the natural results follow, as a consequence. It is often astonishing to see 
 how indifferent people are respecting such common sanitary conditions. We do not believe 
 there is more than one farmer in a hundred that regards water of a poor quality on his prem- 
 ises, any thing more than an inconvenience, simply, the ninety-mine of the number consider, 
 ing a suflicient supply of pure water a fortunate circumstance, but failing to realize the dangei 
 involved in the use of that which is not pure. 
 
 Prof. Chandler of New York says, that in many cases from the proximity of cesspools 
 and privy vaults, the water becomes contaminated with filtered sewage — matters which, 
 while they scarcely affect the taste or smell of the water, have, nevertheless, the power to 
 create the most deadly disturbances in the persons who use the water, and that in the neigh- 
 borhood of grave-yards the water of wells is often found, on analysis, to be impregnated with 
 animal matters from the recently filled graves. Jules Lefort states, that as long ago as 1808, 
 it was decreed in France that no one should dig a well within one hundred metres of any 
 cemetery. In driven wells, the water is not exempt from contamination, the same as other 
 wells, except in cases where there is near the surface a bed of clay or " hard pan " impervious 
 to water; when such a stratum is penetrated by the tube, and the water is drawn from be- 
 neath it, the well is somewhat protected from surface drainage. The water from small, stagnant 
 ponds is very impure, though that from large ponds or lakes is often purer than the water 
 of some springs, as well as also being softer. W^en used in stationary or locomotive boilers, 
 impure water produces incrustations which often form a complete hning. In those sections of 
 the countiy where the water is quite hard, from the presence of lime salts, many housekeepers 
 have noticed the same efl'ect upon the inside of the tea kettles, that are in constant use, and 
 are obliged occasionally to remove it in some way. It is stated by reliable authority that as 
 much as 1;300 pounds of such calcareous matter in the form of incrustations, have been taken 
 from the boiler of a single locomotive on the New York Central Rail Road. Boiler explo- 
 sions are sometimes occasioned by such incrustations, on account of the metal becoming very 
 much overheated, causing the scale of the calcareous matter to crack, and permitting the 
 water to come in contact with the hot metal, which produces imin'^diately such a surplus of 
 steam, that the boiler is burst. 
 
WATEK yil'Pr.Y FOR THK FARM. 520 
 
 Injurious Effects of Metallic Pipes. — Water is frequently rendered impure and 
 Viiisafe for use by the metallic tubes through which it is conducted. In many cases even 
 I>ure water dissolves the metal, such as cojiper and lead, the mineral being readily detected in 
 the water, by analysis. Cases of sickness are known to have occurred, caused by water being 
 drawn through copper pumps; but lead poisoning is of more frequent occurrence, since lead pipes 
 are most commonly used for conducting water. This metal is most easily dissolved by water, 
 and is also the most poisonous, the quantity thus dissolved often causing paralysis or palsy, 
 ?nd even death. Lead should therefore never be used for conducting water that is to be 
 drank by man, or any living creature. Its use for this purpose is positively dangerous, and 
 any one who will give the subject due consideration cannot fail of being convinced of the 
 fact. Any farmer therefore, having not only the health of his family in view, but also of his 
 farm animals, will provide other means than lead pipes for conveying water to them. Many 
 instances are known of cattle failing to do well where the cause was traceable directly to the 
 use of lead pipes in conveying water to them. Besides, the beef produced by cattle havmg 
 metallic poison in their veins cannot be healthful. 
 
 F^r farm purposes, some writers recommend wooden pipes of good material carefully laid. 
 These are safe, as far as metallic poisons are concerned, but their chief objection is that they 
 are not very durable. Iron pipes are often recommended, but they are very apt to make the 
 water rusty, galvanized iron is considered unsafe on account of the zinc which is so readily 
 taken uid by the water', rendering it as objectionable, on account of being poisonous as lead, 
 for this purpose, many cases of zinc poisoning having occurred from its use not long since in 
 New England. Brass is also equally objectionable. Gutta percha is not durable, and glass 
 and porcelain, which have been tried to a certain extents do not possess the flexibility and 
 softness which is requisite for bending, cutting, and fitting pipes. 
 
 After various experiments with different materials as a substitute for lead, a pipe lias 
 baen invented which consists of lead for the outside, encasing a block -tin pipe, or in other 
 words, a tin-lined lead pipe, which is found to answer the purpose best, since the water comr s 
 in contact only witli the tin surface, which does not render the water impure. Prof. 
 Chandler states that the water in the tin-lined pipe, when tested side by side with that from 
 the ordinary lead pipe, from which the water would take up from one-tenth to two-tenths of 
 a grain of lead per gallon, was not perceptibly affected by remaining for a considerable length 
 of time in contact with the til surface. In using this pipe, of course, one of solid tin or some 
 other material that would not affect the water, should be used to be extended under the water 
 in the well or tank, as the lead on the outside of the tin-lined pipe would be objectionable, if 
 coming in contact with the water. Doubtless a better substitute than this kind of pipe may 
 yet be found. 
 
 Spi'illgS, Brooks, etc. — The farmer wlio has a good spring from which to supply his 
 house and farm buildings with pure, rimning water, has a treasure indeed. Or if he has a 
 good well for a water supply, he is fortunate; but he should be especially careful that it does 
 not become contaminated by surface drainage, or poisonous substances that may enter it by 
 percolating through the soil, in a manner so gradual and subtle as not to be detected except 
 by its disastrous effects. 
 
 Great care should be taken also to keep a spring which supplies water to the premises, clean 
 and free from everything that would render it impure. A good strong fence should be built 
 around the spring to keep off cattle and all intruders. A fine grate or strainer should also be 
 placed over the end of the pipe, to prevent obstructions from entering. The water shoula 
 flov/ into a tank or reservoir near the spring, from which pipes should connect it to tlie build- 
 ings. The spring should also be frequently examined by the owner, and kept as free from 
 impurities as possible. If the spring is higher than the buildings to which the water is to be 
 conveyed, it will be a very easy matter to take it there, as water will readily run down hill. 
 3G 
 
530 THE AJIEKICAX FARMER. 
 
 If the buildings ai-e on a higher point than the spring, the water can be forced up by a 
 hydraulic ram or by means of a windmill, either of which is not expensive, and, if properly 
 cared for, is quite durable. 
 
 A clear, running brook that never dries up in summer is of immense value on a farm. 
 Ponds of pure, fresh water are also to be highly prized, but ponds of stagnant W'ater are 
 seriously objectionable in any locality, rendering it extremely unhealthy for both man and 
 beast. The importance of hav-ing a good supply of pure water for stock of all kinds is very 
 properly set forth by the late Alexander Hyde, whose pen has given so much valuable agri- 
 cultural instruction to the world: — 
 
 '•AH farmers recognize the necessity of good food for their stock, but the value of pure, 
 wholesoaie water is not so generall}'^ appreciated. It has been said that green, succulent grass 
 is both food and drink for sheep in the summer, and in the winter, when they exercise and 
 perspire but httle, snow will furnish them all the drink they need. Sheep may possibly live 
 under such management, but they cannot thrive, and if they could talk they would tell a sad 
 tale of suffering. Snow is a miserable substitute for water. Sheep will eat it if they can get 
 nothing else, but it is so cold that it partially paralyzes the mouth, throat, and stomach, and 
 when reaction takes place, it is accompanied with more or less fever, and the health of the 
 animal is impaired. Precisely what the action of snow is upon the sheep we can learn by 
 trying it as a substitute for drink for ourselves. The first feeling may be one of refreshment 
 to the parched tongue, but it is followed by a sensation of numbness, and soon after heat and 
 increased craving for drmk. 
 
 Slieep can stand such cold treatment better than cattle and horses, but it is poor economy, 
 to say nothing of its cruelty. If they can have convenient access to pure water, they drink 
 a dozen times a day, and often leave the feeding-rack to go to the watering-trough. As for 
 cattle and horses, no one pretends that they can get along without daily rations of water. 
 Many, however, compel their cattle to go to such a distance from the stables for drink that, 
 in a cold, blustering day, the beasts hesitate whether to expose themselves to the winds and 
 snow or suffer with thirst. Generally they muster up courage enough to start off for the 
 brook or spring once a day at least, but sometimes have to be goaded into going even once. 
 If water is brought into the yards where cattle have free I'ange, they will drink three or four 
 times each day, and this is much better for them than to stuff tiiemselves once or twice, till 
 they are as round as a snow-ball, and almost as cold. 
 
 Drink early and drink often, is a much better maxim for stock, than its paraphrase is for 
 voters. The health and thrift of an animal depend about as much upon its drink, as upon its 
 food. Water is so common and so cheap in most parts of our country that, like air, its vir- 
 tues are not sufBcienlly prized A Northern farmer needs to go upon the prairies of the 
 Southwest to fully appreciate the value of the springs and rivulets that ooze out from the 
 hills and flow through the valleys of his well-watered section. This abundance of pure 
 water is no small compensation to the New England farmer for the want of the deep and easily- 
 tilled soil of the prairies, and the wonder is that he does not better improve his facilities for 
 irrigating his land and watering his stock. A Texan stockbreeder, owning a ranch of 5,000 
 acres and a flock of 4,000 sheep, recently told me that the great drawback to the success of 
 his business is the want of water. Here at the North, when almost every farmer possesses a 
 spring, the water of which, at small expense, can be brought to the barn, comparatively 
 few farmers avail themselves of the blessing. Such neglect shows ignorance or shiftlessness, 
 possibly a mixture of the two. So much has been said of the value of pure air, that the 
 community are generally alive to the importance of securing good ventilation both in the 
 house and the barn, but pure water is equally es-sential with good air. True, both man and 
 beast can go without water longer than they can without air, but the suffering for the want 
 of it is more intense than that from the want of food. Shipwreck(;d and starving sailors 
 
WATER SUPPLY FOR THE FARM. 531 
 
 testify that their fiist want is water, and tliat a parclied tongue is more intolerable tlian a 
 gnawing stomacli. Our farm stock would bear the same testimony could they speak. 
 
 In order to appreciate the value of water for stock, we must remember that it constitutes, 
 on the average, three-fourths of the weight of the animal, and it furnishes largely the 
 elements, oxygen and hydrogen, of the bodily structure, that it is essential for .softening solid 
 foods, so as to facilitate mastication, digestion, and the passage of waste material tlirough the 
 body, and, finally, by its evaporation from the surface, it keeps the body cool and healthy. 
 Fever always ensues when perspiration is checked. The estimated amount of water which 
 an average man throws off each day is eighty-three ounces — forty in the urine and fajces, and 
 forty through his lungs and skin. The average ox requires a much larger allowance than 
 this, and a cow that gives twenty quarts of milk a day must have at least eighteen quarts of 
 water in some form from which to manufacture this milk, for its analysis shows about ninety 
 per cent, of water. 
 
 The objection most commonly urged against bringing water to the barn for the conven- 
 ience of stock is the expense, but wliere there are large herds or flocks, the benefit in one 
 year will compensate for the outlay. Most farmers have logs suitable for making the aque- 
 duct, but if not, lead and iron pipe are so cheap in these days, that it pays even to borrow 
 the money and invest it in a water privilege. A three-quarter inch iron pipe can now be 
 bought for five or six cents a foot, and there is no better material for constructing an aqixe- 
 duct. Logs rot and lead corrodes, but iron, if it does rust a little, furnishes no poison. In 
 a constantly-filled pipe there is not rust enougii to make a good tonic, so that iron is probably 
 the best conductor of water. After a log becomes rotten, the water conveyed through it 
 must be more or less contaminated, and what the farmer wants for his stock is what he wants 
 for himself and family — the pure article. 
 
 If the farm is so unfo:-tunately situated that no spring or brook can be tapped that will 
 flow to the barn, then a water-ram or wind-mill can be used that will overcome gravity. 
 "Windmills have long done service in Europe, and they are getting to be quite common in 
 this country. Their advantage over water-rams is that they can be utilized not only for 
 pumping water, but for threshing and grinding grain, sawing wood, and any other farm 
 purpose for which power is required. A neighbor has two or three in operation on his farm, 
 and they are labor-saving machines. "Wind is a cheap power witli which to furnish water." 
 
 We believe with the above-mentioned writer, that all animals should have free access to 
 an abundant supply of good water, and it will well repay any farmer in the improved condition 
 of his stock to incur the necessary expense of procuring it for them, since it is one of the 
 first essentials of successful farming. We regret to say that many farmers still adhere to 
 the shiftless and unprofitable practice of failing to provide sufficient water for their stock, 
 and oblige them to drink from holes cut in the ice from some frog-pond or brook, often 
 driving them long distances, and exposing tliem to the cold weather and danger of having 
 their legs broken by slipping on the ice, or of being hooked by others of the drove while 
 crowding about such drinking places. This is not only a very inconvenient waj' of rrtanaging 
 stock, but it is extravagant and detrimental to success. About eighty per cent, of all flesh 
 being water, animals cannot thrive well without a sufficient supply of it. Clean water abun- 
 dantly supplied to cows in the barn-yard, where they can have frequent access to it, will 
 prove a paying investment and cheapen the production of milk. 
 
 Cisterns. — Aside from wells and springs for a water supply, another veiy cheap and 
 easy means of furnishing this necessary element is in utilizing the rain that falls upon the 
 roofs of buildings, and collecting it in a cistern for present and future use. If cisterns are 
 made of ample size (as they always should be), a permanent and sufficient quantity of water 
 can be obtained in this manner, and with so little trouble or expense that no farmer need be put 
 to any inconvenience in procuring good water for his house or barn. Wo v-'ould not recom- 
 
.")32 THE AMEKICAX FARMER. 
 
 mend this water for drinking pui-poses for tlie faniil)', as many writers do, though it is used 
 in many of the lime sections of the country for this purpose, but we must say that when 
 properly filtered (as it always should be), we prefer it to that of many wells and springs that 
 we have tested. It is excellent for the various household purposes, such as washing, teing 
 very soft, which renders that necessary operation in every household a much easier task than 
 when performed with the hard water from many wells or springs, and does not require much 
 more than half the amount of soap that hard water does. Aside from the convenience of 
 having cistern-water for use, — where other supply of water is imcertain, or rain-water is used, 
 — it is much better for the premises to have it collected, than running into the cellars and 
 about the buildings, besides, eaves-troughs and conductore are a great protection to the yard 
 manure when suppUed to a barn, and prevent many dollars' worth, yearly, from wasliing 
 away, or leaching into the soil; hence, when a bam is suppUed with a good capacious cistern, 
 two very desirable benefits result from this means of water supply. Cisterns or tanks are 
 constructed in various ways ; sometimes of wood, lined with lead, zinc, cement, or of slate, 
 in which latter case the sides and bottoms are grooved and cemented, to prevent leak- 
 age. The usual and better method is to construct a cistern of stone or brick, and cement it 
 at the bottom and sides. When stones are used for this purpose, small ones of nearly a uni- 
 form size are selected, but brick is to be preferred. When lead or zinc are used for Iming a 
 cistern, the water is unfit for drinking purposes, either being poisonous. 
 
 In a compact clay soil, cisterns are often made for stock purposes, by making an exca- 
 vation of sufficient size, and laj'ing a tliick coating of cement over the entire inner surface, 
 from wliich reservoir the water is to be pumped into troughs for the stock. Water for house- 
 hold pui-poses should always be filtered. Cisterns of this kind should 1>e made in two apart- 
 ments, so as to contain water filtered ready for use in the one, while the other receives it from 
 the pipes. In cementing the interior of a cistern, great care should be used in making it per- 
 fectly water-tight; hence, the sides and bottoms should be properly joined, and the cement 
 well prepared before appljnng. The most desirable form for a cistern is circular, though they 
 are made in various forms. A recent agricultural writer describes that of his barn as being 
 a long brick arch, running imder the earth drive-way, with a capacity for holding 500 bar- 
 rels. This cistern runs a foot deeper than the basement floor of the barn, and as near the top 
 and ends of the bank as is safe, in view of frost. The size will depend upon the amount of 
 water to be used, and the extent of surface of the roofs to furnish the supply. It is better to 
 have a cistern larger than necessary, rather than too small. A large cistern does not cost as 
 much, in proportion to its size, as a small one. 
 
 A circular cistern five and a half feet in diameter will hold, for every ten inches in depth, 
 a little more than one hundred and foriy-eight and a half gallons. 
 
 According to the best scientific authority, the average amount of rain in the United 
 States is about three feet per year, or at the rate of about three inches per month. 
 
 Upon this average, every inch of rain-fall upon each ten feet square of the roof will 
 amount to a little more than two barrels, and a little more than seventy-two barrels a year 
 (based upon the calculation of three feet of rain) ; therefore, a barn of only ordinary dimen- 
 sions would supply a large amount of water during the season, when rains are heavy or 
 frequent. 
 
 The cistern should be arched over with brick, leaving an opening for a trap-door at the 
 top large enough to admit a man when necessary to clean out the interior. This opening 
 should be kept covered with a closely-fitting trap-door. It should be kept constantly dosed, 
 not only to exclude rats and other vermin, but because of being very dangerous for children, 
 who, through the carelessness of parents or servants, are frequently drowned in such places. 
 After a long season of dry weathei', roofs of buildings are usually quite dusty; therefore it 
 is better to have pipes connecting the eaves with the cistern so arranged that the water can 
 
9 " 
 
 " 10 
 A cistei-n 3i feet diameter will hold for cvcrv 10 iuches iu depth, 
 4 
 
 4i 
 
 5 
 - 5i 
 "6 " 
 
 WATER SUPPLY FOK THE I'AU.M. 533 
 
 be turned off for a few moments after it Commences raining, to prevent the dirty water enter- 
 ing it, after which, the roofs becoming sufficiently washed, the pipes can be re-adjusted to 
 supply the cistern. 
 
 Table of Contents for Circular Cisterns. — Tlie following table of contents may 
 
 be of assistance to those designing to build cisterns. For each foot in depth, the contents of 
 circular cisterns is as follows: — 
 
 A cistern 5 feet in diameter will hold for every foot in depth, . . . 4.66 barrels. 
 
 "6 " " ... 6.71 
 
 "7 •' " ... 9.13 " 
 
 11.93 
 15.10 
 18.65 
 
 59 gallons. 
 78 ^ " 
 99 
 
 123 " 
 148 " 
 176 
 310 
 
 By the above table, it will be seen that a cistern five feet in diameter and six feet deep 
 will liold nearly twenty -eight barrels; eight feet in diameter, and ten feet deep, 119.3 barrels, 
 and so on. 
 
 Eule for finding the contents of any circular cistern in wine gallons, the diameter and 
 depth being known — 
 
 1. Find the square of one-half of the diameter, and nudtiply the product by 31, which 
 will give the area of the bottom of the cistern — nearJij. 
 
 2. Multiply the pi'oduct thus obtained by the number of feet in depth, which wOl give 
 the cubic contents in feet. 
 
 3. Multiply this last product by 1,72S (the number of cubic inches in a foot) which will 
 give the number of cubic inches. 
 
 4. Divide the result thits obtained by 23 1 (the number of cubic inches in a wine gallon), 
 which will give the number of gallons in a cistern. 
 
 By dividing the number of gallons in capacity by the mtmber of gallons in a barrel, we 
 have the capacity of the cistern given in barrels. 
 
 Filters for Cisterns. — In making cisterns, it is very essential that arrangements be 
 furnished for filtering the water as it is received from the pipes of the roof. By the filter- 
 ing process, all the suspended impurities, such as mud, animal and vegetable substances, etc., 
 are removed from the water. 
 
 The usual method is to divide the cistern into two equal compartments by a wall of brick, 
 which is open at the bottom to the height of six or eight inches. One of these compartments 
 is for receiving the water from the roof, and the other for containing it when it is filtered, 
 ready for use. 
 
 In the bottom of the one for receiving the water, alternate layers of pounded charcoal, 
 sand, and gravel are placed to a little more than the depth of the bottom opening between 
 the partitions. In the filtered department it is filled to the same height as the former, with 
 clean sand and gravel. Since the water passes through all these layers in reaching the 
 filtered department, it will be comparatively pure by this process. Of course, the pipe from 
 the roof enters the former compartment, and that- of the pump the latter. In making such a 
 cistern, it would be well to build the wall forming the partition between the two compart- 
 ments with a curve, so as to act as an arch towards the unfiltered portion, or side that is alway.s 
 fullest, setting the ends firmly into the sides of the cistern. This form will counteract the 
 
534 THE A3IERICAX FARilER. 
 
 pressure of the water from the receiving side, and the tendency to break down the middle 
 wall, which would be liable to occur, if empty, in a heavy storm, providing the wall was built 
 straight, since the water would enter so much faster than it could filter through. It will be 
 necessary to occasionally clean out the cistern, aud substitute new filtering material, in order 
 to keep the water pure, as the sand, gravel, etc., will in a few months become filled with the 
 refuse substances taken from the water. 
 
 Another method of filtering, is to build the brick wall forming the partition, to the bot- 
 tom of the cistern, leaving no opening whatever lietween the two. In such cases the water 
 filters through the bricks, the bricks making a perfect filter, as is stated by those who have 
 used cisterns made in this way; but we should prefer the former mode, providing proper 
 care be taken to keep the filtering material clean. 
 
 Wells. — The common source of water supply among farmers is in the ordinary well, 
 which is, with but comparatively few exceptions, a permanent and unfaiUng one, even in 
 time of drouth. A well of good, pure water is something to be pi-ized by anyone possessing 
 it, containing, as it does, the elements of comfort and health; for pure, cold water is truly a 
 luxury, aside from all sanitary considerations. "We have said so much at the beginning of 
 this subject of water supply respecting the necessity of keeping wells free from surface 
 drainage, sewage contaminations, etc., that it will be unnecessary to repeat here; but we wish 
 to impress upon the minds of our readers that ])ure water is essential to health and impure 
 water is incoiiijmfible ivith health, either in man or beast, and one of the principal sources of 
 disease among mankind ; also, that the decomposition of animal matter in water, such as the 
 animal excreta from privy vaults, or barn-yards, are by far the most objectionable and 
 dangerous to the system of all impurities, often engendering the most fatal diseases. Tlie 
 decomposition of vegetable matters is highly dangerous, acting as a poison upon the blood, 
 but not to the extent that animal substances are. It is also well to remember that these 
 poisonous substances will percolate through the soil for a long and sometimes almost an 
 incredible distance before being deposited in a well, and that water thus contaminated will 
 often be considered of the finest flavor and quality by those who drink it, the e\'il not being 
 detected by taste or smell. We have in mind a well of this kind in a certain city not far 
 from New York, which was located in one of the public parks. It was celebrated for the 
 delicious coolness of its water, as well as excellent flavor, which was clear and spark- 
 ling. In warm weather people would often go out of their way quite a distance to get a 
 drink of it. Some of this water was finally analyzed by a competent chemist, and found to 
 contain a substance that could be traceable to no other source but urine, either human or 
 animal, and the well was ordered closed by the city authorities. The difficulty was after- 
 wards found to be in the leakage of a city sewage pipe that passed several feet from the well. 
 We might give many similar instances, but state this simply to prove how easy it is for jier- 
 sons to be deceived respecting the quality of water, in taste, sight, or smell, and how very 
 important it is to take special care in preventing any contaminating substances whatever 
 from entering a well. It is a good plan to have the earth around a well brought up in the 
 form of a mound, to prevent surface water from running into it. A well should never be 
 located in a low spot of ground to receive such drainage. The higher the ground for the 
 well the better, other conditions being favorable. 
 
 A cellar, or a locaUty near to a cellar, is also, for this reason, an objectionalile place for 
 digging a well. It is not uncommon to see, in the country, a well for household purposes 
 located but a few feet from the barn-yard, so that in a wet season the drainage must of 
 necessity enter it. Wells should also bo frequently examined, and occasionally cleaned out, 
 that the sediment, soil, and other substances that may have found an entrance there may be 
 reinoved. 
 
 In digging wells, it is better to go to a sufficient depth to furnish an abundant supply of 
 
WATER SUPPLY FOU THE FARM. 535 
 
 water, that in time of drouth it may not be as liable to fail; besides, much trouble and 
 expense is attended with deepening a well that has once been completed. Farmers sonic- 
 times have a well for stock purposes, located in or very near a barn-yard. In such cases 
 great care should be taken that no drainage from the yard entered it. All water from the 
 yard should be conducted in another direction, the earth about the well be made higher than 
 other portions of the yard, and every precaution possible used to keep the water pure, sinca 
 cattle cannot thrive without pure water, and the milk of cows ihat drmk water coutaniiuateJ 
 with the drainage of the yard cannot be healthful or palatable. 
 
 The danger of this drainage is lessened when the sub-soil is of a clayey nature, being in 
 a measure impervious to water; but when the sub-soil is of a gravelly or sandy character, 
 there would be danger of its leaching through the soil into the well, even with all necessary 
 precautions observed on the surface. Absorbents to take up the liquid manure will obviate 
 the evil in a measure, when a sufficient quantity is used for that purpose. The digging of a 
 well is, of course, attended with considerable labor and expense; but, when once properly dug, 
 it becomes a permanent source of water supply, and the convenience of having such a source 
 to depend upon in all seasons well repays, even in one year, all that is expended in obtain- 
 ing it. 
 
 Driven, or Tube Wells, sometimes called American wells, are an ingenious and 
 easy method of obtaining water. They are made by driving a small iron tube, which has a 
 perforated hollow conical point of steel, into the ground until it strikes a subterranean spring. 
 By appMng a hand-pump to the orifice, a supply of water is generally obtained sufficient for 
 all practical purposes, and often obviates the necessity of common wells, the digging of which 
 is attended with more labor and expense. In some localities these wells are a perfect suc- 
 cess, and, when they prove so, are one of the cheapest means of water supply. They are not, 
 however, as permanent and durable as wells that are dug in the usual way, since the iron 
 tube will, in time, rust out; but they will last many years, and when they prove a success, 
 will well repay the slight expense incurred in making. As they sometimes prove a failure, it 
 is well for the farmer to always have a good supply of water guaranteed by the agent before 
 arranging the terms, that the risk may not be his own. No one should pay for such a well 
 unless it supplies water, and as agents are always desirous of custom, they will generally 
 take the risk themselves. 
 
 In many of the hilly and mountainous portions of Europe, water for irrigating the land 
 and supplying the domestic animals, as well as for household purposes, is obtained by driving 
 a tube horizontally into the side of a hill or mountain until it reaches some spring, which 
 furnishes a constant flow. The water from such springs is generally very cold, and of good 
 quality. 
 
 Artesian Wells. — The use of artesian wells is becoming quite common in some 
 portions of the country, both for irrigation and other uses, and especially in some of the arid 
 regions of the "West, where both surface and spring water is frequently not only very scarce, 
 but is so impregnated with certain mineral subst,Xuces as to render it unfit for drinking pur- 
 poses. In California, artesian wells are used quite extensively for irrigating the lands, but 
 are comparatively rare in many sections of the United States. They are, however, quite 
 common in New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Alabama, and Mississippi, some of them 
 throwing up oil, some mineral water, and others pure water. The numerous oil wells of 
 Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and vicinity are principally remarkable for the large 
 supply of petroleum which they furnish. 
 
 Among the deepest artesian wells in this country are two in St. Louis, Mo. The first 
 was bored to the depth of 2199 feet, and discharged 75 gallons of water per minute. The 
 second was svmk to the depth of 384,3.5 feet, the last 40 feet being in solid granite. The 
 
536 THE AMERICAN FARRIER. 
 
 diametei- of these wells is four ami a half inches, and both furnish water impregnated with 
 saline sulphur. The water from the first has a temperature of 73.4° F., the second 150° F. 
 At Louisville, Kentucky, there b an artesian well three inches in diameter and 2086 feet 
 deep. At Charleston, South Carolina, there is one sunk to the depth of 1250 feet, which 
 discharges water ten fec;t above the surface at the rate of 1200 gallons per hour. At Chicago 
 there are two artesian wells, one of which is 700 feet and the other 1000 feet deep. These 
 wells are five inches in diameter, and supply the city with 800,0ii0 gallons of pure water 
 daily. One of the deepest artesian wells in the United States is that at the State House in 
 Columbus, Ohio, which is 2775^ feet, but the water is salt, and does not rise aljove the 
 surface. 
 
 Among the most noted of these wells in Europe is that of Grenelle. in the vicinity of 
 Paris. It is about 1800 feet deep, and exerts a pressure equal to a rise ot 812 feet above the 
 surface (in pijx^s). and discharges about half a million of gallons per day. This water is very 
 pure, and is supplied to the poition of the city in which it is located: but as its temperature 
 is 82° F., it requii-es cooling Ijeiore being used for drinking purposes. It is used also for 
 warming the hospitals at Grenelle. 
 
 Aitesian wells are of ancient oi-igin, there being unmistakable traces of them iii Lom- 
 bardy, Asia Minor, Persia, China, Egypt. Algeria, and even in the great desert of Sahara. 
 A well within the old Carthusian convent at Lillers, bored in the year 1126, still flows with 
 undiminished force. They derive their name, howe%'er, fi-om Artois in France (the ancient 
 Artesium), where they have been used for a long period. 
 
 I'hey are usually from three to six inches in diameter, though sometimes even larger, 
 but never exceeding twelve inches, and are made by boring into the earth until the required 
 depth is reached. This depth varies in different localities, depending upon the geologic 
 structure and general surface conformation. "When a subterranean sheet of water is reached, 
 which is confined between two inchned, impei-^"ious strata of clay or rock, one above and the 
 other below, and so formed that the pressure of the water is brought to bear against the part 
 penetrated by the boring instruments, an artesian well is formed, which furnishes constantly- 
 flowing water. In this respect they differ fi-om the common weU, since thej- axe simply 
 artificial springs, which bring water to the surface from a great depth, often throwing it to a 
 greater or less height above the surface of the ground. 
 
 They are bored either by hand, horse, or steam power, the latter being the most effective 
 in faciUtating the labor; various kinds of augvu-s. chisels, and other implements being required 
 for boring through the different layers of rock, clay, etc. A great improvement has been 
 made within a few years by the invention of the diamond -pointed drill. It consists of a long 
 steel bar, the end of which may be either conical, concave, or annular, and is firmly set with 
 diamonds, so as to present cutting edges to the rock when turned right-handed. It is gener- 
 ally worked by steam or compressed air. and by i;s use the hardest granite may be bored at 
 the rate of several inches per minute; this instrument is also extensively used in mining. 
 Tubing is generally necessary to prevent the well from caving in at the sides, to exclude 
 undesirable veins of water, or the entrance of quicksand, the latter of which is said to be the 
 most troublesome source of difficulty in such wells. The tubing is sometimes of wood, but 
 generally of iron: bronne and copper also being used to a certain extent. Of course, the 
 making of such wells is attended with considerable expense; but in those regions wliich are 
 deficient in other sources of water supply, it often becomes a necessity, and when we con- 
 sider their durabiht}' and the great benefits to be derived from their use in such localities, 
 they are comparatively cheap. We know of some farmers and fruit-growers in California 
 that have three or four artesian wells on their lands, which are exceedingly productive, but 
 which would be almost worthless for agricultural purposes without them. 
 
WATEK SLI'PLY FOK THE FAK.M. 537 
 
 Hj'dl'iVlilic Rams. — For the pm-pose of forcing water to a lieiglit greater than that 
 of the source from which it is obtained, this simple and inexpensive power is admiralily 
 adapted. To tliose ha\'ing no spring above the level of the house, but one below it, that they 
 wish to utilize, this little machine will be found useful in bi-inging the water to the desired 
 locality. It can be made to force about one-eighth of the water that flows through it up a 
 steep hill and through a pipe a long distance, taking it even to a reservoir in the attic of the 
 house, if desired. Water discharged from the constantly running pipes of some under- 
 drained lands is sometimes utilized and conveyed to barns by this means. 
 
 Wind-mills, however, are at present more commonly employed for this purpose. They 
 are inexpensive, and with good care will often last many years. A recent writer says that 
 he has used the hydraulic ram for supphdng his house with water from a spring for more 
 than tliirty years, and during that time has only had two rams, the one he is now using being 
 apparently good for many years to come. He says: — • 
 
 ■' Repairs have cost me, about once in eighteen months or two years, five or ten cents for 
 a leather valve inside the air chamber, and once in about six or eight j"cars a new brass 
 plunger valve, costing alx)ut five dollars." 
 
 The illustration which we insert of an improved implement of this kind, by Joseph 
 Breck & Sons, Boston, is a good representatioij of this little machine in operation. 
 
 A correspondent of the Scieiitijic American gives the following directions for increasing 
 the power and capacity of hydraulic rams: '-Drill or file a small hole, say ouo-thirty-second 
 of an inch in diameter, in the supply pipe about a foot above the place where it enters the 
 ram. At every stroke of the ram a small stream will be discharged from this oiifice. This 
 at first sight would seem to decrease the power rather than augment it, but when the reaction 
 takes place in the pipe there seems to be a small quantity of air sucked in, and this air is 
 probably liberated from the water when it reaches the air chamber, thus increasing the pres- 
 sure. At least this seems to be the most feasible explanation. Certain I am that I have 
 repeatedly tried this plan, and find it to increase materially the power of the ram." 
 
 Wind-mills. — These have for a long time been employed as a motive power for the various 
 purposes of farm use in many portions of Europe. In this country their use has been, until 
 recently, confined ahnost exclusively to California and some of the other Western States. 
 They are at present, however, being introduced to other sections, where they prove very 
 cheap and efficient aids in various ways, such as pumping water, grinding grain, threshing, 
 sawing wood, shelling com, cutting hay, straw, or other fodder for cattle, churning, turning 
 a grindstone, etc., including nearly all that can be done by hand or horse-power. 
 
 In many portions of Europe they are used both for draining and irrigating lands. They 
 are especially useful for pumping water, or any similar work that does not require the con- 
 stant attention of a person. They require neither food nor fuel, work constantly except in 
 calms, and are self-regulating. They can run during the night as well as day, performing 
 such labor as does not require attention, such as pumping water, grinding gi-ain, etc. ; con- 
 sequently this will make up for loss of time in calms. But they are at the present time so 
 perfected in their construction as to run with ease in very light winds. 
 
 By the use of a windmill, water can be furnished at any desired place, and by making a 
 tank sixteen feet long, eight feet wide, and two feet deep, a reservoir of nearly sixty barrels 
 can be kept filled by a mill, which will be a supply for occasional calms. The principal objec- 
 tion to wind-mills has hitherto been their liability to get out of order, or blow down in a heavy 
 gale, and in not supplying a constant power. But these objections have been in a great 
 measure overcome by improvements that have been made, combining strength and lightness, 
 with an adaptabiUty to utilize the lightest winds, and to be self-adjusting in a severe storm, 
 so as to prevent injury. They are without doubt the cheapest power the farmer can employ 
 on the farm. 
 
538 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER 
 
WATER SUPPLY FOR THE FARM. 
 
 539 
 
 President Barnard of Columbia College, New York, says: " They adapt themselves 
 ■admirably to the, circumstances of sparse settlements, in prairie districts, and low alluvial 
 regions where streams are few and sluggish, where fuel is costly, and where the populati( n, 
 chiefly engaged in the cultivation of the soil and living in comparative isolation from each 
 other, find the conversion of their grains into flour and meal for domestic use a serious tax 
 upon both their time and means. To such, it would be very useful for the elevation of water 
 for drainage, for grinding, and many of the other exigencies of rural life." 
 
 And not only are they adapted to such localities as President Barnard has described, but 
 
 they can be finished with such 
 taste as not to be an inappropriate 
 attachment to the elegant suburban 
 buildings of any country gentle- 
 man, by means of which a cheap 
 water supply can be obtained for 
 the house, garden, stable, fountain, 
 fish-pond, lake, and various other 
 uses. 
 
 The water can thus be brought 
 from well, spring, or river, at 
 almost any distance, and delivered 
 in the house, barn, or elevated 
 tank in a tower, from which it 
 mav be drawn for any desired 
 puipose. Towers can be very or- 
 namentally constructed for the 
 double purpose of water supply 
 ^^^^ and observatory in the upper por- 
 tion, while studios or reading- 
 looms can be made on the first 
 nd second stories of the tower. 
 1 hey are made to run quietly, 
 ith no annoyance of noise or 
 ittle of any kind, while a boy 
 in easilv keep one in order. 
 
 The foregoing illustrations of 
 the Iron Turbine and the Echpse 
 w ind-mills, by Mart, Foos, & Co., 
 Spiingfield, Ohio, and the Eclipse 
 W md-Engine Co.. Beloit, Wiscon- 
 'Jin respectively, show admirably 
 the construction and working of 
 such farm machines that are becoming at present so common in many sections. 
 
 Tlie above cut represents a front view of the latter wind-mill, when facing full in the 
 wind. On the right appears the small side vane (the rudder in the rjar not shown), which 
 is attached to the same casting as the wheel, and against which the wind, as it increases to a 
 gale, blows, and acting as a lever, takes the wheel around to the side of the rudder out of the 
 way of the \\'ind, in tlie same way that a door, if not latched, blows open and presents no 
 resistance to the wind. 
 
 The figure on the following page represents the mill at rest, when pulled out of the wind 
 or closed by a storm, no part of whicli presents a resistance to the wind, except the edge of 
 
o4U 
 
 T1U-: A.MEKICAN FARMEK. 
 
 the wliool and tail, consequently there is very little strain upon if even in the severest gale. 
 1 1 regulates itself in turning out of position by simply raising a weight, which brings the 
 wheel bnck again when the wind dies away, on the same principle that a gate will shut itself 
 when hung with a weight. Wlien the utility of wind-mills becomes better appreciated liy 
 the farmers of the countiy, they cannot fail of being used quite extensively in the various 
 employments pertaining to the farm. 
 
 Use of Siphon in Water Supply. — The use of the siphon has long been known and 
 applied to many valuable purpce.-^. It consists of a bent tube, one portion of which is' longer 
 than the other, and can be used in 
 conducting liquids from one place 
 to another, when the place of dis- 
 charge is lower than that from 
 which it is taken, and the air 
 from the tube is exhausted. In 
 this manner, liquids may be con- 
 ducted from a higher to a lower 
 level, over an obstacle, provided 
 the height l.)e not more than that 
 of the fluid column the atmosphere 
 can support above the highei 
 level, like drawing the entire c n 
 tents of one barrel into anotl 
 when on nearly the same level, 
 inserting the siphon into the vtnt 
 of each. The siphon can be -used 
 to great advantage in conducting 
 water to a house or barn from a 
 well or spring, when they aie 
 located a little higher than the 
 building they are intended to suji 
 ply. This is the cheapest an 1 
 simplest agent for transferrin^ 
 water, where the circumstann 
 will admit of its use. When on 
 properly arranged, there is net 
 ing to get out of repair, hence, is 
 a permanent water supply. 
 
 A gentleman in Carlisle, 
 Iowa, has recently succeeded m 
 supplying his stock-yards with 
 water from his well by the use of 
 a siphon. He dug a well in front 
 
 of his barn, and struck a large vein of water at ten feet. By putting in a half-inch lead pipe 
 from the water up over the top of the well, and extending it two hundred feet down a hill to 
 the corner of a stock-lot, a continuous stream, supplying about nine hundred gallons every 
 twenty-four hours, was secured. 
 
 Mr. E. L. Lawrence, chief director of the Illinois Industrial University, gives the follow- 
 ing result of an experiment made not long since on the farm connected with that institution: 
 "The subject of obtaining water for stock being one of vast interest to the stock-growers of 
 Zhe West, I propose to give the result of an experiment made on the farm of the Illinois 
 
WATEIi SLPPLV rOR THE YXliil. 54I 
 
 liiuustriul University, with a view of obtaining a pui-e and periuauent supply in a more fco- 
 uoiuical way tlian by the usual manner of a wind-mill. 
 
 At one side of a lot, recently seeded and used as a pasture-field, is a well nine feet deep, 
 with a supply of water varying from three to four and one-half feet. On making a sui-vey, 
 I found that, by going 700 feet, and making an excavation of three feet, a point could be 
 reached one foot lower thau the bottom of the well. This passed over an elevation some five 
 feet higher than the surface of the ground at the well, and would give a maximum fall of 
 about sis feet, when the tank I proposed to cocstruct was empty and the well full; and I 
 estimated an average fall of three feet. By calculation I estimated that by the use of the 
 siphon — using a one-half inch gas-pipe, placed two and one-half feet below the surface, thus 
 giving a total rise of six feet, and a fall as stated above — a sufBcient amount of water would 
 . be discharged to supply fifty head of cattle. 
 
 In July last this plan was carried out and put in operation, and now has been going 
 three months, and I can safely say that it is a perfect success, as we have pumped no water 
 from that date to the present. 
 
 To prevent mud and water in the space excavated, eight by twelve feet was j)lanked 
 over at the side of the tank, with tile laid under the plank, connecting with a previously- laid 
 drain, one hundred feet farther down the slope; and a gas-pipe from the top of the tank was 
 run through the plank and into the drain, to carry ofi any overflow of water. Later, a float 
 vi-as arranged to stop the flow when the tank was fiUed, thus preventing any waste of water. 
 
 As in these times the cost of everything is a large item, I will give it in this case: — 
 Tank, holding 12 barrels, . . . . . . §9.75 
 
 700 feet +-inch gas-pipe «c 3 cents, 
 Digging and filling 700 feet of ditch, 
 Excavating for tank, fitting pipe, etc. 
 
 21.00 
 9.00 
 15.00 
 
 154.75 
 
 Total, 
 
 To remove the air from the pipe, an old thrown-away iron pump was used; and this is 
 left in position to force out any sediment that may settle in the pipe. A common ristem- 
 pump, such as is usually used in sinks, costing about three dollars, would be suiRcient for this. 
 
 Great care must be taken in the use of the siphon to exhaust all the air from the pipe, 
 and to so arrange the end inserted in the weU or spring, that sand or mud will not be liable 
 to get into it and obstruct the water. 
 
 The water wiU sometimes become obstructed in the siphon on account of air getting into 
 it. All running water contains more or less air. This air will naturally accumulate at the 
 upper end of the siphon, and when the pipe becomes filled with it, the water stops running. 
 "WTien this occurs, the only thing that remains to be done is, of course, to remove the air. 
 A vertical branch may be inserted in the top of the siphon (the highest point in the bend), 
 having one or two stop-cocks. If two are used, a space of a few inches of tulie should be left 
 between the two. "When air accumulates in the bend of the siphon, open the lower stop-cock, 
 and let the air up into the tube above it, which should previously be filled with water. 
 When the air fills the tube close the lower stop-cock, and open the upper one, and pour 
 in water to fill the tube again. By repeating this process the air can all be removed. Care 
 should be taken, in inserting the branch, that it does not extend into the tube to impede the 
 current of the water. It should only extend to the upper face of the inside of the tube. This 
 branch should have hay, leaves, sawdust or some other material packed about it, in order to 
 be kept from freezing in winter. When a single stop-cock or a screw-cap is used for the same 
 purpose, the two ends of the siphon will need to be plugged up, after which water should be 
 poured through the branch. When the air has escaped, close the branch, unstop first the 
 upper and then the lower end of the siphon. A stop-cock at either end of the siphon will 
 prove a more ready and easy means of opening and closing it. 
 
o42 
 
 THE AMERICAN F AUJIEU 
 
.MuTi^^I: puweks foii r.vii.us. 
 
 a4y 
 
 DOG-POWEF. 
 
 MOTIVE POWERS FOR FARMS. 
 
 A GOOD motive power is a great convenicnc > for both lai'ge and small farms, as well as 
 often a necessity. Such powers are valuable for pumping water, churning, sawing 
 wood, grinding grain, cutting feed for stock, threshing, shelling corn, and various 
 other farm purposes. The principal kinds in common use aie hoise power, wind and --team 
 
 Dog and sheep powers are often employed foi 
 light purposes, such as churning, etc. As steam-en- 
 gines are expensive, and water-power rarely available 
 on a farm, the powers that can be employed for an 
 ordina'ry-sized farm at a limited expense are either 
 horse-power or that furnished by a windmill, either 
 of which will do valuable service and economize in 
 the expense of labor, some farmers finding it rarne 
 profitable to use the former, and others the latter. 
 
 Horse-Power. — As horses arc kept for use on 
 most farms, they furnish a very convenient power for 
 many purposes, while they possess the advantage of 
 being a power that can be transferred to any locality 
 on the farm or off from it, as desired, and also one 
 that comes within the means of most farmers. A horse-power is easily regulated, and readily 
 attached to any machine that is desired for use. It is also a very inexpensive power, and can 
 be used at any time, while wind is variable and can be used only at certain times. Each 
 power has its own especial advantages over others. A wind-engine, once located, requires no 
 further expense but to merely keep it in order, which is slight, while it is the only available 
 power that can be used in pumping water in distant fields. Steam-power can be either 
 stationary or movable, but for small farms is too expensive to be made profitaljle, while on 
 very large farms it becomes a necessity. The power to be used on any farm must always be 
 adapted to the amount and kind of work to be performed. 
 
 The machinery for horse-power is generally so constructed as to be adapted to the use of 
 one, two, or three horses, as desired, and according to the amount of power required. That 
 represented on the crevious page is by the well-known firm of A. "VV. Gray's Sons, Middletown 
 Springs, Vermont. There is an endless platform on which the horses walk. This platform 
 is made of pieces of plank of suitable length fastened together on the under side by a 
 wrought-iron gear connected by cast-steel rods, which also serve as axles for rollers, and 
 move with the platform, running on a cast-iron and steel track. 
 
 Willd-Power. — In some portions of the coimtry, especially the Western States, wind- 
 mills have for some time been used quite extensively for furnishing power for many farm 
 purposes. They are becoming more common in other sections, as has been stated in previous 
 pages (See Windmills, page 537), and are one of the most economic powers known. Wind 
 is variable, it is true, and cannot always be relied upon, and a wind-mill is confined to a cer- 
 tain locality, yet the power it furnishes is one that never tires, and when the winds are 
 favorable it can work both night and day, often unattended, performing such labor as pump- 
 ing water for distant pastures or household use, grinding grain, etc. For the former purpose 
 it has no equal, and by having a large tank provided, a supply of water can be constantly 
 kept on hand in all seasons for use when there is not sufficient wind for running it, while it 
 can be so regulated as to be self-adjusting, ceasing to pump when the tank is full and com- 
 mencing again when it requires filling. 
 
5-1-i Tilt AMKKICA.N FAUMEK. 
 
 Steaiii-Power. — For large farms, such as many of the extensive ones in the "Western 
 States and other portions of the country, steam can be used to great advantage as a motive 
 power, and-a steam-engine becomes one of the necessary farm implements. Steam-engiu s 
 tor such purposes may be stationarj' or portable, earli Iiaving their peculiar advantages; th.' 
 latter for most uses being, of course, the most desirable. 
 
 The past few years have been conspicuously marked by the extensive increase in this 
 country in the use of steam-power in connection with agriculture, and numerous manufac- 
 tories of farm engines have sprung up tliroughovit the different sections, showing the largely- 
 increasmg demand for such power. The introduction oi steam-engines on farms has been 
 greatly facilitated by their cheaper and simpler form, the varioiis improvements made, besides 
 greater ease in their management. ' 
 
 The smaller and lower priced engines of two or three horee power may be used for cut- 
 ting or grinding feed, pumping water, sawing v.'ood, driving small threshing-machines, and 
 churning in larg-e dairies, while the larger ones are extensively employed for large threshing- 
 machines, for itinerant work, or for extensive farms. We learn from reliable sources that 
 twenty or more large agricultural engines are in use by Mr. Dalrymple in his operations in 
 wheat farming ou his extensive and noted farm, commonly known as the '•Dalr3Tnple Farm," 
 in Dakota, and which contains about a hundred thousand acres. A good stationary engine for 
 farm use can be procured at a comparatively low price, and in those portions of the countrj- 
 wliere fuel is cheap and abundant they may be used quite extensively as a motive power for 
 driving various farm machines. Of course, it is essential to safety and the successful use of 
 an engine, that the person having it in charge should perfectly understand the Ijusiness. and 
 use it with discretion and care, to prevent accident. 
 
 Engines may be made nearly self -regulating, and thus less liable to explosions; but in any 
 case, if the manager of it is careless or indifferent, the machine might be soon rained, and its 
 owner meet with a heavy loss in consequence. Efficient and careful management, in any de- 
 partment of the farm, pays best and brings in the end the most satisfactory results. An 
 engine may also be utilized in steaming food for stock, cooking roots, etc., when desired. 
 
 Steam-power has been used, to a considerable extent, as is commonly known, for plow- 
 ing in England, for several years, but to only a limited extent in our own country; yet we 
 preilict tliat the time is not far distant when most of the plowing will be done by steam on 
 the larger farms, such as are found on the extensive prairies of the West, or on the large 
 plantations in many portions of the South. The testimony of large landholders in England 
 who have used steam-power extensively is, that it is less expensive than horse-power; but, of 
 course, it would not prove as economical for a small farm. 
 
 In many localities where the farms are not sufficiently large to warrant each farmer in 
 the purchase of an engine or horse-power, the plan of mutual ownership can be profitably 
 adopted. By this means, a few farmers d.nng a small business, whose lands are near or 
 aljacent, may purchase the machine in company, and thus, at a comparatively slight expense, 
 each may derive nearly as much benefit from it as though owning it entirely. 
 
 In other cases, a single individual may own a machine and make it very profitable in 
 going from farm to farm doing itinerant work in threshing, etc., for his neighbors. When 
 moving on the road, a self-propelling engine is usually guided by a pair of hoi'ses, as shown 
 on the following pages, which represent engines manufactured by C. & G. Cooper & Co., Mt. 
 Vernon, Ohio. It is much cheaper and more convenient to guide or steer an engine on the 
 road by one or two horses, than by any mechanical means; besides, the horses are a reserved 
 force which may be employed to take the engine along in case anything should occur to render . 
 sirch assistance necessary, as, for instance, provided any part of the machinery should get out 
 of repair on the way to the field. 
 
FAR.M TEAMS. 547 
 
 FARM TEAMS. 
 
 ATE AM of some kind is indispensable to every farm, however small. And since it costs no 
 more to maintain a good team than a poor one, the former will always be found the 
 most profitable. Whatever the kind of team employed, the animals selected for the 
 purpose should be intelligent, tractable, gentle, strong and healthy. We will also add, that if to 
 these qualities we add comeliness in form and color, we increase their value very materially, 
 for no one is so blind to the sense of beauty as not to prefer to see about him animals 
 attractive in appearance rather than those that are unsightly in color, ugly in form, ungainly, 
 and awkward in movements, however desirable they may be in other respects. Some far- 
 mers seem to think that the ability to perform the work required is all that is essential in an 
 animal for farm use, utility being the chief and only object sought; but inasmuch as comeli- 
 ness is to be preferred to deformity and unsightliness in everything else, we see no reason 
 why it should not apply equally well here. We remember an old farmer in New England 
 that, in our boyhood days, used for several years on his farm a pair of the most unattractive 
 oxen we ever saw, and yet the owner was always descanting upon tlieir rare merits for work. 
 One was a brindle with a wall-eye and short lopped horns, the other a red-and-white spotted 
 animal, with wide branching horns and a hollow back, the sight of the two together being about 
 as good a combination of ugliness as could well be imagined. We recall another honest old 
 farmer who drove for years a horse so ill-looking that it was enough to give one the night- 
 mare whenever the beast made its appearance, and yet it was a valuable animal for work. 
 Gi'eat improvements have been made with respect to farm teams, as with everything else per- 
 t lining to agriculture, since that period, and yet we frequently see too much indifference 
 manifested by some farmers in this respect. Let us not only have good and valuable teams 
 for service on the farm, but let us have those that are pies sing to look upon, as well. The 
 principal animals used for the purpose of farm labor are the horse, mule, and ox. 
 
 The horse is usuaUy considered the best for all general purposes, and is employed more 
 extensively for farm work than either the mule or ox. For most uses the horse or mule is 
 better than the ox; still, there are places where an ox-team can work to much better advant- 
 age than either of the former. Horses are employed more extensively in New England for 
 farm work than they were from twenty to thirty years ago, and seem to be gradually taking 
 the place that the ox-team formerly occupied there; but in many sections oxea are still 
 preferred. 
 
 The mule is an exceedingly strong animal, and possesses remarkable powers of endur- 
 ance; besides, it is easily kept, and is very long-lived. It is sure-footed and, when worked 
 singly, will often be preferred to a horse for some ifinds of labor. They are also quicker 
 than oxen on the road, and for this purpose are greatly preferred to the latter. It is, how- 
 ever, difficult to keep them in an enclosure, as they will leap any ordinary fence. When 
 kept on a farm, it will be almost a necessity to keep them stabled for this reason, when not 
 at work. Mules are used quite extensively in connection with horses, both in the Southern 
 and Western States. Oxen are very useful for heavy kinds of work that require strength, 
 patience, and docility, such as plowing rough lands, pulling out stumps, drawing off neavy 
 stones, etc. For plowing on rough, stony lands or on steep hillsides, they have no superior. 
 They are slow travelers when compared with the horse or mule; still, they are generally very 
 patient, docile, and reliable, '• as patient as an ox " being an old and trite maxim. 
 
 Where teaming is to be done to a considerable extent, horses or mules would do better 
 service than oxen, since the latter are so slow in getting over the road and consequently 
 require so much time. Horses are more expensive to keep than either mules or oxen, and 
 the cost of purchasing a good team of horses is considerably more than that of a good ox or 
 mule team. 
 
548 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 The kind of team that is best for the farmer to keep will depend entirely upon his cir- 
 cumstances, and the character of the land he is to till. On some farms oxen, as we have 
 seen, would prove the most inefScient team the farmer could employ, while on others they 
 would prove the most efficient and profitable. 
 
 Horses and mules are indispensable in the extensive grain-growing sections of the coim 
 try, where a delay of a few days in the sowing or harvesting of the crop might be attended 
 with great loss. On a small farm, where the farmer cannot afford the e.xpense of keeping 
 horses or mules, a good ox-team may perhaps be foimd most desirable, all things being con- 
 sidered. 
 
 The expense of keeping a pair of horses or mules shod dunng the year will exceed that 
 of oxen. The necessary outfit of harnesses, wagons, etc., for a horse or mule team will also 
 be considerably more than that required for the ox-team, while the feeding expense of horses 
 and mules is greater than that of oxen. The horse and mule will depreciate in value as they 
 grow older, until they finally become worthless, while an ox may be readily fattened and 
 converted into beef, brmgiug a good price in the market. 
 
 On the other hand, one horse is almost a necessity, even on a small farm, for use in 
 travel, and it might be that some farmers would be so circumstanced that it would be more 
 profitable for them to keep an extra horse to complete t'.ie farm-team than to keep in addi- 
 tion a pair of oxen. Each farmer must consider his own individual cii-cumstances and 
 decide accordingly, as to what team is best adapted to his use. 
 
 The number and kind of teams should always be suited to the kind and amount of 
 work to be performed. On large farms, where a large amount and variety of labor is to be 
 performed, a large number of teams will be required. It will not be economy, however, to 
 keep more animals for this purpose than are needed on the farm. 
 
 Wliatever the kind of animals used for farm-teams, they should always be humanely 
 and kindly treated. They are the farmer's patient and willing servants, constantly doing his 
 bidding in performing tasks for him. wearing their lives out day after da}- uncomplainingly 
 in his service, and as such are entitled to kind consideration and care. He who abuses such 
 faithful servants, or permits those in his employ to do so, is guilty of base cruelty, and does 
 not deserve to be benefited by their labors. There is no farm animal but that can be best 
 managed by kindness, whUe with some, such as a high-spirited, sensitive hoi-se, blows and 
 harsh words are often absolutely ruinous, and always greatly lessen the money value of the 
 animal thiis treated. 
 
 We have known many valuable horses to have been rendered vicious and worthless by 
 such means. Very few animals are naturally vicious, the majority of those that are so having 
 been made thus by improper maijigement. To some animals harsh words are almost as 
 abusive as blows and kicks. The man who abuses in any way the innocent creatures in his 
 power deserves to change places with them, and learn from experience the suffering caused 
 by such treatment. Aside from the humane consideration, animals kindly treated are 
 miich more valuable and profitable to their owners, being more tractable and reliable: there- 
 fore lor this reason, if for no other (although the humane principle should be the leading 
 one), every farmer should feel personally responsible for the treatment his animals receive. 
 
ROADS AND ROAD-MAKING. 549 
 
 ROADS AND ROAD-MAKING. 
 
 THE importance of having good roads cannot well be over-estimated; and since the 
 subject of roads and road-making is one that pertains to the personal interests of 
 every farmer, either directly or indirectly, and roads of country towns are made and 
 kept in repair principally by farmers, it may not be inappropriate to give a few practical sug- 
 gestions relative to it in an agricultural work designed especially for farmers. 
 
 In so doing, we give, as most applicable to the purpose, the larger portion of an address 
 on this subject, delivered before the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture not long since, by 
 the editor of this work, omitting those parts that may be mainly of special local interest : 
 
 It would be easy to show the importance of this subject by referring to the intimate con- 
 nection which exists between the value of land, the general prosperity of the community, and 
 the condition of its roads. Every farmer, every owner of real estate, has a vital interest in 
 the perfection of the roads which lead to it, and especially the roads which lead from it to 
 the natural market. And this interest is a pecuniary one, not based on considerations of 
 comfort merely, but coming home to the pocket in the shape of the wear and tear of teams 
 and vehicles, and the amount of draught required to move a load, always dependent, to a 
 very large extent, on the character and condition of the surface of the road, and in the 
 enhanced value of a farm lying on a thoroughly good highway. So true is this, that it is 
 no exaggeration to say that there can be no better test of the progress of civilization in a 
 community than the condition of its roads. This close connection of the prosperity of the 
 people and the perfection of the means of communication between one commiinity and 
 another, is so well understood in Europe that good roads may be said to be the rule there, 
 and poor ones the exception — just the reverse, of what we see everywhere in this country. 
 Nor do we think it too much to say that the poorest road we saw in Switzerland, Germany, 
 and France is better than the best of our own. 
 
 It is safe to say that the common roads, though the original cost, mile for mile, may have 
 been much less, are vastly more important to the population of the State than the railroads. 
 It would be diflScult to do without railroads, to be sure, and no doubt put us to untold incon- 
 venience, especially as we have become accustomed to their use; but it would be quite impos- 
 sible to do without common roads. They are indispensable to a civilized community, and 
 may be reckoned among the necessities of life. 
 
 Location of Roads, etc. — In proceeding to treat upon this subject, we shall have but 
 little to say in regard to the location of our roads, since, bad as they are in many cases, their 
 line was long since determined, and new roads to be laid out will always bear a very small 
 proportion to the old ones. It ought to be borne in mind hereafter, however, when any new 
 road is proposed, that any reasonable amount of money spent in procuring surveys by the 
 most competent engineers, will be the best investment that can be made, rather than to run 
 the location by " guess-work," and perhaps eventually involve a vastly larger expense in build- 
 ing and grading, than a well-considered location would have cost. 
 
 Our roads are neither laid out properly nor constructed as roads ought to be. The first 
 settlers pushed off into the forest to seek new lands, and naturally built in elevated situations 
 to avoid the miasms of swamps, and for the purposes of protection or greater safety. Their 
 ways were foot-paths or bridle-paths cut through the woods, till they could clear up and make 
 passable roads, and when a town finally grew up, the roads were naturally made to accommo- 
 date its individual citizens. Of course it could not be expected that they would be laid out 
 in accordance with any fixed principles, or with any reference to the wants of a more 
 advanced civilization. The greatest good of the greatest number was sacrificed to individual 
 interest, or the convenience or caprice of a single person. It is time now that we had some- 
 
550 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 thing better. And let us not boast of our times till we have better means of communication. 
 It is a principle perfectly well established among engineers, that roads should be so sub- 
 stantially constructed that the cost of maintenance shall be reduced to the mmimum. The 
 fundamental principles of formation and construction should be studied and understood by 
 every road-builder, and observed in all localities, though they may not admit of so complete 
 application in a thinly-settled district as in the vicinity of a city where the travel is greater, 
 and the means of construction more abundant. 
 
 One of these general principles is that the nearer the location of the road approximates 
 to a straight and level line, the better; but a straight line which does not at the same time 
 admit of a level profile will often lose the advantage of being the shortest distance between 
 two places. It did not occur to the projectors of our earlier roads and of oui- turnpikes, that 
 the handle of a pail or a kettle is no longer when it lies at rest in a horizontal position than 
 when held upright. They did not know that while a horse on a level is as strong as five men, 
 on a steep hill he is not so strong as three; for three men with a hundred pounds each will 
 ascend a hill faster than a horse with three hundred pounds. Straightness of line should 
 always be sacrificed to obtain a level or to avoid a steep and heavy grade. 
 
 A road curving around a hOl will often be no longer than a straight one over it, for this 
 latter is called straight only because its curvature is less apparent to the eye, and compared 
 with a horizonal plane it is decidedly crooked. And after all, the difference in length of a 
 straight and slightly curved or winding road is small, for taking two places ten miles apart 
 with a road curving so that you could nowhere see more than a quarter of a mile of it at 
 once, and its length would exceed a perfectly straight road between the two places by only 
 a hundred and fifty j-ards. 
 
 It has been laid down as a general rule that you may increase the length of a road to 
 avoid a hill to twenty times the height that is to be saved by such increase ; that is. to save a 
 hill a hundred feet high, it is better to go two thousand feet around it, and even then you'll 
 find " the longest way round the shortest way home." "We see, therefore, that straightness, 
 though very desirable when it can be had, is by no means the highest characteristic of a good 
 road. It is far more important that it should be level, for unless we have a level surface, a 
 large part of the strength of the team must be spent in raising the load up the hill, in addi- 
 tion to the friction to be overcome. To draw a load up an incline, the resistance of the force 
 of gravity is as great an addition to the whole weight of the load, as the height of the incline 
 added to its length, so that an incline of one foot in twenty requires the team to lift up by 
 main strength one-twentieth of the whole weight in addition to overcoming the friction 
 caused by the entire load. 
 
 But leaving the location and the construction of new roads, as coming more properly 
 within the province of the professional road engineer, we call attention to a few of the more 
 striking and common mistakes in the mending and care of country roads, faults which seem 
 to arise from a want of knowledge of the first principles of road-making on the part of those 
 intrusted with the supervision of the highways. 
 
 Form of the Road-Bed. — Over a gravelly and hilly country, and over a flat country 
 with a stiff or clayey soil, no one would hesitate to say that the road-bed should be raised 
 above the level of the sides, and crowned sufficiently to shed the water; but the error, aston- 
 ishingly prevalent, is to finish them in a convex curve forming an arc of a circle with the 
 center raised a foot, and often eighteen inches or more, and the curvature at the sides so 
 abrupt as to make it dangerous to turn out on meeting a carriage, and always giving the 
 driver a iieeling of insecurity. We do not refer to the elevation above the surrounding land, 
 but simply to the shape of the road-bed, the elevation of the center above the sides, or what 
 might be called the " transverse profile " of the traveled part of the road itself. 
 
 To show that this is no uncommon occurrence, we may mention that the county commis- 
 
ROADS AND ROAD MAKING. 551 
 
 sioners of one of our large counties, only two or three years ago, in making the specifications 
 for a road only twenty feet wide, required that the road should ''crown " in the center no less 
 than eighteen inches, or one and one-half in ten, and no amount of reasoning could lead them 
 to reduce this enormous convexity. Is it not time for the law to step in and define what the 
 transverse profile of a road ought to be for a given width? 
 
 Let us see the results of this serious error. The convexity is so great that the center of 
 the road is the only place where a carriage stands upright. The travel, therefore, clings to 
 the middle of the road, wearing one path for the horse, and two ruts for the wheels, thus 
 wearing the road down very unevenly. 
 
 The water, therefore, invariably stands on the middle of the road, while it is constantly 
 washing away the sides. A road ought to be formed so as to induce travel over all parts of 
 it. But with this great convexity, whenever a carriage is compelled to turn to the sides, it 
 causes great additional wear on account of shding down the sides, while by this sliding 
 tendency, being at right angles to the line of draught, the labor of the horse and the wear of 
 wheels is very greatly increased. The evil of too great convexity is manifold, and a vastly 
 better form is that of two inclined planes meeting at the center, with the angle of junction at 
 the top slightly rounded by a curve. Of course the exact inchnation will depend much on 
 the character of the surface, and the width of the road. A very rough and bad surface will 
 require a greater incHne than a hard smooth face, but no road should ever be allowed to be 
 so rough as to require a transverse inclination greater than one in twenty, which, for a road- 
 bed twenty feet wide, would make the center six inches higher than the sides. 
 
 With broken stone or a hard unyielding surface, a proper medium of one in twenty-four 
 is adopted, or half an inch to a foot. Telford, the most successful and noted road-builder of 
 England, adopted one in thirty, or six inches curve in a road thirty feet wide, and MacAdam 
 fixed upon one in thirty-six, and sometimes as slight as one in sixty, or only three mches 
 crown in a thirty-feet road. 
 
 The transverse slope should increase with the longitudinal inclination, and should always 
 a little exceed it in order to prevent water from running down the length of the road to gully 
 it out, but it must be apparent that no practicable amount of crowning or convexity would serve 
 to carry the water from the slightest rut, not even if it were only an inch deep. And hence 
 MacAdam testified before a committee of Par hament, saying: — " I consider a road should 
 be as flat as possible with regard to allowing the water to run off it at all. I have generally 
 made roads three inches higher in the center than at the sides, when they are eighteen feet 
 wide." Now, a dirt or even a gravel road may require a little greater inclination than the 
 solid surface of broken stone, but if the road is so neglected as to have a soft or loamy sur- 
 face, no amount of convexity will shed the water, and a very convex surface will invariably 
 hold the more water. 
 
 It should be constantly borne in mind that any convexity at all is a necessary evil, and 
 that the less that it can be made, and accomplish its object, the better for the travel. 
 
 Removiug Obstructions from Roads. — Analogous to the previously -mentioned 
 fault is the practice, often seen on a wide road and through a village street, of dumping 
 down along the center of the highway a kind of winrow of material, whether loam or 
 gravel, eight or ten feet wide and from six inches to a foot thick, and sometimes more in 
 the middle, designed to form a crown to the road. If you ask what that is for, you will be 
 likely to be told, that it will all flatten down in a few months, and that it is the best way to 
 drain the water off. You will observe that it drives the teams off to one side, often com- 
 pelling them to cut up the grass along the gutters. It requires no argument to show that 
 this is all wrong, both in principle and in fact, for this mass of stuff acts more like a sponge 
 than like a duck's back, and you can never expect to make a permanently good road b-"^ leav- 
 ing the surface in that way. 
 
552 THE AMEIUCAN FARMER. 
 
 And this leads to another most common defect, which arises from the custom of semi- 
 annual repairs, and that is tlie neglect to pick up and remove the small loose stones that are 
 constantly working up through the improperly-applied material to lie on tlie surface, to ham- 
 mer up the road-bed at every blow of the wheel, and to endanger life and limb. Hard, firm 
 rocks projecting above the surface are bad enough, and cause the resistance of collision: but 
 other inequalities, loose round stones and other loose materials, striking against the wheels, 
 are far worse, for they cause great loss of momentum and waste of the power of draught, for 
 the carriage has to be lifted up over them by the leverage of the wheels. Any town that 
 fails to remove such obstacles promptly and often, ought at least to be reported to the Society 
 for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. No money can be better invested than in fre- 
 quently removing the loose stones always to be found in a badly-constructed road, and in 
 snow-ploughs for a prompt removal of snow in winter. 
 
 Drainage for Roads. — Perhaps the most common defect to be observed in the 
 methods of making repairs upon roads is the total want of any proper attention to the 
 drainage. You will see whole miles of roadway perfectly water-logged in spring, making it 
 very difficult for Hght carriages to pass over them, and for heavily-loaded teams quite impos- 
 sible. The treatment for such sections requires to be radical. 
 
 They need to be reconstructed, and it requires quite as much skill and judgment to recon- 
 struct properly roads that have been badly built, as it does to make good roads in the first place, 
 and probably more. But drainage is one of the things that can be carried out in the course 
 of repairing without any very serious outlay over and above what it would have cost to 
 have drained them properly in the original construction of the roads. 
 
 There is no one point in which our higliways are so lamentably defective as in being 
 wet at the foundation. They need thorough drainage as the first step to any possible improve- 
 ment in their permanent condition, and thorough drainage alone will in many cases make a 
 good road out of a bad one, while without it no amount of labor will result in permanent 
 improvement. 
 
 In many cases, hundreds of cartloads of gravel will be dumped in to fill up a sinking 
 slough, when perhaps half the money spent in drainage would have remedied the evil. 
 
 As a general rule, there ought to be two independent systems of drainage for most com- 
 mon roads, one to control the surface water by moans of side ditches and culverts wherever 
 needed, and another to drain the foundation on which the surface or shell of the road-bed 
 rests. For this latter, under-drains are most serviceable and properly-laid tile-drains on the 
 whole the cheapest, because they are most durable and effective, and, being laid below the 
 frost, they continue to operate when the surface is frozen, and allow the road to settle when 
 the frost comes out of the ground in spi'ing without an entire breaking up of the surface cov- 
 ing, to the infinite inconvenience of the public. Of course, this work, wherever it is done, is 
 in the nature of a permanent improvement, and could not generally be undertaken by a small 
 and poor town on all its roads at once, but by taking a portion, or the worst portions, from 
 year to year, and doing them well, the roads in such a town would, in the course of a few 
 years, begin to wear an entirely different aspect. 
 
 Catch-Waters, or Bars. — One of the very common errors in the manner of con- 
 structing catch-waters or bars on steep grades, and one which often causes the traveller no 
 little inconvenience, is to make them too high, and crossing the road often diagonally, so that 
 the wheels strike them at different times with a shock sometimes sufficient to unseat the 
 driver. If raised too high, also, they become dangerous for the horse. They should be 
 made in the shape of an inverted V, with the point directed up the ascent, so as to divide the 
 water. 
 
ROADS AND KOAD-MAKING. 553 
 
 Repairing Roads. — Another very serious mistake in mending our roads, or rather 
 in attempting to mend them, is to plow up the side ditches and throw the material, sods, sand 
 and manure, which the rains have washed off into them, back into the center of the drive- way. 
 Absurd as this practice appears, it is quite too common in our country roads, and that, too, in 
 many cases where good road-material is easily accessible. The consequence of it is, that the 
 first rains convert this loose organic material, vastly better for a top-dressing for grass than 
 for the surface of a road, into a perfect slough of mud, and a hard rain washes it back into the 
 ditch. In a dry season this material becomes a perfect bed of dust, annoying to the traveler, 
 destructive to vehicles, and about as bad as the mud itself. No strength of language is ade- 
 quate to do justice to the iniquity of this bad practice, and the surveyor who allows it ought 
 to be complained of as an enemy to society. 
 
 Nothing is more certain, nothing better established by the experience of engineers and 
 of practical men, than that a solid and unyielding foundation is one of the first requisites for 
 a good road. And yet, to throw such material as sods and sand and loam mto the road 
 from the sides, even if it is designed to cover it with a coating of gravel, is utterly destruct- 
 ive to the foundation of the road. All such stufE should be carefully thrown out of the 
 road-bed, as the first and most important step in laying the foundation. The loose stones 
 that have from time to time been picked from the surface and thrown aside to be an eyesore 
 to every man of taste who travels there, constitute an infinitely better road-material than the 
 soil on which they lie. Sods and turf are often deceptively tough, and they seem ''so 
 handy " to fill a hole or a rut with, that they are used for the purpose without considering that 
 they rapidly decay and work down into soft mud. But some go to the other extreme and fill 
 up the deep ruts with stones, put in and covered up in such a way as to conceal them at first, 
 but so that they never wear uniformly with the rest of the road, but appear in hard ridges 
 and bumps. 
 
 And here we must condemn the promiscuous use of the plow and the scraper in repair- 
 ing roads. Common as they are, they should never be used in crowning up a road from the 
 sides, and perhaps the only place where they should ever be tolerated on the road is in 
 loosening and removing the tops of hills to reduce the grade by taking off the gravel, for 
 their work, tliough large in quantity, is very poor in quality, and, in fact, destructive to the 
 condition of the road ; for the one breaks up the surface and the shoulders of the road which 
 time and travel may have solidified, while the scraper drags up from the side ditches the 
 soft alluvial matter previously washed into them, and leaves it upon the road, the very place 
 of all others where it is never wanted and never should be allowed. 
 
 We shall find, on inquiry, that the most common reason given as to why this vegetable 
 matter is used is, that there is no suitable material handy. In some cases, like sandy loca- 
 tions and where long stretches of country occur, destitute of rocks and gravel, there is, no 
 doubt, some shadow of reason in this excuse; but we have often heard it where plent}' of 
 good gravel could be had, within a hundred rods, almost for the carting. And how easy it 
 would be, in most sections, to remedy the difficulty by employing men by the year, to be 
 always on hand to keep up the roads and to keep an abundance of material, crushed rocks, 
 screened gravel, etc., on hand for use in various parts of the town. 
 
 "Would it not be better economy for some towns to invest a few hundred dollars in a 
 good stone-crusher and a heavy roller, to be kept on the town-farm for use on the roads, than 
 to pay men a doUar or two dollars a day to stand out their road-tax, leaning upon their hoe- 
 handles upon the road ? There are stone-crushers that will crush a ton of boulders an hour 
 with a ten-horse-power engine, with the help of three or four men to throw the stones into 
 the hopper and clear away the fragments. 
 
 Crushed stone forms one of the best materials for a road-bed, being firm and unyielding, 
 and, at the same time, such as is easily kept in repair. A heavy roller, for solidifying the- 
 
554 THE AMERICAN FARMER, 
 
 material and evening the surface, is essential in the proper construction and repairing of 
 good roads. 
 
 Objectious to the Common System Relative to the Coustructiou and 
 Care of Roads. — One of the striking evils of the present system, sanctioned by the 
 statutes of many States for the building and care of roads, is the want of uniformity. One 
 town takes a pride in its roads, spends money freely, adopts a progressive plan of operations, 
 and really secures very passable highways; and if all the adjoining towns would do the same 
 the traveler on a long line of main road could get along very well. But the next town, per- 
 haps, shirks its duty to the public, works out its highway tax by labor (a plan most skillfully 
 devised to accomplish nothing), does as little as possible to enable it to just graze within the 
 letter of the law, and the great public has to sufiEer accordingly. 
 
 Now, we will see what will be the result. There may be a long stretch of road over 
 which a team could easily carry a ton, or perhaps two tons. But in some part of the line 
 over which the traveler has to pass, there is a long, steep, and rocky hill, up which the team 
 can draw only a half or a quarter part as much as it can easily draw on a level, hard, and 
 unyielding surface. The consequence is that on account of this one steep incline, or it may 
 be more, the load can be only one-quarter or one-half as much as could have been easily 
 drawn, but for such an obstacle. The teamster, therefore, loses a large part of the advantage 
 of the good portion of the road, because he must reduce his load to what can be carried up 
 the one or two miserable hills which he must climb before reaching the end of his journey. 
 
 We have, therefore, the general proposition, that steep ascents, being always injurious, 
 become especially so when they occur on a long road which is comparatively level. In such 
 a case, it becomes vastly more important to avoid or lessen the slope, or else to perfect its 
 surface. But it lies in a town which does not care enough about its roads to improve them 
 by reducing the hill, and the whole community has to suffer. If it costs the teamster more 
 to transport produce, both producers and consumers of that produce are obliged eventually 
 to pay that cost. 
 
 And why should the condition of our great highways, which constitute so very important 
 an element of the wealth, the comfort, and the safety of the whole public, be allowed to 
 depend on the short-sighted views of economy, or perhaps the indolence or indifference of 
 every small town through which the roads may happen to pass ? 
 
 Another great olajection to the present system is that it allows towns to elect a multitude 
 of surveyors without reference to their competency, who cannot by any possibility manage 
 the money appropriated with that degree of economy, compreliensive foresight, and wisdom 
 of one thoroughly competent and skillful road engineer or superintendent. 
 
 The town meeting comes, and the people are called to vote for surveyors of highways, 
 often without any previous consultation as to the competency of men to fill the position, 
 perhaps by nomination on the spur of the moment, and many are chosen who have no ade- 
 quate conception of the manner of performing the responsible duty assigned to them. Each 
 has a certain district allotted to him, and not unfrequently, having an idea of fixing the road 
 near his own place, he takes measures to procure the appointment for the special purpose of 
 working on the road near home. The object is to do just enough to prevent the road from 
 breaking his neck — an object altogether too selfish to admit of a proper regard to the public 
 good. What better illustration could there tie of the old adage tliat " what is everybody's 
 business is nobody's ? " Instead of doing a work which, of all others, has its times and 
 seasons fixed by natural laws, they do it "when it comes handy," after the spring work is 
 over, or at any other leisure time that will most suit their own convenience. There are, there 
 can be, no continuous repairs. "A stitch in time" has no application here. The fact that a 
 dollar judiciously spent in repairs in April, or when the frost is coming out of the ground, is 
 worth more than two in June or July, and more than three, or even five, at a later date, is 
 of no significance where this plan is adopted. 
 
ROADS AND ROAD-MAKING. 555 
 
 Now, if this mode of management affected only the town which adopted and persisted 
 in it, the evil would be of comparatively small consequence; but the main roads through a 
 town are often great thoroughfares between other important points, so that the whole com- 
 munity suffers, to a greater or less extent, for the want of an efficient head to do the thinking 
 and the planning for the roads in such a town. 
 
 The worst feature of the whole is, that no amount of abihty or faithfulness displayed in 
 the performance of the duties of a surveyor will insure his continuance in oiBce over one 
 year. If he does his duty by making a good road, he will be quite sure to lose the position. 
 All his experience, study, and observation will be lost to the public when another takes his 
 turn to undo what the former has done, and begins his apprenticeship at the expense of the 
 public, and of the condition of the road itself. In other occupations, an apprenticeship, often 
 of some years, used to be thought requisite to authorize a man to set up business; but a sur- 
 veyor, the moment he is chosen, is presumed to be fit to direct works which often require 
 much scientific attainment, great skill, and intelligence. 
 
 Besides, the hasty appointment of surveyors, and the assignment of districts to each, 
 with a specific amount of money to spend, leads to another kind of wastefulness. Some dis- 
 tricts may have money to spare from the want of any knowledge or inclination to put it into 
 permanent improvements, while others have too little. In one district, teams will often be 
 standing idle with a surplus of men, while, perhaps, in another there is a want of both. 
 How can you expect any harmony of action with twenty or thirty men to do the work of 
 one first-class, competent superintendent ? 
 
 And again, that part of the present plan recognized by the law by which the taxes are 
 or may be worked out, is altogether out of date. It is unsound in principle, as GUlespie says, 
 wasteful in practice, and altogether unsatisfactory in its results; a remnant of the times of 
 feudal vassalage, when the tenure of land required the farmer to make the roads passable for 
 the troops of the lord of the manor. And how absurd it appears, on a moment's reflection. 
 Men who may be skillful enough in their own occupations are taken for the performance of 
 work of which oftentimes they know absolutely nothing. A good plowman is not necessarily 
 a good watchmaker, and yet to build a good road requires more thought, more skill, more 
 scientific knowledge than to make a good watch, for the latter is an operation chiefly mechan- 
 ical, while the former often demands the highest engineering attainment, and to spend money 
 with the greatest degree of economy, even in repairing a common road, requires much judg- 
 ment, knowledge of materials, and practical experience in using and applying them. And 
 yet the law presumes that every man is competent to build a road 1 
 
 Is it any wonder that there is a universal complaint of its utter inefiiciency ? Is it any 
 wonder that we have to wade through mud and mire in the spring and through dust in the 
 summer, stumbling over rocks, with the endless wear and tear of carriages, horses and teams, 
 and that we suffer the discomforts and annoyances which traveling over such roads implies ? 
 These are only a few of the defects of the system, yet many others might be enumerated in 
 this connection. 
 
 Now, how shall they be remedied or removed ? It would seem that the change ought 
 to be radical, that the medicine could hardly be too strong to meet so serious a case of disease; 
 but lest the general sentiment of the community should not be found educated up to such a 
 treatment, we will allude to one or two milder, half-way measures at first, which would clearly 
 be an improvement upon the present state of things, and then say what seems to us to be 
 required to effect a complete change in the present system. 
 
 At first the law might require that the whole supervision of roads should be vested in the 
 board of selectmen, who should be obliged to appoint a thoroughly competent superintendent, 
 who should hold his office for a term of years, not less than three, and perhaps not more than 
 five, subject to removal only for good cause shown, to whom should be committed the entire 
 
550 THE AMERICAN FARMER 
 
 responsibility of the repairs of roads, and who should have a sufBcient force of workmen con- 
 stantly employed to make permanent improvements, and to keep up the roads. Nothing is 
 better or more clearly proved by the experience of the past, than that the plan of annual or 
 semi-annual repairs is totally inadequate to keep up the roads, though it is undoubtedly the 
 most expensive and wasteful of the public money. 
 
 It might be well, also, to require by law that at least one-half of the money raised should 
 be devoted to making permanent improvements, using the balance each year to keep uj) such 
 parts of the ways as could stand the delay, picking out loose stones and otherwise keeping 
 them in a passable condition till their turn came for a more perfect treatment. 
 
 This would be one plan. Another would be to authorize or require the towns to elect a 
 road-master, under whose direction all the surveyors for the year, whatever the number might 
 be, should work, and to whom alone they should be responsible after their election by the 
 town. He should also be elected for a temi of years with a liberal salary, to be fixed either 
 by the law or by the town at the time of his election. He should be required to give his 
 personal attention to all the important alterations or repairs of the highwaj's, and generally 
 direct the time and manner of the performance of all labor done on the roads by the sur- 
 veyors or those under their employ, reporting in writing at the annual town meeting with a 
 statement of what had been done, and suggesting the requirements of the road for the future. 
 
 Another plan would be to authorize the towns to elect a board of perhaps three commis- 
 sioners, in the same manner as school committees, who should hold their ofBce for a term of 
 years, to whom should be committed the whole supervision of the roads, and who, so far as 
 the construction, laying out, and repair of roads go, shoxild hold the position already sug- 
 gested with reference to the selectmen. Being chosen with special reference to fitness for the 
 position, they might be more competent than any board of selectmen chosen for other and 
 more general duties. 
 
 Another still better plan, perhaps, would be to authorize or require the towns to appoint 
 a skillful road engineer, with all powers, rights, and duties suggested for the superintendent, 
 and which are now e.xercised by the highway surveyors. He should be required to perform 
 all the duties relating to laying out, altering, and repairing the highways, which now devolve 
 upon the selectmen. His plans might be subject to the approval of the board of selectmen, 
 if thought best, or be submitted to the town for acceptance. 
 
 Still another plan would be to require each town to appoint an inspector of roads, to act 
 in concert with two, three, or more similar inspectors from adjoining towns, and also three 
 agents in each town to make the repairs of roads, one to have the entire charge of repairs on 
 the main roads, for instance, and the other two to have control of needed repairs on cross- 
 roads, all the roads being divided, perhaps, for convenience, into first and second-class. 
 
 The three, four, or five inspectors so appointed should be required to pass over the main 
 roads in company with the agents, and point out to them in detail the manner in which the 
 roads should be repaired. To save time and money, the inspector for each town might h^ve 
 the supervision of the cross-roads in his own town, and the same direction over the agents 
 having charge of those roads which the board of inspectors had over the agent having charge 
 of the main roads. After the repairs are made, it should be the duty of the inspectors to 
 pass over the roads and see that the work has been properly done, with the power of accept- 
 ance or rejection, according to circumstances. These inspectors might be chosen by the 
 towns or appointed by the selectmen, and in case an agent proved himself to be incompetent, 
 the inspectors should be required to report him to the selectmen, who should be empowe7-ed 
 to discharge him and appoint a temporary agent in his place. 
 
 These are a few of the simple changes that might be made to secure greater efficiency, 
 the labor-tax or the commutation system being entirely abolished in either case. They are 
 at best only half-way measures, and liable to some of the objections of the present system. 
 
ROADS AND ROAD MAKING. 
 
 557 
 
558 THE AJ[ERICAN FARMER. 
 
 such as local prejudices and interests, and political strife and rivalry in the election or choice 
 of the officers suggested, by which the best interests of the public might in some cases be 
 sacrificed to party intrigues. 
 
 It will be noticed that this plan insures a constant oversight over all the roads, and this, 
 after the roads are once j^roperly constructed, is unquestionably the best economy, and costs 
 less, in a series of years, than that of semi-annual repairs. It is the only way, in fact, by 
 which a road can be kept constantly in good condition. 
 
 Now, after all, as we have stated, the plans which have been suggested are wliat might 
 be called only half-way measures, which might be adopted as modifications of the present 
 system, with the understanding that the fundamental principle which underlies them all, and 
 which is based on the truest and most far-sighted economy, is '' to sacrifice a portion of the 
 resources of the road, or the money raised for roads, to insure the good and judicious employ- 
 ment of the remainder." 
 
 A far better plan, it seems to me, is that suggested in one of the prize essays on this 
 subject, published by the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture: — 
 
 " For the efficient and economical maintenance of the public roads, it is essential that 
 there be a uniform system of management common to the whole State. The first step 
 towards a complete reform of system would be the creation of a State department of roads 
 and bridges, to have general charge of all the roads, to arrange and direct the carrying out 
 of the details, and generally to look to the effective working of the system. 
 
 The chief of the department should be a practical civil engineer, tlioroughly conversant 
 with the art of road-making. For the purposes of proper supervision, the State might be 
 divided into districts, say by counties, and these again into sub-distiicts, larger or smaller, as 
 might be found expedient. 
 
 There should be a resident engineer or superintendent for each district, to have charge 
 and oversight of the roads and bridges within his district, and to be held accountable to the 
 chief of the department. 
 
 He will ascertain the condition of the roads in his district, determine what improvements 
 are to be made, and in what order, decide upon the kinds and amount of work to be done, 
 estimate the sums needed to carry it on, and at stated periods report the same, with all the 
 matters pertaining to his office, to the chief of the department. 
 
 For each sub-district there will be required an assistant-engineer or road-master, subor- 
 dinate to the resident of the district, to manage the working details within the limits assigned. 
 As the improvements progress, these sub-districts may be enlarged and the number of subor- 
 dinates reduced, so that each and all shall always have work enough to keep them occupied."' 
 
 FARM ROADS. 
 
 ROADS leading from one part of the farm to another are a great convenience, and 
 the benefits derived from them amply repay for the labor and expense of their 
 construction. Those farmers who do not have them are apt to drive their teams all 
 over their lands wherever they have occasion to go, the result of which is that the mowing 
 and grain fields are thus badly cut up by wheel-tracks, and the treading of the team. Where 
 heavy loads are to be drawn, it is much easier for a team to have a firm, substantial 
 road on which to draw them, and much more labor can be accomplished in a given time 
 by this means; besides, when the soil is softened by the rains, it is difficult to draw heavy 
 loads, and hence, aside from the injury done the lands, much more labor and time will be 
 required in transferring produce and other matefial from one point to another, without good 
 
FARM ROADS. 55y 
 
 roads. A team will draw a much heavier load on a good, hard road than on turf-land or 
 simply a cart-path, which soon becomes worn into ruts by the wheels. Tliese ruts not only 
 render the drawing more difficult, but furnish a place for standing water, after every rain, 
 which is soon converted into mud. Such paths are especially troublesome in the spring when 
 the ground is wet and^soft. 
 
 Although constructing roads on the farm will require some labor and expense, the bene- 
 fits derived will soon more than compensate for it all, and when once jjroperly made, a very 
 little labor will be required to keep them in repair from year to year. 
 
 The manner in which the roads on a farm should be laid out, will depend upon the size 
 of the farm, its locality, and the relative locality of different fields, and that of the farm-build- 
 ings, especially the barn. As a general rule, there should be one good read, which, with its 
 branches, shall lead from each field to the barn. 
 
 Farm roads should be constructed in a manner similar to those for public use, the harder 
 and firmer the road-bed is made the better. Where the land is naturally dry, their construc- 
 tion is very easy, but where the land is wet, considerable labor will be required, since drain- 
 age will be essential. The grotmd for the road should be plowed, and the bed so graded 
 that it will be elevated a httle above the level of the surrounding land, and the middle of it 
 slightly higher than the sides, in order to admit of the water running off easily. 
 
 After properly grading, it will be greatly improved by the use of a roller. Where the 
 land is nearly level a furrow should be plowed on either side for drainage, and to prevent the 
 road from being washed by heavy storms. Coarse gravel makes an excellent bed for a road, 
 and when it is convenient of access will on most soils well repay for the labor and expense of 
 procuring it for this purpose. On lands that are naturally wet and retentive of water, the 
 construction of roads is more difficult. 
 
 The soil should first be thoroughly underdrained, after which the earth should be thrown 
 out of the road-bed to about the depth of two feet, and the trench thus made filled with 
 small stones or coarse gravel, over which the earth is placed. Care should be used to grade 
 it in such a manner that the center of the road shall be somewhat more elevated than at the 
 sides. Ample provisions should also be made for drainage at the sides. For this purpose 
 a trench filled with stones, tiles, or a deep open furrow may be used. Where the soil is of 
 such a nature that it is easily washed, the furrow will need to be opened frequently to pre- 
 vent its filling up with sediment, where only the latter is employed for drainage. 
 
 The Champion Road-Grader is an implement much used in many of the Western States 
 in road-making, and it is said to prove a very efficient and valuable machine for this purpose. 
 It is made by the Eureka Maniifacturing Company, Rock Falls, Illinois; when properly 
 adjusted it will grade the road-bed as desired, and roll it down, rendering it compact and 
 hard. 
 
 Farm roads need not be expensive in construction, since they are not in constant use 
 like public roads, but they should be made sufficiently substantial for all practical purposes. 
 Where the ditches at the side for drainage are shallow enough to admit of teams passing, — 
 which will not frequently occur inside a farm, — the road need not be made over ten or twelve 
 feet wide. Roads should always be kept in good repair. It is much cheaper and more 
 profitable to provide good roads than poor ones, whether for public or private use. A small 
 amount of labor, properly employed, will serve to keep the road-bed smooth and in condition 
 to admit of the water passing off readily, thus enabling it to become more and more compact 
 by use, while, on the other hand, if neglected, a small defect socsi becomes a serious one; the 
 surface gets worn and torn up, and places are formed for the water to accumulate. The soil 
 becomes soaked and softened, and gullies are formed which grow deeper by use, soon render- 
 ing it either very inconvenient or unsafe for passage. 
 
 Many serious accidents might be avoided, and expense and time saved by keeping roads 
 
560 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 in a better condition than they commonly are. Horses often receive injuries that render 
 them lame for life through such negligence, to say nothing of the danger to the life and limb 
 of the driver, while the wear and breakage of wagons and carts is no small item in this 
 connection. Roads when not properly cared for will also become so woi-n by constant use, 
 that the middle of the bed will be concave instead of convex, where the water readily col 
 lects and often makes a channel lengthwise until it finds an outlet, cutting gullies in its 
 course. A single rain-stoi-m will frequently cause great damage to a road when in this con- 
 dition, while if but a small proportion of the amount necessary to expend in properly repair- 
 ing it had been devoted to keeping it in good condition at first, time and money would have 
 been saved. Good roads on a farm, as well as in the locality of it, are not only a very great 
 convenience, but increase the value of land. Such farms wUl always find a more ready and 
 remunerative sale, other conditions being equal, than those that are not thus provided with 
 proper means of transit from one point to another. 
 
 FARM FENCES. 
 
 To what extent farm fences are a necessity, is a question that is at present attracting 
 considerable attention from agriculturists. That an immense amount of needless 
 expenditure in time and money are employed in making and keeping in repair fences 
 that are not only of no practical benefit to the farm, but which, if dispensed with, would 
 greatly improve in appearance the lands which they enclose, cannot be denied. In no 
 country on the whole globe is there such an enormous fence- tax as in the United States. In 
 fact, it might be stated in a general sense, that the custom of entirely encircling farms and 
 separating one owner's lands from another by fences, is an innovation, and one that is pecu- 
 liar to this country. 
 
 In Germany, England, Italy, and many other coimtries of the Old World, long under 
 cultivation, and containing a dense population, fences for the purpose of marking the terminus 
 of land, or as lines of demarkation, are rarely seen. In this country, especially in many 
 portions of New England, farms in many instances are divided and subdivided by lines of 
 fences that enclose small areas, and which must have cost, in the aggregate, nearly as much if 
 not more to construct, than the entire farms, in some cases, wiU now sell for. Frequently 
 these lines of division have Httle or no regularity, and seem to be entirely without any 
 established plan or system. 
 
 Under the usages and customs of a former generation, who, in settling their country 
 first cleared a field and then fenced and cultivated it, permitting the farm stock to run in the 
 uncleared portions, this system of fencing was inaugurated. But the necessities of that 
 remote period are not the necessities of to-day, and the customs and usages of that generation 
 are not essential to the present. 
 
 "WTiile fences on a farm seem, to a certain extent, to be a necessity, yet, according to the 
 former custom of fencing, they are far more extensive than is essential, except, perhaps, in 
 tJie prairie regions; and that which is spent in making and keeping them in repair might 
 much more profitably be appropriated to other purposes. 
 
 Surplus fences are not only expensive and unprofitable, but they are an incumbrance to 
 the land. Many of them are so constructed that they take up valuable land that might 
 otherwise be under cultivation, such as the stone walls common in many portions of New 
 England, the zigzag or Virginia fence, etc. Besides, the general appearance of a farm that 
 is not divided by numerous lines of fences is much more in conformity with good taste. 
 
FAIt.M FENCES. 5(J1 
 
 Fences furnish a place for weeds to grow and ripen their seed, which are scattered by 
 the wind over the land ; they also are a safe harbor for mice, rats, and other pests. 
 
 Unnecessary fences on a farm, are, therefore, not only a useless expense, and an obstruc- 
 tion to cultivation, bat a disfigurement to the landscape, and a harbor for weeds and vermin; 
 and if the amount of unproductive labor which they incur were reduced, great benefit would 
 be derived, since b)' so doing, the productiveness of the farm would be practically increased, 
 without any increased outlay in labor, money, or draft upon the fertility of the soil. In some 
 parts of New England, the old division and highway fences have been removed, which has 
 greatly increased the general attractiveness of such farms, as well as the towns in which they 
 are located. The owners have by this means improved the general appearance of their 
 farms, and reduced the expense of maintaining them. 
 
 In almost every State in New England there are examples of such improvements, wliich 
 are gradually extending. Among the many places made especially attractive by this means 
 might be mentioned Cheneyville, in South Manchester, Conn.; also, Amherst, Mass., and 
 vicinity. Very few fences are also seen in some of the river valleys, where the annual inun- 
 dations would sweep them away. 
 
 To wliat extent farm fences are es.sential will depend somewhat upon different 
 conditions and circumstances. The crops must, of course, be protected. This protection may 
 be furnished by fencing the farm animals in, appropriating a certain portion of the farm to 
 this purpose, or by enclosing the cultivated fields by fences, and thus fencing them out. Where 
 the law requires every owner of farm-stock to keep his animals on his own land, or to be 
 responsible for all damage done by them, highway fences will not be necessary, since the 
 owners, being made liable for such damage, will be cai-eful to keep them confined to their 
 own premises. The fences required in such sections, therefore, are those that will keep each 
 owner's animals confined on his own premises, and not such as shall fence out those of his 
 neighbors ; consequently, pasture fences, and fences about some of the farm buildings, will 
 be all the permanent ones that are essential. Where soiling is commonly practiced, even 
 pasture fences could be dispensed with. 
 
 In those sections wliere the statute law and custom require a highway and division 
 fence, a boundary fence will be essential, but the law and custom may be changed, and if 
 farmers us3 their influence in securing the enactment and enforcement of stringent laws ia 
 respect to restraining stock, this may be accomplisheil, and highway fences be rendered 
 unnecessary. 
 
 Farm animals that are not under the direct charge of a keeper, who is responsible for 
 the injury they may do, should never be tolerated in the highway. Such toleration would be 
 detrimental to the best agricultural interests of the country. If certain portions of the farm, 
 aside from the common pastures, are desired to be used as pasturage at any time, such as 
 mowing-lands for a season in the fall, movable fences may be used, similar to the hurdle 
 fences, so extensively employed in England. As a general rule, the permanent fences nec- 
 essary, except where boundary and division fences are required, will be those for the pas- 
 ture, and around farm buildings, such as barns and sheds. A temporary fence can occasion- 
 ally be used when necessary, which will secure the convenience of a permanent one without 
 its disadvantages, and for this purpose a movable fence, as previously recommended, is the 
 most desirable. 
 
 In England and other portions of Europe, when cattle and sheep are pastured where 
 there are no fences, a shepherd is employed to take charge of them, who, with the assistance 
 of a well-trained dog, will keep large flocks and herds under perfect control, and as strictly 
 confined to prescribed limits as though there were fences for this purpose. This practice of 
 employing shepherds is based upon the principle that it is less expensive to take care of the 
 herds than to keep up the fences. 
 
562 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 ReillOrillg Fences. — We would recommend to all farmers the maintaining only or" 
 such fences on the farm as are absolutely necessary for the safety of the crops, and the con- 
 finement of the stock, and the removal of all sneh as are not essential. Unnecessary feuce.s 
 on a farm are an expensive nuisance. 
 
 In England, where hedges have been used quite extensively during the past, they have 
 to a certain extent, during the last decade, been undergoing a process of extermination, and 
 there are at present thousands of miles of hedges less than there were formerly. In this 
 country, as previously stated, in those sections where needless fences have been removed, a 
 great improvement has been effected in the general appearance of the farms, as well as the 
 convenience of cultivation and the reduction of the expenses of the farm. In the removal cf 
 useless fences, but little labor, comparatively, will be required for those constructed of light 
 materials, such as rails or boards. The removal of the stone-walls, however, that are found 
 in many parts of New England, would involve much labor and expense, and in some instances 
 it is questionable whether their removal would pay for all the expenditure of time and labor 
 that would be required to accomplish the object. This would depend upon the locality of the 
 wall, the improvement and convenience secured by its removal, and the use to which the 
 stones could be appropriated, or the facility with which they might be gotten out of the way. 
 Many of these walls have been built for a century or more, and have been kept in repaii- 
 from generation to generation. They were appropriated to this use, originally, partly because 
 the fences were considered a necessity, and partly as a means of getting rid of the stones by 
 which the land was encumbered. What to do with the stones, in removing such fences, would 
 be the question to be considered. The best and most practical way of disposing of them is 
 to use them where they will be a benefit in drainage. On nearly every farm there are wet 
 lands that require drainage, and by using these incumbrances of the laud for this purpose, 
 acres of new or virgin soil may be secured for cultivation that might otherwise be nearly 
 worthless for agricultural jiurposes. 
 
 Ravines and swales may also be filled with stones, while many may be utilized for tlie 
 foundation of farm buildings, and thus in one way and another th(;y can he. disposed of iu 
 a manner that will increase the value of the farm. 
 
 Mr. Starr, the former proprietor of the famous Echo Farm, settled the i^erplexing ques- 
 tion of what to do with the stones in clearing his fields of them, in a manner that may be of 
 advantage to some other farmers to imitate who have this difficulty to meet. 
 
 Selecting an untillable spot in a field in which there were one or two natural mound-like 
 hillocks, a large pile of stones was made, consisting of several hundred loads, and, as an 
 experiment, this pile was covered with tussocks of coarse swamp-grass, which are hard of 
 decomposition. These were inverted, covering the stones. On tliis fiumlation, a light dress- 
 ing of soil was placed, and grass-seed sown. 
 
 This experiment proved a success; the grass soon — -- 
 
 grew over this artificial mound, which appeared to ^ 
 
 bear the protracted droughts even better than the 
 natural ones, while the first showers made them con . 
 spicuously green. 
 
 From time to time these mounds have bten 
 extended and multiplied, and in all cases pro^ed a 
 success. The object was not to form new land but -~*^ 
 to dispose of the stones. Whenever practicable _:^i^ 
 natural depressions may be made use of for deposit- 
 
 ,, , -^ ., , ^ ^ STONE HEAPS. 
 
 ing stones. 1 'y such means the surplus stones may 
 
 be gotten rid of without being an encumbrance to the land, or marring its .'iiipearanee, and 
 
 also without being a jilace in which noxious weeds, briar.?, and shrubs will find refuge. 
 
FARM FENCES. 5fj3 
 
 Rail Fence. — The kind of fences used on a farm will vary according to circumstances, 
 the most available material being generally employed in each section. As the country becomes 
 older, and the material for fencing purposes b.3comes more scarce and expensive, the question 
 as to the most economical and durable fence to construct becomes a more important one to 
 determine. The first settlers of the country, finding timber and stone abundant, made use of 
 these principally in the construction of fences. Hence, the rail-fence and stone^vall became the 
 most common at that time. In newly-settled portions, where timber is plenty, the common 
 rail-fence, or what is termed the zigzag or Virginia fence, is quite extensively employed, 
 owing to the material being cheap, — often an incumbrance in clearing up new lands, — and 
 the rails being easily split. 
 
 This style of fence has been very appropriately termed by a recent writer, " the relic of 
 a lavish era of unlimited forestry," tlie counterpart of which is seen in no other country, it 
 being typical of Yankeeland. Cedar is most commonly used for making rails, although 
 hemlock, chestnut, and other kinds of timber may be employed for this purpose. 
 
 In making a rail-fence, wooden blocks are preferred to stones for supports at the cor- 
 ners, as the stones will soon sink into the ground and become of no use whatever. Blocks 
 will decay in time, but they may be replaced by others. The stakes used should always bs 
 large enough to give sufficient strength and support to the fence. It will be a practice of 
 economy also to make them long enough to be re-sharpened and used again when the ends 
 decay. Long stakes projecting at the corners, however, give a fence an unsightly appear- 
 ance. A more symmetrical and neater-looking fence, besides being equally strong, can be 
 made by putting two upright stakes, one on either side of the angle formed in crossing the 
 rails, and securing them by a plank in which holes are made of sufficient size and distance 
 apart to admit of being slipped over these posts to hold them securely after all but one or 
 two of the top rails have been laid. The upper rails are then put on to hold the plank firmly 
 in place. Annealed wire of large size may be wound around the stakes to hold them in place, 
 instead of the use of the plank, if desired. The objections to the common rail-fence are, the large 
 amount of timber necessary for its construction, the ease with which it may be thrown down 
 by stock, or blown over by the strong winds, and the amount of land it occupies. Wiiere 
 timber is abundant, land plenty, and saw-mills not easily accessible, some kind of a rail-fence 
 may prove the most profitable; but, as a general rule, with ordinary facilities for obtaining 
 other material, and where land is valuable, some other style of fence is to be preferred. 
 
 Post and Rail-Fences. — Considerable less timber will be required for this than the 
 common rail, or Virginia fence, and it also occupies onl}' about one-third the land required 
 for the latter, besides being more substantial. It is, however, a more expensive fence to 
 make, since considerable labor and time are involved in digging the holes for the posts, and 
 in making holes in the posts for the rails, and fitting the latter to them. The posts are liable 
 to be thrown out by the frost, and also to decay, requiring to be occasionally reset. Some 
 kinds of timber will, however, last much longer than others, and if the most durable kinds 
 are used, a fence of this style, when once properly built, will last several years with but fcv,- 
 repairs. The posts should be pointed at the end, and set from two and a half to three feet 
 in the ground. The hole should be made quite large, and the post placed in the center and 
 surrounded by very small stones, which should be pounded in firmly aroimd the post, as the 
 hole is filled up. This will prevent heaving, and the post will also last much longer than if 
 surrounded with earth. 
 
 Nailing a piece of board about two feet long to one side of the post near the bottom, 
 and another piece on the opposite side a little higher, and packing the earth firmly down, is 
 also a good preventive against heaving. A post set in this manner will generally rise and 
 fidl with the earth, and hence will not be liable to be thrown out. Of course, the hole in 
 sucli ca.ses must lie dug large enough to admit of the extra width nMinired by the boa' ds 
 
-,64 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 .hat are nailed to the p>08t. The best timber for posts, with respect to durability, is red 
 jedar, yellow locust, black walnut, white oak, and chestnut The bark should always be 
 .•emoved from posts before setting. 
 
 Preserviug Fence Posts. — Various methods have been employed for the preserva- 
 ;ion of posts, some of which have proven very efficient in retarding the progress of decay, 
 rhere is a great difference, however, not only in the durability of different kinds of timber. 
 Out in the manner upon which different soils act upon wood, it generally decaying very 
 slowly in a compact clay, but rapidly in silicious sands and gravelly soils. Placing the 
 post in the ground in a position which is the reverse of that of its natural growth, or the 
 apper end downwai-d. will render it more durable. Charring the part that is buried, or cov- 
 ering it with coal tar. as well as imbedding it in ashes or clay, is thought to add to its 
 durability. 
 
 Soaking the posts in a solution of blue vitriol, in the proportion of one pound of vitriol 
 to forty pounds of water, is highly recommended by some as a means of preserving all kinds 
 of timber that is exposed to the weather or moisture. If the timber is dry it should be 
 soaked ten days; if green, six days will be sufficient. 
 
 But one of the best preservatives with which we are acquainted is to completely saturate 
 that part of the post to be placed in the ground, with kerosene or common coal oil, and after- 
 ward covering it with tar. 
 
 A farmer in Mississippi gives the following statement with respect to this method of 
 treatment: 
 
 " Ten years ago I built a grapery at the end of the house, as a screen against the western 
 sun, using sawed pine posts. Anticipating the difficulty of ever replacing these posts after 
 they became covered with vines, I took the extra precaution of completely satva-ating the 
 lower ends with kerosene — common coal oil — before applying the tar. These posts are now 
 perfectly firm and almost as sound as they were when put in. All other pine posts set at 
 that date have entirely rotted and perished. The result of this experiment so thoroughly 
 impressed me with the value of coal oil as a preservative of timber under ground, that I now 
 use it on all posts in building, afterwards covering with hot coal tar. 
 
 "I add this, however, which I think will doubtless prove of great value: I bore a i to 
 .J inch hole in the post near the grotind, slanting downward and reaching beyond the center; 
 this is to be filled with kerosene from time to time — perhaps once in three or four years will 
 answer. I feel sure that insects very greatly hasten the decay of timber, to say the least : 
 and kerosene being repellant to them, makes it a valuable application at any point where they 
 are likely to do mischief." 
 
 Dr. Z. H. Mason of Florida, also recommends the use of kerosene oil for this purpose, 
 and says that in that State it has proved a very effectual preservative of wood against decay 
 from moisture and the attacks of the white ant, known in that section as the wood louse, 
 which is very destructive to timber. Timber smtable for posts becoming scarce, by this 
 means almost any kind may be used for the purpose, and rendered quite durable, thus sav- 
 ing a large amount of money, time, and labor. 
 
 Post and Board Fence. — This fence presents a much better appearance than that 
 made of posts and rails, and in sections where timber can be easily converted into boards, it 
 is cheaper than the latter. The posts should l->e placed from seven to nine feet apart. The 
 boards, if about six inches wide, should be placed about the same distance apart and firmly 
 nailed to the posts. If substantially made, such a fence always look? well, and wiU last a 
 long time with few repairs. Before setting the posts the ends to be placed in the earth 
 should be saturated with kerosene oil and covered with coal tar to increase their durability. 
 Precaution should be taken also, in setting, against their being thrown out by the frost, 
 according to directions given in connection with the post-and-rail fence. 
 
FA KM FENCES. 5(j,3 
 
 Stone Walls. — The stone wall is very common in New England, where it has been 
 used to subserve a double purpose, namely that of a fence, and as a place of deposit for the 
 stones that have been taken from the land. "When well built, they form a very permanent 
 and substantial fence, but in order to be well built an immense amount of labor is required; 
 hence they are a very expensive fence. When improperly built, they are anything but sul)- 
 stantial, and an old, dilapidated stone waU is one of the most unsightly objects that can be 
 found on a farm, being an index of negligence and shiftlessness that is not pleasant to look 
 upon, and one that is far from being complimentary to the owner. 
 
 When well made, a stone wall forms an impassable barrier for horses and cattle, but 
 \viU not confine sheep or hogs unless it is surmounted by a rail or similar obstruction. The 
 frost will often throw it down by upheaving the earth, while a loose stone, being displaced, 
 will often result in a wide gap; hence, aside from the expense of building, stone walla 
 require considerable care and repairing. 
 
 It is a fence that also takes up a great deal of land that might otherwise be under culti- 
 vation, while its removal, when desired, involves a vast amount of labor and expense. It 
 would be far better for the farmer to dispose of the surplus stones by burying them where 
 they will be useful in underdraining the land, or in filling up ravines, and construct cheaper 
 fences of a lighter material. 
 
 The following method of building a stone wall is taken from ''Facts for Farmere," and 
 may be useful to such as are not skilled in this respect, and wish to obtain the knowledge of 
 what we believe is destined to become, before many generations, one of the "lost arts." 
 
 '' Have the surface soil removed so that the foimdation stones will rest on firm earth. 
 Contiguous foundation stones should be as nearly as possible equal in size, and large enough 
 to extend the full width of the wall, and every foundation stone firmly bedded in the ground. 
 If boulders, or stones of uneven form are used, always plant the roughest side downward, or at 
 least so as to have a flat side up to lay the next course upon. If your wall is built of a 
 double line of stones, whatever their shape, it should frequently be bound across with flat 
 stones or wooden ties made of split pieces of cedar, chestnut, white oak, ash, or any durable 
 tough wood, from half an inch to one inch thick, two to four inches wide, 
 
 ' Break joints! ' should be rung in the ears of a young wall-builder incessantly, until 
 lie would do it instinctively every time he laid a stone into the wall. You can tell at a glance 
 as you ride along the road, whether the wall was built by a workman, by the way the stones 
 break joints. You may sometimes see them so placed that a joint extends from top to bot- 
 tom. That wall was built by a cheat oi- bunglor, probably both. 
 
 Beware of a jobber who is continually chinking small stones into the joints of the face 
 of his wall and filling up the interior with stones thrown in as carelessly as you would fill 
 up a hole in the ground. If you find your jobber working this way, discharge him per- 
 emptorily. He is both a cheat and bungler. 
 
 If your wall is built double, cap it with a course of even-sized stones, so as to give it a 
 uniform appearance. If the stones are generally flat, cap your wall with flat stones of even 
 rhickness and of a width greater than the wall. This not only helps the appearance, but 
 sheds off water, which is often the means of destroying Ijadly-built walls, by running down 
 inside and freezing so as to bulge out the two lines of stones with which the sides had been 
 faced up and not bound together. 
 
 Good walls are sometimes built of very bad stones by using cross-binders of wood in 
 the lower courses, and then near the top laying two boards, each about one fourth the width 
 of the thickness of the wall along the line, and upon those building up the remaining height. 
 These boards will last many years and serve to hold cobble-stone together quite firmly. 
 
 It is a better plan, however, we believe, not to build the wall as high by a foot, and 
 take the strips of board designed for binders in the wall, and nail them to small posts Inult 
 in so as to give sufficient height for the fence. 
 
56(3 THE AMERICAN FARMER 
 
 A very common fence in some sections is built of cobble-stone about two feet high, 
 topped with two bars inserted in posts, or with strips of boards nailed on " 
 
 Hedges. — In many portions of Europe, especially in Great Britain, hedges have been 
 long used to a considerable extent, hedge-rows having formerly been a characteristic feature 
 of rural life in England ; but they are now beginning to be regarded there as objectionable, 
 and in many parts of the comitry are being exterminated from the soil. In this country 
 hedges have been used to a limited extent, but more especially in sections where timber is 
 scarce. For lack of anything better for fencing, it may sometimes be well to make use of 
 them for boundary fences, although there are many objections to introducing tliem generally. 
 They require in some localities considerable care to secure a strong and uniform growth, and 
 to keep them well pruned and trimmed, and also occupy a great deal of land, and harbor 
 noxious weeds, fiirnishing lurking places for enemies of the field-crop, orchard, or garden. 
 In some climates their growth is so rapid that they require constant care in pruning, while 
 their overgrowth is a serious evil, and when once in possession of the soil they are difiBcult to 
 eradicate. 
 
 Another objection to hedges is that when the land is cultivated, the roots not only inter- 
 fere with tillage, but they rob the cultivated crop of plant-food. There are, however, many 
 places whei'e they might be introduced without interfering with cultivation, such as around 
 pastures, orchards, etc. 
 
 For making hedges, some quick-growing, hardy shrub, armed with thorns or spxirs, is 
 generally used, although other shnibs and even trees are employed to a certain extent. The 
 arbor-vitae, cedar, hemlock, buckthorn, pine, yellow willow, osage orange, honey locust, 
 cotton-wood, barberry, and privet have all been employed to a certain extent. In England, 
 the hawthorn has been used for this purpose for centuries. At the South, the Cherokee rose 
 is quite extensively employed as an ornamental hedge. The osage orange and honey locust 
 are perhaps used more than any other; the former in the Middle, Southern, and South- 
 western States, it being liable to winter-kill in the extreme Northern section. Tlie latter will 
 thrive in all parts. The willow is well adapted to wet localities, but its rapid growth 
 necessitates frequent trimming, which is a serious objection. Evergreen hedges are liable to 
 injury from drouth or extreme heat and cold, but are verj- attractive in appearance when 
 properly cared for and trimmed. The arbor-vitae (Thuja occulentalis) makes one of the 
 most beautiful hedges that can be found at the North. It is hardy and flourishes in any soil 
 that is not too dr}-, branches out thickly from the ground, and is of comparatively slow 
 growth. It is much used as an ornamental hedge. The principal objection to the osage 
 orange is its \'igorous, rapid growth, and the exhaustion it occasions to the soil within reach 
 of its long roots. 
 
 Planting aiul Trimming Hedges. — In the successful use of hedges for fences, 
 much depends upon a proper selection of the plant for the purpose, its adaptation to the 
 climate and locality, as well as the subsequent cultivation and pruning it receives. The best 
 authorities on hedge-setting advise that, on soils naturally damp or retentive of moisture, tlie 
 plants be set upon a slight elevation or raised surface from five to eight feet wide. The 
 reasons given for this practice are, that the hedge will be more liable to escape winter-killing, 
 from the fact that the roots will then be above the level of saturation; that the settinc: can 
 l)e performed earlier in the season than where the ground is not ridged; that tlie roots of the 
 young plants mil strike down obliquely, instead of extending horizontally, as on level land, 
 and will also attain a more fibrous growth; that the plants, thus having a more uniform con- 
 dition of soil with regard to moisture, will attain a more uniform growth, and will generally 
 1)0 exempt from gaps and thin places made by partial winter-killing, and which reqmre 
 considerable labor and care in replacing. In setting the hedge, the soil may be thrown up 
 
FARM FKNfKS. 507 
 
 by repeated plowings, and the lop afterward leveled by the use of a revolving harrow or a 
 roller. 
 
 When the hedge is to be set on s^od-land, two shallow furrows are generally opened, 
 the sod removed, ;ind the soil made as mellow as possible to quite a depth. In order to set 
 the hedge in a straight line, a cord should be stretched from one point to another, and be 
 marked with red or some contrasting color, to show the place where the plants are to be set. 
 In setting, the soil should be firmly pressed about the roots. The osage orange, when planted 
 at a distance of five or six feet apart, will furnish a good, substantial fence in from 
 three to five years. The willow is very hardy, and will grow readily fiom branches of the 
 trees cut in suitable length and inserted in the ground. 
 
 During the first year the hedge should be cultivated with the ordinaiy corn-cultivator, 
 to keep out the weeds and loosen the soil, which will aid much in establishing a good growth. 
 Subsequent cultivation may be performed with the plow, always throwing a light furrow 
 towards the liedge. When the hedg3 has become strong enough to restrain stock, and it is 
 desirable to check, in a measure, its growth, this can be accomplished iDy running a pruninu- 
 plow or similar implement along the sides of the ridge, or, if on level ground, at a suitable 
 distance from the hedge, and thus cutting off the ends of the roots, which will check the 
 growth of the plants without killing them, and keep the roots within prescribed Umits. 
 (.(therwise they will be liable to occupy too large a portion of the soil, and appropriate to 
 their growth the nutriment that should be taken by the growing crops. 
 
 Wlien hedges become, in time, thinned at the bottom, they will require renewing in this 
 part to remedy the evil. This is done in different ways, sometimes temporarily by inserting 
 branches cut from the over-grown or thicker portions of the hedge, and by layering. Tliis 
 latter method reduces the height of the fence greatly, causing the new growth to be made 
 near the ground. It is more successfully practiced in damp, than dry soils. Some kinds of 
 hedge require more frequent trimming than others. They should be cut when the sprouts 
 are green and soft, as it requires less labor at this period of growth. The osage orange, and 
 hedges of equally rapid growth, should be trimmed at least twice a year, and many think it a 
 saving of labor to cut them even three times, thus preventing the wood fi'om getting hard and 
 of large growth. For the cutting of the green or annual branches, a strong and sharp grass- 
 sickle will answer every purpose, which, with a little practice, can be readily accomplished. 
 
 Eiubaukinents, with ditches on one or both sides, are used for fencing in some parts 
 of England, but have not been employed to any extent in this country. A large open ditch 
 is dug on the division line, and the earth taken from it is thrown up, forming a high em- 
 bankment. A double ditch, one on either side of the ridge, is a more effectual barrier. 
 Sometimes a hedge is planted on the top of the embankment. On very wet lands, such 
 ditches will serve for drainage purpo.scs, but we doubt whether they could be profitably 
 employed as a fence. 
 
 Portable Fences. — Portable fences of various kinds are a great convenience on the 
 farm, since they furnish all the advantages of a permanent fence, 'without the disadvantages. 
 They can also be made during the winter, when other farm work is not pressing. In Canada, 
 where timber is abundant and cheap, a portable fence much in use is constructed with sup- 
 ports something in the form of the letter A, the pieces joined at the top forming an acute 
 angle, with the bar near the bottom, and three boards nailed at equal distances on one side 
 of these supports. Tliis fence requires considerable material, but it is cheap and durable, is 
 easily constructed, and when once made requires no extra labor in putting up. Another 
 very convenient portable fence may be made as follows : The supports are made of inch 
 boards, crossing near the top, but allowing the end^ to project a sufficient length to furnish 
 a support for the upper board of the panels forming the fence, the support being cut out at 
 
568 
 
 THK AMKHICAN FAU.MKR 
 
FARM FENCES. 569 
 
 the upppr angle thus formed, to admit of the top board of the panels fitting it well. A board 
 is nailed across the support near the bottom at such a distance that it may be inserted in the 
 space between the two lower boards of the panel, the lower side of which is cut out to fit 
 them in such a way that they cannot easily be pushed out of place. The panels, or main 
 part of tlie fence, may be made of inch boards about sixteen feet in length and of any width 
 desired, and placed nearer together towards the bottom than the top, if designed to confine 
 small animals, such as young pigs or lambs. These panels may be made by placing the six- 
 teen-feet boards at the desired distance apart (about four of them being required for a panel, 
 if the boards are about six inches in width), and nailing a board across the middle and near 
 either end, to hold them in place, leaving the ends of the boards to project from six to eight 
 inches. This forms one complete panel. When properly constriicted and set up, the bottom of 
 the top board of each panel rests on the top of the support, and the bottom board of the panel 
 goes under the cross piece of the support. By digging a little for the posts of the supports, 
 it forms a very secure' fence. This fence can be opened at any place, simply by raising up 
 the ends of two panels. 
 
 By the exercise of a little ingenuity, various kinds of portable fences may be constructed 
 at slight expense that will prove of great utility on the farm, and a desirable substitute for 
 many of the permanent fences that are now in use. They are especially useful where it is 
 desired to feed different portions of a field crop, such as clover, turnips, peas, etc., in succes- 
 sive order by stock. 
 
 Flood Fence. — It is frequently desirable to construct a fence across the bed of a 
 stream that is subject to floods after heavy rains, or to put across sloughs when too wide for 
 a flood-gate. The followang, from the American Agriculturisi, describes two methods of 
 making a very convenient and easily -constructed flood-fence: " Logs on which the fence rests 
 are the trunks of straight trees about eighteen inches in diameter, which are hewed on two 
 sides; posts are morticed in each of these logs, and on them planks are firmly nailed. The 
 logs are then linked together with inch iron rods, and the first one connected by means of a 
 long link to a tree, or post firmly set in the ground upon the banks of the stream. The links 
 must all work freely. When high water occurs, the fence is washed around and left on the 
 bank; after the water has subsided sufficiently, the logs ma}' be dragged back to their places 
 by means of a horse hitched to a staple in the end of the log." 
 
 Again: '-Posts are driven or otherwise put down from three to four feet, with the tops 
 about one foot above ground. The other posts, that the planks are nailed to, are bolted to 
 the top of the inserted po.sts, and a wire is placed over the tops. The ends of the panel that 
 connect with the post on the bank are slightly nailed with cross strips near the top, so as to 
 be easily broken loose when the flood comes. There are al.so temporary braces bearing up- 
 stream, put in to prevent the fence from falling, but are easily washed out when the fence 
 falls down stream, and logs and other obstructions pass by readily. As soon as the flood 
 goes down, the fence is easily raised, a panel at a time, to its proper place." 
 
 AVire Fence. — The post and wire fence is quite extensively used at present, and seems 
 likely to become in time the common fence of the country, especially in those sections where 
 timber is scarce. At first the plain single wire was employed for fencing purposes, but failed 
 tc give entire satisfaction, Ijeing defective in some important respects. The single wire con- 
 tracted in cold and expanded in heat, causing the fence to get out of repair easily, while it 
 did not repel unruly animals. Improvements were effected which have resulted in the use of 
 barbed wire; the object being to secure durability, strength, and a protection against all 
 intrusion from animals, or trespassers of any kind. That most commonly employed is made 
 by the Washburn & Moen Co., Worcester, Mass., and consists of two twisted steel wires, one 
 of them having inserted at short intervals of space a firmly -twisted barb. 
 
THE AJIEHKAN FAKJIEl!. 
 
 ]?y being twisted, greater strength is secured, and the wire is better able to i-esist tlie 
 effects ui changes of temperature. Tlie barbs in such fences should, as nearly as possible, be 
 just long enough to repel infringing animals without being capable of inflicting a serious 
 injury. In erecting a fence of this kind, the number of strands to be used must depend 
 upon the special object to be accomplished. Two strands, about twenty-one inches from the 
 ground and from each other, will turn horses, cattle, cows, and young stock. Three strand.*, 
 the lowe.?t being placed twelve inches from the ground, the second twenty-three inches, and 
 the third forty-two inches from the ground will, of course, be better and make a more sub- 
 stantial fence. 
 
 Four strands are most commonly used, while even five are frequently employed when 
 
 BAUii WIKK. 
 
 USE OF STRETCHER. 
 
 some special object is desired, such as e.xi'hiding dogs, pigs, poultry, and other small animals. 
 In such cases the lower strands are placed nearer the ground and to each other than the 
 upper ones. In constructing a four-strand fence, the strand nearest the ground might lie 
 iibout five inches from it, the next twelve inches, the third twenty-two inches, and the fourth 
 forty-eight inches from the ground. This would give a fence four feet high. In erecting a 
 wire fence, the main posts may be about fifty feet from the corner posts and from each other. 
 They should be firmly set in the ground, so as to prevent being thrown out by the fmst. 
 They should always be sharpened at the top, or left wedge-shaped, better protection against 
 intrusion being by this means secured. After setting the posts, they should be marked where 
 each line of wire is to cross. The first end of a spool of the wire is then fastened firmly to 
 the first corner post with staples and carried quite a distance, allowing it to unwind as tlio 
 
FAUM fencp:s. 
 
 571 
 
 spool proceeds. Draw the line from the starting-point to the proposed post as straight as 
 possible with the hands, and then apply a stretcher and strain it tightly to its place. While 
 the line is thus under strain staple it firmly to each intermediate post between the point of 
 starting and the stretcher. Repeat from this point and so on. It is a good plan to brace 
 
 the corner posts each 
 way with joists bev- 
 I led to fit the post at 
 J the place of contact, 
 and firmly spiked as 
 high on the post as 
 the upper line of fenc- 
 ing, running from 
 this point at an angle 
 of 45° into the ground 
 below frost, and kept 
 in place at the bottom 
 by a flat stone or 
 other substantial ma- 
 terial. The posts on 
 each side of a gate or 
 pair of bars should 
 be of the same size as 
 the corner posts, and 
 be braced in the same 
 way. It is important 
 
 that the wire be strained rigidly in place when being put up; in fact, there is little danger of 
 straining it too tightly, as it is very strong, and being composed of two strands twisted 
 together, it readily adjusts itself to different temperatures. 
 
 The ai-gimients in favor of the barbed wire fence are its strength, durability, the ease 
 with which it may be erected, its cheapneiss, and the complete prtjtection it affords from all 
 intrusion. It requires fewer posts than any other fence, as the posts can be placed at quite a 
 distance apart; it is easily kept in repair, and cannot be destroyed by fire. It is also valuable 
 where snow-drifts are an incumbrance, since it forms no barrier to the strong winter winds; 
 the snow cannot accumulate into drifts, as it does where fences that offer obsti'uctions are used. 
 The principal argument against the use of the barbed wire fence is that animals are 
 sometimes injured by it, and it has for this reason been termed by some "a cruel fence." We 
 think this objection could readily be met and entirely obviated by placing a narrow board or 
 pole above the top wire from post to post, which will render the fence easily seen by the 
 animals, and thus prevent all such accidents. Whatever the kind of fence used, when 
 designed to be of a permanent character, it should always be made of good material and be 
 substantially built. It is cheaper in the end to build a good fence that will require but few 
 repairs in a long time, than a poor one that requires a constant rebuilding by way of repairs. 
 When posts are used, the timber selected should be of the most durable kind, and well set. 
 For a post-and-board fence, heavy nails should always be employed, and enough of them put 
 in to render the work strong and substantial. 
 
r>72 TllK AMEIUCAA' FAKMEK. 
 
 WASTES AND WANTS OF THE FARM. 
 
 How to make business pay, (ir in otlier words, liow to secure the largest profits from 
 tlie money, labor, and time invested, is the study and aim of all business men. This 
 is no less the case with the farmer, than with those engaged in other avocations. In 
 fact, we beheve fanners, as a general i-ule, labor harder to secure their profits than any other 
 class. Many of them, occupying small farms, too often find at the close of the year that with 
 all their toil, working early and late, they have fallen short of their expectations in results, 
 and beyond defraying the common expenses of the farm and household, financially they are 
 but little, if any, in advance of the previous year. Such a result, we believe, is not the fault 
 of the business, but of the one who manages or mismanages it, and that when properly con- 
 ducted, farming may be made as profitable an avocation as any other. 
 
 Such failures may be attributed largely to the wastes and wants of the farm, and should 
 this subject receive the consideration which its importance demands, we believe much larger 
 profits could be secured with less labor, by the majority of farmers, than are now realized by 
 the present common practice. 
 
 Waste of Manure, etc. — Farmers are proverbially economical in the use of money. 
 They labor hard for it, and hence realize its value, and are loth to part with it. This economy 
 in the spending of money is often carried so far that it borders upon penuriousness, and we 
 frequently hear it remarked, that farmers, as a class, are exacting and close-calculating in 
 their dealings with others. No doubt this accusation is often unjustly founded, but however 
 this may be, there are many things in respect to which the average farmer is too prodigal, 
 the saving of which he does not seem to realize will aid very materially in augmenting the 
 profits of the farm, and which, if rightly appropriated, is equivalent to money earned; since 
 the resources of the farm will thereby be increased without additional outlay. 
 
 One of the common wastes of the farm is that of manure. The great need of the farms 
 in the older-settled portions of the country is more manure, and the problem for the farmers 
 of those sections generally to solve, is how to obtain an adequate supply. 
 
 Owing to the lack of a sufficient amount of farm manure, many farmers are obliged to 
 depend upon superphosphates and other commercial fertilizers to supplement the quantity 
 required, the expense of which reduces largely the profits resulting from the crops. Although 
 this lack of manure is generally admitted, yet, inconsistent as it may seem, there are very few 
 farmers but that permit a large proportion of the manure made by the farm stock to be 
 wasted. It is a common pi-actice with farmers to permit the liquid manure to be lost. How 
 few barns in the country are provided with means for utilizing this valuable fertilizer! 
 And yet it is claimed by chemists, that the liquid manure of cattle is of as much value as 
 the solid. 
 
 Prof. Dana states that "The quantity of liquid manure produced by one cow annually is 
 eciual to fertilizing one and a quarter acres of gro^lnd, producing effects as durable as do the 
 solid evacuations. A cord of loam saturated with urine is equal to a cord of the best rotted 
 manure. * * * If the liquid and solid evacuations, including the litter, are kept separate, and 
 the liquid is soaked up by the loam, it has been found they will manure land in proportion, 
 by bulk, of seven liquid to six solid, while their actual value is as two to one." 
 
 Other noted authorities might be cited, but we have treated of this sitbject so thoroughly 
 in connection with fertilizers, that a repetition is not necessary hei'e. 
 
 The fact has been sufficiently established by experiment and chemical analysis, from the 
 best authorities, that the farmer who makes no provision for saving the liquid manure made 
 by his stock loses fully one-lialf the value of the manure they suppl}', while he who utilizes 
 both the liquid and solid excrement, has, therefore, double the amount of manure every year 
 than he otherwise would have. 
 
WASTES AND WANTS OF THE FAIJM. 573 
 
 .To permit one-half of the mainiri.il resources of the farm to be wasted is certainly uot 
 good ecouoiny, when with a little extra care it might easily all Ije saved. Furthermore, to 
 spend money in buying commercial fertilizers to make up the deficiency of this waste, is not 
 good management, when the expenditure might so easily be obviated. In order to save the 
 liquid manure, various methods are employed, such as barn-cellars, etc. These are very con- 
 venient, but not absolutely essential for this purpose. By the use of proper absorbents for 
 the bedding of the stock, which will take up all the Uquids, they may thus be saved. Suitable 
 material for this purpose may be easily procured, such as dry loam, dry swamp-muck, fine 
 sand, road-dust, chafi, dry leaves, etc. 
 
 Another wasteful practice is in throwing the solid manure out of the stable- windows and 
 permitting it to lie exposed to the rains and hot sun until wanted for use upon the land, wliere 
 the most valuable fertilizing elements are either washed out or evaporated. Manure thus 
 exposed loses fully one-half its value. Thus we see that those farmers who permit the liquid 
 manure of their stock to be wasted, — which as previously stated is computed to be one-half 
 ot the entire quantity, — and are in the habit of allowing the solid manure to be exposed to 
 the weather, — thus permitting one-half or more of that to be wasted, — lose fully three-fourths 
 of the entire amount of manure made by their stock. Dr. Yoelcker found by careful experi- 
 ment, that five tons of fresh manure, after having been spread in the yard and exposed to the 
 ■weather from November 3d until the following August 23d, lost nearly two-thirds of its actual 
 value as a fertilizer. Now, if farmers would take paius to prevent this waste of manure, by 
 the use of absorbents for the liquid, and shelter for the solid excrement, either in barn-cellars 
 or sheds, a good supply of manure would be had where now it is limited, thus requiring less 
 expense for the purchase of commercial manures, and an increased fertility of the soil with 
 no additional expense, together with better crops, and consequently larger profits. 
 
 Another waste common on the farm that might be appropriately mentioned in this con- 
 nection, is in exhausting the resources of the soil by constant cropping, without a sufficient 
 supply of manure. By this means valuable lauds in some sections have become almost worth- 
 less, and farms that once were very productive, yielding for a time large profits, have become 
 either entirely unproductive, or can hardly be made to produce sufficient to pay the expense 
 of tillage. This might all have been avoided by the judicious use of supplying a sufiicient 
 amount of plant-food adapted to the crops to be cultivated, and thus valuable lands saved 
 from deterioration, and running to waste. Very few farmers would think of spending to no 
 purpose, or wasting the amount of money which such injudicious management involves, yet 
 they will permit such wastes to go on upon their farms year after year with the utmost indif- 
 ference. 
 
 Lack of Economy in Labor. — While farmers, as a general rule, are a very liard- 
 laboring class, working more hours to the day than those engaged in almost any other avoca- 
 tion, yet it is too often the case that the time and labor expended do not result in the profits 
 that they otherwise would, owing to the various ways in which there is a lack of economy in 
 utilizing the labor thus expended. The neglect to perform work at the pi'oper time is a 
 source of waste on the farm, as well as in every other business. If the plowing be done for 
 the crops when the soil is dry and in a suitable condition for tillage, instead of being saturated 
 with water, much needless labor will be saved both to the farmer and team. 
 
 Planting at the proper season, and usinj good seed for that purpose, will economize 
 labor and bring profits that cannot be obtained by planting too early and thus permitting the 
 frost to kill plants, necessitating a second planting, or planting so late that only a partial 
 crop can be procured from the labor expended. The planting of poor seed is labor wasted. 
 The farmer who takes measures to kill the weeds in his cultivated fields when they first 
 make their appearance and can easily be exterminated, instead of permitting them to grow 
 until they have secured a partial or complete possession of the soil, will save not only much 
 
574 Till-: AMKKK'AN FARMEI!. 
 
 hard labor in destroying tlieni afterwards, but will ])i'event the injury and loss to the crop 
 which would be caused by nogligence in this respect. 
 
 The same principle holds true with regard to harvesting crops, or any other of the duties 
 pertaining to farm labor. We have seen farmers neglect to provide suitable drainage for 
 lands until the heavy rains came and saturated the soil with water, and when in this condi- 
 tion they did. with twice or thrice the amount of labor that would otherwise be required, 
 what should have been done in a dryer season. Carting dirt from one point to another when 
 the amount of water in it would constitute nearly, if not quite, one-half its weight, instead of 
 doing this when the soil was diy, is another of the many methods of a waste of labor. Some 
 persons seem to possess the faculty of always doing things in the hardest possible way. 
 through negligence and careless management, and in order to secure certain results will 
 perform many times the amount of labor that would be required by others practicing a 
 thorough and systematic method. 
 
 Slovenly Management. — The slovenly management seen on some farms causes one 
 to wonder how, under such a system, or, rather, with such a lack of system, any profit what- 
 ever could be made, and yet we know farmers who have made quite large profits by farm- 
 ing in just this manner. Their work would be done at nearly all times out of season, the 
 repairing of fences would be neglected, and much time be spent in the most busy and im- 
 portant part of the season in looking up the stock that had for this reason strayed away. 
 Dilapidated farm buildings were permitted year after year to become more dilapidated ; drains 
 filled up and were left to take care of themselves. Wood necessary for the household would 
 never be provided in large quantities beforehand, but be picked up from time to time on the 
 farm, as the supply became exhausted, in the shape of broken rails, old rotten stumps, or 
 trimmings from the apple orchard, which would have to be burnt in a green state. 
 
 The poultry would have no warm quarters provided, but be obliged to find a roosting- 
 place in the trees or other out-of-the-way places. 
 
 Pigs wallowed, and even swam in the accumulations of undrained pens and yards. The 
 harvesting of some of the crops would be delayed so late as to be nearly ruined by the frost, 
 and every thing on the farm would seem to go in a hap-hazard way. 
 
 Now, if any profits whatever can be made by such methods, how much more profitable 
 will farming prove under a thorough and perfect system of management. 
 
 Doing AVork Over-Nicel.y. — In striking couu-ast with the former, might be men- 
 tioned those who spend too nmch time and labor in performing their work. They do not 
 possess what is called in hackneyed phrase, "the knack to turn off work," and much time 
 and labor is spent in doing unnecessary things, or that labor which will prove of no real ben- 
 efit to themselves or any one else. They either spend much time in doing things tliat are not 
 at all essential, and thus waste time and labor, or th-^y are over-nice and particular in the per- 
 formance of necessary work. 
 
 They perhaps hoe their crops with the utmost precision, by hand, when a horse-hoe or 
 cultivator would do the work just as well, and with the expenditure of much less labor and 
 time. Or they may insist on carefully mowing their fields with a scythe, instead of using a 
 mowing-machine, because they regard the former method as doing the work better, and leav- 
 ing the surface more even than the latter. Such persons seem to fail to perceive that labor 
 and time are equivalent to money, and that all needless waste of either is a loss in money 
 value. Work should always be done thoroughly and well, but an unnecessary expenditure of 
 time and labor is a waste, and cannot properly come under the system of good management. 
 
 Use of Poor Tools. — Another example of false economy is seen in the use of poor 
 tools, or those which are not adapted to the purpose designed. The employment of heavy 
 and cumbersome implements when lighter ones would do the work just as well, and perhaps 
 
WASTES AND WANTS OF THK FAUM. 575 
 
 lietter, is the wasting of a certain amount of labor far either the man who liandles them, or 
 the team that draws them. It is, therefore, poor economy to furnish implements that are 
 ill adapted to perform the work with facility to hired help, since the full value of the money 
 expended for such labor is not realized in return. 
 
 It is not good management to use inefficient tools, when by a little extra expenditure for 
 Euitable ones, from a third to a fourth more labor might be performed in the same time. 
 
 The farmer who persists in using the old-fashioned cradle in harvesting his grain, instead 
 of a good reaper, involves the waste of both labor and grain, since with a good reaping- 
 machine that implement and horses could easily and quickly perfoi-m what would require a 
 great amount of labor and time when done by hand. In order to economize labor and time, 
 the best implements and methods should always be employed in every department of farm 
 labor. 
 
 Borrowiug Tools. — The practice of borrowing farm tools is one that is quite too com- 
 mon in some sections; more especially in those localities where small farms are cultivated. 
 To such an extent is this practice followed by some farmers, that the larger portion of the 
 work performed on their farms is done with borrowed implements. Such borrowers usually 
 apply to their neighbors for favors with some such remark as, " Are you going to use your 
 cart to-day? " or, "Are you using your horse-rake? " seeming to take it for granted that if not 
 in use by the rightful owner, it is their right to appropriate all such farm implements to their 
 own benefit. It is not infrequent that farm tools, by constant lending, are worn and broken 
 more by the borrowers than by the owner. The impeilinence of such borrowers is often truly 
 astonishing. "We know of one man who positively refused to return a borrowed tool until ho 
 was through with it himself, when it was sent for by the owner. The man who will constantly 
 depend upon his neighbors for those things that are essential upon every well-regulated farm, 
 must indeed possess a mean and selfish disposition, and but little of the true spirit of manliness. 
 But setting aside the meanness of the practice, it is certainly not a good policy to spend timo 
 and run the risk of disappointment in hunting up tools on neighboring farms, that should bo 
 always at hand and ready for use. It is generally the case that those who have so little self- 
 respect as to be constantly dependent upon others, have at the same time too little honor and 
 principle to return the articles borrowed in proper time; hence, those who are frequently 
 being applied to for such favors have generally, in addition to the annoyance occasioned by 
 the breakage and wearing out of their tools by others, the additional one of looking up and 
 bringing back the borrowed articles. 
 
 Although we believe in acts of neighborly kindness, and in accommodating others to a 
 reasonable extent, yet such constant borrowers should be taught the lesson of honesty and 
 self dependence b)' either a charge of a stipulated price for the use and breakage of tools, or 
 by a prompt refusal to loan. 
 
 Lack of Care of Farm Impiemeuts.— In addition to slovenly management gen- 
 erally on the farm, might be mentioned the neglect to take proper care of farm im]3lements, 
 such neglect often causing greater injury to them than all the wear in performing the work 
 for which they are adapted. 
 
 There are some farmers who are very careful respecting their expenditures of money, 
 talk of hard times and the necessity of practicing economy, never purchasing anything excejit 
 what they consider absolutely essential, but who will leave valuable farm machines out in the 
 open field, exposed to the weather for months, without a thought of the waste thus incurred. 
 Plows, harrows, mowing-machines, horse-rakes, reapers, carts, wagons, etc., are left wherc^ 
 their use in work happens to stop for the season, and there they remain exposed to the rains, 
 ;mows, and hot sun imtil they are wanted the follow^ing season, when they are then looked up 
 for that purpose. It is unnecessary to state that such negligence will cause more injury to 
 
576 THE AMKRICAN KAKMKIi. 
 
 farm implements than their constant use would during that period, and the farmer who fails 
 to provide a place of shelter for his tools, has a very poor idea of the proper economies con- 
 nected with his business, as well as but little system or method in managing it. Western 
 farmers are generally more negligent in this respect than Eastern, but such mismanagement 
 is quite too commonly seen in all sections of the country. 
 
 Repairing Tools. — Failing to repair tools at the proper time is also a great waste 
 The old maxim with regard to " a stitch in time." is as true in relation to farming as any 
 other business. Some farmers never think of repairing a wagon, or harness, until it absolutely 
 breaks down or gives out altogether, and even then make a temporary repair in a bungling 
 manner, to make the broken parts hold together for the time being, at the imminent risk to 
 life and limlj thus involved. Neither wagons nor harnesses are scarcely, if ever, oiled, the 
 friction thus produced on the axles of the former causing them to wear out much faster than 
 they othei-wise would. The tire of the wheels gets loose, and is never reset, until by long 
 rattling — which wotild be sufBcient to signal the approach of such vehicles at a long distance 
 — they finally come off, and repairing becomes an imperative necessity. Harnesses get dry 
 and stiff for lack of oil, soon break in consequence, and are tied together with tow strings, or 
 leather strips made after the manner of the old-fashioned cobbler's shoe-strings, and are thus 
 used until they can be used no longer, and a new one is bought, to receive the same kind of 
 care. It seems strange that farmers who are often economical, and even penurious with 
 respect to spending money for other things, should permit such wastes, when with a little 
 care it might be obviated. 
 
 A reaper should never rattle when at work, and if by taking hold of a shaft it can be 
 shaken, it shows that the bo.xes need filling. This may be done by almost any farmer him- 
 self, or it will cost but a few dollars to have it done at a machine-shop. A few pounds of old 
 type when melted will serve for the material. In the use of all farm machines, they should 
 be kept in good repair, with every nut and rivet tight. They should also be kept well oiled 
 where the latter is essential. 
 
 A few moments spent in replacing a lost bolt, tightening a loosened screw, or making 
 any such slight repairs, will often save much labor and expense in making more extensive 
 ones that may be required through neglect at first. Serious accidents to rider and team may 
 also not unfrequently be avoided by attending to such slight repairs in season. 
 
 Insufficient Help. — The number of laborers on the farm should always be adapted 
 to the amount of woi'k to be performed. With ideas of false economy, some farmers employ 
 only about one-half the hired help that is necessary in order to perform the work in the 
 proper time and manner, and endeavor, by working tliis force to the utmost, early and late, 
 to be able to secure the accomplishment of the work for the season, at a much less e.xpense 
 than would ordinarily be involved in accomplishing it. By this course, much of the work is 
 delayed beyond the proper time of doing it, and man}' of the crops become seriously injured. 
 The cultivation and harvesting is in many instances delayed, weeds obtain the mastery of the 
 soil, on account of other duties pressing, that there are not sufBcient hands to perform at the 
 proper time, crops become over-ripe, the grain shells out in the field, and the whole machin- 
 ery of the farming system seems clogged. The loss occasioned by such management will 
 iisually far exceed the expense of employing a suitable number of hands; wliile hired help 
 who feel that their employer is endeavoring to over-reach them by exacting more from them 
 in service than is just, for the compensation received, will not take that interest in the work, 
 or generally perform it as well, as when they feel that they are fairly treated. Besides, aside 
 from motives of policy, which should be secondary, any course that is based upon such selfish 
 motives is not founded upon honor, or the principle of right, and the man who is not willing 
 to give a just and fair equivalent for what he receives, is not an honest man, and is not 
 
WAS'lES AND WANTS OF THE FARM. 577 
 
 entitled lo the rcs;)ect of others. The employer who treats Ins help fairly and leasonably in 
 all respects is the oue who -will, as a general rule, secure the Lest results from their service. 
 
 Poor Teailis. — Labor and time aro often ■v^asted by the use of inefficient teams in per- 
 forming the farm work. Perhaps oxen are used where horses would be more serviceable, or 
 the reverse — teams that might be good in tliemselves, but not adapted to the kind of work 
 or the place. For performing certain work, such as plowing, two men may, perhaps, be 
 employed where one man with the proper team would do as well, and the labor of one man 
 appropriated to other purposes, thus sa\'ing the labor of one extra hand. 
 
 In other cases, weak, fractious, lame, or otherwise inefficient animals, may be employed, 
 which results in slow progress and work poorly done, when a good team of the right kind ' 
 would have performed the work better and perhaps in one-half the time. Besides, it costs no 
 more to maintain a good team than a poor one, and the labor done by the former is so much 
 more satisfactory, that it is far better economy to always keep good teams, although the first 
 cost of purchasing such would be more than that of an inferior one. Good teams are the 
 cheapest in the end. 
 
 Inferior Stock. — The same might be said of the stock bred upon the farm, or 
 animals selected for the dairy, as of poor teams. Under a mistaken idea of economy, the 
 lowest-priced animals are used, when the product of the best cows for the dairy and thorough- 
 bred stock for breeding purposes would more than double the profits, besides soon paying 
 for the extra expense in purchasing. Where milk is the principal object, a milking breed 
 should be selected; if beef is the leading consideration, a beef breed should be chosen. The 
 animals should be adapted to the pv;.r(.ii;>!;e for which they are to be used. False economy, 
 and a lack of the proper knowledge in Belecting, breeding, and feeding animals, is one great 
 cause why this department of farming does not prove as remunerative as it otherwise would. 
 
 Since it requires as much labor and expense to maintain inferior stock as the best, it is a 
 waste of labor and money as well as loss to the farmer to maintain and breed the former, when 
 so much larger profits could be secured by keeping the latter. There is too much indifference 
 manifested by farmers generally with respect to this subject. Great improvement could be 
 made in the poorest flocks and herds in a few years, by the use of thoroughbred sires of 
 suitable breeds, and farmerj generally who have not previously given their attention to the 
 subject, will find that they can advance their interests and profits very materially by this means. 
 The same principle holds true with respect to feeding and handling all kinds of farm animals. 
 Generous feeding, good care, and kind treatment, have quite as much influence, if not more, 
 in regulating the profits which result, as the breed. A poor animal or farm implement is 
 costly at any price, while the best are eventually the cheapest. 
 
 ■ Inconvenience of Farm Bnildings, etc. — Another cause of waste of time and 
 labor may be found in the fact that the farm buildings are not conveniently arranged or the 
 farms properly laid out. 
 
 On some farms the buildings have every convenience with respect to construction and 
 location ; there are suitable places for the storage of crops and tools, and the shelter of stock. 
 Hence the labor is all utilized to some purpose, and there is no unnecessary waste in this 
 respect. Where soiling is practiced, the crops grown for this purpiose {ire near the barn, 
 where they may easily be cut as wanted and fed to the stock, while the yards and sheds are 
 supplied with an abundance of pure, fresh water for watering all the farm animals. The 
 cultivated fields are conveniently located for carting manure and for tillage, and everything 
 seems arranged to help on tlie farm work, instead of hindering it. On the other hand, some 
 farms seem so arranged as to require double the amount of labor and time in accomplishing 
 the same results. The buildings are not convenient in location or arrangement, and there is 
 not sufficient room for the storage of anything. No water is provided in the yards, and the 
 09 
 
578 THE A.^IERICAX PWRMER. 
 
 stock must be driven quito a ilistanco twirc a da}' in winter to a (icUl, and tlio ice broken in 
 order to water tlieni. This involves miK^h trouble and time, witli a liability to injury to some 
 of the animals from slipping on the ice, or hooking each other, aside from the exposure 
 occasioned on severely cold or stormy days. The soiling crops are grown at a distance from 
 the barn, involving the necessity of the use of a team every time anything is cut for feeding, 
 while all the arrangements on the farm seem calculated to impede rather than assist the 
 progress of the farm-work. Much of the labor expended in such cases would have been 
 unnecessary under a better system of arrangement, and is a constant expenditure of labor 
 and time that brings no real compensation in return. 
 
 Better Knowledge of Farming, and Less Drndgery. — Money, time, and 
 labor are often wasted by farmers, from a lack of knowledge of the nature and requirements 
 of the soil and plants cultivated. 
 
 A vast amount of labor is frequently expended in attempts to produce crops from soils 
 which are not adapted to those particular kinds of plant-growths, or which lack some of the 
 essential elements of plant-food. Failing to inform themselves with respect to the improved 
 agricultural methods of the present time, many farmers do not profit by that which has been 
 gained by years of experience and observation; hence, they are a generation or more behind 
 the age in which they are living. Knowledge is power in every branch and department of 
 business, and the farmer who possesses the best knowledge of his business is the best capaci- 
 tated to make that business a success. 
 
 The hands should serve the head, and the farmer that has the best agricultural knowl- 
 edge, combined with the mental ability to successfully plan and execute the most thorougli 
 system, will not be obliged to make his life a mere drudgery of toil from morning till night, 
 day after day, and year after year. The devising of the best plans and methods should be 
 the first consideration, and their execution secondary. He who drudges on, without any 
 system or method, will never be anything but a mere drudge, or attain to anything but a 
 meager success. Farmers, as a class, should spend more time in informing themselves in 
 their business, by reading the best agricultural books and papers, attending farmers' clubs, 
 etc., and also more time in devising the best methods for all kinds of farm-work, based upon 
 the knowledge thus obtained. By such means, more head-work, and fewer hours of labor 
 with the hands, will secure far better results than are now commonly obtained. 
 
 Farmers should also acquaint themselves with the best and uniformly cheapest rates of 
 transporting their crops to market. This consideration will be called in question in deciding 
 what crops to raise. Farmers, as a class, also need a better understanding of business prin- 
 ciples to enable them to buy and sell to the best advantage, — the time, manner, and rates for 
 the different products of the farm all having due consideration. They need, in this connec- 
 tion, to deal more directly with the consumer and manufacturer in disposing of their 
 products, and in purchasing implements, clothing, etc., and less with the "middle-men," whose 
 commissions largely modify the receipts and expenditures of the farmer in such cases. With 
 better information on agricultural subjects, there will be better tillage, the use of better seed 
 for crops, better farm-stock, better planning and systematizing, less hard labor, and better 
 profits. Constant and severe toil incapacitates the mind for the best thought of which it is 
 capable; there will be neither the energy nor time for it. 
 
 A certain amount of rest from hard labor is, therefore, a paying investment, as the 
 hands will then be made to serve the brain to the best advantage, and there will be less 
 drudgery and more knowledge and skill in conducting the business, while larger profits — 
 other conditions being equal — will be the result. 
 
 Improved Farm Implements Essential.— The improvement made in farm 
 implements during the last quarter of a century is truly astonishing, as well as the infiuence 
 
WASTES AND WANTS OF THE FARM. 579 
 
 of their use upon agriculture. During that period they have Leen substituted in a great 
 measure in place of hand-labor on the farm, which has resulted in vastly increasing the agri- 
 cultural resources of the country, since by their use labor can be performed much cheaper, 
 faster, and better than by hand. They are a great convenience on small farms, and absolutely 
 indispensable on large ones, where extensive crops could not be cultivated without them. 
 
 Take the reaper, for instance, the introduction of which into the grain-fields has added 
 many millions of dollars to the annual harvests, by rendering it possible to secure the entire 
 product, and also by admitting of a largely-increased area of grain culture. The same might 
 be said of improvements in liarrows, cultivators, plows, and all other farm machinery. 
 
 The use of suitable farm implements also enables a farmer of small means to conduct a 
 much larger business than he otherwise could where only hand-labor was employed, thus 
 cheapening the cost of production. 
 
 Since labor can be performed so much more easily and cheaply by the use of improved 
 machinery, it is the practice of economy to employ them whenever practicable. There are, 
 however, many farmers who, with ideas of false economy, still persist in depending mainly 
 upon hand-labor, while the few implemeots that may be in use upon their farms are of the 
 most inferior kind. 
 
 Where the amount of crops cultivated will warrant the purchase of the liest machines, 
 they will soon pay for themselves many times over, in the amount of labor saved and the 
 increased facilities thus afforded for cultivating larger and better crops. The use of machines 
 also saves time, labor, and health. By their aid the farmer can raise larger crops with less 
 physical labor, and consequently less risk to health. As a general rule, farmers look older, 
 according to their years, than almost any other class of individuals. This is due to the 
 severe toil to which they subject themselves, and the constant over-taxing of their strength. 
 We do not wish to be understood to convey the idea that we do not consider farming a 
 healthy business. On the contrary, we believe it the most healthful of all occupations when 
 judiciously followed. But every good is liable to perversion, and we believe the majority of 
 farmers either injure their health, or hasten old age, and break down in the latter part of life 
 quicker than they ought, through the excessive hard labor that they impose upon themselves. 
 If machines can be employed to perform the necessary farm-work, and thus prevent a waste 
 of strength and health, how much better to make use of this means than to make life a 
 drudgery, with all the attendant evil effects. 
 
 Instead of feeling that he cannot afford such aids, the farmer who has a correct idea of 
 economy will feel that he cannot do without them. In connection with the use of better farm 
 implements, which, by admitting of better tillage and increased facilities of cultivation and 
 harvesting, will enable the farmer to produce larger crops, might be mentioned the economy 
 of so fertilizing the soil, combined with improved methods of tillage, that much larger crops 
 may be produced from the same area. By this means labor will be saved, and comparatively 
 larger profits be secured. English agriculture, where a dense population requires that the 
 cultivation of the soil be such as to secure the highest results from a limited area, might be 
 mentioned as an example of this method. Where land is abundant even, this principle will 
 hold true to a certain extent, since about the same amount of labor wiU be required for the 
 cultivation and harvesting of a light or a heavy crop. 
 
 The land must be plowed and harrowed, the grain sowed and reaped, and if, by a little 
 extra care in preparing the soU, a third or one-half larger crop can be produced, it will well 
 repay for the extra labor and expense bestowed. 
 
 A leading aim with the farmer should be to raise the largest amount of farm products 
 with the least expense. To half till a field of ten acres, and obtain but three or four hundred 
 bushels of corn, when that amount could be raised by cultivating properly four or five acres, 
 would be poor economy, since the same result could be reached with half the amr<rint of 
 
5s0 THE AMKIUCAN FARJIER. 
 
 plowing aud other uecossary labor in cultivating and harvesting. Besides, the well-cultivated 
 four or five acres would ho left rich and mellow, and could be much more easily worked for 
 subsequent crops than the hard, poorly-tilled soil of the ten acres. 
 
 It is the best economy for the farmer never to cultivate more land than can be done in 
 the most thorough manner. An3i;hing beyond this, as a general rule, will result in a waste 
 of labor, and prove unsatisfactory in the end. 
 
 Systematic Management. — One of the great wants pertaining to farming generally 
 is a more perfect system of management, — a system that will not only admit of the various 
 kinds of work on the farm being done in the proper time, but in the most profitable manner. 
 Time and attention should be given in ascertaining the best methods of conducting the busi- 
 ness, and then, having decided upon and adopted a certain plan or system, it should he car- 
 ried out thoroughly. 
 
 Experiments in this manner may sometimes result in changes in certain respects, and 
 new and improved methods will be adopted, from time to time, if the farmer is progressive — as 
 he .should be — in order to keep abreast of the times and the age in which he lives; still, he 
 should conduct his farming in a methodical manner, whatever that system may be, and never 
 permit the business to manage itself, as is too frequently the case. 
 
 A well-developed system will enable the farmer to pursue an even, uniform plan of oper- 
 ations, and have a tendency to obviate the frequent shifting from one department to another, 
 with no permanency in any one of them, which practice reduces farming to a continuous 
 routine of profitless experiments and ventures. Not that we would condemn experimenting 
 hi a judicious way. Every progressive farmer will not only experiment for hunself, but will 
 profit by the intelligent experiments of others; but experiments should be the eicception and 
 not the rule for general practice in farming, and should always be made judiciously, and with 
 an intelligent understanding of the nature of the things to be experimented with. 
 
 A lack of system is one of the fruitful causes of failure in all kinds of employments, and 
 especially so in farming. To be a successful farmer requires a wide range of knowledge, and 
 methodical practice. He must not only know when and how to cultivate the various crops, the 
 soil to which they are best adapted, but how, when, and where to dispose of them in the 
 most j)rofitable manner, how to purchase the necessary farm supplies to the best advantage, 
 what crops and farm-stock are the most profitable for him to raise, etc. 
 
 In order to ascertain definitely witli respect to the comparative profits of different 
 branches of farm industry, and the real state of his business, every farmer should keep a 
 correct account of all the receipts and expenditures. It is only in this way that an accurate 
 knowledge of the profits or losses of the farm can be obtained. Such an account is also 
 often convenient for reference, as furnishing important data that can be obtained in no other 
 way. Keeping such an account has also a tendency towards systematic practice in every 
 department, and cannot fail of much profit to the farmer in all respects. 
 
 More Capital in Farming. — It frequently is the case that the limited success of the 
 farmer is due to a lack of sufficient capital. It may be the young farmer just starting in life, 
 who has invested nearly all of his money in purchasing a farm, and has but little left with 
 which to supply the necessary outfit. Hence, in procuring a team, farm implements, stock, 
 etc.. he is from necessity obliged to run in debt or purchase those that are inferior; or, if of 
 first quality, not the number that is needed on the farm sufficient to make the business as 
 profitable as it should be. To be limited in capital, or to incur a heavy debt, are both a great 
 drawback in successful farming, and many a .voung man has to contend with this evil year after 
 year before being freed from it. As a general rule, it will be better to purchase less land at 
 first, and add to it from time to time as means will permit, and retain a sufficient amount 
 cf capital to furnish and stock it well, rather than to expend nearly all in land and be embar- 
 rassed in managing it for lack of means to render the labor bestowed profitable. 
 
WASTES AND WANTS OF THE FAH.M. 5^1 
 
 There may, however, be exceptions; for instance, desirable lands that can be purchased 
 at a low rate may be so located as to soon largely increase in value, which, if lying even 
 unimproved for a few years, will bring in selling many times the original expenditure; but 
 we refer more particularly to farms purchased with a view of cultivating the whole, or 
 larger portion of them. 
 
 Again, with ideas of false economy, many farmei's who possess an abundance of means 
 for cultivating their lauds in the most successful manner, will limit their expenses to the 
 lowest possible figure, permitting their farm buildings to run down for lack of repairs and 
 improvements, using antiquated and unsuitable machines in doing the work, in order that 
 they may put the receipts of the farm into the bank, bonds, or other securities. By investing 
 such receipts in the improvement of lands, farm buildings, farm implements, and the farm 
 business generally, might in many cases perhaps double tho profits resulting from the former 
 course. Extravagance and waste should always be avoided, but it must be remembered that 
 it requires capital to make capital, and the farmer who invests a sufficient amount of money 
 in his business to maintain and continue all laudable improvements, has the best oppoi'. 
 lunitief', other conditions being equal, to make that business a success. 
 
PART II. 
 
 FARMS AND FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 — WL3 -* •-44^^^^^ *« C 
 
 CHOICE OF FARMS. 
 
 THERE is something in the ownership of land that gives independence to a man's 
 character. It is in itself an honor, and has connected with it a kind of reflex influ- 
 ence that does not seem to be associated with other possessions. The retention of iiie 
 old 'family homestead and farm by a long line of ancestry for successive generations, is one 
 of the interesting features of the older-settled portions of the country, and is in many 
 respects a desideratum, whether we regard it in the practical light of an investment, or of a 
 pardonable pride, as the basis of a sentiment of family honor and respectability that is to be 
 associated with the name and inheritance. Among the many changes of ownership of lands, 
 it is pleasant to see, as we do occasionally, although too rarely, an instance of this kind. 
 While the few among the multitude of farmers have this privilege of retaining the old home, 
 the majority, in establishing themselves in business, either from necessity or choice, locate 
 elsewhere. 
 
 In selecting a farm, there are many things of importance to be taken into consideration. 
 The advantages and disadvantages are to be carefully weighed, and the sum of each taken 
 into the account. The location, quality of soil, size, the purposes to which it is to be appro- 
 priated, etc., all are to be judiciously considered, and that decision given which seems to favor 
 the highest possibilities of success. But it must be remembered that absolute perfection, either 
 with regard to mankind or locality, will never be found on the face of the whole earth. We 
 must therefore not expect it, and take things as we lind them, maldng a choice of such as 
 seem to us, by the use of our best judgment, to contain the most good and the fewest evils. 
 No location can be found but what will have its disadvantages as well as its peculiar advan- 
 tages, and, according to the great natural law of compensation, the sum of the one will in a 
 measure offset that of the other. 
 
 Whether mixed agriculture or special be the object, the facilities for transportation and 
 nearness to market must necessarily be considered in selecting a farm, as well as the adaptabil- 
 ity of the soil and climate to the crops to be produced. If tropical products, fc" example, are 
 to be raised, the farmer must make choice of lands where the soil and climate are best 
 adapted to such crop. If grain is to be the specialty, some of the Western States will afford 
 the best facilities. If the object be sheep husbandry on a large scale, a ranch in the great 
 West is most assuredly the place to be chosen. If it be the care of large herds of cattle, it 
 should be a ranch in some of the far Western States or Texas. But if the farmer wishes for 
 himself and family the peculiar advantages to be derived from a home in the older-settled 
 portions of the country, some State in the Eastern section should doubtless be his choice. 
 
 If he desires a locality remote from other inhabitants, he must forego the educational, 
 social, and other privileges that a nearness to a city or largely-populated section will furnish ; 
 while, if the choice be in a densely-populated region, he must of necessity give up the pecuHar 
 advantages of retirement, and accept the objectionable features that such a place may pos- 
 sess. In making a selection of locality, the farmer should never overlook the health, com- 
 
 (582) 
 
CHOICE OF FAKMS. 583 
 
 fort, happiness, and general welfare of his family. These should always be primary, and the 
 money-profits of the business a secondary consideration; for, while money-making is one of 
 the great desideratums with most men, if is not the cliief good in life, neither does it consti- 
 tute the sum total of earthly happiness, as many, by their lives, seem to regard it. Success 
 and happiness in life do not depend so much upon the location and business, as the character 
 of the individual. .\s a general principle, the man makes the business, and not the business 
 the man. Success is what we make it, and the man of the right stamp, who is honorable in 
 his dealings, energetic, capable, systematic, practical, and thoroughly business-like, will be 
 successful wherever he may be located, or in whatever laudable business he undertakes. And 
 those farmers who are generally dissatisfied with their condition, and imagine that they may 
 be greatly benefited by a change of place, will find, in the majority of cases, that the fault is 
 more in themselves than in their surroundings, and that the adoption of a better system and 
 improved methods will produce better results than a change of locality. For this reason a 
 change should never be made without due deliberation, and an honest endeavor to ascertain 
 the true reason for a lack of success that has thus far characterized their business. Of 
 course, there are exceptions to this, as to all rules, but we think it will prove applicable to 
 most cases. 
 
 The desertion of the old homestead is too frequently a mistake with young men. If 
 properly managed, money can be made there as well as elsewhere; while other considerations 
 of importance are involved, such as the influence of the association connected with the old 
 home on successive generations, their tendency to restrain from evil and promote the good in 
 a desire to hand down the family name with honor from one generation to another, etc. In 
 many of the sparsely-settled portions of New England the old homesteads are passing into 
 the hands of foreigners, and the state of society, as well as the lands in those sections, is 
 deteriorating. For the sake of the general good of the community in such localities, enough 
 of the native population should remain to sustain our institutions and maintain that intelh- 
 gent enterprise and progress which is characteristic of American people, and wliich shall be 
 a credit to the country at large. 
 
 Advantages of Large Farms. — The size of a farm should always be adapted to the 
 puvposes to which it is to be devoted, but it will also be largely influenced by the location. 
 In the Eastern section, where there is a dense pjopulation, where taxes are high, and land sells 
 for a comparatively large price, smaller farms will l;e found more profitable tlian at the West 
 and South, where land is plenty and can be bought at much lower rates, and also where 
 extensive use can be made of improved agricultural implements. As a general rule, the 
 nu'nber of men who are capacitated to successfully manage extensive farms is small com- 
 pared with the number represented by those who can make profitable the management of 
 farms of small or medium size. Some men have special talents for successfully engaging in 
 large enterprises. 
 
 They possess the ability not only to originate the most perfect and systematic plans, but 
 to successfully execute them as well. But these are in the minority, and it will be found in 
 the majority of cases, that the management of small farms, or those of moderate size, will in 
 the aggregate, prove most successful. Large farms, however, possess many advantages over 
 small ones. "While the former will, as a general rule, cost less in proportion to their size than 
 small ones, they furnish a larger proportionate area of tillable soil from which an income can 
 be obtained. The insurance, taxes, repairs, and other expenses will also be larger in propor- 
 tion to the investment on a small than large farm; hence, there is a larger proportion of 
 unproductive property in the former than the latter. 
 
 Large farms require a smaller proportionate amount of capital to be invested in build- 
 ings. The same principle holds true with respect to fencing. 
 
 The expense of furnishing farming implrments on a small farm is very much higher in 
 
5S4 THE AMKIiK^VN FARMER. 
 
 proportion to the amount produced, than on a large one, while the cultivation, bping yier. 
 fornie<l on a larger scale of operation, can be done with much more facility, and under a 
 more perfect system of management on the latter. , 
 
 A farm of seventy-five or a hundreil acres will require nearly as many kinds of farm 
 implements for performing the woi'k, as one of five hundred acres, and they will cost about 
 as much when purchased, as those for the larger fai-m. The principal difference will be, that 
 the owner of the five hundred acres will have several times as much profit from their more 
 extensive use, as the owner of the one hundred acres; hence, a much larger per cent, of 
 profit on the investment. In fact, on very extensive farms, where a number of the same 
 kind of machines are required, such as sulky or gang plows, haxTows, reapers, etc., 
 these implements can be purchased at a large discount making the expense for this 
 purpose; on the large farms very much less in proportion to small ones. The same is true to 
 a certain extent with respect to teams for the farm. In disposing of jjroduce where mixed 
 farming is practiced, the time and labor spent in takmg to market the surplus products of a 
 small farm are about the same as for a large one, with the exception of a difference in 
 handling in loading and unloading, and the heavier cartage. 
 
 While the business of a large farm can be managed to better advantage, and those who 
 are adapted to it can make it more profitable than that of a small farm, still there is always 
 more risk attending it. The losses are greater in cases of failure. On cheap land.*, and 
 until a section becomes densely settled, larger profits will be found generally in cultivating 
 laige areas devoted more particularly to special crops. When weU populated, the land 
 becomes more uniformly divided, the farms, as a consequence, are reduced in size, and a more 
 thorough cultivation is given. The natural result of continued cultivation of large areas 
 devoted to speciaV crops, -is to produce exhaustion, while smaller farms under a more thorough 
 system, combined with proper rotation, will not only retain, but increase their fertility. 
 
 Advantages of Small Farms, etc. — While large farms possess many advantages 
 over small ones, yet the latter also admit of some especial advantages over the former. In 
 the Western sections, where bonanza farms are under cultivation, corn and other grains 
 bring a much less price than in the East where their cultivationis necessarily limited; hence, 
 the Eastern farmer receives comparatively much larger returns for his crops, and therefore 
 it is essential that the Western farmer should cultivate more land and secure larger products 
 in order to make even the same profits that ro-sult from the crops raised by the Eastern 
 farmer. 
 
 Small farms always require less capital invested, and a man of moderate means can estab- 
 lish himself on such a farm without incumng a heavy debt, the interest of which would be con- 
 stantly consuming his profits, while the mortgages would prove the source of a continuous •■night- 
 mare " if he were a man of energy and business capacity. They also require less hired help, 
 less expenditure in supplying with suitable teams, etc., while there is less care and anxiety, 
 as well as less risk attending their management. 
 
 A small farm admits of more thorough culture, and, if properly tilled, can be kept in a 
 higher state of fertility than a large one, and be made to produce a larger crop in proportion 
 to the area cultivated. While there are some farmers who could increase the size of their farms 
 with profit, yet by far too many own more land tlian they can properly manage, or their 
 capital will waiTant, and are what might be called "land-poor." As a general rule, it is not 
 profitable for the farmer to hold unproductive property. He should own no more tillable 
 land than he can properly cultivate, and should add to his farm from time to time as 
 his resources will admit. An authoritative writer on agriculture say^, respecting capital 
 in farming: — " Were I asked to point out the best-paying farms of this country, I should 
 seek them not where land is cheap and agriculture conducted on a vast scale, but upon 
 the outskirts of some metropolis, among the market-gardens, the secret of whose success is 
 hidden only by the shades of night, when cart-load upon cart-load, the waste of cityconsump- 
 
CHOICE OF FARMS. 585 
 
 tion, is conveyed back to the outlying farms; and thus while tlio world is sleeping, is supplied 
 as to a growing school-boy, such vitalizing gain as more than balances the daily loss. 
 Nowhere better than such sections of city-surrounding country, can the system of high farm- 
 ing be carried to perfection. Tlie nearness of tlie consumer furnishes a i-eady market for 
 vegetable products which, from their perishable nature, demand immediate consumption, 
 wliile unrivalled facilities for obtaining fertilizers leave a mai-gin for prolits which can 
 scarcely be equalled in places more remote." 
 
 As a general rule, the money-value of land, the size of the farm, and the kind of products 
 to be raised, are determined by the distance and importance of the nearest markets. As an 
 instance showing the profitable revenue derived from a small farm, we cite that given at a 
 recent farmer's meeting in New England, by Richard A''an Deusen of Shaker Village, who 
 stated that he cultivated twenty four acres, and was not satistied unless he made each acre 
 return him a hundred dollars of clean profit. He raised a variety of products, in order that 
 the harvesting could extend over a longer period. He read from his diary a list of the crops 
 raised and sold the previous year, as follows: — "4,300 pounds of red strap-leaf turnip-seed, 
 $1,032; 915 pounds of onion-seed, S'2,297; potato onions, one-fourth of an acre, $175; early 
 potatoes, $125; 40 rods of sage, $80; 7 acres of golden wax-beans (blasted), $117; three, 
 fourths of an acre of cabbage for seed, $180; 4i- acres of cucumber-seed (20 cents a pound), 
 $1,725; 1 acre of peaches, $304; 4 acres of pears (with two crops of hay on the same land), 
 $100; one-fourth of an acre of asparagus, $7,">. Of the last from three to five bushels were 
 cut a day and freely used by the Shaker family. In all, $5,282 worth of produce was sold 
 from twenty-four acres, or at the rate of $330 an acre. His expenses were $1,212, and the 
 chief items were $841 for labor, and $317 for manure." 
 
 The fifty-acre farm of Artemus Fisher, near Keota, Iowa, is described, together with its 
 management and success, by the Keota Eagle, as follows : — 
 
 "He keeps one team of horses, three first-class cows, and a nice little drove of the best 
 hogs. He milks his cows for the creamery, and they made him nearl}' $200 last year. Will, 
 perhaps, do better thisiyear. He will sell $500 worth of hogs this year, and have 30 stockers 
 to keep over. He has $200 worth of flax-seed to sell; has an abundance of hay and grain 
 to keep his stock in first-class condition during the coming winter. He keeps everything in 
 the best order about his farm; his cows revel in clover up to their eyes; he attends to feed- 
 ing, watering, and milking as regularly as the clock strikes; hence he gets the best results 
 with the least possible feed. He keeps his stock under cover in the winter, and never allows 
 any animal to shiver in the fence-comers. He has a barn that is a model of convenience and 
 economy. It is snow-proof, and as warm as the old-style kitchen. He has a first-class selec- 
 tion of fruit — not a large orchard, but a choice selection of the varieties that thrive and bear 
 the best in tliLs locality. Everything about the farm bears marks of intelligence, thrift, and 
 economy. Besides making a living for himself and wife, be will sell at least $800 worth of 
 stuff off his fifty acres this year, and not be exceeding that of former years. There is no rush 
 or hurrah about the work on this model farm. Everything goes off quietly and regularly. 
 The expenses are very small, and the gains sure." 
 
 Thus we see, that rightly-managed, and their highest possibilities tested, even very small 
 farms may be made quite profitable. 
 
 In those sections where the farms are generally small, it is a good practice for a few of 
 the proprietors to cooperate in the purchase of expensive farm -machines or choice stock, 
 thus largely reducing the outlay to each, and increasing proportionately the profits, while it 
 permits each individual interested in the ownership to obtain the benefits resulting, at a com- 
 paratively slight expense. Whatever the size of the farm, the capital should never be all 
 invested in land. There should always be a sufficient amount of working capital left in the 
 hands of the owner and manager of the farm to thoroughly till it, and no land that is capable 
 of being tilled should be permitted to remain unproductive. 
 
3I0DEL FARMS. 587 
 
 MODEL FARMS. 
 
 THERE are many farmers who are strongly prejudiced against scientific farming, or, 
 what they term " book-farming," regarding it as pertaining more to a mere theory 
 than utihty in practice. They consider all who favor it as visionaries, — the old 
 methods as supreme, and all attempts towards an innovation as fanciful and unprofitable 
 schemes. It will invariably be foimd that those who are the most strongly opposed to scien- 
 tific agriculture are the most ignorant concerning it. To be sure, mere scientific knowledge 
 is not by any means all that is necessary in successful farming. Theory is important as far 
 as it goes, but the art is fully as essential; and when we have the two combined, viz., the 
 science and art of agriculture, or, in other words, when we have the skill to put in most suc- 
 cessful practice the knowledge that science bestows, it is then that we have a complete union, 
 and the highest standard attained in agricultural achievement?. 
 
 But what is scientific agriculture of which we hear so much, and — unfortunately — see 
 so little? Science, literally, means knowledge, and when used in connection with agriculture, 
 it means no less. 
 
 Scientific agriculture, therefore, means the employment of that knowledge obtained from 
 Nature's vast laboratory, — of her forces, and her laws, — in the practical art of farming. 
 
 But why should we not make use of the aid which science gives? Why refuse any 
 assistance that will give us a more perfect knowledge of the elements with wliich wo have to 
 deal? It is a fact that there is no business whatever that requires such a varied and accu- 
 rate knowledge and observation of Nature's laws, as farming; neither is there any business 
 that calls into exercise more frequently that faculty that is usually denominated " practical 
 common sense." 
 
 No one can deny but that the manufacturer is enabled to make vastly larger profits by 
 the aid of science, and conforming his labors to scientific principles, and why not the farmer 
 as well? 
 
 We do not claim that farming can be reduced to a science as exact as that of mathe- 
 matics or mechanics, for there are too many varying influences over which the farmer has no 
 control, to admit of it, — such as the heat and cold, rain and sunshine, etc., — but we do claim 
 that the highest attainments in this direction are reached only through the knowledge imparted 
 by science. Those farmers, therefore, who reduce their practice to the most intelligent sys- 
 tem, will, other conditions being equal, be the most successful. The best methods, when 
 properly put in practice, will always be found the most profitable. To show some of the 
 improved methods of scientific farming, and the results of such practice, we give a descrip. 
 tion of what might be called a few of the model farms of the country. It will be noticed 
 that in every instance of improved farming, the most careful attention is paid to cleanliness 
 in every respect, including pure air, pure water, clean food of proper quality and quantity, 
 etc.; the health of the animals being taken into consideration, as well as the quality of the 
 breed. 
 
 Echo Farm. — This noted farm, formerly the property of F. R. Starr, but more 
 recently that of the Echo Farm Company, is located about a mile eastward of Litchfield. The 
 description given of it by a visitor is as follows: " This fann, with its group of neat build- 
 ings and patriotic flagstaff, crowns a hill some sixty feet higher than the ridge -upon which 
 the village is situated, making it nearly 1,300 feet above the sea-level. Mr. Starr, having 
 impaired his health by too close confinement to business, after spending some time in trav- 
 eling both in this country and in Europe, was attracted to this .spot on account of its salubri- 
 ousness and its proximity to the pleasant village of Litchfield. His original purchase of 
 si.xty-si.x acres was made merely with a view of securing a summer residence, and without 
 
588 
 
 THE AMERICAN FAltMER. 
 
 the most remote idea of ever engaging in farming or stock-raising. The land around the 
 house needed to be cleared and laid out, natural features of beauty and interest were to be 
 preserved and improved, and this gave liim pleasant employment. The work grew in inter- 
 est and importance under his hands, and finally so absorbed his attention tnat he mny almost 
 be said to have become infatuated with the love of it. 
 
 It is hardly to be supposed that an active business man, having Ijoth capital and enthu- 
 siasm to apply t(5 farming, could find employment for his faculties on a grass farm of sixty- 
 sis acres Field after field was cleared of stone, new walls were laid, old ones removed, and 
 very soon the work done made it obvious that soon there would be little more to do. There- 
 fore adjoining properties were purchased and added to the farm, so that now 'Echo Farm ' 
 contains nearly 400 acres, which lie mostly in one compact body. A great part of this is under 
 thorough tillage, and that which is not even now laid down to grass, both for mowing and 
 for pastui'e, is lapidly being .prepared for these uses. Miles of massive stone walls enclosing 
 lawn like meadows, pastiu'es tlioroughly cleared of stones, and laid off in great regularity, 
 
 ETHEL STODDARD. 
 IRENB STODDAUD. 
 
 DAISY UOllINSON. 
 
 KDITH PKHKINS. 
 
 GROUr OF YEARLINO JERSEY IlKFFEHS. 
 
 define its boundaries, while its rolling and cultivated sui'face is diversified by patches of 
 woodland. 
 
 The introduction of an improved system of agriculture, and the application of the famil- 
 iar principles of business to farming, necessitated new buildings in addition to those bought 
 with the several farms now united. In 1873, therefore, Mr. Starr erected a barn 60x25 feet; 
 in 1874, a barn 100x40, and in 1875, a barn 191x35; and in 1870, these were not only all in 
 use, but full. 
 
 In the perspective view of the buildings, the conspicuous building is what is called • the 
 '74 barn,' entered by the double approach or driveway, and adjoining this, upon the left, is 
 'the '75 barn,' while 'the '73 barn' occupies a similar position upon the right of the main, 
 or '74 barn, but is not attached to it. These three buildings form three sides of the barn- 
 yard. They are of pine, upon massive granite foundations, for the most part two feet wide, 
 laid in cement, rising from a base three feet wide laid in grouting, while under-di-ains carry off 
 any water which might otherwise reach the foundations. In fact, the masonry of the founda- 
 tion-walls, and of the massive ;'.0 foot approach, is like that of a fortification. Tlie latter 
 
MODEL KAKMS. 
 
 589 
 
 curves arouud a quartor of a circle, the gianite walls being 5hree ieet tiiick, laid in ceineut, 
 and some of the stones not less than eight feet in length. A lieight of twelve feet is gained, 
 and the space between the walls (thirty feet) being filled in with stones solidly packed and 
 topped with gravel, a solid roadway of uniform ascent is secured. 
 
 The principal storage-room for hay is the main iioor of the '7-t Ijarn. Tlirough t'lie cen- 
 ter of this the double threshing-floor crosses, so that several teams and wagons bringing in 
 hay may enter and discharge their loads independently of one another. Wlien the mows are 
 nearly full, one of the floors is closed, and forms a big bay, which may itsell' be filled to the 
 ridge-pole. 
 
 1 have never before met with this contrivance of a double floor, and hke it very much. 
 There is storage-room in this loft for over 151) tons of hay. 
 
 The cow-stable is immediately beneath, occupying the fuU size of the building, 100x40 
 feet, 11 feet high. It is lighted by 18 large double sashed windows, the sashes being hung 
 by weights, open at top and bottom. Having the object in view, which has since been so 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 ^ -^-^; ^ 
 
 '-i'^^m^ 
 
 Sm S.\MUEI I \N \Rn 
 
 
 1>CLL BIIL 
 
 JLM FEMON 
 
 
 HIGHLAND tUIti 
 
 YOUNG JERSEY BULLS OF ECHO F.VRM. 
 
 successfully accomplished, namely, the production, both in winter and summer, of as perfect 
 butter &5 possible, the accommodations for the cows are absolutely lu.xurious as regards free- 
 dom, purity of air, comfortable warmth and aljundaut light, while for ease of attendance and 
 convenience of inspection — that the foreman and the proprietor may at a glance see if every 
 man has done his duty — they could not be suii>assed. There are stalls here for forty-eight 
 cows, and a simple calculation (lOOX'lOx 11=44,000-^48=917) shows that each cow has. 
 making a liberal allov\-ance for fixtures, posts, etc., not less than 900 cubic feet of air space, 
 which is more than twice as much as is ordinarily considered ample. Thi-ough the center 
 lengthwise there is a ten-foot passage-way between tlie two rows of stalls, and, crossing at the 
 center of the floor, another passage-way of eight feet in width. These separate the floor into 
 four divisions of twelve stalls each, and by a very convenient arrangement, by means of a 
 few bars which are kept hanging upon wooden pins against the posts, and which, when in 
 use, fit into sockets and slots, the cows of each section are turned loose to go at will into the 
 yard for water and exercise, through a door at the south end of the cross passage, or through 
 the main entrance at west end. to pasture. There is, besides, a broad passage behind the 
 
5iJU THE AMERICAN EAU.MEH. 
 
 cows, and conveniently wide ones across each end, so that each section is surrounded by a 
 passage-way. 
 
 The stalls are nearly five feet wide — too wide, 1 think; the mangers or feeding-troughs 
 about two feet wide, and. the slightly sloping platform upon which the cows stand, 5 J feet. 
 At the rear is a gutter which holds the manure and conducts the liquid to traps plaoed at 
 convenient intervals in the gutter, through which traps the manure is dropped into the capa- 
 cious, nine-foot cellar,' 135 feet in length by 40 in width. 
 
 It will be noticed that the double drive-way, before alluded to, does not extend up to the 
 barn proper, but stops some 12 feet short, which space is bridged over by what is called the 
 'dormer,' and forms a room below 12x30 feet, which is used as a wardrobe and dressing- 
 room. Tlie men call it the ' Parlor,' not because they meet here to talk, but, I take it, because 
 it is the culminating point of the all pervading neatness and cleanliness which distinguishes 
 this establishment. Here are closets for the men's clothes, and for the brushes, brooms, 
 cards, and other tools; wash-basin, towels, a looking-glass and toilet articles; and here, morn- 
 ing and evening, before going to milk, the milkers wash their hands and faces, comb and 
 brush their hair, and make such changes of apparel as may be necessary. I am free to say 
 that the majority of farmers in this country, which may indeed be justly proud of the civ- 
 ilized cleanliness which prevails among its rural population, come to the table with less atten- 
 tion to personal tidiness than is here both the rule and the practice. 
 
 At milking-time, though the barns are often, one may say, full of visitors, all are 
 excluded, and the milkers have the floor to themselves. Spring balances hang at convenient 
 points, and the milk of each cow is weighed as soon as it is drawn, the weight set down by 
 each milker upon his own slate, and when he has done, the slate is delivered to the dairy- 
 maid. 
 
 At the eastern end of this stable is a room 35x40 — the corner room, and part of the 
 "'75 bam "in wMch there are eight large box-stalls on two sides, with space for several 
 more. This is used as a lying-in ward, or for cows which may be injured in any way. The 
 long loft in this building, which occupies the greater.part of the same floor, is filled with hay, 
 straw, and bedding, sufBcient for the stock beneath. A portion is used for storing duplicate 
 implements and machines, which, consisting of churns, butter-workers, a hay-cutter, and sun- 
 dry others, ai'e kept ready for use in case of an accident, that no delay may occur — an 
 admirable provision. Another portion, opening out of the lying-in room, is occupied as a 
 grain and meal room. A passage-way, four feet in width, extends through to the southern 
 end of this floor upon the western side. The manure-cellar, before referred to, is continued 
 under the room in which the box-stalls are, but the rest of the basement is otherwise occu- 
 pied. An inclined plane, well cleated, makes a passage-way for animals up and down 
 when it is necessary to transfer them. The ox-stable is at the left of this, on the ground 
 floor; while on the right are the bull-stables. 
 
 Every fanner, and not less every householder, can appreciate the inestimable comfort to 
 man and beast of a never-failing supply of pure water. Without it the barns would have 
 been ill-placed and ill-planned. So important a matter, of course, received its due considera- 
 tion. Upon the hill, above the barn, not far from the position chosen by the artist for his 
 sketch, and at a distance of some 500 feet from the barns, several springs are collected into 
 a reservoir. This is stoned about, roofed over, and connected by iron pipes with the dairy, 
 and with the barns, throughout which it is distributed by pipes There are ti-oughs, or 
 sinks, with discharge-pipes leading to the drains, located in convenient places, in the stables 
 and other rooms, and spacious drinkingtroughs in the yards. 
 
 Mr. Starr dwells with force upon the importance of giving the animals the regular 
 exercise of a walk for their drink, and of their being watered twice a day, and, in carrying 
 out his view, the cows of each section of the main floor ai'e turned out for an hour or more 
 
MODEL FARMS. 
 
 591 
 
 every day. Thev get this exercise and fresh air regularly, even in tlic coldest weather, 
 e.xcept during severe storms. 
 
 An abundance of pure air has been provide d foi in e\eiy ipaitment in which live-stock 
 of any kind is kept. The high ceiling.s (11 feet) of the cow st il le in 1 ol the stables in the 
 the ''73 barn,' 
 
 basement of 
 
 have already been mentioned. 
 Two large ventilating trunks 
 go from the cellar to the ven- 
 tilators in the roof; others, 
 with slides at floor and ceiling, 
 pass up independently from the 
 stables and cow-floor, but ad- 
 joining those from the cellar; 
 besides, everywhere there are 
 windows hung by weights, 
 which not only admit light and 
 sunshine, making the stables 
 light even to the innermost 
 corners, but giving in summer, 
 or sultry weather, all the fresh 
 air any cow can need. The 
 result is, that no temporary 
 neglect or carelessness can 
 cause bad odors, or vitiated air 
 to prevail. And what is even 
 of greater importance, — if in- 
 fectious disease should occur, 
 the rapid change of air which 
 is obtained night and day offers 
 the greatest security against its 
 spread. The system of feeding 
 that is followed is very simple : 
 mixed bran and meal are fed 
 upon cut feed twice a day. 
 One good meal of roots is given 
 by themselves. Mangels and 
 sugar-beets are the only roots 
 used, and the cows have besides 
 all the dry hay they will eat. 
 
 Everything is of the sweet- 
 est and purest character — the 
 liay, fragrant; the few corn- 
 stalks 'used, thoroughly cured 
 and free from mustiness; the 
 corn-meal, corn and oat.-^, and 
 bran (50-pound stuff), of the 
 best quality. Thus, nothing 
 can be eaten by the cows in the stable which can affect the milk unfavorably, and eveiything 
 contributes to its high flavor and excellence. The proportions between mangels and meal, 
 vary according to the a])undance of the former. When a tull crop of roots is harvested, the 
 quantity fed is profitably increased. 
 
592 
 
 THE AMKlilCAN FAKMEK. 
 
MODEL FARMS. 
 
 593 
 
 Stable Management. — It is some one's duty to look to every individual cow, calf, 
 and bull every hour through the night, from dark to dawn, and at stated intervals during 
 the day. This gives regular employment to one night-watchman, and to three regular day- 
 hands. The stable-men clean out the stalls, cut, mix, and give the feed, clean the cows, 
 Siveep out the stables, turn the cows out to water, feed the calves, etc., under the supervision 
 of an efficient foreman, who, indeed, supervises all the work of the farm, working with the 
 men wherever his labor will do the most good, but in all things following the directions of 
 the proprietor, who takes the responsibility of ordering everything of importance. It is an 
 inflexible rule, that all the animals shall be treated kindly and gently. No shouting, halloo- 
 ing, or alarming demonstrations are made; hence they grow up docile and gentle, and the 
 bulls, old and young, have so far proved no exception. 
 
 All the animals are kept clean; the cows brushed or carded daily; their stalls not only 
 cleaned out, but swept out and sanded. The temperature of the stables is regulated by the 
 ventilation in cold weather, and thenuometers are hung where they may be conveniently 
 inspected. During the winter it is intended not to aUow the temperature to sink below the 
 freezing point; but a temperature of 40° is considered desirable. 
 
 Regularity is a marked feature of the management. Every important daily duty in and 
 about the farm, barns, and dairy has its appointed time. A large clock is centrally placed, 
 and all hands are held responsible for accurate punctuality. Not only are things done like 
 clock-work, but if anything goes wrong by day or night, the proprietor, if at home, may be 
 at once communicated with by telephone. A signal given at the lower stable, the upper 
 stable, or at the foreman's dwelling, notifies the proprietor at once that his presence or that 
 of the foreman is needed. From his oiEce the proprietor can also summon the foreman, 
 gardener, coachman, or others, at any moment. This is an arrangement which is not only a 
 great security against accidents of many kinds, but a great convenience For instance, if 
 anything seems to the night watchman to be going on wrong in the lying-in stalls, in tha 
 horse-stable, or elsewhere — anything that he cannot himself manage — he has only to leav* 
 the animal long enough to give the signal, and he is sure of help within a few minutes. 
 
 The Dairy, etc. — Each milkman has his slate to record the weight of the milk given 
 by each cow. With the last pails of milk, these slates are brought to the dairy and delivered 
 to the tidy dairy-woman. 
 
 Tlie milk is set in deep cans in summer, which stand in running water, and are thus 
 kept at an equable temperature; but in winter the o.ld-fashioned shal- 
 low pans are used; no seamed ones, however — but those struck or 
 stamped from a single sheet. It is Doured from the strainer milk- 
 pails, having the xisual form, and a fine brass wire-cloth strainer at 
 
 the spout, into a large pail, which is a frjjoZe 
 
 strainer — an Echo Farm invention, and one 
 
 worthy of being extensively copied. The 
 
 spout of this pail is a four inch cylinder. 
 
 There is a fine brass wire-gauge strainer 
 
 placed over the spout inside the pail. Over 
 
 the outer end of the spout a hoop of tin is 
 
 fitted loosely; and by means of this, two 
 
 thicknesses of mushn are fastened like a 
 
 drum-head over the end. The milk is poured 
 
 into the pans, or deep cans, from the pail, 
 and I must say it seemed as though it was carrying the cleanly hobby rather far, to strain the 
 milk virtually four times; but after seeing the milk of some fifty cows strained, and making 
 a thorough personal examination, I was fully conduced of the wisdom of the course adopted, 
 .and that it was in keeping with the other rigid and excellent rules of the farm. 
 
 TRIPLE STR.\INER-PA!I,. 
 
 CREAM-STRAINER. 
 
594 
 
 fHE AMERICAJSI FARMER. 
 
 After the evening's milk is received, the dairywouian fills out her return for the day. 
 To do this, she has blanks which give the names of the cows, just as they stand in the bam, 
 numbered as the stalls are, from 1 to 48, with those in other stables under a and i. There 
 are two columns ruled for the morning's and evening's milkings, and the weight of milk 
 given by each cow is recorded, and the whole footed up ; then the disposition of the whole is 
 noted on the same paper. The dairy is charged its quota, after whatever is necessary is taken 
 out for the house, for the families of the men, and for the young calves. This report is filed 
 daily, and at the end of the month each cow is credited with all she has given, and at the end 
 of the year the grand totals are footed up. So complete is this system, and so thoroughly 
 adhered to, that it takes but a few hours of simple figuring, on the 31st of December, to 
 exhibit a full statement for the 365 preNaous days. 
 
 The advantage, in large dairies, of straining or filtering the cream is well understood. 
 A thorough homogeneovisness is secured, whereby the butter ' comes ' quicker and is more 
 
 thoroughly removed at one operation. If the cream lacks this quality, only a part of the 
 butter, sometimes, will come, while a second or continued churning will be needed to secure 
 the remainder; besides, specks from the windows, or open doors, are liable to fall in, which 
 ought tO be removed. For these reasons the cream is strained, and it is no easy operation to 
 strain thick cream from flat pans. On this farm an apparatus is used, which is found in 
 some of the best dairies of Pennsylvania, and which is represented on the previous page. Two 
 vessels are here shown — one, a simple receiver oi the strained cream ; the other, the strainer. 
 This is a cylinder like a large can. of heavy tin. Having above a hea^'y, fixed, rigid iron bail, 
 with a socket in the middle for a pump-handle to work in at right angles to the bail, while 
 below, in the bottom, are two tubes about six inches long, and two and a half inches in 
 diameter. These have their sides perforated with small holes. 
 
 The bottoms are solid and locked on, so that they may be removed for cleansing the 
 apparatus. The mouths of the tubes are conical, that the cream may run in quickly, and 
 
MODEL FARMS. 595 
 
 not only for that, but so that the pluggers, which are worked by the pump-handle, and alter- 
 nately lifted out and plugged in, forcing the cream through, may, without other guide, drop 
 directly into their proper places. The cream, thus rapidly and thoroughly strained, and all 
 parts mingled, is then ready for churning. 
 
 The churning is performed by horse-power. After being carefully worked, the butter is 
 put up in half-pound prints for shipment. These are of the usual circular form about an 
 inch and a half high, each havisg a neat device upon the top which consists of the monogram 
 ' Echo ' in the center, surrounded by twelve stars, each star indicating a month of the year; 
 and as they are represented in a circle, and of equal magnitude and brilliancy, the indication 
 is obvious that the quality and quantity of the butter do not vary the year round. 
 
 As soon as the butter is moulded, each print is wrapped in clean muslin and placed in a 
 neat, white paste-board box. 
 
 For final packing for shipment, the prints, each held in the little paper box, to keep them 
 from being defaced or otherwise injured, are packed in a wooden box, and sent from the dairy 
 every Tuesday and Friday morning by express, and are delivered at the residences of custo- 
 mers on the evenings of those days without the butter being handled." 
 
 We have thus given in detail some of the main features of the methods practiced on 
 this noted farm, simply to show the perfect system to which such a business may be reduced. 
 
 To give some idea of the benefits derived from keeping thoroughbred stock, and giving 
 them good care and kind treatment, we will briefly state that Filbert, the cow represented 
 standing at the left in the illustration of the centennial group, was sold by the proprietor in 
 1879 for fifteen hundred dollars. She gave in July of that year, 809 lbs. of rich milk, and 
 in August 949^ lbs. The records of many of the others of the herd are very high, although 
 not quite as good as that given. The Jersey Bull Litchfield was also winner of the Centen- 
 nial award, and of the special prize of $250 offered by the American Jersey Cattle Club. 
 
 That such a system "pays," may be inferred from the fact that in the same connection 
 new dairy buildings have recently been completed about three miles from the original farm, 
 with apparatus for bottling five thousand quarts of milk daily, which, with the facilities 
 afforded by Echo Farm of 2,500 quarts, enables the entire establishment to send 7,500 quart 
 bottles of pure milk to New York each day. 
 
 Deerfoot Farm. — This farm is located in Southborough, Mass., and is the property of 
 Mr. Edward Burnett. The description of it given by Dr. E. L. Sturtevant in a recent Depart- 
 ment Report, being the best we have seen, we take extracts from that authority for our pres- 
 ent purpose: 
 
 '■ Perhaps it is safe to say that there is no farm in America which can present so much 
 that is novel and useful to the observer, as Deerfoot Farm. 
 
 It is not amateur farming that is to be seen here, but real ' fancy ' farming, the use of 
 intensive conditions, the employment of abundance of labor, and the availing practically of 
 every new idea adapted to the conditions that promise improved profits. 
 
 This farm covers about 300 acres, of which some 100 are tillable. Its specialties are 
 fancy pork, gilt-edged butter and cream, family milk, skim-milk, and buttermilk. 
 
 To meet these requirements, much money has been expended for conveniences, and the 
 farm partakes in its management of the character of a factory. The swine are grown on the 
 place, or to order, are slaughtered as pig-pork, and are presented for sale in small, neat, and 
 attractive packages, which include ' Deerfoot family pork,' ' Deerfoot hams,' ' Deerfoot bacon,' 
 • Deerfoot jowls,' • Deerfoot pigs' feet,' ' Deerfoot sausages,' ' Deerfoot lard,' etc. From the pens 
 in the piggery, through the slaughter-room and jjacking-rooms to the market, there is the 
 most precise cleanliness, and the wise use of all the advantages that well-constructed machin- 
 ery, moved by steam-power, can offer. In 1879 the number of pigs slaughtered was about 
 1,500, of an average weight of 175 pounds, the extreme weights of carcass being 140 and 
 250 pounds. 
 
596 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 We, however, do not propose to describe this farm and this farming in detail, but to 
 confine ourselves to the presentation of the dairy branch, which in like manner is worthy of 
 attention from its development and from the novelty of its processes, for here are in use the 
 only centrifugal mUk machines, on other than an experimental scale, in America, and the 
 skilled thought of the experimenter and the machinist have combined to produce the results 
 best fitted for the handling, care, and manufacture of the milk. 
 
 The foundation idea which underlies this kind of farming is, that there is a large dis- 
 criminating pubUc, who desire to purchase the best articles of the class, and who are willing 
 to pay an increased price in order to secure perfection and uniformity of supply on their 
 tables. Hence an expenditure may be justified in order to secure purity and cleanliness of 
 product, attractiveness of packages, and such a sameness of quality that the brand stamped 
 thereon shall justify confidence. 
 
 There are two sources of supply for the milk, the home herd, and that furnished by the 
 neighboring farms. The milk of the morning and the evening is kept separate. The 
 morning's milk from the home herd is poured from the milk cans into a large cooler, and is 
 thence, after being cooled, bottled for market as new milk. In summer it is shipped at 7 
 p. M. The cooler which receives this portion is a large metal cylindrical vat of the capacity 
 of 150 gallons. Within this is suspended a box containing ice, and attached to a lever, so 
 that motion can be communicated to it in case the cooling is desired to be hastened, or a sort 
 of propeller which keeps the milk in movement. As soon as the temperature is reduced 
 to 50° the milk is drawn in successive portions into a pail, and thence poured into the bottles, 
 which, after being corked securely, are transferred in the frames to the water refrigerator, as 
 it may be called, where they remain until shipment. 
 
 The milk-tank, with its cooler, which receives the milk from the upper floor, is suspended 
 at a convenient height on the elevator, and by means of a faucet delivers the milk into the 
 pail which is used to fill the bottles. The bottles are handled in wire frames which hold 
 twenty, and these frames are transferred to the water-refrigerator, where they rest on a wire 
 grating, which is raised and lowered by means of machinery, thus conveniently lowering the 
 filled and tightly-corked bottles under the ice-water, and raising them again to the surface 
 for handling. 
 
 These bottles are of the Cohansey pattern, and are of the capacity of one quart. The 
 cover is secured by wire clamps, which, by compressing against an intervening rubber, form 
 a tight joint. These bottles are delivered to the customer each morning, and at the same 
 time the empty ones are retiu-ned to the farm, where, after a thorough cleansing, they are 
 again filled for use. 
 
 The upper story is on a level with the ground in the rear. Under a shed is the delivery, 
 each can of milk being weighed at the scales, and the weights charged off. The cans are 
 then moved into the delivery-room, and the milk is emptied into the tank within the refriger- 
 ator-room, thence to pass by a pipe into the centrifugal machine below, or is poured into the 
 tank for fresh milk delivery, as described. 
 
 The empty cans, after being cleansed over steam jets in the shed, are stored m the de- 
 livery-room until again put into requisition. 
 
 The cans used are of the capacity of 20. 30, and 40 quarts, and have large covers, which 
 spring into place, and strong handles. 
 
 The next room is the wash-room. The tanks are furnished with cold water through 
 faucets, and also with steam-pipes, through which steam is admitted to the water in the tanks 
 to warm it. Movable draining-trays, or slatted tables on casters, receive the bottles after the 
 cleansing in the hot-water tanks. Into this room opens the stairs from the lower floor, and 
 other doors lead to the storage-refrigerators, and the churning-refrigerator-room. 
 
 In the storage-refrigerator-room are kept the cream, the butter awaiting delivery, and the 
 
MODEL FARMS. 597 
 
 milk in the tank, whicli supplies the centrifugal machines below. In the churning-refrig- 
 erator, the cream is churned by power in a barrel-churn, and the butter is worked and pressed 
 into form for the market. 
 
 Passing into the centi-ifugal-room on the lower floor, we find three centrifugal machines, 
 over each of which is a pipe connecting with the milk-tank in the refrigerator-room overhead, 
 and three tanks in the floor which receive the skim-milk in cans, and where the cans remain 
 until shipped. In these tanks of water a block of ice is kept floating. 
 
 Ccntl'ifugal Machines. — Two styles of centrifugal machines are in use, one a self- 
 delivery, the others intermittent deliveries. We shall describe the first as machine No. 1, 
 and the second as machine No. 2. The machines being put into motion, the faucet of the 
 pipe connecting with the milk-tank is opened, and each machine receives its charge. After 
 running about fifteen minutes, the cream has collected on the interior wall of the milk, and 
 then, in No. 1, the faucet is again turned, and the admitted milk displaces a thin 
 stratum of cream, which is collected. At the same time the skim-milk escapes through small 
 valvular openings in the bottom. A small cup occupies the axis, and from which a pipe 
 extends towards the circumference. This receives the milk as it falls from the pipe and con- 
 veys it toward the circumference and away from the cream wall. Collected in this apparatus, 
 the milk is carried to the pipe or outflow. The skim-milk, passing into the surrounding 
 frame, is likewise conveyed by a pipe into the receptacle placed to receive it. 
 
 Machine No. 2 is of a different construction. After the cream has collected to form the 
 interior wall, a pipe-scoop is brought into contact with the revolving surface, and the cream 
 is forced along the pipe and conveyed to a pail placed near for its reception. After the cream 
 is removed, a like quantity of milk is added from the faucet, and this displaces the cream 
 which has escaped removal on account of its position to the point where the scoop works. In 
 a few moments the cream is thrown off through the scoop-pipe, and then the skim-milk is 
 removed in the same way, when a new charge of milk is admitted. This process takes place 
 about three times an hour. The pails of cream are now removed to the refrigerator-room, 
 upper floor, while the cans of skim-milk are transferred to the ice-water tanks on the lower 
 floor. In one experiment, watched by myself, so as to secure the ordinary conditions, 172 
 pounds of milk, in machine No. 2, yielded 2 1 pounds of cream, such as is bottled for market, 
 or 12 per cent, of its weight. Machine No. 3 is similar, except being slightly larger than 
 machine No. 2, and requires no separate description." 
 
 Care of the Cows. — The cows on this farm are milked with great regularity at 5 
 o'clock in the morning and 5 p.m., eight or nine cows being considered sufficient for one 
 milker. They are driven to their stalls to be milked and for passing the night, but are pas- 
 tured during the day in summer. Sand is used for bedding, and the stables are kept very 
 clean, being frequently whitewashed. The cow's are regularly carded each day. 
 
 The method of feeding is thus given by Mr. Burnett: — -'The essentials to produce good 
 results are good cows, good feed, regularity, cleanliness about the stables and dairy, and a 
 thermometer. I will give my own method of feeding, and in so doing those dairymen who 
 aim at quantity will realize that we are shooting at different targets, for with me quantity is 
 secondary, quality being the greatest desideratum. Our finest butter is obtained in early 
 summer, when the pastures are sending forth their early, sweet, succulent grasses, and we 
 depend entirely upon them; but when these begin to fail, about mid-summer, I begin to feed 
 wilted clover and a small quantity of grain, increasing as the season advances, unless the 
 pastures are unusually good. I cut all my grass early, beginning by the 31st of June, and 
 generally get a good second crop, thus trying to have an abundance of rowen hay. When in 
 winter quarters, I begin feeding at about 5.30 in the morning with hay, a little jag or wisp 
 at a time, not so much but what the cows will eat up clean. Then, after milking, they are 
 
598 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 given grain, from three to six quarts, according to the cow, consisting of two parts of Indian 
 meal and one of shorts or bran; or feeding entirely on ordinary cobbage (com and cob 
 ground together). After this, moi'e hay, which lasts until about 9 a.m. I begin again at 3 p.m 
 with a little hay, followed by roots (mangolds) cut fine, a bushel being divided betwei u three 
 cows; then more hay again, which lasts them until about 6.30 p.m. 
 
 I maintain that if more shorts are fed than are necessary to counteract the heating 
 quality and condensed richness of the corn meal, it deteriorates the butter. During last 
 March I saw this illustrated, being called upon in Boston to examine some butter from one of 
 the first dairies in the State, and which was troubling the dealer who sold it. He said it wa^ 
 negatively good, nothing could be said against it, yet little could be said in its favor. It 
 seemed to lack that fine nutty flavor so necessary to fresh butter that commands over forty 
 cents per pound. I said at once, on tasting it, ' Too much shorts and not enough corn meal. 
 He answered, ' Just what I thought, but didn't dare say so imtil it was confirmed.' In less 
 than ten days the butter from that diary was improved." 
 
 " MoHlltaill-SidP Farm." — This noted farm is the property of one of New York's 
 leading merchants and citizens, Mr. T. A. Havemeyer, and lies in Bergen County, Northern 
 New Jersey, at the base of the Ramapo Mountains. In a very elaborate article in the Journal 
 of The American Agricultural Association. Mr. Francis D. Moulton, President of the Inter- 
 national Dairy Fair Association, has given a detailed description of this farm and its admirable 
 system of management, a few extracts only of which we shall find space for insertion, and 
 which will serve to give the reader some general idea of tlie completeness and perfection to 
 which tins system is carried: — 
 
 "The mountain range, curving in broken lines on either side, presents a grand and 
 striking setting to a charming picture, the whole affording a most picturesque and beautiful 
 view. Thi'ough the farm from North to South flows the Ramapo River, an attractive feature 
 of the landscape, and an eminently valuable and practical adjunct to the farm. 
 
 'Mountain-Side' comprises six hundred acres, three hundred of which lie in the valley 
 and are under cultivation, and the remainder on the sides of the mountains, which at this 
 point rise to the height of about six hundred feet. The natural herbage of this latter por- 
 tion affords excellent pasturage for sheep and cattle. The soil of the bottom-land is a gravelly 
 loam, and under the advanced system applied and the admirable methods adopted, it is being 
 brought to a high condition of fertility. Of the cultivated land, this year, about one hundred 
 acres are in pasturage, ninety acres in hay, fifty acres in fodder-corn, and fifteen in rye. 
 Three acres are in peas, three in vetches and barley together, and three acres in potatoes. 
 
 Mr. Havemeyer's private stable is fitted up with box-stalls, and contains room for a large 
 number of carriages. Extending from it is a wing fifty feet long, from whicli reaches out 
 another wing at right angles, 1 50 feet long, containing in all ten stalls, forming a parallelo- 
 gram, and leaving an open airy court-yard in the center, by which means the ventilation is 
 made perfect. The stable has constant attention, and is kept scrupulously clean. The barn, 
 dairy, and silos are comprised in one building forming the letter T. The barn proper stands 
 East and West, and contains the cattle-floor, hay-loft, feed-bins, and manure-cellars. The 
 south wing contains the ice house, dairy, engine-room, and quarters for the dairyman. In the 
 north wing are the silos. The length of the barn-floor from East to West is 2tj3 feet; its 
 width 44 feet; the length from North to South, including the dairy and silos, is '263 feet, the 
 south end being 31 feet wide, and the north end, or silos, 40 feet wide. 
 
 Beneath the barn, on each side, and directly under the cattle, are the manure-cellars, 
 each 14 feet in width and 180 in length. All the droppings from the animals pass into 
 these, and earth is carted in daily to absorb the moisture. Horse or ox-carts can be driven 
 to all parts of these cellars to haul out the manure Under the center of the barn, and sur- 
 rounded by the manure-beds, is a room for keeping roots, 150 feet long and 15 feet wide, 
 
< -^ 
 
MODEL FARMS. 601 
 
 with stone walls and cemented sides and bottom. This root-cellar is thoroughly ventilated 
 by flues of its own, quite disconnected from that of the manure-cellar, and for the cattle-floor 
 above. At the extreme west end of the barn-cellar, between the two cartways, is built a 
 cistern of cemented work, 53 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 12 feet deep, having a capacity of 
 35,000 gallons of water, which is supplied from the river. From this great cistern, into 
 which also the water from the barn-roofs can be carried at will, a steam-pump raises water to 
 two large tanks high up-in each end of the main barn, and from these tanks, giving an excel- 
 lent head, water is supplied by a system of pipes to all parts of the various fa-m buildings. 
 Back of this cistern stands the gas-machine, which supplies the house aud allthe buildings 
 with light. Entering the main floor of the barn, one is struck with the immensity of its size, 
 its cleanliness, absence of odors, and its exact adaptation to the purposes it is designed to 
 subserve. 
 
 Besides the main entrance at either end, the barn is entered by seven dooi's on each side, 
 six feet by nine. It has eighty-four windows, five by two and a half feet, and, together with 
 the distance from the barn-floor to the peak of the roof, and the passage through the maia 
 doors from East to West, has the best system of ventilation and lighting that could be 
 devised. Both in winter and summer the air here is pure and almost free from odor; a fact 
 which affords the best assurance that the condition of health of the animals and the purity of 
 their products are sedulously maintained. ********* 
 
 Among the hogs are seventy-six of the Yorkshire breed and some Chester Whites. 
 One hundred head of Southdown sheep are also kept on the farm, which shear about five 
 pounds per fleece. There are twenty working-horses, comprising as fine a lot of agricultural 
 and draft horses as can be found. They are kept for the work of the farm, besides one yoka 
 of Hereford oxen. The work-horses are kept in box-stalls, untied. Mr. Mayer (the superin- 
 tendent) says that he wants his horses to sleep as comfortably as his men, and finds that it 
 pays to afl'ord them such rest as a box-stall, well-littered, gives them. They do more work 
 and keep easier. Whilst all the horses are high-spirited and well-bred, they are made kind 
 and docile by care and gentle treatment." 
 
 The dairy herd on this farm are all of the best Jersey breed, and the stable-room accom- 
 modates two hundred head. 
 
 Care of Cattle, etc. — The same writer describes the management of the dairy ani- 
 mals as follows: — 
 
 '■ In the care of his cattle, the same thoughtful attention and judgment are exhibited on 
 Mr. Havemeyer's farm which are noticeable in the details of every other department. The 
 feeding place in front of the cows is upon the floor, without any other arrangement, in order 
 that the cattle can obtain their feed clean, and that no particles shall get into comers to sour 
 and injure it. Here there is noticeable an entire absence of feed-boxes, and all fixtures. The 
 cattle are watered by means of a trough, which can be raised and lowered at will, and is sup- 
 plied from the tanks above. When it is desired to water them, the troughs are lowered, and 
 when not in use they are raised to the top of the stall. This is quite the best system which I 
 have ever examined for this purpose. Every cow is cleaned daily with a curry-comb and 
 brush, the same as a horse. They are treated with absolute kindness and gentleness. 
 
 A daily record is kept of the milk-yield of every cow. The calf is taken from the 
 cow when three days old, the cow being tied up in her place in the stall. The milk, per- 
 fectly sweet, is heated up to 90 degrees and fed at this heat, which is the same as the origi- 
 nal temperature when taken from the cow. The calf is given milk, at first four quarts every 
 day in three feedings, morning, noon, and night, increasing the quantity as the calf grows. 
 It is kept in a stall until ten days old, and then turned out in the morning to obtain the 
 benefit of the sun. At a month old it is turned into the pasture. Until four months old il 
 is fed with milk, at the end of that period being given some ground oats. Each calf is kept 
 
602 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 "MOUNTAIN SIDE" FARM. 
 Interior of Barn (Looking West). 
 
MODE]^ FARMS. 603 
 
 separate, to prevent it from sucking the others, until it is three or four months old. After 
 the cow has calved, she is fed with meal, ground oats, and corn, four quarts per day, with all 
 the hay or grass she will eat. The milk is used after the third day, if the cow is in perfect 
 health. Cows are allowed to go into the yard every day, winter or summer, two or three 
 houi-s for exercise. They are kept in separate stalls in the winter. Each animal gets half a 
 bushel of feed. 
 
 A month before calving, all meal is taken away from the cows, and they are fed on three 
 quarts of ground oats per day in two feeds, with all the hay or ground feed they want. They 
 are put in box-stalls ten days before calving, in order to get accustomed to the place and that 
 they may feel perfectly at home. This system is found to prevent milk-fever. Mr. Mayer, 
 who has had the care of cattle for many years, has never had a case of milk-fever. This 
 system also enables the cow to clean herself in six hours, her bowels being kept open. The 
 stalls are cleaned immediately after the birth of the calf, and the cow removed at once to 
 another stall, the first one being purified by using chloride of lime. 
 
 " Lorillard Stock Farm." — The committee of the Burlington County, New 
 Jersey, Agricultural Society on farms, farm buildings, crops, and reclaimed land, recently 
 submitted their report, which concludes as follows: — 
 
 "The next and last farm visited was that of Pierre Lorillard's stock farm, near Jobs- 
 town, about 1,100 acres of land, and comprising every convenience and requirement of a 
 complete farm. The mansion is a handsome three-storied semi-gothic building; near by is 
 the coach-house, with accommodations for 24 horses, and the farm-stables, with accommoda- 
 tions for 40 horses. In the center of the yard belonging to this establishment is an enor- 
 mous food -bin capable of holding 9,000 bushels of grain at a time, and from which the food 
 is drawn by shoots near the bottom. A broad and well-kept road leads from the mansion to 
 the farm-buildings, cattle-yards, and a barn holding 400 tons of hay. The stock kept here 
 numbers aboutl,200 heads, as follows, viz.: 300 horses, 300 cattle, 400 hogs, and 200 sheep. 
 To prepare food for this large number requires a steam-engine of twenty-horse power, which 
 runs five miUs for grinding feed, shelling corn, cutting stalks and coarse fodder, and steam- 
 ing the food in several large vats, from which the cooked food is taken in box -cars which 
 run on railways between the long range of cattle-stalls where the Ayrshires, .Jerseys, and 
 Durhams are fed, each animal being marked through the ear with a strip of tin stamped 
 with its number to correspond with the number in the herd-record made at the time of its 
 birth, so that the pedigree can readily be traced through sij-e and dam to its proper source; 
 another railway leads through the front of a long range of hog-pens 320 feet long by 18 feet 
 wide, each pen having a yard paved with brick 11 by 14 feet between the eating department 
 and the open yard, leading to a trough of water rimning through the lower end of each yard, 
 and in all 340 feet in length. 
 
 The system of ventilation and drainage is so perfect and complete that there is no 
 unpleasant smell or offensive odor to be detected, and the whole family of Suffolks, Essex, 
 Berkshires, and Jersey Reds seemed to enjoy their situation in perfect health and comfort. 
 There are four horse-barns, 100 feet square, on the outside, located distant from each other; 
 the stalls open to the yard inside, which is lowest in the middle where the sewer is placed to 
 carry off the drainage under the ground. 
 
 In the brood-mare stables there are comfortable stables for 100 horses; the colt-stables 
 surround a circular track where the colts can be exercised under shelter, one-eighth of a mile 
 in circumference. A much larger barn is now being constructed than any yet completed, 
 requiring 560,000 feet of lumber. The building is 343 by 100 feet, eaves-posts 20 feet, inner 
 box 28 feet, two wings 100 by 123 feet each; in the center there is 98 by 95 feet supported 
 by truss-work, nearly all to be covered with glass. Three cisterns, 25 feet in diameter by 16 
 feet deep, three apartments in each, the middle filled with charcoal, through which the water 
 
604 THE a:merican farmer. 
 
 is filtered before being drawn for use. But it is in vain to attempt to describe the grandeur 
 of tliese magnificent edifices in the few moments devoted to them. 
 
 For the best-arranged and most convenient set of farm buildings the premium is awarded 
 to Pierre Lorillard. 
 
 There have been laid on this farm, fifty-one miles of underdraining and nine miles of open 
 ditches, mostly discharging into the Ananicken creek, a branch of the Assiscunk. which 
 passes through the farm, which have reclaimed what was, a few years since, worthless swamp 
 and bog, but is now beautiful meadow, thickly set with fine grass and rich pasture, and is the 
 most successful experiment in reclaiming marshy land shown to the committee, and for which 
 they award the premium. 
 
 For the most profitably-cultivated crop, the profits of which shall exceed one hundred 
 dollars per acre, they award the premium to D. E. Howatt, farmer for P. Lorillard, for 6f 
 acres of carrots, yielding by estimate (after pulliiig a few) 400 bushels per acre, making 
 2,700 bushels, which at 40 cents per bushel is $1,080; expense of seed, drilling, hoeing, cul- 
 tivating, thinning, and six per cent, interest on the land, rated at §150 per acre, $212; leaving 
 net profit on 6J acres, $868. 
 
 The attention of the committee was called to a field of 35 acres of good corn recently cut 
 and stacked iip, and the groimd (a sandy loam) was then being seeded with wheat. They 
 estimated the crop at 50 bushels per acre, making 1,750 bushels, which at 50 cents per bushel 
 gives $875; the whole cost of plowing, planting, and cultivating (rating the teams at $2.50 
 per day, laboring men $1.13 per day. boys 75 cents), amounting in all to $242, which, taken 
 from the value of the crop, leaves a profit of $633 on 35 acres; being an average of $18 
 per acre. 
 
 They thought the above crop worthy of notice, as shovidng that farming when properly 
 managed will pay, even in these dull, hard times. 
 
 Beautiful driveways, arched, gravelled, smooth and firm as a good turnpike-road, lead 
 to the drfferent departments, buildings, and enclosures, and are lined with elegant fences 
 made of the best material; pickets and slats are largely of locust, posts six to seven feet high, 
 all painted, or coated with tar; the)' are clean, straight, erect, and free from any foul growth, 
 and for which the premium is awarded to P. Loriliard for the best and cleanest-kept fences 
 on a farm of not less than one hundred acres. 
 
 The premium offered by the society for the best and most profitably-cultivated farm of 
 not less than fifty acres is not disposed of, as the committee are not able to arrive at the 
 immense value of the hundreds of thoroughbreds annually produced here, the records of some 
 of which are of world-wide fame; but as far as theh- knowledge extends, they can say that 
 this establishment is the largest, best, and most conveniently arranged in all its departments 
 for the purposes intended, to be found anywhere." 
 
 *' HilUlurst." — The proprietor of this farm, Mr. H. Cochrane, of Compton, Canada, 
 has gained an en\'iable reputation both in this country and England for the breeding of 
 choice stock, principally short-horns. The farm contains 1,100 acres, 300 of which are in 
 constant cultivation, and 300 in permanent pasture. The rotation followed is: first oats, 
 second roots, third wheat or barley sown down with timothy and clover, then grass ; the first 
 two years being always cut for hay, of which the second season produces invariablj' the most. 
 The soil is a dry loam, considerably stony, but advantage has been taken of the stones in 
 building substantial stone- walls and in constructing dikes along the road which intersects the 
 farm. The surface is undulating, somewhat hilly, the buildings extensive and commodious, 
 providing ample accommodations for a large stud of horses, a fine herd of short-horns, and 
 a magnificent flock of Shropshire sheep. The produce of one cow has brought Mr. Cochrane 
 £27,000. Mr. J. Sparrow, of ^\^oodlands Farm, Bath, England, one of the Tenant Farmers 
 Delegates for the Dominion of Canada, reports the following concerning ■• Hiilhurst." 
 
MODEL FARMS. 605 
 
 AViont a mik' farther and we came to Mr. Cochrane's farm, situated on one of tlie ranges 
 of hills tliat abound in this part of the country ; tlie hills seem as fertile as the plains — indeed, 
 the apple trees thrive much better on the hills tlian in the plains. We drove in through a 
 fine gateway. He has a pretty villa-shaped house, the lawn being on our left-hand and the 
 conservatory and garden on our right; then through another gate and we came upon the 
 barns, stables, cattle sheds, and other buildings, around a large yard. The farm is called 
 ' Hnihurst,' and some of the cattle take their name from it. It was purchased by Mr. Coch- 
 rane about 15 years ago, and contains about 1,100 acres. Mr. Cochrane received us, and we 
 inspected his cattle, sheep, pigs, etc. The cattle need no comment from me. They are well 
 Known, and show what can be done in this country. I took a note of some of the animals. 
 A dark roan short-horn cow, 10th Duchess of Airdrie, is a magnificent creature, and was 
 purchased by Mr. Cochrane from England, at a cost of 2,300 guineas, but has given him 
 good returns. In the autumn of 1877 he sent a consignment of 32 head of cattle to England, 
 where they were sold by Mr. Thornton for £16,325 8s. Two realized respectively 4,100 
 guineas and 4,300 guineas, the latter price being paid by the Earl of Bective for the 5th 
 Duchess of Hillhurst, and the former by Mr. Loder for the 3d Duchess of Hillhurst. These 
 two cows were descended from the celebrated cow, 10th Duchess of Aii'drie. Her last calf, 
 a splendid creature, dark roan, calved April 6, 1880 — weight, 500 lbs.; sire, 3d Duke of 
 Oneida. He has many other fine animals, particularly two bulls, one a dark roan, Duke of 
 Oneida, nine years, and a dark red, Duke of Oxford, five years. 
 
 Mr. Cochrane is about to start breeding in the Northwest Territories, and is importing a 
 stock of Herefords as a foundation for his herd. I was surprised to find this valuable herd 
 grazing on the pastures, and but little high feeding indulged in. The most remarkable feat- 
 ure of the herd is the good health maintained. The Swedes and mangel on the farm are 
 very good. He said he had just threshed some of his wheat, which yielded nearly 30 bushels 
 per acre." 
 
 " Lone; View Farm " is the name applied to the farm of Mr. T. S. Grant of Enfield, 
 Conn., and shows what may bs accomplished under adverse conditions. 
 
 The New England Homestead gives an interesting accoimt of this farm, from which we 
 give a few extracts: "Here is a farm of 120 acres, nearly all of which are under cultiva- 
 tion. In 1872 it kept 16 cows and two heifers; two years later it cut only 40 tons of hay, 
 and only about 40 acres were under cultivation. Since then more than half of the farm has 
 been reclaimed and brought up so that the hay crop this year, without counting the rowen 
 crop, will exceed 140 tons, and will winter over 100 head of neat stock and horses. This 
 enormous increase in the yield of the farm has been caused by the reclamation of worn- 
 out pastures and inaccessible swamps, and now the whole farm, in a magnificent stretch, has 
 been brought into two adjoining fields by the removal of all the division fences, and it is the 
 aim of the proprietor to make the whole farm produce just as much grass as possible, this 
 being the crop that he is striving after. Other crops, like oats, corn, and tobacco, are raised, 
 but only as a means of stocking down to grass. 
 
 System of Management.— As all the pasture lands (except a few acres for young 
 stock) have been improved, the question naturally arises, "What does Mr. Grant do with his 
 50 and more cows in the summer? They are all kept in the barn the year round, except for 
 about six weeks or so, from the middle of August to the 28th of September, during which 
 time they are turned out on fall feed, of which there is an abundance. During the soiling 
 season, they are fed on green feed and hay, commencing with rye in May, and following this 
 with clover and fodder corn. This can be made to last as long as desired by different plant- 
 ings, but by the time the first planting is gone the fall feed is ready to turn into, and this 
 continues till the last of September. Sometimes after this there will be green feed in the 
 
606 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 shape of late fodder corn or rowen clover, but usually the winter feed commences about this 
 time, and is kept up according to a regular system. The constant soiling of so many cows 
 produces an abundance of stable manure, and this is disposed of every spring and fall. In- 
 deed, it is to the soiling system that is due in a large measure the great improvement which 
 has taken place on the farm. Six years ago only about 400 loads of manure were made. 
 Two years later the soiling system was adopted entirely, and last year the stock made 1,500 
 loads of strong manure. It is perhaps needless to add, that with this amount of stable manure 
 but little use is made of commercial fertilizer. 
 
 The system of feeding is a most reasonable one, and one that shows up well in jjractice. 
 The herd, nearly all thoroughbred or high-grade Jerseys, occupy the whole of the first floor 
 of the barn, in several parallel rows of stalls. Each cow has her herd number, which is 
 marked on a metallic tag in her right ear. Over each stall is a corresponding number, 
 together with the animal's name. A record is kept of each cow in a book for the purpose, 
 whicli gives the amount of milk for every milking during the year, the percentage of cream, 
 the time of service, and calving, together with the herd number of the progeny at each calv- 
 ing. Knowing from this each cow's capacity for milk, she is fed accordingly, with the idea 
 always in view of making each cow produce the greatest possible quantity of milk. Mr. 
 Grant believes in steaming certain kinds of fodder, having found that corn fodder, and oat 
 straw, when steamed with one-quarter hay, makes a most excellent feed, which the cows will eat 
 up clean. Meal is fed in winter, but in summer green feed takes its place. The grain fed is 
 corn meal and wheat bran, the latter being scalded before feeding. The advantage of feed- 
 ing the corn meal and bran together is that, while the former is necessary to give richness to 
 the milk, if fed beyond a certain amount it goes to fat rather than to milk, while if bran is 
 fed with the meal the feed will go to milk; and in this way every cow can be fed according 
 to her capacity for producing milk. 
 
 The feed is, in winter, as follows: One man gives each cow a feed of steamed fodder, 
 another follows with a feed of bran, giving to each cow such an amount as is required. A 
 feed of meal follows on the same plan. This feeding is all under the supervision of one man, 
 who keeps each cow's record, and knows just what each cow will bear. The stables, mean- 
 while, are cleared, and clean sand put under the cows; the cows are cleaned, their udders 
 washed if necessary, and everything made ready for milking. And here it is in order to 
 remark that the same scrupulous care with regard to cleanliness is observed in every opera- 
 tion, from the milk-pail to the butter package. Before milking, every milker must go to the 
 wash-room adjoining the stable and wash and comb. T^Tiile milking, each one is provided with 
 a sponge, and if his hands become soiled or wet, they must be wiped dry on the sponge. Cov- 
 ered milking-pails are used, in which the milk is strained as it passes in, the strainer being 
 cleaned several times during a milking. Each cow's milk is measured separately by a very 
 simple means. A large tin pail is fitted with a glass in one side, across which, at regular 
 intervals, short horizontal wires are soldered, which indicate, in quarts and pints, the con- 
 tents. As soon as the milk of any cow is measured, the amount is set down opposite her 
 number, on a blackboard hung in the stal)le for the purpose, from which the figures are trans- 
 ferred daily to the record book. From this the milk is again strained and carried to the 
 dairy, where it is strained a third time into the pail in which it is set. After milking, the 
 cows are fed with dry hay, and again at night the same process is repeated. 
 
 At the dairy the milk is set in deep pails, eight inches in diameter, ten quarts to a pail. 
 Adjoining is a 'spring-house,' in which a large well about 12 or 15 feet in diameter is sunk. 
 and suppHed with an abundance of water from Uving springs at no great depth below the 
 surface. A curb surrounds the well, and over this the setting pails are hung in the water, 
 which is always kept at about 50°. this being about the natui'al temperature in summer, and 
 in winter the tempei-ature is brought up to this point by steam pipes which run into tlie well. 
 
y f/f I 'M'/Z^l ,M I -l/# Vgn|;/l|f||Ji||l|^l|iuti^»M|y|' 
 
 |ifPOTf«jp|||S^i. l^ife 
 
LARGE FARMS OF THE COUKTRY. 6U9 
 
 The milk is set thus for 24 hours, and the cream takfii off with a derp sliimmev shaped like 
 an inverted cone, which can be sunk in the milk without displncing the cream. Ahout two 
 quarts of cream are taken from each pail. The cream is chvrned iit the temperature of 59° 
 in summer and 62° in winter. The churn used is of the old fashioned dasher pattern, and is 
 made of a barrel, the dasher being worked by steam. The buttermilk is drawn off as soon 
 as the butter comes, while it is yet in the granular form, and worked in fresh, cold water. 
 The salt is then added, three-fourths of an ounce of salt to the pound, and by the time the 
 salt is worked in thoroughly the butter is all 'gathered.' It is then set away to cool, after 
 which it is worked in an old-fashioned lever butter-worker, weighed, molded and pi'inted in 
 a common mold, with the Long View Dairy imprint, and after being wrapped in muslin, 
 each print is packed in a neat box of white pasteboard." 
 
 It is surprising that so few farmers among the many, adopt the improved methods, and 
 with a well-defined system, rigidly enforced, endeavor to rise above the drudgery that char- 
 acterizes farm life as generally practiced. Capital is not the only essential. A man with a 
 small capital and few acres of land can practice as complete a system, as far as it goes, as one 
 with immense wealth, like the proprietors of some of the farms previously described. Small 
 farms, properly managed, can be made very profitable, as we have already seen, and with bet- 
 ter planning, involving more brain-work and less physical labor, the average farmer can 
 make the results of his labors bring him hj far more profitable returns than have ever been 
 secured by following the old way of no system in particular, and letting things manage 
 themselves. 
 
 LARGE FARMS OF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 THE people of the United States naturally take a considerable interest in the bonanza 
 farms of the country, which contain the great wheat-fields of the world, as it were, 
 whose thousands upon thousands of acres of waving grain seem to beckon to the 
 destitute and starving millions of the old countries to come and find plenty; and it is not at 
 all surprising if a degree of pardonable jDride, together with a feeling akin to that of pro- 
 prietary right, were entertained personally, concerning them, for is it not " our " country, and 
 are not all of the products ''our" harvests, and "our" croj^s? 
 
 The following interview is said to have taken place between a Western farmer, who 
 owned a large farm in Dakota, and some of his Eastern acquaintances, whom he wished to 
 impress with the idea of the immensity of the farms in his section: — 
 
 " "We own some big farms up there, gentlemen. A friend of mine owns one which he 
 had to give a mortgage on, and I give you my word, the mortgage was due on one end 
 before they could get it recorded on the other. You see, it was laid off in counties." 
 
 There was a murmur of astonishment, and the Dakota man continued: — 
 
 " The worst of it is, it breaks up families so. Two years ago I saw a whole family 
 prostrated with grief; women crying, children wailing, and dogs barking. One of my men 
 had his camp-trunk packed on seven four-mule teams, and he was bidding everybody good- 
 bye." 
 
 "Where was he going? " inquired a listener. 
 
 "He was going half-way across the farm to feed the pigs," replied the Dakota man. 
 
 " Did he ever get back to his family? " 
 
 "It isn't time yet," replied the Dakota gentleman. "Up there we send young married 
 couples to milk the cows, and their children bring home the milk. We don't count by acres; 
 we count by townships and countie?. My jneld was $08,000,000 on wheat alone, and I am 
 thinking of breaking up a little patch of eighty to one hundred more counties this season." 
 
610 THE AMERICAN FAKSIER. 
 
 A Texas man, liappcning to be in the group, and not wishing to be outdone iu statement, 
 replied: ''That's puity good as to si^e, but 'way down South, where I come from, we can't 
 raise pumpkins at all." 
 
 " Why not? " was asked. 
 
 "Because the vines grow so fast that the pumpkins wear out dragging along thf 
 ground!" was the reply. 
 
 The description of some of the famous large farms of the country might seem to those 
 who were not acquainted with the real facts, as being ahuost equal in extravagance of state- 
 ment to the above; and, indeed, when we consider the almost imlimited resources of the 
 countiy for production, and the possibilities of those yet undeveloped, we are lost in the 
 computation of the immensity of the prospect. 
 
 The Dalrymple Farm. — This noted farm — the largest in the world — consists of 
 from seventy thousand to a himdred thousand acres, all of which are under the super\asion 
 of Mr. Oliver Dalrymple, the celebrated wheat-grower of the Red River Valley. It now 
 embraces the Case, Cheney, Alton, and Grandin farms — the latter alone containing 40.000 
 acres, and is located on the west bank of the Red River, about 25 miles north-west of Fargo, 
 Dakota. This immense farm is managed on strictly business principles — as, indeed, all 
 successful fanning must be, whether on a large or small scale — and is under the direct super- 
 vision of Mr. Dalrymple, who, from his office, can communicate by telephone at any moment 
 with each of his agents in charge of the different sections. It is said to contain nearly 40,000 
 acres under cultivation, more than two-thirds of which are in wheat, the remainder being in 
 oats and barley, while new land is being constantly broken to increase the acreage under cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 The reapere employed are the self -binding harvesters, of which there are 1*2 .5 used in 
 the harvesting of the entire crop, each requiring three horses or mules, and reaping twelve 
 acres or more per day. The grain is threshed in the field, the threshers being operated by 
 steam, and, like all the other kinds of work, is doue with the utmost system. The estimated 
 yield is about 18 bushels per acre of wheat and 90 of oats, the wheat crop alone averaging 
 about 43'2,000 bushels, which is about 900 car-loads, or 45 train-loads of 20 cars per train. 
 This immense crop is generally expected to net 60 cents or more per bushel at the farm. 
 
 Mr. James Biggar of England, one of the delegates sent to Canada recently to report on 
 that country as a field for the settlement of agriculturists, paid a visit to a department of this 
 farm, of which he writes as follows: — 
 
 " Next day we drove over the Dalrymple farm. On this division they had about 12,000 
 acres in crop last year, yielding on an average about 19 bushels per acre. "We first saw on 
 the horizon a dark line which, as we approached, proved to be a gang of thirteen double 
 plows, each drawn by four horses, and turning 2 fuiTOWS, ] 5 inches each in width, and 3 to 4 
 inches deep, going after each other on a fm-row a mile long. On another section, seven 
 double and six single plows were at work, and on another eleven double plows drawn by four 
 mules each. The horses were similar to second-class 'bus horses and showed signs of work ; 
 but the mules were in fine condition, and seemed to stand the work much better than horses. 
 The sight was one not easy to be forgotten. In surveying the vast, unbroken prairie there 
 was a sense of loneliness and a doubt of its value as an agricultural subject, but the rich, 
 black soil being turned up, the strong, clean stubble of the former crop, and the fact of its 
 suitability for cropping being thus practically demonstrated, dispelled the idea of wildness, 
 and brought back a feeling of admiration for the enterprise and system of that style of 
 farming. 
 
 There are four or five steadings on the farm, with excellent accommodation for men and 
 horses. The implements were also put past in capital order. In one shed we saw fourteen 
 self-binders and four or five steam threshers. In another, nineteen seed-drills and a pile of 
 
LARGE PARM3 OF THE COUNTRY. 6 11 
 
 harrows; in others, spare parts for reapers, plows, etc.; and a row of wagons outside. Each 
 of these double plows travels from 18 to 20 miles a day, and turns over about 5 acres daily. 
 The crop is cut down by self-binding reapers, cutting down 12 acres a day, and attended by 
 a driver and two stokers. It is threshed out in the field, the straw burned, and the wheat 
 taken straight to the cars on a special siding. Each machine threshes about 1000 bushels 
 daily. Wages for ploughmen are §18 to $20 a month and board. We were told that 
 analyses of the subsoil showed that it contained all the elements necessary for growing 
 wheat, should the surface soil become exhausted, but the latter is expected to last many years. 
 In returning to the station we saw the train approach quite half an hour before it reached us, 
 as the track is perfectly straiglit for 50 miles west. On our way back to Glyndon we saw- 
 extensive prairie fires raging to the northwards, but they were fortunately extinguished by 
 heavv rains during the night. We met the rest of the party at the station next morning, 
 and proceeded by rail to Winnipeg, which we reached in 18 hours." 
 
 Another section of the Dalrymple farm, known as the Grandin Farm, is thus described 
 by another writer: — 
 
 "The lands were purchased from the railroad company in 1875 and 1876, the first- 
 mentioned tract to be devoted to wheat-raising, and the second to stock. ~With the exception 
 of the small belt of timber-lands along the Red and Goose rivers, both tracts are beautiful 
 expanses of the richest lands in this noted valley, the surface a gently undulating prairie, 
 soil a rich alluvial deposit, with clay sub-soil of unlimited capacity for production of grass 
 and grain. The first breaking on the wheat farm was in 1876, 2600 acres, and the season of 
 1878 was the second year of its operation. The writer was on the place, and from its efficient 
 agent, J. R. Hogan, got the following facts. 
 
 There was imder cultivation in 1878 as follows: In wheat, 4,000 acres; yield, 80,000 
 bushels (not having been all shipped at the time, part of the yield was estimated by measure- 
 ment in the bins, but the quality of the grain being extra No. 1 , it will overrun this amount 
 by weight). Oats, 330 acres, 14,025 bushels; average, 42i- per acre. Barley, 79 acres, 
 5,701 bushels; average, 72 J per acre. Turnips, 3,000 bushels from 53 acres. Potatoes, 
 13| acres, 2,000 bushels; average, 149-J- per acre. There were 8i acres of beans not then 
 threshed. Hay to the amount of 2,000 tons had beencutand stacked. New breaking, 1,750 
 acres, making for cultivation in 1879 some 6,265 acres. Of implements to carry on the oper- 
 ations, we counted 79 plows, 55 harrows, 24 seeders, 28 self-binding harvesters, 6 steam 
 threshers, 40 wagons, with full supply of all other necessary articles. During harvest and 
 threshing tune the roll exhibited 235 men, with some 25 hired teams in addition to tlie 109 
 head of horses and mules owned on the farm. The farm is divided into three parts, and the 
 buildings for each subdivision, so far as erected, are as follows: 
 
 Dividon No. I. — Headquarters; has a dwelling 32 by 32 feet, one and one-haLf stories; 
 office and store-house, 25 by 50 feet, one story; granaiy No. 1, 56 by 60 feet; two and one- 
 half stories; blacksmith shop, 16 by 26 feet; pig-pen, 14 by 60 feet; lodging-house, 16 by 32 
 feet, two stories; stable, 50 by GO feet, 20 feet posts, with one-story wing, 28 by 60 feet; 
 steam feed-mill, 16 by 40 feet, two stories, with wing 18 by 26 feet; wheat elevator, 18 by 
 40 feet, two stories, with fine shed for storing engines and threshers, some 75 feet long. 
 
 Division No. 2. — Dwelling, 32 by 32 feet, one and one-half stories; stable, 56 by 60 
 feet, two stories; granary No. 2, 56 by 60 feet, two and one-haK stories; wheat elevator, 20 
 by 40 feet, two stories. 
 
 Division No. 3. — Dwelling, 32 by 32 feet, one and one-haLf stories; stable, 30 by 60 
 feet, two stories; total stabling capacity now, 190 horses; granary capacity, 65,000 bushels. 
 
 These buildings are of the most substantial character, plain but symmetrical, and of 
 ple^using style of architecture, built with reference to all the conveniences necessary to make 
 them of tlie greatest possible benefit in their various uses. All the buildings are supplied 
 
612 THE AMERICAN FARMER. 
 
 witli water-pipes, all furnished from three windmills at the river, pumping into 250 and 
 1200-barrel tanks, through one laid one-lialf miles ol" pipe. Among other modern, and, on 
 such an immense farm, necessary conveniences, we find four miles of telegraph (telephone) 
 wire, leading from the headquarters office to the offices of the diffc^rent superintendents on 
 the three sub divisions. 
 
 The railroad station, Fargo, from which the products of the farm are shipped, being on 
 the Red River, this river is used as the channel of communication, and, with a view to cheap 
 carriage for the present, as well as future products, the proprietors have built, and now run 
 their own steamboat, with four barges, and at Fargo have their own elevator, with 50,000 
 bushels capacity, upon a plan that can be enlarged to any needed wants, besides their own 
 freight warehouse. By the aid of the facilities thus made use of, wheat from the farm is 
 landed in the Duluth elevators at eighteen cents per bushel. The steamboat proved a good 
 investment, independent of the benefits arising from the cheapness of transportation of the 
 farm crop, for when not engaged in their own work, it was employed to a profit in regular 
 river trade between Fargo and Winnipeg. ^lanitoba. 
 
 The first crop, in 1877, from 2,600 acres of wheat, was 62,660 bushels; in 1878, as 
 before stated, from 4,000 acres, was 80.000 bushels, the first an average of 24^1,5- busliels per 
 acre, the second 20 busliels per acre. Prices realized, net, 1877, 95 cents; from 1878 crop not 
 less than 85 cents. Shipment is made direct to the Buffalo or New York markets, saving 
 all the cost of middle-men in handling, which in these quantities is in itself a good profit. 
 
 Tlie superintendent adds — 'From the above you can draw your own conclusions; we are 
 well satisfied with lesults so far, and will push enlargement as rapidly as we can. We neither 
 know nor care what other people expect to realize from wheat-farming; at the figures given 
 yon. the percentage of gain is so far better than any income we can expect from Eastern 
 investment, that we will not be discouraged even if we occasionally meet with lors of an entire 
 crop; the margins on ordinary average, to say nothing of good years, is large enough to 
 carry a good many losses.' '' 
 
 The net profits, as estimated by the superintendent of this section was, according to the 
 above authority, $2.50 per acre, and the cost of producing the crop about $8.50 per acre. 
 
 Good business management must, of course, be one of the principal factors in the suc- 
 cess of such extensive farming, while it is equally dependent upon the soil and climate being 
 peculiarly adapted to wheat culture. Our space will not admit of an equally extended 
 description of the Case, Cheney, and Alton farms, which, as has been previously stated, form 
 different portions of the famous Dalrymple farm; but sufficient data has already been given 
 to illustrate the perfect system and magnitude of the enterprise. 
 
 Qllilin Farm, Glenn FaiMn, etc. — T^r. Quinn, of Cahfornia, is reputed to own fifty- 
 five thousand acres of rich grain land, forty-five thousand of which are in cultivation. A 
 leading California paper states that the jjroprietor, who is one of California's millionaires, 
 keeps twenty ships busy transporting his wheat to England, and that one continuous furrow 
 on this farm is seventeen miles in length. 
 
 A San Francisco correspondent of a leading Philadelphia journal writes as follows 
 respecting the Glenn farm, etc.: — '-The largest wheat-producer in California is Dr. PI. J. 
 (ilenn. He was formerly from Monroe County, Missouri. He is a man of great enterprise 
 and energy. His ranch lies in Colusa County, and comprises 60,000 acres, nearly all arable 
 land. He has this year 45,000 acres in wheat, which, at a low calculation, will produce 
 900,000 bushels. His wheat will sell for 85 cents per bushel, or $765,000. 
 
 Another farm in California, owned by Mr. F. A. Schaeffer, of Hamilton, Butt County, is 
 described as containing several ranches, one ranch numbering 2,223 acres of choice land, 240 
 acres of which are devoted to barley, and 1,700 acres to wheat. The average height of the 
 barley in one season is given as four feet and three inches, the heads being remarkably heavy, 
 
FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 613 
 
 and tlio kernels larger than usual; the estimate of yield being sixty bushels per acre. The 
 average estimate yield of the entire wheat crop was twenty-five bushels per acre, while 600 
 acres of it produced, on the average, thirty-fivo bushels per acre. 
 
 Three other ranches are also owned by this gentleman, one located three miles from the 
 former, and containing 455 acres, 200 of which were in wheat, and another of 1,250 acres, 
 on Butte creek, 550 acres of which were in wheat, and 700 acres in grass, which would aver- 
 age two tons of hay per acre. The third, known as the Feather River Ranch, contains a tract 
 of VOO acres of wheat. The same authority continues: — 
 
 " Mr. Schaeffer is one of our pioneer ranchers, having settled upon his home-place in 
 1855. At that time he was poor, but by dint of great perseverance lie has accumulated a 
 competency, and to-day possesses one of the best farms in Northern California. Farming 
 upon the scale that he does necessarily requires the use of numerous hoi"ses, to accommodate 
 which he has upon the several places eight large bams, as follows: At the home, three bams, 
 with a capacity for 100 head; Butte Creek, two, with stalls for 40 head; Feather River, three, 
 capable of accommodating 60 head. At tjiis season of the year he has only 20 men employed; 
 during plowing-time he works from 35 to 40 men, and when harvesting begins from 50 to 65 
 hands are numbered in the forca Parks Bros., of MarysvUle, are interested with Mr. 
 Schaeffer in Feather River Ranch, but aside from that he is alone. His system of farmiug is 
 to plow deep, sow plenteously, drain low lands, keep everything moving, have machinery in 
 good order, take good care of stock, and pre%'ent tlie little leaks so common among the Cali- 
 fornia ranchers. " 
 
 Some of the other large farms that might be mentioned, and which serve as samples of 
 their kind, are the following: 
 
 Q. R Scofield & Bro., Cass Co., 
 
 J. B. Raymond, 
 
 "W. H. Wright, 
 
 J. B. Chapin, Cass. Traill, and Barnes, 
 
 Clapp & McCraw, Cass and Traill, 
 
 J. W. Morrow, Cass Co. , 
 
 A. C. Batchelor, 
 
 Col. Huntington, 
 
 George C. Howe, 
 
 A. Leech & Sons, " 
 
 When we consider the gigantic scale on which farming may be carried on in the United 
 States, and that this is due mainly to the use of improved agricultural implements, we are 
 enabled to realize more fully the great advancement made in agriculture during the past half 
 century, and the possibilities of this country in this all-important industry for the future. 
 
 38 in Farm. 
 
 Acree in Wheat 
 
 3,840 
 
 1.280 
 
 6,000 
 
 2,400 
 
 3,500 
 
 3.200 
 
 9,600 
 
 1,200 
 
 2,500 
 
 1,100 
 
 5,500 
 
 1.625 
 
 2,569 
 
 1,350 
 
 2.500 
 
 1,250 
 
 2,600 
 
 2,500 
 
 3,800 
 
 3,500