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AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

American Honey Plants

Together With Those Which Are of Special
Value to the Beekeeper as Sources of Pollen

BY FRANK C. PELLETT

Author Beginner's Bee Book, Productive Beekeeping,
Practical Queen Rearing, Etc.

155 Illustrations

1920
AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL

Hamilton. Illinois

N.C.S« a * e

•"""Si***

To my indulgent parents,

who early encouraged me

in my passion for the study

of Nature, 'this book is affectionately

dedicated.

■': i 60 1

FOREWORD

In the first volume of American Bee Journal, published in 1861, appears
a plea for the publication of a volume devoted to the honey flora of
America. In numerous instances since that time, writers have mentioned
the great need of a work of this kind. In common with other students of
beekeeping, the author came to feel this lack in our beekeeping literature.
This book is an attempt to fill that need. It is to be expected that the first
work on this great subject will overlook many things which should have
been included and that numerous errors should creep in. In an attempt to
gather the desired material, the author has visited the important beekeep-
ing regions from the Atlantic Coast to California and from Canada to
Florida and Texas. Careful notes have been made of the honey plants
of each section as indicated by the many beekeepers with whom the
author has come in contact. To this multitude of beekeepers who have
thus assisted by furnishing notes of this kind the author is greatly in-
debted.

The literature of beekeeping has been carefully examined for refer-
ences to honey plants, and hundreds of quotations appear in the text.
The few bulletins which have appeared on the subject have been quoted
freely, as well as similar material appearing in the bee magazines

The illustrations are for the most part from the author's original
photographs, although a number have been borrowed from the American
Bee Journal, which appeared in that publication, from John H. Lovell,
Homer Mathewson, J. M. Buchanan, M. C. Richter, C. D. Stuart, Florida
Photographic Concern, Wesley Foster, W. A. Pryal, and some others, the
identity of the originator of which are lost.

Since most of the readers of this book will be men who are not accus-
nomed to botanical classification, it has been thought best to treat each
plant under the name by which it is most widely known, giving other
names as cross references, and to treat all in alphabetical order. Numer-
ous related subjects which seemed to have a place in a book of this kind,
such as nectar and nectar secretion, poisonous honey, propolis, pollina-
tion, weather and honey production, etc., have been likewise included in
proper alphabetical order.

No one is likely to be more conscious of the shortcomings of the
volume than is the author. As it is his hope to expand the scope of the
work in a later edition, he will be grateful for notes on additions and
corrections from all parts of America.

Hamilton, 111. FRANK C. PELLETT.

November 18, 1919.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

The late Prof. A. J. Cook estimated that there are nearly eighteen hun-
dred species of plants on which bees work in America. Most of these are
minor sources, which the bees visit incidentally for the minute quantity
of nectar that may be available, or for pollen. There are some plants rich
in nectar which can never be important to the beekeeper because they
are not sufficiently plentiful.

Honey production, as a business enterprise, is dependent upon a few
species which yield nectar abundantly and which are sufficiently common
to enable the bees to secure honey in large quantity. In order to make
the most of his business, the beekeeper should have a thorough knowledge
or the honey plants in all the country surrounding his apiaries. It often
happens that a distance of but a few miles makes a great difference with
the available honey sources. Many a man by moving an apiary a few
miles has greatly increased the yield. It sometimes happens that the plant
which is the main dependence will fail, and that by moving to some other
source, a crop may be harvested. To know fully the honey plants of his
region, their time of blooming and habit of nectar secretion under his
particular conditions, is of fundamental importance to the man who would
succeed as a beekeeper.

In many places the presence or absence of a single plant determines
whether or not beekeeping is worth while. Over a large portion of the
Middle West, the beekeepers depend almost entirely upon white clover for
surplus, and in seasons when this plant fails they get no honey to sell.

Likewise, in many localities in the irrigated regions of the Rocky
Mountain States, when alfalfa fails to yield, there is no surplus honey.
Yet in all these sections, beekeeping would be impossible if there were no
other plants. There are localities where tremendous honeyflows occur for
a short period of time, where beekeeping is not practical because there is
insufficient forage to support the bees the rest of the year. In such places
beekeepers often take advantage of the flows by moving the bees away as
soon as the plants cease to yield nectar, and returning them the following
year at blooming time. This applies to some parts of the valley of the
Appalachicola River in Florida. While the flow from Tupelo is sometimes
remarkable, there is a shortage of pollen throughout the summer months.

The ideal situation for beekeeping is one where there are at least
three plants which yield surplus honey in considerable quantity, and which
bloom at different periods. Beside the main sources, there should be a
great variety of minor plants yielding both pollen and honey throughout
the season to support the bees between the main flows. In such a situa-
tion, there is seldom an entire failure of the honey crop; and, in good
years, the beekeeper fares well, indeed.

There are many localities where the bees suffer seriously for lack of
pollen at some seasons of the year. An available source of pollen is

8 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

second only in importance to an abundant honeyflow. This being the case,
the plants which are generally regarded as valuable for pollen, especially
those blooming at seasons when pollen is not abundant generally, are
included in this book.

HONEY PLANT REGIONS

Several attempts have been made to outline the principal regions of
the United States. A careful examination of all these outlines brings out
serious discrepancies. There are too many small regions within larger
ones to permit of anything like accuracy with the present data and the
present knowledge of the honey plants. In general, white clover may be
said to be the principal honey plant of all the region from Nova Scotia
west to eastern Dakota and south to Tennessee and Arkansas. Yet
within that large area, there are many places where white clover is un-
important, and where other plants furnish the principal surplus. In much
of Michigan white clover is of first importance, yet in the cut-over dis-
tricts of the northern part of the State, raspberry, fireweed and milkweed
furnish nearly all the honey that goes to market. It is good clover terri-
tory, and with the ultimate development of the region, clover will pre-
dominate.

In the irrigated regions of the Rocky Mountain States, alfalfa is the
principal source of surplus, but sweet clover is rapidly crowding it for
first place.

Basswood was once a very important source of honey over all the
Northeastern States. The cutting of the basswood forests has gradually
reduced the basswood area until there are now few localities, in Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois or Iowa, where it is really an important honey source.
In parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan and Ontario, basswood is
still sufficiently plentiful to yield large quantities of honey, but there it
ii; being rapidly reduced.

In the cotton belt, where cotton would naturally be expected to be the
principal source, the area would be divided into many small regions. Cot-
ton may yield much honey in a locality where the soil is heavy and rich,
while a few miles distant, where soils are light and sandy, there is little
honey from cotton, although the plant is just as commonly cultivated. In
the cotton region there would be a great many sub-divisions. In parts of
Texas, mesquite is the principal source, in others catsclaw and huajilla
(wa-he-ya), while in eastern Texas basswood yields heavily. Buckwheat
is important principally in the region about the Great Lakes and south in
the higher elevations to Virginia and Tennessee. Goldenrod is one of the
most important sources of nectar in New England, while it is seldom of
much value west of the Mississippi River, although growing abundantly.

In California and Florida there are several entirely different regions
within the State. There is no one plant of major importance over all
parts of either State. A large amount of work still remains to be done
before the honey resources of America can be mapped out with anything
like accuracy. Changing conditions are rapidly removing one plant and

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 9

substituting another in many sections. When the author visited west
Texas he was told by the beekeepers there that the clearing of the land
and planting it to cultivated crops was rapidly curtailing the bee range,
as no cultivated crops being planted were equal to the desert flora which
was being removed.

In other sections, the planting of forage crops which are good sources
of nectar, like alfalfa and sweet clover, is greatly increasing the available
bee pasturage. In parts of California, the extensive growing of garden
seeds is providing pasture sufficient for producing surplus honey of a kind
seldom heard of in the markets a few years ago. Parsnip and celery
honey are examples.

THE MINOR PLANTS

Although only a few dozen plants are important sources of surplus
honey, there are hundreds of minor plants which are of value for the sup-
port they give the bees when no
major plant is in bloom. The num-
ber and variety of these plants
will largely determine the value
of the locality, and whether it will
be necessary for the beekeeper to
resort to migratory beekeeping at
times.

Catnip is famous as a bee
plant, yet it is doubtful whether a
single pound of catnip honey was
ever stored in America, unmixed
with honey from other sources. If
catnip could be grown in large
fields like clover, it is probable
that catnip honey would appear
in the markets.

If the beekeeper is familiar
with the minor plants, he will
often be able to locate outyards
where the bees will be able to
gather enough nectar from such
sources to keep his colonies in the
best possible condition for the
surplus flows. It is a well-known
fact that it is only the big colonies
which produce large crops of surplus honey. A little nectar coming to
the hive for some time in advance of the main flow, is the best possible
stimulant for brood rearing. It often happens that bees will be poorly
prepared for the harvest in one yard, while others only two or three miles
distant will be in the best possible condition, because of the presence of
some minor plants not within reach of the first.

Blossoms of huisache (Acacia far
nesiana.)

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

ACACIA.

The acacias are shrubs or small trees which are widely distributed
throughout the warmer portions of the world. There are said to be 450
species, of which nearly 300 are native to Australia and Polynesia. We
also find reference to them in India, Africa and South America. The

Fig. 2. Acacia melanoxylon.

different species are known by various local names. In Europe some are
known as mimosa trees. As sources of honey they are important in
Texas, Arizona, New Mexico and California.

The sweet acacia (Acacia farnesiana), in Texas called huisache, is
found along the gulf coast in Alabama and as far east as South Carolina.
In Texas the huajilla (Acacia berlandiera), is an important source of nec-
tar. In fact, according to the Texas bulletin on honey plants, it is the
main source in southwest Texas. It grows abundantly on dry and rocky
hills which often are not suited to growing agricultural crops. The honey
is white and of fine quality.

The catsclaw, or paradise flower (Acacia greggii), is another very im-
portant source of honey in the southwest. It is one of the principal

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

sources of dependence in Texas, where it is reported as yielding in April.
Arizona reports a later yield, blooming here in May and June. Like the
huajilla, the honey is light colored and of very fine quality.

Golden wattle (At

ifolia)

Figure 4 shows the black wattle of California (A. dscurrens mollis),
which is largely grown as an ornamental in the gardens and along the
roadsides of that State. It blooms from February to June and produces
some honey and an abundance of pollen. Fig. 3 is the Sydney golden wat-
tle (Acacia longifolia), another widely-grown California shrub. A third
California species, A. melanoxylon, is shown at Fig. 2.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

The huisache (A. famesiana), Fig. 1, already mentioned, is a common
plant in south Texas, from San Antonio to the lower Rio Grande valley.

Fig. 4. Acacia or Hack wattle (Acacia decurrens mollis).

It is of special importance for early pollen, though Scholl reports it as
yielding honey also.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 13

The huajilla (pronounced "wa-he-ya") grows abundantly over a wide
territory in southwest Texas and, as it requires but a small amount of
moisture, makes beekeeping profitable where it would otherwise be a
precarious business. Large quantities of white honey of mild flavor and
fine quality are stored from this source. In a journey of several hundred
miles among the beekeepers of Texas, the author found this plant, together
with catsclaw and mesquite, to be the principal source of surplus south
and west of San Antonio. Various sources were reported, but in nearly
every case these three plants were mentioned as heading the list. Huajilla
ranks high in both quantity and quality of nectar produced.

The catsclaw (Acacia greggii), known in some localities as paradise
flower or devil's claw, is a low spreading, bushy shrub or small tree with
curved thorns, hence the name, "catsclaw." This is a close rival of huajilla
for first place as the source of white honey in much of southwest Texas
The far-famed Uvalde honey is largely huajilla and catsclaw. In many
places the yield of surplus honey is being reduced through the clearing of
the land for farming purposes. Both these plants grow in very dry sec-
tions, on land which until recently was thought to be of little value for
any purpose without irrigation.

Scholl lists the round-flowered catsclaw (Acacia roemeriana Schlect)
as a heavy yielder of honey of good quality, but plants are not abundant.
He also lists Acacia amentacea as a source of pollen and some honey,
but not in sufficient quantity to be important.

ACER, see Maple
ADAM'S NEEDLE, see Yucca.
AESCULUS, see Buckeye.
AGARITES, see Barberry.
AGAVE, see Century Plant.

ALABAMA — Honey Sources of.

There is a large district in Alabama where sweet clover is the princi-
pal source of surplus honey. In this region good crops are the rule, since
it yields from early June till late in August. In addition, rattan, tulip-
poplar, black gum, hawthorne, field peas, privet, locust, redbud, cotton,-
bitterweed, asters and occasionally white clover, yield honey. There is
the usual spring stimulation from fruit blossoms and willows in Alabama
and a large number of minor sources which add something to the total
yield, but which alone are unimportant.

ALASKA — Honey Sources of.

By the accounts given in Bancroft's History of Alaska and in transla-
tions made for me by Rev. George Kotteometinoff from the records of the
Orthodox Russo-Greek Church at Sitka, the honeybee was first introduced
into Alaska in 1809 by a monk named Cherepenin. These bees came from
the Department of Kazan, in Siberia, and were brought that honey might

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

be added to the scanty food supply of the pioneer teachers of the Faith
as well as to supply the candles for the church services. By decree of
Church, only beeswax candles can be used, and it is recorded that at Sitka

Fig. 5. A group of Alaska honey plants.

in 1816, no services could be held for six months because the supply of wax
ran out. As early as 1819 apiculture was taught in the church school and
was continued up to 1894. It would appear that the bees never flourished
and seldom swarmed. There are a number of records of new importatjons
to take the place of dead colonies. Very early a white clover was intro-

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 15

duced to help out the honey supply. About 1830 bees were taken from
Sitka to Fort Ross in California. As late as 1905 there were about 30
colonies at the Russian school at Sitka. These bees were in straw skeps
and were kept on shelves under the eaves of the house. In winter they
were kept within the same projecting eaves. In 1906 the Experiment Farm
at Sitka made an unsuccessful attempt to keep bees in Langstroth hives.
It is not probable that beekeeping will ever be a commercial project in
Alaska. References to beekeeping at Sitka by Dr. Sheldon Jackson are to
be found in the Report on Education in Alaska, Bureau of Education.
Prof. C. C. Georgeson, in the reports on work done at the Experiment
Station in Alaska also mentions beekeeping. Bees were observed collect-
ing nectar and pollen from plants given below during the years 1905 to 1912.
It should be observed that a majority of these plants have pendulous
flowers. In a climate such as at Sitka, where the normal precipitation is
120 inches, only pendulous flowers could protect the nectar:

Willow (Salix speciosa).
Crab Apple (Pyrus rivularis).
Salmon Berry (Rubus spectabilis).
Salmon Berry (Rubus nulkonus noctino).
Cloud Berry (Rubus Chamaemorus).
Nahgoon Berry (Rubus stellatin).
Wild Red Raspberry (Rubus strigosus).
Blue Berries (Vaccinium uliginosum).
Blue Berries (Vaccinium ovalifolium).
Blue Berries (Vaccinium vitis Idaea).
Seaside Portulaca (Claytonia sp.)
White Clover (Trifolium sp.)
Wild Tansey (Achillea borealis).
Yellow Water Lily (Ny— .phaca advena).
Water Smart Weed (Polygonum sp.)
Elder (Sambucus racemosa).
Cow Parsnip (Heracleum lanatum).

-H. B. Park<

ALBERTA— Honey Sources of.

In the southern part of the province alfalfa is of first importance.
Fireweed, white clover and alsike are the chief sources elsewhere. Wil-
lows and maples stimulate early brood rearing and some honey is gathered
from prairie flowers. — F. W. L. Sladen.

ALDER (Alnus).

The alders are a group of shrubs or trees common from New England
and Canada west to Michigan and south to Texas. The bark is sometimes
used for tanning and as a dyestuff. and to some extent in medicine. The
blossoms appear early in spring, and are the source of an abundant supply
of pollen at a season when it is often much needed by the bees.

16 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

ALFALFA (Medicago sativa).

Alfalfa is the most important honey plant west of the Missouri river.
It is also the most valuable forage plant in the same region. Once estab-
lished, a field of alfalfa continues to return valuable crops year after year.

Fig. 6. Pollen-bearing blossoms of the alder.

From two to five cuttings are secured each season, depending upon the
available moisture and the length of the growing period. It thrives best
in the irrigated regions with its roots in the rich soil supplied with abun-
dant, but not excessive, moisture. It is an old-world plant which has con-
tributed much to the prosperity of western farmers since its introduction
to this country.

The honey from alfalfa varies in color and quality in different locali-
ties. In Colorado and Idaho it is of very light color and with a spicy, mild
flavor of excellent quality. In the Imperial Valley of California it is much
darker in color and of poorer quality. Alfalfa honey granulates readily,
but is generally regarded as a high quality of honey. The tendency to
early granulation makes it more desirable to market in the extracted state
than in the sections.

The yield varies greatly, according to season, but the heaviest yields
come when there is a vigorous growth of the plant. Where grown with-
out irrigation a much greater variation in yield can be expected. In Ne-
braska and Kansas, alfalfa often yields good crops of nectar without irri-
gation, while east of the Missouri River it is seldom of much value to the
beekeeper. The author had a small field of alfalfa in western Iowa for

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

several years. Only one season did the bees pay much attention to it.
That season was very wet in the early part of the summer, thus promot-
ing a vigorous plant growth. Later the weather turned very hot and dry.
Conditions similar to those of the irrigated sections of the west were ap-
proximated. The roots of the plants were supplied with an abundance of
moisture, while the air was hot and dry. Under such conditions alfalfa
is at its best as a honey producer.

Alfalfa is reported as the source of considerable surplus honey in
northeastern Louisiana, which is the farthest east of any locality where it
is important, with which the author is familiar. While it is largely grown

Fig. 7. Blossoms of alfalfa and yellow sweet clover,
as a field crop in parts of Iowa, Illinois, New York and other eastern
States, beekeepers all report but little honey from it. It seldom yields
to any extent in humid climates. Given sufficient moisture at the roots,
the hotter and dryer the atmosphere, the better seems to be the yield of
nectar. The conditions which most favor nectar secretion are also favor-
able to seed production.

18 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Field Culture

Alfalfa is a long-lived plant and very deep-rooted. The long tap root
penetrates deep into the soil, thus securing all available moisture and
making the plant drought-resistant when once well established. The plant
is very tender when young, and great care is necessary in the preparation
of the soil when starting a new planting of this crop. The seed bed should
be thoroughly stirred, all lumps fully pulverized, and the surface soil as
smooth as an onion bed. It is important that the ground be prepared
some time in advance of seeding and frequently stirred to start any weed
seeds that may be present, and destroy them before the alfalfa is sowed.
On old land it is advisable to prepare the seed bed in the spring and stir
it at frequent intervals until August before sowing the alfalfa seed.

Alfalfa does not do well on sour land, or land that is wet or weed-
infested. It does best on rich, well drained soil, well supplied with lime.
Lime is essential, and if the soil is lacking in lime it must be supplied.

In many localities it is the practice to grow a crop of sweet clover in
advance of seeding to alfalfa.

From seven to twenty pounds of seed are required per acre. If good
seed is used and put in with a drill, ten to fifteen pounds should be ample.

In cutting alfalfa it is important that some care be used to select the
proper time. When the new shoots are well started is usually regarded
as the safest time, if the plant is cut for hay. The leaves constitute the
greatest portion of the feeding value, and much care is necessary in
handling the crop to avoid shattering.

In localities where the plant is grown for seed, a much longer bloom-
ing period results and the beekeeper profits accordingly. Where cut for
hay, alfalfa loses much of its possible value through the cutting just when
it is reaching its period of greatest nectar secretion.

Harry K. Hill, of Willows, California, states that he zets three dis-
tinct shades of pure alfalfa honey in the same year. The honey from
first extracting is much darker than later extractings. — Western Honey-
bee, April, 1913.

ALFILARIA, see Pin Clover.
ALGAROBA, see Mesquite.
ALLIGATOR PEAR, see Red Bay.
ALLIUM, see Onion

ALMOND (Prunus amygdalus).

The cultivated almond is closely related to the peach and is native to
Southern Europe, where it has been grown for centuries for its nuts.

The tree is extremely early in its blooming period and more tender
than the peach. It is grown in large orchards in parts of California, and
to some extent in Arizona. It grows on higher and dryer lands than any
other fruit trees in California. The tree will not thrive on wet lands.

Bees gather both honey and pollen from the flowers and in the almond
belt of California it is of great value for early brood-rearing. There it

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

blooms in February, and beekeepers sometimes move their bees from a
distance to the almond orchards to build them up for the orange flow.

ALSIKE CLOVER (Trifolium hybridum). Hybrid or Swedish Clover.

Alsike clover is one of the very best honey plants of America. The
beekeeper who lives within reach of large fields of this crop is fortunate,
for there is no better honey, and under favorable conditions the crops
harvested from alsike are such as to give little ground for dissatisfaction.
Some beekeepers have estimated that alsike will produce 500 pounds of
honey per acre in a good season.— American Bee Journal, page 409, 1886.

Alsike thrives on clay soil, or lands in-
clined to be wet, where the other clovers do
not succeed. It is sown very generally in a
meadow mixture with timothy or red-top.
In localities where grown for seed there is a
long period of bloom, which is greatly to the
advantage of the beekeeper. It is good for
either pasture or hay, and although by itself
alsike does not yield as many tons of hay per
acre as red clover, when mixed with red
clover the two together make more and bet-
ter hay than red clover does alone.

Alsike is intermediate in size between
white and red clover. The blossom looks like
that of white clover, except it has a pinkish
tinge of color not found in the white clover.
The stem is upright and branched and on land
with sufficient moisture reaches a height of
two feet or more.

While alsike will grow nearly everywhere
that red clover will grow, it thrives best in Fig. 9. Alsike clover,

the northern part of the country. Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, On-
tario and New York all report alsike as especially valuable to the bee-
keeper.

The honey is white in color, mild in flavor and is regarded as one of
the best for table use. At times the yield is very heavy. In American Bee
Journal, Nov. 2, 1899, are given several instances of large yields from this
source. In one case a single colony of bees gathered 72 pounds in four
days, or 18 pounds per day. Another report was of 251 pounds in 21 days,
or 25 pounds per day, from alsike.

In number two of the first volume of the "Review," Editor Hutchin-
son states that ten colonies of bees gathered 300 pounds of extracted honey
from alsike, with only two acres within reach. This, of course, takes no
account of the honey consumed by the bees, but indicates that the yield
is good for the acreage within reach. In the following number of the same
journal an Ontario beekeeper reports that he had not known a failure
from alsike in eight years.

See also Clover.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

ALTHEA, see Hollyhock.
ANDROMEDA.

"Andromeda (a scraggy shrub of the heath family) blooms in the cen-
tral northwestern part of Florida for about four weeks in March and
early April; yielding but little, three years out of four. The honey, too, is
reddish yellow, thick and pungent, not very valuable as a surplus honey
plant." — E. G. Baldwin, Gleanings, March 15, 1911.

AMERICAN ALOE, see Century Plant.
AMERICAN CRAB APPLE, see Crab Apple.
AMERICAN IVY, see Virginia Creeper.
ANAQUA, see Knockaway.
ANGLEPOD, see Bluevine.

APPLE (Malus).

America's best and most widely used fruit is the apple. It is a native

Fig. 8. Almond orchard in bloom.

of Asia, but as a cultivated fruit is grown in most of the temperate regions
of the world. Hundreds of varieties have been developed by plant breed-
ers until there are few horticulturists who are familiar with them all. They
range in size from the small cultivated crab-apples not more than an inch
in diameter to the big Wolf River, often five or more inches in diameter.
Some varieties are hard and sour and suitable for little else than making
cider, while others are of the finest quality.

There is no more beautiful sight than an orchard in bloom in spring.
The blossoms secrete nectar freely and in favorable weather the bees
fairly swarm over them. The honey is light amber in color and of good

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 21

quality. The trees bloom so early that it is of greatest value to stimulate
spring brood-rearing, though strong colonies easily store surplus when the
weather is suitable for the bees to fly freely during the period of bloom.
Large orchardists often offer inducements to beekeepers to locate near
their orchards for the better pollination of the fruit blossoms which re-
sults from the presence of large numbers of bees. In orchard districts
there is frequently complaint on the part of the beekeepers that the bees
are killed by the application of poisonous spray while the trees are in
bloom. When American beekeepers learn to winter their colonies in such
a manner as to maintain a reasonable strength in early spring, surplus
honey in quantity may be expected from the orchard districts in favorable
seasons. The weather is often too wet or too cold for the bees to fly
during apple blossom, and this condition the apiarist can never overcome.

APOCYNUM, see Dogbane.

APRICOT (Prunus armeniaca).

The apricot is a well known cultivated fruit, somewhat intermediate
between the plum and peach. It blooms very early in spring and is valu-
able as a source of early nectar and pollen. It is grown in large acreage
in some portions of California, where it is regarded as valuable, by the
beekeepers.

ARBUTUS (Epigaea repens). Trailing Arbutus or Ground Laurel.

A trailing plant with evergreen leaves. The rose colored flowers, in
small clusters, appear in early spring. They are fragrant and attractive to
the bees. There is an occasional report to the effect that arbutus is
valuable to the bees as a source of early nectar.

ARCTOSTAPHYLOS, see Manzanita.
ARIZONA BUCKTHORN, see Gum Elastic.

ARIZONA— Honey Sources of.

The sources of our honey are the desert flora and cultivated crops,
chiefly alfalfa. A few of the principal producing plants and their seasons
are as follows : Time of Blooming.

Mesquite (Prosopia velutina) April-July

Screw Bean (Prosopis pubescens) April-July

Catsclaw (Acacia greggii) May-June

Acacia (Acacia constricta) June

Paloverde (Parkinsonia torreyana) May

Desert flora (Miscellaneous) Depending upon rainfall

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) April-September

The wild honey plants, because of grazing animals and of wood-cutters,
have greatly decreased within recent years. The area in alfalfa, on the
other hand, is constantly increasing; but without a corresponding increase
in honey-producing power. This is due to two principal causes: Farmers

22 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

are now cutting alfalfa for hay at a much earlier stage in its growth than
formerly, not allowing the plant to come into full bloom; and the alfalfa
butterfly (Colias eurytheme), has so increased in numbers since 1895, that
the honeyflow, which used to continue well into September, is now cut
short in July. It is difficult to state the net effect of these changes upon
the producing power of the country as a whole; but in Salt River Valley,
under present conditions, judging from the shipments made during the last
few years, our present irrigated areas, with adjoining desert tracts, are
pretty fully stocked with bees. Other parts of the territory are as yet
less thoroughly occupied.— R. H. Forbes, University of Arizona. "Timely
Hints for Farmers," No. 46.

ARKANSAS— Honey Sources of.

White clover is the source of some surplus in Arkansas, although it
is too far south for such heavy yields as occur in the northern part of the
range of this plant. Sweet clover is valuable in some localities. Tupelo,
holly, blackgum, redbud, locust, tulip-poplar, blackberry, heartsease and
asters are the important sources of nectar. Cotton yields in some sections
of the State. Fruit bloom is valuable in spring, and where colonies are
sufficiently strong some surplus may be expected.

ARTICHOKE, see Sunflower.
ASCLEPIAS, see Milkweed.

ASPARAGUS.

The garden asparagus is an introduced plant widely cultivated. It is
very attractive to the bees and yields pollen plentifully. As a source of
nectar it is unimportant.

ASH (Fraxinus).

There are more than twenty species of ash trees common to various
sections of America. Some are well known timber trees, furnishing lum-
ber for furniture and for interior finishing. The flowers are small, incon-
spicuous and of a greenish color. Their principal value to the beekeeper is
as a source of pollen, although Richter lists the Oregon ash (Fraxinus
oregona) as a source of honey also.

ASH LEAVED MAPLE, see Box Elder.

ASPEN (Populus). Poplar or Cottonwood.

There are several species of poplars. It is a widely distributed group,
some species being found in most all sections of the country. They are
important for pollen, though some honeydew is reported from them also.
They thrive especially well on the low lands along streams and are the
most common trees of the plains region from Dakota scuth to Oklahoma
and western Texas. This group should not be confused with the tulip-
poplar, which see.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

ASTER.

The aster family is very widely distributed, being common in Europe,
Asia and South Africa, as well as America. There are more than 200 rec-

Fig. 10. White field aster {Aster vimineus).

ognized species, of which at least 125 are found in the United States. They
are extremely common in the Eastern and Southern States, although
some kinds are to be found in every State in the Union, and from Canada

t C State College

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

tc Mexico. Every American beekeeper may be sure that his bees are
within reach of at least one species of aster, and, in most localities, there
are several species. Some species produce nectar much more abundantly

Fig. 11. Purple stemmed aster {Aster puniccus).

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

than others, and it is probable that the flow from all kinds is more or
less affected by soil or climatic conditions. So few beekeepers differen-
tiate between the species that it is very difficult to secure satisfactory
information regarding their comparative value.

Asters are very seldom mentioned as sources of nectar in the south-
west. Yet twenty-one species are listed as occurring in New Mexico. They
seem to be of importance principally in the Eastern States. There are
numerous reports of honey from asters in the Southeastern States of
Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, the amount of surplus increasing north-
ward.

In most localities, the aster honey is mixed with that from goldenrod,
and the two sources are usually
spoken of together. In the Septem-
ber, 1917, issue of the American Bee
Journal, appeared an extended article
on goldenrods. Like the asters, they
are of wide distribution, and, like
them, they seem to produce nectar
more abundantly in the moist climate
of the Eastern States. Both bloom
late in autumn, the crop often being
cut short by frost.

According to Lovell, the asters
are never common enough to yield a
surplus in Maine, and the honey is
always mixed with goldenrod.

As to the quality of the honey,
there are many conflicting reports.
Many reports are to the effect that
the quality is poor and not suitable
for table use. The fact that the

Fig. 12. Large-

(Asti

saved
phyllus).

honey is seldom unmixed with that of other fall flowers, may be respon-
sible for this impression. C. P. Dadant had one year, in Illinois, a crop of
about six barrels which was almost pure aster honey. This honey was
secured late in the season, after other plants had ceased to yield, and was
almost white, and of very fine quality.

There are numerous reports that a strong odor is apparent in the
apiary when asters are yielding. We quote some of these :

"We had a fall flow from wild asters that filled the hives with
honey for wintering, and gave a few gallons of extracted honey. The
honey is of good color and weight, but rather strong for table use. It
also granulates very quickly. When the bees are gathering this honey
the hives give off a rank and somewhat sickening odor, which can be
detected for quite a distance away. * * * This odor disappears as
the honey ripens and the flow ceases, but the strong taste never en-
tirely disappears. It is as strong as basswood and not nearly so pleas-
ant." — D. E. Andrews, Bloomington, Ind., page 98, American Bee Jour-
nal, 1907.

"The odor is not unpleasant, but is very noticeable when the bees
are bringing much of it in, and it can be distinguished a considerable

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

probably accounts for
In some localitie:

the trouble in
asters seem to

distance from the hives. The amount of 'smell' is such a good criterion
as to the amount of honey that one can tell the quantity he is getting
from these indications alone." — W. H. Reed, Herrodsburg, Ky., page
228, Gleanings, 1911.

"In the Shenandoah Valley, in Virginia, where I lived for fourteen
years, there were many acres of white aster. There were several
years when the bloom was in sheets, affording a good yield of surplus.
The honey was very light amber, of fine quality, and was considered
next to white clover. At such times a strong odor, which was distinctly
sour, could be noticed " — Burdet Hassett. Page 257, Gleanings, 1911.
Much has been written concerning the danger of aster honey for win-
ter stores. So many reports of disastrous results from wintering on aster
honey have been published, that it is generally understood not to be safe
for winter stores. However, it is probable that the trouble comes from
honey gathered too late to be properly ripened, rather than because the
honey is of poor quality. The fact that the honey granulates readily also

some cases.

be a dependable source of surplus,
while in others they yield in ap-
preciable quantity only in rare
seasons. Kentucky seems to be
in the heart of the territory where
asters are important. The follow-
ing are typical reports :

"We have never failed to get
a good crop of surplus honey,
and plenty left for the bees,
from aster for more than twenty
years, till this year." — H. C.
Clemons, Boyd, Ky. Page 90,
Gleanings, 1909.

"In this section the asters are
invaluable as fall forage for bees.
Let the season be cold or hot,
we are certain to have a con-
tinuous bloom from early in
September until a really hard
frost occurs. My Italian bees
have never failed to secure
enough honey from aster to
carry them through the winter,
even when there was hardly a
pound of honey in the hives at
the end of August — Daniel M.
Worthington, Elkridge, Md.,
American Bee Journal, page 125,
1869.

"Blue aster (Aster azureus),
Arrow-leaved aster (Aster sagitti- known among farmers as blue
folius). devil, or stickweed, in my judg-

ment, is one of the best we have, from the fact that it produces honey
in the fall of the year. It is usually in full bloom until about the mid-
dle of October, and if the weather is warm enough for the bees to fly,
they get plenty of honey to winter on from this flower." — West Vir-
ginia. Page 869, American Bee Journal, 1906.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

It is probable that most of the species are of more or less value for
honey under favorable conditions. The writer has seen bees working on
arrow-leaf (Aster sagittifolius) on sunny days in Cass County, Iowa, the
first week in November, after everything else had been killed by frost.
Figure 13 shows this species, which occurs in dry, open woods, from New
Erunswick to Ontario, and west to Dakota, and from New York to the
Ohio valley, and along the mountains to Georgia and Alabama.

Generally speaking, the small-flowered species with willow-shaped
leaves, are best for honey. Aster tradescanti is probably first in the list
as a source of surplus. It is found from Ontario to Saskatchewan, and
throughout the States east of the Mississippi, south to the Gulf States.
Aster salicifolius is probably one of the best in Iowa and Illinois, being
common on low ground.

In a private letter, F. W. L. Sladen writes concerning the asters in
Canada, as follows :

"I have this year had confirmation that Aster cordifolius is a use-
ful source of surplus honey in favorable seasons in the Gatineau val-
ley in September. During a period of very fine weather between Sep-
tember 11 and 22, a crop of 12,000 pounds of honey, principally from
this source, and from the late flowering species of goldenrod, was ob-
tained by Joseph Martineau, at Montcerf, Quebec, from 300 colonies.
The honey was light amber color,
and a pleasant flavor, and not un-
wholesome for wintering, not
granulating in the combs. (See
Experimental Farms report 1914-
15, page 996). Other valuable
species of aster in Canada for
honey production are A. lateri-
florus (Maritime provinces to On-
tario) ; Aster umbellatus (Mari-
time provinces to Eastern Mani-
toba), and Aster puniceus, Fig. 11
(Maritime provinces to Ontario)."
—Ottawa, October 2, 1917.
Aster puniceus, the purple-stemmed
aster, Fig. 11, is found from Nova
Scotia to the Rocky Mountains and
south to Northern Alabama. It is
one of the most attractive of the
asters, growing on wet land and in
the borders of swamps. Lovell writes
that in Maine he has seen the bees
on this species in large numbers on
September 17.

The white field aster, or frost

. . v „. ,„ . F.g. 14. Swamp aster (Aster acuminatus).

flower (Aster vimineus), Fig. 10, is

common from Eastern Canada to Minnesota, and south to Arkansas and
Florida. It grows in dry, open fields, along roadsides, and in waste places.
It is a late bloomer, belonging to the group of field asters which are im-
portant for nectar. Some other species, however, yield more freely.

28 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

The swamp aster (Aster acuminatus) occurs on wet land, but as far as
available information goes is not valuable for honey.

The large-leaved Aster macrophyllus, Fig. 12, is a northern species,
found in open woodlands. Graenicher observed ninety-five species of in-
sects on the flowers of this species in Wisconsin, which indicates nectar
in abundance in that State.

Several other species are known to produce nectar freely, A. multi-
florus, A. lateriflorus, A. dumosus, A. paniculatus and A. vimineus being re-
ported from various localities. A. ericoides is reported as valuable in
Missouri.

"There is an abundance of Aster ericoides now in full bloom. The

bees are working on it more vigorously than they have on white clover

or any other bloom." — George E. Wilkins, Wright County, Mo. Page

699, American Bee Journal, 1904.

So far, we have been unable to find any records of surplus honey from
asters west of the Missouri River.

ASTRAGALUS, see Loco Weed.

AZALEA (Rhododendron).

The azaleas are closely related to the mountain laurel and are like-
wise sometimes reported as poisonous. (See Laurel; also Poisonous
Honey). The flame-colored azalea is common in the mountains of the
Eastern States from Pennsylvania to Georgia. It has a profusion of
showy, flame-colored blossoms coming just when the leaves appear. Prob-
ably several of the group yield nectar in quantity to be important wherever
they are sufficiently plentiful.

BALLOON VINE (Cardiospermum halicacabum).

The balloon vine is a herbaceous climber with alternate leaves and
clusters of small white flowers, followed by a three-celled inflated pod.
This species is common along streams in south Texas. C. molle, a Mexi-
can species, is also found to some extent in the mountains west of the
Pecos River, according to Coulter.

Balloon vine is reported as the source of considerable honey in Texas.
Scholl lists it is a fair yielder, but plants not abundant. Other reports in-
dicate that it is the source of considerable surplus along the Gulf Coast
of that State.

BALSAM APPLE, see Wild Cucumber.

BANANA (Musa sapientum).

Since the banana plant is little grown in the United States, it is sel-
dom mentioned as a honey plant, yet it secretes nectar very abundantly,
and in countries where bananas are grown on a large scale it must be im-
portant to the beekeeper. We are showing herewith two illustrations, one
of the plant in fruit and one showing the opening of the bloom.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Fig. 15. Blossoms of the banana.

The following description of the possibilities of this plant is reprinted
from page 83 of the American Bee Journal for 1880, and was written by a
correspondent in Clifton Springs, Florida :

"Recently noticing bees working upon blossoms, I concluded to ex-
amine them. To my surprise, I found that each blossom had a sack on
its under side, which contained several drops of nectar of the consist-
ency and sweetness of thin syrup. This sack gradually opens, allowing
the contents to escape, unless appropriated by some insect. The blossom
hangs in a position that rain cannot enter to dilute or wash out the
nectar. Procuring a teaspoon, I emptied into it the contents of a dozen
blossoms, which filled it full. Each stalk, on good land, will produce
a head having a hundred hands or divisions of blossoms, and each hand
averages six blossoms, giving 600 blossoms to "the stalk. Estimating
100 teaspoonfuls to the pint (88 of the one used filled a pint measure)
we have 50 spoonfuls, or half a pint to the stalk. Planted in checks
8x8 feet, there will be 680 plants to the acre, yielding, according to the
above estimate. 42 ' _. gallons of nectar. But usually more than one
stalk in a hill blossoms and matures fruit annually. The blossoms
used were below those that produce fruit, which later, I am told, are
much richer in honey.

"The first blossoms which open mature fruit. These vary in num- .
ber from 25 to 100, according to quality of land, cultivation, etc. They

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Fig.

sell here at from \)A to 2 cents per finger or pod. Estimating fruit at
25 fingers per bunch and the bunches at 25 cents each — which, you see,
is a low estimate for both, the result will be a barrel of nectar, or $170
worth of fruit per acre. How does this showing compare with other
cultivated plants as combined honey and money crop?"

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Fig. 17. Triple-leaved barberry, or agarita.

BARBERRY (Berberis).

The common barberry, introduced from Europe, has become natural-
ized in the Northern States and occurs in thickets and woodlands from the
Atlantic Coast to Iowa and southward. It blooms in May and June and
is well known as an attractive plant to the bees, though seldom sufficiently
abundant to be important. It is much cultivated for ornament.

In Texas, the triple-leaved barberry (Berberis trifoliata) is known as
agarites, the Mexican name, and as wild currant. It is common over a
large part of the southern portion of the State and is an important source
of early nectar. It is a shrub 4 to 6 feet high, with stiff leaves and bright
yellow flowers that grow in dense clusters along the stem. The red berries
ripen in May and are often called currants. They are used for jelly or
sauce, as well as for barberry wine. The plants are to be found in thickets,
ir: open woodlands and along roadsides, in fence corners and other waste
places where the seeds have been scattered by birds.

"As a honey plant it is one of much value to me. It blooms here
early in February, and the bloom continues for several weeks, some
bushes blooming later than others. The pollen yield is abundant,
bright yellow in color. It is the second bloomer of the year on my
list of Texas honey plants, coming after mistletoe and before our main
fruit bloom." — Louis Sc'holl, Gleanings, Feb., 1907.

Richter reports the California barberry (Berberis pinnata) yields sur-
plus in Monterey County after manzanita has bloomed. The honey is
amber in color. The plant is rather common from Berkely Hills south to
Monterey, Mooning in March and April, according to Jepson. (See also
Oregon grape).

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Fig, IS. Basswood tree in bloom.

BARNABY'S THISTLE, see Star Thistle.

BASIL or MOUNTAIN MINT (Pycananthemum virginianum).

Basil is common from New England to the Missouri River and south-
ward. There are numerous reports from beekeepers to the effect that bees
work upon it very eagerly from morning till night. It is probably nowhere
of much importance, 'though it would be if sufficiently common.

BASSWOOD (Tilia americana).

The basswood, also known as linden, whitewood, and sometimes as
limetree, is one of the best known sources of honey in the Eastern States.
There are other species closely related which also produce nectar, and
which, perhaps, would not be distinguished by the casual observer. The
natural ringe of the basswood is from Canada to Florida and west to Ne-
braska and Texas. It is also grown as a shade tree in other Western States

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 33

and is mentioned by Richter in the bulletin on "Honey Plants of Califor-
nia," as an introduced species of value. Fig. 18 shows the trees in bloom,
and Fig. 19 a close view of the blossom and leaf.

Fig. 19. Blossom and leaf of the basswood.

The tree thrives on rich lands, and in the cooler regions of the coun-
try reaches a large size. The wood is soft and white and much in demand
for making sections, separators and other bee supplies requiring a soft
wood cut in thin sheets. For such purposes basswood has no superior.
The wood is also sought for use in the manufacture of furniture, packing
boxes, etc., as well as for paper making.

The blooming period is short, seldom yielding to exceed ten days or
two weeks, and often for a much shorter period. The honeyflows from
baswood are irregular and only to be depended upon about two or three
years out of every five. A heavy flow from this source occurs only occa-
sionally, but when it does come it is worth waiting for, for enormous yields
are sometimes secured. The honey is white in color, with rather a strong
flavor, but is usually regarded as high quality. Good basswood locations
are no longer plentiful, as the cutting of the forests over the entire coun-
try has resulted in a large reduction of this along with other trees.

The European linden (Tilia europaea) has been planted in many places
and, according to Sladen, is the source of surplus honey at Charlottetown,
Prince Edward Island,

34 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

BASTARD-PENNYROYAL, see Blue Curls.
BATCHELOR'S BUTTON, see Centaurea.
BAY, see Magnolia.

BEAN (Phaseolus).

There are two varieties of the garden bean which are the source of
nectar in quantity. Surplus honey from beans is seldom reported except
in Southern California. Ventura County is said to produce as high as 72
per cent of the lima beans raised in the entire United States; 800,000
sacks is the reported output for 1910. The honey from lima beans is
almost water white in color and of fine flavor, according to M. H. Men-
dleson, of Ventura, California, who has produced many tons of this honey.
The black-eyed beans yield a dark amber honey, but of good quality. A
peculiarity of honey from lima beans is that it will sometimes sweat and
ferment when left too long on the hives of weak colonies, near the coast.
This, according to Mendleson, seldom happens with strong colonies, nor
does it happen in any case in the interior. Honey from beans granulates
very readily.

The honeyflow from beans is regarded as very dependable. Occa-
sionally the blossoms are blasted by hot east winds, but not frequently.
In Ventura County the average from this source is reported as 50 pounds
per colony per year, with as high as 140 pounds in an exceptional season.
The beans bloom through a long season, beginning in July and continuing
till September, with the principal crop of nectar harvested in July. The
bloom is prolonged by irrigation.

The principal counties of California where beans are important are:
Ventura, Orange, Santa Barbara, Los Angeles and San Diego.

BEARBERRY, see Manzanita.
BEAVER TREE, see Magnolia.

BEE BALM (Melissa officinalis).

A sweet perennial herb, cultivated in gardens, from Southern Europe
and North Africa. Sometimes escaped; flowers yellow or whitish, several
in each auxiliary cluster. Plant erect and branching, with broad opposite
leaves. Attractive to the bees, but not sufficiently abundant to be im-
portant.

BEECH (Fagus grandifolia).

The beech is a large tree common to Eastern America. It is known
from Nova Scotia to Ontario and southward, sometimes in extensive for-
ests. Its principal value to the beekeeper is as a source of pollen, though
lioneydew is sometimes secured from the leaves.

BEEWEED, see Rocky Mountain Bee Plant.

BEGCAH TIC!', sec Spanish Needle.

BINDWEED (Polygonum convolvulus).

The black bindweed is a common weed throughout the Eastern States.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

It is of European origin, introduced into this country. It belongs to a

family of plants which produce
honey in quantity, but, is itself, of
little value. The first indication
that reached the author that this
plant was sometimes of value to
the bees, was the receipt of a
specimen, by mail, with the in-
formation that the bees were
working upon it. Careful watch
was then kept for several years,
before they were seen to seek it in
his locality. Since that time there
have been a few occasions when
the bees have sought it freely and
when it seemed to yield some nec-
tar. It is doubtful whether it is
ever of much importance as a
source of honey.

The seed has been widely dis-
tributed with grain seeds and is
very troublesome in fields of small
grain. The vine closely resembles
the wild morning glory, to the cas-
ual observer, but the blossom is
small and inconspicuous, followed
with a seed somewhat like buck-
wheat, hence it is often called
wild buckwheat.

BIRCH (Betula).

There are several species of
birch trees and shrubs common to
Eastern America. They are partial to low, rich woodlands, and some oc-
cur in the far north. In some localities they are valuable for pollen.

20. The Black

Ivveed is a common

BITTERSWEET (Celastrus scandens). Waxwork, or Climbi

itter-

sweet

sweet.

A well-known climbing shrub common in woodlands. The orange-
colored pods displaying the scarlet covered seeds are often gathered for
winter bouquets. The flowers are small and greenish in raceme-like clus-
ters at the termination of the branches.

"The bees work freely on bittersweet."— Miss Mitchell, Keokuk, Iowa.

BITTERWEED (Helenium tenuifolium).

The author's first experience with bitterweed honey was in south
Missouri in 1904 or 1905. There had been a good flow from white clover,

36 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

followed by a dearth for a time, and the unfinished sections were filled out
with bitterweed honey. The sections looked very nice and a northern

Fig. 21. Honey from bitterweed is unfit for table use.

beekeeper who had recently settled near the town of Salem, innocently
sold his honey to the townspeople. The next time he came to town there
were numerous persons looking for him, and lie found it necessary to
take back most of the honey he had marketed on his previous visit. The
honey from this source is so bitter that a very little of it will spoil a fine
crop of the best white honey. A few cells are sufficient to make a whole
section absolutely unpalatable.

On a visit to Tennessee the author was very much interested in this
plant, which grows freely along roadsides, in barnyards and similar places,
much as dogfennel or mayweed does in the Northern States. The range
of the plant is given as from Arkansas and Texas to North Carolina. It
probably does not appear to any extent north of Tennessee.
Chas. Mohr says of it (Plant Life of Alabama, page 54) :

"The bitterweed, originally from the sunny plains west of the Mis-
sissippi River south of the Arkansas Valley, was first observed in Mo-
bile in 1866. It has spread along the embankments of the railroads

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 37

to the mouth of the Ohio River, literally covering in many places
the waste and uncultivated grounds, and reaching out along byroads
and borders of fields and woodlands. It its northward spread it has
largely taken the place of the mayweed (Anthemis cotula), a European
weed of early introduction."

Regarding honey from this source J. J. Wilder says (American Bee
Journal, Vol. 54, page 410):

"It is truly a nectar-laden plant. Though it does not grow in great
fields as yet, bees will store from 30 to 35 pounds of surplus from it.
Its flowers are of a deep yellow; the honey, light yellow, heavy body,
soon granulates when extracted. It is bitter; in fact it is about as
offensive to the palate as quinine. In most sections of the South the
cotton plant begins yielding two or three weeks before the bitter-
weed, and if it were not for the well-established fact that bees do not
desert a honey plant for another as long as it yields well, nearly all
the summer and fall honey would be unfit for market on account of
the bitterweed. In sections where the cotton does not yield much, the
honey is all bitter, and a small amount of it will ruin a tank of good
honey. Bitterweed is also a great pollen plant, furnishing abundance
of bright yellow pollen throughout its blooming period. Even the
stems and foliage of this plant are intensely bitter, and no animals
eat it."

Pammel cites a quotation which states that it has been reported as
fatal to horses and mules in several of the Gulf States. It is said to con-
tain a narcotic poison and to be the cause of bitter milk.

A relative of this plant, the northern sneezeweed (Helenium autom-
nale) is also a good honey plant, and probably less bitter than the south-
ern or narrow-leaved sneezeweed just described. Neither, however, can
be said to be a desirable addition to the honey-producing flora, because
of spoiling good honey from mixing with it. The northern sneezeweed is
found in various localities from Connecticut to the Dakotas and south-
ward. It is also found in places in the Rocky Mountain States.

The bitter honey seems to be as good as any for brood-rearing and,
where present, the beekeeper should use care to avoid mixing it with his
marketable produce, and use it for feeding the bees. The bitterness is
said to come from the pollen grains present in the hone}-, which improves
greatly with age, as the pollen grains settle to the bottom of the con-
tainer.

BLACKBERRY (Rubus).

The blackberries, dewberries and raspberries are closely related
plants, all of which are good honey sources. The blackberry is especially
well known in the Southeastern States, where it thrives in fence corners
and moist woodland borders. In north Georgia it is one of the principal
sources of surplus honey. Farther north the nectar yield is apparently
not as good, and in some localities the bees apparently do not get much
honey from this source. Lovell states that in New England there is very
little nectar available from either wild or cultivated blackberries. Richter
states that the Himalaya variety of blackberry yields some honey in Yuba
County, California. John W. Cash reports an average of 25 pounds per

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

colony of surplus at Bogart, Georgia. The honey is amber, very thick, and
does not granulate.

There are parts of California where the dewberry is reported to be
very important and to yield surplus. The honey is of good flavor and a
light amber color.

The raspberry is the most important of the group. (See Raspberry).

BLACK BINDWEED, see Bindweed.
BLACK GUM, see Tupelo.

BLACK HAW (Viburnum prunifolium).

The black haw belongs to a group containing several valuable honey
plants. It occurs from Connecticut to Michigan and south to Georgia,
Albama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. (In the South it is given a
varietal name.) It is a shrub or small tree, blooming in the North in May
and June and in the South in April and May. Its principal value lies in

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

stimulating early brood-rearing, since in few localities it is of sufficient
abundance to be important as a source of surplus.
Scholl lists it as yielding well, early, in Texas.

Fig. 23. The black mangrove tree.
BLACK LOCUST, see Locust.

BLACK MEDIC (Medicago lupulina).

Black medic is a widely distributed plant in California, but not very
common. It blooms from April to June. It is the source of some nectar,
but is probably not of much importance, except possibly in a few limited
localities.

BLACK MANGROVE (Avicennia nitida).

Black mangrove (Avicennia nitida) is also known as blackwood, or

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

blacktree. It is an evergreen tree, growing along the seashores of the
coast of Florida. It is said also to occur to some extent along the gulf
coast to Texas and throughout the coasts of Tropical America. It varies
from a bushy shrub to a tall tree 60 or more feet in height in tropical re-
gions. The wood is coarse-grained, hard and very durable in contact with
the soil. The tree is to be found only in the vicinity of salt water.

The honey from the mangrove is light in color, mild in flavor, and is
generally regarded as of first quality. According to E. G. Baldwin it was
the heaviest yielder of nectar known in the south prior to the big freeze
ot 1895. In one year he reports Harry Mitchell, of Hawk's Park, as having
secured an average of 380 pounds per colony from mangrove alone. Fol-
lowing the freeze it failed to yield nectar in surplus quantity for about
fifteen years, and reports since that time have indicated that it is not up to
its former importance.

The blooming period opens about the middle of June and usually
includes the entire month of July. The flow usually lasts from six to
eight weeks.

BLACK TREE, see Black Mangrove.
BLACKWOOD, see Black Mangrove.

BLOODROOT (Sanguinaria canadensis).

The bloodroot is a common wild flower in the moist woods of all our
Northern States. It blooms early in April, and is eagerly sought by the
bees for pollen. The plant is shown at Fig. 24.

Fig. 24. The bloodroot is a source of early pollen.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 41

BLUEBERRY (Vaccinium).

There are at least four species of blueberry which give surplus honey
in localities where 'they are abundant. According to Sladen, the dwarf
or early sweet blueberry, (Vaccinium pennsylvanicum), and the sour-top
or velvet-leaf blueberry (Vaccinium canadense), often give surplus in
northern Ontario, northern Quebec and eastern Manitoba. .

Blueberry honey is frequently reported from New England. W. J.
Sheppard reports that Vaccinium ovalifolium is of importance in British
Columbia.

There are several other species in the Northeastern States that proba-
bly yield some nectar. Sladen reports blueberry as important in Nova
Scotia.

According to Lovell Vaccinium corymbosum, the high bush blueberry,
is important in southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecti-
cut, in some localities beekeepers being principally dependent upon it. The
flow comes late in May or early June and lasts for about ten days. Strong
colonies store as high as 50 to 90 pounds of surplus from it. He reports
V. pennsylvanicum, the low bush blueberry already mentioned, as common
throughout northern New England, in pastures and on rocky land. It is
important in the blueberry barrens of Maine. The honey is amber and
of good flavor.

BLUEBONNET, see Lupine.
BLUEBOTTLE, see Centaurea.

BLUE CURLS (Trichostema lanceolatum).

Blue curls is a plant known by a great variety of names in California.
It is known as vinegar weed, camphor weed, turpentine weed, flea weed,
bastard-pennyroyal, etc. It abounds over a large portion of California.
According to Jcpson, the range is throughout the Coast Ranges, Sierra
Nevada foothills and southern California. The Western Honeybee lists
it as the best fall honey plant in California. Both foliage and flowers have
a pungent, penetrating odor. The plant is found mostly in stubble fields,
where it appears after grain harvest. From the same source we quote as
follows :

"Under favorable atmospheric conditions it yields abundantly of
a very white honey, that granulates quickly and with a fine grain.
Sometimes it granulates before the bees have time to seal the cells.
One peculiarity of this plant is that it continues to yield honey for
several hours after falling to the ground. The quality of the honey is
good." — Western Honeybee. October, 1914.

"It is often claimed that rain will end the honeyflow from blue
curls. I find by several seasons' observation that this is an error. If a
rain is followed by favorable atmospheric conditions — warmth and hu-
midity — the nectar secretion is increased instead of diminished." —
Western Honeybee, November, 1916..

The flow from blue curls begins in August and continues till frost.
Richter reports that very large yields are sometimes secured from this
source, tons of honey sometimes being stored in the vicinity of Fresno. A

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

report of an average of 80 pounds per colony from this source reached
the author when visiting at Visalia.

Fig. 25. The blue curl.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

BLUE GUM, see Eucalyptus.
BLUE LUPINE, see Lupine.
BLUET, see Centaurea.

BLUE THISTLE (Eryngium articulatum).

The blue thistle is listed by Richter as the source of a dark honey of
good flavor in California. He reports it from the Suisun Marshes, along
the Consumnes River and the Alvarado Marshes, blooming from August
to October.

BLUEVINE (Gonolobus laevis).

This plant is also known as devil's shoestring, climbing milkweed,
sand vine, wild sweet potato vine and anglepod. It is a vine of luxuriant

Fig. 26. Seed pods and

the bluevine, or sandvine.

growth, common on low lands from Virginia and Tennessee westward to
Missouri and south to Texas. It is common in Southern Ohio, Indiana
and Illinois, where it is a persistent and troublesome weed. It is espe-
cially troublesome in the corn fields, where it may be found climbing the
stalks. A single vine will run for many feet on fence wires or other sup-
port. It blooms freely through July and August, and is the source of large
quantities of surplus honey of good quality. The honey is light in color,
mild in flavor and does not granulate readily. S. H. Burton, of Washing-
ton, Indiana, reports a yield of 60 pounds per colony in three weeks and
an average of as high as 80 pounds per colony has been reported from

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Southern Indiana. From Missouri come similar reports, W. L. Wiley, of
Brunswick, reporting as much as 100 pounds surplus from strong colonies.

The plant may be readily recognized by the abundant clusters of small,
white flowers, which are followed by seed pods similar to those of the
milkweed. When the pods are dry they split open and the seeds are
widely scattered by means of their cottony parachutes.

The honey is clear, heavy-bodied and of excellent flavor. The plant

Fig. 27. Boneset yields in late summer and fall.

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS 45

grows chiefly in cornfields in river bottom land and is perennial. It
blooms before smartweed, but the smartweed honey is usually mixed with
it, as it comes in later.

BLUEWEED or VIPER'S BUGLOSS (Echium vulgare).

The blueweed, or viper's bugloss, is a weed naturalized from Europe.
It is common in the meadows and roadsides of the Eastern States. It
has showy purple or blue flowers and grows about two feet high. June
is the flowering period. Sladen lists it as an important source of nectar
in Southern Ontario. Probably not sufficiently abundant to be very im-
portant in many places.

This plant was introduced into Australia from Europe by a settler
named Patterson, and has become widely spread there, where it is known
as "Patterson's curse." Rayment states that it yields honey, but hardly
sufficient to store much in the supers. (Money in Bees in Australasia).

BONESET (Eupatorium).

There are 475 species of Eupatorium known, many of them found in
Tropical America. Some are found in Europe, Asia and South America,
so that the plants have a wide range. Forty-five or more species are com-
mon to North America. Whether nearly all yield nectar, we have no rec-
ords to prove. Fig 27 shows Eupatorium ageratoides, a species common
from New England south to Tennessee and Georgia. According to J. M.
Buchanan, it is common over the State of Tennessee, but only yields
honey in the northern part. He reports the honey to be a light amber, of
strong flavor. The yield comes in August and September. Fig. 28 shows
the white snakeroot (E. urticaefolium), a species common to the wood-
lands of the Middle West. Although the bees visit this species freely,
from September until killed by frost, usually in October, the honey yield
is probably rather small.

The Joe-Pye weed or turnip weed (E. purpureum), is frequently re-
ported as yielding honey, and it is one of the most widely distributed
species. It is found from New Brunswick to Manitoba and south to Colo-
rado, Texas and Florida.

The boneset of commerce is made from thoroughwort (E. perfoli-
atum), which is one of the best for honey in the Northern States and
Canada.

All the bonesets are autumn bloomers, and the honey is usually mixed
witli that of heartsease, asters, goldenrod, Spanish needles and other
plants blooming at the same period. Several years ago Professor Beal
made the statement, in the American Bee Journal, that there were twenty
species or more valuable to the bees. The wide distribution of the group,
together with the regularity of its yield, make it one of special importance
to the beekeeper, although the amount of surplus gathered from boneset
is not often as large as that of many other well-known plants.

Some species of boneset are to be found in almost any kind of situa-
tion, While white snakeroot grows in shady woodlands, other kinds de-

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

■

SH^\^^^B( ^^^J=

irfc

Fig. 28. White snake root.

light in open, sunny situations, along roadsides and in pastures or waste
places. Some do best on high lands, while others thrive in low, wet land.
In places in the Mississippi River bottoms in Illinois, boneset, together
with heartsease and Spanish needle, cover acres of the richest land like a
waving grain field.

An Illinois beekeeper reports Eupatorium serotinum to be one of the
best honey plants he knows.

BOOTJACK, see Spanish Needle.

BORAGE (Borago officinalis).

Borage is a European plant which is cultivated for honey and as an
ornamental. Its blue flowers are very attractive to the bees. The follow-
ing quotations indicate its value to the beekeeper:

"The period of blooming is from June 20 to cold weather. Where
there arc no plants for bees to work upon, borage does very well; but

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

when white clover and hasswood are in bloom, bees will forsake the
borage for them. As cold weather begins to come, they swarm to the
borage. It is a good honey plant, when there are no plants of greater
importance in bloom." — Fisk Bangs, American Bee Journal, page 84,
1878.

"In Practicher Wegweiser, page 280, Herr Willhelm says that in
response to the general cry, 'Sow borage,' he has been sowing it for
years and now has it in abundance. How the bees do hum upon it!
But, alas! now that he has it in such abundance that it shows its char-
acter in the surplus honey, he rinds it such as no customer wants, and
says it is as black as a certain 'gentleman' with whom beekeepers do
not generally care to have dealings. The task of getting it now rooted
out is a difficult one."— American Bee Journal, page 103. 1908.

BOX ELDER (Negundo aceroides or Acer negundo).

The box elder, or ash-leaved maple, is a near relative of the maples,

Blossoms of tlic box elder

and is sometimes included with them. Fig. 29 shows the staminate blos-
soms of box elder. As in the willows, the stamens are borne on one plant
and the pistils on another.

The box elder is found from New England and Southern Canada west

48 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

to Dakota and southward. It is also common in California. Apparently
its range does not extend as far southward as other maples. It is very
commonly planted for windbreaks and shade in the prairie States of the
Central West. Some honey is yielded by the blossoms, and honeydew is
often secreted by aphis feeding on the leaves. While not generally re-
garded as especially valuable, its season is such that its addition to honey-
producing flora is important. The blooms come very soon after soft
maple, in April.

BOSTON IVY (Ampelopsis veitchii).

The Boston ivy is a well-known climbing vine, clinging to the walls of
brick and stone buildings in all our northern cities. The flowers are very
attractive to the bees in midsummer and the bees store some honey from
this source. The quality is rather inferior.

BRASSICA, see Mustard.

BRAZIL or LOGWOOD (Condalia obovata).

Brazil or logwood is a spiny shrub, or small tree, common to Western
Texas. It occurs in the lower Rio Grande and is reported as a source of
honey at Brownsville. There it is smaller than farther north and west.
In places it forms very dense thickets, called "chaparral." Beekeepers
report it as important in the fall, yielding a dark honey. The honey is
said to be of fine flavor, despite its dark color. The flow at Beeville is
reported as being very rapid. At Goliad, W. C. Collier reports Brazil as
the best all-round honey plant. He states that it blooms sometimes in
spring and sometimes in fall. Again, it sometimes blooms several times,
and yields at irregular periods. At Crystal City, the honey from Brazil
is reported as rank flavored, exactly opposite from reports of quality in
eastern parts of its range.

BRITISH COLUMBIA— Honey Plants of.

Indigenous honey-yielding flowers, Kootenays, B. C. :

Willows — Glauceus or pussy willow (Salix discolor). River bank wil-
low (Salix longifolia). Flower in March and April and probably yield
more pollen than honey.

Dandelion (Taraxicum officinale). Flowers in April and May.

Bearberry — Kinnikinnik Arctostaphylos Uva ursi).

Blueberry (Vaccinium ovalifolium).

Huckleberry (Gaylussacia resinosa).

Choke cherry (Prunus demissa).

Bird or pin cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica).

Bearberry — Kinnikinnik (Arctostaphylos Uva ursi).

Wild raspberry (Rubus). Flowers in June.

Dogbane — Milkweed (Apocynum androsaemifolium). Spreading dog-
bane.

Snowberry (Symphoricarpos racemosus).

Wolfberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis).

Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense). Flowers in June and July.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Willow herb or fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium).

Goldenrod (Soladago canadense). Flowers in July and August.

— W. J. Sheppard. American Bee Journal, Nov., 1917.

BROOMWEED (Gutierrezia texana).

Broomweed is a common fall plant over a large portion of Texas, on
the prairies. According to Scholl it yields well in September and October.
The honey is dark and strong and valued mostly for winter stores. In the
November 1, 1906, issue of American Bee Journal he writes as follows con-
cerning this plant :

"Broomweed is still in bloom, the pastures being one sheet of
golden yellow. Cold nights and cool, windy days have interfered with
the bees somewhat, but there are yet many warm days when the bees
are very busy. Some of my bees have stored a good deal of surplus
from this plant, for this time of the year — about 20 pounds per colony.
The honey is a golden yellow and has a somewhat strong taste, a little
bitter, and hence is not a suitable honey for market."

BUCKBRUSH, see Indian Currant, also Snowberry and Dogbane.
BUCKEYE (Aesculus).

The buckeye or horse chestnut
is widely distributed and well
known because of the poisonous
properties of the peculiar nut-like
fruit, everywhere called buckeye.
There are several species, with
minor differences. The photo-
graph is of the blossoms of the
Ohio buckeye (Aesculus glabra).
This species occurs from New
England west to Iowa, Kansas and
Oklahoma and south to Georgia,
Alabama and east Texas. There is
a species common on the Pacific
Coast known as the California
buckeye (Aesculus californica).
This species is reported as yield-
ing considerable honey in some lo-
calities in California, and some
beekeepers think it is poisonous to
the bees.

The buckeye is widely men-
tioned as a honey plant, though
there are few localities where it is
sufficiently abundant to be import-
ant as a source of surplus.

Fig. 30. Blossoms and leaves of buckeye
horse-chestnut.

50 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

BUCKTHORN (Rhamnus).

The common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) is a hedge plant intro-
duced from Europe and commonly cultivated. It has become naturalized
in some localities.

In California there are three species reported as important sources of
honey. The coffee berry (Rhamnus californica) is an evergreen shrub
4 to 6 feet high, with olive-like leaves, common to the Coast Ranges and
the Sierra Nevada Mountains and southward. Called also pigeon berry.

Richter reports this species as yielding an amber honey of very heavy
body in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains and also in San
Diego County. Honey of good flavor, slightly cathartic.

The redberry (Rhamnus crocea) occurs in the Napa Range and south-
ward near the coast to southern California, according to Jepson. It is
tree-like, with a distinct trunk, sometimes several stems clustered, 5 to 12
feet high. Richter reports it of special value for early breeding.

The Cascara Sagrada or Chittam (Rhamnus purshiana) occurs in
northern California, where it is reported as an important source of amber
honey. In the timbered portions of western Oregon, Washington and
British Columbia, it is reported as one of the chief sources of honey. The
honey is amber, with a delightful aroma. When fully ripened it is too
thick to extract readily, and there is much breakage of combs. The flow
begins in May and the honey is usually mixed with that from other plants.
The blooming period lasts about a month.

"We get more honey from cascara than from any other one plant
in this vicinity. It is so dark as a comb honey that it is a poor seller
to those who go on looks alone. We prefer it on our table to any
other honey. I have customers who will take no other. It is not purga-
tive, but one of the best remedies for chronic constipation known. I
have never known any of the pure article to granulate under any con-
ditions." — A. D. Herold, Gleanings, Jan. 1, 1910.

BUCKWHEAT (Fagopyrum esculentum).

Buckwheat is a native to Asia, which was early introduced into
America from Europe by the colonists. It has become an important field
crop, and buckwheat flour is a staple in American markets. It is often
sowed as a catch crop on lands that have not been ready for early sown
crops, or where the first sowed crop failed to secure a stand. It requires
a short season in which to reach maturity and is usually sown in June or
July. It needs a cool, moist climate for best results and often fails to
yield a satisfactory crop of grain or to secrete nectar in the hot and dry
atmosphere of Iowa and Nebraska.

It is well suited to sandy or other light soils and is grown exten-
sively in the sandy lands of northern Michigan.

Buckwheat is an important source of surplus honey in the region of
the Great Lakes. Ontario, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan
are the States from which come the great crops of buckwheat honey.
Although the crop is often grown further west, the amount of honey
secured is very disappointing in most cases. The author corresponded with
a number of prominent Iowa beekeepers, and found only one who had

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

secured surplus honey from buckwheat to any extent, and his was mixed
with other sources to such an extent as to have a very different color and
flavor from that which is secured unmixed.

It was given a trial at the Texas Agricultural College for a period of
three years. It failed to meet expectations as a honey plant on account of
the hot and dry weather which prevails there during most summers. It
was reported as blooming profusely, but not yielding nectar.

In New York it is regarded as one of the best honey plants. The late
E. W. Alexander, writing in Gleanings, stated that he had kept 200 colonies
in a location with scarcely 100 acres of buckwheat within four miles, yet

S^&fci

^5%

Fig. 31. Buckwheat field in bloom,
had harvested 15 to 20 pounds of section honey from buckwheat per colony.
He stated that it yielded best with cool nights followed by a clear sky
and a hot sun. with little or no wind. Under such conditions it secreted
nectar Ereely from about 9 a. m. to 2 p. m. No bees would be seen on it
earlier or later in the day. On one occasion, when there were 1,500 acres
of buckwheat within reach of his bees, they were gathering fast at the
beginning of the August harvest. A thunder storm caused the tempera-
ture to drop 21 degrees in less than half an hour. The weather remained
cloudy and windy, with a temperature of about 65 degrees, for eleven days.
During that time the bees gathered no honey, and destroyed much of their
brood. — Gleanings, March 15, 1907.

The Ontario Association's Crop Report Committee reported an aver-
age per colony production of 23 pounds from the more than ten thousand
colonies belonging to its members for two vears in succession. A writer

52 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

in the American Bee Journal asserts that in a favorable season an acre of
buckwheat will yield 25 pounds of honey daily, and that a strong colony
within half a mile of a field, will store six to eight pounds per day. Alex-
ander kept as high as 700 colonies in one yard, at his home near Delanson,
New York, and secured satisfactory crops, though, of course, there was
a large acreage within reach.

Quality of the Honey

Honey from buckwheat is very dark and has a strong flavor. People
who are accustomed to light and mild honey of the clover type seldom like
it. On the other hand, residents of the west, who were raised in the buck-
wheat country of eastern New York, regard the clover honey as insipid
and not to be compared to the dark honey with which they were familiar
in childhood. Buckwheat honey has a peculiar flavor, slightly nauseating
to one unaccustomed to it.

During a heavy flow from this source there is a strong odor present
in the apiary which can be detected for some distance. J. L. Byer, in the
American Bee Journal, tells of a case where a farmer and his wife spent
some time looking for dead chickens in the vicinity of the hives, mistak-
ing the odor of the new nectar, which the bees were bringing in, for that
of a dead fowl. (Page 306, October, 1908.)

Buckwheat varies somewhat in density, acording to weather condi-
tions at the time it is gathered. When fully ripened on the hives it is
sometimes so thick as to be hard to extract. Some beekeepers report
honey from this source which weighs as much as fourteen pounds to the
gallon. On the other hand, there are numerous reports of very thin honey,
probably because of being extracted before fully ripened.

Buckwheat honey is used largely in France to make a gingerbread
"pain d'epices," in which the peculiar odor and flavor of the buckwheat is
very noticeable and is much liked by those who are accustomed to it.

BUCKWHEAT TREE, see Ti-Ti.
BUFFALO BEAN, see Loco Weed.
BULL BAY, see Magnolia.
BUM-WOOD, see Poisonwood.

BURDOCK (Arctium lappa).

The burdock is a coarse, disagreeable weed, introduced from Europe
and Asia. It is now common over the United States. The burrs fasten
themselves to the clothing or to passing animals, and in this manner the
seeds are spread. It is a biennial, common in barn lots and waste places.

The burdock is one of the many plants on which the bees work to
some extent that never count for very much in the total production of
the hive. The sources of surplus are comparatively few in number, but
there are hundreds of plants from which the bees get a taste of honey or
pollen. The presence or absence of these minor plants makes a great
difference in the value of a locality for honey production. If there are
enough of them to keep the bees busy, and sustain the colony between

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

flows when the good yield comes, the bees are in the best possible condi-
tion to take advantage of the opportunity.

Fig. 32. Burdock.

BUR CLOVER (Medicago denticulata). Wild.

Bur clover is a relative of alfalfa which is very common over much
of California. The burs are produced abundantly and the plant is prized
as a stock forage. The plant, although spreading like a weed, is valuable
both to live stock and for bees. The principal blooming period is from
March till June, though it blooms to some extent at all seasons.

Richter lists it as especially valuable to stimulate early breeding, but
states that surplus is occasionally harvested from this source and that
it is fully equal to filaree or pin clover as a honey plant.

BUR-MARIGOLD, see Spanish Needle.

BUSH HONEYSUCKLE (Diervilla Lonicera).

The bush honeysuckle is a common bush shrub in the northeastern
States. It is to be found from Newfoundland south to North Carolina and
west to Minnesota. It is reported as common in New England and On-
tario. In Northern Minnesota, where it is abundant, beekeepers report

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

that the bees work it eagerly when the weather will permit. The flowers
are not showy, but the profuse bloom is rich in nectar. The blooming
period begins in June and, in some places, continues as late as August.

BRUNNICHIA.

The tendril-bearing smartweed, or ladies' ear drops (Brunnichia cirr-

hosa) is a perennial climbing vine, common to the southeastern States.
It ranges from southern Illinois and Arkansas to South Carolina and
Florida. An Arkansas beekeeper reports that the plant is abundant in his
locality and covered with bees.

H. B. Parks reports it grows on the low lands of Southeast Texas,
where it blooms from March till August and yields some surplus.

BUFFALO CURRANT (Ribes aureum).

The yellow flowers of the buffalo currant are very fragrant and ap-
parently contain much nectar. The writer has often noticed the bees
working on the blossoms, but since the corolla tubes are half an inch or
more in length he supposed they were getting only pollen. A close ex-
amination showed that the bees were unmistakably getting nectar from
this source and that the tubes had been slit entirely down one side by
some unknown agency. Whether this is a common occurrence the author
cannot say.

Blossoms of the button-bush.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 55

BUTTER WEED or GROUNDSEL (Senecio).

The groundsels are herbs with alternate leaves and mostly yellow
flowers, common to the northeastern States. The bees are reported as
working upon them freely, but they are probably of minor importance.

BUTTON-BUSH (Cephalanthus occidentals).

The button-bush, also called button willow, is a bushy shrub growing
in marshy places, stagnant shallow water, and along streams, from New
England to Texas and west to California. This shrub, or in places a small
tree, has a very wide range and is found in most of the States where
honey production is important. Bulletin No. 102 of the Texas Agricul-
tural College, reports it as common throughout Texas, and the bulletin
relating to honey plants of California (217 Experiment Station), records
it as a good honey plant in California. It is listed in the catalog of plants
of nearly every State and of Canada, which the author has consulted. It
is also said to occur in Asia, and possibly Africa.

Our readers who live in the vicinity of wet lands are likely to find
specimens near at hand. In a few sections it is sufficiently abundant to
be an important addition to the midsummer flora. It is reported as more
particularly valuable in the overflowed lands along the Mississippi River.
The bees seek it eagerly when in bloom, and in places where it is plentiful
it is regarded as of considerable value as a honey plant.

The honey is light in color and mild in flavor, according to published
reports. Fig. 33 shows a near view of the flowers, which are crowded to-
gether in dense heads, giving them the appearance of cotton balls.

The shrub is very bushy, with an abundant foliage. It is reported as
reaching a height of 40 feet in California. In Alabama it is recorded as
a shrub of from 6 to 15 feet in height, which is more like its appearance in
Iowa, according to the author's observation. Here it is rather a small
bush, not much higher than a man's head, and as far across, with many
branches from the ground.

The blooming period is July and August, according to locality, a sea-
son when additions to the honey-producing flora are most welcome.

BUTTON-WEED (Diodia teres).

The button-weed occurs on sandy lands from New England to Florida
and west to Kansas and Texas. Scholl lists it as yielding honey well
during drought in Texas, but not as a source of surplus.

BUTTON WILLOW, see Button Bush.

56 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

CABBAGE (Brassica oleracea).

Cabbage belongs to a group of valuable honey plants, including mus-
tard, turnip, etc. In the seed belt of California, where grown for seed
on a large scale, cabbage is valuable. The late J. S. Harbison said of it:

"Cabbage blossoms afford a considerable amount of honey of a

fine quality and flavor." — Beekeeper's Directory.

CACTUS, see Prickly Pear.
CALICO BUSH, see Laurel.
CALIFORNIA HOLLY, see Christmas Berry. __

CALIFORNIA— Honey Sources of.

Honey plants yielding a surplus during an average season:

Yucca (Hesperoyucca whipplei).

Willow (Salix sp.)

Wild buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum).

Berberis pinnata.

Black mustard (Brassica nigra).

English mustard (Brassica sp.)

Rocky Mountain honey plant (Cleome integrifolia).

Jackass clover (Wislizenia refracta).

Christmas berry (Heteromeles arbutifolia).

Pear (Pyrus communis).
Apple (Pyrus malus).
Wild alfalfa (Lotus glaber).
Bur clover (Medicago denticulata).
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) .
White sweet clover (Melilotus alba).
Yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis).
Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus).
Alfilerilla (Erodium cicutarium).
White stem filaree (Erodium moschatum).
Orange (Citrus aurantium).
Tree of heaven (Ailanthus glandulosa).
Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba).
(Laurel) Sumac (Rhus laurina).
Pepper tree (Schinus molle).
California buckeye (Aesculus californica).
Coffee berry (Rhamnus californica).
Cascara sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana).
Wild hollyhock (Sidalcea malvaeflora).
Prickly pear (Opuntia lindheimeri occidentalis).
Lemon scented gum (Eucalyptus citriodora).
White stringy-bark (Eucalyptus eugenioides).
Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus).

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 57

Red gum (Eucalyptus rostrata).
Manna gum (Eucalyptus viminalis).
Blue thistle (Cryngium articulatum).
Manzanita (Arctostaphylos).
Yerba Santa (Eriodictyon trichocalix).
Caterpillar phacelia (Phacelia hispida).
Valley vervenia (Phacelia tenacetifolia).
Carpet grass (Lippia nodiflora).
Horehound (Marrubium vulgare).
Peppermint (Mentha spicata).
White sage (Salvia apiana).
Thistle sage (Salvia carduacea).
Annual sage (Salvia columbariae).
Purple sage (Salvia leucophylla).
Black sage (Salvia mellifera).
Creeping sage (Salvia sonomensis).
Blue curls (Trichostema lanceolatum).
Button willow (Cephalanthus occidentalis).
Xapa thistle (Centaurea melitensis).
Spike weed (Centromadia pungens).
Bull thistle (Cirsium lanceolatum).
Common sunflower (Helianthus annuus).
Coast tarweed (Hemizonia corymbosa).
Tarweed (Hemizonia fasciculata).
Yellow tarweed (Hemizonia virgata).
"Yellow Tops" (Hemizonia).
Goldenrod (Solidago occidentalis).
Rabbit brush (while) (Chrysothamnus nauseosus hypolluca).

Cultivated plants that would rank with the above had they a wider
distribution :

Common century plant (Agave americana).
White clover (Trifolium repens).
American linden (Tilia americana).
Tamarisk (Tamaris, Eucalyptus calophylla).
Yate tree (Eucalyptus cornuta).
Sugar gum (Eucalyptus corynocalyx).

Cider gum (Eucalyptus Gunnii, Eucalyptus Lehmannii).
White ironbark (Eucalyptus leucoxylon).
Spotted gum (Eucalyptus maculata).
Honey scented gum (Eucalyptus ficifolia).
Red boxtree (Eucalyptus polyanthemos).
Red mahogany gum (Eucalyptus resinifera).
Swamp mahogany gum (Eucalyptus robusta).
Broad leaved ironbark (Eucalyptus siderophloia).
Victoria ironbark (Eucalyptus sideroxylon).
Apple scented gum (Eucalyptus Stuartiana).
Forest gray gum (Eucalyptus tereticornia).

58 AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

Honej' plants occasionally yielding a surplus :

Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis).

Live oak (Quercus agrifolia).

Blue oak (Quercus douglassii).

Valley oak (Quercus lobata).

Mistletoe (Phoradendron).

Common mustard (Brassica campestris).

Wild radish (Raphanus sativus, Escallonia montevidensis).

Wild currant (Ribes sanguineum).

Greasewood (Adenostema fasciculatum).

Castor oil plant (Ricinus communis).

Islay or holly leaved cherry (Cerasus illicifolia).

Bitter almond (Prunus amygdalus).

Apricot (Prunus amygdalus).

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca).

Cherry (Prunus cerasus).

Plum and prune (Prunus domestica).

Peach (Prunus persica).

Raspberry (Rubus strigosus).

Cultivated bla'ckberry (Rubus villosus).

Himalayan berry (Rubus villosus var).

Common wild blackberry (Rubus vitifolius).

Black wattle (Acacia decurrens mollis).

Golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha).

Rattleweed (Astragalus).

Yellow sweet clover (Melilotus indica).

Locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia).

Sour clover (Trifolium fucatum).

Alsike (Trifolium hybridum).

Gorse (Ulex europaeus).

Mandarin (Citrus nobilis, Croton californicus).

Turkey mullein (Eremocarpus setigerus, Ceanothus cuneatus).

Wild lilac (Ceanothus, Rhamnus corcea).

Grape (Vitis vinifera).

Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum, Godetia bottae).

California waterweed (Jussiaea californica).

Sweet fennel (Foeniculum vulgare).

Madrona (Arbutus menziesii).

Oregon ash (Fraxinus oregona).

Olive (Olea europaea).

Morning glory (Convolvulus arvensis, Gilia chamissonis).

Hill verveilia (Phaceli a distans, Phacelia ramosissima).

Heliotrope (Heliotropium).

Lawn plant (Lippia repens).

Wild verbena (Verbena prostrata).

Verba Buena (Micromeria chamissonis).

Hedge nettle (Stachys bullata).

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 59"

California figwort (Scrophularia californica).

Simpson's honey plant (Scrophularia vernalis).

Watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris).

Cantaloupe (Cucumis mello).

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus).

Winter squash (Cucurbita moschata).

Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo).

Globe artichoke (Cynar a Scolymus).

Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus).

Mayweed (Anthemis cotula).

Beggar ticks (Bidens frondosa).

Spanish needle (Bidens pilosa, Coreopsis gigantea).

Cultivated plants that would rank with the above had they a wider
distribution :

Mignonette (Reseda odorata).

White tree clover (Cystisus proliferus, Melilotus bicolor).

Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima).

Honey plants not known to yield a surplus :

Corn (Zea mays).

Tanbark oak (Quercus densiflora).

Virgin's bower (Clematis ligusticifolia, Clematis).

California laurel (Umbellularia californica).

California poppy (Eschscholtzia californica).

Cream cups (Platystemon californicus).

Canyon gooseberry (Ribes menziesii).

(Western) chokecherry (Cerasus demissa).

Rose (Rosa californica).

Wild sweet pea (Lathyrus splendens).

Lupin (Lupinus affinis).

Nonesuch (Medicago lupulina) .

Red clover (Trifolium pratense).

Spring vetch (Vicia sativa).

Maple (Acer negundo).

Virginia creeper (Ampelopsis quinquefolia).

California wild grape (Vitis californica).

Small flowered mallow (Malva parviflora).

White mallow (Malva sylvestris, Helianthemum scoparium).

Milkweed (Asclepias mexicana).

Milkweed (Asclepias speciosa).

Dodder (Cuscuta).

Common heliotrope (Heliotropium curassavicum).

Tournefortia heliotropoides.

Tule mint (Mentha canadensis).

Pennyroyal (Monardella lanceolata).

Loving sage (Salvia amabilis).

Winter savory (Satureia montana.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Stachys ajugoides.
Stachys albens.
Veronica andersonii.

Common plantain (Plantego major).
Wild honeysuckle (Lonicera).
Blue elderberr\- (Sambucus glauca).

Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus), Encelia californica, Eriophyllum con-
fertiflorum, Heterotheca grandiflora, Malacothris saxatilis.

Common sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus, Sonchus maruanthus).

— M. C. Richter, Bulletin 217, Agricultural Experiment Station, Cal.

CALIFORNIA POPPY, see Poppy.

CAMPANILLA (Ipomoea).

The campanillas, or Christmas bells, are plants similar to our American
morning-glory, which are common to Cuba and adjacent countries. The
vines are perennial and grow to considerable size, covering wayside fences,
trees, etc. The name Christmas bells, applied to white bellflower, comes

Fig. 3.5. Catalpa blossoms,
from the fact that the height of the blooming period is reached near the
holiday season. There are two species, known as white campanilla (Ipo-
moea sidaefolia), and the pink bellflower (Ipomoea triloba).. The latter
blooms a month or two before the white variety.

The honey, according to Root's ABC, is equal to alfalfa or sage in
color and flavor, the comb built during a campanilla flow being pearly
white and the wax, when melted, as white as tallow.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

(.1

CAMPHOR WEED, see Blue Curls.
CANADA THISTLE (Carduus arvensis).

The Canada thistle is a most troublesome weed, naturalized from
Europe and widely spread through Eastern America. It is a perennial
plant, growing from one to two feet high. The roots creep extensively,
thus gradually spreading the plant to surrounding areas. It is very per-
sistent and difficult to eradicate. It is common in fields, pastures and along
roadsides.

It is the source of a light honey of good quality. It is most frequently
reported as a source of surplus in Ontario and the Eastern States.
CANADIAN HEMP, see Dogbane.
CARPET GRASS (Lippia).

The carpet grass of California (Lippia repens) is a native of Chili

which has been introduced on the
Pacific Coast and widely culti-
vated as a lawn plant. It is known
as lawn plant, carpet grass and
lippia. It is much sought by the
bees and is the source of some
honey, a surplus of two cases per
colony being not unusual, accord-
ing to C. D. Stuart. The honey,
he states, is light amber, heavy
body, and similar in quality to al-
falfa. The plant is of trailing
habit, spreading by rooting of
runners like strawberries. Fig. 34.
Lippia nodiflora, mat grass or
fog fruit, is native to California,
and. according to Richter, is the
principal source of surplus honey
in the vicinity of Sacramento.
Three-fourths of the surplus
honey from Sutter County he
reports as from this source. There
it begins to bloom in May and
lasts till frost. According to Jep-
son, the plant is esteemed as a
covering for levees, to resist ero-
sion. It is especially valuable on
overflowed lands after the water
recedes. The honey is said to be
light in color, mild in flavor, and
to granulate readily.

CARROT (Daucus carota).

The carrot is a well-known
garden vegetable which came from

Fig. 34. Carpet grass or Lippia.

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

Europe and is everywhere cultivated in gardens. It has escaped and be-
come naturalized over a wide scope of country. It yields some honey,
and where grown on a large scale for seed or for the roots, it is valuable
for the bees.

We quote Richter as follows :

"Honey white, with a characteristic flavor, and granulating within
a few months after extraction. A most excellent yielder in the Sacra-
mento Valley, where it is considered to surpass the onion as a honey
plant." — Honey Plants of California.

CASCARA SAGRADA, see Buckthorn.
CASSIA, see Partridge Pea.

CASTOR BEAN (Ricinus communis).

The castor bean, or castor oil plant, is often cultivated for the oil con-

Fig. 36. Catnip.

tents of the beans. Large areas were planted during the late war, espe-
cially in Texas. The plant has escaped from cultivation and become nat-
uralized in the Southeastern States. It is generally planted for ornament
over a large scope of country. It is reported as very attractive to the
bees and of some value for honey, where sufficiently abundant. Scholl
lists it in the Texas bulletin as yielding well in favorable seasons. Richter
lists it also for California.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 63

CASTOR OIL PLANT, see Castor Bean.

CATALPA (Catalpa speciosa).

The catalpa tree produces a great profusion of bloom. The blossoms
are so large that a bee can readily crawl right into the heart of the flower.

The testimony of competent observers gives an unqualified indorse-
ment of the catalpa as a nectar producer, though there is slight mention
of it in our literature. The fact that large areas of these trees are being
planted for timber, in many places, makes them of special interest to the
beekeeper. The catalpa, or Indian bean (Catalpa speciosa) is a native of
the woodlands of southern Indiana and Tennessee, west to Arkansas. This
form, known as the hardy catalpa, is also widely planted in Iowa, Illinois,
Kansas, Nebraska and other States. There is another similar species
closely resembling it which occurs further south, and is common in the
Gulf States.

The leaves are heart-shaped and the blossoms are large, nearly white,
and grow in large clusters, as shown in Fig. 35. The tree grows very rapidly
furnishing desirable timber for fence posts, telephone poles, railroad ties,
etc. In Kansas, large areas have been planted by the railroad companies
for the purpose of growing ties. Beekeepers situated near such plantings
should find the trees of material value.

CATNIP (Nepeta Cataria).

Catnip, or catmint, was introduced from Europe, and cultivated in herb
gardens. It is thus an escaped introduction and has become very widely
naturalized in the United States, although it is generally considered a
weed. It is usually found only in the vicinity of buildings and gardens,
and seldom spreads into the fields to any extent. Almost all of us remem-
ber the popularity of catnip tea among the grandmothers of an earlier
generation. The plant is a perennial, growing from 2 to 3 feet high, with
flowers in clusters, the more conspicuous ones being in a terminal spike.
The blooming season is rather long, and the bees visit it very freely. Ap-
parently, the plant yields much nectar, although it is seldom present in
sufficient quantity to test its real value as a honey producer. If it had
sufficient value for other purposes to justify its cultivation, it would prob-
ably be an important source of nectar.

CATSCLAW, see Acacia.

CAT'S EAR (Hypochaeris radicata).

Cat's ear, sometimes called California dandelion, is abundant west of
the Cascade Mountains in Washington and south to California. It is a
naturalized European weed in pastures and fields, blooming in midsummer.
According to H. A. Scullen, it supplies considerable nectar in Washington.
It is amber color and in some localities darkens the fireweed honey.

64 AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

CELASTRUS Scandens, see Bittersweet.

CELERY (Apium graveolens).

The blossoms of the cultivated celery yield nectar abundantly, and
where grown for seed, it is a valuable source of honey. In the seed belt
of California it yields well, as the following will indicate:

"I saw the hives stacked five or six high and on opening them
we found them jammed full of honey; in fact, the bees should have had
room long before, but Mr. Gear had had difficulty in getting help, and
the bees had got ahead of him. The colonies were so crowded that
the space between the frames and the tops of the hives were built full
of burr combs. All this honey was from celery and parsnip. * * *

On our arrival at the field it was easy J_ . '^__

to see that there was honey in the

blossoms. In the sunlight the little

drops of nectar gleamed like myriads ^

of little diamonds. * * * I tasted CfM^

some of the raw nectar from the cel-
ery. Sure enough, there was quite a
strong suggestion of celery flavor." —
E. R. Root, Gleanings, Nov., 1919, page
712.

CENTAUREA.

There are several species of centaurea
which yield nectar. The common corn-
flower of the gardens (Centaurea Cyanus),
also known as blue-bottle, bluet, ragged
sailor or batchelor's button, is a good
honey plant. The bees work upon it from
morning till night, though it is seldom suf-
ficiently abundant to be important as a
source of surplus. Richter lists this spe-
cies from California as commonly culti-
vated. He also lists the Napa thistle, or
tacalote (Centaureau melitensis), as yield-
ing some honey of light amber color, good
flavor and fair body. This species is known
in the southeastern States as Lombardy
star thistle. (See Star Thistle.)

CENTURY PLANT (Agave).

The agaves are an important group of
long-lived perennial plants native to Trop-
ical America, Mexico and, to some extent,
to the southwestern United States. Each
plant has a cluster of numerous fleshy
leaves and, when blooming, a tall flower
stalk. There are at least five species na-
tive to the United States. The range is
southern New Mexico, Arizona and Cali-

4£-&9Bb

Fig. 37. The century plant is
slow to bloom, but is a strik-
ing sight when it does so.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 65

fornia. The best known is the common century plant (Agave americana),

an introduced species, cultivated for ornament. This is a conspicuous
hgure of ornamental planting in southern California.

In Mexico some species of agaves furnish fibre, while others are the
source of pulque and mescal, intoxicating drinks much used in the country
below the Rio Grande.

The plants do not bloom until they are several years old. The flower
stalks grow very rapidly and reach a height of 25 or 30 feet within a few
weeks' time. When in bloom they secrete nectar in abundance, and the
bees swarm over them in great numbers. As will be seen by the illustra-
tion, the flower stalks support innumerable blossoms, so that a single
plant will yield a considerable amount of honey. The fact that the plants
are nowhere abundant in this country, together with the long period which
must elapse before they bloom, makes it improbable that they will ever be
of much importance to American beekeepers.

CEPHALANTHUS, see Button Bush.
CHAM1SE, see Greasewood.

CHAPMAN HONEY PLANT (Echinops sphoerocephalus).

The Chapman honey plant was introduced from France about 1885.
The bee journals of 1886 and 1887 devote a large amount of space to a dis-
cussion of this plant. It was brought prominently to the attention of
American beekeepers by Hiram Chapman, of Versailles, New York, who
planted about three acres of it at that place. He made such glowing re-
ports of the plant at tin- National Beekeepers' Convention that a com-
mittee of prominent men was appointed to visit the Chapman home and
report on the new plant at the convention of the following year. They
made a lengthy and very favorable report, which is published in full on
page 28 of the American Bee Journal for January 5, 1887.

Numerous beekeepers secured seed, and so attractive did the plant
prove to the bees that favorable reports appeared frequently in the
columns of the journals for the next few years. However, the great
expectations were not realized, for it soon disappeared, and is seldom
mentioned in current literature. The following quotation from Dr. C. C.
Miller, which appeared in Cleanings, in December, 1918. is probably a cor-
rect estimate of the value of the plant :

"After reading the British Bee Journal of September 26, I should
have made a vigorous effort to secure a supply of seed of Echinops
Sphoerocephalus, if I had no previous experience with the plant. No
bee plant that I have ever grown was so attractive to the bees. When-
ever the weather was favorable the heads were crowded. I have
counted fourteen or fifteen bees on one at the same time.'

This is the Chapman honey plant that had a big boom in this
country a number of years ago; but it is not heard of now, and is not
included among the honey plants in the bee books. Upon its introduc-
tion I planted quite a patch of it, and like Mr. Harwood, I never saw
the bees so thick on any other plant. But close observation showed
that the bees were not in eager haste in their usual way when getting
a big yield, but were in large part idle. It looked a little as if the

66 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

plant had some kind of stupefying effect on them. At any rate, I
should not take the trouble to plant it now, if land and seed were fur-
nished free.

CHAYOTE CSechium edule).

Chayote is a vegetable of the squash family, commonly grown in the
American Tropics. It is found in Mexico, Cuba, Porto Rico and other
countries in that latitude. There has been some discussion of the plant in
the bee magazines and occasionally the plants have been grown in Ameri-
can gardens. That it is a valuable honey plant there can be but little
doubt. J. J. Siebert, writing from Porto Rico to the American Bee Journal,
says that it is all that it is claimed to be, and that as a source of nectar it
has only one rival, the banana, blossoming all the year round. The follow-
ing is from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28:

'As in other vegetables of the squash family, the stamens and pis-
tils are in separate flowers, pollination taking place through the
agency of insects. To attract these, the flowers of both kinds, but es-
pecially the pistillate, yield abundant nectar, which is secreted in
ten glands, two at the base of each of the lobes of the corolla. In
most of the countries into which it has been introduced, beekeeping
has not been a regular industry, and the value of the chayote as a
source of honey has not been noticed, but the reports of experimenters
in New South Wales contain very emphatic statements on the subject:

'When the plant is in flower I have noticed that the vines were
swarming with bees, and as flowers are scarce in the autumn, the plant
will no doubt be valuable as a honey-producer.

'The plant, which spreads over a large area, commenced flowering
at the close of the year, and has been well laden with mellifluous blos-
soms ever since. The bees are extremely fond of the chocho, and with
the apiarist the newly-introduced plant must become a strong favor-
ite.'

"The chayote differs from many cucurbitaceae in producing numer-
ous flowers on each fertile branch. It has long been known that the
flowers of this family are rich in honey, but from the standpoint of
the beekeeper they have been considered of little importance, because
seldom accessible in sufficient amount, though in the United States
fields are recognized as good bee pastures. The chayote seems to make
up by numbers what the flowers lack in size, so that the yield of honey
may be larger than in related plants. In addition to this there is the
fact that Sechium is a perennial bloomer in the Tropics, and in the sub-
tropical regions has a very long season. It is thus possible that in the
regions like parts of Florida, where beekeeping is already an estab-
lished industry, the honey-producing qualities of the chayote may be
found of practical account in connection with its other utilities."

CHEROKEE ROSE (Rosa laevigata).

The Cherokee rose is found from the Coast Region of the South At-
lantic States westward through Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisi-
ana to eastern Texas. It occurs also in California. It was in Alabama
that the author first heard it mentioned as a source of nectar. Later re-
ports from California indicated that bees sometimes find nectar from this
source, though most of the roses yield only pollen. H. B. Parks states that
he has observed the bees getting honey from this source, and M. B. Talley,

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

of Victoria, Texas, states that he has observed the bees gathering nectar
from it in Mississippi and also at Victoria. It is probably of little import-
ance, unless it be as a source of pollen.

CHERRY (Prunus cerasus).

The cultivated cherry is closely related to the plum and is equally at-
tractive to the bees. Both bloom at about the same time. In California
the cherry is reported as one of the best of the fruit trees for honey pro-
duction. In the East it is valued principally for stimulating early brood-
rearing.

When the weather is warm and bright during its period of bloom a
great variety of insects may be found on the blossoms. Bees are seldom
strong enough to store surplus from cherry. (See also Wild Cherry.

Fig. 3S. Cherry blossoms.

CHESTNUT (Castanea dentata).

The chestnut is an important timber tree from northern New England
and Ontario to Michigan and along the mountains to Georgia. It is a tall
and slender tree in the forests, but a magnificent spreading shade tree
when grown with sufficient room. It sometimes reaches a height of 90
to 100 feet.

As a source of nectar it is probably nowhere important, though it
yields pollen in June or July. E. E. Hasty, writing in the American Bee

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Journal, from Toledo, Ohio, (Sept., 1906), reports that there the bees
roar on chestnut bloom, even when basswood blooms at the same time.

It is frequently listed as a source of honey, but the author can find
no authoritative records of surplus stored from it.

Bloom of China-tree

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

CHINABERRY, see Wild China.
CHINA TREE (Melia azedarach).

The China tree, also known as pride of India, is a native of the Far
East, probably coming from China. It has become naturalized in the
Southeastern States from the Atlantic Coast to Texas. It is found as far
north as Arkansas and Virginia.

H. B. Parks reports that in Texas it is a fairly good honey plant,

Fig. 40. The chinquapin.

70 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

blooming very early in the season. On account of its early blooming, it
is principally valuable to stimulate early brood rearing.

This tree should not be confused with the Wild China, which see.

CHINESE SUMAC, see Varnish Tree.

CHINQUAPIN (Castanea pumila).

The chinquapin is a shrub or small tree common from New Jersey
and southern Pennsylvania southward to Missouri and Texas. It is well
known to the beekeepers in parts of Alabama, Georgia and north Florida,
where it flowers in May. In Arkansas, it is a large tree, reaching a
height of fifty feet in some cases.

In some localities beekeepers report good crops of honey from chin-
quapin, but the quality is inferior. It is dark and strong, with a bitter
taste. Some use it for feeding to replace the better grades of honey which
may be taken from the bees. In color it looks like New Orleans molasses,
and a sample, in the author's collection for several years, shows no ten-
dency to granulation.

CHITTAM, see Buckthorn.
CHOCTAW ROOT, see Dogbane.
CHOKE CHERRY, see Wild Cherry.

CHRISTMAS BERRY, or CALIFORNIA HOLLY (Heteromeles arbuti-
folia).

The Christmas berry is known also as toy-on or tollon berry, as well
as California holly. It is common along the streams and on the mountain-
sides of California, where it flowers in June and July. It has white flow-
ers and the bright red berries ripen in late autumn. The berries, accord-
ing to C. D. Stuart, are acid and slightly astringent, though not unpleas-
ant. He states that the berries were eaten by the Indians as a kind of
salad, and that a wine-red drink is sometimes made from them after an
old Spanish-Californian recipe. The plant is much used for Christmas
decoration on the Pacific Coast.

According to Richter, the plant is the source of a thick amber honey
of decided flavor, which candies with a coarse grain, within two or three
months after extraction. He reports surplus from this source in Monte-
rey, Colusa and Nevada Counties, California.

Jepson gives the range as "Throughout the coast ranges and Sierra
Nevada, and southward to southern and Lower California. Frequent
along streams and gulches in the lower hills, and also abundant on stony
slopes at middle elevations, especially from Napa to Humboldt Counties.

At Visalia the author heard reports of an average of a case per colony
of surplus honey from this source in the mountains.

CITRUS FRUITS, see Oranges, Lemons, Etc.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

CLEMATIS.

The white clematis is commonly known by the name of virgin's

bower, but also has several other
local names, such as love vine,
traveler's joy and devil's hair.
Fig. 42 shows the delicate white
blossoms and the leat, and Fig.. 43
shows a mass of vines on a road-
side fence.

The range of the plant is from
Nova Scotia and Ontario west to
Lake Winnipeg and Nebraska
and south to Louisiana and Flor-
ida. It may be expected almost
anywhere east of the Mississippi
River. It is a slender climbing
vine on the borders of woods,
roadsides and hedgerows. The
blossoms are white and fragrant,
blooming in midsummer. It is
much sought by the bees, and ap-
parently produces considerable
nectar. It is doubtful whether the
plant is anywhere sufficiently
abundant to make an appreciable
difference in the production of
the hive.

Richter, in his "Honey Plants
of California," reports a related
species, the hill clematis, (Cle-
matis ligusticifolia, as common in the hilly districts almost throughout
California. It is said to produce "a great deal of pollen and probably some
honey," but it is not known to produce surplus. Common also in the Rocky
Mountains.

1 T

i 1

LU,
P f

r Hi*

mW II

■k !>K

%>-jm

Fig.

Blossom ant

white clematis.

CLEOME, see Rocky Mountain Bee Plant.

CLEOMELLA (Cleomella angustifola).

The Cleomella is very similar to the Rocky Mountain bee plant, or
cleome. The flowers are small and yellow and the plant does not grow so
tall as the cleome.

An Oklahoma beekeeper reports as follows :

"It seems to be a remarkable honey plant. It was in bloom for
more than ten weeks during the dry season, and bees worked upon it
freely every morning. The blossom is very fragrant, sweet, yellow,
and is at the branches. It keeps crowding out a new growth and
blooming, forming small purse-shaped seed pods as the blossoms drop.
The growth is much like sweet clover or yellow mustard, but forming
a larger spreading top. Some plants grow four feet tall and three feet

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

across and an inch through at the butt. It is an annual, and no stock
will eat it."— M. S. Hubbell, Helena, Okla. American Bee Journal.
Cleomella is found from Nebraska to Utah and south to Texas.

CLETHRA, see Pepperbush.
CLIMBING MILKWEED, see Bluevine.

CLOVER (Trifolium).

The clovers are by far the most important American honey plants.
If we include the closely related alfalfa and sweet clover, they probably
are the source of more surplus honey than all the other plants together.

Fig 41. The Christmas herry, or California holly.

They are to be found in nearly every part of America and yield nectar
more freely than most plants. The quality of clover hone}' is of the best
and in quantity of yield it ranks high, under favorable conditions. If the
whole group was to be removed, honey production as a commercial propo-
sition would decline to a very large degree.

Clover seems to yield most heavily in the northern part of its range
and gradually declines southward. White clover is the most important
of the group. Alsike is quite as valuable where equally abundant. The
corolla tubes of red clover are usually too deep for the honeybee to reach
the nectar, but occasionally some honey is secured from this source. (See
Red Clover). Each of the clovers is considered separately. (See White
Clover, Alsike, etc.)

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

COCKLEBUR (Xanthium canadense).

The cocklebur is a coarse weed, common in fields and waste places
from Louisiana. In Texas, Scholl lists the plant as a source of pollen in
clinging to clothing and to the hairs of horses and cattle.

There is an occasional report of honey from this source, especially
from Louisiana. In Texas, Scholl lists the plant as a source of pollen in
late fall.

Fig. J.:. White clematis mi a roadside fence.
COFFEE BERRY, see Buckthorn.

COLIMA (Xanthoxylum pterota).

Colima is a species of prickly ash common to the valley of the lower
Rio Grande River. It is a small shrub with zigzag branches, armed with
short curved thorns. The flowers are in axillary clusters.

Colima is reported as yielding but a light flow, of principal value for
stimulative purposes. At AI at his. Texas. \Ym. Atchley reports that he had
a good surplus flow from colima in 1900. The honey was golden and very
thick, weighing I2j4 pounds to the gallon. The flavor was good. Although
he kept bees in that vicinity for a number of years he secured surplus
from Colima but the one time. (See also Prickly Ash).

COLORADO— Honey Plants of.

Practically all surplus is secured from alfalfa and sweet clover, with
an occasional crop from cleome. The rosin weed (Grindelia squarrosa)
yields considerable honey of low grade which often spoils the grade of

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

the white honey by being mixed in the supers. Narcissus, parsley and
prairie clover are prairie plants which attract the bees freely. Wild onion
yields some honey. Dandelion and fruit bloom are important for spring
brood rearing and canteloupes yield some surplus in the Rock Ford region.

Fig. 44. A white clover field in Iowa.

Sunflowers, mentzelia, lupines and loco weeds add something to the sum
total brought to the hives. The white clematis is very common along the
streams, as are willows. Wild currant is common in the mountain can-
yons. Gaura coccinea, the red gaura or ragged lady, is much sought by
the bees for both honey and pollen. Oreocarya is a desert plant which
yields surplus, but which is rapidly disappearing through cultivation of
the land on which it grows.

COLUMBO. see Monument Plant.

COMA (Bumelia lycioides).

Coma is the Mexican name for southern buckthorn (Bumelia lycio-
ides), which is found from Florida north to Virginia and west to Texas.
It is also known as ironwood. It is a spiny shrub with flowers in dense
clusters. In South Texas it is also known as coma and is frequently re-
ported as an important source of honey. It blooms there from October
to February and produces nectar freely. At Rio Hondo, in the lower Rio
Grande Valley, beekeepers reported to the author that a flowof six weeks
from coma, from September to November, was common, and that swarms
issuing as late as December had gathered sufficient honey from this source
to carry them through. The honey is said to be light amber in color and

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

of good quality. The flow varies greatly, depending upon the rains. (See
also Gum-elastic.)

CONE FLOWER (Rudbeckia).

The cone flowers, also called golden glow, are not often mentioned as
honey plants, yet the bees visit them freely and apparently they are the
source of some nectar. The plants are widely distributed east of the
Missouri River and are probably of limited local importance.

Coma in bloom. This species (Bumclia angustifolia) is abundant from Pearsall, Texas, to the
Rio Grande River, blooming from October to February, and is the best of the group.

CONNECTICUT— Honey Sources of.

The clovers, alsike and white clover, occur all over Connecticut and yield
nectar freely. Goldenrod and asters are also important. Buckwheat, wild

76 AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

raspberry and milkweeds all yield surplus under favorable conditions.
Basswood, locust maple and clethra are among the valuable trees and
shrubs. Fruit bloom, willow, etc., are important in early spring. Some
honey from tobacco is reported in Connecticut.

f the cotton plant. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

CORAL BEAN or FRIJOLILLO (Sophora secundiflora).

The coral bean is a small tree common along the streams of Texas
and Xew Mexico, and southward to the interior of Mexico. The Mexicans
call it frijolillo. The beans are said by Coulter to be used by the Indians
as an intoxicant. The beans are round and red and as large as small mar-

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

bles. They contain a powerful poisonous alkaloid. Some beekeepers have
expressed a fear that the honey might be poisonous to the bees, though
apparently there is little grounds for such fear. The tree is abundant
aiong the Nueces River in the shade of larger timber and was yielding
nectar very freely at the time of the author's visit to that section on
March 10, 1918. There had been a long dearth of nectar and the bees were
extremely short of both honey and pollen. The new nectar was coming in
in considerable quantity and the honey stored had a peculiar flavor. The
tree is particularly abundant in the vicinity of Matagorda Bay.

rrr

ry /--

-y

7 X

l^^r^

"^S~ ^^T^S /U ^, JV. rt

T ' N

- 7

J -r - ~zfx¥Ij

~ij

,»- 1 i — J i - ■ '

-y ,--

I^i^fe/C^k^

\ i t^tl rS^

ysy Jy^x^C

/^\Y ^~\ \~ t

iZH^l Fl K\jfc

Fig. 46. Honey plant regions of Texas.
CORAL BERRY, see Indian Currant.
CORAL SUMAC, see Poisonwood.
CORN, see Indian Corn.
CORNEL, see Dogwood.
CORN-ITCH, see Cow-itch.

COTTON (Gossypium herbaceum).

Although the cotton plant is found growing wild in many warm coun-
tries, in the United States it is known only as a staple field crop. It was

78 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

brought to this country as earl}- as 1621, and has been the most important
plant grown on southern plantations since the early development of the
country.

The plant thrives in a warm and humid climate, and needs five to six
months of warm weather. However, it is grown successfully under semi-
arid conditions in parts of Texas and other Southern States. The so-called
cotton belt extends from the nortwhest corner of Texas south to the Rio
Grande, and east to the Atlantic seaboard. A limited acreage is grown in
California, but, excepting very restricted areas, it is not important outside
the territory mentioned. Texas, Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia are
perhaps the most important of the cotton-growing States. The Carolinas,
Louisiana and Oklahoma also grow it in large areas.

Honey production reaches its highest development in localities where
good nectar-bearing plants are grown in large acreage. Hence we find
beekeeping thriving in dairy communities, where alsike and white clover
are grown abundantly. We also find the beekeepers prosperous where
alfalfa is an important crop. In the Southern States, cotton is the one
field crop grown on a sufficient scale to offer ideal conditions for the bee-
keeper. However, cotton is fickle in its behavior, and cannot always be
depended upon to produce nectar, no matter how abundant the crop. In
some cotton-growing districts the beekeepers swear by cotton, while in
other localities they declare that it is of little value. The character of the
soil seems to be a very important factor in the secretion of nectar by this
plant. The vigor of the growth and the amount of available plant food
in the soil are also important. Reports from different sections indicate
that the quality of the honey varies in different sections.

W. D. Null, of Demopolis, Ala, wrote to the author as follows :

"This, you know, was for sixty years the heaviest cotton-growing
section in the nation. Bees will not work cotton if they can work
anything else, even bitterweed. It yields honey of very poor quality,
and never very much, some years none at all. Weather conditions
must be just right, and that don't come often. The honey is the same
grade as the most honeydews."

In contrast, we find the following report of good honey and abundant
yield in American Bee Journal for 1907, page 267:

"Cotton blossoms furnish a great deal of excellent honey, and the
theory that it explodes or ferments is all bosh. It makes an excellent
rich honey, oily, and it is not liked so well by some until they get used
to it." — Jules Belknap, M. D., Sulphur Springs, Ark.

When the writer made his first trip through Georgia he was much puz-
zled by the different reports of apparently good observers in different
parts of the State. The matter was finally explained by a beekeeper who
had lived in different localities, by the variation in behavior of the plant
under different conditions. There is perhaps no important honey plant
which varies so much, in the quality of its nectar, as does cotton. The
poor quality in some places can doubtless be explained by the fact that
the flow is not abundant, and is mixed with other low-grade stores. How-
ever, honeydew is also sometimes reported from the plant itself.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 79

"Sometimes, during a damp spell, the cotton gets covered with vast
numbers of aphis, and the upper side of the leaves will first get gummy
and then will even drip a kind of dirty-looking sweet fluid. If there is
anything else on hand the bees will not touch it." — W. H. Alder, Calla-
han County, Texas, page 334, American Bee Journal, 1899.

It is needless to say that this would make a poor product, and it is
not improbable that honeydew is sometimes secured from cotton in lo-
calities where it seldom yields nectar. The secretion is apparently depend-
ent far more upon soil than upon any other condition. Upon the black,
wavy lands of Texas and upon other soils, it reaches its highest develop-
ment. The boundary of the belt, where cotton yields freely and where it
does not, is very marked in Texas. North of the escarpment which runs
across Bexar County, Texas, near San Antonio, it is an important source.
South of that line few beekeepers report it as dependable. North of this
line the soil is black and heavy; south it is sandy. Wherever the writer
has found beekeepers on sandy soil, they have reported the yield from
cotton as uncertain; while on the heavy soils they report it as fairly con-
stant, with suitable weather conditions. The map shown herewith, Fig 46,
roughly outlines the heavy section where honey from cotton is important
in Texas. Cotton is grown east, south and, to some extent, west of that
line. In east Texas cotton is reported as yielding well on river bottom
lands and but little on the hills. In the southern sections, and also in other
States, an occasional crop is reported where it does not yield regularly:

"We had a very dry, sultry spell here the latter part of last Au-
gust, and up to that time the bees were living from hand to mouth.
All at once they began storing from the cotton bloom, though it looked
as though cotton was going to die in the fields from drought and heat,
yet it yielded until the bees had stored from 30 to 60 pounds per col-
only." — J. J. Wilder, Cordele, Ga., American Bee Journal, page 141, 1906.
On suitable soils it is one of the most dependable sources of nectar:

"The apiarist who has his bees located within range of extensive
cotton areas can count on at least an average crop year after year,
with more certainty than many of the other numerous honey yielders
which we have." — Louis Scholl, page 652, Gleanings, 1912.

"My main sources for surplus are mesquite trees, the cotton
fields being the second of importance in the central and northern parts
of the State, or throughout the black land region. On sandy or light
soil cotton yields very little honey. * * *

"The yield is good, averaging about 73 pounds of bulk comb honey
per year. One year it was over 100 pounds. Honey from cotton is very
light in color, the comb very white, and of excellent flavor when well
ripened. As soon as cool weather sets in this honey fairly draws out
in long strings, when handled with a spoon." — Gleanings, page 1313,
1907.

From the above it will be seen that cotton honey is of good quality, at
least in some localities Samples said to be from cotton from Georgia,
are strong and of rather poor quality, while cotton honey received from
Texas is light in color, of mild and rather pleasing flavor. The honey
from Cotton granulates very quickly. That produced in the Southeastern
States also has the effect of bursting the containers, possibly from the
effects of fermentation. The humidity of the atmosphere evidently has a

80 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

marked effect on the quality of the honey from this plant. The following
reports indicate the quality :

'As to the quality of cotton honey, I can say from my own experi-
ence, that it varies in color from light amber to almost water white.
While I do not consider it equal to white clover in flavor, it is superior
to basswood. * * * The flow increases toward the last of the sea-
son, and if we can get two weeks of nice weather after frost it
amounts to a considerable increase in the crop." — J. D. Yancey, Hunt
County, Texas. Gleanings, page 162, 1910.

"It did well on our rich bottom land and yielded a fair crop of the
finest honey it was ever my pleasure to see. It was so thick that it
was almost impossible to extract it, and entirely out of the question to
strain it through a single thickness of cheese-cloth. It was light in
codor, mild in flavor, and very heavy, and in my opinion superior to
any honey ever shipped to this locality, not excepting huijilla. The
long drought and consequent absence of all other bloom, enabled us
to get a purer cotton honey than we had ever been able to get before.
Again, in the late fall, when the weather began to get cool, our cotton
took a second growth, soon blooming profusely, and by accident we
got also a fair fall crop." — O. Saunders, Trenton, Texas. Page 734,
Gleanings, 1910.

One great advantage of the cotton flow is its long continuation. In
Texas it begins to bloom in May or June, and the bees work it steadily
until late fall, often November. Extra cultivation or fertilization of the
soil increases the vigor of the plant and the nectar flow is increased ac-
cordingly :

"I can remember when the bees gathered only enough nectar from
it to stimulate brood rearing, and now we get from one to three supers
of surplus from this source alone. * * * On land where we used
to make a bale of cotton to 4 or 5 acres, now we make 1 to 2 bales per
acre, using high grades of commercial fertilizer and more prolific
varieties of the plant. It yields more where it grows best, and of a
much longer duration."— J. J. Wilder, Cordele, Ga. Page 237, American
Bee Journal, 1911.

Bees get nectar not only from the cotton blossoms, but from extra
floral nectaries as well. At times almost entirely, and to gather freely
they seem to neglect the blossoms for the extra-floral nectaries. Some
of these are located under the flower and begin to secrete nectar before
the blossoms open. Others are located on the under sides of the leaves,
and vary from one to three on each leaf. When atmospheric conditions
are favorable, these glands secrete abundantly and the nectar gathers in
drops. At times it is so abundant that the men cultivating get their
clothes saturated with the nectar, from the brushing of the leaves against
them. Later in the day the heat of the sun evaporates most of the moist-
ure, leaving the clothing sticky. In hot and dry weather the flow is on in
the morning and again in the evening, while in cloudy or damp weather
it lasts all day.

When first gathered, the honey is said to be very thin and clear, with
a strong and nauseating taste, resembling the taste of the plant itself.
As the moisture is evaporated and the nectar ripens in the hive this dis-
agreeable taste is lost to a large extent. During a heavy flow a strong
odor is frequently present in the apiary, which can be noticed at some dis-
tance from the hives. Scholl compares this odor to that of crushed cot-

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 81

ton leaves. He reports that at times it becomes so strong as to have a
sickening effect on the apiarist, even interfering with his work, on
calm days.

The heaviest flows come from rank-growing plants on rich soils,
during warm and wet weather. At such times the honey is lighter in color
and superior in quality, while the honey stored from plants growing on
light' soils during dry weather is darker and strong in taste.

Pollen from the cotton plant is white in color, and is produced in
abundance from the large bell-shaped flowers. When the bloom first
opens it is white, later turning pink.

COTTON -GUM, see Tupelo.
COTTONWOOD, see Aspen.

COW-ITCH (Cissus incisa).

The cow-itch is a climbing vine found from the coast of Florida to
western Texas and north to southern Arkansas. In south Texas it is
called "yerba del buey," according to Coulter.

Scholl states that it "yields sufficiently to keep the bees out of mis-
chief during a dearth, and giving surplus when abundant." At Buffalo
and Palestine, Texas, the author found reports to the effect that cow-
itch was a heavy yielder of nectar, bees beginning on it as soon as the
basswood bloom closed. It blooms from June till October, with fruit in
all stages. The honey was reported to be light amber in color and of
good flavor. R. A. Nestor reported that he had secured as high as 35 to
40 pounds of surplus per colony from this source mixed with partridge
pea. It is also called corn-itch.

COWPEA (Vigna sinensis).

The cowpea is widely cultivated in the warmer regions of the old
world and in our own Southern States. It is grown for forage and for
green manure. The plant is more closely related to the beans than to the
peas.

R. A. Nestor reports that it yields freely in east Texas, and where
planted in sufficient acreage yields surplus. The honey is very dark in
color, but of mild flavor, according to his report.

The nectar from cowpeas is secreted by extra floral nectaries and
beekeepers are often mystified because the bees are working at the
"joints" instead of on the flowers. Some report that bees gather nectar
from the flowers, also.

The following reports indicate the value in different localities:

"There is no finer honey plant than the cowpea, while it lasts, but

it blooms only about a week. During this time, if the weather is fair,

the bees swarm over the fields from early morn till dewey eve." — J.

D. Rowan, Tupelo, Miss. Gleanings, Sept. 15, 1909.

"The cowpea is one of our most abundant sources of honey for

late summer. The crop is planted here from May 1 to August 1, and

furnishes nectar through a considerable period of otherwise scarcity.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Unlike other plants, the stems, and not the blossoms, secrete the
nectar as the young pods are forming. These the bees work upon
excessively. The honey is of good body, thick, deep, approaching
dark yellow in color, and of strong taste like that of tulip-poplar, only
stronger, with a somewhat slight, wild-green-bean-like flavor." — C. C.
Gettys, Hollis, N. C. Gleanings, Sept. 14, 1909.

"A small patch of peas was covered with bees from morning till
night. Nearly all of them were working on the stalks, as usual; but
here and there I saw a few Italians pushing their tongues down into
the blossoms. I have never noticed any pollen from the field peas." —
Mrs. Ameda Ellis, Fremont, Mo. Gleanings, June 1, 1910.

"The peas bloom when there is a honey dearth and the bees gather
honey from them. However, I notice they do not work on them much
if there is a better honey plant blooming at the same time. My bees
get a good deal of nice honey from them." — G H. Latham, Jr., Rapidan,
Va. Gleanings, May 15, 1910.

Fig. 47. Crocus blossoms are among the first to furnish pollen in spring.

COYOTE WEED, see Turkey Mullein.

CRAB APPLE (Malus).

There are several species of wild crab apples native to America. The
fruit is small and sour and of little value. The blossoms are rose colored
and very fragrant, making the tree worthy of cultivation as an ornamen-
tal. As a source of honey the wild crab apple ranks with the cultivated

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 83

apple and other fruit trees. The blossoms appear from March to May and
serve to stimulate spring brood rearing, though where abundant, strong
colonies may gather some surplus.

The southern crab apple (Malus angustifolia) occurs in open woods
from southern Pennsylvania south to Florida and west to Louisiana and
Missouri.

The American crab apple (Malus coronaria) is common from eastern
Canada to Michigan and south to Alabama and South Carolina. It is a
small tree and often grows in dense thickets, where it furnishes ideal bee
pasturage.

The Soulard crab apple (Malus soulardi) is much like the American
crab apple in tree and Mower, but has a larger fruit, which leads some
authors to regard it as a hybrid between the cultivated apple and a na-
tive species. It is sometimes cultivated for its fruit, which is used as a
substitute for quince. It occurs in the wild state from Minnesota to Texas,
but not very common.

The Oregon crab apple (Malus diversifolia, is a native of the Pacific
Coast from Alaska through Western Canada south to California. The
fruit was formerly dried by the Indians for winter use.

All the wild crab apples are valuable sources of nectar, though the
principal value is to stimulate early brood rearing.

CRIMSON CLOVER (Trifolium incarnatum).

Crimson clover is grown in the Southern States, but is not hardy in
the North. It is an earlier bloomer than the other clovers. The blossoms
are more showy than either alsike or red clover. The plant is an annual,
and must be resown to perpetuate a field.

The honey yield is reported to be good and the quality similar to that
of the other clovers. It is nowhere grown on the scale of the others, so
is not so well known as a source of honey.

Bonnier gives it third rank as a honey yielder, while the British Bee
Journal states that it is about on a par with buckwheat, and that neither
is satisfactory when honey of later yield is worked for.

Niswonger lists it as a very important plant in Kentucky, and states
that the honey is of a very light yellow color of good quality.

CROCUS.

A group of early spring flowers native to the Mediterranean region
of Europe, widely cultivated in gardens. Among the first flowers to bloom,
they are very attractive to the bees, as shown in Fig. 47.

CROTON (Croton).

Scholl lists four species of croton as yielding pollen and nectar in
Texas, though none of them are of much importance. Richter states that
the bees visit the small blossoms of Croton californicus in large numbers.
The author can find no records which indicate that the plants are of spe-
cial value anywhere.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

CROWNBEARD (Verbesina).

There are several species of
this plant, some of which are very
attractive to the bees. They may
be found in the borders of open
woodlands and partially shaded
situations of the region east of
the Missouri River. Where suffi-
ciently abundant the crownbeard
is the source of a considerable
quantity of nectar. A coarse
weed, growing four to eight feet
tall, with winged stems and yel-
low, or sometimes white, blos-
soms.

CUCUMBER (Cucumis sativus).

The cucumber is dependent
upon bees for pollination of the
blossoms. The flowers are imper-
fect, the male organs being con-
tained in one flower while the fe-
male organs are in another. For
this reason it is necessary that
insects carry the pollen fron the
staminate blossoms to the pistillate ones. Where pickles have been
grown under glass, they have proved unfruitful until bees are given access
to the bloom. Formerly the pickle growers fertilized the blossoms by
hand to some extent. This was very laborious. According to B. N. Gates
(In 3rd Report Iowa Bee Inspector), one grower has forty acres under
glass in Massachusetts and the industry requires about three thousand
colonies of bees annually to serve in the cucumber greenhouses.

In some sections, cucumbers are grown extensively for pickles. At
Marengo, 111., Doctor Miller reports that about 600 acres are planted to
pickles. He reports that, whereas he formerly had no fall flow, his bees
now gather some fall crop, part of it evidently from cucumbers. There
are numerous localities where cucumbers are of some importance to the
beekeeper. Lovell states that the honey is pale yellow or amber and has
at first a rather strong flavor, which largely disappears in time.

Fig.

48. The crownbeard is a favorite of
the bees.

CUP PLANT (Silphium perfoliatum).

Cup plant, also called rosin weed, is a common square-stemmed plant
with leaves grown together at the base forming a cup. It grows from
four to eight feet high and is abundant on rich lands, along streams and
in woodside borders, in the Mississippi Valley. It produces numerous large
yellow flowers and, where plentiful, furnishes considerable forage for the
bees. It is probably seldom important as a source of surplus.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

CULVER'S ROOT (Veronica virginica).

The Culver's root is found from New England and Ontario to Mani-
toba and southward to Arkansas and Georgia. There are reports to the
effect that the bees fairly swarm on this plant, but apparently it is not of
much importnce to the beekeeper.

Fig. 49. The cup plant.
CURRANT (Ribes).

There are several varieties of the cultivated garden currant and many
species of the wild currants which are valuable sources of nectar. There
are at least seven species of wild currant native to New Mexico. It is
probable that some species of wild currants are to be found in every State
where bees are kept. In the vicinity of large plantings of cultivated cur-
rants they are an important source of nectar, but generally speaking, they
are a minor source and of chief value for pollen and for stimulating early
brood rearing along with most other fruits.
CYNOGLOSSUM, see Hound's Tongue.

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

DAHOON,

Holly.

DANDELION (Taraxacum officinale).

The dandelion is one of the most widely distributed plants in America.
Originally introduced from Europe, it has been naturalized over practi-
cally the entire continent. As each plant will produce hundreds of seeds,
which are borne for long distances on the wind, its wide distribution is
not surprising. The plant is sometimes used for medicinal purposes, serv-
ing as a mild laxative and tonic. The tender shoots are very popular as

Fig. 50. The much despised dandelion is a valuable source of nectar.

a table delicacy in early spring, with those who are fond of greens. The
bright yellow flowers are very showy, and if the plant was not so abund-
ant, would be considered attractive. The warfare against the dandelion is
as relentless and as continuous as the campaign against the house fly.
Little is to be accomplished by digging the plants from one's own lawn,
when a whole pastureful are going to seed a mile or two away.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 87

The beekeeper has little to complain of from these weeds, as there
is nothing of greater value during the short period of bloom. While the
honey gathered from dandelions is dark and strong, most of it will be
consumed for brood rearing. Occasionally a small surplus will be se-
cured from this source, but it blooms so early that surplus is unusual.
Large quantities of pollen as well as nectar are produced, so that a large
acreage of dandelions within reach of the apiary is much to be desired.
Fig. 50 shows the plant as it appears during the period of bloom, with
blossoms and unopened buds.

Hon. Eugene Secor, the beekeeper's poet, has written a number of
things regarding the intimate relation existing between bees and flowers,
and for one of these, the dandelion furnished the inspiration:

"Here's a bee, my children see!
Gathering sweets for you and me,
On Sir Dandy Lion's crown;
She is yellow that was brown,
Yellow with the golden dust
Lent to her in solemn trust;
Blossoms bart'ring gold for gold.
Through this dusty trader bold,
Dandy Lion seeks a bride,
Sends his offerings far and wide
With his trusty friend, the bee,
And with Honey pays the fee."

DATE-PLUM, see Persimmon.
DEER CLOVER, see Wild Alfalfa.
DEER'S EARS, see Monument Plant.

DELAWARE— Honey Sources of.

Clover, tulip-tree, willows, maples, fruit bloom, dandelion, heartsease,
buckwheat, blueberry, huckleberry, boneset and asters are among the well-
known sources of honey in Delaware. Beekeeping is not highly developed
in this State and few pay serious attention to honey production.

DEVIL'S CLAW, see Acacia.
DEVIL'S SHOESTRING, see Bluevine.
DEWBERRY, see Blackberry.
DIERVILLA, see Bush Honeysuckle.
DOCTOR-GUM, see Poisonwood.

DOGBANE (Apocynum).

When not in bloom the dogbane resembles the milkweed. There are
several species found in Europe, temperate Asia and North America. In
the United States there are two common species, Apocynum cannabinum,
known as Indian hemp, Canadian hemp or Choctaw root, and Apocynum
androsaemifolium, the spreading dogbane.

Dogbane can be distinguished from milkweed by the finer stem and
smaller leaves. The stems are unusually reddish in color. By Fig. 51 it

88 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

will be seen that the flowers are very different. At times the bees work
on this plant very freely. It is especially abundant in some localities
along the Missouri River in Kansas and Missouri.

DOGWOOD (Cornus).

The dogwoods or flowering cornels are a large group of shrubs with
showy flowers. Some species are common over all of Eastern America,
from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick south and west to Texas. The
group is not important to the beekeeper, although occasionally some
honey is reported from them. W. C. Brass reports that in central Arkan-
sas smooth dogwood (Cornus femine), locally called spicewood or buck-
brush, is very abundant, and the bees work upon it industriously during
May. He reports, however, that it is uncertain in its value, the bees not

Fig. 51. Dogbane.

working upon it every year. H. B. Parks reports that the bees work upon
the red dogwood (Cornus paniculata) in Missouri, but the author never
knew them to work on this species in Iowa.

Scholl lists Cornus asperifolia as yielding nectar freely in Texas,
though the species is not plentiful.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

DOORWEED, see Heartsease.
DROUTH-WEED, see Turkey Mullein.

EBONY, see Texan Ebony.

ECHINOPS SPHOEROCEPHALUS, see Chapman Honey Plant.

ECHIUM, see Blueweed.

ELDERBERRY (Sambucus canadensis).

The American elder or elderberry is a common shrub from New Brims-
wick west to Saskatchewan and south to Arizona and Texas. Fig. 52 shows
the flower clusters of the common elder (Sambucus canadensis). Since

The elderber

the plant blooms late in May and June, there is usually an abundance of
pollen in most localities. The bees, however, gather the pollen freely at
times, and it is of value where pollen is not plentiful at this season.

The berries are used for pies and wine. The flowers and bark are used
to some extent for medicinal purposes.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Richter lists the blue elderberry (Sambucus glauca) as important for
pollen in California, but as yielding no nectar.

ELM (Ulmus).

The elms are verjr attractive to the bees for pollen. The American

5Soms of the blue gum of California {Eucalyptus gh

or white elm is more especially valuable, and a large tree will attract
so many bees that the humming sounds like a swarm.

There are numerous reports of nectar from elm in Texas. Scholl lists
the winged elm (Ulmus alata) as giving a good yield of honey, surplus
sometimes being secured from it. He described the honey as amber in
color, with strong and characteristic aroma. He also lists the American
elm as a source of nectar.

EPILOBIUM, see Fireweed.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 91

ERIOGONUM, Wild Buckwheat or Flat Top.

A group of low annual or perennial plants common to the Rocky
Mountain and plains States. It is a large group and numerous species are
to be found from Nebraska to California. In New Mexico the Eriogonum
are among the commonest plants, there being something like forty species
recorded from that State. The best known is the wild buckwheat of
southern California (Eriogonum fasciculatum). This is an important
source of nectar in that region. The honey is said to be light amber and
of good flavor. It granulates readily.

Richter lists it as the most important honey plant in many southern
California localities.

In Colorado Eriogonum effusum is sometimes known as "heather." Ac-
cording to Herman Rauchfuss it yields nectar nearly every year when
there are late rains. It blooms in August and September and is usually in
bloom for some time before the bees are attracted to it. He sometimes
gets a super of comb honey per colony from this source. The honey he
reports to be amber, of fine quality, and strong aroma, of which one does
not easily tire.

It grows abundantly on the prairies about Denver. The plant is small
and inconspicuous, with minute flowers, and is not generally recognized
as a honey plant among beekeepers of Colorado.

"Wild buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum) is one of the principal
honey plants of southern California. In the Acton, Antelope Valley
and Elsinore districts it is the main reliance. Although quite abund-
ant at lower levels, it does not yield much nectar below 1,500 feet nor
above 5,000 feet. The honey is a deep light amber, but of fine flavor,
and the comb is very white. The honey has such a heavy body that
it is seldom extracted."— J. D. Bixby, Western Honeybee, May, 1917,
page 116.

ERODIUM, see Pin Clover.

EUCALYPTUS.

There are about one hundred and fifty different species of eucalyp-
tus trees, most of which are native to Australia and Tasmania, where
they are the most characteristic and important timber trees. Many of
them secrete resinous gums, hence are called "gum trees." A number of
commercial products are derived from them. They have been widely in-
troduced into California, and, to some extent, also into Florida, Texas
and other Southern States. The various species are known as sugar gum,
blue gum, mahogany gum ,red gum, stringy bark, white iron bark, red
box tree and various similar names. Richter lists 21 species as yielding
honey in California. According to this author there is a great variation
in the quality of honey from the different species. While some species
seem to yield water-white honey of good quality, others produce an amber
product of low value. The blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus) is said to pro-
duce "honey, amber, of acid flavor, heavy body and granulating within
a few months. The blue gum is very constant in nectar secretion, even
in spite of unfavorable weather, and since it is of wide distribution, con-
siderable quantities of honey come from this source. On account of the

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

pronounced flavor of eucalyptus honey there is little or no demand for
if in the retail trade."

On the other hand, he describes white ironbark (Eucalyptus leucoxy-
lon) "a great honey producer, with a beautiful flavor much like vanilla
extract."

Almost all of the honey seems t^ be gathered from the sources which
produce the poorer grade, so that tne eucalyptus honey is not favorably
known in the markets.

The blooming period of the different species varies so that there are
some in bloom at all times during the year. The blue gum, already men-
tioned, blooms from December until June, while the sugar gum blooms
from August to November. Several species bloom during the winter
months, when they are especially valuable in sustaining the bees until
the time of the main honeyflows. Fig. 53 shows the eucalyptus blossoms.

At the California short course, at Davis, in 1918, M. H. Mendleson, of
Ventura, spoke as follows concerning this source:

Fig. 54.

of eucalyptus trees in California.

"Every winter the gum, or eucalyptus, comes into bloom. Last
winter they filled two or three stories high on eucalyptus. I got 1714
cents per pound for it; previously I never could get more than 4 cents,
but it was seldom that I got a surplus from this source. The most
eucalyptus honey I have ever known was gathered last spring.

"The scarlet bloom (Eucalyptus ficifolia) is one of the greatest
honey producers I have ever known, It grows from 10 to 25 feet and

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

has a brilliant bloom, in clusters, a beautiful sight. * * * The honey
is of fine flavor, water white. You can see the nectar wave in the
flower cup when you shake it. The flow sometimes lasts a month. It
will stand a light frost, but not a heavy one. Our hot east winds are
very hard on it, as they scorch the trees."

EUPATORIUM, see Boneset.

EUPHORBIA, see Snow-On-the-Mountain, also Poinsettia.

FALSE INDIGO (Amorpha fruticosa).

False indigo is a tall shrub common to low lands along streams from

Fig. 55. Figvvort, or Simpson honey plant.

Pennsplvania west to the plains. It grows in thickets and is very attrac-
tive to the bees. It is of special importance in Nebraska and Kansas. In
the Arkansas Valley beekeepers report that bees get both nectar and pol-
len in considerable quantity, though it is seldom mentioned as a source of

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

surplus. Nebraska beekeepers value it because it fills in the period be-
tween fruit bloom and white clover.
FARKLE-BERRY or SPARKLE-BERRY (Vaccinum arboreum).

The farkle-berry or sparkle-berry is also known as winter huckleberry
and tree huckleberry. It is a tall shrub 6 to 25 feet in height and common
from southern Illinois and Missouri east to North Carolina and south to
Texas and Florida. In parts of Arkansas it is one of the main sources of
honey. W. C. Brass writes that in Lonoke County, near the center of

Fig.

Blossoms of fireweed.

the State, it is very abundant and takes the place of clover further north.
It blooms in May and the bees roar on the sparkle-berry bushes like
swarming time. It belongs to the group of plants to which the blueberries
belong and most of these are good honey plants.
FIDDLE NECK, see Phacelia.
FIGWORT (Scrophularia marilandica).

Simpson honey plant, or figwort, is another widely distributed plant.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 95

It is common in the woods from Maine to the Rocky Mountains and south
to the Gulf. It is also said to occur on the Pacific Coast. The same, or
a similar plant occurs in Europe and Asia.

It is a tall growing plant from 3 to 6 feet high, with numerous small
branches. The stem is four angled, with rather long-pointed leaves. The
flowers are very numerous and quite small, as will be seen by the pic-
ture, Fig. 55. It blooms in the late summer and is freely visited by the
bees.

FILLAREE, see Pin Clover.

FIREWEED or WILLOW HERB (Epilobium anguslifolium).

Fireweed is a common plant in the woodlands of the Northern States
and of Canada. It is a tall herb with attractive pink blossoms on a long
terminal spike, as shown in Fig. 56. It springs up following forest fires
and covers the burned district with a dense growth. The blooming period
is long, lasting from July till frost, as new blossoms appear as the older
ones fade. It is important as a source of honey in much of eastern
Canada, Minnesota, parts of Michigan, Wisconsin and on the Pacific Coast.
where it is also valuable in Oregon, Washington and parts of Montana.
It is gradually crowded out by other growth. A locality may yield great
crops of fireweed honey for two or three years and then little surplus
be gathered from it for many years. The author has visited beekeepers in
Northern Michigan who count on an average of fifty pounds or more per
colony, with as high as 125 pounds, in locations where fireweed was yield-
ing. As fireweed disappears in that locality, raspberry and milkweed fol-
low, and these are also good sources, so that the location does not suffer
from the change.

Honey from fireweed is very light in color and of high quality. The
late W. Z. Hutchinson, who wrote much concerning beekeeping in the
forest region of northern Michigan, styled it as the whitest and finest-
flavored honey with which he was acquainted.

As the timber is removed, settlement gradually clears the land, and the
wild growth gives place to cultivated fields and pastures. Most of the
fireweed country is also good clover territory, so that the beekeepers need
not fear the development of the country.

FLAT TOP, see Eriogonum.
FLEA WEED, see Blue Curls.

FLORIDA— Honey Plants of.

Wild Pennyroyal in southern half of the State.

Titi, in pine swamps in northern portion, gives surplus only in west
Florida.

Black Tupelo, in same territory as titi, bad weather makes the yield
'uncertain.

White tupelo in low swamps over west Florida; main source in
swamps along the Appalachicola and Chipola rivers in Calhoun County.

96 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Orange from the north central portion to the southern end of the
peninsula.

Andromeda, central and northwestern part of the State, not important.

Gallberry or holly grows in almost all parts of Florida, but does best
in north part of the State.

Saw or scrub palmetto thrives on sandy soils, doing best on moist
hummocks.

Black mangrove grows on lands overflowed daily by salt water along
the east coast, but yields best on east side.

Partridge pea grows in great abundance in the high pine lands of the
northern half of the State.

Cabbage palmetto reaches its greatest height on the coasts and keys
of the southern section. Yields heavily when it does yield.

Manchineel, on southern coast and keys as far north as Palm Beach.

Dogwood, along the keys and southern coast.

Pigeon cherry, same range as the two preceding.

In addition there are a number of such fall flowers as wild sun-
flowers, asters, goldenrods and thoroughwort.

Four-fifths of all the surplus honey produced in the State comes from
the blossoms of nectar-producing trees or shrubs, not flowering plants. —
E. G. Baldwin in Gleanings in Bee Culture, March and April, 1911.

FLORIDA MAHOGANY, see Red Bay.
FLOWERING RASPBERRY, see Salmon Berry.

FRUIT BLOOM.

All the orchard fruits are of more or less value to the beekeeper, and
few differentiate between them when speaking of the sources of early
nectar. In localities where a great variety of fruit is grown, the blooming
period is longer than where there are large orchards of one kind. In
most localities the beekeepers depend upon fruit blossoms for building up
their colonies in spring, and when the weather is unfavorable at this time,
feeding is often necessary to carry the bees until the next honeyflow. Ap-
ples, peaches, pears, plums, apricots and cherries all secrete nectar abund-
antly and, given strong colonies of bees and favorable weather, large
quantities of surplus honey should be gathered from these trees. If it
were possible to bring the bees through the winter as strong as in the fall,
there is no estimating the amount of honey that would be gathered from
the early blooming orchard fruits.

FOG FRUIT, see Carpet grass.
FRASERA, see Monument Plant.
FURZE, see Gorse.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 97

GAILLARDIA, see Marigold.

GALLBERRY (Ilex glabra). See also Holly.

The gallberry, in some localities better known as inkberry, is usually
heard of as a honey plant only in the South. However, it occurs as far
north as Nova Scotia, on the seashore, and along the coast from Massa-
chusetts to Virginia and Florida, and west to Louisiana. It is a common
shrub in the low pine barrens of the Gulf States. It is a small evergreen
shrub with small, dark leaves. It is an important honey plant in southern
Georgia, where it is widely distributed over the sandy lands, especially of
the coastal plains. It is important, also, in the Carolinas. It grows in
dense thickets and rapidly extends over newly cleared lands. Fig. 57.

"As a honey plant perhaps it has no equal in the southeast. We
have never failed to get a surplus from it, even during the most unfa-
vorable weather conditions. It begins to bloom the first of May and
continues for 24 to 28 days. During this time bees disregard other
bloom, working it up to about 8 o'clock for the pollen; then the flow
comes on for the remainder of the day. * * * It is a great bloomer;
even the stems are rolls of bloom. * * * We have never taken oft
a large crop of this honey, as 147 pounds of surplus is the best crop
we have ever had from one colony. The honey is a light amber color,
has a heavy body, a very mild taste, and is highly flavored. The de-
mand for this honey is so great that we cannot furnish our local mar-
kets, consequently very little is shipped from the southeast to other
markets.

"We have raised tons of this honey and have never seen a pound
of the pure article, well ripened, that granulated.

"It has been said that it is impossible to overstock a good gall-
berry location. We do not know that this statement is true, but we
have never heard of one being overstocked. We have had bees in a
location where there were 362 colonies, with the same result as with
100 colonies. Good gallberry locations are nearly numberless and large
quantities of this fine honey are wasted every year in localities where
there is not a bee to gather it. The gallberry should be included in
the list of the best honey plants."— J. J. Wilder, Cordele, Ga. Glean-
ings, page 1200, September, 1907.

GAURA.

There are several species of gaura of wide distribution. Although
frequently mentioned as honey plants, they are seldom of sufficient abund-
ance to be important.

Scholl reports that Gaura filiformis occasionally yields surplus in
Texas, when conditions are favorable. The red gaura is reported as of
value in Colorado. (See Red Gaura.)

GELSEMIUM, see Yellow Jasmine.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

GEORGIA— Honey flora of.

The earliest blooming of our spring forage plants is the alder (alnus),
which commences about the middle of January and lasts,, some seasons,
till the middle of February. It yields little or no honey, but during its
time of bloom, its pollen-laden catkins are covered with bees. The amount
of pollen that this plant affords is immense; and it comes in a time when
breeding should be most encouraged.

Fig. 57. Gallberry.

In some sections of the South, particularly on light, sandy soils, there
may be found some yellow jasmine (Gelsemium sempervirens). As its
flowers possess very decided toxical properties, it is not a very desirable
plant to have within range of one's bees. It blooms after the alder While
our native black bees are very seldom seen working upon it, the Italians,
in some seasons, will work upon it quite briskly. I am inclined to think,
from close observation, that it is mostly pollen they gather from it, though
in some seasons it does yield some honey.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

The wild plum (in some sections known as the hog plum) usually
commences to bloom the last of February and lasts for two or three weeks.
This is peculiarly a southern tree, and grows to great perfection nearly
everywhere. Whole acres are often covered with it, forming a dense
thicket, thus affording the bees rich pasture.

In March we have the p'-ach, the apple (which continues into April),
the mock orange, or evergreen wild cherry (Cerasus carolinaensis), the
huckleberry, strawberry, and a few other plants of minor consideration.
Further south they have the titi, the saw palmetto and the orange, all
good forage plants.

Fig. ,5S. Germander, or wood sage.

The willow, wild cherry, hawthorn, blackberries, raspberries, locust,
holly and tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) bloom in April. The two
latter are most valuable for honey. The holly blooms for about two weeks
— the height of its flowering is about the first week in May. The tulip
tree blooms for three weeks. This is the poplar tree of the south.

In May we have the black gum (Nyssa multiflora) and the persimmon,
both excellent for forage. The blooms of these trees are dioecious, that

100 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

is, the male flower is found on one plant and the female flower on another.
Bees are very seldom seen working on the female tree, while on the male
bloom they work in a continuous swarm.

In May, also blooms the bay (Magnolia glauca). This tree flowers for
at least one month, and extends into June. It affords some of our best
and most abundant forage. The Magnolia grandiflora, linden and China
berry (Melia azedarach) bloom also in May. The magnolia blooms for
six weeks, the linden from six to ten days, and the China tree for two
weeks.

Sourwood, the varnish tree (Sterculia platanifolia), Japan privet (Lu-
gustrum) and a few other plants of less note embrace the principal forage
in June.

I have now enumerated the chief honey-producing plants that go to
make up our spring honey harvest. Take one season with another, our
bees commence to lay up surplus about the last of April and continue until
the first or middle of June. After this date but little honey is gathered
from the holly, persimmon, black gum, bay and sourwood. Of course,
some seasons there is considerable honey gathered from other sources.
The color of the honey is usually a little dark, but of excellent flavor.

There is comparatively little forage during the summer months of
July and August. The button bust (Cephalanthus occidentalism, sumach,
Asclepias tuberosa (known as pleurisy root and butterfly weed), and
Yucca alnifolia (Spanish bayonet), are the most important. The cotton
plant, which generally commences to bloom about the first of July,
yields largely of pollen, but very little honey. Sumach is a rich melliflu-
ous plant, but the warm, dry atmosphere evaporates the secretion very
rapidly, so that the bees can only work on it very early in the morning,
while the dew is on. The Spanish bayonet plant no doubt furnishes some
nectar. It generally swarms with flies, various sorts of wild bees, and
now and then a few honeybees will visit it.

Bees are generally able to gather sufficient stores during July and
August to keep up brood rearing and the strength of the colony until the
blooming of the autumn forage.

The first to bloom of the fall pasturage is the Chrysopsis graminifolia
of Nuttall, a perennial, composite. This plant is often taken for a species
of dog fennel, but it is altogether distinct. It is indigenous to the south
from Florida to North Carolina, which seems to be its northern limit. It
is a yellow flowering weed that commences to bloom in August and keeps
on till frost.

The goldenrod and the asters bloom till killed by frost. I esteem
both these plants very highly for their honey-producing qualities. In some
seasons I have hives filled with aster honey alone. — Dr. J. H. P. Brown,
Augusta, Ga. American Bee Journal, Page 500, 1880.

GERMANDER or WOOD SAGE (Teucrium canadense).

The germander, also known as wood sage, is found in open woodlands
and thickets from Nova Scotia to Nebraska, and south to Florida and
Texas. It is common in the Central States, and is much sought by the

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

101

bees. The blooming period is long. In 1915 the bees were working on
this plant in the writer's garden for nearly two months. Apparently this
plant does not secrete nectar very freely, yet it is an excellent plant to
keep the bees at work when they might otherwise be robbing. The writer
does not recall ever having seen a locality where it was sufficiently abund-
ant to amount to very much by itself, though it is a valuable addition to
the other honey-producing flora. Fig. 58 shows the blossoms and leaves,
which bear some resemblance to catnip.

GIANT HYSSOP (Agastache nepetoides).

Giant hyssop is a tall perennial herb with flowers crowded on a ter-
minal spike, flowering in summer. It is common in woodland borders from
New England to Minnesota and south to North Carolina and Texas. Lovell
lists it as blooming about six weeks and much visited by honeybees.
Probably nowhere important.

GILIA.

Jepson lists 18 species of gilia as common to California. The late
Prof. A. J. Cook, writing of gilia in the American Bee Journal stated that
all the gilias are good honey plants. He mentioned Gilia capitata as the
source of quantities of sky-blue pollen. He mentions the fact that several

102 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

species yield pollen of a blue color. It is probably a source of minor im-
portance, since it is seldom mentioned except incidentally in the literature.

GOLDEN GLOW, see Coneflower.

GOLDEN HONEY PLANT (Actinomeris squarrosa).

The golden honey plant is common from New York to Michigan and
Nebraska, and southward to the Gulf States. This plant is closely related
to the crownbeard and is sometimes classified as a verbesina. It grows
in rich bottom lands and in the borders of woods and fields, reaching a
height of 4 to 8 feet. The yellow flowers are very attractive to the bees
and, where sufficiently common, are a valuable source of nectar.

Fig. 60. Solidago puberula.

GOLDENROD (Solidago).

Of the eighty species of goldenrod all but three or four belong to
North America. It is one of our most widely distributed native plan'ts.
Some species seem adapted to nearly every condition from Canada to
Mexico and from the Atlantic Coast to California. There is a wide differ-
ence, however, in the value of the different species to the beekeeper, and
it is no easy task to get reliable information regarding the range of condi-
tions under which it secretes nectar abundantly, nor is there much re-
corded information concerning the particular species which are most

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

103

valuable for this purpose. It is a well-known fact that the secretion of
nectar with any plant is greatly influenced by soil and climatic conditions.
Some of our most valuable honey plants have been reported as producing
no nectar when introduced into Australia.

It is very probable that when we have studied the matter carefully
we will find that the same species of goldenrod varies as much in its
nectar secretion under different conditions as we know to be the case
with alfalfa.

Fig. 01. Solidago hisfida.

Loveil is of the opinion that all species of goldenrods secrete nectar
in some localities. This is quite probable, although there is very little
honey from goldenrod in Iowa from any species. Along the upper Missis-
sippi, in the northeastern counties, a few beekeepers report honey from
goldenrod. In other sections of Iowa beekeepers report that they have
never seen a bee on the plant. Dr. L. H. Pammel, botanist at the State
Experiment Station, reports nine species of goldenrovls common to that
State. He lists S. serotina, S. canadensis and S. gramLufolia as furnishing
some honey here. If Loveil is right about all yielding nectar under some
conditions, then all are of interest to the beekeeper, -tnd it remains a
question of learning the conditions under which each species develops
most favorably. If all do not yield nectar, it is important that we learn to

104

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

distinguish between the species which are valuable honey plants and those
which are troublesome weeds.

Richter lists only two species of this plant as important in California.
The western goldenrod (S. occidentalis), he mentions as common in wet
places such as marshes and river banks, from August to October, yielding

Fig. 02. Bushy goldenrod (So/itlayo graminifolia), a fine honey plant in New England.

an amber honey. S. californica, the common goldenrod of the coast, he
describes as common on dry plains and hillsides or mountains throughout
the State, from August to December. He lists it as a fair honey plant.

Scholl reports goldenrods as common to all parts of Texas, and states
that the honey yield is good in favorable seasons when it is not too dry.
He reports a long season, from April to November, but gives no list of
the species furnishing nectar in that region.

Sladen reports finding eleven species of goldenrods about Ottawa.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

105

He finds that individually the canadensis group (Fig. 64) produce com-
paratively little nectar, but their great abundance makes them important
collectively.

Sladen also notes the variation of the plant under different conditions

M2J& 1

*l&i

: $

7 y

Fig.

Tall, hairy goldenrod (Solidago rugosa), one of the best for honey.

and says that the nature of the land determines the presence and
abundance of the best species. He reports that in the wet lands of Char-
lotte County, N. B., especially in the Honeydale district, they, together
with asters, furnish the principal source of nectar, and that they are valu-
able generally as a source of surplus in coastal districts of New Bruns-
wick and Nova Scotia. The same is said of eastern Manitoba. He places
the yield at from 50 to 80 pounds per colony in localities where the best

106

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

species of goldenrod and asters abound. The honey is usually of good
quality, ranging in color in the different districts from white to dark
amber. That gathered in swampy districts is usually bright golden. Evi-
dently goldenrod honey is seldom stored separate from aster in localities
from which these reports are made.

Mr. Sladen describes three types of locations in which the plants may
be found in Canada:

Fig. 64. Common or Canada goldenrod (Solidago canadensis).

1. Open swamp or bog, where S. uglinosa and S. rugosa are found.
The former begins blooming in August, while the latter blooms until mid-
September, so that there is more than a month of flow from these plants.
Although the bogs are independent of rain during the honey flow, fine
weather and moderate warmth are necessary to a crop.

2. Sandy or gravelly barrens or plains. On the coast, as well as in-
land, on such lands are found S. puberula (Fig. 60), while inland are to be

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

107

found in addition, S. squarrosa (Fig. 59) and the less important S. hispida
(Fig. 61). Good rains in early August, followed by fine and warm weather,
bring best results.

3. A restricted area centering in Cumberland County, Nova Scotia,
in which S. Graminifolia is a troublesome weed (Fig 62.)

He further reports that the roadside goldenrods of old Ontario are not
heavy producers of honey under ordinary conditions.

Fig.

Early goldenrod (Solidago juncca.

In an article on the Honey Flora of New England, which appeared in
the April, 1916, American Bee Journal, Lovell states as follows:

"If I were compelled to stake the existence of bee culture in New

England on a single genus of plants I should select the goldenrods.

There are many species, and they all yield nectar and pollen. They

begin to bloom in midsummer and continue 'to bloom in October. They

are very common and there are species adapted to the seashore, the

fields, the rocks and the woods. I have never known the flow of nectar

to fail, and a great quantity of heavy, yellow honey is stored annually."

Mr. Lovell has kindly sent me his field notes on these plants. There

is a large amount of interesting information which space will not permit

inserting here. The notes include the study of six species, all of which

produce some nectar in Maine. He describes the tall, hairy goldenrod

S. rugosa (Fig. 63) as the latest to blossom and the most valuable as a

honey plant. It is found in damp thickets and on moist land. While in

bloom the bees work it very diligently and the honey is stored rapidly.

The apiary is filled with a sour odor, which, in the evening, is noticeable

at a distance.

108 AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

Goldenrod honey, according to him, is deep golden yellow in color,
thick and heavy, with a more decided flavor than white clover honey.
When extracted it granulates in a month or two, but the bees winter on it
perfectly.

Next in importance he places the bushy goldenrod (S. graminifolia)
(Fig. 62). This is common in fields, open woodlands and hedgerows. The
odor is faint, but the nectar is clearly visible in the flowers. He reports
as many as six honeybees at work at one time on a single flower cluster.
It will be noted that this is one of the species which Doctor Pammel men-
tions as yielding nectar in Iowa. Sladen also cites it as important in
Canada.

Graenicher collected 135 different species of insects on this species in
Wisconsin.

The cream-colored goldenrod, sometimes called white goldenrod (S.
bicolor), is of special interest because of the fact that it is the only one
of the group which is not yellow in color. Although it produces nectar,
I can find no record which indicates that it is of much importance as a
honey plant anywhere. Lovell says that it is of little value in Maine.

The early goldenrod (S. juncea) (Fig. 65), is the first to bloom in
Maine and is very abundant in old fields. The bees visit it freely, but
apparently do not get much honey from it.

Graenicher states that he has collected 182 different species of insects
on this plant, in Wisconsin, which indicates the presence of considerable
nectar in that locality.

General Reports

In searching through the beekeeping literature for reports on honey
from goldenrods I seldom find the particular species mentioned.. There
are numerous reports of honey from goldenrod, but this is as far as the
report usually goes.

"Two colonies of bees taken to a sandy plain forty miles north of
Ottawa, August 25, each gathered, in three weeks, about 40 pounds of
surplus honey from S. puberula and S. squarrosa. It is estimated that
at least three-fourths of the honey came from S. puberula, which was
much more abundant than S. squarrosa. The honey is of a light color
and the flavor and aroma are pleasant and distinctly suggestive of
goldenrod." — Sladen, in 36th report, Ontario, B. K. A.

"You ought to see the bees work on it. They store lots of honey
from it. Last year I had five or six nuclei which did not have any
stores at all on the first of September, but when I went to feed them
for winter I found they had twenty pounds of nice honey gathered
from goldenrod. They all came through the winter in good condition."
— Kentucky. Gleanings in Bee Culture.

"The goldenrod is one of our main sources for a fall flow. The
bees usually fill one or more supers from it." — Connecticut. Gleanings
in Bee Culture.

"My bees have gathered lots of goldenrod honey this fall, and at
times the odor has been offensive to the neighbors." — Vermont. Glean-
ings in Bee Culture.

"Smartweed and goldenrod grow here, but do not furnish any honey.
Never saw a bee on them,"— Iowa. American Bee Journal,

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 109

GOOSEBERRY (Grossularia).

Gooseberries are native American shrubs with stems covered with
sharp thorns or spines. There are several species widely distributed.
They are very attractive to the bees and are of some importance, espe-
cially where grown in large plantings for market. The wild varieties are
common in open woodlands in nearly every section of the country.

GOLDEN WATTLE, see Acacia.
GOPHER WOOD, see Yellow Wood.

GORSE or FURZE (Ulex europaeus).

Figure 66 is a spiny evergreen shrub with yellow flowers that is com-
mon in Europe, where it is said to be used to some extent for fuel and
fodder. There are few references to it in this country. In California it
is said to bloom during all seasons, although much more freely in spring.
Richter reports it as a very good honey plant on the hills of Marin
County.

GRANJENO, see Hackberry.

GRAPE (Vitis).

The grape family is represented by wild species in all parts of the
temperate regions of both hemispheres, and by cultivated species in
nearly all parts of the world. There are about thirty species of wild
grapes, and where sufficiently common they are very attractive to the bees.
In many localities cultivated grapes are grown in large acreage. The nec-
tar yield is not as abundant as with many plants, but is of some value
where the vines are largely grown. Quantities of pollen are gathered from
this source. At times honeydew is gathered from the leaves.

Scholl lists the mountain grape (Vitis monticola) as giving a fairly
good honey yield and furnishing pollen for early brood rearing. Richter
lists the California wild grape as yielding some honey.

Bees and Grapes

Of the disagreements between fruit growers and beekeepers, probably
those growing out of the tendency .of the bees to suck the juice from
cracked grapes have been most serious. Many unfortunate misunder-
standings have resulted from such circumstances, though the injury was as
great to the beekeeper as to the fruit grower, in many cases.

This condition arises from a combination of circumstances which does
not often occur in the average locality. In the first place, the bees do not
seek the grapes when there is plenty of nectar in the field, and, beside, thev
are unable to reach the juice unless the grape has first cracked open
through unfavorable weather conditions or has been injured by birds,
wasps, or other agency. Grape growers, seeing the bees at work in the
vineyards, have often accused the bees of injury to 'the fruit. The fact of
the matter is that the bee is unable to puncture the fruit, and only sucks

110

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

the juice from such fruits as have already been broken open and are
already damaged.

Wet weather often causes ripening grapes to crack open to such an
extent that they would be of little value, even though no insect touched

Fig.

Gorse or furze.

tiiem thereafter. In dry weather, also, birds sometimes pierce the skins,
apparently in search of moisture from lack of an available water supply.
Some authorities say that at such times a liberal supply of water in open
vessels near the vineyard will stop the injury from the birds. The English
sparrow is accused of injury to grapes to a larger extent than most birds.

The grape-berry moth infests a great many grapes in some localities.
In fact, entomologists state that in some localities as high as 50 per cent of
the crop is injured by this insect alone. The fact that the honeybee sucks
the juice from the berries which have already been opened by wet weather,
grape-berry moths or other causes, does not greatly injure the grape
grower, for such fruit is of little value.

The writer has visited the raisin districts of Southern California and
discussed this condition with the raisin growers. The accompanying pic

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

111

ture (Fig. 67) shows a bunch of raisin grapes that had been sucked dry
by the bees. In that locality rains are very infrequent when the raisins
are being dried. They are spread out in thin layers in crates and the
crates left in the sun, or piled up one above another, till fully dry.
Previous to the writer's visit there had been an unexpected rain, and some
raisins were allowed to get wet. As a result they cracked open, and there
being just then no available nectar for the bees, tlu-y swarmed over the

Fii

Rais

IS have been broken by

raisins and sucked them dry, as shown in the picture. The grower admit-
ted, however, that the raisins bad been so badly damaged by the rain as
to be of little value.

The thing which few grape growers seem to understand, is that it is
unfortunate, indeed, for the beekeeper in northern regions, whose bees fill
their hives with this grape juice. In the north there are long periods
during the long winter months when the bees are unable to leave the hive.
Since the bee is only able to void her excrement while on the wing, there
is a large accumulation of feces during such long confinement. If the bees
have only the best white honey for food the tax is severe at best. When

112 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

they have fruit juice, honeydew or other food containing a large amourt
of waste matter, the intestines become so distended that the bees die for
lack of opportunity of a cleansing flight. Grape growers will in many
cases be surprised to learn that thousands of bees die from having filled
their combs with fruit juice instead of honey. Of course, the wide-awake
beekeeper will remove 'this material from the hive and give them good
honey or sugar syrup instead, if it is possible to do so. This, however, in-
volves a large amount of labor, and the gathering of the juice from the
grapes, instead of being an advantage to the beekeeper, is a serious incon-
venience to him. In southern California, where there is no winter con-
finement, 'there is no particular injury to the bees, other than spoiling the
grade of any honey with which it may happen to be mixed.

The late Charles Dadant, who was one of the most widely known bee-
keepers of the past generation, on one occasion had a difficulty with some
growers who could not be made to understand that he was not getting rich
at the expense of his neighbors, when his bees were attracted to their
grapes. He decided that the only way to convince them that the interests
of the beekeeper and the grape grower were mutual, was to grow the
largest acreage of grapes in the neighborhood. This he proceeded to do,
and after he became the largest grower of grapes in his community there
was no longer any criticism, for they could readily see that he had too
much at stake in his grapes to permit him to be prejudiced in favor of
the bees.

That bees are valuable in securing the fertilization of the blossoms of
some varieties of grapes, there is little question.
GRAPE FRUIT (Citrus decumana).

Nowhere in America is the grape fruit cultivated in such extensive
orchards as is the case with the orange and lemon. It is recognized as a
valuable source of honey, but not equal to either of the foregoing. It is
an evergreen tree similar in habit to the other citrus fruits, and the area
devoted to its cultivation is being extended in various districts.

Bees are very efficient pollenizers of grape fruit blossoms. The At-
wood grape fruit ranch, one of the largest in Florida, is provided with
two apiaries, brought there at the request of the manager of the ranch.
They hold that the trees bear a larger number of fruits since the bees
have been kept in close proximity.

GRASSES.

There are many grasses which are attractive to the bees for pollen.
Timothy or herd's grass produces pollen in great abundance and the bees
are often observed gathering it. Occasionally some honeydew may be
gathered from the grasses also, but no honey.

GREASEWOOD (Adenostoma fasciculatum). CHAMISE.

Greasewood is an evergreen bush or shrub of spreading habit about
two to ten feet in height. Jepson describes it as "the most abundant and
characteristic bush of the higher coast ranges and Sierra Nevada, com-
monly gregarious and occupying, to the exclusion of other shrubs, exten-

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS H.3

sive and especially abrupt slopes and mountain ridges. It often forms a
distinct zone between the foothills and the yellow pine belt."

Richter lists it as eagerly sought by the bees in several California
counties, though no mention is made of it as a source of surplus honey.

GREENBRIAR (Smilax).

There are several species of greenbriar, some of which are common
from Canada to Texas. They grow along watercourses and in open wood-
lands and the stems are covered with stiff and hard thorns. Scholl lists
one species as yielding nectar in Texas. The author found reports to 'the
effect that bees gather honey from greenbriar in McLennan County, Texas.
At the same time it was stated that no honey was gathered from it in other
nearby sections. The plant seems to be of doubtful value and is not suf-
ficiently abundant to be important.

GRINDELIA, see Gum Weed.
GROUNDSEL, see Butterweed.
GROUND LAUREL, see Arbutus.
GUAIACUM, see Soapbush.
GUAYACAN, see Soapbush.
GUM, see Tupelo, also Eucalyptus.

GUM-ELASTIC or SHITTIM.WOOD (Bumelia lanuginosa rigida).

Gum-elastic is the common name in south Texas for the Arizona
buckthorn, a small tree occurring from western Texas to Arizona. It has
a short stem with stiff and very spiny branches. It is frequently men-
tioned as a source of honey in southern Texas.

There are reports to the effect that it sometimes yields a surplus along
the Trinity River and that the honey often sours in the combs after being
sealed.

GUM TREE, see Eucalyptus, also Tupelo.

GUM WEED or GUM PLANT (Grindelia squarrosa).

The gum weed, also called rosin weed, is a common plant from Wyom-
ing and Colorado south to Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. It occurs
sparingly eastward to Minnesota and Missouri. The bright yellow flowers
exude a milky resinous gum, which gives rise to its name, "gum weed." It
i; also widely known as rosin weed (Fig. 68). It blooms in August and is
much sought by the bees. The honey is yellow and of inferior flavor. It
i>: often mixed with light honey in the super and the grade spoiled as a
result. In Colorado it is well known by the name of "rosin weed." There
the comb-honey producers complain that it often spoils the quality of
their product through being mixed with the honey from alfalfa and sweet
clover. Honey from gum weed candies very quickly, so quickly in fact,
that Colorado beekeepers say that the bees have to hurry home with the
load to prevent it becoming candied in their sacs. Comb honey which
candies cannot readily be restored, hence in localities where gum weed

114

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

ic abundant the beekeeper may find it to his advantage to produce ex-
tracted honey. Even this does not solve the problem entirely, since the
gum weed honey candies in the combs so readily as to make it difficult to
extract. There are few reports of large surplus from this source. In
most cases it is mixed with other honey and only in such quantity as to
make it rather a nuisance than otherwise. The tendency to candy in the
combs makes it undesirable for winter stores.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 115

HACKBERRY (Celtis).

The hackberries are an important group of trees. There are about
sixty species of trees and shrubs which are widely distributed in both the
old world and America. There are about half a dozen species known to
America, and of these, three are much valued by the beekeepers of Texas.
The author has never known the bees to find nectar on the hackberry in
the north, and was surprised at the many reports of honey from hack-
berry received from Texas beekeepers while visiting that State.

The granjeno (Celtis pallida) is a shrub common to the mesas and
foothills of western and southern Texas. E. G. LeStourgeon, of San
Antonio , regards it as the best of all the hackberries, blooming after every
good rain. The honey is pale amber in color and of good quality. He re-
ports that honey from all hackberries is of good quality. When the au-
thor visited at Brownsville, in February, 1918, the bees were working on
the above species very freely at that time.

The Southern hackberry or sugarberry (Celtis mississippiensis) is com-
mon all over the Gulf and South Atlantic States from Kentucky and south-
ern Illinois to Florida, Arkansas and central Texas. LeStourgeon reports
that this species blooms after the others, in March and April, and that
while it yields some honey, it is not as good as the others.

The Northern hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) is also known as sugar-
berry, and is common from New England and Ontario to Minnesota, Ne-
braska, Colorado and southward to Georgia and Texas. The author has
never heard a report of bees visiting this species for nectar in the North,
but it is reported also as a source of honey in Texas.

HAU TREE (Paritium tiliacium).

"The hau tree of Hawaii has nectaries on its leaves which secrete a
honeydew. These are located on the veins of the leaves near the stem,
and are one, two, three or five in number. Small drops of honeydew may
frequently be seen on these spots. It is interesting to note that these
extra-floral nectaries are present on the outside of the calyx of the flow-
ers. There is apparently no true floral nectary. The hau tree is used ex-
tensively as a hedge, and grows from 20 to 30 feet high. It is doubtful
whether this is the source of any great percentage of the honeydew
honey." — E. F. Phillips. Bui. 75, Part 5, Bureau of Entomology.

HAW, see Hawthorne.

HAWAII— Honey Flora of.

The algarroba tree (Prosopis juliflora) is either the same species as,

116 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

or very closely related to, the mesquite of the southwest. On the islands
it grows to the size of a tree, as is also the case in Mexico. In Texas it
is generally very much smaller. In 1908 the tree came into bloom about
the 1st of March, the time varying considerably in different localities on
the islands. It usually blooms until August, and this very long blooming
period adds greatly to its value to the beekeepers.

The following list of honey plants, other than algarroba, is furnished
by Mr. D. L. Van Dine, Entomologist of the Hawaii Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. Mr. Van Dine has studied the honey sources of the islands
very thoroughly:

Forest Trees

"Texas mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa). Growing in dooryard of
Mr. C. C. Conradt, Pukoo, Island of Molokai. Seeds under propaga-
tion at Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station. Introduced by Mr.
Conrad from Texas several years ago.

Ohia lehua (Metrodsideros polymorpha). Produces a particularly
high grade of honey. Locations for apiaries, as a rule, somewhat in-
accessible. One location on the island of Molokai is within the ohia
lehua belt.

Various species of Acacia (black wattle, koa, etc.) Mountainous
districts.

Various species of eucalyptus. Mountainous districts.

Wiliwili (Erythrina monosperma). In gulches on Molokai and
Oahu.

Rose-apple (Eugenia jambos).

Mamani (Sophora chrysophylla). Found in higher forest belts.

Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa and C. bignonioides). Introduced by
Mr. Jared G. Smith, April, 1902, from the Missouri Botanical Gardens.

Logwood (Haematoxylon campechianum). -Found in dooryards.
Two trees are growing in the grounds of Oahu College and one in the
grounds of Lunalilo Home, Honolulu. Seeds under propagation at
Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station. The honey produced by
bees from this tree is reported to be the finest table honey in the
world.

The black mangrove of Florida. Introduced by Mr. Jared G. Smith
from Southern Florida, for the purpose of preventing the mud flats
from washing along the coast of Molokai, near Kaunakakai. The
introduction was made several years ago and the trees are now well
established at the above-mentioned place. The tree is a valuable
honey plant.

Fruit Trees

Various species of citrous (orange, lemon, lime, etc.)
Avocado (Persea gratissima).
Banana (Musa spp).
Guvy (Psidium spp).
Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica).

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica).

Pasture Plants

California burr-clover (Medicago denticulata). Introduced on
Maul in 1882 by Mr. C. R. Blacow. Now found generally on the
ranches of the islands.

Carpet grass (Lippia repens). Growing on grounds of Hawaii Ag-
ricultural Experiment Station.

Alfilaria or filaree (Erodium cicutarium and E. moschatum).

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 117

Seeds introduced in California hay. Established on upland pastures
on Hawaii and Molokai.

White clover (Trifolium repens). Found on Haleakala and Maka-
wao pastures, Maui.

Crop Plants

Sisal (Agave sisalana).

Various species of curcurbits (melons, squashes, pumpkins, cu-
cumbers, etc.)

Forage Plants.

Alfalfa, several varieties.

Lupins, blue and yellow. Occasionally used as green manure
plants on sugar plantations.
Tangier pea (Lathyrus tingitanus). Growing at Haiku, Maul.

Sanfoin (Onobrychus sativa). A forage plant introduced by Mr.
Jared G. Smith in 1904. Seed distributed to ranches.

Ornamental Plants

Palms, particularly the royal and cocoanut.

Poppy, a horticultural form of Romneya coulteri, found in gar-
dens in Honolulu.

Chinese inkberry (Sestrum diurnum).
Thevitia nereifolia).
Vines (Ipomaea supp).

Weeds

Lantana, two species. .
California Sages (Artemisia). Introduced by Hawaiian Beekeepers'
Association in 1907. Not as yet established. Suitable for waste, arid
lands. The most important honey plant in California. Valuable as a
forage plant.

Ilima (Sida spp).

Oi (Verbena bonariensis).

Pill grass (Heteropogon contortus).

Spanish needle (lauki) (Bidens pilosa).

Puakala (Argemone mexicana).
Alii (Dodonaea viscosa var. spathulata).

Hila hila (undetermined).

Other weeds are Waltheria americana, Ipomaea pes-caprae (vine
along seacoast), and Malvastrum tricuspidatum.

Other Sources of Honey

Hawaii is peculiar in that most of the honey produced is from some
source other than flowers. Two-thirds of the honey shipped annually
from the islands is largely or entirely honeydew honey. By far the greater
part of this comes from the exudations of the sugar cane leafhopper. —
E. F. Phillips, Bui. 75, Part 5, Bureau of Entomology.

HAWTHORN (Crataegus).

Figure 69 pictures a hawthorn in full bloom. The picture does not
do justice to the masses of white flowers with which the tree was covered.
This is an eastern species (Crataegus punctata), which occurs from Que-
bec to Ontario and south to Georgia. It was about the middle of June
when this picture was taken and the bees were working on these trees
everywhere we went. Clover had not begun to yield to any extent and the
thorn was a great boost to the bees wherever it was plentiful.

118

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

There are many different species of hawthorn, or haw, some of which
occur in Europe and Asia, as well as in North America. On this continent
some species are common from Canada to Mexico and west to the treeless

Fig. 69. The hawthorn blooms abundantly and yields nectar freely.

plains. Scholl reports the white thorn (Crataegus spathulata) as valuable
for both honey and pollen in Texas, where it blooms in April. There are
about 25 species of these trees within the United States, and all may be
regarded as valuable sources of honey where they are sufficiently plentiful.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

119

In general, they may be regarded as similar to the tree fruits in quality
and quantity of nectar. Five species are known to occur in Ontario, where
they are regarded as important honey plants.

Fig.

The hazelnut is the source of some pollei

HAZELNUT (Corylus americana).

The hazelnut is a slender growing shrub common in the borders of
woodlands of the most of the temperate North America. It yields some
pollen and is valuable where there is a scarcity of early pollen-bearing
plants. The figure shows the male blossoms, which are more conspicuous
than the fertile ones.

HEARTSEASE (Polygonum).

We now come to another large family with a variety of names. In
some localities one name will apply, while in another the plant will be
known by an entirely different one. Smartweed, knotweed, doorweed,
persicaria, lady's thumb, water pepper, heartsease and several other names
are applied to these plants. They are widely distributed, covering practi-
cally all of the United States and Canada, as well as much of Europe and

120

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Asia. P. persicara, or lady's thumb, the large-flowered kind, is most often
called heartsease, and is also said to be the best honey producer. It is an
introduced species, coming from Europe, and is still widely scattered
through the sale of clover seed, the seed of this plant being commonly
mixed with red clover seed.

The honey gathered from these plants varies greatly, both in quantity
and quality. Some species do not seem to yield at all, at least not reg-
ularly, while others produce large quantities of nectar. The blooming

Fig.

Two species of heartsease or smartweed.

period in the North is from midsummer until frost, and occasionally large
yields are reported, an average of 200 pounds per colony not being the
highest on record, from this source alone. Sometimes honey from these
plants is of very good quality, while from other species it is very dark and
of inferior grade. The better grade of honey is sometimes designated as
heartsease honey, while the poorer grade is called smartweed honey.
These plants grow in moist fields everywhere, and frequently come up

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

121

in grain fields and stubbles late in summer, after cultivation has ceased,
thus offering plentiful forage for the bees, in fields where otherwise they
would find nothing.

HEATHER (Calluna vulgaris).

Heather is a very important honey plant in Europe, but occurs in few
places in America. Gray's botany lists it at the following places: "Low
grounds, Massachusetts at Tewksbury and West Andover; Maine, at Cape

Blossoms of the heather.

Elizabeth; also Nova Scotia; Cape Breton; New Foundland, etc." It may
in time become locally important in Eastern America, though it is doubt-
ful whether it be so at present.

Writing in Gleanings, D. M. MacDonald has the following comments
on heather honey in Scotland:

"The product of heather is of a rich amber color, bright and spark-
ling, rather than dull and shady. It has a pronounced flavor, delicious
to the palate when one has acquired a liking for it. The aroma is
pungent and penetrating, making itself manifest in a room where
heather honey is kept in a closed cupboard. Its consistency is so re-
markable that it will not leave the comb by any amount of centrifugal
force used in the extractor, and when desired in the liquid form, the
combs have to be melted and pressed by heavy screw power in a
specially constructed press. Most beekeepers in heather districts,
therefore, work for sections only; but it pays well to press all defec-

122 AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

tive combs preserved for the purpose, and thus renew the wax of
the brood area periodically. On account of the prolusion of the
bloom, the flow is at times extraordinarily abundant; but as the late-
ness of the season frequently causes unfavorable weather conditions,
the crop is an uncertain one.

Fig. 73. Hedge nettle.
(Photographed by Prof. Hottes.)

"Heather honey sells for about double the price obtained for any
other kind in this country. While a great part of the flower, clover
and lime honey brings the apiarist only 18 cents per pound, heather
frequently fetches him 36 cents. While, too, the other kind drags on

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 123

the market, heather honey sells readily and is often disposed of be-
fore it comes off the hives. Retail prices in warehouses in Edinburg
and London are often as high as 48 to 60 cents per section."— October
1, 1910.

In November, 1913, C. P. Dadant, editor of the American Bee Journal,
wrote as follows concerning heather in southern France, seen by him dur-
ing his visit to Europe in 1913:

"I had often heard of the 'Landes' of Gascony, but thought them
low, sandy plains. They are rolling hills instead, and extend for scores
of miles along the Gulf of Gascony.

"The growth upon the 'Landes' is confined to numerous ferns,
scrubby pines and cork oaks, with a very thick undergrowth of
heather. Just now the heather is in its fullest bloom (September), and
there are perhaps 20 different varieties, ranging from the palest pink
to almost red and deep yellow in color. It is a mass of flowers upon
which the bees work from June until frost, which comes very late,
usually not before November. So we may readily call this the eldo-
rado of beekeeping. There is only one dark side to the picture — the
heather honey is dark in color, a deep amber, strong in flavor and
almost impossible to extract with the honey extractor. Here I ascer-
tained positively what I already suspected, that when speaking of nec-
tar containing 75 per cent of water, we should confine ourselves to
the nectar of our moist prairies. I am told that much of the nectar
harvested from heather, in this dry, sandy soil, is too thick at the end
of the first day to be thrown out readily."

HEATHER, see also Eriogonum.

HEDGE NETTLE or WOUNDWORT (Stachys).

The hedge nettles are herbs with flowers in terminal spikes as shown
in Fig. 73. The corollas are two-lipped and Stachys agraria is commonly
known as "mint" in the Rio Grande Valley. At several places in the ex-
treme south part of Texas the author heard reports of surplus honey from
this source and from related species.

Richter lists three species, Stachys ajugoides, the white hedge nettle,
Stachys albens, and Stachys bullata, as yielding honey in California.

Other species are common to the Eastern States from Ontario south
to the Gulf States.

HELENIUM, see Bitterweed.
HELIANTHUS, see Sunflower.

HELIOTROPE (Heliotropium).

The cultivated heliotrope and also the wild heliotrope (Heliotropium
curassavicum) are listed by Richter as sources of honey in California.
There is also an occasional mention of heliotrope as a source of nectar in
the bee magazines, but probably it is not important.

HERCULES CLUB or ANGELICA TREE (Aralia spinosa).

Hercules club or angelica tree is a shrub or small tree common to
damp borders of the woods and river banks from Virginia to Missouri,
and south to Florida and Louisiana. The flowers are white and appear in

124

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

early summer. It is reported as yielding nectar abundantly, though not
often as a source of surplus.

HERON'S BILL, see Pin Clover.
HETEROMELES, see Christmas Berry.

HICKORY (Hicoria).

The hickories are an important group of forest trees of wide distri-
bution. They are of special interest to the beekeepers as sources of large
amounts of honeydew from aphis, which are frequenty to be found on
the leaves. These trees are important for pollen, also, in many localities.

HIMALAYA BERRY, see Blackberry.

HOARHOUND (Marrubium vulgare).

Hoarhound (Fig. 74) is a well-known plant, introduced from Europe,
which has become naturalized from Canada south to the Gulf of Mexico.
The plant is perennial, flowering from July to September. It occurs in

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 125

waste places, along roadsides and near dwellings over a wide scope of
country.

It is one of the chief sources of nectar in places in the Arkansas Val-
ley in Kansas, also in portions of Texas. The honey is dark amber and
strong in flavor. Beekeepers report it as important at Seguin, Texas. Re-
ports of honey from this source come from widely separated localities
from the Eastern States to California.

Richter lists it as blooming in May and June in southern California,
but at the usual period further north. He reports that Ventura and Los
Angeles Counties produce hoarhound in considerable quantities, but that
it is regarded with disfavor in the sage districts because a small quantity
of this honey, mixed with the sage, impairs the color and flavor of the
latter.

Wherever plentiful, hoarhound may be expected to yield some honey,
and in many places it yields surplus in quantity. Although not of the best
quality, it is still an important honey plant.

HOARY VERBENA, see Vervain.
HOG GUM, see Poisonwood.

HOLLY (Ilex).

The holly family is a large one, with representatives in Europe, Asia
and South America, as well as North America. There are more than a
dozen species on this continent, most of them common to the Southeastern
States. The common holly (Ilex opaca) is found from Massachusetts and
New York south to Florida and west to Arkansas and Texas. It is re-
ported as a valuable source of nectar in most of the Southern States. The
Myrtle-leaf dahoon holly (Ilex myrtifolia) occurs from North Carolina to
Florida and western Louisiana.

The holly trees bloom in May, and in Alabama, Georgia and Missis-
sippi are reported as yielding rapidly for a short period of time, usually
three to ten days.

The deciduous holly or privet (Ilex decidua), of the Southeast, is
known in Texas as possum haw or bearberry. It ranges from southern
Virginia to Florida and west to Missouri and Texas. It blooms early
and is reported as yielding well for a short period.

The yaupon (Ilex caroliniana) Trelease, is frequently reported as a
source of honey by Texas beekeepers, though Scholl lists it as unimport-
ant.

The gallberry (Ilex glabra) is probably the most important source of
honey of the group, especially in the Gulf region. (See Gallberry).

HOLLYHOCK (Althaea rosea).

The hollyhock is one of the oldest cultivated garden flowers. It is a
native of China and is to be found in every garden of old fashioned flow-
ers. Wherever found, the bees seek it eagerly, and apparently it secretes
nectar freely.

126 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

HONEYDEW.

Such material as the bees may store as honey, which is not secured
from the nectaries of plants, is usually spoken of as honeydew. There
are numerous exudations of plants which attract the bees and which can
hardly be regarded as nectar, to which the term honeydew may well be
applied.

The main source of honeydew, however, is from insects rather than
from plants. Aphids, scale insects and leaf hoppers yield this sugar in
great abundance. These sucking insects are often found on various trees
or plants in large colonies, feeding on the sap; while bees and ants gather
lo feed upon their excretions. At times aphids are so abundant that they
eject honeydew in such quantity as to cover the leaves on lower levels
with the sticky substance, till the drops give the impression that it might
have rained. The bees gather honeydew readily in the absence of a nat-
ural honeyflow, carry it to the hive and seal it in their combs the same as
iioney.

The quality of most honeydew is inferior and it brings a low price in
the markets, being in most demand for baking purposes. Since there is a
much larger percentage of gums in honeydew than in honey it makes a
poor food for winter stores. The excess matter clogs the intestines of
the bees, and where they are confined on such stores for long periods
without an opportunity for cleansing flight, a heavy mortality results.

There are hundreds of references to honeydew in the beekeeping lit-
erature. A few are given here to indicate the extent to which bees gather
this insect product:

"The most copious flow of honeydew I ever saw was in 1897. It
was from the pine. In early morning and late in the evening it could
be seen dripping from the leaves, till all the leaves and even the bare
ground beneath them were covered with the nectar. The bees
swarmed over the trees and the hives were filled as I had never seen
them before. The honey was light amber and of fine flavor, and gave
my customers the best of satisfaction. While this flow was on, there
was scarcely any honeydew to be found except on the pines, and every
pine was dripping with it." — C. C. Parsons, Alabama. American Bee
Journal, page 546, 1899.

"We have had the heaviest honeydew flow ever known in this
part of the State. We have tons of the stuff." — Scholl. American Bee
Journal, August, 1910.

"My bees stored a quantity of honeydew which granulated in the
combs as fast as stored." — South Carolina. American Bee Journal,
August, 1910.

"Of 250 colonies of bees in this town last fall there are not more
than 20 left. It is not the winter that kills the bees, but poor honey.
Honeydew is half an inch deep all over my honeyhouse floor; it soured
and ran out of the combs where I packed up my hives. The bees will
not touch the horrid stuff, nor can I get a swarm to go into a hive
with one frame of it on one side, and good clean combs and frames
of brood for the rest."— Vermont. American Bee Journal, page 458,
1904.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

127

"Bees are working on honeydew, the trees just glistening with it.
I have several hundred pounds of it in the supers. It is bad looking
stuff, not fit to eat or sell." — Iowa. American Bee Journal, page 537,
1904.

Fig. 75. Hops furnish pollen, but are not important to the beekeeper.

Not all honeydew is of such bad color and flavor. There are numer-
ous reports of honeydew of such flavor and quality that it finds a ready
sale in competition with good honey. However, it is usually unsatisfac-
tory for winter stores for the bees, regardless of its source.

HONEY LOCUST (Gleditsia triacanthos). THORNY LOCUST.

The honey locust is a well-known tree from Pennsylvania and On-
tario to Florida and westward to Texas and Kansas. It prefers rich
bottom lands, seldom being found on dry hillsides. The tree has spreading
branches and very long, red brown thorns. The thorns are often branched
and sometimes nearly a foot in length. At times they cover the trunk of
the tree in great abundance. The flowers appear in May or June.

While the honey locust is the source of considerable nectar, it is not
equal to the black locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia). (See Locust.)

The two species are often confused, although the long thorns peculiar
to the honey locust should distinguish it readily.

There are numerous reports to the effect that the bees work freely
on honey locust, but it is seldom regarded as a source of surplus, while
the black locust yields abundantly for a short period, under favorable
conditions.

128

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

HONEY POD, see Mesquite.

HONEYSUCKLE (Lonicera).

The honeysuckles are rich in nectar, but most species have corolla
tubes of such depth as to be beyond the reach of the honeybee. There
are numerous reports of the bees seeking nectar from such species as they
can reach, and from Minnesota come reports of the bush honeysuckle as
an important plant. (See Bush Honeysuckle).

HOPS (Humulus Lupulus).

The common bop plant is too well known to need description. It is
common from New England to British Columbia and southward. It is
very generally cultivated for making yeast and for medicinal purposes.
The small greenish flowers are wind-pollenated. It furnishes pollen in
abundance, but no nectar. (Fig. 75).

Fig. 76. Horsemint (Monarda punctata.) The source of the well-known horsemint honey.

HOP-TREE (Ptelea trifoliata), SHRUBBY TREFOIL.

The hop-tree occurs from New England and Ontario south to Florida
and westward to Michigan, Illinois and Missouri to central Texas. It is
a shrub or small tree known also as wahoo and quinine tree. The bitter
fruit is sometimes used as a substitute for hops. The flowers have a dis-
agreeable odor. Scholl lists the honey yield as good, and very good, in

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

129

favorable seasons, where the shrub is abundant. The California hop-tree
(Ptelea crenulata) occurs in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada
Mountains and in the Coast ranges. Its bloom has an agreeable aromatic
odor. The author can find no reports that indicate it is regarded as im-
portant to the beekeepers of that region.

There are numerous reports to the effect that the hop-tree is a good
source of nectar in the Eastern States.

HORSE CHESTNUT, see Buckeye.

'— ■ '

■

■ft W «£&

^^ ^Jtb

Fig. 77. Wild Bergamot (Monarda fistulosa). The corolla tub
are usually too deep for the bees to reach the nectar.

HORSEMINT (Monarda).

There are several species of horsemint, known also as bee balm, wild
bergamot, etc. Some of the species are represented from New England
to Texas. Figure 77 shows M. fistulosa, the wild bergamot of the North.
The corolla tubes are so deep that, as a rule, the bees are unable to reach
the nectar. In some cases it is reported as yielding freely and the author
has seen times when the bees were apparently getting considerable nectar
from this species. Whether the nectar secretion is unusually abundant or
the corolla tubes shortened more than is commonly the case, the author
will not venture an opinion. In parts of Wisconsin, M. punctata (Fig. 76),
according to D. L. H. Pammel, can be depended upon to yield an abun-
dance of nectar every season. This is probably the most important species

130

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

to the beekeeper. It is found more or less commonly on sandy soil from
New York to Minnesota and south to Florida and Texas. In Texas it is
the source of very large quantities of surplus honey in seasons following
wet winters and springs. The honey is A clear light amber with a de-
cided minty flavor. It is one of the most important sources in Texas,
where, together with M. clinopodioides, it is regarded very highly. In the
Arkansas Valley of southern Kansas horsemint is also important, yielding
as high as fifty pounds of surplus per colony.

Fig. 7S. Hound's tongue.

HOUND'S-TONGUE (Cynoglossum officinale).

Hound's-tongue is a weed introduced from Europe. It is now common
in parts of Canada and the Northwestern States and occurs in Missouri
and Arkansas, and from the Ohio Valley to the Carolinas and north
Georgia. It is named from the shape and texture of the leaf. The illus-
tration (Fig. 78) was photographed in open woods near Guelph, Ontario.
There it is frequently mentioned as a good honey plant.

HUAJILLA, see Acacia.

HUCKLEBERRY (Gaylussacia).

There are several species of huckleberry common to the Eastern
States. The common huckleberry of the markets, the black huckleberry
(Gaylussacia baccata) is common from Eastern Canada to Minnesota and
south to Georgia, in rocky woodlands and swamps. This species also occurs

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

131

en the Pacific Coast, and W. J. Sheppard reports it is a honey plant in
British Columbia. (Fig. 79).

Lovell reports that it is very abundant on Cape Cod and yields every
year.

HUISACHE, see Acacia.
HYDROPHYLLUM, see Virginia Waterleaf.

IDAHO— Honey Sources of.

The principal sources of honey in northern Idaho are fireweed, sno\

Fig. 79. Black huckleberry.

berry, alsike and white clovers. Secondary sources are dandelion, Indian
hemp, grindelia and goldenrod. — H. A. Scullen.

In the southern part of the State alfalfa and sweet clover are the
source of large quantities of surplus. Minor plants are probably similar to
those of Colorado.

132

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

ILEX, see Holly, also Gallberry.
INDIAN BEAN, see Catalpa.

INDIAN CORN or MAIZE (Ze a mays).

Indian corn is native to North America and was cultivated by the In-
dians at the time of the discovery of the continent. It has become one of
the most important grain crops and is grown in large acreage. It furnishes
an abundance of pollen in mid-summer and the bees work upon the tassels
so freely as to give rise to a very general impression that it furnishes

Fig. SO. Indian currant in bloom.

honey in abundance. At times, aphides are to be found upon the stalk and
the bees also get a sweet substance from the axils of the leaves. While
on infrequent occasions the bees may get honeydew from Indian corn, its
principal value to the beekeeper is as a source of pollen.

"If the weather is favorable for the reproduction of plant lice, we
may always expect them to attack the tassel, making the top leaves
sticky and discolored. I have seen the bees pile on the tassel until
you could scarcely see anything but the bees gathering this honeydew.
The honey thus obtained is dark, but of very fair flavor." — Wm. R.
Howard, White Rock, Texas. American Bee Journal, page 225. May,
1880.

W. K. Morrison, writing in Gleanings, states as follows regarding corn:

"Corn is not generally set down as a yielder of the nectar sublime,
but in tropical countries it is a very valuable honey plant, showing
the importance of locality, showing also that corn is a native of the
tropics. (Aug. 1, 1905.)

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

133

INDIAN CURRANT (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus).

The Indian currant, also known as coral berry or buckbrush, is a
widely distributed shrub that furnishes considerable nectar in late summer.
It may be found in the woodland borders and open forest from New York,
west to the Dakotas, south to Missouri and Arkansas, and from New Jer-
sey south along the mountains to Georgia and Alabama.

The blossoms arc very small and inconspicuous (Fig. 80), but where the
plant is abundant it is much sought by the bees. In southeastern Iowa,
the season of 1914 was a very poor one for the bees, and many colonies re-
quired feeding to get them through the winter. In a few localities, where

-Ii. showing fruit.

buckbrush abounds, they not only were well prepared for winter, but
stored some surplus. The blooming season is July and August in most
Northern States, so that the clover harvest is usually nearly over when it
comes on. Figure 81 shows the bunches of red berries that hang on the
bushes after the leaves have withered and dropped, which will be in-
stantly recognized by anyone familiar with the plant. These berries are
often about the only winter food available for small birds when the ground
is covered with snow.

The snowberry (S. racemosus) (Fig. 82). is a related species with white
berries. It occurs from New England west to Nebraska and Dakota, also
on the North Pacific Coast. The plant is quite similar to the red-berried
species in habit and growth and is also often called buckbrush.

134

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

ILLINOIS— Honey Sources of.

There are but few important honey plants in Illinois. It is a clover
State. White clover, alsike and sweet clover furnish the principal sources
of surplus on the uplands, with heartsease and Spanish needle on the low
lands. Maples and willows are important for early spring nectar, followed
by fruit bloom and dandelion. There are numerous minor sources which
add something to the product of the hive, but the above short list includes
the important sources of surplus honey. In a few localities boneset and
asters yield some surplus in the fall. Basswood, once important, has dis-
appeared from most of the honey-producing districts, where it formerly
produced large surplus. For list of minor plants, see Indiana.

Fig. 82. Snowberry in bloom.

INDIANA— Honey and Pollen Plants of.

Skunk cabbage, March.
Silver maple, March-April.
Red maple, March-April.
Box elder, March-April.
Willow, March-April.
Elm, March-April.
Judas tree, April-May.
Dandelion, April-September.
Crowfoot, April-May.
Sugar maple, April-May.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 135

Fruit trees, April-May.

Ground ivy, May-August.

Currant and gooseberry, May.

Buckeye, May.

Grapevine, May.

Black locust, May.

Honey locust, May-June.

Poplar (tulip-tree), May-June.

Raspberry, May-June.

Blackberry, May-June.

White clover, May-June-July.

Alsike, June-July.

Red clover, June-July.

Sweet clover, June till frost.

Basswood, June or July.

Mustard, June till frost.

Button bush, July.

Teasel, July.

Catnip, July and August.

Cucumber, melons, etc., July-August.

Marsh milkweed, July-August.

Sumac, August.

Boneset, July till frost.

Figwort, July till frost.

Buckwheat, August.

Ironweed, July till frost.

Jewelweed, August-September.

Smartweed, August-September.

Goldenrod, August till frost.

Asters, August till frost.

Marsh sunflower, August till frost.

Spanish needle (Coreopsis), August.

Beggarticks, August.

— Second Annual Report, Inspector of Apiaries, Indiana.

INDIAN FIG, see Prickly Pear.
INDIAN HEMP, see Dogbane.
1NKBERRY, see Gallberry.

IOWA— Honey Sources of.

Willows and maples furnish first nectar of importance in early spring.
This is followed by the blooming of the wild plums and cultivated fruits.
Next dandelion blooms in profusion for most of the time intervening be-
tween fruit bloom and white clover. White clover is the main source of
surplus over the entire State, excepting a few small areas where sweet
clover exceeds it in importance. Alsike is important in some sections. On
rough lands along streams buckbrush or Indian currant gives surplus in

136

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

midsummer. Heartsease is valuable on low lands over the State and on
higher lands in the vicinity of ploughed fields in wet seasons. Asters,
boneset, Spanish needle and numerous other fall flowers add something
to the production of the hives, but in few localities can be said to be im-
portant. Basswood was once of great value to Iowa beekeepers, but has
largely been cut down.

IRONWEED (Vernonia).

There are many species of the ironweeds to be found in many coun-
tries. They are common in Asia and Africa, as well as North America.
They are common from New England south to Florida and west to Dakota
and Texas. Figure 84 shows the flowers of the western ironweed (Ver-
nonia fasciculata) and Figure 83 a clump of the common ironweed (Ver-
nonia Baldwini). In the middle west they grow very commonly in pas-
tures, and the purple blossoms are very conspicuous in late summer. At

Fig. 83. Clump of common ironweed in bloom,
times the bees work them very eagerly, but it is doubtful whether they
are often of much value as a source of surplus.

IRONWOOD, see Coma, also Titi.
IVYWOOD, see Laurel.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

137

JACKASS CLOVER or STINKWEED (Wislizenia refracta).

Jackass clover or stinkweed is a rank scented annual plant with yellow
flowers, growing two to six feet high. It is common from Sacramento to
Lathrop and southward in the San Joaquin Valley, according to Jepson.
— Flora of Middle Western California.

It is an important honey plant in the interior valleys, where it is re-

Fig. 84. Blossoms of western ironweed.

ported as blooming freely only every other year. The blooming period
is from August to December. C. R. Snyder, of Selma, regards it as a main
source. He reports as high as 100 pounds of surplus per colony. He usu-
ally extracts two or three times from this source in September, and has
extracted as late as December. A heavy rain or a frost will stop the flow.
The honey is light and of good quality. A sample presented to the au-
thor is a light amber with a peculiar flavor, unlike our eastern honey.
The flavor reminds one somewhat of butter-scotch candy. It is rather
strong, but agreeable.

Richter comments on this plant as follows:

138

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

"Honey water white, mild in flavor and of good body; granulates
in three to six months, when it resembles a paste made from powdered
sugar. The very fact that it is spreading so rapidly over the poor
lands of the San Joaquin Valley, and that it produces the only water-
white honey, with the exception of blue-curls, as far as the writer
knows, that is produced in the late fall, has led to the conclusion that
jackass clover will be one of the greatest honey-producing plants of
the State, and may in future rank next to sage and alfalfa. During the
fall of 1909 a Fresno beekeeper reported that he extracted thirty
pounds per colony each week for six weeks from this source. Another
beekeeper of the San Joaquin Valley relates that during the jackass
clover flow the noise was terrific, and that home-coming bees flew so
slowly that they could be picked out of the air. It was Henry T
Christman, of Colinga, who first became aware of its value as a honey
plant and gave it its present name."

JASMINE, See Yellow Jasmine.
JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE, see Sunflower.

JEWEL-WEED or Touch-Me-Not (Impatiens).

The jewel-weed (Fig. 85) is common in wet places and along small

Jewel weed, or touch-me-not.

streams in shady situations. Some are to be found from Alaska to New
England and south to Florida and Louisiana. . The plant has an odd
hanging blossom, as shown in the picture. It is often called touch-me-
not, from the sudden bursting of the seed pod when touched.

It is usually regarded as a bumblebee flower rather than a bee flower,
but is reported as a source of honey in both Michigan and Wisconsin,
where it is quite common in places.

JOE-PYE WEED, see Boneset.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 139

JOINTED CHARLOCK, see Radi
JUDAS-TREE, see Red-Bud.
JUNE-BUD, see Red-Bud.

KANSAS— Honey Sources of.

Sweet clover probably ranks first as a honey plant in Kansas. It
yields surplus honey from east to west in the State and succeeds on high,
dry land as well as in the river valleys. In some parts of the State, sur-
plus honey is secured from no other crop. In the Arkansas Valley alfalfa
is also important and yields freely. Hoarhound, heartsease and wild sun-
flowers also yield surplus. White clover is uncertain in most of Kansas
and only yields honey occasionally under favorable conditions. The Ar-
kansas Valley is excellent beekeeping territory and the yields there com-
pare favorably with the best elsewhere. The first nectar comes from soft
maples in late February or March. Elms furnish early pollen and willows
along the streams furnish both nectar and pollen. There are many or-
chards in Kansas and fruit bloom is important, surplus occasionally being
gathered from apple blossoms. Horsemint is important in the southern
part of the State, as high as 50 pounds per colony of surplus being re-
ported from this source.

KENTUCKY— Honey Sources of.

H. R. Niswonger, in Circular 69, Extension Division of the College of
Agriculture, gives the following as important sources of nectar in Ken-
tucky:

"Fruit trees and bush fruits of considerable importance, sometimes
yielding surplus.

"Crimson clover, very important, coming before white clover.

"Alsike clover, comparing well with the yield, from white clover.

"White clover usually yields a heavy surplus.

"Red clover, sometimes worked by bees on second blooming.

"Sweet clover, one of the most important, blooming for four weeks
or more.

"Sour-wood, one of the principal sources in the mountain sections.

"Linden, also important in mountain sections.

"Buckwheat, important, coming when there is a dearth of other
plants in bloom.

"Goldenrod yields an abundance of nectar.

"Aster yields in late autumn, often sufficient to carry the bees
through the winter, sometimes some surplus, also.

"Many forest trees infested with plant lice yield large quantities
of honeydew.

In addition to the above list the following are taken from a contribu-
tion to American Bee Journal by Mr. N. P. Allen, of Smith's Grove, Ken-
tucky:

140 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

"Elm, elder, hazel and willow for early pollen.
"Maples.

"Red-bud or Judas tree.
"Black locust.
"Blackberry and raspberry.

"Poplar (tulip-tree), begins to bloom about the middle of May and
yields more honey than any forest tree.
"Prickly ash and sumac.
"Yellow-wood and coral berry in July."

KINNIKINICK (Rhus virens).

Kinnikinick is a sumac which grows from the Colorado River to the
Rio Grande and westward. The Indians and Mexicans mix the leaves with
tobacco and smoke them. It grows in large quantity in the hills some
distance north of Uvalde, Texas, and blooms from September till frost,
with sufficient rain. Local beekeepers report that as high as sixty pounds
of honey per colony is sometimes secured from this source. The honey
is said to be green in color, with a rank, strong taste, and does not granu-
late. The combs are capped very white when the bees are working on
kinnikinick. This should not be confused with the species of dogwood
which is also commonly called by the same name. There are several
species of sumac which are valuable honey plants. (See sumac; also dog-
wood).

KNAPWEED, see Star Thistle.

KNOCKAWAY or ANAQUA (Ehretia elliptica).

The anaqua is a common tree with small white flowers in open pani-
cles and oval leaves, which is common from New Braunfels, Texas south
to the lower Rio Grande. It is commonly reported as a valuable source of
nectar by Texas beekeepers.

KNOTWEED, see Heartsease.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

141

LADIES' EAR DROPS, see Brunnichia.
LADY'S THUMB, see Heartsease.
LAMBKILL, see Laurel.

Fig. 86. Sheep laurel, or lambkill.

LAUREL (Kalmia).

The mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), also known as calico-bush or
spoon-wood and in the Southern States as poison ivy, is a common shrub
occurring in the higher altitudes from New England and Ontario south to
the Gulf States. It is widely credited as being the source of poisonous
honey. (See Poisonous Honey). The sheep laurel or lambkill (Fig. 86) is
a closely related species which occurs from Newfoundland and west to
Michigan and south to north Georgia. They are shrubs with showy flow-
ers which are not often reported as important honey plants. In some
places, hillsides are covered with the mountain laurel, which makes a

142 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

pleasing sight when in bloom. These plants are so well known that a
great variety of common names have become known in different localities.
According to Sladen, the sheep laurel (Kalmia angustifolia) is one of
the important sources of honey in Nova Scotia.

LAUREL-TREE, see Red Bay.
LEATHERWOOD, see Ti-ti.

LEMON (Citrus limon).

The lemon is a valuable source of honey in southern California, though
much less is heard of it than of orange. It is cultivated principally in the
coast region, and Richter suggests that the proximity to the ocean of the
principal lemon groves may account for the fact that it does not yield as
well as orange. Unlike other fruit trees, it blooms more or less continu-
ously throughout the year. This again would make its real value less ap-
parent, since a plant which yields a little nectar for a long period of time
may give a total greater than one which gives a heavy yield for a short
period. It is noted, also, that oranges yield less freely along the coast
than in the interior valleys.

LETTUCE (Lactuca floridana).

Figure 87 will give a good idea of the height to which the wild blue
lettuce grows. It is common in the woodland borders, in rich soil, from
Pennsylvania to Iowa and south to Florida and Texas. The plant produces
hundreds of blue flowers in late summer and early fall. Although it is
of no special importance as a honey plant, the bees visit it frequently
and apparently get some nectar from its blossoms. In the South it is re-
ported as blooming in May and June. The writer does not recall having
seen it in bloom in Iowa earlier than August, while it blooms into Sep-
tember. There are a considerable number of species of wild lettuce, some
of which, like the prickly lettuce, become very troublesome weeds. The
writer has not observed the bees working to any extent on any except the
blue fall lettuce above described.

LEONURUS, see Motherwort.
LIGNUM-VITAE, see Soapbush.
LILAC, see Mountain Lilac.

LIME (Citrus acida).

The lime is a fruit very similar to the lemon, which has been intro-
duced to some extent into the citrus districts. Since it is not generally
grown it is not very important, though it yields honey freely.

LIMETREE, see Basswood.
LINDEN, see Basswood.
LION'S TAIL, see Motherwort.
LIPPIA GRASS, see Carpet Grass.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

143

Fig. ST. Wild lettuce is a tall growing plant.

LIQUORICE (Glycyrrhiza lepidota).

The wild liquorice is a plant of the pulse family occurring from Minne-
sota to Missouri and westward to Washington and Arizona. It is found
in Colorado and Wyoming at 4.000 to 8,000 feet altitude. It is reported as
quite abundant in places in Wyoming, and some years as being a great
yielder of nectar.

LIVE OAK, see Oak.

LOCALITY.

The plants which yield honey in surplus quantity are comparatively
few in number. In the average locality there will be only two or three

144 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

important sources of nectar, with a considerable number of minor ones
which furnish the bees with a partial living between the main flows.

As an example, a typical Iowa locality may be mentioned. There
white clover is the principal source of surplus honey. Now and then some
surplus will be gathered in the fall, also, from heartsease. Yet the list of
plants which yield nectar in that particular neighborhood is a rather long
one. Were it not for these minor sources, to provide for the bees before
and after the clover flow, beekeeping would hardly be possible there. To
begin the season, fruit trees, apples, cherries and plums, furnish a liberal
supply of nectar. These trees bloom early in spring when the bees are
still weak from the long winter. If it were possible for the beekeeper to
so conserve the strength of his colonies that they would come through
the winter in as good condition as they are in mid-summer, a good crop
of surplus honey would be gathered from fruit bloom in favorable sea-
sons. Following fruit bloom, the dandelions come. There are several
weeks of bloom from dandelion and the bees make the most of it. Consid-
erable nectar and an abundance of pollen are gathered from dandelion, only
to be used in brood-rearing. It takes a large amount of honey to rear a
big force of bees, and without strong colonies of bees profitable crops of
honey cannot be harvested. It takes honey, then, to make bees, and it
takes bees again to gather a big crop of honey.

The dandelion continues to bloom, in some localities, until within a
short time of the opening of the white clover flow. In favorable seasons,
when the clover is abundant and weather conditions favorable, a liberal
crop may be expected from the clover. Following the clover there is a
long period when but little honey is coming from the field. In one neigh-
borhood the bees may be entirely idle, while a short distance away there
may be sufficient forage to support the colony. In the one location the
surplus gathered from clover will be consumed, in part, to support the
colony until the fall flow from heartsease; in the other the bees will gather
enough from minor plants to support them. The one locality thus becomes
a good one for beekeeping, while the other is poor, and perhaps they are
but a few miles apart.

This is a fair example of general conditions. The locality may not be
in the clover region, but the presence or absence of the minor plants is
extremely important to the beekeeper who would support his family
from the products of his apiary.

There are many locations where the presence of plants which yield
pollen abundantly are second in importance only to the plants which fur-
nish the main honeyflow. As an example, there are places along the Ap-
palachicola River, in Florida, where enormous yields of surplus honey are
sometimes secured from tupelo, but where there is so little pollen for the
rest of the summer that the bees suffer seriously for the lack of it. In some
places the beekeepers find it necessary to move their bees to other loca-
tions in order to maintain the strength of their colonies, following the
flow from tupelo. Thousands of colonies of bees have died in locations
where wonderful yields of honey have been harvested, because no pollen
was available to enable them to continue brood-rearing.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 145

It often happens that the crop will be a failure in one location, while
but a few miles away it would be possible to gather a surplus by moving
the bees. As an example, at Hamilton, Illinois, in 1919, the clover crop was
a failure and the bees were on the point of requiring feed at the time
when the clover harvest should be coming in. By moving their bees from
fifteen to forty miles, the Dadants were able to harvest about forty thou-
sand pounds of honey, instead of feeding to carry their bees through the
winter.

It has become the practice of many California beekeepers to secure
more than one crop by moving their bees several times during the season.
Following the harvest from one source, the bees are moved by truck to
other fields. Thus it is sometimes possible to use the same apiaries to
harvest two or three good crops in a single season.

In like manner a well-known California queen breeder has found it
possible to greatly increase his output by moving his queen-rearing yards
to new fields when the nectar supply had ceased in his own location.

The variation in the supply of nectar in different localities is ex-
tremely great. A few locations will support several hundred colonies in
one yard. Other locations will hardly support twenty colonies profitably.
A careful study of the flora within reach is most important to the bee-
keeper. One who fully understands his location can adapt his system to
his conditions and succeed where failure would otherwise result. John W.
Cash, of north Georgia, had about eight hundred colonies of bees in a
section where thirty colonies would overstock any single location. By es-
tablishing a large number of apiaries in widely scattered situations, he was
able to secure a surprising uniformity of yield. For a period of several
years he never secured less than 56 pounds average of surplus per colony.
At the same time his highest average was 86 pounds per colony.

The combination of plants which yield surplus honey with those which
yield pollen and those which furnish some nectar during the periods be-
tween the flows, together with climatic conditions, determine the value of
a location for beekeeping. It does not require much skill to secure a crop
of honey in a location where every condition is favorable, but the man who
is fully acquainted with the flora will discount the crops of the hit-and-
miss apiarist even there. In the poor locality it takes a thorough knowl-
edge of the sources of honey and pollen, together with expert beekeeping
to succeed.

LOCO WEED (Astragalus). Also called Rattle Weed or Buffalo Bean.

There are several species of Astragalus, common to the Rocky Mou-
tain region, from Manitoba south to Texas, and west to California. The
loco, weeds are herbs with odd-pinnate leaves, and spikes or racemes of
purple, white, or pale yellow flowers.

Several varieties are poisonous and are the source of heavy losses
among the stockmen of the plains and mountain regions. Honey from loco
is reported principally from Colorado, where it is mentioned as blooming
with horsemint, in May and June. It is to be found mostly in the foot-

146 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

hills and the yield is not dependable. The honey is reported as of light
color and good flavor.

LOCUST (Robinia pseudo-acacia).

The black locust, or false acacia, is a native tree from Pennsylvania to
Iowa and southward. However, it has been widely introduced into other
States, thus greatly extending its range. It is now to be found in many
places from New England and Canada southward. It is reported as pro-
ducing a surplus of honey in parts of California, and is listed among the
honey plants of Texas.

ossoms of black locust, or false acacia.

The wood is desirable for posts, railroad ties and other purposes re-
quiring durability. Large plantations are often set for utility purpose:-,
so that in some localities the beekeeper may readily expect a surplus from
this source. Borers are a serious menace to the life of this tree, and whole
plantations of locusts are sometimes injured by the insects, which kill the
branches and sometimes the bodies of the trees, causing them to sprout
again from the root.

According to Lovell the honey is water-white, of heavy body and mild
flavor. Figure 88 shows the blossoms and leaves. The flowers, it will be
noted, much resemble those of the garden pea.

In some localities the tree is known as white or yellow locust.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 147

LOGWOOD (Haematoxylon campechianum).

The logwood is an important tree common to the West Indies and
Central America, but probably does not occur within the United States.
It is the principal source of vegetable dyes, most of which have been dis-
placed by chemical products.

It grows in dense forests over large areas and in Jamaica is regarded
as the principal source of honey. When conditions are favorable enor-
mous crops of honey are harvested, single colonies sometimes gathering
several hundred pounds. Since the forests are often miles in extent, large
apiaries can be supported in a single location. The plant usually blooms
twice during the year, once in November and the second time near the
holiday period. That weather conditions affect the flow from logwood as
readily as that of other plants will be seen by the following quotations
from American Bee Journal of June 8, 1905:

"I noticed unmistakable evidences of an almost universal bloom,
and about ten days later it came out in all its glory. It was truly a
magnificent sight, and although the house was about 500 feet from the
apiary, the roar of the bees passing to and fro was a sound to make
glad the heart of any beekeeper. I went down to the apiary one morn-
ing about 6 o'clock, and if I live to be 100 years old, I never expect to
see a more stirring scene in any apiary than I looked upon in that
yard of 250 colonies. * * * They kept up this pace for four days;
but, alas, it rained that Saturday night, and the next morning the log-
wood blossoms were as brown as though they had been burnt, and
the flow was over. Six thousand pounds for the four days was the rec-
ord."

The honey does not sell readily in American markets in competition
with our mild-flavored clover and alfalfa produce. We quote further:

"Prices we received ran from a fraction below 2 cents per pound
for dark to a small fraction below 3 cents for the best, which was one
of the finest samples on the island."

((See also Brazil.)

LOMBARD Y STAR THISTLE, see Centaurea.

LOQUAT (Eriobotrya japonica).

The loquat (Fig. 89) is a Japanese fruit of evergreen habit and fragrant
white flowers which has been introduced into parts of California. The
tree is cultivated for ornament and for its edible fruit, which resembles
a small yellow pear. It blooms in winter in California and is said to be an
excellent honey plant.

LOOSESTRIFE, see Purple Loosestrife.

LOUISIANA— Honey Sources of.

Louisiana has a large variety of sources of nectar, with no one plant
of special importance, in all parts of the State. Fruit bloom and forest
trees furnish early nectar and pollen. In the northwest part of the State,
near Shreveport, alfalfa is reported as a source of surplus. Holly, locust,
tupelo, blackberry, asters and cotton are among the sources commonly

PROPER" U

£ C. State C*Ucgt

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

reported. There are many minor plants which yield nectar and some in
surplus quantity in limited localities. Much remains to be learned con-
cerning the honey flora of this State.

Willow yields honey in such abundance that much honey is stored from
it at times. White clover also yields, but is seldom important. Senna,
horsemint, goldenrod and Spanish needle yield some honey in the fall.

Fig.

The loquat.

LUCERNE, see Alfalfa.

LUPINE (Lupinus).

There are many species of lupines which are common, especially in the
plains region and west to the Pacific Coast. Some are of no value to the

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 149

bees, while others are good honey plants. Richter lists Lupinus afnnus
as a source of nectar in California.

The blue lupine or bluebonnet (Lupinus subcarnosus) is widely dis-
tributed over southern and western Texas, fairly covering large areas
when in bloom. The blooming period comes in March or April and the
author heard many reports of this plant, as an important source of early
honey when visiting Texas. Some claim it yields only pollen. Scholl lists
it as a source of honey.

In Colorado, beemen regard some lupines as good honey plants, also.

LYTHRUM, see Loosestrife.

MADRONA (Arbutus menziesii). THE ARBUTE TREE.

Jepson describes the madrona tree as evergreen with glossy, leathery
leaves, widely branching, 20 to 125 feet high ; bark polished, crimson or
terra cotta, on old trunks dark brown, and fissured into small scales.
Coast ranges of California, oak hills, etc. Grows on high ridges, moun-
tain slopes and in gravelly valleys.

According to Richter it yields both nectar and pollen from the flowers.

MAGNOLIA or BULL BAY TREE (Magnolia grandiflora).

The magnolia is native to moist soils from North Carolina to Florida
and west to Texas. It is the largest leaved tree of the evergreens. It is
a magnificent tree when uncrowded and is a favorite shade tree in the
South. The thick, leathery leaves persist over winter until the new ones
have appeared, The flowers are large and showy and the blooming period
is from spring till midsummer.

The sweet bay (Magnolia virginiana), known also as laurel magnolia,
swamp laurel and beaver tree, grows in swamps from Massachusetts to
southern Florida and west to Arkansas and Texas. In Texas it is re-
ported as yielding very dark honey of poor flavor.

Magnolia is not often mentioned as important, though an occasional
report of surplus in the South is received. One beekeeper reports that in
Mississippi the honey is so dark and strong as to be unpalatable.

"We had three days of cool, damp, cloudy weather last year in
August. During that time I visited my magnolia apiary, and on ap-
proaching it I heard the heavy roar of bees. I first thought that whole-
sale robbing was in full force, and I soon saw that they were gathering
honey, and on looking at the alighting boards I saw particles of mag-
nolia blooms. This told the tale. I went a few rods into the swamp,
which was decorated with the large, rich magnolia blooms. I exam-
ined a bloom and there was the nectar visible, and all the bees had to
do was to alight, fill themselves and return. The weather soon cleared

150 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

off and the magnolia honey was no more. Those three days of damp,
cool and cloudy weather saved many old style gums from being
turned bottom up, in the spring, in this section."— J. J. Wilder, Cordele,
Georgia. American Bee Journal, Feb. 15, 1906.

MAGUEY, see Century Plant.
MAHOGANY GUM, see Eucalyptus.

MAINE— The Honey Flora of.

A large number of plants produce both pollen :md nectar, but in
Maine comparatively few yield a surplus of honey — the most important
being white clover, alsike clover, fruit bloom, raspberry, fireweed and
goldenrod.

Aster (Aster). The asters are of some value in this State, and in late
fall bees may be seen frequently on the flowers. Aster paniculatus ap-
pears to be the most important. In some localities in the Middle States
the ground is white with the blossoms of field asters. Pure honey, white or
perhaps sometimes light amber. It is gathered so late that often it may
not be fully ripened.

Apple (Pyrus malus). Yields a small surplus occasionally in this State.
Honey of fine quality, light amber with aromatic flavor.

Basswood (Tilia americana). So rare in this State as to be of little
importance.

Blackberry (Rubus). Yields little nectar in the Northern States ; but
a surplus is reported in Georgia and California.

Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum). Yisited by insects in large num-
bers, but not common enough to yield a surplus.

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum). Not extensively grown in Maine,
but fields of it are cultivated in many localities. A dark, purplish honey.

Button-bush (Cephalanthus occidentalis). Common in swamps, but not
important.

Canada Thistle (Cirsium arvense). Not very important in this State.
but more common westward. Honey light and well flavored.

Carrot (Daucus Carota). Naturalized from Europe, common in fields.

Clover, white (Trifolium repens). A fine white honey of delicious fla-
vor. Alsike clover (T. hybridum) is an equally good honey plant, honey
similar. Both are abundant in Maine, especially northward. In dry sea-
sons bees are able to gather nectar from red clover, a bumblebee flower.

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus). A good honey plant in the neighborhood
of pickle factories. Honey with flavor of the fruit, but improves with age.

Currant (Ribes). The various species of currants and gooseberries,
both wild and cultivated, are of some importance.

Dandelion (Taraxicum officinale). More valuable for pollen than
nectar in this State. Honey golden yellow, thick, strong-flavored, crys-
tallizing in a few weeks.

Goldenrod (Solidago). A most valuable honey plant in New England.
In southern Maine it never fails to give a large surplus, the main de-
pendence of the beekeeper for winter stores. Honey golden yellow, fine

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 151

flavored, candying with a coarse grain in a few months. Solidago gramini-
folia and S. rugosa are the most important species in this State.

Heartsease (Polygonum persicaria). This plant, so valuable in Illinois
and Nebraska, is of no importance in Maine; a bee is rarely seen on the
flowers.

Horse-chestnut (Aesculus Hippocastanum). Not common, bees gather
both nectar and pollen. Bumblebee flowers.

Locust, black (Robinia pseudo-acacia). Yields a surplus of white honey
further south, but not abundant in Maine. Often cultivated.

Maple (Acer saccharum). The rock maple blooms in spring before the
leaves appear and the flowers are visited by bees in great numbers. The
red maple also yields nectar.

Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca). Where the milkweed is abundant it is
a great help to the beekeeper. In Michigan it is increasing, and perhaps
also in Maine. The honey is excellent, with a fruity flavor.

Mayweed (Anthemis cotula). Common by the roadside, a bitter honey,
apparently not important in this State.

Mustard (Brassica). Very abundant in grain fields, where the flowers
often present an unbroken sheet of yellow. Probably never yields a sur-
plus in Maine.

Pear (Pyrus communis.) Not of much importance, but has been known
to yield nectar very freely under suitable conditions.

Plums and cherries (Prunus). All the species secrete nectar. The
choke-cherry, which is common in thickets, attracts many insects.

Raspberry (Rubus idaeus, variety aculeatissimus). One of the best
honey plants, where the forest has been lumbered. A splendid honey of
finest flavor, suggestive of the berry.

Sumac (Rhus typhina). This common shrub has the staminate and
pistillate flowers on different individual plants; not common enough in
Maine to yield a surplus. Honey bright amber, with a bitter flavor at first,
which later disappears.

Sweet clover (Melilotus alba). Does not grow well on the clay soil of
this State; requires a limestone soil.

Willow (Salix). Valuable in spring for both pollen and nectar, a great
help in building up the colonies and bridging over backward springs.
The pussy willow (Salix discolor) is most important. It could be planted
to advantage in useless wet land.

Willow-herb (Epilobium angustifolium). Also called greweed, since it
springs up abundantly on land which has been burned over. An excellent
honey plant; honey water-white; flowers red purple. — John H. Lovell,
Bulletin of the Maine Department of Agriculture, Vol. xvii, No. 4.

MAIZE, see Indian Corn.

MALLOW (Malva).

Several lists of honey plants contain some mention of the mallows.
The bees visit the flowers for both nectar and pollen, but the author can
find no record to indicate that they are anywhere important.

152

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

MANCHINEEL (Hippomane mancinella).

The manchineel is an evergreen tree common to the beaches and
marshes of southern Florida and the Keys; also found in the Bahamas
and Tropical America. It is very poisonous, and Britton credits it with
being the most poisonous of our American trees. He states that the milky
juice was used by the Caribs to poison their arrows.

It yields nectar abundantly some seasons and is the source of surplus
honey. According to E. G. Baldwin, it blooms with pigeon cherry and
with dogwood, and the late O. O. Poppleton was the only man to at-
tempt to harvest a crop from the tree, growing as they do on the Keys,
where not easily accessible. He credits Poppleton with a yield of 28,000
pounds from the three together in 1910.— Gleanings, April 1, 1911.

MANGROVE, see Black Mangrove.

Fig. 90. Manzanita.

MANITOBA— Honey Sources of.

In eastern Manitoba the blueberry yields some surplus. The main
sources of nectar for the Province are white clover, alsike, fireweed, snow-
berry, perennial sow thistle, Canada thistle, wolfberry, mustard, golden-
rod, aster and numerous prairie and weed plants. To these are added
willows and maples as sources of early nectar. — F. W. L. Sladen.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 153

MANZANITA or BEARBERRY (Arctostaphylos).

Figure 90 shows the blossoms and leaves of the manzanita, which is
seldom heard of as a honey plant east of California. The following infor-
mation is copied from Richter's "Honey Plants of California":

"Arctostaphylos, manzanita, bearberry. Throughout coast ranges,
Sierra Nevada foothills and San Bernardino Mountains (2,000 to 9,000
feet), November to February.

"The honey is amber and of excellent flavor, much like manzanita
itself (Colusa County); pollen. San Diego County reports a white
honey from the manzanita. One of the most important honey plants
to induce bees to early breeding. In some parts of Monterey, Colusa
and Eldorado Counties, a 20 to 40 pound surplus is obtained, and on
very warm days (Monterey County) nectar can be shaken from the
bloom. A beekeeper from Applegate reports it to be his best honey
yielder."

The Arctostaphylos uva ursi, bearberry or bear grape, according to
Gray, occurs on the rocks and bare hills from New Jersey and Pennsyl-
vania to Missouri and far north and westward. It is also said to be com-
mon in Europe and Asia. It is recorded in the local lists of plants of
Connecticut and Ontario, although, probably because nowhere abundant,
it is not known as a source of honey. Although Richter's list does not
give the species from which their honey is secured, it is probably A.
manzanita or A. tomentosa, or other species peculiar to the West Coast.

The leaves of the eastern species are much used in medicine. It is
said to be an astringent tonic, used in diseases of the liver.

MAPLE (Acer).

Almost all of the early pollen and nectar comes from trees, and most
of the trees bloom early. The maples are mostly large trees confined to
North America and temperate regions of the old world. Two species are
commonly planted for shade and ornament — the sugar maple or hard
maple (Acer saccharinum) and the red maple or soft maple (Acer rubrum).
The photographs show the blossoms of the soft maple. (Fig. 91.)

Maple lumber is commonly used in the manufacture of furniture, floor-
ing and finishings. The blossoms come very early, when especially valuable
in building up colonies for the main honey flow. If the bees were as
numerous as later, the nectar stored from maple blossoms would make a
creditable yield. Mr. C. L. Pinney, of Iowa, reports that one year his
scale hive showed a gain of from one to two pounds daily from soft maple,
when the ground was still covered with snow.

If it were possible to have colonies come through the winter with as
many bees as they have at the beginning of winter, beekeeping would
be a bonanza. Instead of having one or two flows, there would be first a
flow from maple and willow, followed by one from dandelion and fruit
bloom, ahead of the big clover flow. However, the beekeeper whose apiary
is situated near plenty of such trees as willow, maple, elm and box-elder
is fortunate, indeed, for the bees get a splendid stimulation very early,
and should be in prime condition for business when clover comes on.

The big-leaf maple of the Pacific Coast (Acer macrophyllum), also

154

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

known as Oregon maple, California maple, water maple or white maple,
is reported as of special importance in Oregon and British Columbia, its
yield is usually cut short by rains. It is found in the Sierra Nevada and
coast ranges of mountains in California, north to southern Alaska. (See
also Box-elder).

At left staminate

isoms and at righ
Both yield nectar

stillate blossoms of red map'

MARIGOLD (Gaillardia pulchella).

There are several species of Gaillardia common to a wide scope of
country. This particular species ranges from Louisiana west to New
Mexico and Arizona. It is the source of large quantities of yellow honey
in Texas, where it is highly regarded as a honey plant. It is reported as
yielding surplus occasionally as far south as Brownsville, though not fre-
quently.

Scholl lists it as "a main source of surplus; honey dark amber and of
good quality. May and June." (See also Spanish needle.)

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 155

MARJORAM (Origanum vulgare).

The marjoram is an European plant, cultivated in gardens, which has
become naturalized along roadsides in the Atlantic Coast States. Ac-
cording to Lovell, it is a favorite of honeybees; not sufficiently common to
be of much value.

MARRUBIUM, see Hoarhound.

MARYLAND— Honey Sources of.

Willows, maples, fruit blossoms and dandelion furnish nectar and
pollen for spring brood rearing. Tulip-poplar is probably the most import-
ant source of surplus where the bees are prepared to gather it. Coming so
early, few beekeepers have their colonies ready for this flow. Clover,
locust, sumac, holly, laurel, clethra, heartsease, Spanish needle, asters and
goldenrod are valuable. Tupelo and black-gum are also to be found in the
State. There is a long list of minor sources similar to those listed for New
Jersey.

MASSACHUSETTS— Honey Flora of.

White clover, found in nearly all quarters of the State.

Alsike clover. Under favorable conditions it yields not only a good
quality of nectar but large quantities of it.

Red clover. The second flowering is somewhat accessible to bees.

Sweet clover. Two species, neither abundant in Massachusetts.

Goldenrod and asters. Rank close to clovers in nectar production.

Fruit bloom. Apple, pear, cherry, plum, peach, etc., source of early
stores, upon which the colonies build up for the clover harvest. The body
is heavy, the color clear and light and the flow comes with a rush, which
insures handsome sections; but best of all is the exquisite aroma of the ap-
ple blossom, which places fruit bloom honey in a class by itself.

Linden or basswood. Doubtless the most valuable tree honey plant
in Massachusetts.

Buckwheat. Reported from all counties in Massachusetts.

Wild raspberry and blackberry. The nectar flow is of long duration,
beginning after fruit bloom has ceased.

Several species of sumac are important honey sources which are
greatly underestimated.

Locust. A valuable forage for bees. Reported as sporadic in yield.

Maple. Probably of less importance as a honey plant than the mints,
strawberry and milkweed.

Clethra. Known also as black alder and sweet pepper bush. A valu-
able honey secreting plant, largely confined to a belt paralleling the east-
ern coast.

Milkweed. Where milkweed occurs in large quantities it is a valuable
honey plant. Reported as important from Berkshire County.

Wild cherry, knotweed, dandelion, strawberry, chestnut, mints, gill-
over-the-ground and mustard also reported occasionally as valuable.

Willow and skunk cabbage valuable for early pollen as well as some
nectar.— Burton N. Gates. Bulletin 129, Mass. Ag. Ex. Sta.

156 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS .

MAT GRASS, see Carpet Grass.

MATRIMONY VINE (Lycium vulgare).

Matrimony vine is a low, spiny shrub, with very long, lithe and almost
climbing branches. It came originally from the Mediterranean region and
was very generally planted for ornament about American homes a genera-
tion ago. It is very persistent, and has run wild about many deserted
home sites. The small flowers clustered in the axils of the leaves are very
attractive to the bees, and, where sufficiently common, the plant is prob-
ably of considerable importance.

MAYWEED (Anthemis Cotula).

The mayweed or dog fennel is an old-world weed extensively natural-
ized from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and west to Texas. It is common
along roadsides, in barn lots and waste places generally. Lovell credits it
with yielding a honey that is light yellow in color and very bitter. It is
seldom mentioned as a source of nectar.

Richter states that because of its blooming between spring and sum-
mer it is of considerable value to many Sacramento Valley beekeepers.

MEDICAGO, see Alfalfa.
MELIA, see China Tree.
MELILOTUS, see Sweet Clover.
MELISSA, see Bee Balm.

MELONS (Cucumis melo).

Melons are valuable sources of honey. In locations where they are
grown in large acreage, as in the Rocky Ford district of Colorado, consid-
erable quantities of honey are stored from them. There are numerous
varieties of muskmelons, canteloupes, etc., but apparently there is not
much difference in the value of the various sorts to the beekeeper.

As with cucumbers and pumpkins, the male and female blossoms are
on different parts of the stem. Bees and insects carry the pollen from one
to another, if in close proximity, and often cause hybridization.

MENTZELIA.

Mentzeli speciosa is a conspicuous plant along roadsides and waste
places in Colorado. Its large white blossoms are closed during the heat of
the day, but beekeepers report that the bees work upon it freely in early
morning and late evening. It is probably not important.

In Oregon the stickleaf (Mentzelia albicaulis) grows freely on dry,
stony land. It has a spreading habit and its pale orange colored flowers
are very attractive to the bees.

MESQUITE (Prosopis glandulosa).

The mesquite, or mezquit, is the most important plant of the arid re-
gions from central Texas to New Mexico and eastern California. At a
distance it has much the appearance of an aged peach tree. A northern

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

157

man riding through the mesquite region on the train, for the first time,
remarked 'that he had never seen such extensive peach orchards in his
life. The tree is much branched and spreading in habit and is the source
of fuel for the inhabitants of the region. Live stock also are fond of the
leaves and pods and the Indians of the Southwest eat the seeds, first
grinding them into meal and baking them.

The same or a closely related species is common in Hawaii, where it
is known as algaroba. There it is one of the most important sources of
honey. (See Hawaii). This species is sometimes called honey-pod or
honey-locust, although the true honey-locust is a very different tree.

Mesquite is one of the most important sources of honey in the Southwest,

In the desert regions of California it is an important source of large
quantities of honey, as it is in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. In south-
west Texas mesquite is the principal source. The honey is light amber
and of good quality. Beekeepers report that it is lighter in color some
years than others, even though nothing is blooming at the same season, so

158 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

the difference cannot be laid to a mixture of honey from different sources.
The quality of mesquite honey is good. It is reported to yield more regu-
larly on sandy land than on heavy soil.

There are two blooming periods, the first in spring, usually in April,
and the second in July. If 'there has been plenty of moisture previously
the mesquite blooms profusely, due to the fact that it roots very deeply
and can reach any moisture that is available in the soil.

MEXICAN CLOVER (Richardia scabra).

The name clover is a misnomer, for this plant does not belong to the
clovers but to an entirely different group. It is a luxuriant annual weed
growing to a height of two feet or more. The bees are reported as work-
ing upon it quite late in 'the season.

The plant was introduced from the tropics and has become natural-
ized in Georgia, Florida, Alabama and Mississippi.

MICHIGAN— Honey Sources of.

While Michigan is within the clover belt, there are a greater variety
of sources of surplus honey than in most nearby States. In spring, wil-
lows, maples, fruit bloom and dandelion have the usual importance. Both
white and alsike clover yield surplus in Michigan. To 'these may be added
wild raspberry, fireweed or willow herb and milkweeds, all of which are
important sources of surplus honey in the northern part of the State. Bass-
wood was formerly important and still produces surplus in some sections,
though many of the basswood forests have been cut. Buckwheat is also a
source of surplus in some parts of Michigan, though according to E. D.
Townsend surplus from buckwheat is only to be expected on "a rather
poor quality of sandy soil." Townsend says, further, that alsike is worth
all other sources put together in the southern two-thirds of the lower
peninsula, and that aster yields surplus in Sanilac County. — Gleanings,
page 1184, 1908.

MIGNONETTE (Reseda odorata). COMMON MIGNONETTE.

The mignonette of our gardens is a native of Egypt which came to
America by way of Europe. It is frequently mentioned as a honey plant,
especially in older literature. Some extravagant claims have been made
for it, but perhaps it has never been given a fair test on a sufficiently
large scale to demonstrate fully its value. The following extract from an
article which appeared in the American Bee Journal, Page 47, 1878, is of
interest in this connection :

"After being started under diligent cultivation it was astonishing
to see the rapid progress which they made. The plants soon covered
the ground, where soil was good, and were out in blossom in a short
time, and from that time forward the bees were working on them by
the thousand from morning till late afternoon. I have seen them
thick on it by 8 o'clock. It yields pollen as well as honey. * * *

"I have found that on account of the spikes of the blossom being
so much longer, the bees must work on the larger varieties. I have

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS 159

some sorts which stand two feet high, the spikes being from eight to
ten inches long. * * *

"A correspondent from California stated that he thought an acre
of mignonette would be adequate for a hundred colonies. * * *

"When you give them this in addition to what they would other-
wise have, it will certainly secure an immense addition to the honey
produced. There is no plant within the range of our knowledge as
valuable for bee forage as mignonette. It will bloom year after year
if not disturbed by frost and gives a longer period of bloom than any
other plant. It gives more blossoms in a given space and more forage
than ain- plant we have ever seen. Honey from this plant has the most
delicious fragrance of any we have ever tasted." — William Thompson.
It was later tested at the Michigan Agricultural College, but Professor
Cook failed to bear out the above claims. He reported as follows :

"I expected great things of this plant, as the bee papers were very
high in their praise of its qualities. June 23 it began to blossom, and
it was not till the 27th that the bees began their work upon it. They
did not seem to take to it very readily, for on every occasion that I
made observations, I found very few bees present. With us it proved a
failure. Others have corroborated this statement. * * * It is rather
a delicate plant for this climate."— Page 83, A. B. J., 1878.
It is listed by Richter in Bulletin 217, "Honey Plants of California,"

with the statement that it is "very much visited by bees whenever in

bloom."

MILK VETCH (Astragalus).

The milk vetch is a close relative of the loco (see Loco), and like
the loco is visited by the bees. Some species are of some value for honey,
especially in the plains region west of the Missouri River.

MILKWEED (Asclepias).

The milkweeds are a large family of plants common to the temperate
and tropical regions of many parts of the world. North America alone has
55 recognized species. These plants are also known as butterfly weeds
and milkweeds. The blossoms are borne in large ball-shaped clusters as
shown in Figure 92. The seeds are attached to silken parachutes, on
which they are carried by the wind. It is these silky attachments that
give rise to the name "silkweed." Remarkable yields of honey are some-
times secured from milkweeds. An average yield of 100 pounds per colony
from this source is occasionally reported through the bee magazines.

Much has been written about the entangling of bees in the pollen
masses of milkweed. It frequently happens that bees thus entangled are
unable to free themselves and die as a result. Some species of milkweed
is included in nearly every list of honey plants which the author has con-
sulted. Apparently it may be regarded as of some value almost every-
where. The honey is said to be light in color and of good quality.

It is of special importance in northern Michigan, where it grows in
great abundance, as shown by Figure 93. In some locations beekeepers
report an average per colony production of 50 pounds, year after year,
from milkweed.

160

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Fig. 92. Blossoms of the milkweed.
MILKWEED VINE, see Bluevine.

MINNESOTA— Honey Sources of.

In early spring the willows and maples, followed by dandelions are im-
portant for spring brood rearing. Fruit bloom is also valuable in spring.
White clover and alsike are the most important sources of surplus. Prob-
ably there is no place in the world where these clovers yield nectar more
abundantly than in Minnesota. Sweet clover is also important in some
sections of the State. Willow herb or fireweed, basswood, goldenrod and
asters may be mentioned.

MINT (Mentha).

Richter lists the spearmint, or peppermint, (Mentha spicata), as yield-
ing a great abundance of amber colored honey in Sacramento County,
California and southward. Spearmint was introduced from Europe and
has escaped from cultivation and become naturalized in many places, both
east and west.

He also lists the tule mint (Mentha canadensis) as yielding honey from

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

161

July to October. The mints belong to an important group of honey plants
and where sufficiently common are valuable. They should not be confused
with hedge nettle, which is locally called mint in many places. (See Hedge
Nettle).

Fig.

In Northern Michigan milkweeds grow abundantly over large areas and are the
source of much surplus honey.

MISSISSIPPI— Honey Sources of.

Along the eastern border of the State there is a large area where sweet
clover is widely disseminated. In this section large yields of surplus honey
from this source are reported. An average yield of 140 pounds per colony
of surplus from 700 colonies in one yard near Prairie Point has been re-
ported to the author by a prominent Mississippi apiarist.

Willow, maple, fruit bloom and elm are reported as important for
early pollen and nectar. White clover yields some honey in the northern
part of the State. Persimmon is given as an important source of dark
honey. Bitterweed yields freely, but the quality is so poor as to be of
little value. Tupelo and cotton are valuable in some sections of the State.
There is some fall honey from asters and goldenrod.

The coast region offers a vast area of gallberry and there is much titi
along the streams. There are some very good unoccupied locations in
Mississippi which offer great possibilities for honey production.

MISSOURI CURRANT, see Buffalo Currant.

162 AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

MISSOURI— Honey Sources of.

White clover is the one principal source of honey in Missouri. Sweet
clover yields surplus in some localities. In the low lands along the Missis-
sippi River, heartsease, Spanish needle and boneset are also important. In
many places south of the Missouri River, bitterweed yields some nectar,
which is often mixed with the better honey and spoils the quality. Blue-
vine (Gonolobus laevis) yields surplus in a few localities. In the vicinity
of Brunswick as much as 100 pounds of surplus per colony has been re-
ported.

Only a small portion of Missouri is well suited to commercial beekeep-
ing, owing to uncertainty of the honey flows. With the extension of the
growth of sweet clover as a farm crop conditions are improving.

MISTLETOE (Phoradendron flavescens).

The mistletoe is too well known to need description. It occurs as a
parasite on trees from southern Xew Jersey and Missouri south to Florida
and Texas. It is a yellowish-green shrub, much branched, which grows on
the branches of the trees to which it attaches itself. It flowers early, usu-
ally in February and March, and is frequently mentioned as a honey plant
in the Southern States. Scholl lists it as the first source of nectar and
pollen in Texas, blooming there in January and February. Many Texas
beekeepers regard it as valuable for spring stimulation.

MONARDA, see Horsemint.

MONTANA— Honey Sources of.

The principal sources of nectar in Montana are alfalfa and white sweet
clover in Yellowstone, Sun River, Missouri, Gallatin and Flat-Head Val-
leys; yellow sweet clover in Bitterroot Valley, White clover in Bitterroot
and Gallatin Valleys, and fireweed in northwestern timbered region.
Minor plants are willow, dandelion, Grindelia (gum-weed), etc. — H. A.
Scullen.

MONUMENT PLANT (Frasera).

The monument plant is variously known as columbo, deer's ears (a
translation of the Xavaho name), and Frasera. It grows in high altitudes
from 7,000 to 10,000 feet, from South Dakota westward to Montana and
Oregon and south to Xew Mexico and California.

It has large, creamy blossoms, about two inches in diameter, on tall
flower stalks growing to a height of three feet. (Fig. 94.) It is common
in the Rocky Mountains and is much sought by the bees. According to
Wesley Foster it is an important source of honey in May. It is a striking
plant which once seen is not likely to be forgotten.

MORNING-GLORY (Convolvulus).

The morning-glory is a twining perennial vine of wide distribution
throughout the United States. It has a large bell-shaped corolla and is
often grown for ornament, Originally it was introduced from Europe

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

163

Fig. 94. The

nuiii'.ent plant (J fa) is a striking plant which, once seen, is

not likely to be forgotten

164

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

as an ornamental and has escaped and become naturalized in waste places,
eld fields and along fences everywhere. It is probably not important to the
beekeeper anywhere, but Richter lists it as a honey plant at Sacramento,
California, and Scholl lists it as yielding some honey and pollen in Texas.
At Victoria, Texas, according to M. B. Talley, morning glory yields
surplus hone}- of fine quality in September. There it is called tievine.

MOTHERWORT (Leonurus Cardiaca).

The common motherwort is a weed introduced from Europe and
Northern Asia. It is now quite generally naturalized from Canada to
Florida and west to Louisiana. For some reason, it is seldom included in
lists of honey plants, although it is said to be an excellent source of nec-
tar. Reports of bees working on this plant very freely, in 1914, when
most other plants failed to yield anything, were frequent.

The motherwort grows in clumps in waste places in old barn lots,
along railroads, in factory grounds, etc. It grows from two to six feet
high, with small flower clusters in the axils of the leaves. It is a relative
of the catnip, and apparently equally attractive to the bees. This plant

i Wis -M^jj'Mts^M

XjjN£$fr

■■■■BBHHHHR

Fig. 95. Clump of motherwort in barnyard.

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

165

was formerly used to some extent in medicine, especially for diseases of
women. It is also known as lion's tail.

Figure 96 shows the blossoms and leaves, and Figure 95 a clump of
the plants.

MOUNTAIN LAUREL, see Laurel.

MOUNTAIN LILAC (Ceanothus).

There are several species of mountain lilac common to California and
the Western States. They are closely related to the buckthorns. (See
Buckthorn). New Jersey tea belongs to this group. (See New Jersey
tea).

Jepson lists fourteen species of Ceanothus common to California.
They are shrubs or small trees with small but showy flowers, borne in
umbels or panicles. The California species are mostly evergreen.

They are known by various names, as deer-brush, California lilac,
mountain lilac, etc. One species is called buckbrush.

Some species are common to the Mountain States from Wyoming and
Colorado to Arizona and west to Texas. Both honey and pollen are se-
cured from this source, though there are probably not many places where
surplus yields may be expected.

MOUNTAIN MINT, see Basil.
MOUNTAIN QUEEN, see Yucca.

Fig. 96. Motherwort in bloom.

166

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

MUSTARD (Brassica campestris).

Figure 97 shows the common yellow mustard (Brassica campestris),
which is common all over North America and in Europe. The black mus-
tard (B. nigra) also has a very wide distribution in Europe and America.
There are about 50 species, including the closely related cultivated varie-

ties of cabbage, turnips, rutabagas and mustard. All produce some nec-
tar, and in some localities they are an important source of honey. In
parts of California, notably the Lompoc Valley, mustard is grown com-
mercially for seed; much honey is stored from this source. The honey
is said to be light in color and mild in flavor. Apparently there is much
variation in the amount of nectar, according to climatic conditions. In

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 167

any locality where it is sufficiently abundant, mustard can be expected to

add something to the product of the apiary.

The late J. S. Harbison wrote, in his "Beekeepers' Directory,":

"Mustard affords a larger amount of valuable pasturage to the acre
than almost any other plant. It blooms throughout the month of May,
and part of June. During this time, bees increase in numbers, and
store from it large quantities of honey of a clear yellowish color, but
partaking slightly of the taste of the plant."

NAPA THISTLE, see Star Thistle; aiso Centaurea.

NEBRASKA, Honey Sources of.

Most of Nebraska's surplus honey is secured from clover, though
alfalfa is important in the western part of the State, especially under irri-
gation. White clover, alsike and sweet clover are all important honey
plants in Nebraska. Cottonwood furnishes an important source of pollen
in spring. Willows and maples furnish both nectar and pollen, while fruit
bloom and dandelions are usually sufficient to enable the bees t > build
up for the clover flow. There is a great variety of minor sources which
are not sufficiently abundant to yield much surplus. Among these may be
mentioned, milkweeds, catalpa, Rocky Mountain bee plant, buffalo bur,
vervain, Spanish needles, etc.

Heartsease yields abundant surplus some years and basswood was
formerly important in some places in eastern Nebraska.

NECTAR AND NECTAR SECRETION.

The great Swedish botanist, Linnaeus, nearly two hundred years ago,
basing his classification of plants on their flowers, found it necessary to
name and account for all of the parts of a flower. In many cases he found
structures that were neither sepals, petals, stamens nor pistils, and as
these contained, or were wet with, a sweet fluid, he gave this the fanciful
name "nectar"— the drink of the gods, and called the parts of the flower
that produced or contained it, "nectaries."

As these nectaries were different from stamens and pistils, which Lin-
naeus recognized as the sexual organs of flowers, though they are some-
times connected with them, and as they were different from ordinary
sepals and petals, though sometimes connected with them, they presented
something of a question to the men of that day, who were curious to
know what the parts of a plant really are and what they do. For this
reason the study of nectaries became something of a popular diversion
for a generation or two; and a general idea that they are organs for se-
creting sugar became established; not necessarily an idea of secretion,

168

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

though, for just as animals excrete various organic substances that are
by-products, or waste, from some of their functions, so it was thought by
some students that the sugar or nectar might really be an excreted waste
or surplus rather than a substance secreted because it is to become useful
to the plant.

'.i" -.' 'i ^T ^ ." . '. '; ,;■ Hi m

Fig. 9S. Sprengel's title page.

Toward the end of the eighteenth century a German rector, Sprengel,
who seems to have found in nature a good deal of inspiration that he
failed to "put over," noticed that the petals of the common German wild
geranium were fringed with hairs at their bases. That was in the day
before men believed in evolution, but when they did believe in a purposeful

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 169

creation. Sprengel was convinced that an all-wise Creator would not
have made a single hair in vain, and he set about discovering what these
hairs were for, much as a sensible person, seeing the governor on an en-
gine today would try to find out what it is for. Below the break between
•the petals, he found a nectar gland, producing its sugary fluid; and he saw
the hairs would prevent the nectar from being diluted or washed away by
rain or dew. This brought him back to the original question — what nec-
taries and nectar are for. He got his answer to this by watching the
plant and seeing that bees visited the flowers and removed the nectar as
what might be called the raw materials of the honey industry.

In Sprengel's day the general impression was not only that things
have been created just as we find them, but created for our own ultimate
good. So Sprengel found an answer in discovering that the hair fringe of
the geranium petals protects the nectar of the flowers and so preserves
it for bees to use in manufacturing honey for our breakfast table.

When you stop to think about it, Sprengel could hardly have had the
curiosity to study out his geranium question to an answer without being
spurred to look at other flowers to see if they might not have something
interesting of the same sort to offer. He yielded to the impulse to look at
other flowers, and he found his geranium to be a very drab specimen com-
pared with some of the irregular and painted flowers that he studied out in
the same way. He must have felt no common pride when, in 1793, he pub-
lished the results of his studies, with simple but effective illustrations,
under a title that meant revealing to mankind the newly discovered secret
of nature in the structure and fertilization of flowers.

But Sprengel seems not to have been the sort of man to whom such
an answer really was an answer, and he looked further. It does not seem
to have taken him long to see that while gathering their own store of
honey, and obviously without consciousness that they were doing anything
else, the bees became dusted with pollen from geranium stamens and
rubbed it off on geranium stigmas while going their rounds of the flowers.
This conclusion evidently answered two questions — what the hairs are for,
and what nectar is for.

It is not necessary to walk down Michigan Boulevard on a windy day
to realize that we belong to an imitative race. The corner grocery and
the drug store show it as well as the windows of milliners and dress-
makers, shoe shops and news stands, or as the sights that issue from a
barber shop in a college town.

Fashions run in fads and interests quite as much as in dress. Linnaeus
was a great botanist; perhaps none has been greater. He not only re-
duced a chaotic science to order, but interested men in its study to a re-
markable extent. It is rather unfairly charged against him that because
his service was somewhat one-sided, those whose interest he awakened
were extremely one-sided, in that they did not see or care for much in
botany beyond finding, describing and classifying new plants. This was
well enough worth doing; it is not finished yet, and will not be finished
for many years to come; but it had become so fascinating and workable

170

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

through the genius of the Swedish master that his followers seized on it
with eagerness, and it was a long time before a mind of original habits
and impulses broke loose from the train.

The man who possessed this originality was Darwin, the promulgator
of the now universally accepted idea of organic evolution. To him has
been ascribed the introduction of a new teleology into natural science,
recognizing that structures and functions are because they are or have
been of use — not of use to man necessarily, though man may turn them to
account — but to their possessor.

Fig. 99.

This was Sprengel's conclusion as to the nectar of geranium flowers,
which he found led to their fertilization. The essential difference between
his way of seeing it and Darwin's is that he thought the entire mechan-
ism has been specially made by the Creator as a means to an end, while

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 171

Darwin saw in it the gradual modification of earlier structures because
the new were helpful in the struggle of life and their possessors for this
reason were likely to survive and pass them on to their offspring.

There is a German country saying that the honeybee was forbidden
the red clover because she didn't keep Sunday. Beekeepers know that her
tongue is a little too short for the honey tube of the red clover flower
and that she doesn't waste time in trying to get what is out of her reach.
They know, too, that some races of honeybees really can suck the red
clover nectar because they have longer tongues, and if beekeepers ever
want to do it they can probably set an expert plant breeder to work at
breeding a race of red clover with a tube short enough so that even the
German honeybee can get at its nectar. Natural evolution hasn't done
this. Where red clover is at home bumblebees are found, and bumblebees
have no difficulty in reaching its nectar much as hawk-moths get that of a
moon flower, which is far beyond the reach of any kind of bee. But in
the South Seas, where there are no long-tongued bees, red clover finds
itself as unable to set seed as the German honeybee is to get at its nectar.
Bee and flower have evolved together, where both are at home, into a
harmony of structure that is helpful to them both.

Nothing was more suggestive to Darwin in his search for evidences of
evolution, or modification through descent, than this sort of harmony of
structure and habit in flowers and insects; and one of his earliest and most
effective books in bringing his views to the comprehending notice of others
was one dealing with the mutual relations between those freaks in flowers,
the orchids, and their insect visitors.

For Sprengel's teleology, Sprengel's explanation of nectar as a means
of securing fertilization was sufficient. For Darwin's teleology, it carried
another question: Why? The geranium flower has both stamens and
pistil, standing in its middle. The one might fertilize the other just as well
as not, apparently; and yet this does not happen, for the pollen-bearing
anthers of the stamens drop off before the stigmas of the pistils come to
maturity. The same thing may be seen on any single-flowered geranium in
;. bay window or a greenhouse or a summer window box or flower bed,
only this geranium does not belong to the genus Geranium of the botan-
ists, but to the related African genus Pelargonium.

Looking for a further reason, Darwin saw a step further into the mys-
tery when he found that these and many other flowers that ought to get
(.n without any help are as dependent upon insects through their own fail-
ure to bring pollen and stigma together as those are in which stamens and
pistils are borne in separate flowers — often on separate plants. To him,
nectar and its attendants— flower fragrance, color, variegation, bizarre
shape, long tubes, nectar guards of hairs or some other structure — meant
what they had meant to Sprengel, fertilization through insect aid; but
they meant something more, fertilization of one flower by pollen from
another flower — crossing.

And still the questions multiply. Why do not all flowers have sta-
mens and pistil side by side? Why, when they have this structure, do

172 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

they not time the maturity of these essential parts so as to secure effective
functioning without all the nectar machinery? In other words, why is
crossing so commonly necessitated and provided for?

Science of every kind has been advanced by three methods — reason-
ing, observation, experimentation. Sprengel's answer was reached by the
first two; the new answer sought by Darwin was to be obtained through
the third. For eleven years he put the question direct to the plants them-
selves, fertilizing them by their own pollen, crossing them, raising and
requestioning their offspring. More and stronger progeny from crossing
was the answer.

The popularity that Linnaeus had given to characterizing and classi-
fying living things, was transferred by Darwin to studying 'their structure
and doings. Sprengel's idea fell upon barren soil; Darwin's was cultivated
with care and skill.

Two men — Mueller, a German, and Delpino, an Italian, stand out most
prominently among a multitude who observed and wrote and pictured the
marvels of flower and insect harmonies for a generation. All did excellent
work in furnishing details and corroborations; but Darwin had answered
the question as to the what and the why of the nectar of flowers.

But there is nectar that is not produced in flowers. Look at the queer
spots in the angles between the veins on the under side of a catalpa leaf,
when it is young; or at the little goblets on the stalk of a cherry or peach
or snowball leaf, or at the pin-head spots on a trumpet-creeper or paeony
calyx, and you may see glands there that secrete a sweet fluid. Bees may
not care for it, but wasps or ants do. The cotton plant has such sweet nec-
tar glands on the outside of the cluster of bracts about each blossom, and
on the back of its leaves.

In a very few cases such "extrafloral" nectar serves the same purpose
as that within the flowers; but generally it does not lead to fertilization.
Delpino called the nectar that leads to fertilization "nuptial" nectar, and
the other "extranuptial."

In the seventies of the last century an English mining engineer, Belt,
well known in the ore regions of Colorado, was marooned by his profes-
sion on a mining property in Nicaragua. Using his eyes took the place
with him of tennis, or of dissipation, which is the white man's bane in the
tropics. He saw that a certain kind of ants cut the leaves of trees into
bits which they take into their nests, and that roses and other introduced
plants fared hard with these leaf cutters, unless they were protected by
aromatic oils, as various kinds of citrus leaves are, or in some other way.

Belt did not fail to notice that ants visited extrafloral nectaries in
numbers. In the case of those on some acacias he found the ants very
pugnacious. I confess that in Guatemala I have preferred, myself, to go
around a bush or a grove of such acacias with their ant guards. As with
Sprengel's geranium hairs, these nectaries unfolded question after ques-
tion.

In Belt's case, the tips of the acacia leaflets ripen also into little fruit-
like bodies that the ants gather and take into their nests; and they

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 173

make these nests in the stipules that flank each leaf and sometimes are
shaped like a pair of small buffalo horns. It is an interesting undertaking
to get the ant census of an acacia twig of this sort. The danger may not
be as great, but it is as real and perhaps as painful as in taking the cen-
sus of a mountain valley noted for moonshine traffic.

Belt drew the conclusion that extranuptial nectar, sometimes supple-
mented by solid food and shelter, is of use to the plant that provides it by
maintaining a bodyguard of ants on plants that otherwise would be de-
foliated and injured by leaf cutters or grazing animals, much as Sprengel
and Darwin found an explanation of nuptial nectar in the benefit of insect
pollinization of the flowers.

This is the simple story of nectar, simply told, as it has been seen by
observing and thinking men. But it is not a story free from complications.
Our blue violets rarely set fruit from their showy nectar-bearing flowers,
but their main reliance for seed is on flowers produced below the leaves,
and these do not open, but are self-fertilized. The beautiful Poinsettia,
with its brilliant red bracts and large cups overflowing with thick nectar,
does not fruit in West Indian gardens any more than it does in our green-
houses at Christmas time. And irresistibly pugnacious as the acacia ants
are, those that visit our paeonies and cassias and other plants do not usu-
ally more than protest mildly if we molest the plants that they are on.

Are the explanations of Sprengel and Darwin, and of Belt wrong? No
other that are at all satisfactory have been offered.

When one stops to think of it, the secretion of nectar is an ususual phe-
nomenon. Sugar is made within plants and it does not leak from them un-
less they have been injured. The sugar beet takes various substances out
of the soil water, but it does not permit the passage of sugar into the soil
water. And yet nectar, essentially sugar, is passed out of the plant, within
which it was manufactured. This is because it is secreted — or excreted —
through specialized glands. Everyone who grows plants in a bay window
has seen young clover or grass leaves with a drop of water on their tips at
some time or other. A few grains of bird seed in a flower pot covered by
a pane of glass will show this as quickly as the seedlings come up.

These drops pass out finally through pores; but they are drops of water
and not of nectar. If we can imagine a gland behind such a water pore,
secreting sugar — letting it really get out of the cells with or into the water,
we can picture a nectar gland. Such glands occur in some flowers. Some
botanists believe that extranuptial nectar glands were originally water
glands that have acquired the habit of secreting sugar.

This habit is a very unusual and a very peculiar one. It is not really
understood except as it may be connected with usefulness to the plant. If
this usefulness is not indirect, in the ways suggested by Darwin and Belt or
otherwise, it must be direct. Water glands relieve over-pressure when ab-
sorption is high and evaporation low; in some of the calla family the
water even spurts from the tips of the leaves at times. But sugar is not
like water, taken in in quantity and to spare; it is manufactured, and in
the case of nectar glands it is manufactured where it is secreted. Nobody
has yet suggested any physiological function of plants calling for sugar

174 AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

safety valves situated in the queer positions occupied by extranuptial nec-
tar glands, and no satisfactory direct physiological explanation of the
nuptial glands has been suggested.

The actual status of nectar in botanical science is about this : When it
is produced in flowers, and in some cases when it is outside of them, but
near them, it demonstrably serves to secure cross-pollinization through the
aid of insects, or humming birds and their like, when the flowers are long,
tubular and red, as in the trumpet creeper, the trumpet honeysuckle and the
scarlet salvia. It is then "nuptial nectar." When it does not serve the
plant in this way and so is "extranuptial," it occurs in the neighborhood
of the flowers, as in cotton, sweet potato, trumpet creeper and paeony,
where it attracts numbers of ants, which are often very pugnacious, and to
the extent of their activities it prevents injury to the flower buds and flow-
ers, especially in their early stages ; or it occurs on developing leaves dur-
ing the period of their greatest need. More rarely, as in the acacias, the
leaves continue to secrete it through the season, so that those that are
mature add to the protection of the younger leaves and the flowers and the
young fruit.

That neither of these functions is served in exceptional cases, and that
some flowers rely on the wind for effective pollination, or have lapsed into
self-fertilization; or that really pugnacious ants do not commonly frequent
the extranuptial glands of most plants in temperate regions, and that some
plants get along very well without such help, mark questions that will con-
tinue to stimulate observation and experiment. But nothing now known
of the physiology of plants offers an alternative explanation for that which
connects nectar with either pollination or defense; and until such an ex-
planation can be found nectar will continue to be regarded as connected
indirectly with these services through insect or bird relations. — William
Trelease, Botanist, University of Illinois. American Bee Journal, Dec, 1919.
(See also Physiology of Nectar Secretion).

NEGUNDO, see Box Elder.

NEVADA— Honey Sources of.

Much of Nevada is mountain and desert country. Alfalfa is the prin-
cipal source of surplus honey, though sweet clover also yields. There are
numerous minor sources, as willows along the streams and many of the
desert plants.

NEW BRUNSWICK— Honey Sources of.

In New Brunswick the principal sources of nectar are alsike and white
clover, fireweed, goldenrod and aster. Willows and maples stimulate early
brood rearing. — F. W. L. Sladen.

NEW HAMPSHIRE— Honey Sources of.

The honey flora of New Hampshire is very similar to that of other New
England States. In spring, willows, maples, fruit blossoms and dandelions
keep the bees busy in preparation for the main flow, which comes from the

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 175

clovers. Goldenrod is also important. Sumac, laurel, blueberries and asters
are worthy of mention, also.

NEW JERSEY— Honey Sources of.

Plants from which nectar is gathered in less than surplus quantities:

Maples, mid-March-early April.

Peach early April.

Pear, mid-April.

Apple, late April early May.

Willows, late April.

Dandelion, early May.

Wild strawberry, May.

Lupine, May.

Raspberry, May.

Grape, late May-early June.

Huckleberry, blueberry, late May-late June.

Persimmon, mid-June-late June.

Vervain, late June-early September.

Virginia creeper, late June-late July.

Milkweed, silkweed, July.

False indigo, July.

Button bush, July.

Burdock, July-October.

Tree of Heaven, pride of China, July.

Catnip, July

Motherwort, August.

Smartweed, heartsease, late August-mid- September.

Horsemint, August-September.

Boneset, mid- August-Sept ember.

Surplus honey plants :

Crimson clover, mid-May.
Locust, May 20-June 1.
Tulip-poplar, May 26-June 10.
Poison ivy, mid-May-mid-June.
Holly, late May-late June.
Mountain laurel, late May-late June.
Sheep laurel, late May-late June.
Swedish clover, alsike clover, June 1-July 10.
White clover, early June-mid-July.
Dogbane, Indian hemp, early June-late August.
Basswood, linden, late June-early July.
California privet, mid-July-late July.
Sumac, mid-June-mid-July.
White sweet clover, June-November.
Cranberry, June 15-August 15.

August flower, soap bush, sweet pepper bush, late July-late August.
12

176 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Rose mallow, swamp mallow, late July-early September.

Burdock, July-November.

Spanish needle, mid-August into October.

Heartsease, smartweed or blackheart, August-September.

Heath aster, white aster or St. Michaelmas daisy, late August-mid-Oc-
tober.

Bushy goldenrod, late August-mid-October.

Buckwheat, early August.

Surplus Honey Regions

We may divide the State of New Jersey into three sections on the
basis of surplus honey production.

The first section includes all of the southern and middle counties and
the southern part of Middlesex, Somerset and Hunterdon. As a rule,
the surplus honey in this district comes from clover. There are, of course,
occasional places, such as low-lying land along large streams where a sec-
ond flow is harvested in late summer and early autumn.

The second district includes all north of the first, with the exception
of Hudson County and a part of Bergen, Passaic, Essex and Union. In this
district there are generally two distinct, heavy honey flows, the first from
clover and the last from buckwheat and fall flowers, such as goldenrod,
aster, etc.

The third division, which roughly includes the Passaic and Hacken-
sack Valleys, and the Raritan Valley below New Brunswick, rarely produces
any surplus honey except in the fall, and that comes from goldenrod, astc.
and mallows.

The presence or absence of a single kind of plant will often decide
whether the fall flow will be worth consideration. This principle applies
more particularly to the second district. Should the amount of buckwheat
sown be very small in some parts of this region the fall surplus would be
missing. In certain parts of this second district white sweet clover is
found in great abundance and furnishes surplus throughout the late sum-
mer and early fall. — Elmer G. Carr, Manual of Bee Husbandry.

NEW JERSEY TEA or RED-ROOT (Ceanothus americanus).

New Jersey tea grows from one to three feet high from u dark red
root, hence the name "red-root." It is a shrubby plant with flowers in
white clusters. The leaves were used for tea during the revolutionary
war. It is common in woodlands from Ontario to Manitoba and south
to Arkansas, Texas and Florida.

It is not often mentioned as a source of honey, but according to H. B.
Parks, is regarded as valuable in northwestern Missouri. (See Mountain
lilac.)

NEW MEXICO— Honey Sources of.

Alfalfa is the chief source of surplus honey in the irrigated regions
of New Mexico. There are some districts where the bloom of orchard
fruits is important, especially for spring stimulation. The desert flora
offers a wide variety of minor sources, with a few of surplus importance,

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 177

Among the latter may be mentioned mesquite, catsclaw and cactus. (See
Arizona and Texas.) Sweet clover is also important.

NEW YORK— Honey Sources of.

W. D. Wright, in Bulletin 49 of the New York Department of Agricul-
ture, only lists a few plants as important in that State. He mentions
basswood as formerly one of the principal sources now rapidly passing
away. Alfalfa is mentioned as a source of honey in central New York.
Alsike is spoken of as abundant and a splendid honey producer. Good
yields are frequently gathered from buckwheat in sections where it is
grown extensively and it seldom fails entirely. Fruit blossoms and black
locust bloom before the colonies are sufficiently strong to store much sur-
plus, but are valuable for early brood rearing. Sweet clover, sumac, blue
thistle and goldenrod are the other sources mentioned. The failure to
mention white clover is evidently an oversight, since it is one of the
most important sources of nectar in the State.

NORTH CAROLINA, Honey Flora of.

Taking the State as a whole, sourwood, poplar, sometimes called
tulip tree, and the clovers, are the three leaders. Of these three leaders
the poplar is the most widely distributed and is prominently mentioned
in all sections, from east to west. The sourwood is principally confined
to the Piedmont section, though reported also from the lower mountain
localities and from the western border of the eastern region. The clovers
are found in all parts, though more abundant in the mountain and Pied-
mont sections. Next to these we find the gallberry (Vaccinium sp.) and
black gum, both taking high rank and both found principally in the east.
Persimmon ranks sixth and is reported principally from the east, sev-
eral mentioning it as irregular in yield and lasting but a short time, but
doing well for a short period. The basswood or linden comes seventh
and is reported only from the west. Holly and huckleberry (low and
high) are next in order, both being in the east. Buckwheat follows and is
confined to the west.

Twenty-four leading bee pasturage plants:

Sourwood, Piedmont ; little east and west.

Poplar (tulip tree), all sections.

Clovers (all varieties), west and Piedmont; little in east.

Gallberry, east.

Black gum, east.

Persimmon, east and Piedmont.

Basswood (linden, linn), west.

Holly, east.

Huckleberry, east.

Buckwheat, west.

Ironweed (aster), Piedmont.

Locust (black locust), west and Piedmont.

Aster, all sections.

Cotton, east and Piedmont.

178 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Stickweed (Bidens).
Fruit trees, all kinds, all sections.
Peas (cow peas), Piedmont and east.
Sumac.

Nut trees (including oak), all sections.
Goldenrod, all sections.
Rattan, east.
Blackberry, all sections.
Maple .all varieties), all sections.
Alfalfa, locally grown.

— Franklin Sherman, Jr., Bui. North Carolina Department of Agricul-
ture, Vol. 29, No. 1.

NORTH DAKOTA— Honey Sources of.

Beekeeping is, as yet, but little developed in North Dakota. Willows
and cottonwoods furnish early pollen, dandelion and fruit bloom assist
the bees with both nectar and pollen for early brood rearing. The clovers
are the principal sources of surplus honey.

NOVA SCOTIA Honey Sources of.

Willows and maples are important for spring brood rearing. The
sources of surplus are alsike and white clover, goldenrod, aster, apple,
fall dandelion (T. autumnale), wild radish (R. Raphanistrum), blueberry
and Kalmia angustifolia. — F. W. L. Sladen.

OAK (Quercus).

The oaks are frequently reported as sources of nectar. The fac .
that it is usually honeydew, rather than nectar, which the bees gather
from oaks. Pollen is produced in abundance by these trees and all species
may be regarded as valuable for pollen. (Fig. 100.) There are many spe-
cies of oaks, some of which are common to any part of America where
trees grow naturally. There are 24 species recorded from Alabama, 24
from New Mexico and 12 from Connecticut.

Richter gives 4 species — field oak (Quercus agrifolia), tan bark (Q.
ciensiflora), mountain white oak (Q. douglassii) and weeping oak (Q. lo-
bata), as sources of honey in California. Scholl gives 6 species as sources
of honey in Texas, as follows : Post oak (Q. minor), live oak (Q. virgin-
iana), red oak (Q. rubra), Spanish oak (Q. palustris), water oak (Q. aqua-
tica), and jack or barren oak (Q. nigra).

H. B. Parks, of the Texas Agricultural College, has found that post
cak yields some nectar from extra floral nectaries. This may be true of
some other species.

The live oak yields honeydew in large quantity in west Texas, from

:t is

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

179

the balls made by the live oak gall. George Schmidt, of Crystal City, re-
ports an average of 25 pounds per colony from live oak balls, on the
Nueces River, in 1917. The honey was dark and heavy, but of good flavor.
The flow lasted till frost. There are numerous similar reports, from
west Texas, of honeydew from this source, from August till late fall.
During the drought of 1917 and 1918 there was little else for the bees in
many Texas localities, and the live oak saved the bees from starvation.

Occasionally the bees work on white oaks in Illinois. In this case
they are attracted by the presence of a soft scale (Lycanium cockerellii).

Fig. 100. Pollen bearing blossoms of red oak.
OGECHE PLUM, see Tupelo.

OHIO — Honey Sources of.

The sources of nectar in Ohio are very similar to those of many other
States in the great central basin, where white and alsike clover furnish
the principal surplus. There is the usual list of plants furnishing nectar
and pollen for early spring, such as willows, maples, fruit blossoms, dande-
lions, etc. The main flow comes from white and alsike clover in June and
July. In some sections buckwheat yields surplus. Basswood, which was
once an important source of nectar, has been cut until few beekeepers

180

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

are able to get crops of much value from it. Goldenrod and asters are
important in many sections for late fall.

OKLAHOMA— Honey Sources of.

Fruit blossoms furnish nectar and pollen for early brood rearing.
Dandelions and willows are also important at this season. Cottonwood
yields pollen abundantly, as do other shade trees. Alfalfa horsemint, hore-
hound, sweet clover and cotton are important sources of surplus.

Among the many minor sources may be mentioned Indian currant, but-
ton bush, asters, goldenrod, milkweeds, melons, etc.

OKRA or GUMBO.

Cook's Manual lists okra as a honey plant. It is a well-known garden
vegetable, especially popular in the South, but is seldom grown in quan-
tity sufficient to be important to the beekeeper.

OLEASTER, WILD OLIVE, RUSSIAN OLIVE (Elaeagnus hortensis).

The Russian oleaster, known botanically as Var songorica (Fig. 101)
was first introduced into this country by Professor J. L. Budd because of
its hardiness and ornamental qualities. The young trees branch freely

Fig. 101. Oleaster or Russian Olive.

and produce an abundance of white, scurfy foliage, which makes it a most
attractive and striking shrub. * * * It is one of the most fragrant of
cultivated small trees. The season of blossoming varies somewhat, but
with us (Iowa) is about the middle or early part of June.

It is one of the best of our spring honey plants. The bees visit the

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 181

plant in large numbers when in full bloom from eariy morning until late
evening. — L. H. Pammel, American Bee Journal, November, 1917.

Eleaegnus argentea, wolf willow or silverberry. It is said to yield
honey on the prairies. — W. J. Sheppard, British Columbia. American Bee
Journal, November, 1917.

OLIVE (Olea europaea).

The olive is generally cultivated in orchards throughout California.
Richter states that his bees, within easy reach of several thousand olive
trees, do not work on them, but that T. O. Andrews, of Corona, and B. B.
Hogaboom, of Elk Grove, report bees working well on olive bloom. He
further states that the olive tree is a well known source of honey in Spain.

ONION (Allium).

According to Richter, wild onions sometimes yield surplus honey in
the vicinity of Sacramento, California. In some parts of that State, where
cultivated onions (Allium cepa) are grown for seed, they are also im-
portant. The onion yields freely and the honey is said to be amber in
color with a characteristic onion flavor which disappears after the honey
i> fully ripened. There are few localities where onions are sufficiently
abundant to be important.

ONTARIO— Honey Sources of.

The principal honey plants of Ontario, in the order of their import-
ance, are alsike and white Dutch clover, buckwheat, basswood, fireweed,
wild raspberry, goldenrod, aster, dandelion, sweet clover, viper's bugloss,
Canada thistle, milkweed and boneset.

Buckwheat, basswood, sweet clover, viper's bugloss, milkweed and
boneset are confined principally to the southern part of the province.
Willows and maples are important for early spring brood rearing.— F. W.
L. Sladen.

OPUNTIA, see Prickly Pear.

ORANGE (Citrus aurantium).

The orange tree is a native of Asia, early introduced by the colonists
into Florida. It thrives in a semi-tropical climate and its culture in
America is confined to southern Florida, a few small areas along the Gulf
Coast, the lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas and to California. It is
sensitive to frost and the trees are easily killed by freezing.

In California, orange is one of the important sources of honey. The
trees bloom in April, when many colonies are too weak to make the most
oj the crop. The flow is extremely rapid, as at times the nectar is se-
creted in such abundance that men and horses working in the orchards
are saturated with it. The flow lasts about three weeks. In 1919 it con-
tinued 23 days in Tulare County. Four hundred colonies in one yard aver-
aged more than 60 pounds per colony from orange. O. F. Darnell, of Por-
terville, extracted 171 pounds of orange honey from one colony in ten days,
after having previously extracted 24 frames which were not weighed. A.

182 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

W. Gambs, of Anderson, reported that some colonies, made extra strong
by drifting bees, stored four full-depth extracting supers of fresh nectar
from orange in four days.

In some of the interior valley locations the bees get fair crops from
orange about four years in five. Along the coast, the fogs are unfavorable
and the crop is uncertain. Good orange locations are much in demand,
and many beekeepers move their bees long distances for the flow. With a
larger reserve supply of honey, left in the hives for winter to enable the
bees to build up early in spring, and with more careful attention to winter-
ing, it would be possible to greatly increase the average returns from
orange. This statement is based on the results of a few beekeepers who
take special pains to get their bees into condition for the orange flow.

The honey from orange is white in color, heavy in body, of the finest
quality, and is much in demand in the markets.

OREGON CRAB APPLE, see Crab Apple.

OREGON— Honey Sources of.

J. W. Wills, of Marion County, Oregon, lists the principal honey plants
of that State in the American Bee Journal as follows:

Willow, chickweed, balm-of-Gilead, salmonberry, dandelion, fruit trees,
grapes, currants, gooseberries, maples, clover, Juneberry, barberry, huckle-
berries, laurel, milkweed, lobelia, catnip, snowberry, arrowwood, Spanish
needle and some others.

P. W. Nicolle, in Gleanings, adds that chittam (Rhamnus purshiana)
is one of the principal sources. He mentions, also, salal (Gaultheria shal-
lon) as a source of nectar. Salal is frequently mentioned as valuable in
Oregon.

OREGON GRAPE (Berberis nervosa).

Oregon grape is common in the woodlands near the Coast from Marin
County, California, northward. It is abundant in the forest regions of
Washington. It is a shrub with prickly alternate leaves and yellow flowers
in racemes. Oregon grape is reported as a source of honey of minor im-
portance in the Northwest. Like the agarites or triple-leaved barberry
of Texas, it blooms in early spring when it is of special value for stimula-
tive purposes. Another species of barberry (Berberis Aquifolium) is
common to this region, and most beekeepers do not differentiate between
the two species. (See Barberry.)

OREOCARYA.

A desert plant growing on high, loose, sandy soils. Blooms in May,
with a small bur following the bloom. It ranges from Wyoming to Ari-
zona and west Texas. It yields nectar freely and an average of forty
pounds per colony has been reported from this source. The honey is light
amber, of inferior flavor, according to D. W. Spangler, of Longmont, Colo-
rado, but it is extremely valuable for building up colonies in spring. Ex-
tended cultivation is rapidly reducing the area where the plant is to be
found.

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS 183

PALM.

Royal palms (Roystonea regia) are very abundant in Cuba and Porto
Rico and are probably the most characteristic trees of those islands.
They are also to be found to some extent in the southern portions of the
United States. As sources of honey these trees are important in the
West Indies, where they yield nectar abundantly.

The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) has been planted to a limited ex-
tent in the desert regions of the Southwestern United States. This species
is reputed to be a splendid source of nectar.

The cocoanut palm (Cocos nucifera) is the most important of all the
palm trees, since the nuts furnish large quantities of fond, much used in
tropical countries. This species is common in the West Indies and in
southern Florida. Although the source of considerable honey it is not
equal to the foregoing species as a source of nectar. (See also Palmetto).

PALMETTO (Sabal).

The palmettos are the most conspicuous feature of the flora of the
south half of Florida. (Fig. 104.) The cabbage palmetto is a tree, while
the saw or scrub palmetto grows more like the underbrush in northern
forests. To the man accustomed to dense forests, the open, park-like
growth of the palmettos hardly seems like woodland. The illustration
gives a good idea of the typical Florida landscape.

This group of plants is not important in America, outside of the State
of Florida. A small area in lower Texas, about the mouth of the Rio
Grande River, is covered by a species of palmetto closely resembling the
cabbage palmetto, but it is thought to be a different species. An occa-
sional tree is also found along the seacoast as far north as Charleston,
S. C. They are to be found also as street trees in various southern
cities along the Gulf Coast and in south Texas. The small saw palmetto
(Serenoa serrulata) also extends its range into Georgia and the Carolinas,
in open pine woodlands.

In Florida both forms are sufhcientl}' abundant to furnish nectar in
quantity worthy the attention of the commercial beekeeper. However, in
too many localities there is little else available, so that the season between
flows is too long to make beekeeping worth while. To take advantage of
the palmetto flows and at the same time get good crops through the rest
of the year, the late O. O. Poppleton practiced migratory beekeeping. His
apiaries were moved several times during the year, so as to be near dif-
ferent sources in the period of bloom. The great drawback to beekeeping
in Florida is the lack of a sufficient variety of honey plants in one loca-

184

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

tion to support the bees profitably throughout the year. There are a few
localities, of course, where this does not apply.

The cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto) (Fig. 102) gets its name from
the cabbage-like formation in the bud at the top of the growing trunk.
The tree grows 25 to 35 feet in height and has large fan-shaped leaves

Fig. 102. Cabbage palmetto in bloom.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

185

several feet long. It grows along the Atlantic Coast to the north line of
Florida, but in the interior is not found in abundance more than about
two-thirds of the way.

The tree blooms during July and August, the latter date applying to
northern parts of the State. The blossoms are very delicate and have
been likened by Professor Baldwin to a giant ostrich plume. (Fig. 105).
According to his statement, the flowerlets are sensitive to weather condi-

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tions. Too much moisture blights them, while the opposite extreme blasts
the delicate bloom. As a consequence, it does not yield abundantly more
than about one year in three, although at times it yields very profusely.

"On the St. Lucie River, Mr. Hill extracted, barreled and shipped
3,500 pounds of palmetto honey from 55 colonies in two weeks." — Page
489, American Bee Journal, 1899.

While palmetto honey is regarded as of very high quality, the honey
from the cabbage tree is rather thin and requires some care in getting it
properly ripened, as the following quotations will show:

"Cabbage palmetto honey, sealed or unsealed, will foam as though
fermentation was in progress; that taken from the combs unsealed will
ferment enough to deprive it of all the honey flavor, but the sealed only
foams. Thin and acid and amber in color, it will flow bubbling from
the cells behind the knife, and it is not a rare thing to see gas bub-
bles under the cappings of the sealed cells. Whether the colonies are
strong or weak, it is always the same, when the bees work on the cab-
bage trees, as the common palm tree of Florida is called. The name

186 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

comes from the fact that the bud in the head at the top is eaten in
lieu of cabbage.

"The saw palmetto is decidedly different in the nectar it yields.
Saw palmetto honey, even unsealed, may be called a good honey, and
it is, too. When ripened it is a hone}' that makes a name for itself
when enough care is taken by the producer to have it unmixed with
other nectars.

"I write from personal experience on the east coast of Florida." —
L. K. Smith, Gleanings, page 39, 1909.

Fig. 104. The palmettos are a conspicuous feature of the Florida landscape.

The saw palmetto (Serenoa serrulata), often called scrub palmetto
(Fig. 103), is a low growing little palm, found on dry soils in the Gulf
Coast region. In the southern portion of its range, in peninsular Florida,
it attains the proportions of a small tree. There it sometimes reaches a
height of 20 feet, with erect or inclined trunk. Further north the stem is
almost invariably underground. Large areas of pine lands are covered
with it.

The blooming time is April and May. O. O. Poppleton wrote con-
cerning his calendar of the year:

"April — Saw palmetto flow commences early in the month and con-
tinues until last of May. Our apiary work these two months is ex-
tracting, building up all colonies and replacing poor queens." — Bee-
keepers' Review, page 11, 1893.

Concerning the honey flow from saw palmetto we quote E. G. Baldwin
as follows :

"The honey from saw palmetto is lemon-yellow in color, thick and

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

L87

Fig. 105. Bloom of the cabbage palmetto.

188

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

waxy and of pronounced but delicious flavor. It is not quite so trans-
parent as pure orange honey, but seldom candies, and makes a choice
table article. Mr. O. O. Poppleton pronounces it the best honey in
Florida, with the possible exception of tupelo. It is liked by almost
everyone at first taste; is a trifle milder, even, than orange." — Glean-
ings, page 177, 1911.

Forest fires frequently destroy many square miles of the saw pal-
metto, thus removing this source of nectar for one year. However, ac-
cording to Baldwin, the burned-over portions usually produce the most
honey the following year.

Concerning the flow from palmetto, E. B. Rood, of Bradentown, writes
as follows :

"We have been having the heaviest honey flow from palmetto for
ten years. One colony on scales brought in 50 pounds in four days,
and 80 pounds in ten days. I expect 20,000 to 30.000 pounds. I have
extracted 13,000 pounds now and am just starting on another round." —
Gleanings, page 703, 1908.

Fig.

Partridge pea.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 189

PARADISE FLOWER, see Acacia.

PARSNIP (Pastinaca sativa).

The cultivated parsnip is a valuable honey plant. In the seed belt of
California, where it is grown largely for seed, it is important as a source of
surplus. Writing in Gleanings (November, 1919) E. R. Root mentions having
seen hives five and six stories high, jammed full of honey from parsnip
and celery. He states that the honey is not of the best, and that honey
from parsnip is inferior to that gathered from celery.

PARTRIDGE PEA (Cassia Chamaechrista).

Partridge pea, known also as sensitive pea, is an important source of
honey in Georgia and Florida. The flowers, of an attractive yellow color,
are about the size shown in Figure 106, which displays blossom, seedpod
and leaf. This plant is common along sandy roadsides in the Middle
West, and may at times be found for miles at a stretch. It is seldom re-
ported as an important source of surplus honey, except in the South-
eastern States. While the bees visit it freely while in bloom in the
Northern States, the honey stored from this source is seldom noticeable.

The plant is peculiar in that in addition to the flowers, nectar is se-
creted by extra floral nectaries at the base of the leaf stalk or petiole.
The bloom lasts for several weeks in midsummer. As the bloom comes
for the most part after the close of the clover harvest, its chief value in
the North is to keep the bees occupied till the later flowers furnish a fall
flow. The quality stored from this source is reported as poor in the
North.

In contrast, the following report indicates that it is valuable in Geor-
gia and Florida :

"Bees store from one to three supers, during its flow, of light

honey. The flow begins in June and lasts until October. "—Wilder in

American Bee Journal, page 369, 1912.

PEACH (Prunus persica).

The cultivated peach is an important source of nectar over a wide scope
of country. In localities where large peach orchards are found, it is im-
portant for building up colonies in spring. Like most of the tree fruits,
the blooming period comes early, before the bees are strong enough to
profit to the fullest extent from the abundance of nectar.

PEAR (Pyrus).

The cultivated pear is old-world origin, but now widely distributed
in America. Where grown commercially, it is the source of abundant nec-
tar and pollen in early spring. Most varieties of the pear bloom ahead of
the apple. Nearly all the tree fruits furnish nectar in abundance and all
are valued highly by the beekeeper.

The pear is subject to blight, which destroys thousands of trees every
year. For a time the honeybee was accused of spreading the blight by her
visits from tree to tree. There is now serious doubt whether it is possi-

190

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

ble for the bee to spread this disease. Experiments by Dr. J. H. Merrill,
at Kansas Agricultural College, indicate that the aphids are the carriers
of the infection.

PENNSYLVANIA— Honey sources of.

Pennsylvania is in what is generally known as the white clover region.
White and alsike clover are of first importance. Buckwheat, in some sec-
tions, is also a main source of surplus. In spring, the willows and maples,
followed by dandelion and fruit bloom, furnish both nectar and pollen for
early brood rearing. In the mountains, azalea and laurel furnish some

Fig. 107. Blossoms of Clethra. or sweet pepper bush.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

191

honey. Black locust, tulip-poplar and sumac are valuable in certain lo-
calities. Basswood, goldenrod and asters should also be included as of
local importance.

PENNYROYAL, see Wild Pennyroyal.

PEONY.

The cultivated peonies are introduced from Asia and are commonly
grown for ornament. Most varieties are double' and produce no pollen.
The single varieties, however, produce pollen in abundance, and at times
the bees seek them eagerly. The writer has seen as many as six to eight
bees gathering pollen on a single blossom. The opening buds also seem
to exude a nectar-like substance sought by ants and bees.

PEPPERBUSH or WHITE ALDER (Clethra alnifolia).

The sweet pepperbush occurs from Maine along the coast to Florida
and west to Louisiana. It is a small shrub with white flowers, as shown in
Figure 107, which appear in midsummer. In Alabama, Georgia and north
Florida, it is common in the coast plain, on swampy banks of streams and
in low, wet thickets. It is very fragrant when in bloom and is often used
for ornamental planting on lawns and in parks. The honey is thick, white
and of fine flavor. In localities where the plant occurs abundantly, in the
wild state, it seldom fails to bloom, since it grows in wet places and is
unaffected by drought.

Fig. 10S. Blossoms and fruits of pepper tree.

192 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

PEPPERIDGE, see Tupelo.

PEPPER-TREE (Schinus molle).

The pepper-tree, a native of western South America, has been widely
planted in California for ornament and shade. Its bright red berries are a
substitute for pepper, hence the name. It is a well-known tree on the
Pacific coast, as far north as Martinez, on the Suisun Bay. It is grown
in parks, on lawns and along the streets of nearly every Southern Califor-
nia city.

While a small amount of bloom may be seen at almost any time of
the year, its principal period is in late summer when there is a scarcity
of nectar-secreting blossoms (Fig. 108). The blossoms are rich in nectar
and the bees gather some surplus from this source. The honey is amber
in color, strong and rather peppery in flavor.

The flowers are small and of a greenish or yellowish color, in large
sprays. The berries ripen in November and December.

PEPPER-VINE, see Snowvine.
PERSICARIA, see Heartsease.

PERSIMMON (Diospyros).

The persimmon, or possom-wood (Diospyros virginiana), grows from
southern New England south and west to Missouri, Arkansas, Florida and
along the gulf to Texas. It is a tree of medium size, reaching a height of
50 feet and rarely exceeding 12 inches in diameter. (Fig. 109). The fruit
is composed of a rich and palatable pulp and a few large seeds. When
green it is very astringent and very disagreeable. The flowers appear
in May in the southern part of its range, and later northward. Where
abundant, persimmon is a valuable source of nectar. The Mexican per-
simmon Diospyros Texana), called also date plum, is a shrub or tree 10
to 30 feet in height. It thrives best in canyons and ravines, and is com-
mon over much of south Texas. It is frequently reported as an import-
ant source of early nectar in many parts of Texas.

Franklin Sherman, Jr., lists the persimmon as sixth in importance of
the honey sources of North Carolina. He states that it is irregular in yield
and lasts but a short time, but does well while it lasts.

PHACELIA (Phacelia).

Jepson described thirteen species of phacelia as native to California.
Of these Richter lists four as of value to the beekeeper. Hill vervenia
(Phacelia distans) he lists as common in the plains and foothills, yielding
both nectar and pollen. The caterpillar phacelia (Phacelia hispida) is
listed as common in the chaparral belt, yielding a water-white honey of
fine flavor that candies soon after extracting. This is common in Ventura
County, and M. H. Mendleson reports that he extracted a carload of honey
from this source before the blooming of the sages. Phacelia ramosissima
is reported as a fair honey plant, but not equal to the others. The valley
vervenia, or fiddle neck (Phacelia tanacetifolia) is listed by Jepson

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

persimmon tree.

("Flora of Western Middle California") as found in the Sacramento Val-
ley and southward to southern California. It blooms in April and fur-
nishes bee pasture in about six weeks from seed, and the bloom lasts
about six weeks.

194 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

"The nectar flows all day. The honey is amber in color, sometimes
light green and of a mild aromatic flavor. Cows fed on it show a
marked increase in flow of milk, but will not eat it alone at first." —
Harry E. Home, page 342 of above book.

This species was introduced into Germany and had quite a boom
there in the early nineties. Much attention was given it in the German
bee magazines and it was endorsed as valuable both for forage and for bee
pasturage.

Scholl lists Phacelia congesta and Phacelia glabra as yielding spar-
ingly in Texas. Thos. Wm. Cowan writes as follows, in American Bee
Journal, in regard to the growing of phacelia in Europe:

"The one grown in Europe, Phacelia tanacetifolia, is literally
covered with bees from morning till night. The species was intro-
duced into Europe from California in 1832, and is called tanacetifolia
(tansy-leaved) from the resemblance of its leaves to those of tansy.
It is an annual with bluish pink flowers, racemes spike-formed,
elongated, corymbose; height of plant two feet. It is grown in Europe
as a bee plant for its nectar, and is the only one which produces an
appreciable quantity of it." — November 20, 1902, page 751.
A beekeeper from Indiana reports that Phacelia purshii grows freely
in the wheat fields in his locality and that the bees work freely on the blue
flowers. He states that in places it grows so abundantly that the wheat
takes second place to the phacelia. On the 27th of May, 1919, strong colo-
nies already had full depth extracting supers almost filled. The honey
from this source is of good quality.

PHYSIOLOGY OF NECTAR SECRETION.

What we call individual plants are complex communities of real mi-
croscopic individuals, which biologists call cells. These are associated in
numerous sub-communities differing from one another in structure and
function. Their specialization results in a division of labor and a corre-
spondingly large total efficiency, much as specialization and division of
labor lead to efficiency and productive possibilities in a nation consisting
of states, and these of smaller communities made up of trades, guilds and
professions, which in co-operation follow the manifold activities that
characterize a nation and collectively constitute the national life of its in-
dividuals, which is far more effective and greater than the individual life
of any one person or class.

The active, living part of a cell is its protoplasm — the physical basis
of life, as Huxley called it in animals and plants alike. Commonly this
protoplasm encloses itself by a wall of cellulose, an organic substance
manufactured by the protoplasm. Where two cells are in contact, they
are usually flattened against one another. When men first began to use
the microscope, only a little over two centuries ago, it was the walls and
shapes of cells that attracted attention, and the resemblance to honey-
comb on a small scale was so striking that the cavities were naturally
called cells.

Protoplasm itself is a very complex substance, chemically, and even
the much simpler cell-wall is far from being always really one identical

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 195

substance. A considerable part of the thickening of matured cell-walls
has been laid down on the original partition between two cells, and not
only differs from this but is not alike in different kinds of cells, and in
structures like wood and cork it is impregnated with other materials that
affect the cell-wall very greatly in such respects as hardness and permea-
bility to water.

The shells of nuts, for instance, are so impervious that they are com-
monly "stratified" by planters so that their hard shells may disintegrate
more or less as a preliminary to germination, a process that not infre-
quently requires more than a year unless hastened by some expedient like
that of passing haw fruits through the digestive mill of poultry as a means
of softening their boney cores, of filing the hard envelope, which is a
favorite trick of gardeners with nut-like fruits of the lotus or with canna
seeds. (This is similar to the scarifying of sweet clover seed. — Editor.)
This is the reason that several times as much clover seed — even good
seed — must be used on an acre as seems necessary for securing the de-
sired number of plants. One of these modifications is usual in the outer
byers of cell-walls on the surface, and it is called cuticularization. Cuti-
cularized walls are more or less completely water-proofed. When the cells
that produce nectar are at the surface, their outer walls are cuticularized
in this way; when they are within the nectary and the nectar passes out
through stomata, this is scarcely, if at all, the case.

The greater part of nectar is water, which reaches the surface from
within the plant cells. To do this it must pass through walls that are
little, if at all, cuticularized, or it must break through the cuticle. This
does not mean that it must break through the entire cell-wall; a small
part if this is modified by the protoplasm into a gum or mucilage, or some
similar substance, and the water accumulates in this layer and swells it
until the overlying cuticle is burst. Some form of sugar is a frequent
result of this disintegration of cellulose. Dissolved sugars pass through
the ordinary cellulose wall, but they do not pass through the ordinary
surface layer of protoplasm in the outer cells.

When water is separated from a solution like that of sugar by a filter
of tli is sort, which allows water to pass but is not permeable to the dis-
solved substance, the action is set up that physicists call osmosis, and
water accumulates on the side of the dissolved substance until it exer-
cises a very considerable pressure. This action not only bursts the cuticle,
when it starts beneath it, but results in a flow of water within the plant
at that point.

The absorbing roots of plants show another result of this physical
property, osmosis. They are not waterproofed; water is continuous
through them, from the thin layer in which it occurs about particles of the
soil, to the water which composes a great part of the weight of the proto-
plasm within the cells. This sap of the root cells contains dissolved sugar
and other osmotic substances. Osmotic absorption by the roots results in
a. pressure of several atmospheres. This pressure, passed from cell to cell,
gives the crispness to fresh celery. Its loss, through evaporation from the
leaves, results in the loss of this crispness, or wilting.

196

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

When evaporation is slight, as in a saturated atmosphere, water exudes
at the surface through pores such as occurs at the tip of a young grass or
clover leaf. Water pores of this sort are common. They are regarded as
pressure-valves by many botanists. The water that they eliminate is usu-
ally filtered by the protoplasm that it passes through, which does not allow
the passage of substances dissolved in the cell sap; but some plants which
grow where they absorb very "hard" water pass lime salts out through
their water pores to such an extent that they are encrusted with lime as
the water evaporates.

Part of flower of Gl

in. (u) nectaries; (ct) stamens. Greatly magnified.
Bonnier's "Les Nectaires."

The safety-valve elimination of water under strong internal pressure
and lessened normal evaporation is hardly to be called excretion or ac-
cretion; the extruded water is neither by-product nor manufactured out-
put. The elimination of lime appears to be on the border line of excretion.

Nectar is not merely water; if it were its production would be more
easily understood. To the taste, it is sweet; to the sense of smell, it is

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

197

often fragrant; occasionally it is poisonous; often it is somewhat colored.
Commonly it is very fluid, but in the nectar-cups of poinsettia it becomes
very gummy. These properties come from substances — sugars, volatile
oils, poisonous organic compounds — that were made by and in the plant,
and they differ in different kinds of plants. Whatever bees or ants may do
in changing nectar into honey, they do not entirely change or remove
these substances, and the rank brown honey of the drug store is as easily
run to its source as the popular white clover honey, the daintily flavored
product of western alfalfa, the aromatic acid honey of the red raspberry,
or the greenish product of the sweet clover with its delicate vanilla-like
aroma, the cumarin source of which shows itself in an occasional head-
ache, much as the minor organic constituents of some honeys derived from
the heath family now and then prove seriously poisonous.

A fluid that contains these organic substances necessarily falls into the
category of excretions or secretions, according as it represents waste or
usable material. As either excretion or secretion it is the product of spe-
cialized organs, glands, and its appearance marks these glands as in ac-
tion or performing their function. Whatever else may be involved, this
depends upon the activity of their protoplasm, or is controlled by it.
When this is killed, secretion or excretion stops.

All parts of plants are composed of individual cells flattened against one another. This figure
copied from Bonnier's "Les Nectaires," exhibits a longitudinal section of a stamen in
Colinsia bicolor. Magnified.

At left (34) cross section of filament.

One result of the protean character of protoplasm is its different be-
havior in different plants, different organs of the same plant or different
phases of the activity of an individual cell. In either case it can perform
its functions only between certain limits of environment ,ancl it performs
them best somewhere between these limits. For each function and each
condition there is what physiologists call a minimum — below which it is
not carried on, a maximum — above which it has stopped, and an optimum—
or most favorable. Just as in the efficient working of a human factory,
power and raw materials are necessary, and workmen must be onto the
job, however favorable the other conditions of manufacture may be.

198 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

The secretion of nectar and the storing of honey are consequently
not quite comparable, for the activities of the honey plant are concerned
with the first, and the activities of the bee are concerned with the second,
though these are largely influenced by what the plant is or is not doing.
This must be remembered always when comparing such records of honey-
storing as Mr. Strong's careful hive-weighings through a generation, with
Mr. Kenoyer's quantitative measurements of nectar secretion.

Nevertheless, the most favoring conditions of nectar secretion and
honey storing agree in a number of respects. Vigorous early development
oi the plant puts it in condition to do its share of the work best; what-
ever conditions may prevail during what for most plants is a very short
part of the growing season, when it is in bloom. Vigorous early develop-
ment of the hive bears the same kind of relation to the final result. Early
honey must be stored before the bees have reached the full strength of
the season, which may have something to do with the fact that the bulk
of the harvest is gleaned from plants that flower later or continue to
flower for a relatively long time.

Mr. Strong's observations in Iowa show that over half of the net in-
crease in honey storage in southern Iowa is made in June, and over four-
fifths in June and July. These are the months when the most productive
nectar plants flower, and the hives have reached the crest of their specu-
lative activity and are undergoing division by that time.

Physiological studies show that the afternoon temperature for nectar
secretion is high — between 90 and 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Observation on
the hive shows that its workers are at their active best in moderately
hot weather. Mr. Strong's twenty-nine-year average shows that over half
cf the average honey for the year is stored when the daily maximum is
between 80 and 90 degrees, and nine-tenths of it is stored when the high
temperature of the day is between 80 and 90 degrees. Nectar is most
abundantly secreted, other conditions being equal, in warm days following
cool nights; bees do not seem usually to work more actively on such days,
though a record day for heather honey in England began with a frost.
Damp air increases the quantity of nectar, as of the expulsion of water
through water pores; but dull, rainy weather lessens or stops the activity
of the bees.

Nuptial nectar is secreted chiefly before or during the period of sexual
maturity of the flowers. Many, like cotton, golden currant and horse-
chestnut, change color as this period of sexual functioning and maximum
nectar secretion passes, and bees often are quick to catch the signal. Ex-
tra-nuptial nectar is secreted in greatest quantity while the near-by flow-
ers and foliage of the plant are young.

Nectar differs from time to time in quality as well as in quantity. In
damp weather the increased quantity commonly causes a greater dilution
of its content of sugar, and the bees have been shown to store a greater
weight of honey several days after a rainy day than immediately following
it. Though the greater part of nectar is 'water, its essential part, for the
bee-man, is sugar, chiefly a mixture of two kinds of sugar, that possess a
different molecular arrangement though containing the same number of

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 199

carbon, hydrogen and starch atoms, which causes them to behave differ-
ently when examined by polarized light, and materially affects other of
their physical properties.

The flow of the water of nectar seems to be like that of water through
water pores, an infiltration under pressure when root-absorption is least
active and leaf evaporation checked; but thoroughly and repeatedly wash-
ing the glands sometimes puts a stop to it. Beating rain does this as
effectively as experimental washing. Change of position and closing in
dark, rainy weather characterize some flowers, and keep the rain from
washing away their accumulated nectar and checking its replenishment.
This was Sprengel's explanation of the fringe of hair on the petals of the
wild geranium. In proportion as such nectar guards are effective, they
preserve the supply and contribute to its continuance, in proportion as
rain has opportunity to beat upon the nectar glands it wastes and may
even check the production of nectar.

This stopping of nectar flow by washing away the secretion of the
glands, is connected with the affinity for water of sugars. The flow of
water appears to he started by the osmotic force of the disintegrated part
of the walls of the secreting cells; it is stopped when the resulting sub-
stance has been removed from the outer surface of the secreting cells.

Stomata on nectariferous tissue of Xanthoceras sorbifolio. Greatly magnified. Copied
from Bonnier's "Les Nectaires."

If this were all, unless the degenerating cellulose were replenished in
sufficient quantity there would hardly be such a thing as honey production.
Indeed, some extra-nuptial glands secrete a nectar containing so little
sugar that even ants may not be attracted by it — as is said to be the case
with climbing smartweeds cultivated in England, though it is not usually
true of such plants growing wild here, where they are at home. Com-
monly, however, the sugar in nectar is replenished while the secretion of
Find continues.

The passage out of sugar from a living cell is very different from the

200 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

escape of water; the latter may result from pressure on the one hand or
osmotic draft on the other, because the outer protoplasm is permeable to
water but not to sugar. When sugar is secreted, this protoplasmic layer
becomes to a greater or less degree permeable to the escaping sugar. This
is one phase of the activity of the living protoplasm, for secretion is a vital
phenomenon. What greater or less permeability of protoplasm actually
consists in is a matter of theory rather than observation, but the phenom-
enon is a subject of observation and experiment. Alternating warmth and
cold, within limits, affect it; it has its optimum, at a rather high tempera-
ture, as well as its minimum and maximum. Through an adequately per-
meable membrane, the flow of either water or sugar may be outwards —
as it is in normal secretion, or inwards — when the secretion is absorbed —
as experiments show to be true under some conditions.

Water for nectar secretion is obtained in the first place through the
roots of the plant and travels from the point of absorption to the point
of secretion. Sugar for nectar secretion is manufactured within the plant,
very close to the point where it is secreted. It is primarily a product of
tne carbon-fixing or photo-synthetic activity that marks green plants as
the food-makers of the world. Sugars appear to be among the earliest-
formed of such carbon-containing or organic substances in the plant; but
usually they are changed into starch for storage, and this is subsequently
digested or transformed into a soluble sugar when the time of its use
comes. The cells about some nectar glands are storage repositories of.
sugar; in other cases they accumulate a reserve of starch, as raw material,
before their activities begin in. supplying sugar.

Evidently, back of the nectar-production of a given day or season, very
closely related to its own optimum conditions of temperature and humid-
ity, lies the earlier vegetation of the nectar-producing plants. Strength
and vigor of growth, a good reserve of stored food from the year before,
or favorable spring season, these would seem logically to affect the activ-
ity of the plant in performing this as well as others of its functions.
Renoyer's conclusions, from Strong's honey-gathering statistics, give sup-
port to this expectation : "There is an evident alteration between good
and poor years," as in apple production; "a good year has a rainfall
slightly above the average, preceded by an autumn, winter and spring with
more than the average precipitation," affording adequate and lasting soil
moisture; "a rainy May scarcely fails to precede a good honey season,"
for the same reason, "a cold winter has no detrimental effect on the yield
of the succeeding season, but a cold March reduces it," through preventing
a fair early growth of the honey plants; "a winter of heavy snowfall, in
the great majority of cases, is followed by a larger honey yield," because
of its contribution to the soil moisture and the protection afforded the
plants during their hibernation.

Of these conclusions, most bear directly on the conditions favorable
for nectar secretion by the plants; some bear as directly on those favor-
able for the wintering in prime condition of the bees. Honey production
rests upon both, not only in June and July and on individual days in those

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

201

months of greatest honey storage, but on preceding days and months of
preparation. Perhaps the suggestion may be made, even that it goes much
further back, through long centuries of selective evolution, side by side, of
nectar-yielding plants and honey-storing insects, gradually coming into
mutually helpful harmony. — William Trelease, University of Illinois.
American Bee Journal, January, 1920.

Fig. 110. Filaree or pin clover.

202 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

PIGEON BERRY, see Buckthorn.
PIGEON CHERRY, see Wild Cherry.

PIN CLOVER or FILAREE (Erodium cicutarium).

The pin clover, or alfilaria, or filaree, is widely distributed in the Old
World, and in this country has been naturalized from Europe. It is espe-
cially well known on the Pacific Coast from British Columbia to southern
California. There it is said to be one of the most valuable wild pasture
plants.

It is also called pin grass and heron's bill. It has a long period of
bloom, beginning in February or March in California, and in some places
continuing through the summer. It produces an abundance of pollen and
considerable honey of good quality. In Gray's botany it is listed as
"storksbill," and is mentioned as scarce in New York and Pennsylvania.
It is recorded as occurring in Alabama, where it apparently was carrier
with railroad ballast. June is given as the blooming period in the vicinity
of Mobile.

It is also known in several places in Connecticut, where it is said to
bloom in May and June. Professor Pammel states that it is abundant in
the dry soils in the Salt Lake basin and from Colorado to Texas. The
seeds cling to the wool of sheep and this aids in its wide distribution.

Figure 110 shows the plant with blossom and seed pod. It is from the
peculiar shape of the latter that it gets the name of "storksbill" and
"heron's bill."

PINE (Pinus).

Occasionally honeydew is reported from the pine trees. The following
references are typical of those to be found in current literature:

"We are having a real flow of water-white honeydew from the
pine here in Polk County. It has been on now for two weeks. Bees
in general are in bad condition." — Luther Presswood, Reliance, Tenn.,
Jan. 18, 1907. American Bee Journal, page 98, 1907.

"Large quantities of honey are often secured from pine woods in
certain parts of Germany. The honey is nearly black in color, still
it finds many admirers, and must, therefore, be of better quality than
the honeydew gathered here at times. The Emmendingen Beekeep-
ers' Society furnishes all the honey for the Grand Duke's table (in
Karlsruhe), and it is specified that the honey must be this black honey
of the pine woods." — Bztg. for Schlesw. — Holstein. American Bee Jour-
nal, page 616, 1906.

Similar honeydew is harvested in Switzerland and appears to be also
much prized by the consumers.

PLUM (Prunus).

Plums, both wild and cultivated, are important sources of nectar over
most of the United States. There are twenty or more species which are
native to North America and which are generally known as wild plums.
The blooming period comes early and with other tree fruits they are of
great value as the source of nectar and pollen at a season when the colo-

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

203

nies most need stimulation. The nectar yield is sufficiently abundant for
the bees to store surplus where colonies are strong and weather condi-
tions favorable. In Sacramento County, California, surplus is sometimes
reported from prunes. There are probably few places where bees are kept
in America where plums of some variety are not present.

Fig. 111. Plum blossoms.

POINSETTIA (Euphorbia pulcherrima). _The poinsettia is a well-known
ornamental plant. It is a shrub, native to tropical America, grown to a
considerable extent for ornamental purposes in California. The blos-
soms are small and inconspicuous, but there is a striking cluster of bril-
liant red leaves, surrounding the flowers, which give an impression of
flowers.

The nectaries are very conspicuous cups at the side of the blossoms.
Nectar is secreted in abundance, and if the plant was sufficiently common
it would be an important source. The nectar gathers in large drops.

POISON IVY, see Laurel; also Sumac.
POISON OAK., see Sumac.

POISONOUS HONEY.

Much has been written in regard to poisonous honey. Well authenti

204 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

cated cases of serious poisoning from honey are rare, so rare, indeed,
that many persons doubt whether such cases occur. There are persons
with a peculiar susceptibility to honey from any source. To such, honey
may seem to be poisonous, which can be eaten by others without any ill
effect. Prof. A. J. Cook, writing in the American Bee Journal (October
12, 1905, page 711), mentioned having on several occasions received sam-
ples of so-called poisonous honey, which he ate without inconvenience.

In December, 1880, issue of American Bee Journal, page 552, a case is
mentioned where a native of New Zealand died from eating honey gath-
ered from the wharangi bush (Melicope ternata), which is said to be
one of the two poisonous plants to be found in New Zealand. The symp-
toms are reported similar to strychnine poisoning. A letter from New
Zealand published in Gleanings, page 435, 1908, reads as follows:

"Some one, usually a native, gets poisoned every year about here
through eating bush honey, usually not capped, and puka-puka usually
gets the blame. Mr. Hopkins had a look at a case of Moaris honey
poisoning last year, and I think puka-puka got the blame; but the
fact is significant, nevertheless, that it is the Maoris only, or princi-
pally they, that get poisoned, and in that case the honey eaten is
never capped." — Stephen Anthony, Wastete, New Zealand.

The mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia) is the plant most frequently
reported as yielding poisonous honey. This shrub is common to the moun-
tain regions of the Eastern States, and it would seem that cases of poison-
ing would be reported much more frequently if there was good reason to
suspect the honey from this source. It is a well-known fact that dis-
agreeable odors disappear from honey that is well ripened. In this con-
nection a writer in American Bee Journal, page 664, 1884, suggests that
there is no evidence of poisoning from well ripened honey. He further
states that uncapped honey from the yellow jasmine is actually poisonous
and has produced death, but that after it is capped there is no honey more
wholesome. It should be noted that special emphasis was placed on the
fact that the cases of poisoning in New Zealand were from eating un-
capped honey.

Pammel states (Manual of Poisonous Plants) that honey obtained
from Euphorbia marginata, the well-known snow-on-the-mountain, is
poisonous and unfit for use. He also states that the Indians of Brazil
use honey gathered by wasps from flowers of Serjonia lethalis for
poisoning their arrows, and also as a fish poison. It contains a narcotic
poison which causes death.

The following resume of the subject is copied entire from Pammel:

"Prof. Lyman F. Kebler, who has made a somewhat extended in-
vestigation with poisonous honey has given an excellent bibliography
with reference to the early literature on the subject. It has been
known for centuries that the honey collected from Ericaceae acts as
a narcotic irritant, producing giddiness, vomiting and purging. Poison-
ous honey was described by Xenophon. He gives a fairly accurate de-
scription of how the soldiers of his army acted that ate honey that
was poisoned. He states that they lost their senses, vomited and were
affected with purging, and those who had eaten but little were in-

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 205

toxicated, but when they had eaten much they were like mad men.
Strabo and Pliny spoke of poisonous honey, the latter writer, an
early naturalist noted for his accurate observations, records poison-
ous honey, which he called "aegolethron" (goat's death), which bees
collected at Heraclea. He gives a description of the honey, which is
said to have had a peculiar smell and produced sneezing. It is gen-
erally supposed that this honey came from a species of Rhododen-
dron, the R. pontica. This and allied species are the chief source of
poisonous honey in Asia and Asia Minor, but it may be said in this
connection that honey collected from the heather in Scotland is not
poisonous.

"Barton, an early American botanist, reported poisonous honey
in New Jersey as early as 1794. Subsequently Coleman reported a
large number of cases in 1852, and Gammer, in Gleanings in Bee Cul-
ture, and several writers in the American Bee Journal, reported
poisonous honey. Other writers, like Chestnut and Crawford, have
reported on the occurrence of poisonous honey in the United States,
and Kebler reports no less than eight cases for New Jersey in 1896, and
believes that it is much more common than the records seem to indi-
cate. Kebler was fortunate enough to investigate some of the poison-
ous honey following a case of poisoning in New Jersey. He exam-
ined a part of the comb of the dark honey which had a light brown
color and a nauseating odor, pungent taste, caused a burning sensa-
tion in the back of the mouth similar to that of aconite. Persons who
partook of a small amount of this honey began to cough immediately.
He also made a chemical analysis of the non-suspicious honey, di-
gesting with alcohol, then evaporated, the residue was again treated
to alcohol and evaporated and administered to two cats. One received
a small dose and the other a large one. The results from the cats
were so interesting that I quote from Professor Kebler :

"'The small dose produced partial exhaustion, relaxation of the
Voluntary muscles and general depression. The large dose in a short
time produced restlessness, vomiting, purging, prostration and almost
complete loss of the voluntary muscles, showing that the honey con-
tained a prompt and potent poison. The animal could scarcely be in-
duced to move, and when motion was attempted, first the fore-limbs
would fail, and then the back-limbs would give way. First one por-
tion of the body would sway in one direction, then the other portion in
another .reminding one of a highly intoxicated person. Had the entire
dose been retained, death undoubtedly would have followed. As it was,
the cat had regained her normal condition only at the end of twenty-
four hours.' "

Along with this we may append the symptoms as reported by the phy-
sician who attended the persons who were poisoned:

"Mr. and Mrs. Chambers took but a small quantity, yet each no-
ticed a peculiar, pungent, burning taste in the comb as soon as it had
passed their lips. In fifteen or twenty minutes afterwards Mrs. C
was taken with nausea, abdominal pain and vomiting, soon followed by
loss of consciousness, coldness of extremities, feebly acting heart, and
complete collapse. While ministering to her, Mr. Chambers, who had
also experienced the initiatory symptoms of pain and nausea, suddenly
exclaimed, 'I cannot see,' and soon sank in a state of syncope to the
floor. In each case the symptoms were similar. Retching, vomiting,
purging, acute gastric and abdominal pain, and continued crumps for
some hours, with surface coldness, and deadly pallor, and the general
symptoms of collapse.

"Kebler was, however, unable to definitely locate the andromedo-
toxin found by Plugge. This author receded it for a large number of

206 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

plants as follows Andromeda japonica, A. polifolia, A. Catesbaei, A.
calyculata, Kalmia lalifolia, Monotropa uniflora, Pieris formosa, P.
ovalifolia, Rhododendron grande, R. barbatum, and R. fulgens. It has
been recorded for additional plants by Greshoff, who mentions the fol-
lowing plants which produce poisonous honey: Nerium Oleander, Cy-
tisus Laburnum, Pieris ovalifolia, Callotropis procera, Daphne, Pontica,
Buxus balearica, Clerodendron serratum, C. Bhramaramari, Sapindus
emarginatus. (It is said that thousands of bees are killed by this
honey.) Centaurea scabiosa, Carduus natans, Scabiosa succisa, A
South African species of Euphorbia also produces a poisonous honey
which was not noted by Greshoff.

POISONWOOD (Metopium metopium).

The poisonwood is a tree found in southern Florida, the West Indies
and Central America. It is known by a variety of names, bum-wood, hog-
gum, coral sumac or doctor-gum. Its sap is dangerously poisonous, and
some persons are affected by a near approach to the tree. The tree reaches
a height of more than forty feet and in south Florida it is the source of
large quantities of surplus honey of good quality. The honey is usually
blended with that of other sources blooming during the same period.

The tree has a thin bark which splits into large scales as it grows older,
These are of a reddish brown color, brighter on the inside. It is sometimes
confused with manchineel and is often classified as a Rhus.

POLLEN.

Pollen represents the male element of reproduction in seed plants.
The flowering plants are normally reproduced by seed. Fertilization is
brought about by the intervention of the grains of pollen which are borne
by the stamens or male organs. In the corn plant the stamens are pro-
duced in the tassels where pollen is developed in great abundance. The
pistils, or female organs, are represented by the silks attached to the ear.
There is a separate silk attached to each kernel, and each must be sep-
arately fertilized. In many plants both stamens and pistils occur in the
same blossom, as is the case with apples, pears, etc. In some cases the
stamens or male organs are borne on a separate plant or tree, as is the
case with the persimmon. Cucumbers have the separate organs in separate
flowers. In order to insure fertilization it is necessary that the pollen
grains be carried from the stamens to the pistils. In the grasses and sim-
ilar plants this is usually acomplished by the wind, while in most fruits,
insects are the principal agents.

Pollen grains are very minute and are produced in small sacs in the
tip of the stamen, commonly called anther. When ripe, the breaking of the
sac sets the grains free in great abundance. A single grain is sufficient
to fertilize an ovule and produce a seed; yet, because of the distance be-
tween the stamens and pistils, large quantities of the pollen or flower dust
are necessary to insure pollination. Ragweed and corn produce pollen in
such abundance that one brushing by the plants is dusted so freely as to
appear to be covered with flour.

Pollen is of special importance to the beekeeper, since it serves as food
for young bees. It is the sole source of nitrogenous food for the growing

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

207

larvae, and is stored in large quantity in the open cells of the brood combs.
Without an abundance of pollen available for food for the developing
brood, the colony cannot prosper. Pollen is second only in importance to
surplus honey to the beekeeper, and an abundant supply of plants which
yield pollen during the brood-rearing season is very desirable.

POLLINATION.

Pollination is the fertilization of the blossom of a plant, resulting in
the development of seed. As ordinarily used among the beekeepers, pol-
lination refers to the transfer of the pollen grains from the stamens of
one plant to the pistils of another. Since many plants are self-sterile, it
is necessary that pollen from other plants and sometimes from other va-
rieties be brought to them to insure fruitage. As already stated under
"Pollen," the honeybee is the principal agent in the pollination of many
of the edible fruits.

So important is the bee regarded by horticulturists that cucumber
growers contract for colonies of bees to be placed in their greenhouses,
cherry growers often lease apiaries to be moved to their orchards at the
beginning of the blooming period, and apple orchardists contract with bee-
keepers to furnish sufficient bees to insure fertilization of their orchards.

Darwin was among the first to realize the importance of cross pollina-
tion. He showed that continued self-fertilization resulted in inferior fruit,
while cross fertilization increased the vigor of the offspring. Beach has
shown that many varieties of grapes are self-sterile, and at the California

Fig. 112. The California poppy is a gorgeous flower.

208 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

experiment station it was shown that "bees are a necessary aid in pollina-
tion with the French and Imperial varieties of prunes." It was proven that
practically no fruit was produced when all pollen-carrying insects were
kept from visiting the blossoms. (Bulletin 291, California Experiment Sta-
tion).

It has been shown by numerous experiments that many varieties of
fruits, especially of apples and pears, are likely to be unfruitful if deprived
of the services of the honeybee as pollen carriers.

POPLAR, see Tulip-Poplar, also Aspen.

POPPY (Papaver).

The garden poppy (Papaver somniferum) is a native of Asia, but is widely
cultivated in many countries, including our own. It is the source of opium
and morphine, drugs widely used in the practice of medicine. The bright-
colored flowers are very attractive to the bees, which seek them in larg?
numbers and fairly revel in the abundant pollen masses. The pollen se-
cured from poppy blossoms is very dark. It is probable that the plant
furnishes some nectar, also, and there are numerous reports to the effect
that the bees show evidence of a narcotic when working on this plant.

The California poppy (Eschscholtzia californica (Fig. 112) is a common
and widely diffused plant in California. It is a gorgeous plant of variable
habit, especially abundant in spring, but in some parts of the State may be
found in flower at almost any season. Richter lists it as the source of some
honey and of large amounts of orange-colored pollen.

The prickly poppy (Argemone), often called poppy thistle, is widely
distributed, especially in the southwest. It is the source of large quanti-
ties of pollen.

POPPY THISTLE, see Poppy.
POSSUM HAW, see Holly.
POSSUM-WOOD, see Persimmon.

PRAIRIE CLOVER (Petalostemon).

There are several species of prairie clover native to the western
prairies from Indiana west to the Rocky Mountains and south to Texas.
There are frequent reports to the effect that they are valuable honey
plants, though no longer sufficiently plentiful to be important except in a
few localities.

PRICKLY ASH (Xanthoxylum Clava-Herculis). TOOTHACHE-TREE.

The prickly ash or toothache-tree is found from North Carolina to
Florida and west to Texas. It is a small tree with the bark armed with
short, warty thorns, while the branches have longer ones.

In east Texas it is frequently mentioned as a source of honey. The
honey is reported as pungent in taste, sharp and peppery and light in
color. The blossoms yield freely, and, where sufficiently abundant, may be
expected to yield surplus. At Palestine, Texas, surplus is reported from
prickly ash. (See also Colima).

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

209

PRICKLY PEAR or INDIAN FIG (Opuntia).

Plants of the cactus family are widely scattered in the arid regions
from Dakota to Washington and south to Texas and California. Figs.
114 and 115.) Of the prickly pears (Opuntia) there are about 150 species,
mostly found in the warmer sections of North America and southward. A
few are to be found in sandy soils further east, ranging from Ontario and
Massachusetts south to Florida. They are also sometimes grown as or-
namentals. The blossom of the prickly pear is of pale yellow color and
very attractive. (Fig. 113.) It is reported as a source of nectar in both

Fig. 113. Blossom of the cactus or prickly pear.

Texas and California. Opuntia engelmanni is reported by Scholl m
"Honey Plants of Texas," as "of much importance to the beekeeper, espe-
cially during a season of partial drought. Both an abundance of pollen
and honey was obtained, the honey being light amber in color, of heavy
body but 'stringy,' so much so that it fairly draws out into strings when
very thick. The flavor is very rank."

In some parts of the Southwest it is valued more for pollen than for
nectar. Beginning in July, it blooms for four to six weeks. E. G. Le-
Stourgeon reports that in the vicinity of San Antonio, Texas, it yields sur-
plus honey about one year in four, but that the flow is usually short, seldom
more than four or five days. A peculiarity of this honey is that of granu-
lating in large crystals in clear liquid. It is often spoken of as "buttermilk
honey," because of this peculiarity. LeStourgeon secured an average

210

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

yield of 87 pounds per colony of cactus honey in Atascosta County. Such
yields from this source are rare. Cactus grows in great abundance over
large areas of Texas and is probably of more importance to beekeepers in
that State than in any other.

Fig. 114. In parts of Texas the land is covered with cactus as far as the eye can see.
PRICKLY POPPY, see Poppy.

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND— Honey Sources of.

Alsike and white clover are the principal honey plants of the Island,
with Tilia europea also important at Charlottetown. — F. W. L. Sladen.

PROPOLIS.

Propolis is a resinous gum gathered by the bees from buds of trees, and
used to close crevices about the hive. It becomes brittle and hard in cold
weather, but when warm is sticky and very tenacious. The beekeeper
finds it quite a problem to keep his hands free from propolis when manipu-
lating the hives in mid-summer. Some races of bees deposit propolis much
more freely than others, the Caucasians being especially inclined to gather
a great surplus of the cement and place it in lumps about the hive. If, per-
chance, a mouse, beetle or other object enters the hive which the bees are
unable to remove, they frequently coat it freely with propolis, and there it
remains.

Cracks seem obnoxious to the bees, and the small spaces between the
frames are quite likely to be filled with the cement. In the production of

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

211

comb honey, the tendency of the bees to fill every crevice with it leads to
much labor on the part of the beekeeper in cleaning his finished sections
for market. This is especially true of honey left on the hive till late in
the season, as propolis is gathered in quantity in late fall in anticipation of
cold weather.

Cottonwood is thought to be one of the chief sources of propolis
wherever that well-known tree is found.

Bees gather much material from a great variety of sources. In addi-
tion to the fresh wax gathered from plants and trees, they are often at-
tracted by fresh varnish or other substances from which they can get
sticky material to serve as glue.

Fig. 115. A single plant of prickly pear near Brownsville, Te
PRUNE, see Plum.

PUMPKIN (Cucurbita pepo).

The pumpkin is a well-known gourd-like fruit, usually of deep yelloi

212 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

color, that is widely cultivated as a food for stock and for pie. There are
numerous varieties of various sizes and colors. The blossoms are large and
showy and very attractive to the bees. The plants yield an abundance of
pollen as well as nectar. The honey is amber and not of high quality, and
granulates readily.

Where pumpkins are grown on a large scale for stock feed or for can-
ning factories, they are a valuable source of bee pasture.

PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE (Lythrum).

There are two species of lythrum frequently reported as noney plants.
The European species, Lythrum Salicaria, the spiked loosestrife, has be-
come naturalized in wet places from Nova Scotia to Delaware. According
to H. D. House, State Botanist of New York, it is common in and around
the inlets and backwaters of the Hudson River all up and down that
stream. It is also common up the Mohawk Valley, at Oneida Lake and
along the railroads westward across the State to Lake Erie. It is a tall
plant of vigorous growth, but as it confines itself largely to wet places, it
is not likely to be any more of a nuisance than the usual coarse weeds
growing in such situations. The bees work this plant freely and occasional
reports of honey from this source are received from New York State. The
honey is very dark and of strong flavor, having a slight tobacco-like taste
as it gets older.

Lythrum alatum, a native species, is found from Ontario and Minnesota
south to Georgia, Florida and Texas. A report from Oklahoma is to the
effect that it blooms with sweet clover, lasting till frost. The bees work
upon it from daylight till dark in either wet or dry weather. Similar re-
ports come from Texas. It is found on low lands in the southwest.

It is also reported by beekeepers from New Orleans as attractive to
bees in Louisiana.

QUEBEC — Honey Sources of.

In Quebec alsike and white clover furnish the principal surplus honey.
In the southern part of the province buckwheat, basswood and sweet
clover are also important. Fireweed, blueberry, goldenrod and aster are
the source of surplus honey over much of the province and willows and
maples are valuable for spring brood rearing. — F. W. L.Sladen.

QUERCUS, see Oak.
QUININE Tree, see Hop-Tree.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

213

RABBIT BRUSH (Chrysothamnus nauseosus hypolluca).

Richter lists rabbit brush as yielding nectar in the vicinity of Inde-
pendence, California, from September till November. He states that the
bees work vigorously on it, but that the honey is dark, of poor flavor and
disagreeable odor, and that when the bees are evaporating it it can be
smelled all over the place.

There are seventeen different varieties of rabbit brush in the south-
western desert from New Mexico to California and north to Utah and

Fig. 116. Bit

of the tall ragweed.

214 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Colorado. They are described as coarse plants, usually shrubby and grow-
ing to a height of as much as six feet. They have small heads of yellow
flowers. The Navaho Indians use the heads of the various species to dye
wool yellow. — (Flora of New Mexico.)

RADISH or JOINTED CHARLOCK (Raphanus Raphanistrum).

The wild radish or jointed charlock is a troublesome weed in the fields
of eastern Canada and United States from New England to Pennsylvania.
Like many other introduced plants, it has been widely scattered with grain
seeds. It has been introduced into northwestern Iowa with oats, where it
is spreading in fields and waste places.

Sladen lists it as one of the important sources of nectar in Nova
Scotia.

RAGGED LADY, see Red Gaura.
RAGGED SAILOR, see Centaurea.

RAGWEED (Ambrosia trifida).

Figure 116 shows the blossom and leaf of the great ragweed, often
called horseweed. This is a very common roadside weed, growing to a
height of 10 or 12 feet. It is common in Quebec and Ontario, west to Mani-
toba. In the United States it occurs from New England west to Colorado
and south to the Gulf. It is also found in Cuba and Mexico. It is espe-
cially common in the rich lands of the Mississippi Valley from Minnesota
to Texas.

The ragweed does not produce nectar, but furnishes large quantities
of pollen in late summer and fall.

RAPE (Brassica napus).

Rape is a foreign plant related to the cabbage, which has been intro-
duced from Europe. In the United States it is chiefly grown as a catch
crop or forage for hogs and sheep and sometimes as a cover crop.

In Europe it is highly regarded as a honey plant, as the following let-
ter from Baron Von Berlepsch, which appeared in American Bee Journal
in April, 1874, will show :

"During the years between 1841 and 1858, that I was a practical
agriculturist, I cultivated rape, to a large extent, and can in conse-
quence thereof, and from knowledge otherwise gained, testify most
assuredly, that in all Germany there is no plant yielding more honey
than rape. I know of instances, occurring in my own experience, where
a very populous colony of bees, during time when rape was in blossom,
gained a weight of 20 pounds and over in one day.

"On the 10th of May, 1846, there was near me a 65-acre field in blos-
som. The weather was excellent, and my strongest colony, which I
placed on a platform scale, gained that day more than 21 pounds in
weight. I know of only one other plant that can be compared with
rape as a honey-yielding plant, and that is esparet (Sainfoin).

A Wisconsin beekeeper, writing in American Bee Journal the same
year stated that rape in Wisconsin is scarcely second to linden. He de-

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

215

scribed the honey as of golden color and good flavor. He further cited the
fact that rape blooms about the middle of August, when there is little else,
as a great advantage in cultivating it for its honey.

The few references to it in our literature indicate that it may be of
more value to the beekeeper than is generally recognized.

RAPHANUS, see Radish.

RASPBERRY (Rubus). Also called THIMBLEBERRY.

The wild raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) is a very common plant in
the woods of the Northeastern States. Mohr gives its natural range as
New England to Quebec and Ontario, Minnesota, Nebraska, Colorado and
Oregon, south to Ohio and West Virginia, and along the mountains to
Georgia.

Wild raspberry grows in great abundance in Ontario

other northern regioi

216 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

There are several species of wild raspberries, and probably all are good
honey producers. Raspberry honey is produced extensively in northern
Michigan, where the plant is abundant on cut-over lands, it blooms fol-
lowing the tree fruits and is usually ahead of the white clover. In locali-
ties where it is plentiful it is a most valuable honey plant and phenomenal
yields have sometimes been reported from this source. A good raspberry
location is very desirable. Beekeepers who chance to be near large planta-
tions of raspberries cultivated for market are equally fortunate. The
honey is white and of a superior quality. Figure 117 shows a luxuriant
growth of wild raspberry as it is found in many localities in Ontario

RATTAN VINE (Berchemia scandens).

Rattan vine, or supple-jack, is a common climbing vine in low thickets
throughout the Southern States from Virginia, Kentucky and Missouri,
south to Florida and eastern Texas. The flowers are greenish yellow, usu-
ally appearing in June. The plant is slender and of vigorous growth, fre-
quently climbing high trees.

In east Texas it is one of the important sources of surplus honey.
There the plant is abundant along the streams, and is reported as yielding
honey for a long period. The author has found rattan vine highly re-
garded in many sections of the South, especially in Alabama.

Scholl states that the honey is dark amber in color and used mostly for
manufacturing purposes.

RATTLE BOX or RATTLE WEED, see Loco Weed.

RATTLESNAKE-ROOT (Nabalus altissimus).

Rattlesnake root is listed by the late A. J. Cook as "which swarms
with bees all the day long," but the author can find so few references to
it that it is probably of little importance.

RED BAY (Persea Borbonia).

Red bay, or Florida mahogany, is also known as tisswood, sweet bay
and laurel-tree. This tree should not be confused with the magnolia, which
is also called sweet bay. (See Magnolia). The alligator pear (Persea per-
sea) is a near relative, which has been introduced from Central America
and extensively cultivated for its fruit. It has run wild in some parts of
Florida.

Red bay is reported as yielding surplus honey in considerable quantity,
but of poor quality along the Gulf Coast of Texas. The honey is said to be
very dark, suitable for baking purposes. Beekeepers report that the plant
is quite dependable, but of limited range.

RED-BERRY, see Buckthorn.

RED BOX-TREE, see Eucalyptus.

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

217

IS. The blossoms of red-bud appear before the leaves.

RED-BUD (Cercis canadensis).

The red-bud, or Judas-tree (Fig. 118) is a common shrub or small tree
iri the Southeastern States. It is found occasionally from western Penn-
sylvania to southern Michigan, southern Iowa and Nebraska south to

218 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

western Florida and east to Texas. It grows along streams and in the
woodlands where the soil is moist and rich. In Alabama it blooms late in
February, and in southern Iowa in April. The rose-pink blossoms appear-
ing in early spring, before the leaves are out, make the tree very conspicu-
ous during the blooming period. Where the tree is abundant it furnishes a
liberal pasture for the bees for early spring brood rearing. Blooming so
early, it is rarely the source of surplus. In the northern part of its range it
often blooms with fruit trees and dandelion, so that it is not as important
as farther south.

There is another species in south Texas and Mexico which blooms in
March, The Texan red-bud (Cercis reniformis), and one, the western red-
bud (Cercis occidentalis), which occurs in the mountains of California and
occasionally in Utah.

The red-bud is also known as salad-tree, or June-bud.

RED CLOVER (Trifolium praiense).

There have been so many conflicting statements regarding the ques-
tion as to whether or not the honeybee is able to secure honey from red
clover (Trifolium pratense) that it has seemed worth while to investigate
the subject with some care. There have been so many reports of honey
from this source, that it is desirable to learn whether the honey did come
from red clover, or whether the beekeepers have been mistaken, and some
explanation of the confusion is necessary. There is no question but that
the plant secretes nectar in abundance, but since the corolla tubes are
much longer than the tongues of the bees, they are unable to reach it
under ordinary conditions. It is a well-known fact that plants behave very
differently under different climatic conditions, so an effort has been made
to secure evidence from as many localities as possible, and from a great
variety of conditions.

In Iowa the writer has sometimes found bees working freely on red
clover in extremely dry seasons. At such times the bees were apparently
getting some nectar, although it could not be detected in the hive. How-
ever, one year, Mr. C. H. True, of Edgewood, Iowa, had on exhibition at
the State Fair, a generous quantity of honey which he thought was secured
from red clover. It was slightly tinted with red, and had a flavor different
from white or alsike clover honey. The explanation often given is that
in dry seasons the florets are somewhat dwarfed, and because of the
shorter tube the bee is able to reach the honey. Dr. L. H. Pammel, bot-
anist at the Iowa College of Agriculture, has made a special study of bees
and red clover under Iowa conditions. After having many measurements
made, he has reached the conclusion that the effect on the length of the
corolla tube, as a result of drought, is so slight that the bee would not be
able to reach the nectar from this cause. He goes on record as follows :
"I have for several years closely observed honeybees and red clo-
ver, and from these observances I am still inclined to the opinion,
earlier expressed, that honeybees do not get nectar from the flowers
of the red clover, notwithstanding the opinion of many beekeepers in
Iowa." — Third report Iowa State Bee Inspector.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

219

At the 1917 Convention of the Illinois Beekeepers, Mr. Frank Bishop,
of Virden, reported that one season he secured an average of 100 pounds
per colony from red clover. According to his statement, there was no
other bloom within reach at that time. He further stated that he visited
the red clover fields, investigated the matter carefully, and was fully satis-
lied that red clover was the source of the honey.

Fig. 119. Red clover blossoms.

So many reports from well-known beekeepers are to be luund in our
literature, that it seems worth while to quote several of them, together
with the place where the reference is to be found. Mr. Wm. McEvoy, of
"Woodburn, Ontario, wrote to Gleanings in Bee Culture, page 468, 1907, as
follows :

"In September, 1905, I extracted over 3,000 pounds of pure red
clover honey, after giving the bees plenty to winter on. This honey
was a light amber color, and good in flavor, and sold for the same price
as honey gathered from white clover. My bees being Italians, worked
well on the second crop of red clover, which was not injured by the
midge in my locality, in 1905, on account of the first crop being cut
early."

Adrian Getaz, of Knoxville, Tenn., makes the following contribution to
the subject in Gleanings, page 660, 1909:

"In regard to bees gathering nectar from red clover, several opin-
ions have been advanced. Generally, it is supposed, that, owing to
dryer weather, the second crop has blossoms with shorter corollas, and
that the bees can reach the nectar on that account. Another theory is
that the nectar is more abundant, and fills up the corollas better, and
thus comes within reach of the bees. A German apiarist a few years
ago undertook to settle the matter, and spent a part of the summer
lying down in the clover fields to see how it was. He reported that
very few insects take the nectar through the corollas; but some kinds

220 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

cut a hole near the bottom and help themselves through it. The hole
once made, a number of insects, including bees, take advantage of it;
and if the bees do not work on the first crop, it is because there are
few hole-boring insects present."

Here follows a brief report with nothing to indicate whether the bees
were seeking nectar or pollen:

"Last year was very dry and there was scarcely any white clover in
blossom here; but the bees went fairly wild on the red clover, and it
was the first crop, too." — J. F. Bradv, Deerfield, Minn. Gleanings, page
149, 1911.

That the subject is not new will be found by examining the files of the
bee magazines of many years ago. Apparently, it has been a controverted
subject since beekeeping has been followed seriously in America. In the
first volume of the American Bee Journal, page 228, 1861, we find the fol-
lowing:

"I noticed in August and the beginning of September, while the
bees were gathering honey from buckwheat, that they obtained pollen
of a brownish color from some source. On investigating the matter, I
found that they collected it from red clover. This somewhat surprised
me, as I had never seen them gathering honey from the red clover to
such an extent, particularly while other forage was plenty. * * * I
have also noticed that the bees visited only those heads that were im-
perfect, the tubes being shorter in consequence."

The principal interest attached to the above is the statement that the
bees visited only the imperfect blossoms. On page 9 of the same volume
is a statement somewhat similar, reported in one of the German journals,
of Italian bees getting honey from red clover, in 1858. It is said that the
season was very dry and the blossoms somewhat smaller as a result.

In 1899, page 15, American Bee Journal, we find another report of bees
working on it in dry weather :

"My bees work more or less on it almost every year during hot and
dry weather, but it does not produce as fine honey as white clover;
when candied it is coarser grained, and has a water-soaked appearance.
I wish that my bees would let it alone, for we have plenty of white
clover when the red is in bloom.— Fred Bechle, Poweshiek County,
Iowa.

Again, on page 27 of the same issue, Theo. Rehorst, of Fond du Lac
County, Wisconsin, reports:

"The mammoth red clover produces good honey and all our honey-
bees can reach the nectar, although the corolla is far longer and
deeper than the common red clover. I never saw any honey from com-
mon red clover; only thin, red stuff, thin as water."
In 1903, E. E. Hasty, of Ohio, wrote, in the American Bee Journal, that
while he admitted that bees worked on red clover at times, he was ex-
tremely doubtful about their ability to get much honey from it. The
same doubt has been expressed by numerous observers from time to time,
the usual explanation being that the bees are gathering pollen, rather than
nectar.

On page 49 of the 1903 volume of the American Bee Journal is re-
ported an interesting case of honeydew from red clover. Since it is the
only case of the kind found in all the literature consulted it is quoted quite
fully:

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 221

"For about ten days my bees have been bringing in honey from the
second crop of red clover. Now this is nothing remarkable, for I have
seen them doing so for more than twenty years past; but recently,
passing through a field of red clover in bloom, I stopped to watch them,
and, to my surprise, found them working, not on the blossoms, but on
the leaves. This, I confess, I had never seen before. On closer exam-
ination I found the clover leaves covered with small plant lice, and the
under leaves covered with honeydew, very similar to that frequently
found on the leaves of the hickory, oak and other trees, though the
honey is not so dark-colored as from leaves of trees."
On page 839 of the American Bee Journal for 1906 is found a rather
convincing discussion of the subject of honey from red clover. It was at
a convention of the National Association, and several men of wide reputa-
tion took part in the discussion, and testified to the fact that they had se-
cured surplus from red clover. Hutchinson stated that he had secured 500
pounds from red clover at a time when there was nothing else in bloom,
and that it was a light amber or dark white color. Messrs. Townsend,
Stone, Davenport and others agreed that they had secured red clover
honey, Townsend reporting as much as 2,000 pounds stored in two weeks'
time.

The subject is discussed at length in Bulletin No. 46 of the New Zea-
land Department of Agriculture, by Isaac Hopkins, whose experience in
this connection is interesting. We quote him in part :

"In my early days of beekeeping it was a moot point whether Ital-
ian bees worked on red clover or not. At this time I had a unique op-
portunity of testing the matter thoroughly, an opportunity which
would rarely occur; therefore, I feel myself on safe ground when deal-
ing with Italian bees and red clover.

"For five years (1882-87), I was located on the late J. C. Firth's
estate at Matamata, where I started large bee farms. My bees, which
were chiefly Italians, were near to thousands of acres of red clover.
* * * Now and again we saw a few here and there gathering pollen
from the blossoms, and sometimes a good deal of pollen from red clo-
ver was brought in when, no doubt, it was scarce elsewhere.

"In order to make a thorough test, I shifted, on one occasion, a
number of strong two-story colonies to the center of a 700-acre pad-
dock of red clover. The first crop had been cut for hay, and the sec-
ond crop flowers were just opening. There was no ordinary bee for-
age anywhere near. After the fourth day, I examined the hives and
found from the odor that came from them on removing the covers that
some nectar had been gathered from the surrounding clover. I also
observed that some clover pollen had been stored.

"There were two seasons out of the five when my bees worked
more freely on the red clover than in others. In these seasons it was
noticeable that myriads of small-sized moths flitted about the clover,
while they were rarely seen at other times. I was much interested, and
in casting about for a reason, I became satisfied, after very many tests,
that the red clover was secreting at times much more nectar than
usual, and it may have been that it reached a higher level in the tubes
on these occasions, and so came within reach of the tongues of the
bees. Be that as it may, some red clover nectar was gathered from sec-
ond crop flowers in these seasons."

While the different observers are by no means agreed as to the reason
why the bees are able to get nectar from red clover on occasion, the tes-
timony is very closely agreed upon the fact that it is only from the sec-

222 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

ond crop, and in hot and dry seasons, that the bees are able to store honey
from this source. So many widely-known men come forward with the
positive statement that they have been able to secure surplus honey from
red clover, that we can hardly question the fact that honey is sometimes
stored from this plant. Whether the corollas are punctured by other in-
sects, the tubes are shortened by drought or the nectar rises higher in the
tube, remains to be proven.

RED GAURA (Gaura coccinea).

The red gaura, also called ragged lady, is common from Montana to
Arizona and Texas. It is much sought by the bees for both nectar and
pollen. Its nectar secretion is abundant, but it is not sufficiently common
to be important. A good stimulant.

RED GUM, see Eucalyptus.
RED-HAW, see Hawthorne.
RESEDA ODORATA, see Mignonette.

RETAMA (Parkinsonia aculeata).

Retama is a small tree common throughout southern and western
Texas. It has slender branches, bearing the yellow petaled flowers in ax-
illary racemes. It is frequently mentioned as a source of nectar by Texas
beekeepers. Scholl states that the bees work on it more or less all sum-
mer. Like many Texas shrubs, it has a habit of blooming at irregular
periods, from spring till September.

RHODE ISLAND— Honey Sources of.

The sources of honey in Rhode Island grouped in the order of their
appearance are willows, maples and other less numerous trees, which
furnish bees with the early supply of pollen and honey, so useful and so
needful in building up the bee population preparatory to the harvest in
which the beekeeper shares.

Next come the fruit blossoms, plum, peach, cherry, pear, apple, rasp-
berries, huckleberries and blueberries which, when the spring is favorable,
yield good crops of honey. In some places, dandelions are an important
addition to the fruit bloom, though not always opening at the same time.
In several parts of the State there are large areas of locust. This blooms
the latter part of May, and when conditions favor, yields for about eight
days a heavy water-white honey. The clovers usually follow this, but are
of consequence only under favorable conditions of rainfall, save in a few
sections where soil conditions afford abundant moisture.

In many sections sumacs furnish the next crop, and where they are
sufficiently abundant the beekeeper may rightly look for a good crop of a
very fair honey.

In some of the more swampy and less settled sections, button bush, cle-
thra (sweet pepper bush) and clematis yield a white and highly-flavored
honey, that from clematis being of the very highest quality. But the yield
from these plants is irregular, in some years being almost absent.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 223

In some of the villages and cities the European lindens are numerous
and yield heavily. The bloom ceases toward the end of the clover flow,
though the time of flowering of different trees in the same neighborhood
varies greatly. Native linden, basswood, is now found only in a few places.
The season closes with the goldenrods and asters, which yield a rich,
aromatic honey which, though not acceptable to many persons, commands
a fancy price from others. The crop from these two sources is not always
to be depended upon, being more affected by the weather than some of
the others. — Arthur C. Miller, Bulletin, State Board of Agriculture.

RHODODENDRON, see Azalea.
RHUS, see Sumac.
FICHARDIA, see Mexican Clover.
ROBINIA, see Locust.

ROCKBRUSH (Eysenhardtia amorphoides).

Rockbrush is a small shrub common to southern and western Texas,
and extending into Mexico. It blooms after heavy rains, several times
during the year, and yields honey in surplus quantity. It is reported fre-
quently throughout the region south and west of San Antonio to the Rio
Grande.

Colubrina Texensis, an entirely different shrub, which is common from
the Colorado River to the Rio Grande and west to New Mexico, is also
known by the name of rockbrush. It is reported as yielding both pollen
and nectar, but not as a source of surplus honey.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN BEE PLANT (Cleome integrifolia).

The Rocky Mountain bee plant, also known as stinking clover (Fig.
120), is principally confined in its distributions to the plains region west
of tlie Missouri River. It is also reported from north Pacific Coast States.
While it is a dry land plant, it is occasionally reported from Illinois, Iowa
and Minnesota. Although it is occasionally seen elsewhere, the author
has not seen it in Iowa excepting on the Missouri River bluffs, where it is
plentiful in some localities. This plant is reported as especially valuable
in Colorado, where it is said to produce considerable quantities of honey.

It is an annual with large, showy, pink or purple flowers. At one time
there was much interest in this plant on the part of eastern beekeepers
who tried to introduce it by sowing seed. At the Michigan Agricultural
College a small field was planted to ascertain whether it could be grown
profitably for honey alone. As no plant has as yet proven to be sufficiently
valuable to justify its cultivation for this purpose exclusively, it is not sur-
prising that the Rocky Mountain bee plant did not prove to be an excep-
tion. It is acrid and pungent and said to be distasteful to animals, which
seldom eat it. If the plant had any value for any purpose besides honey
production, an effort to extend the area of the distribution might succeed,
but the introduction of plants that are essentially weeds in their nature
seldom meets with favor.

According to Frank Rauchfuss, the cleome is erratic in its yield. If
15

224

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

there is a wet spring the seeds germinate early. When this is followed with
good rains in June the plants are vigorous and spreading in their growth
and each will have many blossoms. One year he extracted an average of
116 pounds per colony from a ten-days' flow. The honey is white in color,
with a greenish tinge. It has a rather sickening flavor when fresh, but im-
proves with age. When pure it is a first quality honey. It is rare that a
good crop is secured from his source.

The plant thrives best on sandy and gravellv soils.

Fig. 120. Cleome, or Rocky Mountain bee plant.
ROMAN CANDLE, see Yucca.

ROSE (Rosa).

There are many species of roses of wide distribution. They yield
pollen abundantly and are frequently valuable, in localities where they
bloom when pollen is scarce. There are numerous reports of rose honey,
but in most cases the observer has probably mistaken the object of the
bees when working on the flowers. Several competent observers credit the
Cherokee rose as a source of nectar. (See Cherokee Rose.)

"Some time ago quite a discussion was brought about by the as-
sertion of Gaston Bonnier, that one never saw bees upon roses, no
matter how colored or how fragrant. Dr. Miller replied that he had
often seen them upon the crimson ramblers and that they even tore
the buds open.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 225

"The magazine 'LAbeille de l'Aube,' in its August number quotes
the different assertions which were made upon the subject since then
in Europe.

"Mr. Bonnier came back with the assertion that the bees were
only hunting pollen, for, according to him, there is no nectar in roses.

"Joan Ruppin, of Fountenay-Aux-Roses, saw his bees take pollen
on the roses, but never any nectar.

"A. Martinot saw the bees often on the crimson ramblers and on
other similar roses, never on the double flowers.

"Mr. Pitrat believes they find both nectar and pollen on the simple
flowers.

"Louis Rosseil, Consul of Belgium in Athens, says that in the Island
of Eubia, the bees work upon fields of roses and produce a whit~ honey
much esteemed." — American Bee Journal, October, 1912.
Beekeepers in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and on the Pacific
Coast report that their bees get honey from roses.

ROSIN WEED, see Cup Plant, also Gum Weed.
ROYAL PALM, see Palm.
RUBUS, see Raspberry.
RUDBECKIA, see Coneflower.
RUSSIAN OLIVE, see Oleaster.

SABAL, see Palmetto.

SAGE (Salvia).

When sage is mentioned, we of the east are likely to think of the
common garden sage (Salvia officinalis), which for at least three centuries
has been cultivated for its aromatic leaves. Of this there are several
varieties, some with broad and some with narrow leaves. The garden
sages are good honey plants, but seldom sufficiently abundant to amount
to much as honey producers. The honey from the garden sage is said to
be nice and white like that from catnip or motherwort.

The name sage is derived from its supposed power to make people
wise by strengthening the memory, for which it was used in ancient medi-
cine.

There are upwards of five hundred species of sages, widely distributed
in the temperate and warmer regions of both hemispheres. Probably most
of the species yield honey, although but few are known to be important,
bayment mentions the wild sage (Salvia verbenacea) as introduced into
Australia from Europe, but now yielding honey during the dry months
of the year. (Money in bees in Australasia.) There are more than two
hundred species known to occur in Mexico and Central America and it is
very probable that when beekeeping is developed on a commercial scale in
those countries, the sages will be found to be very important honey plants.

226

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Fig. 121. White sage is uncertain in its yield.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 227

Since practically all sage honey that goes to market in America is
from California, the sages from that State are of first importance. Sage
is known to occur in other Western States and the question is sometimes
asked whether any honey is secured from this source elsewhere. In
answer to this question Mr. J. E. Miller, of Caldwell, Idaho, writes, in
Gleanings in Bee Culture (September 15, 1908, as follows :

"My neighbor, Mr. Garfield, experimented with one colony of bees
by taking it eight or nine miles away from alfalfa or other cultivated
fields, and setting it among the white sage. He went out to look after
it every week and took fresh water. We do not know the exact
amount of honey the bees gathered, but they did fully as well as those
left at home near the alfalfa. The honey was of that water-white
color peculiar to California sage honey. Mr. Garfield sent samples to
California and it was pronounced A-l white sage; so we are convinced
that the white sage of Idaho does yield just as much and just as good
honey as that of any other State."

It is probable that one or more species of sage occur in nearly every
State, but they increase in abundance westward. In the arid country west
of the Missouri River they become sufficiently common so that an appre-
ciable amount of honey might be expected in many localities. It is quite
likely that sage honey in small amounts is mixed with honey from other
sources, and .so not detected, in many many localities outside of California.
The fact remains, nevertheless, that sage, as an important source of sur-
plus, is not reported outside of that State.

The quality of sage honey is of the best, being watervwhite in color, of
a heavy body and delightful flavor. Since it does not granulate, it is much
sought for by bottlers in the east, who blend it with clover or alfalfa. There
are many who regard sage honey as the finest in the market. In this con-
nection A. I. Root, in an early edition of his A B C of Bee Culture, wrote:
"I well remember the first taste I had of the mountain sage honey.
Air. Langstroth was visiting me at the time, and his exclamations were
much like my own, only that he declared that it was almost identical in
flavor with the famed honey of Hymettus, of which he had received
a sample some years ago. Well, this honey of Hymettus. which has
been celebrated both in prose and poetry for ages past, was gathered
from the mountain thyme, and the botany tells us that thyme and
sage are closely related."

Although there are several species of sage which yield honey in Cali-
fornia, the quality does not differ materially, as far as can be ascertained
from printed reports. It is all described as "water-white, unexcelled flavor,
of heavy body and does not granulate."

Prof. A. J. Cook wrote to the American Bee Journal (June 21, 1906)
concerning the sage as follows :

"Chief among the honey-bearing mints are the incomparable sages
of California. These are not excelled even by the clovers or linden.
The honey is white, delicate of flavor, and must ever rank among the
best in appearance and quality. Not only this, but the quantity is often
phenomenal. This comes from the fact that flowers are borne in long
racemes of compact heads, and as the separated flowerets do not bloom
all at once, but in succession, the plants are in bloom for weeks. The
sages, then, are marvelous honey producers, first, because of the gen-

228

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

erous secretions of each floweret, and second, because of the immense
number of these flowerets and the long period of bloom."

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 229

At another time Mr. Cook wrote that the honey from all sages is so
much alike that it would be indistinguishable. — American Bee Journal,
August 3, 1905.

Richter, in his Honey Plants of California, speaks of the white sage
(Salvia apiana) Jep., as "very common on the dry plains toward the foot-
hills, and ascending these to about 3,000 feet." (Fig. 121).

Writing in Gleanings in Bee Culture, P. C. Chadwick describes a jour-
ney which he made in the San Bernardino Mountains with the intent to
find out the highest elevation at which bloom could be found in sufficient
quantities to support bees. Up to an elevation of 7,000 feet he found white
sage in abundance, and all alive with bees. (Western Honey Bee, Septem-
ber, 1914.) Richter gives its range as common from Santa Barbara County
southward, blooming from April to July. 'As abundant as the black sage,
but not as good a yielder, nor has the honey as fine a flavor."

Black sage (Salvia mellifera), Greene, also known as ball sage, or but-
ton sage (Fig. 122), is generally credited as being the principal source of
sage honey, most of the honey which goes to market under the name of
white sage being produced from this plant. Quite probably it is the best
honey plant on the Pacific Coast. Richter says of it : "As a general rule,
every fifth year an excellent crop is obtained, and every third or fourth
year a total failure is experienced, the flow being dependent upon winter
rains, with warm spring quite free from cold winds and fog. When in
bloom a certain amount of warm weather is required before it produces
nectar."

The range of black sage is given as "Mt. Diablo, Los Trampas Ridge,
near Hayward, San Mateo County, Glenwood and Brieta, southward to
southern California. April-May." (Jepson). "Coast ranges and ascending
to 5.IKHJ feet in the San Bernardino Mountains. March to June. San Diego
County, February to May."

Mr. J. E. Pleasants, of Orange, California, writing in American Bee
Journal (June, 1914) describes the peculiarities of the sages as follows:

"The black sage is king of them all. When climatic conditions are
favorable I think black sage can be relied upon to produce more 'gilt
edge' than any other plant in the West, and for body and flavor it is
hard to excel. It blooms for weeks. The blossom is small and incon-
spicuous, but what a flow of nectar it can yield.

"The white sage is a much prettier plant. Its soft, grey leaves and
tall blossom spikes make it quite showy, while its pleasing aromatic
odor breathes the very essence of wild perfumes. But this queenly
plant is much more inconstant than its plainer sister. Some years it
produces a good harvest, others very light.

"The silver or purple sage, which has silvery leaves and brilliant
light purple blossoms, is usually a good producer, but is much restricted
as to locality."

The purple sage (Salvia leucophylla) (Fig. 123). also called white-leaved
sage, or silver sage, is reported as a good yielder, although not as abund-
ant as either of the foregoing species. The Richter catalog gives the
range as occasional in the foothills of the Santa Monica and San Fernando
Mountains, April to July, and from San Luis Obispo to San Diego Counties
and not extending inland beyond the coast ranges.

230

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

The purple sage.

Salvia amabilis, loving sage, is reported from Santa Barbara, March-
June, but probably not important.

Salvia carduacea, thistle or annual sage. "Inner coast range valleys
and throughout the San Joaquin Valley, southern California, June." (Jep-
son). "A well-known honey plant." (Richter).

Salvia columbariae, annual sage. "Throughout the coast ranges, Sierra
Nevada and southern California, on hill and mountain slopes." (Jepson).

Salvia sonomensis, Greene, creeping sage. "Montana species at middle

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 231

altitudes. Ramona Mountains west of Calistoga, Mt. Shasta, Calaveras and
Mariposa Counties, San Diego County. May." (Jepson). "Also June, Sierra
foothills from Sierra to Inyo Counties, main source of honey in many dis-
tricts." (Richter).

Concerning the regularity of yield from sage, Mr. P. C. Chadwick
wrote in Gleanings in Bee Culture (January 1, 1911), as follows:

"South of the Tehachapi Mountains lies practically the entire sage
of our State, notwithstanding eastern people and many of our west-
erners term every form of small growth on the vast slopes of the
Rocky Mountains "sage brush.' There is no denying that the button
(or black) sage is, of all honey plants, our chief surplus producer.
Neither does it average a crop more often than every other year, re-
gardless of rainfall, for it seems necessary, from its semi-arid nature,
to be dried out or rested before it comes back to its prime yielding con-
dition. I have seen it return some surplus for three consecutive sea-
sons; but the middle season was not what could be considered a crop,
even after a sufficient rainfall."

Again he writes to the same journal to the effect that the sage ranges
soon give place to other crops (Dec. 15, 1911) :

"If I should predict that thirty years hence the sage ranges of
California would be almost a thing of the past there would doubtless
be criticism of my views ; but 1 firmly believe that we shall face such a
condition, for emigration to this part of California is increasing rap-
idly. Hillsides are yielding to the plow, where twenty years ago it
would have been thought almost impossible."

Some writers give two hundred pounds per colony as a fair average
in a good sage year, so that with even one good year in three it comes well
up with the yield of many plants more constant in their production.

SAINFOIN or ESPARCET (Onobrychis sativa).

Sainfoin is grown to a limited extent in Canada, and although given
numerous trials in various parts of the United States, has not, till the pres-
ent, succeeded in establishing itself successfully. It is a splendid forage
crop, somewhat similar to alfalfa, and is an important source of nectar in
Italy and other parts of Europe.

Several years ago it was given an enthusiastic endorsement as a honey
plant for America by John Fixter, at that time apiarist at the Central
Experiment Farms at Ottawa, Canada. A test plot at the Farms proved
so attractive to the bees that it attracted much attention on the part
cf eastern beekeepers. He reported that it yielded nectar in the morning
and that the bees began work upon it fully an hour before they did on
alsike or white clover. A further advantage was stated to be that the first
bloom came between fruit bloom and white clover and the later bloom at
a time when there was a dearth from other sources. On plots side by
side he reported that there would be something like a hundred bees on the
sainfoin to ten on the white clover.

In spite of the glowing accounts of its value and a general attempt to
boom the plant, it failed to succeed. It should be remembered, however,
that there was a general failure with alfalfa when first attempts were
made to grow it in America, and it would seem worthy of further trial to

232 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

see whether there are not sections better adapted to its growth.

The following article by C. P. Dadant, reprinted from the American
Bee Journal, page 790, 1904, will give some information about the value of
the plant in European countries:

"Sainfoin, otherwise called esparcet, is widely cultivated in Europe,
especially in France. Its name, "sainfoin," is French, and literally
means "healthy hay" — sain-foin. It is a perennial, gives a splendid
hay crop, and in some sections of the European continent it is a first-
class honey-producer.

"The small province of France, formerly called "Gatinais," is the
leading producer of sainfoin honey. According to the best authorities,
the honey of Gatinais has the reputation of being of the whitest color
and sweetest taste, and is said to be in no way surpassed by white clo-
ver honey.

"Gaston Bonnier, the eminent professor who was President of the
International congress of beekeepers at Paris in 1900, says in his
book, the 'Cours Complet d'Apiculture,' that sainfoin honey is one of
the best appreciated grades. He ranks it next only to the honey of
the Alpine hills of eastern France and Switzerland.

"From immemorial times the honey crops of Gatinais have been
considered as leading in the amount of production, and this was all
credited to the sainfoin, which is grown there in immense quantities,
somewhat as alfalfa is grown in the irrigated plains of the West. It
was in Gatinais that the custom of inverting hives began, in order to
secure the largest possible quantity of honey from the bees, regardless
of future consequences. For that reason the beekeepers of Gatinais
were compelled to replenish apiaries every season with bees brought
from away, as their only aim was to secure the largest possible quan-
tity of sainfoin honey during the short period of the bloom, and many
of their bees perished the following winter.

"Although sainfoin has already been tried in the United States with
unfavorable results, I believe it is worth while to try it again, espe-
cially in the countries where alfalfa succeeds so well. It might prove
a useful honey plant.

"We must, however, not close our eyes to the fact that honey
plants do not yield honey in the same proportion in all localities. White
clover, which is the source of so large a crop of white honey in this
country, is absolutely useless as a honey producer in some other coun-
tries. Edouard Bertrand, the editor of the Revue Internationale, told
me positively that there never had been any white clover honey har-
vested in Switzerland by any of his friends, although it is quite com-
mon in the Swiss meadows."

SALAD-TREE, see Red-Bud.

SALAL (Gaultheria shallon).

Salal is an evergreen shrub, one to five feet high, common from cen-
tral California north to Washington. It grows abundantly in the redwood
forests commonly covering the ground. The flowers occur in racemes
three to six inches long and are pink or pinkish white.

It blooms with salmon-berry, wild blackberry and chittam, so the honey
is seldom secured unmixed.

SALIX, see Willow.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

233

SALMON BERRY or THIMBLE BERRY (Rubacer parviflorus).

The salmon berry or Thimble berry, also known as flowering rasp-
berry, shown at Figure 124, is a well known honey plant on the Pacific
Coast. It occurs along the coast from Alaska to Mexico. It also occurs
in the mountains as far south as Colorado and New Mexico. It is a shrub
with erect stem and red fruit. It is known to some extent in Ontario west
to Dakota.

Salmon berry is frequently mentioned as a source of honey in the Pa-
cific Northwest, especially in Washington, Oregon and British Columbia.

himble berry.

SALT CEDAR (Tamarix gallica).

Scholl's Bulletin lists the salt cedar as a source of honey in Texas.
"Common European shrub which seems to have escaped in many places in
Texas." (Coulter). "On roadsides, in thickets and waste places in warmer
parts of southern United States, naturalized from southern Europe."
(Small.) The author has reports of this plant being common in the vicinity
of Corpus Christi, Texas. Reported also as a honey plant in places in Cali-
fornia.

SANDVINE, see Bluevine.

234 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

SAPINDUS, see Wild China.

SASKATCHEWAN— Honey Sources of.

The sources of nectar, in the order of their importance, are fireweed,
wolfberry, prairie flowers, alsike and white clover and Siberian pea-tree.
Willows and maples for early brood rearing are important. — F. W. L.
Sladen.

SASSAFRAS (Sassafras officinale).

Sassafras is an exceedingly well-known tree in the Southwestern
States. It is known occasionally as far north as Ontario and Massachu-
setts southward to southeastern Iowa, eastern Kansas and south to the
Brazos Valley in Texas. It is a conspicuous feature of the old fields of
the southern plantations. It has spicy aromatic bark and mucilaginous
buds and leaves which many people enjoy chewing. Oil of sassafras is dis-
tilled from the roots.

The flowers are small, yellow and inconspicuous, but are attractive
to the bees. The writer has found occasional reports of bees working on
sassafras in the Southern States. At Buffalo, Texas, it is reported as bloom-
ing about two weeks. H. B. Parks reports that it yields well in Missouri.
The blooming period is early and short, hence its principal value is for
spring brood rearing. It was blooming with willow on March 20, 1918, in
Leon County, Texas, when the author visited that section, and the bees
were apparently getting considerable nectar from sassafras at that time.

SATUREJA, see Wild Pennyroyal.
SAW PALMETTO, see Palmetto.

SCILLA.

The Scilla siberica, or Siberian squill, is an early blooming old world
flower commonly naturalized in the grass of lawns, parks, etc., for orna-
mental purposes. It has small blue flowers which appear as soon as the
ground is free from frost in the spring. The bees seek them eagerly and,
coming at a time when little is to be had, they keep the bees busy on the
few sunny days of early spring. Flower lovers will find this plant a de-
sirable addition to their garden list. Aside from planting the bulbs no
care is necessary. It will thrive in a stiff bluegrass sod, where few other
plants would grow. It is only necessary to avoid cutting the grass till
the plants have matured.

SCROPHULARIA, see Figwort.
SCRUB PALMETTO, see Palmetto.
SENSITIVE PEA, see Partridge Pea.
SHEEP LAUREL, see Laurel.
SHITTIM-WOOD, see Gum Elastic.
SHOESTRING VINE, see Bluevine.
SHRUBBY TREFOIL, see Hop-Tree.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

235

"% ■■ «p* ' -

'9H

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rar JmaG w^\ * x I

Fig. 125. The blossoms of Siberian squill are attractive to the bees in early spring.

SIBERIAN SQUILL, see Scilla.
SILKWEED, see Milkweed.
SILPHIUM, see Cup Plant.
SILVERBERRY, see Oleaster.
SIMPSON'S HONEY PLANT, see Figwort.

SKUNK CABBAGE (Symplocarpus foetidus).

The skunk cabbage is found in wet places from Nova Scotia to North
Carolina and west to Iowa. It receives its name from the strong odor
which it gives off. Skunk cabbage is one of the very first plant to bloom
as frost is leaving the ground in spring, and its principal value to the bee-
keeper comes from this early appearance. The late G. M. Doolittle wrote
(Gleanings, 1909, page 200) that he had seen the bees gathering pollen from
this plant when the temperature stood at 42 degrees. He stated further
that lie valued it more highly than any other pollen-yielding plant or tree,
and that there was nothing with which he was familiar so eagerly sought
by the bees, nor any source of pollen which so greatly stimulated brood
rearing.

SMARTWEED, see Heartsease.
SNEEZEWEED, see Bitterweed.

SNOWBERRY (Symphoricarpos racemosus). WAXBERRY.

The snowberry is a low branching shrub with conspicuous white ber-
ries which hang on through most of the winter. It is of wide distribution
in the Northern States from New England and Pennsylvania to the North

236

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Pacific Coast. It is also common in the hill country of much of California,
in the White Mountains of New Mexico and in parts of Colorado and other
mountain States. The blossoms are small and inconspicuous, but they are
attractive to the bees, nevertheless. The snowberry is a valuable plant
in many localities in the West, but is of special importance in Washington
and British Columbia. There it is reported as blooming during the last half
of June and well into July and as furnishing an important secondary flow.
According to H. A. Scullen it is very important in northern Idaho and in
Stevens County, Washington, the bees work upon it in preference to white
clover.

Snowberry is a close relative of Indian currant and is illustrated in
connection with that plant. (See Indian Currant).

SNOW-ON-THE-MOUNTAIN (Euphorbia marginata). SPURGE.

Snow-on-the-Mountain is a showy plant easily recognized by the white
margined leaves. It is native from Minnesota to Montana and south to
New Mexico and Texas. It is also cultivated for the peculiar foliage.
It is probably nowhere important as a honey plant, and is of special inter-
est from the fact that its nectar is so often reported as poisonous. (See
Poisonous Honey.)

SNOWVINE or PEPPER-VINE (Cissus arborea).

The snowvine is a climbing vine with heart-shaped leaves, and berries
the size of a pea, and which are edible. It is common in the low borders

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 237

of woods and along streams from Virginia to southern Illinois and south-
ward to Florida and eastern Texas. It is a relative of the cowitch. (See
Cowitch). It is common in Alabama and Georgia from the central belt to
the coast plain, where it begins to bloom in June. It is reported as being
the source of considerable honey of fair quality.

SOAPBERRY, see Wild China.

SOAPBUSH (Guaiacum angustifolium).

The soapbush is native to the dry lands of south Texas and northern
Mexico. It blooms after rains in both spring and fall. At Crystal City,
Texas, it is reported as the source of the first honey in spring, coming in
March. Beekeepers report that with very little moisture soapbush can be
depended upon for honey and that it yields nectar every time it blooms.
The honey is of fine quality, mild flavor and light color. The flow lasts
from ten to fifteen days. (Fig. 126.) The soapbush has very hard wood,
crooked and knotty branches and in places becomes a small tree and is
known as lignum-vitae.

SOLIDAGO, see Goldenrod.

SORGHUM.

The sorghums are widely planted as forage crops. They yield pollen in
great abundance and at times honeydew is gathered from this source, also.

SORREL-TREE, see Sourwood.
SOULARD CRAB APPLE, see Crab Apple.
SOUR-GUM, see Tupelo.
SOUR-TOP, see Blueberry.

SOURWOOD (Oxydendrum arboreum).

The sourwood tree reaches a height of thirty to forty feet and a di-
ameter of twelve inches, on high lands, but seldom exceeds twenty feet
in height on the low lands. It is a common tree from West Virginia to
north Georgia and west to Arkansas. The white flowers grow in racemes
and appear in July. It is sometimes called sorrel tree, because of the
acidity of its leaves. The wood is soft and is not of much value except
for light fuel.

Sourwood honey ranks high, both in quality and in quantity of yield.
Many people regard it as the finest honey produced in America. It is
light in color, of heavy body, fine flavor and slow to granulate. The bloom
lasts from two to three weeks and comes in mid-summer, when bees have
ample time to build up to maximum strength for the flow. Although sour-
wood honey is produced in limited areas in several States. North Carolina
and eastern Tennessee probably contain the finest forests and remarkable
yields are sometimes reported in this region. The crop from this source
seldom fails and it is regarded as one of the most dependable sources of
nectar. A lady beekeeper, writing from North Carolina, stated in the

238 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

American Bee Journal that she had never known it to fail. An average
of as high as 75 pounds per colony from sourwood has been reported and
the local demand usually takes it all at prices above the open market.

SOUTH CAROLINA— Honey Sources of.

Willows, fruit blossoms, including such wild fruits as hawthorne, huck-
leberry and blackberry, furnish abundant nectar for early spring. Tulip-
tree, sourwood and clover, persimmon, black-gum and holly are all good
sources of nectar. Cotton may be expected to yield also on suitable soils.
(See also North Carolina and Georgia for a longer list of plants likely to
be of value in this State.)

SOUTH DAKOTA— Honey Sources of.

The best beekeeping territory in South Dakota is in the sweet clover
districts in the southeastern part of the State. In this region large crops
of fine honey are secured.

Maples and willows, dandelions and fruit blossoms start the bees off
in the spring. White clover and alsike both yield well in the eastern part
of the State. Sweet clover is important wherever grown and alfalfa is
valuable in some localities. Heartsease is the principal source of honey in
late fall. There are also many minor sources, such as are common to
the Middle West.

SOUTHERN BUCKTHORN, see Coma.
SOUTHERN CRAB APPLE, see Crab Apple.

SOW THISTLE (Sonchus).

The sow thistles are weeds which are widely distributed from eastern
Canada to Florida and from British Columbia to California. They are re-
ported as valuable in east Texas, and Richter lists two species as yielding
nectar in California. Probably seldom important.

SPANISH BAYONET, see Yucca.
SPANISH DAGGER, see Yucca.

SPANISH NEEDLE (Bidens).

The Spanish needles, also known as bootjacks, beggar ticks, stick
tights and marigolds, are very widely distributed plants, and are of in-
terest to the beekeepers from Nova Scotia to California. Most of the spe-
cies are weeds growing commonly on low and swampy lands. Not all of
them produce honey in appreciable quantity, and possibly some of them are
not sought by the bees at all. Figure 128 shows Bidens aristosa, which has
an attractive yellow flower and is most frequently mentioned as a source
of honey. This is particularly valuable on the lowlands along the Mis-
sissippi and Missouri Rivers. During the seasons of 1915 and 1919 much
honey was gathered from it.

Two species are reported among the honey plants of California by
Richter, B. frondosa and B. pilosa. The former is one of the most widely-

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 239

distributed species and closely resembles the one shown, but has a wider
leaf. Frondosa is seldom reported as yielding nectar, and it is of doubtful
value to the beekeeper.

Figure 127 shows the western bur-marigold (B. involucrata), which oc-
curs from Illinois and Iowa south to Texas and Louisiana. This is re-
ported as a good honey plant. This flower has no colored corolla, but is
surrounded by greenish rays. August is the month of flowering with this

Fig. 127. Western bur marigold.
species. The Spanish needles are all late bloomers, and where they occur
yield nectar, and add something to the fall honey flow.

SPARKLE-BERRY, see Farkle-Berry.
SPICEWOOD, see Dogwood.

SPIDER PLANT (Cleome spinosa).

The spider plant is a close relative of the Rocky Mountain bee plant
and very similar in habit. The spider plant had quite a boom among bee-
keepers of a few years ago. The seed was sold quite generally and planted
in gardens, but as it is of no value except for honey and as an ornamental,
its popularity soon declined and it is seldom mentioned of late. It secretes
nectar abundantly and the bees work upon it freely just at nightfall, and
again in early morning. It is a native of the tropics and has escaped and
run wild in many places from North Carolina to Arkansas and Louisiana.
16

240

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Much has been written about the remarkable secretion by this plant
and the excitement it causes among the bees. Under favorable conditions
i! is one of the very best of honey plants and, if sufficiently common,
would no doubt be the source of large quantities of surplus honey. There
are reports to the effect that spider plant grows abundantly in neglected
fields in some localities in southeastern Missouri and is there important.
It is said to require a rich soil for best results in nectar secretion. A
single blossom secretes nectar so freely that a bee often finds a drop larger
than it can carry at one load.

Fig.

Spanish needle (i

SPIKEWEED (Centromadia pungens).

Spikeweed is a common plant in California, where its range is given
by Jepson as follows :

"Abundant on the plains of the lower San Joaquin southward to
southern California and westward to Walnut Creek and Alameda. On
the alkaline plains of the upper San Joaquin this species covers tens
of thousands of acres and often forms thickets four or five feet high.
It is abundant in the low, more or less alkaline plains of Solano County
and forms extensive colonies in summer fields. Extermination is often
accomplished by means of bands of sheep, which leave the fields per-
fectly clean and destitute of this spikeweed pest. — Flora of Western
Middle California.
According to Richter, carloads of honey from spikeweed are shipped

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

241

annually from Fresno County, the honey being of amber color, good qual-
ity and quick to granulate. He states that other plants are replacing spike-
weed to such an extent that it is no longer of the importance which it
was in the past.

SPOON-WOOD, see Laurel.

SPRING BEAUTY (Claytonia Virginica).

The spring beauty is one of the early spring flowers common in open
woodlands from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to Ontario, Saskatche-
wan and Alaska and from New England west to Minnesota and Nebraska
and south to Georgia and Arkansas. Appearing so early in spring it is
much sought by the bees at a time when there is little of either nectar or
pollen available. At a later season it would be of such slight value as to
be hardly worthy of notice on the part of the beekeeper. Figure 129 shows
a bee on the blossom of a spring beauty.

SPRUCE (Picea abies).

For years past there has been an occasional mention in our beekeep-
ing literature of spruce honey, or of bees working on spruce. As far as the
writer has been able to ascertain this is true only of the Norway spruce.
Since the Norway spruce is not a native of this country, it is seldom found

242

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

in considerable numbers except in the vicinity of cities, where it is planted
freely for ornament. (Fig. 130.)

It was at the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph that the writer
first saw the bees working on spruce to any extent. It was about June 12,
and the bees were humming through these trees in large numbers. There

The Norway spruce is the source of honeydew.

are hundreds of these trees about the college grounds, and considerable
honeydew seemed to be coming to the college apiary from this source.
Honeydew is seldom desirable, as it is usually of poor quality and only
serves to spoil the quality of good honey. However, this spruce honey-
dew seemed to be of rather better quality than is generally the case with

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

243

honeydew, and, as it came ahead of the clover flow, was probably nearly all
consumed for brood rearing.

For a time the writer was puzzled to know whether the bees were
getting an exudation of sap from the tree, or were in fact getting honey-
dew. They were working on what appeared at first sight to be buds at the
base of the new growth, but which under the microscope proved to be in-
sects identified as Physokermes picea.

SPURGE, see Snow-on-the-Mountain.

Fig.

Yellow star thistle.

SQUASH (Curcurbita maxim), also (C. moschata).

Squashes are widely cultivated for food. There are numerous varie-
ties, but all are valuable sources of pollen and nectar. They secrete nectar
treely, and where sufficiently abundant, a considerable quantity of honey
is stored.

STAR THISTLE or KNAPWEED (Centaurea). BARNABY'S THISTLE.

There are several species of star thistles or knapweeds widely dis-
tributed. The yellow star thistle (Centaurea solstitialis) (Fig. 131) is an
introduced species from Europe that occurs from Massachusetts and On-
tario, west to Iowa. It is also common in parts of California. It is only
from the latter State that it is reported as an important honey plant.
According to C. D. Stuart (American Bee Journal, page 340, October, 1918),

244 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

it furnishes from one-third to one-half of Butte County, California's honey
crop, an average of about sixty tons. Concerning the plant he writes as
follows :

"Star thistle begins to bloom about the first of July and continues
till frost, which usually comes between October 1 and November 1.
The yield of nectar is slow but continuous. If it is stopped by drought
it will start yielding nectar again after a rain. The plant has the fac-
ulty of existing in arid soils for long periods of drought, and when
apparently dried up, it will start to grow and blossom after a rain.
Some cattle growers find that thistle hay can be fed profitably when
cut and dried like other hay, if it is moistened before feeding. The
dampening of the fodder takes the sting out of the leaves and blos-
soms.

"Star-thistle honey is heavy-bodied, white, almost cloying in its
sweetness as orange, and has a greenish yellow tinge, like olive oil.
It is considered by large buyers equal in quality to any white honey in
the State, and with the price at two cents a pound more than light
amber of the alfalfa type, and still rising, beemen in northern Cali-
fornia should worry."

Richter lists Napa-thistle or tocalote (Centaurea melitensis) as yield-
ing light amber honey of good flavor and fair body in Sacramento County,
from May 15 to June 15. It is regarded as a bad weed and is abundant
everywhere in fields and pastures. Like the foregoing, it has been dissem-
inated with seed grain and grass seed. According to Richter, it does not
yield nectar in southern California. Scholl lists American knapweed (Cen-
taurea Americana) as not important in Texas.

STICKLEAF, see Mentzelia.

STICK-TIGHT, see Spanish Needle.

STINKING CLOVER, see Rocky Mountain Bee Plant.

STINKWEED, see Jackass Clover.

STONECROP (Sedum pulchellum).

Stonecrop is common from Virginia to Arkansas and south to Georgia.
It is abundant in many localities and is reported to be a valuable honey
plant in the South.

STORK'S BILL, see Pin Clover.

STRAWBERRY (Fragaria).

The wild strawberries are seldom sufficiently abundant to be of much
value to the bees, but the cultivated varieties are grown in large planta-
tions and are the source of both pollen and nectar. They bloom in early
spring, for the most part, although some of the everbearing varieties con-
tinue to blossom through the summer. Strawberries, like most other
fruits are of principal value to stimulate early brood rearing.

The bees are very important to the strawberry growers, as many va-
rieties of strawberries are not self-pollinating or are deficient in stamens.
The bees carry the pollen from the staminate blossoms to the pistils of the
incomplete flowers.

STRINGY BARK, see Eucalyptus.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 245

SUGAR GUM, see Eucalyptus.

SWEET CLOVER (Melilotus).

There are probably twenty species of melilotus native to the temper-
ate regions of Europe and western Asia. Several have been introduced

Fig. 132. Blossoms of white sweet clover {Melilotus alba.)

into America. Of these, two species, the white sweet clover (Melilotus
alba) and the yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis) are valuable
plants and are widely distributed. The yellow variety blooms about two
weeks earlier than the white and where both are present a long honey
flow may be expected.

Sweet clover reaches the highest development in the secretion of nec-
tar in the hot, dry summer climate of the plains region between the Missis-

246 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

sippi River and the Rocky Mountains. In the East, the surplus secured
from this plant has been disappointing, and eastern men insist that sweet
clover is overrated as a honey plant. However, those who have seen the
big flows that are frequent along the Missouri River and westward are
enthusiastic in its praise. In the region about Sioux City, Iowa, it is
grown extensively as a farm crop. In this section an average of 200 pounds
surplus per colony from sweet clover is not uncommon. On the limestone
soils of Alabama and Mississippi it also yields freely and large yields are
reported. In the irrigated regions of the West it is of great importance
and beekeepers who ship sweet clover honey in carlots are not uncommon.
The quality of the honey is excellent. It is light in color and mild in
flavor, although slightly peppery to the taste. It granulates more readily
than white clover, but is regarded as of number one quality in the prin-
cipal markets.

Sweet Clover as a Farm Crop

When our older readers were beginners in the beekeeping business it
was a popular thing for the beekeepers to buy sweet clover seed and
stealthily sow it along the roadsides. So general was this practiced that
whenever the plant appeared in a new locality it was generally charged up
to the beekeepers living nearby. So great was the prejudice against the
plant that much ill-feeling developed in some places because of it. It even
went so far that in some States it was placed on the list of noxious weeds
and its eradication required by law. When Frank Coverdale, well-known
Iowa farmer who did so much to popularize sweet clover, first sowed it in
his own fields, neighbors called on the county attorney to enquire whether
he could not be prosecuted for sowing weed seed. For a generation the
beekeepers kept up the fight, and constantly preached that sweet clover
was not a weed, but a valuable forage plant. It remained for men like
Coverdale, who were both beekeepers and farmers, to prove the assertion
and convince the unwilling public, by making as much profit from sweet
clover pasture for forage as the neighbors could make from other farm
crops.

It was on poor lands which had been worn out by bad tillage, that
the plant made the best showing. When lands which had been lying idle,
because no other crop could be raised profitably, were made to produce
good yields of milk, butter and beef from sweet clover, the neighbors were
inclined to give it a trial on their own poor lands. The change in senti-
ment has been very marked during the past few years and now the de-
mand for sweet clover seed is greater than the supply, and will continue so
for several years, since the area where it is being grown is constantly be-
ing enlarged. There are large areas where sweet clover is grown generally
as a farm crop, in Kentucky, Nebraska and Kansas. The increased acreage
of this plant will double the possibilities of honey production in most any
locality, and in numerous instances will treble and quadruple it. In the
early years of his experience, Coverdale kept bees in several outapiaries,
so that much travel back and forth was necessary. Since sweet clover has
become so generally grown in his locality, he is able to keep three hundred

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 247

colonies in one yard in his orchard, where they are under his immediate
care at all times. After traveling over much of the Central West, it has
become apparent to the author that within a few years the beekeeping
possibilities of parts of Kansas, Nebraska and South Dakota will be almost
inexhaustible because of the increase of this plant. On visiting Falmouth,
Ky., I was amazed at the stories they told of what sweet clover had done
for that region. One of the pioneer growers was E. E. Barton, and his
experience with it sounded like a fairy tale. Mr. Barton said that follow-
ing the civil war, most of Pendleton County was given over to tobacco
growing, with little live stock, and not much rotation of crops. It was a
hill country, and although it had a fertile soil over a clay subsoil, the
heavy rains soon washed away the shallow surface soil, and one farm after
another was abandoned. Hundreds of farms were abandoned, and many
of them were sold for taxes, because no buyers could be found. More than
a third of the population left the county, and the farmers who remained
had hard lines to make ends meet. Sweet clover was stealthily sowed,
probably by beekeepers intent on increasing the bee pasturage. At first
it was regarded with disfavor and fought as a dangerous weed.

Mr. Barton came into possession of a farm, somewhat against his will,
because the owner could not pay the mortgage. He tried renting it, and
the tenant was unable to make a living, much less pay the rent. After it
had been abandoned, he went to great trouble to keep down the weeds, es-
pecially sweet clover. Then came a year of drought, when there was very
little feed for the cattle, and they were turned into the roads to graze.
Even there there was but little except the sweet clover, which was by this
time rather common along the roadsides. It was soon noticed that the
cows were eating the sweet clover with relish and doing well. Then some-
body tried an experiment by sowing it in a field. It thrived, the cows liked
it, and the milk flow was increased. Mr. Barton by this time was quite
ready to profit by the experience, and within five years the farm which
would not grow grass was producing good crops. He bought more aban-
doned farms and sowed them to sweet clover, and his neighbors began to
do likewise. One by one the farmers came back to their abandoned farms,
new settlers came in, and everybody began to grow sweet clover. Now
there are fifty thousand acres of it in that county. Ask any farmer you
meet on the streets of Falmouth what he thinks of sweet clover and he
will tell you such tales of rebuilt fortunes from a combination of dairy
cows and sweet clover as you never expect to hear. There are now shipped
from the county about half a million pounds of seed yearly, besides thou-
sands of dollars' worth of dairy products every week. They find that an
average of 300 to 600 pounds of hulled seed per acre can be secured from
the white variety and 500 to 700 pounds of the yellow. An average yield of
from $40 to $100 per acre is the return from the sweet clover, according to
local reports picked up on the streets. Now one finds evidences of pros-
perity on every hand. The farmers have fine homes, automobiles, and
money in the bank.

Soil Requirements.

There is no forage plant that will succeed on such a wide range of soil

248 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

conditions as will sweet clover. It will succeed under unfavorable condi-
tions on the heaviest clays and on light sand. It will grow on hardpan
and on gravelly and stony land unsuited for general cultivation. It does
well on soils too wet for either alfalfa or red clover and on soils so dry
that neither of these will succeed. It will grow on land so poor and devoid
of humus that no other clover or grass will grow. It is the greatest soil
builder known, and now that the public has finally accepted the fact that
it is not a noxious weed, it will shortly be used to redeem untold thou-
sands of acres of otherwise waste land. It grows all the way from sea
level to the mountain sides, and is spreading in the semi-arid sections of
Colorado and other Western States, where the annual rainfall is very light.

In the October, 1917, number of the American Bee Journal has been
told the story of the sweet clover region of Alabama and Mississippi. In
those States sweet clover has spread over thousands of acres of land which
had been abandoned for agricultural purposes; and it is not only furnish-
ing abundant pasturage to the bees, but is restoring the fertility of these
worn-out plantations.

The growth of the plant, however, is no longer confined to the road-
sides and worn-out fields, but farmers are growing it successfully and
profitably on lands worth $300 per acre in Iowa and Illinois, because it
pays them to do so. In some cases the railroad companies have discov-
ered that sweet clover growing along the right of way is the best possi-
ble insurance against erosion of the roadbed. A heavy growth of sweet
clover protects the banks from the washing of heavy rains, as no other
plant will do. In places, one can see a continuous strip of sweet clover
for miles and miles along the railroads. It would seem the part of wis-
dom for the beekeepers' associations to bring this fact to the attention of
the men in charge of keeping the lines in repair wherever possible. Once
established along the railroads, it is bound to spread more or less along
the byroads and into the fields, thus increasing the supply of forage within
reach of the bees.

One of the most useful purposes which sweet clover serves is to
smother out obnoxious weeds. So persistent is the plant where sowed in
waste places that there are few weeds which can compete with it. Where
bad weeds are present in old lots, along roadsides, etc., the easiest way to
eradicate them is by sowing sweet clover freely. Within a few years the
sweet clover will generally crowd them out. In spite of this fact, sweet
clover itself is one of the easiest plants to destroy. Since it only lives two
years and must come again from the seed after that time, all that is neces-
sary to clear the ground of sweet clover is to cut it low when in blossom
and before the seeds are formed.

Where there is difficulty in establishing alfalfa, sweet clover is often
grown in advance to establish the nitrogen-gathering bacteria, which are
peculiar to the leguminous plants. Following sweet clover, there is usually
little difficulty in getting the alfalfa to grow, if the seed bed is carefully
prepared. However, many farmers who have been growing both plants, are
of the opinion that sweet clover is the more profitable of the two, and that
it can be handled successfully with less difficulty.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 249

There is no pasture crop which will support as many cattle or other
live stock as will sweet clover during the second season of its growth. A
small experimental plot of little more than an acre yielded two big loads
of hay. The plants were permitted to get a good start after the hay was
cut before pasturing, then two cows and a horse were turned in for the
rest of the season. In addition to furnishing an abundant pasture for
three, more than twenty bags of seed were secured. Allowing $15 per ton
for hay, $1 a month per head for pasture, and $3 a bag for the seed, all
very conservative figures, the crop returned about $96 per acre. While this
small- plot was experimental, there are numerous farmers who have re-
ceived more than $100 an acre for seed alone.

Cultural Requirements.

It frequently happens that, having seen sweet clover growing along
the roadsides, on gravelly banks and other unpromising situations, we are
surprised to fail in getting a stand in a well prepared field. Sweet clover
requires a firm seed bed, and will not succeed on land where the soil has
been deeply stirred and left in a loose condition. It is well to scratch
the surface with a tool that does not penetrate deeply, leaving the surface
loose for an inch or so, and compact below. While it will succeed on a
great variety of soils, it requires that they be in a well settled condition
and not freshly plowed to a depth of several inches, such as best suits
many forage plants. This condition probably accounts for more failures
in getting a stand of sweet clover than any other cause.

Sowing the seed on top of the ground or on the snow in winter, will
often secure a good stand with no cultivation at all. Good results often
come from sowing it with small grain in spring, on land that has been cul-
tivated the previous season. Some succeed by sowing after the last cul-
tivation of corn, the seed germinating to some extent the same season,
while some does not sprout until the following spring. The ideal condition
is to cover the seed from half an inch to an inch with finely pulverized soil,
with a firm soil underneath.

Time of Sowing.

Sweet clover may be sowed in the winter or early spring, as above
stated, or at any time from March until August. It should not be seeded
when it is likely to start so late that it will not have time to establish it-
self firmly before winter. Under the different conditions of soil and climate
of this great country, it is difficult to give general directions that will ap-
ply everywhere.

The time of sowing will depend much upon the manner in which the
crop is to be handled. Where it is desired to sow the seed on old mead-
ows or pastures without plowing, it will probably be best to scatter it in
winter or early spring. The freezing and thawing have a tendency to
soften the hard coat of the seed, as well as to cover it with earth. As a
field crop, the writer's limited experience would indicate that spring
sowing, with a nurse crop that can be cut early, will be best, though win-
ter seeding on stubble should bring good results.

250 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

There is a great diversity of opinion as to the proper amount of seed
to sow. Where it is used to thicken up meadows or pastures a smaller
amount is needed than where sown as a field crop on newly prepared land.
Some growers say that 4 pounds of good unhulled seed per acre is suffi-
cient to sow on grass lands. As high as 20 pounds of hulled seed per acre
is advocated by some for a field crop. The seed covering is very hard, and,
unless treated, only about half of it will grow the first year. If the seed
is scarified, the hard coat is scratched until it germinates readily, and
much less seed is necessary to secure a stand than otherwise. Ten pounds
of hulled and scarified seed per acre should be sufficient on good land.

It is often difficult to get a stand on old land which is deficient in
lime, for lack of the nitrogen-gathering bacteria that thrive on the roots
of clovers. It is sometimes necessary to treat a small area with a good
coat of manure, and sometimes with crushed lime. After the sweet clover
is growing well on this land the area can be gradually extended.

Utilizing the Crop.

Probably there is no forage crop which will furnish as much pasture
per acre as will sweet clover in its second year of growth. It should be al-
lowed to get a good start in spring before stock is turned in, and the area
should be sufficiently large for the animals thus kept. Cattle, hogs and
horses all eat it with relish after they become familiar with it, and thrive
equally on it. It is a common practice to pasture the crop during the first
part of the second season and then to turn the stock off and harvest a
seed crop. The writer has harvested a very good crop of seed from a lim-
ited area, which was pastured lightly through the entire summer until the
crop was cut. Of course, it is not possible to pasture heavily after mid-
summer, and still secure a good crop of seed.

Sweet clover makes a good quality of hay if cut at the proper time and
well cured. If a seed crop is to be cut, the first crop of the second season
may be cured for hay by cuttting high enough to leave some of the small
branches on the lower part of the stem. If cut too low at this time the
plants will die. Sweet clover hay requires more time to cure properly
than the clovers with small stems, but if piled in small cocks it is little
damaged, even though some rain falls on is. If properly cured it makes a
very good winter feed. When cut for hay it should be mown before it be-
gins to bloom to any extent. When it is about two feet high is the right
time. The first year it may be cut at almost any time the grower finds
convenient.

Some practice sowing sweet clover with early oats, cutting the oats
with a high stubble and later getting a crop of hay.
Saving the Seed.

The seed crop sometimes fails because the plants are too thick on the
ground. They spread or branch widely as they grow, and where they are
too thick the blossoms may drop off without setting a full crop of seed.
Usually best results are obtained where a first crop is cut for hay or is
pastured until mid-summer. The second crop does not grow as high as
the first would do if permitted to seed, thus making it easier to handle.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 251

Seed is obtained only the second year, and if the first growth of that year
is permitted to seed, the plants will die when cut, so that only the one crop
can be obtained.

The seed ripens so iregularly that it is not always easy to tell just
when it should be cut in order to save the largest amount of seed. At
best, much of it will shatter off and be lost, since the first to ripen will
be ready while there is still a large amount of bloom. The most seed will
be secured by cutting when about three-fourths of the seed pods have
turned brown. If cut sooner there will be too many blossoms and imma-
ture seeds; if cut later too much of the ripe seed will shatter in the har-
vesting. Usually enough seeds shatter off to reseed the land. Some grow-
ers have been able to continue the same land in sweet clover for fifteen or
twenty years by sowing two years in succession to begin with. After the
first year a crop of seed will ripen every year.

It is something of a problem to harvest the seed without losing a
large portion of it. The writer has cut a small field with an ordinary
mower when the plants were wet with dew, and immediately raked it
into windrows. This method is hardly to be advised where the seed is to
be hauled to a threshing machine, since more of the seed will be wasted
than where it is bound into bundles. This small field was threshed by
hand with forks. A large sheet of canvas was laid on the ground and the
sweet clover carefully lifted on it, after it was fully dried. By beating
with the forks the seed was readily separated from the stalks.

The ordinary grain binder is generally used for this purpose. Where
much seed is to be harvested, it is necessary to provide some special pans
to catch the seed that shatter off. Corn binders have been used in some
cases.

When threshed with a grain separator, the straw is broken up so
much that it makes a fair forage for wintering cattle or horses. They
will not eat it readily when threshed by hand, since the straw is not broken
up to any extent and the dry stalks are too coarse otherwise.

Those interested in this subject will do well to write to the U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture for Farmer's Bulletins which deal with different
phases of the culture of sweet clover. They give in much greater detail
information that space will not permit here.

SWEET FENNEL (Foeniculum vulgare).

The cultivated fennel from Europe has become naturalized in some
places along the Atlantic Coast in Maryland and Virginia and other East-
ern States. It is often cultivated in gardens in many localities. Lovell lists
it as the source of a light amber honey.

SUMAC (RHUS).

There are about one hundred and twenty species of rhus found in
Asia, South America and North America. There are fourteen species com-
mon to North America. The red or scarlet sumac, shown in Figure 133
(Rhus glabra) is most common, being found from New England west to
Saskatchewan, Colorado and Arizona, and south to Florida and Louisiana.

252

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

This species is a well-known source of nectar and is especially important
in New England.

In Texas, Scholl lists the dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina) as yielding
surplus throughout eastern and south Texas. He also lists green sumac
(Rhus virens) as attracting the bees in west Texas.

In California, Richter lists poison oak (Rhus diversiloba) as yielding
a superior grade of white honey which granulates readily. He also reports
laurel sumac (Rhus laurina) as yielding amber honey of marked odor but
fine flavor.

Fig.

Leaves and berries of red

The poison ivy (Rhus Toxicodendron), common to the Eastern States
from Nova Scotia to Wisconsin and south to Arkansas and Florida, is a
vigorous vine, climbing by means of aerial rootlets. The flowers are in-
conspicuous, but secrete nectar freely. Where sufficiently abundant, sur
plus may be expected from this source.

Some species of sumac may be expected in almost every section of the
country where woodlands are common. Nearly all species seem to be at-
tractive to the bees, although it is only in limited localities that honey in
surplus quantity is reported. The honey is reputed of good quality, with
mild flavor. In the east the honeyflow from sumac is sometimes very rapid
and a liberal quantity of surplus secured, at times as high as 100 pounds
per colony. New honey from this source is somewhat bitter to the taste,

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

253

but this characteristic soon disappears. The blooming period usually
comes in July and lasts for two or three weeks.

The dwarf sumac is a widely distributed species, known is some local-
ities as mountain sumac. It is common in the Gulf States and is the source
of honey in favored localities.

SUNFLOWER (Helianthus).

There are many species of the sunflowers, some of which may be found
from the Atlantic Coast to California, and from Canada to the Gulf.

Fig. 134. Wild sunflowei

(Fig. 134.) They are tall, coarse weeds, with yellow flowers. Large num-
bers of insects of many species may be found on the sunflower blossoms
in search of the nectar. Whenever these plants are sufficiently abundant
they are the source of large quantities of honey. M. H. Mendleson, of
Ventura, California, reports that one year, following a wet winter, he se-
cured a carload of surplus honey from sunflowers, although such yields are
extremely rare in his locality.

254 AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

The cultivated sunflowers are of little if any value for honey, but pro-
duce seed in large quantity, which is valued as poultry food. The Jerusa-
lem artichoke is a variety of sunflower grown for the tubers. A variety
of this plant grows wild in the upper Mississippi Valley States, where it
is regarded as a bad weed. It is frequently reported as a good honey
plant.

Many of the wild sunflowers are perennials, persisting for many years
when once established. They are commonly to be found along wagon
roads, railroads and other waste places. The honey is amber in color and
strong in flavor.

SUPPLE JACK, see Rattan Vine.
SWEET BAY, see Magnolia.
SWAMP LAUREL, see Magnolia.
SWEET PEPPERBUSH, see Pepperbush.
SYMPHORICARPOS, see Indian Currant.

TOCALOTE, see Star Thistle.
TANGLEFOOT, see Aster, also Wild Alfalfa.
TARAXACUM, see Dandelion.

TARWEED (Hemizonia)

There are about eight species of hemizonia or tarweeds in California.
(Fig. 135.) Of these Richter lists three as sources of honey and indicates
that others may also be of importance. The tarweed (Hemizonia fasci-
culata) is reported as common over a large part of southern California,
except on the desert, and north to San Francisco. The blooming period
is given from June to August and the honey is said to be dark amber with
strong aroma. He states that it is an excellent producer, especially along
the coast from Santa Barbara to San Diego, and that the honey is largely
used in the manufacture of chewing tobacco and shoe blacking.

The yellow tarweed (Hemizonia virgata) is said to be common in the
interior valleys and to be a "heavy and consistent yielder, beginning in
August and lasting for about twenty clays, according to Mr. B. B. Hoga-
boom of Elk Grove." The honey is stated to be of light yellow color,
good flavor and heavy body.

The coast tarweed (Hemizonia corymbosa) is reported as yielding
some honey, but not nearly as much as the foregoing species.

In Fresno County tarweed, known as yellow-tops, is stated to bloom
from April to June and to yield an occasional surplus. The name vinegar
weed is sometimes applied to tarweed in the San Joaquin Valley. — Honey
Plants of California.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

255

TEASEL (Dipsacus fullonum). FULLER'S TEASEL.

Fuller's teasel is a European plant which was for a time cultivated in
this country for the heads of stiff chaff with hooked points, used for rais-
ing the nap upon woolen cloth. Although no longer mentioned as a culti-
vated plant, it has escaped from cultivation and persists as a weed in
some places.

V '%

"*\

Pr^H

1^ * *' {-*

h, .* . *

♦

**' ' ^^K

'4 ,

^v\!u*

' ^ >-

* ¥"

Fig. 135. Tarweed blossoms.
During the time when it was generally cultivated in some parts of
New York, the late G. M. Doolittle secured more than $1,000 per year from
less than 100 colonies, credited with being largely from teasel. (American
Bee Journal, July 21, 1886.) The high price of teasel in the market led to
a great boom for a few years. A beekeeper writing in the American Bee
Journal in 1878 stated that the honey-yielding qualities of teasel were
equal to basswood. He described the flavor of the honey as excellent, the
color white and transparent. Reports of carloads of teasel honey shipped
to Thurber & Co., are referred to and the statement made that it is one of
the greatest honey-producing plants in existence.

In the same Journal (Aug. 18, 1886), G. M. Doolittle writes a long arti-
cle giving the history and cultivation of the plant. From this article the
following extracts are taken:

"Bees work on teasel all hours of the day, and no matter how well
basswood may yield honey, a few bees will be found at work on teasel.
A bee that works on teasel is readily distinguished from those that
work on basswood, by the abdomen being covered with a white dust.
Black and hybrid bees work on it in larger proportion than the Ital-
ians."
17

256

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

"The honey from teasel is very thin and white, in fact the whitest
honey I ever saw; but it is not of as good flavor as either clover or
basswood. This thinness of the nectar, and its coming just when bass
wood does is the great drawback to it. From careful tests I should
say that it would take about four bee-loads of it to be equal to one
bee-load of nectar gathered from basswood. Coming as it does with
basswood, makes it of no great advantage, except that it usually lasts
six to ten days after basswood is gone.

'Again, my bees have to fly two to ten miles to get this nectar,
as I am on the southern edge of the teasel belt. According to those
who believe bees fly only \ l / 2 to 2 miles for honey, I should not get any-
thing from teasel. I have repeatedly seen my bees flying to and from
the teasel fields from our church door, which is 2 l / 2 miles from my
apiary in line with the fields.

"As to what proportion of my honey has come from teasel the
past fifteen years, I should say about one-tenth; some years more and
some years not a single pound. In 1877 I got the largest crop, while
from 1878 to 1884 little if any was obtained."

TENDRIL-BEARING SMARTWEED, see Brunnichia.

TENNESSEE— Honey Flora of.

From a special circular sent to the largest beekeepers of the State,

asking them to give the names of the chief nectar-producing flowers of

their section, the following was gained. The list given below is arranged
in order of importance in the estimation of these practical beekeepers:

White clover. Huckleberry.

Poplar. Whortleberry.

Linden or basswood. Elm.

Sourwood. Yellow-wood.

Aster. Daisy fleabane.

Black locust. Heartsease.

Chestnut. Cane.

Goldenrod. Crowfoot moss.

Stickweed. Willows.

Red Clover. Bitterweed.

Persimmon. Turnip.

Alsike clover. Dandelion.

Cowpeas Strawberry.

Tanglefoot (aster). Pea wood.

Sumac. Cottonwood.

Maple. Cedar.

Black gum. Blackberry.

Alfalfa. Catnip.

Melilotus. Fruit berries.

Cotton. Aspen.

Corn. Raspberry.

Wireweed. Oak.

Boneset. Spanish needle.
Buckbrush.
— G. M. Bentley, Tennessee Board of Entomology, Bulletin No. 9.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

257

TEUCRIUM, see Germander.

TEXAN EBONY (Siderocarpos flexicaulis).

Texan ebony is a beautiful shrub or small tree common to the Rio
Grande Valley in Texas and abundant in northern Mexico. In the vicinity
of Brownsville it is regarded as a valuable source of nectar, blooming two
or three times during the year. The tree only blooms two or three days, so
the flow is short, usually not exceeding a week, as the difference in bloom-
ing time between different trees is not great. The honey is of fine quality
and light in color. In some localities beekeepers report that the flow only
lasts about two days, but is heavy for this short period. Rains bring it
into bloom, and in seasons when rains are frequent, it blooms several
times.

rig.

136. A clump of southwest Texas honey plants: agarita, mesquite, blackberry, brazil-
wood, anaqua, prickly pear and huisache, all growing together near Goliad.

TEXAS— Honey Sources of.

Texas is a very large State, with a great diversity of soil and climatic
conditions. In order to appreciate its vast extent, one needs to study the
map and note something of the variety of climate represented within her
borders. Orange, Texas, is very nearly south of Des Moines, Iowa, while
El Paso is further west than Denver, Colorado. The northern line is near
to southern Kansas, while Brownsville is a long distance south of San
Diego, California. One might describe almost any condition of soil and
climate with which he is familiar in any part of the United States and say

258 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

with truth that it is like Texas, for almost every condition of soil or
climate of the rest of the country is to be found somewhere in Texas.
The climate ranges from a winter temperature of 20 degrees below zero in
the Panhandle, to an almost frostless condition in the Lower Rio Grande
Valley. In east Texas there is a heavy rainfall, with a consequent luxuri-
ant vegetation, while in parts of west Texas one finds a desert flora and
little rain. At one point which the author once visited he was told there
had been no rain for eighteen months and the very dry and dead condition
cf everything, even the cactus, indicated that it was true.

Texas seems to be divided into about five natural beekeeping divisions.
Each of these has a flora and conditions peculiar to itself, though, of
course, there is a gradual merging of these natural divisions. The lower
Rio Grande Valley is the southernmost section of the United States, ex-
cept the extreme tip of Florida. Here we find conditions unlike any other
part of Texas. There is a great variety of honey plants, with a light flow
almost continuously, but no heavy honey flows. This condition favors the
continuous breeding of bees and the consumption of the honey gathered in
brood rearing. It is the most favorable situation in America for the rear-
ing of queens and bees, but a poor place for honey production, since the
average surplus per colony seldom exceeds twenty-five pounds. .

In this section bees swarm as late as December and gather sufficient
nectar to carry them through the brief period when vegetation is dormant.
The huisache and catsclaw bloom in February and March. Hackberry also
begins to yield in February. From February till December there are but
short periods without some nectar coming from the field. Brazilwood,
horsemint, Texan ebony, blackbrush, privet, coma, mesquite, whitebrush,
and many others, yield light flows of nectar.

The Arid Region

The escarpment running east and west between San Antonio and New
Braunfels marks a very definite boundary to the belt where cotton is the
principal source of surplus honey. South of the escarpment and extending
to the valley of the Rio Grande, we have the mesquite region. A line
drawn in a southeasterly direction from San Antonio, through Cuera and
Victoria to the Gulf, would mark the approximate eastern boundary of
this region. Figure 136 shows a characteristic group of honey plants of
southwest Texas. Agarita (barberry), mesquite, hackberry, Mexican per-
simmon, brazilwood, anaqua, prickly pear and huisache, all valuable plants
to the beekeeper, are growing together. There are very characteristic
plants for this region. Most of the honey comes from thorny shrubs, in-
cluding catsclaw, huajillo (pronounced wa-he-ya), etc. This belt extends
westward for a long distance and includes the famous Uvalde County, from
which hundreds of cars of fine honey from catsclaw and huajillo have been
shipped.

The Cotton Region.

North of the escarpment already mentioned we find the cotton belt
extending north to Oklahoma and including the black, waxy lands and
other heavy soils. Figure 46, in connection with the article on cotton,

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 259

shows an outline map roughly indicating the different honey regions of
the State. Within this particular area, we find the highest development
of agriculture in Texas. The soil is rich and the climate mild. Cotton,
corn, alfalfa, small grains and truck crops are all profitably grown.
Mesquite is an important source of nectar in the cotton belt, as is also
horsemint, and in the northern portion, sweet clover. Broomweed is also
important, some seasons.

East Texas.

In the timbered regions of east Texas there is some splendid beekeep-
ing territory unoccupied. There is a variety of flora to be equalled in few
sections, and remarkable yields of honey are reported. On heavy soils
cotton yields freely. Basswood, rattan, huckleberry, partridge pea, horse-
mint, bitterweed and cowpeas are all reported as sources of surplus honey
in this section. Beekeepers of extensive experience report that one can
depend upon an average of more than one hundred pounds per colony per
year for a ten-year period.

Although the average yield is much higher and the flows are much
more dependable than in other parts of Texas, the business of beekeeping
is less highly specialized here than in other parts of the State. This is
probably due to the fact that general agriculture is profitable and public
attention has not been called to the possibilities of this section.

THIMBLEBERRY, see Raspberry; also Salmon Berry.
THORN APPLE, see Hawthorne.
THOROUGHWORT, see Boneset.

THYME (Thymus).

Thyme is an introduced plant from Europe which is sometimes culti-
vated in gardens and occurs occasionally as an escape. There are two
species listed in this country Thymus vulgaris, the source of the famed
honey from Mt. Hymettus, and Thymus serphyllum, the wild or creeping
thyme.

According to J. E. Crane, thyme is found in southwestern Vermont in
sufficient abundance to make excellent pasture for the bees during August.
There is an occasional report from some beekeeper who finds the bees
much attracted to the plant, but as yet no reports of surplus honey worthy
cf mention have been received.

TIEVINE, see Morning Glory.
TISSWOOD, see Red Bay.

TI-TI.

The leatherwood or black ti-ti (Cyrilla racemiflora) is a shrub with
shining leaves and large numbers of small flowers in clusters. It occurs in
swamps from southern Virginia to Florida and west to Louisiana and
Texas. In Alabama and Mississippi it occurs from the Central Pine Belt
to the Coast Plain, in the edges of swamps and along streams. It is also

260 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

known as white ti-ti, ironwood and red ti-ti. It sometimes reaches the
height of 20 to 30 feet, becoming a small tree, though usually it is found as
a shrub. The thin bark breaks up into large scales.

The bloom opens in June and July and is not regarded as a very de-
pendable source of nectar. The honey is dark, with a mild flavor.

The ti-ti (Cliftonia monophylla), sometimes called buckwheat-tree or
ironwood, also known as black ti-ti, occurs in wet, sandy soil and swamps
from South Carolina to Florida and west to Louisiana. It is an attractive
tree, often reaching a height of 30 to 40 feet. This shrub or tree, as the
case may be, often grows in dense thickets called ti-ti swamps. The flow-
ers are white and fragrant and appear in late February to April. There are
large areas of ti-ti swamp in Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, which
furnish abundant bee pasture. According to Baldwin, it yields surplus
honey in the extreme northwest portion of west Florida. He describes the
honey as red, strong, and suitable mostly for baking purposes. (Gleanings,
March 15, 1911.)

Ti-ti is of more or less value as a source of nectar in the swampy dis-
tricts of all the Southeastern States from South Carolina to Louisiana.
The honey is not of the best quality, nor is the yield generally heavy.

TOBACCO (Nicotiana tabacum).

The tobacco plant is a coarse annual. It is grown as a field crop in
the South and also in a few northern localities, especially in Wisconsin
and Connecticut. As a honey plant it is probably seldom important. The
fact that the plants are usually cut in advance of the time when the bloom
is at its best, would make it unavailable, for the most part, as a source of
nectar.

"We are in a location 'where hundreds of acres of tobacco are
raised every year. I have taken bees and placed them near the fields
and they will store some honey from the plant some years. It is very
dark, much like buckwheat in color, strong and very heavy body. Buck-
wheat is not my favorite honey, but I can eat it. Tobacco honey I
cannot. It is very slow to granulate, and I have never seen it harden
as other honey will, even when well ripened and two years old." — W.
K. Rockwell, Bloomfield, Conn. American Bee Journal, page 63, 1919.

"Tobacco yields a heavy flow under certain conditions in Porto
Rico." — Henry Brenner, in American Bee Journal, page 381. 1916.

"Tobacco in this section has always been raised in the open field
and, when about 4 feet high, each plant has been 'topped' and not al-
lowed to go to seed. * * * It is now being picked in the field in-
stead of being cut by the old method. The plant is allowed to grow
from 7 to 10 feet high and goes to seed. The leaves are saved by
picking, this work commencing at the bottom, one row of leaves being
gathered at a time, and the top leaves picked last. The plants are thus
allowed to blossom, each one bearing hundreds of flowers, and they
continue to bloom from August 1 till frost. Thus we have thrown open
to our bees hundreds of acres of tobacco, containing myriads of flow-
ers.. The bees swarm on it, some days more than others, and the honey
comes in as fast as during the earlier flows." — E. H. Shattuck, Granby,
Conn. Gleanings, page 268. 1911.

TOLLON BERRY, see Christmas Berry.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 261

TOOTHACHE-TREE, see Prickly Ash.
TOY-ON BERRY, see Christmas Berry.
TRAILING ARBUTUS, see Arbutus.
TREE HUCKLEBERRY, see Farkle-Berry.
TREE OF HEAVEN, see Varnish Tree.

TREE CLOVER, TREE ALFALFA or TAGASASTE (Cytisus proliferus
alba).

The tree alfalfa, or white broom, is grown to some extent in California.

In Australia it is regarded as important, as the following extract from

Raynunt (Money in Bees in Australasia), will show:

"This rapid-growing hedge plant is now widely known as a grand
honey yielder. As a wind break for the apiary it is unrivaled. The
white blossoms burst the sheaves early in spring, almost before the
winter has departed. Bees work upon it during a shower, as the droop-
ing habit of the flowers prevents the nectar washing out with the rain.
The pollen is cadmium in color and the honey very pale and clear,
rather thin and of mild flavor. To make a close hedge it should be se-
verely cut back. Unfortunately, the sheep and cattle, also the kan-
garoos are fond of it and keep it eaten back."
It is native to the Canary Islands and adjacent regions. As it thrives

in California, it is promising for trial in the warmer parts of America.

TRILLIUM.

One of the first spring flowers, the trillium, of which there are several
species, is attractive to the bees. It is commonly known by the name of.
wake robin, or birthroot. As it blooms so early, it is seldom that the bees
find many good days for flying, and such early spring flowers can never be
regarded as important except for the purpose of stimulating brood rearing.

TROPICAL LILAC (Duranta plumiere). GOLDEN DEWDROP.

The tropical lilac is a hedge plant cultivated in Florida and California
and other southern localities. W. K. Morrison lists it in Gleanings (Aug.
1, 1905), as extremely attractive to the bees and as blooming for some time.
Probably not sufficiently abundant in America to be important anywhere.

TRUMPET WEED, see Boneset.

TULIP-POPLAR or TULIP TREE (Liriodendron tulipifera).

The tulip-tree, also known as yellow poplar, is a very large tree, often
growing to a height of 100 to 140 feet, and a diameter of 6 to 9 feet. It is
found from southern New England west to southern Michigan and south
to the Gulf States, east of the Mississippi. It is also found to a limited
extent in southeastern Missouri and eastern Arkansas. It blooms in April
and May and produces a light amber honey of good flavor.

According to Buchanan, the honey yield from this source is heavy and
the tree is an important addition to the nectar-secreting flora of Tennes-
see and nearby States. The showy flowers are shown at Figure 137.

The possibilities of this source of nectar are not properly appreciated.

262

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Since it blooms so early in spring, few colonies of bees ar e sufficiently
strong to gather the crop possible from tulip-poplar. The skilled bee-
keeper, who can bring his colonies through the winter in good condition,
gets large yields of honey from this source. In the vicinity of Washing-

Fig. 137. Blossoms of tulip-poplar

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 263

ton, D. C, it is the principal source of surplus, and strong colonies often
store an average of 100 pounds. In 'many cases the bees build up on tulip-
poplar only to become strong after the flow is over. In locations where
this tree is common, too much care cannot be taken to get strong colonies
early in spring to take advantage of this flow.

TUPELO-GUM (Nyssa).

There are four species of the tupelo-gum trees, which should not be
confused with the gums of the Pacific Coast, which are eucalyptus (See
Eucalyptus). The tupelo-gum, or cotton-gum (Nyssa aquatica) (Fig. 138),
is a very large tree common to the swamps from southeastern Missouri
and southern Illinois east to Virginia and south to Florida and Texas. It
grows to a height of more than 100 feet and yields enormous quantities of
nectar.

The pepperidge, or highland black-gum (Nyssa sylvatica) sometimes
called sour-gum, yellow-gum, tupelo, or stinkwood, grows in moist upland
woods from Ontario and New England to Michigan and south to Florida
and Texas. It reaches a height of 150 feet and a diameter of four feet,
under favorable conditions.

The water-gum, or Southern black-gum (Nyssa biflora), also called
water tupelo, has a swollen base and, when growing in the water, pro-
duces erect roots which rise to the surface. It is found from North Caro-
lina to Florida and west to eastern Texas. It is sometimes regarded as a
variety of the pepperidge or black-gum.

The ogeche plum or wild lime-tree (Nyssa Ogeche), called white tupelo,
is much smaller than the other gum-trees, growing to a height of forty to
sixty feet. It is common to the swamps of Georgia, Florida and South
Carolina.

The first named species is very common in the swamps of Alabama
and Florida, where it often grows with the bald cypress on the banks of
the Alabama, Tombigbee and Appalachicola Rivers. A. B. Marchant aver-
aged 82 pounds of surplus honey per colony from tupelo for a seventeen-
year period on the Appalachicola River in Florida. During part of this time
he kept as many as 500 colonies to the yard. In 1904, he took 250 thirty-
gallon barrels from 750 colonies, an average of about 120 pounds per colony.

The tupelos are the source of much honey in Arkansas, east Texas and
other Southern States, as well as in Alabama and Florida. Beekeepers
complain that in many of the best tupelo locations there is a shortage of
summer pollen, so that it becomes necessary to move the bees away when
the tupelo flow is over.

The tupelo honey is of good quality, and, when unmixed, will not
granulate. Bottlers like to use tupelo honey for blending with other grades
to retard granulation. It is good body and mild flavor, and finds a ready
sale at better prices than most southern honey brings.

TURKEY MULLEIN (Eremocarpus setigerus).

The turkey mullein is also known as coyote weed, wooly white drought
weed, and yerba del pescado. The latter, according to Jepson, is the Spa-

264

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

nish-Californian name, derived from the custom of the Indians to use the
heavy-scented herbage of this plant to stupefy fish in small streams, to
catch them by hand. He gives the range as dry open areas from the plains
or the Sacramento and San Toaquin, Sierra Nevada foothills to the low

Fig. 138. Blossoms of the tupelo gum.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 265

hills and valley fields of the Coast Ranges. It grows mostly in stubble
fields following the grain harvests, contesting for survival with the blue
curls.

From Western Honeybee we quote as follows:

rora Western Honeybee we quote as toiiows :

"Turkey mullein is a different appearing plant (from blue curls),
at grows under exactly similar conditions. Its insignificant pale
reen or white flowers yield a thick amber honey, of biting, astringent
,.avor, often in considerable quantities.

"I have known a beekeeper in San Diego County to market eight
tons of this honey. It is fit only for manufacturing purposes. The
foliage of turkey mullein is white, wooly, and exhales a pungent odor."
October. 1914.

TURNIP (Brassica).

Where turnips are grown for seed in large acreage, surplus honey may
be expected from this source. The late J. S. Harbison said of them:

"Turnip blossoms are eagerly sought by the bees, and afford so rich
pasturage during March and April as to make it a profitable crop, if
but for this purpose alone." — Beekeeper's Directory.

TURPENTINE WEED, see Blue Curls.

ULEX, see Gorse.

UMBRELLA TREE, see Wild China.

UTAH — Honey Sources of.

Most of the surplus honey which goes to market from Utah is from
sweet clover and alfalfa. Salmon-berry, clover, dandelion, willows and the
desert flowers add something to the output of the apiary.

VACCINIUM, see Blueberry.

VARNISH TREE or TREE OF HEAVEN (Ailanthus glandulosa).

This tree is met by a great variety of names, varnish tree, tree of
heaven and Chinese sumac being common. The tree is a native of China
and has been extensively cultivated as a shade tree in America. It spreads
easily and is quite generally naturalized. Scholl lists it as a source of
honey and pollen in Texas. Richter regards it as a wonderful yielder in
California, where it produces an abundance of ill-tasting honey. It is re-
ported as a honey producer in Georgia and is to be found in many States
from east to west in greater or less abundance. The disagreeable odor

266 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

of the staminate flowers is a 'well-known characteristic of the tree. In
appearance it looks much like a very large sumac.

In the vicinity of Paris, France, the ailanthus, also called ailanthe,
yields honey which must be removed before other honeys are harvested,
as it spoils the taste of the honey of other plants.

VERBENA, see Vervain.

VERMONT— Honey Sources of.

The willows furnish first nectar in Vermont. Fruit blossoms, dande-
lions and maples also furnish nectar in abundance in early spring. White
and alsike clover, together with goldenrod, furnish the principal surplus
honey. Sumac, laurel, asters and less important plants also furnish some
honey.
VERNONIA, see Ironweed.

VERVAIN (Verbena).

There are about 16 species of verbenas in North America, and several
of them are widely distributed. Figure 139 shows the blue vervain (Ver-

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

267

bena hastata), which is found from Nova Scotia to Quebec and Manitoba,
south to Arkansas, New Mexico and California, and on the east, south to
Georgia. This particular species is usually found in low lands, along
streams, etc. Richter, in his "Honey Plants of California," mentions an-
other species, Verbena prostrata, as yielding considerable honey in some
localities in that State. In Iowa the hoary vervain (Verbena stricta), is
very common in upland pastures, especially over the north half of the
State, and reports of surplus honey from this source are not uncommon.

Mr. Scholl reports Verbena xutha as yielding sparingly in Texas.
While in the main the vervains can hardly be regarded as important honey
plants, in limited localities some species are very valuable sources of nec-
tar. Mr. S. W. Snyder, former Secretary of the Iowa Beekeepers' Asso-
siation, reports the blue vervain as quite valuable in his locality, some
years furnishing a surplus.

VERVENIA, see Phacelia.

Fig. 140. Virginia creeper, or American ivy.

VETCH (Vicia).

There are about a dozen species of vetch native to America and two
or three varieties widely cultivated for forage. They yield some honey,
and there are reports from beekeepers to the effect that their bees work
upon vetch freely. However, ther is little to indicate that they are an im-
portant source of nectar. Richter lists spring vetch as a source of honey,

268

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

but does not indicate that it yields surplus in California, where it is grown
as a cover crop. Some species have extra-floral nectaries.

Some of the group are regarded as good honey plants in Europe.

VINEGAR-WEED, see Blue Curls, also Tarweed

VINE MAPLE (Acer circinatum).

Vine maple is common on the Pacific Coast from Humboldt County,
California, north to Washington. There are numerous reports of vine
maple as an abundant source of early nectar in Oregon and Washington.
The honey is amber and of excellent quality, but it blooms so early (April)
that the bees are usually not in condition to store much surplus. (See
Maple). In exceptional seasons as high as SO pounds of surplus have been
gathered by a single colony from vine maple.

Fig. 141. Blossoms and leaf of Virginia waterleaf.

VINE MILKWEED (Enslenia alblda).

The vine milkweed is a smooth perennial climbing herb, with small
whitish flowers. It is common along streams from southern Pennsyl-
vania and the Ohio Valley south to north Georgia and west to Texas.

It is reported as a good honey plant in the vicinity of Buffalo, Texas.
H. B. Parks states that it is a valuable bee plant, if sufficiently common.

VIPER'S BUGLOSS, see Blueweed.

VIRGINIA— Honey Sources of.

Willows, fruit blossoms, red-bud and maples furnish early nectar and

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

269

pollen. These are followed by dandelion, which is abundant. Persimmon,
clover, locust, chinquapin, tulip-poplar, holly, laurel, basswood, tupelo and
asters are sources of later nectar. Sourwood is found in some sections
and produces an abundance of the finest honey.

VIRGIN'S BOWER, see Clematis.

42. Masses of Virginia Waterleaf in the authi

ild garden at Atlantic low;

VIRGINIA CREEPER (Parthenocissus quinquefolia).

The Virginia creeper, also known as American ivy or woodbine, is a
common climbing vine in thickets and woods from New England to Que-
bec and Manitoba, Dakota and Colorado and south to the Gulf from
Florida to western Texas.

While the bees seek it eagerly at times and the vines fairly hum with
them, it can hardly be regarded as of importance to the beekeeper.

This plant is often confused with poison ivy, but the two plants can
easily be distinguished by the difference in habit of growth, and by the
five leaflets in the creeper, as shown in Figure 140, while the poison ivy
has only three leaflets to each leaf.

VIRGINIA WATERLEAF (Hydrophyllum vlrginicum).

The Virginia waterleaf does not bloom until after the fruit blossoms
are gone, and so has less competition for attention than some other plants
that come into bloom during the same period. It blooms abundantly and

270 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

grows luxuriantly in moist woods. The bees have been so eager for the
blossoms of this plant in the writer's wild garden and in the surrounding
woods for several years past, that he has come to regard it is quite a
valuable honey plant, although nowhere so listed as far as can be learned.
Figure 141 shows the blossom and leaf of this plant, while Figure 142
shows masses of the plants in bloom. Apiaries in the vicinity of wood-
lands should find this plant of considerable value, judging from the writ-
er's limited observation.

VITEX NEGUNDO INCISA.

A plant of recent introduction by the Bureau of Plant Industry. De-
scribed as follows by Frank N. Meyer, explorer, who found it at Shantung,
China:

"A sage which may prove to be a good plant for the arid South-
western States. It is able to resist alkali remarkably well. The
Chinese use it for basketry manufacture, taking the annual shoots for
this purpose. It has pretty blue flowers and is diligently visited by all
kinds of bees, and as such it might be grown in gardens as a semi-
ornamental shrub. It grows, when left alone, up to 20 feet tall."
Specimens tested by the author in Iowa, which were mere whips about
20 inches tall, began bloooming the same season, the last week in July,
and had not entirely faded on September 10. The bees sought it eagerly
and apparently, if abundant, it would be a valuable honey plant.

WA-HE-YA (Huajillo), see Acacia.
WAHOO, see Hop-Tree.
WAKEROBIN, see Trillium. _

WALNUT (Juglans).

The black walnut is a well-known forest tree in the eastern United
States. Its usual range is from Ontario and New England west to Ne-
braska, and south to Florida and Texas. The wood is very valuable for
the manufacture of gunstocks, furniture, etc., and is becoming somewhat
scarce. The tree leaves out later than most forest trees, not developing
its foliage until May or June. Figure 143 shows the pollen-bearing blos-
soms. These blossoms are long catkins borne on the wood of the preced-
ing year. The blossoms appear before the leaves. Quantities of pollen
are produced, and, at times, the bees seek the trees in such numbers as to
make a continuous roar. The walnut blooms after the maples and wil-
lows, and is not as valuable as earlier blooming trees, because it comes at
about the same time that the dandelions are in bloom. May is the month
of blossoming in most northern localities.

The white walnuts or butternuts of the Eastern States, and the Eng-
lish walnuts, Japaneses walnuts and California walnuts grown in the
warmer parts of the country, especially in California, are relatives of the
black walnut, and probably equally valuable for pollen.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

271

WASHINGTON— Honey Sources of.

Alfalfa, sweet clover. Sweet clover is quite generally distributed over
all irrigated alfalfa districts. The Yakima Valley is the largest of these
districts and supports at least 25,000 colonies. If it were not for spray
poison this district could support SO per cent more. Sweet clover is being
introduced in many other sections of the State, Spokane County, for ex-
ample. New irrigation projects will increase the beekeeping area con-
siderably in many sections of the arid portion of this State.

Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium). This plant is second only to the
above as a honey plant. It is found in great abundance on all burned-
over land west of the Cascade Mountains. It is also found in more or
less abundance on burned sections on the east side. Due to the fact that
there is much less rainfall it is not as reliable as a source of nectar as it
is on the west side of the State.

White clover is important on old cleared off land on west side. Also

important in Stevens, Pend 'Oreille, Klickitat, Spokane and Whitman
Counties. Of minor importance in most other counties.

Alsike clover. Important in a few localities on the west side and in
the northeast part of the State, where conditions are favorable.

Vine maple (A. circinatum). Very abundant on the west coast from
about King County south. A good yielder of an excellent amber honey.
Blooms so early, about April, that few colonies are in a condition to store
much surplus.

Oregon maple (A. macrophyllum). An important honey plant on the
18

272 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

west side, from about King County south.

Dwarf maple (A. glabrum)._ In most timbered sections of the State.
Honey value unknown.

Willow. Willows are abundant in almost every locality and are of
great value for spring feeding.

Chittam (Cascara sagrada). Abundant in most sections of the west
side and reported to be an important honey plant. It is being killed off in
many sections, due to the harvesting of the bark for medicinal use.

Locust. Locust has been planted extensively in many of the irrigated
sections of the State, where it furnishes an abundance of nectar at a time
when it is badly needed by the bees. A surplus is gathered in many sec-
tions of Walla Walla County. A water-white honey of excellent flavor.

Dandelion. Abundant in all sections where there is sufficient moisture.
As in most sections of the country, it is of great importance.

Cat's ear (Hypochaeris radicata). Sometimes called California dande-
lion. Abundant west of Cascades. Supplies considerable nectar of amber
color. In many sections it darkens the fireweed honey, and for that rea-
son beekeepers like to avoid it, if possible.

Goldenrod. Abundant in all sections of the State where there is suf-
ficient moisture. There are a number of species, but the writer has never
seen a bee working on it in this State. This is due, in most cases, doubt-
less, to the fact that more desirable nectar is available.

Gum-weeds (Grindelia). Present in most parts of the State. Doubt-
less of some value.

Mustard. Important on west side in some localities.

Snowberry (Symphoricarpos racemosus) and other species. Also
called buck-brush, wax berry, wolf berry. Abundant on the west side and
in the northeast part of the State. Common in many parts. Seems to
yield well where abundant. Quality of honey unknown.

Milkweed (Asclepias). Two species are found on the east side. Neither
has been seen on the west side, and is not reported as occurring there by
Piper and Beattie.

Dewberry (Rubus macropetalus). Abundant in logged-off sections. Of
considerable importance as a honey plant.

Alder (A. oregona and A. sinuata). Common on the west side in par-
ticular, especially the former.

Madrona (Arbutus menziesii). Common all over the west side, except
in heavy timber. Supplies nectar, but importance unknown.

Helianthus. Two species occur. A small, early species, not deter-
mined; has been reported as important on the east side, where it grows
with little moisture. The species is doubtless H. annuus, which is the only
one listed by Piper and Beattie. The other species is doubtless an intro-
duced species from the east.

Indian hemp (Apocynum pemilum). Northeastern Washington. Im-
portant minor plant.

Phacelia (P. heterophylla) was found abundant in Kittitas County,
where it was yielding considerable nectar. Reported that the honey is
amber. P. tanacetifolia has been introduced into northern Idaho at Coeur

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 273

d'Alene in a very limited way, where it yields considerable nectar, con-
sidering its abundance.

Horehound and catnip. Both plants are found in considerable abund-
ance in all parts of the State where there is sufficient moisture. Both
seem to yield considerable nectar.

Huckleberry. Several species of huckleberries are found in the State
and are very abundant in many sections, as, for example, Mason County.
They have been reported as honey plants, but their relative value is un-
known. — H. A. Scullen.

WATER-GUM, see Tupelo.

WATERMELON (Citrullus citrullus).

Where grown on a commercial scale the watermelon is the source
of some honey. The bees visit the blossoms eagerly for both pollen and
nectar. Important only in a few localities.

WATER PEPPER, see Heartsease.

WATERWEED (Jussiaea californica).

The California waterweed is common to wet lands in the lower Sacra-
mento and San Joaquin Valleys, where, according to Richter, it is the
source of considerable ill-tasting honey.

WATTLE, see Acacia.
WAXBERRY, see Snowberry.

WEATHER AND HONEY PRODUCTION.

It is a well-known fact that nectar secretion is very sensitive to
weather conditions. However, the same conditions are not most favorable
for all plants.

J. L. Strong, a beekeeper of Clarinda, Iowa, kept a careful record of
weather conditions in connection with the daily gain or loss of a colony
en scales for 29 years, from 1885 to 1914. In his locality, in southwestern
Iowa, white clover is the principal source of honey. While the bees begin
the season with the willows, maples, fruit bloom and dandelion, there is
little surplus stored until the blooming of clover. Leslie A. Kenoyer, of
the Iowa College of Agriculture, made a careful study of the Strong rec-
ords and prepared a bulletin outlining his conclusions. While the records
kept by Mr. Strong for a long period give material for fairly accurate
conclusions regarding the effect of the weather on nectar secretion in
white clover, it can hardly be expected that the same conclusions will ap-
ply to all other plants. (Bulletin 169, Agricultural Experiment Station,
Ames, Iowa.) From the foregoing the following conclusions are extracted:

Rain.

Abundant rain seems essential to stimulate plants to the vigor neces-
sary to nectar production and to furnish the water contained in the se-
cretion.

274 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Some honey years are poor because of excessive rain. In June, 1902,
there was 11.64 inches of rainfall. June, 1911 represents the opposite ex-
treme, with .76 inch, and was also poor. Abundant rain in advance of the
hcneyflow is of great importance, particularly in the month of May. When
there is 5 inches or more of rain in May an abundant honey harvest sel-
dom fails.

It is also shown that a heavy fall of snow during the previous winter
tends to favor a good yield of honey. The abundance of snow provides
both available moisture and protection to the clover plants during the cold
months.

A rainy day is, of course, unequal to a clear one for honey production,
and the fact is shown that best yields are gathered on the days just pre-
ceding and following the rains. A gradual increase in honey stored is ap-
parent each day following a rain, until the fourth day, when it begins
gradually to decline.

Wind.

An average of results for 200 days -shows that south winds are slightly
more favorable, probably due to the warmer and clearer weather. East
winds are shown to be somewhat unfavorable, probably due to the clouds
and rains which frequently accompany them. (This does not apply every-
where.)

Temperature.

It is generally recognized among beekeepers that hot weather is most
favorable for nectar secretion. The above records . show that the hot
months do yield better than the cooler ones, this being especially notice-
able in the months of May and September, which are often too cool in
Iowa for best production. It was found that little honey was stored at a
temperature below 70 degrees and that 90 per cent of the entire amount
gathered was at temperatures between 80 and 100 degrees. Days attaining
a maximum between 80 and 90 degrees are the best yielding days, being
slightly better than those with higher temperaturees. A variation in the
temperature seems to favor nectar secretion. Mr. Kenoyer was able to
show experimentally that low temperatures favor the accumulation of
nectar. Days, then, with a wide range of temperature favored the bees.

A cold winter previous to the honeyflow cannot be said to be benefi-
cial, yet it is shown that it is not detrimental. A warm March, however,
often favors a good season. This is explained as due to the favorable
conditions for building up the colonies of bees in spring as well as to the
increased vigor of the clover plants through lack of severe weather at the
start of the growing season.

Kenoyer's Conclusions.

"Mr. Kenoyer concludes that, 1, June yields 56 per cent of the an-
nual hive increase in honey, with about half the remainder gathered
in July. 2. A large June increase indicates a good year. 3. There is
an evident alternation between good and poor years. 4. A good year
has a rainfall slightly above the average, the honey season being pre-

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 275

ceded by an autumn, winter and spring with more than the average
precipitation. 5. A rainy May scarcely fails to precede a good honey
season. 6. South wind seems favorable and east wind unfavorable. 7.
The yield shows a gradual depression preceding and a gradual increase
until about the fourth day following a rainy day, after which it re-
mains fairly constant until about the fourteenth day following a rain.
8. Good honey months average slightly higher in temperature than
poor, this being especially true of the spring and fall months. 9. Clear
days are favorable to the production of honey. 10. Yield is best on
days having a maximum temperature of 80 to 90 degrees. 11. A wide
daily range of temperature is favorable for a good yield. 12. A low
barometer is favorable for a good yield. 13. The fluctuations in the
yield for a producing period seem to be closely correlated to the
temperature range and the barometric pressure, acting jointly. 14. A
cold winter has no detrimental effect on the yield of the succeeding
season, but a cold March reduces it. IS. A winter of heavy snowfall
is, in the great majority of cases, followed by a larger honey yield.

WEST VIRGINIA— Honey Sources of.

Willows, pollen and some nectar.
Red maple, pollen and some nectar.
Arbutus, slight value.
Peach, important for nectar.
Cherry, important for nectar and pollen.
Redbud (Judas tree), contributing nectar and pol.en.
June berry, slight value.
Hawthorn, or haw, pollen and nectar.
Apple, occasional surplus.
Dandelion, valuable pollen and nectar.
Azalea (pink), some nectar and pollen.
Huckleberry, nectar and pollen.

Tupelo, pepperidge, sour or black gum, valuable source of nectar,
yields surplus.

Wild raspberry, valuable for surplus.

Tulip-tree or poplar, extremely valuable as a surplus plant.

Black locust, important surplus plant.

Sumac, yields nectar abundantly.

Strawberry, important in nectar.

Alsike clover, very valuable to beekeepers, increasing in popularity.

Holly, important source of pollen.

White clover, chief surplus in certain sections.

Chestnut, some nectar and pollen.

Chinquapin, yields, but of poor flavor.

Basswood or linn, heavy yielder of excellent surplus.

Sourwood, very important, yields extra abundant.

Swamp milkweed, surplus in some localities.

Sweet clover, dependent for surplus.

Blue devil, or viper's bugloss, important.

Buckwheat, excellent yielder in certain years.

Goldenrod, contributory.

Asters, yield surplus.

276

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Willowherb, yields surplus in abundance.
— Chas. A. Reece, Bulletin No. 33, W. Virginia Department of Agriculture.

WHITE ALDER, see Pepperbush.

WHITE BRUSH (Lippia Hgustrina).

White brush is a very common shrub throughout south Texas. It has
some resemblance to the Indian currant of the Northern States, except
that it is larger in size. It has long sprays of fragrant white flowers which
appear several times during the year, following rains. According to H. B.
Parks, it yields little honey during the regular blooming period of spring,
but during the rain-induced bloom, in late fall, it yields heavily.

In the lower Rio Grande Valley, beekeepers reported to the author
that the blooming period is short, but that it usually yields well, while the
bloom lasts. In many localities similar reports are received. Most bee-
keepers regard the honey as of good quality, but the plant not dependable.
In seasons when there are frequent heavy rains considerable honey is har-
vested, as it blooms after every heavy rain.

l-i.

Hi. Blossom and leaf of white clover

WHITE CLOVER (Trifolium repens).

White clover undoubtedly holds first place as a honey plant in Amer-
ica. It is important as a source of nectar from Maine to Nebraska and
south to Kentucky and Missouri. In all the Northeastern States it is one
of the principal sources of nectar and, in many localities, it stands alone
as the source of marketable surplus. Remove white clover, and bee-
beekeeping would be a poor dependence in a large portion of this great
area. Alsike is similar in yield and quality of its honey, but it is not so
widely spread. The white clover plant is a perennial and establishes itself

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 277

in pastures, along roadsides and in waste places everywhere. It is a good
lawn plant and holds its own with bluegrass in a way that few plants
will do.

It yields more heavily in the northern part of its range. One Mi-
nesota beekeeper reports that a yield of less than 200 pounds per colony
from white clover is uncommon. The author kept bees in southern Iowa
for many years, and it was a rare season when the yield in that locality,
totaled 200 pounds per colony. In northern Iowa the average yield is
much better than in the southern part of the State.

Best yields come in seasons following a year of excessive rainfall. In
wet years the conditions favor the rooting of thousands of new plants,
which are ready to produce a crop of nectar the following summer. Most
readers of beekeeping literature are familiar with Dr. C. C. Miller's phe-
nomenal crop harvested in 1913. From 72 colonies of bees he harvested
more than 19,000 finished sections of honey, or more than an average of
266 sections per colony. His best colony produced 402 sections of white
clover honey. The crop was due to a favorable season, combined with ex-
pert management. The flow was unusually long, lasting from early June
to late August.

White clover yields best when the weather is hot, with plenty of
moisture in the soil.

Honey from white clover is of the best quality. It is mild in flavor,
light in color and commands the highest prices in most markets. It is the
one honey of high quality produced in sufficient quantity to fill a distinct
demand for long periods of time.

Most people prefer white clover honey to the somewhat more spicy
flavors of alfalfa or sweet clover, though in color they are similar. Alfalfa
grown in southern California is of a different color and flavor from that
grown in the Mountain States of Idaho, Utah, Colorado, etc.

WHITE IRON BARK, see Eucalyptus.
WHITE SNAKE-ROOT, see Boneset.
WHITEWOOD, see Basswood, also Tulip-Poplar.

WILD ALFALFA or DEER CLOVER (Lotus glaber).

Wild alfalfa is also known as wild broom, deerweed and tanglefoot.
In California it is regarded as an important source of honey over a large
part of the State. It is a plant growing two to three feet high, with a
woody stem at the base. The flowers are yellow, later turning red. Some
years the plant is very abundant, then it dies out for a time, so that it
varies greatly from year to year. The blooming season is from June to
September.

We quote Richter as follows :

'"A very erratic honey producer. Some years, in some sections,
yielding twice as much as the sages; this is true for either the coast
or the valley side of the coast ranges, yet a good wild alfalfa flow
on the east coast does not necessarily mean such is the case on the
west side. Beekeepers report wild alfalfa honey as being white, light
amber and at times with a characteristic greenish tinge. This is one

278

AMERICAN HOXEY PLANTS

of the main honey plants of the Coalinga district. This plant, accord-
ing to Mr. Z. Quincy, of Ramona, upon reaching its second year of
growth, after a mountain fire, is said to give us a great amount of
nectar."

WILD BALSAM APPLE, see Wild Cucumber.

WILD BERGAMOT, see Horsemint.

WILD BUCKWHEAT, see Erigonum, also Bindweed.

WILD CHERRY (Prunus serotina).

The wild cherries are widely distributed over the North American Con-
tinent, and beekeepers who live in timbered sections may expect to find
one or more species within reach. The photograph shown herewith, Fig-

ossoms and leaves of wild cherry.

ure 145, is of the wild black cherry, which is a large tree with reddish-
brown branches and oblong taper-pointed leaves. This tree is common in
the woods of Newfoundland, Ontario and Manitoba, south to Florida
and Arizona. There is a smaller tree with very similar flowers, the choke
cherry (P. virginiana) to be found over much the same territory, while
the western choke cherry, or western wild cherry (P. demissa), ranges
from Dakota, Kansas and New Mexico west to California and British
Columbia.

The larger tree P. serotina, is also said to occur in Mexico, Peru and
Columbia. There is also a varietal form known as the mountain black

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 279

cherry, found in southwestern Virginia, Georgia and Alabama. It is
found on the open rocky summits of the higher altitudes. This form is a
tree 25 to 35 feet high, with very rough bark and drooping branches. The
wild red cherry, or pigeon cherry (P. pennsylvanica) is common in the
Northwestern States, and secretes nectar freely.

Both leaves and seeds of all these forms are poisonous, although the
fruit is edible. There seem to be well authenticated, cases of poisoning of
cattle from eating the leaves, and of children dying from swallowing the
seeds. Pammel, in his book of poisonous plants, gives an extended de-
scription of the chemical action in such cases. The poisonous property
of all species of cherry leaves, according to authorities quoted there, is
due to prussic acid. The poison does not exist as such in the growing
plant, but by the action of moisture and a vegetable ferment which exist
in the plant, a complicated chemical reaction takes place when the leaves
are separated from the stem. Wild cherry bark is used to some extent
in medicine.

Wild cherries are not often reported as valuable sources of nectar.
Kichter lists the western choke cherry as a source of hone}- in California,
and Lovell mentions the wild red cherry in the Eastern States. The writer
has a sample of wild cherry honey sent to him from the apiary of W. S.
Pangburn, of Jones County, Iowa, having a distinct cherry taste and bright
yellow color. After two years it shows no trace of granulation, although
subject to all changes of temperature of Iowa climate, both summer and
winter. All but few of the samples of honey in the collection have candied
under similar conditions.

Since in the Northern States it blooms after the domestic fruits and
just before the opening of white clover, it should prove of considerable
value where present in quantity.

WILD CHINA (Sapindus drummondi). See also CHINA TREE.

The wild China tree, also known as chinaberry, soapberry, or um-
brella tree, is a common shade tree in the Southeastern States. It is also
found in the Southwestern States to some extent. In Alabama it is a con-
spicuous feature of the grounds about the homes of rich and poor alike,
quantities of the amber colored berries hanging after the leaves have
fallen. It is cultivated to a less extent in Texas and California as an orna-
mental. It also occurs commonly in New Mexico and Arizona. The Span-
ish name for this tree is "jaboncillo."

It is frequently mentioned as a honey plant in the Southern States,
but is probably not sufficiently common in many places to be important.
It is sometimes confused with the China tree (Melia azedarach), which see.

WILD CRAB APPLE, see Crab Apple.

WILD CUCUMBER (Echinocystis lobata).

The wild cucumber, or wild balsam apple (Fig. 146) is a climbing vine
common along streams from New England to Texas. It is also commonly
cultivated as a shade for arbors and porches. The plant is an annual and

280

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

comes from the seed each year. There are few localities where it is suf-
ficiently abundant to be of value to the beekeeper, and it is seldom men-
tioned among honey plants. However, in a few localities along the Mis-
sissippi River it is reported as quite an important source of nectar in
mid-summer. On river bottoms it is sometimes to be found in great
abundance. The honey is reputed to be white and of good flavor.

Fig. 146. Blossom, fruit and leaf of wild cucumber.
WILD CURRANT, see Currant, also Barberry.

WILD HOLLYHOCK (Sidalcea malvaeflora). CHECKER-BLOOM.

The wild hollyhock is common in the valleys and plains of California,
where it is of some importance as a honey plant. It is reported as of spe-
cial importance in the Imperial Valley. Related species occur in New
Mexico and north to Utah.

WILD LIME-TREE, see Tupelo.
WILD OLIVE, see Oleaster.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

281

WILD PARSNIP (Pastinaca sativa).

The wild parsnip, introduced from Europe,

has spread over a wide area

Wild parsnip

from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. (Fig. 147). It is common along rail-
roads and highways everywhere. The small yellow flowers, which are
borne in clusters like an open umbrella, are attractive to a large variety
of insects. The nectar, apparently, is never very abundant, hence it is
not an important source of honey, although the plant is sometimes very
plentiful. (See Parsnip).

WILD PENNYROYAL (Satureja rigidi).

Wild pennyroyal (Fig. 148) is a square-stemmed plant of the mint fam-
ily that grows abundantly on the sandy pine lands of the south half of
Florida. It begins blooming in December in the southern part of its range,
and blooms till early in March. Weather conditions are too uncertain dur-
ing the winter months to favor storing much surplus honey. However, ac-
cording to Poppleton (Review, Jan., 1893), it is the source of some surplus,
and from it the bees are stimulated to begin heavy brood-rearing about
Christmas. In an occasional season a fair amount of surplus was secured,
sometimes as much as 50 pounds per colony. The honey is said to be light
in color, good flavor and heavy body — a first-class article.

282

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

Blooming as it does in the winter months, it is invaluable to the bee-
keeper whose bees have access to it. If no surplus is secured, it serves to
fill the hives with bees and honey at an important season and to prepare
for the later crops to follow.

Wild pennyroyal.

WILD RADISH, see Radish.

WILD SUNFLOWER, see Sunflower.

WILD SWEET POTATO VINE, see Bluevine.

WILD THYME, see Thyme.

WILLOW (Salix).

In the Northern States the blooming of the pussy willow (Salix dis-
color) is among the first signs of spring. It is a small tree, growing along
streams and on wet lands. Furnishing as it does about the first honey of
the season, as well as pollen in abundance, it is highly regarded by the
beekeepers.

There are about 160 species of willows, mostly confined to the cooler
and temperate regions of North America. Some species extend their
ranges into the Arctic regions, where the vegetation is sparse. While
the number of varieties is not so great in the Southern States, it is re-
garded as valuable in the Gulf States and in California. As an example of
the comparative abundance of willows North and South, it may be men-
tioned that four species are recorded for Alabama and eighteen for Con-
necticut. The willows bloom too early in the spring in the Northern
States for the bees to store surplus from this source, but both nectar and
pollen are supplied for early brood-rearing.

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

283

In Richter's "Honey Plants of California" I find reference to numer-
ous localities where surplus has been secured from the willows. It is said
to be "a dark amber and bitter honey." In a few other southern localities
surplus yields from willow are reported. The flowers on one tree will
be staminate and on another pistillate. Unlike most plants, the organs of
both sexes are not found on the same plant.

Fig. 149. The

me ot the

loom in the Nort'.i.

WILLOW HERB, see Fireweed.

WINTER HUCKLEBERRY, see Farkle-Berry.

WISCONSIN— Honey Flora of.

The more important honey plants of Wisconsin, named in the order
they bloom, are: Dandelion, May 1 to June 1; white and alsike clover,
furnishing most of the surplus honey, June 1 to August 1 ; basswood or
linden, July 1 to July 20; sweet clover, July 15 to August 15; willow herb,
cr fireweed, buckwheat, goldenrod, Spanish needle, asters and many fall
flowers, in late summer and fall.— N. E. and L. V. France, Bulletin 264,
Agr. Ex. Sta. Wisconsin.

284 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

WISTERIA.

The wisteria is a climbing vine widely grown as an ornamental. There
are several varieties introduced from the Old World. They are attractive
to the bees, but probably nowhere sufficiently common to be of much
value.

WOLF BERRY, see Oleaster.

WOODBINE, see Virginia Creeper.

WOOD SAGE, see Germander.

WOOLY WHITE DROUGHT WEED, see Turkey Mullein.

WYOMING— Honey Sources of.

Alfalfa and sweet clover yield large amounts of surplus honey in irri-
gated valleys. Willows, gum-weed, cleome, dandelion, etc are minor
sources.

XYZ

YAUPON, see Holly.

YELLOW JASMINE (Gelsemium sempervirens).

The yellow jasmine is a well-known poisonous climbing vine common
to the Southern States from Virginia to Florida and west to Mexico. Its
yellow flowers, in short axillary clusters, appear in early spring (February
and March) and are very fragrant. The vine climbs over trees to a great
height, often 30 feet or more. It yields pollen and probably some nectar.
It is reported as poisonous to the bees.

"For the past nine years I have observed, commencing with the
opening of the yellow jasmine flowers, a very fatal disease attacking
the young bees and continuing until the cessation of the bloom. The
malady would then cease as quickly as it came. The symptoms of the
poisoning are: The abdomen becomes very much distended, and the
bees act as though intoxicated. There is great loss of muscular power.
The bee, unless too far gone, slowly crawls out of the hive and very
soon expires. The deaths in twenty-four hours, in strong stocks with
much hatching brood, may amount to one-half pint, often much more.
My observations have been verified by dozens of intelligent beekeep-
ers breeding pure Italians where Gelsemium abounds." — Dr. J. P. H.
Brown, American Bee Journal, Nov., 1879.

As to the effect on animals poisoned by the plant we quote Pammel
as follows :

"Dr. Winslow gives the toxicological effect on animals as follows :
Muscular weakness, especially in the forelegs, staggering gait and
falling. These symptoms are followed by convulsive movements of
the head, forelegs and sometimes of the hindlegs. The respiration is

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS 285

slow and feeble, temperature reduced, and there is sweating. Death
occurs because of respiratory failure."— Manual of Poisonous Plants.
With reference to the condition described by Dr. Brown, the matter

Fig. 150. Blossoms of the yellow-wood.

280

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

was referred to T. W. Livingston, of Leslie, Georgia , who writes as

follows :

"I have for many years noticed the disease described. I have seen
the same disease where there was no yellow jasmine, that I knew of,
but much more of it where that plant was plentiful. It may be caused
by it. It was told several years ago by the Florida State Chemist, who
had analyzed a sample of honey reported as poisoning some people,
that the honey contained pollen grains from yellow jasmine." — March
13, 1919.

YELLOW POPLAR, see Tulip Tree.
YELLOW STAR THISTLE, see Star Thistle.
YELLOW-TOPS, see Tarweed.

Fig. 151. Yucca filamentosa on the lawn of the late
Eugene Secor.

YELLOW WOOD (Cladrastis lutea).

The yellow wood is a tree confined to a limited range. It is found

AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

287

principally in Kentucky, Tennessee and North Carolina. While it may
occur to some extent in the States adjoining the three mentioned, it is
rare, except in very limited areas. It is recorded as occurring on shaded
bluffs in the Tennessee Valley in Alabama, and may be looked for in
similar situations in Mississippi, Georgia or South Carolina. The flowers
are white, as may be seen from Figure 150, and appear in April and May.
The panicles are sometimes a foot long. According to the notes furnished
by J. M. Buchanan, the honey has a strong, distinctive flavor and is light
amber in color.

Fig. 152. The Spanish bayonet is a showy plant when

The wood is heavy and hard and yields a yellow dye.
as Kentucky yellow wood and gopher wood.

It is known also

YERBA BUENA (Micromeria chamissonis).

Yerba buena is a trailing perennial herb with slender stem and small,
white, solitary flowers. Jepson gives the range as common in woods near
the coast: Humboldt County, Marin County, Berkeley, San Francisco, Bel-
mont, Monterey and southward to southern California.

Richter states that it is considered a fair honey plant in places.

YERBA DEL PESCADO, see Turkey Mullein

YERBA SANTA (Eriodictyon trichocalyx).

Yerba santa is a low shrub common to some parts of California. Rich-
19

288 AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS

ter lists it as important in Ventura County, where it frequently yields sur-
plus, blooming in June and July.

YUCCA.

Over vast areas of the arid west there is little for the bees. A few
plants stand the long continued periods of drought even where there
is no irrigation, and add to the total production of the apiaries in the irri-
gated regions. Among the attractive plants may be mentioned the yucca,
also called Spanish bayonet, Spanish dagger, Adam's needle, mountain
queen and Roman candle. There are about a dozen species, mostly from
Dakota west to the Pacific and southward. They are common in Mexico
and Central America. They are also to be found in the sandy sections
along the Atlantic Coast from North Carolina to Florida and Louisiana.

When in bloom the plant is very ornamental. A single tall flower stalk
contains many large, white or cream-colored flowers. In many localities
where the plant does not grow wild, it is grown for ornament, as in Figure
151, which shows the late Eugene Secor admiring a beautiful specimen
that grew on his grounds.

In "Honey Plants of California," Richter lists Yucca whipplie as an
important source of nectar, which, in localities where it is abundant, yields
surplus. In that State its blooming period is June and July.

INDEX

Acacia, 10, 116.

amentacea, 13.

berlandiera, 1, 13.

constricta, 21.

decurrens mollis, 11, 58.

farnesiana, 9, 10, 12.

greggii, 10, 13, 21.

lingifolia, 11

melanoxylon, 11.

pycnantha, 58.

roemeriana, 13.
Acer, 47, 59, 151, 153, 268, 271.
Achillea, 15.
Actinomeris, 102.
Adenostema, 58, 112.
Aesculus, 49, 56, 151.
Agastache, 101.
Agave americana, 57, 64.

sisalana, 117.
Ailanthus glandulosa, 56, 265.
Alabama, Honey Sources of, 13.
Alaska, Honey Sources of, 13.
Alberta, Honey Sources of, 15.
Alder, 15, 98, 272.
Alder, white, 191.
Alexander, E. W., 50.
Alfalfa, 7, 8, 16, 21, 56, 131, 139 147,
Alfilerilla, 56, 201.
Algarroba, 115.
Alligator pear, 216.
Allium, 181.
Almond, 18, 20, 58.
Alnus, 15.
Alsike, 15, 19, 58, 131, 134, 135, 139,

271.
Althaea, 125.
Ambrosia, 214.
Amorpha, 93.
Ampelopsis quinquefolia, 48, 59.

veitchii, 48.
Anaqua, 140.
Andromeda, 20, 96, 206.
Angelica tree, 123.
Anthemis cotula, 37, 59, 151, 156.
Apium graveolens, 64.
Apple, 20, 96, 139, 150.
Apocynum, 48, 87, 272.
Apricot, 21, 96.
Aralia, 123.

Arbutus, 21.

menziesii, 58, 149, 272.
Arbute tree, 149.
Arctium Lappa, 52.
Arctostaphylos, Uva ursi, 48, 49, 153.
Argemone, 208.

Arizona, Honey Sources of, 21.
Arizona buckthorn, 113.
Arkansas, Honey Sources of, 22.
Asclepias, 59, 100, 151, 159.
Ash, 22.

Asparagus, 22, 57.
Aspen, 22.
Aster, 22, 23, 24, 25, 75, 87, 100, 134, 135,

139, 147, 150, 155.

acuminatus, 28.

azureus, 26.

cordifolius, 27.

dumosus, 28.

ericoides, 28.

lateriflorus, 27, 28.

macrophyllus, 25, 27.

multiflorus, 28.

paniculatus, 28.

puniceus, 24, 27.

salicifolius, 27.
271. tradescanti, 27.

umbellatus, 27.

vimineus, 22, 28.
Astragalus, 58, 145, 159.
Avicennia nitida, 39.
Avicennia, 39.
Avocado, 116.
150,Azalea, 28.

Baldwin, E. G., 20, 96, 152.

Balloon vine, 28.

Banana, 28, 116.

Barberry, 31.

Barnaby's thistle, 243.

Basil, 32.

Basswood, 8, 32, 76, 134, 135, 150.

Bay, 100, 149, 216.

Bean, 34.

Bearberry, 48, 153.

Bee balm, 34.

Beech, 34.

Beggar ticks, 59, 135.

Bentley, G. M., 256.

290 INDEX

Berberis, 31. California, Honey Sources of, 9, 56, 70.

trifoliata, 31. Callotropsis, 206.

pinnata, 31, 56. Calluna, 121.

nervosa, 182. Campanilla, 60.

Berchemia, 216. Canada thistle, 48, 61, 150.

Betula, 35. Cantaloupe, 59, 74, 156.

Bidens, 59, 238. Cardiospermum, 28.

Bindweed, 34, 35. Carduus, 61, 206.

Birch, 35. Carpet grass, 57, 61, 116.

Bird cherry, 48. Carr, E. C, 176.

Bittersweet, 35. Carrot, 61, 150.

Bitterweed, 13, 35. Cascara sagrada, 50, 56, 272.

Black haw, 38. Cash, John W., 97.
Blackberry, 22, 37, 58, 99, 135, 139, 147,Cassia, 189.

150. Castanea dentata, 67.
Bloodroot, 40. pumila, 70.

Blueberry, 15, 41, 48, 87. Castor bean, 62.

Blue curls, 41, 42, 57. Castor oil plant, 58.

Blue thistle ,43, 57. Catalpa, 63, 116.

Bluevine, 43, 162. Catclaw, 11, 13, 21.

Blueweed, 45. Caterpillar phacelia, 57.

Boneset, 44, 45, 87, 134, 135, 150. Cat's ear, 63, 272.

Borage, 46. Catnip, 9, 63, 135.

Borago officinalis, 46. Ceanothus, 58, 165, 176.

Boston ivy, 48. Celastrus scandens, 35.

Box elder, 47, 134. Celery, 9, 64.

Brassica, 56, 151, 263. Celtis, 115.

campestris, 58, 166. Centaurea, 57, 60, 206, 243.

napus, 214. cyanus, 64.

nigra, 56, 166. militensis, 64.

oleracea, 56. Centromadia pungens, 57, 240.

Brazil, 48. Century plant, 57, 64.
British Columbia, Honey Sources Cephalanthus occidentalis, 55, 57, 100,

of, 48. 150.

Broomweed, 49. Cerasus, 58, 59, 99.

Brown, Dr. J. H. P., 100, 284. Cercis, 217.

Brunnichia cirrhosa, 54. Chamise, 112.

Buchanan, J. M., 45, 261. Chapman honey plant, 65.

Buckbrush, 133. Charlock, 214.

Buckeye, 49, 56. Chayote, 66.

Buckthorn, 50. Checker bloom, 280.
Buckwheat, 8, 50, 75, 87, 135, 139, 150. Cherokee rose, 66.

Buffalo bean, 145. Cherry, 67, 96.

Buffalo currant, 54. Chestnut, 67.

Bull bay, 149. China berry, 100.

Bumelia angustifolia, 75. China tree, 68, 69.

lanuginosa, 113. Chinese sumac, 265.

lycioides, 74. Chinquapin, 69, 70.

Bum-wood, 206. Chittam, 50, 182, 272.

Bur clover, 53, 56, 116. Choke cherry, 48, 59, 278.

Burdock, 52. Christmas berry, 56, 70, 72.

Burton, S. H., 43. Chrysopsis, 100.

Bush honeysuckle, 53. Chrysothamnus, 57, 213.

Butterweed, 55. Cirsium arvense, 48, 150.

Button bush, 55, 100, 135, 150. Cirsium lanceolatum, 57.

Button-weed, 55. Cissus, 81, 236.

Button-willow, 55, 57. Citrullus, 59, 273.

Buxus, 206. Citrus, 56, 112, 116, 142.

Claytonia, 15, 241.

Cabbage, 56. Qadastris lutea, 286,

INDEX

291

Clematis, 59, 71, 74.

Cleome integrifolia, 56, 223.

Cleome spinosa, 239.

Cleomella angustifolia, 71.

Clerodendron, 206.

Clethra, 76, 155, 190, 191.

CHftonia, 260.

Climbing milkweed, 43.

Cloud berry, 15.

Clover, 72, 83, 87, 155, 218.

Cocklebur, 73.

Cocoanut palm, 183.

Cocos, 183.

Coffee berry, 50, 56.

Colias eurytheme, 22.

Colima, 73

Collier, W. C, 48.

Colorado, Honey Sources of, 73

Colubrina, 223.

Coma, 74.

Condalia, 48.

Coneflower, 75.

Connecticut, Honey Sources of, 75

Convolvulus, 58, 162.

Cook, A. J., 101, 159, 180, 227.

Coral bean, 76.

Coral berry, 133.

Coral sumac, 206.

Cordelia obovata, 48.

Coreopsis gigantea, 59.

Corn, 59.

Cornflower, 60.

Cornus, 88.

Corylus, 119.

Cotton, 8, 13, 58, 77, 147.

Cotton belt, 8, 258.

Cottonwood, 22, 211.

Coulter, J. M., 76, 233.

Cowan, T. W., 194.

Cow itch, 81.

Cowpea, 81.

Crabapple, 83.

Crane. J. E., 259.

Crataegus, 117.

Cream cups, 59.

Crimson clover, 83, 139.

Crocus, 83.

Croton, 83.

Crowfoot, 134.

Crownbeard, 84.

Cucumber, 59, 84, 135, 150.

Cucumis, 59, 84, 150, 156.

Cucurbita, 59, 211, 243.

Culver's root, 85.

Cup plant, 84.

Currant. 31, 54, 58, 74. 85, 135, 150.

Cuscuta, 59.

Cynara, 59.

Cyngium, 57.

Cynoglossum, 130.

Cyrilla, 259.
Cystis, 261.
Cytisus, 206.

Dadant, C. P., 25, 232.

Dadant, Chas., 112.

Dahoon, 125.

Dandelion, 48, 74, 86, 87, 131, 134, 135,

144, 150, 155, 272.
Daphne, 206.
Date palm, 183.
Daucus carota, 61, 150.
Deer clover, 277.
Delaware, Honey Sources of, 87.
Devil's claw, 13.
Devil's hair, 71.
Devil's shoestring, 43.
Diervilla Lonicera, 53.
Diodia teres, 55.
Diospyros, 192.
Dipsacus, 255.
Doctor-gum, 206.
Dodder, 59.
Dogbane, 48, 87, 88.
Dogwood, 88, 96.
Doolittle, G. M., 235, 255.
Duranta, 261.

Ebony, Texan, 256.

Echinocystis, 279.

Echinops sphaerocephalus, 65.

Ec hium vulgar e, 45.

Ehretia, 140.

Elaeagnus hortensis, 180.

argentea, 181.
Elder, 15, 60, 89.
Elm, 90, 134, 139.
Encelia californica, 60.
Ensltnia, 268.
Epigea, 21.
Epilobium angustifolium, 49, 95, 151,

271.
Eremocarpus, 265.

setigerus, 58.
Ericaceae, 204.
Eriobotrya, 116, 147.
Eriodictyon, 57, 287.
Eriogonum, 56, 91.
Eriophyllum, 60.
Erodium, 56, 116, 202.
Eryngium articulatum, 43.
Ervthrina, 116.
Eschscholtzia, 208.

californica, 59.
Esparcet, 231.

Eucalyptus, 56, 57, 90, 91, 116.
Eugenia, 116.
Eupatorium, 45, 46, 150.
Euphorbia, 59, 203, 204, 206, 236.
Eysenhardtia, 223.

292

INDEX

Fagopyrum, SO, 150.

Fagus grandifolia, 34.

False indigo, 93.

Farkle-berry, 94.

Figwort, 58, 93, 94, 135.

Filaree, 56, 116, 201, 202.

Fireweed, 8, 15, 49, 94, 95, 131, 27J

Florida, Honey Sources of, 95.

Foeniculum vulgare, 58, 251.

Forbes, R. H., 22.

Foster, Wesley, 162.

Fragaria, 244.

France, N. E. and L. V., 283.

Frasera, 162, 163.

Fraxinus, 22.

Fraxinus oregona, 58.

Frijolillo, 76.

Fruit bloom, 96.

Fuller's teasel, 255.

Furze, 109.

Gaillardia, 154.

Gallberry, 96, 97, 125, 177.

Gates, B. N., 84, 155.

Gaultheria, 182, 232.

Gaura, 74, 97, 222.

Gaylussacia, 48, 130.

Gelsemium, 98, 284.

Georgia, Honey Sources of, 9<.

Germander, 100.

Giant Hyssop, 101.

Gilia, 101.

Gleditsia, 127.

Globe artichoke, 59.

Glycyrrhiza, 143.

Golden dewdrop, 261.

Golden honey plant, 102.

Goldenrod, 8, 25, 49, 57, 75, 100, 101,

102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 135,

139, 148, 150, 155, 272.
Gonolobus laevis, 43.
Gooseberry, 59, 109, 135.
Gorse, 58, 109, 110.
Gossypium herbaceum, 58, 77.
Grape, 58, 59, 109, 135.
Grape fruit, 112.
Grasses, 112.
Greasewood, 58, 112.
Greenbriar, 133.

Grindelia squarrosa, 73, 113, 131.
Grossularia, 109.
Groundsel, 55.
Guaiacum, 237.
Gum, Black, 13, 22.
Gum, Eucalyptus, 56, 57, 91, 92.
Gumbo, 180.
Gum-elastic, 113.
Gum-plant, 113.
Gum-weed, 73, 113, 131, 272.
Gutierrezia texana, 49.

Hackberry, 115.

Haematoxylon, 116, 147.

Harbison, J. S., 56, 166, 263.

Hasty, E. E., 67.

Hau tree, 115.

Hawaii, Honey Sources of, 11

Haw, Black, 38.

Hawthorne, 13, 99, 117.

Hazelnut, 119.

Heartsease, 22, 87, 119, 134, 139, 144,

151, 155.
Heather, 121.

Hedge nettle, 58, 122, 123.
Helenium, 35, 37.
Helianthus, 57, 59, 253, 272.
Heliotrope, 58, 59, 123.
Heliotropium, 58, 59, 123.
Hemizonia, 57, 254.
Hercules club, 123.
Heron's bill, 202.
Heracleum, 15.
Hesperoyucca whipplei, 56.
Heteromeles arbutifolia, 56, 70.
Heterotheca grandiflora, 60.
Hickory, 124.
Himalayan berry, 58.
Hippomane, 152.
Hog-gum, 206.

Holly, 22, 70, 99, 125, 147, 155.
Hollyhock, 125.

Honeydew, 22, 117, 126, 139, 202
Honey locust, 127.
Honeysuckle, 60, 128.
Honey plant regions, 8.
Hops, 128.
Hop-tree, 128.
Horsemint, 129, 139, 148.
Horse-chestnut, 49, 151.
Horehound, 57, 124, 125, 139, 273.
Hound's tongue, 130.
Huajillo, 10, 13.

Huckleberry, 48, 87, 125, 130, 272.
Huisache, 9, 10, 12.
Humulus, 128.
Hutchinson, W. Z., 95, 220.
Hydrophyllum, 269.
Hypochaeris, radicata, 63, 272.
Hyssop, Giant, 101.

Idaho, Honey Sources of, 131.

Ilex, 97, 125.

Illinois, Honey Sources of, 134.

Impatiens, 138.

Indiana, Honey Sources of, 134.

Indian corn, 132.

Indian currant, 133, 135.

Indian fig, 209.

Indian hemp, 131, 272.

Indigo, False, 92.

Iowa, Honey Sources of, 135.

INDEX 293

Ipomoea, 60. Madrona, 58, 148, 272.

Ironbark, 57, 92. Magnolia, 100, 149.

Ironweed, 135, 136. Maine, Honey Sources of, 150.

Islay, 58. Maize, 132.

Malacothris saxatilis, 60.

Jackass clover, 56, 137. Mallow, 59, 151.

Jasmine, Yellow, 98. Malus, 20, 83.
Jepson, W. L., 41, 50, 70, 101, 165, 192, Malva, 59, 151.

229, 240, 287. Manchineel, 96, 152.

Jerusalem artichoke, 59. Mangrove, Black 39, 96, 116.

Jewel-weed, 135, 137. Manzanita, 57, 153.

Judas-tree, 134. Maple, 15, 59, 76, 87, 134, 135, 139, 151.
Juglans, 270. 153, 155.

Jussiaea californica, 58, 273. Marigold, 154.

Marjoram, 154.

Kalmia, 141, 204, 206. Marrubium vulgare, 57, 124, 125.

Kansas, Honey Sources of, 139. Maryland, Honey Sources of, 155.

Kenoyer, L. A., 198, 273, 274. Matrimony vine, 156.

Kinnikinnick, 48, 149. Mayweed, 37, 59, 151, 156.

Knapweed, 243, Medic, Black, 39,

Knockaway, 139. Medicago denticulata, 53, 56, 116

Medicago lupulina, 39, 59.

Lactuca, 142. Medicago sativa, 16, 56.

Lambkill, 141. Melia azedarach, 69.

Lathyrus, 59, 117. Melicope ternata, 204.

Laurel, 59, 141, 155. Melons, 156.

Laurel tree, 216. Melissa officinalis, 34.

Lawn plant, 58. Melilotus, 55, 58, 59, 151, 245.

Lemon, 142. Mendleson, M. H., 192.

Leonur'us, 164. Mentha, 57, 59, 160.

Lettuce, 142, 143. Mentzelia, 74, 156.

Lignum vitae, 237. Mesquite, 21, 116, 156, 157.

Lilac, 58. Metopium, 206.

Lilac, Mountain, 165. Metrosideros, 116.

Lima bean, 56. Merrill, Dr. J. H., 190.

Lime, 143. Mexican clover, 158.

Linden, 57, 139. Michigan, Honey Sources of, 158.

Lippia ligustrina 276. Micromeria chamissonis, 58, 287.

Lippia nodirlora, 57, 61. Mignonette, 59, 158.

Lippia repens, 58, 61, 116. Milkweed, 8, 59, 76, 135, 151, 159, 160,
Liquorice, 143. 161, 262.

Liriodendron, 261. Milkweed, climbing, 43.

Livingston, T. W., 286. Miller, A. C, 223.

Locality, 143. Miller, Dr. C. C. 65, 84, 277.

Loco, 74, 145. Minnesota, Honey Sources of, 160.
Locust, 13, 22, ^8, 76, 99, 127, 135, 139. Mint, 32, 160.

145. 147, 151, 155, 223. 272. Mississippi, Honey Sources of, 161.
Logwood, 48, 116, 147. Missouri, Honey Sources of, 162.
Lonicera, 60, 128. Mistletoe, 58, 162.

Loquat, 116, 147. Mohr, Chas., 36.

Loosestrife, Purple, 212. Monarda, 129.

Lotus glaber, 56, 277. Monardella, lanceolata, 59.

Louisiana, Honey Sources of, 147. Monotropa, 206.

Lovell, 1. H.. 25, 37, 101, 103, 107, 131, Montana, Honev Sources of, 162.

146, 151, 155, 279. Monument plant, 162, 163.
Lupin, 59, 74, 117, 148. Morning glory, 58, 162.
Lupinus, 59, 117, 148. Motherwort, 164, 165.
Lycanium, 179. Mountain lilac, 165.
Lycinum, 156. Musa sapientum, 28, 116.
Lythrum, 212. Mustard, 56, 58, 135, 151, 166.

294 INDEX

Myrtle-leaf dahoon, 125. Papaver, 208.

Paradise flower, 13.

Xabalus, 216. Paritium, 115.

Xahgoon berry, 15. Parkinsonia, 21, 223.

Napa thistle, 57. Parks, H. B., 15, 54, 66, 69„ 178, 234.

Nebraska, Honey Sources of, 167. Parsnip, 9, 189, 281.

Nectar, 167, 194. Parsnip, cow, 15.

Nectar secretion, 167, 194. Parthenocissus, 269.

Xtgundo aceroides, 47. Partridge pea, 96, 188, 189.

Negundo incisa, 270. Pastinaca, 189, 281.

Xepeta Cataria, 63. Peach, 96, 189.

Xerium, 206. Pear, 56, 96, 151, 189.

Nevada, Honey Sources of, 174. Peas, 13.
New Brunswick, Honey Sources of, Pennsylvania, Honey Sources of, 190

174. Pennyroyal ,59, 95.
New Hampshire, Honey Sources of, Peony, 191.

174. Pepperbush, 191.

New Jersey, Honey Sources of, 175. Peppermint, 57.

New Jersey tea, 176. Pepper-tree, 56, 191, 192.

New Mexico, Honey Sources of, 1/6. Persea, 116, 216.

New York, Honey Sources of, 177. Persimmon, 99, 177, 192, 193.

Xicotiana, 260. Petalostemon, 208.

Nonesuch, 59. Phacelia, 57, 58, 192, 272.

North Carolina, Honey Sources of, Phaseolus, 34, 56.

177. Phillips, E. F., 115, 117.
North Dakota, Honey Sources of, Phoenix, 183.

178. Phoradendron, 58, 162.

Nova Scotia, Honey Sources of, 178. Physiology of Nectar Secretion, 194.

Xyssa, 99, 263. Picea, 241.

Pieris, 206.

Oak, 178. Pigeon berry, 50.

Blue, 58. Pigeon cherry, 96.

Live, 58 Pin clover, 201, 202.

Tanbark, 59. Pine, 202.

Valley, 58. Pin grass, 202.

Ohio, Honey Sources of, 179. Pinney, C. L., 153.
Oklahoma, Honey Sources of, 180. Pinus, 202.

Okra, 180. Plantago major, 60.

Olea, europaea, 58, 181. Plantain, 60.

Oleaster, 180. Platystemon californicus, 59.

Olive, 58, 181. Plum, 96, 99, 135, 151, 202.

Olive, wild, 180. Poinsettia, 59, 203.

Onion, 74, 181. Poison oak, 56.

Onobrychis, 117, 231. Poisonous honey, 203.

Ontario, Honey Sources of, 181. Poisonwood, 206.

Opuntia, 56, 209, 210. Pollen, 206.

Orange, 56, 96, 181. Pollen, Importance of, 8, 144.

Oregon, Honey Sources of, 182. Pollination, 207.

Oregon ash, 22, 58. Polygonum, 15, 34, 119, 151.

Oregon grape, 182. Poppleton, O. O., 152, 183, 186, 281.

Oregon maple, 271. Poppy, 59, 117, 207, 208.

Oreocarya, 182. Populus, 22.

Origanum, 155. Portulaca, 15.

Oxydendrum, 237. Prairie clover, 74, 208.

Prickly ash, 139, 209.

Palm, 116, 183. Prickly pear, 56, 208, 211.

Palmetto, 96, 183. Prince Edward Island, Honey

Paloverde, 21. Sources of, 210.
Pammel, L. H., 103, 129, 181, 202, 203. Privet, 13, 125.

279, 284. Propolis, 210.

INDEX

295

Prosopis, 21, 115, 156.
Primus, 21, 151, 202.

amygdalus, 18, 58.

armeniaca, 21, 58.

ceracus, 58, 67.

demissa, 48, 278.

domestica, 58.

pennsylvanica, 48, 279.

persica, 58, 189.

serotina, 278.

virginiana, 278.
Psidium, 116.
Ptelea, 128.
Pumpkin, 59, 211.
Pycananthemum, 32.
Pyrus, 15, 56, 150, 151, 189.
Pysokermes picea, 243.

Quebec, Honey Sources of, 212.
Quercus, 58, 59, 178, 179.

Rabbit brush, 57, 213.
Radish, wild, 58, 214.
Ragged lady, 228.
Ragweed, 213, 214.
Raphanus, 58, 214.

sativus, 58.
Rape, 214.
Raspberry, 8, 15, 48, 58, 66, 76, 99,

135, 139, 151, 215, 233.
Rattan, 13, 216.
Rattlesnake root, 216.
Rattleweed, 58, 145.
Rayment, 45, 261.
Redberry, 50.
Red boy, 216.
Redbud, 13, 22, 139, 217.
Red clover, 59, 135, 139, 218.
Red gaura, 223.
Redroot, 176.
Reece, Chas. A., 275.
Reseda odorata, 59, 158.
Retama, 222.
Rhamnus, 50, 56, 182.
Rhode Island, Honey Sources of, 222.
Rhododendron, 28, 205, 206.
Rhus, 56, 140, 151, 206, 251.
Ribes, 54, 85.
Ribes mentziesii, 59.
Richardia scabra, 158.
Richter, M. C, 31, 33, 37, 41, 43, 50,

62, 64, 70, 71, 83, 91, 104, 109, 125,

137, 153, 159, 160, 163, 181, 192, 213,

229, 277, 283, 288.
Ricinus communis, 58, 62.
Robinia pseudo-acacia, 58, 146, 151.
Rocky Mountain bee plant, 56, 223.
Rockbrush, 223.
Root, E. R., 189.

Rosa, 224.

californica, 59.

laevigata, 66.
Rose, 59, 223.
Rosin weed, 73.
Royal palm, 183.
Roystonea, 183.
Rubacer, 233.

Rubus, 15, 37, 48, 150, 151, 205.
Rudbeckia, 75.
Russian olive, 180.

Sabal, 183.

Sage, 57, 59, 225.

Sainfoin, 117, 231.

Salal, 182, 232.

Salix, 15, 48, 56, 151, 282.

discolor, 48.

longifolia, 48.

speciosa, 15.
Salmon berry, 15, 233.
Salt cedar, 233.
Salvia, 57, 59, 225.
Sambucus, 15, 60, 89.
Sandvine, 43.

Sanguinaria canadensis, 40.
Sapindus, 206, 279.

Saskatchewan, Honey Sources of, 234.
Sassafras, 234.
Satureia montana, 59.
Satureja, 281.
Scabiosa, 206.
Scale insects, 179.
Schinnus molle, 56, 192.
Scholl, L. H., 12, 13, 31, 39, 49, 55, 63,

73, 79, 81, 97, 104, 109, 126, 154, 162,

163, 193.
Scilla, 234, 235.
Screw bean, 21.
Scrophularia, 58, 94.
Scullen, H. A.,.63, 162, 216, 233, 236, 273.
Sechium edule, 66.
Sedum, 244.
Senecio, 55.
Senna, 148.
Serenoa, 183.
Serjania lethalis, 204.
Sheep laurel, 141.
Sheppard, W. J., 49, 131, 181.
Sherman, Franklin, Jr., 177, 192.
Shittim wood, 113.
Sidulcea malvaeflora, 56, 280.
Siderocarpos, 257.
Siebert, J. J., 66.
Silphium, 84.

Simpson's honey plant, 58.
Sisal, 117.

Skunk cabbage, 134, 155, 235.
Sladen, F. W. L., 15, 27, 33, 104, 106,

296

INDEX

142, 152, 181 ;
Smartweed, 15, 135.
Smilax, 113.
Snakeroot, 45, 46.
Snowberry, 48, 131, 133, 236, 272.
Snow-on-the-mountain, 236.
Snowvine 236.
Soapbush, 237.
Solidago, 49, 57, 101, 102, 103. 104, 105,

106, 107, 108, 150.
Sonchus, 60, 238.
Sophora, 116.

secundiflora, 76.
Sorghum, 237.
Sour clover, 58.
Sourwood, 100, 139, 177, 237.
Sow thistle, 60, 238.
South Carolina, Honey Sources of,

238.
South Dakota, Honey Sources of,

238.
Spangler, D. W., 182.
Spanish needle, 59, 134, 135, 148, 155,

238.
Sparkle-berry, 94.
Spider plant, 239.
Spikeweed, 57, 240.
Spring beauty, 241.
Spruce, 241.
Spurge, 236.
Squash, 59, 243.
Stachys, 58, 123.
Star thistle, 243.
Stickleaf, 156.
Stinkweed, 137.
Stonecrop, 244.
Stork's bill, 222.
Strawberry, 244.
Stringy bark, 56, 251.
Strong, J. L. 198, 273.
Stuart, C. D., 70.
Sumac, 56, 135, 139, 151, 155, 223.
Sunflower, 57, 74, 135, 253.
Sweet boy, 216.
Sweet clover, 8, 9, 13, 22, 56, 58, 131,

134, 135, 139, 151, 245, 271.
Sweet fennel 58, 251.
Sweet pepperbush, 191.
Symphoricarpos racemosus, 48, 133.

235, 272.
Symplocarpos 235.

occidentalis, 48.

orbiculatus, 132.

Tabacum, 260.
Tagasaste, 261.
Talley, M. B., 66, 163.
Tamarind, 116.
Tamarisk, 57.
Tamarix, 233.

Tangier pea, 117.

Tansy, 15.

Taraxacum officinale, 48, 86, 150.

Tarweed, 57, 254.

Teasel, 135, 255.

Tennessee, Honey Sources of, 256

Teucrium, 100.

Texan ebony, 257.

Texas, Honey Sources of, 257.

Thimbleberry, 215, 233.

Thistle, Bull, 5/.

Thistle, Canada, 48, 61.

Thyme, 259.

Thymus, 259.

Tilia americana, 32, 57, 150.

Tilia europea, 33.

Tisswood, 216.

Ti-ti, 259.

Tobacco, 76, 260.

Toothache-tree, 208.

Touch-me-not, 137.

Tournefortia heliotropoides, 59.

Townsend, E.D., 158.

Traveler's joy, 71.

Tree alfalfa, 261.

Tree clover, 59, 261.

Tree of heaven, 56, 265.

Trefoil, shrubby, 128.

Trelease, Wm., 174, 201.

Trichostema lanceolatum 41, 57.

Trifolium, 72, 150, 218.

fucatum, 58.

hybridum, 19, 58.

incarnatum, 83.

praetense, 59, 218.

repens, 57, 117, 276.
Trillium, 261.
Tropical lilac, 261.
Tule mint, 59.

Tupelo, 7, 22, 95, 144, 147, 155, 263.
Tulip-tree, 13, 22, 87, 99, 135, 139, 155,

177, 261, 262.
Turkey mullein, 58, 265.
Turnip, 265.

Ulex europaeus, 58, 109.
Ulmus, 90.

Umbellularia californica, 59.
Utah, Honey Sources of, 265.

Vaccinium, 15, 41.

arboreum, 94.

canadense, 41.

corymbosum, 41.

ovalifolium, 41, 48.

pennsylvanicum, 41.
Varnish tree, 100, 265.
Verbena, 58, 266.
Verbesina, 84.
Vermont, Honey Sources of, 266.

INDEX 297

Vernonia, 136. Wild buckwheat 56 91.

Veronica andersonii. 60. Wild cherry, 99, 278.

virginica, 85. JJj clllll \ 279 ' 7Q

Vervain 266 Wild cucumber, 279.

Vervenia, 57, 58. Wild hollyhock 56, 280.

Vetch, 59, 267. Wild parsnip, 281

Vptrh milk \s9 Wild pennyroyal, 9b, 281.

Viburnum prunifolium. 38. Wilder, J. J., 37 79, 80, 97, 189.

Viria 59 267 Wiley, W. L., 43.

Vlgna sinensis, 81. Willow 15 56 76 87, 99, 134, 135, 139,

Vine maple, 268, 271. 148, 151, 155 282

Vine milkweed, 268. Willow herb, 49, 151.

Viper's bugloss, 45. Winter savory, d9

Virginia, Honey Sources of, 268 Wisconsin, Honey Sources of, 283.

Virginia creeper, 59, 269. Wislizenia refracta, 56, 137.

Virginia waterleaf, 269. Wisteria, 284.

Virgin's bower, 59, 71. Wolfberry, 48.

Vitex 270. Wood sage, 100.

Vitis calif ornica, 59. Woundwort, 123

Vitis vinifera, 58, 109. Wright, W^D., 177.

Wyoming, Honey Sources ot, Z»4.

Walnut, 270. , . _,

Washington, Honey Sources of. 271. Xanthium canadense 73.

Watermelon, 58, 273. Xanthoxylum Clava-Hercuhs, 208

Waterweed, 58. Xanthoxylum pterota, 73.

Waterweed, California, 273.

Wattle, 11, 58. Yaupon 125.

Waxberry, 235. Yellow Jasmine, 284.

Weather and Honey Production, 273. Yellow tops, 57

West Virginia, Honey Sources of, 273. Yellow wood, 139, 285, 286.

White alder, 191. Yerba Buena 58, 287.

White brush, 276. Yerba santa, 57, 287.

White clover, 7, 8, 14, 15, 22, 57, 117, Yucca, 56, 100, 286, 288.

131. 134, 135. 144. 148, 150. 276

Wild alfalfa, 56, 277. Zea mays, 59, 132.

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size and quality. Price $1.50.

French edition, $1.75
Spanish edition, $2.00

First Lessons in Beekeeping

BY C. P. DADANT

FIRST LESSONS
IN BEEKEEPING

The senior editor of the American Bee Journal who
is the author of this book has spent nearly all his
life in a beekeeping atmosphere. His father the late
Charles Dadant, was an investigator who became
well known on both sides of the Atlantic. As a
young man, the author of this book was associated
with his father in honey production and assisted him
in the many experiments which he conducted in his
efforts to make beekeeping a practical success.

Contains just the things you want too know, in a
style easily understood and with many pictures to
explain the text. You may safely recommend First
Lessons in Beekeeping to your friends.

200 pages, cloth bound, well illustrated. Price $1.00

American Bee Journal, Hamilton, Illinois

BOOKS ON BEEKEEPING FOR SALE BY AMERICAN BEE
JOURNAL

A Thousand Answers to Beekeeping

Q-

Questions

BY DR. C. C. MILLER

For over 25 years Doctor Miller has answered questions for
beginners and veteran alike through the columns of the
American Bee Journal. More than 10,000 of these questions
have been answered in this manner. These
have been sifted and more than 1 ,000 of
them included in this new book, edited by
Maurice G. Dadant.

Alphabetically arranged by subject, this
book will clear up many problems not
touched by other bee books.

The texts all tell a connected story of bee
life and the principals of honey production,
while this takes up singly the many ques-
tions which perplex the beekeeper in every
day practice about his bees.

Should be included in every list of bee books.

Attractive cloth cover, 276 pages illustrated. Price $1.25.

OUTAPIARIES

BY M. G. DADANT

A clear and concise explanation of the requirements for proper
placing, arranging and managing of outapiaries.
Too many beekeepers expand into outapiary beekeeping
without fundamental knowlenge of its requirements. The
result is that apiaries are often located improperly and have
to be moved after the errors are discovered by costly ex-
perience.

Special chapters are devoted to apiary sites, basis of placing
the apiary, systems of management, moving, autos and trucks,
honey houses and equipment, and treatment of apiary during
different seasons of the year, with special apparatus used by
large beekeepers.

This book is especially valuable to the beginning outapiarist,
but will contain many items of value to the experienced out-
yard man.

The book is cloth bound, has 125 pages and 50 ilustrations,
and is printed on fine paper. Price $1.00.

American Bee Journal, Hamilton, Illinois

BOOKS ON BEEKEEPING FOR SALE BY AMERICAN BEE
JOURNAL

Scientific Queen Rearing

BY G. M. DOOLITTLE

An old work that has a had a big sale. Gives Doo-
little's methods of queen rearing by artificial grafting.
We advise " Practical Queen Rearing n as preferable,
but the student or commercial breeder who desires to
practice cell grafting will find this work interesting.

Price cloth binding, $ 1 .00. Leatherette, 50c.

AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL

Edited by C. P. Dadant and Frank C. Pellett

Questions answered by DR. C C MILLER

Oldest Bee Journal in the English Language. A 36 page Monthly
Magazine

Subscription $1.00 per year. Canadian postage 15c; Foreign, 25c extra

Every phase of beekeeping is covered

in the Journal, every section of the
American ' . \. ^,

'OBEE^Jojj^sfL country receives attention. 1 he mar-

j ket page alone is worth several times

I the subscription price to beekeepers

with honey for sale.

New methods, latest news, illustrated
articles on honey plants, free legal ser-
vice department, questions answered,
profusely illustrated, first and best in
its field.

If the American Bee Journal is wanted in combination
with any one of our bee books, add 75c to the regular
price of the book and both book and Journal will be
sent postpaid.

American Bee Journal, Hamilton, Illinois